Wmm « W M M m B B m W B B s m - Clpdigital.org

Wmm
« W M M m B B m
W B B s m

Class Book
- m 53*.* '£> '"? ;»\
form u [2-8-10-am]
5fo5SfiM*i*
A Q 6>
^ w a R

-d&*

THE
I N D U S T R I A L M A G A Z I N E
VOL. IX and X
January—December
1909
The Industrial Magazine
Blackstone Building
Cleveland, O.
*

Published by
GEO. S. MACKINTOSH
Cleveland, O.

INDEX FOR THE YEAR OF 1909
Page No.
A
Acknowledging favors 290
Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, Notes
on the 254
Asbestos S3
B
Belt Conveyor, The 297
Bit for Boring Square Holes, A Triangular
187
Bookkeeping and Costing for Contractors. 277
Boxes, Using Straw 334
Brake Design and Construction 89
Brazilian-American Trade, Necessity for
Regulating its Inequality Fully Recognized
256
Bridge, The Rocky River 69
Bridge Across the Willamette, Great
Railway 16
Bridge in California, Highest Railway.. 194
Buckets, Something New in Grab 63
Buildings, The Selling Value of 293
Buildings, Selling Value of 85
Buying on Chemical Specifications .... 332
Cableway System, A
Cars, Industrial
Castings, Steel
Cement from Blast furnace Slag
Cement Sidewalks—Standard Specifications
for Portland
Chimneys, Brick Factory
Cleveland Exposition
Coal, The New
Coal. Buying, by Heat Value
Coal Saved by a Fire Wall, 400,000,000
Tons of
Coal Mining. Remarks on the Use of
Electricity as Applied to
Coals, Tests on Steaming
Cofferdams, Construction of
Concrete, Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement
in
Concrete, fireproof Construction in Reinforced
Concrete at the Navy Yard, Charleston,
Mass., Sea Water Tests of
Concrete by Hand, Mixing
Concrete Blocks, Creosoted
Concrete Construction. Supervision of...
Concrete for Railway Construction, Advantage
of Reinforced
Concrete Foundation of The New York
and Richmond Gas Co.'s New Gas
Holder, The Reinforced
Concrete Steel Caissons
Contractors, Work for
337
1
43
191
80
281
333
195
443
51
65
137
251
10
81
253
172
172
166
446
253
334
Contractors' Guaranties Increase Cost.
Contractors vs. Quality of Work, Experience
of
Controllers, Theory and Application of
Rheostatic
Conveying of Material, The
Conveying of Material, The
Conveyor, A Unique Belt
Copyright Law, Tlie New
Crane, Tree Being Moved by Interstate
Locomotive
Cranes as Labor Savers, Locomotive.. .
Crushing Plants , ,
Culebra, Halfway Mark at...
Cuyahoga County, Public Work of
D
Derrick Cars and Bridge Erection
Desert Sands, To Traverse the
Drafting as Productive Labor
Dredging Machinery
Dump Wagons and Road Rollers
Electric Heating
Electricity—Steam's Day is Done.
Elimination of Fire Risk
Engine, New Rotary
Engineering, Ancient
Engineers, Value of Expert
Excavation and Its Cost, A Cellat
Excavator—A Scraper Bucket...
No.
289
185
166
179
389
449
3('4
I
17
405
273
232
296
42
335
269
203
20S
334
442
336
89
345
76
382
Fire Protection in Canada, Improved. . 74
Foundation for the Building for the U.
S. Naval Experiment Station at Annapolis
425
Framed Structures, Secondary Stress in. 106
furnace, The Smokeless 468
Girder Spans, The Erection 152
Gold, Enormous Increase in Production. 290
Grate Shaker, Improved Boiler T92
H
Hoist for Handling Pier Cars Carrying
130 Tons Load at Sewall's Point, Electric
370
Hoisting Engine, New 229
Hoisting Plants, Determining the Size of. 99
Hydrants, Setting 156
I
Insurance and Adjustment for Fire
Losses, Valuation of Propertv for... i;4
251079 l
Labor 335
Leveling and Surveying 321

Page No.
Leveling and Surveying 374
Loading Apparatus, New 26
Lubricating Greases, Comparative Value
of 173
Lumber Crop Important 22b
M
Machine Tools, How One of the Railroads
Selects its New IOI
Magnalium 45
Manufacturing Property, Tbe Valuation
of 159
Massachusetts Highway Commission, Recent
Maintenance Work of the 261
Mine Rescue Station at the University
of Illinois 333
Mining, Timber Plays Important Part in. 78
Modern Science, Marvels of 38
Motor, Wanted—A Reliable Aeroplane. . 12
O
Oil Pipe, Tbe New California Rifled 190
Our Engineering Education and the Men
it Produces, Some Comments on 96
P
Paint, Maintaining Color Standards for. 441
Paint as a Protection to Iron and Steel. . 69
Panama Canal, The Last Stage in the
Construction of the 340
Paper from Cotton Stalks 336
Pavements on Country Roads, Brick. ... 32
Paving Lake Shore Boulevard 170
Peat, The Use of 432
Pile Driver Punt, Plans for a 8
Plate, A Dog to Handle 28
Poles, Preservation and Care of 293
Power from Different Sources, Comparative
Cost of 14
Q
Quality, A Standard of 93
R
Railroad Operation as an Occupation for
Civil Engineers 255
Railroad Tunnel Construction, Progress
in Machinery for 349
Railways, Industrial or Narrow Gauge.. 58
Rams, Hydraulic 351
Refrigeration 5
Riprap Embankments, Cost of 287
Page No.
Road Rollers 234
Rope, Wire 95
S
Schoi il, A New 332
Scrap Heaps, immense 87
Series Parallel Control 192
Ship Faces Problem as it Nears Speed
Limit, Fast 205
Shipments, Tracing Carload 163
Steam Shovel, Atlantic 176
Steam Shovel Work, The Cost of 174
Steel, Cold Drawn 133
Steel Making, Progress in 190
Structural Designing, Problems in 35
Structural Material, Protective Coatings
for 45"
Structural Shop Management. Some Observations
on 274
T
Ties, Railroad 372
Timber Testing Plant 26
Track Grading Machine. A Unique 221
Traction Engines, Steam and Oil 149
Tractive Force and Railroad Conditions. 107
Transportation System. An Industrial... 295
Tungsten Lamps Compared with Arc
Lamps 360
Tunnelling, Sub-Aqueous 2
Turpentine from Waste Wood 435
U
United States and South America, The.. 366
V
Voucher System for thc Manufacturing
Business, The 64
W
Water Power, Relative Value of 292
Water Power, The Value of a 93
Welding, Improved 26
Western Progress 24
Winding Ropes, Different Methods of
Capping 346
Wood Preservatives Indicates Progress
in Forest Conservation, Increase in use
of M7
Workingmen in Habits fit Industry and
Co-operation. Training 113

VOL. IX JANUARY 1909 No. I.
(M

4 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
part, some manufacturers have noted the fact and built extremely strong
and durable cars.
The design of truck- and dump features are quite similar and yet
each maker finds many points to speak of favorably in his particular production
and which may or may not be found in the competitors.
Kilgore-Peteler type ot Dump Car.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
It is not so much a nice looking car as it is to have one that is well
braced, easily handled, of good material and full capacity.
No contractor likes to buy a two-yard car to find that it will not
held that amount from a steam shovel, vet if the maker of the latter sends
out a big dipper and the material handled is soft the car may get two
dippers full for two yards and really get two and one-half. Cars should

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The many styles of wheels used on industrial cars are here shown. The spoke wheels used on small cars, in dryer,
factory and yard use, but the larger ones on heavier work.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 7
have the features of complete dumping, no tendency to tipping, extreme
height of door so a man can clean out the body in case the material is
sticky, hand holds, places for pick or bar, interchangeable doors, a mechanism
that releases a door easily, and a body and truck that are independent,
so in case of tipping they can be easily replaced.
Illustrations are here given from models of the Herr Dump car,
built in Denver, Col., showing a door opening mechanism similar to a
dump wagon, thc idea being, no doubt, to have wheels near each end and
out of way of the doors.
From Model of Herr Dump Car.
As will be seen the doors dump the material on the track unless the
slant is such as to throw it outside, and in view of that fact the construction
is far better for coal and coke than for dirt, as above stated.
Owing to the obstacles that were presented in the "stationary" car
the principal of a revolving or tilting car was again resorted to and the
M. C. B. type of Page car, operated by hand, the semi M. C. B. Western
Wheel and Scraper car, the Oliver, the Continental and others have been
brought forward with most excellent results.
This tilting together with thc early idea of imparting a horizontal
or lateral motion before permitting the dumping action to occur, has been
embodied in several designs, and it is very beneficial, due to the advan­
tage of depositing farther from the track.
WESTERN WHEELED SCRAPER CO. CARS.
All of these cars embody the essential features of the ordinary dump

lind View of Herr Dump Ca

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 9
cars, while some have modifications that make them different. For instance,
the dumping angle i.s 47 degrees, while the usual and of other
cars is 43. Due to wide opening and acute dumping the Western car.
will dump anything loaded upon it. such as rock, frozen earth, etc. The
3, 4, 6, 12, 15 and 20-yard cars are the regular sizes tor steam shovel
work. The first two on 3 ft. gauge and the others in standard railwaywidth.
The standard guage for i'4 and iC size is 24 in.; 3 and 4-yard,
36 in. ; 6 and 12 and larger, 4 ft. 8' _. in.
While most makers produce the wooden body car the "Western' is
also built all steel in the 1 ' ..-yard size, and having hooks on the side for
attaching horses.
Automatic air dump ears have been developed by which earth can
be deposited while on a curved track, on a grade, one ear at a time or
several at a time, all one side or part on one side ami part on the other
and the beds can he righted while in motion. It will he seen that the
characteristics of the most cars are similar, many having the side chains
requiring release before the car can lie dumped.
Heavy work, such as the construction of railways, requires large
cars of a style similar to standard rolling stock now in use and in some
cases the small "contractors" dump car was denied an opportunity as they
were too liable to interfere with the operation of trains where work was
carried alontr the main line of the road.
A well known make of Contractor's car with wooden underframins.

10 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
An example of this kind transpired some years ago where a road
was to be double tracked while the main line was in use with lots of
traffic.
The primary requirement being the filling of the trestles where the
maximum trip approximated a twelve-mile run over a very congested
line from the "Borrow Pit." It meant that the dirt train must be put
on the schedule and run through on time and consume the least possible
amount for dumping.
With certain build of cars the dumping was done while in transit, a
man controlling an air valve would release the load at the proper time
and in some cases it has been done at a rate of 16 miles per hour.
Of course the type of car to do this must dump clear of the rails so
to leave that part free.
This happens when "plowing" the material as sometimes done in
railway construction, a string of loaded cars being cleared by dragging a
plow by means of a winding engine.
This method presents many advantages and is reliable when others
fail, because the power developed by the winding engine may at anv
The double truck (j-wheel M C B. type of dump cars for railway and heavy construction work.
time be increased sufficiently to drag the plow through the most refractorymaterial.
With thc advent of the plow, the production of the special car was
undertaken that was especially adapted to the handling of railroad construction
material exclusively and the early cars were built upon that
principle wherein the body and its contents remain fixedly in one posi-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 11
tion, and the dumping action effected by the release of gates or doors
either in the bottom or sides, allowing contents to slide out.
But it was difficult to dump or plow some materials, especially if
it had frozen, and it is necessary to resort to the old fashioned method of
pick and shovel to discharge the load.
The most efficient of the "stationary" dump cars developed has been
probably the Rogers Ballast Car with the center dump; the Goodwin
car and the Hart convertible.
CONVERTIBLE CARS.
^ Those of this type are of the standard gauge used in construction,
maintenance and general freight car service.
A noticeable make is the Hart convertible car generally used for
handling ballast for railway construction where it is arranged to permit
side dumping when a plow is pulled over the top, a portion of the car
being placed over the couplings to afford a smooth passage for the
plow.
For maintenance of way it is converted into a hopper car for centerdump
ballasting and a saving of 200 to 400 per mile can be accomplished

12
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
by depositing ballast in the center of the track and distributing it with a
plow car as against unloading on the sides of the track and shoveling in
ti i thc center.
A train of Hart convertible cars and a plow car deposits and spreads
ballast at the' rate of 30 cubic yards per minute and it is possible to place
from 1000 to 12300 cubic yards per mile ( equal to a 5- or 6-in. rise) with
a single run.
If a heavier raise is required it is only necessarv to go over the track
a second time.
To arrange a car for a gondola requires the end gates in the end
position, the side doors locked and the convertible doors down, so that
with coal that is to be unloaded at the side it can be done through the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 13
Box Car converted with dump bott.
Box Car ready for Merchandise or material that does not need dumping.
openings. Such a car can be converted fn mi one to another by four men
in about twenty minutes.
It may be easily seen that an open convertible car would be very use-

14 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
ful, but one of box or closed type would not be so convenient, yet it can
be shown that they, too, would be very serviceable when at the end of a
run they could be arranged to receive coal, coke, etc., for the return trip
and dump it easily, without having to shovel the contents. Even stock
cars are susceptible to the change, for after bringing their live load to
eastern markets and never being thoroughly cleaned they return loaded
with any one of many articles instead of being hauled empty, and are the
first to be returned. Returning to the smaller sizes and regular dump
cars, a few facts of the comparison of the cars of 4 and 8 yard capacity
will be found valuable.
Another type of "industrial" car is that used for hauling lumber,
As lhe box car looks from thc outside.
Rodger car arranged as a gondola.

16 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
either in board or log form, but more especially the latter.
Twenty years ago a 20,000-lb. capacity logging car amply met the
requirement of most operators; today many require cars of 30,000 and
60,000 lbs. capacity, built to M. C. V>. specifications and equipped with
air and automatic couplers. Cars were formerly loaded by rolling the
logs up skids or from a pile, but in some camps a log loader is run along
the top of the cars on tracks, shown in the illustration, and after piling
tlie car in front, backs over the next to obviate the disadvantage of a
short car for long timber. The Russle Wheel and Fdv. Co. build several
styles of cars with extension reach or simply the truck to be fastened
to the log and letting- it answer as the connecting; link.
BRICK AND DRYER CARS.
The service to which a brick dryer car is subjected is not in the
least light but yet if proper attention is paid a good, strong, well designed
car, it will last a long time. The car designed for great durability
which is light in weight and easy running is the one with which most brick
men try to equip their yard. A car which is too heavy menaces handling
and is hard to run, while a car that i.s. too light easily telescopes and
becomes bent under the stress of hard usage. When a car becomes bent
it usually throws the wheels out of alignment, makes them run hard, and
in a short time is entirely out of commission. Tn view of these facts it
is necessary for the brick man to buy a car designed with the lightest iron
possible which admits of a good factor of safety and one which has free
and easy running bearings. Tn the Globe steel brick dryer car we firmly
believe these features have been accomplished.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 17
The first steel mine car of which we have a record was built by the
Cambria Steel Co., of Johnstown, Pa., for use in their own mines. This
was in the neighborhood of ten or twelve years ago.
The first steel mine cars made by the various mine car manufacturers
were made by the Watt Mining Car Wheel Co. of Barnesville, O., for
the Northern Fuel Co. of Colorado on June ist, 1898, or about ten and
one-half years ag;o.

18
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
End Dump Car ot Ohio Ceramic Engineering Co.
Mr. W. H. Morris, then superintendent of the Merchants Coal
Company of Boswell, Pa., had built two steel mine cars on which he took
out on November 24th, 1903, patent No. 744872. This being the first
and only patent issued on a steel mine car. These cars were built by the
Watt Mining Car Wheel Company and were used at the up-to-date plant
of the Merchants Coal Company for several years. On account of the
change of superintendents the idea was dropped and no further use made
of the steel car at that plant. On December 6th, 1900, Ernest Chilson,
superintendent of the Federal Coal & Coke Co., Fairmont, W. Va., purchased
from the same company and put into service one car load of steel
cars. Mr. Chilson shortly afterward left this property and no further
use was made of the steel car there, until at the present time, the mine is
now being overhauled and re-equipped with "Watt" steel cars of very
latest up-to-date construction. Mr. Louis E. Bryant, who is engineering
this plant, also equipped the Mulga plant of the Birmingham Coal & Iron
Co. with steel cars.
Mr. Chilson has since installed at the property of the Raleigh Coal &
Coke Co., Raleigh, W. Va., a complete outfit of steel cars.
Mr. Chilson, after using the Watt cars, as will be seen from the
above for over eight years, is sufficiently satisfied that they are money

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 19
makers, enough to state that they expect to equip several more new mines
in the near future with them.
Probably the best known steel cars are those in use at the famous
mine of the Jones & Eaughlin Steel Company at California, Pa. There
are eighteen hundred steel cars in use at this property.
The wooden car is bound to be in a short time a thing of the past.
White oak lumber, fit to put into a car, is becoming so scarce and so expensive
that it is onlv a matter of a short while until its pi-ice will be
prohibitory, then again, six or eight years is considered a long life for a
wooden mine car, even when during that time at least the original cost of
the car has been expended upon it in repairs. The steel car on the contrary
is of an extremely simple construction ioo per cent longer life,
there is practically no wear out to it. and experience has proven that the
item of repairs is inconsiderable. We are fully aware that there is a prevalent
opinion to the contrary, but actual facts do not bear this out.
Most people are of the opinion that a steel mine car is easily damaged in
a wreck and difficult to repair. When bent or buckled it takes but a short
time, and the aid of a blow torch and couple of sledge hammers and a
rail bender to put the worst case of bent car back into running order. We
have known of a steel car to fall from a tipple, at least forty feet high.
The Watt Steel Mine Car.

20 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
with no other damage than a broken axle, and two cars ran away, down
a forty per cent, grade seven hundred feet long, striking a loaded trip on
the bottom and simply badly damaging the malleable bumper at the end
thereof. On any form of a dumping cage or tipple the steel car much
more readily clears itself of its load, and the annoying delays by coal
sticking as it frequently does in a badly worn wooden car are never experienced
with those of steel. Again where the outside dimensions of a
car are limited by the sizes of the cage or the height of the coal in a mine,
the capacity of the steel car is about fifteen to twenty pet cent, greater
than that of a wooden car of the same outside dimensions; in other
words, in a steel car you are hauling coal, where in a wooden car you
were hauling white oak lumber.
There has been a very general tendency to add a better and consequently
a more expensive car as regards first cost at all the up-to-date
plants over thc country. The first steel car was built along the same lines
as the wooden cars, simply substituting the steel for the wood., however,
with the steel car, methods of construction soon improved, the springs
draft gear, the automatic couplers, the cradle dumps, solid wheels and
axles with brass journals either inside or outside of the wheels or the
roller bearing wheels came rapidly into use.
Helmick type t f wooden mine car tor high vein of coal.
The amount which the spring draft gear saves the couplings and
reduces the wear and strain more than compensates for its additional expense,
to say nothing of the greater ease which it allows in starting a long
loaded train with the motor. The automatic couplers, while they have
not yet come into great use, have been adopted by four or five large operators
over the country, notably the Ziegler Coal Company of Ziegler, Ills.,
and the Birmingham Coal & Iron Companv, Birmingham. Ala. The idea
of making the car with both ends tight for use on cradle dumps is par-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 21
ticularly easy to carry out in steel construction and does away with all
the danger of spilling fine coal along the tracks. In view of the recent
serious mine explosions this alone is an item of incalculable value. Where
high speed or long distance hauls are to be found it is folly to expect the
ordinary car wheels and axles with self oiling hub to stand the work.
Most plants where these conditions are to be found are pressing the
wheels onto the axles and allowing the axles to turn in brass lined self oiling
journals. It is the opinion of most mine managers who are using this
construction that they have reduced their cost of maintenance a very considerable
figure and cut down their oil bills one-third to one-half. A common
fault with this construction is that in case an axle ;s bent wheels
pressed on solid are very difficult to remove. The idea has been introduced
of keying and pinning these wheels to the axle in a manner to render
them easily removed. To meet the objection that such vvheels in
service are difficult to push around the sharp curves found in most mines
it is customary to leave one wheel loose on the axle, furnishing the same
with an oil supplv. Since the axle turns with the tight wheel and the
loose wheel when on straight track turns at the same rate as the tight
wheel, there is no relative motion between the wheel anil the axle and
consequently no wear. The small amount that this wheel turns when
rounding curves as far as wear is concerned is a negligible quantity.
Helmick type of wooden car with Double Rounded Bumpers and wooden brake lever.
In many mines where the cars are not limited as to width, the bearings
are being placed outside of the wheels in a regular M. C. B. journal
box with springs. There are numerous roller bearing wheels on the
market, practically the best known of this being the Card and Weber, the
Midland and the Hyatt. The last one seems to be the greatest favorite.
Mine cars receive, perhaps, about as hard as any of the industrial

22 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
MODEL D
CHILLED TREAD
* ND rLANGE
MODEL A
Type cf sell-oiling bearing for cars as used by The Walt Mining Car Co.
MODEL B
types and the design is the result of years of study of the conditions
under which they are used.
Wood naturally has been the material used in construction, though
the scare, y of lumber will soon compel manufacturers to use steel
'he lay of the mineral that is being mined determines the style of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 23
Helmick full rounder wooden mine car suitable for low vein coal.
car, a deep vein of coal would give space for a high car and a narrow
vein, a low car.
One feature of construction should receive close attention, and that
is the wheel, as the life of the car depends largely on these supports.
Then, too, the style of coupler and pumper should receive attention
and the gate or dumping features, since all mine cars must be tipped to
discharge, either endwise or in a cradle.
Each manufacturer boasts of some particular part and the Helmick
& Machine Co. of Fairmont, W. Va., lay stress on the wheels, a very desirable
asset.
The steel car is much better adapted to the cradle dump than the
wooden type.
Helmick mine car with pin latch.
Industrial cars used in mines and for handling field and factory products
are very common and many manufacturers make them as well as
the contractor's dump cars.
The "Continental" side dump cars, made in various sizes, are characteristic
of the general type, but no doubt well built from the number
used.

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
They are of the center pedestal style, discharging sideways, being
held in upright position by chains.
The advantages of a 5-yd. car over a 4-yd. one are the increased
capacity in a train of the former of from 6 to 15 yds. depending on
grades.
Koppel side dump car.
By using a yard larger car over four, the efficiency affords a saving
of from X4 t0 3C- Per yard of material handled and the maintenance
charges will show a reduction of 15%.
A very common type is the steel side dump car used in transporting
clay, rock, cement, coal, etc., and even used by contractors who excavate
w ith a steam shovel.
The illustration gives an idea of the use of these cars, being filled
by a steam shovel.
They are built in several sizes by the .Atlas Car & Mfg. Co., and to
gauges of 24 to 36, as desired, and are the most universally used of small
side dump cars.
The Arthur Koppel Co., Pittsburgh, are building double side steel
dump cars. These cars are made entirely of steel, and are used for transporting
earth, sand, loam, stones, coal, ashes, etc. cradle—and rocker—
dumping arrangement with which these cars are provided makes the
dumping very easy and convenient. They dump at so great an angle that
the box is completely emptied, and none of the contents falls between the
rails. To facilitate loading, the box can be put in a slanting position.
These cars are built very strong and solid. The main frame is bent of
channel steel, as shown by the illustrations, whereby a great power of resistance
is secured and the frame is strongly braced. The supports of thc

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
dox are also bent of channel steel. The box is stiffened around the top
edge with a rim of iron, made especially for the purpose and patented
whereby it cannot become untrue, and also acquires a very strong resist-
One type of Koppel Dump car.
ance. The cars have proven to be far superior than the old fashioned
w/ooden dump cars. The wheels are of the best cast steel and mounted on
steel axles. The axle boxes have best anti-friction metal bearings and
triple oiling arrangements. All the cars can be provided with our patent
roller bearings, which effect a saving of about 30 per cent, in traction
power over the ordinary axle boxes.
The sugar industry is today one of the most important industries in
many countries, especially the cane industry in tropical countries, such as
the West Indies, South and Central America. It can be said that some of
these countries depend nearly entirely on theii sugar crops for their very
existence, and it is remarkable to see how this industry has grown during
the last twenty-five years, from insignificant beginning to such proportion
that today it ranks among the first of all industries.
One of the reasons and probably the most important- for this position
of the sugar industry is that the cost of producing sugar has been continuously
reduced, and thereby it has been made possible to increase the
demand which again has been allowed to make the factories larger and
thereby again reducing the expenses of manufacture.
Like in every other industry, one of the main factors for reducing
the cost of production is the reduction of handling expenses before, dur-

26
Porto Rico type of steel caue car
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Gregg Co. steel frame car with cleated.
Steel cane car as used in Cuba, generally built 8 ft. long, 5 ft.
or b It. wide, 80 in. gauge for a capacity of % tons.
ing and after manufacture. To obtain this object tracks, cars and locomotives
have proved, as is generally the case, the most valuable help to
the sugar planters. While it is naturally out of the question to print on
these pages in detail an exact history of the development of sugar plantation
railroads, we have enough space to give an outline of the development
of this important branch of the sugar industry.
When sugar was first planted the fields and consequently the factories
were small, the distances short, and the quantities to be hand/ed
insignificant. The planter, therefore, either had his cane carried to the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 27
Steel^cane car, Cuba type. Steel cane car used in Santo Doming
Gregg Co. steel cane car of 15 to 20 tons capacity
mills on the heads of the workingmen or he used small wooden cart drawn
by animals for that purpose. This way for carrying the cane was in use
for quite some time, as it was reliable and somehow or another the oxcarts
always reached their destination, although slow, and sometimes in
bad weather down to the hubs in mud.
After awhile when the steel industry had made great strides and
light rails could be had planters tried them with wooden ties and small
wooden cars instead of the carts, and found that this little railway cheapened
and quickened the handling of the cane. The cars used at this time
had a capacity of about one ton of cane and the gauge was very narrow.

28
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Car No. 18H for automatic unloaders
Car No. ISO with stakes permanent.
Cane Car, full end walls, can be used for carrying bags of sugar.
about 18 by 24 in. By and by the cars were run in trains instead of
singly, but still hauled by animals. They were made of wood and often
only the iron parts were bought, while the wooden parts were made on
the plantation to save expenses.
After awhile, when the quantity of cane to be handled increased and
the iron and steel got cheaper, the capacity of the cars was increased up
to three and five tons and naturally the cars were made heavier all
through. At the same time in order to take all of the heavv cars and the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 29
increased traffic the rails which in the beginning were only about 9 to 12
lbs. to the yard were increased to 14 and if, lbs. and the gauge widened
to about 30 in. Cars of this type are shown in the illustrations. These
cars are already made entirely of steel and were bought complete. It will
be seen that some cars have end walls, because they are used in countries
where the cane is loaded crosswise, while others have side walls, being
used in Cuba, where cane is loaded lengthwise and where the cars go
right alongside the conveyor for unloading.
Gregg Co. Type of cane car.
The planters began to use small locomotives simply because the increased
demand for sugar required increased facilities. Again the cars
were reinforced suitable for locomotive traction, and drawbars, axleboxes
and the wdiole body strengthened. An illustration shows such a
car which is at the same time arranged perfectly flat on the side and with
full walls, so that it could be used not only for carrying sugar, but also
the bags of sugar from the factory to the wdiarf for shipment to foreign
lands.
Simultaneously with this change, some plantations began to use
eight wheeled cars, because they found that one car 10 to 15 tons capacity
was better than two or three small cars from five tons capacity, especially
where the handling of cane was with centra! stations in the field wdiere thc
cane was brought on ox-carts from the surrounding territories. Such a
car is shown in car No. 183, made of wood, and in car No. 50. made entirely
of steel. It will be noticed that the floor of car No. 183 is not flat,
but consists of square sills. These sills are arranged so as to take care of
the automatic loaders and unloaders which had come into use by this

30 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
time, and they allowed the ropes to slip underneath the cargo so that it
could be lifted into and out of the car. These cars and the car No. 180,
which is a still further step ahead because it has different departments,
automatic couplers, etc., are ahout the last word in the cane car construction,
and as far as capacity, equipment and construction are concerned.
These cars are practically equal to the freight cars on our standard rail­
road lines.
A feature patented by the Kilbourne & Jacobs Mfg. Co., of Columbus,
O., and which is of course used exclusively on their cars, is the
method of door suspension. The door is held out of the way in dumping
by heavy triangular steel plate door guides. These admit of a freely
swinging door, so that it can swing out if struck in dumping and avoid
being damaged. All other cars have a separate lever for controlling the
door and the latter is therefore rigid, so that if a rock or frozen earth
should strike it in dumping it is very apt to be damaged.
The door locks automatically on the return of the body to the carrying
position. Steel forgings are used in place of castings on all workingparts
as much as possible. The angle of dump is 45 degrees and supplemented
by the manner of car bed construction gives a large track clearance
to the load in discharging.
A type of dryer car built by the Cleveland Car Co., is a departure
from the forms generally used, in that it is suitable to use either on a
floor or track having a flat instead of a pointed flange and a small pilot
wdieel in front.
A problem which has ahvays confronted the coal mine operator is
that of providing an efficient latch mechanism for holding this mine car
door in place wdien the car is loaded.
This has particular reference to a type of mine car door which
swings from a cross bar placed across the front end of the mine car.
The types of latches which have been designed and tried out, and in
great part abandoned, for latching these car doors, are multudinous, but
to date there have been no latches designed which would not get out of
order and cause more or less trouble. If the latches were of simple construction
they were difficult to operate, and similarly if thev were easily
operated they were of complicated construction and would get out of
order more readily.
The illustration of the eccentric swing end mine car door shown
herewith, is a type of door which has been tested out thoroughly and has
been found to fill both requirements of simple construction and ease in
operating. It consists of a section of pipe placed across the front of an
open end mine car and having a lever attached at one end. The mine car

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 31
door is suspended from this piece of pipe from a rod which is connected
to the pipe by means of two bolts. It is in attaching the mine car door
to the pipe in this way that the simplicity in construction and the ease of
operation is attained.
The latch for this door consists merely in a couple of pieces of plate
which are attached on either side of the bumper of the car, projecting
above the level of the car bottom a short distance.
The illustration shows the car door in its closed position, the lower
end of the door being behind the above mentioned latches. When the car
is loaded, the weight of the coal against the car door merely serves to
latch the car door so much the tighter, pressing the bottom against the
locks. The door is opened by merely pushing the lever for operating the
mine car door forward, which acting through the eccentric connection at
the top of the mine car door, raises the bottom of the door away from the
bumper locks, allowing the door to swing open. The contents of thc car
is discharged by tilting the rear end in a vertical plane, the mine car door
swinging open farther as the car is tipped.
The car door is closed and locked in the position shown by merely
throwing the lever connected with the pipe cross bar hanger back as far
as it will go, which causes the lower end of the mine car door to drop
back of the bumper locks.
This method of mine car door construction practically makes a latch
out of the car door itself.
While the matter of an efficient mine car door latch is one of the
minor items in connection with a coal operation, yet a great deal of bother
and delay is occasioned by having a door provided with a latch mechanism
which is easily disturbed or which takes considerable time to operate.
This car door has been patented and is used with very gratifying
results in connection with the Greene System Car Dumping Apparatus;
in fact, it was designed primarily to operate in connection with this car
clumping apparatus, but it is just as readily adapted for use in connection
with any other car dumping devices.

ikkk Pavemeiiis on Ooiiiiiy .llon

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 33
taking up, cleaning and relaying brick may be placed at very close to
50 cents per square yard, not allowing for new material to replace some
broken bricks. To pay for the relaying and new material would add to
the first cost a sum amounting to an addition of $1.25 per square yard,
making the total for the twenty years, $26,758 for each mile of road.
In the construction of improved roads of broken stone or so-called
macadam, certain principles are admitted and agreed upon by practical
road builders and any deviation from them is sure to bring bad results.
For instance, the drainage of the subsoil of the roadbed, varying with
the kind of soil and subsoil, is a sure test of the skill of the road builder
and can be so accomplished as to save much expense in doing the right
thing at the right time. Some subsoils require deep drainage, some
hardly any. The size of stone for the lower course should be all the
same size, not more than 2X in. size, so that the sharp edges will lock
together and form a perfect bond; the stones, next course, should be
somewhat smaller to bond the two courses together under pressure of
the steam roller. Finally, the bonding course on top should be made as
near water tight as possible, forming a perfect bond.
The coming of automobiles has added another problem to the work
of the road builders and several interesting experiments have been made
in an effort to find a material which will make a hard finish for the top
of the roads, which will not "ravel" or powder to dust under traffic.
It seems that the modern practice of using concrete in good construction
is likely to solve the problem. In the "Good Roads Magazine" for October,
1908, appeared an article descriptive of the building of the "Long
Island Motor Parkway," designed to withstand the stress of a rapidly
moving vehicle; quoting from said article we read as follows:
"In the construction of this roadway a thin layer of trap rock.
broken to 23/ in. size, is spread upon the sub-grade after it has been
thoroughly compacted by rolling. The stone is hauled on the roadway
and dumped from carts, after which it is spread evenly with shovels and
rakes. On this course is spread a course of wire netting of 4-in. mesh.
Above this wire is spread another layer of broken trap lock of 2-in. size,
making the entire depth of stone 5 in. after rolling with a 10-ton roller.
The rolling forces the stone down through the meshes of the wire so
that the netting is ultimately about half way between the top and bottom
of the concrete. A mortar made of Atlas Portland cement and sand
mixed with enough water to make it flow freely is poured from pipes
in a tank especially constructed for the purpose of mixing and distributing
and the surface of the stone is flushed with the mortar until
the voids in the stone are filled. The mixing tank is drawn back and

34 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
forth over the roadway by a steam roller so that the rolling goes on
during the flushing. A grout, one part Atlas Portland cement and one
part trap rock, pea size, mixed wet, is then spread over the surface and
the rolling goes on until the water almost ceases to be forced out by the
10-ton roller. It is afterward finished with hand tampers and brushed
with rattan brooms. No smoothing is done and die surface looks a
grayish white with a gritty appearance. Shoulders of earth, compactly
rolled, sustain the concrete and no curbing is used."
The saving of the cost of curbing is an important one, amounting
on the average to $3,000 per mile of road for both lines of curbing. No
estimate of the cost of the above road is yet obtained but from the known
cost of the different items would be about $1.25 per square yard. This,
computed on a basis of 16 ft. wide, would cost $11,733 Pel" niile of road.
The figures for brick roads actually laid in this county run close to
$23,000 per mile of road. Of this about $3,000 per mile goes for stone
curbing each side of the brick roadway which might well be omitted and
that expense saved.
It would therefore seem to be better economy to build the improved
roads of broken stone and concrete instead of brick.

!Vy V. W. Dencer*
DRAWINGS for structural work, that is, steel bridges and buildings
of various kinds, are of two classes, stress sheets or general
drawings and shop plans or detail drawings. fhe stress sheets
for railroad bridge work arc generally made in the bridge department of
the railroad. Sometimes the work is done by a consulting engineer or
the bridge may be designed in the estimating department of a bridge company.
The shop plans are in most cases detailed by the manufacturers.
Occasionally a railroad will make its own shop plans.
By making their own general drawings, the railroads maintain their
established practice as far as general design and details are concerned.
The manufacturer, by making thc detail drawings, can conform to his
shop equipment and shop practice.
As a rule, the designer in thc bridge department of a railroad, has
a similar structure to pattern after, making such modifications in design
as the bridge engineer finds past experience to warrant. Defects discovered
in previous work are eliminated and improved details are used.
Thus the new work is constantly made better than the old work.
Good features of design used by other railroads probably are often
used. Discussions in engineering societies and magazines contribute to
the improvement of design. Building and bridge disasters undoubtedly
serve to correct many defects which otherwise would not be discovered.
The causes of failure are investigated and the defects carefully avoided
in the future.
Much is printed on the subject of designing, but comparatively little
in regard to detailing. It is particularly this latter phase of structural
work that I wish to discuss.
In the preparation of detail drawings tor the shop, to secure the best
results, the detailer should be first, an engineer; second, a shop man;
third, a draftsman. The relative importance of each is in the order given.
The engineer will carefully examine the stability and strength of the
structure in all its details. The structure will be uniform in strength ;
one detail will fulfill the same specifications as another. The primary
requisite, after all, is to design economically—of the same strength
throughout. To neglect this feature by detailing certain parts heavier
than others means wasting considerable material, since the weakest mem-
'Engineer of Lassig Plant, American Bridge Co.

36 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
ber or connection determines the strength of the structure.- To bring out
this point more clearly, let us say that the ideal condition sought by the
engineer is that each connection shall measure ioo per cent, whereas the
various connections designed by an inexperienced man would probably
measure as follows: 30, 50, 70, 90, 100, 200, 500, 1000 per cent, etc.
The engineer in preparing the details sometimes detects mistakes
made in design but as his work is final, unusual care must be used to prevent
any serious error being overlooked before the work is built.
Frequently the method of shipment will greatly vary the number
of cars used to transport the finished material and the manner in which
the shipping pieces are arranged will affect the car rates. These features
must be investigated and decided by the engineer.
The problem of erection is also an important one. To fail to provide
for the proper erection of the structure might cost the amount of the
profits of the contract. In deciding some details it is necessary to know
whether the erector will use air power or hand power for riveting. Sometimes
it is necessary to know if a boom or a traveler will be used in erecting.
The writer has in mind a draw span so designed that the top chord
splices had to be riveted before the eyebars could be erected. This detail
alone meant that the span could not be erected on false work but
must be erected by means of a traveler. Before proceeding with the
drawings for this work, an understanding was had with the customer
that the latter method of erection would be followed.
On some work, it is often advisable to bolt all connections instead
of using rivets, because of lack of facilities for riveting or to suit special
requirements of erection.
On some railroad structures, it is important to maintain traffic while
the new bridge is being erected on the site of the old bridge. The new
structure may be built under and completely surrounding the old bridge
on the sides and top. This method of erection will bring up many problems
in detailing to be overcome by the engineer.
On larger structures, it is necessary to know which end of the work
will be erected first so that the details for the first part may be prepared
first. Frequently it happens that erection may have begun on the first
portion before the plans are finished for the part required last.
The second requirement of the man preparing shop drawings is that
he should be a practical shop man. The careful adaptation of the mill's
and shop's facilities will prevent delays and promote economy.
When the date of delivery is fixed it is necessary to keep track of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 37
the rollings at the mills. Sometimes one section of material is substituted
for another to facilitate the mill deliveries.
The ordering of material for a contract is a very important part of
the detailer's work. As most big contracts are rolled according to specifications,
it is necessary to make a complete bill of material before the
shop plans are made. This procedure is followed to save time but necessarily
many errors will result which must be rectified as soon as found
out. Some sections are ordered in multiple lengths while some are ordered
in exact lengths, the method to be used in each case will depend
upon the shearing and sawing facilities of the shop fabricating the material.
For instance, if the shop is not equipped with a beam shear, it
would be very expensive work to order the beams in long lengths to be
sawed as required.
When ordering tubular pieces, smoke stacks or water pipe sections, it is
necessary to use plates as large as the bending rolls will permit, in order
to reduce the amount of riveting to a minimum, provided these plates do
not exceed the limits of the rolling mills or exceed the capacity of the multiple
punch, in case the shop is provided with such a machine. Again, to
secure good car lengths, the length of the riveted up section must be considered
in ordering the plates. At times, it will be advisable to change
the diameters so that the tubes can be nested and more weight shipped on
one car to secure minimum car rates.
When ordering long lengths of an uncommon section, the drawing
room must order a few extra pieces to replace any which might be spoiled
during fabrication ; whereas if no excess were ordered, long and serious
delays would result, as the rolling of some sections at the mills is limited
to only two or three times a year.
Steel mills have extra prices for unusual lengths, and for cut material
cut to short lengths. It is therefore necessary to avoid such sizes
for which extra prices are charged, provided that this cost exceeds the
extra cost of cutting or sawing at the shop.
Channel and I-Beam sections which are not milled at the ends should
be ordered to the exact length required, allowing in the details, however,
for a slight variation in length. If these sections were ordered, say X
inch too long, it would mean an extra expense of milling off one end.
To secure the deliveries required, it is sometimes necessary to pickout
certain shapes and place the orders at once, even at the expense of
considerable waste because of lack of time in determining more closely
the computed lengths.
While the mill orders are being made, other men on the work are
engaged in picking out and detailing such material as castings, eyebars,

38 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
buckle plates, corrugated plates, etc., as the furnishing of this class of
material frequently delays the entire contract.
A knowledge of when the masonry will be placed is necessary, so
that material such as masonry bolts, grillage beams, etc., which are imbedded
in the concrete, may be shipped at the proper time.
Template work, in a structural shop, may be considered to be of two
kinds, bench work and floor work. For bench work, the drawings are
made complete in every detail, because the template-maker has not room
enough to assemble the various pieces. For template work laid out on
the floor, only the general dimensions are given 011 the drawings. It
frequently happens that some details are impossible to compute, or at
least verv difficult to compute: floor work is then resorted to as offering
tiie cheapest and safest method of solution, 'lhe detailer will know if
the shop has sfiace for floor work ; if not, all details will be prepared for
bench work.
The drawings must not only consist of details which answer the requirements
of the specifications and general design, but the details must
be so, developed as to give the templatemakers a minimum amount of
work. For instance, as far as possible, many pieces on the structure must
lie detailed alike, all angles must be detailed symmetrically co avoid punching
them right and left hands, ends of shapes should be square, similar
nieces detailed with parts identical, two sizes of holes avoided on any
one piece, holes spaced in the two legs of an angle so that one template
will contain holes for both legs, and so on.
If the drawing room has two or more contracts which are similar,
such as girders of the same depths, or similar floors, it is good practice
to detail these structures together so that all identical pieces may be ordered
at one time and fabricated from the same templates. The object
of the detailer is to obtain as many duplicate pieces as possible for economy
in w:orkmanship.
Some shops save templates of standard bridge spans, either railroad
or highway work. The drawing room should have files of these bridges,
and, if possible, a big saving is made by using the templates of a former
bridge for new work. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to secure permission
to make certain changes in order to use old plans.
The detailer should take care that the assembling and fitting up of
his work is practical. The routing and destination of the finished material
must be considered in determining the maximum sizes of shipping
pieces as the bridge clearances vary for different railroads and on different
divisions of the same road.
Small exposed pieces or overhanging- parts must be avoided to pre-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 39
vent bending during shipment. Certain members riveted together for
shipment will be unstable, but when placed in the structure, they are perfectly
stable. Other members will have splices insufficiently secured by
shop rivets which would be injured when assembled due to its own
weight. It is one of the problems of the detailer to prevent these conditions.
It sometimes occurs that a large member must be detaiied in two
pieces instead of one to bring the weight of the member within the limits
of the shop's cranes or hoists. To handle material beyond the capacity
of the hoists, subjects the shop to much expense in rigging up special
tackle or in "skidding" the material. By "skidding" is meant the process
of raising one end and rolling the other end.
In connection with the structural work, the drawing room is obliged
to detail much special material such as machinery, electrical work, pneumatic
work, tanks, chimneys, water pipe, timber, gas pipe work, architectural
work, etc. The structural detailer should have a general knowledge
of all of these subjects as much of this class of work is often included
in structural contracts.
Details for special work should never be decided upon until the
method of fabrication is known. In the case of motors, solenoids, valves,
gas engines, etc., market products should be decided upon before making
the necessary connections.
The third and least important of the requirements of the man making
details, as mentioned before, is that he be a good draftsman. As a writer
requires a style to express his thoughts on paper, so the engineer requires
the ability of a draftsman to carry out his ideas on drawings.
Briefly, the duty of the draftsman is to detail his work in a concise,
neat and clear manner. A good draftsman will start with the main
general outline, giving the general dimension and working points and
then evolve the most complicated details which are easily followed by
the checker and shop men. The good draftsman by his method of presenting
his details has no difficulty with the most complicated work while
the poor draftsman stumbles over the simplest details.
Not only is it important to show clearly what work is required, but
the draftsman should add precautionary notes as will serve to prevent
the shop men and erectors from making mistakes. As an illustration of
this, if one member 18 inches wide telescopes into another member with
an opening of 18X inches in the field, notes are put on the drawings such
as, "Not to exceed 18 inches," and "Not to run under 18X inches." Were
it not for these notes, the shop men might not be careful to maintain
these dimensions. Variations of an ^ of an inch or so in shop details

40 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
due to inaccuracies in workmanship are common, unless conditions demand
greater accuracy. Again, it frequently happens that a heavy member
like a floor beam or a stringer can be erected in one or two ways, the
connections at both ends being identical, but because of an eccentric
lateral connection or an off-center connection, it is necessary that the
heavy member be placed in one position only. In such case, a note should
be placed on the drawing designating one end as "west" or "north." Were
it not for this note, the erectors might place the member the wrong way
and the error would not be discovered until the piece connecting to the offcenter
connection was erected. To rectify this mistake, probably many
other members will be taken down before the member which was set
-wrong end to" can be turned. Probably a rivet gang will have to wait
until the members are rearranged in addition to the serious delay caused.
Frecruently the delay caused, will be a more important item than the extra
expense.
One problem the draftsman continually has to contend with is that
of furnishing all auxiliary material to make his contract complete. The
omission of one item alone might delay the erection of the entire work.
On a large bridge span, the omission of some small eyebars delayed the
erection about one month after an entire crew was at the bridge site. The
delay would have been considerably longer had not special efforts been
made to fabricate the missing pieces. In this case the omission of the
bars was not discovered until the bars were needed in the field. On a
building contract, the omission of some bearing plates compelled the
concrete men to stop work until the plates were secured. Numerous other
incidents might be cited along the same lines.
ft is not always clear as to what auxiliary material is furnished in a
contract, especially if the steel work is divided up between two or more
contractors. Small items, insignificant as to cost, will be omitted bv
one contractor and assumed to be furnished by the other. The result
is that these small items will frequently cause delays when required. To
prevent this unsatisfactory condition, it is necessary for the various contractors
to work in conjunction with each other.
An important feature of a draftsman's work which has not been
mentioned is speed. In many contracts a stipulation is made that the
work must be delivered in a certain time, possibly so that the work may
be erected before navigation opens or on a building to secure new lease's
dating from a time when old leases expire, or there may be numerous
other reasons. The manufacturer may be under a heavy penalty for delays
or his promise for delivery at a certain time was given, in either
case, he will not stop at extra expense m getting out the drawings and

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 41
fabricating the material. All expedients for saving time must then be
resorted to such an overtime work, putting on as many men on the work
as possible, etc.
As far as consistent with good accurate shop work, the drawings of
the draftsman must be prepared as economically as possible. Not only
is economy the sign of a good man but as a matter of duty; the draftsman
is under obligations to his employer to work for his interests.
In closing this paper, it may not be amiss to note that the engineer
while solving the many problems which come up, must lie conscientious
down to the smallest details. There can be no difference of agreement
in dealing with the customers on the one side and the shop on the other.
The engineer must prepare his drawings subject to the approval of the
customer, and these drawings must be strictlv adhered to by the shops.

T o Travers*) tlvo '!>?).scrt Sands*
!Vy ('hades Aluia Byers
THE problem of traversing the desert sands with heavy loads has
at last been solved. The twenty-mule team, made famous by
"Borax Smith," and a familiar part of western desert pictures,
is soon to be a thing only of the past. Its successor will be the paddlewheel
or "caterpillar" traction engine, an invention recently perfected by
a manufacturing firm of Stockton, Cal. With this engine heavy loads
can be drawn over the loose, yielding sands of the desert as easily as over
a firm roadbed. The dry sands will neither be treacherous nor tiring to
the propelling power of this invention. More than this, because of this
fact, hitherto impenetrable desert regions will no longer be closed to civilization
until opened by the railroad.
The paddle-wheel traction engine, to describe it in a single phrase,
i.s an engine that carries and lays its own track. The idea itself is not
newr, but its application is. The paddle or plates, from which it derives
its name, are attached to an endless chain, like a bicycle chain, and
this chain with its paddle encases the propelling wheels of the engine.
When in action the chain rotates around and under the wheels, and in
this manner the wheels, as shown by the accompanying illustration, are
always provided with a firm foundation. The steering or pilot wheel,
which carries but little weight, is of the ordinary type, except that it is
very broad.
The engines are built to be operated by either steam or gasoline.
Thev are capable of drawing immense loads over loose, sandv soil or
over muddy roadways, besides climbing steep grades. One of the illustrations
shows an engine of this type drawing, on two trucks, a load of
sixteen tons of pig iron, with an additional weight of six tons for the two
trucks. The sand is soft and yielding, and over it an ordinary engine
would hardly propel itself. The sand, to such an engine, would yield,
and the engine wheels would soon 'burrow into it until the axle would
rest on the ground. The other illustration shows an engine of the paddlewheel
type of twenty-five horse-power, gasoline, climbing a 62 per cent
grade in deep sand.
The aqueduct service of the city of Los Angeles is using one of
these engines of fifty-horse power, with steam as motive power, in the
construction of the city's $23,000,000 water aqueduct, and over the soft
sands of the Jawbone Canyon district it has been drawing, on three broad-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 43
Gasoline Traction Engine 25 HP Climbing a li'ir/c grade in soft sand. Note propelling wheel.
wheeled cars, a load of over thirty tons. It cost the city $3,500. and the
engineers claim that no other motive power would have been one-third as
cheap. From the railroad siding where the material is delivered to the
Sugar Loaf camp in Jawbone Canyon, a distance of six miles, there is a
rise in grade of over 1,000 ft., and the entire distance is of very sandysoil.
( )ver this grade of from twelve to fourteen per cent the engine has
been drawing a load of 18,000 ft. of green lumber, equivalent to thirtyone
and a half tons. The best that could be done with teams on these
sandy grades is a load of about 600 pounds to the animal, with extremely
slow progress. The cost of freighting with this engine is about ten cents
a ton mile, as against thirty cents for teams.
Speaking of the problem of desert and grade transportation in this
connection, Engineer Mulholland recently declared: "The solution of the
problem of desert transportation and branch roads at a distance from
railroads seems, so far, to have been successful with the 'caterpillar'
traction engine. This machine, essentially differing from all other traction
engine^, is particularly successful on the soft, sandy roads and in
surmounting grades prohibitive to teams and old style engines."

44 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
UJ tons of pig iron on 2 trucks The trucks weigh 3 tons each beside the load. Xote the soft sand in which an
ordinary round wheel engine would hardly propel itself.
These engines are used, besides on the desert, for drawing plows
over the soft peat lands around Stockton, Cal, and have there likewise
proved satisfactory. Their principal usefulness, however, is realized in
the desert regions, and for transporting mining equipment over otherwise
impassable areas, they promise to become particularly beneficial,
making possible the opening of many mines that are now idle because of
practical inaccessibility.
leel" traction engine drawing JO tons of pig iron on 3 cars provided with 12 inch lites. Similar to cne
owned by Los Angeles aqueduct service and the one the commission intends pu chasing.

^xia&da,
n-ris ll, .Mnohol
M A G N A L I U M is an aluminum alloy which promises to fulfill the
expectations based in the past on aluminum but never realized
on account of the softness and other unfavorable qualities of
aluminum which have been overcome bv the development of magnalium.
L is manufactured in Germany and imported in its various finished forms
as well as in the ingot form for manufacture in this country.
Magnalium can be machined about die same as brass. The machined
surfaces are of a mirror-like smoothness and silvery color. Perfect
screw threads can easily be cut in the metal. Bored holes are always
very sharp and clean. Filing results in fine, regular, clean cut surfaces
without tearing up the metal or clogging up the file, as does aluminum
and the usual typical sound is heard when filing. Only rough or
medium fine files can be used on aluminum, preventing, of course, any
exact work, while magnalium will allow the use of even the finest files.
Magnalium, like pure aluminum, can be cast in a liquid condition
by any ordinary foundryman, the only precatuion necessary being the use
of clean graphite crucibles, and care must be taken not to increase the
temperature too far above the melting point, as this weakens the metal.
The casting shrinkage is iX to 2°/o-
If cast in an iron chill, the tensile strength is greatly increased and is
at a maximum if the chill is water cooled. Cast in dry sand the usual
quality of magnalium has a tensile strength of 18,000 lbs. to 21,000 lbs.
per square inch and shows reduction of area of 3X per cent. Cast in iron
chills 22,000 lbs. to 25,000 lbs. per square inch reduction of area 5 to 8
per cent. The tensile strength of a quality containing a somewhat smaller
percentage of aluminum equals about 34,000 lbs. per square inch, but
can be increased to about 42,500 lbs. per square inch by proper treatment.
By drawing, rolling, pressing, etc., the tensile strength obtained by
quick cooling is still further increased. Wire drawn from one quality of
the alloy has a tensile strength of 41,000 lbs. and 10 per cent reduction of
area while it will stand 53,000 lbs. if the raw material has been forged
before drawing.
Soft rolled sheets of our alloy "Z" have a tensile strength of 42,000
lbs. and 18 per cent reduction of area, hard rolled sheets about 52,000
lbs. and 4 per cent reduction of area.

46 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Magnalium containing less than a certain percentage of aluminum
cannot be rolled but can be readily drawn. The tensile strength of a
drawn bar was 60,000 lbs. and that of a tube 74,000 lbs. per square inch.
Another advantage of magnalium is that it is extremely close
grained so that it can be polished without previous treatment by any special
instruments. Furthermore, in lathe work the tool speed can be twice
as great as with aluminum, thus making a labor saving.
Pure aluminum being soft, can be cut with a knife like zinc or lead,
while magnalium is hard. Some magnalium alloys, however, are very
ductile and can be forged, rolled, drawn, etc., sharing all the advantages
of aluminum in this direction.
Annealed magnalium "Z" is so ductile that it can be rolled or beaten
like silver. The elasticity of cast or annealed magnalium is small but in
the forged, hard rolled or drawn material it is much greater. It attains and
maintains a high polish and shows excellent resistance to corrosion under
ordinary atmospheric conditions. The color of magnalium is silvery
white in contrast to the grayish-looking aluminum. Besides all this,
magnalium has the advantage that its specific gravity is less than that of
aluminum. While the specific gravity of pure aluminum is 2.64, magnalium
shows 2.4 to 2.57, according to the percentage of alloy. Other aluminum
alloys have a greater specific gravity than aluminum, the most of
them being between three and four. The metals named below are the
following number of times as heavy as magnalium: Zinc, 2.87: Tin, 2.92;
Cast Iron, 2.88; Nickel, 3.30; Copper, 3.58; Brass, 3.61; Silver, 4.20;
Lead, 4.56; Gold, 7.70.
The melting point is 640 degrees to 676 degrees C. or 1.185 degrees
to 1,250 degrees F.
Magnalium has no odor. It resists oxidization better than aluminum
or any other light metals and is almost unaffected by dry or damp air,
water, gaseous ammonia, carbonic acid, sulphurate of hydrogen and most
organic acids.
It is only slowly affected by salt petre or sulphuric acid and more
rapidly by alkalies or strong alkaline solutions. Salt water attacks magnalium
slightly but where exposed to sea water, the metal should be lacquered
or coated to protect it, and in this condition it will give excellent
satisfaction.
Magnalium shows almost no magnetic influences but its electric and
thermal conductivity is about 56 per cent of that of pure copper.
Magnalium can be welded by using an oxy-acetylene flame.
The specific heat of magnalium is 0.2185.
The non-poisonous and non-corrosive qualities of magnalium are of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 47
great value, especially in its application to cooking utensils, milk separators,
vacuum-pans, etc. Soft magnalium wire can be conveniently used
for rivets.
Annealing. Magnalium should be annealed in a muffled furnace
in order to keep the flame and gases away from the metal. The annealing
furnace must be kept at an even heat. The metal must appear dark
red and char a pine wood stick so that carbon particles separate from it.
To anneal plates does not require as high a temperature. The plates are
then chilled in cold water and they will be very tough and ductile. The
thinner the plates, the lower should be the temperature of the annealing
furnace. Plates of less than i-ioo inch thick can be beared in boiling oil
or water and allowed to slowly cool.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR MELTING AND CASTING MAGNALIUM.
Magnalium is best melted in ordinary graphite crucibles. Care should
be taken that the crucibles be perfectly clean.
Note : About Using Perfectly Clean Crucibles. A crucible that
has been used for brass would have enough brass adhering to the carbon
in the crucible to utterly destroy the properties of the cast magnalium.
It is, therefore, strongly suggested that a brand new crucible be
used if possible, especially for testing this metal, as it is probable that
with a new crucible which has never been used for any other metal, better
results will be obtained from magnalium castings.
The metal must not be heated further beyond its melting point than
necessary (about 1,200 degrees F.), which is about a third less than brass.
That is a nice red heat, a higher heat such as orange produces porous
castings of a gray color and must be avoided.
The temperature should be kept as even as possible. The
crucibles should be evenly surrounded with coke and should
rest on a fire-proof support. The support is necessary to keep the
crucible from direct contract with the grates and to keep from
cooling the metal by an airdraught after the coke burns up. The
lid remains on the crucible to prevent contact between the air and
furnace gases and the metal. In order to prevent oxidization, it is often
advisable, while the metal is being melted, to sprinkle finely powdered
charcoal over the metal in the crucible. When fluid it can he stirred with
a clean pinerod. As soon as the metal ceases to cling to the rod the crucible
should be removed from the furnace and placed on some warm fireproof
support, such as an iron sheet, to prevent the metal chilling from the
bottom before it is required, then allow the metal to still and pour it into
the mould steadily and without cessation, carefully skimming and holding
back the slag and oxidized skin with a skimmer, keeping the cruci-

48 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
ble close to the gate until this overflows. The metal should enter the
mould from the bottom and the clearance and scum are allowed for by
the rising prolongation of the mould. No flux is necessary. In spite of
its low inciting point it should take from 43 to 45 minutes to melt magnalium.
In making sand moulds, the sand is loosely pressed and should have
as many air holes as possible. Take special pains to prick well through the
sand with pieces of wire while the pattern is still in, in order to allow ail
the air that may be carried into the mould with the molten metal to escape
and thus preclude all possibilities of blow holes or porous castings.
In this connection it may be advisable to mix the moulding sand with 10
per cent of meal. The sand must not be rammed as close for brass castings.
The gate should be cylindrical, the entrance should be wide and the
casting funnels and the risers must be wide at the base and narrow at
the top. The casting heads should also be rather large, when moulds are
prepared in this way, the air and gas can easily escape. The oxydized
skin and slag will rise and the finished casting is absolutely free of pores
or blowholes. As soon as the metal is sufficiently cool the casting heads
are broken off and the flasks are loosened. For castings in an iron mould
the liquid must be hotter than is the case for sand castings and the mould
should be well heated.
When melting scraps, chips, turnings, etc., the larger pieces should
be melted first, then the crucibles should be removed and the borings,
turnings, etc., be added as otherwise the loss due to burning is too large.
When melting large pieces this loss is not more than from ]/2 to I per
cent, the loss in melting borings and file dust is as much as 10 to 15 per
cent.
In damp sand the metal should be cast quickly and at as low a temperature
as possible. In dry sand or chills the metal should be bright
red, and should be cast slowly. Ingots must be cast in closed metal
moulds with planed inner surfaces. The moulds should be well cleaned
before using, brushed with graphite and well heated. Castings in sand
should be cooled quickly, preferably in cold, flowing water. This treatment
makes the metal very tough and ductile.
Important Note. If magnalium is overheated it absorbs oxygen
and becomes spoiled and porous. Anyone accustomed to brass has a
tendency to overheat magnalium and care should be taken especially by
such persons to work magnalium at as low a heat as possible. This applies
not only to melting and casting but to forging and any other operations
that require heating of the metal.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 49
Pickling. A clean white silver-like surface will be obtained by
treating magnalium with a 10 per cent solution of caustic soda, to which
2 per cent common salt has been added and which is treated at 140 degrees
F. The article to be pickled is first put into this solution for from
15 to 20 seconds till the ebullition of gas becomes rather lively. It is then
rinsed in water, brushed and dipped in concentrated nitric acid fir 10 to
15 seconds, rinsed again in cold water and finally dried in warm, finely
powdered sawdust. The caustic soda should, be prepared in an iron vessel,
the nitric acid in one of china, clay, slate or preferably pure aluminum.
Pickling is recommended for plates and ingots and should be done
after the first annealing and second pass. All faults in casting can then
be easily seen and removed by scraping and sandpapering. If an article
is pickled several times it shows a beautiful dull silver white frosted appearance
with a silk- gloss and is impervious to change 111 atmospheric
conditions.
Forging. Magnalium alloys N and V and especially alloy Z can be
forged with good results most easily by heating the metal to about 626
degrees F. and then working about the same as .Swedish steel. At this
temperature the metal will not glow red but will be hot enough to char
a piece of wood. ( )f course, the casting has to be cleaned before forging
to show up cracks in the metal, so that they can be avoided. It is advisable
to pickle the piece before forging or rolling.
Rolling. The great ductility of magnalium especially alloy "Z"
makes it possible to produce plates of any thickness. The ingots are first
heated to between 570 and 660 degrees F. and rolled so that the reduction
at the first pass is about 20 per cent. Then the plate is again heated. After
the first two passes, the plate is turned 90 degrees and passed through the
finishing rolls until it reaches the required thickness. As magnalium
rapidly loses its ductility of rolling, it has to be annealed repeatedly
Then rolls must be thoroughly cleaned and sprinkled with paraffin for
every pass. If possible, it is advisable to work the ingot with a hammer
before rolling. All roughness of the surface of the ingot should be
scraped as is done with copper or brass. A large amount of power is
necessary for rolling magnalium, about as much as for heated steel.
The rolling is done more easily if the rolls are heated to a temperature
of from 210 degrees to 300 degrees F. Ingots thicker than .15
(15-100) inch must be annealed after each pass. Below this thickness
plates can be finished by cold rolling. All other manipulations in rolling
are about the same as with other metals.
Hardening. If the magnalium is gradually heated to a temperature
cf less than 750 degrees F and slowly cooled by steps, tbe metal gets so

50 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
hard and elastic that it can be worked into springs.
Draw ing. Magnalium is a very ductile metal and in this respect is
only surpassed by gold, silver, platinum and copper. The diameter of the
cast ingot should be reduced very slowly at first. Best results are obtained
if the ingot is forged before drawing. Perfectly smooth wire as
fine as silk threads has been made with astonishing tensile strength.
Tubes made from plates or from cast hollow pieces are treated in exactly
the same way as rods, namely, annealed repeatedly, chilled and afterwards
drawn cold over a mandrel.
Machining. Magnalium is remarkable in as much as that it can
be tooled at high speed, about like steel. A cut X-inch deep can be taken
on an inch rod of magnalium without the rod bearing away from the
tool. Screw threads of considerable length can be easily and cleanly cut.
The tools have to be verv sharp and the surface (both metal and tools)
must be kept lubricated with either kerosene, turpentine, parafin, benzine,
vaseline, soapwater or even cold water. Excellent surfaces will result
and perfect screw threads or holes will be obtained. To cut magnalium
a fine toothed saw lubricated with kerosene is recommended. Magnalium
can be punched, drop-forged, and pressed without any difficulty about
the same as silver, brass or steel plate, providing that it has been well
annealed.
Coating, Etc. When the magnalium is properly cleaned and pickled
it can be varnished or enamelled without difficulty iust like anv other
metal. Transparent or colored lacquers can be easily applied and it can
be readily etched, engraved or plated.
Polishing. It can be polished easily and about the same as other
metals. When polishing it is advisable to start cleaning the surface with
powdered charcoal free from grit. Any agent can be used to complete the
polishing such as rotton stone, tripoli, rough, whitting or stearine and
turpentine. A surface resembling that of a first-class mirror can be easily
obtained.
Soldering requires a certain amount of knack. The metal must be
scraped, cleaned and immediately tinned with the special "Magnalium
Solder," no flux being used. As a thin film of oxide is liable to form
on the surface of the metal, it is advisable to rub well down through the
melted solder so as to thoroughly scratch the real surface underneath.
When the "tinning" is properly done the surfaces are pressed together
and heated until the solder flows and when cooled a good strong joint results.
On account of the high thermal conductivity, the heat required
for actual soldering is liable to flow all over the metal, thus preventing
the flow of the solder. It is, therefore, wise to keep a heated surface
such as a hot iron plate under the parts to be soldered.

llomarks on tho Uso ©Y i^U)oirlotiy as
Ajyiilb^i to Coal iVlIiik^;,
By VY. B. Spellinlro*
WITH the increased use of electricity for power and lighting purposes
has developed the idea of centralization in the generation
of power. When steam engines alone were used, for
example, in large manufacturing establishments, it frequently occurred
that many engines of relatively small capacity were placed in various parts
of a large factory. Where a smaller number of larger engines was used,
the power was distributed by means of belts and countershafts. In large
transportation systems, as illustrated by the New- York elevated road,
each train of cars was formerly supplied with its own diminutive steam
engine. In coal mining properties where several mines exist even in
comparatively close proximity, it is common to find a separate boiler and
engine plant provided at each mine.
The extended use of electricity has accomplished great changes in
the means of distributing and generating power. Numerous small and
uneconomical engines have been replaced by one or more large compound
condensing engines, centrally located, and power is distributed economically
in the form of electricity. In New York City all the locomotives
have disappeared from the elevated lines and the cars themselves are
equipped with motors, a large centra! power plant equipped with nine
12,000 horse power units supplying the power.
It is obvious that power can be generated ever so much more economically
in these large central stations than it can be separately in several
hundred small locomotives, each with its own engineer and fireman.
The same principle is carried out in thc operation of all trolley roads and
is now being extended to reguar railroad operation in the electrification
of the New'York Central & Hudson River R. R.. with its large power
plant at Port Morris.
It should be borne in mind that the underlying principles of economical
generation and distribution of power are the same, regardless of
what this power is used for. Tt may be for propelling a trolley car or a
mine locomotive, for chain machines in a coal mine or for hand saws in
a saw mill. It should be noted that where coal is expensive we find means
Before the Coal Mining Institute oi West Virginia.

52 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
provided for its economical consumption, and conversely where coal is
comparatively cheap there is considerable waste of fuel.
In the consideration of the relative cost of transmitting power it can
be shown conclusively that the transmission can be made in the form of
electricity over a wire with far less loss than it can be through a steam
pipe, by compressed air or in any mechanical form. European countries
are considerably in advance of us in reducing the cost of generating and
transmitting power. This is largely attributed to the higher price and
greater scarcity of fuel. Until recently, coal operators have been neglectful
in the consideration of the cost of their power. Where single mines
were operated by individual companies the cost of power on account of
being small was almost lost sight of; but where a number of mines have
been grouped under a single management, the economical generation of
power has been given verv careful consideration, and the same principles
have been applied as are used by large consumers of power for purposes
other than the mining of coal. Operators have come to realize that every
ton of coal which is saved can be sold and that it is a part of wisdom to
save as many tons as possible.
In thc bituminous districts of Pennsylvania and W Va. there are now
a number of instances where arrangements are made for generating al! or
nearly all the power used on the property in a single power plant and distributing
it among the workings. In Pennsylvania there are the Rochester
& Pittsburg Coal & Iron Co., at Punxsutawney, the Berwind-White Coal
Mining Co., at Windber, the H. C. Frick Coke Co. near Connellsville,
the Penna. Beech Creek and Eastern Coal Co. at Cresson, and the Somerset
Coal Co. at Jenner. In West Virginia there are the U. S. Coal &
Coke Co. at Gary, the McKell Coal & Coke Co. at Kilsyth, the Elkins
Coal & Coke Co., the Low Moor Iron Co. at Kaymoor, and the Pocohontas
Consolidated Coal Co.; in Alabama the Woodward Iron Co. near
Birmingham.
Too much emphasis cannot be given to the fact that where all power
i.s generated in one power plant, one engineer and one fireman take the
place of the same number in each of tlie many smaller plants. The coal
and ashes can be handled more economically. The engines can usually
be run condensing and repairs and maintenance are required for a few
large power units rather than for many small units. It is obvious that a
great saving can be accomplished and it can be shown that this saving is
greatly in excess of the interest charges on the additional investment required.
In transmitting electric current over a wire it must not be supposed
that all transmission losses are eliminated, but the losses sustained are

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 53
not to be compared with those involved in transmitting the power bysteam,
compressed air or mechanical means.
In the use of electricity for the transmission of energy for power
and lighting purposes, there exists the choice in the use of either Direct
Current or Alternating Current. Direct current can be used economically
where the distance does not exceed a certain amount. Beyond that
the cost of copper wire becomes prohibitive. Electric energy is measured
in watts, being the product of the volts by the amperes. The heating effect
of the current on the wire and the consequent loss of energy in
transmission is determined by the amperes which are carried. This
loss is measured by a drop in voltage or pressure and is comparable to
the drop in pressure of air where power is transmitted by compressed.
air. One watt represents a very small amount of energy, therefore 1000
watts is taken as a unit. The word "kilo" meaning iooo was applied,
hence "kilowatt" meaning iooo watts. One horse power is the equivalent
of 746 watts, so that a kilowatt or 1000 watts is equal to about
1 1-3 horse power.
If current is generated at 250 volts and a load of iooo amperes is
transmitted over a given line, the total energy will be expressed as 250
K. W. If the same current, viz., iooo amperes, is generated at 500 volts,
the energy would be 500 K. W. The transmission wire for carrying
250 K. W. at 250 volts could be used equally well for transmitting 500 K.
W. at 500 volts. Similarly, if the voltage were raised to eight times the
amount, or 2000 volts, then 2000 K. W. could be transmitted over the same
wire, as the amperes are the same.
Let us assume that this line is of such length that when transmitting
a current of iooo amperes the total drop will be 25 volts. Twenty-five
volts is a measure of the loss of the line. In the first instance with 250
volts on the line this represents a loss of 10 per cent. With 500 volts 25
volts represent a loss of 5 per cent, and with 2000 volts the loss is i}4
per cent. Thus it is plain that a given wire which transmits 250 K. W.
at 250 volts with a 10 per cent drop, will, by raising the volts to 2000,
transmit eight times the amount of energy and this at only I % per cent
less.
The cost of copper for carrying electric current depends upon the
amperes to be carried. From this is apparent the desirability of keeping
the current small, but in order to transmit sufficient power at the lower
amperes it may become necessary to raise the voltage.
In the present stage of the art of manufacturing, direct current gencrators
cannot well be built to operate at higher than 600 volts on account
of sparking at the commutator. Furthermore, the exposed parts

54 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
of the commutator with its brushes becomes a menace to the life of the
attendant when the voltage exceeds 600. Therefore, if higher than 600
volts is desired it becomes necessary to use alternating current. Alternating
current generators have no commutators and all current carrying
parts are heavily insulated. If it were desirable to transmit 200 K. W.
to a mine one mile distant from the power house, the cost of copper for
transmitting this at 250 volts direct current with 10 per cent loss in transmission
would be about $26,000 and would weigh about 130,000 lbs.
The cost of copper for transmitting this same amount of power the same
distance with 10 per cent loss at 2000 volts alternating current, would
be about $400.00, and would weigh about 2000 lbs. These figures show
the big saving in the cost of copper by the use of high voltage alternating
current.
The cost of copper varies inversely as the square of the voltage. This
is one fact of which an indelible mental note should be made, as it is the
secret of economical electric power transmission.
Mining locomotives, chain machines, coke oven larries, coke drawing
machines and pushers are built only with motors for direct current.
With alternating current delivered at the mine, it therefore becomes necessary
to change a part of this at least to direct current, and the apparatus
which accomplishes this is called a rotary converter. For other work,
such as driving fans, pumps, crushers, and for rope haulage, alternating
current motors can be used to even greater advantage than direct current
motors. In mining operations where it is desirable to use compressed
air punchers in place of mining machines, and where the mine is located
some distance from the power plant, electricity is still applicable. In
such cases the plan is to place the compressor at the pit mouth or in the
mine, supplying the compressor with a large A. C. motor, thus making
the compressor motor driven instead of steam driven. At the present
time there are mining operations where compressed air is being transmitted
several miles, but these are now being changed, resulting in the
abandoning of the long and wasteful pipe lines, and moving the compressor
to the mine.
In this connection it may be of interest to mention a new form of
puncher which combines a motor and compressor in the puncher itself.
This machine is known as the Pneumelectric Puncher, which is rapidlv
growing in popularity. It consists essentially ot a 6 horse power motor
and small compressor and the usual punching look The air is compressed
by the motor and immediately actuates the tool of the puncher. This can
fie arranged to operate with either direct or alternating current motors
The H. C. Frick Coke Co. at Connellsvillc. have a central power

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 65
plant having a capacity of about 2000 K. W. Power transmission lines
radiate from this station, supplying current to six different mines, each
equipped with a rotary converter for furnishing such direct current as is
required. This plant is of special interest on account oi the fact that no
coal is used directly for developing this power. The heat for the boilers
is obtained from a number of beehive ovens which are connected with
flues so that the waste heat from the ovens is utilized. The power plant
of the Elkins Coal & Coke Co. is an example of the introduction of a
high voltage system of generation and distribution. An ample power
plant located at Bretz, W. Va., the site of a mine, is provided with two
moderate size direct current generators. These are used to supply direct
current which can be economically used in the immediate vicinity. Later
it was desirable to open up a mine at Masontown, a point about a mile
and a half distant. In the immediate vicinity of the new mine were to be
located coke ovens together with conveyors, crushers, and other attendant
apparatus. A 2200-volt alternating current generator was installed
in the old power house at Bretz and the capacity of its boiler plant increased.
High voltage current was then transmitted to Masontown,
where it was received at a small rotary converter sub-station. The rotary
converter located here provides direct current for locomotives, larries
and coke drawers. Current is provided at Masontown, either direct or
altemating, for driving fans. For the coke ovens nearby the high voltage
alternating current is used in a 300 horse power motor for driving
a crusher. A. C. motors are also used for driving conveyor belts. When
olher mines are to be opened in the vicinity, it only becomes necessary to
extend the high voltage transmission line, with the possible addition of
greater generator capacity at the power house. Had the plan outlined
here not been carried out, it would have been necessary to build a newpowerhouse
at Masontown with a complete equipment of boilers, engines
and generators. Without going into figures, it is obvious that the first
cost of the one sub-station operating, is less than if a complete new power
plant had been installed at Masontown. The necessary attendants at the
Bretz power plant is not increased by the additional machinery at that
point. Let us assume that we have decided upon the central station idea
in the generation of power. Having done this we are confronted with the
further problems involving the choice of fuel and prime movers. With
reference to fuel, the coal and coke operator frequently has the choice
of using either coal or coke oven gases for generating steam in his boiler.
There are now many operations where the waste gases from coke ovens
are utilized for generating steam. This is commonly obtained from the
ordinary beehive oven bv constructing a large flue parallel to the row
of ovens providing each oven with an outlet into this flue. Dampers are

56 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
provided controlling the connection of each oven with the main flue. The
hot gases are conducted by the main flue direct to the boiler house. It is
ci mmonly assumed in estimating the power required for such a plant to
rate each oven at about 18 horse power. With such an arrangement no
coal is required for generating power about the mine and coking operations.
The only charge for fuel would be represented by the interest on
the investment in the flues. Experience has shown that this arrangement
accomplishes a very great saving and satisfactory results have been
obtained. Some difficulty has arisen in connection with flue construction,
usually on account of the great heat which it transmits. Troubles have
also arisen in connection with warping and melting of both the small
dampers at the mouths of the individual ovens as well as the large dampers
required at the terminal of the flues in the boiler house. All of these
iroubles, however, can be successfully overcome by the proper choice and
use of material. Where bi-product ovens are used, such as the Otto
Hoffman or Semet-Solvay, the gas delivered from these ovens may be
used directly in gas engines; in fact there are many installations in Eulopc
where this practice is carried on. By conducting this gas into gas
engines instead of burning it under boilers, it is possible to secure between
two and three times as much power; that is, the thermal efficiency
of the gas engine is ever so much higher than that of the steam engine
and boiler.
As stated above, having decided on the central station, the next problems
which confront us are fuel and type of prime mover. Lhider fuel
we have considered only the hot gases from beehive ovens and the richer
gases from the retort type of oven. In doing this we have really covered
the situation briefly as concerns the gas engine as a type of prime mover
for generating power. The other two prime movers of importance in this
field are the steam engine and steam turbine. In order to secure a maximum
economy where it is necessary to use steam engines, it is well to
centralize the power, thus making the individual units large. The Corliss
type of engine will secure the best steam economy, and naturally the
conditions will be greatly improved if the engines are made compound
and operated condensing.
Operators not infrequently attach too great importance to first cost.
not realizing that by spending more money and securing highly economical
engines, their yearly earnings will be increased on account of having
more coal to sell. Even where waste gases are used under the boilers,
tbe capacity of the boilers as well as the wear and tear on the boilers are
greatly reduced bv the use of steam engines which are economical in
their use of steam.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 57
I desire to lay special emphasis on the use of steam turbines as
prime movers in coal operations. There are already a great many coal
mining operations in which turbines arc being successfully operated, one
of which is shown in the accompanying illustration. To obtain the best
results they should be run condensing. In addition to being highly economical
in steam consumption, they have the merit of combining large
power capacity in small bulk, thus the cost of the power house building
itself can be reduced to a minimum. The cost of foundations becomes
almost a negligible quantity as compared with that required for heavy
engines. Steam turbines have passed the experimental stage and are now
universally used wherever electric power is required.
One of the most interesting applications of steam turbines is presented
when thev are used in connection with non-condensing engines.
With this arrangement they are known as low pressure turbines and receive
the exhaust steam from existing engines. The turbine is then run
between atmospheric pressure and a vacuum of say 28 in. 'I o illustrate
the conditions more thoroughly, let us suppose that we have a plant consisting
of several steam engine units aggregating iooo K. W. running
non-condensing with a pressure at the throttle of say 150 pounds. Tt is
possible by supplying a low pressure steam turbine and condenser to
secure an additional 700 to iooo K. W. of energy from the exhaust steam
from the engines, frequently doubling the capacity of the plant without
adding any additional boiler capacity or requiring any additional fuel.

lavdrisfrkl or Narrow Gauge Hallways
By Oskar VV. Schok
WHAT I have attempted to do on the following pages is to describe
how the conditions of a narrow gauge railway for industrial
purposes can be fulfilled m the most satisfactory and
cheapest way.
No where is the need of a cheap transportation system more felt
than in the mining industry.
There are thousands of mines and unworked mineral deposits which
lack only some system of cheap transportation to blossom into prosperity.
( Ither mines lack the advantage of an improved underground transport
which, as a matter of very great importance, would tend greatly
toward economy and would pay for itself in the saving of labor, thereby
proving a dividend earner and a sensible investment.
Perhaps every reader will know that the customary wood ties with
tlie rails spiked to the ties are, for instance, still to a great extent used
fi ir track in mines.
I may say that wood ties are satisfactory for yard tracks which
remain permanently on the ground, though the tendency is growing to
use steel ties with the rails bolted to them.
For track in mines wood ties, however, with the rails spiked to the
ties have been at times of much annoyance.
Suppose a certain length of track, switches, etc., have to be shifted
in the course of a day, track and switches spiked to wooden ties would
then be an intolerable nuisance, in most cases, as the spikes would have
to be pulled out each time, and in most cases a good many spikes will
bend and not come out straight. It frequently happens, also, that the
spikes split the sleeper, allowing a rail to get loose and out of place, and
the adjacent rails remaining- rigid, produces a projection against the
wheels of the cars as they pass along, causing them to get off the rails
and dislocate the traffic until the defect has been remedied.
Pulling spikes in the semi-darkness of the mine is tbe hardest kind
of work, and the easier one tries to make it, the harder it becomes.
It is very provoking when the necessity of removing the track to
other places arises, it requiring a great effort to do this and being- wasteful
of both time and money, adding considerable to the running expenses
Whereas track on steel ties has proved far more satisfactory, beino-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 59
superior to the use of track on wooden tics when the latter have to be
shifted.
Steel- ties can be put into the track as cheaply as wooden ties,
and they can be used promiscuously to replace decayed wooden ones, tie
for tie, in the same manner that wooden ties are placed in renewals.
To construct track properly is to know how to "make a dollar go
the farthest" and the first question which arises, looked at directly from
a financial standpoint, is, which track equipment would be best suitable
to meet all circumstances and conditions for which it is intended to be
used.
Suppose a light railway were built with narrow gauge track, very
light rails and small steel ties to carry small cars for light traffic, its cost
can be brought down very low.
A cheap transportation system which could be laid on the surface of
the ground and rapidly constructed with little regard to grades or
curves is the
"INDUSTRIAL OR PORTABLE TRACK."
As the name implies, these tracks are used for al! kinds of industrial
purposes, either to remain permanently or to be shifted around as the
work may require.
Their main advantages are light weight, stability and resistance and
the fact that the ground on which they are to go needs, in many cases,
no preparation at all, in other cases very little.
Their usefulness is today so well recognized by all that nothingfurther
need be said. Every up-to-date contractor uses them. For instance,
in carrying concrete and building materials, etc. They are used
in mines, plantations, factory yards, buildings, etc., and everywhere else
where material has to be transported either temporarily or permanently.
They occupy very little space, can be laid quickly by any ordinary
workman and permit reaching points and corners, which without them
would be inaccessible, thereby saving both time and money and avoiding
trouble and annoyance. The "Portable Track" is a ready made track,
constructed in sections 15 ft. long, consisting of five metal ties with the
rails attached to the ties by means of clips and bolts as illustrated.
To rivet the rails onto the ties is not to be recommended, especially
for smaller size rails, as the holes in the foot weaken the rails and in case
of breakage it is hard to repair.
Clips and bolts make a strong and lasting connection, hold the rails
and ties securely in place and allow in case of breakage a quick and easy
means of repairing on the spot.
The ties are of heavy rolled steel with a corrugated rib in the center,

60 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
which affords firm ground contact, strengthens the ties and also prevents
"buckling."
The connection between the rails is made by regular flat iron fish
bars as illustrated.
If, however, the tracks are not to be kept in place any length of
time but will require frequent change of location, it is better to use the
connection which will not require bolting, but will, nevertheless, connect
the rails satisfactorily, such as light angle joints, etc.
Portable railways have been in constant use all over thc world for
tlie past thirty-five years. That they are labor savers and money makers
has long been demonstrated in every branch of contract and construction.
This fact i.s being demonstrated daily by many of the largest contractors
in the country.
The following record of costs proves conclusively that Portable
track not only readily pays for itself in the saving of labor, but promptly
proves a dividend earner and a sensible investment.
FACTS VS. THEORY.
Messrs. Dodge & Day, of Philadelphia, Consulting Engineers, report
on the cost of grading a spur at Homewood, Pa., for the Pennsylvania
Railroad as follows :
"About 25,000 cubic yards of earth was removed, some of it with
wheel scrapers and some with Portable Track and Steel Dump Cars.
The average haul by former was 350 ft., by the latter 650 ft.
"Cost by wheel scraper method for haul of 350 ft., 26.25 cents per
cubic yard.
"Cost by Portable Track and Car method for haul of 600 ft.. 24.25
cents per cubic yard.
"The advantage to the contractor by the use of Portable Track is
thus conclusively proved, and in this case represents an actual saving
cf about 46 per cent."
I may mention that the Portable Track and Steel Dump Cars were
furnished by the Arthur Koppel Co., the largest manufacturers of industrial
and portable railways in the world.
Prospective users of Industrial and Portable Railways are o-enerally
very much at sea to select the proper rail section and gauge on which
very often the success, financial and otherwise, depends.
It may be said that the conditions of location and traffic are those
chiefly determining the track specification; the gauge of the track and
the rail section to be used is largely governed by the nature of the material
transported.
The main advantages of rails should be light weight, stability and

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 61
-esistance. However, the weight of rails is generally determined upon
the condition under which they are used, the ground, the kind of floor
distance between ties and many other items, which must all be taken into
consideration. All rails are bought and paid for on tlie actual weights
The following particulars should assist prospective buyers in making
up their plans and specifications to select the rail sections best adopted for
their requirements.
12
14
16
20
25
CARRYING
3'S"
1275
1500
1710
2000
3150
CAPACITY Fou RAILS.
3'-o"
1440
1700
1910
2200
354o
2'-6"
1700
1950
2160
2'-0"
IIJ20
2240
-'450
2QOO
462O
2540
4050
The standard gauge of most countries is 4'^" gauge, yet there
is no standard narrow gauge. Each manufacturer, each country or even
each branch of industry having a different one.
If the gauge is wide, the road is very expensive to build, requiring
longer ties, more ballast, etc., and on account of the gieater width required,
may not be built in places where a narrower gauge could easily
be used and consequently the road would lose much of its usefulness.
It has been determined in actual practice that for most industrial
purposes the gauge of 24" is most practicable because it combines lowest
cost with greatest efficiency.
In reference to the cost of building track it may be stated here that
the cost for 36" gauge is about ior,, per foot higher than for track of
24" gauge.
It is for this reason that nearly go'/, of all light railways are built
for this gauge.
A narrower gauge than 24" should only be useci if the space is
limited, as for instance in mines \yhere the track at times ha; to lead to
parts which would be inaccessible by using a wide gauge.
As in the case of the standard gauge tracks, the question of curves
is often troublesome. To economize space it is desirable to make turns
as short as possible, though indeed with ordinary equipment the shortest
turns permissible do not always meet the requirements. Thus for 24"
gauge track, an 18' radius curve is about as diort a radius as can be
safely made.
In one recently installed industrial railway, in a large plant, there
are no curves, turntables being used throughout. Though doubtless

62 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
necessary in places where want of room prohibits curves, turntables
should be confined as largely as possible to the inside trackage.
A second article on the subject of "Permanent Light Railways" will
follow.
m m w
"SS^

* , D V « T B I A L
I
H S S3j lrrfftiMfca
•Something New in Crnl) Buckets
T H E accompanying photos illustrate a
new type of clam shell buckets, recently
put on the market by the
Peerless Engineering Company. Rockefeller
Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.
From illustration shown herewith, the
design of this bucket can be readily seen,
although a detailed description will follow
here.
The bucket is constructed almost entirely
of bar steel and plates of the best
quality, the only castings being the sheaves,
rocker arms or bell cranks, and the scoop
brackets, which are liberally designed steel
castings; all sheaves arc bronze bushed.
One of the principal features of the Peer-
Peerless Bucket open.
End view of Peerless Bucket.

64 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
less bucket is the Toggle lever system,
which is so arranged that thc closing and
digging force is constantly increasing while
closing, a feature which makes this bucket
a type of its own. The bell cranks to
which the outer ends of the scoops are attached,
give the bucket a wide opening,
and when closing keeps the scoops rocking,
a very essentia! action for a successful
digger. The main links which connect the
inner edges of the scoops to the cross head
are made of plate steel with separators
in between, thus making a very strong section
against bending, and in addition to
this the two links are laterally well braced
together thus forming a solid beam, so that
there is no chance at all for ihe sides of
the scoops to bend in either direction. An
eight month severe test of this bucket by
the Erie Railroad has proved this absolutely
reliable. Another feature of the
greatest importance in the Peerless bucket
is the fact that when the bucket is wide
open no parts of the closing mechanism
will come in contact with any material,
thus eliminating al! undue cause for wear
and tear on the ropes and mechanism. Tlie
arrangement of the sheaves as seen in
closed end view of bucket is such that the
hoisting cable can be reeled in, in the shortest
possible time, and without the slight­
est difficulty. The bucket is opened by a
positive opening device, by means of chains
attached to the end of the scoops, and
connected to two small bell cranks at the
head of the upper frame. Two links connect
the two bell cranks together at the
center where the holding cable is attached.
The variation in heights when the bucket
is open or closed is but a few inches instead
of a few feet as is generally the case
with buckets, having a positive opening
device. Some of the oldest bucket users
have pronounced the Peerless the best designed
bucket that ever was placed in thc
realm of grab buckets.
The Vonclior System for the
Manufacturing Business.
By F. B. Kennedy.
'"pI-ITS article is intended for those firms
who continue to handle their accounts
payable in the old fashioned way—namely,
through the journal; filling up the leaves of
that important "day book," when they could
more conveniently be taken care of in a
separate book.
The voucher system is acknowledged to
he the cleanest and most compact method
of recording invoices and is rapidly coming

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 19
IN T H E S E D A Y S OF
KEEN COMPETITION
and high cost of material and
labor the shop owner must of
necessity utilize every means at
his command to procure a satisfactory margin
of profit from his product. He must be ever
alert to conditions and methods throughout Duntley Electric Grinder.
his entire establishment ; must be master of
every detail, and above all things must have an equipment of modern
labor-saving machinery—an equipment which will produce a maximum
of results at minimum of cost.
D u n t l e y E l e c t r i c
AIR COOLED
T o o l s
PORTABLE
have demonstrated their money and time-saving qualities in thousands
of cases. They have a record of ioo per cent, earning
power, and many purchasers have saved the first cost of the
tools in a few months.
They are wound for alternating or
direct current and every tool is guaranteed
to perform the service for which
designed. We ship them on trial to
responsible parties.
Duntley Two-Motor Electric
Drill. Most powerful portable
drill yet produced.
Write for Catalogi*
CHICAGO PNEUMATIC
TOOL C O M P A N Y
CHICAQO
NEW YORK

20
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
into general use by up-to-date firms. The
following is a brief outline of a voucher
record, together with the directions, that
will work to perfection in most any line of
business.
The record from which the accompanying
cut was taken is 14 inches long and
17-1 inches wide, has 400 bound pages and
will easily handle the business of a firm
whose sales run from $40,000.00 to $50,000.00
monthly, say for 3 to 5 years.
The writer would not advise keeping the
pay roll in thc voucher record, as it complicates
matters some, but can be done so if
desired.
Directions.
Fill in the several distribution columns
with names of accounts by use ot rubber
stamps (preferably newspaper type), keeping
together as much as possible accounts
of the same class, i. e., Expense, Mdse.,
etc. Use the Sundry column for personal
and various accounts other than the special
columns.
The arrangement and special features embodied
therein are as follows (reading from
left to right):
X .»••'!
1
t
i
..
•
t
1
6
*
\:
n
u
1
10
i
is
n
o
a
u
a
H
21
_. 1
a
.
«
10
n
X
«
:-;
W |
H
i
.:;. .»,
Al
i1
i-
1
il
1
I
t
.
Jf...
1st.—The Voucher number column.
2nd.—The Index column for use with
separate Index book if desired.
3rd.—The Name column.
4th.—The several special columns for
amounts.
5th.—The Sundry column, including Folio
and Amount column for same.
6th.—The Partial Payment column (red
ink) consisting of memorandum and amount
columns, interlined three spaces.
7th.—The Vouchers Payable column (total
amount of each voucher).
gth.—The Cancelling or "dead check" column
(red ink).
9th.—The Treasurer's Voucher column.
consisting of Bank and Check No. columns
(red ink).
Each line on extreme edge from top of
page down, is numbered consecutively, and
every fourth line being of separate color
to serve as a guide in entering.
Above is a sample voucher form to which
the invoices of each firm for the month
(usually) are fastened by means of clips.
The invoices are entered separately on one
side and the distribution of the same to the
aoiiRi:!!".
.. __£.____ 4 " '
\ 1 1
... r_ :±___n:t:
t
FIT
... f_ T ""tt T"
-I-H t
t TIT i ' i
I f"xx 1
:
1!
"
i
" r^
i
+--
LT_.jJZ.__1
rr~
i
RSMiSa
T—[ -Tt
TT
" h
i
TT--B-X ""
-
i
_i r__. L ii h i 11
F"
-|-._!_..
j
i tl
-:F —
i tt
"
A -rir—1 ||
1II u l i W"T C-
n " r-
1
"T
Irtrtr lllll I llll I 1 hi n liii ii in I: ill \] -H—Ii--tti
-"rr -Hi-rt i Ttlt
I
1
~J
H
jp
|

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 21
f ^ R O D E R I C K & & A S C O M R O P E C O .
BRAttCH 76 WARREN ST. N.Y. \ ST.LOUIS,MO.
WIRE ROPE Vd AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway in
Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR. This
is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during 1907.
Ask /for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
FOR HOISTING.
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either
with or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200% GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Macomber

22
several accounts, on the other. If there is
no name of account printed on distribution
side, fill in same in long hand.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
CK.CKNr. - Paio '90
dhc Blank iHatuifarturing (fin.
CLEVELAND, OHIO
TO
|
Arrange your vouchers alphabetically (for
convenience) number and enter them in the
Voucher Record. You have now a com-
BiilMlni J- ' •
CvUar* •• J l'«l»
M*. ulr.-. .0 ' •. B .r. .
S.ppllu
Dl.TmiUT.ON
. 1
:.|
i

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 23
1-1* J
I t H a s " M a d e G o o d "
Injectors
Are known in every country in the
world and wherever sent they
have given satisfaction.
A u t o m a t i c
When properly connected—you open the steam valve and the Injector does the
rest.
They are so simple they can be operated by a novice.
The last 450,000 Injectors sent out are identical in construction, therefore by
sending for any part, an engineer can repair his Injector whether in the
United States or South Africa.
No engineer can afford to equip his boiler with any Injector because it is cheap.
Every Injector guaranteed to be as represented.
•XL-96" Ejecftor
For Liquid Elevating or Syphon Purposes. Send for circular describing
its many uses.
Send for "Engineer and Fireman," an So-page journal, free on application, devoted to items
of interest to engineers. Subscription Agents wanted. 30% commission on
foe. subscription price. Write for particulars.
PENBERTHY INJECTOR COMPANY
DETROIT, MICHIGAN, U. S. A.
Branches:
NEW YORK CITY, LONDON ENG.
Canadian Factory:
WINDSOR, ONT., CANADA

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
plete voucher system. All that is necessary
now to close the record for the month,
is to post thc sum total of the vouchers to
tlie Credit of a Voucher Payable (or Accounts
Payable) account in ledger and the
footings of the special columns Debited
to their respective accounts.
Head off a special column iu cash book
for Vouchers Payable, posting the monthly
total to the Debit side of Vouchers Pay.
account.
Check back in "red ink'' from cash book
to Voucher Record each payment, giving
check number. The sum of a detailed list
of unpaid vouchers will now equal the
amount per ledger. Rule up and bring
down balance of Voucher Pay. account
monthly.
This form of voucher does not leave the
office.
P.j- J. Mayne Baltimore.
THE water power and reservoir project
now under way in the Little Bear
Valley, San Bernardino County, Cal.,
which is to conserve the walers of several
water sheds at an elevation of 6,000 feet
above sea level, and afford practically an
unlimited supply for the cities and irrigation
systems of San Bernardino and Riverside
valleys, is an undertaking which
will require the expenditure of several millions
of dollars.
Work on this colossal project has been X-
now in active operation for the last eight
years, and engineers estimate that at least
three more years will be required to complete
the immense dam, while another year
will be necessary before this vast reservoir
is filled.
This huge project is being carried forward
by the A.rrowhead Reservoir and
Power Company. A series of tunnels arebeing
constructed from tlie 880-acre lake,
and these will afford several opportunities
for utilizing potential power, as the water
flows from the 6,000 feet elevation to
an elevation of about 1,000—a total drop
of 5,000 feet.
One of the interesting features of this
project is the provision that has been made
for controlling the head waters. It was discovered
that the screen tunnel mouth
quickly choked up, and that some other ar­
rangement must be devised if the water
How were to be kept uniform and unimpeded.
The engineers decided upon an
outlet water tower. It was designed and
constructed under the supervision of F. C.
Finkle and F. E. Trask, consulting engineers.
All of the construction work was done
by Contractor Arthur S. Bent, a prominent
contractor of Los Angeles, to whom great
credit is due. This tower rises from a reenforced
concrete foundation placed on
bed rock. The foundation is a solid hi jck
30 feet square, and seven feet in depth.
Excavation was made without any blasting;
this was done in order to prevent any
damage to the bed rock, shattering, etc.
The tower is 185 feet high from the foundation,
and is composed entirely of eon-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
M I L L I N G M A C H I N E S
Horizontal, Vertical, Duplex, Keyseat and Portable
Crank Flailing Machine, 'ill in. X HO in. x HI in. Stn.ke.
Cold Saw Cutting-off Machines for all Classes of Work.
Rail-Drilling Machines, Boring Machines, Shaping Ma
chines, Drilling Machines, Rotary Planers, Gear-Cutting
Machines. Special Portable Tools Designed.
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS
(Incorporated)
Philadelphia
U. S. A.

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
crete heavily re-enforced with y inch and
'< inch square twisted steel bars. The
walls are two feet thick up to 11'5 feet;
from this height to the superstructure an
average of 18 inches is maintained. tne
outside diameter is 13 feet from top to
bottom—an increase in the inner diameter
taking up the decreased thickness of the
walls as the tower ascends.
Set spirally up the tower at intervals, are
ten intakes, consisting of a 20-inch valve,
a collar built into the tower wail,, with an
elbow and detachable screen. The valve
is operated from the lower floor of the
superstructure by a steel rod. The screen
is hung over the inverted intake opening
by a chain. Should any screen become
clogged, the vaive is shut, and the screen
iifted to the superstructure. The number
of intakes and the ease of cleaning tlie protecting
screens guarantees a uniform how
into the tower.
The specially designed fittings for each
intake weigii two tons, the screen clone
weighing about 1.000 pounds. No difficulty
is apprehended in lowering the screens into
position for the engineers' calculation show
a variation of only T4 inch from plumb in
the tower; this is considered a distinct
construction triumph.
The superstructure has been made or­
nate and required 2,800 separate pieces in
the forms. The outer wall is graduated.
Admittance to the superstructure is made
by means of iron ladders placed at a sufficient
distance from the wall to allow
passage between the ladder and the tovver
When completely filled, the water of
thc reservoir will rise to a height of 160
feet from the tower base.
The tower was completed within nine
months working time. The work was conducted
without any interruption throughout
the cold weather. The concrete was kept
heated by means of steam pipes inside lhe
lower. The efficiency of the concrete was
not lessened by the low temperature. Just
as it now stands, this tower cost about
S50.000. it is connected witii the first tun-
Mel, which will have a total length of 4.000
ieet. For some distance this tunnel has a
light covering of earth and rock; whereever
necessary. lhe tunnel has been
strengthened with re-enforced concrete.
and i.s calculated to withstand any pressure
which the immense body o: water will
develop
The dam holding back the waters will,
when completed, be half a mile in length
at the top, with a maximum height of 208
feet. This immense work is being done by
Contractors Bright and Drew of San Bernardino.
This shows the work in progress on the new pier at Santa Monica, Cal.

VOL. IX FEBRUARY 1909 No. 2
Tests on 3tDaniing Coals
A 111 IXET1X on the comparative tests of run-of-mine and
briquetted coal on locomotives and on a torpedo boat will be
issued within the next two weeks by the Technologic Branch of
the United States Geological Survey. The author of the bulletin, VV. F. G.
Goss, consulting engineer of briquet tests, gives the results of thc tests
in the following words :
I. The briquets made on the Government's machines have well
withstood exposure to the weather and have suffered but little deterioration
from handling.
2. In all classes of service involved by the experiments, the use of
briquets in the place of natural coal appears to have increased the evaporative
efficiency of the boilers tested.
3. The smoke produced has in no test been more dense with the
briquets than with coal; on the contrary, in most tests the smoke density
is said to have been less when briquets were used.
4. The use of briquets increases the facility with which an even
fire over the whole area of the grate may be maintained.
5. In locomotive service the substitution of briquets for coal has
resulted in a marked increase in efficiency, in an increase of boiler capacity,
and in a decrease in the production of smoke. It has been especially
noted that careful firing of briquets at terminals is effective in diminishing
the amount of smoke produced.
6. In torpedo-boat service the substitution of briquets for coal improves
the evaporative efficiency of the boiler. It does not appear to
have affected favorably or otherwise the amount of smoke produced.
The briquets used in this series of tests were of a form requiring considerable
bunker capacity for their storage, but as the form of the
briquet is a detail entirely within control, this objection need not apply
to the use of the briquets in actual service.

6fi THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The tests of the coal and briquets on the locomotives were made
under the direction of A. W Gibbs, General Superintendent of Motive
Power of the Pennsylvania Lines, by E. D. Nelson, Engineer of Tests,
at Altoona, Pa., in co-operation with the Technologic Branch of the
United States Geological Survey which sampled the coal and manufactured
the briquets.
Many low-volatile coals, such as those mined in the vicinity of
Johnstown, Cambria County, Pa., are semismokeless and therefore very
desirable for use in locomotives at or near terminals; nevertheless, on
account of their low evaporative efficiency, they have not been found
altogether satisfactory when used as locomotive fuel. Their tendency
to disintegrate rapidly on the orate during combustion causes large
quantities of cinders and sparks of high calorific value to be discharged.
These cinders accumulate in the smoke box of the locomotive, obstruct
the draft on the fires, and reduce the capacity of the boiler. The investigation
here reported, therefore, was undertaken to determine in what
measure, if any, the process of briquetting will serve as a remedy for
those defects and to discover the effect of the process on efficiency and
capacity.
The coal selected for the tests was taken from a mine working the
Lower Kittanning coal bed near Lloydell, Cambria County, Pa., on the
South Fork branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Its characteristics as
a locomotive fuel were therefore well known. The Lloydell coal is a
very friable, low-volatile bituminous coal, and the carloads selected for
(lie tests consisted of run-of-mine. They were loaded and shipped,
under the direction of J. S. Burrows, of the Geological Survey. The
coal was exposed to the weather for thirty davs on the way to the St.
Louis testing plant, before being briq netted. It showed but little change
due to this exposure except a decided increase in moisture which, however,
was eliminated in the briquetting process.
The binding- material in all the briquets was water-gas pitch. This
material was furnished at the briquetting plant of the United States Geological
Survey, in St. Louis, at $9 per ton, or 0.45 of a cents per pound.
The least amount of binding materia! that would make perfect briquets
was found to be 5 per cent, of the weight of the coal. The cost of the
hinder in one ton of the 5 per cent, briquets was therefore 45 cents.
The cost of briquetting, including all charges, is estimated to be
about $1 per ton of briquets; that is, the briquetting added approximately
$i per ton to thc cost of the coal. The briquets were made, however
in an experimental plant, and the price is for this reason probably not so
low as if they had been made on a much larger scale.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 67
The briquets were made by the fuel-testing plant of the United
States Geological Survey at St. Louis. The coal was shipped from the
mine at Lloydell under the supervision of an inspector of the Survey,
who at the same time obtained mine samples. Thc samples were hermetically
sealed and sent to the St. Louis laboratories for analysis.
After the coal was made up into briquets it was returned to the locomotive
testing plant at Altoona, Pa., for the tests.
To observe thc effect on briquets of exposure to the weather, a
number of the round and square briquets were placed on the roof of the
testing plant. After four months of exposure for the round and three
inonths for the square briquets, no change whatever from their original
condition was noticed. Thev appeared to be entirely impervious to
moisture and were still firm and hard.
The briquets were little affected by handling. They were loaded
at St. Louis in open gondola cars and shipped to Altoona, where they
were unloaded by hand and stacked. Thev were handled a third time in
taking them to the firing platform of the test locomotive. After these
three handlings they were still in good condition, very few were broken,
and the amount of dust and small particles was practically negligible.
The results of the tests justify the following conclusions:
I a) The evaporation per pound of fuel is greater for the briquetted
Lloydell coal than for the same coal in its natural state. This advantage
is maintained at all rates of evaporation.
(b) The capacity of the boiler is considerably increased by the use
of briquetted coal.
(c) Briquetting appears to have little effect in reducing the quantity
of cinders and sparks; the calorific value of these, however, is not
so high in the briquetted as in the natural fuel.
( d ) The density of the smoke with the briquetted coal is much
less than with the natural coal.
(e) The percentage of hinder in the briquet has little influence
on smoke density.
(f) The percentage of hinder for the range tested appears to have
little or no influence on the evaporative efficiency.
(g) The expense of briquetting under thc conditions of thc experiments
adds about $i per ton to the price of thc fuel, an amount
which does not seem to be warranted by the resulting increase in evapo­
rative efficiency.
(h) With careful firing, the briquets can be used at terminals with
a considerable decrease in smoke.

6S THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
I i) The briquets appear to withstand well exposure to the weather,
and suffer little deterioration from handling.
In co-operation with the Missouri Pacific, the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern, the .Michigan Central, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific,
tlie Chicago, Burlington & Ouincy, and tlie Chicago & Eastern Illinois
railroad, ioo locomotive tests have been made by tlie United States
Geological Survey to determine the value, as a locomotive fuel, of briquets
made from a large number of western coals. All tests were made on
locomotives in actual service on the road. In some tests there was small
opportunity for procuring elaborate data, but in others, where dynamometer
cars were employed, it was possible to obtain more detailed results.
The purpose which these tests were intended to serve was rot so
much to determine the evaporative efficiency of briquets as to investigate
their behavior in practical use.
Briquets made from Arkansas semianthracite, two qualities of Indian
Territory slack, Indian Territory screenings, Missouri slack, Indiana
Brazil block slack, coke breeze, and a mixture of coke breeze and
washed Illinois coal were tested, and comparisons were drawn either with
the same coal that was used in the briquet or with coal similar to it.
In nearly every test the results reported show that the coal when burned
in the form of briquets gives a higher evaporative efficiency than when
burned in the natural state. For example, Indian Territory screenings
give a boiler efficiency of 59 per cent., whereas briquets made from the
same coal give an efficiency of 65 to 67 per cent. Decrease in smoke
density, the elimination of objectionable clinkers, and an apparent decrease
in the quantity of cinders and sparks are named as the chief reasons
for this increased efficiency.

{?mii as n Protection to (row ao

70 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
mostly used in paints for iron and steel are red lead, white lead, zinc
oxide, carbon blacks, iron oxides, and barium sulphate or barytes.
Linseed oil when it dries does not do so in the ordinary sense of the
term, i. e., by evaporation, but slowly absorbs oxygen from the air, forming
a tough elastic mass called linoxyn, which serves to bind the pigment
together, to hold it to the object painted, and also to protect the
material. Other oils, such as corn, cottonseed, and some fish oils, also
possess these properties to a greater or less extent, hut no oil combines
in itself as few faults or so many properties valuable in a paint as linseed
oil. Boiled oil is linseed oil, in which, by the aid of heat and the
addition of metallic oxides, the oxidation or drying has been partially
completed, so that when the oil is applied to a surface, it will dry much
more rapidly than would the untreated or raw oil. Other oils such as
turpentine and benzine are often used in paints together with the linseed
oil. They are known as thinners or extenders and serve to dilute the
paint, rendering it more fluid and easier to paint out. They dry by evaporation
and are not present in the dried paint. Japans and driers are also
often added to paints; they are made by heating linseed oil with large
amounts of lead and manganese oxides, afterwards thinning down with
benzine or turpentine. As their name would indicate, they are used to
hasten the drying of the paint.
()f the solids used in paints red lead is, with thc exception of white
had, the oldest pigment known, and it is the one most largely specified
by engineers. It is, all things considered, the best protective pigment for
iron. It has, however, several poor qualities. Tt takes up but little oil,
is veiw difficult to brush out properly, and has a very decided tendency to
settle out, due to its high specific gravity. It exerts an oxidising action
on the oil, causing it to dry so rapidly that if a coating of red lead is not
protected from atmospheric influences by another paint, it will "burn up"
the oil, with which it is mixed, to such an extent that its efficiency as a
protective agent will cease in a few months.
White lead up to the last few years has been considered the pigment
par excellence. Recently, however, it has been subjected to very
severe criticism. It is very soft and unctuous, works well under the
brush, is very opaque, and has great covering power. It is, however,
very variable in quality and constitution. Owing to its alkaline nature
it reacts chemically with the oil, so that in a short time thc oil as such
is destroyed and the paint becoming "chalky" is washed and blown away.
White lead as well as red lead is poisonous and is also very quickly discolored
by sulphurous gases and sulphur compounds.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 71
Zinc oxide has of late years been very strongly recommended. It is
not poisonous, is not discolored by sewage or coal gases, works well under
the brush and weight for weight will cover a larger surface than
white lead. It has, however, this serious defect: it combines with the
oil, forming a hard, brittle enamel which lacks adhesiveness and which is
very prone to crack and blister.
Carbon blacks include charcoal, graphite, lampblack, gas black, etc.
If thev are well made they make excellent pigments. They are generally
.classed with the inert pigments since they have no action on the oil and
are unaffected by the atmosphere. They are very light in specific gravity,
however, and are usually mixed with a heavier pigment.
Iron oxides are dangerous. The better grades are made by burning
copperas until oxide of iron alone remains. The cheaper grades are
prepared by grinding natural earths. These latter often contain hygroscopic
materials and they frequently possess oxygen cany ing properties.
The value of any particular oxide of iron is very difficult to determine
without a chemical analysis, unless one is very familiar with the subject.
Barium sulphate is an inert pigment and heretofore has usually been
regarded as an adulterant. It has, however, valuable properties and when
not used to excess gives to many mixed paints, qualities which they
would, not otherwise possess. It has a high specific gravity, is not a
carrier of oxygen or moisture, has no action mi the oil, and is cheaper
than most other pigments. It has poor covering power, however, and is
somewhat transparent so that it should always be mixed with other ma­
terials having a greater body.
Other substances are sometimes found in paints such as litharge,
whiting, terra alba, silica, clay, etc., etc. They, however, have deficient
body or are hygroscopic, or exert too great an action on the oil, or possess
other properties which for one reason or another condemn their use
in paints when in appreciable amounts.
From this brief description it will he seen that no one material possesses
all the requisite g 1 qualities of a perfect pigment and that each
has its faults. Reasoning from these facts one might ask, if it were not
proper then to discard all pigments and use a linseed oil coating alone
since the primary object of all paint on iron and steel work is to protect
and not to beautify. This procedure has often been followed out in the
past and is still sometimes specified. A pure linseed oil film, however,
has two serious defects. While it itself withstands atmospheric influences
very well, nevertheless it is porous and permits the passage of
moisture to the metal beneath. The second fault is that a linseed oil

72 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
coating by itself will not stand mechanical wear or abrasion. It dries
rapidly on the surface, forming a skin under which the oil hardens but
slowly so that a slight knock is sufficient to tear off the film, ieaving the
surface of the metal exposed.
Since linseed oil needs the addition of solid material in order to
come up to the demands made upon it, the other alternative is to mix
several pigments together in such a manner as to minimize or neutralize
their injurious properties and to emphasize their good qualities. This
is what the various mixed paint manufacturers of the country have endeavored
to do, with a high degree of success.
There is also another class of paints which have not yet been touched
upon and these are the hydrocarbon paints which generally consist of
tar or asphaltum thinned down with a suitable solvent. If the acidity
of the tar has been carefully neutralized and if a sufficient amount of an
inert pigment has been added to give a proper body, these paints are
serviceable, especially in the neighborhood of chemical factories where
tlie air is heavily charged with acid fumes. Hydrocarbon paints are
often used on smoke stacks, but for this purpose are almost useless since
the hydrocarbons distil off at the high temperature of the stack, leaving
il unprotected.
There is no specific mixture of pigment and oil which can be recommended
as the one to be used under all conditions and for all purposes.
A paint which is very suitable for one climate may not be at ail desirable
for another, and a paint which is excellent for one sort of work may be
of almost no value for another.
The engineer can follow no fixed rule in making out his specifications,
but must use his judgment in prescribing the paint most suitable
to the work at hand.
For most work, however, red lead seems to be thc pigment most acceptable
: when properly applied it forms an impervious coating which
perfectly protects the metal beneath. It must be protected from the
atmosphere, however, as otherwise its life of usefulness is a short one,
so rapid is its action on the oil with which it is mixed. For this purpose
one or two coats of a high grade mixed paint will serve verv well. Various
mixtures of red lead with a carbon pigment, and of barvtes with
lead and zinc, have also often been used with success. The main thing
to be observed in all cases is to see that no hygroscopic materials, or substances
having a deleterious action on linseed oil, arc permitted to enter
into the composition of the paint.
When it comes to applying the paint great care should be taken to

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
see that the material is thoroughly cleaned, for no paint will give satisfaction
when covering a rusty surface. A sand blast is perhaps the best
cleansing agent for most purposes. In default of this, wire brushes may
be used. The surface should also be dry and preferably warm. If possible
the materials painted should be protected from rain and damp atmosphere
until the paint film is dry. Care should also be taken to see that
the paint is properly brushed on and the work should be frequently inspected.
Indeed, as much if not more depends upon the skill and honesty
of the painter as on the quality of the paint. A good paint in incompetent
hands will give far less satisfaction than a poor paint properly
applied.
73

tmpjfoyol,000Jc)00
T H E possibilities of the Canadian West as a market for every type
of machinery and component parts, is a subject that should be
thoroughly studied by manufacturers. In no other country at the
present date is so much new work being undertaken by municipalities
and big corporations as in that part known as Western Canada.
Two thousand and sixteen miles of new railroads were actually
built and completed in 1908, and along these lines over seventy-six newtown
sites were created and in many cases grew to considerable size before
the steel had reached their limits. An extraordinary fact in connection
with this unprecedented development is, that Canadian railways
have contributed one new town every other day for the past eight years
to the commercial territory of Western Canada. These new municipalities
being formed throughout the provinces of Manitoba. Saskatchewan
and Alberta, all tend to increase the demand for municipal machinery
requirements and other lines such as special rollers, scrapers, crushers,
lighting- plants, etc., the principal parts of which will all be required
during the next five years and which offers great scope for manufacturers
in this class of machinery. Large contracts for Well Hydraulic
Power development, the opening of mines, grading of highways, draining
and cleaning work are also being drawn up for completion and will
entail the use of a great deal of special machinery and supplies.
As an illustration of what is going on along these lines may be
cited the building of a $1,000,000 high, pressure plant by the City of
Winnipeg; the installation of such a plant for the city was imperatively
necessary, as wealthy buildings began to extend theii premises, costly
buildings being constructed, together with a vastly increasing volume
oi business being done each year. That an efficient fire fighting system
was necessary for Winnipeg was apparent, owing to the increase in her
wholesale trade and the growth of her manufacturing output, which has
increased oyer 121 per cent, in the past live years. Thus the establishing
of the high pressure plant which has been duly tested and twice tried
in active service, fulfilling on each occasion all that could ever be expected
from it as regards efficiency.
The original estimate of cost advertised on September 25th, 1005,
was .$500,000. An extension of the mains advertised on June 5th, lyo;,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 75
had cost $23,000 more. Again on August 23rd, 1907, an additional $10,ooo,
making a total of $593,000 on the three tenders advertised, which
was considered sufficient for the installation and construction of the svstem.
However, before the plant was half completed it was thought advisable
to make alterations, with the result that the total expenditure
amounted to nearer $1,000,000 approximately.
The power house is a magnificent up-to-date station, 158x92 feet
aiM is divided into two main bays. Two 20-ton overhead travelling
cranes are supported by substantial columns which are also designed to
support the roof. The cranes travel the full length of the building and
are operated from the engine house Iloor.
The pumping plant consists of four units of 1,800 gallons per minute
each, and two units of yoo gallons per minute each, taken from the
Red River. The large mains, as aforestated, are eight miles in length
and are from eight inches to 20 in diameter. The lire hydrants number
86. Pressure per scptare inch 300 pounds, and the total capacity, Imp.
gals, per dozen, 12,960.000.
The foregoing- is exclusive of the city's domestic supply, which provides
1,224 fire hydrants with a pressure of So pounds per square inch.
The capacity of the artesian wells in service is 7,500,000 Imp. gallons
per day. Another well almost completed will increase the daily capacity
2,500,000 gallons further. The present total capacity of pumps on the
domestic system is 25,000,000 gallons, which can be further increased as
required. The high pressure pumps with al! connections were built by
Messrs. Glenfield & Kennedy, Limited, Kilmarnock, Scotland, and were
installed here under the supervision of Col. H. N. Kuttan, City Engineer,
and Mr. A. E. Myles, representative of the firm. The pumps are driven
bv gas engines which are located on the main Iloor eighteen feet below
street level, each set standing complete by itself; the pumps being located
in pockets twelve feet below main iloor.
The ratio of the geer is about 3A to i-- and the pumps are of
three-throw vertical double acting piston type. The barrels are T.Xs
diameter by 18 in. stroke, while the speed is 35 revolutions per minute.
The crank shaft is one mild steel forging, machined all over. The
whole of thc pump rests on a massive soleplate, bolted to tlie concrete by
12 heavy binding bolts. The two main suction pipes are 24 inches in
diameter at the larger end and carried by H beams of steel grouted in
tlie concrete. There are two suction wells 9 feet square, divided by a
concrete wall, and are 40 feet dec]) from the street level. There are two
20-inch delivery mains in the engine house, and all the pumps are con-

76 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
nected with these. Either can be isolated should a burst occur and water
can be pumped into the other.
The gas engines are manufactured by Messrs. Crossley Bros., Manchester,
England, all furnished with two single acting tandem cylinders,
water-cooler pistons and rod, balancer, water-cooled exhaust valves, and
duplicate low tension magnet ignition. The four large engines have
cylinders ^2 inches diameter and 36-inch piston stroke, and 520 boiler
horse-power when running at 125 revolutions per minute on producer
gas. On test at Messrs. Crossley's works, engines gave over ^2 per cent.
efficiency. The two smaller engines have cylinders 22 inches diameter
and 30-inch piston stroke, giving 270 boiler horse-power at 150 revolutions
per minute on producer gas. Governing is on the 'hit-and-miss'
principle. All the engines are started with compressed air, stored in two
receivers at 200 pounds pressure.
The gas supply i.s furnished by a "Crossley Gas Producer" plant,
rated at 50 per cent, overload capacity, while an alternative gas supply
is taken from the city mains. Portions of this plant have been in operation
since the fall of 1907. The following test was made under the
supervision of the City Engineer, Col. H. X. Ruttan, Chief Buchanan of
the Fire Department, and the Board of Control. Eight lines of hose
were used on one occasion, 2>4-inch nozzles attachments held in angular
positions. The great streams of water reached high oVer a seven-story
building and were ejected with terrific force and volume. Only twice
has it been necessary to use the high pressure on fires so far, the first occasion
demonstrating very clearly the value of the city s new fire fighting
machine. The length of the basement of the building where the fire
occurred was 175 feet, and the seat of the fire originated near the center,
which burned fiercely. The nozzles of 2^-inch hose pines were brought
into operation and tlie conflagration was under control inside of fifteen
minutes. This occurred in one of the most valuable business centers of
Winnipeg, and had it not been for the existence of a high pressure plant,
it might have attained to alarming proportions, involving tremendous
loss.
The second active test occurred a few months ago. when a iarge
jewelry establishment caught fire. ( In this occasion die high pressure
system worked at a great disadvantage, through the inaccessible position
of the premises, managed to confine the damage by fire to the basement
alone and saved the building.
As a result of the existing comparative immunity from destruction
through fire in Winnipeg of the business houses and factories, the various
insurance companies have lowered their rates, which of itself speaks

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 77
in unmistakable terms of the excellent system installed, and of its efficiency.
With the acquisition of 50,000 H.P. electric works, which is now
under way, with the best equipped fire fighting system on the continent
for protection of life and property, with innumerable opportunities presenting
themselves to the ambitious and energetic manufacturer, there
appears to be no better city where such a wide field awaits, and where
so many industries can be created where the market is right beside their
own doors, and it is no mistake to say that thc "Great West Country"
looks to Winnipeg, believes in Winnipeg's future as one of the greatest
cities of the twentieth century.

Timber Plays [mpoylmi Parian tYOialag
t / |-^EW persons not directly interested in mining realize the exr~*
tent to which timber is used in this very important industry,"
said a government expert in preservation of mine timber,
who had just returned to Washington from the West. "The average
man has only a vague understanding of the importance of the part
that timber plays in the mining industry, and seldom thinks of thc enormous
quantities required each year to prevent the caving of the overhanging
ground and to keep clear the main working passages of mines.
"There are two general classes of such timbers," he continued. "The
first is used in bracing the 'stopes,' as they are called, where the ore is
being taken out. \s the ore is mined, the surrounding rock is held in
place by bracing it with heavy timbers, 'framed' into rectangular 'sets.'
When ore directly above thc first set is removed, a second set is built
in on top, and so on. The service of these timbers ends when the ore is
exhausted and the active mining transferred to another vein or orebody.
"After a time these timbers decay, to a point where the pressure of
tlie rock walls crushes them, and a 'cave-in' occurs. This causes no
damage if, as I have said, the mining work has been finished; but ii
sometimes happens that decay has weakened the timbers to such an extent
that the cave-in occurs prematurely, and then lives are sacrificed.
In such cases the remaining ore is also a loss, for when the ground has
once commenced to move or 'work,' as the miners call it, it is almost impossible
to clean it out and hold back the rock so that the remaining ore
may be obtained.
"I hit of still greater importance is the second class of timbers used
iu the main working openings, tunnels, shafts, etc.. which are to be
maintained for as long a time as possible. Timbers for this service are
chosen not only for their strength and firmness, but also for their ability
to resist decay.
"In nine cases out of ten. when timbers are crushed, the indirect
cause is decay, produced by low forms of plant life. The dwindling of
our timber supply has driven consumers of wood all over the country
lo study decay and its prevention, and it is safe to say that in thc very
near future we shall see many more mines putting in small plants for
the treatment of their timbers, after the pattern of the plants that have
been designed and installed for this purpose by the United States Forest

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 79
Service. By treating the permanent timbers with some one of the various
preservatives, thev may be made to resist decay almost indefinitely.
Thc additional cost is slight.
"Not only this, but since timber when it is once treated retains its
original strength, many of the so-called 'inferior limbers' which have
hitherto been considered almost valueless because they decay rapidly,
will find wide use in many localities. Such species are loblolly pine and.
to a certain extent, shortleaf pine, Engelmann spruce, tire-killed lodgepole
pine, white Wc. and many other more local timbers.
'The first of the treating plants for mine timbers was put up bv
an eastern coal company, after extensive experiments in co-operation
with the Forest Service which demonstrated the practical value of the
treatments. Since then, other plants have been installed in different
parts of the country, two of the latest being in the Coeur d'Alene lead
district of northern Idaho, where, while there is an ample timber supply
for some time to come, the treatment is warranted by thc high labor cost
of replacing timber sets. The added cost of treating timbers is from
10 to 25 per cent, of the original cost.
"An interesting point in the problem of wood preservation is the
spread of decay in old workings, caused by infection from nearby timbers.
A fresh green post, placed between two sticks that are already
'sick,' will become infected and decay much more rapidly than if it were
isolated. The contagion is similar to that of the ills that man is heir
to, although it usually works more slowly. In one large mine a twomile
tunnel was completed eight years ago and during the first four
\ears the timber stood up in fine shape. Then signs of decay began to
cree]) in here and there, and since then the disease has extended throughout
the entire length of the tunnel, necessitating an annual expenditure
ol between four and five thousand dollars for replacing timbers rendered
useless through decay. Less than one-fourth of this sum goes for timber,
the remainder representing the cost of framing and installing. Unquestionably
main- of the cave-ins which crush the timbers and block
thc mine tunnels, often causing many deaths, are due to nothing but
wood decay.
"The work of treating mine timbers is considered of such importance
that one group of men in the Forest Service gives its entire attention
to this subject. Investigative work carried on by ibis branch of the
Service since it was organized has demonstrated that treating wilh an
efficient preservative will prolong the life of timber indefinitely in places

80 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
where before it was subject to a rapid decay, ami the interest shown by
the large consumers of timber and their eagerness to supply the information
that has been obtained to their own particular problems has been
widespread and indicative of the benefits of wood preservation."

Sea Water Tests of Concrete
at ixw Navy Yar

82 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
be exposed in different ways and serve as a basis for tests of strength.
.Ml cement will be tested for physical and chemical properties. The same
tests will be applied to the stone. The exact nature of the various ingredients
such as sea water, hydrated lime, Sylvester mortar and clay
will be determined. The specifications go into considerable detail regarding
the methods of mixing, building forms, reinforcing, testing, etc.
The results of these tests, which will certainly be awaited with much
interest, and which will be reported from time to time, will certainly
place the engineering public under great obligations to the Aberthaw
Construction Co. and to Mr. Sherman, who for the sake of their general
value are freely giving of their time and experience to the carrying out
of these experiments.

\ S i) 0 ^ l* O *\
ASBESTOS is a fibrous mineral, and one of Nature's most unique
products. Possessing many of the characteristics of both the
vegetable and mineral kingdom, it is older than anv known order
of animal or vegetable life on earth. Its precise origin and age will
probably always remain matters of mere conjecture. Today, after millions
of years of pressure, heat, cold, air and water, asbestos is apparently
as pure and strong as it was in the days of its early formation.
Mineralogists define asbestos as a "fibrous variety of the mineral
amphibole, a calcium magnesium silicate, of which there are a number
of closely related specimens, whose most commonly occurring members
are hornblende, trimolite and serpentine (chrysolite)."
Asbestos was first discovered in Canada about thc time of our Civil
War, and a specimen was exhibited at the London Exposition in 1862,
where it attracted much attention. Lack of working facilities, however,
prevented the exploitation of these deposits. In 1877, new deposits of
asbestos were discovered in another region in Canada, and operations on
a small scale commenced in 1878. This may be said to mark the beginning
of the asbestos industry. During the next twenty years, the asbestos
industry grew fast. Tn 1806, 10,892 tons of asbestos were mined, valued
at $423,066.00. Tn 1904 thc total of tonnage mined was 35,068, its
Specimen of Asbestos in the natural state

84 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 85
value aggregating $1,154,566.
This was more than doubled in 1897.
When treated mechanically, asbestos yields soft, white, delicate and
exceedingly strong fibers, which can be spun, woven, aud otherwise manufactured
into an almost endless variety of useful necessities. The length
of its fibers, and their strength, determines the commercial usefulness
and value of asbestos. Although found in various parts of the world, the
asbestos of Canada surpasses all other asbestos deposits in the length
and great strength of its fibers. This is especially true of the asbestos
produced in the Province of Quebec, at the Danville Mines, owned by
the H. W. Johns-Manville Co. The Cleveland offices of this company
recently received a shipment of crude asbestos from these mines, which
contains some of the largest and strongest fibered pieces ever exhibited
here.
An asbestos mine resembles a stone quarry very closely. From ten to
fifteen tons of rock average a yield of about one ton of asbestos. The
surface soil is first removed; thereafter the rock is drilled and blasted
in the ordinary way. Some mines have reached a depth of 200 feet without
being exhausted.
After the rock is broken up, the veins are "cobbed" by hand;
that is, the non-fibrous rock is separated from the asbestos with hammers.
This work is done by boys, who then sort out the pieces of asbestos
according to the length of its fibers. Asbestos, when separated,
shows a beautiful, glistening gray or dark green surface, as smooth and
seemingly as solid, as glass; yet the fibers can be easily separated with
the fingers and are as soft and white and fine as silk.
At the factory, the crude lumps of fiber are first crushed in a
"chaser," a large, round, trough in which three heavy stone rollers or
wheels "chase" each other around and around, till the libers are all separated
and the small portion of rock sifted out as far as possible. This
process is again repeated, and then it is passed through a sifter, a long,
revolving cylinder made of wire mesh, which further removes all dust
and impurities.
The fiber then passes through a beater, which is a long drum fitted
inside 'with projecting rods which swiftly revolve in all directions. The
fibers are thereby threshed and separated into a light, fluffy mass, closely
resembling raw cotton.
To further separate and cleanse this material, it is finally passed in
front of steam blowers, which blow it up into the air, the long, light
fibers flying further across the room than the shorter and denser or

86 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
5SQfc B j
i&4
Jktifcv if- '•'
*
»#-i
«*r^%
XI^^Py ***;V ;_. •/•'>' .• '/:'y*y-.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 87
J. M. Asbestos no.i-burn brake band lining.
heavier portions, which drop nearer to the blowers. It is then divided
into three grades, numbered respectively I, 2 and 3.
Asbestos, being a mineral product, is not only heat and fire-proof,
but acid and time-proof, practically indestructible. Thc modern manufacturing
plant could hardly exist without asbestos in one form or another.
Space does not permit to mention, even partly, the diversified uses
of asbestos and asbestos products.
The average man, especially the layman, knows very little about asbestos.
To him, it is some vaguely mysterious substance that is fire-proof
and is used, among others, for theater curtains. In this connection, it is
interesting to note that Cleveland has the most unique fire-proof theater
curtain in the world at Keith's Hippodrome. It is a heavy steel frame,
paneled with Asbkstos Wood. This is the second largest curtain in the
world, being 74 feet wide, 46 feet high, and weighing eleven tons. The
II. W. Johns-Manville Co. guarantee this curtain to be fire-proof to such
a degree that the stage might completely burn out without affecting the
curtain in the least.
Asbestos wood is a composition consisting principally of asbestos.
It possesses all the ordinary properties of wood, can be readily worked,
turned, machined, and takes a high polish, but won't burn.
Asbestos forms the basis of one of the most popular successful
roofings on the market today. Asbestos possesses no capillary attraction.
The asphalt oils, which form the water-shedding feature, are hermetically
sealed and cannot escape. Therefore, no painting is required.
Combined with magnesia, asbestos forms an almost endless variety
of covering and insulating mediums without which a modern manufac­
turing plant could hardly exist.
It is also worked into steam packings, gaskets, etc., for almost evenconceivable
purpose—in fact, the uses of asbestos and asbestos products
are so diversified as to be practically endless.
A very interesting use to which asbestos has lately been put is in
connection with the automobile industry.

88 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
This was brought about by the growing demand from automobile
interests for a brake band lining that would be absolutely impervious
to heat, and that could be depended upon to stop a car under all
conditions. After many protracted experiments, asbestos non-burn
brake band lining resulted. This is made from pure long fibered asbestos,
spun into cloth and interwoven with numerous fine copper wires.
The whole is then stitched, folded, and treated with special frictioning
compounds. The resultant brake band lining recently demonstrated its
efficiency in a test J. D. Maxwell conducted in a Maxwell car, weighing
2,850 pounds and running at the rate of 30 miles an hour. When
the brakes were applied in full strength the lining proved to be the
only kind that locked the wheels instantly and without any of the disagreeable
noise and jerking noticeable when other linings were used.
And when one bears in mind that, in spite of its present-day high
state of development, the asbestos industry is still in its infancy, so to
speak, the question as to its future, like an attempt to fathom the origin
of this wonderful mineral, can be nothing bul matters for conjecture.

Ancient jtagurjering.
WE need not travel far to behold marvels of ancient engineering.
Stonehenge is not to be beaten in its way. To raise those
enormous triliths would have been a feat in our grandfathers'
time not to be lightly undertaken, and the transport of the outer
stones—which may have been brought from the Channel Islands or
from Ireland, but certainly are not English—would have demanded no
inconsiderable grant from Parliament. Within a few hours also, in this
blessed age of steam, is such a wonder as Dol ar Murchant, otherwise
Table de Cesar, in Brittany. How and when was that vast slab, 32 feet
long, 16 broad, 1 1-2 thick, hoisted to its position? Close by lies the
Men-ar Groach, the Sorcerer's Stone, broken into four parts. It stood
65 feet high, and it weighed, as is computed, 201 tons. To raise the
obelisk of the Vatican 600 men, 140 horses, and 46 cranes were employed,
at an expense of 37,975 scudi—say £40,000 at the present value
of money—and twelve months' preparation; the attempt very nearlyfailed,
too. In England, again, we have Offa's Dyke and Graeme's Dyke.
and the rest, which are the more astonishing the more one considers
them. But skill is necessary to make vast works really interesting in a
utilitarian age, and, if there be an intelligible purpose, so much the
better.
We know at this date that Xerxes did cut a canal through the promontory
of Mount Athos—a statement ridiculed by Juvenal as one of
the daring lies which Greeks called history. But far more impressive is
the draining of Lake Copias in an age before history begins. We should
think twice and again before attempting it, with all our machinery. One
cf the tunnels is four miles long, perfectly straight, of the most finished
workmanship, at a depth of 150 feet in some parts. Or, again, there is
the Roman rival to this enterprise, the draining of Lake Albanus. It
cannot exactly be said that this also is prehistoric, because school-books
tell us the date and all the circumstances; but those who long left school
are free to declare that the authority is mere legend—which may possibly
be true of course. Our engineers study this canal with profit. It is cut
through the solid tufa, a length of 1.500 yards, as clean and as neat as
masonry. Romans did not scamp their work. That wonder of the world,
as Rabelais pronounced it, the Pont de Gard, would serve its purpose
still, without a touch of repair, if the arches thrown down were raised
again. That part which crosses the river, and the many miles of aqueduct

90 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
which were flush or below the soil, are perfectly water-tight after eighteen
centuries, as was proved by a late deputy of Xismes, who proposed to
fill the gaps. His estimate of the sum needed was very small comparatively.
Had the project been executed Xismes would have had water in
abundance at an imperceptible cost. But the company existing would
have been ruined, and it was powerful enough to defeat the bill in Parliament,
despite the emperor's sympathy.
The mention of ancient engineering instantly recalls Archimedes.
His reported achievements in the defense of Syracuse give "gentle dullness"
one of the jokes it loves. Every one who knows anything of ancient
ships perceives the absurdity of supposing that any human mechanism
could lift a man-of-war bodily and overturn it. Scientific experts
demonstrate that a burning glass strong enough to fire a fleet, lying
where the Roman vessels did, must have been hundreds of yards across,
and besides, would need a tower—that is, an elevation—hundreds of
yards high ; nor is this all the difficulty, for the glass could have only
been worked late in the afternoon when the sun was near setting. A
ridiculous fable evidently. But suppose there were a slight error in the
description? That idea occurred to M. Buffon, who set four hundred
small mirrors in a frame so arranged that their reflections concentrated
on one point. With this machine he melted lead at one hundred and
twenty feet, and fired a haystack at a much greater distance.
Archimedes had boundless resources in the wealth of Syracuse and
the ingenuity of its artisans. He could perform the operation on a vastlylarger
scale, and in all probability he did. Napier, of Murchistoun, offered
to defend Edinburgh by burning glasses, and the inventor of
logarithms would not have undertaken what he could not execute. At
Syracuse was also reported another marvel of engineering. Grave history
asserts that Dionysius the Tyrant quarried a vast cavern in the rock,
shaping it to the form of a human ear. High above the Iloor he cut a
hole communicating with a small apartment to which he could repair
unobserved from his palace. The structure was conceived and executed
upon such exact principles of science that every word spoken in the cave
below reached his ear distinctly through the hole as he sat in his den.
Suspected persons were confined here, and from their conversation the
tyrant judged whether they were guilty or no.
It occurs to one instantly that such a trick would not avail him long,
for the prisoners, knowing they were overhead, would frame their discourse
accordingly; but we are told that Dionysius put every one to
death who had been concerned in the work. There is an obvious dif-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 91
ficulty even then—putting aside the wondrous nature of the project.
However, this is one of the few remains of ancient Syracuse stil! extant.
It is about 200 feet long, 80 feet high. Visitors do not agree about the
resemblance to an ear, but unquestionably the walls have been shaped.
though the cavern itself may have been natural, for there are others close
by. Unquestionably, also, it was used at some time for a prison, for the
staples, to which chains were attached, are in situ. Moreover, a hole is
visible 80 feet from the ground.
As for the possibility of the legend, it is certain that the Greeks had
a practical comprehension of acoustics which our science does not approach.
They did not understand the mechanism of the human ear—
that is certain. But they had a knowledge more useful for the purposes
of every day. Saving a few obvious principles, our acquaintance with
the conditions which make a theater, a hall, or a church well adapted for
hearing is still tentative. How often the architect has to alter, to contrive,
when his building is finished, because, for reasons unaccountable
to him, a speaker's voice is inaudible! We hear nothing of that in antiquity,
though there are writers, such as Vitruvius, who would have
pointed their directions for securing a good auditorium by indicating notorious
failures, if they could.
Everybody is aware that actors of old used masks—not to conceal
their features, but, as the word persona signifies, to carry their voiceover
the enormous open-air theater. Books have been written on these
masks, but their construction, to answer such a purpose, is still a mystery.
A speaking trumpet would not do at all, for the ancients were critical
upon the modulation and expression of their actors. We read that Roscius
was paid double when he consented to appear without a mask—it
must have strained his voice terribly. Conceive a man declaiming in
the theater of Megapolis—of which the stage was 250 feet deep; five
times greater than that of San Carlo, which i.s the largest in modern
times. Another puzzle is the Echeia, brazen vases of bell-shape, inserted
beneath the seats. Vitruvius gives minute directions for making
and placing them. The best authorities are unable to understand
how they "worked," and some venture to pronounce them mere pedantry.
When modern science can build, as the Greek did, with a certainty
that the voice will travel to all parts of the structure, it may be able to
pronounce what was and what was not valuable in their system. In
1890 the Theatre Francais Companv gave a series of representations in
the Roman theater at Orange, and it was noted with astonishment how

92 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
every whisper on the stage reached the furthers seats in the roofless auditorium.
Since we have drifted into this branch of antique engineering,
consider the marvel which Curio built. In the forenoon it was two
enormous theaters, back to back, in each of which performances were
given. When the holiday crowd returned in the afternoon the edifice
had been swung round, making a single ampitheatre, where gladiators
fought in companies of a hundred each.

T h e Value of a Water Power.
By Chas, T. Main*
HE value of an undeveloped constant water power is such a sum
as when put at a proper rate of interest, say 10 per cent., will pay
T
the difference in cost between steam and. water power, items of
cost being considered.
A power which is variable, and which cannot be depended upon
throughout the year, has of course less value than that which is constant.
In such a case the items for consideration are:
The maximum, minimum and average quantity of water, and length
of time when there is no water ; all the other items which enter into the
value of a uniform power; necessity in nearly all cases for a supplementary
steam plant, with the expense of maintenance and running for a
portion or all of the time.
The value of an undeveloped variable power is little or nothing if its
variation is great, unless it is to be supplemented by a steam plant. It is
cf value then only when the cost per horse power for the double plant
is less than the cost of steam power under the same conditions as mentioned
for a permanent power, and its value can be represented in the
same manner as the value of a permanent power has been represented.
To determine the market value of such a power which has been developed,
it will be necessary to consider the power by itself, independent
of the plant; that is, to determine first the value of the power as though
it were undeveloped, and then to determine the value of the improve­
ments. The sum of both will represent the value of the power as developed.
It might happen in some cases that the value of the privilege would
be a minus quantity, but that the value of the improvements more than
offset that, thus making it of value in the developed state.
The cost of developing a power originally will not always represent
the value of the improvements, except in so far as it relates to the character
of the work done. Considering the work properly and substantially
done, thc value of that work immediately after completion may not
be represented by its cost. A certain power may cost to develop twice as
much as another of equal power, the difference in cost being due to difference
in head or some other natural cause ; but, all other things being

94 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
equal, the one which cost double has no more value than the other, because
it produces no more.
The value would depend largely, however, upon the character of
the work done and the condition of the dam, canal, and wheel plant. If
any portion required renewing soon, the value would be lessened; and if
a general renewal of al! the plant were necessary, the value would then
be practically the same as though it were undeveloped.
The actual value of a plant would depend upon the amount of depreciation
which had taken place; or, better, upon the number of years
which it would run without renewing.
The value of the plant will be its cost, less depreciation, up to the
point where the cost of water power equals that of steam power ; for it
would be justifiable to make an expenditure up to an amount which
would give as good financial returns as any other source of power. Beyond
this point, when water power costs more than steam power, the
value of the improvements would not lie represented by their cost.—
*Mill Engineer and Architect, Boston, Mass.

By ii. i), Williams
Wiro Slops),
WIRE rope is made up by twisting a given number of wires into a
"strand" and then twisting a few strands around a core made
either of hemp or iron.
As ordinarily made the component strands are laid m» into rope in
a direction opposite to that in which the wires are laid into strands; that
is, if thc wires in the strand are laid from right to left, tlie strands are
laid into the rope from left to right.
In the "Land Lay," sometimes known as the "Universal Lay," the
wires are laid into strands from right to 'eft, the strands are also laid
into the rope from right to left. Its use has been found desirable under
certain conditions and for certain purposes mostly for haulage plants,
incline planes and street railway cables, although it has also been used
for vertical hoist in mines, etc.
Its advantages are that, it is somewhat more flexible than rope of
the same diameter and composed of the same number of wires laid up in
the ordinary manner and owing to the fact that the wires are laid more
axially in the rope, longer surfaces of the wire are exposed to wear and
the endurance of the rope is thereby increased.
Ordinarily wire rope is composed of six strands each containing
seven or nineteen wires laid about a hemp center, and is ccimmonlv designated
by the number in the strand, as "seven-wire" or "nineteen-wire'"
rope, as the case may be.
Rope made with a hemp core is more pliable than that made with a
wire core and is therefore better adapted to purposes where it has to run
around sheaves.
The nineteen-wire rope is more flexible than one of seven, and for
the same load stress, may be run without detriment around smaller
sheaves ; on the other hand, it is not well adapted to withstand abrasion
or surface wear, and where this is the chief consideration the seven-wire
rope is to be preferred. Also for the transmission of power where the
rope is run at a high speed, since tlie surface wear increases propor­
tionately with thc speed.
For special purposes, ropes of twelve and sixteen wires to the
strand are made which are intermediate in flexibility between the seven
and nineteen-wire rope.

96 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Eight nineteen-wire strands have been made by the Trenton Iron
Co. to meet the demand for a more flexible rope than the ordinary hoisting
rope, and one better adapted to withstand severe bending. This rope,
made of plow-steel wires, has met with much favor for logging machines
on which comparatively small drums are used.
Tlie term "plough" or plow given in England to steel wire of high
quality, was derived from the fact that such wire is used for the construction
of ropes used for ploughing purposes.
Plough-steel is known in this country, in some steel works as the
quality of plate steel used for the mould boards of ploughs, for which a
very ordinary grade is good enough.
"Plough-steel ropes" are made of high grade crucible steel which
will bear a stress of ioo to 150 tons per square inch of wire sectional
area. This increase in strength, however, is gained at the sacrifice of
some pliability and it should be noted that since the wires are made of a
high grade of cast steel, very carefully tempered, its molecular structure
is more apt to be disturbed by undue stress, if not actually destroyed and
is more seriously affected by rust and corrosion than the ordinary grades
of cast steel.
Where it is necessary to use very long or very heavy ropes, a reduction
of the dead weight of ropes becomes a matter of serious consideration.
Ropes are listed as made of cast steel, iron "plow steel." extra strong
cast steel, crucible steel, each for its particular purpose.
Steel ropes are taking the place of iron ones, where it is a special
object to combine lightness with strength, but in substituting a steel for
an iron running rope, the object in view should be gained, an increased
w.ear rather than to reduce the size.
Wire rope used for transmission purposes as well as hoisting is subject
to bending stresses and the life of the rope is affected in various
ways. Aside from the duty performed by a wire rope, its life will depend
on the care taken of it, its exposure to the corroding action of water, and
more especially water containing salts or acids, etc.. factors upon which
no calculation can be based.
The causes most destructive to thc life of a wire rope are abrasion
and excessive bending. Abrasion results in direct injury by the weaving
away and mutilation of the wires, while undue bending is manifested in
the fracture of tlie outer wires, before these wires become flattened by
service.
The destructive effect of undue bending has not been sufficiently

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 97
well understood and more wire rope perhaps is brought to an untimely
end from this cause than any other.
This is owing to the fact that lack of space very often bars the rise
of sheaves of the proper diameter for good results. Cases frequently
occur , as in the transmission of power where the bending stress is considerably
greater than that produced by the load or useful work, so that
the proper size and arrangement of the sheaves is a matter that should
receive careful consideration in the installation of running ropes of all
kinds.
The curvature due to the sheaves should be such that the bending
stress added to the stress from the load will not produce a tension in the
wires exceeding the elastic limit. The bending stress is determined by
the formula.
E a
S =
R
2.06 1- C
d
in which, S represents the bending stress in pounds, E the modulus of
elasticity = 28,500,000, a, the aggregate area of the wires in square inches,
R is the radius of the bend in inches, d the diameter of the individual
wires in inches and C is a constant depending on the number of wires in
the strands.
The values of d and C are taken foi 7-wire rope as d—1-9 diameter
of rope and C=9-27 and for 19—wire rope, d^-i-T.5 diameter of rope
and C=I545-
For 12-wire and 16-wire ropes the values are intermediate in proportion
to the number of wires. Tn the case of ropes having strands composed
of different sizes of wires, take the larger of the outer layer for the
value of d.
The angle of bend in a rope is also a matter for consideration, since
the curvature is a function of this angle and the tension, the relations between
which may be such as to produce a curvature having a greater
radius than the sheave about which it passes.
This applies more especially to cases where slight bends are made,
and explains how ropes are frequently run around comparatively small
rollers without detriment, since it is possible to place these so close that
the bending angle on each will result in a curvature that will not over­
strain the wires. ,
This curvature may he calculated from the following formula,

98 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Ed'
R
5.25 t cos ( 1J 2 angle O)
in which, R represents the radius of curvature in inches, F~=the modulus
of elasticity (28,500,000), d—diameter of the individual wires in inches,
n—number of wires in the ropes, t=load stress in pounds, and 0 the
angle of bend, abc, between the tangents to the curve at the points of inflection
a and c.
This formula gives the theoretical radius of curvature for one
pound tension, hence, to determine the actual radius of curavture, in
cases, where this may exceed the radius of the sheave, 't is simply necessary
to divide by the actual tension.
The rigidity of the rope, or effect of the internal friction of the
wires has not been taken into account, since it is so small, hence, it is safe
to ignore it.

Determining tlie Sh{) of! looting Plants
By Edward B. Durham,
IT is often necessary to calculate the size of hoisting plant required to
raise a given quantity of material, either as preliminary to the detail
design of the machinery, or to decide whether machinery or
any one offered by a manufacturer is adapted to work to be done.
The first element of the problem to be determined is the load to be
raised. In a mine that is already depended, this is limited by the size of
tlie car that can be hoisted out of the mine, and that will pass through
the underground gangways. If this place now limited on the design,
the size of the load will depend on the output desired per day, and on ihe
number of hoists that can be made per day. The latter are fixed by the
time required per hoist and the number of hours available for hoisting,
after designing from the working day the time required for raising and
lowering men, sending down supports, and for the many small delays
in handling cars. It must also be decided whether the hoisting is to be
down in one shaft or in all of them.
As an example, assume an output of 400 tons per 10 hrs.; shaft,
with two compartments, 1,000 ft. deep; hoisting in bakmce; time available
for hoisting, 6 hrs.; engine can hoist load 1.5 mins. and time to
change cars, 0.5 min. as the change at top and bottom of shaft being
made at the same time. Then, 30 cars can be raised per hour, or 180
cars in 6 hours. Those would require cars of 400 1801=2.22 tons
capacity, to handle the desired output.
* (Read before Institute of Mining Engineers.)
With a single shaft, the time to raise one load is the time to change
or load cars at the bottom, hoist loads, change cars, or dump at the top
and lower the empty cars ; while, in a double shaft, two cars could be
handled while the above programme was being carried out in a single
shaft, and the second load would be raised while the first empty was going
back, and changing of cars at the top and bottom would be going
on simultaneously.
Ropes.—Having settled the size of the useful load to be hoisted, the
size of the rope must be determined. Those must be strong enough to
hoist the total load, including its own weight, and to withstand the starting
stresses due to picking up the load suddenly when the rope is slack.
Experiments have shown that: in starting with 6 ins. of slack rope, the

100 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
stress in the rope is about double that due to picking up the load gently.
Expressing these stresses in a formula, let
K=stress in rope in pounds, at the head sheave, at the instant of
picking up the load ;
W=weight of gross load in pounds;
R=weight of rope in pounds ;
F=Friction in pounds=weight of all moving parts multiplied by f;
f=coefficient of friction.
Then K=2 WXR+F (i)
This stress should not exceed one-seventh of the ultimate strength
of the rope. Coefficient of this, f, may be taken at .01 for vertical shafts,
and as .02 to .04 for inclined shafts with rope well supported on rollers.
As an example required to find size of rope necessary to hoist a
total load of 5,000 lbs. from a vertical shaft 1,500 ft. deep. Assume, for
a trial solution, above rope weights two lbs. per ft. from equation (1),
K = 5,000 lbs. X 2 + r>5°° X 2 lbs. + .01 X 8,000 lbs. = 13,080 lbs.
an ultimate strength of rope should be 7 X 13.080 := 91,560 lbs., which
would require a iX m- diameter flexible cast steel rope, an ultimate
strength of 100,000 lbs., and weighing 2.45 lbs. per ft. This weight
would increase R in above equation, and make 7 X K = 96,285, which
is still less than the ultimate strength of the rope chosen. Tf a lighter
weight rope is desired, a plow steel rope could be used instead of the
cast steel.
If the shaft is inclined, the stress in the rope due to the weight
hoisted will vary with the sine of the angle of incline, thus :
K = (2 W + R) sin X + F. (2)
in which X is the angle of inclination. Here the friction is also affected
by the scope, and varies with the cosine of X, or F — f (W -j- R)
cos X ; / may be taken at .02.
In the following discussion, the loads will be considered as being
hoisted from vertical shafts, as the principle remains the same for both
classes, the only difference being that the stresses in the rope and on the
engine and other parts of the machinery change with changes in the
slope.
Drums.—Minimum diameter of the drums is determined by the size
of the rope used, and the larger the drums the smaller will be the bending
stresses and the more strength will be available for useful work.
Mr. Wm. Hewitt has shown that when the diameter of the sheave
or drum is 44.5 times the diameter of a 19 wiic cast steel rope, the bend-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 101
ing stresses are two-thirds and the remaining useful strength is onethird
of the "maximum safe load" that the rope will carry.
The "maximum safe load" is taken as one-third the ultimate
strength, which is about the elastic limit of the wire. Or the available
strength is only one-ninth of the ultimate. In order to cut down the
bending stresses so as to leave one-fifth of the ultimate strength of thc
rope available for useful work, the sheaves must be about 80 times the
diameter of the rope. Other grades of rope require different diameter
of drums, and the bending stress may be figured from this formula.
E a
K =
R
2.06 + C
d
in which k represents the bending stress in pounds, E the modulus of
elasticity = 28,500.00, a, the aggregate area of the wire in square inches,
A'' the radius of the bend in inches, d the diameter of the individual wires
111 inches, and C a constant depending on the number of wires in the
strand. The values of d and C are, for 19-wire hoisting rope: d=i-i5
diameter of rope, and C = 45-9-
The size of the rope fixes the minimum diameter of the drum, but
the question of speed and length of drum also influence the final choice
of the diameter.
The maximum length of the drum aside from question of room, is
controlled by the allowable fleet-angle, that is, the acute angle included
between two lines drawn from the ends of the drum to the head sheave.
This angle should not exceed 6° in order that the rope may lead well on
to the head sheave, and so that one rope will not grind or mount the next
one in withdrawing onto the drum. It is usual to place the drum far
enough back from the head sheave to keep the fleet-angle within the limit;
but where it cannot be done, it is necessary to guide the rope onto the
head sheave and onto the drum by rollers or sheaves running on vertical
spindles. The bisectrix of the fleet-angle should strike the middle of
the drum.
Types of Hoisting Engines. Single cylinder engines are used in
mining to replace man or animal power for light work. They are always
geared and provided with a flywheel on the crank shaft. They must
be "started to a fair speed, in order that the fly-wheel may develop sufficient
momentum to carrv the crank over the center, before the friction is
thrown in to pick up the load. The cylinder should have 75 X more

102 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
power than is necessary to simply raise the load, in order that speed maybe
maintained.
Double-cylinder engines are used for all the regular work of mining.
They may be divided into the following classes: or
I. Geared-single cylindrical drum ; double cylindrical drum; double
conical drum.
II. Direct-acting single cylindrical drum; double cylindrical drum;
double conical drum; Koepe system, reels for flat rope.
Each of these has a field of its own of which it is best adapted.
Thus, the geared engine is used mostly for shallow depths and small
outputs per day, while the direct-acting engines are used where the output
is large. There are many cases near the dividing line, in which either
type of engine will give equally good results, and it is largely a matter of
personal choice as to which is used.
Geared engines are made with small cylinders, and the engine probably
runs at a speed of ioo to 200 revs, per min.
The gearing usually gives a reduction of 1-3 to 1-5, so that the
drum revolves at a moderate speed. The small cylinders make the firstcost
lower than that of a direct-acting engine; but the gearing for large
hoist is a serious objection. The main gear has about the same diameter
as the drum, so as to keep the pressure on the teeth as low as possible,
and hence it has a circumferential speed equal to the speed of hoisting.
Gearing, under very favorable conditions, should not run at a
speed over 1,200 feet per minute, and with the large cast gears and the
rough work to which hoisting engines are subjected, the speed should
probably not exceed 900 feet per minute. If the average speed of hoisting
is kept at about 2-3 of this maximum, the average speed will not
exceed 600 feet per minute. This speed will allow the use of moderatesized
drums and keep the piston speeds within the limits of good practice.
That gearing is liable to cause trouble and make considerable noisewhen
run at a high speed, has been forcibly impressed on the mind of
the writer by his experience, in charge of a geared hoister, made by a
reliable manufacturer, having cylinders each 18 inches diameter by 24inch
stroke, and two drums, each 7 feet 6 inches diameter bv 5 foot face,
on which 3 main gears, between 7 and 8 feet diameter, 3-mmli pitch and 9inch
face, were broken inside 9 months. The gears cost about $300.00
each, besides the labor of replacing and the loss of twenty hours to
change the old for a new one. The engine was hoisting from a shaft
1,000 feet deep in about 1 % minutes. The load of ore was 2X tons.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 103
Direct-acting engines should not be used for hoisting speeds of less
than 500 feet per minute, as the piston speeds will be too slow for economy.
They can readily be run at an average speed of 1,500 feet per minute,
and the largest engines can run in deep shafts as much as 2,500 feet
per minute.
Single drum engines are limited to small outputs per day, or to
places where the first cost of the plant is so important as to outweigh the
loss in increased operating expenses. This type of engine has many applications,
as for sinking winzes, and for other inside work; also for
shaft sinking and for working coal mines on a small scale where the
cost of fuel is no item, as waste material is burned. They are regularly
used in the Joplin, Mo., district, where the hoisting is from vertical
shafts 100 feet deep, the output often only 25 to 50 tons per day and
the ore raised in buckets without guides, thus keeping the dead weight
small, as compared with weight of ore raised. They are not adapted for
regular mining work on a large scale, as the work expended in raising
the cage, car and rope, each trip would exceed the work raising the ore.
Double drum engines overcome the dead work of hoisting the ore carriers
by balancing the weight of the cage and car in one compartment
against those in the other. They are thus more economical to operate
than a single drum engine and the cost of installing will probably not
be over 50% greater than for a single-drum engine. As the cost of
sinking a shaft large enough for two hoisting compartments, and a
manway is not much more than to sink one having only one hoisting compartment
and a manway, the head buildings must be near the sand in
either case, and the double drum engine will have smaller, cylinders,
which will probably offset the cost of the second drum.
With cylindrical drum the ropes in the two compartments are of
constantly varying lengths from the cages to the head sheaves, and are
in balance only when the cages are passing at the center. With double
conical drums, the work on the engine is kept constant by giving the
cage at the bottom the short leverage of the small end of the drum, and
the cage at the top the longer leverage of the large end of the drum.
The Koepe system, as applied to a double compartment shaft, has a
tail rope passing from the bottom of the cage down and around an idle
sheave at the bottom of the shaft, and up to the other cage. Thus the
weight of the rope in the two compartments is exactly equal, and the
whole hoisting mechanism is in balance at all points of the trip.
The flat rope system of hoisting attempts to equalize the work on
the en-ine by coiling a rope of rectangular cross-sections on a reel, like'

104 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
a surveyor's linen tap; so that the diameter of the reel increases and the
, ieverage of the load increases as the weight of the constantly shorteningrope
decreased. Thus the work of the engine is kept constant, when the
rate of increases of leverage and decreasing of weight are in inverse proportion
to each other. The flat ropes, however, are heavier than round
ropes of same strength ,are shorter lived, and cost more at first and for
subsequent care. The flat rope system is very largely used in Montana
and in some districts which have followed the Montana practice.
The peculiarities of the different types of engines are brought out
more fully by the calculation of the size of their cylinders when equaled
with the different arrangements of drums.
Calculation of the Cylinders. The maximum work on the engine
is in picking up the load and overcoming its inertia. At this time
one crank may be on a dead center so that all the work must be done by
the other. At this part of the hoist, steam will be admitted for the full
stroke and at its maximum throttle pressure.
Hoisting engines belong to the slow speed type of engines. Their
valves are simply slide-valves in all but the largest sizes, and then thev
are usually of the Corliss class. They seldom have governing devices,
their speed being determined by the hoisting engineer bv means of the
throtte, the link motion and the brake.
With these classes of engines the piston speed may be taken at 200
to 400 feet per minute for engines of 12 to 24 minute stroke, and from
400 to 600 feet per minute for those with 24 to 72-inch strokes. Very
high-grade engines with other valve gearing may run at higher piston
speeds.
At the instant of starting, the power in one cylinder acting on the
crank, in the top or bottom position must have a moment equal to or
greater than the moment of the unbalanced load pulling from the circumference
of the drum. After starting, the other cylinder comes in to
accelerate the speed, and the two together are able to hoist the load with
steam partially cut off and still maintain the full speed.
In all the following equations, let
W—weight of the unbalanced load in pounds;
C=weight of cages in car in pounds;
0=weight of ore in pounds;
D=diameeter of drum in feet;
P=M. E. P.=Mean effective steam pressure in cylinder in pounds per
square inches.
A=area of cylinder in scpiare inches.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 105
L=length of stroke in feet.
S = Speed of hoisting in ft. per min.
N=Number of revolutions of engine per min.
F=friction in pounds;
f—co-efficient of friction;
r-—ratio of diameter of piston to length of stroke, both being in feet or
stroke
both in inches=
diameter
d=diameter of piston in inches;
e-"=efficiency of engine;
diameter of gear
g=ratio of gearing=
diameter of pinion
Then, for a single drum, direct-acting engine, Fig. I, the moment of
Fia. I
D
the load = (W -f- F) — and the moment of the engine:
P X A X c) —> placing these equal to each other
2
(W X F) D P X A X L X e
2 (4)
2
If the drum i , a red, the engine will make g revolutions to one of the
g

106 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
drum or the leverage of the engine is increased to g times what it
would be if direct connected, and the equation becomes
(W + F) D P X A X h X e X g
2 2 (5)
This is the general equation for all hoisting engines. If they are direct
connected, the ratio of gear, g = i. Wrhen the weight of the load, size
of the drum, and steam pressure are given to determine size of the cylinders,
there are two unknown quantities in the equation, viz: A and
L. Here L can be assumed and the equation solved for A, from which
the diameter can be obtained. The usual practice is so to proportion the
c_\Under that the length of travel is iy< to 2V< times the diameter of the
piston. If the value of L chosen for trial gives a ratio of stroke to diameter
outside of these limits, another value must be taken for L, and
another solution made. If the ratio is decided upon first, then the area
can be expressed in terms of the stroke and there is only an unknown in
the equation, thus
12 L
r d = 12 L or d =
r
( 12 L being the length of the stroke, in ins.) and
d 2 144 L 2
A = 3.1416 — = 3.1416 ;
4 4 r 2
If, substituted in equation (5) gives
(W + F) D P x 3.1416 144 L2 x L x e x g
2 4 r2 2
Flaving obtained the size of cylinders and knowing the speed of hoisting
and size of the drum, the speed of the engine can be obtained, and
the speed of the piston can be investigated. The speed of hoisting in
feet per min. divided by the circumference in feet, will give the number
of revolutions of the drum per min. If the drum is geared, the engine
will make g times as many revolutions per min. as the drum and
N = S g.
3.1416D
This piston speed in feet per min. = 2 L X N, or piston speed =
2 L S
G.
3-i4i6 D (8)
(TO RE CONTINCED)

Tractive i^orce anil Rail C
}\y W. M. Broit.
T H E Tractice force of an agent pulling a vehicle whether on prepared
track or smooth road depends on several factors. Where the
agent is a vehicle containing- its own power, its tractive force depends
on its weight, for it may have plenty of power, but be too light
to hold itself to the ground to be able to exert a very great pull.
All are familiar with the locomotive running on fixed rails forming
a track to which the machine only adheres by the friction created between
wheel and head of rail.
This resistance to slippage is increased by adding weight to the motive
force, whether it be a steam engine or electricity, but a limit would
be reached where the force could not do useful work because it had so
much of itself to move.
If a rope was taken from one end of the locomotive, over a pulley
and fastened to a weight hanging in a pit, the amount that could be lifted
would be the tractive force or draw-bar pull, the track being level and
straight and the speed not considered. The larger the cylinders of the
locomotive and the greater the steam pressure, the greater the tractive
force; the larger the diameter of the driving wheel the less the tractive
force. Most builders of locomotives include the force to drive the locomotive
itself in the calculations and a formula like the following could
be deduced:
T = d- X L X -85P
D
W7here T represents the tractive force;
d represents the diam. of the cylinder in inches;
L represents the length of stroke of piston in inches;
85p represents 85% of the boiler pressure,
per square inch, this being found by practical test to be the effective
pressure in the cylinders. D represents the diameter of the driving
wheels in inches. Suppose we take an example of an engine with cylinders
six in diameter; ten inch stroke, 150 lbs. boiler pressure and driv­
ing wheels 20 inches in diameter
T = (6)2 X IO X -85 X 150 = 2290 lbs.
20

108 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Rule for Calculation of Hauling Capacity.
In each case the hauling capacity is computed by dividing the tractive
force of the locomotive by the rate of resistance per ton due to gravity
and to friction, and then deducting the weight of the locomotive (and
tender, if any). This gives the weight in tons of 2,000 pounds of the
train (including weight of cars and of lading, if cars are to be hauled
loaded), which the locomotive can haul.
The resistance of gravity increases in exact proportion to the steepness
of the grade; is always 20 pounds per ton of 2,000 pounds for each
1 foot per 100 rise; i.e., if there is an elevation of 1 foot in a distance of
100 feet, the locomotive must exert enough force to lift one one-hundredth
of the weight of the train (itself included), or what amounts to
the same thing, to exert a tractive force enough to overcome a resistance
of 20 pounds per ton of 2,000 pounds. F'or a grade of J4 per cent, the resistance
of gravity is 10 pounds per ton ; for 2 per cent., 40 pounds per
ton, and so on for any practicable grade. The resistance due to friction
varies with the character and condition of rolling stock and track. With
extra good cars and track it may be as low as 5 pounds per ton of 2,000
pounds, but 6X> pounds may be taken as a fair average for first-class cars
and track, 8 to 12 pounds for reasonably good conditions, and as high as
20 to 40 pounds for bad cars and track, and 60 to 80 pounds, or even
more, for excessively hard-running cars and very rough track. Cars
with fixed axles and suitable bearings and oil-boxes should not exceed 8
to 12 pounds; logging cars may run 6y2 to 15 pounds if of good construction,
up to 20 or even 40 pounds if with poor arrangement for oiling.
Contractors' dump cars are usually hard-running, say 10 to 25
pounds ; coal mine wagons, with loose wheels, are seldom less than 20
pounds, and often exceed 30 pounds ; and with the holes in the wheels
worn out of true, and the wheels scraping against the sides of the car,
may develop 60 to 80 pounds or even greater resistance. Street cars may
be reckoned at 15 to 25 pounds. The resistance of flange friction on
wooden rails is an indeterminate quantity, but usually twice the resistance
on steel rails. Poorly laid track and crooked rails increase the resistance
indefinitely. Overloading cars also increases the resistance
greatly.
When trains are hauled on curved track the resistance due to the curve
should be considered.
In any practical demonstration of the proper hauling capacity advisable
in any special case, three suggestions by way of caution are shown
by experience to be worthy of consideration:

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 109
I. It is always desirable to provide a reasonable amount of surplus
power, and not to work a locomotive regularly too close to its full capacity.
A reserve of power is economical, because it cuts down the cost of
repairs, and also of fuel and oil, to the lowest point, and lengthens the
useful lifetime of the machine, and also provides for emergencies and increase
of output.
2. It is not safe to figure on a grade as "level" because the land is
quite flat. In such cases the so-called "level" grade may prove to be l
per cent., or possibly more, and a grade of only J4 of I per cent., or 13
feet per mile, may cut down the hauling capacity of a locomotive to but
little more than one-half its capacity on a perfect level. This is clearly
seen by examination of the following tables of hauling capacities.
3. There is often an impression that a geared locomotive can haul a
heavier load or can climb steeper grades than a direct-acting locomotive.
A locomotive of a given weight on an ordinary rail cannot be made to
pull any heavier train by the use of gears to turn its driving wheels. If
the wdicels are made to turn, it matters not by what power they are turned
so far as ability to start loads or climb grades is concerned. In practice
there are disadvantages in the use of gears, since a considerable amount
of power is absorbed by the greatly increased friction, and the speed is so
much reduced that little advantage can be taken of momentum, and the
direct acting locomotive, by making morc trips in the same length of
time, can do about double the day's work of a geared locomotive.
THE RESISTANCE of curves.
The frictional resistance of -the passage of trains around curves is
very considerable, and is also extremely variable. The shorter the radius
of the curve, the greater is the resistance ; also the length of the wdieelbases
of locomotive and of the cars, the elevation of the outer rail, the
speed, the condition of track and rolling stock, the length of the train and
the length of the curved track, and other matters influence the resistance,
so that no one formula will apply to all cases. If the gauge of track on
curves is not sufficiently widened to prevent the wheels from binding
against the rails, the resistance may be excessive.
Excessive or irregular curves, and especially sharp curves in connection
with steep grades, are to be avoided, as they greatly decrease the
loads which locomotives can handle, limit the amount of business practicable,
and increase the cost of operation and the repairs required for
track and rolling stock. It is preferable to increase the distance or the
expense of track construction, rather than for sake of saving in first cost
to lose continuously in operating expenses.

110 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
COMPENSATION, OR REDUCTION OF GRADE ON CURVES.
It is customary, when a curve occurs on a grade, to reduce the grade
on the curved part of the track, so that the combined resistance of the
flattened grade and the curve will not exceed tlie resistance of the steeper
grade on the straight part of the track. In practice most engineers compensate
for curves on grades at the rate of two one-hundredths of a foot
grade in each ioo feet for each degree of curvature.
Where the grade is stated in feet per mile, the equivalent reduction
for each degree of curvature is I 56-1000 feet per mile.
The above rule works well within the limits of ordinary railroad
practice where excessive grades and curves are not required. For short
local roads, such as are used for mining and industrial purposes, where
very heavy grades and very sharp curves are necessary, the rate of compensation
should be increased. On narrow gauge three one hundredths
of a foot per degree of curvature gave the best results with 40 degree
curves on 4 per cent, grades.
Sharper curves may be used on narrow gauge than on wide gauge,
because there is less difference between the length of the inner and outer
rails on curves of the same radius, and because narrow-gauge rolling
stock usually has a shorter wheel-base.
GAUGE OF TRACK WIDENED ON CURVES.
Theoretically, in order to pass around curves perfectly, every axle
in the train should point to the center of the curve, and the outside
wheels should be larger than the inner wheels. In practice, the difference
in size of the wheels is supposed to be accomplished by coning the tread
of each wheel so that the diameter close to the flange is greater than at the
front face. But the radial position of the axles is impracticable, as cars
and locomotives are built so that two or more axles are parallel. On
sharp curves this arrangement of the axles causes the cars and locomotive
to bind, a four-wheel car or truck having a tendency to press the
front wheel against the outside rail and the rear wheel against the inside
rail. On this account the usual amount of clearance between the rails
and wheel flanges must be increased. The exact amount of additional
width of gauge required on a curve depends on the radius of the curve,
the gauge of track, and the wheel-bases of the rolling stock, and no rule
can be given which will apply to all cases. The width of the tread of the
wheels limits the amount of extra width of gauge practicable. Actual
trial has proved that on narrow gauge, with locomotives and cars of short
wheel-base and with sharp curves, a good rule is to widen the gauge of
track one-sixteenth of an inch for each 2X degree of curvature; i. c. a

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. HI
40-degree curve calls for one inch increase in gauge of track. On extremely
sharp curves, such as are often used about manufactories, mines,
etc., it is well to widen the gauge as much as can be done and still secure
a safe amount of bearing on the rail for the car wheels, allowing for
wear of flanges and for wheels hugging one rail. When a six-driver
locomotive, with the center drivers llangeless, is used on an extremely
sharp curve, it may be advisable to lay extra rails inside of the outer
rail and outside the inner rail.
ELEVATION OF OUTER RAILS OX CURVES.
Iii passing around curves, the centrifugal force tends to tip over the
rolling stock and to crowd the wheels against the outer rail. This tendency
increases with increased speed, and is greater in the case of a sharp
curve than an easy curve. To counteract this tendency—which at a verv
high rate of speed might derail the train—it is desirable to elevate the
outer rail of a curved track so that the train will lean inward to such an
extent that at the desired rate of speed there will he no more pressure
against one rail than against the other. Where the same track is used
for both slow and fast trains, it is usual to elevate the outer rail to suit
the fast train. Excessive speeds around very sharp curves are altogether
impossible.
It is customary to elevate the outer rail one-half inch for each degree
of curvature on roads of 56 X inch gauge of track, and for speeds
of 25 to 35 miles per hour. For narrower gauges the elevation is proportionately
less. Thus, if on standard (56X inch) gauge with a speed of
30 miles per hour on a 10-degree (573 feet radius) curve, the outer rail
is elevated 5 inches ; on a gauge of track 28X inches the elevation would
be 2X inches. The elevation of the outer rail on 36-inch gauge should
be verv nearly two-thirds of the elevation of 56^-inch gauge for the
same speed around the same curve. The above rule is only approximate,
and requires modification for curves much sharper than 10 degrees and
for speeds much less than 15 to 20 miles per hour. If the outer rail is
cievated exactly the proper amount, it will be impossible for a passenger
to feel any sensation of tipping or rocking motion while the train is on
the curve. The exact elevation to secure this result can only be arrived
at in each case by very abstruse calculations. Tt is considered the best
practice in approaching a curve to begin to make a difference in the level
of the two rails some distance—say 50 or 100 feet—before the curve is
reached, and to elevate the outer rail and depress the inner rail so that
the center of the track is level. The best difference in level between the

112 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
two rails on curved track can only be determined by actual trial after the
track is complete.
For contractors it is far better to use locomotives than mules though
the former cost is greater but through strikes or dullness of trade an
engine is idle, it eats up no money and a few cents of white lead and
tallow keeps it in good shape.
Cost of three mules and three drivers per year was found during
high prices to be $2,688.00, or about $1,000.00 when prices was low,
while a small locomotive capable of doing thc work of ten to forty mules
was $2,525.00, or $870.00 when prices were low.
Hence it is cheaper to operate a small locomotive.

Training V/orlcingruien in ! (ablis o/
Industry and Co-'Opova-doiu*
By HI. I/. Gantt.
ABSTRACT ()F PAPER.
Until within a few years the mechanic was necessarily the source
and conserver of industrial knowledge, and on him rested, therefore, the
responsibility for training workmen.
With the advent of the scientifically educated engineer capable of
substituting a scientific solution of problems for the empirical solution of
the mechanic, the responsibility of training workers naturally shifts to
his shoulders. If he accepts this responsibility, and bases training on the
results of scientific investigation, the efficiency of the workman can be so
greatly increased that the manufacturer can afford to give those that
take advantage of this training compensation far in excess of that usually
paid for similar work.
DISCUSSION.
Dr. Alex. C. Humphreys. It has been said that Americans are interested
in education only as they can coin it. It is apparent that the
educational methods described in Mr. Gantt's able and instructive paper
can be coined ; but it is encouraging to see the stress laid by the author
upon the ethical influence of the methods he describes ; and I venture to
believe that, if this system were generally introduced throughout the
United States, the resulting moral uplift would attract more attention
than the increase in dividend-earning capacity.
2. Mr. Gantt refers to the complaint often made as to the growing
inefficiency of labor. The complaint is well-founded, but certainly the
responsibility cannot rest upon the working class alone. What has been
done to meet the demand lor trained workers, men and women, in connection
with the radical changes introduced into our industries since the
days of the old apprentice system? Some well-directed and successful,
but isolated, schemes have been inaugurated. Considerable attention is
now being paid to industrial education, and the methods of the author
should receive careful attention in this connection, as a substitute for the
oh! apprentice system practically discarded under modern industrial de­
velopments.
11- r. i ,.l nl il,p nrnreediies of the Am Soc of Mech . Eng. for November, and lhe

114 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
3. As a people, we are inclined to be superficial. This is true as to
much of our educational work, and this system is certainly promising as
a corrective. The masses are not to be delivered from the curse of superficiality
by ethical arguments; there must be direct and personal influence.
It is not only the right, but the duty of all, to make every fair effort to
increase their efficiency as wage-earners. Mr. Gantt refers to a force not
sufficiently recognized which tends to encourage the worker to acquire
greater proficiency and capacity as an earner—the pleasure and pride
experienced by the performer in work well done. This is a force we cannot
afford to ignore.
4. Our youths are not sufficiently taught the all-important lesson
of obedience. Too often liberty degenerates into license: especially is
this noticeable in those coming from foreign lands where they have had
to endure oppression. We may then well welcome any system which
promises systematically to teach obedience to the employed, while keeping
the employer constantly reminded that fair play is the price of loyal
and and efficient service.
5. In this country we need practical educational methods far more
than is generally realized. We flatter ourselves that we are a practical
people, if so, why do we not systematically train the youth of both sexes
in our public schools to be self-supporting or self-sustaining units of the
community? Mr. Gantt advocates teaching the workman, at the same
time, how and to do. A more valuable lesson could not be taught in a
country where the people aim to govern themselves.
6. The high degree of efficiency developed by this system is due to
the elimination of lost motion. As a people, high and low, not only are
we handicapped by the lost motion so generally in evidence, but, in boasting
of our smartness, nimbleness and readiness, we fail to recognize the
lost motion so often involved in the hasty action and lack of foresight
typical of our people.
7. I can well believe that the system advocated by Mr. Gantt can be
introduced in many of the factories of the United States to the advantage
of the owners and the country at large.
Mr. LI. V. R. Scheel. This paper contains many statements which
must seem to the practical man and the engineer but expressions of what
has been known for a long time, although perhaps not fully realized.
Many of them are almost axiomatic. I think nn one can doubt that such
a system of management must result in the greater efficiency of workmen,
individually and collectively, and in the greater co-operation of
workmen, foremen and managers, with the attendant economies.
2. The history of mechanical development shows that inventions

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 115
and improvements by men of no great mental training were until very
recently more numerous than by men with trained minds. A possible
reason is that men of the former class were intimately acquainted with
the operation of the machine; whereas the attention of the latter has been
claimed by what they, at least, considered larger and more important
matters. ( >ur mechanical and industrial advance would have been more
rapid had investigations of individual operations been made by men better
fitted for the work. The best methods should have been determined
and the workmen trained in those best methods with the spur of increased
earnings.
3. Before thc days of the corporation, the factory .system and
the highly specialized workman, a very large proportion of workmen
worked for themselves, and since in the last analysis the main reason for
action is self-interest those men worked more industriously, more intelligently
and with less waste of all kinds than tlie present-day workman. A
bonus determined in a scientifically correct manner seems to be the best
appeal to an individual's self-interest; however, a scientific determination
does not mean that the employer is entitled to more than his fair share of
the savings made.
4. Under this system all the men are pushers to the limits set by
the men responsible for quality. The gang bosses and foremen wdio were
formerly drivers are now principally engaged in planning work and in
handling extraordinary difficulties. Those of us who have seen these
principles and methods in operation can testify to the correctness of these
statements. We have seen men working no harder than before, but having
been taught proper methods, accomplish results which make bonuses
of 50 per cent, on the former wages profitable for the owners. We have
seen workmen, who without a trade have come to be considered and to
consider themselves skilled workmen in a class as high as the trained mechanic.
We have seen the removal of room mechanics, foremen, and
even superintendents, when the workmen could no longer afford to permit
the mistakes and neglects of these superiors to pass without protest.
Dr. Rudolf Roesler. My old motto, "Courage to the last." is almost
the only excuse I can offer for taking a few minutes of your time,
especially since my knowledge of your language is as yet unfortunately
verv poor. Without taking part in thc discussion I would like to speak
of some general facts which T think will have your interest.
2. In Europe, and especially in German}', the greatest interest exists
in the new ideas of economical organization and management in workshops,
among which not least interesting are those of Mr. Fred W 'fay-

116 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
lor. I think one important consideration is the belief that the new principles
can help to weaken the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 117
principles are removed in practice and how this system, based entirely
on theoretical principles, can be adapted to the actual conditions. He
who knows the system only by theory is not well able to judge it. These
facts I have myself experienced. I was also astonished to see how Mr.
Gantt has introduced his method with success into works whose daily
product varies in form and character and in works other than machine
shops.
9. I am sorry that 1 cannot illustrate by figures my remarks about
the interest which the new ideas have for the men in European industries.
The time between the moment when I was advised of Mr. Gantt's
leading and the reading itself was not enough to get these statistics. I
would be glad to give them to you later and then I hope with words more
conforming to English grammar and pronunciation.
Mr. T. F. Kelly. Mr. Gantt's paper seems to me far too mild in its
statements. My experience with the system for the last two years has
been that every man in the plant, whatever his authority, has a specific
job, and will get into trouble if he lays down on it. Under this system
every employee becomes also an inspector, and for fear of losing his
bonus protests vigorously against accepting material on which he has to
work, unless both the material and former work are ud to the standard
for quality. It takes only a few touches on his pocketbook to make Mr.
Jones a first-class critic on Mr. Brown; in other words, 300 employees
means 300 inspectors.
2. The machinery must also be in first-class condition for operators
to make their bonus. The "good enough" machinist cannot live under
this system, as he not only loses his own bonus, but causes the gang-boss
and the operator to lose theirs. These all act like a tonic on our Mr.
Machinist, to do a good, quick job, or he soon finds out he is not the man.
3. The introduction of the bonus system is followed by a new7
feeling of pride, and the threat to move workmen from machines on
bonus to machines not on bonus is more effective than the threat to lay­
off or discharge.
4. The operators in our factory formerly measured their work to
the clock ; they now measure it to the task, and former shirkers are now
among the most zealous of our employees. For instance, one of our
weavers "suffered," and made our work suffer, through his disposition to
malaria, but the bonus did more for his malady than any amount of quinine.
On looking into the causes of an incipient riot the other day I
found that our malarial friend had been trying to "beat up" a fellow
workman who was not giving supplies fast enough and thereby keeping

118 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
him out of his bonus.
Mr. C. H. Buckley. Of the many valuable features of this paper,
that of a definite plan drawn up for the task to be performed especially
appeals to me. It is a mathematical problem worked out on scientific
principles, just as an engineer calculates tlie necessary weight of a flywheel
before it is cast.
2. Mr. Gantt also believes in educating the workman, by setting
a mark which must be reached before he can earn the higher rate of
pay. Of course the workman doing piece work, depending on his own
resources, might become very proficient; though under effective tutorship,
the same efficiency will be possible in a much less time. It is an
excellent plan to set a higher standard than the average man would set
for himself; by proper encouragement and instruction he will usually
leach it. The bonus system will bring forth the best efforts of workmen
and foremen, and as a result, the maximum product of the plant.
Mr. H. K. Hathaway. Mr. Gantt has brought out most forcibly a
feature of the Taylor System that has received but scanty treatment in
the various papers heretofore written on the subject. All of us who have
served our apprenticeship to the machine trade, can recollect distinctly how
little instruction we received, and how most of our knowledge was gained
through a process of trial and error. The instruction of the average apprentice
is at best a haphazard thing. Llis foremen, even though they
may have the welfare of their apprentices at heart, under the old system
of management, are unable to give him anything like the attention necessary
to make him an efficient workman in the shortest possible time.
Usually the instruction he receives is largely from the workmen with
whom he comes in contact and is good or bad. depending upon whether
the workman whom he asks fur information is himself a good mechanic,
and whether he is inclined to impart the knowledge he possesses.
2. The writer has distinct recollection of setting up a job on a
machine when he was an apprentice, in what appeared to him a oerfectlv
proper manner, only to find by its pulling loose under the pressure of the
cut when starting, that it was not properly supported. Lnder the Tavlor
System, he would have received proper instructions as to just how the
work should be set.
3. The writer believes it possible under the Taylor System to turn
out a fist-class mechanic in about one-half the time taken under tlie old
svstem of apprenticeship; an opinion borne out bv results in a machine
shop operated under the Taylor System with which he is connected. Tn
Ibis shop a number of young men, who came to us without previous experience
at the machine trade, within a year and a half reached a point

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 11»
where they were capable of turning out work of excellent quality on any
of the machines in the shop, and doing it in the time set by the Planning
Department.
4. One thing to which the writer hopes Mr. Gantt's paper may lead
is the adoption by the trades schools of the methods advocated. Most
trades schools pay very little attention, if any, to the time taken by their
students for performing the various exercises or tasks forming their
course. Too often they have not nearly enough instructors, and boys
waste a great deal of time trying to figure out how to do the various
jobs; furthermore they have no conception of the feeds and speeds and
depth of cuts that should be used in doing work in machine tools.
5. An instruction card prepared for each piece of work, showing
the manner in which it should be set in the machine and explaining the
various steps of the operation in their proper sequence and the tools to
be used, would not only make it easier for the instructor but would enable
the student to learn at once the best method, instead of using a
method of his own with no foundation in experience.
6. If proper instructions and tools were furnished, and the machine
and belts kept in good working order, a definite time could be placed
on the job, and the student made to acquire habits of industry. The
present methods of instruction may be fine for developing any latent ingenuity
of the student, but they certainly waste valuable time. It would
be ridiculous to expect a child to write a composition without having
first learned the alphabet.
7. Professor Agassiz once gave a student a fish and simply told
him to go and study the fish and come back in the course of a week and
tell him what he had found out about it. Naturally enough, when thc
student came to him, Professor Agassiz told him that his observations
were very superficial and sent him to spend another week in studying it.
The student did eventually know something of the nature of the fish,
but he took about three times as much time as he should have taken to
acquire the knowledge.
8. The greatest value of the system of training outlined in Mr.
Gantt's paper lies in the fact that in busy times, when skilled workmen
are unavailable, it is possible to train inexperienced men, wdio are intelligent
and ambitious, to turn out good work rapidly. The writer has seen
an absolutely green man. trained under this system so that in less than a
month he was capable of turning out work on a drill-press as satisfactorily
as an old hand; of course during this time the "gang-boss," "speedboss/'
and "inspector" were almost constantly with him helping and instructing
him. After a workman has learned to run a drill-press success-

120 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
fully, he can be trained in about the same time to run a milling machine,
lathe or planer.
9. One of the best examples of the efficiency of this system of training
workmen, is the results achieved with young college students taken
on after their Freshman or Junior year, in the shops with which the
writer is connected. After their year ''11 the shop they return to college
and complete their course. One object of this plan is to train them in habits
of industry, and this object is most successfully accomplished.
10. During this year they are governed by exactly the same regulations
as other workmen and are allowed no special privileges of am
sort. Under the instruction of the various functional foremen they do effective
work from the start. Thev are started on work of a very simple
nature, such as running a sensitive drill-press or cutting-off machine,
from which thev progress to a radial drill doing a more difficult class of
work, thence in turn to the turret lathes, milling machines, planers and
engine lathes, spending about two months on each machine; almost from
the start these students accomplish tlie tasks set and earn their bonus, and
before the expiration of their time on each machine can Turn out as much
and as good work as old experienced hands.
11. The progress that can be made with adequate instruction is astonishing
even to one familiar with this system, and the writer sincerely
hopes before long to see the system applied to the trades schools and the
college shops.
12. That the Taylor System is a system whose success is due to
teaching and helping tlie workman, should be brought out more prominently.
In the first place, the proper tools, in first class condition, are
provided, and his machine and belts are kept in good repair. Secondly,
the gang-boss must show him how to set his work up quickly and in the
best way, and not only tell him, but demonstrate it. Tlie inspector must
not only detect defects in his work, but must explain, when the workman
starts on a job, the drawings, the degree of accuracy, and the kind of
finish required. The speed-boss instructs him in the actual operation of
his machine, and the setting of his tools, feeds, speeds and depth of cuts,
and is prepared to help him if necessary by actual demonstration.
13. Under this system a workman can turn out from two to four
times as much work, as his efforts are not largely consumed in findingout
what he is to do, devising ways to do it and struggling against discouraging
adverse conditions over which he lias no control.
Mr. Charles Piez. The bonus system if rewarding labor, which Mr.
Gantt describes in his paper, can hardly in itself be considered a system
ot instruction, and is, in fact, no more an instrument to this end than anv

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 121
of the well-known schemes of compensating workmen. It is through the
methods Mr. Gantt employs that his work becomes a most effective means
for training workmen in habits of industry ami co-operation.
2. What appeals to me most in Mr. Gantt's presentation is its
distinctly human tone; the spirit of helpfulness toward the worker which.
it evinces. He recognizes that people as a rule are willing to work at any
"reasonable speed and in any reasonable manner if sufficient inducement
is offered for so doing, and if they are so trained as to be able to earn
the reward," and he finds in the application of his system that "an
instructor, a task, and a bonus," prove most useful.
3. Satisfying a man's desire for acquiring skill, or proficiency, setting
a task that is reasonable and well within his capacity when properly
trained, and paying him a suitable reward beyond his day's pay for accomplishing
the task set, constitute a most complete and comprehensive
system of training for modern specialized production.
4. Mr. Gantt recognizes the fact that reorganization often means
only a change of mental attitude, and that it can, therefore, be best accomplished
by persuation and example. Then, tor,-, while establishing
fixed methods of performing- tasks, he allows ample opportunity for initiative
on the part of the worker ; in fact, he stimulates and directs it.
5. In these days when systematizing of industrial establishments
has become a recognized specialty in the mechanical world, a few thoughts
suggested by Mr. Gantt's paper may not be amiss.
6 There is abroad today a great deal of what might be termed System
Idolatry, which manifests itself in the belief that system produce^
output, when, as a matter of fact, it simply indicates the lines along which
maximum output can be attained ; and because of this erroneous conception
the system assumes the rigidity of a creed, and the various printed
forms of which it makes use are invested with a sanctity that is intended
to place them beyond the reach of suggestion or criticism, whereas they
are frequently modified without any departure being made from the un­
derlying- principles.
7. The adaptability of an already existing organization, from which
the material for carrying out a system must be drawn, the peculiarities
of the product, and the demands of the customer must be given full consideration.
If the Svstem is considered the important thing, and organization,
product and customer must bend to its lines, is it any wonder that
attempts at systematizing a plant may fail to result in the full economies
promised? And thev fail, not because the system is inherently wrong,
but because of the fanaticism of the enthusiast applying it. Tact and

122 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
good judgment must be supplied by the introducer or receiver of the system.
8. I am a firm believer in the efficacy of shop system, for in its essence
it implies the production of work along lines of least resistance and
greatest economy. But direct lines are not always the lines of least resistance,
particularly when they run counter to peculiarities of ability or
temperament in an otherwise efficient organization. It seems unnecessary
to compel an organization to conform to a system chart, because il
is much simpler and more effective to make the chart conform to the abilities
of the individuals composing the organization.
9. The first step, even in the mildest form of reorganization, is a
partial disruption of the existing organization, and great care and tact
must be exercised, lest in the rebuilding, discontent and discord creep in.
The line between profit and loss in most establishments is so fine that even
a single element of discord can destroy that intangible, profit-making
quality, known as team spirit. It is on this account that my interest lies,
not so much in this system or that, as in the personality and methods of
the men applying it.
Mr. C. X. Lauer. Mr. Gantt had adopted a humane, as well as a
scientific, basis for his system of management, and this will do more than
any other element towards broadening the field of men working on the
problems of management and organization. Air. Gantt has provided for
all the essentials of good management, namely, standardization, task-setting,
piece-rating, etc.
2. It has been the writer's experience that the best results, after a
definite plan has been laid out, are obtained if the spirit of co-operation
can be engendered in the workmen. Tlie manager who depends entirely
upon his own ability to drive his employees is bound to fail by just so
much as the employee holds in reserve against contingencies which he
feels may arise through tlie whim of the manager. It is the spirit of helpfulness
which runs all through Mr. Gantt's paper that especially prompts
tlie writer to pronounce it well worthy of serious consideration.
Mr. Lewis Sanders. I am convinced that the method of shop management
described by Mr. Gantt is the logical and correct one for getting
the maximum production from our factories at the minimum expense.
There is one point that should not be lost sight of. and that is
that this system is not a substitute for the proper training of apprentices,
and in no way decreases the desirability of it, and I do not thinkthat
Mr. Gantt advocates it as such. It i.s a system that should insure the
maximum output from both the skilled and the unskilled.
2. The great advantage of having well-trained men under this sys-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 123
tern will be that they will continually be improving the manufacturingprocesses,
so as to cut the time of work, and that these improvements will
then be applied to the work of the untrained. On the other hand the accurate
analysis of the method of doing a piece of work, required by this
system, should be added to the course of training of the apprentice. Wc
can then very much increase the speed of special work, where only one
or two pieces are made, when put in the hands of men so trained that bypractice
the elimination of unnecessary operations will become almost instinctive.
3. I have not had the opportunity for direct observation of any
plant where these methods have been introduced, but I have seen individual
cases where a little study of the methods of doing a piece of work
has resulted in marked reduction in time, and this often in classes of work
where saving would not be expected; for instance in reducing the time
necessary to read thermometers. I recall a test where one of the observers
had to read twelve thermometers once every two minutes. He
never succeeded in reading more than eight, and was on the go continually
; 1 took his records and tried to see what could be done; the first
few readings I got no more than he had had, but by studying just where
to stand so as to get the light unobstructed and not to be obliged to shift
my position, in a short time 1 was able to read all the thermometers in 1
minute 50 seconds. In another case where three men were required to
take the observations, I had to make some laboratory tests with only one
available to assist me, and by a little study of the method of taking the
readings we soon found that two could take them quite as easily as
three.
4. At Schenectady I have seen a 2000-kw. vertical turbine used for
experimental work, completely dismantled and a new set of wheels put
in, and the machine re-erected and running within 24 hours from the
time steam had been shut off. This was done by two machinists and a
eranesman. I am informed that the men have now become so expert that
they do it in twelve hours.
5. A factory in which I am interested bid on turning out a certain
small piece of work in quantity. We made a detail study of very fractional
operation involved and made our bid on our estimates, being unusually
careful in our figures because the shop had never done any work
of the character. Our bid was so low that it was returned to us with a
request to revise it, as the customer was sure it was less than the labor
and material cost. The customer had already made 80,000 pieces We
had sufficient confidence in our figures to insist on their acceptance as
thev stood. Our estimated labor and materia! cost was 36 cents, and at

124 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
tiie start they cost us 38 cents, which was cut to 34 cents when everything
w

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 125
9. While quite true that there is a maximum wage that we can afford
to pay, it is also true that an agreement with a workman should be
lived up to as strictly as a contract with a customer. We have to fulfil
our contracts even if we have made an error and find them unprofitable;
tlie same should be done with the workman when we finii that we have
set too easy a task. Tasks set should therefore hold for a definite period,
say a year, unless a change in method is made. Before the task is set
it should be the subject of accurate investigation to determine the minimum
time possible. If the task set proves too severe it must be corrected
at once, as the workman is not a party to tlie setting of the task.
Mr. J. C. Jurgensen, Mr. Gantt's methods are based on a concrete
knowledge of the human element, which is sure to result in fair dealing
to both men and employers.
2. I feel justified in speaking on this subject, since for more than
five years I have used a sort of apprentice system for producing reliable
and efficient help for the operation of power plants. Although the conditions
in an engine room differ very widely from those in a shop or fact<
ry, yet the same principle holds, that men who can make good must be
trained. When this is once fully realized, every shop and plant owner
will look more favorably at the idea of maintaining a training course for
his men. as a part of his routine business.
3. To succeed in the training of men. the leader needs to be wellequipped—he
must tie able to control himself in the handling of his men,
lie must lie thoroughly familiar with tlie work and the duties of all his
men, and he must be a close student of human nature. He ought to have
tlie instincts of a teacher, he must be a good adviser in many troubles,
and above all, he must be just as both judge and jury in settling disputes;
he must be sympathetic and vet firm and have determination
enough to see that orders are carried out to the letter.
4. The leader must make his men understand that it is one of two
things: advance, or make room for a better man: and inducement for
compelling a man to see it in that light, such as a nine-hour work-day,
reasonable wages, provision for advancement, etc., must be present. It
is a question of setting right both the employer's mind and the workman's
job, and the Golden Rule must be applied before success is possible.
As a general rule, it is necessary to hold out materia! inducements for
acquiring better skill and efficiency. With some, but not witli many, ambition
and tlie right temperament will bring this about.
5. I'o secure safety and economy in an engine room, the men must
become willing workers and must lake pride in the engineer's department.
To reach this point, a man must feel that his position is secure, with a

126 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
good record, and that advancement and benefit are certain to follow; on
the other hand, that a continued bad record will bring discharge. Advancement
according- to seniority is all right with a qualifying clause—
instead of giving preference to the oldest man in the service, makes it the
oldest best man.
6. If opportunity for material advancement is not present when a
man has gained his apprenticeship or has reached the highest station
possible, we find a new job for him. This is not so hard as it would seem,
since other plants are generally willing to take him, and this provides
a further chance for advancing the members of the department. Success
along this line cannot be had without co-operation, and this we obtain
mainly through a system of rules, and an organized school of instruction
in which the Chief Engineer is the Chief Instructor, and each man
in charge of a section, an Assistant Instructor in that section of work.
7. In the fire room, the men are paid a good salary for producing
one boiler horse power for a certain amount of coal containing a certain
per cent of ash : 10 per cent of the value saved over this standard goes
to the fireman as a cash bonus each month; on the other hand whatever
is lost, according to the standard, is deducted from that man's monthlysaving.
The head fireman receives a sum equal to half the bonus of each
fireman—he is therefore vitally interested in having each man do as well
as possible. If a fireman cannot make a bonus, his job is not secure.
8. The coal passers also receive, divided equally between the three
shifts, a sum equal to half the bonus of each fireman—they are therefore
much interested to see that all the firemen "make good," and yet there
is no motive for collusion between the men. It is soon shown that the
best policy for both the company and the men is a continued effort to
make the bonus as large as possible. All the men in the department are
thus taught to follow both daily and monthly standards in work and expenses.
9. To illustrate the scope of our Engineering Department Training
School which is a part of the Men's Relief and Educational Society I
will mention the objects of the Society, as stated in our by-laws:
Section 1. The objects of this Society shall be the raising of funds
to provide a weekly relief income to members in good standing during
illness or accident and such other relief as may be deemed advisable, and
to assist in defraying burial expenses of a deceased member: also, to defray
tlie expenses incurred in carrying on the training course which constitutes
the Educational Branch of this Society.
Section 2. As a further relief, members who arc in good standing

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 127
may apply to the Society for loans, not to exceed 10 days pay of such
member's monthly salary. Loans to be paid back in four successive and
equal monthly installments, plus I cent per dollar per month, on amount
ilue to the Society.
Section 3. The object of the Educational cotir.se is to give such practical
instruction and example as will further a spirit of manhood and induce
the members of the Department to become self-reliant, observing
and manly men. Training such men to become safe and conscientious
workmen, worthy to receive the Company's Certificate of .Merit for two
years' service.
Section 4. To ambitious holders of the Certificate of Merit, the
training course will endeavor to supply the technical information most
needed to make such workmen qualify as safe and efficient Operating
Steam Engineers, worthy to receive the Company's Operating Steam Engineers'
Apprenticeship Certificate for five years' service.
Mr. Willis E Flail. Mr. Gantt's paper dwells upon a component in
our industrial situation that must soon have more consideration than it
has received in the past. For comparison and analysis, and to avoid confliction,
his system should be divided as follows:

128 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the highest degree of efficiency (and here again the task method does not
possess exclusive privileges). It is unnecessary to substantiate the statement
that there will still be a vast difference between ihe most and the
least efficient of the force.
3. How, then, will you set the task? If it is set so that but a limited
number, say 65 per cent can meet it, then the remaining 35 per cent
must be eliminated from the rewards. The answer may be that this remaining
35 per cent will have the day rate adjusted according to their
relative efficiency. To that extent the task is not better than the dayrate
system. The other alternative is to set a task that the least efficient
can meet, but neither is this fair to the employer or would it promote
efficiency in the employee. In short, with the task system proposed men
must be practically equal in efficiency or it is only a partial eliminator of
day work. Unavoidable ruling conditions due to the unequal efficiency
of men, instructed or otherwise, seem to prevent this from being other
than a partial day-work system for producers. However, this is of minor
importance in comparison with the other feature in Mr. Gantt's paper,
the use of an instructor.
4. For greater productive efficiency, to the mutual benefit of employer
and employee, the use of an instructor, combined with the intelligent
piece-work price-setting described by Mr. Taylor (Vol. 14 of
Transactions), seems full of promise. That the use of an instructor establishes
"habits of industry" of which Mr. Gantt speaks, must not be
misconstrued. There is quite a difference, with apology for the terms,
between the "sweating process" and "farming the work;" both extremes
are equally demoralizing. It i.s the medium position that is always most
difficult to assume at first and the one that is most desirable. It is only
by accident it is reached by thc haphazard method of establishing piecework
rates at present so generally used, which usually results in one or
the other of the two extremes, until thc price, after many adjustments, is
about where it should have been originally. But bv this time some change
in the method of doing the work makes necessary a new start. Instruction,
establishing industry, does not mean the "killing pace." Ordinarily
it is the contrary. Commotion is not necessarily industry; usually they
vary in inverse ratio. There is one best way of accomplishing work and
that way when once learned, will be the easiest. Intelligent setting of
piece-work rates or task limits with an instructor eliminate the more flagrant
abuses of the system. Some existing variables cannot be met with
the present status of the mechanical arts, but thev are insignificant in
comparison with the evils eliminated, and our range of vision should not

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 129
be limited by a disadvantage of perhaps 5 per cent when there is a 95
per cent gain in sight.
5. Most of us that have been identified with piece work have, no
doubt, fell for some time that a modification of the presenl atrocious
abuses of the system was necessary. Mr. Gantt would render an invaluable
service to the Society by giving it a comparison of results obtained,
with the use of an instructor as the only variable factor. For instance,
where the Taylor differential system is in vogue, what additional advantage
is obtained by the full use and authority of an instructor? The additional
cost should not be overlooked.
6. One other feature, though this is somewhat of a digression from
Mr. Gantt's paper, should be made a part of the duties of the instructing
and piece-setting department. It is that of time-checking, where either
the piece-work or the task system is in vogue. For instance a producer
spends actually 7J/2 hours on piece-work but has been in the shop some
10 hours in all. There is a loss "for good and all" of 2X hours of productive
time. In other words, what percentage of the producer s time is
lost in this way, and why? Is it not safe to sav that most of the establishments
using piece-work ignore this point? In one instance where the
tonnage of a plant was increased more than 90 per cent over wdiat was
formerly, at least, normal tonnage, about 30 per cent of this increase was
due to the elimination of the annoying and demoralizing delay known as
"waiting for work." And yet this delay was previously not over-conspicuous
and its magnitude was not appreciated until it was eliminated.
There was practically no rate-cutting.
7. Nothing about a shop can be more easily hidden, either intentionally
or unintentionally, than this loss of time. The greatest incentive
to indulgence in it is a slip-shod method of rate-setting, especially when
the known practice of the employer is to await the first opening to slash
the price. For this the employer is responsible. His loss is dependent
upon the nature of the product and the relative proportion of organization
expenses to producer time. The loss to employee is easily computed.
That it can be more satisfactorily checked and controlled by intelligence
than by the present method of price-setting is self-evident. This,
with the elimination of favoritism, should answer the argument so
often made, in defense of the present method of setting piece-work prices,
that it does not make much difference so long as the "average" rate is
about right.
Mr. Harrington Emerson. There has been an almost unanimous
chorus of agreement with Mr. Gantt. and music sometimes sounds better

130 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
if there is now and then a note of discord. I once asked Mr. Gantt what
happened in case one of the workmen whose time he had set managed to
do the task in less than the time prescribed. Mr. Gantt very cheerfully
answered that in that case the workman would take his place and he
would have to take the workman's place. Since then my assistants and
myself have had to standardize over 100,000 different jobs, and we have
never been able to realize the accuracy which Air. Gantt so flippantly -
claimed. The reason probably is that Air. Gantt's work lay along standard
lines, working on standard material, in standard manner, while my
work lay in repair shops, working on unstandardized material, unstandardized
jobs and unstandardized conditions. In such matters as locomotive
repairs we were able to predetermine, within four per cent, both
time and cost of the aggregate, but not to strike the exact time of the jobs
that entered into repairs.
2. Now Air. Gantt comes forward with this paper, and we have a
chorus of essent to the statement that by training the workmen the problem
is solved. My experience has been that this is not at all the end of
it. It is easy to train the workman in habits of industry and co-operation,
but when you have provided a method for training him, you have
not touched the real problem. What I would like from Air. Gantt is a
paper on training managers in habits of logical thought and co-operation.
3. To illustrate the enormous practical and economical importance
of this question, I quote the figures on locomotive repairs per mile on
four out of the five trunk lines running west from Xew York. This is
not a very accurate standard, but nevertheless it is used. On one of
these, 44 mills maintains the power in first-class operating condition; on
the second road, the cost is only 7 cents: on the third road 12 cents, and
on the fourth road over 1(1 cents. This fourth road has a mileage of 30,-
000,000 miles, and the cost is over 12 cents more than on the first road,
making the amount of money lost per year $3,000,000. Yet this road has
good grades out of Xew York, while the road that shows lhe lowest cost
has the heaviest grades. (This last statement was in answer to a question
from Air. A. II. Emery.—Editor.)
4. The trouble does not lie with the workmen. No doubt the workmen
are wasteful, no doubt they have not been fully trained, but the trouble
lies absolutely in the managements which have not yet awakened to
their problems, and accept enormous wastes as inevitable.
Air. AUlton P. Higgins. When this marvelous proposition was first
advanced two years ago by Air. Taylor, I looked upon it as a departure
cf very great promise, and I have not been disappointed in its results. In

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 131
addition to considerations of shop discipline, efficiency, output, profits,
and the well-being of the workmen, as a means of education, 1 believe it
is equally important and efficient.
2. In place of the old system of apprenticeship we have now the
training school, the apprentice school, the trade school; but the shop
which trains its apprentices to the best advantage to meet modern requirements
has within it a trade school. That is, the task, intelligent
analysis of methods, and the bonus, are most effective elements of disciplinary
education, not only important as developing skill and efficiency,
but developing intellectual capacity and manly character. I believe that
the training given in the shop through these methods may be as good as
anv line of mental and intellectual discipline, that can be offered in a university.
3. In regard to the suggestion Air. Emerson made, of training managers
and superintendents, if we wisely and faithfully train the skilled
workmen, are we not training the managers? If we want large trees in
the forests, had we not better give our attention to the nursery?
Prof. Wm. Kent. At the meeting in Detroit in 1895, when Air.
Taylor made an address upon a similar subject to this, he met with unanimous
dissent from the older men ; and I got up in that meeting and said
that a man over fifty years of age could not be expected to appreciate Air.
Taylor's paper, and that the revolution in the industry that was to follow
from Air. Taylor's plan was to come from the work of such younger
men as Air. Gantt. I am glad to see that Air. Gantt has verified my ex­
pectations.
2. The hopeful thing about this paper, which I regard as the most
important that has ever appeared in the Transactions of the Society, is
that it is in harmony with humanitarian ideas. 1 am glad to see this sentiment
throughout the Society. There would be more of it if more of our
mechanical engineers would go into shops, instead of into power plants
and drafting offices, and offices downtown.
7,. The trouble with the managers has been mental inertia. Men
of great brain power, enterprising, and in importani positions, will not
take half an hour, which is worth perhaps $50 to them, to think 011 a problem
which might end in saving them $10,000 a year 111 the simp. That
kind of manager, however, i.s rapidly being displaced and the younger
men, who are willing to do some thinking along the lines of Air. Gantt's
paper, are coming forward to take their places.
Air. Tames Al. Dodge. I have been asked whether the concern that I
am connected with has abandoned the Taylor System, and T desire to

132 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
be recorded as saying that we have not abandoned it; on the contrary, it
is working to our complete satisfaction in Philadelphia and Chicago, and
we are introducing it as well in our Indianapolis plant. Mr. Taylor told
us five years ago that the introduction of his system would be of great
saving to us in normal times, but that its greatest value would be shown
during periods of commercial depression, and 1 am very glad to be able
to sav that Air. Taylor was absolutely correct in bis statement. ( )ur
business during the past year ( 1908) would have shown a deficit had we
been working under the methods we thought quite excellent prior to our
adoption of the Taylor System, which carried us through this twelve
months during which our busines was curtailed about one-half, with a
moderate profit showing on thc right side of our annual statement.
(Question by Air. Frank A. Haughton as to the difficulty in hold­
ing together their organization of experts through this period of depres-1
sion.)
2. I am glad that question was asked, because we did not experi­
ence the difficulty suggested. Lhider the Taylor System the functions of
the different members of our organization are so clearly defined, that we
were able very promptly to reduce our expenses by demoting a number
of our workers, thus avoiding the demoralization of the sub-divisions of
our organization. We took the men into our confidence and explained to
them the exact situation, and they cheerfully accepted it; in fact we had
no trouble at all. Our organization was and is intact, and, as Air. Tay­
lor told us, can be readily expanded to any desired extent as soon as in­
creased orders make it necessary.
The Author. A system of management may be defined as a means
of causing- men to co-operate with each other for a common end. If this
co-operation is maintained by force, the system is in a state of unstable
equilibrium, and will go to pieces if the strong hand is removed. Co­
operation in which the bond is mutual interest in the success of work done
by intelligent and honest methods produces a state of equilibrium which
is stable and needs no outside support.
2. Until within a few years the mechanic was necessarily the source
and conserver of industrial knowledge, and on him rested therefore, the
responsibility for training workmen. With the advent of the scientifically

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 23
^ R O D E R I C K & & A S C O M R O P E CO,
BR>HCrfSt£ WARREN ST. N.Y. X ST. LOU I S , M O.
WIRE ROPEVnd AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway in
Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR. This
is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during 1907.
Ask for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
R o t a t i n g W i r e R o p e
FOR HOISTING.
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either
with or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200% GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your inquiries are solicited.
M a c o m b e r ® > W h y t e
R o p e C o m p a n y
QUALITY
— MANUFACTURERS
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO. Mills, Coal City, 111.
NEW YORK BOSTON PITTSBURG NEW ORLEANS PORTLAND

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
educated engineer, capable of substituting a scientific solution of problems
for the empirical solution of the mechanic, the responsibility of
training workers naturally shifts to his shoulders. If be accepts this responsibility,
and bases training on the results of scientific investigation,
the efficiency of the workman can be so greatly increased that the manufacturer
can afford to give those that take advantage of this training
such compensation as will secure their hearty and continuous co-operation,
thus making the first permanent advance toward the solution of the
labor problem.
3. This was first demonstrated by Air. Fred W. Tavlor, and the
whole industrial community has already been profoundly influenced by
his work.
It was well said yesterday that the work of the engineer has been
less appreciated than that of any other learned profession, and a broader
recognition of his work will have a marked influence on our civilization.
5. He is carrying forward under the direction of science the work
that was begun by the mechanic who first learned to chip flint or make
a fire, and it is he alone that can lead the mechanic of todav to a better
understanding of his problems, and the capitalist to a better appreciation
of their solution.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
KEYSEAT MILLING MACHINES, Two Sizes
Have capacities for Keyseat X and H4 " in width, 24" and 30" long, in shafts up to 4" and
8" in diameter, stock deliveries.
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated

I N D U S T R I A L P R O G R E S S
Tiiuoof Tasting Vlmil
To Test Carrying Strength of Woods at
Exposition in Seattle.
EVERY one of the big logs to be used
in the erection of the Forestry building
on the grounds of thc Alaska-
Yukon-Pacilic Exposition at Seattle next
jear will contain between 10,01)0 and 12,000
feet of board measure, or lumber sufficient
lo build the average frame house Surrounding
tne big building will be 122 of
these mammoth logs, forty feet in height,
and containing a total of more than 1,500,-
000 feet of lumber.
One of the most important exhibits in
connection with the lumber industry, and
one of particular interest to contractors
and builders ail over the country, will be
the timber-testing plant to be operated by
lhe United States government. The plant
will be located in the Machinery Hall, and
all known woods will be tested to determine
their carrying strength to the breaking
point. Similar experiments will be made
with all kinds of building stones for the
I'rst time at an international exposition.
The exhibit in the Forestry building at
Seattle next year will be complete in every
detail. There will be a comprehensive display
of timber of various kinds, showing
Ihe logs just as they leave the forest, besides
sections and cross sections of the big
timbers. The various kinds of woods in a
finished condition will also be displayed,
and there will be many samples showing
flooring, paneling, ceiling work and other
uses to which wood is put to decorate the
interior of residence and office buildings.
When completed the Forestry building at
the Seattle Exposition will be one of the
largest log houses ever built in the world
and will be one of the most attractive buildings
on the grounds of the 1909 exhibition.
The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition is
now 75 per cent, complete and half of the
eleven miles of walk's and streets have been
paved with asphalt. Ten big buildings are
complete, and the United States government
has cleared its site and will commence
work on the buildings to house exhibits
from the department at Washington, Alaska,
Hawaii and the Philippines at once.
Improved Welding.
The novel method of electric welding of
1-. S. Lachman makes it possible to use
sleel in place of malleable iron for many
articles. Two unequal sections do not
weld satisfactorily, so one piece of metal
is cast with a projecting edge and the other
with a point, and the two projections,
forced together by a hydraulic press, are
made to form the highest resistance of an
electric circuit. P>cing thus heated to melting
point or nearly so, the pieces, under the
great pressure, become quickly more
strongly welded together than they could
he attached by means of rivets.
Self-Dumping Car Haul for slopes and
inclines for handling mine cars is illustrated
in a catalog issued by F. C. Greene. Mining
Engineer, Republic bldg., Cleveland, < >.
Controllable Center Pump Buckets are
described in a booklet issued by the hisley
Manufacturing Co., Indianapolis, Ind
Walch & Wyeth, Lake St., Chicago, III..
has issued a booklet on the Erwood
Straight Way Swing Gate Valve.
R. Z. Snell Manufacturing Co., Smith
Bend, Ind., describe their concrete mixers
in a neat catalog. As there are so many
mixers on the market, it is no small matter
to select one that will meet the requirements
of every class of work.

VOL. IX
!iy ! la milt on.
•SPECIE
E
MARCH 1909 No. 3
•0©]

134 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
makers to buy up all the available musket-barrels left useless at the termination
of the wars and to employ them for conducting gas. The inconveniences
attending the use of such short lengths are apparent, but
nothing better was at hand ; and it was many years before tubes much
longer than six feet were made for any purpose. The mechanical equipment
for making tubes was not in existence and did not appear until the
widening demand made it necessary for some one to invent and perfect
lite apparatus.
In 1807 Robert Fulton drew curious crowds to the shores of the
Hudson River with his steamboat; and while the boiler used by him was
not tubular, it was the immediate precursor of those in which tubes of
great strength and adetpiate length were absolutely necessary. Stephenson's
"Rocket" in 1829 called again for tubes better and larger than any
previously made.
Looking into the early days of the Tube Industry, we find that the
most simple and obvious methods of manufacture were naturally followed
first, and what we call a "lap-welded" tube was the result—a flat strip of
metal of suitable thickness being bent into tube shape until its longitudinal
edges lapped, these being afterward soldered or welded together.
Welding was first done under a trip-hammer, or sometimes by hand. In
1812 an Englishman named Osborn took nut a patent covering machinery
and apparatus fur the hammered welding of iron and steel tubes from
bent plates.
Stephenson's Rocket.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 135
In 1824 tubes were first made by bending plates until the edges butted
together, and then welding them at the point of contact, either bymeans
of a power hammer fitted with suitable dies, or by passing the
tube between revolving rollers strong enough to furnish the needed
pressure.
In 1825 a Air. Whitehouse invented machinery for butt-welding by
means of a chain-bench placed in front of a furnace, the heated tube
being carried through a die or bell by means of an advancing chain and
tongs, driven by suitable power. This process, with steady modifications
and improvements, is essentially the one in use today for all butt-welded
steel pipe.
The Brooks process of 1857 proposed to roll tubes from rods or
wires of steel, after such had been coiled helically on bars of suitable diameter.
An extension of this idea was adopted in 1802 for bicycle construction,
bands or strips of high-grade steel being wound spirally to the
required diameter, either in single or double thickness, the joints afterwards
being soldered or welded. Tubes have also been made from
rolled sheets by bending them to form, the edges being beaded together
and subsequently pressed tight, either with or without brazing.
Steel Billets as delivered to Seamless Tubing Machine

136 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
SEAMLESS PROCESSES.
The possibility of producing a homogeneous and ductile steel in large
quantites is a comparatively recent achievement, and to it entirely we
owe the remarkable development and success of the Seamless Steel Tube
Industry in this country and abroad. The early efforts of experimenters
who aimed at seamless tubes in steel show the influences of the old methods
followed for the ductile metals, brass and copper. This analogy is
inevitable. The first railway passenger cars were patterned after the carriages
then in use, but thev have gradually taken thc form best suited
to their functions and scope. The early steamboats were made as nearly
as possible like sailing vessels, but now we have modified even the hull,
so that almost the only analogy which remains is that both float.
So, in breaking away from the old methods of making brass and
copper tubes, we find the expected steps of departure. What seems to be
the first attempt to make seamless tubes appears in 1837, under the English
patent of Hanson. This provides a thick, short cylinder of caststeel,
which is raised to a very high temperature and placed into a matrix,
and then by means of a hydraulic ram the metal is squeezed through
a small orifice around a punch, a seamless tube being the result. This
method, with a few modifications, was again patented in England in
1867. A similar process was patented by Elliot in 1882. finder this specification
plastic or molten steel was to be forced hydraulicaiiv through
a suitable orifice so that a tube with the fibers arranged helically would
be produced.
The swedging mill patented by Church & Harlow in England in
1841, and subsequently modified under patents issued to Afannesmann
and Stiefel, had in view the more economical means of lengthening hollow
billets of cast or drilled steel, preparatory to cold-drawing.
Sometimes solid bars of steel were drilled from end to end to make
a tube-shape suitable for the cold-drawing operation, but this process
was slow and expensive. There was a time, however, when Bicycle Tubing
commanded in this country a price as high as $2.00 a pound, and it
was only on the strength of such a market that the earlv methods of production
were practicable. One of the first attempted processes, while
not successful for small tubes, has since been satisfactorily developed for
tubes larger than five inches outside diameter; this is the cupping method,
which consists in pressing a cup or cap from a flat plate and progressively
elongating it into a tube by decreasing; the diameter while it passes
through a series of reducing dies. This method is practiced in the manufacture
of tubes from 5 to 30 inches in diameter, and will be referred to
again.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 137
In making seamless tubes from cast-steel cylinders, it was found that
the material was not homogeneous and developed blow-holes while being
drawn. Furthermore, it was not uniform in hardness and texture.
The cupped plates did not permit the manufacture of tubes in all commercial
lengths or thickness, and the drilled bars yielded costs which were
prohibitive even when selling prices were much higher than they are
now.
The sudden and remarkable growth of the bicycle several years ago
made Seamless Steel Tubes necessary not only at a comparatively low
price, but primarily in large quantities: the early modes of manufacture
Centering Billets before Heating for Piercing Mill
were slow and tedious, and orders aggregating millions of feet were
waiting to be filled. The outlook was bright, even if limited entirely to
the field of the bicycle, and plans for seamless-tube mills were prepared
at many points, chiefly in the regions where bicycles were being made.
All these plans, nevertheless, failed to show a simpler, quicker, and more
economical means of securing what is now called the pierced billet, or the
steel in suitable condition for passing to the draw-benches Tubes had
to be obtained, however, and plans were carried forward, with the piercing
proposition left to care for itself, at least until the pressing demand
could be partly satisfied, and experience gained by the way. Pierced billets
were imported from Europe to be drawn down to the sizes required

138 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
in this country for bicycles. As long as the piercing operation was left
aside, it was a simple and relatively inexpensive matter to start a seamless-tube
plant, and the natural result was a draw-bench or two here and
there all over the manufacturing section, where tubes were made to meet
the steadily increasing demand.
It was well known that greater production and lower costs would result
from an improvement of the piercing devices then in use, and the
much-sought object was finally developed by Afr. R. C. Stiefel and put
into service as the Stiefel Piercing Machine. While the piercing process
was being perfected, steel-makers were engaged in producing a uniform
quality of mild steel which would permit satisfactory piercing and coldchawing
and yield also a finished tube with all the required physical attributes.
Both quests—for a machine to work and a steel to be worked
—were practically satisfied at the same time, and Seamless Steel Tubes
then began to count as a respectable branch of the great Steel Industry
in America. The application of Shelby Seamless Tubes to marine and
naval boilers gave a substantial impetus to the business and directed it
along new lines; and when the leading railroads began to specify Shelby
Tubes for their locomotives, their success and future were finally assured.
It cannot be said that either the steel or the methods of making
tubes from it are perfect today; but it is certain that the initial difficulties
have been successfully overcome, and that all that remains is to secure,
by constant study and experiment, a closer approximation to
absolute perfection as an end not ever to be wholly attained, but kept always
as an ideal.
THE MANUFACTURE OF SHELBY SEAMLESS STEEL TUBING POM BILLETS.
As previously intimated, much of the success of Shelby Seamless
Tubing is due to the excellent qualities of the steel used. This steel is
shipped to the rolling mills in blooms 7 inches square in section, and
about six feet long, weighing approximately 750 pounds each. Before
being rolled each bloom is carefully inspected for surface defects, and
all irregularities are chipped off with pneumatic hammers. The blooms
are then sent to the heating furnace, and after acquiring a suitable temperature
are rolled from their square section to round bars, which vary
in diameter according to the size of tubes required to be made from
them. Some of the bars are six inches in diameter when finished; others
are as small at 2;/ inches. For convenience in shipping, they are cut to
lengths of about 10 feet, and sent to the various lube mills on factory
requisitions.
The Piercing Machines at each mill have different capacities, in

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 139
sizes and quantities; the "rounds" must therefore be cut again into pieces
which will furnish with the least waste the size, length, and thickness of
tube required by the factory's orders. After being cut to the working
length the steel is known as a billet. It may be from one to five feed
long; but it must contain as many cubic inches of steel as the finished
tube, plus enough to cover the losses incidental to manufacture.
It is important that the piercing point should strike the very center
of the solid billet as it advances, for if it does not the steel will be thicker
on one side of the finished tube than on the other, and no amount of careful
cold-drawing can correct the eccentricity. To insure the passage of
the point through the center of the billet, each one is drilled suitably before
it passes to the heating furnace. The bottom oi the furnace is inclined,
and the centered billets of the proper length are fed into the upper
and cooler end, from which they roll by gravity to the lower end,
where the temperature is high enough to render the steel soft and semiplastic.
Close to the discharging end of the furnace the piercing mill is
located, and the billets are fed into it, centered end foremost, either automatically
or, in the smaller mills, by hand.
The solid billet, almost white hot, is pushed forward until it is
caught by the revolving piercing disks, and from that point onward the
machine completes the operation without Lhe touch of a human finger.
When the billet reaches the stationary piercing point of malleable iron,
and starts to pass over it, forced by the forwarding and revolving action
oi the heavy rotating disks, only a slight, dull, grinding sound is audible;
there is nothing spectacular about the operation, nor much suggestion
of the enormous power required to displace the metal from the center
of the hot billet towards the outside. So powerful are the piercing
disks and so carefully planned is each part of the massive machinery that
the billet is apparently molded into a tube with the same freedom as a
lump of dough is manipulated by a pastry-cook. When the tube emerges
from the machine, hot gases burn lividly from its ends; the inspectors
look over it carefully for possible defects, and if it is perfect it is roiled
at once to the saw, which cuts it in two pieces almost instantly ; a shower
of sparks and a ringing noise accompany the operation.
The newly pierced billet is simply a rather rough, thick-walled, scaly,
seamless tube. It is raw in appearance and not particularly true to size,
and it retains the corrugations of the piercing disks on its battled surface.
But it is positively without a seam or weld, the round bar of steel having
been pierced quite through its length, as a potter would force a pointed
rod through a cylinder of moist clay. If is short, because most of its substance
is vet in its walls, and to change thickness into length is the next

140 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
requirement. Accordingly the tube is passed once more to a heating furnace,
and at the proper temperature it is rolled over long round bars of
tool steel, through grooves successively smaller, and in this manner converted
into a long, thin-walled tube with a fairly smooth surface finish.
Even now it is only a hot-rolled tube, and lacks accuracy in diameter,
gage, and rotundity. One more operation known as "pointing" is
needed to make it ready for the bench-room, where it will earn by slow,
careful and exact manipulation the distinguishing qualities that result
from being cold-drawn. "Pointing'' consists in hammering the heated
end of each tube into a solid point, which can be caught bv the heavv
Heated Billet entering 1'iercing i\lill
tongs of the drawbench in which the tube is to be cold-drawn.
Before tubes can be cold-drawn they must be clean and free from
scale. They are therefore pickled in an acid bath which is heated and
kept in constant agitation by jets of steam.
The operation of cold-drawing is extremely simple in principle, and
not in any manner new. It is practically the same for steel tubes as it is
for brass and copper. All that is necessary is strong machinery and
enough power to move it. The benches are substantially built of' steel,
and each is furnished with a heavy, square-linked chain, which runs over
a wheel placed just underneath the die. This chain extends along the bed
of the bench, for from 15 to 40 feet, to a sprocket which is geared to the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 141
main shaft from the engine, and it returns underneath thc draw-bench.
Dies are made from the very best grade of crucible steel, and are machined
to the thousandth of an inch, to govern the outside diameter of
the tube which is to be drawn. All tubes except those smaller than onehalf
inch inside are drawn over a mandrel. This mandrel is kept in position
by a long bar which goes inside of the tube and holds the mandrel
just even with the die while the tube is being pulled.
The drawing operation hardens the metal and makes it necessary- to
anneal every tube before it can be drawn again. It must be remembered
that it may require from two to twenty passes through dies of varying
diameter to produce a tube with the required dimensions. Such a tube
Pointed Tubes ready for first Cold-drawing Operation
must be annealed after each pass to eliminate all the brittleness of the steel
which resulted from previous cold-draw passes and to permit further
drawing.
The process of annealing is attended with the formation of scale;
and, from the remark make in a previous paragraph, this necessitates a
return of each tube to the pickle-bath each time il is annealed. The intermediate
anneals, or anneals between bench-passes, are made in open
furnaces; but for the consumer tubes are annealed to the buyer's specifi­
cations.
The "points" of the tubes remain until after the last pass thiough
the dies, which brings the tube to the desired outside diameter and thickness
; then, after the requisite anneal has been given, the tube passes to

142 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
lhe cutting-off machines, where it is either cut to specified lengths or
multiples, or cut to the best advantage in random lengths. Boiler tubes
are tested by hydrostatic pressure, but mechanical tubes are not so
treated.
From the cutting department, the last step in the process is to the
shipping-room or to the stock-racks.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 143
All mechanical tubing is measured by the outside diameter. In a
current price list there are shown 303 different sizes and gauges, which
are considered standard; though any size or gauge within practical limits
may be procured if the quantity justifies making the necessary dies
and mandrels.
For shipment, all tubing is oiled, unless otherwise specified; and all
sizes, No. 16 gauge and lighter, are boxed without additional charge: all
pieces up to 2)4 inches outside diameter and under two feet in length,
are also boxed free to save loss in transit; but other tubing is boxed only
at customer's request, and is then charged according to a schedule.
There is no seamless tubing which is absolutely true to size, but Shelby
tubing approximates the sizes specified as closely as it is possible to
make it. In the regular price list the variations which may be expected
are fully outlined, and these should be considered carefully in placing orders
for material for very accurate work.
SEAMLESS Tt:BES .MAUI-', FROM PLATES.
The processes described and illustrated in the foregoing pages are
those followed in the manufacture of Seamless Tithes and Tubing from
solid steel billets. These processes are employed foi all sizes up to and
including tubes 5X inches outside diameter; but for tubes larger than
this the methods are different. It will be readily comprehended that to
obtain a seamless tube, say 20 inches in diameter, from a solid cylinder
of steel would necessitate piercing machinery of most gigantic and unwieldly
proportions, and to drive such machinery would require tremen­
dous power.
Now, in small tubes, the ratio of length to diameter is large. Taking
a tube measuring one-half inch outside, it is possible to produce it in
lengths as great as 40 feet, and the ratio of length to diameter in this
case is 960. There are many uses for tubes of this size and length. But
a tube 20 inches in diameter is rarely called for in lengths greater than
from 6 to 10 feet, and in this case the ratio of length to diameter is not
more than 6. Therefore very large, heavy-walled tubes are made from
plates of steel, rolled in squares.
The first "cupping" process seems to have been patented in England
bv Remond in 1851, and was intended for small tubes as well as
those of considerable size, but at the present time only the large tubes are
made from plates. The amount of waste being known or approximated.
and the volume of metal in the finished tube being calculated, we have
two amounts, which, added together, indicate the approximate size of
steel plate required for a given specification. Plates are made from the
same grade of steel as are the billets for the smaller sizes, and are ship-

144 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
ped to our mills in squares varying in thickness from X inch to 3 inches,
and in size from 2 to 6 feet across.
The corners are first sheared off to produce a circular disk, which is
heated to redness, withdrawn and placed on the anvil of an immense hydraulic
press, by which the plate is punched into a rough, shallow cup.
The cup is again heated and punched through a smaller die to elongate or
deepen it, and at the same time to reduce its diameter. Perhaps it goes

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 145
a third or fourth time through a similar operation before it is ready for
the finishing passes on the hot-draw bench. This apparatus, as shown
by the engraving, consists of a heavy cast-steel frame or body, provided
with a powerful hydraulic cylinder and a plunger which operates through
Ihe full length of the bench. Plungers of various sizes are used according
to the size required in the finished tube, and dies of successively de-

146 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
creasing diameter are dropped in recesses in the bench-frame in positions
so that the heated elongated steel cup may be forced through them
one after another, the final and smallest one pressing the steel down tight
towards the plunger for the full length of the tube. The plate has now
passed almost completely into tubular form, and the original head, or the
bottom of the "cup," forms but a small proportion of it. Subsequent
hot-drawing operations may be necessary to produce a tube with a smaller
diameter, a thinner wall, or a greater length. Finally the head, or
closed end of the tube, which remains until the last operation is completed,
is cut off, and the process is finished.
Hot-drawn tubes are not as smooth as those which have been colddrawn.
The latter are listed up to and including 5X inches outside diameter,
but occasionally it is necessary to produce tubes larger than this
with walls as smooth as possible; in such cases, if the tube is not too
heavy, and not over eight inches in diameter, hot-drawn material can be
passed from one to three times through finishing dies, coid.

Increase in use of Woo*I Proserwtiy-ss
Indicates Progress in forest
Conservation,
AN increase from three and one-half million gallons of the oil of
coal tar, or creosote, as it i.s popularly known, imported into the
City of New York in 1904, to an amount estimated to be almost
twenty-five million gallons last year, is one of the indications pointing to
the progress of the nation wide movement for the conservation of forest
resources.
It is creosote which the government and scores of corporations and
private wood users have found to be one of the most satisfactory preservatives
of railroad ties, mine props, telephone and telegraph poles, fence
posts, and for timbers used for other commercial purposes. Lengthening-
the life of timber in use means the lessening of the drain on the
country's forests, and what is more important to the average business
man, it means the saving of thousands of dollars annually spent for the
labor of the frequent renewals made necessary when untreated timber
is used.
Ten years ago the strongest advocates of the creosoting method of
preserving wood could scarcely have hoped for the present advanced
state of this industry. Creosoting is becoming the acknowledged standard
means of increasing the life of timbers.
Formerly the production of creosote, from both coal tar and wood
tar, far exceeded anv demand for wood treating- purposes. However,
the number of wood-preserving- plants has grown so rapidh within the
last four vears that this country is not now able to supply its own de­
mand for coal tar creosote.
A brief study of the importation columns of the trade' journals shows
the effect of the growth of the wood preservation industry. In thc whole
year of 1904 the Xew York imports amounted to only 3,500,000 gallons.
By the end of 1907 the importation had increased to 17,500,000 gallons.
while for the present year conservative estimates pkaee the imported coal
tar creosote at between 22 to 25 million gallons.
The year has started most auspiciously; during a five weeks' period
in December and January the importation through New York alone was
15,000 tons, giving a weekly average of 3,000 tons or 68,000 gallons. It
is significant that during this same period the importation of related by-

148 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
products from coal kept pace with that of creosote. Ammonium carbonale,
chloride, sulphate, and "sal ammoniac" entered to the amount of 104,
22~j, 1260 and 400 tons, respectively. If these had been all made into the
sulphate, the equivalent product would have been 460 tons per week. The
estimated ratio of twenty pounds of sulphate to one and one-half gallons
of the creosote oil would make an equivalent production of 69.000 gallons
of creosote. This is not far different from the 68,000 gallons which were
really imported. Since these ammonia products and creosote are being
imported in this relation, it is plainly evident that the production of creosote
is not alone deficient, but also coal tar products in general.
The production of creosote in this country will, in all probability,
continue to be far less than the consumption. The wood preservation
industry has been in its infancy only, and enormous demands may be
expected in the future. The coke, and consequently the coai tar industries,
have until recently been at their best, but even at their best thc supply
of by-products has run short. On this account, we should turn to
other sources to supply the increasing demands for creosote preservatives.
A great help may be eventually afforded by the increasing use of
wood tar creosote, which has not been in high favor in the past. It is
gratifying to note that within the last few years some of the more important
wood distillers have been turning into a profit those oils and tars
which were formerly run to waste. The demand for these products is
increasing, and this recovered by-product has been asserted to be not
only a revenue for the producer but also a valuable preservative for the
treatment of structural timber.
,t?>
4^« &

&y Wm. Hood,
"(raoii©M Engines.
THE use of steam power for agricultural purpose began a great
many years ago, and was of British origin but has now been applied
to nearly every machine used on the farm, plowdng, seeding
and tilling, reaping and threshing.
The first application of steam power to portable vehicles was made
by Wratt in 1769, and his patents of that year and 1784 covered this use
of steam engines for running carriages on land.
( )ther inventors presented the results of their genius to the public
but thc use narrowed down to- railroads for many years until in about
1850 the English began successfully to apply portable steam powers to
various rural and agricultural purposes, chiefly a? hauling engines for
plows and also for threshers.
There, horses were comparatively dear, skilled mechanical labor and
material were cheap and the investment of the considerable sum required
for a steam outfit, where money is plentiful and rate of interest low, is
not so staggering as it is here, so these more expensive, but probably
more economical powers were developed and generally introduced over
there before they were here.
The conditions, also, were adverse to earlier development here for
just as considerable interest was being manifested the war for the union
broke out and all shops, mechanics and supply materials were taxed to
the utmost to meet its demands.
Meantime the west had enormously developed in extent of cultivation
and in wealth ; many became cheap and the manufacture of these
machines was carried in extensive plants with improved facilities and
by men of wealth or bv rich corporations, thus the general result has been
sharper competition and a higher grade of engines, more mechanical and
with greater activity.
Threshers were enlarged and steam powers were successfully applied
by builders, and the thresher manufacturers began to fall into line,
but a firm place for these powers has been found during the last thirtyyears.
In Great Britain, R. Hornsby & Sons, of Grantham, England,
have been building portable and agricultural engines for over sixty years
and others have been in the same line.
In the United States we may go back to about 1850 for first efforts
iu the development of portable and agricultural engines.

150 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.

Engines built by the Northwestern Thresher Co., Stillwater, Minn.

152 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
On account of the early attention given to this line of machinery in
Great Britain, the main principles and general form of these steam powers
had already been established and it only remained for us to improve
them.
During the last thirty years various improvements have been made
and many patents have been issued for the same, but as it would be impossible
to describe these devices so my readers would understand them
Upper picture is a regular Traction Engine. Lower picture, showing rear view of heavv nWinr,
engine. Both made by the Port Huron Engine Co. V plowlnS

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 153
Steam Traction Engine of the Port Huron Engine Co
for lack of knowledge and skill on my part, and lack of space also, I
shall not make any special reference to patents. Among the first to turn
their attention to this were Hoard & Bradford, of Watertown, N. Y., predecessor
of the Watertown Steam Engine Co. In July 30, 1850, Horace
Greely writes in the New York Tribune, "that the time must be at
hand when every thrifty farmer with nearly every mechanic will have an
Engine with tanks along the side of boiler. Rumely Mfg. Co.

154
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Front view of heavy road engine of M Rumely Mfg. Co.
engine of his own, to chop straw, turn grindstone, cut wood, churn.
thresh, etc., etc., and that these will have ceased as manual operations.
* * * \ye have hardly begun to use steam yet."
It is evident that their efforts in that direction must have been in
their variest infancy or Air. Greely would not have written. Yerv little
was done at Watertown on engines for threshers until 1866, and. they
have not been extensively built there. The pictures of the portable and
semi-portable engines shown in their catalog of 1868 indicate that thev
were clean representatives of the two types, portable and semi-portable.
For several years after the advent of the steam traction the engines
were used only for operating threshing machines and moving the outfit
from one job to another.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 155
Hooded type of Traction Engine of the Reeves & Co.
Return tube boiler (st;rck in rear! with tank in front, built by Huber Mfg. Co., Marion, O.
On opening up that immense track of rich farming lands, most of
which were level and easy of cultivation extending from the Hudson
Bay on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and from the Mississippi
to the Rocky Mountains it soon became apparent that on ac-

156 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
count of the scarcity of men and teams to cultivate this widely extended
area, that some power must be used to accomplish the same work, with
a reduced number of men and horses than was necessary under the system
then in vogue, and the steam tractions that had. been intended for
threshing only were used to a considerable extent for general farm work,
such as grinding, etc., and for grading roads and plowing.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 157
While on the whole the steamer was considered to be a success for
this general work it was found to have some undesirable features that
prevented it from being ideal power for general farm use.

158 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
.so
u
•V be
*J o
o G
*J O
.2 0

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 159
The reasons given being lack of water, poor water, the need for
experienced men even on small jobs, long time for "firing up," questions
cf frozen pipes, and the weight of the engine when equipped for strictly
traction work prove detrimental to some soils in plowing-.
In the meantime stationary and portable gasoline engines had been
developed to that point that they had ceased to be considered as an experiment
and were used for a variety of work never dreamed of by users
of steam engines. With this evidence continually before the people a
demand for a traction engine run on gasoline became apparent, and as it
is a trait of American manufacturers to supply every legitimate demand,
gasoline tractions were designed and after going through the usual "trying
out" period that is necessary with every new device they became firmly
established as a practical machine.
The gasoline traction engine can now be seen at work in every part
of this country, and also in many of the foreign lands, and work is being
successfully done by them that has never been attempted with a steam
engine.
The most common work and that for which the traction engine was
formerly designed is operating a threshing machine, which might be said
to include clover hullers, corn shredders, feed grinders, corn shellers, irrigating
plants, portable saw mills, and all work where the power is
transmitted by a belt to the machine to lie operated.
In the outset there was a pronounced prejudice against the gasoline
traction, the steam engine men declaring the gasoline engine could not
furnish a uniformity of speed necessary for such work, but all now admit
that in that respect at least the gas engine is a success.
An Avery engine hauliug a road grader.

160 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
One instance where a large grower of garden seeds threshed his
onion seed with a gas traction engine, and while on account of the seed
being very light a uniform speed was essential, yet if did the work per­
fectly.
But in strictly traction work is where the gasoline Traction shows to
tlie best advantage its superiority over the steam engine.
When the operator learns that the fuel cost is very much less than
steam, making a saving of from 20 to 50 per cent; that the fuel is so much
less expensive to transport to the engine, especially when some distance
from the railroad; that the expense of the man and team to furnish water
is dispensed with; that there is no delay in replenishing the supply of
fuel, as a day's supply is usually carried in the tank of the engine ; that
tlie engineer alone takes the place of the engineer, fireman.
and man and team to furnish water; that no time is lost
in "firing up," and as soon as the engine is stopped there is
absolutely no waste of fuel, and in consequence the engine can be used
economically for a part of a dav, or even for an hour; that there is no
danger from an explosion, and no possibility of setting fires with the
engine ; that the early hours when the rest of the men are sleeping does
pot have to be spent washing out the boiler, cleaning flues, and raising
steam; that there is no boiler that needs new flues, grate bars, etc., to
Another departure in lhe design ol a traction engine. Built by Holt Mfg. Co.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 161
Holt Engines doing heavy hauling. Holt Mfg. Co.

162 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Holt engine hauling up a heavy incline.
make an added expense and annoyance; that in cold weather it does not
require an hour to draw the water to prevent damage by freezing and
another hour to re-fill it before starting; that on account of the lighter
weight the soil is not made compact while plowing when it is a little
moist; that it is ready for work on short notice; when these features are
understood it is no wonder that the gasoline engine is so deservedly
popular for all traction work.
There is more plowing done with these engines than any other one
kind of traction work, but the owners do not stop with plowing.
It is generally known that explosion is the principle on which gasoline
engines are built, and that a mixture of air and gasoline exploded
under pressure, and the force thus exerted placed under perfect control
through the medium of piston and flywheel, is the method of utilizing the
principle.
That engine, the design of which is such that the mixture of gasoline
and air is arranged to give the most forceful explosion, and insuring-
the least interference with the perfect mixture of air and oil by reason
of changes of temperature and having the mixture subject to a pressure,
the density of which has been determined by careful experiment
and exploded at that point in the revolution in the crank that admits of
utilization of the greatest number of units cf force obtainable must be
the engine that will give the greatest degree of satisfaction.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 163
Builders of steam traction engines have formed the habit of giving
their engines "nominal" ratings of one-half or even one-third the actual
horse power they can develop. Nor is there any uniformity in these
nominal ratings ; the 20 nominal horse power engine of one make is often
as powerful as the 22 nominal horse power engine of another. Consequently
those accustomed to steam traction ratings were frequently disappointed
in gasoline engines purchased to replace steamers. One manufacturer
uses both ratings, but endeavored to make their 17 horse power
develop as much as a 17 horse power steamer and to give actually 30
horse power at brake test. Their 22 nominal horse power will carry a 40
brake horse power load easily and actually develop 60 for a short time.
The enormous demand for gasoline lias kept the price constantly
increasing for several years and at the same time its quality has greatly
deteriorated so that manufacturers have been compelled to devise a
feeder that would work under the most adverse circumstances.
When engines are cold they must be started on gasoline so that the
feeder must be quick acting.
The expense of operating our traction engines vary in different localities,
but in a general way it can be stated as one-half to one-third the
expense of operating a steam traction engine of the same sibe.
Gasoline Traction engine hauling grades. Built by Hart-Parr Co.
**^SfilX^P^

164 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 165
The average cost of kerosene used is about one-third as much as
for coal.
With an engine properly operated, the amount of kerosene or
gasoline consumed i.s strictly in accordance with the actual amount of
power developed. From reports received from a large number of users
and from four years' field experience the Hart-Parr Co. found that in
the hands of a good operator, for heavy day's threshing or plowing that
a 22 nominal horse power engine used from 35 to 40 gallons of kerosene
or gasoline per day of 10 hours, and a 17 horse power engine 25 to 30
gallons per 10-hour dav.
In plowing alone a great saving oyer a steamer i.s here shown, from
reports for North Dakota, both engines being rated a-- 22 horse power.
$26 00
Cost of a steamer, per day:
One ton Hocking Valley coal $ 7 50
Licensed engineer, who also steers 5 00
Fireman, who handles plows ... 2 00
Water and coal hauling, two men and two teams 8 00
Board, four men at 50 cts. per day 2 00
Board of four horses at 25 cts. per day 1 00
Lubricating oil 5°
Cost of operating a 22 horse power gasoline or kerosene plowing
outfit per 10 hours was :
40 gallons of kerosene at 13 cts $ 5 20
Engineer, who also steers 4 00
$12 70
Plowman 2 00
Board of two men at 50 cts per day 1 00
Lubricating oil 5°
Saving in favor of gasoline engine per day $13.30, or $798.00 for 60
days.
The average speed in plowing is 2 miles per hour or 20 miles per
dav of 10 hours.

Advn:atag.) ot [Umiforo?Kl Co:ao:rote
for Hallway ConsfcriiodoiL*
.By 8. !(. Davis.
T H E advantages of reinforced concrete as a building material for
railway construction are indeed many as compared with its few
disadvantages, which may more properly be termed its limitations.
Where it is possible to use reinforced concrete for a part or the
whole of a railway structure, it is generally of advantage at least in the
long run to make use of this practically indestructible material.
The fireproof, corrosion proof, and decay proof qualities of reinforced
concrete recommend it most highly for all classes of structures
where permanent construction is desired.
For railway structures, perhaps more than for any other class of
structures are these qualities particularly desirable. The reason for this
is self-evident; for though a mine may soon be worked out, or a mill or
an industrial concern dependent upon the local supply of raw material
may have but a limited period of usefulness, yet a railway on account of
its varied sources of revenue in each locality, and by its very nature independent
of purely local conditions, once substantially built is expected
to be perpetual in its usefulness.
Constantly increasing maintenance costs are no doubt directly responsible
for the growing demand for permanent construction wherever
possible, especially among conservatively and wisely managed railroads.
Therefore from the railway standpoint the introduction of reinforced
concrete- as a building material enjoying os it does a wider range of
possible uses and varieties of design than any known building material,
and yet so admirably adapted to meet all the requirements of the case in
regard to permanence, was indeed most opportune.
USES, ADVANTAGES AND COSTS.
The suddenness and completeness with which plain concrete supplanted
stone and brick, for all ordinary railroad masonry structures and
substructures, is ample proof of its many advantages over the other materials.
It will not be necessary therefore to analyze the causes of this sudden
change, except to note that plain concrete was the forerunner of reinforced
concrete, and thus deserves mention in a paner on the latter
subject.
* Extract froni1a1paper read before the Cleveland Convention of the National Association of
Cement Users.

PLAIN CONCRETE.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 167
The use of plain concrete in bridge piers, abutments, and wing walls,
retaining walls, foundation walls, station platforms, arch culverts and
arch bridges led up to old rail reinforcement of flat top culverts familiarly
known as rail top culverts, which was perhaps the first attempt at
reinforcement of concrete in a railway structure.
RAIL Top CULVERTS.
Thc deservedly great popularity of the old rail top culvert was largely
responsible for the ready acceptance of reinforced concrete when its
advocates finally offered it to the public.
In the way of permanence the old rail top culvert had all the advantages
of the more modern bar-reinforced box culvert, but it was not an
economical reinforced concrete structure on account of the excess of steel
required.
Indeed it is doubtful if it could properly be termed anything but a
protected steel structure, for most engineers in designing them count
upon the steel to carry the load, totally disregarding the concrete except
as a protection to the steel. When it is found impossible to pack a sufficient
number of old rails in a given section, to give it the desired section
modulus, I-beams are sometimes substituted for the rails or for every
second or third rail, much to the improvement of the structure as regards
reliability.
EMBEDDED I-BEAM CULVERTS.
A great deal of excellent work has been done with the embedded
I-beam construction, but it is certainly erroneous to call this combination
of steel and concrete reinforced concrete. It is better than the old rail
construction because the section of each I-beam is known, while the old
rails are more or less worn, and liable to have dangerous invisible flaws.
Aloreover, it would require a mathematician of no mean ability to compute
the section modulus of some of the old rails frequently used, if the design
were to be as accurately made in one case as in the other. A further
use of the embedded I-beam construction is made in carrying one
track over another as is frequently done in the grade separation of two
railways intersecting at a difficult angle, since the T-beams are more
easily and positively connected to the longitudinal steel girders than the
old rails.
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS.
If the spans are not too long and the headroom also limited, reinforced
concrete slabs could be used economically in such cases. This
question of head room, often necessitating a very shallow floor system,

168 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
brings into prominence one of the limitations to the use of reinforced concrete,
namely for long spans of very limited depth where its use is practically
impossible or at least not economical. Where limitations are not
too severe, economies of masonry and steel are possible through the use
of reinforcement in side walls, top slab, and invert slab of reinforced concrete
box culverts and subways.
SHALL CULVERTS.
One interesting though perhaps not very important use of rein
forced concrete as applied to railway structures is found in small culverts.
( In a piece of rather heavy railroad construction recently undertaken
it was decided that no smaller openings than that furnished by a
24-inch cast iron pipe would lie considered advisable even for the comparatively
small drainage areas cut off from the general drainage course
by a railway embankment.
Bids were asked on the basis of using cast iron pipe for all such
structures. Owing to the roughness of the country over which the large
and heavy pipes would have to be drawn bv team from the nearest railroad
station, the contractors showed a ready willingness to substitute
concrete culverts for the cast iron upon which they had bid. It was
therefore decided to figure on the use of semi-circular concrete culverts
of about the same capacity with the following results :
A three-foot semi-circular reinforced concrete culvert of 4.78 square
feet of cross section suitable for all fills up to 50 feet could be built
for $4.85 per linear foot ($1.00 for steel bars in place and $3.85 for concrete).
The cast iron pipe specified for this same fill would cost $7.31 per
linear foot and where a concrete bed would be required for it in places at
an additional cost of $1.70 per foot the total cost would be $9.00 per linear
foot.
ff, however, the lightest weight of 24-inch cast iron pipe were acceptable
to the railway, and no concrete lied or cradle required beneath
the pipe, still the pipe culvert would cost $5.69 per linear foot as against
$4.85 for the reinforced concrete culvert.
The advantages claimed for the reinforced concrete culverts are as
follows :
OVERHEAD HIGHWAY BRIDGES.
Overhead highway crossings as they are commonly built of wood or
steel are a continual source of annoyance from a maintenance point of
view. The sulphurous fumes from locomotives are very active and rapidly
attack all exposed steel, making protection of the- best kind very

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 169
necessary. Wooden floors or suspended wooden ceilings are very poor
protection, and are themselves very severely attacked. b\ the destructive
agencies that the}- are intended to keep from the steel. They also rot
out quite rapidly.
Added to these unavoidable disadvantages comes thc occasional
destruction of a complete structure by fire. This is by no means an uncommon
occurrence on railroads, and isolated structures in rural districts
having no fire protection are usually the ones destroyed in this
manner.
Concrete is the only building material that seems absolutely unaffected
bv ordinary rot, rust, fire or fume corrosion and is therefore unquestionably
the best material to use in such cases.
The structure can either be perfectly protected by concrete, or it can
verv conveniently be built entirely of concrete properly reinforced.
TRACK ELEVATION.
In the case of track elevation there is no part of the problem that
cannot be worked out very satisfactorily in concrete. The retaining wall
problem being practically the same in either track elevation or depression,
the footings and walls are readily worked up in plain or reinforced concrete.
The structure supporting the ballast and track can also be designed
of the same materials, as has been well illustrated by the track
elevation in Chicago.
DOCKS.
For railways owning valuable water fronts (and most railways do
own some property of this kind ) the question of dock construction is very
important. Owing to the great danger from fire, reinforced concrete
again affords ample protection, inasmuch as the entire dock from the cutoff
of piles may conveniently be built of this material.
SUBWAYS AND TUNNELS.
Subways and tunnels are most conveniently and satisfactorily built
entirely of concrete or lined with it. The track itself may even be laid
directly in the concrete proper, as it is in part of the Hudson tunnels un­
der the North River.
The old Lackawanna tunnel through Berger Hill is lined with brick
for a part of its length, yet fourteen men are employed every night in the
year inspecting the tunnel and repairing the track, which is very difficult
to maintain on account of the extremely heavy traffic. Three workmen
have lost their lives at this work within the last few years. In the newtunnel
this expensive and dangerous maintenance work, costing approximately
$6,000 annually, will be almost entirely eliminated.

170 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
ROAD BED AND TRACK.
If this type of road bed proves efficient and satisfactory on a solid
rock foundation, experiments should be made with it in cuts and on wellsettled
earth fills where it may have a great future. As so many of the
better railroads now have their lines perfectly ballasted with good clean
broken stone or gravel, it is but natural to see how readily these could
be converted into first-class concrete. Elevated structures, subways and
tunnels where track is thus laid directly in the concrete should furnish
the earliest reliable data on this point.
BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS.
The arch bridge or viaduct seems destined to become the most important
of all railway structures that can be built to advantage of plain
01 reinforced concrete. Not only is the arch with proper foundations the
most enduring type of structure that can be built, but it is also a thing
of beauty, and its maintenance costs are practically nothing during its
entire period of usefulness. The old stone masonry arch had many fine
qualities to recommend it, but it also had its limitations. In fact the failures
of first-class old masonry structures show clearly the necessity of
reinforcement and furnish best guide to proper method of reinforcing
the concrete to prevent similar failures of reinforced concrete construction.
The concrete arch has many points of superiority over the stone arch.
In the first place it can be so reinforced that there will be no tension in
any direction in the masonry proper ; secondly, economics in yardage of
masonry can be nicely worked .out in concrete that would be considered
inappreciable if the same plans were executed in stone ; thirdly, the difficult
and expensive construction of skew arch spans when built of cut
stone is greatly simplified by the use of concrete. Bv means of a system
of offsets in the skew-backs and the proper distribution of a small amount
of reinforcement, this skew construction is rendered simple and inexpensive.
And lastly, the concrete masonry is very much cheaper per cubic
yard and can be put in place much faster than stone, both decidedly important
items to consider, especially when the structure is built under
traffic, or where there is a likelihood of losing the centering and structure
on account of freshet.
The reinforced concrete arch or viaduct has even greater advantages
over like steel structures than over stone masonry for ordinary railway7
spans.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 171
ist. A reinforced concrete arch viaduct may reasonably lie expected
to have a life many times that of a steel structure, a fact that may justify
several times the investment necessary to secure permanent construction.
2nd. Its maintenance costs are almost negligible. The elimination
of painting costs alone warrants a first cost expenditure 10 to 15 per cent
in excess of the first cost of steel requiring paint
3rd. Track is steadily maintained on such a structure, ordinarytrack
ties and ballast taking the place of the expensive bridge ties of a
steel structure, thus guaranteeing a safer and better track for fast traffic,
and economy in renewal of timber deck.
4th. Danger of derailment is lessened ; but even in case of derailment
on a concrete structure the consequences would certainly be less
disastrous to the traveling public, as well as to the structure itself. A
derailed car or a projecting- piece of heavy freight, upon striking an important
compression member of a steel structure, has been known to
wreck it or render it unsafe for traffic until repaired.
5th. In riding over a structure built of reinforced concrete with a
ballasted floor, there is none of the attendant noise and lurching of the
train as it strikes the unyielding backwalls of the bridge masonry and the
steel floor of the bridge proper.
6th. To the passenger, the absence of the familiar roar in crossing
a bridge is particularly gratifying, and the visible hand railing and substantial
masonry coping give him an additional sense of security, not enjoyed
on most steel structures.

ucaou>
S P E A K I N G of the marvellous adaptability of concrete to budding
construction. Mr. Leonard C. Wason, president of the Aberthaw
Construction Co., of Boston, Alass., recently emphasized the absolute
necessity of technical know ledge and experience in its use and of the
most thorough supervision in connection therewith. I le points out that "in
the case of the common or careless contractor, the steel setter is usually
little better than a poor carpenter, in fact hardly mon.- than an intelligent
laborer. Upon him falls the whole duty of setting the steel, often
sorting it from the stock pile to get the right sizes. Sometimes he is
checked by the foreman; often not. If the job is carelessly handled, it is
not inspected and as a consequence this cheap man becomes responsible
for one of the most critical features of the entire work.
"In such an organization the mixture of cement is no more intelligent—usually
less so. Inaccurate setting- of the reinforcement is immediately
hidden from sight as the work progresses, and poor workmanship
in the matter of materials and mixing is not readily revealed. Herein
lies the great danger in the use of reinforced concrete, a danger which
is always present where an inspector is not employed on the work.
"The ordinary contractor, who does not realize the importance of
exact location seems to think that if his steel is merely buried out of
sight it is sufficient. But the experienced who understands the vital necessity
of accurate setting and mixing delegates men to check one another
in the selection and placing of steel. The best contractors also employ
engineers whose duty it is to supervise and check all work, thus eliminating
the errors which are always certain to occur where cheap
and inexperienced labor i.s relied upon. Where a job is being executed
under the supervision of an independent engineer, his inspector ought,
and usually does, note the setting of eveyv bar. It is also, bis duty to see
that every batch gets its full amount of cement and is properly mixed.

Comparadya Value of LaVkatk^
^u'eas-oSo
By Waltor vSnov/
T H E analyses of lubricating greases is a rather complicated
procedure and one which yields little information as to whether
the sample is suitable for the purpose to which it is to be applied.
It is possible, however, by determinations of the water and ash present
m greases, to give important information regarding- the presence of foreign
materials. The variation in these constituents is clearly displayed
in the following table from a report by Mr. Arthur I). Little, the Boston
c chemist. Being of somewhat private character designating letters have
for obvious reasons been substituted for the actual names of the samples:
Ash Designation
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
I
K
L
AI
Cost
8c
IIC
4c
7c
16c
X4c
5c
6c
6c
6c
5c
7c
LSc
Watei
2.48 c;
7-45''
20.50/.
4-847
i-53' ;
1.187
2459;
0.72' ,'
1.22',,
I.O47
I-43L
O.967.
2.64%
4-56%
0.62%
1.92%
5-547
1-53%
7-68%
2.46%
2.20%
3-69%
1.65%
4-34%
2-73%
2,28%
These greases are on the whole of ven good character, only one
containing an excessive amount of water, but Mr. Little considered the
prices excessive and advised that six cents per pound was as high as need
be paid. He further stated that the samples were practically all of
greases made with a small amount of soap as a hardener or solidifier.. In
some of the cases an alkali soap was used, while others contained a lime
01 alumina soap.

Valuation of Property for Insurance
anil Adjustment of il'lre Losses,
By Chas. T. Main,,
THE standard insurance policy adopted by most of the States contains
these words: 'This company shall not be liable beyond the
actual cash value to the property at the time any loss or damage
occurs, and the loss of damage shall be obtained or estimated according
to such actual cash value, with proper deduction for depreciation, however
caueed, and shall in no event exceed what it would cost the insurei
to repair or replace the same with material of like kind and quality.'
"Its theory is that if any loss occurs, the insurance paid shall be sufficient
to replace the portion lost, in exactly the same manner as it was
before, less a fair amount for the depreciation of the property from age.
No depreciation, to my knowledge, however, is allowed for items that heduce
the value, as lack of light, inconvenience of arrangement, character
of the construction, the fact that a machine may not be economical in its
working, or that the steam plant may be an economical one, although
such consideration is contemplated in the first portion of the statement
quoted. For this reason it is sometimes the case that, if a concern is
completely wiped out of existence, after the effect of the first blow is over
and the property is rebuilt on new lines, it is vastly better off than before
the loss.
"The story is told of a man who was sent a few years ago to make an
examination of a mill in order to see if anything could be done to make
its running more successful by reorganization. His examination was
brief and his report still briefer; it was to the effect that the only thing
which could do any good was a first-class fire. This mill was afterwards
sold in open market. Its selling price was very much less than it was
taxed or insured for.
"The adjustment of fire loss is usually made upon the basis above
stated, that the sum paid should be sufficient to replace new the burned
or injured property in the same manner as it existed previous to the fire,
less a fair depreciation for age. As it is almost impossible, even by a
very careful examination, to consider every item of loss, and as the owner
is subjected to many losses which are not covered by the insurance, it
is the policy of many of the factory insurance companies to be liberal in
their settlements, although they state that nothing will be paid for unless

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 175
in an inventory to which the assured will make oath as true to the best
of his knowledge and belief.
"These losses are almost always adjusted amicably and without recourse
to law. Sometimes they are determine'' between the adjusters of
the insurance companies and the owner or manager, and sometimes the
insurance companies appoint an adjuster and the mill another adjuster,
and these two determine the loss; and if they cannot agree on any item
they call in a third party, and the decision of any two of the three is final.
These adjusters should be men who are familiar with the value of the
property destroyed, and more than one set may be required to cover the
various kinds of property. Perhaps one set of buildings, one for machinery,
and one for goods and stock. The findings of these adjusters
are final and conclusive."

Oeior:umiiiK£ tlie S h o of '! \ohthm
^ 'j\\^j w*'yiv waaa£y
(Continued from Feb. issue.)
By JCdv/ard B. Biiidiaut.
Where the engine is direct acting, g = i in both equations (7) and (8).
The horse power available for hoisting when the engine is running
at full speed will be expressed by the formula:
II. P. of engine = P X L- X A + 2N
X e (9)
33,000
and the horse power required to raise the load would be:
(W + F) S
The H. P. of load =
33,000 (10)
In the examples here given the weight of the car is taken as 2-5 and the
weight of the cage 3-5 of the weight of the ore hoisted. This, together,
make the dead load C equal to the weight of the ore O. These are sufficiently
close to the usual practice for an illustration of the method of
using the formulas.
As an example, take a double cylinder engine geared to a single
drum under the following known conditions, to find the size of cylinders
required. Yertical shaft is 400 feet deep cages to be hoisted in 1 min.;
the weights are: cage 900 lbs., car 600 lbs., ore 1,500 lbs., steam pressure
P is 60 lbs. e = 0.7, g = 4-1, f = .01 (assumed) D = 4 feet and
L may be taken as 1 ]A feet for an only solution ; then
W=C + 0 + R = (600 + 900) + 1,500 + (400 x 1) = 3,400 lbs.
F = W f = 34 lbs.
Substituting in equation (5)
(W fF)D=PxAxLxexg;
( 3 40O -r- 34) J = 60 X A X ^ X O 7X4;
A = 54 • 5 :
d = 2 vA = 8 . 33 say 3-t "
3-i4i6

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 177
The stroke L was taken as 18 inches for an only solution, and it gives
a well- proportioned cylinder, viz., 8'/, inches diameter X 18-inch
stroke.
The speed of the piston can be tested by equation (8).
2 L S 2 x ItV x 400 x 4
Piston Speed = g = . = 3g2 ft per min
3-i4i6 D 3-1416 x 4
Which is within the limits of these engines.
From equations (9) and (10) combined, the mean effective pressure required
in the cylinders to perform the work can be determined. Substituting
the known values in these equations, and placing one equal to the
other and solving.
(W x F) S P x L xA x 2 N
HP
33.ooo 33,ooo
x e ;
3.434x400 2x56.75 ( Ooo x 4 ]
= Pxf X X 2 X | X O.7
33,000 33,000 | 3.I416X4 J
P 45,
which, with 60 lbs. at throttle, corresponds to a cut-off of about one-half
As both cylinders are in use, the area has been doubled in the above calculation.
Writh double-drum hoisters. where the descending cage and car
counterbalance the ascending ones, the general equation (5) still applies,
but the value of W and F are changed. Referring to Fig. 2, when
a loaded car is to be started from the bottom of the shaft and an empty
car is being lowered at the same time.
and W = (R + C + O) C = R + O,
F = (R 4- 2C + O) f,
which values must be used in the first member of equation (5).
As an example, take a hoister raising a load from a double compartment
shaft 2,000 ft. deep in 1 min.:
0=5,000 lbs., Rz=6,ooo lbs., P=6o lbs.,
0=5,000 lbs., D=8 ft.
engine direct connected; hence
g=i, f—o.oi, e=o.7.
Taking L=4 ft. for a trial and substituting in equation (5) to find the
size of cylinders,

178 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
D = PxAxLxexg;
(W X F) 2 2
2 2
( 11,ooo f 20) 8 = 6o x A x 4 x 0.7 x i ;
A = 534 i
d = 2 A 1/ a = 26 \ ius.
3.1416
This gives a cylinder 20',s ins. diameter by 48 in. stroke. Determining
the piston speed by equation,
Piston speed 2L S g = 2X4X2

Then,
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 179
Rs=weight of the short length of rope when cage is at the top of
shaft;
cto
FiCM.
(C + 0 + i) D — (C + Rs) y = mirnent of the resistance
2 2
when the load is at the bottom ( Fig. 3) position A.
And
(C + C-f Rs) v (C + R 1) D = moment of the resist-
2 2
ance when the load is at the top (Fig. 3) position B
The object of the conical drums being to keep this moment constant,
these two values must be equal, and
(C + O + R 1) D - (C + Rs) y
- (C + Rs) D. ( 11)
Solve for y. Then taking either end case, say when the load, is at th
bottom, the moment of the resistance of the loads, with friction added,
must equal the moment of the power of the engine, and, following the
same form as equation (5), gives:
2 2
(C + O + Ri) (i-pf) D — (C + R s) (i-f) y
= PxAxLxexg,
Taking as an example the one used for the engine with double cylindrical
drums, depth 2.000 ft. plus n 1-3 ft. to head sheave above landing,

180
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
S.=2.000 ft. per min. ;
O =5,000 lbs.;
C =5,000 lbs.;
Rl=6,ioo lbs.;
Rs= 100 lbs.;
D = 7 ft.;
to find diameter of cylinder.
From equation ( 11)
P=6o lbs.;
g = i;
f =0.1 ;
e =0.7;
L for trial=4 ft.
C + O-hROD -lC-rRs)y=(C + 0 + Rs)y=:(C-lRi
D (16,100 x 7) — (5,100 y) = (10,100 y) — (11,100 x 7)
v = 12.52 ft. = diameter of large end of the drum.
Substituting in equation (12)
C -+- O =Ri = 5,000 = 5,000 - 6,100 = 16,100 lbs.
1 = f
C = R s
= t.oi ;
5,000 lbs.
= 5,000 100 =
if = 0.99 ;
r 16,100 x 1.01 x 7 1 f 5,IOO X O.99 X 12 02
= 60 x A x f x o 7 x 1 ;
56914—31.607= 84A ;
d = 2

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 181
bottom of thc shaft, and attached to the bottom of the other cage. Then,
in whatever position the cages are, in the shaft, there is the same weight
of rope hanging in each compartment. Thus the entire weight
of the hoisting mechanism is in perfect balance at all times, and the engine
only has to raise the weight of the ore and. overcome the friction of
the moving parts. The main rope may be wound on a pair of cylindrical
drums, or it can be wrapped back and forth over a pair of multiplegrooved
sheaves, as is done in rope drives for many purposes. It is essential
that a positive grip is taken on the rope by the driving mechanism,
or else its creeping on the driving sheaves will make the indicators
show a false position for the cages, and make accidents of overwinding
a great source of danger.
The calculation of the size of the engines required can be made by
equation (5). The engines would usually be direct acting. As an example,
assume the same conditions as have been used before:
3-HI6
(W
S =2,000 ft. per min.
0
c
R
P
= 5,000 lbs.;
=5,000 lbs.;
=6,000 lbs.;
= 60 lbs.;
c -=0.7;
f : ~.oi;
O' — = 1;
& D- =8 ft. ;
L- -4 ft. for
trial
(W + F) I) = P x A x L
— x e x g
= 0 = 5,000 lbs.;
F = f (O H- 2 C 4- 2 R) = 0.01 x 27,000 = 270.
( 5,000 + 270) 8 = 60 x A x 4 x 0.7 x 1 ;
A = 251 ;
d = 2 1/ A = 18 ins.
This is rather a small diameter for a cylinder of this length, as its length
is 2 2-3 times the diameter, which exceeds the ratio already recommended.
If L were taken as 36 ins., the area would be 335 sq. ins., corresponding
to 20X ins. diameter, which gives a cylinder with better proportions.
Thc piston speed can be obtained from equation (8), and the mean effective
pressure required, when hoisting at full speed, can be found from
equations (9) and (10) combined. It is interesting to compare thc size
of the three types of engines, hoisting the the same load at the same
speed.
(5)

182 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
These tabulated are:
Type. 1 hametcr
of
drum.
Cylindrical drums 9-7(>
Conical drums , 0.71 >
Koepe system 9.7,'
-/-
1)
—
F) 2
59,198
24,069
^•727
Diameter
of
cylinder.
29
i9?s
19X
The conditions in all of the above were the same as Used in former
examples, except that the diameters of drums are all taken as 9.76 ft.,
which is the mean diameter of the conical drums. The engines are directacting,
the shaft has double compartments, and the cages work in balance.
C =5,000 lbs.;
( 1 = 5,000 His.;
R=6,ioo lbs.;
P= 60 lbs.;
L=4 ft.;
i =0.01 ;
e =0.7 ;
g=i;
S=2,O0O ft
The piston speed is 522 ft. per min. in each case.
The table shows that cylindrical drums are not as economical to operate
as either the conical drums or the Koepe system. The conical drums
are expensive to make, as the grooves have to be formed spirally and
with an increasing radius, and each problem requires a specially designed
drum, so there can be little use made of stock patterns. They are only
used where the rope is heavy, and the economy nf accurate counterbalancing
is clearly indicated, and will offset the extra cost of manufacture.
The Koepe system is a simple method of counterbalancing, and the
principle could often fie applied to existing plants with cylindrical drums
by adding a tail rope and an idle sheave at the bottom of the shaft, provided
there is sufficient sump-room for the sheave and it- slide. Thc objection
to the Koepe system, where used without drums, is the liability
of the ropes to cree]) on the sheaves, causing the indicators to give a false
record and so increase the danger of overwinding-.
Flat ropes of rectangular cross-section are wound on a reel like a
tape. When the load starts from the bottom of the shaft the rope winds
on thc central reel, which is of small diameter, and then, as the load
rises, the successive layers increase the diameter of the coil on the reel;
thus the leverage of the load increases and the weight decreases. If the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 183
original diameter of the barrel of the reel and the thickness of the rope
are properly chosen, the moment of the resistance will be constant.
The proportions of the reel can be found as follows:
Let
D=diameter of the barrel in feet;
y =diameter of coil of rope, when cage is at the top, in feet;
G=weight of cage and car; ( b weight of ore, and R= weight of
rope—and in pounds, as before;
I =length of rope or depth of shaft in feet ;
t =thickncss of rope in inches;
n ^number of layers of rope in coil.
Then, referring to Fig 4,
y + D 3.1416x11 = 1, and (y —D) 12 = n.
2 2 t
Substituting the latter value of 11 in the first equation gives
(y - — D2 ) 3 3.1416 = 1.
t
y + D 3.1416 x n = I, and (y—D) 11 = 1.
2 2t (I3)
From equation (13), knowing- t, the value of y can be obtained, or having
decided on y, the equation can be solved for t. The minimum diameter
of the barrel 1) depends on the thickness of the rope, and can be cal­
culated from Air. Hewitt's equation previously given:
E a
in which
K = -
2.06 -
R
+ c
k =bending stress in pounds;
E=modulus of elasticity=28,500,000;
a=aggregate area of the wire in sq. ins.;
R=radius of the bend in inches.
d=diamcter of individual wires, and C a constant depending on
thc number of wires in a strand.
With a flat rope. d=i-6 thc thickness ,,f the rope, and C=27.54. The

184 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
moment of thc resistance at starting the load would be thc moment of
the weight, C+O-f-R the friction, acting with the lever arm D, as the
equation (5). —
2
The ideal case would be one in which the work of hoisting was constant
at every part of the hoist; but the thickness of the rope may be
such that the leverage of the load increases faster or slower than the
weight of the load decreases, thus making the work on the engine to vary
during the trip. In such a case, the design must be tested with the cages
at various points, to make sure that the engine has sufficient power to
handle the loads at the desired speed at all points. For this, equations
10I and I 10) may be used.
Generally these hoists are arranged in pairs, so that one cage ascends
while the other descends. Then the necessary large diameter of
the reel, to make the work constant on the engine, can be found by equation
( 11 ), used for conical drums, and the size of the engine from equation
(12). After which the thickness nf the rope can lie found by equation
(13).
If thc reels cannot be made of such diameter, with a reasonable
thickness of rope, as to make the work of hoisting uniform throughout
tlie trip, then the case must be considered by itself, and the design must
be tested with the cage in positions sufficiently numerous to prove that
the engine that will start thc load is strong enough to handle it at all
points.
&c
^ -

'Upeirjoiioe ox Loiviracior v$,
Quality of Work,
By Walter B. Snow.
THERE is scarcely a field of building operations in which at first
glance it seems simpler for the relatively inexperienced to do satisfactory
work than in the use or concrete. Here are simple materials—sand,
gravel and cement—mixed by crude labor, usually handled
in a crude way, and frequently used only to obtain a relatively crude result
in the form of foundations, walls, footings and the like.
But even here experience counts for much, particularly in view of
the fact that work improperly done, is often excessively expensive to
remove and replace. With the rapid increase in the use of reinforced
concrete the absolute necessity of practical experience and thorough
ceptions the failures of concrete are traceable to ignorance on the part
of the designer and the contractor—all too frequently to the latter.
Air. Leonard C. Wason, president of the Aberthaw Construction
Co., of Boston, Alass., one of the pioneers in the use of reinforced concrete
in this country, points out with especial emphasis some of the
principal reasons why reinforced concrete should not be handled by unskilled
labor. They are briefly:
i. Because the plans may be incorrectly read. Hence knowledge
and experience arc absolutely necessary.
2. Because the wrong reinforcement may be used. It is an easy
matter to make an error of an eighth of an inch in the selection of bars
—this may mean a decrease of 25 to 50 per cent, in strength. When
made up frames are used error is equally liable in their selection.
3. Because the reinforcement may be wrongly placed. To the unskilled
a matter of an inch or two difference in the level of a bar in
floor or beam seems but a small matter. But in the case of a 4-in. floor
the placing of bars 2 inches instead of X 'ncn from the bottom may reduce
the strength one-half. Bars in columns are easily misset with
disastrous results.
4. Because materials for the concrete may not be suitable, both
in quality and relative size of the aggregates. The difference between

186 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
concrete made with clean, sharp sand and that with poor material may
be equivalent to a loss of 50 per cent in strength with thc latter. Proper
judgment—based on experience—is necessary in the use of different
kinds of cement.
5. Because the concrete is improperly mixed and used. Errors
are always liable to occur in the proportions used. The mixing may
not be thorough, the batch may be too dry, it may not be properly
tamped, the form may be removed too soon.
Evidently the handling of reinforced concrete work is not such a
simple matter after all. It is a work in which, the experience of the
contractor is the best evidence of the quality of thc work.

A Traang'a'iar Bit tor iVorin^'
Square 1 (oles
T H E problem of boring- square holes or holes of other shapes than
the round, has long- attracted inventors, and is moreover of considerable
practical interest in view of the wide use of such holes
for counter-sinking and for keys, wrenches, spanners, hand-wheels, and
similar articles. The present methods of making square holes outside
of punching- and casting", such as first boring- round boles and then working
them up by hand or by means of a slotb r or shaper, are laborious, expensive
and much slower than the making of the round hole itself, which
practically limits their use.
The machine shown herewith, however, hi ires square holes with the
same facility and with nearly the same speed that the ordinary twist or
flat drill will bore a round hole in the same material. \t the same time
the tool while not altogether as simple as the flat drill, is not complicated
nor expensive, and is easily made or ground in the average machine
shop. The only appliance needed for the use oi this special tool
upon such machines as lathes, drill presses and milling- machines is a
special chuck, which constitutes the principal interest from a mechanical
standpoint and which we shall now proceed to describe.
The chuck is really a device for making the three-cornered boring
tool or bit travel about in such a way as to strike out a square hole in
the work. It consists of a driving' part which is screwed on lhe spindle
of the machine, a guiding- part which either rides upon the first part, or
else is secured permanently to the frame of the machine, and a third
part, or socket, into which the shank of the drill is screwed. This third
part is caused to rotate by the first part but has a slight freedom of motion
in relation thereto, being guided as to its exact movements by the
matrix or frame in the stationary part. Where square holes are to be
drilled the shank of the tool is three-cornered, the sides of the shank being
formed by segments of circles struck from opposite corners as centers,
the radius of these circles being tbe same and equal to one of the
sides of the square hole which is to be drilled. The guide in the stationary
part of the chuck is adjusted to the size of the hole to be drilled, that
is, so that the sides of the square opening are just equal to the radius by
which the circles used for striking out the sides of the shank are formed.
From the accompanying diagram, it will be seen that when one of the
sides of the shank is either rolling or sliding upon one of the sides of the

188 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Radical Angular Drill .S: Tool Co.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 189
square guide, the opposite corner of the shank will be moving in a
straight line in contact with the opposite side of the guide. The corresponding
corner of the head of the tool would at the same time strike
out straight line in the work. This motion takes place on all four sides
of the guide, except for a little space at each corner, the result being that
the hole is perfectly square, except for a slight rounding at the corners.
If it is desired to bore out a complete square with sharp corners, a special
tool is employed having a shank considerably larger than the head
of the tool, one corner of the shank being rounded instead of angular.
The exact form of this round cornered shank has been worked out empirically
and a complete set of templets made for the different sizes of
tools apt to be required in actual practice. The tools for both the round
cornered and sharp cornered squares can be ground by means of a special
attachment to the ordinary grinding machine.
This device has recently been put on the market in Germany, where
a large number of chucks are in use in the shops of such firms as Freidrich
Krupp, Siemens & Halske, etc. It is being introduced in this country
by the Radical Angular Drill & Tool Co., having offices and show
rooms at 114 Liberty St., New- York City, where the machine and samples
of its work are now on exhibition.

4 / * H D V * S T B I A L
\ h f e O O R e 5 S
Progress in vSteel Making.
MR. CHAS. M SCHWAB, former
president of lhe United States Steel
Corporation, gave valuable testimony
before the Ways and .Means Comlnhue
al tlie tariff hearing a sh irt time
ago.
While he practicatly admitted that the
conditions which existed nine years ago
would have permitted reduction in the steel
schedule at that time, he said lhe cost of
eery item entering into the manufacture
of steel rails had increased to such an extent
that the present conditions must be
changed to permit of tariff reduction.
"hi five years there will not be a Bessemer
steel converting works left in the
United Slates," Mr. Schwab predicted.
"Bessemer steel will be of no use. The
same is true of structural steei a; well as
rails. They will all be made by the open
hearth process oi manufacture. Costly
changes in the construction of the plants
will he necessary tu make the improvements
in the methods ul manufacture.''
Mr. Schwab also dec!, red that within
ten years the open hearth process would
he superseded by the electric system of
manufacture which was being developed
in I icrmany.
Railway Development,
Western Canada is engaged in national
undertakings of much greater magnitude in
proportion to population than is thc case
wilh any other country in the world. Statistics
compiled from official sources show
that railways have contributed to the business
building of the west to a most remarkable
degree, one new town having
hem put "ii tlie map iii western territory
every other day foi the past eight years.
-yt*
^^.~
"•>fi
The Canadian Pacific Railway's newthrough
line from Saskatoon west to Wilkie
has made rapid progress in the past
season. The work of iocating the main
line of the Grand Trunk Pacific between
F.dmontoii and Prince Rupert, whic-h has
occupied nearly two years, has been completed,
the survey parties forming the big
lorce having reached Ashcrofr B. C, on
their way out in the past week.
The National Transcontinental section,
which embraces that territory from Winnipeg
east, will employ four thousand men
throughout the winter. Hundreds of cars
of railway material are now being shipped
from the head of lake navigation over
thc hake Superior branch and unloaded at
Waco station, from which, point satisfactorj
work in distributing material can be
carried on throughout the winter.
't-ho New California IllUod
OH Pipe,
The $4,Snn,(i(l(l rilled pipe line spanning
lhe 2H2 miles from Bakersfield t-i fort Cosl.i
wilh ils relay pumping station every
twenty-three miles, its sixty men on duty
along the route and its tlow of between
17,000 and .20.000 barrels of thick, heavy
Mi past a given point every twenty-four
hours, is now in operation.
The construction of the pipe line was
started just a year ago. The idea was the
joint invention of John D. Isaacs, consultin.-;
engineer at Chicago of the Southern
Pacific Company, and Buckner Speed.
The rifled pipe is a new scheme. It has
been described at some length in the Scientific
American. Into the interior surface of
the pipe are cut corrugations about ail
eighth of an inch. deep, and these run spirally
round and round, making a completrciicuit
every ten feet. Into this rilled pipe
from two separate engines are pumped nine

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 191
parts of thc heavy oil and one part of CiOrt'Ofal Noi'VS
water. the water following the rifled indentures
takes a swirling movement and A SEC I ION oi a 12 il sewer is being
iornis a very thin sheet of lubricant about *• *• built be Thus \\ , Nicholson for the
tlie oil. and tie- two move along together. city of Cleveland Ever) bit of mallie-
ml forming a dark central core thai lerial is inspected by city men, the brick,
does not come into direct contact with, the cement, iln- sand, as well as ihe workmanpipe.
This avoids friction, which, with snip.
such oil, would prevent progress, ft also Over 9,000 brick were rejected after besaecs
the life of the pipe. >ng delivered al the hoist he-cause they ab-
At each pumping station mi this rifled- -orbed S per cent, uf their weight of water
pipe line there are two 55,000-barrel oil instead ol 2 per ee -nt . the specified amount.
tanks and one 1(1.(KHl-barrel water (ank. (Hie contract is for $200,000.00 and will
Tlie flowing oil and its surrounding sheet consume about a yean. A pi ml is estabof
water are received into one oi the big lished at a point about midway of the work,
duplicate tanks and then the water is in which are two 50 burse power boilers,
d'-ained oft' from the bottom and again large air compressors, engine and 25 K W.
taken up by a duplicate water pump and dynamo, hoisting engine and elevator. The
shot into the big pile into which oil is be- latter to handle the cars of mud and brick
ing sent from a duplicate oil pumping en- ani1 supplies. In figuring a job of this kind.
gine, many things must be taken into account
•r\ , ,•> to i ,.. oi 1 he method e>! excavating is to die: out the
Cemon-Urom Blast • "(cnaoo-S a;' „.,.,, ,„,,,„ (r - f \
'-> mud, build up ring after ring of wooden
A N invention which should have far-reach- block| cut t() the cj].dc ,,f t]u. Bewer whidl
ing effect upon the Portland cement in- hold the earth and. against this the masons
dustry, and which incidentally will enable a sets three rings of brick. Thus, it will be
hitherto useless product to he turned to com- seen, a "barrel" of timber the whole length
mercial advantage, has recently been perfected ol the sewer must be figured he-side the
Ijj Mr. -Sherarel Cowper-Coles, the well- brick. Each car brings up about 25 cubic
known English electro-metallurgist. This in- feet of mud at a trip, which is elevated to
vcnlion consists of the direct production of a height so it can be run out on a tipplecement
from blast-furnace slag. The latter is over a wagon thru carloads are usually
taken when still molten as it issues from the dumped into one wagon.
furnace, and conducted to an electric furnace, With five miners working at each "breast"
where its temperature is further increased. an axe-rage of twenty-five cars can be
During this period a predetermined quantity brought up per hour.
of chalk is added to the slag, ami the whole This requires one hoister, one man on
then subjected to electrolysis, which brings dump, one carpenter and a saw mill with
about certain reactions producing a Portland two men at least
cement equal in strength and quality to the p is planned that a couple of mules will
best grades obtained by lhe existing methods, |-,c \n U5e to haul the ears to the elevator.
a( a very small cost as compared with the gen- 'fhe miners work during the- day and the
cntlly adopted process and in practically one masons brick up at night
operation. A ditch contract has been let near BurvSaiQC
Railway sSi^lialo, Hngton, la., at \VA cents per cubic yard
..,,,., . , ., . lor 22.000 cubic yards oi open work.
Colored lights as signals on railways become
more unsatisfactory as speeds anil
traffic increase, with the growing confussion
of eitv lights, and it has been suggested Another stride in the adjustment of the
that a svstem of bright white lights in vary- »

192
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
He succeeds E. C. Converse, who, since
the reorganization of the company last December,
has occupied the position of temporary
chairman. diaries A. Terry, for
3 ears thc company's attorney and secretary,
was elected a vice president.
flis successor as secretary was not
chosen. Another change in thc company's
affairs was the resignation of Xeal Rantoul
from the board uf directors.
The Cleveland Crane & Car Co., Wickhfi'c,
has just been awarded a $100,000 contract
for cranes for the Panama canal.
The cranes will number twenty-one They
will be built in the plant at Wickliffe and
will be used in construction of the Gatun

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
r, ?/.»*,,,,., f„/..„ Motion artil Ctrnn*
193

194 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
HitfheSi llaiifOad iirld^O ill «sco, with a population of nearly half .1
. ... „ ) - million.
ballfOTMia. Thfi next ,argest electric plant in the
By Mayne Baltimore whole west is that of '.he California Gas
, . , and Electric, located at Electra, which is
117HAT I claimed to be thc highest ,. , , . ,n nnn ,
%A' capable of producing .10.000 liorse power.
Vl railroad bridge in California has -„, . . , .
* * & , I he one at Electra overshadows anything
iust been completed. This ^truc- . , ,.,.,, , . ... "c .
. ' . ul the kind in Europe, Asia, Africa, South
ture spans Rear River on the line ol the . , ,. v . , ^ ,,
1 America or Australia. let lhe feather
Nevada County Narrow Gauge on the new ^^ ^^ whn complctef) wl]1 be m,a,.|y
cut-off hue between Crass Valley and Col- ^ um^ ^ ^^ a_ {he Qne ^ g,^^
fax. The total height above the surface of Thfi gr£al ^.^ tunnc, wiU com,ey thc
lhe water, even at high stage, IS 200 feet- |](|()(K through tbe bowe,s of a mountain
measured from the track. dpwn toward thc plant for a distance of
The total length of the bridge between three m]]^ ]n th;|t distance ther£ {$ a
the abuttments is 800 feet. Concrete and drop q£ n ^ an(] from thc ]owcr cm,
structural steel arc the only material used q{ ^ tunne] down tQ thg grfiat pQwer
in the construction. The total cost will ^ ^ ther£ ^ ;[ plung£ of 54Q feej. Thaf
be about $80,000.00. This new bridge was ... , , r , ,,, ->,,
s . . is like letting a stream of water IS x 20
built fur the puroose of shortening the dis- , , . , . , ..
1 ,- ° Ieet drop in a steady torrent from the
tanee and running time and improving the , • , . r -,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 195
inal plans. The articulation consists in thc lumps of Ibis ruck-like substance to which adboiler
sliding transversely on the drivers, hered much good coal. In the producer all
while rounding short curves. The boiler of these lumps, when not too large, would
is too long to permit of its being held rigid burn entirely through. The fuel had no tenon
the drivers on short curve-:. dency to clinker or cuke, and worked exceed-
The locomotive will have 16 driving ingly well, needing scarcely any poking. It
wheels, or two sets of eight wheels each. contained a very high percentage of ash—
There arc also two sets of cylinders, one about 45 per cent—thus causing the ashbed
set being between the two sets of drivers. to increase in thickness very rapidly; and
The tender will have a capacity for 9,000 throughout the lest this fact was not propgallons
of water, and 3,000 gallons of oil. crp appreciated, consequently much uf thc
It is the purpose of the company 10 use tjme during the test the ashbed was too high
these two huge engines in hauling freight f01- best results. The fact that the coal had lo
from Sacramento over the Sierra moun- be broken by hand, and that it was unusually
tains to Truckcc. hard ancl rock-like, had a tendency to allow
The officials declare that these two mons- lllmps of Clial much too prge to be cbarged
ter engines are expected to do thc work mto tbe producer. These large lumps, very
of four of the company's present largest high m asbj did not 1mrn ent;rely through.
and heaviest freighters now in use, and As soou as thg burning was well started a
even a little more besides. At present four ,ayer of ash formcfl an,und the ]um)h inlcr_
engines can haul 45 loaded freight cars over fenng with (hc combustioil of the remaining
the mountains. The two new engines arc portioil| anfl before lt had time to burn it had
expected to haul 50 loaded ears over True- passed mU wjlh U]e asheg unc0nsumed. Bekee.
The contract calls for the delivery c&use Qf {hc ^ ^ appearanCe „f the coal,
01
work
these
when
two
all
new
of thc
locomotives
other orders
not
of
later
the
but hours' Hu]e run. wag however, cxpcctcd the ,,f it results and the warranted tcst was
Baldwin Locomotive Works are taken into m ^ qj] {]k engmQ Aftw 3g hourg of
than April 1st, 1909. This means quick ^ ^ ^ on]y ia] ,oad AftM scvcra,
consideration. {n]1 ]oad thg ac.clulll,]ation of ash in the pro-
A
The New Coal.
ducer caused 1 little trouble. The gas went
down in heat value and it was necessary to
reduce the load to about 0 per cent of full
FORTHCOMING bulletin of the United load. After much grinding down of the ash-
States Geological Survey will contain bed and special care in breaking up the lumpy
an exhaustive report of tests. coal the gas began to increase in heat value,
An interesting feature of the report will be and at the end of lhe test the producer was
the behavior of a certain bone coal from again in shape to maintain full load at the en-
West Virginia in the producer. This fuel was gine. The calculations for the tcst are based
considered of little or no value for steam on the 50 hours taken from the time full load
boiler work, yet showed considerable useful- was carried by the engine, and for this period
ness in the gas producer, developing at the the gas averaged 144 B. T. U. per cubic foot,
engine a brake horsepower per hour for 1.65 with an average load of 07 per cent of full
pounds of coal. load.
This coal was delivered on the producer The following is the result of the lest on the
platform in lump form up to eight or ten West Virginia hone coal:
inches in size. Thc coal crusher not being Proximate analysis of the coalavailable
at the time necessitated breaking the Moisture 0.47
large lumps with a hammer. The character Volatile matter 8.83
of the fuel was rather peculiar. Some of the p . ^ c2Llhon _,6 9f)
lumps consisted almost entirely of what ap- ^ 43.74
peared to be a high-grade bituminous coal;
others seemed to be nothing more or less than 100.00
rock, heavy, hard, and when hit in the dark Sulphur 0.27
with a hammer numerous sparks could be
readily seen. And again there were many Composition of gas, by volume-

196 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Duration of test 50 hours
Coal consumed in producer, as fired,
pounds per hour 378
B T. U. of coal, as fired 8,566
Standard gas per pound of coal consumed
in producer, cubic feet 44.1
Efficiency of conversion and cleaning
gas 74-1
Coal per B. H. P. hour developed at
engine, pounds 1.65
(a) Based on an assumed efficiency of 85
per cent for generator and belt.
Catalogue Iloviov/.
WHITING Foundry Equipment Co.,
Harvey, 111., have issued a bulletin
especially illustrated for railroad
men, of the cranes installed in shops
and yards.
* -i *
Foundry Machinery and Eepiipment is
the subject matter described in booklet No.
93 by the Northern Engineering Works,
Detroit, Mich. Tt includes cupolas, elevators,
trolleys, hoist cranes, ladles, cars,
tumbling barrels, etc.
* * *
The General Fireproofing Co., Youngstpwn,
O., give a description of the meta!
lathe, corner bead, studding, metal fuming,
wall ties, furniture, etc., etc., in a neat catalog,
A 102.
"Air Jammers" (compressors), are illustrated
in a booklet issued by the Ingersoll-
Rand Co., N. Y. A large number of compiessors
for various service are shown,
even down to the "Imperial Baby" used
for intermittent service and moderate pressure.
* * *
Slabs for roof and floor work are illustrated
in a booklet issued by the North­
western Expanded Metal Co , Chicago. HI.
Calculations and tables arc included in the
booklet that adds much to thc value of
same.
* * *
The R. S. Brine Transportation Co.,
Boston, Mass , illustrate what they do in
a neat booklet, in a word—they move
everything, but on a large scale, too.
Packing is an article that should receive
considerable attention, though it seldom
does. The American Metallic Packing &
Supply Co., Cleveland, O., call attention
to this fact in a booklet recently issued.
* * *
The Cleveland Iron Works Co., formerly
The Zemau Iron Wks. Co., manufacturers
of the Owen Clam Shell Bucket
arc sending out the following announcement
regarding the change of their firm
name:
Announcement.
Having changed our corporate name, wc
wish to inform our friends and patrons
of thc new name under which we wall be
known, and also to thank you for pastas
well as solicit your future favors.
We are prepared to promptly execute
orders for structural and ornamental iron
and wire work and shall be pleased to give
estimates.
With compliments of the season, we are,
Yours truly,
THE CLEVELAND IRON WORKS
COMPANY,
Office and Factory: 6824 Union .Ave.,
Cleveland. O.
1= * *
"Friction Clutches" is a recent catalog issued
by the Hill Clutch Co., Cleveland. O.,
describing their product of this class. The
book is devoted entirely to friction clutches
and their appurtenances, consisting of levers
and stands.
(ron Without Blast,
For his iron reduction without blast furnace
or fusion, J. T. Jones, of Iron Mountain,
Mich., claims especial economy and
effectiveness with low grade ores. A slightly
inclined cylinder eight feet in diameter
and 120 feet long is rotated on bearing
wheels, and the ore fed in at the upper end
slowly moves to the lower end, where gas
from a special producer gives a powerful
reducing flame, with a temperature of 1,470
degrees Fahrenheit, in which all oxides are
reduced. The hot gas emerges from the
upper end of the cylinder as carbon dioxide
at 400 degrees. It is stated that 400 pounds
of fuel fed to the producer does thc work
of 2,000 pounds of coke in the blast furnace
and yields a ton of good iron.

.(•Ykilon OMola,
Mostly 'iMocltanleaL
IT will be noted from thc following illus-
*• trations of a German design of a friction
clutch, that the means of pressure is the
screw instead of the toggle joints, common
in American clutch of this variety.
They are built by a firm at Aktiengeself
schaft in nine sizes to fit as large as ';':',"
shaft and transmit ioo h. p. at ioo R. P. M.
By means of adjustable nuts the friction
surfaces are moved in and outward to take
up the wear and these nuts held by set
Friction Clutch.
screws.
It will be seen that the space immediately
over the friction pieces, is covered by a thin
piece of metal, allowing easy access to the adjustable
parts.
Why not design a four-wheel truck to be
used in warehouses and propel them like thc
trackless trolley systems in foreign countries?
Fine
v/, Out Uvo lloa-son Why.
W E don't hesitate to turn to the doetor
to tell us the reason why
when we are ill and to seek
through him tlie means of cure. But in
our industrial life we have been far morc
inclined to act as our own doctors, thereby
frequently entailing expense and disaster
which might have been avoided had we
called for expert advice. But thc independent
expert easily solves our problems,
answers our puzzling questions, and sets
us straight again. Examples of his value
; re multiplying, in just such simple experiences
as the following:
A power station recently experienced
considerable trouble from the breaking of
boiler tube cap bolts on their water tube
boilers. The holts looked all right, but
every time a boiler was cooled down and
brought.up to steam again a number of the
holts would break off snort. The matter
became so serious that several bolts were
sent to an expert chemist for analysis and
the determination of the same. The chemist,
Mr. Arthuer D. Little, of Boston, immediately
discovered that the bolts were
made of overheated steel instead of the
best quality of wrought iron—for which
the company had paid—and supposed they
v ere obtaining. A change of material at
once removed all trouble.
Sectional View of Clutch.

198
A sScrai) Jiroakor,
Many scrap yards are equipped with a
derrick that will slowly lift a huge ball of
iron and at the proper moment it can be
released to fall upon anything that needs
breaking. The trigger or latch varies in
design and the one shown here is a very
successful one. By means oi the rope
a tag man releases the weight and it drops
seiuarc, while with other design it will
swerve considerable. Scrap dealers break
or cut up all the material they handle that
is saleable, and very little exists that can
not be turned to some use.
Tho 'Gas iY.Um'U'0 Pi\ohlam„
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The incandescent gas mantle has been a
great puzzle to physicists. In the experiments
of fifteen or twenty years ago it appeared
that pure thoria would give only one
candle power of light per cubic foot of gas,
but that the presence of 1 per cent, of ceria
increased this to twenty or twenty-five candle
power, while with 10 per cent, of ceria
in the mantle only three candle power
would be realized. Numerous theories have
been suggested to account for these strange
facts. The truth has become known at last,
slates Prof. Vivian B. Lewes, and the explanation
is that ceria has an enormous
power of heat radiation and thoria very
little, and if ceria is raised to the proper
temperature of 1.500 degrees or 1,600 degrees
centigrade the maximum lighting
effect is obtained. This temperature cannot
be reached if the ceria is much over 1 per
cent.
SUeetrkUy at tho Beginning,
At least two more railroads across the
continent are projected in this country and
one or two in Canada The suggestion has
been made that these lines would find it
advisable to use electricity entirely as a
motive power and thus be free from thc
necessity of purchasing locomotives. Thereare
numerous water powers unused in the
lauds through which these roads are projected
to run and it is believed these powers
could be developed more cheaply than locomotives
could be bought.
It is known that the cost of changing i
railroad equipment operated by steam power
into one with electricity as the motive
power is enormous. This has been demonstrated
by the experience which the New
York Central and New Haven roads are
having. This cost would not be incurred
by a railroad which initiated it s operations
with electricity.
A hi;/ Ooncfor/o Bv3dxo at
Clovoland, Ohio.
There is under way of construction at
Cleveland, Ohio, a concrete bridge that
will replace a steel structure, and when
finished will be one of the longest spans
in the world. The bridge will be 708 ft.
long, with center span of 280 feet, and
roadway of 40 feet wide. The approach
arches will have spans of 40 feet, and
the bridge when completed will cost
about $208,300. The gorge over which
this bridge crosses is about 100 ft. deep. It
is estimated that it will take until the end
of 1910 to complete the work. Although
the arch of the Walnut Lane at Philadelphia
is 42 feet shorter, it cost $72,000
more to build than the bid submitted for
this work. The main arch is divided
longitudinally into two ribs each to be
1,8 feet wide transversely. Provision
will be made for a double track street
railroad. The T rails will be attached
to the floor beams, whtch are to be protected
by a covering of concrete. The
concrete in the main rib is not to be re-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 199
The new Bridge a Rocky River.
inforced, as it is used to restrict com­ days old. In three mouths the value of
pressive stresses only. Under no cir­ this concrete will increase to 2,800 lbs.
cumstances can the tensile stresses be in­ and in six months it would sustain 3,800
duced. The concrete specified for the lbs. as the stress in any part of the struc­
rings and in all concrete where steel is ture is designed for less than 600 lbs. per
used for reinforcement is proportioned square inch. It will be seen that the
for a mixture of one part cement to six factor of safety is ample. The adoption
of sand and stone properly followed to fill of the length of the main span was made
all voids. This should develop a mini­ after a thorough examination of the exmum
compression resistance of 2,000 lbs. isting bridges of similar type, especially
per square inch on a 12 inch cube, 30 the bridge at Philadelphia.
The present Rocky River Bridge.

22 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
D o Y o u K n o w
of anyone who is going to buy new machinery, such as Steam
Shovels, Derricks, Buckets, Machine Tools, etc.? If you do,
send us their name and address, and what they are in the
market for. We will pay you $2.00 for each bit of information,
if it has not been published before. This is payable in
subscription to
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
20 Blackstone Bldg. Cleveland, Ohio
...Are You Interested in...
G A S E N G I N E S ?
Then you wjll want the 60 page
pamphlet entitled
SOME NOTES ON CAS ENGINES
By HERMAN DIEDRICHS,
Professor of Experimental Engineering,
Cornell University.
i Subjects Treated ;
' Gas Engine Cycles ; Their theoretical thermal
efficiencies and practical limitations.
Four-Cycle vs. Two-Cycle Engines.
Matters of Design, and the Principal Dimen-
Methods of Regulation.
Alcohol as a Fuel.
Sent postpaid on receipt of price,
75c.
The Sibley Journal
of Engineering,
Ithaca, New York
JUST PUBLISHED
8vo. cloth, 520 pp., with folding: plates,
price, $10.00 net.
THE
MECHANICAL HANDLING
OF MATERIAL.
Being a Treatise on the Handling of
Material, such as Coal, Ore, Timber,
etc. by Automatic or Semi-Automatic
machinery, together with the various
accessories used in the manipulation
of such plant. Also dealing fully
with the Handling, Storing and
Warehousing of Grain.
By
George Frederick Zimmer, A.M.I.C.E.
WITH 550 II/I, STRATIONS
D. Van Nostrand Company
PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS
23 Murray and 27 Warren Streets,
NEW YORK
National Construction
Car Company
PARK ROW BUILDING. NEW YORK
Builders of all varieties of
Cars for contracting and
industrial purposes.

TPssie
OT^SMMriiS
VOL. APRIL 1909 No. 4.
Dump Wngoiis an

202 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 20:;
About flu- year 1830 is the first knowledge we have of the use of
road rollers. These were horse rollers and were used in England and
France. When steam was first applied to vehicles, steam rollers first
made their appearance.
Iwo nl the principal means or helps in mad construction are the
load rollers and the dump wagons, and of which we attempt to give
a fair description of different makes of rollers ami dump wagons.
BRIGGS LABOR SAVING SPECIALTY CO.
Ibis compam s "G 1 Roads" wagon is an all steel wagon, excepting
tlie wheels and pole and is built for road work- especially.
The- wheels are X and 38 inches high, and bave three-inch tires on
the- ijXyard wagon, and 4-inch lire-, on tbe 2 and 2TXyard wagons.
'J hese wagons have the extremely short wheel base -if live feel.
The I'j-yard and 2-yard wagons are built regular (4 ft. X in.)
track.
The 2'j-yard wagon is built wide (5 fl. 2 in.) track. Frame is
built solid with rear axle.
The box is hung in frame on mck road, and balanced to lilt backward
easily when dump catch is released by driver's foot. The door
Wagon sbowiug both doors open and rear door raised to clear load.
Briggs

204 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 205
wedges sand tight, when box is brought 141 to level, by pressure of
door jam irons against rear cross bar of frame.
The grasshopper rises under front of box when dumped and holds
box in position till entire load is discharged. This grasshopper is unlocked
by driver's hand when box is being pulled back to level, and then
folds under front of box.
Thc door is held up when dumping by hooking door chains on hooks
at rear end of frame.
The spreading is accomplished by hooking door chains on spreading
hooks on bottom of box before dumping
Thc fifth wheel is simple and strong, ami allows free acting in anv
position.
All steel except wheels and pole. Wheels are 36 x 48 inches, with
4-inch tire. Wheel base only X feet, and front wheels turn under. This
wagon is built only in standard wide track, 5 ft. 2 in. centers. Doors
open front and back. Both can he opened at once, or rear door can lieopened
while front is closed to deliver part load at one spot. Doors are
opened and closed by two positive levers, at right of driver, which
pass their dead centers (no ratchets) and turn buckles are inserted in
chains to take up slack, so doors can always be made tight.
A positive lever at the left of driver raises rear door up out of
the way to pass over load without catching. The rear door can also
be controlled by this same positive lever to make it spread the material
dumped, to any desired depth, and make smooth top.
Columbia showing both doors open and arrangement of chains.

206 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
In hauling binder the rear door should be lowered just as wagon
swings across street, and load delivered, without stopping horses, thereby
saving most of work of spreading, using rear door instead of rakes
and shovels. Rear door is closed last, and laps rout door, to prevent
leakage. At bottom of sides iX hi. steel angles give Hat surfaces for
doors to close against.
Box is nearly square to prevent loss of heal in hauling hot stuff,
and is double steel with pulp wood interlining. Inside working surface
No. 12 gauge steel on sides, ami Xo. 10 gauge steel in doors.
They make this same wagon wilh single thick box for the genera!
contractor.
THE COLUMBIA WAGON CO.
The Columbia Wagon Co. manufacture the "Columbian" dumping
wagon in sizes of i X yards, 2 yards, 2'2 yards and 3 yards. The
distance from the ground to the bottom of the bodv is 2 ft. 8 in. on all
sizes: the distance from the ground lo the top of the body on the 11 .
yard and 2 yard size-s is 4 ft. X in. on the- 2Vj-yard and 3-yard sizes ii is
5 ft. 8 in.
All these wagons are made arched axles in (he- rear. and have front
Columbia Wagon rear \-ie-\

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 207
wheels 3 ft. high and rear wheels 4 ft. 2 in. high. The t1 >-yard wagan
i.s coupled 8 ft. 2 in., and 2-yard wagon coupled 0 fl. 2 in.
This wagon has a continuous chain running under run- door ami
over an equalizer in the rear, thence under the either door to the roller
in front.
The main feature of ibis patent is that one door will always come
Up before- lhe other, which allows a strip 1 f band iron along ibe entire

203 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
length of this door, which this company claims makes one of the tightest
drop bottom wagons on the market.
The bottoms are lined with sheet steel. .Sheet steel lining for rest
of body furnished extra if desired.
THE OHIO ROAD MACHINERY COMPANY
The Ohio Road Machinery Company manufacture The Ohio Dump
Box, which will fit anv standard wason gear. The standard size has a

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 209
capacity of iy2 yards without the top box, and 2 yards with the top
box.
The unique feature of the box is that then- are two sets of bottom
doors, running lengthwise with lhe box, controlled bv truss bars so
arranged that they are absolutely positive in their action and so placed
that the warping strain of the load against the bottom doors, incident
to dump boxes having a single set of doors he-Id in place- only by end
supports, is almost entirely overcome.

210 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The outside doors are hinged to the sides of the box, and the inside
doors are hinged to an angle steel truss placed directly over the
reach of the wagon. This arrangement of inside doors hinged to said.
truss also protects the reach of the wagon from, the load when dumped.
Using a double set of doors instead of a single set reduces the possibility
of the doors becoming lodged in the discharged load to practically
a minimum.
The truss bars are spaced one-third of the length of the box from
the ends. Each truss bar controls the outside door of one set with the
inside of the other set, and is connected at one end with a chain carried
over sheaves on the outside of the box to the closing roll placed at the
trout end of the box. the chain connections of the two truss bars being
on opposite sides of the- box. The end of each truss bar opposite the
chain connected end is suspended by a long link from a truss hook
placed on the outside of the box. When the door.-, are- closed the link
take-s a position close up on the shoulder ol the- hook: whe-n open the
link is suspended from the end of the hook.
.Malleable clips or eastings form the engagement of the cross
tiusses with the- bottom doors. As the doors open, the point at which
the castings are fastened to the trusses describes a radial movement
which makes a mechanical movement possible. \s the chains are drawn
up by means of lhe roll the truss bars are drawn endwise and up at
lhe- same lime-, the- bars moving in opposite direction.-, and each closing
twi i doors.
'flu- dumping and closing of this box is done by means of foot levers.
All metal parts are steel forgings and. malleable castings, except
(he chain rollers above the ends of the truss liars.
This chimp box is made in i1 .-yard, 2-vard, 2I/2-yard and 5-yard
sizes, 'flu- standard width of the boxes is for wagons having 58-inch
hi listers.
The dimensions of the- boxes are- governed b\ the width of the
bolster.
AUSTIN MANUFACTURING CO.
The Austin Dump Wagon, manufactured by Austin Manufacturing
Company, has a somewhat similar appearance lo other dump wagons in
respect to the bottom dump and gooseneck construction.
Tlie wheelbase is ion inches on the wook axle wagon and 106
inches on thc steel axle wagon.
The above mentioned company claims il to be the lowest wagon
as the top of the box is but 53 inches above ground and 60 inches with

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 211
the sideboards on, the load being carried close to the axle and to the
power.
This lowness of bed does not affect the- clearance, in fact, they
claim it has a greater clearance mi account of the construction uf the
bottom boards.
These bottom boards are not attached by hinges to the bed, but
aie fastened 1>\ chains which permit them to oscillate freely, and raise
up on lhe outside of the wagon box when dumped bv means of automatic
steel arms on the ends of the wagon, 'these arms also serve to
firmly wedge the boards into place when closed.
The ends and sides of the box are practically perpendicular. The
wagon is dumped and brought back into loading condition bv a single
lever, which is operated by one hand without stopping.
The "Austin" showing side view, with doors clossid and arrangement of chains.
A heavy steel gooseneck is built into each side of the forward end
oi the box. making an unbreakable and unbendable connection between
the- front and rear axles and dispensing wilh a reach, allowing the wagon
lo turn short in its own length.
'lhe edges of the bod)' are protected wilh steel.
On the steel axle wagons solid collar concord steel axles are used.
()n the wood axle wagons bone dry hickory axles are used wilh long-
arm steel skeins.
Turnbuckles are in each adjusting chain lo take up all wear and
keep the wagon tight.
This wagon is made in three styles, viz. : The steel axle wagon, the
wood axle wagon and the municipal wagon.
All of these are equipped with sideboards and tubular steel doubletrees
and singletrees. Each wagon has a capacity of approximately r1/
cubic yards without the sideboards.

212 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The steel axle wagon has a capacity of about 2 yards with the
sideboards on, is 4 feet 8^2-inch gauge, 3-inch tires and weighs about
1900 pounds.
The wood axle wagon has a capacity of about 2 yards with sideboards
on, is 5 feet 2-inch gauge, 3-inch tires and weighs about 1750
pounds. Both of the above wagons can lie furnished with wider tires.
The municipal wagon is the same as thc steel axle wagon, except
it has extra large sideboards, giving it a capacity of about 2X cubic
vards, has high grade Sarven wheels with 4-inch tires.
THE TIFFIN WAGON COMPANY
The Tiffin Wagon Company place several types of contractors'
dump carts on the market.
The general construction of one of the types i.s similar to most of
the other makes with respect to the bottom dump and gooseneck
arrangements. This type is made in a 1 IXyard or 2-yard capacity.
Tne "Tiffin' one nueket Steel Dumping Wagon.
The bottom is constructed with two boards hung with hinges on
the outside of the wagon box. permitting them to swing clear of the
opening. They are raised and lowered by chains winding- and unwinding
on the shafts direct.
These chains are placed on the outside of the box at front and rear,
so that when the bottom is open there is 110 obstruction whatever to
keep the load from dumping.
This type is equipped with a 3 or 4-inch tire, and solid steel axles
or 2 or 2X x 11 inches, depending upon whether it is a 1' _- or 2-yard
wagon.
The wheels are 36—48 inches, the hubs e) x 13 inches and the
spokes 2j/> inches.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 213
The lower box is ij/. inches and the upper box i '.j inches.
In the i^-yard wagon the height is 4 feet 10 inches, having a
wheel base of 9 feet 3 inches, a capacity of 5,000 pounds and weighs
1,900 pounds.
In the 2-yard wagon the height is 5 feet 4 inches, having a wheelbase
the same as the I'j-yard wagon, a capacity of 8,000 pounds and
weight of 2,100 pounds.
The "Tiffin" bottom elunip wagon doors open.
Brakes and wider tires can be supplied.
The neck plate of this wagon is a solid sheet of steel, the body being
built out of white oak.
Another type of a dump wagon that this company makes is what is
called a Four-bucket Steel Dumping Wagon, which is designed to supplant
the old style dumping boards.
The buckets are hung separate and are dumped one at a time, instead
of requiring two men to dump it as the old style dumping boards,
one man can dump the load. This arrangement of the buckets dumping
separately permits the load to be scattered at the will of the man in
charge.
Each bucket has a capacity of ' _• yard and is made of heavy sheet
steel.
The body is made of white oak- and heavy malleable castings, and
can be placed on any ordinary farm gear. The wheelbase is 7 feet.
If necessary four different kinds of material could be hauled in the
same load without mixing them.
The above company also make a contractors' dump cart with a ca­
pacity of 16 cubic feet.
The axles are of solid steel, has 3-inch tires, the wheels are 4 feet
10 inches and weight is 780 pounds.

214 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
THE BLACK MANUFACTURING CO.
The Black Manufacturing Co. make the Chicago Quick Dumper.
The principle feature is the reduction of draft. This is because the mechanism
is such as to make it possible to have lhe gear closely coupled,
bringing the front and rear wliee-ls near together. Furthermore on account
of their device for operating the bottom shutters, the dumper is
placed on (be gear in such a manner that the weight ol lhe load is
equally divided over the front and rear axles, accordingly, part of the
load is disposed in front of the front axle, another part at the rear of
the bind axle, and the bulk or the greater portion between the axles.
'1 bus the weight is accurately distributed proportionately over tbe carrying
parts. This feature, they claim enables learns to go over more
ground and do il easier, taster, and re-main in better physical condition.
Also it makes it possible that the loads carried can be increased from 25
to 50%,
The corners of lhe- body are joined together with steel angles which
are made 3 x 4J_. inches, and attached to the sides and. ends wilh bolts,
making a substantial corner construction.
The operating principle is simple. The hanging- rods which connect
tlie operating- md with the holt-an hinges, are made of X-ine'i
round steel, and when the operating rod is released at the front end
ol the dumper, the hanging rods retain their connection with the
lower hinges as will as witli the operating rod as tlie b tto-m opens up
and discharges the li lad.
The "Chicago Quick Dumper" side and end vie-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
215

21fi THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The construction of the dumper is such that the box is tight when
in a position for receiving the load. They have heavy steel on the bottom
which preserves the construction and assists in discharging the
load. The top edges of the sides and ends are protected with heavy
steel.
In order to meet the demands for a dumper in certain cities where
heavy loads are hauled they have a wagon which is furnished with a
dropped under gate. This enables the dumper to lie used for hauling
loads which could not be handled if the rear end, were made stationary.
It also makes it possible to haul a load where the contents have to be
scooped, as it is necessary in making deliveries at certain times. The
end gate drops to a point parallel with the bottom of the dumper or will
drop all the way down if required.
WESTERN WHEELED SCRAPER CO.
Manufacture the Aurora Dump Wagon. The bottom dump boards operate
on the new style of hinges which are of curved shape and operate
in rollers set in the side of the bed. The hinges turn on lhe rollers,
drawing the doors or bottom boards up outside the box so that by their
The "Aurora" rear.viev

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
use we are enabled to lower the wagon box 4 inches without changing
the distance of the doors from the ground when open. The wagon is
made on wide track 5 feet 2 inches. Standard height of wheels on the
217

218 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
l/Xyard wagon is 38 inches front. 50 inches hind, making an easy running
wagon. It is as light as can be made with sufficient strength for
the service. The opening for the discharge of the load is very large,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 219
giving ample clearance. The front gear is thoroughly braced in all directions
and practical use has demonstrated that it is impossible to pull
it out from under the wagon. Angle irons are- provided at each corner
of the bed to which are bolted the sides and ends, insuring great
strength. The top edges of the lied are strapped with iron. The ratchets
and dogs for operating the doors are cast steel and unbreakable. The
doors are tripped by the driver raising a lever, the load is instantly discharged,
and without stopping the team, tlie doors are returned to place
b) the driver operating a ratchet lever.
Another improvement on the Xirora Dump Wagon is a malleable
spiral guide on the roller on which the chain is wound, the device causing
the chain to wind smoothly without piling' up.
hi the standard construction the chains operating the doors are
crossed, i. e., extending from each side to the opposite door, on the inside
of the bed. This insures a tight bottom and provides an extra
bracing for the bed. Another style of wagon i.s thai with the chain
entirely outside the bed. This is preferred by some, as it leaves the bed
free from obstruction and is valuable in handling chunky or sticky material.
The lumber used in the beds is first and second clear W ashington
fir and oak. The aurora has an opening so large that i; \ or 2 yards of
earth can be dumped from it without the wagon coming into contact
with the pile of dirt dumped.
STUDEBAKER BROS. MFG. CO.
The Studebaker Dump Wagon has an. arched axle. By the use of
this the coupling is shortened, and by attaching to the bed in center of
the rear the bed is greatly strengthened. The arched axle in rear permits
free clearance of the dumped load and prevents team from stalling
on dump.
The front wheels can be turned completely under the body as is
the case of most clump wagons, which permits the wagon to be turned
under its own length.
The full circle, oscillating fifth wheel permits the front wheel on
either side to drop into a depression or run oyer an obstruction without
disturbing the level of the body.
The dumping attachment is operated from the driver's seat. A selfad.
justing chain passes from the front roller over a pully attached to the
front of the bed, thence clown underneath the full length of one of the
tva]i doors, thence over a pulley attached to the rear end of lhe bed and
under the full length of the other door and back again to the front

220 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
roller, making practically an endless chain. One end of this chain
winding upon a slightly larger roller circumference than the other,
closes one door in advance of the other.
The trap doors are lined with heavy sheet steel. This lining pro-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 221
jects about an inch and a half over the door closing first.
The neck of the box is lined with steel on both inside and outside
and reinforced by a heavy rocker plate.
This company also manufactures a four-wheel rear dump wagon.
THE TROY WAGON WORKS CO.
The Troy Wagon Works Co. manufacture the "Troy Bottom Dump

222 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Wagon," "Troy Dump Boxes" and the "Troy Reversible Bottom-Dump
Wagon."
The Bottom-Dump Wagon made by this company is made in several
sizes and styles. The front wheels are 3 feet and rear wheels 4
feet 4 inches in diameter, and are equipped with 3 or 4-inch tires. The
axles are 25/2-inch solid steel axles with 2'2 x 11-inch spindles.
The wheelbase on one type is 8 feet 4 inches and on another type
Q feet 4 inches.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 223
The body rests on two heavy flat leaf springs, set on the rear axles,
thus relieving a great deal of strain on both body and wheels.
The doors are of steel and are reinforced the full length of underside
by truss and on the ends by angle steel. In closing the left door
laps the right door by at least two inches, thus making a tight box for
fine sand or other fine material.
A long steel shaft runs the full length of the wagon box, and on
each end of this shaft is a spiral drum around which the door-lifting
chains are wrapped. These door-lifting chains are two in number and
are both outside of the box. They are attached securely to the left side
of the box, then pass over a sheave on end of left-hand door, next over
a sheave on the box, then over a sheave on the right hand, and from
there to the spiral drum, to which they are securely attached and upon
which they wind. By means of a lever, a pawl and a ratchet, the driver
dumps the load and winds up the chain without stopping team.
The Trov Dump Box is made for gears 38 or 42 inches between
bolster stakes, and has a distance of 6 feet 7 inches from center to center
of bolsters.
The bottom is made of four steel doors which overlap when closed.
A long steel shaft runs the full length of the box, and on each end
of this shaft is a spiral drum around which the door-lifting chains are
wrapped. These chains are two in number and are outside of box. The
dumping and closing device is similar to that on the Bottom Dump W a-
gon.
This dump box is equipped with an adjustable distributing device
so that the load will not drop in one place, but may be scattered along
The "Kramer" rear view showing patent Equalizer.

224 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
over distance desired, it can also be arranged to dump only one side of
box, permitting wagon to be moved and then dump other side, if necessary.
The Reversible Dump Wagon is constructed along the same general
features with respect to the dumping apparatus as the Bottom Dump
Wagon.
These wagons are intended, in road building, to be handed in trains
by a traction engine and are not intended to turn round, though they
can be.
By pivot axle arrangement the load is carried directly and practically
entirely at the ends of the axles and the wheels will pass over obstacles
without any whipping or lateral motion. This wagon can be
furnished with a tongue, suited for either end, for using team with single
wagon.
THE KRAMER WAGON CO.
The "Oil City Dump Wagon" is manufactured bv The Kramer
W^agon Co. and is made in several sizes.
It is strongly reinforced by bands of iron and has heavy steel bottoms
which lap 2 inches in the center. Two chains are used to close
the bottoms. These chains are fastened to the winding arm in the front
and pass from there under the inner edges of the doors to a patent
equalizer in the rear of the wagon. This equalizer is entirely different
from other patent equalizers.
The doors are hinged to the sides of the body in such a way as to
prevent them from hitting the wheels.
The "Kramer" patent ball arrangement in place of King Bolt.

A
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 225
w & J % ,
.^jjf Rl
The "Kramer" showing Winding Mechanism.
Another unique feature of this wagon is that it has no kingbolt,
but instead, it has a ball and socket connection.
It has steel tubular axles.with 3J--inch spindles. The wheelbase
is about 100 inches.
The brake is so placed and made as to operate like the brake mi ordinary
wagons.
The neck is made deep and is strongly reinforced, the front wheels
being permitted to turn the bed.
THE T. F. STROUD & CO.
The T. F Stroud Co. manufacture the "Little Red Dump Wagon"
which they place on the market, with tires of 4-inch width exclusively.
Its total weight is 1590 pounds and has a capacity of 1 X yards without
tlie sideboards or 2 yards with the sideboards attached.
The fifth wheel and the construction of the wagon is such that it
could be turned within its own length, and if it should upset, the heel
would leave the front wheels and team on the grade.
The compound lever footbrake enables the driver to lock both realwheels
with his right foot, though the wagon is heavily loaded, leaving
both hands free to handle the lines, enabling the team to rest while go­
ing down hill.
They place a hub shield on this wagon which protects the thimble
and skein from dust and dirt.
The bottom of the box drops below the sides, preventing any accumulation
of dirt between the side of the bed and the edge of the bottom,
and allows the bottom to freely come to position. The slope of
the rear and front of the bed is such that all the dirt readily drops out.
It has a trailing device which is very useful in moving camp, enabling
you to trail a number of wagons one behind the other, and can

226
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
also be used in cases where teams become stalled with a load, as you can
by means of it pull the wagon backwards.
This firm also puts out a strong, substantial and durable contractors'
dump cart with the standard wide track, 5 feet and 2 inches, and
a weight of 700 pounds.
"Little Red Dump Wagon" Side view showing doors open.
INDIANA ROAD MACHINERY CO.
"The National Dump Wagon" is made by the Indiana Road Machinery
Co.
The doors, instead of being hinged by means of fixed or chain
hinges, are attached by means of loops to vertical slide guides fixed to
the sides of the wagon.
The lifting chains are not long enough to allow the doors to drop
to a vertical position, and as a result, when the load is dumped, thev are
forced by the weight of the falling material up outside of the box and
lifted clear of the dump.
This automatic raising of the doors while load is being done permits
the doors to pass over any obstruction which the front axle pass
oyer.
Solid pressed steel doors are used in this wagon and are thoroughly
braced both lengthwise and crosswise. A 3-inch steel strip is riveted
on the bottom of the sides and ends of thc wagon box. One side and
the ends of both doors are panned in such manner that thev, when tightly
closed, fit outside of the above mentioned strips, making this wagon
to all intents and purposes water tight.
The lift chains are fixed to each end of a steel tube, running under
the driver's seat, to which is attached a ratchet wheel on the right-hand

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 227
side. Two levers are used, one for hoisting the doors and the other for
holding them in position and dumping. A single throw of the latter
lever releases the doors and thereby dumps the load.
This wagon is heavily reinforced, with angle irons. An angle iron
extends the entire length of thc wagon on each side and is attached to
the rear axle and to the bolster above the top fifth wheel circle, and
forms part of the gooseneck. The gooseneck is further reinforced by a
heavy piece of flat steel.
The axles are of wood or square steel. The tires are 3 or 4-inch
tires.
This wagon is made in several different types and for different
classes of work, such as for railroad contractors. The wagon is wide
gauge, wood axle, outside lifting chains, steel doors, drop tongue, 2 or
3 horse hitch and capacities of 1J4. llA and 2 cubic yards.
For City Contractors—Standard gauge, steel axle, outside lifting
chains, steel doors, stiff tongue, plain or steel lined boxes, and capacities
of I J/4, iX an(l 2 cubic yards.
The National Dump Wagon.
MICHIGAN WAGON eK: MANUFACTURING CO.
The Michigan Dump Wagon has a wheelbase of 8 feel, 9 inches.
Just one size of wheels are made for this wagon and that i.s 4 feet 4
inches for the rear and 3 feet 4 inches for the front.
The front gear is what is called a cut under gear, that is, the front
wheels will turn under the neck of the wagon and cut short enabling
the wagon to be turned within its own length.
The box is made of black birch. The sides are shaped to size and
a heavv angle iron securely bolted to the under edge of the sides. The
upper bolsters are bolted to the angle, also the rear axle. Therefore,

228
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 229
the front and rear of the wagon are secured by steel bars running the
entire length of the wagon. The rear end is bolted to an angle corner.
The lower end of the corner irons, both front and rear, is bent at a right
angle and forms a foot or rest for the ends to rest on. Even if the bolts
should be removed from the ends thev would still maintain their position
and not drop down, that is the ends do not depend entirely upon
the bolts to hold them in place. The front corner angles also form a
part of the gooseneck.
One door overlaps the other by about two inches. They are made
of flanged steel; each end and the outer edges are flanged one inch deep
or turned at right angles. Each door has three forged steel hinges. The
edge inside of the doors are reinforced with a wooden truss and running
along the bottom of the truss are the adjusting chains which add
strength to the doors.
The load is dumped by means of a foot lever operated by the
THE EAGLE WAGON WORKS.
The Eagle Dump Wagon clumps lengthwise: the body is made of
hard wood banded with iron wherever the edges or parts are subject to
wear.
The doors are crossed from side to side witli five pieces of wrought
steel and the center edges are steel faced. The ends of the doors are
S. Crossland Steel Pump Wagon.

230 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
protected and strengthened by angle irons which also lap against the
lower edges of the end boards, making a tight hotly. The outer edges
of the doors are supported by the binges, while the inner edges are supported
by one continuous chain which is fastened on tbe winding arbor
in front, passing from there along the inner edge of a door, then over
o o
O V
« ra
U.S
*• a
ra buO
*• o
V T3
5P
-J^'-U
S"ra"3
o —
Ml «
ra —
13 E
3 3 C
w O

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 231
an equalizer in the rear and back along the inner edge of the other door
to the winding arbor.
These chains are so attached to the winding arbor by means of
grab hooks, as to make it possible, within a few moments, and without
aid of hammer or wrench, to shorten the chain so that the wagon can be
used in spreading the load instead of clumping it in one bulk.
Another feature of this wagon is the way that the wheel house or
gooseneck of the wagon is braced with wrought iron, having wrought
iron inside, wrought iron outside, and underside of the wooden part that
forms the wheel house.
The dumping is clone by means of a lever operated by the driver.
The axles are 2\{\ x 2I4 inches in rear and 2x2 inches in front
and are made of square steel.
The wheels are 3 feet 1 inch in front and 4 feet 1 inch in rear and
are fitted with either 3 or 4-inch tires. The track of the wagon is 4 feet
6 inch from center to center, but can be made otherwise if so desired.
The Eagle Dump Box is made to fit any ordinary wagon gear. It
has four doors running lengthwise with wagon which are supported,
when closed, with the chains running lengthwise under them. There
are no cross chains to retard the load when dumping.
The two middle doors drop over the reach, thus protecting it. The
outer doors swing out and up by means of angled bars of iron hinged
part way up from bottom of the sides.
The load is dumped by means of a foot lever and the doors are
closed with a lever.
The box proper holds one yard, and by means of a ton box it will
contain one-half yard more.
THE AMERICAN DUMP WAGON CO.
The "Marion Dump Wagon," built by The American Dump Wagan
Co., successors to The Marion Dump Wagon Co., has a wheelbase
of only 5 feet 11 inches, and is 4 feet 4 inches from top of bed to the
ground on the 2-vard wagon, turns completely around in its own length
whether loaded or dumped.
The bottoms are clumped crosswise of the wagons instead of
lengthwise.
The load can be dumped in four separate piles, or be spread anv
di stance desired.
The rear endgate is made to fold clown to any point desired, for
hauling lumber, or loading in boxes, barrels or sacks of cement, or in

232 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
fact anything that would be hard to get in over the sides of the wagon.
The sides of the wagon are white oak. The bottoms are made of
Xo. 8 gauge steel, reinforced with four bars of channel iron, with the
rivets all countersunk so that the bottoms are smooth to shovel on.
The weight of the load is not carried on the chain, but on rigid upright
levers that makes each bottom ciose up each time alike and the
nearer closed they get the more leverage it has, and the easier it works.
Many of these wagons are equipped with finikin rolier bearing
axles, making them a very light running dump wagon. The wheels are
equipped with width of tire and tread to suit the user.
American Dump Wagon used as a coal wagon.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
American Dump Wagon.
Kooh Dump Box.
233

234 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Horn I Hollers,
The Austin Mfg. Co. manufacture the American Motor Road Roller,
which is a departure fn m the ordinary type. Steam for the
purpose of road-rolling was first applied about 50 years ago, when an
ordinary traction engine was converted into such use by substituting
smooth tired wheels in place of the- stripped traction rims. This type
is still in general use, wilh the exception of a few details.
The motor can be operated with gasoline or denatured alcohol. It
does not require- the services of a licensed engineer.
The American Motor Roller carries enough gasoline in its own
lank- to run in hours on full load. Il is very economical to operate, as
no gasoline is use-d when the machine is not operated. In the case of
some road rollers the fire has to be banked at night.
Five to ten gallons of water arc- evaporated daily.
The construction ot the gas engine is very simple. There are two
valves, and these are operated 1>\ a cam. The start, stop and reverse
are controlled by one lever.
They have two positive speed changes of gear, so that the speed of
travel can lie varied as the necessity requires. The weight is evenly distributed,
owing to the fact that no -water is carried and does not change
(o inclines.
The steering is done by worm gear actuating drums and chain connections.
The oscillating motion of the steering head and fork- allows
lhe front rollers to adapt themselves to the irregularities of the road.
'lhe rolling wheels are beveled rear and front to give the proper "cam-
Austin Road Roller.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 235
her" to the crown of the head. The cut shows the construction of the
rear driving wheels. The renewal rim is so constructed that when one
is worn, it can be replaced without throwing away the center and spokes.
As is the case of most road rollers it can be used for hauling scarifiers,
graders, etc. Will also furnish power to run a rock- crusher and
concrete mixer in place of the traction engine.
KELLY_spRINGFIELD ROAD ROLLER CO,
The Springfield Standard Macadam Steam Road Roller is designed
for road making in all its various processes. It may also be used as a
locomotive to haul broken stone or other material.
Five sizes of this machine are kept in stock: 20,000 pounds, 26,000
pounds, 30,000 pounds, 35,000 pounds and 37,000 pounds, finished
weight.
Their patented beveled wheels are an advantage in some instances,
over rollers fitted with flat wheels, especially on roads that are highlycrowned.
In rolling a highly crowned road only the inner parts of flat
driving wheels are in contact with the surface. This excessive pressure
produces a sharp depression of the loose material directly under the inner
edges of the wheels and the elevation to the sides between them, and
the newly-laid material is displaced, making ridges and breaking iqi the
curving contour which is necessary to a good road.
With the beveled wheel the inner side edge does not bear at all until
the whole width of the wheel is in contact with the loose material, the
material is not displaced, ridging is avoided, and the contour is pre­
served.
The rear wheels over-lap the front wheels 5 inches, leaving a
smooth road.
On these rollers the width of the driving wheels may be increased
or diminished so as to increase or diminish the compression as desired.
Their new scrapers with lever and quadrant adjustment are fitted to
all sizes. The rear driving wheels are fitted with spikes for tearing up
the surface of old roads.
Thev furnish when desired, wheels with corrugations for consoli­
dating embankments.
Double speed gearing is applied to the 30,000 pounds, 35,000 and
37,000-pound rollers.
A steam steering gear is attached, lo the 30.000-pound, 35.000pound
and 37,000-pound rollers. The worm is readily deatched from
the steam gear aud the roller may be steered by hand.

236 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
"Springfield" Road Roller. Left Side View.
Among the special points of advantage claimed for their standard
macadam rollers are a patented ore carriage, an open foot plate, automatic
governor, counter-balanced crankshaft, double-speed gearing,
steam steering gear, independent steam pipe, rapid steaming boiler, very
deep smoke box, shaking grates, deep ash pan, capacity for carrying coal
or water sufficient to operate roller for five hours' continuous hard work,
extended cab provided with drop curtains, very long axle box fitted with
heavy removable brass bearings, over lap of wheels five inches on each
side.
The 20,000-pound Springfield Standard Macadam Steam Road
Roller is designed especially to fill the demand from Park Hoards, County
Commissioners, Cemetery Associations and contractors for a macadam
roller of light weight to lie used for rolling boulevards, cemetery roads
and contract work" and with power to break up old roadways for spiking
or plowing, drive stone crusher, concrete mixer and other machinery
and otherwise perform the functions of heavier sizes of road rollers.
The boiler and engine are large in proportion to the weight of the
roller.
The front yoke, swivel block, saddle casting, axle boxes, spur centre,
side brackets and gears are all made of a fine quality of cast steel.
The boiler and longitudinal steam compartments are so designed as
to enable the roller to work either forwards or backwards up steep grades
with perfect safety.
Thc 26,000-pound steam road roller is an exact counterpart of the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 237
£0,000-pound roller, but it is 6,000 pounds heavier, has more- power, has
larger boiler and cylinder and heavier working parts throughout.
Two styles of tandem rollers are made by them. < hie has horizontal
engine and straight spur gearing and is made in 7 sizes; the oilier has
vertical engine and beveled gearing.
The 2^2-ton, 4-tmi and 5-ton sizes are designed especially for rolling
asphalt, golf courses, gravel walks, race track's or any surface designed
for light traffic. The 7-tmi, 8-ton, 9-ton and 10-ton sizes may heused
for rolling asphalt and other road work which does not require the
greater compression of the Standard Macadam Rollers.
All sizes are equipped with band wheel, and may be used as stationary
engines for driving other machinery.
These rollers are claimed to work successfully mi grades as greaf as
25 per cent., and the centre of gravity being very low, they may be
worked side-wise on a 25 per cent grade without danger of upsetting.
The main frame, boiler, water tank, coal bunker and engines are suspended
by heavy brackets, iX inches below the center of the main axle.
The double, high pressure, reversible engines are carried horizontally
on main frame. All bearings, are adjustable. The engines are independent
of the boiler, and easy of access from the ground. The coal
bunker is under the foot plate.
The 5-ton and 6-ton sizes are of thc vertical engine and beveled
gearing style. These sizes are not fitted with band wheel.
"Springfield" Road Roller. Right Side View.

238 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
J. I. CASE MEG. CO.
The engine is a single sidecrank of the simplest type. The frame
is of the girder pattern, and the cylinder '-m] is faced and the guides
bored at one setting in the machine shop so that they are in perfect
alignment with the cylinder. ( hving to large disc and heavy flywheel,
the engine i.s perfectly balanced and may be run as slowly as necessary.
The simple cylinder and steam chest are cast in one piece of closegrained
iron, which insures a smooth, durable and easily lubricated
surface. The engine, with its X'j x io-inc.h cylinder, delivers 36-brake
horse power, as actually measured lw a Pony brake dynamometer at its
normal speed of 250 revolutions and normal pressure of 125 pounds
per square inch.
The slide valve i.s the plain 1) style locomotive type. The valve and
valve seat on every road roller are carefully machined to a true surface
and then scraped by hand to insure a perfect steam-tight fit.
The Case ( )il Rump for lubricating the steam cylinder, acts on the
force-feed principle. It is actuated by the valve gear, and is a positive
feeder under all variations of temperature. When the engine is not running
the pump ceases to act and no waste of expensive oil ensues. A
gravity check-valve prevents the oil from being drawn over in case
of a vacuum in the cylinder. An angle valve is placed in the steam pipe
between dome and governor so the steam can be cut off if necessary.
The connecting roil is of the latest approved design of [ beam section,
strong and rigid, although light in weight. It is forged from a
single piece of steel without welds. Both ends are of the box form,
no straps, gibs or keys being used. It is made long, thereby lessening
the angular thrust, and reducing the friction between the crosshead
shoes and guides.
The connecting rod boxes are made of phosphor bronze, which has
proven to be one of the best anti-friction materials obtainable.
The crank disc is of large size and -properly proportioned to counterbalance
the reciprocating parts. It is forced on the shaft bv hydraulic
pressure of at least 15 tons and afterwards a carefully fitted key is
driven. The crank-pin is also pressed into the disc lw heavy hydraulic
pressure and afterwards riveted.
The flywheel serves as a balance for the engine. It is f< inches in
diameter with loJ/Xinch face. The normal speed of the flywheel is 250
revolutions per minute, and ordinarily the roller travels 2.y] miles an
hour.
The friction clutch with which their roller is equipped, is positive

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 239
'Case" Roael Roller.
and reliable in its action, and can be engaged or disengaged either when
the engine is at rest or running. By means of the friction clutch the
engine may be instantly disconnected from the gearing when desired
for belt fiower. Turnbuckles with lock nuts are provided to keep in perfect
adjustment the wooden shoes which form the- friction in the rim
of the flywheel.
The quadrant is provided with two notches at each end, which allows
the operator to adjust the cut-off valve according to the load or
work the engine is doing, 'lhe quadrant is also provided with a centra!
notch in which position the engine will remain stationary should the
throttle be opened inadvertently.
In the valve gear a single eccentric fastened to crankshaft by two
"dog-point" set screws, countersunk- in the shaft, which prevents slipping
is used. The eccentric strap has an extended arm. pivoted to which
is a maple block sliding in a guide. The direction of this guide can
be changed by the reverse lever, and the inclination or angle at which it
is set determines the direction in which tlie engine is to run. The degree
of this angle also fixes the "point of cut-off." which governs the
amount of steam admitted to the cylinder during each stroke.
The countershaft and axle are connected with turnbuckles so that
the same mesh can be maintained in the gearing at all limes. The
countershaft gearing is arranged so that the furnace door is not obstruct-

240 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
eel in anv way : and the platform is so arranged that the view of the road
is not obstructed when backing up the roller. Each roller is fined with
a differential gear which will allow the roller to be run around a corner
without the necessity of getting off die platform and removing a
pin. At the same time the roller is always propelled by both wheels.
I-i die differential gear are placed coiled springs which remove all shocks
from the gearing and allow the roller to l«? started smoothly. It runs
in babbitted bearings, both of which are formed by a continuous "cannon
box." thereby insuring and maintaining their perfect alignment.
Method of lubricaticm of rear axle and countershaft—Large cups.
with waste for soft oil. Also plug which may lie removed and a pint or
more of oil poured into the chamber. This cannot escape until it has
passed the entire length of the hearing suriace.
Method of protection from dirt—Rear axle and countershaft entirely
covered and dust proof. Bearings of front axle are outside of
tlie roll tire.
The boilers of Case road rollers are of the locomotive type with
eipen bottom fire-box. They are maele from open hearth flange steei ot
60.000 pounds per square inch tensile strength.
The crown sheet is stayed to outer sheet in the manner common to
locomotives. Stay bolts of special double-refined iron. ~s- inch diameter
are used, spaced 4X inches apart in both directions.
The side sheets are extended down and form the sides of the ash
pan. To the sides of the boiler are riveted extra heavy sheers carrying
the engine, gearing, etc. The weight of the boiler is carried on springs
resting in steel brackets held to the boiler by rivets and by bolts below
the water line. In this way ne> important part is held. To the boiler bv
bolts tapped into the steam or water space.
The boiler tubes are made from cold-drawn seamless steel, soft and
ductile in quality, which makes them ease to bend, expand and fit in the
line sheet. They are 30 in number. 2 inches in diameter and 7-'"1inches
in length. They are arranged in vertical rows, which insures
free circulation of the water and permits sediment to settle on the bottom
where it can be washed out through the hand holes. Owing to the
flanged-steel yoke for front axle, large smoke-box door, antl front manhole
plate, the flues are readily accessible f- ir cleaning.
The fire box is of ample size. 35 inches fang 25A' inches wide and
35;)4 niches in height. It has open bottom with front and rear draft
doors, which insure good combustion. The fire-box sheets are flanged
in meet the niter sheets, thus omitting entirely the objectionable mudring.
The grate area is 6.15 square feet.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 241
The dome is located near the center, is well braced and has ample
capacity to furnish dry steam at all limes.
The heater with which these rollers are equipped is verv simple in
construction, comprising tubes which are expanded and calked in the
head at each end. Without a heater much valuable heat in lhe exhaust
steam is wasted.
Each roller i.s fitted with a steam pump and l'enbertliv injector,
which are piped independent of each other.
Mountings on front roll. The yoke is made of X 'ncn open hearth
flange steel and is flanged to shape at one heat. The pivot consists of a
ball bearing containing 72 steel balls, ij/g inch diameter, and is placed
in center of front roll, making the power necessary to sleer the same at
any position and the same compression throughout the width of ibis roll.
The rear rolls or drivers are made of steel plate rims X inch
thick. 20-inch face and 72 inches diameter. This diameter gives a large
contact surface, which, with the unusual large piston area (53!-.' scpiare
inches), makes their roller easy to propel.
The front wheel is in four sections, 41 inches diameter with each
section i2'Xnch face or 50-inch combined width. The track of the
front roll i.s overlapped by the rear ones five inches, giving a rolled sur­
face feet i inch wide.
-

242 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
I'irks of Spikes—In the rim of each rear roll sixteen holes are
drilled to receive picks or spikes for use in breaking up old roads and
lhe- like. The picks are pointed, with large flanges and are held to the
rim bv a nut, and all may he used at one lime. \ set of plugs to close
up these holes is supplied for use in rolling smooth surfaces.
TI1K IROQUOIS MACADAM ROAD ROLLER,
The Iroquois Macadam Road Roller is manufactured by the Iroquois
Iron Works uf the- Barber Asphalt Paving Company, This type
ol roller is made in lhe usual weights of 10, 12 and 15 tons.
There are three mils or wheels. The front roll is used for directing
or steering the- roller and is in two sections mi a single axle. The
two sections enable- this mil to turn without twisting or rooting the' road
material, 'lhe axle is held at both ends 111 a cast steel yoke, so pivoted
at lhe top as to allow the roll to "rock-' and surmount anv obstacle.
About two-thirds of the weight of the roller rest on the large driving
rolls of such diameter that they will not crowd lhe fresh material in
front of them.
When the roller is traveling in a straight line the driving rolls overlap
lhe track of the steering roll bv about six inches.
"Iroquois" Macadam Road Roller.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 243
Steel spikes may he fitted to the driving rolls for loosening the surface
of old mads.
The boiler is of the regular locomotive lire-box type and constructed
of flange and fire-box open hearth steel, being proportioned for
a working pressure of 150 pounds, with a safety factor of 5.
The top of the barrel of the boiler, beneath the dome where steam
is admitted lo the engines is not cut away, but is perforated, thus forming
an effective baffle plate for wet steam.
The crown sheet is constructed sloping (o the front, and is lilted
with a fusible plug. The barrel sheet is continued beyond the head and
bolts to the saddle casting, part of which also forms the smoke box, an
air space being left between the shell and the casting to cool the latter.
The motive power is furnished by a duplex engine which has advantages
over one engine where a machine is constantly slopped and
reversed.
This roller has hut one speed gearing. By steam pressure and
throttle control the engine can deliver, through this gearing, the speed
and power changes desired.
A special feature of this gear train is the method of disconnecting
tlie engine for transmitting power to drive other machines.
This company also makes a tandem or two-wheel steam roller.
MONARCH ROAD ROLLER CO.
The principle feature of the Monarch Road Roller is a differential
gear. By means of this the drive rollers are permitted to move independently,
so that in going around corners or working on a curve in the
road, the outside wheel automatically drives faster than the inside wheel.
This makes no particular difference mi a straight road, but when il becomes
necessary to turn a corner or roll a piece ot curved road, it is al
mice seen that a tremendous strain is pelt on the axle or the roller
connected to it. The manufacturers claim that it is impossible to break
nv bend the axle with a differential gear.
harm can be done to the boiler by permitting the crown sheet to become
should the occasion require it. Another feature is the steam dome, which
is a great convenience in a hill)' country. The purpose of the steam
dome is to provide a place where the steam can free itself of water and
keep dry when passing to the cylinders. This makes it possible for the
operator to take the roller down steep grades head first and have water
covering the crown sheet as well as a supply of steam for the cylinders.
On a steam roller or traction engine, where steep grades are encoun-

244 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
tered the dome should be very large so that when the machine reaches
the top of a hill and starts down the other side, it will not be necessary
to turn the machine around and back down m order to keep the crown
sheet covered with water or to prevent flooding the cylinders. Great
harm can be done to the boiler by permitting the crown sheet to become
bare of water. It frequently ruins the boiler or causes expensive repairs
which must be made in a boiler shop. The flooding of the cylinders
results in knocking out one or both of the cylinder heads. A twospeed
gearing has been introduced. The high speed for finishing or
puddling macadam roads or moving the roller from one place to another.
The slow speed for rough work or for giving increased power
for getting out of holes.
TEE ERIE MACHINE SHOPS ROAD ROLLER.
This type of steam roller is the broad tire roller and also the
tandem roller. On account of the front and rear rolls being the same
width, it is especially adapted for use on asphalt and brick pavements,
low-crowned macadam roads, race tracks, park driveways, golf links,
cinder paths, lawn and polo grounds.
The rolls on the rollers are turned in a lathe and are perfectly true,
which gives a smooth surface. The rollers are so constructed that the
weight is chiefly on the large roll.
The main frame is constructed of steel channels, curved to form
the gooseneck, without joint. These channels are 9 inches in depth ami
the heaviest made. Being all in one piece make it of exceptional stiffness
and very strong, insures perfect alignment of the engines, and
their freedom of movement at all times and under all circumstances.
All bolts are double nutted, thus removing liability of their loosening or
loss when in service with rivited joints; also the cross braces are made
of the same material, and at the end it is braced by two strong bolts, removing
absolutely every possibility of strain upon the water tank.
'fhe main axles are large and are made of hammered steel. Thev
have an adjustable collar, so that all side wear can be taken up, which is
very important on asphalt pavements. On their bearing they have the
weight on the solid casting and have no studs.
The boilers are vertical, of the best flange steel, and made strong
for high pressure. Easy access is had for cleaning tubes, and hand
holes conveniently placed, enable the boiler to be easily cleaned. They
furnish the muffled brass safety valve, which reduces the noise and pre-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 245
vents frightening horses. Two injectors are furnished. The boiler is
legged with asbestos and covered with Russian iron jacket.
Two high-pressure balanced slide-valve resersible engines arc used
The cylinders, steam chest and saddle are all cast in one piece. The
exhausts are separate, preventing back pressure. Tbe reverse is made
by a spiral slotted sleeve, cast si lid with the eccentrics and loose mi the
crank shaft, which make cur engines reverse very quickly, so that n i
depression is leit upon the pavement being rolled, and also reverse very
easily. The connecting rods, straps and kevs are of forged steel and the
boxes of bn nze are very large. The cranks are counterbalanced with a
cast disc, giving steady motion without vibration.
The driving gear is in one piece, and the surfaces of the roll-head
a-nl the gear-back are turned in the lathe. Both gear and pinion are
steel, the teeth steeped.
The steering gear consists of a steel segment forming a worm
gear keyed to the king pin, the worm shaft being fitted with two handwheels.
Attention i.s called to their power steering gear, the power is
taken from the crank shaft to turn the steering rolls. This device is
positive, there being no slipping or lost motion, a slight movement of
the lever being sufficient to operate. It is very simple and effective.
This power gear is supplied with the 8 am! io-ton rollers, and it can be
applied, when desired, on a 5-ton roller. It is not applied to the 2X or
3-ton rollers, as those machines are so light thev are very easily steered
by our hand steerer.
The rollers are well balanced and the compression is the same the
entire width of the roll. The excess weight on the engine side is counterbalanced
by weighting the opposite side of the roller. In the 8-ton
roller the boiler is large enough that should the roller be weighted, it
will not lag in its work. It is 3ft inches in diameter, 66 inches high and
150 1 O-inch tubes, hydrostatically tested to a pressure of 300 pounds,
making it perfectly safe at work at 107 pounds steam pressure. It is
also verv narrow and not top heavy, which gives it more compression to
roll than a larger machine, and has 12 inches between the frame and the
ground.
BUEFALO PITTS TANDEM ROLLER,
In the Buffalo Pitts Tandem Roller the boiler is the vertical tubular
type, made of flange steel. Hand-holes are provided where needed,
so that it can be kept clean. It is firmly supported to the frame by steel
brackets, vet can be easily removed if necessary.

246 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The smoke-box hood is hinged to the boiler and can be easily
turned down, which uncovers the tubes so they can be readily reached
for cleaning.
The boiler is covered with two layers of thick asbestos, forming
an air space between the layers. This is covered with Russia iron, held
in place with polished brass bands.
The boiler is furnished with rocking plates of improved design,
manipulated by a lever within easy reach of the operator. The ashes
from under the grates can be discharged by a single movement of a lexer,
by a device similar to the dumping ash pan mi the macadam rollers,
which has been successful and much appreciated by the engineers.
The cylinders, guides and steam chest are in one piece. The steam
chest being in between the cylinders serve for both cylinders, and lessens
the surface for radiation and condensation.
The flat locomotive slide valve is used, made of close grained iron.
tilted and scraped to a bearing with great accuracy. 'Ibe cut-oil is arranged
to give full ilower to the engine with greatest economy.
The valve motion is the link centrally hung, avoiding all side
strains. The link anil its connections are provided with large wearing
surfaces and where the strains are the greatest they are ease hardened.
The crankshaft is made of one solid piece open hearth steel, balanced
opposite the crank pins, insuring smooth running, the eccentrics
being of one piece with the shaft obviates ail danger of their slipping,
so often happening when they are fastened in 'he usual manner. The
extension of crankshaft is coupled to it by a solid colliding flange, and
mi this is a tlv wheel. It runs in three long bearing's lined with genuine
babbit metal.
The connecting rods are long compared to the stroke, thus avoiding
undue strains mi the crosshead shoes and guides. They are fitted
at both ends with gun metal boxes with easy and positive adjustment
in case of wear.
The crosshead is made of sleek fitted wilh hardened sleel pin.
ground lo a perfect fit. The shoes are easily adjusted to lit the bored
guides. The governor furnished is the best of its class and regulates
the speed of the roller, irrespective of conditions, and when being used
to drive a stone crusher or any other machine within ils capacity, it is
indispensable.
The shafting and axles are all made- ot homogenous open hearth
steel, large in diameter in proportion to their duty. The rear axle is
fixed firmly to the frame, adding to its rigidity.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 247
The rear and front rolls are made of special charcoal iron, with a
large percentage of steel. They are lined with phosphor bronze of extra
length, with ample facilities for oiling and when worn can lie easily
and cheaply replaced. The rear rolls can be- fitted with corrugations for
rolling embankments.
The engines have double cylinders placed vertically, entirely independent
of the boiler. This vertical position of the engines in a roller
ol this type has been proved to have many advantages. They are in
full view of the engineer, so the least disturbance can be easily detected.
This roller has a power steering device whereby the operator with
a slight movement of a lever can guide the roller in either direction.
There are no chains or belts in this construction to give trouble, having
used cut gearing and shafting to convey the power from the crankshaft
to the worm segment.
The mil is driven from both ends, making a double-gear drive
right through from the crankshaft. The crankshaft is extended, mi
both sides to receive the steel pinions. These pinions mesh into corresponding
gearing, which in turn drives the rear roll by its rim
through two internal gears securely fastened to its rim. This not
only doubles the life of the gearing, hut eliminates all twisting strains
which are inevitably imparted to the frame when driven from one side.
Driving the roll directly by the rim takes all strain off the spokes of the
rear roll, besides it gives a much better ratio of the gearing, adding
power to the roller and economizing steam. By means of an inner
support a double bearing i.s given to the short sfiatV mi which the
driving pinions are hung. The gears are made of steel and those of
high speed are cut from solid stock. Thev are thoroughly protected
from dust or grit by substantial covers.
The levers for operating the various parts of the engine are in easy
reach of the engineer without leaving his seat. The yoke is a solid steel
casting of neat design, complete in itself with no rivets or joints to
work loose or cause trouble. A suitable draw bar is attached both front
and rear for hauling purposes.
CHARLES LONGENECKER ex Co,, NEW YORK,
In the "Xew York" Roller, manufactured by Charles L,ongenecker
& Co., double engines are used, the cranks being set at right angles
to avoid dead-centres, so that the engines can he started at any point
and that the movement of the roller may he uniform. The cylinders
are thoroughly steam jacketed, in the true engineering sense. The steam

248 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
jacket i.s automatically drained of the water of condensation, which passes
back into the boiler and is again used. This thorough steam jacketing
prevents condensation of the working steam, which passes through
an independent pipe direct to the cylinders. This independent steam
pipe is fitted with an emergency stop valve am! a governor for securing
regular motion under all conditions. lhe radial valve motion is
economical in steam consumption, and in connection with a balanced
sliding throttle makes the engine very easy to handle. 'Ihe cranks are
counterbalanced and a fly-wheel is mounted on the crankshaft, so placed
as to leave free view for the operator on both sides of the machine.
Power is transmitted from the engines to the drive rolls through a
train of steel gears. There i.s but one shaft between the crankshaft and
the driving axle. The roller has two speeds; slow speed for rough and
heavy work; fast speed for finishing and for use when the roller is
moved from one job to another. The arrangement of the gearing,
through which the two speeds are provided, is very simple, die number
ot gears being no more than mi other rollers that have hut one speed.
'lhe speed is changed by moving the crankshaft pinions. Each pinion
slides on six keys. These keys, twelve in all, are solid with the crankshaft.
It is impossible for them to get loose and the bearing surfaces
arc so liberal that they will last as long as any part of the roller.
Steel gears are used throughout ami all have cut teeth, with the exception
of the slow moving gears of the driving axle.
The gearing is all outside of the boiler frame in the most accessible
position. The method of driving the roller through locking pins in the
drive rolls is abandoned, and the enlightened system of differential
gearing takes its place. Bv this substitution, all slippage of the driverolls
mi the ground, with its attendant strains, is avoided. The roller
works with less fuel, the wear on the bearings is reduced and the life of
the rolls is much lengthened. In addition tn these advantages means
are provided for locking the rolls to tlie axle should occasion ever require
it.
The driving axle is readily and easily removable without disturbing
the rear tank. As a result of it the tank is rigidly attached to the
extension side plates of the boiler, making the machine a reliable outfit
for hauling purposes. Large water tanks are used. This important
feature has been given very careful attention and sufficient water is earned
to operate the machine through a long period.
The boiler is made of mild steel and is verv heavy. Its fire box
has tapering sides and is fitted with hollow stay bolts. A large dome,
placed on top of thc boiler, adds largely to the steam space and pro-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 249
viclcs absolutely dry steam. The boiler shell, over which the dome is
mounted, is not cut out for the dome but is drilled with small holes, thus
maintaining the strength of the plate above that of the riveted steam.
These small holes separate the water from the steam. As priming' i.s
avoided, there is no danger of water injuring the cylinder, nor is there
any loss of water; therefore, all the water is used advantageously
without waste of fuel. The smoke-box is deep and capacious, fitted
with cinder pocket and clean-out at bottom. Washout and hand-holes
are liberally provided. The boiler is fitted with two water columns and
is supplied from the tanks by two injectors. The latter are on each side
of the operator within easy reach, and the water columns are on each
side of the boiler, where they may be easily seen as the operator steers
the roller. The steering worm and worm-wheel run in an oil batli and areencased,
which ensures thorough lubrication, freedom from dirt am! easy
steering.
A belt wheel with extension bracket and extended crankshaft can
be supplied with the roller. This belt wheel allows the roller to he used
for driving stone crushers or other machinery. When it is used tlie engine
only is in operation; the gearing and intermediate shafting do not
move.
THE HUBER MANUFACTURING CO.
line of the very valuable machines that have been devised for the
use of tlie contractor is the Xew Huber Combination Steam Roller and
Traction Engine.
To change this machine from a Traction Engine to a Steam. Roller,
lhe front end of the boiler is jacked up, two bolts removed, steering
chains detached, and the front truck removed. Then the roller attachment
i.s placed in position and bolted, the steering chains connected, the
cleats taken off the drive wheels by removing tlie bolts which hold them.
Another feature of this combination is that with each, outfit a tongue
is furnished. When the roller is detached from the engine, this tongue
may be put on it, giving the benefit of a light horse power roller.
This engine can be used for furnishing power for any kind of stationary
work, such as running a stone crusher: and for any traction
work, as hauling stone wagons, rooter plow, or grading machine.
The friction steering device is used mi this outfit, and the engine or
roller may be guided by the operator from either side of the platform.
For tearing Up mads without the use of a rooter plow, special spikes
can he bolted to the drive wheels.

250 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 25]
The type of boiler used in the Huher Roller is of the return flue
type; that is the heat passes once in the fire flue through the boiler to
the rear end, and then back the length of the boiler again through the
smaller return flues before reaching the smokestack, which is at the
front end.
The fire, the fire Hue and the return flues are entirely surrounded by
water in this boiler.
In mounting the boiler, thc axle brackets are placed underneath,
thus having all the weight carried on the axle.
At the front end of the boiler, a flanged extension to the shell proper
is made, thereby increasing the water space at that point. This water
jacket extends beyond the front end of the small flues; and the water, by
absorbing the intense heat from the combustion chamber, protects the
flues and flue sheet. This device also increases the heating surface of
tiie boiler and aids in the economical production of steam.
This extension to thc boiler is made in the form of a channel brace.
This serves as a support for the fifth wheel plate, and makes a strong
mounting for the front trucks of thc engine.
This hollow space also forms a natural mud drum, being lower than
any other part of the boiler. Sediment settles here, and large hand hole
piate allows its easy removal.
PORT HURON ENGINE & THRESHER CO.
The "Port Huron Roller" is suitable for all roller work in the construction
and finishing of plain Macadam and Tar Macadam pavements
and roads, also for rolling and compacting embankments, fills, subgrades,
earth roads, gravel roads, shale roads, and oil roads. The rear
lolls are bevelled or pitched to assist in crowning the road.
This roller is supplied with picks or spikes turned from steel shafting
perfectly fitted into reamed holes in rims of wheels and secured with
heavy nuts.
The "King Post" section of thc yoke is a steel shaft cast solidly
into the arched section of the yoke. Thc King Post is held by both the
lower and the upper sections of the boiler shell.
The front rolls are so located and attached that the turning is very
short; and the cleaning of tubes is very convenient.
In the attachment of the rear rolls, Port Huron Rollers are of the
side hung design and not rear hung.
Port Huron boilers are intended for high pressure and are so con­
structed that safety valves are set at 175 pounds.

252 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The engine is compound and has but one valve instead of two
valves for admitting steam to the two cylinders; there are but two stuffing
boxes; the valve is counterbalanced to reduce valve friction strains
and waste.
This roller can also be converted into a very good traction engine.
This company also manufacture a 4- to 8-horse Spreading Dump
Wagon, with capacities of 7 tons, or 3 to 6 yards for stone, earth, etc.
The wheels are large and very wide. The tracks of the front wheels
arc partly inside of the tracks of the rear wheels, making a total wddth
of track about 20 inches, each side. This wide track operates as a roller
in smoothing and compacting or in avoiding rutting or damage to the
roadway.
These wagons are made with either the common bearings or with
roller bearings.
The common bearings' wagons have hollow steel or pipe axles. The
roller bearings' wagons have solid steel axles.
All axles are reinforced by casting solidly onto axles the sections
which provide shoulders for wheels, and the sections which provide for
attaching bolsters and hitches.
Front view. Port Huron Roller

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 253
The body is made out of pine with steel reinforcement, truss rods
and supports.
The trap elixirs are made of tank steel.
The "Goose Neck" section or provisions for front wheel turning
clear under, includes special and extra strong castings, trussing, bracing,
and tieing by rods, plates anil bars.
A Regular Port Huron Roller, with, eight or a less number of wagons
attached, can he turned completely around in a space only about
30 feet in width without uncoupling and without backing.
This wagon clumps crosswise instead of lengthwise, and can be
made or equipped to dump full or spread tlie load.
to
9?
V

Notes on tlto Aks?.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 255
special buildings now finished and thc State Forestry Building, with its
pergola of fir logs from the forests of Washington, is the largest log
house in the world. The log cabin ol the Arctic Brotherhood, thc Alaska
fraternal organization, is an example of just what can be clone with
the logs of the western forests to fashion a structure of architectural
beauty.
The United States government group of buildings at the exposition
will be ready to receive the exhibits now enroute from Washington not
later than April I. The contractors are making such rapid progres in
the erection of the federal structures that they are now at least three
weeks ahead of their schedule of construction. In a great measure this
is clue to the mild winter climate of Puget Sound, for the government
contractors have not lost a single day since they commenced work early
in January.
Among the buildings erected by Uncle Sam are structures to house
displays from Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, as weli as the government
fisheries and biograph departments. These buildings are in a cluster
about the central exhibit palace, where will be displayed exhibits
from every department at Washing!0"- The government has also provided
a life saving station on the shores of Lake Union, where daily
exhibition drills will be given.
The exposition was more than ninety per cent complete March i
and with the landscaping now about finished the exposition will be ready
to the smallest detail June i, 1909, another example of the spirit of the
West.
g p ^ p F ^—s*"-

Iradlan > Ai i \ a dean ' l>a J©.
Necessity for jlo^iilnlin^ Us (n*o«(unliiy Jr • (11 y :looo;^.ni-//od.
CONSUL J. W. O'HARA, of Santos, furnishes the following information
concerning the inequality of American trade with the
Brazilian State of Sao Paulo, the causes and the remedies:
The Government, and the people generally, of this State, Sao Paulo,
are using their energies and spending their money for the express purpose
of extending the market for its chief product—coffee. No reference
is here intended to what is generally known as the valorization oi
coffee, but to the more recent action of the Government in sending representatives
to countries like England, in which, little coffee is used, and
by advertising and actual demonstration teaching them to use and demand
real and properly made coffee. In this work- they are sending
men of skill and experience into the field where tlie campaign is to be
made, men well equipped for the work, with a full knowledge of the
language of the country and of the article they are offering to the people.
American manufacturers might take a lesson from these people. By
following the methods employed here to enlarge the coffee market the
markets for American products could be relatively expanded.
AMERICAN, BRITISH, AND GERMAN TRADE WITH SAO PAULO.
The people of Brazil thoroughly understand that the United States
provides a greater market for their products than any other country,
and for that reason would be willing to reciprocate by giving the United
States a greater part of their trade if it were only cultivated. England
lakes less coffee than any other of the manufacturing countries of Europe,
and only one-ninth the amount taken bv the United States, and
yet England furnishes this part of the country with more manufactured
articles than any other country. The imports into the State of Sao
Paulo from the three leading countries in \c)oj were as follows: United
Kingdom, $10,244,374; Germany, S7.546.700; United States, $4,719,211.
( >n the other hand, in the exports tlie order is reversed, viz. : To the
United States, $28,882,310; to Germany. $23,788^824; and to the United
Kingdom, only $3,668,166. A large amount of the coffee shipped to
Germany and England in 1907 was sent on government account for storage,
and this is included in these figures.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 257
The cause of this is that England and Germany work up their trade
ill this State by personal representatives stationed in the country conducting
importing houses and by traveling salesmen who understand
the language of the country and the lines they represent. The people
here are not generally familiar with the latest styles of American machinery,
because these have never been brought to their notice.
HOW THE TRADE 111* SAO PAULO IS CONDUCTED.
The English and German manufacturers have agencies in all the
principal cities and seaport towns of the district, who are also agents
lor national lines of steamers that carry coffee fo Xew 'Vork- and New
< Irleans, and thence carry food articles and raw material to Europe,
where they secure a cargo of manufactured goods, to he sold by their
agents in Brazil. They carry the coffee to the greatest coffee consuming
country in the world, and take out of that country raw materials for
the factories of Europe, where they are manufactured for this market,
which the United States by its coffee purchases largely maintain, and all
because we do not properly exploit American trade here. Nevertheless,
a. great many American goods come into this country lw way of Europe,
and in many cases the}' are not known as American goods except to tlie
agent, who has the consular documents. The buyer is thus compelled
to pav double freight charges and expenses, and by the time they reach
here the purchaser is compelled to pay an exhorbitaut price, a price
much higher than he will have to pay for articles "just as good," made
in Germany or England, a condition which is brought about by this tri­
angular shipping system.
A good example of what may be accomplished by local agencies in
this country is given by the Light and Power Company, an \meriean-
Canadian corporation, witli large interests in different parts of Brazil,
and large buyers of American goods required in their line. < If course
this only applies to electrical light and power appliances and to articles
used in railroad construction and operation, for they are not general
importers outside of their lines, but the fact that they are large buyers
of American manufactured goods serves as an example to emphasize
the necessity for the establishment of American agencies and importing
houses.
CORRESPONDENCE AND CATALOGUES.
The American manufacturer, it would seem, still hopes to build up
and maintain a foreign trade by means of catalogues and correspondence.
Every mail that comes to this consulate brings inquiries from

258 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
American manufacturers who are desirous of entering foreign markets,
and who request names of importers and general dealers with whom
they may correspond and to whom catalogues describing their wares
may be sent; and although they are advised that the correspondence and
catalogue for Brazil, in order to be of any material value, should be in
the Portuguese language, or at least in French or Spanish, which the
dealer may be able to read, they usually ignore the instructions and
send them printed in English. The result is that the money spent in
the preparation and mailing of these catalogues is to a very great extent
wasted, and the sender is disappointed and concludes that his efforts
and his goods are not appreciated. He does not appear to realize
that the fault is his own. It i.s true that in many importing houses of
tliis country there are clerks who are able to read and speak English,
hut as a rule they are English and German and are more interested in
promoting the sale of products of their own countries than those of the
United States. If the proprietors of such houses were personally called
upon by some representative of an American house understanding the
Portuguese language, success would lie almost certain. If for any reason
tlie parties were not then ready to order goods, the representative could
leave proper catalogues and price lists with profitable results; whereas
such lists in English, then or at other time, ire useless.
SHIPPING INSTRUCTIONS.
When manufactured articles are sold to dealers and importers in
this country, great care should be exercised to see that shipping instructions
are carefully followed. Many times goods arrive at this port,
through a broker or forwarding agent, in such a condition of uncertainty
as to marking, classification, and invoicing that the buyer, though
innocent of any wrongdoing, is heavily fined. This fine is paid by the
local broker or forwarding agent who clears the goods from the custom-house,
and is charged to the buyer.
The buyer then makes a claim against the American manufacturer,
who is either compelled to pay for the carelessness of his forwarding
agent or suffer his reputation to be injured and lose a customer if he
refuses. The American manufacturer should look after shipments and
see that they are filled carefully, giving particular attention to having
goods shipped as ordered. Thc method sometimes resorted to of filk
ing orders with "something just as good" should never be practiced on
a foreign customer.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 259
AN AMERICAN BANK AND AN AMERICAN STEAMSHIP LINE WANTED.
One of the greatest needs in developing a trade with this country
is a reliable American banking house. Such an institution would not
only be of advantage to the exporter and importer, but if properly managed
would be a good investment for American capital.
About $14,000,000 worth of coffee was invoiced from this consulate
and shipped to the United States during the months of October,
November and December, 1908, and every dollar of this vast sum paid
tribute to European banks and bankers. If an American banking house
were located in this city, there is no doubt hut that it would secure its
fair proportion of the business and at the same time be of great service
to Americans doing business with the people of this country in the
matters of arranging credits, discounts, and collections.
A line of steamers flying the American flag, with first-class accommodations
for passengers, making the trip from New York to the
River Plate, stopping at the most important ports of Brazil, would not
only be of great convenience but the greatest advertisement the United
States could have. Such a line would improve the mail and passenger
service between the two countries, would give an opportunity to the
people of the United States to visit South America with ease and
comfort without the necessity of traveling via Europe, and would turn
the tide of travel from this country to New York instead of to Europe
and, most of all, such a line would inspire confidence. There has been
but one American merchant ship in this port in a year—a sailing vessel
in distress.

Recant Mnintcmaiioo 'Work ©f tlie
iYlassao'IiMSoiis •! liglvvvay
Gomiiiission,
'Die following notes upon the maintenance work of the Massachusetts
Highway Commission during 1908 are printed through the courtesy
of the Board, in anticipation of the annual report shortly to be made
available for distribution. The ordinal") repair of State highways, such
as cleaning gutters and catchbasins, filling ruts and holes, sanding the
loads occasionally and caring for the roadsides, with little, if any, resurfacing,
has cost about $100 per mile per year. State highways in Massachusetts
have an average age o'f about seven years at present, and the
time has come when many of the roads must be resurfaced if they are to
he preserved. The advent of the automobile has doubled the expense of
maintaining tlie State highways of Massachusetts. The Commission
suggests that a reasonable graded fee, based upon horse power, would
furnish part of the money which is necessary for the repair of the State
highways. It is only within tlie past three years that there has been a
sufficient number of automobiles to do any excessive amount of damage.
In England and France, where scientific methods in the care of roads
have long prevailed, it costs on the average $300 per mile per vear for
maintenance.
Temporary Dust Layers.— In 1908 about 2^ miles were treated with
Texas oil at a cost varying from 5 to 7 cents per square yard. Liquid
asphalt was used on 10.22 miles, at a cost of about 6.75 cents per square
yard. Tarvia B was used cm 2.20 miles, at a cost of 4 cents per square
yard. Rotar was used on 1.2 miles, at a cost of about 5.75 cents per
square yard. Asphaltoline was applied to 1.5 miles, at a cost of 6 cents
per square yard. The processes in genera! consisted in cleaning the
load surfaces of all dust down to the stone, spreading the bituminous
materials, in some cases cold and sometimes hot, according to their consistency,
allowing them to soak in for a time, and then covering them
with sharp sand or gravel, or stone screenings, to absorb tlie surplus
material and to provide a wearing surface on the road. Tlie price varied
according to the haul and other local conditions, the bituminous
materials being nearly uniform in cost. It was found that these materials
laid the dust very satisfactorily and prevented roads from raveling
to any great extent. Where raveling has occurred it has largely been

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 261
due to dust pockets, or places where the materia1 used did not penetrate
to the stone, or the stone was not compact, with the top surface sealed
off. If the patches scaled are not treated soon, large depressions quickly
form where there i.s much automobile travel. In general with any of.
the bituminous materials mentioned satisfactory re-tilts were obtained
if proper care was used in doing tlie work. The effect of these treatments
in some places largely disappeared by the following spring.
( alciiim Chloride and Oil Emulsion.- Calcium chloride was used
upon 4 miles of State highway in Beverly, and it laid the dust satisfactorily
and preserved the road surface better than watering. The road
developed several small holes and depressions and had to be repaired
twice during tlie year. Automobile and team travel is very heavy here.
During the seas n of five months six applications of calcium chloride
were made, and the cost for a 17-foot spread was $289 a mile for the
season.
Upon a mile of State highway in North Beverly which had been
newly resurfaced, oil emulsion was used. A soft naphtha soap was used
to emulsify the oil, 23 pounds of soap being mixed, by a pump, witli 50
gallons of water and 100 gallons of Texas oil. The emulsion was then
put into a watering cart, the water turned on from a hydrant under
pressure with a hose until the cart was filled, and then the mixture was
immediately spread upon the road. Tt was found that' with a wateringcart
of 6co gallons capacity, about one-fifth of a mile of road could be
covered. The materials cost $30 per mile for each application. As there
was considerable clust upon the road, a second application was necessary
within a week, a third at tlie end of a month, after which the dust was
satisfactorily laid for about three months, when snow fell. Both calcium
chloride and oil emulsion require several applications in a year,
probably from four to six, to produce satisfactory results, and with the
calcium chloride the road has to he watered mice a day during' the

262 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
after the stones are laid and partially rolled, or whether the stones for
llie top 2 or 3 inches of the road must be coated before they are spread
upon the road. A number of tests were made in Wenham, where the
highway was being resurfaced. Tlie old road was first picked up and
shaped, then Xo. 2 stone was spread and rolled. The bituminous male-rial
was then heated in a large movable kettled, spread evenly upon
the road, broomed to secure tlie most even coating possible, and allowed
to penetrate into the interstices of the stone installation. All
travel was kept off the road. The road was then rolled and covered
in different sections with top dressings of sharp sand, clean gravel, pea
stone, or sand heated and mixed with tar and brushed mi tlie road to fill
all interstices after grouting. In general, sections were built ioo feet in
length and were divided into three parts, using upon the first materials
obtained from the American Tar Company, on the second those obtained
from the Barrett Manufacturing Company, and on the third various
asphaltic oil and residuum oil products obtained from the Gulf
Refining Company.
The materials for tar grouting were heated when necessary, spread
upon the road, brushed in and covered. In some of the tar sections a
flush coat was painted on the top of the road. About two gallons of
bituminous material per square yard were used, and the tar was mixed
in various proportions with pitch, and in some cases with residuum oi:
asphalt.
The materials for oil and asphalt grouting were prepared and spread
in the same manner and were mixed in various proportions, using in
some cases a so-called fluxing oil (a residuum asphalt oil), in proportions
ranging rom equal quantities of asphalt and fluxing oil to threeparts
of fluxing oil and one part of asphalt.
Short sections were treated with water gas tar, which did not prove
satisfactory, nor did a mixture of asphalt and water gas tar. These sections
were therefore re-treated.
The cost for shaping, picking up and putting on Xo. 2 stone, a1 an
average of 18.3 tons to 100 feet, was 31.5 cents per square -card. The
cost of the bituminous materials, labor, heating, spreading and the sand.
gravel or pea stone used on the top in the sections of road built with tar,
varied from 18.4 to 21.3 cents per square yard. Tn the asphalt section,
where tarvia and asphalt were used, the cost for the bituminous material,
labor and to]) covering was 29.2 cents per square yard. A short
section which was built with an oilccl sand Lop, cost 41.7 cents per square
yard. This work was similar to that done on Cape Cod at Wrareham,
discussed later.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 263
The above costs were excessive for the reasons that the work was
done late in tlie year, necessitating the heating of the sand, and because
.11 changing from one material to naother in each foo-foot section tinwork
had to stop, the kettle be emptied and the lire drawn before the
new materials which were to he used could be healed, and there was
necessarily a large waste in labor while the men were waiting for them
to heat.
A much more reliable estimate of the- cost of this loud of work was
deduced from the work al Westminster. There a macadam road, 9,836
feet long, built as a State highway between 1894 and [899, was much
worn. Not any of the upper course remained, and in piaces the stonehad
been worn through to the road foundation. After picking up and
shaping the old surface, No. 1 stone, varying in size from 2' _. to U-i
inches, was spread to a width of 12 feet, and sc that the upper surface
of this course should be U2 inches lower than the proposed finished road
surface, and so as to produce a crown of X inch to the foot, using in all
1,492.2 tons of trap rock ( 15.17 tons per 100 feet) in this course. The
Xo. 1 stone so spread was rolled thoroughly with a 12-ton roller, and
all of the voids were filled with a sandy gravel, hut no surplus gravel
was allowed to remain on top of the course. Xo. 2 trap rock I i'j to ] ',
inches) was then spread on in an even layer to a width of 15 feet and
to such a depth that after rolling, the course should lie \)A inches thick,
934.16 tons, or 9.497 tons per 100 feet being required. This course was
rolled uptil its surface was at the required cross-section and until it was
moderately compact. Tarvia, graded as Xo. 5 by the Barrett Manufacturing
Company, was then applied. Here, as at Wenham, the Tarvia
was heated in large, portable kettles to about 180 degrees F. and was
then flowed upon the stones by a hose with a Hat nozzle and distributed
a; evenly as possible at the rate of about 1 gallon to the square yard of
surface.
After a few hours tlie mad was covered with dry, coarse sand up
lo pea size, rolled thoroughly with some excess sand left upon its smface.
The road picked up in places before the work was completed, and,
as an examination of some of thc louse stones showed that they had not
been completely coated with Tarvia, thc Commission increased the quantity
of the latter from 1 to i:X galkms per square yard on the remainder
of the contract.
The work required 2,426.36 tons of broken stone, at $2.30, including
picking up and shaping old surface, grave! binder and incidental
work, making a total of $5,580.63. There were 12,083 square yards
Tarviated surface, at 11 cents, making $1,329.13, and 4,310 square yards

264 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Tarviated sunrface, at 1-9 cents, making $818.90. Thc total cost was
$7,728.66. As there were 16,393 square yards resurfaced, the cost per
square yard was 47.1 cents. While the foregoing costs are contract costs
after competitive bidding, they are accurate. At the end of the season
the road was in good condition, and all the surplus sand was either combined
with tlie tar or had blown off.
A small section of bituminous road was constructed at Hamilton.
This was new work. The roadbed was carefully prepared wilh a subgrade
of gooel gravel and graded according to the cross-sections.
Upon this was laid 4 inches of No. 1 stone, thoroughly rolled.
A coating of coarse sand was then added, thoroughly flushed witli water
and rolled, using about 1 cubic yard of sand to every 12 square yards of
mad surface, in order to fill thc voids, so that the tar to be applied later
sh.oitld not go down into tlie lower course of stone. Upon this was laid
a 2-inch layer of No. 2 stone, which was coated with Tarvia 5. This was
mixed on a dumping boarel by hand, the stone being turned two to seven
times. About 14.3 gallons of Tarvia were used for each cubic yard of
stone, and several mixtures with tar, pitch and asphalt were tried, but
the Tarvia was satisfactory. ( In a part of this work pea stone was mixed
with the No. 2 stone in an attempt to more completely fill the voids.
While the tar ran out a little during tlie hot weather and additional sand
had to lie added, and a few slight depressions appeared, these all filled up
again, and the road is now in good condition, showing no sign of wear.
There are 2,436 square yards in all built in this manner. The work
was necessarily expensive, because such a small quantity was clone, and
various experiments were tried. The total cost, including all stone, shaping,
grading, etc., was about 71 cents per square yard. The cost of the
tar, mixing, etc., for the course of No. 2 stone was 22 cents per square
yard, and thc cost of the stone was II.I cents per square yard. The
cost of tlie flush coat put on top, including the tar, etc.. was 5.6 cents
when sand was used and 08 cents when pea stone was used. This made
the additional cost for the use of the bituminous macadam about 27 cents
per square yard more than with ordinary macadam. It is probable that
these costs would be reduced 25 or 30 per cent on a good size piece for
work.
Resurfacing u-ith Sand aud Asphalt Oil.—Several old macadam
mads have been resurfaced with bituminous materials mixed with sanel
and spread on the top of the roadway. The old surfaces were picked up
and shaped to Tiring them to a true crown and grade. A layer of bituminous
material and sand was then placed to a depth of about 2 inches
in the center and 1 inch at the sides.

IHE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 265
In Wenham 316 square yards were treated in this manner, using
on the first 100 feet a mixture of oil asphalt and flming oil in equal
quantities, and fluxing oil alone on a second section. Both products
were heated to about 180 degrees, and the sand was also heated on account
of the lateness of the season. ( In the first section 26 gallons of the
mixture were used to every cubic yard of sand, and on the second section
y)'i gallons. Tlie average cost of these two sections was 46.2 cents
pier square yank The cost was considerably less in the section where
fluxing oil was used alone, as tlie quantity used was only I gallon per
square yard, whereas the asphalt and fluxing oil mixture was used at a
rate of nearly I1, gallons per square yard. If the work had been done
in warm weather the cost would have been less, on account of the sand
not having to lie heated.
Tn Warham tlie same experiments were tried upon a macadam road.
The road was shaped when necessary ; otherwise it was brushed clean,
am! generally a light coating of the material that was to be used in the
mixture was spread upon the clean roael before the application of the
mixture. In one or two cases where this was not done the top had a
tendency to peel off and separate. In general, the bituminous material
and sand were heated and mixed upon a clumping board and then
spread upon the road in quantities to produce a coating 2 inches thick
in the center and 1 inch thick at the sides. This was then rolled with a
2lxi pound roller and later with one weighing 700 pounds, and traffic
kept off for several days.
A section of 325 square yards was treated witli tarvia B. Here the
quantity used was a little less than X gallon per square yard. The mixture
hardened very slowly and did not seem to bind well, though it improved
somewhat in condition in ten days, hut after freezing tlie con­
dition lias been rather poor.
About 300 square yards were treated with tarvia A. Here % gallon
per square yard was used in a wash coat, and about X gallon per
square yard with tlie mixture. The coating was ahout Xi inch in tlie
center and X inch at the sides after rolling. This material began to
harden in about three days and was well bonded in ten. It broke up a
little after freezing weather arrived, but is still in fairly good condition.
The next section treated was 261 square vards, where petroleum
oil was used, furnished by the Standard Oil Company. About 0.87 gallons
was used per square yard, including the wash coat. At the end
of a week there was not much bond, but in two weeks there was an improvement,
though the material was somewdiat loose in the horse path,
while being compact in the wheel tracks.

266 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Asphalt macadam binder furnished by the Standard < >ii Company
was used on the next section of 437 square yards. The section was 2
inches thick in the center and X hich thick at the sides. Here 0.92 gallons
were used for each yard of surface. Hardening began in one day,
and travel was admitted in about three days. This piece is still in good
ci indition.
The next section was 130 square yards, treated with fluxing oil
from the Gulf Refining Company. This was a residuum asphalt which
lias to he heated. Here, including the w ash coat, there were used 1.42
gallons per square yard. The depth of tlie sand, and oil mixture was 2
inches in the center and 1 inch at tlie sides. The materia! hardened in
one day and has been in excellent condition since.
The next section treated was with asphaltoilene, where 125 square
yards were spread. Including the wash coat, 1.36 gallons were used pelsquare
yard. When traffic was admitted in two or three days it had not
hardened appreciably, and it is still somewhat loose and in ruts.
The next section was 18X square yards, treated with fluxing oil and
A asphalt, in equal parts from the Gulf Refining Company. A section
2 inches deep in tlie center and 1 inch deep at tlie sides was put on, using
i1 j gallons to the square yard. This material hardened very rapidly,
with little rolling, and in 24 hours held up travel without rutting. It is
still in good condition.
Fifty-six square yards were treated with liquid asphalt furnished
by thc Indian Refining Company, about iy gallons being used per
square yard. Travel was allowed over this section on tlie clay it was
applied, and it rutted slightly, but soon smoothed out and is now in good
condition. Sixty-three square yards were treated witli a heavy liquid
asphalt, and the same proportions were used with the same experience
noted in the light asphalt.
Texas oil was used in the next section of 90 square yards, supplied
by tlie Texas ( >il Company. Here 1.4 gallons were used per square yard.
'Ibis oil would run out of the barrel without being heated. Travel was
allowed and experience was the same as with the liquid asphalt
The cost of these sections varied greatly. Tlie tars and oils were
donated. The total cost for labor, heating, grading, sand, mixing,
spreading, rolling, etc., was from 11.5 to 22 cents per square vard, not
including bituminous materials. This cost can he halved approximately
011 good-size pieces of work. Tlie tar and oil products would probably
cost from 4.5 to 9 cents per square yard. The cost of these experiments
in general is excessive, on account of tlie lateness of the season, which
required heating of the sand. With some of tlie materials it is neces-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 267
sary to heat the sand at all seasons, but not with bituminous material.
Thc commission feels that a probable large saving in cost can be made
when it has been determined what materials to use, in the operation of
some mechanical mixer similar to some of the concrete or asphalt mixers,
especially those witli double grades.
Bituminous Binders for Sand Roads.—At Wan-ham a number of
tests were made, using the same materials mentioned above, which were
furnished free of cost by dealers. These materials were used in building
sections of road where nothing but a mixture of sand and tlie oil or
tar binder was put upon the roael. Tlie road was well drained anel required
hut little grading. The oils and tars were heated in a small kettle
to about 200 degrees F. Sharp sand was heated. Where oil and asphalt
were used it was found necessary to heat them in separate kettles,
as the asphalt required more heat than the oil. The oil or tar am! sand
were mixed by hand upon platforms, the mixture being turned four or
five times. It was then spread upon the prepared surface, about 4 incites
deep in the center anel 3 inches on the side. Soon after spreading, the
surface of the road was rolled with rollers weighing from 200 to 700
pounds each and travel cut off from one day to one week, according to
conditions.
The total costs of the work, including a small amount of grading
and some shaping, but not the cost of any of the bituminous hinders, varied
from 30 to 60 cents per square yard. The binder used varied, in
quantity from iX gallons to 2-X gallons per square yard. Tt is probable
that these costs can be reduced 50 per cent on large jobs. It was
estimated that the fair cost would be from 20 to 25 cents per square
yard, including all the labor and materials. In general, the widths
treated were from 15 to 18 feet, as this width seemed necessary to prevent
travel from turning out into the sand and shearing off its shoulders.
A section 118 feet long was treated with tarvia B. On 236 square
yards was placed an application of the mixture $l/2 inches deep in the
center and 3 inches deep on the sides. Here 1 1-3 gallons 0f tarvia
were used for each square yard. The surface did not harden appreciably
for ten days, and the road was rolled occasionally and travel kept
off for two weeks. Rutting occurred at first, bul improvement followed,
and, while the work broke up a little under frost, it is in good condition,
though not as satisfactory as the construction treated with tarvia A.
Tarvia A was used on a section of t8o square yards, with 1.85 gallons
per square yard. The surface began to harden in two or three
clays and has since remained in good condition.

268 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Petroleum road oil No. 4, a light asphalt residuum oil furnished by
the Standard ( >il Company, was used on 270 square yards of road at
the rate of 1.63 gallons per square yard. When travel was admitted in
ten days, it had not bound much and was badly cut up anel rutted by
wheels. Since then it lias been tamped and rolled occasionally anel is
somewhat improved, although it still ruts. Possibly better results would
have been obtained witli a heavier roller. In another place 99 square
yards were treated with this oil, using 2.84 gallons per square yard. The
section used here was 6 inches deep in the center anel 4 inches on the
side. Rutting and a tendency to cut through were noted after traffic
began.
Asphalt macadam binder No. 8, a heavy asphalt residuum oil furnished
by the Standard ( hi Company, was used on 180 square yards at
the rate of 1.5 gallons of binder per square yard. The surface hardened
somewhat in 24 hours, was quite hard in two davs and was rolled
occasionally. When traffic began, in nine days, it rutted somewhat, but
lias since hardened and is in good condition at present, fn another place
}f square yards were treated with the same mixture, 6 inches deep in
the center and 4 inches at the sieles, 24 gallons being used per square
yard. This section hardened and is now in good shape.
Fluxing oil, a heavy asphalt residuum oil furnished by the Gulf
Refining Companv, was used on 208 square yards at thc rate of 1.63
gallons per square yard. The mixture was rolled one dav and was hard
enough to hold up travel in 24 hours. Traffic was admitted in three
days and has made no impression on the surface, which lias also been
unaffected by freezing or thawing.
Asplialtoilene was used at the rate of 1.84 gallons per square yard
on 170 square yards. After repeated rolling the material is still very
loose.
Asphalt and fluxing oil, in equal parts, procured from the Gulf
company, were used at the rate of 2.33 gallons per square yard on 163.5
square yards. Unless all the materials, oil, asphalt and sand, were heated
to 200 degrees they would not mix properly, and the asphalt tended
to settle ami ball up. Careful heating was essential. The mixture was
turned from six to eight times. It hardened rapidly in 24 hours anel
has since been in good shape.
A mixture of one part of A asphalt and three parts of fluxing oi'
was more easily hanelled and hardened in 24 hours. 187 square yards
being treated with 2.:,^ gallons per unit area. Travel was admitted in
24 hours, and there has been no breaking up or rutting.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 23
^ R o d e r i c k & B a s c o m r o p e c o .
BRAHCH Z6 WARREN ST. N.Y. \ ST. LOU I S , M 0.
WIRE ROPE \and AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway in
Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR. This
is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during 1907.
Ask /for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
R o t a t i n g W i r e R o p e
FOR HOISTING.
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either
with or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200% GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your inquiries are solicited.
M a c o m b e r ( § b W h y t e
R o p e
QUALITY
C o m p a n y - - . IANUFACTUR.ERS
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO. Mills, Coal City, 111.
NEW YORK BOSTON PITTSBURG NEW ORLEANS PORTLAND

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Heavy liquid asphalt, furnished by the Indian Refining Company,
was used on 71 square yards of road at the rate of 2.5 gallons. Travel
was allowed in live days and the mixture was hard in 24 hours. This
stretch has rutted slightly, but lias not broken under travel. It is still in
good condition, though not as hard as sections built with binder No. 8,
or where the fluxing oil was used, and is much softer than where asphalt
was mixed with the oil.
A section of 172 square yards was treated with a light asphalt residuum
oil furnished by the Indian company, 3.25 gallons being used per
square yard. The oil mixed readily with tlie sand, was quite hard in
four days; it has hail no ruts over 1 inch deep anel has held up heavy
teams.
There were 131.5 square yards treated with Texas oil at the rate
of 2.75 gallons each. This oil is light and runs readily out of the barrel,
but apparently has good binding qualities. In three days it was hard
enough to hold up travel. Tlie ruts were very slight, anel at present the
road is in good shape, comparing favorably witli other sections of highway
where a heavier oil was used.
Sand and Oil Roads.—Experiments at Eastham were in continuation
of those in 1905. (See Engineering Record, Sept. 19, 1908.) Two
sections of road were treated, one a section of macadam treated witli
sand and oil mixture and the other a section of a sancl road, which was
oiled, the oil being heated and allowed to soak into the road and then
being thoroughly harrowed and tlie road shaped and rolled. The oil
was like fluxing oil, a heavy residuum asphalt oil, claimed to contain 65
per cent of asphalt. The oil was heated to 180 degrees or 200 degrees
and sprinkled from a watering cart with a special attachment. After
three clays sancl was applied. The work was done in the late fall and
was not satisfactory; it was actually considered a failure, and not until
the next spring did tlie oil appear upon the surface anel become compact
under travel. In 1907 this road was rolled and patched. While it ruts
under travel and is not in any sense as smooth as a macadam road, it
lias proved satisfactory in holding up travel and is still in fair conelition
after three years of wear. The cost in 1905, when about one mile of
road 16 feet wide was treated, was 17 cents per square yard, using about
1.4 gallons of oil per square yard. Tn 1906 there was used 0.7 gallons
per square yard at a unit cost of 10.8 cents. This was a total of about
2 gallons of oil per square yard. The road was patched somewhat last
year. During the hot weather the oil rises to the surface, anil it is estimated
that $400 will be needed to fill the ruts and depressions and put
the road in good shape.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
Automatic Rotary Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S. Beam Cold Sawing Machine
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated)

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The experience with this road decided the commission to try tbe
various experiments outlined above, to see if sand roads could not be
built using oil, asphalt or tar as a binder, without tlie use of stone. If
satisfactory roads can be built with sand and these materials, which will
withstand ordinary travel, the first cost will be about 25 per cent of the
cost of a macadam road. The oiled roads will probably cost from $1,500
to $2,000 per mile, using a heavy residuum asphalt oil, costing about 5.5
lo 6 cents per gallon, and using about 2 gallons per square yard. Undoubtedly
after several years such roads will have to lie treated witli a
second coat of oil, and all ruts or depressions will have to be filled each
year.
During the past season the commission has been building a State
road of oil and sancl in Harwich, Brewster, and ( Irleans, where a section
3 miles in length is being constructed. The method is in general
the same as at Eastham. Up to the present time, while the oiled road
seems to be much better than the sand road, it has heretofore hael many
defects. It has been impossible to secure an even layer of oil and an
even thickness of oil and sand mixture throughout the width of the road.
The horses' feet make holes during construction, and tlie subgrade is
rutteel deeply by the wheels. It would be possible to mix the oil and
sand upon the roadside mechanically and then apply thc material in an
even layer. Where there is enough width for the cart to travel upon
tlie shoulders it may be feasible to apply the oil in even layers from the
roadside; or it may be possible to construct some special tank wagon
with a wide enough axle to reach across tlie road anel spread the oil
from that, without rutting the road, and shaping it behind thc horses.
If this plan is used it wall probably be best to apply the od in a thin
layer of X gallon per square yard, and then to cover it witli 1 inch of
sanel per layer iff oil. It is impossible at this time to state the best of
these materials anel mixtures, but it is probable that some one of these
will be successful in producing not only a dustless road ami one that
will withstand automobile travel, but also can be used in combination
with sanel or gravel to produce a road which will withstand ordinary
travel, he dustless and not cost more than 25 to 30 per cent of a macadam
road. Even if such roads have to be treateel yearly at a cost of
from 5 to 8 cents per square yard, they would probably be cheaper than
macadam roads, taking into account the first cost am! tlie fact that a
hinder of some kind has to be used on macdam mads to prevent destruction
by automobiles.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 27
N O G E T T I N G A R O U N D THIS F A C T
To the user of power who is dissatisfied with results
and purposes to change for the better—
Catalogue on request.
And to the prospective installer who i.s determined
to begin right in the engine room—
We would say that the Hardie-Tynes Engine
stands squarely in the line of your inquiry.
Hardie-Tynes Manufacturing Co.
Builders of orliss and Slide-Valve Engines,
Air Compressors and Complete Power
Plants for Every Purpose.
BIRMINGHAM, ALA., - - - - U. S. A.
A r e Y o u Interested
In the latest applications of compressed air?
In the economical operation of air compressors ?
In lahor-saving shop and foundry appliances?
In profit-earning contractors' equipment and methods?
In up-to-date mining and tunneling methods ?
In the latest quarrying processes?
In the operation of refrigerating machinery ?
In the use of pressure blowers and fans?
In the running of vacuum machines and condensers ?
In the compression and transmission of natural and artificial gas ?
If You Are
You should subscribe to the only journal dealing exclusively
with these matters, published monthly at $1.00 per year in the
U. S. and Mexico, or $1.50 per year in Canada and abroad.
Ci /-*r\HK T\Tk\r

28 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Conclusions.—The following general conclusions are reached bv
the commission:
In order to produce good results by the use of oils anil to accomplish
anything more than the temporary laying of dust, it is necessary to
use oils which have an asphaltic base, and in general the larger the percentage
of asphalt the better the results. The lighter oils will maintain
a road with no dust pockets or loose stone, using about 0.5 gallons per
sf|uare van! of surface treateel, anil covering with pea stone, giavel or
sharp sand for one year, without serious deterioration. It appears now
that the heavier oils, which must lie heated in order to be applied., will
last a longer time without retreatment. Tlie indications are also that
these heavier oils, possibly enriched with asphalt, will make a permanent
roadbed when mixed in the proper proportions with sand, and
will probably prove effective in resurfacing old macaeiam roads, if a
compact anil rolled layer is formed 2 inches thick in the center and 1
inch thick at the sides. Occasional coats of oil. sand or gravel will
doubtless be needed later.
In general, when a permanent binder is desired, good results are
obtained only when a refined tar is used, or a tar and pitch mixture,
which makes a material similar to refined tar. and when the material
needed has the proper specific gravity anel ingredients. It is almost impossible
to be sure of good results with unrefined tars, on account of
their variation.
It is essential that the tars usee! shall not have been overheated, and
that they must not contain too much free carbon: they must have been
refined and tlie ammoniacal liquor, water and volatile products eliminated.
Coke or coal gas tar seems to give better results than water gas
tar. If ordinarx- tar is heated for two hours or more a verv large proportion
of the lighter products will he expelled and tlie epialitv much
improved. It also appears probable that in many localities, if ordinary
gas bouse tar is used, at a low price, and is heated for two or three
hours and somewhat refined, it can lie mixed with a small quantity of
pitch, asphalt or other material, anil good results obtained. It also appears
probable that if tar is mixeel with hot sand and laid upon an old,
macadam road in a 2-inch section, thereby producing a sand-tar top
which will withstand travel for a considerable time, the results will be
g 1 where thc road is in such a locality that its slippery character is
nut objectionable.—From the Engineering Record.

VOL. IX MAY 1909 No. 5.
By S. S. Wyer :::
PART V.
DREDGES I-'OR PI.AC'EK MINING.
"0reilgitag .iVlachkiory
THIS is pre-eminently a special field and one that presents many
unique problems. The term "placer'' is the name usually applied
to a gravel deposit containing free gold. The si/e of tlie gold
particles varies from nuggets to a line powder, the hitter being especially
difficult to separate. The task- is not only to dredge the material
but also to effect an efficient separation of the gold from the sand and
gravel.
Fig. 13 shows a cross section of a typical placer deposit. These
deposits are almost always formed over a bed rock- and in tlie process of
formation the rock surface is eroded so as to make a rough surface and
forms pockets. Gold being 19 times heavier than water and io times
heavier than sanel anel gravel naturally settled at or near the bottom of
the deposit during the latter's formation. In many cases the pockets are
literally filled with gold. The "pay gravel" is frequently less than a
vard in depth ami covered with 10 feet or more of "non paying dirt," or
sand and gravel containing only very small quantities of gold per cubic
yard. Thc entire deposit is generally well supplied with glacial boulders
varying in size from a few inches to several feet. By reference to
Fig. 1

270 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Fig. 13. Section of typical placer
dredge must clean out the pockets in the bed rock if efficient operation is
to be secured. This last condition is very difficult to handle satisfactorily,
especially with a dipper dredge.
The placer dredging problem divides itself logically into the following
five operations:
I. Digging—Loosening the material and elevating to a suitable
height.
2. Sizing and Disintegrating—The material must he thoroughlybroken
apart and then separated according to size.
3. J Cashing—A large amount of water must he mingled with the
dredged material so as to thoroughly wash every grain of sand.
4. Concentration—The gold will collect with thc fine material.
This must be so handled as to concentrate the gold into the smallest possible
volume and remove all the foreign matter so that tlie gold can be
removed and prepared for melting into bars
5. Deposition of Refuse or Tailings—Practically all of the excavated
material is dumped back again on the old placer bed. This makes
it necessary to discharge this far enough away from the dredge so that
its operations will not be interfered with by the tailings pile.
A typical dipper placer dredge installation is shown in Figs. 14, 15
and 16. The hopper into which the dipper discharges is shown in the
front on Fig. 15 and directly underneath the dipper on Fig. 16. Tlie
long belt conveyor at the rear of Fig. 14 discharges thc tailings onto the
dump heap shown in the foreground of this same illustration. This arrangement
is very awkward anel unsatisfactory. Tf a clipper is to be
used the idea worked recently by a well-known steam shovel builder is
much better. This consists essentially in mounting a standard revolving
steam shovel with a long boom and dipper handle on the front end cf a
barge and have the receiving hopper located in the middle of the barge
instead of off to one side, as in Fig. 14. In this plan the boom and dip-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 271
per would be revolved through a semi-circle each time to discharge.
The only advantage of the dipper type of dredge is its ability to
concentrate a strong force at one given point for tlie removal of boulders.
Its disadvantages are: intermittent operation, clumsy construction, inconvenient
discharge and loss of fine gold through leakage at dipper bottom.
This last negative point is the most important of all; for this reason
dipper dredges can never be as efficient as the elevator type for this
service. Tn brief, a dipper dredge is not adapteel for efficient placer mining—
although epiite a few have been and are now being used—and
should never be used for this work if it is possible to secure an elevator
dredge.
The following six factors are important in developing a placer mining
proposition and selecting the proper kind of a dredge to be adapted
to the local conditions :
i. Engineering Skill—There is a great deal of well-established | >re-
cedent yet almost any proposition of any magnitude will present ne w
problems requiring initiative and expert engineering knowledge for
their satisfactory solution. As soon as gold is discovered the average
interested man becomes irrational and unfit to exercise due diligence and
care in selecting equipment. Practically all the dredge failures are traceable
directly to this cause. In the haste to secure thc glittering gold
men have rushed in where the calm deliberations of mature and stable
judgment would not dare to tread. Entire dredges have been assembled
piecemeal and without any regard for co-ordination of functions. Ulti-
Fig. 14. A Dipper Placer Drodge
•i-^C-j* i.'i. vat*- a**^"*.

272 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Fig. 15. Front View of Dipper Placer Dredge
mate anel permanent success and efficient and satisfactory operation can
be secured only by the exercise of engineering skill of the highest order
in directing every phase of the proposition.
2. Water Supply—The exact quantity necessary will vary witli the
character of the formation of the placer and the methods employed in
tlie washing process. The elevator dredge, on account of tlie carrying
capacity of the tight buckets, requires less pumping than the dipper type.
3. Available Dumping Ground—This must be so arranged that the
tailings pile will not cramp the elredgc. This condition can be secured
only by having a long tailings stacker at the rear; a rubber belt conveyor
with troughing rollers is best for this service.
4. Source of poiver—Placer deposits are usually situated where
fuel is expensive. The California fields arc fortunately situated so that
electric power may be transmitted from water falls.
Many dredges of the future will be driven by producer gas engines
on account of tlie high fuel economy that may be obtained bv this method.
An electric motor driven by engines. For this reason it is always desirable
to concentrate the power generating equipment at some other

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 2711
point than on the barge. Many excellent placer deposits have failed to
yield satisfactory returns because of the unfavorable conditions for securing
power to operate the dredge.
5. Climatic Conditions—The adverse dredge operating conditions
produced by extremes of cold, drought or flood, may kill an otherwise
satisfactory plant. Investigate these conditions before selecting your
machine and then secure one that will meet the conditions as they exist
anel not as your promoter stated thev existed.
6. Financial—If a promoter's prospectus states that the gravel
yields 60 cents of gold per yard he may tail to state that the dredge must
handle 3 cubic yards of non-paying dirt to reacli the pay gravel. The
dredging anil washing capacity must he correspondingly increased. This
means a larger machine, more power and more expensive operation.
(To be Continued)
Fig. 16. Receiver Hopper of Dipper Placer Dredge

Some Observations on Structural
^S1 top' jYlanagsmen t
i>yUvSam'rel .ft. T)

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 275
making money are not worthy of our notice. By the word honestly I
mean that a man should not obligate himself to any contract he is not
morally certain he can complete; ami in the second place lie should
complete in its entirety and to tlie best of his ability any contract he voluntarily
assumes. By honorably I mean to indicate that a man should
act fairly and openly with the employer who pays him anel with the employee
who works under him.
If a man is to avoid assuming an obligation or contract that lie is
not sine he can fulfill he must thoroughly understand what that contract
specifies. And this brings us to the first important point in this
discussion. I cannot thoroughly explain my views of shop operating
without including in them one tiling which is ordinarily embraced in the
duties of the contracting engineer or general manager and not usually
considered as a part of the operation of tlie plant. This refers particularly
to the taking of the contract in tlie first place. One of the most
important things in the structural business, or any other manufacturing
business in the contracting line, is a thorough understanding of the limits
and details of the contract itself. I believe more money has been lost
by an imperfect understanding of the obligations of contracts, than any
other point that can be mentioned. You are all familiar with the disastrous
losses which occur in the structural business and I think you will
bear me out on this point. It may be held that more money is lost in
the erection than in the fabrication of the material on account of the
greater uncertainty in that part of the work, and that, of course, is true.
But what I mean to say is that a great deal of money is lost simply because
the limitations of the contract are not thoroughly known when it
is taken.
This bears particularly on the point regarding tlie honesty of operations.
You are all familiar with tlie deep disgust that pervades the shop
from the boss to the rivet heater whenever thev have anything to do
with a contract which has a large number of changed drawings, changed
mill orders and changed templates, holes to be punched after the material
has passed through the punching department, holes and rivets to
be put in, in tlie finishing department, corrected shipping bills, etc. If
we consider what all this costs it wall be seen that one of the most vital
points in this business is to understand what is required to be done in
tlie first place. These things may occur through no fault of any person
in authority. A change may occur through the uncertainty of the customer
himself; when this is the case it should lie paid for by the customer.
But in my experience the fabricating company by its own care-

276 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
lessness generally puts itself in a position where it is unable to collect
from the customer anything at all for his changes. So I call your attention
to this fact as one of tlie most important bearing on the subject.
I would like to mention at this point a principle 1 think vital in shop
management, and to which it is somewhat difficult to give a name. I am
going to call it the principle of accurateucss. 1 know of no term that
conveys just exactly what I have in mind so I am forced to adapt a word
to the meaning I wish to express. The word accuracy refers to the
character of a single operation or to the result obtained by any number
of operations. The word uccurutcness f would clefinie for our use this
evening, as the principle which governs the arrangement of a number of
elifferent operations so that they will come in that sequence which will
produce the desired result without any duplication of these operations or
the introduction of any operation not necessarily required.
Let us apply this to tlie structural business, and particularly to the
step to be considered next, where the information is passed from the
contracting engineer to the drawing room and the shop. I was acquainted
at one time with a fabricating company where it was the custom
of tlie contracting engineer, when lie got a good contract, to send
for some favorite draftsman, show him the drawings, making hurried
sketches of things not clearly shown, giving verbal instructions on all
the points he could remember and tell him. to get out the mill order at
once as the contract must lie pushed. About the same time lie would
send for thc order clerk and tell him of thc contract, instructing him. to
keep after thc draftsman until he got tlie mill order. Tlie draftsman
promptly laid aside what lie was doing and took up the new job. The
chief draftsman finding him working on something new is told that the
boss gave him a new job. Sometimes the chief draftsman allows things
to take their course anel the draftsman goes ahead with, the mill order.
Reaching a point where tlie information is not complete, or where two
sets of figures are given which do not check, he goes to the contracting
engineer who, perhaps, straightens it out if he has time. After tlie
draftsman has been down to tlie contracting engineer a dozen times, the
latter tires of the interruptions and tells him to figure it out the best
way he can. Tlie result is that the mill order is not correct and in consequence
the job is full of corrections and changes from beginning to
end. From tlie layer out to the finisher, no one ewer hail two consecutive
days' work on that job. This is an aggravated example of disregarding
the principle of accurateucss. If the contracting engineer had
turned the information oyer to the chief draftsman who would "t> over

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 277
it carefully with tlie draftsman he believed best fitted for handling the
work, and, noting all inaccuracies and lack of information, would immediately
take steps to correct the information given and secure that
which was lacking; meanwhile laying the work aside until the correct
information was at hand and until the draftsman had reached a suitable
stopping place on the job he was working on; then taking up each step
of the operation in its proper sequence and completing it, that job would
have gone through the drawing room without the rest of the office knowing
it was there anil through the shop without creating a disturbance.
Some day tlie contracting engineer would hear that the shipping bill
checked up O. K. and he would probably hear later that the work had
been turned out within tlie estimate.
After the information has been properly given to the drawing room,
the next step is the mill order. In making the mill order the draftsman
should be careful to calculate the finished length of every piece. Any
attempts at short cuts, guesses or approximations are generally unnecessary
and a waste of time, and they are contrary to this principle of
taking everything in its proper sequence. The greatest trouble I have
found in having material orders made is due to a lack of knowledge on
the part of the draftsman as to the operations through which tlie material
passes in the shop. This is a very unfortunate circumstance and
one that is hard to correct, as a draftsman may go through an engineering
school, even the best of them, without ever being inside a fabricating
shop and cannot he expected to understand the exact use or tlie exact limitations
of the tools, and he is sure to get into error. 1 have given ibis
subject much thought, trying to devise means by which draftsmen beginning
work in the drawing room could be placed in the shop to learn
the operations that the material undergoes. It is a mistake to have a
lot of fellows around a shop not doing anything; they ate in the way
and are liable to be hurt, anel the superintendent and foreman do not
like to see them there. It is a mistake to expect a college graeluate to
run a machine. He is not built for it, he is not trained to it, anil he
should not be expected to do it. I am not in sympathy with the idea of
forcing v oung- graduates into dangerous positions around machinery in
'S fi
order to teach them the use and operation of machines. That is not
necessary, but it is necessary for them to understand what actually happens
to structural shapes in order to put them into the condition required
for the finished work. Many of the mistakes charged to tlie
drawing room are due to the draftsman's lack of knowledge on these
points. If any one can devise a system wherebv the young draftsman

278 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
may be taught shop practice, it will be a great improvement to the trade.
It would be impossible within the limits of my time to point out
many of the ruling points governing the ordering of material except to
say that great care should be taken to order all parts of each finished
piece at the same time. I have seen much confusion ensue where the
idea was to order all material of one size and shape, and then go back
and order all of another shape, etc. That is a very dangerous practice.
The order should be made complete for each integral piece, as far as thc
raw material is concerned. If the order clerk wants to bring all the angles
together, or all the universal plates, etc., let that be done outside the
drawing room and with no reference whatever to the drawings.
When the mill order is completed in duplicate, one copy should be
sent to the shop superintendent, and the other to the rolling mill, which
should have in addition certain information about sheared material, that
is material ordered in multiple lengths. The purpose of putting a copy
ii the hands of the shop superintendent is to allow him to provide room
and means for handling the material, and this information must necessarily
reacli him before the detail drawings of the work. A man who is
familiar with the business can generally judge from the mill order what
tlie finished work is going to be. In a busy shop where there is an
accumulation of probably three months' material, it is quite a problem
to receive and handle that material without transgressing this principle
of accurateucss. Sometimes the yard foreman is picked for his ability
to unload cars. My experience is that he should be selected for his intelligence,
memory and ability to keep things in an orderly manner
ratlier than for ability to unload cars at high speed. This is an important
point, hearing especially on the cost of shop fabrication. If the material
accumulating for three months before use is allowed to get into
confusion, the cost of rearrangement i.s almost beyond belief. To reduce
it to a cost per ton would seem nonsense, but it is true that the
materia! can get into such shape that the cost of untangling the yard
will knock tlie profits off the contract and off of every contract that goes
through for months. So it is necessary to furnish the fabrication shop
with complete information about the mill order, the time when it is expected
from the mill and some idea of when it will be put through the
shop. I have known shops where this was entirely disregarded and it
was thought that tlie shop superintendent should not be given information
unless he asked for it. I mention this as the contrast, the absolutely
improper thing. Tlie shop superintendent should be given full information
and be promptly advised of any change or cancellation in the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 279
mill order or anything else affecting the material. He should also be
given the original shipping manifest from tlie mill immediately. In
the Pittsburgh district it often happens that the material is received at
the plant before the shipping bill. This is clue to the fact that the car
is shipped as soon as loaded, whereas tlie bill has to go through the
clerical department. I want to bring out the point strongly that the
shop superintendent who permits a car to be unloaded without the original
mill manifest is not only making trouble for himself but nearly
always extra cost for the company.
Another vital point is that the material must be carefully checked
on its receipt in order to determine at once what material is lacking or
imperfect. If this checking is omitted, and tlie material reaches the
punching department, or the layer out, before the shortage is detected,
the cost of waiting for required material will outweigh any possible cost
of inspection on the outsiele skids. Many people think this is unnecessary,
but it is one of the steps in a long line, as mills will make mistakes,
especially in busy times.
Regarding the unloading of material it is impossible to lav clown
any general rule, because the size and shape of the shop ami tlie tonnage
handled determines tlie type of apparatus which will serve it best. But
there are certain general conditions which may lie noted. T think an
overhead crane, either of the gantry or runway type, will give the bestresults,
and the crane should have sufficient power to remove from the
car a "lift" of material, as it is called, just as it is placed by the mill.
A crane which can only take a small portion of this iilt is necessarily
more expensive to operate than one taking a complete mill lilt off the
car and placing it on skids where it can he sorted and checked. To laydown
any rules as to the size of the yard, or its arrangement for separation
of different materials is manifestly impossible without laving down
strict limitations on the plant itself. I have seen several plans tried.
fine scheme was to keep all beams at one place, all angles at another,
all plates at another, etc. Another plan was to keep all material 20 feet
long in one place, all 30 feet long in another, etc. I do not re-member
ever having seen one of those yards stay in that shape over a week.
I think the best way to handle a material yard is to have a good material
man. The handling of a material yard properly is a personal matter,
the man in charge has to give it his entire thought, and if anyone on
the outside presumes to tell thc yard foreman how to pile his materia!
lie should be willing to stand the extra cost and trouble that results.
Matters of this kind should be left entirely to the man who has to do

280 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
tlie work, because he is tlie only one competent to take into account all
the elements of the problem.
With regard to moving the material into the shop, I think the vital
point is to make sure that too many people do not interfere. If tlie material
is moved in at the wrong time, if more is moved in than can be
readily taken care of, or if it is not at hand when wanted, an extra expense
will ensue. The ordering of material from the yard into the shop
should be in tlie hands of one man, preferably the foreman of the laying
out or punching department, and an)- attempt to hurry it up bv the
superintendent ordering it in without a written order or any other disregard
of this principle of accurateucss is unnecessary and will result
in loss. 1 elo not mean that 1 am a believer in red tape or in keeping
records simply to have a record of every operation, but I do mean to
say that in a good sized shop material should not be moved from the
\ard into the shop except on a written order which should he in duplicate,
the man making the order retaining one copy, the other being given
to the man whose duty it i.s to bring the material in. The material should
be carefully cheeked again when it leaves the yard and when it is received
in the shop. Tlie purpose is not to duplicate reconks, but to test
tlie accuracy of tlie men, as the accuracy of the workmen is a verv vital
point in business, structural or other lines. If this system does not accomplish
anything else it prevents quarreling between those two men in
regard to tlie material. I know this will be strongly criticised. T knowshops
where it is tlie custom for the boss to go out in the vard anil tell
the yard foreman to throw the stuff into the shop whether it is ordered
or not. Get it in there and get everybody stirred up witli the idea of
getting it out. 1 have seen that tried many times and much material
is taken out into the yard again. All such schemes for cutting across
lots and hurrying up are in the end an element of unnecessary cost.
After the material is in the shop it may lie taken first to the punching,
laying out, or shearing department. It is impossible at this time to
follow out all the ways in which it may start, but I might mention them
briefly. If the shop is equipped with spacing punches it may be possible
that the material can go from the yard directly to the spacing punch
without touching the laying out department or coming in contact with
any other workmen except the man who runs the spacing punch. It is
usually necessary, however, to have the material sheared first in order to
square it up on tlie end, before going through the spacing punch, as it
is very seldom that material is sheared square at the mill and if there are
two lines of holes in each leg of an angle for instance, and the legs are

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 281
not sheared square, the ordinary spacing punch is liable to give inaccurate
punching on account of the grip of the carriage of the tool not
starting at the same point in each leg. Other materia! ma\ go to the
shears for cutting into short lengths in which it is to be laid off and
punched. Other material will have to go to the laving out skids.
In regard to templates it is the practice of some shops to make a
template for practically every piece of material that is to lie punched. I
cannot say very much about litis method as I never had experience with
it. I never could see the necessity of making wooden templates for
every piece, ami on work- 1 had charge of it was not done. It is necessary
to make wooden templates for many things, but 1 never saw the
necessity of wooden templates for web plates or anything of that kind.
I do not see why they cannot he laid out on the original iron and that
piece useel as a template for the others, with just as great accuracy as bv
making a wooden template ami using that template mi the steel. < If
course the advocates of the template system claim that there are more
checks possible than where the material is laid, out directly, which is true.
It is also claimed that a higher class of workmen is required to lay holes
off directly on the steel than when a wooden template is used and that
is also granted. But taken all through, T think tlie cheapest possible
method is to make only those wooden templates which are absolutely
necessary; avoiding their use for web plates, girders, columns, or anything
of sufficient size to permit handling on the skids without distortion
and in which there are no elements that will prevent the laying off from
being accurately done. The method which bnngs about the greatest reduction
in tlie number of templates, however, is tlie use of automatic
spacing punches, which arc coming into more genera! use- all oyer tlie
country. It would be impossible at this time to-enter into a discussion
of the different styles of automatic spacing punches. Rut I will say as
the result of my experience that any spacing punch depending on the
use of brakes, friction hands, counterweights, springs, , .etcfor the accuracy
of its spacing is a dangerous machine. The spacing punch should be
absolutely positive and of tlie simplest possible construction so as to
prevent injur}- by tlie common workman and not require a machine shop
ami an expensive machinist to keep it in repair. 1 have seen some very
ambitious machines built at heavy cost, practically useless, for the reason
that the principle on which the spacing was based was inherently
wrong and accurate operation was impossible. I recall a machine in
which the spacing was done by means of a rack and pinion movement
which depended for its proportion of space on a link mechanism in con-

282 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
nection with the main punch head shaft. Tlie punch head revolved with
each upward and downward motion of tlie punch. By introducing a
Stephenson link motion between that reciprocating motion anel the motion
of tlie rack it was theoretically possible to exactly regulate the forward
motion of the rack. But as a matter of fact it was not possible,
practically. The inertia of the rack which varied with thc load carried,
had to he taken care of. If it was loaded with a U-inch plate its tendency
to move past the proper point was far different than when loaded
with two or three 24-inch beams. It was necessary to introduce a biake
111 that machine to overcome the tendency of the table to overrun, due to
the inertia of the moving parts. In other words there was an element
in the machine which had to he left to adjustment of the operator. The
rack should he so arranged that it cannot overrun. It must stop where
it is supposed to stop and stay there until the punching operation is com­
pleted.
Another very important point in connection wilh spacing machines
outside of the fact that thev eliminate the cost of templates is that, if
they are of correct design and properly handled the work is far more
accurate than work laid out in the ordinary manner and center punched.
This accuracy reduces the cost of both fitting and riveting. It has an
appreciable effect in lowering cost of putting the work through the entire
shop. I state this as a fact because I have traced it through several
times and know it to be true.
In regard to punching work laid out with a center punch there is a
difference of opinion as to whether it is best to use the clutch and foot
treadle means of operating the punch or thc system of allowing the punch
head to run continuously and tripping the punch by means of a hand
gag. There are strong claims made for each method and T do not wish
to attempt to deciele between them, except to say that I have had more
satisfaction with tlie foot treadle type than witli the hand gag. Tn using
tlie foot treadle, the hanging mechanism for tlie material should be so
arranged that tlie material is kept tip against tlie punch allowing the
punch to find tlie center punch mark much more easily than when the
material is allowed to rest on the die block and tlie operator is allowed
to shoot at it as best he can witli a hand gag. T believe a workman can
punch many more holes, as holes, with the hand gag than in the other
manner, but tlie difference in tlie number of holes is of less importance
than the liability to error in the work from the use of the hand gag.
With regard to the shearing operation, which is thc next thing in
order, I do not know that a great deal can be said except that this is an-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 283
other point where the matter of accurateucss or the proper sequence of
events is again prominent. The principal thing I can say with regard
to a shearsman's shop is to ask you to give him a chance. Tlie shearsman
generally has to take orders from half a dozen different men at
once, unless things are very carefully arranged for him. lie is supposed.
to shear all kinds of material in all lengths and to keep his gauges ready
for instant use and instant change. There are many small roois which
may be used on material that has been punched which enables tlie- shearsman
to get the exact distance from tlie last punch hole lo lhe end of the
angle in a very convenient way anel much more cheaply than if he used
a scale and a piece of chalk and marked the angle first.
The next important step in the shop is the fitting of tlie material,
and I suggest giving the fitter a chance. Give him goods skids to work
on, encourage the use of blocks, clamps and-bolts, and discourage the
use of haste and drift pins. Careful fitting and accurate bolting up witli
proper spacing blocks anel sufficient bolts and clamps to maintain the
line position of tlie material while it is passing through tlie reaming and
the riveting departments will decrease the cost of these operations, the
cost of finishing, and greatly decrease the black' marks that the inspector
will put on the material when lie gels at it.
I want to say another thing at this point. Many people fail to realize
the proper anel true attitude of thc workman in a structural shop,
thinking that lie is there only to put in his time and to do just as little
as he can. The average workman in a shop is probably more vitally interested
personally in getting work done with reasonable dispatch am!
accuracy than the boss, anel all that is necessary is to give him a chance.
Give him drawings which are correct; blue prints which he can read and
light enough to read them. Give him plenty of holts. Buy him a lew
new holts once in a while, because bolts are cheaper than his time. Encourage
thc use of special devices for putting thc material into exact
shape.
Thc riveter operator should have nothing to do hut drive rivets. He
should have the material placed on his skid and taken away again, and
have proper means for lifting and carrying tlie material. If the riveter
is movable he should have quick and accurate means of moving it. If it
is pneumatic, it should depend for its action on a lever principle rather
than a toggle, because witli the toggle motion which requires adjustment
of the set, the matter of getting a tight rivet depends on the watchfulness
and skill of the operator to a large degree, whereas if the machine
depends for its final pressure directly on tlie action of air in a cyl-

284 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
inder, the operation is positive. See that the operator has proper air
pressure at his machine. Ninety pounds on thc power house gauge is not
conclusive evidence that there is sufficient pressure at tlie machine.
Manv people do not use large enough distributing pipes lo get the air
pressure to the machine, and they wonder why they fail to get tight
rivets.
The finishing department is the next step, and there is little to be
said in detail except that tlie principle of accurateucss comes in again.
'Hie material should come through in proper sequence. This is a point
where a great ileal of unnecessary expense can be introduced and the
shop superintendent is directly responsible. See to it that the finisher,
win. necessarily lias to work in an expensive way, is not required to do
work that should be done further up in tlie shop. In some shops the fin
isher has to drive many more rivets than lie should, simply because the
riveting department wants to get work out fast. As the finisher drives
rivets bv hand the extra cost is heavy. Friction between department s
costs money. The shop superintendent should see to it that all depart­
ments anel men work together.
The shipper should have men enough to load his cars and check
them properly. It is a great mistake to try to save money by taking one
or two men from the shipping department and force one man to do
three men's work.
\s to the personality of tlie men in the shop, thc yard foreman must
lie a man of a peculiar temperament, careful and methodical, one who
cannot be bluffed into any action on his part out of thc usual run which
would result in confusion. The shipper must lie accurate anel active,
and lie should be genial also. He lias to come in contact with thc inspector
probably more often than anyone else in the shop, and lhe shipper
who is a natural crank and does not handle the inspector properly, giv
ing him opportunity to properly inspect the material and get the information
that lie requires militates a great deal against the success ami
good name of tlie shop. Tlie shipper has also to deal with tlie railroad
men witli whom a genial temperament goes a long way.
This covers the first part of thc analysis 1 set out to follow, the opcratieni
of a structural shop honestly. The other phase of the question
is that shop operation should be carried out honorably ; that is it should
be carried out to make money honorably; and by honorably I mean that
the shop superintendent, or the man in charge of the shop, should act
fairly, squarely and openly with his employer and also with the employees.
As I said before many men seem to think that the shop is operated

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 285
to give them a good job and they will hang on to that job as long as
they can, if necessary deceiving the owners or their immediate superiors
as far as they can; and they can do so for a length of time in a
good many ways unless their superiors are expert in the business and
have a good deal of time to attend to it. They can deceive them by cutting
down the cost of repairs, by allowing their plant, machinery, tools,
equipment and buildings to get into bad condition; they can cut off
what should be the maintenance expenditures and by that means make
a good showing. If that is done knowingly :t is done dishonestly; if it
is done ignorantly it should he corrected as the result of ignorance. Another
thing which is dishonorable, is to tell one's superiors that the
plant is able to turn out work of some character that it is not fitted for
or at a speed which they should know to he impossible. This will lead,
their superiors to undertake contracts which thev cannot fulfill and
tlie result is financial loss. This is a very common piece of dishonesty
on the part of men in charge of fabricating shops, not ordinarily a matter
of intentional dishonesty or dishonorable action; hut rather through
fear of the boss. The boss may tell them they ought to do it, and so
they think thev can do it when they should know that they cannot. I
have known people to imagine that they could turn -work out of a structural
shop at a rate which would require tlie punches to handle three or
four times as much material as it was possible to punch in order to get
the work out at the rate projected.
In regard to honorable action toward employees a great deal can he
said. As I said before a great many do not understand the attitude of
the workman, seeming to forget that he is the man who is vitally interested
in seeing the work done accurately and quickly, which is the
reason he spends his whole life in the shop. It is his greatest pleasure,
it is a congenial occupation with nearly all the people who are engaged
in it. The attitude that the man in the shop who does the work with his
hands is a man to be watched and forced down, is a piece of nonsense.
because he should be given a chance to develop the knowledge and skill
he has for the benefit of the owners of the plant. So any attempt to cut
his wages down to the lowest notch by any system that will reduce his
possible earnings is a direct attack at the vita! principle of the whole
plant. The workman must lie treated fairly if you expect him to treat
the owner fairly. Anel the man who starts out deliberately to treat tlie
workman unfairly is doing something that vitally affects his employer's
property. This is a point that cannot be too strongly brought out. On
the other hand the man in charge of a shop who is so supine that he

286 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
permits some one to interfere with his management of the plant, is useless.
This i.s a matter liable to occur at any time, some one may think
that a certain class of men ought to get a certain rate or do a certain
\\ork and nothing else, which is contrary to tlie practices of the plant
and good management. For after all it is the man who handle's tlie
iron with his naked hands who eloes the work and. through tlie work of
that man the profit is made for the man who owns the plant. Of course
this is a very delicate subject to discuss, and I do not wisli in any sense
to bolster up anv theories I have. It is a question of ethics rather than
of engineering, hut it is one that appeals to me very strongly, because
when 1 see a large corporation deliberately attacking tlie wages and
earnings of its employees, I begin to think of what is going to happen.
If you will note the most successful corporations, tlie most successful
plants in this country are those which take exactly the opposite view.
They allow the use of improved machinery and processes to operate for
the benefit of the man who actually does tlie work so as to increase his
wages and to better his condition, because that is the only hope they
have for the perpetuation of their business.

Cost of Riprap fai&ankments,
IN a report of a member of the Association of Railway Superin
ents of Bridges and Building on the protection of embankments
from the effect of high water by riprap or otherwise, a few interesting
facts were given.
Riprap on the Pittsburg & Fake Erie Railroad is a very important
matter, as this road runs close to the hanks of the .Mahoning, Ohio,
Youghiogheny and Monongaliela rivers at several points between
Youngstown on the .Mahoning River, New Haven on the Youghiogheny
river, anil Brownsville on tlie Monongaliela river, for a distance of
165 miles along these rivers.
At some points where riprapping is required and the tracks are far
enough awav from the harbor line to permit, the work is done by throwing
the stone over the bank, letting them roll or slide down a slope
about iX to 1, slope varying in thickness from two feet to four feet.
Quarry spalls or small stone, such as can be handled by one man, were
used, and in some cases furnace slag, which becomes hard from the effects
of the weather and makes very good riprapping. This costs from
one to two dollars per square yard.
At points where the road is close to the harbor line, stone was used,
such as can be handled by one man and laid in place by track laborers
on a slope of I to I, varying in thickness from two to three feet, costing
about three dollars per square yard. Herewith please sec sketches of
riprapping where stones are laid in place along the banks of the < >hio
and Monongaliela rivers at Pittsburg.
In riprapping piers and abutments of bridges, in some cases where
the current is not very rapid, small stone was used such as can be handled
bv one man, and where the current is verv rapid larger breakwater
stones, usually dropping them around the piers and abutments, allow­
ing them to find their own bearing.
In all cases the large breakwater shines are prefered, filing up the
crevices between the large stones with small ones and making the riprap
as compact as possible to prevent any washing.
On the Northern Pacific Railway they use boulders such as can be
picked up along the road and placed on cars at $1.00 per cubic yard.
and placed for 75 cents per yank
For temporary protection sand bags and fascines are used.
On The St. Louis Southwestern Railway the first thing is to slope

288
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the embankment to pitch 3 to I anel drive piling at toe of slope about
fiftv feet apart then weave mattresses of willows of sufficient length so
that thev will reach from toe of slope into the river about fifty feet.
I«r— /g-0—~\Htyrt ifntsy Iiik
\
i
\
*.
yjfcPfc
- !f\EK
^ @
x
5 ^
k Cross 5/TCT/O//'
i Sfa /S3
la
BfD/

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 289
Another method is known as the system of mud-rafts and hollow
fascines which are constructed out of willows and poles then put into
proper position and anchored.
They will gradually fill in with sanel and sill from high waters and
sink in place anel the embankment usually fills in behind.
It also has a tendency to check the current but it is expensive,
costing $y.oo per lineal foot, the mud-rafts costing about $6.00.
Where washouts occur much stone and slag is dumped around timber
anel masonry work to save it from the inroads of high water, often
on brush previously wired together.

Ackno vvk

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 291
neither offers nor gives anything in return for the catalog. Yet it possesses
a definite value, anil has proved to be of sufficient importance to
prompt the request.
Many people look upon advertising literature in general, and catalogs
in particular, as possessing no intrinsic value; something which is
produced for gratuitous distribution broadcast in hopes of attracting the
idle gaze of an interested person. Even were this true, a request complied
witli and a desire satisfied without remuneration carries with it an
obligation, great or small, which demands recognition in the form of acknowledgment.
Those who have not had to pay the bills incident to tlie getting out
of an average trade catalog have little conception of the time and expense
which such an undertaking involves. A large proportion of the
manufacturers of machinery put out catalogs which cost upward of 25
cents per copy. Yet too often these handsome ami expensive publications
are treated tlie same as some leaflets which cost perhaps $3 a
thousand.
Nor should acknowledgment lie made because of the cost of the
catalogs alone, since that oftentimes is tlie least expense following an inquiry.
( )n receipt of an inquiry a manufacturer concludes that the inquirer
desires to obtain something represented in tlie catalog, anel as al!
the advantages of any device cannot he explained in a catalog of practical
size, an interview becomes necessary in order to make sure that the
device will fully meet the inquirer's needs. Traveling salesmen represent
an expensive necessity and the cost of a single visit frequently
amounts to many times the cost of tlie catalog am! of getting it into the
hands of the inquirer.
Most manufacturers are glad to have all interested persons acquainted
with the machines they build and will forward descriptive matter
whether or not the inquirer wishes to purchase at the time, so that
the probability of receiving the desired information is not lessened bystating,
when asking for a catalog, whether it is wanted for reference
or to aid in the selection of a machine. At the same time, this simple
statement frequently is the means of saving the manufacturer no little
time and expense.
Knowing these facts, a person who. after having his request complied
with, fails to devote one cent ami one minute's time in acknowledgment
of the favor ami in preventing needless expense on the part
of the giver, certainly evidences business methods, if not a disposition, of
which he should be thoroughly ashamed. —"Southern E?igince>"

\)y "Walter B, Snow.,
Value of Water 'Pov/er.
WHILE large undertakings in water power development show
relatively high efficiency as compared with steam, the operating
value of the local water power of comparatively small
and extremely variable size has gradually decreased as the economy of
the steam plant has been improved. This fact is brought out in a recent
report by Mr. F. W. Dean, Mill Engineer and Architect, Boston, Mass.,
wilh relation to certain takings of mill property.
He shows that in 1S43 when it was decided to develop the power
under consideration, water power was much more valuable for manufacturing
than at present. Then as now the only alternative was steam
power, and at that time it was expensive in steam and fuel consumptions,
and water power, therefore, saved much more coal than it does at
the present time. The value of condensing was well understood, but
engines were crude and large in size for the power developed. They
were gradually improved but it was not until about 1870 that compound
engines began to be introduced. No matter what economies may have
been introduced in steam engines and boilers, Mr. Dean makes clear
that the water power plant must still be considered of some value, because
the investment has already been made, but that if the eiwners were
paid a fair valuation for this particular property and privilege, they
would be better off without it. In a word, that taking all things into
consideration, investment in steam plant would here bring better returns
than in water power. This case is typical of many others where
only a few hundred horse power are concerned.

Tlie Selling Value of ftuiltlinu's,
From a Paper by Chas. T. Main, Mill Engineer and Architect, Boston,
Mass.
TO get the selling value of a building, the cost of a new; and modern
building should be depreciated.
First—For the difference in style of construction.
Second—For lack of light which makes it necessary to produce
more artificial light.
Third—For the amount of floor space which is unavailable, due to
the subdivision of the space or the stele of construction.
Fourth—For the increased cost of operation due to inconvenience of
arrangement of rooms or buildings.
l-ijtli—For the increase in cost of insurance over that on a modern
mill.
Besides the actual cost of producing artificial light where it is dark,
which can be estimated, there is a loss due to a little less production,
also because the production is not fully equal in quality to that made
where there is plenty of daylight.
The amount of this depreciation for the difference in style of construction
would vary, decreasing as tlie building approaches in strength,
form and convenience that of a modern structure. Tlie depreciation for
lack of light can he determined if it is known how much more artificial
light must be burned, and the extra expense of the same, and capitalizing
this at the proper rate of interest. Thc elepreciation for inconvenience
and extra cost of running could be determined if the extra cost of
running is capitalized at the proper rate. Tlie depreciation for unavailable
floor space is just the percentage which cannot be used. The
depreciation on account of higher insurance rates can be estimateel by
ascertaining at what rate the factory insurance companies would take
the risk with buildings constructed according to their ideas, and to find
the difference between the cost of insurance on tlie old plant and the
new one. This difference would represent interest on a sum which one
could afford to lav out on new buildings, or the sum which the old
buildings should be depreciated on this account.
The proper rates at which to capitalize these amounts would vary
according to the idea which a person might have as to a satisfactory

294 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
return for money expended. It is safe to say that any one would be
willing to make an expenditure towards a new building which would
return 10 per cent gross on the investment. If an old building is replaced
by a new one. the charges for taxes, insurance, anel depreciation
will be no more, and probably less, than for the old building.
From the above it appears that, if the extra expense in total cost of
running due to the inconvenience of the building is 10 per cent of the
cost of new buildings, the buildings are valueless for the purpose to
which thev are put, because an expenditure for new buildings would
return 10 per cent mi the investment.
It might be possible by certain changes to make the buildings as
light and convenient as modern buildings, anil if new, they would be
equal to the cost of such modern buildings minus the cost of making
the changes.
After determining the value of the buildings, if they were new", according
to the above method, there remains to he applied the depreciation
from age. This to a certain extent must he an arbitrary quantity,
hut based upon the average life of buildings of the character of those
under consideration. It would seem that one per cent a year is little
enough for brick buildings substantially built, credit being given for anv
extraordinary repairs, renewals or additions.
We must not lose sight of the fact that, although a building may
not at the end of ioo years be completely worn out, the character of the
business may so change that the buildings are not adapted to it, and
that they will be rebuilt, as we have seen the older buildings replaced
with new ones of different style.
The depreciation of wooden buildings is greater than brick, depending
upon the purpose for which they are used. Buildings which arckept
dry. anel not subjected to much wear and tear, would, if well built,
last a hundred years ; while wooden dyehouses, subjected to steam anilwet,
will not last over, saw twenty-five years. The length of life depends
largely upon the care that has been given to repairs.

A n Industrial Transportnclon Systoiu
F)R thirty-two years compressed air has solved the general transportation
system of the Plymouth Cordage Company, Plymouth,
Mass., with its buildings covering 2500 feet in length and iooo
feet in width.
The use of electricity by the trolley system, because of its high first
cost, lack of flexibility, danger from shocks and fire, and the network
of wiring, objectionable not only because it is disfiguring, hut because
of its relation to insurance, under the conditions more than offsets its
manifestly great advantage of always having its maximum tractive force
available.
Although the storage battery locomotive is being seriously considered
for narrow gauge mill yard work it has not been developed to that
point from which conclusive deductions may he drawn. The compressed
air system is perfectly simple from the compression to the locomotive.
No expert knowledge is required nor expert handling of the
apparatus. No mechanic who has had any experience with steam finds
perplexing details arising in connection with repairs; and the manipulation
of the locomotive is readily acquired by an intelligent laborer.
The cost of repairs is very slight. The first locomotive at our Plymouth
plant was purchased in 1876 and is, and has been in active servive
continuously through its thirty-two years' life, with a surprisingly
small amount spent on it for maintenance.
It is fair to say, however, that the work at the Plymouth Cordage
Company is undoubtedly light in comparison with what it would he in
mine or metal working plant. Also that the method of using the air
as regards pressure and some other details is open to criticism. These
latter points, however, do not seriously impair the efficiency ol the arrangement
as a whole anel are the natural outcome of a many times out­
grown and expanded system.
The locomotives are charged at various points about the plant. The
charging valves are located particularly with the idea of having lhe tank
filled at the same time that the cars are being loaded or unloaded, thus
minimizing the load in the brief time taken for charging. Some of the
runs are quite long, the longest being 2400 feet and the round trip under
favorable weather conditions, is made with one charge. On this run
a net load of 8500 pounds is carried and the cost of aii figures .04 of a

296 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
cent per ton per ioo feet. Other runs figure .08 of a cent per ton per
100 feet.
This cost is based on a cost of one-half cent per 100 cubic feet of
free air anel includes all charges up to delivering the air into the mains
at 200 pounds pressure; these figures are on the conservative side.
The system as a whole, taking lump figures, moves one ton, net load,
100 feet for approximately one cent. This includes the air used for all
other purposes, fixed charges on all the rolling equipment as well as compressing
apparatus, and all attendance.

Jf |N ]
flie ilelt Conveyor.
;:By C. ,'

298 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
wore for over four years under exactly the same conditions which had
destroyed the former belts in three months' time. In 1896 Mr. Robins
read a paper before the American Institute of Mining Engineers in
which he fully explained the belt conveyor of that day anel outlined his
experiments.
_ _ _
Fig. 1.
•^M»f^gvf\j?X

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 299
The next and most natural development was to turn up the edges of
the belt, Fig. 4, forming a trough which not only kept the material from
rolling off, but prevented the belt from sagging between Ihe supporting
rollers. The wooden spool was made either in one or three pieces. Fig.
5 shows the concave roller made variously, in one piece, or cut into sections
as indicated below, in order to reduce the slip mi the under cover
of the belt.
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Tn the case of both the spool and the concave roller this slip, due
to the different diameters, while not serious on a grain conveyor where
the belt presses lightly against the rollers, is a serious matter when handling-
the heavier materials, as the slip soon destroys the under cover ot
the belt.
Fig. 7.
A belt running at 4

300
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
All of the forms described above are still used to a very limited extent,
but the idler used almost universally today consists of a series of
small pulleys of equal diameter arranged in the same or different planes,
as in Figs. 6 and 7, which will produce no wear due to slip.
The troughing idlers should be spaced as follows, depending upon
the weight of the material carried: On 12-inch to 16-inch belts, 4/2
feet to 5 feet apart; 18-inch to 22-inch, 4 feet to 4X feet; 24-inch to 30inch,
3X ^et to 4 feet; 32-inch to 36-inch, 3 feet to 3X feet.
F'ig. S. Showing a ;»6 inch Conveyor 1170 ft. long.
Fig. 8 is a view of a 36-inch conveyor 670 feet from center to center
before the belt was put mi. This conveyor has been in service
over three years and has a capacity of 500 to 600 tons per hour.
The lubrication of the idlers is an important matter, particularly
where rubber belts are used, as oil or grease soon causes the rubber to
deteriorate. Oil should not he used as it leaks out when the conveyor
is not running and soon coats the faces of the pulleys and the belt. As
conveyors usually work in dirty places, it is impossible to keep the oil
wells clean anel grease lubrication through hollow shafts is therefore
generally used. Such bearings are practically dust proof, anv foreign
matter being carried out by the grease and the small ring of grease
which forms on the hubs of the pulleys acts as a most efficient dust collar.
Grease lubrication without question increases the power consumed,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 301
but the great advantage of clean bearings, coupled with the low power
requirements of the belt conveyor, has resulted in the general adoption
of this method of lubrication.
The return belt is always carried on straight idlers consisting either
of a number of small pulleys turning mi a hollow shaft -with grease cup
on one end, or of small pulleys keyed to a solid shaft turning- in pillowblocks.
They should be spaced from 8 to 12 feet apart, according to the
weight of the belt.
BEPTS.
Belts made of a great variety of substances have been used on conveyors
and many tales of wonder have been told of the performances of
some of them. A careful research, however, shows little that is really
new or important to have been added to the art, although vast improvements
have been made in the older types.
Stitched canvas and woven cotton belts are used to some extent,
but generally their service is not satisfactory, mainly because it is impossible
to water proof them thoroughly. Belts of this class are usually
filled with oil, paraffin, or other such substance, the outside being coated
with some water proof paint. When new, they are fairly flexible, but
soon become so stiff that they will not trough properly, and it is difficult
to make them run true and straight. They are sensitive to atmospheric
changes, requiring constant adjustment of tlie take-ups to keep
them at proper driving tension. In one case under observation a 24 inch,
5-ply canvas belt on a conveyor 400 feet cents was handling crushed
stone when the heat of the sun caused the belt to stretch and slip on the
drive pulley. The take-ups were adjusted and the conveyor was again
started. During the noon hour there was a shower of rain, causing the
belt to shrink and as it was already tight, the tail structure of the conveyor
was pulled down by the contraction. Thc belt was guaranteed water
proof, or as the manufacturers said, "Commercially water proof."
The main claim of these belts is low first cost, hut they should
not be used on permanent installations, particularly where out of doors,
or where subject to atmospheric changes.
The rubber-covered belt is more generally used than any other type,
and the belt-conveying industry has been built up mainly on the remarkable
showing of'the rubber belts made by Mr. Robins, based on
the tests described previously. While belt conveyors hail been used for
many years for handling grain, anil to some extent for other materials,
the apparatus was crude and mostly home made, so that the real develop-

302 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
ment may be said to have started with the perfection of a durable rubber
belt.
Briefly, rubber belts are made as follows : The duck is run through
the calender which consists of a series of heated rolls. This machine
coats the duck with rubber, known as "friction." This frictioned duck
is then cut into the proper widths anel the belt is laid up to the desired
number of plies, the operator using a hand or power roller to cause the
plies to stick together. The cover is then put on and the belt put in the
vulcanizing press where it is subjected to heat and pressure. The belts
are stretched before being vulcanized.
It will be noted that the belt consists of three parts: First, the duck
which gives tensile strength; second, "friction," which cements the plies
of duck together ; third, the rubber cover which protects the duck from
moisture and abrasion.
Cotton duck used in the manufacture of belts is made in bolts about
375 to 400 feet long. Belts longer than this should he joined with metal
lacing. Internal splices should be avoided, and special lengths of duck,
while sometimes used, generally cause delay ami increased cost and are
not to be recommended, especially in wide belts, on account of the increased
weight of the roll of belting to be handled in shipment and erection.
The average manufacturer of rubber goods will, in making up belts,
cut his duck so as to have the least waste, as the narrow strips are almost
valueless. This results in thc longitudinal seams in the belt being located
at ranelom. A careful study of hundreds of belts operating under
a great variety of conditions has shown the great importance of the
proper location of these seams. When properly placed, they cause no
trouble, while many belts made by reputable rubber companies have gone
lo pieces in a few months because the manufacturer did not understand
tlie conditions under which the belts must operate, and naturally built
them only with regard to his factory economy as a guide to construction.
The real life of the rubber belt is in the cover, provided of course,
that the belt is properly laid up, that the friction is good, and the cover
adheres properly.
A thin layer of rubber forming the cover of a belt under observation
handling iron ore was found to represent one-half the life of the
belt, although forming less than one-fifth the total thickness. The function
of the cover is to protect the body of the belt from moisture and
abrasion. It must therefore be soft, pure and durable, and still not be
too high in cost. The compounds forming the covers were determined

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 303
by the sand blast and ore tests previously described anel since the time
of these tests the compounds have been greatly improved by a careful
study of belts in actual service.
Much harm has been done to this industry by the fact that the buyer
has not, as a rule, a very extensive knowledge of rubber and he cannot,
from the samples submitted by a rubber company, he sure that he is getting
a belt suited to the work to be performed. The specialist in the
manufacture of belt conveyors has his business at stake when lie offers
his product, and should the belts fail his whole business suffers. The
ordinary salesman of rubber belts on the other hand does not, as a rule,
have an opportunity to study the operating conditions of belt conveyors
and should the belts fail, he blames thc mechanism, while the purchaser
condemns the entire system. It is therefore more satisfactory to purchase
the complete conveyor from the specialist who knows the conditions
and can be held responsible.
Rubber belts are absolutely water proof only when thc cover is intact,
as the friction coats only the surface of the duck and is not absorbed
by the same. When used in such service that the belts are continually
soaked in water, they are seriously damaged by the water reaching the
cluck through cuts or punctures in the covers. The duck absorbs the
water, causing thc rubber to lose its hold, thus forming a blister which
is quickly extended by passing over the end pulleys. This does not apply
so much to belts working out of doors and subject to wetting from
storms, as to those handling drcclgings, wet tailings and similar ma­
terials.
It will be noted that both thc cotton and rubber belts lack the property
of being absolutely water proof. The only belt, which to the
writer's knowledge possesses this quality, is the Balata Belt.
Balata is a vegetable gum found in Venezuela and the Dutch East
Indies. In nature it lies between gutta percha and india rubber, but
differs from them in its great tensile strength, freedom from oxidation,
and the fact that it does not deteriorate with age. It is dissolved properly
in but one solvent, the nature of which is a carefully guarded secret
of the manufacturers.
The duck used in the Balata belt is woven by a special process on
powerful looms, making it a very compact, closely woven, and nonstretching
fabric. The Balata is applied to tlie fabric in a liquid form so
that the'gum penetrates and saturates every fiber of the fabric, thoroughly
waterproofing it. This belt is not only water proof, but it possesses"
about 20 per cent greater tensile strength than a rubber belt of

304 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the same number of plies, due to the more closely woven fabric and the
greater strength of Balata as a friction. The fabric is never exposed
lo thc great heat of vulcanization, which somewhat impairs the strength
and vitality of the fabric used in rubber belts. For lighter materials,
the Balata Belts are used without covers, but when heavy abrasive materials
are to be handled a rubber cover is provided to protect the fabric
from wear.
There are two points which determine the number of plies of duck
making up a conveyor belt. First, there must he sufficient tensile
strength; second, the belt should have enough stiffness to support the
ioael properly between idlers. With the speed and the power transmitted
known, the stress in the belt per inch of width, may be determined and
thus stress should not exceed 20 pounds per inch per ply on the rubber
belts, although it may be increased 20 per cent on Balata belts. Where
the power required is small, the stiffness of the- belt fixes the number
of plies. Table 3 gives the maximum and minimum plies for the different
widths oi belt.
Belts arc sometimes made endless in the factory, hut thev are eliflicnlt
to install and nothing is gained, so this 'practice is not recommended.
Lapped splices have been vulcanized in the field with a portable
press, hut this requires an expert and is very difficult, as all moisture
must be dried out of the duck, otherwise steam will form when heat is
applied, forming a blister in the splice. Lapped cemented splices are
sometimes used, copper tacks being driven through thc belt to hold
thc edges down. All of these methods are necessary in some cases, but
generally a metallic lacing like the Bristol, Fig. 9, or the Crescent lacing
is the most satisfactory. These lacings are strong, are easily put in
and do not seriously damage the ends of the belt, provided the holes are
first punched with an awl. When the belt uecomes worn at the edges of
the lacing, it is a simple matter to cut the lacing out and put in a new
row.
DRIVING MACHINERY.
The belt conveyor has one great advantage over most other tvpes
of conveyors, in that it may be driven from anv point in its length.
When properly designed, the drive located at the tail or loading end will
prove as satisfactory as when at the head. The drive may be located on
the return or lower belt at any point between thc head and tail ends with
satisfactory results. The longest heavy duty belt conveyor ever built
(iooo feet from center to center, handling about 400 tons of material

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 305
per hour) is driven from the loading end. This feature of being able to
apply the power to the conveyor at any point in its length, is of great
value in the design of plants, particularly with conveyors of large capacity.
Take, for example, the case of a long, inclined conveyor, running
up an inclined structure, the drive may be located at the foot of the incline
where proper foundations may lie obtained anel where the heavy
parts may be conveniently and cheaply handled. Any other type of conveyor
would require a drive located at the top of the incline, greatly increasing
the cost and weight of the supporting structure, with corresponding
increase in cost of installation. Where one conveyor discharges
to another, they may be driven by a single motor or engine at the point
of intersection, one being head, the other tail driven. A conveyor carrying
tailings from a mill to a waste pile may he driven from the shafting
of the mill by tail drive, thus saving wiring to the head 'aid anil an
isolated motor.
It is frequently desirable to drive one conveyor through another,
using the conveyor belt to transmit the power. For example, in a system
of four conveyors, A, B. C, and /), material was fed lo A which
discharged to B, B to C and C to D. A motor was located at the point
where B discharged to C Power was transmitted from the iiead to
B through the belt, and . I was connected by suitable gears and chain
to the tail of B. Similarly conveyor C was driven at the tail end and D
was geared to the head of X It will he noted, therefore, that the four
units were geared to a single motor located at a convenient point along
the line and arranged so that they all started or stopped at the same time.
The drive located at any point in the length of the conveyor maybe
so built that the conveyor may be reversed, thus carrying material
in either direction by simply reversing the motor or engine.
The driving machinery for the belt conveyor is extremely simple.
Power is applied to one or more of the pulleys over which the conveyor
belt passes. These pulleys should have heavy arms ami rims with extra
high crowns. They should be secureel to their shafts by both keys and
set screws.
Formerly the driving pulleys were increased in diameter as the
duty increased, so as to obtain easily a greater arc of contact, fn recent
years multiple pulley drives have been used on the longer conveyors with
most satisfactory results. In this type of drive, the belt passed over two
or more pulleys geared together so that they turn at the same speed.
This makes it possible to use smaller pulleys, thereby simplifying the

306 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
speed reduction from the motor or engine. For example, a conveyor
with a belt speed of 400 feet per minute having a driving pulley 48 inches
in diameter making 32 r. p.m. and driven by a motor at 800 r. p. ni.
will require a reduction of 25 to 1. If a multiple pulley drive made of
two 24-inch pulleys is used, the reduction will be only 12X to 1. With
a single pulley drive, the belt must always be under the proper driving
tension fixed by the take-ups. With the multiple pulley drive, however,
the belt may be run as slack as desired provided there is some means
ol keeping the belt in contact with the second drive pulley, by allowing
it to sag or using a weighted take-up. A belt under great tension is hard
to train, therefore the conveyor with multiple pulley drive may be more
easily adjusted and operated.
Fig. 10. Head Prive—Priving done by larger pulley.
Pulleys of small diameter should be avoided on the heavy belts, otherwise
the constant bending when under heavy stress will cause the friction
to lose its hold and destroy the belts. In many cases it is advisable
to cover the driving pulley with a rubber lagging to increase the tractive
power. This is particularly the case when the conveyor operates in a
dusty place.
'T'he following table gives the minimum size of driving pulleys
which should be used on the various widths of belt dependent on the
number of plies:

Width of
Belt
Inches
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 307
TABLE I. MINIMUM SIZE OF DRIVING PUELEYS.
Diameter ol Driving
Pulley
Inches
16 to 18
16 to 18
20 to 24
20 to 24
20 to 24
20 to 30
24 to 30
Width of
Belt
Inches
26
28
30
32
34
36
Diameter of Driving
Pulley
Inches
24 to 30
24 to 30
30 to 36
30 to 36
30 to 42
30 to 48
< Inly two or three sizes of pulleys are required for each width of
belt to make up drives for conveyors of the various lengths. A short
conveyor may be driven by a single bare pulley; a longer conveyor may
be driven by a pulley of the same diameter if it is covered with rubber.
Still longer conveyors would use a two-pulley drive with bare pulleys.
These in turn may Tie rubber covered, giving still greater tractive power.
The faces of all pulleys should be at least 2 inches wider than the
belt. At some point in the length of the conveyor, a pair of take-ups
should be used to take up the stretch in the belt, and to adjust same.
Fig. io shows one type of head drive. It will be noted that the
driving is done by the larger pulley, while the material is discharged
over the smaller pulley, thus saving head room and giving a clean elischarge.
This photograph was taken before the chute was placed.
Fig. n is the discharge at head of a conveyor. The drive is located
at the foot of the incline on the ground. 300 feet away. The pulley
on the left drives the rotary brush. Capacity 600 tons per hour.
DISCHARGING DEVICES.
Most conveyors receive material at one end or at various points
in their length and discharge same over the head pulley. When necessary
to discharge at points between the ends, either fixed or movable
trippers are used. The fixed tripper consists of two pulleys, one located
above and ahead of the other. The belt passes over the upper pulley
than over the lower in such manner that the material is clischargeel
from the belt into a chute which will carry same to the side of the con­
veyor.
When fine-sized material is being conveyed, these trippers may he
made automatic, so that the stream of material will be deflected into the

308 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
fi • i.
m? -/• ;Cf>
.?/
WmMim' '•'-•J
Pr/'-f/'x
^ft^X . ;«,»
' .
fUi:
sjeagjCr
P5
Fig. 11 Discharge at head of Conveyor.
A'XVg
••-'V . »
^» j' i
Vm^ml. "*'*
first bin until filled. The material will then fill up in the chutes, flow
hack on itself to the belt and be carried to the second tripper, and so on
until all bins are filled. Should material be drawn from any bin, the
Stream will immediately be deflected until the bin is again filled and then
pass on. The writer has used eight such trippers on a single conveyor.
The movable or traveling tripper is similar to the fixed tripper in
form and operation. The two pulleys and chute are mounted on a frame
supported on four flanged wheels. A pair of rails extending the length
of the conveyor provides track for the machine and enables it to discharge
material at any point in the length of its travel. Thc tripper is
usually provided with some clamping device to secure it to the rails
when discharging in a fixed position.
Trippers are moved in the following ways: The hand propelled tvpe
is moved by crank with pinion and gear to the truck wheels. Others use
a wire rope with winch located at one end of the conveyor. The self
propelled tripper is driven by power taken from the conveyor belt,
through suitable gearing to the truck wheels. The automatic self-reversing
type is illustrated in Fig. 12.
A lever on one side properly connected with the driving mechanism
controls the direction of travel of the machine. This lever engages adjustable
stops located on the rails at the desired limits of discharge, and
the tripper will travel between these stops, automatically reversing at
each end. A lever is provided which will throw.' this moving mechanism
out of gear, allowing the machine to discharge in a fixed position.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 309
CLEANING BELTS.
When the material handled is damp it is advisable to provide some
mechanism to clean the belt after it passes over the discharge pulley;
otherwise a small quantity will be carried back by the return belt. For
this purpose, rotary brushes, made of various fibers, are used. These
brushes revolve at a high speed, sweeping the material into the chutes.
They are driven from the conveyor belts and are provided with means
of adjustment for the wear of the fiber.
When ery sticky material, such as clay, is being conveyed, a
strong water spray is used to clean the hells. An air blast has been used
Fig 12 Automatic Self-Reversing Tripper.
to clean belts, but the large volume and high pressure required, makes
this method expensive.
CHUTES AND FEEDERS.
One of the most important features of belt conveyor design is that
of providing chutes which will properly load the material onto the belt.
Mine run ore may be fed to a belt conveyor so that it will not injure
the belt, but with improperly designed chutes the highest grade belt may
be ruined in a few weeks when it should last for years.
It is impossible to lay clown any rules for the design of chutes. It
is a subject requiring a careful study of local conditions and a complete
knowledge of the materials handled and of the manner in which
they will move in chutes under various conditions.
' The material should always he delivered to the belt in the direction
of the belt travel and as nearly as possible at the same speed, so that

310 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
it will go from chute to belt with no shock or jar. When feeding a conveyor
from bulk, for example, from storage bin, some type of automatic
feeder should be used to insure an even and continuous feed to the belt.
This is particularly important when handling- unsized material. Should
a simple gate be used, it must be set for the large lumps, the result being
a rush of fine material after the lump has passed. If a feeder is so
driven that it will start and stop with the conveyor it feeds, it will generally
save the expense of an attendant at the loading end and prove
more satisfactory.
The writer favors the shaking feeder consisting of an inclined pan
set under the bin opening at such an angle that it stops the flow when
stationary. When given a reciprocating motion by crank and connecting
rod the material is moved along the pan to the belt. By varying the
length of stroke anel inclination of the pan the amount of material delivered
may be absolutely regulated.
CAPACITY.
Belt conveyors may be built to handle practically any quantity of
-s
w
•a
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
"
"a.
u
3
C
rt
"P.
2
2.1
3"
4
5
6
8
9
12
14
15
16
18
19
20
20
22
22
24
TABLE II. BELT CAPACITY AXD SPEED.
°"J
.H a.
ei 3J.E *" •
c n ii
-- - a
IT n 2
u
460
630
820
1040
1280
1550
1850
2180
2500
2900
3300
3700
4200
4600
5100
5600
6200
6800
7400
hour,
00 ft.
mghft.
S.°3 =
^ v v iJ
£a«a
C "^ -.:£>
Z.'u Co
23
31
41
52
64
78
93
110
125
145
165
185
210
230
255
280
310
340
370
T3
a.
jj 6
5 c
n > E

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 311
material which may be feel to them. The following table gives the capacity,
maximum size of lumps, anel advisable speed for the different
widths of belts. This table is based on an even and continuous flow
of material to the conveyor and in choosing width and speed, a full
knowledge of the local operating conditions, and character of the material,
is necessary so that the table may be used with judgment.
SPEED AND SIZE OF BELTS.
When the quantity to be conveyed is small, and the pieces large, the
size of the material fixes the width of the belt and the speed should be
as low as possible to safely carry thc desired load.
When the quantity is great, the capacity fixes the width and in this
case also the speed should be as slow as possible. A slow speed belt
may be loaded more deeply than one at high speed and when a narrow
belt is run much above the advisable speed, the load thins out and the
capacity does not increase as the speed.
The maximum length of the different width of conveyors is determined
by the fiber stress in the belt and is therefore closely related to
the load and speed. Naturally level conveyors may be built longer than
those lifting material. Conveyors iooo feet from center to center, handling
400 tons per hour have been most satisfactorily operated.
Another important factor in the design of conveyors at high speed,
handling large quantities, is the flow of material in the chutes. A 36inch
conveyor handling 750 tons of coal per hour with a belt speed of
750 feet per minute under a 10,000-ton pocket could not be loaded from
a single chute, because it was not possible for the coal to attain a speed
of 750 feet per minute in the chute. It was necessary, therefore, in order
to obtain a full load to open seven gates, each placing a layer of coal
on the belt until the desired load was obtained!! During a tcst this licit
carried about 800 tons per hour.
POWER REQUIRED.
The power required to drive a belt conveyor depends on a great variety
of conditions such as the spacing of idlers, type of drive, thickness
cf belt, etc.
In figuring the power required, it is important to remember that the
belt should be run no faster than is required to carry the desired load.
If for any reason it is necessary to increase the speed, the figure taken
for load should be increased in proportion and the power figured accordingly.
In other words, the power should always be figured for the

312 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
full capacity at thc chosen speed, as follows:
C = Power constant from table.
T = Load in tons per hour.
L — Length of conveyor between centers in feet.
H = Vertical height in feet that material is lifted.
S = Belt speed in feet per minute.
B = Width of belt in inches.
For level conveyors, C X T X E
IT. p. = _
For incline conveyors, iooo
C X T >< L T X //
IT. p. = X
I ooo I ooo
Add for each movable or fixed tripper horse power in column 3 of
table.
Add 20 per cent to horse power for each conveyor under 50 feet in
length.
Achl 10 per cent to horse power for each conveyor between 50 feet
and 100 feet in length.
The above figures do not include gear friction, should the conveyor
he driven by gears.
TABLE IH. POWER REQUIRED FOR GIVEN LOAD.
Width ol
Belt
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
1
c
lor material
weighing
25 1b. cu. to 75 ft. lb. per
.234
.226
.220
.209
.205
.199
.195
.187
175
.167
.163
.161
.157
2
c
for material
weighing from
75 per lb. cu. to 125 It. lb.
.147
.143
.140
.138
.136
.133
.131
.127
.121
.117
.115
.114
.112
3
H. P.
required for
each movable
or tripper fixed
%
K
X
1
V4
IK
1¥
2
2%
2%
2%
3
3'*
4
Minimum
plies of belt
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
5
Maximum
plies of belt
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
8
8
9
10
10

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 313
With the load and the size of material known, choose from the capacity
table the proper width of belt and proper speed, The above
formula; give thc horse power reepiired for. the conveyor when handling
the given load at the proper speed. With the horse power and the
speed known, the stress in thc belt should be figured by the following
formula in order to find the proper number of plies. Stress in belt
h- p. X 33.ooo
pounds per inch of width = With this value known,
S X B
the number of plies may be determined, using 2G pounds per inch per ply
as the maximum. The columns four and five of Table 3 give the maximum
and minimum advisable plies of the different widths of belt. Belts
between these limits will trough properly ami will be stiff enough to
support the load. The maximum number of plies determines the maximum
length for each width of conveyor.
ARRANGEMENT ol- CONVEYORS.
Fig. 13, A, shows iii outline the simplest form of level conveyor
receiving material at one or more points and discharging over the
end pulley.
Fig. 13. Diagrams of different types of Conveyors.
In Fig. 13, B. the material is received at one end and discharged
= t any point in the length by a movable tripper. The tail end is usually
D

314 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
depressed, as shown so that the belt will not be raised against the loading
chute by the tripper when discharging near the tail end as shown in
dotted lines. Fig. 13, C, is a level conveyor with a series of fixed dumps.
Fig. 14, D, shows the simple inclined conveyor. Practically any
material may be carried up 20 degrees to the horizontal when run at
proper speed and with correctly designed chutes. With sized material,
such as sancl, crushed ore, stone or coal, the angle may be increased to
22 degrees, and under some conditions, even more. When elevating material
containing large lumps, the lumps have a tendency to roll back on
thc layer of fines so that the angle should not he over 20 degrees. When
handling round material, such as cement clinkers from rotary kilns, the
angle should be from 12 degrees to 15 degrees maximum. Inclined
conveyors should not be run at high speeds, as the material must be
given thc same speed as the belt and the higher the speed the more the
slip at the loading point and the greater the wear on the belt.
JT
Fig 11. Diagram of Inclined Conveyors.
Fig. 14, E, is the combination of inclined and level conveyor, which
is largely used. Where the belt passes from the incline to the level it
should not pass over a trottghing idler but over a high crowned pulley.
This flattens the belt out at the bend and the material will leave the belt
on a trajectory and land on the level portion with no spill, because belt
and material are movable at the same speed.
It is frequently advisable to run conveyors on a vertical curve. Fig.
t)

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 315
14, F, illustrates the combination of curved and level conveyor. The
radius of the curve depends on the size of the belt, location of the drive
and the local conditions. It is possible to so design these conveyors that
the belt will touch the troughing idlers, whether loaded or light. Should
the belt lift off the idlers on the curve, it reduces the driving tension
on the belt, which should be avoided. Fig. 15 is a photograph of the
lower end of a conveyor on a curve.
Fig. 16 is a photograph showing the discharge from a level conveyor
to the inclined portion of another, and illustrates the method of
making the bend and the action of the material at this point.
Fig. 15 Lower end of Conveyor on curve.
Fig. 17, G, shows thc combination of level conveyor, fixed dump,
inclined conveyor and a number of fixed trippers. Frequently it is not
possible to obtain thc room required for the curve belts, so the fixed
dump is used. The material is discharged from the upper pulley of the
dump into a chute feeding the inclined portion of the same belt. The
fixed and movable trippers may be used with any of the above com-

316 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
binations where a portion of the conveyor is level or not inclined over
7 degrees.
Fig. 17, H, is a diagram of still another combination, in which the
conveyor starts level, carries material down hill with an incline and
curve and then runs level again. Fig. 18 i.s a photograph of such a
conveyor receiving material from the hoisting towers in the distance
Fig. 16. Discharge from Level to Inclined Conveyor.
and running down hill in a concrete passageway under railroad tracks
and highway.
Fig. 19 is a photograph of the conveyor dredge used to deepen
Fox River, Wisconsin. The endless chain of buckets dig the mud, clay,
rock, etc., from the river bed, discharging to a 32-inch conveyor carried
by the dredge. Three other conveyors mounted on scows carry the material
to either shore, as may be desired, with hut the one handling. The
conveyors first used on this dredge were not satisfactory owing to incorrect
design and they were rebuilt last vear, one conveyor being
equipped with rubber belt and three with P.alata Belt. The latter proved
more satisfactory, owing to its water proof qualities.
Fig. 20 illustrates a large coal storage plant. The coal is hoisted
from vessels by the towers on the clock and fed to a 36-inch conveyor

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 317
about 600 feet long back of the hoisting towers. This conveyor discharges
to one running along the end of the pile, about 300 feet in
length, discharging to the tail of the inclined conveyor about 500 feet
long, to the left of the photograph. A 50-foot conveyor carries the material
from the top of the incline to the center of the pivot point of the
Ffg. 17. Diagrams showing Combination Types.
bridge. A chute at this point feeds the 500-foot tripper line carried by
the bridge. The bridge swings through 180 degrees and the travel of the
bridge and the movement of the tripper the length of the bridge conveyor
makes it possible to receive coal at any point along the dock and
store same at any desired location in the storage space. The first two
conveyors are driven from their head ends. The inclined belt is driven
at the foot of the incline. The short belt at the top is driven bv gears and
chain from the head of the conveyor feeding it. The bridge conveyor
is driven from the tail or loading end. All the motors arc so wired that
they may be stopped from any point along the line by means of push
buttons. This system has a capacity of about 700 tons of mine run coal
per hour and has handled in the past three seasons nearly one ami quar­
ter million tons.
This paper has been presented mainly to acquaint the engineers
who are designing plants with the possibilities of the belt conveyor for
handling heavy abrasive materials, and to give them some -lata which
will be of service in the preparation of preliminary designs. \"o onetype
of conveyor is perfect for handling every material. Each has its
field, but it may be fairly said that it has become universal practice to
use belt conveyors in places where ten years ago only chains were con­
sidered.

318
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Fig. 18. Conveyor running in Concrete Sub-passage Way.
The ancient idea that only conveyors made of iron or steel could
handle coal, ore, stone, etc., has been exploded and the following is a
list of the materials that belt conveyors are most satisfactorily handling:
Coal in all sizes at the mine anel in industrial plants.
Stone in crushing plants, etc.
Sand and gravel in washing plants, etc.
Concrete material in mixing plants.
Mixed concrete from mixers to forms.
Ore, both run of mine and crushed in concentrating plants, crushing
plants, reduction works, etc.
Earth, rock, clay, etc., in dredging and excavating operations.
Cement rock and other materials in cement mills.
Wood chips and pulp in pulp mills.
Small packages in shipping rooms of stores, and express depots.
Salt and chemicals.
The writer does not claim that the belt conveyors are the panacea
for all the ills of the conveyor user, but when properly designed and installed,
they fully justify the following claims:
a Large capacity with low power requirements.
b Small maintenance charges. Belts will last from 3 to 8 years
dependent on the duty. Idlers and drives 10 to 15 years.
c Freedom from shut down, as there are no links to break and
a belt will give months of warning before giving out.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 319
d Light weight, resulting in lighter structures mid saving in
freight, particularly in ocean shipment anel at isolated mining plants.
c Complete separation of the material carried from the moving
parts—the material coming in contact only with the belt.
Fig. IU. Conveyor Predge
/ Perfect alignment is not absolutely necessary as is the case with
most other conveyors. The long incline conveyor to the left of Fig. 20
was built on a swamp. The two bents near the head tower shifteel 10
inches, and the conveyor was operated in this condition for nearly one
month with no trouble or damage to the apparatus.
Fig. 20. Cold Storage Plant.
g Owing to light weight and the fact that perfect alignment is
not necessary, thev may be made up in portable sections, which are in
great demand.
h Large overload capacities.
The above claims arc based not on a few months' research, but
on years of service as a mechanical engineer with one of the large anthracite
coal mining companies and over eight years devoted entirely to
the design, manufacture and installation of belt conveyors, the early
years being pioneer work when the industry was in iis infancy.

320 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
In choosing illustrations for this paper, preference has been given
to the line drawings and photographs illustrating parts of conveyors
rather than those which show complete installations, as the object has
been, not to describe existing plants, but to bring out the principles of the
mechanism. Asknowledgment i.s clue the companies who have consented
to the use of photographs taken at their plants.

By M. D. Williams
.g anil Surveying.
A SURVEYOR is a person taught in the art of determining and
laying out the relative position of points upon the surface of
the earth. The duties are principally in measuring, laying out
and dividing of land; in establishing lost positions; in measuring height
or depths, or locating the level of objects ; and in graphically representing
the peculiarities of any part of the earth's surface.
The part pertaining to the measurement of the heights and depths
is the more simple and will be taken first.
Leveling may be defined as the art of finding how much higher or
lower any one point is than another, or, more properly, the difference of
their distance from the center of the earth.
The surface, like that of still water, may be called a level. Leveling
is said to be art of tracing a line at the surface of the earth which shall
cut the directions of gravity everywhere at right angles.
The direction of gravity invariably tends towards the center of the
earth, and may be considereel as represented by a plumb line when hanging
freely and suspended out of reach of the attraction of the surrounding
objects.
From the foreging it is evident that on account of the curvature of
the earth's surface, a horizontal line i.s not really throughout its length,
a level line ; that of two points in the: same level ine each will have its
own horizon.
Hence in leveling any distance the effect of curvature of the earth
upon the comparative elevations of different points must be taken into
consideration.
The effect of this curavturc is to make objects appear lower than
they really are.
In ordinary work of leveling points in a short street, the foundation
of a building or railroad the curvature may be neglected, but in order
to be better understood this expression may be found for the connec­
tion due to the curvature of the earth.
Let us illustrate by taking 0 as the center of the earth and P. N. a
line of true level (because all points in it are perpendicular to lines running
to the earth's center). P. N.' is the tangent or line of apparent

322 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
level. The distance N. N.' corresponds to the length of sight P N. is
required.
By referring to geometry we have
P. N.'- = N. N.' (2 O N -!- Nf. Nf.')
or N. N.' P. N.'-
2 ( ) N X N. NV
For ordinary distances, the length of the arc P N. may be regarded
the same as P N.' and N. N.' as inconsiderable in comparison with 2
O N., the diameter of the earth.
Therefore calling the length of the sight, P X.,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 323
then the correction due to curvature and refraction, which we will call
C, is
c — 1/7 c = d2 — d-
2r
or C = 3d2
7r
this correction must be added to the height of the object as found by the
level. In practice, the above may be avoided by setting the instrument at
equal distances from the point whose difference of height is required.
The reader will no doubt be acquainted with common spirit level
used mostly in carpenter work and the instruments used in surveyingwork
contain this feature and in addition have a telescope attached as
shown in the illustration.
The telscope, which varies from 12 to 22 inches in length has near
its ends two rings of bell metal, turned very true and of exactly the
same diameter. On these rings it rotates in the Y shaped supports, as
shown, or it may be clamped by means of the curved liars and the tapered
pins.
As will be seen a spirit level is attached to the telescope anel it can
be easily seen that adjustment is obtained by means of the screws.
The whole is supported mi three legs called a tripod, the upper head
of which supports the plate with the form adjusting screws and they
the telescope and level.
It can be seen that there is no means for up and down motion of
Section of a Y-Level.
14r

324
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Styles of Tripods
Adjustable
the telescope, but that it can be rotated about the axis of the center pin
01 pivot.
As it is best to start at the bottom it is only necessary to show a
tripod to the reader for him to easily understand its construction.
They are made either of solid or adjustable legs, the latter being
very convenient often in locating the level over a fixed point.
As will be seen the head or top plate of the tripod is threaded for
the screw on the bottom of the level, thus securing same when screwed
in place.
In the center of this threaded knob on the level projects a hook
lo which a plumb line is attached, which supports a hob that aids in locating
the instrument over a point.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 325
The sectional view will aid in understanding the construction of a
1 -level and it can be seen that by operating the adjusting screws the
telescope can be brought to a level position.
This section shows the part that can lie separated from the tripod
when packing same in a case for carrying and the adjustable legs afford
an opportunity to pack into a much smaller space than with the solid
style.
The telescope has a rack and pinion movement to both object glass
and eyepiece, and an adjustment for centering the eyepiece shown at
.1 A in the sectional view, and another seen at c, for insuring the accurate
projection of the object glass slide.
Both of these are completely concealed from observation anil disturbance
bv thin hands which screw over them.
The telescope also has a shade over the object glass so made that,
while it may be reaclilv moved on its slide over the glass, it cannot be
dropped off and lost.
A cap to slip on over the object glass is often furnished.
In the telescope and located near the eyepiece are a pair of fine
wires, one at right angles to the other and in the position at B. B.
A 20-inch V-Level showing Adjusting Screws and Focusing Slide.

326 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
These wires are fastened to a ring which is held by screws but
which can be adjusted so to bring one vertical while the other is hori­
zontal.
The intersection of the wires form a minute point, which, when
they are adjusted, determines the optical axis of tbe telescope and enables
the engineer to fix upon an object with the greatest precision.
The imaginary line passing through the optical axis of the telescope
and the eye of the observer is termed the "line of collimation," and the
operation of bringing the intersection of the wires into optical axis, is
called the "adjustment of the line of collimation."
When the eye of the observer is placed at the eyepiece everything
appears blured, but by operating the screw of the rack and pinion the
telescope is lengthened or shortened till the object becomes clear and
the cross wires appear to be on its face.
Thus a line or spot may be fixed in relation to the position of the
horizontal wire.
It can be easily understood that the telescope on its tripod is to stand
on the ground or floor at a height to bring the latter up near the eye.
The placing of the instrument is called "setting up," and shall be so
referred to in the following, and it is assumed that all parts are in perfect
adjustment as when it came from the factory.
Also that the placing of the instrument can be attached to the tripod
without much instruction, care being taken to screw it carefully
into the tripod head, the legs of which have previously been taken from
tlie case.
TO USE THE INSTRUMENT.
Set up the instrument by spreading the legs at about three feet
apart, equal distance, and firmly on the floor and push down upon them
slightly.
The tripod may be set up first and the level screwed into it. This
is the best way to handle the instrument.
It is necessary to set up the instrument with the direction the leveling
is to be done in mind so that one set of vertical screws are in this
line and the other across. This makes it more easy to level the telescope.
It is now ready to adjust or make level, using the glass tube under
the telescope as a guide and operating the adjusting screws under the
plate below the Ys.
When the instrument is first set up it may be found that it will not

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 327
rotate and that the clamping screw is tight and this must be loosened to
allow the telescope to swing.
As the telescope stands the bubble will indicate whether it is level
or not and this is the first thing to adjust.
After finding that the telescope swings free bring it directly over
one set of screws and by placing the hands on these, the thumbs pointing
inward, turn the screws in or out till the bubble attains a central po­
sition.
Try over the other set r>f screws and run thumbs in or out as re-
Architects' Rod Style known as New York Rod Machinists Rod

328 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
quired, and then revolve telescope over first set and correct what little
error exists.
With the bubble showing in the center of the tube in any position
of the telescope we may consider it level and ready to proceed. Be sure
that the screws are up snug in their bearings, one not tighter than the
other.
Next, look through the eyepiece and with the hand on the slide
wheel operate the object glass back and forth till the object is brought
into perfect view and the cross wires appear to be fastened to its surface.
If we were to swing the telescope around and find some other object
that exactly coincides with the cross wires, we would at once perceive
that the second was on the same "level" with the first.
Thus we establish one object in relation to another and if we could
measure the first spot above some other spot we would think that the
instrument had aided us in securing the relative levels of two points.
To aid in this we must have a measuring instrument, for suppose
we had a spot on the ground which we want to start with and stood a
pole on it and had a mark made where thc wires in the instrument
seemed to strike.
Suppose we moved the pole to some other spot and swung the instrument
around till we could see it through the telescope and had another
mark made on the pole, the difference between the marks would be
the variation in level between the first and the second.
Care should be exercised during the observation lest the hand or
the foot touch the instrument or tripod and jar them out of adjustment,
and the bubble should be watched to guard against error.
In setting up the instrument, knowing the points that are to be
"sighted," as A and B, it is often that it is placed at c. but where the
X o B

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 329
point A is known and B is to be ahead of the instrument of course it is
to be set at D.
The observation from D to A would he called the "back sight," and
to B the "fore sight."
^ The difference between the "back sight" and "fore sight" equals the
difference in level of the two points.
To aid in reading the difference between thc heights of two points
a graduated rod is used on which the lines are laid out horizontally
when the rod stands on end, the divisions being numbered in inches anel
feet or feet and tenths thereof.
These rods vary somewhat in construction and graduation, but generally
speaking all carry a target which allows the observer at the telescope
to focus the wires on the rod better than if only the line was to be
depended upon.
Thus it will seem that the observer or engineer requires an assistant
to hold the rod, ami as some are made, the target is raised or
lowered by him till the horizontal line comes in focus with the wire in
the telescope.
The target or movable part of the rod is then clamped and the
"reading" taken, that is the distance of the center line of the target from
the lower end of the rod.
The record is made of the feet and inches or feel and tenths and
the rod carried to the next point and the telescope swung to find it and
the target raised or lowered to suit.
The points at which the rod is located are called 'stations
the man carrying it the "rod-man."
with reference to another.
If two points A, B, whose difference of elevation is requiree
A P B
be observed upon from some point P about equidistant from there, not
necessarily in their line, set up the instrument at P and note the reading

330 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
of a rod held vertically over each point. The difference of the two readings
will be thc difference of level required.
If the above method is impracticable set up (lie the instrument at
some point P, either in or out of the line, no matter which, from which
a rod may be observed on the first station A, anel also on another point
e in the direction of B about equidistance with ./ from the instrument.
kemover the level to a new position P' whence observe the rod at c also
the rod reading at B.
The difference between the readings of the rod at / and C shows
how much higher the latter is than the former, and in like manner the
difference of the reading at C and B gives the difference in elevation of
these points and so on no matter what the number ol stations.
The difference in height of A and B
Ad—Ce+Cf—Bq
or Ad+Cf—Ce—Bq
=Ad + Cf— (ce+Bq)
Calling Ad and Cf the "back sights" and the other two "fore
sights," we can see that the difference of level of two points i.s shown b\
subtracting the sum of the fore sights from the sum of the back sights.
In leveling, we measure by means of the rod how much lower than
the line of sight (height of instrument) are certain points.
Thus we may determine the relative elevation of the points.
Suppose, for example, it be required to determine the difference in
elevation of any two points.
To overcome the effect of the curvature of the earth, set up thc instrument
eepiidistance from the points. If (his cannot he dene and
both observations have to be made from one of the stations, especially

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 331
if the distance between them is considerable, correction as previously described
must be made.
But in this case suppose it is possible, and suppose that when held
on one point thc rod reads 7.255, that is, this point may be considered
7.255 below thc line of sight, and 4.755 when held on the other; then the
first may he considered 7.255-4.755, or 2.500 farther than the second
below the line of sight, or lower than the second.
(TO BE CONTINUED)

4 / * i D V e S T £ I A L
\ h f e O O B 6 S S
A New sSclhool
A L.MOST everything is being taught by
** mail and so we will see advertisements
of a school for airship chauffeurs
and repair men.
No young man need worry that he cannot
get an education, it is only necessary
that he apply himself in his odd moments
and it will surprise him how soon he improves.
The correspondence school idea was no
doubt formed hy the Colliery Engineer
Publishing Co., who were publishing a
magazine for mines, and they wrote lessons
to help these men to become bosses
and inspectors.
The idea was so well received that other
courses soon followed, and seeing their success
othe;r schools soon opened up. so that
now we can get almost anything.
The latest is "Contracting." hy Thc Euclid
Schools. Cleveland, Ohio, wdio have
hid out a course to help men to cro into
this line of work.
The studies are mathematics, drawing.
curvevinc\ estimating cost and time keening
nnd machinery, hut the course is made
to suit the experience of the student a =
much as possible.
Other courses are "Drafting and Design.''
"Inspecting" and "Salesmanship,"
and the Sehools wilt send any information
necessarv.
The Harwoorl Electric Power Company.
Hnzleton, Pa . are now putting in foundations
for a large power station at Harwoorl
mines, near Hazleton Four turbines and
boilers have been installed and nut in operation.
Plans and specifications bv Schofield
Engineering Co., consulting engineers.
Arcade building, Philadelphia, are practically
completed.
\>nymy on Chumkal sSpQciih-
oa tions
\ll/HERE dimensions, weight, finish and
* ' the like may be readily expressed
in specifications, it is easy and natural
to make them conditions upon which
purchases shad he accepted. But where
strength, chemical composition, durability
and similar factors of ultimate efficiency are
of importance, specification of these features
is all too often omitted.
The reason is obvious, tests must he applied
which usually call for equipment,
knowledge and experience beyond those
possessed by the average buyer. He is then
obliged to turn to the expert, hut objects
because of the initial expense and fails to
recognize the ultimate economy.
Tn every industry some material is being
bought on thc basis of brand, reputation
or even satisfactory experience in its use
without the least idea that equal efficiency
might be obtained at a lower price with a
suitable material whose composition could
he specified in advance hy the chemist. But
where the purchaser is alive to all such
savings they may be made to aggrcenlc a
considerahle net amount after all expert
service is paid for. The following experience
is suggestive:
The purchasing agent of a large electric
railway company w. as recentlv huvine of a
reputable supplv housp a metal for journal
linings, which gave cood satisfaction. Th
was paying 20 cents a pound and, in view
riT the nature of the material, felt that the
price was high \ sample was submitted
tei (lie \rthur D. T.ittlc Laboratory in Boston
for analysis Upon receipt of their report,
the- purchasing agent sent out for
hids upon a metal of the composition
shown on analysis \ reliable concern at
once offered such a metal at fi cents per

pound. As the amount of metal used in a
year was large, the saving by having the
same metal made to their formula wa.s well
worth obtaining.
A SHTABULA, O., is to get great ship-
±» yards in the near future, to the extent
of $1,000,000. The Great 1 akes Engineering
Works of Detroit will build an
immense yard, larger than their present
one at Ecorse.
The Lake Shore and Pennsylvania Co.
are to co-operate in the big enterprise,
which will employ 3,000 men and almost
double the population of the city.
Work is to begin soon and the plant finished
as early as possible, and it is sup
posed that other large industries will be
added to make this city a large center of
activity.
Plowing on a big scale has begun in
Ohio, a farmer buying a 55-horsepower gas
engine and a six-horse gang piow.
The trial was successful and contracts
are signed for 700 acres in different localities.
The outfit cost $4,00(1, anil it is said that
it is the first outfit in the state.

334 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
inns, Urbana, Illinois, a Mine Explosion SleClflclty—Sl®M\\'& DiVV IS
anel Mine Rescue Station. The- purpose ol
the station is to interest mme operators anil
., i c i
Nearly Done
r\rRl\'(, the coming vear the enure
inspectors modern appliances in the economic as tin- oxygen value of helmets such
am! i-._ resuscitation i:.... apparatus .. - o... as .- adjuncts k^i,,,..*.. to
., , r n .
I I railway system of Budapest will be
^-^ electrified.
The first of four 6,0011-horsepower Genthe
normal equipment of mines, ihe sta- x "L lllaL ' '
i ii ir -,i »i t - ciil F'ectric alternating current motors.
tion also will concern itself with the tram clal J-eeon .ueein.ie „
r i i ^1 • ti c lin- lare-est in the world, in the rail mill o>
nig- of mine bosses anil others :n the use ot lllL ''"o1-1 '
such apparatus. Its service is to be remeiered
who may gratuitously, desire the and benefits so far thereof. as possible
to •it all in r Illinois, i Indiana, .- j.i Michigan, . , West • e
Virginia, ci institute lhe formal Kentucky, a part opening of the Iowa ol proceedings thc and station Missouri, of is the- to
fuel conference which is to he held at the
the United States Steel corporation at

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 335
he applied mainly on the northern section,
much could be used further south if it were
that product would be delivered short of
per ton flat rate. Of course- without stmar
0
nct for the trouble the state is Having with beets the American sugar heel combine
the Miami & Erie Transportation Co.,
which tried several years ago to grab the
land adjoining the canal.
When this is settled much contract wor
could neither produce saccharine products
nor keep its stuck at par. So lhe trust
yielded anel the labor power of the union
farmers of Colorado will this year yield
will be let, as it appears to be the intention about $350,0(11) mure than in 1908
now to improve the waterways. An all-British lab,,,- movement is in pro-
This will be done unless vested interests cess of formation. The Canadian organizainterrupt
legislation. i;,,,,_ ,,-. u ,,, , , , , ,, .'. , ,
1 '- tions ,ue being sounded by the British labor
party upon lhe proposition of holding
I
Lai>Or
workingmen want to know something
>' congress in London next year to amalga-
ll1ate thc 'ab°r f°rCeS "f Et*&. Scotland,
about the ravages that tuberculosis is ,e'.and' WaleS' Canada' Australia. South.
causing in their ranks they should send ' tmha '''"'' lesser cour'tries ""lk'r the
for bulletin Xo. 79, just issued by the bu- Sh flag' T'm world's movement is to
lean of labor, department of commerce and be I"'htlcal as wc!1 ;l" industrial.
labor, and read what Mr Frederick I ' he merger discussed in the woodwork-
Hoffman, an expert on this subject, discov- '"g ,n,h,"tr>' which would have resulted in
ered in his investigations. bringing over 200,000 mechanics into one-
Some medical men have been saying that °' eanization' has b

336 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
will find no difficulty in reading the assembly
drawing, anel that, as the drawing is
used hut once, it would be a waste of time
to have thc draftsman detail the parts
In the case of a very simple-jig this is
undoubtedly true, but in more complicated
ones there can be little doubt that the comparatively
small expense required for the
draftsman to detail the jig will be many
tunes saved in the shop, for the patternmaker
or tool-maker will not have to spend
a number of hours puzzling over the drawing,
and even then being liable to make a
mistake. This is another case where a
slight extra amount of non-productive labor,
judiciously expended, will save a large
amount of outlay for so-called productive
labor.
In two large shops within the writer's
own experience, the recent practice in one
was to detail all jigs, and in thc other to
make assembly drawings only, and the difference
was surprising in the number of
questions asked bv the shop regarding the
design of the jig in cases when they were
detailed and when they were not. When
assembly drawings were sent directly into
the shop, hardly a jig passed through its
regular course through the shop without
the foreman of thc tool making department,
or some of his men, coming into the
drafting room to ask half a dozen questions.
When thc drawings were detailed,
hardly a question was ever asked.
Mew Rotary Engine
TUP. gas turbine has made such recent
progress that it promises to take its
place as one of the successful motors.
Such an apparatus requires a combustion
chamber, iu which the temperature rises
above 3,200 degrees Farenheit, and from
this chamber thc products of the combustion
of liquid hydrocarbon fuel are delivered
at constant pressure through carborundum
nozzles to the blades of the turbine.
Besides a refractory lining of carborundum
the chamber has a water jacket coil to keep
the gases cool enough for safety to thc
turbine blades. The problem of making
the machine itself supply thc compressed
air needed to feed the combustion chamber
has been tctatively solved, and a

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 23
^ R O D E R I C K & & A S C O M R O P E C O ,
BR>HCH 7.6 WARREN ST. N.Y. A. ST.LOUIS,MO.
WIRE ROPeVnd AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway in
Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR. This
is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during 1907.
Ask /for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
FOR HOISTING.
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either
with or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
Macomber

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
rlov/ ind us i. rial Material
B.\EELiTE, the -remarkable new material'described
by Dr. L, H. Bueklanel
to the American Chemical society,
seems to be adapted to many important
applications. It is obtained from a
polymerization of phenol alcohol and formaldehyde,
and the initial product may be
cither liquid, pasty or solid and brittle, each
form rapidly changing under suitable temperature
into the final hard, strong and resisting
substance. The material has some
of ihe chief characteristics of an.ber, vulcanite
and celluloid. But it is claimed to be
practically infusible and insoluble, unaffected
hy chemicals and harder than celluloid
or hard rubber. It can be molded into
billiard balls or fancy articles in three minutes,
has advantages as an electric insulator
and is adapted for various engineering
purposes. Thc diversity of the uses to
which it may be put has been illustrated by
employing it for a grindstone anel for a
self-lubricating bearing that run dry many
hours at high speed without overheatingit
has interesting possibilities as a vvooel
preservative, giving extraordinary finish to
hard wood ami so impregnating soft wood,
like cheap poplar, that it becomes as hard
as ebony anel absolutely proof against rot.
Gasoline engines, traction, portable and
stationary, are described in a neat catalog
hy the Kinnard-Haines Co., Minneapolis,
Minn. The former engines are designed for
he.rev haulage work anel suitable for contractors
use.
Hoists, gasoline, steam anel electric, are
illustrated and described in Catalogue No.
45c of the Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago,
Id. These include horizontal and vertical
engines, equipped with single or double
drum combination of hoists and pumping
lis: for mines are also shown.
"Bearings" is the title of a red covered
catalog of The Hill Clutch Co.. Cleveland,
in which is illustrated ball and socket collar
oiling hearing adapted to pedestals,
stands, drop and pest hangers.
The booklet contains diagrams anel di­
mensions, and beside the above the company
manufactures power transmitting, elevating,
conveying and cement machinery
of many kinds.
"Questions and Answers About Electrical
.Apparatus" is a summary of a two-year
course in the testing department of the
General Electrical Co., and illustrate many
general points and contains much information
that is of value to the student.
It i.s not a book for the beginner entirely,
hut if one has the first principle of electricity
it is easily understood.
It is bound in cloth (50c.) or paper (35c.)
anil contains many diagrams in the 65
pages, which are 6x9. and Messrs. Clayton
& Craig, Lynn, Mass., are the publishers as
well as the authors.
The C. O. Bartlett & Snow Co.. Cleveland,
O., have finished and started a big
eoal handling plant at Michel, B. C, for the
Crow's Nest Pass Coal Co., and it is doing
with 17 men in 12 hours what formerly required
68 men 16 hours to perform. The
plant has a capacity of 12 tons of coal a
minute and is one of the most up-to-date
equipments on earth.
Charter Gas Engine Co., Sterling, 111., are
the builders of a hoisting drum attached to
an engine, for use in mining, loading and
unloading vessels, etc. Circulars of other
applications of the gas engine are issued by
this company.
Thc Buckeye Traction Ditcher Co., Findlay,
O., manufacture a machine as their
name signifies, consisting of a traction engine
on the rear end of which is mounted
an excavating wheel provided with buckets
located on its circumference.
lhe wheel has no spokes or axle, but revolves
on anti-friction wheels placed just
outside the rim, and which acts as guides,
but space does not permit a full description
as can be made in the well illustrated cata-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
Automatic Rotary Planer Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S. Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated)

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
T H E 33d edition of the catalogue of
Keufifel & Esser Co., which has just
been published, is the largest as yet
issued by this firm, and will, no doubt, he
of great interest to every engineer.
The general appearance of the catalogue
has been much improved and it is handsomely
bound. Interspersed throughout
the book are fine illustrations showing for
the first time the interiors of the genera!
office and factory buildings at Hoboken, N.
J., which they now cccupy, as well as
glimpses of the stores in New Vork, Chi
eago, St. Louis, San Francisco anel Montreal.
An impj.iant change in the general arlaugement
of the e.italc guc has neeu in,ale
",y creating a sped ii section for "draft-.o
e if.ee furniture,'' whi 'i is now forming .111
important department among the goods
manufactured.
It wou'e! lead too fa." to enumerate the
nan,, addit'.ons made to the various lines of
drafting mstrumeMS, surveying instruments,
etc , hut they will he readily noticed
by those familiar with the previous editions
of this "Vadcmecum" of the engineer-
in s" profession.
The catalogue contains some 540 pages
and will be sent to engineers, free of
charge, on application.
INey/ Loading Apparatus
W H E R E earth is to be excavated anil
carried some distance the method
tor doing so depends on the character
of the work.
For instance, in excavating a foundation
for a large building a steam shovel may be
put in place anel the earth loaded into
wagons and hauled away.
In road work where scrapers are used
some sort of apparatus might be convenient
that would receive the earth, hoist it
and dump it into wagons as the distance
hauled by drag scraper is limited.
By this we mean that to handle drag
scrapers economically the distance must
not be more than a certain distance.
Mr. J. C. Cobb, Washington, D. C, has
been working to perfect a machine that
would take the dirt from the scrapers and
deliver it to the wagons.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 27
N O G E T T I N G A R O U N D THIS F A C T
To the user of power who is dissatisfied with results
and purposes to change for the better—
Catalogue on request.
And to the prospective installer who is determined
to begin right in the engine room—
We would say that the Hardie-Tynes Engine
stands squarely in the line of your inquiry.
Hardie-Tynes Manufacturing Co.
Builders of Corliss and Slide-Valve Engines,
Air Compressors and Complete Power
Plants for Every Purpose.
BIRMINGHAM, ALA., - - - - U. S. A.
A r e Y o u Interested
In the latest applications of compressed air?
In the economical operation of air compressors ?
In labor-saving shop and foundry appliances?
In profit-earning contractors' equipment and methods ?
In up-to-date mining and tunneling methods ?
In the latest quarrying processes?
In the operation of refrigerating machinery ?
In the use of pressure blowers and fans?
In the running of vacuum machines and condensers ?
In the compression and transmission of natural and artificial gas ?
If You Are
You should subscribe to the only journal dealing exclusively
with these matters, published monthly at $1.00 per year in the
U. S. and Mexico, or $1.50 per year in Canada and abroad.
"COMPRESSED AIR" newvoTk

28 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
As seen by the illustration the machine
consists of a pan or receptacle that can liefiat
on the ground onto which the scrapers
deliver their load. This pan is then hoisted
and clumped either side into the wagon.
Il would appear that there must be a
wait of lhe scraper teams while the hoisting
and dumping takes place, unless they
are far enough apart lo overcome this.
The same scheme might be applied to a
revolving derrick on the edge of a foundation,
the dirt being scraped up onto the pan
and it being lifted to the level of the street,
thus saving the need of ilie- wagons going
mlo lhe pit.
What contractors want are machines that
possess superhuman intelligence to overcome
the trouble with the labor element.
A Dog to ! laibllo Plate
T O handle plate by a crane require
either a magnet, clamps or elogs anel
W. fl. S., in Machinery, suggests
the style shown in the engraving for lifting
cost plates of 150 to 200 pounds weight.
The load is held by friction and is re­
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
found best to make these jaws about 2x3
inches square, the reason being that the
roughness of the castings cuts into the
leased instantly when the plate is lowered leather somewhat, affording a mechanical
to the floor. grip in adidtion to the friction.
The Jaws EE are lined, with sole-leather, The arms. B, should be continued down,
riveted on, and in spite of the law which as shown at D, Fig 2. so that the jaws, E,
says that friction is dependent upon the will not drop down out of position when
pressure regardless of the area, it has been the load is released.

VOL. IX
By l'\ l\ Dnrie.
if no is
E
JUNE 1903 No. 6
A C a }oh «// ay $ys I-sii \,
THIS system consists essentially of two towers connected by two
track cables upon which the trolley or carriage travels. The
trolley carrying a suitable clam-shell or other bucket. (Fig. I.)
Either or both of the towers may be movable, in which case thev are
supported on trucks, one truck of each moveable tower being provided
with an electric motor or other means of locomotion. All movable or
traveling towers are suitably counterweighted to prevent overturning.
The track cables are also counterweighted at one end, which causes
them to be under the same tension, regardless of tbe load. This counterweighting
also allows the trolley or carriage to run off the track
cables onto suitable rails provided in tbe upper part of the tower or
towers; it also eliminates tbe steep grade at the end of the span which
always occurs in all non-counterweighted cables.
It is well known that the deflection of a cable is greatest when the
load is in the center of the span, so with the counterweight, as arranged
in this system, the deflection of the cable gradually grows less as the
carriage nears the end of the span; in fact, the grade on which the
carriage runs is only that which is clue to the catenary of the cable with­
out load.
The counterweight which is attached to the track cable is provided
with a device which overcomes the rein mud of the cable, which always
occurs when the load is dumped from the bucket or any carrier of
either the rigid or balanced cableway. This device (Fig. 2), which consists
of suitable hydraulic dash-pots connected to the counterweights,
retards the upward movement of the track cables sufficiently to over-

338 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
•

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 339
come any rebound which is caused by dumping the l,,ad Vfter dumping,
the carriage is gradually elevated until it reaches a point where it
is in perfect balance with the counterweight, when it stops without further
movement.
The trolley or carriage of tbis system may be driven electrically or
by other means.
In case of electric drive, the motor is mounted on the carriage and
connected by suitable gears and clutches to the drums which handle
the grab bucket, and also to the track wheels which carry it in either
direction along the track cables. There are, however, some disadvantages
in carrying the motor on the carriage, the principal of which is
the extra weight which must be supported by the cables and which cuts
down the earning capacity. On that ace,unit, a somewhat lighter
arrangement may be installed by using a rope drive in place of tbe
electric motor. In this case, the motor, if the available power is electricity,
is mounted on one of the towers and is geared to the driving
sheave of what is known as the American system of rope driving,
where a single endless rope is run over the driving and driven sheaves
with a sufficient number of wraps tu transmit tbe required power. The
rope drive runs from tower to tower, and when the plant is working
it is in continuous operation at a uniform speed.
The carriage (Fig. 3) is mounted with four sheaves, each having
a suitable number of grooves in which the ropes run. This being the
/
1
1
\
j
y
Fig. 2

340 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
rvrvqCH CZABLE
,/ TR/ICKCABt£
case, the sheaves are in constant motion, and as the ropes on the two
sides of the drive are traveling in opposite directions, the sheaves are
turning accordingly. This provides the carriage with motive power in
two directions, consequently, when the forward clutch is thrown in the
carriage will travel ahead, and when the reverse clutch is thrown in the
carriage will travel in the other direction.
The hoisting drums are also connected with one set of the sheaves
by means of a clutch. This allows the hoisting or lowering tu be clone
regardless of whether the carriage is moving ahead, backward or standing
still.
The drums are provided with automatic ratchets and brakes, whereby
the brakes are normally set anel the ratchets buhl the load at the
height it is hoisted until the brakes are released when the load is lowered.
This allows no chance for the load to slip or drop. Altogether

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 341
the carriage is practically along the lines of one that would be used on
a gantry crane.
It is impossible to stretch a horizontal cable so that there will be
no deflection, but this deflection is not particularly objectionable in
short spans, although, when the span is greatly increased, the deflection
becomes a serious objection. In this system, where the length of the
plant is necessarily long, intermediate towers may be placed between
the main towers and supporting the track cables at the same height.
(Fig. 4.) These towers will not interfere with the passage of the carriage
in either direction.
In case a long span is necessary and intermediate towers are impractical
or undesirable, also where heavy loads are to be handled, a
plant arranged with suspension cables would be used. (Fig. i.J
In this arrangement the track cables run on a comparatively level
grade and, being supported every few feet, the spans are so short that
there is little deflection, this deflection being eliminated as much as
practical by heavy counterweights attached to the end of the cables.
The suspension cables are allowed sufficient deflection to easily take
care of all of the load and are counterweighted in the same manner as
the track cables in the other system.
This is a cableway system for a variety of uses, being a combined
crane and cableway anel having the advantages of both.
This system has the advantage of the low cost of the cableway
with the high capacity of the gantry crane, and it is designed to cover
a field between the two, as there are many cases where a gantry crane
or bridge crane is too expensive, or the span required is too great.
Also, on the other hand, there are many cases where a cableway is too
slow, or the material must be handled with certain care, as in the case
uf coal.
Tbe cost of maintenance of a plant is often the factor which deter­
mines thc advisability of its installation.
In the gantry crane, painting is a large item of maintenance, while
in a cableway the frequent renewal of the running and hoisting cables
is one of the principal items of expense.
The expense of operation is also an item which cannot be over­
looked.
The power required is large in the case of the gantry crane on
account of the weight of the crane itself, while in the cableway it is
principally on account of the high friction loss.
The other expense of operation is the labor required to run the
plant.
As this system requires the smallest possible number of operatives

342 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 343
that can be used in a crane or cableway, the saving in this direction
must not be overlooked.
In regard to maintenance, this system has the advantages, as thenis
comparatively little steel work to paint and no running cables to be
renewed, and the life of the track cables is greatly lengthened beyond
that of those on an ordinary rigid cableway.
It is evident that the manila driving rope will wear out in time,
but a rope drive of this type is considerably more durable than one uf
wire rope would be. As an example: there are cases on record of a
rope drive running night and day for periods of ten years without
requiring a renewal of the rope.
Regarding the power required, there are several advantages in this
system. Having much less weight than a gantry crane, the amount uf
power required to move the crane is very small.
When compared with the ordinary cableway, the saving in power
is accomplished in the reduced frictional losses and in the action uf the
counterweight un the track cables while the carriage is traveling, which
action practically causes the trolley to run on a level track.
This also overcomes a disadvantage common to all cableways,
whether of the rigid or balanced type, namely, the recoil of the cable
when the load is dumped. In the case of a rigid cableway when it is
loaded, the cable and towers are under a stress in one direction, therefore,
when the load is dumped, the recoil causes the cable anel carriage
to rebound. This action is very marked in the balanced cableway; as
the load which causes the deflection, being suddenly removed, as in
dumping, the counterweight tends to straighten the cable, causing a violent
upward movement of the cable anel carriage. This disadvantage is
overcome in this system by means of the hydraulic cylinders which
retard the movement uf the counterweights and the consequent upward
movement of the cable when dumping the load, which point is fully
covered in the description.
Many cranes and cableways are provided with the operator's cab
at one end of the span, which does not allow the operator to have the
best view uf the material which he is handling, and in the case of a
cableway of long span, or where there are obstructions in the way, a
signal man is necessary. This adds to the expense of operation as well
as cutting down the speed and efficiency of the plant, besides the bucket
is apt to" be run against obstructions anel damaged. In this system the
carriage is provided with a suitable cab for the operator from which
he can handle both the carriage and the bucket to the best advantage,
and in no case is a signal man needed.

344 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
In any case where a plant may be required to work radially, the
central tower may be connected with stationary tracks or track cables
over which the carriage may run, enabling the material to be to or from
any part of the building or yard. In fact, a great variety of plants may
be constructed, covering nearly every conceivable proposition in the line
of handling materials.

Hate—1 L C. \\
Value of Expert -Engineers,
We now have the latest spring quotations on engineers' reports,
says Engineering-Contracting.
4 4 1^ IFTEEN THOUSAND DOLLARS are to be paid to the six
|~~* engineers who accompanied President Taft to Panama to
settle finally the question as to the type of canal, for the type
(sea level or lock; was contingent upon the safety of the proposed
Gatun dam.
"These engineers were selected upon the assumption—we assume—
that no higher authorities could be found in the civil engineering profession.
They are now to be paiel $2,500 each for an expert opinion
on a project involving the expenditure of some $300,000,000. Their
fees amount to about $100 for each day's service. This is munificent.
"The fee of $15,000 is just one two-hundredth part of 1 per cent
of the total sum at stake, so that each engineer receives one twelvehundredth
part of 1 per cent for passing judgment on the greatest
public works projects of all times.
"In the same daily papers that report the award uf these engineering
fees, we have an account of a law suit in which it is said that the
leading counsel receives $1,000 a day for his services.
"Where matters of great importance are at stake it is customary,
the world over, to pay for professional services in some proportion tu
the amount of money involved—except in civil engineering. Here in
this Panama case we have a daily payment to each uf the consulting
engineers equivalent to the combined wages of two dozen hod carriers,
and then only because the work is of stupendous importance.
"Col. Goethal's daily income makes him of about 12 hod carrier
power. The State Engineer of Xew York is 4 hod carrier power;
but then he has only a $100,000,000 piece of work to manage. Still, let
us take heart. Some day there ma)- be a six billion dollar public works
project, and then the engineer at the head of it will be a 250 hud carrier
power man, and class with some of the larger lawyers."

Different Methods of Capping
Winding Ropes,
THE method of attaching the cage to the winding or hoisting rope
is a subject

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
igi
Fig. 3
LjMMm
347

348 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
a solid iron socket similar to d, Fig. I. Air. Blackett says that this
cap is stronger than the rope. A very good form of rop;
capping is shown in Fig. 2, in which the wires are turned back ana
white metal is then run in, and this forms, in the writer's opinion, the
strongest and most efficient capping. The wires, being hooked at the
ends, have a very good grip on the white metal.
The following table of tests is interesting as showing the need of
inure efficient capping. The ropes all had a breaking strain of 30 tuns,
and were capped by the makers, the idea being that the cap should in
this way be made equal to the strength of the rope. It will be seen
that the efficiency of the four caps tested varies from 28 to 89 per cent.
3°
14.9 49.6 Capped with rivets, Fig. 1, b. Top rivet of capping
sheared. Rope pulled out from cap.
30 «-5 28.3 Capped with collars, Fig. I, c.
Rope pulled out from cap.
Capping failed.
3°
10.5 35 Conical socket, Fig. 1, d. Wires bent back.
ping failed. Rope pulled out from cap.
Cap­
3" 26.7 89
Eye spliced in. Fig. 1, a. Capping failed.
gave way.
Splice
Note.—Xo white metal useel in any case.
A new form uf capping, known as Scott & Caddy's, is shown in
Fig- 3. g, which has the great advantage of allowing the state of the
rope inside the capping tu be examined from time to time. It will be
seen that the wires are bent back in the usual way to form a cone (a
cuiiical wedge being useel to bend the wires over, as in Elliot's method),
this cone of wire is then enclosed in a split hollow socket, the top end of
which is threaded fur a nut. A sleeve is then slipped over the split
sucket, and a nut screwed on the top prevents the sleeve from rising
out ul position.
tages.
This method uf capping seems tu have great advan

Progress in Machinery for [\
Tunnel Construction,
33y P. L. SterkeL
THE old method of constructing railroad tunnels by hand throu
mountains of ruck will soon give way to new automatic tunneling
machines.
For years past engineers in the West have tried to solve this great
problem, and at last one of them has succeeded in inventing a machine
for the purpose.
Under the old method the men work in eight-hour shifts, drilling
and blasting the ruck i.s not only expensive, but also very slow and at
times costs many lives.
The new machines which will work from relays as the tunnel progresses
are first, the Channeling Machine; second, the Drill Car, and,
third, the Derrick and Pan.
The Channeling Machine chiefly consists of fourteen cutters which
will each take a one-half inch cut, twenty-five feet in diameter, in one
revolution of the machine.
This gives a cut of seven inches to one revolution for all the cutters,
but seven revolutions are required to make the required depth of
four feet, then the machine is removed.
This machine also has side attachments for cutting the rock down
from a point two feet below the center of tunnel and tangent to the
base.
After the rock has thus been cut the drill car takes its place, which
drills sixteen two-inch holes in the rock for blasting. This machine has
attachments for cutting slats in the base in which to lay the ties. All
drills and cutters are motor driven.
After the rock has been cut and drilled, powder is placed in all
the sixteen holes and a big pan is placed at the base. When the charge
is set off it drops all the rock contained in this twenty-five-foot diameter
and four-foot depth into the pan at the base.
The pan is afterwards hoisteel and taken out by a derrick which
has a lifting capacity of two hundred tons.
When the rock reaches the outside of the tunnel it is placed into
a rock crusher, where it is prepared for use in finishing the tunnel.

350 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
"TOP OF TUNNEL
tTAKES ^tOMIN.To Cat
concrete V-imsVi, a\rout lfe"oyi averaae
, Cut rwixde \}ii Side afta.r,K-mtret on I? K av\ree Imo, rift aGrelrvP
--^—-— Cut made b^ side ce.rtci.cf-tme vet on olrill c^x.t.
These three operations of cutting, drilling and removing rock, for a
four-foot cut require forty minutes.
In finishing the tunnel steel forms are used which are held in place
by bolts and split sleeves set in holes built into the sides of the tunnel
for that purpose.
The sketch will give an idea as to how the tunnel looks.

By D..SJ. Williams.
.! (ydrnu'lk Rauis,
MANY years ago four boys were cruising along the banks of
the Wabash, and as night was approaching, the) decided to
land and seek a good camping spot.
Accordingly, the canoes were run ashore and a landing made, and
while two started out to reconnoitre, the others unloaded anel carried
everything to a safe place. All had noticed a peculiar noise, apparently
coming from a point further up the bank or cliff which ruse- from the
farther side of what was once the Erie and Wabash Canal.
It was decided to investigate, and after wading through the puddles
in the bed of the old canal a small iron affair was found thai
emitted much water and a regular chugging noise, and the boys at once
decided that it was what was generally known as a "hydraulic ram."
A short distance farther up was a spring from which a large pipe
led water down tu the ram, and a smaller one was seen to head off up
the hill, and upon following it the boys found a farm house situated
away up on the cliff and being supplied with fresh water from the
ram.
As the bovs were students in a technical college, they knew the
principle on which the pump operated, and discussed the matter fully
at supper around the camp fire that evening.
Really it seemed marvelous that so small an apparatus could du
so well and receive so little attention, for so long as nothing gut into it
except water it kept up its regular "chug, chug," right along and sent
fresh water up to a great height.
As will be supposed, the term "ram" would signify that something
rammed or pushed the water, and it is what really takes place ; water
rams water—that is, a large volume has the ability to push a small
quantity a great distance.
The hydraulic ram was invented in 1772 by White-hurst, and about
the same time it was discovered by a Bristol plumber, who was engaged
in a hospital in that city fixing lung lengths of lead piping which had
considerable head of water on them.
To the extreme end of one of the pipes he was fixing, anel at the
lowest point, he had soldered an ordinary ground bibb tap, with a plug
that was easily turned. When turning off the tap quickly, he found that
the pipe had split and burst.

352 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
After repairing it, he found the same thing occurring again every
time he closed the tap suddenly.
This caused him to consider, and he came to the conclusion that
the evil was caused by the sudden closing of the tap arresting the flow,
or momentum, of the water plus the weight uf the water in the length
uf pipe, exerting a blow, generated by the excess of pressure anel causing
the pipe to burst.
After trying many experiments in order tu remedy this defect, the
plumber soldered a small pipe behind the tap, carried it up the wall
anel back to the top of the cistern that supplied the tap.
Every time the tap was used, he found that the water rushed back
to the cistern with great force and noise.
As this seemed strange, he determined to test the matter, and he
then continued the small pipe up to a tank on the roof, which he found
could be supplied by simply opening anel closing the tap quickly.
It would be rather difficult to decide wdio was the original inventor
of the ram, as it has been rediscovered and invented by engineers and
plumbers several times during the past century. It was improved subsequently,
and made to work automatically, by Montgolfier, the celebrated
inventor of the balloon, and his son, who substituted for the tap,
turned by hand in Whitehurst's ram, a large ball-valve enclosed in a
cage opening outwards anel closing by the momentum of the water
rushing through the trunk or body of the ram, and a similar but smaller
valve opening inwards inserted in the air-vessel. Since then the ram
has been improved by various inventors—by Keith, Fyffe, Davies and
others—but principally by the late Mr. John Blake, of Accrington, who
made it the study of his life. As the ram then was, he found it little
more than a toy or scientific curiosity, only suitable for raising small
quantities of water. By constantly experimenting, he added improvement
after improvement until he brought it to its present high standard
of efficiency—capable of economically supplying villages and small towns
with water.
The hydraulic ram is a machine of very simple construction, but
it does not seem to be understood as it should be by engineers and
plumbers who may have the erection and installing of it. It consists
of a body, or trunk, and an air-tight vessel, in which are inserted three
valves, namely: (i) The pulse, or foot valve at end of the trunk;
(2) the retaining, or ascension, valve, in the air-vessel; and (3) the
snift valve, in the neck of the air-vessel, immediately under the ascension
valve. The office of the snift valve is to supplv air to the airvessel
when the ram is working. This, though seemingly the most
unimportant valve in the ram, is most necessary to the successful work-

THE INDUS! RIAL MAGAZINE 353
ing of the machine, as without it the ram would soon cease working,
owing to the air having been exhausted, as the air-vessel would have
become waterlogged. Air escaping from the air vessel with the water
causes the severe shocks and noise in badly constructed rams that are
not fitted with this simple valve.
The hydraulic ram is a machine that utilizes the momentum of a
stream of water having a slight fall, in such a way as to elevate a
portion of that water to a greater height. This machine is self-acting;
and when once set going it will go on working day and night for a
long period without stopping, provided that the supply of water is
sufficient and that the ram is properly constructed and properly
fitted up.
The hydraulic ram will force water with a fall of from 18 in. to
ioo ft. to an elevation uf 15 ft. tu 1,000 ft. from almost any distance,
from a few score of yards to four or five miles, or more if necessary.
For example, supposing 100 gal. of water falling 10 ft. would elevate
10 gal. to a height of, say, 80 ft., as 100 gal. falling 5 ft. wall elevate
1 gal. to a height of 300 ft., a hydraulic ram will raise water from 300
gal. up to 500,000 gal. per day of twenty-four hours if required.
The following example will give some idea of the power exerted
at the end of a long pipe when the flow is suddenly stopped: A pipe
flowing full bore with a velocity uf 25 ft. per second is equal to a head
Fig. 1

354 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
of 10 ft. If the pipe is 2 in. in diameter and 150 ft. long, the contents
will be
2'2 x 62 5
-x 7854 x 150=204.5 lbs.
144
which multiplied by 10=2,045 ft.—lb. of emergency.
(62.5 is the weight of a cu. ft. of waler. )
A diagrammatic section of a hydraulic ram is presented by big. 1.
./ is an air vessel, B and (' ball valves, D a delivery pipe, and /: the
supply pipe. Above the valve B is an opening, and the water, in running
down from a small fall at E, passes through this outlet until the
velocity is sufficient to close B. This, of course, suddenly stops the
stream, and the outlet valve C is forced open owing to the great increase
uf pressure in the ram. Through L the water passes into A ami up the
delivery pipe D. This releases the pressure and the valves B and C
fall, and the operation is gone through again. In some cases an ordinary
lift or a flap valve, which must be weighted to exceed slightly
the static pressure of the supply stream, is placed between E and C.
Obviously, a portion only uf the supply water from a small fall is
delivered to a greater height, and the average efficiency of the ram is
probably not more than 50 per cent.
The quantity of water raised by a hydraulic ram varies according
to the ratio of the fall to the height that the water has to be raised,
while the effective capacity is materially affected by the length of the
drive and delivery pipes, as well as by the relative fall and lift.
\ ram will work on as low" a fall as 2 ft. 6 in., and the quantity
raised will be in proportion to the fall; generally, a proportion of 1
in 10 of fall to lift gives the greatest efficiency. As there arc not two
streams whose conditions are exactly alike, it is obvious that a ram
that will work well on one stream will not work satisfactorily on
another; therefore, to obtain thc highest efficiency the ram must be
designed to suit the conditions of the stream on which it is to work.
These conditions are ascertained by surveying the site and making other
observations. The data required are: (1) The minimum summer quantity
of water in gallons supplied by the stream per minute; (2) the
horizontal distance from the stream to the proposed site of thc ram;
(3) the vertical height obtainable from the supply source to the ram;
(4) the vertical height the water has to be raised above thc ram;
(5) the horizontal distance from the ram to the end of the delivery
pipe. The method of making these observations will be describeel
later.
To obtain the highest degree of efficiency from a hydraulic ram

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 355
water-raising plant, the horizontal length of the drive pipe to the ram
should be the same length as the vertical height that the water is to
be raised, and the diameter should be such as to discharge three times
lhe available quantity. The diameter of the deliver}' pipe should be
such as not to add more pressure on the ram than is due to a head of
3 ft. The area of the water-way of the pulse valve should be the same
as the drive pipe, and the area of the delivery valve as large as possible,
to allow of a large passage for the water with but a very small rise
of the valve, thus preventing the water flowing back past the valve
wdiile closing, usually called "slip." The capacity in cubic inches of the
air vessel should not be less than the cubic capacity of the delivery pipe.
When gauging streams with a very small quantity of water flowing,
a triangular notched weir should be used, as this gives more accurate
results with small quantities than a rectangular weir.
The formulae fur making hydraulic ram calculations are:
G x F
0 65
L
(2) G
g xL
F
1
0.65
g xE 1
(3) F
G 0 65
where G = gallons of water flowing down the stream to work the ram;
g = gallons of water raised; L = lift, or height the water is to be raised
above the ram; F = the vertical fall of the feed water; and 0.65 the approximate
efficiency of the ram described in this article.
To show the working of these formulae, a stream is taken as an
example, having an available fall of 5 ft., with 2.819 gal- flowing per
minute. It is required to raise the water to a tank 50 ft. above the
ram, the length of the delivery pipe being 60 ft. What quantity of
water would be raised to the tank in 24 hours? Applying Rule i, the
quantity raised, assuming that there is practically no frictional loss in
the delivery pipe, will be
2.819 x 5
x 0.65=
50
.1832 gal. per minute, or .1832 x 60 x 24=263.8 gal., say 260 gal. in 24
hours, with 4,060 gal. passing through the ram in 24 hours. Now applying
Rule 2, what quantity of water will be required to raise .1832 gal.

356 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
to a height of 50 ft. above the ram, the supply water having a fall of
5 ft.? The quantity will be
.1832 x 50 1
x = 2.819 gal.
.5 0.65
per minute. The working of these two examples will show the use of
the formulae, and from the data found by them the dimensions of any
ram can be calculated.
When calculating the diameter of a ram, the simplest rules would
lie those of Box for finding the discharge and diameter of pipes. The
rule fur finding the diameter of a ram to pass a given quantity of
water through a given length of drive pipe on a given fall, is the rule, for
finding the diameter of pipes. In applying this rule, the quantity that
is to flow through the ram is multiplied by 3, the reason for this being
that the water in the drive pipe only flows towards the ram about
one-third of the time, and the diameter must be calculated for the
maximum flow at any moment. Taking the above quantity of 2.819
gal. per minute on a fall of 5 ft., anel assuming that the water is
to be raised 50 ft. above the ram, the length of the drive pipe will be
50-=- 3=l6f yd., say 17,'yd. long, and the maximum flow will be 2.819 x
3=8.457 gal. The required diameter of the ram by this tule will be
•V 8.4572 x 17
r- :;=i in.
.5
iii diameter. The maximum quantity that would pass through a ram
of a given diameter, length uf drive pipe, and fall, i.s found by the rule
for ascertaining the discharge of a pipe in gallons, and dividing the
result by 3.
The diameter of the delivery pipe for a given frictional loss is
found by the same rule as fur finding the diameter of the ram. but
instead of dividing by the available head, the head tu be lost in friction
is taken. Tn this case, the quantity flowing through the pipe is not
multiplied by 3, as the water has a practically constant flow. With
short delivery pipes, the head clue to friction may be ignored, but for
lengths above 50 yd. the head that will be lost must be aeleled to the
actual height the water is to be raised, and the diameter must be
calculated for this loss.
The cubic capacity of the delivery pipe is found by multiplying
the area of the pipe in square inches by the length of the pipe in inches ;
the result will be the cubic capacity of the pipe in cubic inches, and the
air vessel will have to be of the same cubic capacity. In the case of
long delivery pipes, to prevent the air vessel being of inconvenient
length, it should be made balloon-shaped. By these simple rules it is

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 357
possible to calculate the dimensions of a ram that would work satisfactorily
with water from any stream.
Fig. 2 shows the method of fixing the hydraulic ram, ./ being the
vertical difference in feet between the water surface at the source of
supply B and the ram C. D is the drive pipe, which is of the same
length as the vertical height to which the water is to be raised. As
Fig. 2
will be seen, the fall is an even gradient from the source of supply to
the ram, and the distance between the ram and the source is greater
than the length of the drive pipe; it will therefore be necessary to
build the small brickwork tank E, the top of which must be a little
higher than the surface of the water at the source. This tank is used
to prevent the bursting of the pipes when the water is suddenly checked
by the closing of the pulse valve, for with long pipes the pressure at
the moment when the valve closes w< mid be greater than the pipes
and joints could withstand. The ram is bolted to a solid concrete foundation,
and should be placed in a small house, as shown. The level
of the pulse valve must be at such a height that it is never covered
by the tail-water, which is drained into a elitch at a lower level by the
stoneware pipes.
The drive pipe must be laid at an even gradient throughout. With
small rams up to 2 in. in diameter this may be of wrought-iron wdth
screw sockets, but for larger rams cast-iron flange pipes should be
used, of a thickness sufficient to withstand the pressure without bursting.
All the joints must be perfectly water-tight, and when wroughtiron
pipes are used their ends must butt together in the sockets. To
prevent the contraction of the column of water at its entry to the drive
pipe, the end in the tank should be fitted with a trumpet mouth and
flap valve, controlled by a chain.
The tank anel source of supply are connected by ordinary stoneware
socketed drain pipes of from twice to three times the diameter of the
drive pipe, the joints being made with cement. To prevent debris
from passing into the pipe, which after a time might become choked,

358 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
a copper strainer should be fitted to the end. The hole in the strainer
should be of a greater area than the pipe. As a further protection
against the strainer becoming blocked through weeds and rushes collecting
round it, the strainer is surrounded by wire netting, secured to
two posts driven into the bottom of the stream close to the bank, one
post on each side of the pipe. The posts are driven in about i ft. away
from the pipe on each side, and the netting fixed to allow a space of
i ft. between the netting and the strainer.
The ram having been fixed in position and the drive pipe and the
supply pipe to the tank laid, an attempt can be made to start the ram.
The starting is effected by pressing down the pulse valve so as to let
the water discharge, and then allow it to rise, continuing to work it
in this way for a few strokes by hand, when it should continue to beat
by itself if the adjustment of the valve is suitable for the conditions
of the water supply and the height the water is to be raised. But more
probably it wall be found that the ram will not work before it is adjusted.
"The adjustment of the ram varies in the different makes that are
offered by manufacturers, and their directions should be followed."
The length of the beat and weight of the valve is controlled by
the length of the drive pipe and the head of water above the ram, which
works most satisfactorily when the stroke is regulated to be as long as
possible, for with a short stroke it is more liable to stop.
On a slow and long stroke the ram will use and lift mure water
than on a fast and short one. The number of strokes is reduced and
the length increased by unscrewing the nuts, and the number of strokes
is increased and the length decreased by screwing them up. The
weight of the pulse valve should be about the same as that of the water
in the drive pipe when it is at rest. To adjust the valve to obtain the
best results will occupy considerable time, as many trials will have to
be made, by reducing or increasing, as required, the weight of the valve,
and the number and length of the stroke, until a satisfactory result is
obtained.
Stoppage of the ram after it has been working for a considerable
time may be due to any of the following causes: The area of the drive
pipe may be reduced or roughened by rust, or a deposit of organic
matter may have formed on the inner surface of the pipe. In this
case, although the head may be sufficient to dash the valve on to its
seating, the force of the recoil may not be sufficient to allow the valve
to open ready for another stroke. To remedy this, a bundle of wire
should be dragged through the drive pipe several times, by means of
a length of rope, after removing the ram from the pipe. Leaky joints

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 359
in the drive pipe may also prevent the water recoiling sufficiently to
open the pulse valve. The variation in level of the head water is a
very common occurrence where the supplv is intermittent. The level
of supply being lowered, the air is carried in with the water, causing
the valve to chatter for a short time, and ultimately to remain closed,
though if the valve is a heav) one it will remain open. The air
vessel may be water-logged, owing tu the shifting valve becoming
inoperative, through being covered by the tail-water; or the
shifting valve may be choked, causing the resistance in the air vessel
tu be so great that the delivery valve will not open, thus stopping the
delivery of water, though the pulse valve will continue to beat, and
everything will appear to be in perfect working order. The recoil uf
the drive water may be insufficient tu allow the pulse valve to open.
With a slow lift, the absence uf air in the air vessel may sometimes
be detected by the water being delivered in a succession of spurts
accompanied by concussion in the pipes. To remedy this, shut the
flap valve on the end of the drive pipe in the tank, remove and empty
the air vessel, and see that the shifting valve is in good order. < hi
replacing the air vessel, the ram should again deliver water properly.
To stop the ram, the pulse valve is held up for a few seconds
against its seating, when it will cease tu beat; but to stop the ram for
examination and repairs, the head or flap valve in the tank must be
closed.

Tungsten Lamps Compared vvlt'h
Arc Lamps,
By Alton 0, A-lams*
S T R E E T lighting can be done at lower cost with tungsten incandescent
lamps than with either the direct current or the alternating
enclosed arc, and substitution of the tungsten lamps involves
only slight increase of investment. It follows that these arc lamps
should be discarded.
These conclusions apply with the most force to the great majorit)
of streets, wdiere only a moderate illumination is wanted, but they arcalso
true where a higher degree of illumination is required.
Because of the high efficiency of the tungsten lamps, a greater illumination
maj' be had at the same cost, cr an equivalent illumination may
be had at less cost than with the arc lamps named.
Take, for example, the arc most commonly used on the streets, an
enclosed lamp operated with 6.6 amperes alternating current, and sometimes
fictitiously designated as a 1,200 candle-power. This lamp operates
with 400 or more watts, and gives usually not more than 401 maximum
candle-power, while its mean hemispherical candle-power is less
than 300.
The tungsten series lamps for street lighting are regularly made in
sizes rated at 32, 40 and 60 candle-power, and operating with 40, 50
and 75 watts, respectively. Maximum candle-powers for these lamps,
with reflectors, are about 25 per cent greater than the above rated
candle-powers, and so amount to one candle per watt consumed, and
these maximum candle-powers occur between 20 and 30 degrees below
the horizontal.
When comparing illumination close to the lamps, it is sufficiently
favorable to the alternating enclosed arc to consider its mean spherical
candle-power along with the rated candle-power of the tungsten incandescent
lamps. As this alternating arc requires at least 400 watts, it
appears that 10 of the 32 candle-power, or 8 of the 40 candle-power,
or 5.3 of the 60 candle-power tungsten lamps operate with an equal
amount of power.
As against the less than 300 mean spherical candle-power for the
alternating arc, ten of the 32 candle-power tungsten lamps have a rating
of 320 candles, eight of the 40 candle-power have also a rating of 320
*In Municipal Engineering.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 361
candles, and five of the 60 candle-power have a rating of 300 candles.
If illumination at the lamps is tu be- the test, the tungsten lamps
are the superior tu the alternating arcs.
But in street lighting there is always more illumination than is necessary
at the lamps, and the test, whether much or little light is wanted,
is the illumination midway between the lamps. ( In this test the superior
economy of the tungsten lamps is very marked.
If a high degree of illumination is wanted, as along the business
streets of a large city, the alternating arcs may be spaced 100 feet apart,
and will then give about 0.15 candle-foot at points midway between
lamps. Five oi the do candle-power tungsten lamps consume onl) ^j^
watts, instead uf the 400 watts taken by the alternating acs, but these
five tungsten lamps spaced 20 feet apart, so as to light 100 feet along
the street, give 0.75 candle-foot at points midway between the lamps,
or five times the illumination got from the alternating arc.
If onl)- three of the 60 candle-power tungsten lamps are used tu
replace one alternating arc, along 100 feet of street, the illumination at
points midway between the tungsten lamps is 0.18 candle-foot, or 20
per cent more than that for the acs, and the watts required by these
three lamps are 225, or little mure than one-hali the power consumed
by the arc lamp.
On most side streets an illumination uf 0.03 candle-foot is sufficient,
and this may be obtaineel by the 400 watt alternating arc lamps spaced
220 feet apart, so that five of these lamps, consuming 2,000 watts, will
light 1,100 feet of street.
An equal illumination of 0.03 candle-foot, at points midway between
the 60 candle-peiwer tungsten lamps, may lie obtained by spacing these
lamps 100 feet apart, so that eleven are required to light 1,100 feet of
streets. The power required fur these eleven tungsten lamps is 825
watts, or only 41 per cent of the power fur the five alternating arcs tu
light the same length uf street.
The substitution of tungsten incandescent lamps for either the open
or the enclosed arcs involves only a small increase of investment in electric
equipment, and after the change is made the operating expenses
will be lower than before for an equivalent illumination.
At the generating station little, if any, change of equipment will henecessary.
The old open arc lamps usually operate with 6.8 amperes
for the so-called 1,200 candle-power type, and 9.6 amperes for the socalled
2,000 candle-power. Series alternating arcs are regularly used in
two sizes that operate with 6.6 amperes and 7.5 amperes, respectively.
For the open arc lamps the energy is generated by constant current
dynamos, giving either 6.8 or 9.6 amperes. The alternating enclosed

262 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
arcs are operated by constant current transformers that deliver either
6.6 amperes or 7.5 amperes. By means of their regulating mechanisms,
with no reconstruction whatever, both the constant current dynamos and
the constant current transformers can be adjusted to deliver currents
materially less than those just named, in a satisfactory way.
Series tungsten lamps operate with either direct or alternating current,
and so may be connected to either the direct constant current dynamos
now used with open arc lamps, or to the constant current transformers.
Tungsten lamps of 32, 40 and 60 candle-power are regularly made
to operate with a current of 6.6 amperes, anel either uf these sizes may
thus be connected to either 0.8 ampere dynamos or to 6.6 ampere transformers.
In the 40 and 60 candle-power sizes of tungsten lamps one of the
regular ampere ratings is 7.5, and lamps of this rating may have their
current increased up to 8 amperes. For the operation of either the 40
or the 60 candle-power lamp, therefore, either a 7.5 ampere transformer
may be used without adjustment, or a 9.6 ampere dynamo may be regulated
to deliver 8 amperes to the lamps.
Where either of the plans just named can be carried out, the substitution
of series tungsten lamps for series arcs on the streets will
entail no expense whatever at the electric station. In the matter of pules
and line wire tne same is true, except that a few additional poles may
be required to support some of the tungsten lamps, and a moderate
amount of labor and wire will be necessary to carry the line connection
down to these lamps.
In general, the same circuits that have been used for the arcs will
be available for the tungsten lamps.
The arc lamps and their special supports, such as mast arms, if
any, will have something more than a scrap value, and this will go to
partly or entirely offset the items of expense just named.
Coming to the tungsten lamps and their special supports, each lamp
must have a socket, reflector and bracket. The lamps themselves are
more properly charged as an operating expense than as a construction
or capital item, because the}' are renewed from time to time, like the
carbons for arc lamps.
Tungsten lamps of either 32, 40 or 60 candle-power, in the type
designed to operate with 6.6 to 8 amperes, cost $1.75 each, list, with a
discount of 10 per cent in packages of 50 lamps. For larger numbers
of lamps the prices are slightly less.
According to the best available data, these tungsten lamps for scries
connection have an average life of 1,000 hours, with only a small de-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 363
crease of candle-power, so that thc cost per lamp hour, at the to per
cent discount, is 0.1575 cent for the lamp alone. Fur all-night lighting
during a year with 4,000 hours of operation, the cost per tungsten lamp,
for lamp renewals, will thus be $6.30, and for half-night lighting on
every night during, say, 2,600 hours, the cost per lamp, for lamp renewals,
will be $4.09 per year.
It is thus important to note the advantage of using the 60 candlepower
size rather than the t,2 or 40 candle tungsten lamp, since ah, mt 5
of the 60 candle, 8 of the 40 candle, and 10 of the ^,2 candle size consume
a puwc-r equal to that for one 6.6 ampere enclosed alternating arc.
As these lamps are of equal cost, without regard to candle-power, theexpense
of renewals during 4,000 hours of service, for lamps taking
power equal to that of the alternating arc, will be $63 for the ten lamps
uf t,2 candle-power each, $50.40 for the eight lamps of 40 candle-power
each, and $31.50 for the five lamps of 60 candle-power each. For halfnight
lighting with 2.(100 hours of yearly operation, the renewal expenses
of the tungsten lamps will be onl)- 65 per cent of those just stated
for 4,000 hours of service.
The cost of trimming and cleaning the alternating enclosed arelamp
during a year of 4,000 hours will be about $3.50, with good carbons,
so that, if five tungsten lamps of 60 candle-power each replace
une alternating arc, the renewal expense on these tungsten lamps during
the 4,000 hours of operation will be $28 greater than the cost uf trimming
and cleaning the arc.
If the rate charged for the service of the alternating arc was $eSo
per year, then, to yield the same profit over expenses, the five substituted
tungsten lamps, operating with a little less power, should becharged
for at not more than $80 plus $28, or $108, fur 4,000 hours of
service. This amounts to $21.60 per year, or 2." cents per lamp-hour,
for each tungsten lamp of 60 candle-power.
But, as shown above, the alternating enclosed arc may be replaced,
with advantage as to illumination, by only three of the 60 candle tungsten
lamps, and these three lamps, at the rate of $21.60 for 4.000 hours
of service, represent an outlay for street lighting of $64.80. as against
the $80 assumed to have been paid for the arc service.
The socket, reflector and bracket for each tungsten lamp can be
erected complete at a cost of $4, and if 10 per cent of this sum. or 40
cents, for interest, repairs and depreciation, be added to the $21.(10 found
above for the rate of a 60 canellc-power tungsten lamp during a year of
4,000 hours' service, this rate becomes $22.
In place of the alternating arc, assumed to cost the city $80, tinthree
tungsten lamps of 60 candle-power each, giving a better illumination
than lhe arc, should cost $66, at the same energy rate.

The New Copyright Law,
JULY i the new copyright law, which was signed by President
Roosevelt on the last da)- of his term, will go into effect. As
every law, the new one does not please all, but is considered an
improvement on the old one.
The most important of these features is the extension of the copyright
from 42 to 56 years, which applies not onl}- to new copyrights,
but also to not yet expired ones. This extension may be secured not
only by the author, his widow, widower or children, as now, but in the
case of their death, by the author's heirs, next of kin, executors or other
representatives.
In the case of books, not only must the type be set and the plates
made in this country, but the binding must also be done here. If the
text is produceel by lithographic or photographic processes, that work
must be entirely done here. The illustrations must also be made here,
except that when the subjects represented are not to be found in the
United States, tbe lithographs or photo-engravings may be made abroad.
The present requirement that photographs must be printed from negatives
made in the United States is cancelled.
The new law, as far as it relates to photographs, is not threatening
the infringer with harsh and arbitrary penalties as the old one does. He
is liable to pay the copyright proprietor actual damages anel profits, or
in lieu thereof such damages as the court shall appear to be just, not
to exceed, in am case of infringement by newspaper reproduction of
copyrighted photographs, $200 nor to be less than $50.
Under the existing law there is a forfeiture by the infringer of one
dollar for ever_\- sheet "found in his possession;" under the new lawthere
is suggested as the basis of an estimate of damages, one dollar
for every copy not simply found in the infringer's possession, but made
or sold by him or his agents.
Under the existing law there is an arbitrary minimum penalty of
$100 or $250, according to the character of the photographs; under the
new law the recover)' is no longer of a penalty (but of liquidated damages)
and the minimum, in case of newspaper reproductions, is reduced
to $50.
The music publishers have secured a new production in the provision
relating to reproduction by photograph and other mechanical instruments,
which were not known when the old law was enacted. This
protection, however, covers only music published after the act °oes into

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 365
effect. If the owner of the copyright permits one person to mechanically
reproduce the music, other persons can reproduce- it upon payment
of two cents on each part manufactured.
One of the objections to the new law is that the provision granting
extension X 14 years to the present term of copyright, fails to consider
the interests of thc publisher, who has paid royalties to the author for
so many years, who has made, at his own expense, such publicity and
reputation as a book may have, and who may have large sums of money
invested in plates, etc., necessary for tlu production of the book. Under
this law the author or his executor is free to ignore all claims of the
old publisher and make terms with a new one.
Proceedings for injunctions and damages in cases of infringements
are much simplified.

The United .States and South America
THE epoch-making visit of Secretary Root to South America
marks a new era in the fraternal relations between the United
States and the Republics of the South. For it can be said that
since then, more than ever before, the people of the United States have
manifested a friendly interest in South American affairs; an interest
based nut mil) on commercial relations but on true political sympathies.
Up to this moment, the American people, occupied with their rapid
internal development and perhaps imbued with the Anglo-Saxon spirit
which assumes that differences from themselves denote inferiority, hael
forgotten, that at their own doors there lies a continent uf nations, born
in the same epoch, governed by the same institutions and inspired by
the same spirit of liberty ; and immense stretch of vast and fertile territories
of varied and benign climates, rich beyond the dreams of avarice
and read) to welcome the missionary of trade and commerce; to welcome
the hand that is to plow the virgin soil, cut the forests, open the
mines of coal and iron, of copper, silver and gold ; build railroads, factories,
and homes. Yes, the people of the United States had forgotten
the friendship that was born in the days when Henry Clav championed
the cause of South American liberty; when President Monroe enunciated
his famous doctrine, "America for the American," which once and for all
ended European conquest on this continent, allowing those youthful
Republics to flourish under the shadow of its peaceful wings, to this day,
when led by their great sister of the North the)- command an honorable
place in the concert of peaceful and progressive nations.
But since the days of Clay, Monroe, Adams and Calhoun, the relations
between the United States and South America have been purely
political rather than commercial. For the United States, as if blinded
by the glamour or Oriental commerce, had lost sight of the social and
industrial changes that were taking place in the Republics of the South;
permitting Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy and Spain to control
their markets, exploit their wealth and exert unlimited influence on the
social evolution of these new nations.
This resulted in mutual ignorance which, fostered bv erroneous
statements in the yellow press and by the patronizing attitude of many
of your Presidents and Secretaries of State, became the mother of mistrust,
and the Monroe Doctrine, which had sheltered South America
from the attacks of ambitious European Bowers, was now the object
f suspicion, and in not a few of these Republics the idea was prevalent
o

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 367
that the repeated assertion of the Monroe Doctrine by the Government
of the United States would mean in the end the territorial aggrandizement
of the Republic of thc North at the sacrifice of the independence
of the Republics of the South.
Still, South America has nut been slumbering since tbe days uf its
hard fought independence. Guided by the example- of the United States,
it awakened to a realizing sense uf its possibilities. Domestic tranquility
is the result of our political development; the davs when we had
one revolution in the morning and one at night and nothing doing all
day lung have gone by forever, and the revolutionary hero and his
feats of arms marked by blood stained monuments, are no longer theobjects
of popular worship. The plow has supplanted the camion, the
farmer's hue has taken the place of the soldier's bayonet and the blowing
uf the locomotive's whistle is heard where the martial bugle uf
fratricidal wars shrilled out its tones of devastating death.
Commerce anel industry flourish under strung and stable governments;
European immigration pours in an ever increasing stream, and
the impulse given to education by the great Statesman, Faustino and
Sarmiento, and the American teachers he took with him tu Argentina,
has inspired the South Americans to exert themselves to greater efforts
in the work of national improvements.
And this new epoch is coincident with the most prosperous period
in the financial history of the United States; when from a burrowing
nation you have entered the ranks of a creditor nation; at a time when
you are seeking new fields for the employment of your surplus capital,
new markets for the sale of your manufactured products and new occupations
for the vast army of professional young men and women.
South America requires capital, manufactured products and intelligent
labor. It needs American thrift and enterprise, American business
men to establish and manage new industries; contractors tu build
new cities, pave streets anel install water systems; engineers to build
new ports anel railroad lines; school teachers and scientists to extend
her systems of education. And South America will welcome American
capital and thrift, as she welcomed Elihu Root, who in a mission uf
peace encircled the Southern Continent, receiving an ovation in every
city he visited, a welcome such as has not been given to the proudest
prince of the mightiest kingdom.
It is Elihu Root who has told the American people of the opportunities
for commercial expansion in that richly endowed continent. He
has returned an eye witness, to tell his countrymen uf the magnificent
cities he has seen; of Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, the
city with a model municipal government in which graft is not known ;

368 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
he has told you of its beautiful avenues, monumental public buildings,
and magnificent port; of its newspapers, one of which supports a free
school, gives free legal and medical advice and maintains a free tribune;
he has told you of Rio de Janeiro, the capital of Brazil, in which miliums
of dollars are yearly spent in public improvements and where the
yellow fever has become a legend of the past; of Lima, the capital
of Peru, the oldest seat of learning in this new world; he has told you
of the immense prairies where millions of cattle graze; of the wheatfields
of Argentina, and of its flourishing agricultural colonies settled
with selected immigrants sifted by official boards in European ports.
He opened the gates of commerce and wrote a new page on South
American history. But the work of the farsighteel statesman cannot
stand unless supported by the people. The financiers must establish
their banks; the manufacturers their sales offices. They must not merely
send "drummers," but they must send district managers who are courteous
and polite, who shall stud)' local conditions, that the manufacturer
may know what the South Americans want to buy; credits must be
extended that European competition may be met; appropriate literature
must be sent in Spanish and Portugese and proper use must be made
of South American newspaper advertisements.
As an economist has said, "the course of trade cannot be controlled
by sentiment or by governments. For it follows its own immutable
laws and is drawn solely in thc direction of profit." But there are
many ways in which the course of trade can be facilitated.
Let Congresses subsidize lines of communication, for better communication
means mutual knowledge, and mutlal knowledge leads to
trade. What is needed is new and swift steamship lines between the
ports of North and South America, that the merchant of Xew York or
Buenos Ayres need not wait two and a half months for a reply to a
letter; better telegraphic communication ; a more active consular service
made up of energetic young men rather than of political parasites; and
last but not least, better support and co-operation with that splendid
organization known as the International Bureau uf American Republics.
Again, The Honorable gentlemen who sit in the Federal Legislature
of the United States must be made to understand that, as long
as in the United States an almost insurmountable barrier of customs
duties impedes the entry of raw materials the South American Republics
will have no other alternative but to seek the European markets, anel
without mutual exchange there can be no profitable trade.
If the nineteenth Century witnessed the wonderful development
of the United States, the twentieth Century will sec a phenomenal de-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 369
vclopment in South America. We can therefore no longer remain
strangers to each other; our relations must be closer; they must be
those of friendship. And if the future is to be one of progress and
prosperity; if it is to see democratic ideas prevail on earth, then the
Republics of this great Western Continent must approach nearer and
nearer to each other, that the ideas of liberty and peace necessary to a
government by the people may be perpetuated. Let then the guiding
spirit of our relations be as voiced by Secretary Runt when he said,
"If we wash to increase our prosperity, tu grow in wealth, in wisdom
and in spirit, let our conception of the true way to accomplish this benot
to pull down others and profit by their ruin, but to help all friends
to a common prosperity and common growth, that we may all become
greater and stronger together."—"Sibley Journal of Eng."
v^gs: 57'

Electric Hoist for Handing Pier Cars
carrying 130 tons load at
Sewall's Point,
THE coal shipping terminal at Sewall's Point, near Norfolk, Ya..
of the newly-opened Virginia railway just completed by II. 11.
Rogers at a cost of something like $40,000,000. is operated in
a novel manner and contains some very interesting machinery, including
a 1,000 horse-power electric hoist designed and built lor the purpose
by the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company of Xew York.
The pier has a capacity for handling thirty cars per hour, 15,030
tons in ten hours, or 4,500.000 tuns per year uf 300 working days.
Eventually the plan calls fur four such piers, giving a capacity of
18,000,000 tons a year.
The design of the pier and equipment was adopted so as to enable
the company tu bring coal from the West Virginia mines tu th.- seaboard
in gondola ears which could be utilized fur taking other freight
westward. As the mad expects eventually tu have full)' 5.000 cars in
service, this was considered particularly desirable.
The terminal designed will nut mil)- be the largest fur its purpose
in the world, but it is the must up-to-date in ever) part of its equipment.
The coal pier is 1,860 feet long from the shore line tu the main
harbor channel. It is of steel, resting on concrete foundations. The
operation of getting the coal from the cars that bring it to tidewater
into the hopper from which vessels are loading comprises two operations.
In the first of these the cars are allowed to drift down by gravity,
one by one, tu where a barney car can pick them up and carry them up
a short incline to a dumper. The dumper picks each car up bodily,
tips it to an angle of 65 degrees so that the coal is poured out into a
special conveyor car uf larger capacity to be taken tu the hoppers 011 the
pier. There are ten uf these special conveyor cars. Thev arc the
largest cars of this kind ever constructed. They are uf steel with hopper
bottoms and each carries a load uf 100,000 pounds uf coal. As soon
as each conveyor car is loaded it is taken in hand bv the big hoist
which, by means of a barney car, draws it up to 25 per cent incline at a
speed of 470 feet per minute. This incline is 480 feet long. It takes
45 seconds for the car to reach the knuckle. Once upon the higher
level and past the "knuckle" of the incline, the conveyor car proceeds

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 371
down the pier under its own power, as each is equipped with electric
motors, taking power from an overhead trolley and controled from a
call at one end. The big hoist returns the barney car to the foot of the
incline, read) for another trip, at a speed , f 555 feet per minute. The
round trip is made in 1 minute and 20 seconds. The conveyor ear goes
to hoppers along the pier and deposits its load wherever it is wanted.
The hopper bottoms of the cars are operated by compressed air supplied
by automatic electric compressors on the cars.
Having deposited its load the conveyor car returns by a kick-back
system, which allows it to drift back down a gentle incline to the bottom
of thc slope to be refilled.
The Lidgerwood In fist which hauls the conveyor cars up the incline
is an interesting part uf the equipment. Each conveyor car with
its load weighs nearly 200,000 pounds. The hoist complete, with its
two motors weighs 180,000 pounds. But one motor is used at a time.
the other being provided tu insure constant operation. The motors are
of the General Electric Company's make uf the Al. P C. class. They
are rateel at 550 horse-power and actually develop 1180 horse-power
each. The drum of the hoist is 84 inches in diameter, with a face of
42 X inches in width, grooved for a i^4-inch main cable anel having
also a section with a 7-inch face grooved fur a 24-inch tail rope for
insuring the return of the barney car. The flanges are 6 inches in
depth. The main gear wheel is 116 inches in diameter. The pinion
which drives this is 19 inches in diameter. The intermediate gear wheel
is "]2 inches in diameter, with a 21-inch pinion. All the gears are uf cast
steel with machine cut teeth.
The drum has powerful post brakes. These are controlled by a
solenoid through the medium uf compressed air. The compressed air
is supplied at a pressure of 80 pounds to the inch by an electric compressor
which forms part of the hoist outfit. The general operation of
the hoist is controlled by an operator near the barney car pit, 350 feet
distant from tbe hoist, but the hoist is provided with an emergency limit
switch which makes certain that it cannot overwind in either direction.
Jdie brake is set bv a weight of 1,400 pounds acting upon a suitablelever.
When the current is turned on the solenoid acts and by means
of the compressed air, releases the brake. When the current is cut off,
whether by intention or accident, the solenoid drops, releases the air,
and the weight brings tbe brake into action, holding the load safely in
any position.

Uallroad Ties,
DURING the wear 1908, the steam and electric railroads of thc
United States purchased mure than 112,000,000 cross-ties, costing,
at the point of purchase, over $56,000,000, an average of
fifty cents per tie, according to statistics just made public by the Bureau
of the Census in co-operation with the United States Forest Service.
This was some 40.000,000 ties less than the quantity purchased in 1907,
when the total was approximately 153,700,000, the highest ever recorded.
The decreased purchases in iejoS were, of course, chiefly due to the
business depression which affected ever)- line of industry. This forced
most of the roads to purchase only the ties which were absolutely
essential fur renewals, anil heavily cut down the purchase for new
track. In 1908 only 7,431,000 cross-ties were reported as purchased for
new track, as against 23.557,000 in 1907. ( If the total number of ties
purchased for all purposes, the steam roads took approximately ninetyfour
per cent, leaving about six per cent for the electric roads.
It is very interesting to note the wide range of woods used for
cross-ties. The preliminary report by the Census Bureau lists separately
fifteen classes or species. Of these the oaks are now and have
always been by far the must important. The oak ties amounting to
more than 48,000,000, or forty-three per cenl uf the total quantity purchased.
Xext to these ranked tbe southern yellow pines, with 21,500,-
000, or nineteen per cent of the total. It will be seen that the oaks
and southern pines combined furnished nearly three-fourths of all the
ties bought by the railroad companies last year. Cedar and chestnut
supplied more than 8.000,000 ties each, and Douglas fir nearly as much.
About 4,000,000 tamarack ties were purchased, nearly 3,500,000 cvprcss
ties, and, in round numbers, 3,000,000 each of western pine and hemlock-.
Redwood, white pine, lodgepole pine, gum, beech, spruce, and
several other woods were used in smaller quantities.
While the oaks, and particularly the while oaks, have always been
the- preferred woods for cross-ties and still form a large proportion of
the total, the increasing prices which the roads have had tu pay for
satisfactory oak ties are forcing them tu look mure and mure fur substitutes.
This accounts in part fur the great variety uf woods reported.
White oak, untreated, makes a tie which gives excellent service for
many years, but it has been found possible to take woods which naturally
are nut durable, give them a treatment with either creosote or zinc
chloride, which will prevent decay, and thus get much longer service

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 373
from them than can be secured from untreated oak tics. Among the
woods which have been most largely treated so far are the yellow
[lines, particularly loblolly pine, Douglas fir, western pine, and lodgepole
pine.
This year's statistics add to the list two kinds of cross-ties which
previously had not been reported in sufficient quantity to justify listing
them separately. These are gum and beech. The purchases of gum
ties in 1908 exceeded 260,000, while but slightly mure than 15,000 of
them were reported in the previous year. Of beech ties, the purchases
in 1908 amounted to nearly 193,000, against but little mure than 51,000
in 11)07. These are woods which are distinctly nut suitable fur crossties
unless they are given preservative treatment. Their increased use.
therefore, is one of thc man)'results of the progress uf wood preservation
in the United States. For many years beech has been one uf the principal
cross-tie woods in Europe, where its value when given chemical
treatment was long ago recognized. It is nut uncommon for European
roaels to secure from twenty t thirty years' service from beech crossties.
Uhitreated, they would not last long enough tu warrant their use
at all.

By D. BA Wlllknis
.Leveling and Surveying"
SURVEYING is the art of determining and mapping the relative
position of points upon the surface of the earth.
It consists principal!) in measuring, laying out, and dividing
land; in establishing lost positions; in the measurement of heights and
distances; and in the graphical representation of the peculiarities of an)'
part of the earth's surface.
It is divided into plane and geodetic surveying. In the first spherical
form of the earth is neglected; in other words, the portion of the
earth included in the survey is regarded as a horizontal plane.
This may be done without any great error since in ordinary land
surveying the operations are limited to surfaces of small extent.
In geodetic surveying the shape of the earth is considered since
the surfaces measured are so extensive.
In the following discussion plane surveying only will be considered
and it will be divideel into field work, the graphical representation or
plot and the computation.
The field work is divideel into chain, compass and transit and plane
table surveying as applied to private, city, government or mine work.
4. Chain surveying has chiefly for its object the determination of
areas from data obtained by direct measurement of distances between
points. The instruments needed are therefore simply those for measuring
lines.
The instruments are described as follows:
5. Gunter's chain, so called from its inventor, is generally used
for this purpose. It is made of iron or steel wire, is 66 feet in length,
and divided into 100 links, so that each link, with half the rings connecting
it with the adjoining links, is seven and ninety-two hundredths
inches (7.92), or one-hundredth of a chain. Swivels are inserted to
keep it from twisting, and every tenth link has a metallic mark attached,
so that the number of tens from either end is readily ascertained. Its
advantages in surveying farms or fields are apparent: There being 4,840
square yarels in an acre, and the chain 22 yards lung, a square chain
will contain one-tenth of an acre; or, there being 10,000 square links
in a square chain, which is one-tenth of an acre. 100,000 square links
are equivalent to an acre. Hence, if the area of a field is calculated in
"Continued from May issue.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 375
links, the area is at once shown in acres, by cutting off the last five
figures. If the area is found in chains, then since- there are ten square
chains in an acre, the area is given in acres by cutting off the last
figure.
6. A two-pole, or half-chain, is sometimes used instead of Gunter's
chain. It is quite convenient lor measuring lines where the ground is
rough and hill)-.
7. The engineer's chain is used in surveying railroads and canals,
and generally where extensive line surveys are being conducted; hence
not 1111 frequently it is employed in connection with these surveys, as
well as otherwise, in determining areas. It is loo feet in length, and
is diveded into 100 links, every tenth link being marked by a piece of
brass, as in the four-pole chain.
8. The tape measure is very convenient for taking offsets in a
survey, for measuring the boundaries of city lots, cross-sectioning in
railroads work, etc. Tapes are "metallic," or steel, and made of various
lengths—50 feet or 100 feet are commonly used—and divided into feet
and inches, or feet anil tenths of a foot. The latter graduation is preferable
for the railroad engineer, and the former for the city engineer.
9. Eleven marking-pins, 12 or 14 inches long, one of which is made
uf brass, the others uf No. 4 iron wire or No. 6 steel, all pointed at one
end and formed into a ring at the other, are used in chaining.
10. Straight poles about 8 feet long, shod at the bottom with a
conical shoe, point down, and painted alternately red and white in
foot-width bands, are used to indicate the direction of the line which is
being measured, or the position of points to be located.
SECTION II.
A.—CHAINING.
11. Two men are required, a "leader" anel a "follower," or head
and hind chainman. The chain is first thrown out in the general direction
of the line which it is desired to measure, and examined carefully
to sec if there are anv kinks in it. or bends in the links; the leader bavin:/
the marking-pins in one hand takes buhl uf the forward end of the
chain with the other, and moves on as nearly as he may judge in the
direction of the line; the follower places the rear end uf the chain at the
.station whence the line is to be measured, directs the leader by signals
•is be approaches the chain's length to get in line, and then calls "halt":
(hen the chain must be drawn taut and straight, and the follower having
his end of the chain precisely at the starting point, calls out
•down"; the leader then thrusts one of the iron marking-pins into the
• .round exactly at the end of the chain and calls out -down," which is

376 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the signal to the follower to advance: proceeding as before until the
second length of chain is measured, which is indicated by the follower
coming to the pin set in the ground by the leader, when the follower
cries "halt," and after placing his end of the chain at the pin, the chain
having been drawai taut and straight as before, calls "down"; the leader,
as before, leaving a pin to mark the end of the chain, repeats "down" ;
the follower then takes up the pin first placed by the leader, and moves
on; thus the party proceeds until the end of the line is reached, the
leader placing the pins at his end of the chain, and the follower picking
them up at his end.
If the line ends with less than the length of the chain, the leader
places his end at the point which marks the extremity of the line, calls
out "down"; the follower then reads off the number of links between
the last pin anil the end of the line. The number of whole chain's
length of the line is shown by the pins in the hands of the follower,
and the number of links counted off added thereto will give the total
length in chains and links.
12. Tally. If the line exceeds eleven chains in length, a transfer
of pins from the hind chainman to the head chainman is necessary ; this
is called tallying, anel is performed in the following manner: At the
end of the eleventh chain, the brass pin—the last pin left in the hands
of the leader—is placed, when he calls out "tally" ; at this signal the follower
drops his end of the chain, advances to the leader, counts over
with him the ten iron pins which he has gathered up, and transfers
them to the leader, who then withdraws the brass pin, sets an iron one
in its place, and the measuring is continued as before. Each tally
should be recorded, especially when chaining very long distances, to
avoid error in the final count. It is obvious that the total length of the
line will lie equal to the chains and links as indicated above, plus the
number of tens shown by the tallies.
13. The surveyor should guard against error in chaining, by frequently
testing his chain, to see that it is of the proper length—if it has
been stretched, make a file mark showing its true length—and when in
use, see that it is drawn straight, that the forward chainman sticks the
pin in line exactly at the end of the chain, or at the mark indicatingits
true length, and as nearly vertical as possible; and when obtaining
the number of links at the end of the line, see that thev are not counted
from the wrung end of the chain, nor the wrung way from the brass
mark.
The pull on the chain, when in use, has a tendency to increase its
length; and moreover, since there arc a great number of wearing stir-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 377
faces, if each of these be worn by an extremely small amount, the chain
will be considerably elongated.
In either the surveyors or engineers chain there are two small links
which connect with two pieces uf wire which form the principal pari of
what is called the length of the chain, thus giving six wearing surfaces
to every length; therefore if each of these surfaces wears onl)
.005 of an inch, the chain will be increased in length three inches,
su that in measuring only a quarter uf a mile with a four-pole chain,
the error from this cause alone would be five fee'., making an error in
area uf about 4.0 acres in a tract one mile square. This stretching of
the chain is partially compensated by the difficulty, and often impracticability,
of drawing the chain precisely straight and su long as the chain
i.s nut elongated beyond one-tenth or one-twelfth per cent uf its length,
it may be relied mi for accurate work.
The true length uf a line which has been measure-,1 by a chain
stretched beyond the standard length may be found from the proportion
:
The length uf standard chain : the length uf chain used
: : the distance measured : the true distance.
Fur example, if. with a chain stretched one link over the standard.
a line be measured fur 2,000 feet, we should have
100 : 101=2000 : 2020, the true distance.
Tn like manner, fur the area of a tract measure-,I with a stretched
chain :
The square of the length uf the standard chain
: the square of the length of the chain used
:: the computed area
: the true area.
If the chain was stretched one link, as in the above example, and
the area computed therefrom 20 acres, we should have
100- : 10P = 200 sq. chs. : 204.02 sq. chs. for the true area=X,-; of
the computed area nearly.
In general, if A = true area, A = cotnputed area, L=length of chain,
and dL=-error in its length (always s-nall). Then A : A ,=(L=dLX : L2
Reducing and rejecting d2 as considerable, there results A=( l±2d)
A, or, the correction to be applied to obtain the true area=2d A,
This correction is additive when the chain is tu,. lung, which is
usual case, and subtractive when the chain is too short.
14. The surfaces to be measured are in general uneven and broken,
not plane; but however great the inequalities, the area uf a tract
is considered to be that part uf the horizontal plane which is intercepted

378 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
by vertical planes through its boundaries. The horizontal distance is
therefore required ; hence, when the ground slopes, it is necessary to
raise the downhill end of the chain. If the slope is considerable, only
a part of the chain should be used. For example, to measure from P
down to X, the follower buhls one end of the chain at L, while the
leader, stretching the other towards X, takes as much uf it as he can
raise 0, a horizontal position b, anel, holding a plummet there, fixes the
point e ; the follower, who is now signalled tu come forward, places at
C that ] i, lint in the chain whence the plummet was suspended to fix c,
while lhe leader advances and, using as much of the chain as possible.
locates e, and so mi: when the end of lhe chain is reached, a pin should
be- transferred from the leader tu the- follower. Where great accuracv
is not required, a marking-pin or pebble may be dropped to indicate the
points c, e, etc. To measure uphill from X to L is less accurate, mi
account of the difficult) experienced by the follower in holding his
end of tbe chain at the points h, f, d, etc., over their counterparts, i, g,
e, etc.
When the chaining steep hills, especially if through a wood or over
rough, rock\' ground, the work may be greatly facilitated by an extra
chainman. He may assist in getting line, straightening the chain, noting
the points c, e, etc., marked by the plumb-bob, and other duties.
Kxfrcisfs.
i. Set two marks mi gently undulating ground and about iooo
feet apart, and measure forward and back between these points several
limes; the same party mice at least each way.
2. The same between points on hilly anil, if possible, bush land.
3. Chain down a steep bill, and chain up between the same points.
B.—RANGING OUT LINKS.
15. If in chaining any line, as L X, from L toward X, a rod at
X can be constantly seen by the rear chainman, he can keep the leader
in P N line by ranging him with the flagstaff at X. If,
however, a hill intervenes, a valley, or bush or woodland interfering
with lhe alignment, then the line must be first ranged out or points determined
in it before the chaining can lie performed,
10. Ranging out a Pine. To range mil a line requires three per-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 379
sons, each having a md eight or ten feet lung, and a plummet tu indicate
when his md is vertical. Calling these men \, I',, and C. and
supposing A and 11 in the line, C goes forward, and sighting back lo
A and I',, puts his mil in line; A then advances beyond C and sets bis
rod in line with C and B; next B advances and places his mil in line
with C and A, and so on die line may be extended any desired length.
If, as frequentl) i.s the case, one of the party has bad more experience
or is naturally better qualified for sighting a line, the best results would
be obtained by such an one setting all the mils; for example, C would
place his md in line, then call up A, to whom be would turn over themd
just set, and go forward tu line lhe next; after which call up I',,
exchange mils with him. and su on.
17. (Iyer a Hill. Tu fix points in a line over a hill, both ends
of which are visible from points near the summit, proceed as follows:
r~ D
— H t£'
— 6
Place a flagstaff at P. another at X. A man at E' signals one al
1)' in line with P; 1)' then directs E' to E" in line with X : and so on
alternately, until the men are at D and E in the line P X.
Across a Valley. To locate points in a line, the ends uf which
may be seen from each other, but which are separated by a wide, deep
valley.
Fix a point C in line with P X; then a man holding a plumb line
at C, and sighting X, can direct the setting of the stakes D, F, F, and
others.
Through a Wood. In chaining through a wood or thick brush
land, where the ends cannot be seen from each other, a line is measured
as nearly as may be in the direction of the desired line, and stakes driven
every two or three chains, or oftener if necessary. When the end of the
line is reached, the distance to the corner is measured and by proportion

380 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the amount to move each stake to bring it into line is determined.
Fur example, let P X be the true line, and P X' the measured line;
c, d, e, etc., points three chains apart. Now, if the length of P X'
. v a «, r\ & $ p!
.v ft; :? •* & G iD
a XT • 1 " " I
equals 17 40 chains, and N N' measured at right angles to L N' = 35
links, L N wid equal
•y T7N'- + N N"-',
and LN' (1740 links) : N N' (35 links)
= Lg (1500 links) : g G (301inks)
or 30 links from g at right angles to L N' will indicate the position of
G, a point in the true line L N.
1740 : 35 = 1200 : 24, the distance f F,
1740 35 = 900 : 18, the distance e E.
and su on.
( )r, after finding the first distance to setoff, either gG or cC, the
others are readily obtained by taking a proportional part of this distance,
shown by the several divisions of the line, thus: gG represents
the fifth division, fF the fourth, eE the third, and so on; hence, if gG
is 30 links, fF will be 4-5 of 30, or 24 links; eE, 3-5 of 30, or 18; dD,
Xe

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 381
2-5 of 30, or 12; and cC, 1-5 of 30, or 6 links.
EXERCISES
1. Pet each student range out a line of several hundred feet, setting
all the poles forward, and back again to the starling point, and on
different kinds of ground, undulating, hilly, and bushy.
2. Measure a line through a wood or where the ends are not
visible from each other. Set stakes, as indicated in tin- true line 200
feet apart. See how near these stakes are placed in lim by ranging
(TO BK CONTINUE!!!

A. Scraper Bucket Excavator,
THE homely illustration of "the man with the hoe" represents
probably the idea from which the present day scraper bucket
excavator was evolved.
Since the movements or actions are the same, the drawing of the
instrument or collector through the soil and in the latter collecting as
much as possible, the scraper bucket has become a very important factor
fm- excavating canals, ditches, pits and large areas also in stripping
and digging ore and building embankments, and it is found in many
case.- lu have a greater capacity together with a reach exceeding that
i ,f a steam sin ivel.
To accomplish this a long reach is necessary to give a point from
which a bucket or scraper can be suspended or hoisted, and then, too,
a point that can lie swung around with the load. It has a heavy digging
capacity which, together with its lung reach, especially fits it for
work where the area uf the excavation is large or the elevation or distances
at which the material must be deposited is relatively great. It
is essential that the dragging engines be strong enough to overcome
the resistance of the material excavated, and that depends on the type
of bucket to a great extent.
Although a comparatively new machine, there has been enough
done with it to prove that it is no experiment.
The illustrations show the excavator which is being used on the
Xew York State Barge Canal, known as the "Dreadnaught," which
appears to be an appropriate name for this machine, judging from its
looks and the work it has been doing. This machine was designed and
built by the G. TT. Williams Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
Fig. i. .Shows this bucket anel machine in position after the bucket
has been drawn in and a full load excavateel. This gives an idea of thc
short distance required to drag bucket in filling same.
Fig. 2. Shows lhe bucket hoisted up after having been filled, and
it will be noticed that a strain is left mi the drag line cable to keep
bucket from (lumping. This strain is kept up until bucket has reached
its desired position and bucket is in position to dump.
Fig. 3. Shows machine rotated around and load being discharged,
which gives one an idea of the great distance at which the material may
be spoiled.
Fig. 4. Shows another view which gives an idea of the slope of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 383
Fig. 1. Bucket and Machine in position after Bucket has been drawn
in and full load excavated.
the bank that may be dug, as well as an excellent idea of the work
which may be accomplished by this machine.
These illustrations show the excavator resting on rollers having
a lower steel frame on which is a circular track with 8" diameter car
wheels with an upper circular track fastened to under side of upper
steel frame which has a deck supplied with machinery arranged tu
operate this machine in all its various operations.
The lower steel frame is about 22' wide and about 26' long, and
is built of heavv I-beams and channels which support a large diameter
circular gear rack attached tu the outside of the track above mentioned.
Said track being about 21' in diameter, made of 80-pound railroad rail.
The center uf this machine is made of steel and is of ample proportions
to take care of the pull occasioned b) dragging of bucket when
same is being filled.
To the bottom of this frame is bolted on each side two sets of three
pieces each of 6"xi2" wide, 12' long hard maple forming shoes or
runners which form a bearing on rolls of about 3' in width. These

384
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
maple shoes are bolted together and are so placed that a space is left
between the two sets mi either side for placing rolls.
The machine is moved on hard wood rollers about 8" in diameter,
which form a roadway over which machine travels.
To hold this machine in place while digging, the front and rear
rollers on each side are held in place by means i proper shaped wedges.
The upper steel frame, being about 22 feet by 35 feet, is tied to
the lower frame by means of a massive steel center spindle which is
rigidly attached tu the center of the lower frame and fits in a castiron
upper center in the- upper frame. Between the upper and lower center
is fitted a nest of conical mils which carry part of the load on the
machine and aid materially in reducing the friction in rotating.
( >n the lower side of the upper frame is fitted an 80-pound circular
railmad rail about 21 feet 6 inches in diameter, which in turn rests on
a set of 8 inch rotating wheels tied together with spacing bands. These
wheels run mi the circular railmad rail, which is rigidly affixed to the
lower frame. This set of rotating wheels, together with the aforementioned
cmiical rolls, form a practically frictionless bearing fur the ma-
Fig. 2. Bucket hoisted up after having been filled.

chine to rotate on.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 38?
Fig. 3. Machine rolateel around and load being discharged.
For rotating the upper half of the machine, including the boiler,
engines, boom, etc., there is provided a circular rack attached to the
lower rail anel framework with the teeth in a vertical plane into which
meshes a steel pinion which is attached to the lower end uf the swing
shaft supported by a steel bracket which is riveted to the upper frame.
On the upper end of this swing shaft is provided a cast steel cut crown
gear into which meshes a cast steel cut pinion which is keyed on to the
crank-shaft of a special type 9x9 inches double cylinder throttle revers­
ing engine.
Only one lever is required fur operating this engine 111 either direction,
avoiding the use of clutches or friction and the machine can be
stopped, started and turned in a fraction of the time required with the
other Styles swinging mechanism.
This engine avoids the constant use of the hoisting engine and
enables the operator to handle his machine with greater ease anel effi­
ciency.
This machine is supplied with an 80 h.-p. economic boiler built to

886
THE INDUS! RIAL MAGAZINE
carry 125-pound steam working pressure to which a large steam dome
is attached for reserved steam space. This boiler has proved to be
ample for the service required. The main hoisting engines, which
operate the drums uf this machine, are special I2"xi6" double cylinder
with special rocker valve. These engines are uf fine design and are
economical in their operation.
The gearing and mechanism fur the lmist drums are of special
design, using all-around band frictions which are capable of holding mi
lhe 30" drums used, a load of 30 tons or more pull. All of the gearing
and pinions used in this machine are cast steel, the main pinions and
gearing having cut teeth.
The boom hoist is operated by a special one clutch of ample proportions
to give it man_\- years of service.
This machine has an 85' steel boom which can lie raised or lowered
at the option of the operator, its lowest position allowing a working
radius of 03' The boom is uf line proportions, built uf proper sized
angles and plates tu withstand the load imposed upon it with two large
sheaves mounted upon 4X' shaft in peak uf boom su that clam shell
•ig 1. This view shows slope of lhe bank that may be dug

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 387
bucket may be used in place of scraper bucket when so desired. To a
separate shaft, placed in close proximity to the shaft aforementioned,
are attached the I-bars which carry the sheaves in which the cables work
which raise and lower the boom.
The A-frame of this machine is built of proper sized channels and
plats properly laced to secure strength sufficient to handle the boom at
any angle. The overhang of the upper frame of machine is supported
from the top of the A-frame by means of two iy2" suspension rods
with proper turn buckles for adjustment.
In operation the scraper bucket is lowered directly under the boom
point, or at such radius as is desired, and is pulled toward the machine
by the drag line. It is filled in one or two times its length, elepending
on the class of material handled, and when filled is hoisted, the swung
beginning at the same time of the hoisting of the bucket.
The point of the bucket is held up by the tension rope, and when
ready to dump the engineer simply slacks up on the elrag line.
This machine is verv economical in operation, requiring but two
men to operate same, the crane-man anil fireman. The laying of track
for machine is performed by outside labor.
This machine is so constructed that it is possible to use a clam
shell bucket for dee]) excavations, or for handling other materials, anel
can be changed from scraper machine to clam shell in a very few mo­
ments, or vise versa.
This machine made a remarkable record during the year of 1908.
During May, working two shifts 18,365 yds.
June, working two eight-hour shifts, and one
week three eight-hour shifts 25.333 yds.
July, working three eight-hour shifts 33.051 .vcls-
August, working three eight-hour shifts 47-363 Y^s-
September, moving machine.
October, working three eight-hour shifts 31,000 yds.
Thc above figures represent only paid material, while some months
several thousand yards were handled, for which no credit was given.
The material above referred to was all good digging, averaging in
depth about twenty feet. The canal prism is 75 feet wide at the base,
with a one and two and a half slope, varying in width at the top from
170 feet to 190 feet. The material was spoiled mi both sides of the
cut and all was taken out with this machine without the assistance of
any other V two-yard scraper bucket was used with a X-inch digging
and holding lines, which were attached to the bucket by means of open
sockets.

388 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The G. II. Williams Company build wide gauge revolving elerricks
and excavators in all sizes and capacities which may be made selfpropelling
or otherwise, as desired. The)' also build clam shell and
excavating buckets for the handling of all classes of bulk materials.

The Conveying of Material;"
OXE of the oldest and cheapest ways of conveying material is b\
means of thc screw conveyor (Fig. i). It is much used for
conveying material in the form of powder or grains, and also
for conveying cereal. It consists of a hollow or solid shaft around
which are bolted metal flights to form a spiral or screw. This works
in a trough. It is supported by hangers and also by journals at the
ends of the trough. As the screw revolves, the material in the trough
is pushed forward.
The spiral is either formed by short flights, each equal to one turn,
bolted together, or else by a continuous strip of metal. The latter are
called "helicoid" conveyors. Helicoid conveyors run more smoothly
than the single flight ones, but are harder to repair. The flights are
fastened to the shaft by means of lugs which are screwed or riveted
into the shaft.
The trough, called the "conveyor-box," may be of wood (lined or
unfilled with metal), or it may be of sheet steel. If of wood, the
latter should lie kiln-dried to prevent warping, as the latter would
throw the shaft out of line and make it hard to turn. The trough
should be at least one inch wider and two inches deeper than the
diameter of the conveyor.
Troughs for 8 to 10 inch conveyors should be made from nothing
smaller than IX-inch dressed lumber, and troughs for 12-inch and
larger conveyors from 2-inch lumber. To prevent the box from spreading,
cleats should be placed across the top every four feet. The box
should be lined up true anel the conveyor should be hung in it so that
it has at least an inch play at the bottom and y2 inch at the sides.
With most material there is very little wear on the trough, as a layer
of fine material soon forms 011 the bottom and sides of the trough and
protects it from wear.
The conveyor may be discharged at any point by cutting an opening
in the trough. These openings are closed by slides when not in use.
The shaft may be either hollow or solid, but it is usually the former.
The conveyors are made in sections of 8 to 12 feet. The standard
lengths are for a 4-inch conveyor, 8 feet; for 6 and 9 inch, 10 feet; and
for 12, 16 and 18 inch, 12 feet.
These sections are joined by a solid bar, called a coupling, which
is bolted into a hollow shaft. This coupling also serves as a shaft,
*From the Chemical Engineer.

390
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
RIGHT HAND ~t-
-c BRIGHT HAND fj„' LEFT HAND
Showing direction of travel with screw made in different manner.
revolving in the hangers, sufficient room being left between the two
conveyor lengths for the latter. The hangers (Fig. I) are themselves
dropped from the sides of the trough.
Screw conveyors are usually made of sheet steel and the shaft of
iron pipe. Where the material would attack steel, conveyors of brass,
copper or cast iron are used. Copper and brass conveyors are used in
carrying wet tanbark, white lead, tartar, etc. Cast iron conveyors are
made with flights and shaft in one piece. These are short and are
joined together by a central iron shaft. They are much used for conveying
gritty material which would cut out the steel conveyors.
The capacity of screw conveyors depends entirely upon their size
and the speeel at which they are revolving. If revolved too rapidly,
Showing manner of driving anel how to change direction o material.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 391
however, the material will be thrown out of the trough. The table
be-low shows the capacity per hour of various sizes of screw conveyors
and the speed at which they should be run:
CAPACITY of SCREW CONVEYORS.
Size—Inches, Revi ilutii ins —Capacity per Hour.—
Diameter. Per Minute. Cubic Feet. Bushels.
4 100
125
6 140 375 300
9 150 1,200 1,000
12 Kid 2,500 2,000
16 160 6,200 5,000
18 KiO 7.500 6,000
Screw conveyors are driven from the end. Usually
this is done by means of gearing or by a sprocket and chain. Friction
drives and belts are also used to some extent. The driving end of the
conveyor usually consists of a short steel shaft bolted into the hollowshaft
of the conveyor. This revolves in a cast-iron bearing which also
serves as the box end. The pulley or sprocket is, of course, keyed on
to this shaft outside the box. The horse power required to drive screw
conveyors is not easy to calculate, as these conveyors are hard to
lubricate, due to the fact that the)- are usually working in grit and dust.
They are also seldom properly lined up and hence the friction of their
running is quite considerable. As in other methods of conveying material
horizontally, the mil) work which is done is that necessary to overcome
friction, and the friction in the case of a screw conveyor varies
su much, according to conditions and materials, that it is almost impossible
to get anv data for finding the horse power required.
The first cost of a screw conveyor is less than that of any other
form of conveyor. A 6-inch standard screw conveyor in a steel box
with cover will cost, complete, from $200 to $225 per 100 feet. Discharge
openings in this box fitted with stub sprouts and guides will
Fig. 1 Showing manner of driving

392 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
add to this about $2.50 to $2.75 each. A 9-inch conveyor will cost from
$250 to $300, with $2.50 to $2.75 added for each discharge opening.
A 12-inch conveyor wall cost from $400 to $450, wdth $5.00 added for
each discharge opening, and a 16-inch conveyor, from $500 to $550,
with $7.00 for each discharge opening. The cost will, of course, depend
upon the gauge of the steel of which the flights, etc., are made.
The repairs on screw conveyors are heavy, but are easily made.
Screw conveyors are liable to choke and hence are unsuiteel to conveying
any material but fine, dry substances and coarse powders. They arc
unsuiteel to wet, plastic and clayey substances. Ribbon conveyors (Fig.
3) are used for conveying asphalt, hot tar and in beet-sugar plants.
They cost about the same as other conveyors.
Screw conveyors are often used to feed material to machinery, as
they give a more or less regular feed. A screw conveyor revolving in
a water-jacketed pipe is often employed in feeding material into rotary
cement kilns, roasting furnaces, etc. A screw conveyor, working in the
hollow shaft of the mill itself, is used to supply the material in a regular
stream to a tube mill. Screw conveyors are also used to feed Fuller-
Lehigh and Griffin mills, pulverized coal burners, etc. In all of these
cases the screw works beneath a bin of material, and the amount of
Fig. 3 Ribbon Conveyor.
Fig 3-A. Stirring Pins on Convev
material feel is regulated by the speed of the screws. The latter are
usually, therefore, driven by stepped or cone pulleys so that the feed
can be regulated.
Screw conveyors are good mixers. When used especially for thc
latter purpose, it is well to place paddles at intervals between the flights.
It is possible for such conveyors to mix two powders thoroughly so that
neither one can be detected by the naked eye after being carried 30 feet
by the screw conveyor. In long conveyors, where mixing is also de-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 393
sired, only thc end 24-36 feet need be provided with paddles.
Reversing a screw conveyor end for end in the trough does not
change the direction in which the material is carried. It does change
the side of the flights that wear against the material, however. If the
side of the flights to which the lugs are fastened is next to tin- material,
these lugs, of course, offer more resistance against the material than the
smooth curve of the flights. Reversing the motion of the conveyor
changes the direction of the material. Conveyors should he ordered
according to the direction the material is to be moved with reference to
thc turning of the shaft. In right-hand conveyors, the shaft turns with
the watch hands and the material moves toward the observer. With
left-hand conveyors the shall turns the opposite direction to iln- bands
of the watch and the material moves away from the observer.
When it is desired to carry the material around a corner, the
arrangement shown in Fig. 4 may lie used, or else one conveyor box
may rest on top of the other and the material lie dropped from the
Upper to the lower trough through a hole in the former.
In cottonseed and linseed factories cut flight conveyors (Fig. 5)
A a I L a I X L
iLismimnMJMhiiMs.111 , 1 \ifegr—'•-———*—^jlte-: V" " " "" ,
Fig. .1. Cut Flight Conveyors.
are used in connection with perforated box linings, lo remove sand and
other grit from the seeds. A cut flight conveyor with the flights slightly
bent is also used as a mixer.
Another form of conveyor which is sometimes used consists of a
cylinder of steel; this is provided with steel tires and revolves mi rollers.
It is slightly inclined and as it revolves the material works its w a\
through it. Conveyors of this form are seldom used except where il is
desired to dry or to cool material. In the former case, hot air is blown
through the cylinder and in the latter case cold air.
Material is usually lifted by means of bucket elevators. These consist
of small buckets or cups fastened to cotton or rubber belting or linkchain
belting (Fig. 6). The belts pass over two pulleys, one of which
is provided with a take-up and one of which is driven by a belt, etc.
The material is discharged as it passes over the upper pulley by centrifu­
gal force and is thrown into the spout.
The form of bucket to be used depends upon the material. A
bucket shaped like
the letter P discharges better than any other kind,
but it has small capacity.
Buckets of this shape are known to the trade

394
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Fig. 6.
as "Style C." Owing to the facility with which they discharge, they
are used for wet, plastic and stick) material, such as clay, sugar, etc.,
which would pack into deep buckets. Dee]) buckets with high fmnts
have great capacity, but discharge poorly, much of the material being
carried round the pulley and down the back leg of the elevator. Most
buckets are a compromise between these two styles and have a form
resembling the letter \ , with the front edges somewhat lower than the
back, and the bottoms rounded. They are known as Style A buckets.
Round-cornered buckets discharge more perfectly than square-cornered
ones, since the material does not pack into the corners.
A good form of bucket is made of a single piece of steel pressed
into shape without seams or rivets. Another good form is made of onepiece
of metal in which the side piece is bent around the back and
riveted. Malleable iron buckets are somewhat thicker than the pressed
steel ones, but stand hard usage better. These latter are especially
adapted to conveying quartz, cement, clinker, crushed rock, anil ores.
They are also better suited to elevating hot substances. They are not
w
im
m
m>
NT

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 395
attackecl by many chemicals which eat and corrode steel. Copper buckets
are also used to some extent for chemicals. Perforated buckets
are used where it is desired to drain water or other liquid from the
material. Buckets having an edge like a saw are used for tanbark, etc.,
the teeth acting like a fork to lift the material. Buckets having largecapacities
and dimensions up to 20x8 inches are used in grain elevators,
where large quantities of material have to be elevated in a short time.
The back of these buckets is dished so that when they come around the
pulley they will not extend out over the belt. The dished-back buckets
are only used in large sizes, and are often reinforced lw a brace in
the middle joining the back to the front.
Belt elevators for hot material are- always made with link-chain
I Fig. 71. and, in fact, the link-chain elevators are extensively used for
many different kinds of material. They are supposed to wear better
than the belt elevators and the) can also be easily repaired by taking out
the damaged link or bucket. The chains useel are those with wide links.
I11 single-chain elevators the latter is bolted to the bucket at lhe middlenear
the top.
The space between the buckets depends upon the size. Small buckets
are spaced 10 to 16 inches; larger buckets. 16 to 24 inches; is
inches is a good average. Elevators having a chain on either side id
the bucket are also used occasionally. These double-chain elevators are
usually used where the buckets are more than 12 inches wide. The)
consist of a series of buckets, fastened near each end to two chains.
The link-chain elevators are driven by means of sprockets, belt elevators
by means of pulleys. The motive power is either supplied by a
chain or a belt. With a chain elevator it is usual to drive with a chain
somewhat smaller than that used mi the elevator, the idea being that.
should the elevator choke up and refuse to move, the driving chain.
being the weaker of the two. will break, as it is much easier to repair
this. The lower pulley of a chain elevator where the driving is done
from above is usually a traction wheel. On either one of the pulleys
a take-up is provided; this may be either above or below. In cement
mills it is usually above and in grain elevators below.
The casing of the elevator sh add be made of wood or sheet iron.
The lower part of the casing constitutes a hopper in which the material
is fed. This hopper is called "the boot." In handling dusty materials
the casing should be tight. This is particularly necessary in handling
powdered fuel and combustible dusts. These casings are known as the
le°'s The casing on the return side should be bellied or made sufficiently
large so that the buckets do not strike, as they are apt to swing
back and forth on this side. Plenty of r n should also be left in the

396 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
boot for repairs to be conveniently made and the head pulley should not
be too near the roof.
The discharge of the elevator is regulated by the speed of the belt
and the size of the pulley. If thc belt does not move fast enough, the
material will not be thrown from the buckets with sufficient force to
reach the opening in the casing. If the belt moves too rapidly, the
material will be carried on around the pulley by centrifugal force anel
drop down the back leg. The table below shows the speed at which
the belt-chain elevators should be run.
SPEED OF BEET AND CHAIN ELEVATORS.
vSizc of 1 lead Pulley, Speeei of Belt,
Revr lutions Per
1 hame-lcr in 1 nches. Pcet Per Minute. Minute , if Head Shaft
-'4
250 to 300
40 to 48
3"
300 to 350
38 to 45
36
350 to 375
37 to 40
42
375 to 400
34 to 36
48
400 to 425
32 to 34
54
425 to 450
30 to 32
60
475 to 500
30 to 32
7-'
575 to 600
30 to .^
Xo
(125 lo (150
28 to 30
" 1 'erteet discharge" elevators are used where frag ile material is
handled and hence a slow-moving belt is required. In these, a twochain
elevator is used and the buckets are completely inverted over a
spmit by placing two small traction wheels below the head wheels so
that the elevator chains pass partly beneath the latter, and hence allow
the spout to come directly beneath the head buckets when thc latter are
inverted.
The horse power required to run an elevator may be found by the
formula given below :
Hx W
H. P. =
33,000
hF.
The capacity of the elevator depends upon the speed at which it
runs, the size of the buckets and also on their shape. The buckets may
be figured as safely carrying one-third of their capacity. Hence to
figure the capacity of an elevator, divide the capacity in cubic feet of
lhe bucket by 3, multiply the quotient by the number of buckets discharged
per hour, anel the product will be the capacity per hour. Tu
\in

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 397
CAPACITIES oi' BUCKET ELEVATORS.
—Capacity-
Size-
Style A— Style B -Stvle C
in Inches. cu. in. cu. ft.
CU. 11.
•ii. fl.
4-^2/4 14 O.O081
f>*3Pi 30 O.O173 38 0.0220
8x4^2 75 o-0434 50
I >.( >2

A New Stiectric Locomotive.
A NOVEL type of electric locomotive has
been designed and built by the General
Electric Co. and the American
Locomotive Co. jointly. It is of the siderod
type, the distinguishing feature being
the fact that the motors are mounted on top
of the frames anil aie connected to the driving
wheels by rods and cranks instead of
bavins the armatures seared to or mounted
directly on the driving axles. This locomotive
is designed to carry two 800-horsepower,
single phase, 15-cycle motors, and with this
equipment will develop a tractive effort of
30,000 pounds, at a speed of 18 miles per
hour. The motors are capable of driving
the locomotive at a maximum speed of 50
miles per hour and will operate equally well
when running in either direction.
This new locomotive, according to the
Electric Railway Journal, from which the
description is taken, represents a reversion
in all its mechanical details to long-established
steam locomotive practise. The wheel
arrangement, with a lour-wheel bogie truck
at one end, three pairs of coupled drivingwheels
and a two-wheel radial pony truck
at the opposite end. is exactly the same as
that commonly designated as the "Pacific"
type by steam locomotive designers, and is
the type- that is usually adopted for heavy
high-speed passenger service.
"The use of two motors of large capacity
mounted above the frames," says the same
authority, "gives this design a number of
advantages over the use of many motors
mounted on the axles. The weight per
horsepower of large motors is less, of
course, than of small motors of the same aggregate
capacity and of the same electrical
characteristics. The location of the motors
above (he frames places them out of the
way of dust and dirt, permits of better ventilation
and greater accessibility for inspection
and repair.
"The location of the motors close together
near the center of the frame," it further observes,
"concentrates a very large proportion
of the total weight of the locomotive
over the driving wheels, and there is the
further advantage that with the weight concentrated
near the center the moment of inertia
of the entire locomotive around its vertical
axis is reduced to a minimum. This
tends to lessen the lateral rail pressure on
the truck wheels, and consequently the wear
on the wheel flanges and the rail head."
The new engine has been tested up to
maximum speed on the General Electric
Co.'s experimental track at Schenectady, the
tests demonstating that the design is entirely
satisfactory, considered from both a
mechanical and an electrical standpoint.
Nov/ Hailr-Oiki ".lie.
A BERLIN HEIGHTS fO. I man, Murray
A. Temple, a railroader of many
years' experience, has invented and
had patented a device designed to do away
entirely with wooden ties in railroad construction.
The Temple device is called a continuous
"railbase and cross tie," which, if adopted,
will firing about a revolution in railroad
building, and will also be an answer to the
question which the railroad builders have
been asking for the past 10 years:
"What will take the place of wooden ties
when the forests are gone?"
So concerned have the railroads been
about the lapid deforestation in America
that one huge system, the Pennsylvania, has
planted miles of trees along its right-of-way.
Temple is not the onlj inventor who has
tried to find a substitute for (he wooden tie.
but he claims for his device that it has a
practicability and simplicity which other
devices lack.
The only thing that can be in defense of
the wooden tie is that a superior substitute

has not been found. The wooden tie rots
quickly, allowing the ends of the rails to
sag down, bringing about conditions which
track men call "low joints and high centers."
Rotten ties must be replaced, necessitating
a releveling of the roadbed and a
regauging of the rails. With the increasing
scarcity of lumber, the price of ties has
climbed and climbed until now a tie costs SO
cents or thereabouts.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 39!
CCVMMOX -RAIT,
CXA?rP
Bolt
&'&m
% § ® &/ {RAIlrRASZ ^ u £ m m M M i m ^ £
Down the center of the- track, between the
plates, is a raised path of tamped crushed
stone which is designed to keep the track
from slipping sideways.
A number of old trackmen who have seen
Temple's plans have pronounced them practical.
The Lake Shore Railroad will spend
$11,1100,01111 iii improvements dining the re-
^CROy^-TDS -&0 -SHAPE t-GJ^viL Oft OKAffHBD .STOKr *
CTZOSS cSXCTJOsr.
3BAVEI OR Cj3U-5HFI> STOITB^
Fishplates break under the strain of trains
pounding over rotten ties, and spikes come
loose, making a spreading of rails a dangerous
possibility. Even if wrecks do not occur,
the effect of a lumpy roadbed is ruinous
to rolling stock.
In the Temple device the rails lie on a
continuous plate of steel 20 inches wide.
The plates, with the rails upon them, are
connected, at intervals, by L-bars which
keep the track always in guage. Rail
spreading, Temple says, is impossible.
Plates, rails and L-bars are laid directly
on the roadbed, of gravel or crushed stone—
preferably the latter. The crushed stone
roadbed is generally regarded with favor by
trackmen because it is less subject to washouts.
"Low joints and high centers' are avoided
in the Temple device by placing the joining
ends of the continuous plates in the center
of the rails and the joining ends of the rails
in the center of the plates.
Allowance is made for the expansion and
contraction of the rails so that there can be
no shrinking or buckling up of tracks where
the Temple device is used.
mainder of 1909, according to General .Manager
D. C. Moon.
.Most of the money will go for increasing
portions of the system to three anel four
tracks, replacing gravel ballast with stone,
purchase of new locomotives and cars, and
in completing ore and coal docks at Ashtabula.
"There is no doubt that business in all
branches of industry is rapidly becoming
normal," said Mr. Moon. "This has led the
Lake Shore to decide to spend a large sum
of money in improvements."
The third and fourth track system will be
put in for f00 miles, half on the eastern
division and the remainder on tbe Toledo
Michigan and western divisions. This work
will cost $2,000,000, and will increase the
four-track system of the road to 200 miles.
Between Buffalo and Chicago 250 miles of
stone ballast will be laid. The i oacl will replace
all gravel ballast with stone within
two years. The new ballasting will cost
$600,000.
Iu Chicago the Lake Shore will extend its
elevated tracks four miles, from Chicago to
Englewood, the eastern city limits. The

400
cost of this work will be $1,000,000.
It will cost $1,000,000 more to complete
tin- me unloading and e-oal loading docks at
Ashtabula. The entire work in Ashtabula
will represent an expenditure of $3,000,000.
Orders have been given for 3.000 steel
freight cars, to cost $3,000,000. Twenty new
freight locomotives of the largest type,
weighing 120 tons each, have been ordered.
The passenger coach equipment i» to be
replenished. Thirty thousand tons of 100pound
steel rails have been ordered.
Work costing $1,500,000 will be clone this
veal' to complete the new Franklin-Clearfield
Road, which will represent an expenditure
of $9,000,000. This road will operate in
Pennsylvania, connecting the Lake Shore
and New York Central.
The Lake Erie & Pittsburg, running from
Clevefand and connecting with the Shore
line at Ravenna, will be completed August 1
with $2,000,000 additional work. The total
1 J l 1 1 'titr--,
X •. '* fr?iif?> f • Wee.'
cost of this road will be $7,000,000.
Genera] Manager Moon announced that
the Belt line will be in operation by August
1, connecting the Lake Erie & Pittsburg
west of Newburg with the Lake Shore at
West Park. Tt will cost $5,000,000 to complete
this portion of the Belt line.
Contracts are now being let for $1,000,000
construction on the Belt line eastward toward
Collinwood.
Bri'l^kiy tlvo '.fnolumne River.
IN the construction of the new concrete
and Structural Steel bridge by the
Santa Fe Railroad Company across the
Tuolumne River, Calif., some very heavy
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
e
and difficult engineering work was involved.
This was the swinging into position ot a
great many of the huge and ponderous 100
foot Structural Steel girders. Some adequate
idea of the size and weight of each
girder, as well as the difficulty of handling
and placing it into position, may be formed
by the accompanying photograph. However,
all of this work was successfully accomplished
without a single mishap.
This new bridge is about 900 feet long and
the total cost will aggregate $1,250,000. It
is the longest, heaviest and most expensive
bridge of the Santa Fe Company in California—and
engineers claim that it will be
one of the most secure and staunch structures
of the e-lass on the Paeifie- Coast.
The massive piers, of whie-h there are
eight besides the heavy abutments, are of
reinforced Concrete. The pier foundations
rest on bed rock at from 25 to 30 feet below
the bed of the river, and the average total
i tiMt*d
* .§•;.!;;' • ";
m
t •;•-• '- '
•JX
if*'"
1
• •!
height of the piers is about 60 feet. Each
stream pier at the base is 20 feet long
(width) and 12 feet thick, and slightly tapers
as it rises. At the floor of the bridge
the top of the piers are IS feet wide and 7
feet in thickness. On these massive supports
rest the great girders and the superstructure,
all of which are of Structural
Steel.
The bridge is single track, about 12,000
barrels of Cement Wire used in the piers
and abutments representing some 20,000
cubic yards of Concrete. Over 1,000,000
pounds of Steel were employed in the upper
part.
The Tuolumne River is, at times, a very
strenuous stream, subject to great floods and

freshets, during the winter months. However,
engineers declare that the new bridge
will be able to bid defiance to the terrific
sweep of the current during the highest
stages of water. The new bridge takes the
place of a wooden structure at the same
point on the river. *%
. O
l/aoo;s'c Bml'lin;^ CVii*

402 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Pacific Exposition it has been the intention
of the management to produce the most
beautiful world's fair ever made. This idea
has never been lost to view, and to-day the
exposition stands open to the world, fully
justifying every claim and promise of its
builders.
The common saying the "expositions have
nothing new to show," is disproven by the
Seattle fair. While there is, and probably
ever will be a certain sameness to all huge
expositions, the newest one has much that
is original and intensely interesting to show.
It has gone far afield in gathering its exhibits,
and these fields have proven fruitful and
vitally important. The displays assembled
by older important commercial countries
follow closely the customary lines of exhibits,
but they have been revised and have
been made wonderfully comprehensive and
clever.
The lands of the Orient have broken away
from the time-worn exhibits of articles selected
from the shelves of bazars and shops,
and the Far East presents examples of scientific
and mechanical productions which
come as a revelation and surprise to those
unfamiliar with the awakening of the Asiatic
countries.
Never before has Japan entered so energetically
into the matter of foreign commercial
exploitation as has been done at Seattle.
The fmperial Government appropriation of
200,000 yen has been duplicated several
times by merchants and manufacturers, and
the building housing the valuable display is
the most pretentious that government has
ever erected in a foreign country. Following
an entirely new departure the government
shows by working models many of the
scientific and mechanical devices employed
only in conducting certain departments of
the government workings, and the entire exhibit
is free from the usual suggestions of
bargain offerings.
The European and Oriental buildings are
filled to overflowing with grown and manufactured
products, and the various state,
county, civic, agricultural, arts, manufacturing
and general exhibit palaces offer entrancing
collections of every description.
Under the direction of the United States
Government, the territories of Alaska and
Hawaii are exploited, and the Philippine
Islands appear directly under its patronage.
Part of the government appropriation of
$600,000 has been devoted to erecting suit­
able buildings for these exhibits, and they
form one of the central features of the exposition
city. The manner in which these
countries are presented, represents the very
highest perfection in exploitation affairs. No
valuable or interesting feature of their possible
development has been neglected. They
are shown as comprehensively as can be
possibly done.
For the convenient e and benefit of passenger
travel to the Pacific Coast during the
exposition season, the trans-continental railways
have vastly increased their carrying
capacity, and to stimulate travel substantial
reductions have been made in passenger tariffs.
A wide range in selection of routes is
available, and tickets carry especial privileges
of stop-overs a«d choice of routes in
going and coming.
The entire Puget Sound country constitutes
an ideal spot for summer vacations.
and the side trips within easy reach of
Seattle are not to be numbered. The wonderful
inland sea of Puget Sound is the
grandest body of salt water found in any
continent, and the view of forest, sea and
snow-clad mountain ranges is without comparison
and baffles description. Alaska is
within easy distance, and the eternal glaciers
of the Arctic region are passed within
a few yards by magnificent passenger steamers.
The trip can be made within ten days.
The finest trout and salmon fishing in the
world is right at Seattle's door, and the
fishing rights have not become the properties
of individuals.
The tunnel designed by the Canadian Pacific
Railway to obviate the 4 per cent grade
on the big hill between Field and Laggan is
practically completed. The tunnel is 5,000
feet long and cuts down the grade to a little
over 2 per cent. It cost $1,500,000.
Monorail for Nov/ Yodi,
T H E Monorail Co., of New York, represented
by Bion L. Burrows, secretary
of the old Rapid Transit Commission.
obtained from the Board of Estimate and
Apportionment, April 3, the necessary permission
to go ahead with its project on City
Island. The company asked permission to
change the motive power on the little old
road running from Bartow Station to a
point at or near Belden Point, City fsland,
Borough of The Bronx, from horsepower to

the American monorail system.
The proposed system is substantially like
the Berlin system of monorail transportation,
and it is no secret among rapid transit
men that if the experiments at City Island
are successful the Interborough interests
probably will adopt it on a large scale in
new territory that they wish to cover.
Practically all the coal mined in Japan
comes from Kiushiu, the most southern of
the main group of the islands, and the Hokkaido,
the most northern. Many of the galleries
extend under the sea. The Yubari,
Saroehi, Haronai and fkushumbetsu are the
principal fields in the latter, all being
worked hy the Hokkaido Tanko Kisen Kaisha
(Hokkaido Colliery & Steamship Co..
main office in Tokio). The seams in the
Yubari field are the most extensive, there
being four, dipping to an angle of t5 to 20
degrees, and measuring four to 25 feet in
thickness.
The mines in Kiushu proper produce twothirds
the entire output of Japan.
The coal fields in the northern part cover
an area of over 30 miles north and south,
by eight to f6 east and west. The Miike
mines, which have for a long time supplied
the American transports coaling at Nagasaki,
occupy about 14,000 acres. The Takashima
coal mines occupy three small islands,
about seven miles from Nagasaki, and the
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 403
output ranks as the best of the different
coals mined in Japan. All the working galleries
are situated under the sea, says the
San Francisco Call.
The Cleveland Power Equipment Company,
whose general offices are in the Citizens'
Building, have taken over the exe-lusive
sales agency for Northern Ohio of the
Bessemer Gas Engine Company's product.
But at the same time, they will continue to
act as Consulting and Contracting Gas Energy
Specialists, in which field they have
built up a large business in a comparatively
short time.
On the principle that "cheaper power
spells large profits," the company undertakes
to prove to any user of steam power
or purchaser of elee-trie current, that they
can reduce their cost of power and at the
same time increase their efficiency, by
i hanging to gas energy. They point to a
number of local plants where they have
made similar successful and economical installations.
H. Whitford Jones, E. E.. is president, and
P. F. Henn, secretary, of the Cleveland
Power Equipment Company. Both are
widely and well known in local engineering
and contracting circles, and no manufacturer
will make a mistake by consulting
them relative to decreasing the cost of his
power.
m m ^
vsS=S 57-
1

V
yVacoupuoo i'mX'
T H E waterproofing of substructures is so
obviously a necessity that it is no
longer called into dispute; all who are
engaged in i onstruction work concede this
as an indispensable provision towards safeguarding
the foundations of the building.
How to obtain the maximum of water-tight
iesu!ts with the minimum of expenditure is
still an open question, and one that invites
reflection by those interested.
The two well recognized schemes of structural
waterproofing are.
First. The Bituminous Method, which requires
the installation of an asphalt tar and
felt mat over footings; on or in, enclosing
foundation walls and over loncrete floors.
Second, The Integral Method, which is
that of applying a densified coating of cement
mortar with capillary negative qualities
on either the inner or outer face of
walls below grade and over rough concrete
on floor. This scheme of waterprofing is appropriately
named on account of the waterprcofin
, being a pail of the ma-onry, becoming
integrated throughout.
Neither the Bituminous nor the Integral
Methods can be said to lack efficiency, as
both have been widely employed with success.
Yet it must not be overlooked that
there are many considerations which become
important factors towards eletei mining
which of these methods should be used in
waterproofing substructures. These considerations
are: installation, strength, maintenance
anil cost.
The Bituminous .Method—excavation of
earth so that outside walls may be covered,
or tbe construction of retaining or dwarf
walls to receive the waterproofing: otherwise,
if built in a bearing wall, the stepping
of the wall, to permit of waterproofing.
The Integral Method, on the contrary,
needs no retaining or dwarf wall, nor stepping
of hearing wall. It permits of the erection
of the entire substructure independently
of the waterproofing contractor, who
is thus at liberty to install his system without
interfering with or retarding the progress
of the general construction.
Whenever the Bituminous Method is useel,
walls built over footings covered with either
an asphalt or tar and felt mat must be
keyed in order to prevent sliding; and on
floors where the bituminous mat is laid over
rough concrete the top finish must of necessity
be weighted down, since the bonding of
under and top beds of concrete is in this
ease an impossibility.
The Integral Method, which, as already
noted, becomes an essential and inseparable
pait of the structure, therefore cannot possi
iy injure; neither can it be considered a
negligible quantity, neutral in effect. Its
presence in the masonry must add to the
strength of the general construction.
Waterproofing, after all, is a form of insurance;
the protection in this case being
against injury and damages from water and
dampness. The contractor who executes the
work of waterproofing, issues, as it were, a
limited policy for which he exacts one premium,
the protection being only for a short
period, after which the risk is transferred to
the insured himself, who assumes the responsibility
in the event cf a leak, to picvide
the remedy at his own cost.
The Bituminous Method, while supposedly
as elastic as the human skin, possesses the
qualities of expansion and contraction, but
it sometimes expands to the breaking point.
This is especially to be appi ehended when
settlement takes place, or in the presence
of sewage or contaminated waters, when it
be ernes deteriorated, lots and is destroyed.
In such a contingency the work of effecting
iepahs necessitates thc getting at the hidden
mat. and tbis cannot be done without
the removal of the protecting masonry.
Tbe Integral Method, being rigid, has
seme tendency to crack whenever settlement
takes place; but it cannot deteriorate
nor rot. Should a leak manifest itself, there
need be no removing of masonry to make
repairs, sine e the waterprofing stratum is always
in view, and the e-ost for such repairs
• is so small as to be almost negligible.
The Bituminous Method requires:
First, Additional excavation; or, instead
of this on the outside of the bearing walls,
either a dwarf or retaining wall; or, if on
the inside, a resistance wall must be placed.
Second, A "keying" for the footing course.
Third. An armor coat against puncturing.
These requirements, indispensable to the
Bituminous Method, increase the cost of
waterproofing from seven to ten times.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 23
^ R O D E R I C K & frASCOSVI R O P E CO,
BRAKCH Zl5 WARREN ST. N.Y. \ 5J LOUIS MO
WIRE ROPE Vnd AERIAL WSRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway in
Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR. This
is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during 1907.
Ask for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
FOR HOISTING.
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either
with or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility
Macomber (§b Whyte
Rope Company-
200?; GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your 104ti fk-s arc solicited.
QUALITY
"^MANUFACTURERS
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO.
Mills, Coal City, 111.
NEW YORK BOSTON PITTSBURG NEW ORLEANS PORTLAND

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The Integral Method, on the contrary, requires:
No resistance, retaining or dwarf walls,
no "keying" of footing course, no weighted
top finish.
In fact, so far as the last named item is
concerned, there should be an actual deduction
of the top finish from the cost, since the
integral Method provides, itself, the top
dressing. The top finish reduces, by the
measure of this item, the actual cost.
The Integral Method of waterproofing is
the application of a plaster coat of cement
mortar from % inch to % inch in thickness
on the inner face of the foundation walls,
or a top dressing 1 inch to 2 inches thick of
cement mortar on the floors.
The composition of the cement mortalshould
be:
95 lbs. of Whitehall Portland cement
2 lbs. of Whitehall waterproofing compound
250 lbs. of sand (coarse and fine mixed)
Definition of] lend of Water.
IN a recent paper Mr. Charles T. Main.
mill engineer and architect of Boston,
gives the following definition of "head"
as applied in water power development.
"There is the legal head, or the head to
which the owner has a right to develop his
power. This may or may not have been developed
to its full extent. It may be that
the expense involved would be too great to
warrant further development. In some
cases it may be economy to make the expenditure
necessary to get the benefit of
some unused portion of the head.
"The gross head is the head actually used
for producing power and getting the water
to and away from the wheel.
"The net effective head is the gross head
minus the loss in head required to get the
water to and away from the wheel. This
loss will vary with the length of the waterways
leading to and away from the wheels,
the velocity of the flowing water, and the
construction of such waterways.
"In several manufacturing cities where
the water power is controlled by a company
which is separate from the mill owners,
there is an allowance of one foot made from
the gross head before charging for the water
as used on the wheels.
"The head should be measured with the
wheels running. The only portion of the
head which produces power is the difference
in level directly above and below the wheel
when the wheel is running."
l\Of)0 Didyin;/.
IN a recent article, Mr. John H. Doman,
of the Plymouth Cordage Co., frankly
faces the rope driving problem and
states that "Probably to one case where a
simple arrangement of rope transmission
may displace to advantage an expensive or
non-efficient arrangement of belting or shafting
or gears (or belting and shafting and
gears), there would be hundreds of cases
where the rope advocate would not for a
moment urge the adoption of his system.
Simply the attention of one seeking a solution
of a perplexing problem in transmission
is drawn to those merits conspicuous
in rope, and the rope manufacturer awaits
with perfect composure the outcome, when
the question is to be solved intelligently. If
rope is best adapted to the case it should be
used; if it is not, no one is more interested
to disclose the fact and advise against its
use than the same manufacturer, and this is
the eouise, as previously stated, which has
been pursued by the reputable makers of
transmission rope.
"It may be said that advocates of rope
driving themselves have in many instances
wrought great harm to the advancement of
their cause, which is comparatively new to
that of belting. At first very erroneous ideas
prevailed about the construction of rope
sheaves, the arrangement of drives and the
proper loads to be carried. All these things
have held back, probably to a large extent,
that legitimate growth to which the obvious
merits of rope driving entitle this system.
But, despite them, there has been a very
large, constantly expanding growth of the
rope system, and as designers and constructors
grow conservative, and, instead of advising
the use of rope in places where abuse
is invited, use it in those cases where its
good points are so conspicuous as to warrant
its adoption, there is no question but
that the rope system will continue to grow
and will hold the position in the array of
mechanical devices which it so admirably is
qualified to fill."

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
Uili nunc Rot,u v Planer Cutter rinder
No. 2 S. Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated)

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
As showing the comparative cost of boilers
and engines over a considerable period
of time, Prof. C. H. Benjamin, of Purdue
University, gives in Steam the following
figures: In 1S90 the cost of a 150-horsepower
horizontal tubular boiler was $1,500
and in 1906 $1,010. For a water-tube boiler
the cost in 1S90 was $2,700 and in 1906
$1,420. For a 200-horsepower engine in the
simple high-speed type the cost in 1902 was
$1,900 and in 1906 $1,770. The same power
in a simple low-speed engine cost in 1902
$3,000 and in 1906 $2,710, and for a compound
high-speed engine the cost in 1902
was $4,000, and in 1906 $3,068. These figures
are, of course, averages and would be
subject to considerable variation in individual
eases. The price at the present time
would also be considerably different from
that given in 1906.
Ciwylng a Smoke lyh>e,
W H E R E a temporary chimney is put
up at the side of a house kitchen or
shop the manner of guying it is
shown in the illustration.
Three wires are fastened to the roof and
the fourth one taken over the end of the
V-shaped brace or bracket and down to the
shelf on which the tile chimney rests, or it
can be fastened to the side of the building.
(ioolv Reviews.
T H E catalog for 1909 has been issued by
the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., Providence,
R. I.
It includes illustrations and descriptions
of milling, grinding, gear cutting, screw machines,
machinists' tools and instruments
for measurements.
The Telescope Feed Hammer Drills are
described and illustrated in Bulletin No.
4010 of The Ingersoll-Rand Co., New York.
The work of the hammer drill in contracting
replaces "Mud Capping" and includes
block holding, "Pop" shooting, drilling anchor
bolt holes, breaking up old concrete or
masonry foundations, piers, walls, etc.
The Air and Gas Compressors of this company
are described in Bulletin No. 3001.
"Some Van Dorn Ideas" is the title of a
bulletin issued by The Van Dorn Iron
Works Co., Cleveland, Ohio, descriptive of
iron stairs, elevator cages, posts, grill work,
fencing, railing, etc.
H. H. Franklin Mfg. Co., Syracuse, N. Y..
have a. die-casting process that appears to
give fine results equal to machinery in many
eases.
Their bulletin tells about it, and it is good
reading, too.
Who Makes What.—A Book of Reference
for Buyers (of Hardware, etc.), new York:
Daniel T. Mallett. Stiff paper, with cloth
back; 7 by 10 ins.; pp. 367.
We have here a very useful directory of
the hardware trade. Part I. is a historical
and descriptive geographical directory of
wholesale merchants. Part II. is an alphabetic-geographic
list of manufacturers, giving
names only, hut followed by index figures
which refer to the next section. Part
Iff., "Products and Goods," is an alphabeticlist
of all the goods made by the firms listed
in Part II.. with number references back to
that part. Part fV. consists of responses to

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 27
N O G E T T I N G A R . O U N D THIS F A C T
To the user of power who is dissatisfied with resulls
and purposes to change for the better—
And to the prospective installer who is determined
to begin right in the engine room—
We would say that the Hardie-Tynes Engine
stands squarely in the line of jour inquiry.
Catalogue on request.
Hardie-Tynes Manufacturing Co.
Builders of Corliss and Slide-Valve Engines,
Air Compressors and Complete Power
Plants for Every Purpose.
BIRMINGHAM, ALA., - - - - U.S.A.
A r e Y o u Interested
In the latest applications of compressed air ?
In the economical operation of air compressors?
In labor-saving shop anil foundry appliances ?
Iu profit-earning contractors' equipment anil methods ?
In up-to-date mining atnl tunneling methods ?
In the latest quarrying processes?
In the operation of refrigerating machinery?
In the use of pressure blowers and fans?
In the running of vacuum machines and condensers ?
In the compression anil transmission of natural and artificial gas ?
If You Arc
You should subscribe to the only journal dealing exclusively
with these matters, published monthly at $1.00 per year in the
U. S. and Mexico, or $1.50 per year in Canada and abroad.
"COMPRESSED AIR" neTyoTk

28 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
letters to IT. S. Consuls throughout the
world, asking the names of the leading hardware
dealers in their jurisdiction. An index
by cities is given. Part V. is a Directory
of Exporters, alphabetically arranged by
names of the individuals or companies.
How to Use Slide Rules.—A neat book
of 65 pages, 4*4x7, on the subject above
stated, containing instructions which are
expected to aid those not familiar with
these instruments to readily understand the
principles upon which they are constructed.
It is assumed that if the beginner study
carefully and practice the examples given
that he can successfully use the slide rule.
Price, 50 cts. Kolesch & Co., 13S Pulton
St., New York, N. Y.
Presto rt-e-'ler.
A Pen Tiller.
T H E "Presto" Feeder is a new appliance
to fill drawing pens for draftsmen.
The feeder is placed on the ordinary
ink bottle and by laying the pen so
that the oval metal tip B comes directly
between the two blades and by carefully
pressing the cup-shaped plunger C the ink
ascends and fills the pen.
The pen must be raised carefully in a vertical
direction so as to avoid carrying some
of the ink out on the points.
ft can be seen that when a draftsman is
holding a T square or square in a certain
position that this device affords an opportunity
to refill the pen with only one hand.
It is claimed for the feeder that it does
corrode easily, prevents evapoi ation anil
saves ink.
The price is 50 cents, sold hy Williams,
Biown & Earle, 91S Chestnut stieet, Philadelphia,
Pa.

VOL. IX.
By Ellis Soper.*
IP En ie
E
JULY, 1909 No. 7
Crushing Plants.
FROM primitive man, who, in order to secure material from which
to fashion his war clubs, axes, ceremonials and other articles, built
a fire against the rock and then dashed water upon its heated surface,
to the modern quarry in which hundreds of tons of dynamite are
exploded at one time and the rock broken into pieces often weighing five
tons each and loaded by enormous steam shovels into cars, thence discharged
into giant crushers which reduce these five-ton pieces to sixinch
pieces and smaller, in five seconds, i.s an advance of such magnitude
as to deserve much study and consideration.
The most common type of quarry and crushing plant is that which
produces crushed rock for railroad ballast, road making, etc., and consists
generally of small dump carts drawn by mules, or narrow gauge
cars, the carts or cars being loaded by hand anel clumped into a crusher,
from which the material is elevated and discharged into bins or screened,
as desired.
The general arrangement of the modern quarry and crushing plant
operated either in connection with a mine, cement plant, or independently
for ballast, concrete materials, etc., varies, of course, with the local conditions,
character of the materials to be quarried and crushed, and the
uses to which the product is to be put.
•President The Soper Co , Detroit, Mich.

406 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
~3~"5

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 407
COMPARISON OF ORDINARY CRUSHING PLANT VS. PLANT EQUIPPED WITH
GIANT HREAKER.
We have selected for our comparisons a crushing plant of 1,000 tons
capacity in 10 hours; material, ordinary lime stone of medium hardness.
The prevailing practice i.s as follows :
Material is quarried in the ordinary manner; broken up into pieces
averaging 8-in. to 12-in. cubes, loaded by hand into cars, which are hauled
by mules or horses to the foot of the incline leading to the crushing plant.
The car is hauled from here either by a "barney," or hoisting engine to
a tipple, which automatically clumps the car into the crusher (Gyratory
Type) which is capable of receiving a 16-in. or 18-in. cube of rock. From
this crusher the material is lifteel or discharged into rotary screens, the
screened portions falling into bins, and the unscreened rock or "tailings"
being either returned to the first crusher or discharged into a smaller
crusher, from which the material is elevated back into the bins. Such an
arrangement is shown in Fig. I. In this sketch, a power plant is shown
together with a line shaft for driving crushers, screens and elevators.
A steam-actuated air compressor is shown in the engine room, it
being assumed that air will be useel for drilling purposes. While it is
commonly assumed that air is much cheaper than steam for drilling purposes,
such is not the case. Disregarding the loss of heat energy by
radiation from the steam line, it requires approximately 25 per cent more
fuel to operate drills than when steam is used. If the steam pipes were
covered, a much greater saving would be effected by the use of steam.
However, in ordinary practice the cost of operation is about the same,
and the use of air is adviseel if the fuel costs are not prohibitive.
1
H
s 2 <
« K r f _ r - — — - — w w
H.P. Rta.UVR£Q.
Horse Power Required i„r Various Crushers
Fig. 2. Table and Cukve Showing
and Sizes of Rock.
s
*
*^
l •tt _
_•_• t w
< 1 1
4. ft
5 It
. It
1\ \_
- 11
3 tl
10 t4-
it ib
*
_
»
IT..
it
tti
Hi
%1._
It
ll«.
\ ._
tl».

^ ^ N -
x V ^ v ^ ^ ^

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 409
Within the last few years the more progressive crushing plants have
installed steam shovels for loading the rock into cars, having been forced
to do this in many instances because of the unreliability of the quarry
labor. The result has been a decided decrease in the cost per ton of loading,
but the rock must be broken into small pieces as when loaded by hand
in order that the crusher will not become "clogged."
The manufacturers, realizing that the so-called "No. 8" crusher
would not admit a rock over an 18-in. cube, designed and put upon the
market a "No. 9" which would take a 21-in. cube, and later a "No. 10'
was brought forth which would admit a 24-in. cube. These were decided
strides toward reducing the cost per ton ; the saving not alone being confined
to the decrease in labor of breaking the rock to the 24-in. size, but
less explosives per ton was required than formerly, as it was not necessary
to "shatter'' the rock into such small pieces when blasting, ft was
also discovered that the larger crusher produced more tons per H. P.
hour than the smaller size.
The H. P. curve of the different size crushers is shown in Fig. No. 2,
based upon maximum cubes of rock they will receive.
These decided savings resulted in the building and installing of a
giant or mammoth crusher (Number 18) more than,double the weight of
the largest crusher built at that time. These crushers were put into operation
within the last vear, and the results obtained have been more than
satisfactory.
Fig. 3 shows an ideal lay-out fur a 1.000-ton capacity plant and along
the same lines as that shown in Fig. 1. but utilizing a No. 18 breaker and
steam shovel for loading the rock in place of the No. 8 crusher and hand
loading as shown in Fig. I.
fn comparing the installation costs of the arrangements as shown
in Fi°-ures 1 and 3, it must be borne in mind that there is a limit to the
capacity of the first plant; that is. a No. 8 crusher is easily capable of
producing from 1.000 to 1.800 tons in ten hours, depending, of course,
upon the fineness to which the rock is crushed, hardness, stratification,
and size of rock delivered to it. However, it is assumed that the two
plants are operating under exactly the same conditions anel upon the same
material. Due to the big difference in the cost of a large crusher, it is not
advisable to install such a machine in plants of less than 1.000 tons
capacity per day. But in the case of the No. 18 installation, the capacity
of 1,000 tons can be increased eight times if desired with the addition
of a relatively small percentage of power and small crushers as compared
with the No. 8 installation, fncreased storage being the same in both
instances.

plan (Bins omitted)
Cnishing Plant Equipped with one No. 18, two No. 8 and two No. 5 Gates Gyratory Breakers.
1-isl 1.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 411
The following is the approximate cost of the installation shown in
Fig. i:
QUARRY EQUIPMENT.
30 3-Ton Steel Cars (36-in. Gauge) $ 3,000.00
140 Tons 40-lb. Rail with spurs, splices, etc., in place.
(Trestle included) 4,000.00
3 Large Drills with rubber hose attachments, etc.
2 Air Hammers 8^0.00
End Elevation of Crushing Plant Equipped with one No. ,8, two No. 8 and two No. 5 Gates Gyratory Breakers.
Fit: 4 (Continue!!^

412 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
i Steam Driven Air Compressor, installed complete with
receiver, capacity 300 cu. ft., free air per min 1,350.00
1 Friction Hoist with 2,000 ft. y^-'m. cable installed with
sheaves, idlers, etc., complete 650.00
CRUSHING PLANT.
Buildings—
(Wood-sides and roof covered with corrugated iron). Including
storage tanks, etc 13,500.00
Machinery—
1 No. 8 Crusher installed 5,200.00
2 No. 5 Crushers installed 3,900.00
1 48-in.xi2-ft. Screen installed 900.00
1 i8-in.xi3-in. Continuous Bucket Elevator 78-ft. centers 1,300.00
1 48-in.xi8-ft. Screen 1,075.00
POWER PLANT.
1 250-H. P. Simple Corliss Engine installed 2,500.00
3 100-H. P Water Tube Boilers complete with heater,
pumps, etc., in place 6,300.00
Lineshafting, Rope, Drives, Belting, etc., complete 2,600.00
Machinery and Blacksmith Shop Equipment (including
tool room containing sledges, hammers, wrenches,
etc.) 2,500.00
Total Cost $49,625.00
Fig. Nb. IS Breaker Single Discharge Type.

No. 18 Gates Rock and Ore Breaker.
Fie. 6.

414 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
It is assumed that a face of not less than 20 to 25 feet can be secured
for the steam shovel. Of course, the higher the face the less the shovel
will have to move and an appreciable reduction in the cost per ton is
realized.
The following is the cost of the installation shown in Fig. 3:
QUARRY EQUIPMENT.
15 10-Ton Side Dump Cars (Std. Gauge) $ 2,200.00
1 95-Ton Steam Shovel 13,000.00
130 Tons 60-lb. Rail in place complete with splices, frogs,
ties, etc 5,600.00
3 Large Drills with rubber hose attachments, etc.
2 Air Hammers 850.00
1 Dinky Locomotive for hauling cars 2,600.00
Fig. 7. Concrete Foundation witi
Forms Still in Place.
•
4L.
Jfazf
j^PVJ
r :
!r>
gl k
f
2 \ y M
x • 1
^^*** — .^iJfc_i^_^__^__^__^ i^VHK_flHHH|^H,•
£.;„•- - —
.
I 1 J.
W_ —*^3lJ*W?!j ^Mp
l. _,"__t3i!^S3c-F m
xxlS'i
^•t-4-,j3W
I «_t -jS
Mk_u, rg5f*_i_^_M_
Fig. S. Concrete Foundation
"Stripped."
CRUSHING PLANT.
(Wood-sides and roof covered with corrugated iron), including
storage tanks, etc '. . _ 75,000.00
1 No. 18 Crusher installed 24^000.00

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 415
2 No. 6 Crushers installed 5,200.00
1 48-in.xi2-ft. Screen installed 900.00
1 i8-in.xi3-in. Continuous Bucket Elevator 78-ft. Centers 1,300.00
1 48-in.xi8-ft. Screen 1,075.00
POWER PLANT.
1 400-H. P. Compound Engine 6,000.00
3 150-H. P. Water Tube Boilers, complete with heater,
pumps, etc 9,450.00
Lineshafting, Rope. Drivers, Belting, etc 3,200.00
Machine and Blacksmith Shop Equipment, including tools.
sledges, hammers, wrenches, etc 1,350.00
Total Cost $92,975.00
Fig.
View Showing Bottom Shell in Position. Weight 75,470 Lbs.
The following is the actual cost of operating a quarry and a crushing
plant similar to the one shown in Fig. i, common labor being $1.50 per
day, powder $.115 per pound, power $0,004 Per H. P. hour. The breaking
and loading being done by contract, $0.30 per car or $0,075 per ton.
Cost
Per Ton
Drilling $°-°3
Shooting
Labor °°7
Explosives °35

416 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Breaking and Loading (hand) I05
General Expense OID5
Total for Quarrying $Q-i935
Crushing °33
Transportation °43
Power (250 H. P. at $0,004 Per H- p- hr-) °°I
Total Cost delivered to bins $0.2705
Interest on Investment ($50,000.00 at 6%) 001
Depreciation, Renewals at \2'f 002
Grand Total Cost delivered to bins $0.2735
The following is the cost of operating plant shown in Fig. 3:
Drilling $0.0275
Shooting
Labor 006
Explosives 03
Loading (Steam Shovel) 05
General Expense 002
Total for Quarrying $0.1155
Fig. 10. View of One-half of Upper Section Being Put in Place.

Crushing
Transportation
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Power (400 H. P at $0,004 Per H. P hr.)
417
.025
.02
.0016
Total Cost delivered to bins .$0.1621
Interest at 6% on $93,000.00 0018
Depreciation, Renewals, etc 0036
Grand Total Cost delivered to bins $0.1675
Fig. 4 shows Plan and Elevations of one-of the many arrangements
possible with a "Double-Discharge" No. 18 Breaker.
In the above costs, repairs, supplies, etc., are all figured in, but do
not include cost of stripping, as this varies considerably in different
11. Scaffolding for Erection
of Balance of Breaker.
propositions. For an overburden from three to five feet deep, the cost
of stripping per ton of rock produced is approximately $0.03. Comparing
the above costs, it will be noticed that although the plant with the mammoth
crusher and steam shovel costs, installed, nearly double the smaller

418
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
plant, still the interest on this additional cost is negligible as compared
with the saving effected by the use of the steam shovel and the labor
saved in breaking up the rock to "one" and "two-man" size for the smaller
crusher. In blasting, it is simply necessary in the case of the steam shovel
to move it backward on its own track, "shoot off" the blast and the shovel
is ready for work immediately. Whenever pieces of rock are too large
for the "dipper," these are pushed aside and drilled with a small air
hammer and broken up at noon or night as the case may be, it not being
necessary on account of these small blasts to move the shovel. There are
no "over-head" charges in the above costs, as these are too uncertain to
attempt to estimate, but should not exceed, under ordinary conditions,
over $0.03 to $0.08 per ton.
Fig. 5 is a general view of a No. 18 Breaker, "single-discharge" type
with hopper. The main shaft with Breaking head is shown suspended
to the left.
Fig 1-2. Main Shaft with Breaking Head (Manganese Steel)
Being Placed.
Fig. 6 is a general view of a No. 18 Breaker, "double-discharge"
type without hopper.
The one shown in Fig. 6 has never been operated to capacity, and
it is claimed by the manufacturers of the "double-discharge" type that
the two discharges are necessary when producing over 3,000 tons per day
of 10 hours.
The accompanying engravings, Figs. 7 to 16, are views showing the
installation and erection of one of the No. 18 breakers. This breaker

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 419
weighs 426,000 pounds. The main shaft with breaking head weighs
65,000 pounds. It is operated by a 300-H. P. motor, which also drives
the screen 5 ft.x25 ft. for this crusher.
Fig. 17 shows a Power Curve for this crusher, the power necessary
to crush each carload of rock is shown. The readings were taken from
an ammeter located on the switchboard.
It will be noticed ohat the maximum power required or "peak load"
occurs at the instant the load is discharged into the crusher, the power
decreasing each revolution of the crusher shaft. In this particular installation,
the crusher was installed tn aelmit of the use uf a large steam
shovel for loading and handling the rock as it was not desired to operate
the crusher was empty, that is, between lnads, are not shown graphically.
the crusher was empty, that is, beoween loads, are not shown graphically.
The actual time the crusher was loaded has been computed and the actual
capacity of the crusher per hour found to be approximately 800 tons.
The load shown graphically includes that required to elrive the screen and
several small motors on the line. Correcting the figures, it was found
that it actually required to drive the crusher alone under maximum peak
load 226 H. P and approximately 58 H. P to elrive the crusher empty.
Speed of the countershaft was 300 revolutions per minute. Average
H. P. required to drive the crusher loaded, screen, etc., not included, was
approximately 103 FT. P
Fig. 13. Crusher Erected.

420 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The figure immediately at the top .of each division, for instance 75—
100—45, etc., represents the actual number of seconds required for the
load to pass through the crusher. Wherever there is a break in the downward
path of the curve, a small carload of rock was discharged into the
crusher before the preceding load had passed through crusher. It will be
noted that the average time for a single load to be crushed was 00 seconds,
the- loads averaging from seven tn ten tons each. The crusher was set
Fig. 14. Slot in Quarry—Showing "Dipper" of Shovel and Rock Direct From Blast
Ready for Loading.
so as to crush to six inches and smaller. At the time this crusher was
installed, it was not known what power would be necessary to operate
it, and to be safe a 300 H. P. was installed, but a 200 or 225 H. P. motor
would be ample.
There have been several installations of Edison Giant or "inertia"
rolls, which is a novel invention of Air. Edison for crushing rock by the
"inertia" of heavy revolving rolls. These rolls are about six feet in
diameter with five feet face, steel chilled plates with projections for shattering
up the rock. A general view of same is shown in Fig. 19. These
rolls are capable of crushing a five or six-foot cube, and have a total
capacity about equal or slightly greater than a No. 18 gyratory breaker.
Rolls of this size require at peak load approximately 450 H. P. and about
60 H. P. when operated empty. The rolls cost approximately $25,000.00
and a small royalty per ton of rock crushed is also required by the
patentees.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 421
F~ig. 15 Train Load of Rock for Crusher. (These Cars Were Later Repl\ced by 6
Yd. Carsi.
The following are the actual costs of operating a No. 18 Breaker as
compared with a Giant Roll:
COMPARISON OPERATING COSTS PER TON
Giant
i,200-Ton Output Edison
Rolls.
Fineness crushed to 10 in.
Labor $0.0118
Oil and Waste 0055
Repairs, Maintenance, etc
Power
0020
Total $0.02()7 $0.0111
No. 18
Gyratory
Crusher.
6 in.
$0.0044
.0004
.0020
(250 H. P. I .0104 (103 H. P.) .0043
Interest at 6% on Cost of Machines Installed Per Ton.
Edison Rolls $30,000.00 .005
Crusher 24,000.00 .004
Note:—Power in both cases above figured at $0,005 Per H- P Hr-
Royalty on the Edison Rolls is not figured in the costs.
Depreciation is not over 6 to 8% and is assumed to be the same in
each case. There is a slight difference in the total costs of machines in­
stalled in favor of the No. 18 Breaker.

iX
^ _1 «
4W-I.9 _> «_-»•_...\ m-^iO

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 423
Referring to this comparison it will be noted that it requires considerably
more labor and power to operate the Rolls than the "Giant"
Breaker.

424
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
Fig. 18. General Arrangement of No. IS Crusher at the Dixie Portland
Cement Plant.
Fig. 19. View of Edison Giant Rolls.

Foundation for the Building for the
U. S. Naval Experiment Station
at Annapolis, Maryland.
By Harrison W. Latta.
SOME years ago the presiding officer, in turning over to the C
for discussion a paper on somewhat the same lines as the one to
be read to-night, remarked that not only the subject-matter but the
treatment of it was unusual. This may have been due to the difference
between the contractor's and the engineer's point of view, as most of our
papers are written by those who are engaged in the profession of engineering,
and not by those engaged in the business of engineering. However,
they should not be so far apart, for the greatest economy consistent
with the best results is the main end to be sought, except in matters of
experiment and investigation, and even then the final aim is still the
same, when the results of the investigation are given to the profession
for use in active practice.
The subject of this paper, the foundation of the Experiment Station
for the Bureau of Steam Engineering of the Navy Department, might
well be supplemented by a review of the nature of the work to be done,
and the results to be accomplished by the plant for which the building
is constructed. The equipment would also make a most interesting paper,
but it is a matter with which the author is not familiar, his work having
only to do with the construction. The present operations comprise but
half of the final plant as now planned. When the work is complete, our
large battleships can be brought to this station and every detail of their
mechanical equipment tested, their efficiency determined, and their weak
points discovered and remedied.
Several years ago a thirty-foot channel was dredged from deep water
in the Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of the Severn River, a distance of
about four miles. This channel has maintained itself without dredging,
so that deep-draft vessels can have access to the Annapolis harbor, which
will eventually be dredged to thirty feet. With a good harbor and ready
access to the deep water of the bay, the location of the building opposite
the Naval Academy is most advantageous. At this point of the river
there is a shoal extending 500 feet from the north shore, covered by about

426 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
a foot of water, the bottom falling off rapidly from this shallow water to
a depth of thirty feet at a distance of eight hundred feet from shore.
The building was located on this shoal with its outer end near this deep
water. A dredged channel parallel with the building and thirty feet from
it was to furnish the material for filling around the building and give
access to it from the main channel. The building will eventually be surrounded
by a sea-wall, but at present a wooden bulkhead protects it, and
the fill around it, from the action of the water.
As stated, the outer end of the building (which is 300 feet long and
200 feet wide) was to be about four hundred feet from the shore-line.
Test borings taken over this entire area showed a top crust of sand,
underneath which was a stratum of mud, overlying a bed of fine sand.
The mud disappeared entirely at the shore end and increased in thickness
at the outer end of the building, forming a wedge with its wide part
toward the river. A pile foundation was necessary, with piles ninety feet
long for the outer end of the building, the lengths decreasing toward the
shore.
Proposals were asked for the foundation and fill complete, including
the bulkhead and the dredged channel from which the filling material was
to be taken. The prices varied from $70,000 to $76,000, and the award
was made at the lower figure. Accompanying this lower bid was an
alternate proposition suggesting a number of changes looking toward a
reduction in the cost, without any loss in the efficiency of the Station.
Among the most important of these was the proposition to move the
location of the building one hundred feet inshore and increase the length
of the dredged channel by a similar amount. This greatly decreased the
length and number of long piles required, and at the same time gave
additional fill which was available for making more land around the building.
The plans called for the fill next to the bulkhead to be made of
oyster shells, and the rest to be of sand dredged from the channel. A
considerable saving was effected by omitting the shells; their purpose was
simply to prevent the sancl being washed out through the cracks between
the planks in the bulkhead. To accomplish this result, narrow strips of
board were nailed over the cracks. As stated, there was a layer of mud
under the top crust of sand; in dredging the channel the specifications
allowed only the sand to be used in the fill. The mud had to be scowed
to deep water in the Chesapeake Bay, a distance of about five miles. An
examination of the borings showed that the proportion of mud dredged
from that part of the channel, where it would be available for fill, would
be small, and when mixed with the sand and dried out would make fully
as good filling as fine sand. A considerable sum was saved by allowing

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 427
all this material to be used for fill. To still further economize, several
other changes were made, particularly in the finish of the exposed surfaces
of the tanks, pits, and pipe tunnels. The final result was a reduction
of $12,000 in the cost of the work, which was $58,000 instead of
$70,000, as originally estimated.
Operations were started by dredging the channel; sufficient material
was taken out first to make a fill of about four feet over the area covered
by the building, which brought the surface two feet above water-level,
and gave solid ground on which to use the land piledriver, as the water
was too shallow to use a floating driver. The first work done, after
driving a few test piles to determine definitely the lengths required, was
to put in the bulkhead, for with every storm a large amount of fill would
be washed away from this exposed position, open on three sides to the
waters of the river and bay. This was most tedious and expensive work;
frequently the fill built up during the morning would be carried away in
the afternoon before the piles could be driven to secure the bulkhead.
After the bulkhead was closed and the fill made, the next work was
on the foundation piles. All the piles were southern pine, brought by
schooner from Jacksonville and unloaded at the site of the work. Those
who have never bought timber of this kind and shipped it by vessel have
little conception of the vexatious delays and annoyances which are continually
arising. The piles are usually purchased delivered alongside the
vessel at the shipping point, subject to inspection at that point, and loaded
by the vessel. The vessel is chartered to load and carry the piles to their
destination, but as the inspection is made alongside the vessel while she
is loading, it may happen, as did on one cargo, that with a liberal allowance
for rejections, so many piles are condemned that there is not a full
load of accepted ones ready for her. Demurrage rates are from $50 to
$75 per day, so she cannot wait for more timber to be cut, and has to
come away without a full cargo. To avoid this difficulty and make sure
of having a full cargo, the inspection was made before the arrival of the
vessel. The piles are hauled down, rafted up in the water, inspected, and
ready for the vessel when she arrives. In this case the vessel is sure to
meet with head winds and make such poor time that on her arrival the
timber is water-logged, the rafts broken loose, and many of the piles
sunk, and again she must leave with a short cargo. As the vessel is
chartered at a lump sum, these short loads greatly increase the cost of the
freight. When shipping business is good, it is very difficult to get vessels
to take piles, as they are troublesome to load, and stow away poorly. It is
almost impossible to charter a vessel except for a lump sum, for the
reason that there is always doubt about getting a full cargo, and because

428 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
sizes of timber in the rough vary so greatly that the shipping agent can
tell little from past experience as to how many linear feet his vessel will
carry; the load depends altogether on bulk and not on weight.
The piledriver for this work was sixty feet in height, and as the
specifications called for a three-thousand-pound hammer, it was built
correspondingly heavy. In order to make the machine as light as possible,
the boiler was not mounted on it in the usual way; a skeleton engine
without boiler was placed on the driver. A central boiler plant was installed
of sufficient capacity to furnish steam for the pumps and concrete
mixer as well as the piledriver. In the case of the piledriver, which was
of course being moved constantly, the connection to the engine was made
by flexible copper tubing. The ordinary rubber steam hose will not answer
for this purpose, as the sudden throwing on of the steam in raising
the hammer causes it to burst. The piledriving for the building held out
closely to the test borings; seventy- to seventy-five-foot piles were needed
at the outer end and the lengths decreased to thirty-five feet at the shore
end. The longest of these extended fifteen feet above the piledriver
leads; they were put down with a water jet until the head came under
the hammer. The driving started hard through the top crust, but as soon
as the pile reached the stratum of mud it went down easily until the
lower bed of sancl was reached, when it gradually brought up to the required
test of one-inch penetration for a blow of 50,000 foot-pounds.
The piles, bringing up as they did in fine sand, where the supporting
power was largely a matter of frictional resistance, varied considerably in
length. However, in general the results were what were to be expected
from the borings.
The piles were cut off at low water and capped with concrete, and as
the fill had been only partially made, much excavation for the foundations
was saved. The balance of the fill was made after the concrete had been
brought up to grade. The specifications provided for concrete in the
proportion of 1 : 3 : 7 ; local sand and pebbles were used. With this rather
lean concrete, thorough mixing was needed. All mixing was done by
machine and the mixture made very wet. No particular attempt was
made at a surface finish, as all the work was in foundations, but the concrete
hardened up well and gave good clean-cut faces on the removal of
the forms.
The pipe trenches and tunnels and pits were waterproofed with tarpaper
and pitch, with excellent results; the only place where any difficulty
was encountered was in the pump pit, and that was not caused by any
defects in the placing of the waterproofing. This pit is eighteen feet
wide by thirty-five feet long and thirteen feet deep, the bottom being six

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 429
feet below mean low water. It is designed to support heavy pumping
machinery. The foundation is on piles capped by a concrete slab reinforced
by a grillage of steel "I" beams. Concrete walls, two feet thick
at the bottom, form the sides of the pit. The waterproofing is placed
inside these walls and is covered by a four-inch slab of concrete on the
bottom and by four-inch brick walls around the sides. It was not expected
that the concrete walls would be perfectly tight, and a sump hole
was left in one end of the pit so that any seepage through the walls and
rain-water could be pumped from it while the waterproofing was being
placed. When the pit was completed and the waterproofing was all in
place except the closing of the sump hole, the leakage through the bottom
and the walls was six gallons per hour—not a great amount when it is
considered that 1:3:7 concrete was used, that there was a head of
water outside the tank of seven to eight feet, and that the heaviest part
of the wall was but two feet thick. After the sump hole was closed and
the waterproofing completed, there was no water coming into the tank.
However, after twelve hours levels taken on the bottom of the tank
showed that it had raised slightly, and there was a hair crack down the
center of the concrete slab. The waterproofing was holding, but even
with the small seepage the pressure of water was raising the bottom.
The sump hole was at once opened, and the water drained out from below
the waterproofing, when the bottom went back to its former position. It
was decided to place a six-inch slab of reinforced concrete over the bottom
of the pit to take the water pressure. This was done and the sump
hole was allowed to remain open so that the pit could be pumped out;
there was no roof covering it and all the drainage from the pipe trenches
ran into it. It is interesting to note the results of this treatment on the
seepage through the concrete wall. At the time of the completion of the
pit, January, 1907, there were six gallons per hour coming into the pit;
in January, 1908, this had decreased to five gallons per twenty-four hours,
although the sump hole was still open. During the year 1908 the water
in the pit was for the most part kept lower than the water in the surrounding
ground. The continued passage of water through the concrete
causes a chemical change to take place which, together with the sediment
carried by the water, fills up the pores. The author has known of this
peculiarity of stopping seepage and small leaks by the passage of water
throuo-h the body of the concrete, but has never before had so good an
opportunity to demonstrate the fact in his own experience.
During the year occupied by the construction of the building the pit
was exposed to the weather. From either this or some other cause the
membrane waterproofing so deteriorated that dampness, and in places

430 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
seepage, came through it and appeared on the brick lining of the pit. To
stop these leaks numerous waterproofing compounds and paints were
tried. The paints all required a dry surface and were therefore not
available. Some of the anhydrous powders were found to be effective
when they could be used in a considerable volume of concrete, but as the
size of the pit could not be reduced by increasing the thickness of the
walls, some method had to be found by which a plaster coating would
hold back the water. Wunner's bitumen emulsion mixed with cement
plaster and put on in two coats, each about }i inch thick, was found to
fulfill the requirements. This plaster could be put on a wet surface, and
even on a surface where water was seeping through the brick-work. The
results were entirely satisfactory, and the inside walls of the pit were
left perfectly dry.
The intake leading to the pump pit is a fifty-four-inch iron pipe
ending in the intake well, which is located in the channel in a depth of
about eight feet of water. In order to build this intake well—which is
of concrete closed with an iron gate at the outer end—it was necessary
to construct a cofferdam. The use of steel sheet piling was decided upon,
for when removed the intake would be left clear and the difficulties
avoided of removing a built up and clay-filled cofferdam. Sheet piling
sixteen feet in length, of the ball-and-socket pattern, was used. The
piles had a penetration of about six feet in the sand. In the ball-andsocket
joint was placed a wooden spline to make the piling water-tight.
How?ever, the water came in so fast that it was impossible to keep it out
sufficiently for work, until the joints of the piles were caulked with
oakum. This was done from the inside, as the pump lowered the water
in the cofferdam. In this way the upper leaks were closed before the
lower ones had sufficient head on them to make them serious. Each foot
was caulked as the water fell, and then another foot gained, until the
bottom was reached. After this the clam was comparatively tight, although
considerable water came up through the sand bottom. When the
intake was completed, the sheet piling was removed with no great difficulty.
The timber bulkhead surrounding the site of the building has been
mentioned; this will eventually be replaced by a sea-wall; the piles in the
bulkhead were driven with this in view; they will eventually furnish part
of the support of the sea wall. The destructive action of the teredo is
seen in the bulkhead. This seaworm is found in these waters only during
June, July, and August, but one season was sufficient for it to eat away
some of the three-inch planks of the bulkhead, leaving no more substance
to them than in a sponge. A blow with the blunt side of an axe would

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 431
go clear through tbe plank, even though the outside of the timber appeared
to be in good condition.
Transportation was another difficulty on this work ; as everything,
including men, tools, and materials, had to be brought in by water, the
location was as inaccessible as if it was on an island. The nearest railroad
station was four miles away, and the condition of the roads cannot
well be described.
When the final filling and grading are clone, this contract is completed
and ready for the builder. The foundation contractor, after working
all year in mud and water, leaves a neatly leveled off piece of ground
with nothing to show for his work but the tops of a few piers and founda­
tion walls.

T h e U s e of Peat.
A NUMBER of cities and towns in the United States may obtain
their light, heat and power direct from peat bogs in the near
future. The statement is made by Federal experts that millions
of dollars' worth of fuel lies undeveloped in the swamps and bogs of the
country, awaiting only the genius and business ability of the American
before it drives the wheels of progress. Its value, on a basis of $3 a
ton, roughly guessed at by experts of the Geological Survey, who have
been studying the peat deposits for some time, is more than thirty-eight
billion dollars—more money than is represented in all the property, stock,
implements and buildings owned by the farmers of the United States.
With the coal supply being used at a tremendous rate, peat is expected
to become a most important auxiliary fuel and one that will prolong
the life of the coal itself. An important fact which leads the experts
to believe that peat will soon come into quite general use in certain
parts of the country is that it is as a rule found in quantities in regions
far removed from the coal fields, so far that the cost of transporting the
coal amounts to several times the cost of the fuel itself at the mines.
The states containing the greatest amount of peat are the eastern
Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern Iowa, Illinois, Indiana,
Ohio, New York, the New England States, New Jersey, portions
of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Florida.
A thorough investigation of the peat resources is now being undertaken
by the Geological Survey, not only as to the amount of peat and its
location, but also its use. Prof. Charles A. Davis, of the Technologic
Branch, has general charge of the investigations, while Prof. Robert H.
Fernald, consulting engineer in charge of gas producer tests, is endeavoring
to find the value of peat as a fuel for heating and power purposes.
The latter but recently returned from a trip to Europe where he investigated
the uses of peat and found the older countries much farther advanced
along this line than the United States. Professor Fernald returns
with the belief that peat will soon be extensively used in the United
States. In Ireland, he found that peat was being used generally for
domestic purposes, but not by the manufacturing establishments. "Sweden
is dotted with peat deposits and its bogs are now being extensively utilized
for power purposes," says Professor Fernald. "During the last eight
years new bogs have been constantly added to the list until bogs pro-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 433
ducing from 2,000 to 5,000 tons of dry peat for power purposes per
year are found on every hand. The consulting engineers who have installed
some of these plants are unquestionably working 111 the right
direction, placing the power plant directly in the peat bog and transmitting
the electric current to the surrounding towns. The current is
being used for manufacturing purposes and also for lighting both the
streets and houses. The installation of the power plant in the bog or at
the mine has been advocated in this country by the Technologic Branch
of the Survey for installation of several thousand horse power only, yet
this principle is applied in Sweden to small plants and may be feasible
in certain parts of this country.
"Another development in the line of peat industry which promises
splendid returns is the use of peat in by-product recovery gas plants.
From these plants both gas for power and sulphate of ammonia can be
obtained in commercially paying quantities. Both the utilization of peat
for producer gas and for the recovery of sulphate of ammonia are perfectly
feasible with American peats. Although the work done on peat
at the Survey experiment plant has been limited, it has been demonstrated
that gas for power can be made easily from both Florida and Massachusetts
peat."
Professor Davis, who has just issued jointly with Edson A. Bastin
a bulletin on peat, is optimistic on the future of peat, yet he believes the
development of the industry should be accompanied by great caution.
"The operation of a gas engine at the experiment plant on peat in
one or two tests has shown that this fuel is but little inferior to many
grades of soft coal now on the market and superior to some in the quantity
of power gas produced," says Professor Davis. "I believe the day
is coming soon when cities located near the peat bogs and away from the
coal fields will obtain their power and light from peat. I understand that
Florida is to have a power plant soon that will use peat as fuel and will
transmit the electricity to Jacksonville.
"In the development of this industry, however, it must be remembered
that peat contains from 85 to 90 per cent water as it comes from
the bogs. All but 15 or 20 per cent can be dried out by exposure of the
peat to the air. In burning peat in gas producers to make power gas,
this peat will burn successfully with 40 per cent moisture, which is im­
possible in a furnace.
"The burning of peat for power, heat, or light is but one of its
many uses. The by-products of great value include coke, illuminating
oils, lubricating oils, paraffin wax, phenol, asphalt, wood alcohol, acetic
acid, ammonium sulphate and combustible gases of good fuel value. If

434 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
used for fuel gas there is enough nitrogen stored in the peat resources
of the country to supply six hundred and forty-four million tons with a
value of thirty-six billion dollars in addition to the gas. Peat is capable
of furnishing potential substitutes for wood in various departments of
industry, and may relieve to a considerable extent the drain upon the
vanishing forests. Paper is now being made from peat in Michigan.
Possibly 5 per cent of the total peat in the United States, or 644,400,000
tons, is suitable for the manufacture of coarse paper and pasteboard,
which will reduce the consumption of wood by whatever amount it displaces
wood-pulp in the manufacture of such articles."

Turpentine F r o m W a s t e W o o d .
By J. E. Teeple, Ph. D.*
THE name turpentine is stated to be of Persian origin and was
probably first applied to the resinous exudation from some member
of the sumac family. It is now confined to the resinous exudation
of the conifer family, more particularly those of the genus Pinus,
the pine proper. During recent years, efforts have been made by interested
parties, and particularly by some of the state legislatures, notably
those of Georgia and New York, to restrict the name turpentine and oil
(spirit) of turpentine to the resins and their distillates coming from the
live tree as opposed to distillates of resins from waste wood. But this
attempt has not met with general approval.
What may be called the old process oil of turpentine, or gum spirits
of turpentine, is derived mainly from southwestern France, northwestern
Russia, and southern United States. In the United States the most productive
tree is Pinus palustris, or long leaf pine, although the Cuban
loblolly pine, and in many cases, even the short leaf pine give paying
yields. In France, the pinus maritime, and in Russia, the pinus sylvestris
are the trees most commonly worked. The well-known procedure in the
United States is to prepare the tree by "boxing," i. e., cutting a receptacle
in the base and "facing" or preparing this receptacle for the gum. Then
every week throughout the turpentine season, during the summer months,
the tree is subjected to the hacking process, which consists in inflicting
a fresh wound by cutting off a narrow section of the bark and outer sap
wood of the tree. This process of wounding the tree has two effects.
First, there is an exudation of the normal sap of the tree which might
be compared to bleeding when an animal is wounded ; anil second, there
is a pathological production of resinous material in the neighborhood of
the wound which might be compared to the formation of a scab. This
latter material probably makes up the greater part of the flow of gum,
and to keep the process in operation it is necessary to re-wound the tree
every week. As the resinous material flows out from the tree into the
boxes, it is dipped at intervals of about three weeks, and conveyed to
stills where distillation with water or steam drives off the spirit of turpentine,
amounting to approximately 20 per cent of the total, and leaves
*In "Chemical Engineer."

436 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the non-volatile material, which after drying and filtering, becomes the
rosin of commerce. The yield from any tree depends on the season,
weather, vitality of the tree, expanse of tree top, etc., anil as the vitality
is certainly decreased by the system of boxing, the cup and gutter system
which obviates boxing has been coming into more extensive use within
the last few years. This is a modification of a system that has been in
use in France for over forty years. Tbe greater part of the resinous
material from the tree may be looked upon as a pathological product
resulting from the wound, anil not a normal product of the tree. Wounding
a tree causes the formation of quite a large number of rosin ducts
in the neighborhood of the wound, which gradually become stopped up
with the resinous exudation, so that when a tree has been worked for
several years, the whole body of the tree up to a height of 10 to 15 feet,
or at least as high as it has been chipped, becomes thoroughly saturated
with this resinous material, which apparently does not differ in any appreciable
degree from the resinous material that has been collected in the
boxes, excepting that it contains a smaller percentage of spirit of turpentine
and a larger percentage of rosin. This wood saturated with the
resinous product from the tree is known as "light wood," and when we
consider the rapidity with which turpentine orchards are disappearing, it
is obvious that we must look to light wood as the future source of turpentine.
When a tree is blown down by any of the frequent winds, or
dies from loss of vitality, due to boxing, the sap wood rots-away, leaving
this light wood and the heart of the tree thoroughly saturated with resinous
material, and capable of resisting the action of the elements for decades.
Roots and stumps also become rich in these resinous products,
and they were the first to be utilized in North Carolina, for the production
of pine tar, by distillation. It soon became evident that there were
considerable quantities of turpentine in the pine stumps, and many attempts
were made to recover this, the earliest patent dating as far back
as 1841. Very little was accomplished in a commercial way, however,
until a plant was built in 1872 at Wilmington, N. C, for the destructive
distillation of "light wood" and stumps. "Light wood" is exceedingly
heavy, weighing 4,000 or 5,000 pounds per cord, and probably derives its
name from the fact that it is particularly desired by the negroes for making
their fires and for use as torches. When distilled, it should give all
the products of "hard wood," viz., charcoal, acetic acid (recovered as
acetate of lime), wood alcohol, gas anel tar; but the tar being "pine tar,"
is much more valuable than the corresponding product from hardwood,
and there is a much larger yield, due to the production of tar from the
rosin present. In addition to all these products, there are obtained from

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 437
6 to 30 gallons per cord of spirits, depending on the quality of the "light
wood." The tar, by further distillation, produces pitch, which finds a
steady market, and tar oil, which, on account of its creosote contents, is
worked up into disinfectants, cable-coating, sheep dip, wood preservative,
shingle stain, etc. There is also a varying yield of wood oils, which find
some market in the drug and essential oil trade. By basing their estimates
of production of charcoal, acetate of lime anel wood alcohol on the yields
commonly known to be obtained from "hard wood," anel fur those of oil
of turpentine, tar, tar oils, anel "specialties" on the richest stumps anel
"light wood," it was easy to show on paper at least, a net profit of $50
per cord, which in a plant of ten cords per day meant $500 daily profit.
With some such figures as a basis, a great many people were persuaded
to embark in the destructive distillation of "light wood," but as soon as
these plants were under way, a great many drawbacks appeared. (1)
Their yield of wood alcohol proved to be only one or two gallons per
cord, instead of ten gallons per cord as commonly obtained from hard
wood, and the cost of manufacturing wood alcohol from this source was
found to be considerably in excess of the selling price. (2) The acetate
of lime produced, was found to be comparatively small in quantity and
poor in quality, the usual product being a brown acetate, which commanded
a very much lower price than the regular commercial gray acetate,
produced from hard wood. (3) The yields of oil of turpentine fell
far below the estimates in most cases, and proveel to have a very strong
odor of creosote and aldehyde products, and great difficulty was found in
marketing it at a satisfactory price. The objectionable odor could be
removed in the main by treatment with sulphuric acid anil caustice soda,
but the yield was very much decreased by this treatment, and the resulting
product, while having a fair odor, had lost noticeably in the valuable
drying properties. (4) The various "specialties," from which so much
was expected, usually overstocked the market after the first few gallons
were sold. (5) The charcoal was ordinarily produced far away from
blast furnaces, where the only consumption was that required for chimes-
tic heating in some not too distant city.
Many of these plants were finally abandoned ; many more were accidentally
burned; some are still standing practically in ruins. One which
was built not many years ago at the cost of about $200,000, was sold as
scrap within the last year for $20,000 or less. Of course, vigorous attempts
were made to overcome the various defects, such as heating very
gently until the spirits of turpentine had been distilled off and then increasing
the heat ; taking off the various products at different levels in the
retort; regulating the heating by various devices, so that it should be

438 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
evenly distributed throughout the retort; installing a great variety of
patent separators to make the refining easier and more accurate. A few
such plants are still in operation. The claim of some to be running at a
financial profit, is probably due to the fact that these particular plants
have worked up their tar oil into secret special compounds for which
they have found a market.
So far as the writer knows, none of them is attempting to make wood
alcohol; one at least is still making acetate of lime, and showed recently
a net profit of ic per cord and a capacity of 7 cords per day. One small
plant is using an asbestos-covered vertical retort in an endeavor to regulate
the heat; another attempted to accomplish the same object by surrounding
the retort by a huge oil bath. In the latter case material lying nearest the
sides of the retort is charred before that in the center has been warmed up
appreciably. The retorts used have been mainly of iron, varying in size
from half a cord up to five curds capacity, and requiring from 36 hours
to 5 days for the distillation of a single charge.
It seems to be evident from the above that primary destructive distillation
is not the proper method to apply from a financial point of view.
The use of a hot bath in the retort instead of round it was patented
by Johnson in 1865. This idea has been re-discovered and re-patented
within the last three or four years, and at least three plants working on
this system are now in operation. The method usually adopted is to
charge the retort with wood anel then pump it nearly full of melted rosin.
keeping the temperature of the rosin sufficiently high by blowing in superheated
steam. When steam is allowed to blow through, it carries off the
spirits of turpentine and with it a certain amount of wood oil and rosin
oil. It has been stated that the yields from this process are as high as
30 gallons of spirits of turpentine and 40 gallons of heavy oil and rosin
oil per cord, but in tests which the writer has witnessed, from 12 to 15
gallons of spirits of turpentine, 2 to 3 gallons of oil and 5 gallons of rosin
oil might be considered average figures. The defects of this system are
obviously clanger of fires anel high cost of the process.
The next system to be generally exploited was the use of superheated
steam, for which the oldest patent was granted to Hull in 1864. This
process has been repeatedly re-patenteel since, and there are now at least
6 such plants in operation. The usual method is to grind the wood in a
chipping or edging grinder, place it in fairly large vertical retorts, and
pass superheated steam through it until the spirits of turpentine anel some
< if the oils have been entirely distilled off. In ordinary practice the superheaters
are not regulated accurately, anel the fires are very often allowed
to die out. The method seems to have no particular advantages, and has

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 439
the decided drawback of charring the wood where the superheated steam
first enters the retort anel so contaminating the spirits of turpentine with
products of destructive distillation.
The first patent for removing the oil of turpentine from "light wood"
by the use of steam without superheating was granted to Leffler in 1864.
This apparently received no consideration for a great many years, and
was rejuvenated by Krug a few years ago. Most of the plants which
have recently been built, have used primary steam distillation to recover
the spirit of turpentine, postponing destructive distillation or any other
methods of recovering the other products from the wood until the spirit
was removed. Future developments-will probably be along similar lines.
The principle used in this method is quite different from that of all the
other systems, which heat the product in the wood high enough to boil
eiff the spirit of turpentine. The success of a steam distillation plant depends
first on the quality of wood; second, on the price for which it can
be delivered at the retorts: third, the keeping of labor costs at the lowest
possible figure by use of suitable retorts and machinery ; and fourth, the
proper penetration of the steam into the wood. The main development
in recent years has been in the selection of suitable machinery and proper
co-ordination of the different parts of the plant, and particularly in the
designing of a retort which could be rapidly charged and discharged, and
which would insure that the steam penetrated all parts of the wood without
forming channels through it. Of the many retorts suggested, some
are horizontal, charging through the top and discharging at one end;
some are vertical, with various devices, more or less successful, for opening
a large discharging door at the bottom ; some use either a horizontal
or vertical retort in which a cylindrical basket is placed containing the
charge ; anel some have even attempted a continuous operation by charging
and discharging all the time by mechanical devices; others still have
used the idea of a retort hung on trunnions turned up to be charged and
turned over for discharge; and others a horizontal retort with mechanical
discharging device. At least two plants have attempted to use the system
of running cars into retorts, something like the method used in "hard
wood" distillation.
Many patents have been taken nut covering the elirection the steam
moves in the retort, whether down or up, the introduction of the steam
at various levels, and the agitation of the charge during tbe run; but the
value of all these points is still doubtful. The time required for steaming
out spirits of turpentine by this method varies from 1 to 12 hours in
different plants. Yields vary from 6 to 25 gallons per cord, depending
on the quality of "light wood" and the character of the plant, a fair

440 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
average being from 12 to 15 gallons. When steam distillation is properly
operated and the product is suitably refined, it would appear that the
spirits of turpentine produced should not differ in any appreciable way
from the old process spirits of turpentine or gum spirits of turpentine,
the low temperature preventing action on the wood, just as in the case of
the material which exudes from the tree in the old process.
There are now perhaps 80 plants in the United States for recovering
spirits of turpentine from "light wood," and from mill waste. The writer
is fairly familiar with the operations of about 50, and very intimately
acquainted with from 12 to 15. The products from the various plants
vary not only on account of different methods employed in the plants, but
mainly because the attempt is not maele to produce material of a perfectly
uniform standard ; and in cases where this is attempted the standards of
different plants are different. When success has been attained along the
line of standardizing the various methods of manufacturing, a spirit of
turpentine produced in this way should be not at all inferior to gum
spirits of turpentine; in fact, it should be superior on account of its
uniformity.
After the wood has been treated by the steam process, it remains in
almost exactly the condition in which it entered the retorts, excepting that
the spirit of turpentine has been removed. A part of this refuse is used
for fuel. The disposition of the remainder is a serious problem, because
it cannot be destructively distilled in tbe ordinary retort without agitation
on account of its poor conducting power. Some fairly successful attempts
have been made to utilize it for manufacturing a low grade of paper, and
for recovering the resinous material, but most of these attempts are still
in the experimental stage. The point which has been definitely proven
is that no destructive distillation can be attempted in the same retort that
is used for distilling off the spirits of turpentine.

Maintaining Color Standards
for Paint.
RAILROAD managers are well aware of the difficulty in maintaining
a standard color for car bodies. The general practice is to
obtain a paint of a satisfactory shade, and to require that all
future shipments match this shade. Frequently the original sample is
lost or used up, and even if carefully preserved, the difficulty of determining
slight changes in shade and the probable change due to fading frequently
results in a gradual change in the standard color. Where specifications
are in use the trouble caused in this way is considerable as
differences of opinion are bound to arise.
A very interesting instrument is in use at the Arthur D. Little Laboratory
in Boston, for maintaining a desired shade of paint. This instrument,
which was recently invented by Frederick E. Ives, which is
called a "colorimeter" accurately measures the shades of any color.
The method of procedure is as follows: the standard paint being
determined, a board is carefully painted in the same manner as a car
body and the color measured on the colorimeter. This instrument gives
a certain scale reading, and by setting the instrument again at this same
reading the original shade is at any time reproduced in the field of the
instrument. On subsequent shipments a sample board is prepared in a
similar manner and the exact shade measured on the instrument. This
method does away with any need of preserving the original sample and
eliminates any possibility of change from fading, as the standard is
defined by certain scale-readings on the instrument which give the exact
color value of the different components which together make up the
composite color under examination.

Elimination of Fire Risk.
IT is now universally recognized that no material is so thoroughly fire
proof as reinforced concrete. Steel construction, although not itself
inflammable, is of all materials most disastrously affected by heat.
In fact the supporting members of such a building with their thin webs
and flanges could hardly be designed to be more readily susceptible to
the effect of heat whereby their strength is suddenly and greatly decreased.
Even steel protected with wood is better than the naked steel, but
reinforced concrete with all steel enclosed is resistant to any fire if
the protection be of sufficient thickness.
In a recent discussion, Mr. Leonard C. Wason, President of the
Aberthaw Construction Co., Boston, Mass., pointed to the fact that even
though the building itself may be absolutely fire proof, and hence that
sprinklers may appear unnecessary, its contents may be so much more
valuable as to make it poor business policy to omit them. The total cost
of initial installation of a complete sprinkler service is roughly four
cents per square foot of floor. Mr. Wason referred to the Deering-
Cousens fire in Portland, Maine, where the. contents were worth fully
ten times the cost of the building, and showed that to use sprinklers
and extinguish the fire before the contents were entirely consumed would
under such circumstances show a vastly greater saving than to omit
them and lose the contents of even a single room in a building so fire
resisting as to prevent its spread. Of course in mill construction such
relations between cost of building and contents seldom exist except
possibly in store houses. Hence the more general use of the unsprinkled
reinforced concrete building. But as Mr. Wason further showed, the
merit of reinforced concrete is not alone in its fire proof qualities. It
has in addition a degree of permanence possessed by no other type of
construction which warrants its general use.

Buying Coal by Heat Value.
By John L. Cochrane.
THE plan inaugurated two years ago by the Government for the
purchase of coal on its heating value has resulted in the delivery
of a better grade of fuel without a corresponding increase in
cost and with therefore a saving to the Government. At the present
time, forty departmental buildings in Washington, the Panama Railroad,
more than 300 public buildings, throughout the United States, navy
yards, and arsenals are buying their fuel supplies on specifications the
prime element in which fixes the amount nf ash and moisture.
Premiums are paid for any decrease of ash below 2 per cent from
the standard at a rate of $0.01 per ton for each per cent. Deductions
are made at an increasing rate for each per cent of ash when it exceeds
the standard established by 2 per cent.
It has been demonstrated by the United States Geological Survey,
Technologic Branch, which has charge of the analyses of the coal that
under these specifications the Government has been getting more nearly
what it pays for, and paying for what it gets.
The purchase of coal on specifications is but one of the activities of
the Government looking towartl a more efficient use of the fuel resources
of the country. Engineers of the Geological Survey are studying the
problem in all its phases at the experiment plant, in Pittsburg, Pa. The
investigations, by suggesting changes in furnace equipment anil in
methods of firing the coal, are indicating the practicability of the Government
purchasing cheaper fuels, such as bituminous coal and the
smaller sizes of pea, buckwheat, etc., instead of the more expensive sizes
of anthracite, with a corresponding saving in price. The fuel bill of the
Government now aggregates about $10,000,000 yearly, the saving on
which, through securing coal containing less ash, alone amounts to
$200,000.
Since the Government has been purchasing coal on the basis of its
heating value a growing interest has been manifest on the part of manufacturers
and the general public in this important subject and a demand
has been created for authentic information concerning the results accomplished.
In response to this demand the results of the Government's
purchases of coal under the heat value specifications for the fiscal year

444 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
1907-8 have been assembled in a bulletin just issued by the Survey in the
hope of promoting a better understanding of this method of buying fuel.
John Shober Burrows, the engineer in charge of this part of the fuel
problem, has included in the bulletin a list of the contracts with abstracts
of the specifications for the current fiscal year.
In explaining the nature of the specifications, Mr. Burrows says:
"Government specifications are drawn with a view to the consideration
of price and quality. For manufactured articles and materials of
constant and uniform quality they generally can be reduced to a clear
statement of what is desired. For coal, however, the variation in character
makes this impracticable.
"This lack of uniformity is the feature recognized and provided for
in the coal specifications prepared by the Geological Survey. LTnder
these specifications, bidders are requested to quote prices on the various
sizes of anthracite, a definite standard of quality being specified for each
size, and to furnish the standard of quality with price for bituminous
coal offered. Awards are then made to the lowest responsible bidder for
anthracite and to the bidder offering the best bituminous coal for the
lowest price. The specifications become part of the contract, and the
standards of quality form the basis of payment for coal delivered during
the life of the contract. For coal delivered which is of better quality
than the standard, the contractor is paid a bonus proportional to the
increased value of the coal. For deliveries of coal of poorer quality than
the standard, deductions are made from the contract price proportional
to the decreased value of the coal. The actual quality and value of coal
delivered is determined by analysis and test of representative samples
taken in a specified manner by agents of the Government and analyzed
in the Government fuel-testing laboratory at Washington. The necessity
of paying for coal on a sliding scale was fully discussed by D. T. Randall
in a recent paper."
Tbe advantages of buying coal on specifications are explained by Mr.
Burrows as follows :
"The advantages of this system of purchasing coal may be briefly
summarized as follows:
"Bidders are placed on a strictly competitive basis as regards quality
as well as price. This simplifies the selection of the most desirable bid
and minimizes controversy and criticism in making awards.
"The field for both the Government and dealers is broadened, as
trade names are ignored and comparatively unknown coals offered by
responsible bidders may be accepted without detriment to the Government.
"The Government in insured against the delivery of poor and dirty

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 445
coal, and is saved from disputes arising from condemnation based on
the usual visual inspection.
"Experience with the old form of Government contract shows that it
is not always expedient to reject poor coal, because of the difficulty,
delay, and cost of removal. Under the present system rejectable coal
may be accepted at a greatly reduced price.
"A definite basis for the cancellation of contract is provided.
"The constant inspection and analysis of the coal delivered furnishes
a check on the practical results obtained in burning the coal."
A few years prior to the adoption of the present system the "necessity
for a uniform standard in the purchase of coal became apparent to
a few of the government departments, and the plan of purchasing on
the heat-value basis was introduced. It proved successful, especially in
the Treasury Department, under which purchases are made for the postoffices
and other public buildings throughout the United States. The
Treasury Department had at that time a well-equipped laboratory and
was thus enabled to do all of the necessary testing. Other departments
were unable to follow the example of the Treasury because of lack of
information and proper facilities. In 1904, at the Louisana Purchase
Exposition, at St. Louis, the Geological Survey began a comprehensive
study on a practical scale of the utilization of coal, J. A. Holmes being
placed in charge of the work. These investigations are still in progress
at Pittsburg, Pa., and they have resulted in making authentic information
of great practical value available to the public as well as to the
government departments.
This work led up to the development of a general and uniform
specification plan for purchasing the government fuel supply.

T h e Reinforced Concrete
Foundation of The New York and
Richmond Gas Co.'s New
Gas Holder at Clifton,
Staten Island.
By R. P. Rainsford, M. E.
THE practice of erecting a gas works in the lowest available
point of the section which it is proposed to supply with gas, often
leads to difficulties in the construction of foundations for the
more or less substantial structures necessary in the working of a modern
gas plant. This is particularly true of those gas companies that have
been organized'for half a century or more, and whose growth necessitates
additional storage capacity and the erection of large holders. From
time to time these companies have added to their equipment, reserving
for coal storage those sections of their property that are low and boggy
or otherwise unsuitable for building operations. It is then that difficulties
arise, and it frequently becomes necessary to resort to somewhat
novel methods to secure a foundation sufficient for the load.
Such a condition existed at the site of the New York & Richmond
Gas Company's works, at Clifton, Staten Island, where the R. D. Wood
Company of Camden are erecting a million foot quadruple lift holder
on a reinforced concrete foundation placed by the Raymond Concrete
Pile Company of New Vork anel Chicago. The wash borings that were
made showed a soft top fill about four feet deep underlaid by a ten-foot
layer of coarse sancl and gravel on a harder layer of clay about three
feet thick. Below this so-called hardpan a stratum of fine wet sancl
extended to an average depth of thirty-five feet. This condition of the
soil showed the desirability of driving piles, whereupon the question of
the relative merits of wood and concrete piles arose.
The site of the holder is about two hundred feet back from the
shore of New York Bay, and the mean water level about six feet below
the proposed level of the foundation. Wood piles would have necessitated
excavating to an average depth of seven feet, the cutting of the
wood piles at that grade, and the filling of the excavation with concrete.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 447
By using Raymond concrete piles, however, not only were fewer piles
required but the cost of the excavation and great amount of concrete
in the slab that would have been necessary had wood piles been used was
saved, due to the fact that concrete piles need not be covered with water,
as do wood piles, anel they may therefore be stopped at any desired
point.
Raymond concrete piles are made by driving a tapering sheet
steel shell to refusal by means of a collapsible steel core, withdrawing the
core and thereupon filling the shell with concrete.
The shell consists of a number of circular sections that are formed
by uniting the vertical edges of two pieces of 18 to 20 gauge sheet steel,
bent into shape by a cornice brake. The diameters of the sections range
in a decreasing ratio from the uppermost section down to the point or
boot. The latter is stamped from a single piece of 16 gauge stock.
The core is composed of three steel segments forming a tapering
cylinder or cone. The segments are separated or brought together
through the action of a series of wedges. A driving cap is attached to
the head of the core.
The shell is assembled by slipping the various sections composing it
over the core, the segments of which are expended at this stage. Placing
the boot in position over the point of the core completes the shell.
The sections overlap sufficiently to exclude any soil, water, or other
foreign substances that might otherwise gain admission into the shell
while it is being placed.
After the core is completely encased in the shell, it is driven to
refusal. The core is thereupon withdrawn by bringing the segments
together, or "collapsing the core," as the operation is termed. The shell,
which is of sufficient strength to retain its shape after the withdrawal of
the core, remains permanently in the ground and forms a mold or form
for the concrete.
Before being filled the shell is subjected to careful inspection. After
inspection, thoroughly mixed concrete composed of one part good Portland
cement, three parts sharp sand, and five parts crushed stone or
gravel of suitable size, is poured in, being carefully tamped, as shown
in one of the accompanying illustrations, until the shell is filled.
It was expected that the piles would bring up in the hardpan mentioned
but when work was started it was found necessary to drive about
five feet further where a good resistance was obtained.
Two hundred and ninety-three concrete piles were driven to an
average depth of twenty-five feet until a penetration of one-tenth of an
inch per blow with a three thousand pound steam hammer was obtained.

448 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
The piles were laid out six feet six inches on centers on the circumference
and in rows six feet on centers inside. Reinforced concrete beams connected
the piles and over these was laid a reinforced concrete slab six
and one-half inches thick, completed and incompleted sections of which
are shown in one of the illustrations. The saving effected by this construction
over that which wood piles would have made necessary is selfevident.
It is also probable that the deeper excavation that wood piles
would have necessitated would have had to be shored and pumped and
consequently materially increased the cost of the foundation.
In aeldition to the piles driven to support the tank proper, extra
piles were placed for the support of the foot-bonds under the inlet and
outlet risers, as the ground itself was considered too soft to support these
properly.

A Unique Belt Conveyor.
By E. C. Soper, Detroit, Mich.
Member of the Society.
I T is quite possible that a description of a belt conveyor a quarter
of a mile long, and requiring more power to operate empty than
loaded, it will be interesting to some of the members and since its
installation and operation are at variance from the prescribed rules of
conveyor design, we beg to submit the following:
2. The belt conveyor was built during the summer of 1908 in one
of the large Portland cement plants of the South. It consists of a
24-inch 8-ply canvas belt in two sections, one section about iooo feet
between centers, and the other with 1100 feet between centers, its
function being to convey the shale used in the manufacture of the
cement, from the shale quarry to the plant. The shale deposit is located
on a mountain about 247 feet above the shale storage tanks, as shown
in profile, Fig. 1. The two sections intersect at an angle of 140 deg. 40
min., so that the blasting from the limestone quarry does not interfere
with the operation of the belt. The belt conveys the shale around the
limestone quarry, as shown in plan. Fig. 1.
3. The belt is flat and carried by rollers, the top row having 4 feet
between centers and the return idlers 12 feet between centers. Guide
rollers are placed with about 40 feet between centers along both upper
and lower belts. (See Fig. 2.) The majority of manufacturers of belt
conveyors recommend the maximum length between centers of a single
belt to be about 700 feet to 800 feet.
4. Referring to Fig. 1, the belt conveys the material down-hill,
and to this fact is clue the apparently parodoxical results in power
required to operate, shown in Tables 1 and 2.
5. Because of the extreme length of the belt, and the fact that
there is no roof or other covering, it was necessary to install some system
for taking care of the expansion and contraction, in addition to the
ordinary stretch of the belt, which is taken up in the majority of installations
by 24-inch, 36-inch or 48-inch takeups, according to length of belt.
A set of 36-inch takeups (Fig. 3), was installed at the tipper end of
each of these belts to maintain alignment and equal tension on each edge
of the belt. The system installed acts as a tension carriage and makes it
less often necessary to cut out the slack in the belt, and in cool and wet

450 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
weather the belt adjusts itself, the increased tension due to contraction
raising the weight in the tower. A lO-h.p. motor drives each section.
The lower section has a 6-foot drop anel requires approximately 5.1 h.p.
to operate empty anel 5.1 h.p. to carry a load of 1200 pounds, as
PLAN
Fie. 1 Profile Showing Elevation and Flax of Conveyors.
shoveled by ten men. ( See tests which follow.) The discharge from
the upper to the lower sections through a chute is shown in Fig. 4.
There is no spilling of material at any point of the travel, and pieces
of shale a cubic foot in size are carried. The upper section is driven,
contrary to practice, at the upper end, the pull being on the lower or
T~ -_'o--
Top or Carrying Belt \
eX y
C
I 1
- C H
-3&"
3G —
FORWARD IDLERS
RETURN IDLERS
Fig. 2 Details of Forward and Return Idlers.
slack side of the belt, but in this case, due to the pull of gravity on the
top side, the belt was found to work better with the pull on the lower side.
6. The several halftones give views of the belt taken from different

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 451

452
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
ic. 6 Side View of Upper Section.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 453
points. In clearing a way through the woods, the poles obtained were
utilized for trestling anel the planking was obtained from the scrap pile
of concrete-form lumber.
7. Fig. 6 is a side view of the lower end of the upper section, showing
the two depressions in the belt, and though these depressions do
not conform closely to the prescribed radius of 300 feet, there is no
lifting of the belt from the carrying idlers.
8. Power tests were made on the two sections after the belt had
been operating a few days, with the following results: the speed of
Fie. General View Showing Both Belts.
the belt of the lower section, which has a grade of 2.4 per cent for 665
feet, or 0.024 X 665 = 16 feet, was 146 feet per minute; the belt was
driven by a 10-h.p. direct-current Westinghouse motor, and was loaded
2.2 pounds per foot for a distance of 550 feet, or 1210 pounds: this load
fell 16 feet in 5 minutes. Then
1210 X 16 , , , , ,
3520 feet-pounds of work exerted by load.
or,
3520
h.p. (approx.) helping to pull the belt.
33,000 1 1
When the belt was loaded as above, a test of the motor showed that
16 amperes, 239 volts, or 5.1 horsepower, were required. There was no

454 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
appreciable difference in the ammeter and voltmeter readings, when
belt was empty or loaded, as in test.
9. When the belts were installed, after trying them out and ascertaining
how easily they could be operated, a sprocket was placed on
the tail-shaft of the lower section and also one on the head-shaft of
the upper section, anel the two sprockets were connected by a vertical
quarter-twist chain. The idea was to drive both belts by a 10-horsepower
motor at the head of the lower belt section, after all shafts had become
well seated in the bearings and the stiffness had disappeared from the
belt and it was in good operating condition. This was also necessary
in order to take up the slack in the upper section when starting, and
the speeds were such that the top side of thc belt ran 3 feet per minute
faster than the lower side. The results of a series of tests are given in
Tables 1 and 2.
TABLE 1 POWER TESTS OF BELTS UNDER CONDITIONS NOTED IN TEXT.
Ti Me
(a. m.)
9:50
1(1:08
10:09
10:11
10:15
10:20
10:35
VoLTi
207
210
208
210
200
200
2110
Amperes
12
12
14
14
14
15
16
Watt;
24S4
2520
2912
2940
2800
3000
3200
11.p.
3.3
3.3
3.9
3.9
3.7
4.0
4.2
Note!
( Eight men loading
1 Belts chained together
1 Connecting chain off, lll-li.p.
, motor only
Gradual increase in electrical load due
to increase in shale load
Note: Low voltage due to very small mains and long distance (2,500 ft.).
TABLE 2 SECOND SERIES OF TESTS.
Time
(P. M.)
2:00
2:35
2:25
2:15
3.45 3:50
Volt ;
194
186
182
180
195 185
Amperes
i
16
18 |
18
16 |
14 19 1
1
Watts
3104
3348
3275
2886
2730 3515 |
1
H.P.
4.1
4.4 i
4.4^
3.8 1
3.0 4.7
Note: Readings taken on motor at upper end of upper belt-section.
Notes
Empty. Connected to lower belt by
chain
All readings at motor and not including
line loss
Loaded by seven men
Loaded as before, but with connecting
chain off. 10-h.p. motor only
INITIAL AND OPERATING COSTS.
io. Tables are given herewith upon the first cost of the equipment
(Table 3) and the cost of operation and maintenance (Table 4). Table
4 is based upon a capacity of 200 tons conveyed in ten hours. Inasmuch
as the capacity is directly proportional to the speed, if it was desired
to increase the capacity of the conveyor, it would only be necessary to

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 455
increase the travel of the belt per minute, and from experience, it is
quite possible that by doubling the load the power required to operate
would be reduced 50 per cent.
11. The operation costs given in Table 4 are taken from actual
practice. Doubling the capacity per day and assuming above costs to
be approximately the same reduces the actual cost of conveying to
$0.0038 per ton. Interest and depreciation, $0.0063, or a total of $0.0101.
TABLE 3 COST PER FOOT OF COMPLETED BELTS INCLUDING ELECTRICAL
MOTORS, TRESTLING, ETC.
Belt
Electrical equipment,
Materials
..
Total Cost
$ 490.34
5361.52
1435.77
637.11
193.20
962.20
Cost per Ft.
$0,238
2.58
0.69
0.316
0.093
0.46
$9106.16 | $4.37
Note: Length of first section, center to center, 99S ft.; second section, 1082 ft.; total.
2080 ft.; takeup, 15 ft.
Cost of castings includes machine work, etc.
12. Regarding the operation of the belt: after the stiffness had
disappeared there was very little slipping at the head or drive pulleys,
and there was sufficient lubrication in the shale iself to form a waterproof
covering about X mcn thick on the belt, thereby protecting it not
only from wear but from the action of the elements, and proving a very
good dressing to keep the belt pliable. Because of the slow speed, etc..
there are few repairs necessary to the belt, and in this instance, being
coated as described above, tbe belt should last several years.
TABLE 4 COST TO OPERATE AND MAINTAIN BELT CONVEYOR.
per 10 ii r.
day per ton
10 h.p. at $0 004 per h.'p'-hr ?«•"« ?°-°°2
Labor
Boy oiling, etc ' • -'-
Taking up slack once in 7 days. 2 men. 3 hr. at $0.20 per hr
Supplies
Belt Lacing
Waste, Resin, etc.
Oil (no charge, using waste oil from large crushers').
Interest, Etc.
Interest, Depreciation, Renewals, 10 per cent on investment of
$920,1
Grand Total
$0.75
0.171
0.10
0.10
Total $1.52
0.0046
$0.0076
$0.0202

Protective Coatings for Structural
Material.
R. S. Perry.
ALTHOUGH it is the intention in this address to deal especially
with the subject of protecting paints, and to adhere to this subject
as closely as possible, it will be necessary to outline to you in a
brief way some of the scientific investigations that have led up to the subject
of rust inhibition, or the prevention of corrosion.
The United States government, two years ago, through the Department
of Agriculture, started a series of tests to determine the causes
of the rapid corrosion of the steel wire fences used by the farmers of
the West to enclose the vast acreage of pastures and tillable lands. The
complaints that the wire fences of today are found to corrode in less
than one-fourth the time of the fences of twenty years ago have been
found in many cases to be true, and the farmers anel ranchers are justified
in their demand for greater longevity for wire fencing.
Dr. Allerton S. Cushman, who conducted the investigations, found
that the absence of certain impurities in the old time Swedish charcoal
iron, the material largely used for wire fencing twenty years ago, was
responsible for the rust resistance of this metal, whereas the steel of
modern times contains impurities that cause its rapid disintegration.
Modern methods of steel manufacture necessarily demand that the
product be turned out in vast quantity and with rapidity, thus necessitating
the use of materials such as manganese. Such methods cannot be
overthrown at once, and we must look to the metallurgist for a solution
of this problem. That such materials may assert a destructive action on
the steel of which they form an integral part, there can be no doubt;
the difference in potential of the area containing manganese in excess,
to the potential of the area containing less manganese, causes the flow of
an electrical current, with the consequent effect upon the solution of
the metal. Marked segregation of the impurities is another factor of a
destructive nature, and causes the formation of pit-holes which are of
great danger.
That these points should be given more careful consideration was

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 457
made plain, very recently, on an inspection trip to the tunnels of the
Manhattan and Hudson Co. in Hoboken, New Jersey. Ten cars of
one steel and ninety cars of another steel, that had been in service for
six months, were brought into the roundhouse for examination. These
cars had been built of two different grades of steel, but they were
painted at the same time, with the same material and by the same
workmen.
The conditions in the tunnel where these cars had been operated
were most trying. Constant seepage caused drippings of an extremely
corrosive nature to be deposited upon the cars' surfaces, and an analysis
of the drip showed the presence of 15% of chloride salts which caused
rapid acceleration of rust. The tunnel drip also had a solvent action on
the paint coat and in several spots the drip had completely removed the
paint. The atmosphere in the tunnel was rich in carbon dioxide and
high in moisture containing a considerable quantity of salt.
The large amount of rust formed on the edges of the cars could
be accounted for by the abrasion of road-bed dust, hurled against these
vulnerable parts by the enormous pressure, and consequent blast, of air
that is exerted when the cars are running at full speed in the tubes.
Another condition observed was the appearance of a white coating of salt
upon the surface of the paint after the cars had been in operation but
a short time.
Subjected to these trying conditions, some of the cars stood the test
in a remarkable manner, while other cars, made of a different grade of
steel, were in very bad condition.
The points of corrosion were indicated by the surface being covered
with wart-like concretions which, under a high power hand glass, showed
the presence of rust forcing through the paint coat and exposing the
steel to direct contact with the air. This eczema of the iron, although
general, seemed to be most marked in certain places, and this would lead
to the conclusion that the impurities in the metal were segregated.
According to the electrolytic theory of corrosion, certain fundamental
principles underlie the corrosion of iron.
They are, briefly, as follows:
That, when iron is in contact with water, there will be a transfer of
electricity from the free hydrogen ions of the water to the iron ions
of the iron, causing the solution and subsequent oxidation of the metal.
The presence of impurities having a difference in potential to that
of the iron in which they are contained, and the uneven distribution of
such impurities, increases the amount of electrical action.
We are indebted to Dr. William H. Walker for the most recent

458 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
research on the function of oxygen in the corrosion of iron, who says,
"That the film of hydrogen deposited on the metallic iron at the
beginning of the action is a non-conductor of electricity and prevents
further passage of the current, and hence, further solution of the iron.
Atmospheric oxygen removes the film of hydrogen by combining with it,
thus 'depolarizing' the iron and allowing the solution of the iron to proceed.
When once in solution in water, this dissolved iron is also oxidized
by the atmospheric oxygen and precipitated as rust; but this oxidation
is incidental to, rather than a necessary condition of, corrosion.
"That when iron is in contact with any surface on which this combination
of the hydrogen, set free from the water, and oxygen, from
the air, will take place more easily than on the iron itself, such as
copper, bronze, mill-scale, etc., corrosion of the iron will be accelerated
thereby."
Certain compounds are of such a nature as to excite electrical
action, anel, consequently, stimulate corrosion, while still other compounds
are of such a nature as to inhibit or prevent corrosion.
To the class of compounds that inhibit corrosion belong bichromates
of the alkaline earth metals, these salts being pre-eminent among such
compounds. It has been found that salts of certain metals may be precipitated
with the chrome salts to produce pigments which afford protection
for the steel surfaces to which they are applied.
The results of a series of investigations into the rust preventive
nature of these compounds demonstrated that it was not safe to state
that the chromates, as a class, were rust-inhibitives. Quite the reverse
is true of many of these products, and their composition, method of
preparation, and impurities are factors which influence, to a marked
degree, their value as protective compounds. Aside from those chromates
which prevent corrosion, we have those which act in an inert manner,
also those in which any inhibitive value is overbalanced by the effect of
impurities, showing a strong stimulating action in the rusting of metal.
But a simple test will show in which class the chromates come.
Turning, therefore, to the conservation of structural iron and steel
and to its rust inhibition through particular coatings, we have the
problem of choosing the proper materials for manufacturing a paint
which will both exclude the agencies of rusting, and which, when moisture
and gases do penetrate the coating, will inhibit the iron from rusting;
and we also have the problem of giving to the chemist, engineer and
architect some simple method of determining whether any given paint
is, in at least a rough measure, harmful, safe or beneficial.
Some pigments largely used in the paint industry, and of value in

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 459
a paint for protecting lumber, are unjustifiable in a paint for the protection
of steel and iron. For example, sulphate of calcium, which, even
if fully hydrated, has been shown to have a direct stimulative action
upon steel. This is due to the fact that calcium sulphate, even if fully
hydrated, is somewhat soluble in water, and when the water penetrates
the coating of paint it carries this calcium sulphate into solution, Owing
to the fact that calcium sulphate, in solution, has a high co-efficient of
dissociation (or, in other words, has a tendency, in solution, to break up
from its chemical form and identity), we get the reaction of the liberated
sulphuric acid ions upon iron and steel, causing corrosion.
The highest types of paint product for the protection of iron ana
steel, therefore, avoid the use of such pigments as calcium sulphate.
Great caution must be used in selecting iron oxides for the protection
of iron and steel, as they often carry traces of sulphates, etc., as
impurities.
Venetian red, which is a favorite pigment, and which is of value
for protecting lumber, is made by calcining green vitriol or sulphate
of iron (commonly called copperas) in the ferrous form, in the presence
of quick lime. The resulting mass from the furnace consists of
artificial oxide of iron and sulphate of calcium, produced by the metathesis
of the above reacting compounds.
Unfortunately, the reaction is never complete, and there is a tendency
towards the formation of free sulphuric acid.
As a result, we have all the bad effects with Venetian reel that we
find in the use of calcium sulphate, and also the extra chance of corrosion
clue to free and aggressive sulphuric acid present.
It is true that there are some artificial oxides of iron which can
with safety be used, as for instance, artificial black magnetic oxide
produced by chemical precipitation, but, as a general proposition, the
natural iron oxides should be used, unless -it is absolutely certain that
the artificial oxide has been proven safe.
Ochres are not meant to be included in the safe class in the above
statements, for the reason that ochre is an extremely impure oxide of
iron.
Recent investigations into the nature of pigments have revealed
the fact that they may be divideel into three groups and termed "Rust-
Inhibitives," "Inerts," or "Rust-Stimulators." The nature of the pigment
itself, or the nature of the impurities contained within the pigment,
are factors deciding the position of the pigment in one of the three
groups or types above mentioned. It may be expected that the use of
rust-inhibitive pigments in paints designed for the protection of steel

460 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
surfaces will give to such a paint very valuable properties. Further
consideration of the subject will aid us in selecting the proper pigments
for such a purpose.
In order to ascertain the rust-inhibitive value of all pigments, the
Scientific Section was commissioned by the Bureau of Promotion and
Development of the Paint Manufacturers Association to erect a fence,
having several hundred steel plates, upon which to try out the value of
the different pigments when contained in an oil medium.
The American Society for Testing Materials was informed of the
work proposed by the Scientific Section, and Committees E and U of
that society decided to co-operate in inspecting and supervising the
tests, proper specifications to be drawn up by the committees. The
members of these commitees and the Scientific Section conducted laboratory
tests that served as a check upon the previous investigations and
gave information upon which to base the main field tests. The plates
used for the tests were rolled from three kinds of metal—ordinary
open-hearth structural steel, ordinary Bessemer low carbon steel, and
pure ingot iron. In this way were secured data relating to the resistance
to corrosion of certain metals when tested out simultaneously with
others. The steel plates were painted in two ways, part of them being
scratch-brushed in the ordinary way before painting, thus following
out the usual mode of painting structural steel, and part of the plates
being pickled in sulphuric acid, in order to completely remove the scale,
and the plates were subsequently washed with lime so that all traces of
the acid were neutralized.
The test was conducted in a thoroughly systematic and practical
manner, following out the methods employed during the tests already
made at Atlantic City and Pittsburg. The Master Painters' Association
co-operated in the work and gave us the benefit of their practical experience
in this line. Inspectors and painters, representing the committees
and sections, were upon the ground throughout the period during which
these tests were made.
It has been proven that corrosion generally takes place under normal
conditions in an uneven manner, and pitting is evident at certain weak
spots on nearly every grade of steel or iron, in a lesser or greater degree.
From these spots the corrosion proceeds and develops upon the surrounding
area. The corrosion at the start, where the pitting begins, is so
extreme in some cases that holes are formed, of considerable depth,
before the surrounding surface is attacked to any marked extent. The
causes of this pitting have been fully explained by the electrolytic
theory. This theory overthrows the former theories which were held,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 461
regarding corrosion. Thc carbonic acid theory, for instance, held by
Calvert, supposed that carbonic acid attacked the iron, converting it into
carbonate, and the carbonate being oxydized to hydrate or ordinary rust
by the oxygen of the air, the carbonic acid regenerated and acting again
on an unattached part of the metal. According to the peroxide theory,
the iron, oxygen and water were supposed to react to form ferric oxide,
and to regenerate hydrogen peroxide which would attack a new quantity
of iron. That the electrolytic theory is the most tenable has been demonstrated
in many ways, but one of the most beautiful demonstrations may
be carried out in a very simple manner.
A five per cent solution of gelatine in hot water is made, anel, after
careful neutralization, a few drops of phenolphthalein and ferrocyanide
of potassium are added. A thin layer of this solution is poured upon the
bottom of a glass dish, and when stiffened up by cooling, a clean strip
of metal is placed thereon. A further quantity of the gelatine solution
is poured upon the metal and allowed to solidify. The gelatine in this
case is used to retard diffusion of the colorations which form. As stated
before, when a strip of steel is placed in water, there are developed
hydroxyl (OH) ions at the negative pole, and these are shown by a
pink coloration formed with the phenolphthalein, whereas at the positive
pole of the iron plate the development of hydrogen ions takes place, and
solution of the iron proceeds. This solution forms, with potassium ferrocyanide,
a blue coloration which to the paint chemist is known as Prussian
blue.
It is a well known fact that zinc protects the iron from corrosion
when in contact, the zinc going into solution, being electro-negative
to iron, thus protecting the iron from being acted upon. It has been
found that the zinc will protect the iron only to a certain extent, unless
an electrolyte is contained within the water, this being due to the fact that
pure water offers too great a resistance for the current to flow.
It has been shown by our investigations that certain pigments have
the property of preventing galvanic action, and their use is highly
desirable in a paint coating. Other pigments have been found to exhibit
a strong tendency to excite galvanic action because they possess the
property of being good conductors of electricity. Such pigments should
never be used next to steel.
The Scientific Section of the Paint Manufacturers' Association have
made a very careful and systematic study of this vital question anel are
at present pursuing the work started, making tests of extreme value and
recording their observations for future generalization. Such work can
only be productive of the most valuable results and will ultimately result

462 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
in the restriction to certain materials for use in painting iron and steel
and the adoption of these materials in specifications for such work. The
qualification of each and every raw product will be determined, and its
legitimacy for existence in a paint will be closely questioned before giving
it final approval.
It- is not the intention to make any derogatory reference to certain
products which are under suspicion or to attempt to tear down the
business that has been built upon these products, but before we can
give our candid endorsement to any raw product for use in a paint to
be applied direct to iron or steel, that product must possess certain
fundamental requisites which we have already outlined. The distinction
between an inhibitive and a stimulative pigment may be easily determined,
and it is essential to the preservation of the steel upon which such pigments
are to be used, that the inhibitive principles should predominate.
That there is a marked difference in paints as well as in steel has
been proven beyond the shadow of a doubt, and evidence is collected
every day confirmatory to this statement. One of our foremost metallurgists
recently returned from a visit to the Isthmus of Panama, and, while
there, he inspected some of the old steam engines used by the French
government, in their futile attempt to join the Atlantic and the Pacific.
These engines had lain in the morass and jungle for many years, subjected
alternately to the torrid heat of day and the excessive humidity
of night; rare conditions for active corrosion being always present. Some
of the engines were nothing more or less than a flimsy network of holes,
and the material had completely gone to waste (of the open-work variety),
resembling the latest thing in summer hosiery. Other of the engines
had been protected with certain paint coatings that had preserved
the steel intact, and the American engineers were able to pull these engines
out of the morass and by substituting a few accessories, to use
them again. The nature of these coatings wdiich have withstood the test
of years are at present being investigated by the Scientific Section to
determine the pigments used therein.
Another engineer recently returned from Colon reports that the iron
posts surrounding the consul's home and from which were suspended a
line of linked chain, showed active corrosion on the southeast side in
every case, while the back of the posts were slightly, if at all, affected.
These posts back of the consulate were unaffected in anv place because
of tbe protection from the southeast winds afforded by the house. The
winds blowing in, laden with salty humidity, had naturally exerted their
corrosive effect on the surface not thus protected.
A recent examination of the steel test fences erected by the Scien-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 463
tific Section, at Atlantic City, was confirmatory of the above. The inspection
was made early one morning, after a rainy night. The weather
had cleared up and the brisk wind which had continued throughout the
storm was blowing from the same direction and rapidly drying the moisture
on the steel plates. The object of the inspection was primarily to
determine the moisture penetration and water shedding properties of
each pigment and paint. A better day or time for such a test could not
have been chosen.
As has been described before, the fences are three in number, made
of three classes of steel and each presenting toward the sea a series of
ioo plates with as many upon the reverse side. It was apparent at once
that the rain had impacted only against the steel plates facing the ocean
or shore side, and that our inspection would have to be made from the
plates on the reverse side of the fence.
The panels facing the ocean and exposed to the action of the storm
exhibited a variance of results. Some had been painted with pigments
having a greasy nature, and being natural water-shedders were apparently
dry, while others, painted with less greasy pigments, held on their surface
a large number of rain drops. By wiping off these rain drops, the
following differences were noted:
(i) That in some cases a place resembling a water blister was left,
showing just where the drops had remained on the surface, and showing
that they were acting upon the paint coat.
(2) In other cases, when the drops of water had been wiped off,
the surface was in the same condition as the balance of the plate, anil the
rain had no apparent effect upon the paint coat. On some panels, the
penetration of moisture through the paint coat left a blotchy surface.
This appearance being present on many panels, a record of impenetrability
was obtained.
Very few corporations, whether manufacturing paints or buying
paints, and very few engineers or architects have the facilities or the
time to make exhaustive laboratory research when choice is to be made
of a protective coating for their use.
What the practical man—either the paint manufacturer, the architect,
or engineer—requires, is to have some practical result, easily obtainable,
which will give him, in a definite and visible manner, a criterion
and measure of the value of the new discovery, and of the refined
laboratory work.
This accelerated field test consists in subjecting strips of any particular
kind of steel that may be chosen to an atmosphere of maximum

464 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
humidity, the steel being in intimate contact with the materials concerning
which results are desired.
The apparatus is extremely simple, and the test can be started at
thirty minutes' notice by any manufacturer, architect or engineer, at his
office desk, and can yield him visible results in two days thereafter.
The idea was original with Dr. Cushman, and permission was requested
from him to work it up in some practical way for the manufacturers
of the raw materials and of paints, and for the consumers who
have the work of protecting structural steel.
The chemist, engineer or architect who wishes to conduct this test
on actual paint products instead of the materials used in the manufacture
of paint products, may use a $7.50 centrifuge apparatus made by Bausch
& Lomb, in other words, a small laboratory centrifugal machine holding
test tubes.
Number the test tubes for reference purposes and place in each test
tube a small sample of the paint to be tested, together with a large quantity
of benzine. It is of extreme importance to add the benzine in considerable
quantity and previous to inserting the tubes in the centrifugal
machine.
Actuate the apparatus and most of the vehicle will be thrown away
from the pigment and the pigment will settle toward the bottom of the
tube.
Decant or pour off the oil, add more benzine, thoroughly shake and
pour off the liquid. Do this two or three times until the oil has entirely
left the paint and nothing remains but the dry clean pigments.
Then take the pigments and proceed with the whole test as described
below for the testing of dry pigments.
The materials required are as follows :
An ordinary deep cigar box.
2 or 3 sheets druggists' thick filter paper.
1 dozen thumb tacks.
1 dozen safety razor blades (unless some special steel is to be tested).
y2 dozen small butter dishes or saucers.
Each of the dry materials to be tested.
A clean pencil for stirring.
A pocket knife.
A glass of water.
An old towel or rag for cleansing hands, pencil, etc.
A piece of emery cloth.
A tooth brush.
2 or 3 test tubes.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 465
Line all six interior surfaces of the cigar box with the filtering
paper, using the thumb tacks for the purpose. Thoroughly wet the lining
of the cigar box with water and stand it on one edge so that when it is
ready for use it will be free from drip.
Place upon a piece of filter paper, large enough to cover the hand,
some of the material under examination, add a few drops of water and
rub up with the finger into a rough soft paste, this being easily accomplished
with nearly all pigments, and bringing into a paste many pigments
which are otherwise extremely difficult to incorporate with water.
Be particular to cut the surface of the razor blade to the raw steel with
"oo" emery paper, to insure the removal of any lacquer or surface treatment
of the blade. It is necessary to handle the razor blades by the
edges so as not to get any finger marks upon the surface. Now place a
clean razor blade upon the plate, fold over the filter paper on each side
of the razor blade in such a manner as to completely cover it with pastecoated
filter paper, and place blade, paste and paper upon a butter dish
within the cigar box.
Treat each sample of material under test in the same manner.
A word of caution is necessary regarding the testing of the inhibitives
such as the chrome soaps, that are soluble in linseed oil.
These are not pigments, but soluble in the oil and vehicle constituents,
and therefore must not be applied in a water paste, but in a film, through
the agency of benzol.
In the case of these materials, soluble in linseed oil, such as resinates
and linoleates, these are to be dissolved to a heavy solution in benzol.
and a coating poured upon the razor blade. The evaporation of the
benzol leaves upon the surface of the-blade a thin film of the material
to be tested, and, because of the fluidity of the benzol and consequent
thinness of the film, a second coating is advisable. The coateel blade is
then to be placed in a butter dish within the box along with the other
materials with which it is to be compared. Care should be taken that the
plate is completely coated as there is a tendency for the liquid to segre­
gate on the steel.
If a strip of steel in every case be treated with potassium bichromate
in such a test, a convenient standard of minimum corrosion will
be afforded, for purposes of comparison.
If so desired, in the foregoing test the operator may increase the
quickness with which the test may be performed, by adding to a little
bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) on a butter dish, a little sulphuric
acid. An evolution of carbonic acid gas will ensue and as this gas rapidly
stimulates corrosion, its presence will render the test still more positive.

466 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
A considerable degree of refinement and a fair index of result can
be obtained from this apparatus if the strips are first carefully weighed
in a laboratory balance, and then reweighed after the steel is scrubbed
with a tooth or nail brush to remove any rust formed, in which case the
loss in weight of the steel is the measure of the rust formed and the
degree to which the pigment has stimulated rust.
It is evident to any man who will compare the conditions in this
test with the field conditions, that practically all of the important factors
which contribute to the corrosion of steel are present in this test in such
a way that they will indicate in a short time the results which would be
obtained from the steel painted with a paint coating produced from these
materials and over a considerable length of time.
After the proper selection of pigments has been made, the question
of vehicle must be carefully considered. The addition of high grade
fossil resins, carefully compounded with a carefully treated oil, adds
greatly to the power of a paint to resist penetration by gases and moisture,
producing a better excluding paint and at the same time adding to the
appearance. The glossy surface which a paint made along these lines
possesses renders the paint a better repellant or resister of moisture.
The quality and percentage of gum used influences to a great extent the
wearing properties of this kind of paint.
During the transportation of machinery anel structural steel from the
factory to the field and the workshop, there is met a state of conditions
that causes rapid corrosion. Moisture and gases attack the metal anel
assert their destructive action. In the past these results have been partially
overcome by swabbing the metal with crude oil, in some cases, and,
again, by giving the metal a dip in hot linseed or other drying oils or byapplying
tar and cheap paints as shop coats. The crude oil leaves upon
the surface of the metal, even after wiping, a quantity of non-drying
mineral oil which interferes with the drying of the paint coat which is
afterward applied at the time of the assembling of the metal. It also
prevents the paint coat from properly adhering to the steel surface, and
this coat of crude non-drying oil, which still exists between the metal and
the paint coat, is a source of never-ending trouble, causing peeling and
shriveling. This crude oil treatment, therefore, should be avoided whenever
it is intended that the steel is to be subsequently painted with oil
paints.
Where linseed oil instead of crude oil is used, a film of the oil is left
upon thc metal and rapidly oxidizes to a coat of linoxvn. This coat will
protect the metal for a certain period of time, but is extremely porous
and ultimately aelmits moisture. If, within tbis coating of linseed oil.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 467
there had been contained a proportion of pigment, or if the linseed oil
had been developed by gums into a varnish or lacquer then the excluding
properties of the linseed oil would have been increased, and, if the formula
were inhibitive in nature, the steel would be better protected from
corrosion, and the application of future coats of paint, after assembling
the steel, would have been practical and facilitated.
It is sometimes desired to give to steel a thin adherent protective
coating that is transparent and will allow of the inspection of the steel
by tbe engineer, who desires to observe whether the metal is absolutely
clean and free from rust before proceeding with the painting thereof.
In a case like this, there is required a coating of oil containing materials
which will not interfere with the transparency of the oil coat anel which,
at the same time, are thoroughly inhibitive in nature. Such a compound
may be prepared by the use of inhibitive chromium compounds
soluble in linseed oil such as chromium resinate or chromium linoleate.
By the use of these materials within an oil coat, thorough inhibition is
obtained, and, at the same time, there is added the excluding properties
which these compounds afford. A thoroughly inhibitive and transparent
coating is thus formed and is most practical of use. A paint coat applied
to steel protected by this inhibitive oil coat amalgamates with this oil coat
and becomes an integral part thereof, rendering at the same time, the oil
paint thoroughly inhibitive anel causing close adherence tn the metal sur­
face.
sXs^3

By S. Barry Flagg
T h e Smokeless Furnace
MUCH has been said and written in the last few years about the
great benefits to be derived by our cities from the abatement
of the smoke nuisance. Figures have been presented showing
that our merchants are losing vast sums every year on the soiled goods
which are sold at reduced prices. Much money is also spent each year
by these merchants in their efforts to keep stores clean and protect their
stock. The increased amounts spent by the individual for the laundering
and cleaning of wearing apparel as well as the more extensive use
of artificial light during the day in our smoky cities are also losses which
can be charged against the chimney which is sending forth clouds of
smoke. If it possible to cite many other ways in which we are paying
a penalty for our toleration of this nuisance, but the purpose of the
speaker is to call attention to some of the more strictly engineering
phases of this question.
Were there no other considerations than those already mentioned,
this would be sufficient reason for our giving serious thought to the solution
of the smoke problem, but there is in addition to the many losses
resulting from the pollution of the atmosphere the waste in the utilization
of the fuel in the furnace, and it will be shown that with some coals
and under some conditions this waste may amount to a considerable proportion
of the total heat in the coal.
It is generally known that some coals are much more easily burned
smokelessly than others. In many plants in our eastern cities the smaller
sizes of anthracite are burned exclusively and with such fuel it is almost
impossible to make objectionable smoke. Other furnaces are burning
coals, the proximate analysis of which shows less fixed carbon and more
volatile matter, and, generally speaking, we can say the difficulty of
securing smokeless combustion increases with the increase of volatile
matter or with the decrease of fixed carbon.
This is brought out quite clearly by a curve showing the relation
between the fixed carbon in the coal and the smoke developed on some
400 boiler trials made by the Technologic Branch of the United States
Geological Survey at the Fuel Testing Plant in St. Louis.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 469
_ This curve is taken from Bulletin No. 325 of the Geological Survey
entitled "A Study of 400 Steaming Tests." Copies of this or other publications
by the Geological Survey on the subject of fuel testing can be
obtained without charge by applying to the Director of the Survey at
Washington, D. C.
Another curve from the same bulletin shows that the per cent of
carbon monoxide, C O, in the flue gases increases with the amount of
smoke produced.
a •_
-ttaruaa.,---' ._
390

470
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
SMOKE. PERCENT SLACK
Iii the unaccounted-for item is included any loss there may be due
to the unconsumecl hydrogen or hydrocarbons, also the heat expended in
evaporating moisture in tbe air, and that lost by radiation. Any hydrogen
or hydrocarbons which might be present in the flue gases would not
• h - t^r+ttHV'' \ '
SMOKE , PEHCEtlT BLACK
show directly in the * )rsat analysis, inasmuch as the only absorptions
recorded are those of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon monoxide, but
their presence might be indicated by a low value for the total Orsat
absorption.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 47
Unfortunately there is available very little data as to the amount of
hydrogen and hydrocarbons in escaping flue gases under varying conditions.
In Bulletin 325 is reported an analysis of a sample of gas taken
in test No. 305, which is as follows:
c 0,
Oo
CO
CH4
No
15.0',
3-6
0.0
0.4
81.0 (by difference)
100.0
This test was run 011 a West Virginia coal, the calorimetric determinations
on which showed 13964 B. t. u. per pound of dry coal. The
test was made on a Heine Boiler set with plain grates, but the firingwas
done by an expert fireman and coal charged in small quantities. The
analyses of the gas indicates the presence of no carbon-monoxide nor
hydrogen but shows four-tenths per cent of methane (Clij. In this
instance the loss from incomplete combustion nf this small per cent of
methane amounts to 4.6 per cent of the beat value nf the coal.
Under ordinary operating conditions for a hand fired furnace where
the coal is charged in larger amounts at a firing, it is very probable that
not only the per cent of methane is increased but it is accompanied by
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. As stated before, however, very little
such data for hand fired power boilers are available. Recently, in connection
with some tests on house heating boilers at the Fuel Testing-
Plant of the Geological Survey in Pittsburg, Pa., analyses of the flue
gases have shown losses tlue to incomplete combustion which are much
larger than the one just mentioned. While the conditions which obtain
in these boilers are more unfavorable for perfect combustion than those
which exist in most power boiler furnaces, the results are here given
to show the losses that elo accompany a C O loss.
The first analysis is of a sample taken during a test on Pocahontas
"bone" coal from Virginia anil is as follows:
CO,
o2
CO
H,
CH4
X,
11.1',
5-3
2.41
•72
•24
80.23 (by difference)
100.00

472 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The second analysis, sample for which was taken during a test on
slack coal from the Pittsburg bed, showed :
C O- 1400
02 1.40
C O 2.80
H2 1.18
C H4 .42
N, 80.20 (by difference)
100.00
In the first case the coal had a calorific value of 14114 B. t. u. per
pound as fired or 15680 B. t. 11. per pound of combustible, and tbe
losses from incomplete combustion were as indicated below:
Loss clue to CO 10.18%
Loss due to C H4 3.68
Loss due to H2 3.65
Total, 17.51X
The Pittsburg slack used in tbe second test had a heat value of
13201 B. t. 11. per pound as fired and 15266 B. t. u. per pound of combustible,
and the losses as shown by the analyses were:
Loss due to C O 9-i/f
Loss clue to C H4 4.3
Loss due to H= 3.9
i/-3
These losses, large as they are, would be still greater if we were
able to determine the amount of the heavier hydro-carbons which are
driven off as vapors and are condensed before they reach the sampling
bottle.
The results as shown ought to be sufficient evidence to show that
the smoky chimney indicates uneconomical conditions in the furnace
and that these conditions should be remedied.
The mere recognition, however, of the losses which result from the
smoky furnace is only the first step toward smoke abatement. There are
certain principles which must be adhered to if we would secure smokeless
combustion, but these have been stated by various writers and will not
be repeated at this time.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 23
R o d e r i c k & B a s c o m r o p e c o .
BRAKCtf ^§ WARREN 5T. N.Y. \ ST.LOUIS,MO.
WIRE ROPEVnd AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway
in Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR.
This is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during
1907.
Ask for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
F O R MOISTING
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either with
or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200 PER CENT GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your inquiries are solicited.
M a c o m b e r & W h y t e
R o p e C o m p s n y manufacturers
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO. Mills, Coal City, 111.
New York Boston Pittsburg New Orleans Portland
^y
J

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Reference lias already been made to the greater difficulty of burning
coals of high volatile content than those containing a lesser amount,
but to many of the users of coal the wide variation in the percentage
of volatile matter in the fuel from different localities is not known.
Analyses of the coals used for steaming purposes show that the volatile
portion ranges from about three per cent, in the case of some of the
Pennsylvania anthracites, to approximately forty per cent in Ohio bituminous
anel Wyoming sub-bituminous coals. With such differences as these
in the composition of the coals, it is evident that the consideration of
the characteristics of the fuel to be burned is of great importance in
designing a furnace for smokeless combustion.
As illustrative of the effect of slight changes in furnace design upon
the production of smoke, an instance is noted in Bulletin 373, "The
Smokeless Combustion of Coal in Boiler Plants," by D. T. Randall and
H. W. Weaks, of a chain grate stoker which smoked badly. The coking
arch, which at first was constructed with a slope, was finally torn out
and rebuilt parallel to the grate. After this change was made no further
trouble was experienced.
Many furnaces can be operated satisfactorily until a heavy load is
thrown on, but under this condition produce much smoke. The ever
increasing demand today, particularly in our larger cities, is for equipment
which can be worked successfully not only at rates of combustion
of twenty-five and thirty pounds per square foot of grate surface per
hour, but at sixty and seventy pounds.
To meet this demand, it is not only necessary that the design and
construction of the plant should be correct, but it must be intelligently
operated, if economical results are to follow.
A further difficulty in burning any high volatile coal at high rates
of combustion is that when it is heated rapidly the actual amount of
smoke producing constituents driven off from each pound of the fuel is
greater than if the distillation takes place more slowly. Laboratory investigations
along this line are being carried on under the direction of
N. W. Lord, by H. C. Porter and F Ix. Ovitz, and some results of their
work were given in an article by Messrs. Porter and Ovitz in the Journal
of the American Chemical Society (XXX, i486). The differences in
the action of several characteristic coals is shown in the accompanying
diagram which is taken from the article mentioned. (See next page.)
That it is possible to burn without objectionable smoke such coals
as those just referred to, is being demonstrated daily in many plants
operating under both uniform and variable loads. In the United States

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
Automatic Rotary Planer Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated)

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Geological Survey bulletin 373, mentioned earlier in the paper, are reported
observations on 284 plants where coals of a considerable volatile
content are being burned tinder different conditions with varying degrees
of success. Sufficient instances are cited, moreover, to show that smokeless
combustion can be accomplished not only under ordinary conditions,
but that it can be where requirements are severe as well.
One point which the authors of the bulletin bring out and one which
I would emphasize in closing is that while the smokeless furnace is a
possibility from the standpoints of design, construction, and maintenance,
in 110 furnace is it impossible to make smoke, and in order that anv
battery of boilers may show evaporative as well as smokeless results
the operators must know and practice correct methods of firing.

TS'imis
m m m n M E L
VOL. X. AUGUST, 1909 NO. 1
Tree Being Moved by Interstate
Locomotive Crane
Our cover shows a 20-foot oak tree suspended in the air from the
arm of a locomotive crane, which was the novel sight that Lackawanna
commuters saw yesterday afternoon at Ampere. The building of a new
cement and brick station at Ampere and enlargements in the works of
the Crocker-Wheeler Company made it necessary for the company to
re-arrange the railroad sidings and to make a new main entrance to the
factory. Two large trees stood in the way of the new track.
Dr. Schuyler S. Wheeler, president of the company, decided to
transplant the trees, and to set one on each side of the new entrance,
directly opposite the new station. With the aid of a locomotive crane,
a gang of 25 laborers and considerable ingenuity this was done.
Thc earth was loosened around the re - of the tree, and lhe trunk
attached with cables to the arm of the crane. Then, in order to -ave
shoveling, the tree was rocked gently back and forth, and finally lifted
clear of the ground. The locomotive crane back down the track to the
new position, ducking telegraph cables and avoiding other obstacle-, and
the new style tree-planting was accomplished. Owing to the conformation
of the branches, it was necessary to turn the tree around in the
hole that had been dug to receive it. This required further skill in
handling.
The moving of living trees of this size is common in Europe, where
no one chops down a tree except by permission of the government, but
is unusual here, especially on property owned by a manufacturing concern.
E

Sub-Aqueous Tunnelling
By G. W. M. Boycott, Associate M. Inst. C E.
The usual way to start a subaqueous tunnel is to sink a shaft as
near to the bank of the river as possible. Very often this can be done
in the open, but equally often compressed air has to be employed. The
shaft then becomes a caisson and is sunk in the usual way. But the
design is somewhat different in order to enable the shield to be lowered
into the shaft after it has been completed. In order to be able to do
this the roof of the working chamber is made removable, and when the
caisson has reached the depth intended for it a bed of concrete is put in
all over the floor of the working chamber and of sufficient thickness to
resist the upward pressure of any water percolating through the strata.
Sometimes this concrete floor has reinforcements. After the floor has
had time to get set the air pressure is taken off and the shield placed in
correct position at the bottom of tbe shaft. The roof of the working
chamber is then built in again over the top of the shield, and plugs which
have been placed in the sides of the caisson are cut out, and the shield
driven through the apertures thus made into the ground beyond.
When the shield has been advanced sufficiently far to permit of it
a strong concrete bulkhead is built right across the tunnel. This bulkhead
then prevents the air that is pumped into the tunnel from escaping
in the direction of the shaft. The working chamber roof is therefore for
the second time and finally removed, leaving the shaft open to the atmosphere.
The concrete bulkhead has a long boiler-shaped air-lock built
into it for purposes of ingress and egress of men and material. If the
tunnel is large enough there are two large locks for men and material,
and a smaller one placed as close to the top of the tunnel as possible to
act as an emergency exit in case the tunnel should get flooded. The
usefulness of this lock is further increased by placing somewhere behind
the shield a strong diaphragm, or safety screen, as it is called, which
comes down below the level of the bottom of thc emergency lock and,
converting the whole of the tunnel behind into a huge diving bell, prevents
the water rising above the bottom of the safety screen and thus
from getting into the emergency air-lock. It must be remembered that
unless for the safely screen it would be quite impossible to prevent the
water from rising in thc case of a sudden large inrush, because with a
horizontal face there is a difference between the pressure of the water

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 3
at the lower level of the face and the pressure of the water at the upper
level of the face, while the pressure of the air inside the tunnel is constant.
Hence a balance between the two cannot be maintained. If the ground
is at all open there must always be some air escaping at the upper level
of the face and generally a little water coming in at the lower level.
If the air and water pressures do not quite balance when thc rising
water touches the bottom of the safety screen it will start compressing
the air until a balance is brought about. It will be seen therefore that
a screen of this nature adds considerably to the safety of work in compressed
air tunnels. We have assumed the tunnel to be level. Should
there be a heavy gradient it may be necessary to introduce hanging screen
at frequent intervals. Gangways along the sides should be built between
the safety screen and emergency lock at the level of both, in order that
the workers, in case of a sudden flood, may be able to reach the emergency
lock, out of reach of the waters.
It will be a very great advantage if the pressure exceeds 20 pounds
gauge pressure to have a second bulkhead, in order that the pressure may
be maintained at about half the absolute pressure between the two. The
workers should then be compelled to spend a certain time between the
two bulkheads before going right out of the tunnel. If they do this there
will be practically no danger of their suffering from the effects of having
been in the compressed air. But to come suddenly out of compressed
air, after a moderately long exposure at a high pressure, is exceedingly
dangerous. This method of keeping the pressure between the two bulkheads
at the half absolute pressure is known as "Purgatory Lock Working,"
and was originated by Dr. John Scott Haldane, F. R. S., of Oxford
University, England. Dr. Haldane's rule for pressures between 25 and
40 pounds by gauge, after six hours continuous exposure, is very nearly
as follows: "The time required to be spent in the purgatory section of
tunnel is—the gauge pressure in the purgatory section of tunnel X 8,
the answer to be in minutes." Thus, if the pressure in the working
section of the tunnel were 30 pounds by gauge or 45 pounds absolute
pressure, then the pressure in the purgatory section would be = 22X
pounds absolute pressure, or 7y by gauge. Then the time necessary to
be spent in the purgatory section would be 7y X 8 = 60 minutes.
Lastly we come to thc shield itself right up at the working face. At
the back of the shield are the hydraulic rams which push it forward by
pressing against the iron lining. Those used for the East River Tunnels,
New York, each had an effective area of 54.7 inches. As there were
27 of these, with a pressure of three tons to the square inch, a force on
the back of the shield could be obtained of nearly 4,500 tons. A very
admirable feature of these shields, a device of Mr. E. W. Moir's, was

4 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the hanging screens on the shield itself, instead of having them some
way back. In this way the workers on the shield could get into a place
of safety without having to go along even a short length of tunnel.
These shields had two hydraulic erectors, worked by rack and pinion,
as had those for the Rotherhithe Tunnel under the Thames, recently
completed. The shields used for the Pennsylvania Tunnels under the
Hudson were of the single erector type, as were those used for the Hudson
Tunnels a little further down the Hudson. A further interesting point
about the East River Tunnels shields was the slidnig hood, which came
out in front of the shield and therefore to a great extent did away with
the necessity for the use of poling boards. As the excavation proceeded
these hoods were pushed forward in sections, and when the shield itself
was shoved were allowed to slide back again.
The Blackwall Tunnel shields anel the East River Tunnels shields
had double diaphragms dividing the front part of the shield from the
back, and these were fitted with air locks for men and material, so that
if necessary a different pressure could be maintained at the back and
front of the shields. But this was never necessary. The shields for the
Pennsylvania Tunnels under the Hudson had only single diaphragms,
and the Rotherhithe Tunnel shields had an arrangement of open water
traps. Shields are generally built up of steel plates riveted together, but
the Rotherhithe Tunnel shield was built of cast steel segments, bolted
together like a length of tunnel lining, only the tail portion being of
rolled plates.
Sometimes the shield can be forced right into the strata without any
excavation, as was clone with the Pennsylvania Tunnels, the strata there
being a clayey deposit of glacial formation. During the construction of
the East River Tunnels, however, rock was met with which necessitated
getting out in front of the shield in order to excavate, and as for a considerable
length there was quicksand in the upper level of the face and
rock below, the work was one of considerable difficulty.
The excavated material is loaded into wagons, which are hitched
to an endless rope worked by a motor, and in this way delivered at the
air lock, through which they have to be pushed by hand. On reaching
the shaft they are placed on lifts and carried to the top, to be subsequently
tipped.
The author hopes this brief sketch of a very interesting branch of
engineering will be useful to some of your readers who have had no
compressed air work experience.

Refrigeration
T H E greatest number of refrigerating or ice machines used are of
the ammonia compression type. The apparatus consists of four
essential parts, namely compressor, condenser, expansion valve,
anel expansion pipes or refrigerator. Strong iron pipes with special joints
connect the various parts of the apparatus, and great care is taken to
prevent any leakage of the refrigerating fluid.
The compressor, driven by steam or other power, sucks the ammonia
vapor at about 15 pounds pressure from thc refrigerating pipes, and
compresses it to gas at about 160 pounds pressure. The gas, loaded with
heat previously abstracted in the refrigerator, is taken to the condenser
pipes, which are flooded by cooling water. The high pressure upon the
gas and the cooling action of the water cause the gas to become a liquid
and nearly as cool as the water flowing from the condenser. Without
this water supply the machine could not continue to work. The ammonia
acts simply as a sponge, taking up heat in the refrigerator and parting
with it in the condenser. Also, the colder the water used and the greater
the quantity, the less pressure or power is required to liquify the gas,
As a rule, water is cheaper than power, but the water must be given
sufficient condensing surface, the more the better.
From the condenser the liquid is conveyed to a steel receiver, thence
to the expansion or pressure reducing valve. Here the liquid enters the
large pipes, through a small orifice which can be regulated to a nicety,
so that any desired low pressure is obtained in the pipes. All refrigerating
fluids have the property of absorbing heat from the surroundings
when allowed to expand from a higher pressure to a lower one, and
there is a definite temperature corresponding to a given pressure. For
example, if it is desired to use gas at zero Fahr., a suction pressure of
about 15 pounds is required; if gas at 14 degrees Fahr. is cold enough,
a pressure of 27 pounds can be carried. Tn practice the expansion valve
is throttled and the compressor is run at a speed which will maintain
the proper suction pressure and with it the temperature desired. There
is no difficulty in getting the proper working conditions if the plant is
adapted for the work to be done.
In the above it is shown that when very low temperature is desired,
the suction pressure must be low. Under such low pressure a pound of
gas occupies a larger space than at higher pressure, so when it comes to
the compressor, the cylinder is filled before a considerable weight of

6 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
ammonia has gotten in. The refrigerating effect obtained is in direct
proportion to the weight of ammonia pumped around, consequently a
given size compressor can, at low pressure, pump less than the normal
weight, and at a higher suction pressure pump more than the normal
weight of gas. The normal rating of gas compressors ranges from 15
to 27 pounds suction pressure; if other pressures are needed for accomplishing
the work, a larger or smaller compressor is required per ton
of refrigeratin geffect.
If the compressor is not operated continuously, refrigeration would
stop after the machine was stopped, excepting the rooms were very well
insulated or protected against the entrance of heat from outside. Where
a rise in temperature over night is objected to, it is necessary to store
up refrigeration in the day time for use during the night. This is accomplished
by means of a steel tank containing cold brine. This is called
a "brine congealing tank." While the compressor is cooling the rooms,
it is also "storing up cold" in the brine congealing tank, lowering its
temperature more and more. At night the air circulates around the cold
tank and it is cooled off again by the same sufficiently to prevent excessive
rise in temperature. The next day the warmed brine is cooled
off by the compressor. Ammonia pipes are submerged in brine, and more
pipes are sometimes openly exposed in the rooms for direct cooling of
air.
The brine tank must be given ample capacity, and like a radiator,
it must have sufficient cooling surface for "giving off the cold" there
is in it. It ought to be placed overhead direct on joists, so that the cold
air can descend. It is bad practice to leave too little room for it. The
success of the plant depends also upon the proper size and arrangement
of the air ducts.
The refrigeration obtained from a machine is compared with the
cooling effect resulting from the melting of one ton (2000 pounds) of
ice per 24 hours. A 10-ton refrigerating machine can, if run 24 hours
per day, do the work 10 tons of ice are doing when melting away. But
if it were operated for 12 hours it would only be doing the work of 5 tons
of ice melting, and if run for but 6 hours, its work would only be equal to
io tons x 6 hours
~24~hour7~ = 2^ tons ice melti»g-
If, therefore, a man has been in the habit of buying and melting ice
at the rate of 10 tons per 24 hours, and wants a machine to do the same
work, he can have a 10-ton compressor. This must be allowed to work
for 24 hours, the same time his ice used to work; but if he should want
to shut down after 12 hours run, he would require a 20-ton machine, and
should he care to run for 8 hours only, he ought to have a 30-ton.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 7
Unless the cost of ice is prohibitive, or cost of power is low, it will
not pay to install a refrigerating plant of smaller size than one-ton
refrigerating,capacity per 12 hours. The cost of installation of such a
plant, and the expense of running it, are by no means as favorable as
in the case of larger machines.
A machine taking the place of, say, 500 pounds of ice used daily,
and run for eight hours each day, will require at least 2 horsepower.
This power at 6 cents per horsepower will amount to 6x 2 x 8 — 96 cents
per day. Now, unless the 500 pounds of ice cost more than 96 cents
($3.84) per ton, it is evidently much cheaper to continue using ice.
Larger machines requires less horsepower per ton of refrigeration,
and the amount of attendance needed is no more than for a small machine.
Such machines are therefore a profitable investment and a complete
success.
For making, say, 10 tons of ice per 24 hours, it requires a compressor
rated about 20 tons refrigeration, because the water must first be
cooled from about 80 degrees Fahr. down to 32 degrees Fahr. before
the actual freezing begins. In addition, the ice formed is cooled to about
20 degrees Fahr. and the "cold" lost or radiated from the ice tank to
the atmosphere also adds to the work of the machine.

Plans For a Pile Driver Punt
By R. Balfour
An ordinary punt for pile-driver service is such a common appurtenance
that, at first, any publication of plans for one would seem unnecessary.
However, a builder will have many doubts as to the best relations
of length, depth and beam. The particular punt described in this article
was designed for use in the building of a bridge over the Fraser River
at Xew Westminster, B. C. These punts were the most serviceable of
any the writer has ever designed and certainly were better than many
often seen in use. If the punts are made a few inches wider there will
be difficulty in propelling and controlling them in swift water. If, on
the other hand, they are made but a few inches narrower their capacity
and stability would be much less. This particular punt will be found
very stable, and a man may step on the side with no danger of capsizing.
A large number of men can be carried to and from the work in each punt.
The material used ma}- be white pine, spruce or western cedar. The
bottom boards should be nailed to the sides with 4-inch wrought spikes
with large heads, putting at least four nails at each end of each bottom
board, holes to be bored for the nails with a bit slightly smaller than the
spikes, so as to prevent any checking or splitting of the wood in driving
the spikes. All seams should be carefully calked with oakum and then
pitched over with a proper mixture of Stockholm tar and tallow, applied
hot. The bottom board, 10 ins. wide, should next be put into place, the
punt being turned bottom up for that purpose so as to admit of a man
going underneath it to clinch the spikes. The keel then is to be nailed
t«-~-j_4'
•test. SraOtt
Sj'jM' vr^r.
Section
A-B.
B I7'l0}'
Plan .
DESIGN OF A PILE-DRIVER PONT.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 9
through thc bottom of the punt and clinched to the bottom board with
4-inch wrought nails. (Whenever wrought nails or spikes are specified
steel wire nails should not be substituted.)
It will be found advantageous to use the regular heavy size of rowlocks,
which can be procured at any ship-chandler's shop, although thole
pins if properly made out of hardwood are perhaps better than the cast
rowlocks. There arc some disadvantages in using thole pine, as they are
liable to get broken by violent contact with the pile driver or scows, and
it takes a longer time to replace them than to put in a new rowlock. In
case rowlocks arc used care should be taken that the blocks for them
are thoroughly well fastened to the punt. It will not do to fasten these
in with screws, as is the usual practice in lighter boats. The ordinary
holes for the screws should be reamed out so as to admit of the use of
a jXmch machine bolt, which may be fastened to the side of the boat
by a blind nut and washer, the bole for the blind nut afterwards being
neatly plugged. The punt should first receive a priming coat of white
lead and oil and after that two coats of paint of any color desired.—
Engineering News.

Fireproof Construction in Reinforced
Concrete
By Walter B. Snow
TiERE appears to be a general lack of knowledge of the recen
rapid development of the important features which enter into fireproof
construction whereby its cost has been materially reduced.
It now costs only about 10 per cent more to build a structure in which
the fire hazard is practically negligible, than one of the slow burning
type. Although the cost of thoroughly fireproof construction as provided
be reinforced concrete is naturally somewhat greater than that of
ordinary construction, its durability and its exemption from fire risk
greatly reduce the net annual charges.
The advantages of reinforced concrete as a fireproof material are
well set forth in a paper recently presented before the National Fire
Protection Association, by Mr. Leonard C. Wason, president of the
Aberthaw Construction Co., of Boston, from which we quote in part:
"Numerous fire tests have been made to determine both the resistance
of concrete to actual test and also the depth to which the reinforcement
must be embedded to prevent its being damaged. The maximum
depth of pitting observed by the writer in actual fire tests, where a temperature
of 1700 degrees F. or more had been maintained for a period
of five hours, has been in either walls or ceiling one inch to one and onehalf
inches. Also by the examination of actual conflagrations, such as
that at Baltimore, and elsewdiere, it has been apparent that the prearranged
fire tests are more severe in the results shown by the structure
than actual conflagrations. Therefore if we can protect the materials
against damage in a pre-arranged test, they will stand any actual service.
The consensus of opinion of engineers is that there should be at least
one inch of concrete between the nearest point of a bar to the ceiling in
panels, at least two inches below the steel in beams and girders, and also
two inches of concrete outside the vertical bars in columns. In designing
columns it is common to figure only that area of column inside the
vertical bars wdien hooped as carrying the load, or if hoops are omitted
and but light reinforcement is used to prevent bending stresses, to add
an extra inch beyond that needed to carry the load all around the outside,
which might be burned away without endangering the load carrying
capacity of the balance of the column within. If this is burned off it

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 11
can be plastered back, giving the column the same fire resisting qualities
as before.
"The other types of fireproof construction which are coming into
competition with reinforced concrete are structural steel encased in
concrete, and this when thoroughly encased from a fireproof standpoint
is similar to an all concrete building; structural steel frame encased in
terra cotta, and to a small extent plaster of paris and brick have been
used in fireproofing steel, but not to a sufficient extent to be worthy of
much comment. Thoroughly well laid brick work is a good protection
to columns, but when cast as arches between beams it leaves the bottom
flange exposed, which is a serious defect. Actual conflagrations have
conclusively shown that terra cotta is not so perfect a fire protection as
concrete. This is largely, in the writer's opinion, due to the fact that
its coefficient of expansion is high, so that it expands to such an extent
that when confined between the beams it is crushed, the lower member
falling and thus weakening the floor. It is also more susceptible to a
combination of fire and water, being to some extent brittle and cracking
when a cold stream strikes a hot surface.
"Before concrete will disintegrate when exposed to fire the large
amount of moisture chemically combined in the setting of the cement
being 20 to 25 per cent of its weight, has to be driven off by heat, and
then the vapor thus driven off has to be evaporated from the pores of
the concrete before it becomes sufficiently hot to crumble. The slowness
of evaporating this vapor is probably the cause of concrete resisting
extremely high temperature for the brief period of a few hours, while
a much lower temperature, if long continued, would ultimately disintegrate
it. Cement will resist 500 degrees F. for an indefinite period,
while a continuous temperature of over 700 degrees F. is disasterous.
The cement coating of the stones of the concrete will resist the attack
of fire so long that it is of less consequence whether the stone can be
damaged by the fire or not. Thus pure limestone is a most excellent
aggregate and will not decompose until after the cement has, and after
the cement has gone it is immaterial what aggregate is used, as the work
has then failed anyway.
"Regarding the cost of this type of construction as compared with
others, the large use has proved conclusively that it will compete, because
the item of cost is considered paramount in 99 out of every 100 structures.
For large buildings the structural frame is almost always cheaper
than the steel. Thin curtain walls cannot be built as cheaply on account
of form work, which is constant for a thin wall as well as for a thick
one, but if the wall must be sixteen inches or more in thickness concrete
is cheaper than brick."

Motor
Wanted A Reliable Aeroplane
UNLESS the builders place at the disposal of the aeronaut a motor
which can run with absolute reliability as long as there is a pint
of fuel left in the tanks, further progress of the aeroplane, at least
as regards length of flight, seems destined to be greatly retarded. Not
many moons ago a 24-horsepower automobile set out upon the roads of
Massachusetts to see how far it could travel without a stop. It ran ten
thousand miles. Today the aeroplane operator takes his seat, grasps his
levers, and starts his engine, with the forlorn hope that it may continue
to run until he has covered some modest stretch of time or space. Every
moment that he spends in the air, he is watching anxiously for the first
signs of that fatal "missing" which marks the probable end of his flight.
Latham, with a machine which is apparently perfect in balance and control,
sweeps easily through the first half of the distance across the English
Channel, when, suddenly, motor trouble begins, and he must perforce
float ingloriously into the sea. The Wright brothers, with an aeroplane
which is the perfection of lightness, strength, and control, at the present
writing have spent some weeks in Washington wrestling with the obstinacy
of their motor.
Apart from its motor, the aeroplane must be considered to have already
reached a high stage of excellence. Instances of failure of the
planes while in the air are very rare; indeed, we do not recall a recorded
instance for many months past of the failure of a flight through the
breaking of the wings or body of the machine. The control, in the best
machines, appears to be perfect.
Why is it, one asks, that an internal-combustion engine which will
drive one machine over a continuous stretch of ten thousand miles of
country without stopping, cannot drive another machine through the air
without showing all the eccentric obstinacy and the hundred and one
ways of breaking down which characterized the motor of the early days
of the automobile? The anomaly is certainly difficult to explain; and we
can only suggest a few of thc conditions, which, in the aggregate, may
account for the present unreliability of the gasoline motor in aerial work.
In the first place, then, many if not most of the aeroplane enthusiasts
are obsessed by the fetish of "light weight;" and under this obsession
they make the mistake of trying to build a light-weight motor of their

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 13
own. The result is a machine which is usually too frail for its work.
The problem is further complicated by the fact that this motor is mounted
upon what, at best, is an unstable platform. Xow, as a matter of fact,
the duty laid upon the aeroplane engine is far heavier than that upon the
automobile engine; for, whereas the latter runs at from 800 to 900 revolutions
per minute, the aeroplane motor is always being driven at its
highest speed, which is usually from 1,200 to 1,400 revolutions per minute.
The automobile engine is mounted on a very rigid steel frame, designed
to maintain everything in true line ; whereas the frame of the aeroplane
is light and flexible, and where gearing is interposed between crank shaft
and propeller shaft, there is a liability of the parts being sprung out of
line and twisting and wrenching stresses set up. Where the engines are
run at such high speed, particular care should be taken to insure that the
parts function properly. Magneto ignition, forced lubrication, ample
cooling surface whether by air or water, and generous bearing surfaces
in the wearing parts, should characterize every aeroplane motor. Reliability
rather than excessive weight-saving should be the first consideration.
The time is ripe for some firm in this country, that has had long
experience in motor construction, to take up the building of motors
specially suited to the aeroplane and the dirigible. These motors should
embody the ripe experience and the high-class materials and careful
workmanship which characterize the best automobile motor practice at
the present time. There is no essential condition of the problem to
prevent the construction of an engine that will drive an aeroplane in the
air continuously, until the last drop of gasoline has been drawn from the
tank. Practical aviation is today awaiting the production of a thoroughly
reliable motor.—Scientific American.

Comparative Cost of P o w e r F r o m
Different Sources
THE cost of producing power from different sources is made up
of a number of items, including interest on the first cost of the
installation, depreciation of the apparatus, its insurance, etc., usually
called the "fixed charges." To these should be added the costs of fuel,
of labor for attendance, and of repairs, as the principal items, and the
cost of lubricants, material for cleaning, and a great many other small
miscellaneous items, all going to form what arc commonly called "operating
charges."
In all cases where fuel is used its cost is, if not the most important,
certainly a very important item. In the case of water power, where the
fuel element is zero, the advantage is offset by an interest charge on the
cost of installation for dams, pipes, tunnels, shafts, etc. Assuming that
power from all of these different sources i.s equally well adapted to the
particular work to be done and equally available, then that system will
be selected for any particular case for which the cost of power is least.
Leaving out of consideration water power, it is found that'the labor
costs do not differ nearly so widely for the different systems, nor are
they so large, as the fuel cost. Therefore, the great question today in
power production as regards immediate cost of power and maintenance
is this lowering of the fuel cost.
The cost of fuel per unit of power developed depends, first, on the
market price of that fuel at the point where it is to be used, and next,
but by no means least, on the ability of the machinery to transform the
fuel energy into useful work. If all the different kinds of machinery
used for power generation could turn into useful work the same proportion
of the energy in the fuel, coal would be almost universally used, because
of the present low cost of energy in this form.
The different kinds of fuel contain different amounts of energy per
pound—that is to say, they have different heating powers. Heat energy
is measured in terms of a technical unit called by English-speaking people
the "British thermal unit" (B. t. u.). This unit is the amount of heat
that will raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree on
the Fahrenheit thermometer.
In comparing, therefore, the value of fuels for power there must
be taken into consideration two facts—the market price of the fuel and
the amount of heat which will be liberated when it is burned. Anthracite

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 15
coal in the neighborhood of Xew York can be bought in small sizes in
large quantities for power purposes at about $2.50 per ton. This coal
will contain about 12,500 B. t. u. per pound. This is equivalent to about
10,000,000 heat units per dollar. Large sizes, such as egg coal, containing
about 14,000 B. t. u. per pound, can be bought in large quantities for
about $6.25 per ton, which is equivalent to 4,500,000 B. t. u. per dollar.
Other grades of anthracite coal and the various grades and qualities of
bituminous coal will lie between these two limits of cost.
Illuminating gas in Xew York costs $1 per 1.000 cubic feet, which
is equivalent to about 500,000 heat units per dollar. Natural gas in the
Middle States is sold for 10 cents per 1,000 cubic feet and upward. This
fuel at the minimum price will furnish about 10,000,000 heat units for
a dollar.
Crude oil sells in the East at a minimum price of 4 cents per gallon,
which is equivalent to about 4,000,000 heat units per dollar. Gasoline
sells at a minimum price of 10 cents per gallon, which is equivalent to
about 1,200,000 heat units per dollar. Kerosene sells from 10 to 30
cents per gallon, which is equivalent to 1,200,000 and 400,000 heat units
per dollar, respectively. Grain alcohol, such as will be freed from tax
under the recent legislation, will sell for an unknown price; but fur the
purpose of comparison, assuming 30 cents per gallon as a minimum, it
will give 270,000 heat units per dollar.
Gasoline, kerosene, crude oils, and, in fact, all of the distillates have
about the same amount of heat per pound; therefore, at the same price
per gallon, ignoring the slight difference in density, they would deliver
to the consumer about the same amount of heat per dollar, whereas the
other liquid fuel, alcohol, if sold at an equal price, would give the consumer
only about three-fifths the amount of heat for the same money.
From the figures above given it appears that the cost of heat energy contained
in the above fuels, at the fair market prices given, varies widely,
lying between 200,000 heat units per dollar and 10,000,000 heat units
per dollar. It is possible to buy eight times as much energy for a given
amount of money in the form of cheap coal as in the form of low-priced
gasoline, or 25 times as much as in the form of high-priced gasoline or
kerosene.
This being true, it might seem to a casual observer as rather strange
that gasoline should be used at all, and the fact that it is used in competition
with fuel of one-eighth to one-twenty-fifth its cost shows clearly
that either the gasoline engine has some characteristics not possessed by
an engine or plant using coal, which makes it able to do things the other
can not do, or that more of the heat it contains can be transformed into
energy for useful work. Both of these things are true.

Great Railway Bridge Across the
Willamette
T H E great bridge which spans the Columbia River, opposite Vancouver,
Wash., is pronounced by engineers to be the longest railroad
bridge in the world, its total length, including the approaches,
being one mile and a half. This immense viaduct w^as built by the
Spokane, Portland ev Seattle Railway Company (a part of the Jim Hill
Great Northern System), at a cost of over $2,000,000.
The same railroad company has very recently completed another
large bridge only about six miles to the westward of the immense one
referred in above. This last bridge spans the Willamette River, just
below the city of Portland, Oregon. The total cost approximate-el $1,-
000,000, and, wfth the exception of the one across the Columbia, the
Willamette bridge is the longest, largest and most expensive structure
of the kind west of Missouri.
Including the approaches, the Willamette bridge is 2,000 feet long,
and rests on nine huge piers. These piers have massive foundations
sunk from 40 to 50 feet below the bed of the stream. They are of reinforced
concrete, and faced, above the extreme low water mark, with
blocks of granite. The floor of the bridge is 20 feet above the extreme
flood mark. Tbe Willamette River is subject to great floods and freshets,
but this new structure has been built so massively that engineers declare
it can successively defy the fur}- of the most powerful current.
All of the superstructure is of structural steel, while thc spans are
nearly 300 feet long. The Willamette River is the next largest navigable
stream in the northwest (steamers ascending for more than 100 miles
from the mouth), and the Government required ample facilities in the
interests of commerce. An immense drawbridge was constructed which
enables vessels to pass with ease and safety. Engineers claim that the
Willamette bridge has the longest draw in the world, the total width
between thc stationary ends of the spans being 512 feet.
The bridge was constructed by the Atkinson-Kelley Contracting &
Construction Company, of Seattle, Wash. More than a year was required
in which to complete the work. The Spokane, Portland & Seattle
Railroad is an important part of the Great Xorthern System. It extends
from Spokane, Wash., to Portland, Oregon, a distance of 461 miles.
Work on this new line was commenced several years ago, and it has
only been completed very recently. It is claimed that this line throughout
its entire length has the best uniform grade of almost any road in
the world.

Locomotive Cranes as Labor Savers
By Lewis Glasgow Howlett
The improvement in design and increase in the capacity of locomotive
cranes have been quite pronounced and rapid in the past few years, so
much so that the crane which carried off the gold medal at the Chicago
Exposition in 1893 is today hopelessly obsolete.—a curiosity.
Since locomotive cranes are a specialty to the manufacture of which
some builelers are devoting their entire energy, the result has been
standardization in sizes anil types, until now cranes can be turned out
in quantities with the same economy of production that is secured in
building machine tools or steam engines.
The design of locomotive cranes has been influenced quite as much
by the progress of other industries as by any special effort to develop
the crane. Loading anel unloading of loose material, such as coal, gravel
and ore, brought nut the type known as the bucket crane; the lumber
industry called for cranes with electricity and compressed air as motive
power, reducing thus the danger from fire; while the general use of
cranes for hauling purposes led to many improved designs in propulsion.
Locomotive cranes may be operated with either steam, electricity or
compressed air. Although electricity has been more generally adapted
to overhead travelers and large wharf cranes, its use in connection with
locomotive cranes is very convenient in some classes of work. The
specialization of motors, controllers, and brakes for crane service bas
added much to the simplicity and efficiency of electric motive power.
Solenoid brakes, made to act automatically, reduce both the work of the
operator and thc liability to accident.
Either system of electric transmission is now used. Alternatingcurrent
three-phase motors have been perfected so that a large starting
torque is obtainable as in the series-wound direct-current motor. The
ability of the three-phase motor to withstand a large percentage of overload
and the absence of commutator troubles have much in their favor
for a hoisting motor.
There are many places where electricity can be used in locomotive
cranes when steam would be objectionable. Electric cranes operating
in lumber yards, on wharves, or arounel warehouses, offer safe substitutes
for steam boilers, which always carry a fire menace with them.
In cases where a crane is used at infrequent intervals, the electric crane

18 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
too is advantageous: it is always read)', and uses up power only when
at work. Magnets for unloading plates, billets, and even pig iron and
scrap can further be conveniently arranged on an electric crane.
A locomotive crane makes a very flexible coaling plant, for the cars
or locomotive need not be brought to one place for unloading or coaling,
as the crane is capable of moving from place to place and hauling cars
also, if required. Several handlings of coal anel ashes are avoided, as
the coal is transferred directly from thc car into the engine tender. The
coal is handled by a clam-shell bucket of special construction for operating
in the bottom of gondola cars, and removes about 90 per cent of the
coal in the car. All the motions of hoisting, slewing, traveling, and
opening and closing the buckets are under thc control of the operator.
Man}- railways have installed locomotive cranes with grab buckets for
unloading coal. Some of them place the coal in storage bins and fill
locomotive tenders through chutes, while others use them to coal directly
from a gondola car.
An illustration shows a crane, eejuipped with a bucket, coaling a
locomotive tender directly from a car standing on a track parallel to the
one on which the crane stands. As operated on one line of railway this
McMyler Ml I rane Coaling Locomotive,

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINl
McMyler Mfg-. Co Handling Ashes.
crane is capable of making over 50 trips per hour, handling from a ton
to a ton and a half of coal at each trip. On such an equipment but two
men are required,—one to operate the crane, the other, a laborer, to guide
the bucket in thc car. From statistics of various plants the average cost
is made up as follows:
Operator and helper, per day $5.00
Coal 1-50
Oil 50
Cost of maintenance LOO
Total cost of handling 500 tons per day $8.00
This is equivalent to 1.6 cents per ton.
It is evident that in this system of handling coal and ashes there are
many advantages that demand the attention of engineers. The first cost
of such an installation is small as compared with other plants. Xo space
or ground need be prepared other than the usual tracks in the yard, and
these are quickly installed. The outfit is portable and moves easily from
one place to another, accommodating existing conditions. Coal is handled
directly with no intermediate operations. Cranes may be used to handle
other material and do other service if time permits.

20 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
A locomotive crane is an efficient appliance for handling- coal and
ashes in a power plant. Another illustration shows a crane with auto-grab
bucket placed on an elevated railway running parallel with the power
house of the Xavy Yard at Washington, D. C. The elevated railway or
trestle runs between a dock on the river front and the boiler house. Two
hoppers, one at each end, are connected with the trestle. On top of the
trestle runs the crane.
When the coal arrives in barges it is unloaded into the hopper car
bv the crane and the grab-bucket, and as soon as the car is filled it is
pushed by the locomotive crane to the upper end of the power house.
The load is there charged through the bottom into the bin, goes from the
bin through the crusher, and is from there elevated and conveyed by a
link-belt arrangement to the various storage points.
The main storage pile is located beside the trestle and next to the
hopper, and after the stoker bins are filled the coal is clumped from the
car into this storage pile, and from there later on reloaded by means of
thc locomotive crane and grab-bucket into the hopper, from where it goes
to the crusher. It is the same way when the coal arrives by rail, the only
difference being that the locomotive crane, instead of taking the coal out
from the barges, takes it out from the gondola cars by means of the grabbucket,
placing it either in the bottom dumping car on the trestle or direct
on the storage pile.
The method for disposing of the cinders and ashes is identical, but
reversed. Tbe ashes are gathered and elevated from the boiler room to
the top of the building by link-belt conveyors, and are then automatically
dumped in either one of two spouts. One of these spouts runs direct into
a receiving hopper built underneath the trestle, and from which the ashes
are dumped into railway cars. When the ashes have to be shipped by
Interstate Engineering Co. Crane Hanelling-
Coal to Pockets for Coaling
Locomotive.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 21
Interstate Engineering Co. Crane Handling Castings.
boat, the second spout is useel, which conveys the ashes by gravity direct
into the bottom dumping car on the trestle, and when this car is filled
it is hauled by the locomotive crane down to the end of the clock, where
the receiving hopper is located and into which the ashes are dumped.
A chute leads direct from the bin into the barges.
In large lumber yards locomotive cranes are doing thc work formerly
done by many men in loading, sorting and piling lumber. It is estimated
that lumber can be handled with a crane for about 15 cents per 1000 feet.
Illustrations show cranes working in lumber yards, showing the special
equipment applied for this industry. Double hooks are used for handling
long timber. These hooks are on a single run of rope, giving a hoisting
speed of about 125 feet per minute. Compressed air has been used as
motive power on locomotive cranes in a few instances, and there is no
reason why it should not be used more universally, as it has all the good
features of electric power and many advantages over steam. The air is
stored in one or two tanks of small diameter at a pressure of 800 pounds
per square inch, and the cranes are capable of running continuously from
three to five hours. The tanks can be charged in from one to two minutes.
With two or more charging stations, a compressed air crane has as
large a radius of action as a steam crane. It is especially adapted to use

22 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
where sparks would be dangerous, and has not the hindrances of electric
cranes due to overhead trolley wires. Writh the high pressure used, the
difficulty of freezing exhaust pipes is eliminated, as in the process of
compression practically all the moisture is squeezed from the air and
deposited in tanks from which it can be drawn off. A reducing valve
is used to bring the pressure within ordinary working limits before it
reaches the cylinders. Compared wtih other motive powers, compressed
air is cleaner, simpler, and more convenient and should make an ideal
power for a locomotive crane.
A locomotive crane shovel is shown which has the general appearance
of a 20-ton crane mounted on a four-wheel car. The boom, however,
is supplied with a shovel operated by a cylinder hung in trunnions similar
to the arrangement so universally used on an excavator. The machinery
of this crane, with the boiler and water tank placed so as to act as counterweights,
is supported upon four rollers which can roll a complete circle
on the bedplate of the car.
With this arrangement the machine is more flexible in its operation
and has more advantages than an ordinary excavator. Being able to
swing a complete circle, it can excavate material ahead or on either side
and deposit it at any point, while the ordinary shovel works only on an
arc of 180 degrees. The shovel can be removed anil the machine used
Interstate Engineering Co. Cr

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
McMyler Mfg. Co. Handling a Grab Bucket
as a locomotive crane. This machine has been found especially useful
in digging ore where the grab-bucket would not penetrate.
A self-propelling wrecking crane can be classed under the heading
of locomotive cranes. The self-propelling feature has been added to
wrecking cranes of capacities up to 100 tons. Two methods have been
employed in adding the propelling mechanism on cranes of capacities
from 40 to 100 tons. One arrangement places the two center axles in
pedestal jaws arranged with semi-elliptical leaf springs. The axles are
driven through spur and bevel gearing from engines above the car. A
bogie truck axle is placed on each end of the car, serving as guiding
wheels and distributing the weight over a greater number of wheels. For
rapid transportation over the road the gearing under the car directly
connected with the axle gear is disengaged by a hand lever. The second
method of arrangement is to place the two driving axles in rigid pedestal
jaws on one end of the car and a standard truck on the other end.
This provides a better arrangement of running gearing for rapid
transportation, but does not give as good a distribution of weight upon
the driving wheels as the former method. The latter is employed where
it is necessary to move the crane only, while the former gives greater
propelling power and renders the crane of service in hauling many loaded
cars in addition to propelling itself.

24
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Since wrecking cranes have been transformed into locomotive cranes,
it may not be uninteresting to show some of the work done by them.
Many railways have cranes installed every 200 miles of their track.
Wreckage which would formerly have taken a clay for removal is now
cleared away in an hour or two. The largest engines can be lifted
bodily and placed upon the track.
In lifting loads weighing 100 tons, added stability is given to the
crane by a system of telescopic outriggers which are thrown out on the
side of the car nearest the load and are usually blocked up to keep the
car level. When the outriggers are not in use, they may be drawn back
into the car so as not to interfere with traveling over the road. One of
the limiting conditions in lifting heavy loads becomes evident when
endeavoring to block up under the outriggers. It is often almost impossible
to find ground work that will withstand the enormous pressure.
The workmanship in such large machines is necessarily of high
quality, and most of the construction is in steel. All the gearing has
teeth cut from solid blanks. The main machinery, together with tbe
boiler, is contained within heavy frames mounted upon a cast-steel bedplate,
thoroughly secured to the car body. In lifting, the strains are
taken by a large center pin in the base plate.
The locomotive crane is probably as compact a machine for its size
and capacity as anyr structure coming within the category of cranes.
In the case of large shipyard or wharf cranes, there is unlimited overhead
space for the construction of high vertical struts to reduce strains,
and the gauge of the track may be suited to the load. A locomotive
crane, on thc other hand, is limited in height and width, and is generally
placed upon a standard or smaller gauge. This necessitates a careful
arrangement of all parts to obtain the greatest stability with minimum
weight.
In the placing of machinery three points are kept in view: First,
Browning Engineering Co. Crane and Lumber Yard.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 25

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
placing engine shaft, drums, and gears to keep the center of gravity as
far back as possible from the center of the crane; second, to arrange
them so that any part may be accessible for making repairs and convenient
in assembling; third, to give the operator an unobstructed view
from the operating platform. When the crane has been built as light as
Special Crane at Power Plant Interstate Engineering Co.
possible, with all parts heavy enough to withstand the stresses to be
encountered, and the greatest stability has been obtained from the weight
of these parts, counter balance i.s added in the form of scrap ballast.
A sufficient amount to give its rated capacity in foot-tons is generally
placed in the car body of the crane.
Small cranes of from 5 to 15 tons are usually placed upon a structural
steel or solid cast-iron car mounted on four wheels. For lighter
cranes the solid cast-iron car is suitable, but a structural steel car is
preferable for heavier ones, as it is not os rigid and adapts itself to
uneven tracks and curves while sufficiently rigid to preserve joints and
retain shape.
Cranes of larger capacity than 15 to 20 tons should be placed on
cars with more than four wheels, as otherwise no track system can be
kept in shape owing to the great concentration of weight brought upon

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 27
one wheel. The weight is spread upon four additional wheels by placing
a bogie axle at each side of the drivers. The propelling mechanism is
not altered by this arrangement.
In the up-to-date cranes, chains on the hoists have been replaced by
wire rope, which works smoother, with less noise anel gives a neater
-,r
McMyler Mfg. Co, Crane with Bucket.
appearance. A train of steel gearing has been substituted for the propelling
chain, making a more satisfactory drive and one less liable to
breakage.
The standard types of cranes made by different manufacturers have
similar features and fulfill about the same specifications. A standard

28 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
* *
t_
/ ]
• • • I J
—-—^E"j
» • •
' K 1
• -X

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 29
tenton crane will have a propelling speed of 4 to 5 miles per hour, a
hoisting speed of 50 feet per minute with full load, and a slewing speed
of 3 to 4 revolutions per minute. Variations are often made from these
standard types to meet special conditions. Where the crane is used as
a switch engine and great propelling power and high speed are required,
it would be equipped with large-sized engines and boilers. In climbing
heavy gradients, the same condition of boiler and engine would be kept,
but a greater gear reduction made.
Jibs of locomotive cranes, to maintain the lightest weight possible,
should be straight. Where a curved end is necessary a heavier section
of structural material is used to maintain the same strength. When short
jibs are used, a curved end is often necessary to give proper clearance
under the jib.
Only a few of the well-developed uses of locomotive cranes have
been here described. The number of industries in which they are being
found of service is constantly increasing. When once in use they become
indispensable.
As spoken above, modification of locomotive cranes to include a
shovel attachment is becoming common in this country, although a
machine of this type has been used in England for a number of years
and is known as a "navvy."
These foreign machines are built in capacity of 12 tons or more,
weighing about 35 tons, and will excavate and put into wagons 750 to
1,000 tons per day of 10 hours, according to nature of the ground.
The word "navvy" is applied lo the same type of machine as a
steam shovel, and these are operated cither by steam or compressed air
or electricity. They, of course, constitute one of the most useful machines
for contractors' work that they have.
In this country the steam -hovel is a very well developed machine,
having received careful attention in the designing room of the manufacturers
who produce this class of contractors' equipment. The style
of machines has been kept similar in design in this country with but few
exceptions.
Xo doubt the original machines contain vertical boilers, as is found
necessary to condense the space, but as the capacity increases and the
need for greater steaming qualities, the horizontal boiler at once came
into use. It will be easily recognized that the horizontal boiler of the
locomotive type will afford a larger amount of heating surface and
permit a greater variety of fuels.
In its simplest form the orthodox steam shovel consists of a car
body mounted upon suitable railroad trucks or traction wheels, with a
swinging arm at the front end carrying the scoop or "dipper" anel dipper

30
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 31
handle, and with a boiler, engines and drums on the car for hoisting the
dipper and for swinging the arm from side to side.
As originally built, the shovels were all of the "Crane" type, as
illustrated in the figure. In this construction the upper and lower chords
of the swinging arm are built into one rigid structure, pivoted at the
inner end to a so-called mast, which is in turn held in place by a very
heavy, expensive system of bracing on the car bod)-.
The demands of today, however, are so severe that a separate pair
of engines is provieled for each operation, being geareel directly to the
part to be moved.
Browning Engineering Co. Shovel.
The Crane type was necessarily very expensive, and owing tn the
heavy superstructure required, the center of gravity was high, and thus
made thc machine more or less unstable. Then, again, there was a practical
limit to the "height of dump," or the height over which the dipper
would clear with the door open.

32 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
All of these points led to the development, about 1889, of the "Boom"
type, which is almost universal now, except in the smaller sized traction
shovels. In this type, the swinging arm is made of a heavy double boom,
pivoted at the lower end to a rotating step casting, and suspended at
the desired angle by means of truss rods, or boom guys, as they are
called. The boom guys are journaled to the top of an "A" frame, which
is carried by the car, anel by back guys running to the rear end of the
machine.
x- -t: ? ^ ' ^ 3
% W £ x
"^~._
Crane Type of Vulcan Steam Shovel Ci
In the early "boom" shovels, the A frame was very high and had
to be taken entirely off tbe shovel when moving from one place to another,
but in 1893 the Bucyrus Company exhibited a shovel at the World's
Fair in which the A frame was made to pass under railroad bridges
while it was in place. This is the usual practice today in all except the
larger sizes, and even in those means is provided for simply lowering
the A frame, instead of having to remove it completely.
The two pairs of engines used for hoisting anel swinging are carried
on the deck of the car, while those for forcing the clipper in and out
of the banks are mounted on the boom, being supplied with steam by
means of a pipe having flexible connections.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. M
The boom can be made of almost any desired length, and can be
suspended at such an angle as to give the required free height of clearance
under the dipper door when open.
In order to prevent the shovels from tipping over when digging on
the sides, they are provided with outriggers or jack arms at the front
end, which are fitted with large screws bearing on heavy blocking, by
means of which the shovel is fastened securely into position.
Steam shovels may be roughly divided into four principal classes:
First, the Railroad type, in which the shovel is mounted on standard
gauge railroad trucks; second, the Traction type, in which the shovel is
Boom Type of Vulcan Steam Slme,
mounted on wide tired traction wheels anel is capable of being run over
an ordinary country road; third, the Land Dredge type, in which the
shovel is mounted on either very wide gauge trucks or carried on rollers
of some sort; fourth, the so-called Automatic or Revolving type, in which
the machinery is carried on a rotating platform, mounted on a fourwheeled
base, and in which the dipper can be swung through a complete
circle instead of through an arc of 180 degrees only, as in the other
classes.
The Classes 1 and 2 are the ones ordinarily useel by railroad and
other contractors, anel constitute the bulk of all the machines built.
Class 3 i.s used principally for placer mining and similar work where
the machine is required to dump into a hopper and where a long reach
and high lift is needed. Class 4 is rapidly growing into favor for use
in brick yards, cement plants, digging cellars, etc.

34
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The machinery consists in general of a double, link reversible engine
for hoisting, geared by means of a friction clutch to a large hoisting
drum, from which thc hoisting chain passes around various sheaves to
the boom point, and thence to the dipper bail; a double valve reversing
engine for swinging, geared directly to a drum, the cables or chains from
which pass around a large circle fastened to the foot of the boom; and
a similar pair of engines geared directly to the dipper handle by means
of a rack and pinion.
"Boom" Type of Vulcan Shovel e^o.
Steam is supplied in the smaller shovels by a straight flue vertical
boiler, and in the larger sizes by a horizontal fire-box boiler of the locomotive
type. The usual pressure carried is 100 pounds, but some recent
shovels have been designed for as high as 140 pounds. Water is carried
in a steel tank placed either on the deck beside the boiler or suspended
beneath the car between the trucks. Usually both pump and injector
feed is supplied. Fuel, generally coal, i.s carried on a platform hung at
the rear end of the machine.
Thc hoisting drum can be locked in any position by means of a brake
band operated by the engineer's foot. The shovel is propelled by gearing
and chains driven from the main hoisting engines.
The active crew of a steam shovel consists of an engineer, a cranesman
and a fireman. In some cases the automatic or revolving shovel
requires but one man, but usually even with those a fireman is needed.
These are assisted by from four to six laborers, or "pit men," who
attend to setting the jack screws, leveling the ground in front of the
shovel, placing track, and the like.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 35

36
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The working of a shovel may be briefly described as follows: The
engineer stands on the front of the car and at one side, where he has a
full view of the dipper and work, and where are conveniently grouped
the levers controlling the hoisting engine throttle, the hoisting friction and
brake lever, and the swinging throttle. The propelling levers are also
placed at the side of his platform.
Interstate E las tings.
The cranesman stands on the small platform hung from the boom
near its foot, and operates the thrusting or boom engines and the dipper
dump line. Pie also directs the pit men, except in cases where the work
warrants a regular "pit boss."
In digging, the engineer starts the hoisting engines and throws in
the hoisting friction, thus raising thc dipper. The cranesman then forces
the dipper into the bank sufficiently to cause it to fill, but not enough to
stall the engines, or tip over the machine.
When filled, or when the dipper has been raised to its limit, as
shown by "A," the engineer stops the hoisting engines, sets the hoisting

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 3,7
brake with his foot, and swings the boom anel dipper over the car, wagon,
or whatever is being loaded.
At the same time the cranesman draws the dipper into position "B,"
and when it is over the dumping point, releases the dipper door latch
by means of his dump line, thus dropping the load. The engineer at
once starts swinging the boom back to the digging point, anel releases
the hoisting drum so that the clipper will fall to position "C." The
dipper door closes and latches by its own weight. By a quick thrust
of the boom engine, the cranesman forces the dipper to the ground, and
the machine is ready for a second cut.
The operation sounds simple, but when it is taken into consideration
that the two men must work absolutely in unison and go through the
various operations at the rate of three or four times a minute, it will
readily be understood how skillful they must become.
As a matter of fact, they are among the best paid of such workmen,
the engineers receiving on an average from $140.00 to $150.00 per month,
and the cranesmen $100.00 to $125.00.
The railroad shovel, when working, is run on short sections of track,
usually about 6 feet long. These are carried ahead of the machine and
placed in position by the pitmen as often as the limit of the dipper reach
requires.
The time occupied in placing the track, releasing the jack screws,
"moving up" and resetting the screws, seldom occupies more than four
or five minutes.
With the traction shovel, short lengths of heavy plank are used
instead of the track sections, except where the ground is unusually
hard, in which case the shovel may be run directly on the ground.
In making a through cut, such as for a railroad through a hill, a
shovel will make an opening 18 to 20 feet wide each side of track.
Shovels are rated in size according to their weight, and range from
the small ones of fourteen tons, carrying a one-half cubic yard dipper,
to the immense machines used for rock excavations and weighing 95 to
100 tons, and equipped with a dipper holding five cubic yards.

Marvels of M o d e r n Science
GRAVITATION MYSTERIES.
ALL scientific Germany is talking of the remarkable experiments of
Professor Arthur Korn in the mysterious domain of gravitation.
Of the score of physical reasons given for gravitation not one has
passed beyond the domain of theory. It has fallen to Professor Korn
to propound yet one more theory, and, for the first time on record, to
prove experimentally that his theory is right.
Professor Korn has constructed a machine which shows even to the
unscientific eye small bodies attracting one another in the same way,
and under the same laws as regards distances and speed, as all the heavenly
bodies are attracted by one another.
Professor Korn started with the assumption that gravitation is
merely the result of the vibration of elastic bodies in an inelastic medium.
This is a theory based on the fact that the earth, sun and stars, all being
elastic matter, are surrounded by ether, which science assumes is inelastic
and incompressible.
The machine constructed by the professor to produce "artificial
gravitation" is extremely simple. A metallic globe, fitted with a window
for observation of what is going on inside it, is united by tubes with a
cylinder, one end of which is closed only by a membrane. To this membrane
is attached an electro motor, which, by pushing and pulling the
membrane alternately, makes rapid pulsations. The metal globe contains
two air-filled india rubber balls of different sizes. The larger one is
fixed firmly to the inside wall of the globe. The smaller is free to move
whither it likes.
The whole apparatus is then filled with water, and the motor set
to work. Each time the membrane is pressed in, the increased water
pressure causes the rubber balls to contract, and each time the membrane
returns to its orginal position the relaxed pressure of the water causes
the two balls to expand. The motor is set working so quickly that these
pulsations become inconceivably rapid vibrations, and the contraction
and expansion of the balls is invisible to the eye. As water is practically
incompressible, Professor Korn thus obtains the conditions he
needs—he has two elastic bodies vibrating in an inelastic medium.
Then the phenomenon looked for occurs. When the vibrations
attain a certain speed the smaller ball, impelled by a mysterious force,
begins slowly to move through the water to the larger ball, and gradually

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 39
increase its speed, exactly as the apple observed by Newton increased
its speed as it fell nearer and nearer to the ground.
So far this was merely a puzzling phenomenon. But that it was
gravitation, and no other force, which drew the balls together was soon
proved. Measurements showed that the bigger ball attracted the smaller
exactly in. accordance with Newton's law, or in inverse ratio to the square
of the distance between them. It became, therefore, possible to construct
an exact working model of the solar system in water, in which the planets
should all move in their appointed paths without any visible support, or
externally applied power.
GASOLINE RUNS TRAINS
A new form of motive power is being tried out on the Santa Fe
railroad in the shape of two gasoline motor cars. One of these cars,
No. M-100, is in service between Los Angeles and San Bernardino, while
the other, Xo. M-101, operates between Chanute and Pittsburg, Kas.,
a distance of fifty-five miles. This car makes eight regular stops and
three flag stops each way, covering the distance at the rate of 21.3 miles
per hour, including stops. This is not, howrever, the maximum speed
which can be secured. The car is listed as "motor passenger trains 245
and 246," and is meeting with favor from the traveling public.
The design of the car is similar to an inverted ship, according to
the Santa Fe Employes' Magazine. It is built of steel, the sheathing
throughout being principally Xo. 12 gauge. The upper deck and deck
sash have been replaced by a semi-circular roof, and thereby a reduction
of twenty-four inches in overhead clearance is obtained. The ends are
so constructed as to reduce wind resistance as much as possible, the front
end being wedge-shaped and the rear end semi-circular.
The exterior of the car is finished in maroon, striped with gold, while
the trucks are painted an olive green. The interior is finished in Cuban
mahogany. Seats are provided for seventy-five passengers. The floor is
watertight and can be easily cleansed by flushing with hot water.
The motive power is a six-cylinder, 10xl2-inch, four-cyclinder marine
type gasoline engine, rated 200-horsepower at 350 revolutions per minute.
The engine is built in the shops of an Omaha motor car company, from
their own designs, which are the result of experience with a great many
different makes of marine type gasoline engines. This engine is positivly
reversible and it will drive the car at a speed of sixty miles an hour.
MEASURING EARTH'S SHRINKAGE.
Attention has been drawn recently to the probable fact that the
earth's shrinkage is taking place at a measurable rate, so that accurate
surveys in all countries at regular intervals of thirty or forty years are

40 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
recommended for the enlightenment of future generations. Most of the
rocks in sight were originally deposited by water in a horizontal position,
but cooling and shrinking changed the size and consequently the contour
of the surface, causing strata to be pushed up as dry land and folded into
mountain ranges, the crumpling that formed the Alps having produced
a horizontal displacement of seventy-five miles. Various measurements
of a degree of latitude seem to indicate that the earth's quadrant has
shortened more than 10 per cent since the time of Eratosthenes (230
B. C). Modern triangulation is very exact, and measurements at regular
intervals of a degree on different parts of the earth would eventually
show whether shrinkage is really perceptible and whether its rate is
uniform or the result of occasional violent convulsions. Since the San
Francisco earthquake, a repetition of surveys over more than 4,000 square
miles has shown displacements varying from twenty inches to fifteen feet.
The same causes affect elevation, and levelings at different times can
reveal changes of four inches in the height of land. Towers and other
prominent objects have sunk in Saxony within a generation so as to be
no longer visible from certain points. Periodical surveys, horizontal and
vertical, will be useful in various ways, and may even give a hint as to
the ultimate fate of the earth.
CELLULOID THAT IS SAFE.
Many unsuccessful attempts to produce a non-inflammable celluloid
have caused new substances of the kind to be received with skepticism,
but it is claimed that the cellite of Dr. A. Eichengrun, now made at
Dusseldorf, Germany, has withstood tests proving it to be a cheap and
useful material. Celluloid is a mixture of collodion cotton, a nitrocellulose
less highly nitrated than guncotton, with camphor and suitable
coloring matters. In cellite the nitro-cellulose is replaced by an acetylcellulose,
made with acetic acid instead of nitric acid, and variety is given
to the product by substituting different artificial camphors for ordinary
camphor. Cellite is thus made soft, hard, elastic or flexible. It is slow
burning, with none of the explosive combustibility of celluloid, and can
be used instead of glass, gelatin, leather, paper and various fabrics, or
as a waterproof coating, but is expected to prove especially valuable for
really safe moving-picture films.
ART OF METALLIC INLAYING.
In the ancient art of damascening in which Damascus excelled in
the thirteenth century, a surface of bronze or iron was engraved with
lines or figures, and threads of silver or gold were pounded into the design
with a mallet. Attempts have been made to produce the same ornamental
inlaying by some cheaper method. The latest process is that of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 41
Sherard Cowper Coles, the British metallurgist, who coats the object to
be decorated with a protective composition, and in this cuts out the
design. Placed in an iron box, in which it is surrounded with filings of
the ornamenting metal, the object is then heated to the proper temperature.
The metal deposited in the design forms a firmly adhering alloy
with the metal of the object, and the effect is very artistic. Several
inlaying metals may be used, with a separate heating to volatilize and
deposit each one.
COIL GIVES FIFTY-INCH SPARK.
Within the last score of years several experimental induction coils
of large size have been built, the latest, by an American maker, being the
largest, using a direct current with a mechanically driven circuit breaker.
Its primary core is six feet long by four inches in diameter, weighing
210 pounds. The primary winding is 100 pounds of No. 6 B. & S. gauge
magnet wire, in two layers, and the secondary winding is made up of
284 separate coils of very fine wire, which has a total length of 138 miles
and a weight of 213 pounds. The circuit breaker is a drum one foot in
diameter, carrying forty semicircular copper bars or brushes, driven by
a small direct current motor. On a 100-volt direct current, using 25
amperes, the coil yields a spirk 50 inches long, the voltage necessary to
bridge such a gap being estimated at 1,000,000 volts.
LOOKING FOR MORE RUBBER.
Rubber is in such demand for modern uses that not only are new
plants supplying it being sought, but eager efforts are being made to
produce substitutes. Artificial indigo and artificial camphor are among
the great successes of modern chemistry, and artificial rubber seems to
be near at hand, as the production of caoutchouc by synthesis has been
already announced by Mr. Allsebrook and Dr. Docherty of Burton-on-
Trent, England. A process yielding an adequate supply would take rank
as one of the greatest of chemical achievements. Substitutes for rubber
find some uses, and one of the most promising recent ones seems to be a
patented German composition containing glue, glycerin, chrome salts,
"lead plaster," vegetable fibers parchmented by acids, gum tragacanth,
vegetable balsams and water glass. A process of making rubber from
naphtha is said to be under test on a large scale in the Caucasus.
ALCOHOL FROU PEAT.
Alfcohol is obtained from peat by treating the fiber with sulphuric
acid and fermenting with a special yeast. A ton of dry peat yields fortythree
gallons of pure spirit at one-fourth of the cost of potato alcohol.

42 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
SMOKELESS COAL FROM COAL AND PEAT.
The new smokeless fuel of Sherard Cowper Coles is made by mixing
one part of weight of wet peat with two parts of bituminous coal, and
heating in a retort five hours at about 850 deg. F. The temperature,
aided by the steam from the peat is just sufficient to drive off the hydrocarbons
that produce smoke. The coal binds the peat into a coherent
mass, and this fuel has high calorific value, igniting readily in an ordinary
grate and burning economically and without smoke. The tar and other
products distilled over in the watery extract may be condensed into a
superior pitch, while the gases may be burned to supply the heat required
by the process.
DISEASES IN METALS.
Three classes of diseases of metals were defined by a late lecturer
at the Royal Society of Arts in London. The first class, "diseases of
treatment," embraces metals that are correct in composition and otherwise
satisfactory in quality but have been made weak or unsuitable by
improper heating or mechanical treatment, either by user or producer.
"Diseases of Composition," which form the next class, result from the
presence of substances that should either be absent or present in smaller
quantity. The third class is "Diseases of Decay," and it depends on the
action of outside causes, chemical or mechanical, that lead to deterioration.
METAL FOR HIGH SPEEDS.
Titanium is said to be the only metal suitable for the bearings and
axles of certain modern gasoline motors, which run at speeds as high
as 3,000 revolutions per minute. The metal is obtained from rutile or
titanium dioxide, a mineral of little commercial importance hitherto,
LIGHTS TO SHOW SHIP'S COURSE.
An arrangement of a ship's lights in a definite triangle on a known
plan is urged by D. H. Shuttleworth-Brown as a safeguard against
collision. The lights would then show an observer on another ship the
vessel's course, her distance from the observer, and her approximate
speed.
STRENGTH OF ROPES.
Tests of Manlia ropes supplied the United States by the American
Manufacturing Co. have shown a strength of 1,310 pounds for the 34inch;
4,150 pounds for the ^-inch; 6,750 for the 34-inch; and 10,400
for the 1-inch. The specifications had called for strength of 1,200, 2,500,
5,000 and 7,800 pounds respectively.

A Discussion*
Steel Castings
M R . A.- Stucki :* The steel casting is a splendid material and has a
great future before it. Unlike cast iron it is strong both in tension
and compression, is much stronger than malleable iron and does
not need to undergo a chemical transformation after it has been poured.
It can be welded, brazed or fused, and can be made tough, hard, or
medium, just as the specific service for which it is intended requires.
This is generally accomplished by simply varying the percentage of carbon.
The metal, however, can readily be mixed with other elements, such as
nickel, tungsten, vanadium, titanium, etc., to make it still more adaptable
to specific requirements.
Unfortunately it is not often possible to get enough of such special
castings in one order to make a heat, and in this respect the small furnace
has advantages over the larger one and the Tropenas converter over the
furnaces.
The shrinkage of a steel casting during solidification is X mch Per
foot, against y$ inch for cast iron, j\ inch for brass, -^ inch for malleable
iron; hence, patterns made for any of the other metals cannot be used
for steel, even if the design would otherwise permit. I have found shops,
however, where ^ inch was used for both steel and malleable iron,
which undoubtedly leaves the steel castings rather small in size.
Such a high shrinkage, just twice as great as that of cast iron, is
detrimental in many ways. Shrinkage cracks sometimes appear. Invariably
they are the result of an uneven or rather unfortunate distribution
of the metal, which, in many cases, might easily have been avoided
in the design. At times, however, it is almost impossible to design a
casting to fit into a certain given place, so as to comply with other existing
conditions (method of machining or fastening, etc.) and yet avoid the
danger of such shrinkage cracks. Often these cracks do not exist, but
the tendency is there; in other words, there are internal strains. These
strains, however, can be taken care of by reheating the castings, for
which purpose a comparatively low temperature is sufficient.
Castings which are open at one end, for example U sections, the
open ends are apt to spread, as the intervening sand will hold them apart;
dry sand naturally forming a greater resistance than green sand. This
trouble is remedied either by allowing for such spread in the pattern,
* Consulting Engineer, Pittsburgh.
f Presented before the Mechanical Section, June 1, 1909, and Published in the July. 1909, Proceedings
of Engineers Society of Western Pennsylvania.

44 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
by closing in the free ends under a press, or by connecting them with
extra metal, which will be removed as soon as the casting is cooled.
This latter method is often used to hold the pedestal legs of a locomotive
frame in place.
But even in a box shape the outward pressure of the sand is often
detrimental, and if the box is long the shrinkage is great, as is evidenced
in a car bolster. Whenever there is a wall at the extreme ends, or whenever
varying cross sections prevent a sleeve like slipping, the metal
in cooling is subjected to tremendous strain. To overcome such troubles,
tbe cores are sometimes mixed with saw dust or other inflammable
materials, to render them honeycombed after being burned out, or the
cores are made collapsible in other ways.
In driving wheel centers and all similar castings consisting of rims
and spokes, the latter cool more quickly than the rim, and if not prevented
from doing so by covering with sancl, etc., will pull inward from the rim,
frequently producing cracks in the spokes or arms.
Another result of such large shrinkage is the piping of castings,
which cool and reduce in volume, while the source of additional metal is
cut off. Large gates and high heads usually obviate this trouble.
When large masses of metal occur which cannot be reached directly
by gates, but which are fed by thinner sections of the casting proper, the
shrinkage in these masses form cooling cavities in their centers. Such
cavities cannot be avoided unless the metal is more evenly distributed.
Often such cavities are not harmful.
Steel has to be poured at a much higher heat than cast iron; hence it
contains more air, and in order to allow it to escape before the casting
sets the metal must not be allowed to cool too rapidly. Thin sections are,
therefore, detrimental in this respect and ingredients have to be added
to offset this, else a honeycombed product will result. A high head or
other outside pressure will help to get rid of the air.
From this it is plain that the temperature of the steel, while being
poured, must be nearly right; hence hand ladles cannot be employed
without running thc risk of having too cold a metal, and even with the
bull ladle care must be taken that the charge is not excessive in proportion
to the size of castings, so that it can be poured before the metal gets
too cool.
Mr. G. W. Smith :* In foundry methods it is very hard to determine
right from wrong. The only way I have to determine the proper method
is by the results I get. Some foundrymen buy cheap scrap and cheap
material and expect the furnace man to give them a good grade of steel,
and yet wonder why the castings are not solid and free from hot cracks.
* Vice President, Union Steel Casting Co.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 45
This method is wrong, especially with acid furnaces. If cheap scrap is
the furnace charge, cheap castings will be the foundry output, many of
which are only fit for scrap to go back to the furnace to make more
cheap scrap. To a certain extent what you charge in the furnace is what
you will take out.
Some foundrymen buy cheap sand and will change to any kind of
sand that is offered at a less cost, and expect their foundry foreman to
give them a good grade of castings, anel wonder why the percentage of
bad castings is so high. This method is wrong. If good steel castings
are wanted get the foundryman the right kind of sanel and clay and stick
to it and do not change material when your work is coming good, no
matter who wants to sell or what the price is.
In a steel foundry there are eight or ten different departments. The
work must pass through each of these departments, so it is necessary
that one department work into the next for a certain distance, often
causing friction between the foremen, thus making it necessary to have
one man with some knowledge of all departments over the different
foremen. In my opinion no one method can be adopted for all shops,
but each shop must adopt its own method to conform with the design
of the shop, which can only be obtained by experience in the shop. But
all shops can be kept clean and material kept in their proper places, so
that when a workman wants something he can get it quickly. A disorderly
shop is expensive practice. We have found that the best results are
obtained by living close to specifications which have been obtained by
experience in the shop.
Great care should be given to the pattern department, as much depends
on it for the avoidance of errors in the shop which are liable to
prove costly. A forgotten core or error in measurement may mean the
loss of a casting. It is good practice to put all patterns and core boxes
together after being used in the foundry; this should be the duty of one
man, who should keep a full record of all patterns and core boxes, as
the molders cannot be depended upon to do that work.
Mr. John Allison :* Features of design that are of common application,
which should be known by engineers and those interested in the
use of steel castings, are frequently overlooked. I shall confine myself
to noting a few of these common features.
One of the first problems that confronts the designer is the strength
and fitness of material to be used for a given purpose. Steel castings
are made that meet requirements ranging from the very harel castings
made to withstand abrasion, to the very soft, or low carbon steel castings,
which are well adapted to withstand shocks and vibration.
* Engineer, Pittsburgh Steel FouEdrv Co.

46 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Many are familiar with the application of steel castings to a given
class of work but are not informed as to the very wide range of requirements,
for which suitable steel castings may be obtained. For purposes
requiring a hard stele to withstand abrasion or wear, such as rolls, dies,
gears, wearing parts of machines, frogs and hard steel inserts for railroad
track work, steel castings are made from 35 to 100 per cent carbon.
In this class, castings are made by the crucible, converter and basis, or
acid, open hearth process. The desired degree of hardness being obtained
within a range of about 10 points or less, carbon. For purposes requiring
a mild tough steel to withstand shocks or vibration, such as machine parts,
connections, parts in structural work, steel boxes, ladles and car castings,
most of the castings are made by the open hearth process, many small
castings, however, being made by the converter or crucible process. A
very wide range of sizes are made by the open hearth process, especially
by the basic open hearth. The basic steel possesses qualities of toughness
that better withstand the tendency to checking when the casting is cooling.
These castings are made from 15 to 30 per cent carbon steel. A great
many castings are made of about 15 to 30 per cent carbon; 2 to 4 per cent
phosphorus; 2 to 4 per cent sulphur; 2 to 4 per cent silicon, and 65 to
75 per cent manganese. This mild steel has an ultimate tensile strength
of 65,000 to 75,000 pounds per square inch, an elastic limit of about
38,000 pounds per square inch, and an elongation in 2 inches of about
28 per cent in a test piece X mcn diameter. It may be bent, forged,
or welded.
Due to the possible presence of blow holes in steel castings, the allowable
safe fiber stress for mild steel is usually taken to be from 9,000 to
16,000 lb. per sq. in. For important work, physical tests should be made
of the material to be used, to ascertain the tensile strength and ductility.
The shrinkage in steel castings varies from about y$ in. per ft. to
over y in. per ft., depending in large measure on the thickness and shape
of the casting, and is liable to seriously affect castings made of such form
as to be hindered in contraction when cooling in the sand mold. It is of
evident advantage to make castings of such form, that large bodies of the
sand mold will not hinder this contraction, especially between parts of
castings that are far apart.
To avoid internal stresses being set up, uniformity of section, or a
gradual change of cross section is desirable. Annealing reduces the internal
stresses.
To avoid shrinkage cracks, or checking in inside angles, fillets should
be made larger than is necessary for cast iron, but should not be large
enough to cause the metal to be much slower in cooling in the angle than
adjoining parts.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 47
The casting solidifies first in the thin parts and when they arc held
apart there is a tendency to rupture in that portion of the casting connecting
them.
Fillets should be proportioned to the thickness of adjoining members.
Although open hearth steel castings arc successfully made less than y2
in. thick in forms that favor the flow of molten steel, it is good practice to
make the minimum thickness J/ in. and % m- or more is better.
When the size of cores for holes is specified they should be made
larger than is necessary for cast iron, because the molten steel cuts or
penetrates the sand core, thus leaving the hole smaller than the original
size of the core. It is better to specify the desired diamter of the hole required,
giving size of bolt or rivet to be used. As a common instance, a
13-16 in. diameter core in a plate of cast steel 1 in. thick does not make a
hole large enough for a X in. bolt or rivet, a % in. diameter core makes a
hole nearer the desired size.
Due to the variations in shrinkage a liberal allowance should be made
where possible, for variations in dimensions, and for finish, where machinery
is necessary.
Mr. J. S. Unger:* While listening to the papers it struck me that
in addition to knowing how to make castings, how to overcome some of
the troublesome features and how to design castings properly, we should
not forget something that is very important in steel casting, and that is
treatment. I know that the price at which we buy ordinary steel castings
today will not justify a treatment that is at all complicated or that will
cost much money. However one is almost compelled to use steel castings
in some cases, owing to difficulties in preparing a forging of the design
suitable for the purpose. Following the history of castings we originally
began with cast iron, later we made malleable iron and still later we made
what are called semi-steel castings, and then steel castings. At the present
time in some classes of work, automobiles for instance,, they are making
special castings of alloys which contain such metals as nickel, chromium,
vanadium, titanium and quite a number of other metals alloyed with the
ordinary constituents of steel. Some of these alloys have given very ex­
cellent results.
One finds that when using a special alloy of any kind, in order to get
the best results and develop the best qualities in the steel it is necessary to
treat it, not simply annealing, but treatment more or less complicated, depending
on the results required. Ordinarily treatment by heating the
casting to the proper temperature then plunging it into oil and chilling it,
afterwards reducing the hardness produced by the oil, is sufficient. There
are special alloy castings in which ordinary treatment in oil is not suffi-
* Mana.er, Research Laboratory, Carnegie Steel Co.

48 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
cient, but water must be used to obtain the results, the oil not being sufficient
to break up the coarse grain or structure.
Steel castings have been made of various sizes from an ounce or
two up to perhaps 150 tons. I know of a steel casting that weighed 140
tons that carried about 5 per cent nickel and required three open hearth
heats to cast it. It bad a six-foot core for almost the entire length.
Another thing that impressed me is what the electric furnace had
done in the matter of making it possible to produce intricate shaped and
very thin welded steel castings. I saw a steel casting not a great while
ago which was a fork for a bicycle, 6 in. long with walls not over % in.
thick at any point, cast from steel made in an electric furnace. We had
the specimen sawed longitudinally and it did not show a single cavity. It
was absolutely as sound as though it were forged or drawn from a piece
of tubing. I do not believe that a casting with walls as thin as that could
be made in an ordinary steel furnace. It is possible to raise the temperature
of the steel in an electric furnace to such a high point that it will flow
in as thin a wall as that, while the reducing action of the electric furnace
prevents many of the gases from being occluded. There is not any bubbling
or motion at all while the casting is being poured. While I do not wish to
specially recommend electric steel casting, I bring that up to show that
very small steel castings can be made in an electric furnace. Most steel
casting people say that sound castings with very thin walls cannot be made
in a steel furnace, and I agree with them. But there is another means of
making the casting.
With these special steel castings it is possible to make them the
equivalent of a forging by treatment. The effect of treatment is especially
noticeable in manganese steel castings. It is a common and necessary
practice among those who manufacture manganese steel to heat the article
to approximately 950 deg., plunge it into cold w^ater and leave it until it
is absolutely cold. This develops the characteristic toughness and increases
the hardness to a higher point than it was prior to this treatment.
I believe flask annealing is practiced to some extent. Flask annealing
may be a benefit, but I do not believe it i.s as beneficial as removing the
casting from the flask and reheating to the proper temperature, allowing it
to cool slowly. In some experiments I had knowledge of, it was necessary
to determine what was the best method of treatment to give a large mass.
This was some years ago, and I have forgotten the details, but as I recall,
it was something like this. There were prepared from one and the same
heat four or five solid cyclinders measuring about 4 in. diameter and perhaps
6 ft. long. They were cast one right after the other in sand moulds.
The first one was laid aside and tested in its ordinary condition; the
second was annealed at a temperature of about 900 deg., cooled in the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. V)
furnace until it had lost all its color and then removed and allowed to
cool in the air. The next was annealed at 900 deg., and reheated to 750
deg. and then allowed to cool in the air. The next was annealed twice at
°00 deg. The next was annealed twice at 750 deg. After they had been
prepared in this way they were put in a large lathe and a nick cut around
the outside and broken and the structure examined. I presume you know
that in annealing a steel casting you rarely reduce the tensile strength. If
there is any change at all, unless it is a defective specimen, it is almost invariably
a trifle higher than in the original casting. Annealing does make
a great difference in the elongation. Approximately the elongation is increased
from two to three times what it originally was—speaking now of
large castings, not small ones.
The cylinder in its unannealed condition, just as it was taken out
of the sand, was broken and the structure over the entire surface was
examined and found to be very large grains, octahedron in character,
from y& in. to ]/2 in. through the crystal. One blow of the drop broke this
cylinder. The next one, that had been heated to 900 deg. and cooled in
the furnace until it lost color, also broke at one blow, the difference in
structure being noticed for about 10 in. from the outside, the coarse
grains having disappeared, but the extreme center was still coarse, showing
that the treatment had not affected it throughout, and there was still
a central core that seemed to be just as it was In the original casting. The
next cylinder, which had been treated at 900 deg. and then at 750 deg.,
showed practically the same appearance, the effect of the treatment having
been felt for about 12 in. from the outside, but the grain was finer than
that produced by annealing at 900 deg. only. The next cylinder, which
had been annealed twice at 90 deg., showed that the effect of this treatment
had been felt almost to the center. There was a small portion, perhaps
6 in., in the center still coarse grained. The next one, that had been
treated twice at 750 deg., was very fine for 4 in. to 6 in. in from the
outside, the remainder being coarse. The object of using these two temperatures
was this: If one can break up the coarse structure produced in
a casting or forging at a low temperature you will get a finer and stronger
grain. But the coarse fracture that is produced in the large casting that
cools slowly in thc sand is not readily broken up at a temperature of 750
deg. If one could anneal often enough at 750 deg. I believe we would have
a stronger casting than when annealed at 900 deg.; but the amount of
work and cost would be excessive. It is not practicable, so most manufacturers
try to do their annealing at 900 deg. in order to break up the coarse
structure and get the desired effect at a minimum cost. We afterwards
decided that for ordinary large castings, somewhat representing those
cylinders I spoke of, there was not enough good effect produced by a first

50 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
annealing at 900 deg. and re-heating at 750 cleg, to justify the adoption of
that treatment, and the treatment since that time has consisted of removing
the casting from the sand, heating it up to 900 cleg, and holding it there
when the temperature is reached to allow the casting time to lag. By that
1 mean to give the grains time to re arrange themselves and allow for that
chemical change in the carbon which occurs to a greater or less extent.
After the casting has reached 900 deg. one should maintain that temperature
for approximately an hour and a half or two hours to be sure that
the change has taken place. Then you may begin to reduce the temperature
in the furnace. I do not believe there is any real benefit to be derived
in allowing a casting to soak a long time in the furnace. When it
has reached the proper temperature and is of the same temperature
throughout no further good can be accomplished by allowing it to cool
down very slowly. After it shows no visible color in the furnace, I would
recommend removing the casting from thc furnace and allow it to cool
in the air. The additional cooling in thc furnace is of no benefit to the
casting anel it only bnlels the furnace back from further use.
Mr. T. D. Lynch:* I do not know whether I can aehl anything that
will be of special interest to this meeting, but will say that our experience
has been outside of the foundry rather than inside of it. V e use steel
castings in machinery of all kinds and our problem is to get a product that
will be satisfactory for our customers. We have had more or less trouble
with steel castings from blow-boles, shrinkage cracks, and physical
qualities.
It may be of interest to elaborate a little on the subject of testing,
with special reference as to how to locate test samples. It is our object in
designating the location of test samples to get a test that will represent thc
real material in the casting as it is to be used in service. What we need
to know in any structure of machine is the strength of the structure at its
weakest point. To do this is it necessary to take tests that represent the
casting in its finished state. If the casting is annealed all tcst pieces should
be annealed with the casting. If the casting is not annealed the test pieces
should not be annealed (and any casting i.s dangerous that has not been
annealed). I know of a case where a casting weighing 50,000 lb. had not
been annealed, through some error, and this casting exploded when being
placed in position on a mill for machining, the casting breaking from its
own internal stresses and actually opened up through the middle about JHs
of an inch while the crack at the rim on either side was still intact, showing
the enormous strain that had been set up by the shrinkage effect.
The coupon tcst is a very usual one to make and the lower it is placeel
on the casting the better the coupon will be, provided the feeding is good
and the coupon so located is less liable to have blow holes and sand-holes;

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 51
whereas the nearer the cope the coupon is placed the more subject it will
be to flaws and segregation. The design of the casting in general should
be such as will permit of its being fed readily from one or more risers.
Ordinarily castings are gated from the bottom so that the pouring operation
is done through the gate filling up the casting until the metal comes up
into the riser, after which the metal is poured into the riser, keeping it
agitated and heated longer than any other part of the casting so that the
casting proper will be fed from the riser during the cooling operation.
This riser should be large enough to remain in a liquid state until after the
casting itself has solidified.
It has been our practice in a number of cases, in the manufacture of
massive castings at least, in order to avoid shrinkage cavities, to make the
riser equal in size to that of the casting itself ; that is to say, an equal
amount of material should be poured into the riser as is poured into the
casting. By this method we have been able to obtain castings absolutely
clear of all cinders, gas pockets, blow-holes, shrinkage cavities, etc.
The question of riser and method of feeding is not all that is required
to make solid castings, but the metal charge must be of selected stock both
as to pig iron and scrap used.
In these massive castings we have found it best to take the test pieces
from the body of the casting itself after it has had its final treatment by
drilling them from the solid casting at a point about '-_ the radial distance.
By so doing we have felt that we were actually getting the real test representing
the steel as it would be under working conditions.
Mr. C. B. Albree :* I know very little about tbe process of making
steel castings, but I have been a user of them for riveting machines. In
that line of work we have all sorts of troubles, and in coming here tonight
I hoped that we wdio have to design steel castings would receive from the
foundrymen some really valuable pointers on design.
The majority of machinery manufacturers who use steel castings in
place of cast iron on account of strength and reduced weight, are much
more familiar with cast iron than with steel castings. A drawing of the
part required is made and the pattern sent to the foundry, but when the
castino- is received it is often full of blow boles and out of shape. Surfaces
requiring planing do not clean up and blow holes and shrinkage
cracks make it impossible to use the casting, necessitating a wait of from
one to four weeks for a new one. Meanwhile the customer wants to know
why delivery of the machine is not made. That is how the user of steel
castings often fares. Why it is, he does not know.
Our principal experience has been with riveting machines as shown in
Fig. 1, which consist of U shaped parts having a heavy tension section, a
lighter compression section and a comparatively thin web. We decided on

52 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
a very thin web at first and as a result we got a casting that cracked all
around the web close to the flanges. The foundryman told us we must
have a big fillet to avoid such cracks. Sometimes we found that the
foundries were not annealing the castings and we had them annealed,
which saved a little trouble. We tried putting in ribs to stiffen the web
and that made matters worse because we got cracks along the ribs. We
did away with them and now make the web very heavy without ribs. It
took us some time to learn these details and we found that the fewer the
stiffening ribs and the heavier we made the web, the better the castings.
I think it cost the steel casting people a great deal because we did not
know how to design steel castings. If they had told us that we were
making a mistake in our designs we would have changed the patterns. I
think it is often up to the steel casting companies that they have bad castings,
because they receive patterns not properly designed and do not advise
their customers.
In the matter of cores, the author said that the cores shrink, making
the holes smaller than the core. This is certainly true, the same time we
have to machine out those core holes and we have found it very decidedly
to our advantage to pay for X m- more metal and avoid trying to scrape
out scale. In steel castings we cannot rely on as accurately cored holes
as in iron castings and it is much better where there is a finished surface
to allow ample material everywhere for finishing. Sometimes we had to
make a considerable change in measurements of machine parts to make
use of the steel castings received, and it is difficult to keep track of such
changes wdien making a duplicate part later.
Another difficulty we met is in getting castings with solid trunnions.
In this particular case we cannot help ourselves as we have to have trunnions.
The first thing we do with these castings is to drill a Y\ in. hole
through the center of the trunnions and about one out of every four castings
has a blow hole, or cavity, in the center. The other portions of the
casting may be perfect, yet if the trunnions are defective the casting is
absolutely useless as the greatest strain comes on them.
We have taken up this design with almost every steel casting man in
Pittsburgh and many outside and practically every one of them has had
trouble. The queer thing is that we get three good ones and one bad one.
There must be some reason why we get that bad one, and I think the steel
foundry superintendent should discover it.
Another point about annealing steel castings. We have received annealed
castings from many foundries which came out all right anel have
received others which from a front view present a badly warped and
crooked appearance. The whole thing would be so out of shape, that,
while it was a perfectly good casting otherwise, it was so twisted that we

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 53
could not possibly use it. My conception of this is that they are not
careful enough in supporting it in the furnace when they reheat it and
there is a bending clue to the unsupported weight of part of the casting
which sags when it is heated.
We had a machine to build for the U. S. Government that called for
a 12 ft. gap. It made a very heavy casting, about 30,000 lb., and as the
pattern was pretty long and difficult to handle the foundrymen, unknown
to us, put a piece across the open end of the jaws, 8 in. wide and about 3
in. thick. When we received it, this piece was cast in solid and we had to
cut it out, which was a rather expensive operation. After cutting it out,
the jaws which were originally 20 in. apart, closed in until the distance was
only 17 in. The government threw it out, the steel foundry lost the casting,
and we lost the work on it and had to pay a penalty for delayed shipment.
When it comes to small castings our experience has been very bad
and we use forgings throughout. Some of our competitors use steel castings,
which are considerably cheaper and we thought we would try it. We
had patterns made of perfectly straight pieces without cores or other
troublesome features, and there was no reason why they should not come
out right. Wre tried them on ten different machines and in every case the
castings had such blow holes that they were absolutely useless. We have
never yet had a yoke break through where the greatest strain is, under
loads of from 50 to 150 tons on the outer ends of the jaws. We use a
fiber stress of 10,000 to 12,000 lb. in designing sections.
It seems to me that the success of a steel casting depends first on its
design and second on the foundry, so the customer and the foundryman
ought to get together in order to secure successful results.
Mr. J. S. Unger : I have seen exactly cases such as Mr. Albree describes.
However, I am afraid he does not give the steel foundry exactly
what I might call a square deal. The steel casting man is up against a
pretty hard proposition. Where it is not a question of mechanical strain,
I believe the question of soundness can be overcome. But unless the casting
has been properly designed it will be difficult for the foundrymen to
cast it of the shape required by some of the engineers.
I saw at one time an interesting example in the teaching of a class in
one of our technical schools the effects of improper design. Two castings,
shown in Fig. 2, were made of cast iron. The casting A carried a heavy
cross in the center, while the outer rim was very light. The casting B was
exactly the reverse of A. The results of bad design and shrinkage was
demonstrated when these castings were removed from the flasks and was
a lesson which I feel sure was not soon forgotten by the class.

54 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
I believe that when you condemn the steel foundry man for all the
errors it is unjust to him. When you consider that the temperature of an
open hearth furnace is not over 150 deg. above the melting point of steel,
you realize that his means are limited. The steel is being made under
oxidizing conditions and absorbs and holds large amounts of gases in
solution, giving up a portion of these on cooling, producing sponginess. If
he could raise the temperature of that steel by means of the electric furnace
to almost 1000 deg. above the melting point and make the steel under
reducing conditions, he could make sound castings that under ordinary
conditions he cannot secure. Say the melting point of steel is 1600 deg.,
a good open hearth furnace will be about 1750 deg., while an electric fur­
nace will work at 2600 deg.
Mr. Henry Gulick :* The question of thc location of the coupon is,
I think, important. It is so easy to attach a coupon to every large casting,
and it is certainly much preferable to casting the test piece separate, which
is often done.
Mr. F. J. Hale :** I am on the designing side and am here to find out
what the foundryman wants rather than to give suggestions. We have
had some large castings made, with very little trouble up to 30,000 lb.,
with outside and inside walls, compressible cores and things like that and
we succeeded in losing only the first casting. I suppose I should say the
foundryman was called into consultation in the designing to make suggestions
as to the amount to allow for shrinkage, the thickness of the
metal, etc. In those cylinders the metal ran approximately 2 in. all over,
although the stresses would call for perhaps l}/_ in. in one place and y in.
in another. I refer particularly to gas engine cylinders of approximately
40 in. bore.
Mr. Lee C. Moore :* I want to say a word in defense of the steel
casting man. We were using quite a number of steel castings in structures
we were building and the other day decided to test one of those structures
to destruction, and it was the steel castings that gave us all the trouble.
We could destroy everything else but when it came to the steel castings
we had to chop them out with cold chisels one piece at a time. I would say
further that the people who made those castings had no special instruction
whatever.
Mr. J. E. Banks :** There has not been any answer as to that case
of the twisting that Mr. Albree spoke of.
Mr. J. S. Unger : I do not know what caused that particular twisting,
but I am inclined to believe that it was not properly supported. In
* President, Gulick, Henderson & Co.
** Engineer with The Westinghouse Machine Co.
* President, Lee C. Moore & Co.
** Engineer of Standards, American Bridge Co.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 55
annealing large masses such as a roll, shown in Fig. 3, we placed short
pieces of 8 by 8 blooms at A and B for supports. If the neck at A is of
any great length we invariably blocked il up to prevent the neck from
bending from its own weight. We always hael trouble from the extra
weight of the sink head at B coming down and bending the neck and it was
necessary to take these precautions. There are slight distortions in annealing,
but not such distortions as would change the character of the casting
to the extent described by Mr. Albree. They are not so great but that they
would be removed by ordinary fair allowance for machining under ordinary
conditions. When you have a case of this kind you must support it in
order to prevent the weight of it bending it down and rendering it useless.
Mr. C. B. Albree : Referring again to the cavities, after we had
learned to make the web thick enough and to use large fillets and certain
other things of that sort, about which I think we should have been advised
at the outset by the steel casting men, we still had trouble with the
shrinkage cavities in the trunnions. These have caused more loss both
to us and to the steel casting men than all the other defects combined.
And the peculiar thing that we cannot understand is, why we should get
three good ones and one bad one. It was suggested to me by the president
of one of the largest steel casting companies that it could be obviated in
a very simple way by putting a small core hole through the center of trunnions,
so the interior would cool as rapidly as the exterior. We have not
tested this scheme but expect to do so soon.
Mr. C. S. Koch : I believe a core will help it out. I believe casting
in a piece of cold rolled shafting will be of service. It is a question of
unequal volume.
Mr. T. D. Lynch : We have been very successful in eliminating
shrinkage by simply making our risers sufficiently large and directly over
the casting proper. If the shape of the casting is such that this can be
done I should certainly recommend this as the proper method of solving
this problem.
Mr. Richard Hirsch:* Is the basic process used to any extent in
steel casting?
Mr. J. S. Unger : I believe those people who make large castings,
say from 15,000 lb. up, now make about as many castings from the basic
furnace as from the acid furnace. I believe both make good castings.
The basic furnace is a little more difficult to handle than the acid. In addition
to being an oxidizing it is a purifying process as well. As the steel
casting business is difficult at best, one tries to use the easiest method to
arrive at results, and therefore they prefer to use the acid method, it
being very much easier to operate.
* Mechanical Engineer, H. K. Porter & Co.

56 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Mr. T. D. Lynch: We have had good results from both. I agree
with Mr. Unger that it is a matter of manipulation, and if properly manipulated
I believe that one should get good castings.
Mr. A. Stucki: There are a few points, which I would like to hear
discussed a little further. As to annealing, some one said that it reduces
the tensile strength, while others state just the reverse. As far as my
experience goes, annealing improves the tensile strength.
It has been said that for good practice the thickness of the metal
should not be made less than V in- In ordinary castings I never hesitate
to go to Y% in. and even that should by no means be regarded as a limit for
special cases.
The shrinkage has been said to vary greatly, from X t0 H m-> I believe.
This is undoubtedly the apparent shrinkage, which is influenced by
the resistance of cores and molding sancl, by the size and shape of the
casting, etc., and if the material could be allowed to freely take its course
in cooling, the shrinkage, I feel certain, would be found to be practically
the same.
Mr. Smith in his remarks recommends that foundrymen should not
change the mixture to economize. He is certainly right about that; but
there are many other points where we can economize. In the foundry the
small items should be watched just the same as in any other shops. It
does not cost more to drive a good rivet than it does to drive a bad one,
but it takes more attention and unless a system is adopted whereby a bad
rivet can be traced back to the man who did the work, it is almost impossible
to obtain close attention. Cleaning castings in the foundry is one of
the many items causing considerable expense. If each man is allowed to
throw the castings into a common pile after cleaning, one will find many
which are not as they should be. With an individual control, such as by
requiring the men to place their castings in separate piles, the foundryman
will not only get better work, but also greater output, as each man will
receive credit for what he does and not for what he should do.
Mr. Albree spoke about losing time on account of steel castings. On
the other band we have often cast details in steel to gain time, when we
could not wait for malleable castings, annealing them two days instead of
eight, which is greatly in favor of steel castings.
Mr. John Allison : I think Mr. Stucki misunderstood me as to the
effect of annealing. I meant only the reduction of internal strains, not of
tensile strength. My remarks were intended more in a general way to
convey the broadest scope of designs that are made. While many castings
can be made successfully less than J/2 in. in thickness, and it is common
practice to make a great many that way, I think the general run of steel
castings could be made to a great deal better advantage if made thicker.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 57
This is for the open hearth process especially, and X hi. or more gives far
less trouble to the foundryman, provided the sacrifice is not too great from
the point of view of the purchaser of the casting.
In regard to the shrinkage we have seen the variation of various kinds
of steel. Basic steel and acid steel are not the same. What I said in relation
to variation in shrinkage applies more to the results in the casting,
not what would be the result if it were made free. The shape of the
casting sometimes causes the casting to shrink less than X ul- between
projections on one end having projections, and on the other end it may
shrink more than X m-
Mr. L. C. Moore: What in your opinion would be the difference
between annealing 15 carbon and 45 carbon steel?
Mr. John Allison : The effect as I have observed it is beneficial in
any case. Of course the 45 carbon steels ars usually used for altogether
different purposes from the 15 carbon steel.
Mr. W. O. Brostius: I would like to ask what difference there
would be in the wearing of a rope sheave with a machined groove, the
annealed or the one that has not been annealed ?
Mr. J. S. Unger: The one that has not been annealed will wear the
longer.
Mr. J. E. Banks: If annealing relieves all the internal strains, why
was it that the jaws closed up three inches in the casting sketched by Mr.
Albree, Fig. 1, after the bar was cut out? I understand that the casting
was annealed before being cut. Was the bar introduced in the first place
to keep the legs of the casting from drawing together or for ease in
handling the pattern?
Mr. J. S. Unger: I rather think it was to keep the ends of tbe U.
from closing.
Mr. J. E. Banks: If the casting had been annealed properly would
the ends have opened?
Mr. J. S. Unger : I think they would have been distorted. The web
under tension was probably heavier than the web under compression.
Consequently you have a casting that is not properly proportioned. You
are getting back to the little problem I sketched which the professor illus­
trated to his class.
Mr. J. E. Banks : Then annealing does not entirely relieve the inter­
nal strains?
Mr. J. S. Unger : No, not in a case of that kind.

^ D V i S T B I A L
I
H > ,
feOGBeSS
Western Progress
By J. Mayne Baltimore.
THE second largest and most expensive
railway bridge built on the Pacific
Coast, by the Santa Fe System, has just
been completed. This bridge spans the
Tuolumne river between Riverbank and Mercedes,
replacing a wooden structure built some
years ago.
In total length the bridge is nearly 900 feet;
there are no approaches on either side of the
stream, the banks being rather abrupt. The
structure consists of eight massive reinforced
concrete piers, which support the structural
steel superstructure, fn the latter, there are
1,071,850 pounds of steel, while in the building
the foundations, piers, abutments, etc., more
than 20,000 cubic yards of concrete were used.
The piers have their foundations from 25 to
30 feet below the bed of the stream, reaching
down to bedrock. The floor of the bridge is
about 70 feet above the surface of the water at
the lowest stage of the stream.
Seven of the spans are each 100 feet long,
one 70 feet, and one 28 feet. The placing of
the huge and ponderous girders—100 feet in
length—in permanent position on the top of
the piers proved a very difficult piece of engineering
Work, but it was very successfully
accomplished by means of powerful derricks,
steel cables and other very strong tackle.
All the construction work was done by the
San Francisco Bridge Co. of San Francisco,
and the structure is pronounced by railway engineers
to be one of the most staunch on the
Pacific Coast.
Nearly two years were required in which to
complete the contract. This was largely due
to the fact that the Tuolumne river is subject
to frequent floods and freshets. These greatly
retarded the work, particularly that of building
the foundations, piers and abutments.
So massively was this bridge constructed,
that it will be abundantly able to successfully
resist the furious floods and tremendous
sweep of the current of the strenuous stream
at its very highest stages. The total cost of
the new bridge was about $170,000.
A Big Railway Bascule Bridge
The only railway bascule bridge west of the
Rocky Mountains has just been completed by
the Salt Lake, Los Angeles and San Pedro
Railway Company. This new structure spans
an arm of San Pedro Bay, Cal. Its total cost
exceeds $200,000, and more than six months
were required to complete the new structure.
Engineers claim that this is among the longest
single-arm railroad bascule bridge in the
world.
The length of the single arm is 180 feet,
while the total height from the floor of the
bridge to the top of the counter-weight box is
225 feet. The draw is not swung, hut raised
and lowered as occasion requires. Electricity
is used in operating the draw.
Concrete, structural steel and wooden piles
were the materials used in the bridge construction.
The steel structural work was done in
Los Angeles, but the railway company did all
of the construction under the personal supervision
of Engineer Charles W. Corbaley.
From the very beginning the work was beset
with grave engineering difficulties. This was
confined entirely to the placing of the huge
foundations. An appalling condition of
quicksand soon developed, and it was only
after accomplishing a difficult piece of work
that Engineer Corbaley overcame the discouraging
situation.
The foundations of the bridge consist of
three immense concrete piers resting on piles,
the bottom of the piers being 40 feet below
low water line. Before these could be placed,
it was necessary to construct heavy cofferdams
and excavate holes 50 x 60 feet and 40 feet
deep, in the quicksand, for each pier.
The quicksand gave the engineer a constant
struggle, and it became necessary to employ

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 59
divers to plug up holes in the cofferdams to and obviated the necessity of building a draw
prevent the quicksand from refilling the ex­ bridge.
cavations.
This is thc largest anel strongest bridge in
The material was excavated with a huge
all thc Southwest. In the superstructure there
dredger bucket, without pumping the water
are 4,800,000 pounds of structural steel, while
from the cofferdams, and the foundation piles
20,000 cubic yards of concrete were used in
were driven through the water and cut off by
building the massive piers. The total cost of
divers. Braces for the cofferdams were also
the superstructure will approximate $1,000,000.
placed by divers.
in 1907, and the bridge has only recently been
After the piles were cut off, four feet of very Nearly two years were required tn complete
rich reinforced concrete were placed in the the work. Active operations were begun late
bottom without removing the water, to prevent finished. Trains are now running regularly
the quicksand from rising from the bottom
over the structure. The bride is what
and filling the big excavations. The reason the is known as a parabolic truss one. The
excavations were made and the piles driven site of this bridge is located at the font of one
with the cofferdams full of water, was that the
of the canyons of the Colorado, where often
weight of the water balanced the raising power great floods rush down into the stream. How­
of the sand. After the concrete in the bottom ever, this bridge has been built so massively
of the excavations had hardened, the coffer­ that engineers are very confident it will be able
dams were pumped dry and the concrete piers to resist successfully the fury of current of
installed.
this most impetuous of streams.
Orignially, the channel across which the
bridge was built was very shallow ; but it is
being dredged and will be rendered navigable
for deep draught vessels.
Ordered $700,000 of Railway
New Bridge Across the
Colorado
The Colorado river, which is considered one
of the wildest and most strenuous streams on
the American continent, was recently spanned
by a new railway bridge. It was built by the
Santa Fe Railroad System and crosses the
swift and rushing stream at Parker, Arizona.
The construction of this new viaduct is considered
a notable piece of engineering. Chief
Engineer W. B. Stovey, of the Santa Fe, and
A. F. Robinson, bridge engineer, represented
the Santa Fe in the work, but the immediate
construction of the bridge was in charge of
J. A. Jaeger, chief engineer of the Santa Fe,
Prescott and Phoenix line, assisted by Ff. L.
Patton, bridge engineer.
The total length of the bridge is 1,710 feet,
consisting of two timber trestle approaches
and five river steel spans, each 284 feet long,
resting on six massive reinforced concrete
piers. The piers were all built with pneumatic
caissons, the foundations of the two shore
piers being about 40 feet below water and the
other piers from 80 to 100 feet below low
water. The grade of the bridge is 50 feet
above low water, and 37 feet above high water.
This allows ample distance for river steamers
to pass under the bridge at all stages of water,
Stock
At an total expense of $700,000 the Southern
Pacific is now having built in the East 21
monster Mallet compound locomotives, to be
employed in hauling heavy freight trains over
the Sierra Nevada mountains between Sacramento
and Truckee. Two of a similar type
are now in use, and have proved so successful
that more have been ordered. They are the
largest engines in the world, and each one can
do the work of any two freight locomotives
ever constructed.
The Southern Pacific officials state that
these 23 Mallet engines are expected to adequately
handle freight across the mountains
until Harriman is ready to spend $10,000,000
in boring a 36,000-foot tunnel in order to secure
a low-grade line.
The engines ordered will be oil burners and
each will weigh 600,000 pounds, including the
tender, which carries 9,000 gallons of water
and 2,250 gallons of oil. The wheel base is 83
feet 6 inches; length over all, 93 feet 6j/>
inches; driving wheel base, 29 feet 4 inches;
grate area, 64.4 feet; heating surface, 6,393
square feet; firebox width, 79.25 inches, and
length, 126 inches; boiler diameter, S4 inches;
cylinders, 26 and 40 inches by 30 inches;
weight on drivers, 300,000 pounds.

60
Will Construct Immense Rail­
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
MR. FRED. STARR, the inventor of the
Star wave motor, is an American, and
was born m Illinois half a century ago.
He has devoted 32 years to a practical application
of tbe laws of mechanics, and after a
prolonged investigation of modern needs he
secured the idea, which has developed and
grown into the wonderful invention that bears
his name. The Star wave motor has passed
the experimental stage. It has been tried and
tested and has effectually and forever demonstrated
to thousands of onlookers its ability to
utilize ocean wave movements and convert
them into a limitless source of power for
operating our infinite variety of machinery.
A large barge or float acquires continuous
motion from the ceaseless activity of the ocean
waves. This motion is conveyed to a shaft
operating in one direction where it becomes
power. Connected to this shaft is an ingenious
device consisting of a continuous rolling
weight which, while superceding compressed
air hitherto used, became the medium for obtaining
static power, and which are kept in
perpetual motion by the force and action of
the waves.
The Starr Roller Clutch
The Starr roller clutch as now constructed
way Trestle
and patented can be used wherever crank
shafts exist, on engines, locomotives and
A steel trestle costing about $750,000, and
wherever foot power is required. The near
so powerfully built as to successfully with­
future will see steam boats using them in
stand the heaviest winter and spring freshets,
place of the cumbersome crank shafts now
will soon he constructed by the Southern Pa­
employed. This extraordinary invention does
cific Railroad across the American river near
all and more than is claimed for it, and apart
Sacramento. Plans for this new bridge have
from the simplicity of its construction, is
already been prepared under the supervision
practically indestructable and noiseless. One
of Chief Engineer William Hood. The pur­
remarkable application of the principle of the
pose of the company is to have the new
Starr roller clutch is to a sewing machine,
structure completed early during the coming
where it is a marvelous improvement over the
year. Active construction work will he com­
former method of connecting the belt wheel
menced at once.
and treadle. This machine cannot run back­
The present trestle was partly washed away
ward, which obviates the necessity of starting
last winter, and the repairs made on it were
it by hand and the treadle works on the 100
only of a temporary nature. The new
per cent point at all times, which enables the
structure will be supported hy immense piers
operator to run the machine at any stroke de­
of concrete and black granite. All the upper
sired. Another equally remarkable application
works will be of structural steel. The new
of the Starr roller clutch is in the construction
structure will be located just west of the
of lifting jacks, which, as manufactured by
present trestle.
this company are of two types, the larger size
for building and the smaller for automobiles.
This instrument is so formed as to save time,
The Star Wave Motor and labor and temper, providing maximum leverage
and minimum effort. It also obviates the
Roller Clutch
usual necessity of a worker having to shift his
position in order to adjust his bar.
A last word on the wave motor. Electrical
power is increasingly in demand and the age
of steam power is passing. Business companies
hitherto requiring" power have had to pay a
high price, while electric lighting and heat for
cooking have been regarded as luxuries and
are yet such to the majority of the people.
The Starr wave motor is the open door to a
new era of great and almost inconceivable reform
in the realm of commercial and domestic
economy, and the inventor who has risen from
the ranks of expert mechanics now finds his
highest joy in the knowledge that poor as
well as rich will benefit by the application of
his discovery, and reap the results in greater
happiness, comfort and future prosperity.
More About Signaling to Mars
Prof. Pickering's idea about signaling to
Mars by means of a huge system of mirrors,
which will flash the sun's light rhythmically to
planetary neighbor, seems to have attracted
not a little attention, and to have called forth
other schemes from more or less eminent
scientists.

Prof. Pickering believes that $100,000 should
be spent in preliminary work before any attempt
is made to flash signals. These preparations
will consist in the building of a huge
telescope, and in experimental observations
made with the co-operation of the foremost
astronomers of the world. The object of this
preliminary work is to decide whether or not
the canals of Mars are really artificial. In all,
three years' time would be consumed in these
preliminaries.
Such a waste of time and money I Why
should we care whether there are inhahitated
planets when there is such a vast distance between
us?
Suppose after this amount of money is
spent, what is gained only one thing, work for
a lot of good mechanics. Why not spend it
with workmen on useful articles or in aiding
the charitable institutions to make better the
condition of some of our people. It is a pity
that men waste their time and energy on such
useless projects.
The Raymond Concrete Pile Company of
New York and Chicago has been awarded the
contract for placing the Raymond concrete
piles to support a sewer on Lyman avenue and
Summit street, Borough of Richmond, S. I.,
Xew York. Joseph Johnson's Sons are the
general contractors for the work.
The C O. Bartlett & Snow Co. has established
an office at 50 Church street, New York
City, in charge of Mr. H. H. Bighouse, chief
engineer, and are prepared to give personal attention
to all matters pertaining to the elevating,
conveying and economical handling of materials,
as well as mechanical drying and other
lines of their business.
The name of the Lincoln Motor Works Co.
is changed to the Reliance Electric & Engineering
Co.
The Hydraulic Properties Co., of Providence,
R. I., have awarded the exclusive
agency for all construction of Ransom &
Hoadley's reinforced concrete dams to the
Frank B. Gilbreth organization, No. 60 Broadway,
New York City.
Veneered Wood Industry
During the year 1908, there were cut into
veneer 382,542,000 feet b. m. of logs, valued at
$7,891,000, as against 348,523,000 feet, valued
at $8,436,000, in 1907, according to statistics
just published hy the Bureau of the Census in
co-operation with the Cnited States Forest
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 61
Service. Although industrial conditions generally
were unfavorable during the year 1908,
the amount of wood cut into veneer increased,
substantial gains being made in tbe quantity
of both imported and domestic wood consumed.
This was due in a measure to the
closer canvass in 1908, when returns were
received from 402 active establishments located
in thirty-four states, as against 370 in
thirty-one states, for the preceding year.
Red gum, as in the preceding year, ranked
first among the woods used for veneer, 119,945
feet being consumed, with a valuation of $1,-
272,096, forming a percentage of 31.4 of the
total consumption. The demand for red gum
was even greater than in 1907, when its percentage
of the whole consumption was 29.5.
Among other woods, with the exception of
yellow pine, which shows an important increase,
no great increase is noted.
The principal woods imported for the industry
were mahogany and Spanish cedar. Of
the former 11,487 feet were used, with a valuation
of $1,479,364, as against 6,722 feet with a
valuation of $839,635 in 1907.
How Long is Fire-killed Timber
Commercially Valuable?
How long will timber remain commercially
valuable after it has been swept over by a forest
fire? Timber land owners as well as the Federal
Government are much interested in obtaining
this information, and the Government
has just begun an investigation of a large
number of lire areas in Oregon and Washington
in order to determine, if possible, the
length of time which will elapse after a forest
fire before the timber deteriorates to such a
condition as to decrease its commercial value.
The agencies which cause timber to decay
and encourage the attack of wood borers are
undoubtedly influenced to a greater or less degree
by the intensity of the original fire and
the climatic conditions and altitude of the
burned areas.
All the information in connection with this
investigation will be obtained first hand by the
Forest Service, either from government timber
land, or from private holdings where logging
operations are under way.
In this connection the Forest Service has
also undertaken an investigation to determine
the relative strength of green and fire-killed
timber. The material which is to be tested is
being sawed at the mill of the Eastern and

62 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Western Lumber Company of Portland, Ore.,
where it will he surfaced to exact sizes and
then transported to Seattle, where tests will
be made in connection wih the Forest Service
exhibit at the A. Y. P. Exposition.
The fire-killed trees which are to yield material
for these tests were selected by representatives
of the Forest Service on the holdings
of the Clarke County Timber Company of
Portland, Ore., near Yaeolt, Washington. This
timber was burned over seven years ago and
represents fairly well the average of burned
timber found in the Pacific Northwest The
logs, which vary from three to four feet in
diameter, were sawed into thirty-two foot
lengths. These are being manufactured into
sixteen foot floor joists and bridge stringers.
The results of these tests are being anticipated
with great interest by Forest Service engineers
and by the lumbermen of the Northwest,
because they are expected to disapprove
the opinion generally held regarding the
strength of fire-killed timber.
Recent Patents
To the facilities of the dumping of the material
from a car, James L. Blaker of Blaker
Mills, W. Va., has recently secured a patent
on the device for operating the bottom of any
receptacle from which coal and other material
is to be dropped. The illustrations show the
means of accomplishing this anel are quite selfexplanatory.
Mr. C. W. Rood, Britt, Iowa, has been
granted a patent on improvement of the ditching
machines. The primary object of this invention
is to provide a simple and efficient machine
for digging smooth, uniform sloping
walls. It is also the object of this invention
to provide a machine whereby the slope of
the walls of the ditch may be easily and conveniently
varied to suit the character of the
material which is being excavated.
A patent has been granted to Geo. H. Johnson,
Arnprior, Out, Can., for a dredge on a
scow, which has for its object to cheapen the
construction of the dredge and to enable the
scow to carry the excavating material as well
as the operating of part of the dredging. In
order to carry out the invention in practice the
scow or suitable floating vessel is employed
for propelling means and a receptacle for the
excavating material from which it can be
dumped. It will he seen that the grab bucket
F is lower and when filled is hoisted and run
hack along on track C and the material
dropped into the tub. The track C may be
moved about the center of Post 20 so that the
grab bucket F may pick up material from
point off to the right or left of the center. The
movement of this track is operated by chains
26 and winch 27. A suitable hoisting engine
and drums and boiler are placed at one end of
the scow of hoist E.

C. E. Bearce, of Punta Gorda, Florida, has
been granted a patent on the improvement of
earth excavator and conveyor. The object of
this invention is to construct a conveyor that
the load may be dropped at any suitable or desirable
point along the line of travel. It also
provides a dumper which is adapted to actuate
the belt at predetermined points and which
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 63
Tml.
C. E. Bearse Excavator and Cone eyor.
A patent on the Twin-Boom Adjustable Excavator
and Dredge has been granted to C. D.
Campbell, Lincoln, Neb., the idea being to produce
a machine which will excavate from
above the level or from below that of the
machine in any direction and at any desired
slope; the production of a machine which will
excavate in any direction at any desired grade
either from above or below and which will
can be operated at either end of the apparatus.
The roller number 34 is in the shape of two
cones, the large diameters of which are in
the center, and which end leaves the middle
of the belt and throws the material off each
side. The point 23 can be located at any position,
although it is permitted to be used as
the dumper as mentioned above.
grade off, fill in, level off, or load cars in any
direction from the machine, ft is also proposed
that the machine will dig trenches or
ditches with sides at any slope or build grades
or dredge at any slope or level or will cut away
embankment in front and will level off for its
own track and will excavate below the level of
its track in the rear, either in dry soil or below
the water level.

64
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
A patent has been granted to Wm. Webster,
Minneapolis, Minn., on improvements of excavating
anel hoisting devices, and which include
an arm and grab and similar steam
shovels, but operated from a mast and boom
Wm. Webster, Excavator.
similar to a derrick. It is also intended that
the fork or grab can he replaced by a bucket
which would dig soft materials and by means
of the derrick the hoisting and swinging
dumped the same in any desired location.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 65
V- -j X_J
> . ___
An apparatus for hieing concrete road-beds
has been granted to h. M. Talbot, Glenridge,
N. J., and the object is to provide an improvement
for laying road-beds of concrete, having
reference to what are commonly termed tracks,
that is, the ballast and ties which form the
foundation for railroad rails. As well understood
in thc art. it is necessary to adjust and
secure the ties or sleeper at the proper height
and disposition to support them while the ballast
is being laid. The supporting devised may
form a permanent part of the way or track
when the ballast is "road metal," that is,
gravel, broken stone anel slag, or they may be
only temporarily useel as when concrete constitutes
the road-bed and ballast. When lay
ing concrete tracks it is customary to support
the ties and guard rails by means of under
pinning and liners, adjust them carefully and
then pour in the concrete. It is customary to
lay only a few feet of track at a time by this
method. By this invention the adjustment of
the ties and guard rails is materially simplified
and the extent of track which may he laid
after one adjustment is increased. Of course,
the support for the trolley wheels, too, should
he leveled anel properly braced, so as to support
the rails anel ties in the best manner pos­
sible. In this case the rails 14 are spiked to
the sleepers 12 and the whole support by bolts
and the concrete is dumped from ear 16
-~-Xj

An Odd Locomotive
The novel hydroleum locomotive of Arthur
Koppel, a German engineer, is designed fenshort
railways, serving special industries It
has a watertube boiler, two or four cylinders,
and as fuel uses either crude oil or tar from
gas or coke manufacture'. Unlike alcohol or
gasoline motors, it is reversible without intermediate
gearing It has the high starting
power and overload capacity of the steam engine,
raises steam in fifteen or twenty minutes
instead of the two hours of ordinary locomotives,
and is free from ashes, slag, smoke, smell
and cinders It combines large capacity with
small size.
Solid Fuel For Autos
Napthalene as automobile fuel has given
very satisfactory results in the tests of Chardon
and Lion with a forty-five-horse power
motor truck hauling eight tons of useful load.
Gasoline was used for the first twelve minutes,
when the napthalene—crystallized in pieces the
size of a chestnut—became melted and was
then introduced into the carbureter at a temperature
of 176 degrees F., together with air
heated hy the escaping gases. About twenty
pounds iif naphthalene were used per hour,
later experiments showing the running cost to
be 1-3 to 2-3 cent ner ton mile.
All Solids Are Porous
Another Planet
ALL SOLIDS ARE POROUS.
rhe densest form nf matter is now under­
After half a century of search, Prof. stood W. to W. be neither continuous nor homogen­
Campbell regards the problem of a [ lar.et neareous, but full of holes, in a late Royal instier
the sun than Mercury as settled. Phototution lecture Sir James Thompson showed
graphs during eclipses make improbable the how hydro -en can be ] assed into a vacuum
existence of such a body as large as the eighth tube through an incandescent platinum win­
magnitude, which Perriue has commuted would dow: and the passage of sodium through glass
correspond to a diameter of thirty miles, and in a similar manner is utilized in the manu­
.1 million planets of that size would be needed facture of high vacuum lubes as a means of
to account for the observed disturbances of absorbing the traces of oxygen that cannot be
Mercury's orbit. Prof. Seeliger believes that pumped nut. An Italian physicist has passed
the materiii 1 causing the zodiacal light is suf­ hydrogen through iron even when cold.
ficient to explain the irregularities noted in (he
motions of Mercury, Venus, the Earth and
Mars
If we Could see Inside thc Earth
Engineers have probed the earth only tn a
depth of about 6,500 feet below the surface
Metal Ribbon
and Camille Flammarion has lately renewed
his old suggestion that a great exploration
The process nf making metal ribbon by
shaft should be sunk to tbe utmost possible
pouring a molten stream mi a rotating drum depth iu a thorough investigation of the crust
has been so developed that narrow bands only of our planet. This pit should he 200 or 300
1-1000 of an inch thick may he produced at yards m diameter, cased with a massive iron
the rate of 2,500 feet per minute, and a large ring. The heat increases at an average weight
machine just made in London has a dozen or of 1 centigrade degree for every 108 feet and
more nozzles for giving as many ribbons at the temperature nf boiling water might be ex­
once. The- ribbon is projected ten feet or so, pected at a little less than two miles, but the
falling unbroken. Tbe process bas been ap­ boring should be much deeper. The land in
plied to aluminum, zinc, tin, lead, copper, silver France, as well as certain parts of Belgium,
and gold.
Holland and Roumania, should have favorable

spots for excavation. Such an undertaking
would offer unknown possibilities of practical
and scientific results, geological and palecntological
curiosities, iron mines, copper mines,
precious metals, veins of gold, platinum, silver,
radium, etc., and multimillionaires with a
dread of dying rich have here an opportunity
of acquiring fame and adding to human knowledge.
Photogravures in Colors
Photogravure printing in colors is a late development
that promises much. In color photography
three negatives are made under
screens of the primary colors, and, similarly,
three plates are prepared under such screens
for tbe new process, fn printing, the ink used
corresponds in color with that of thc screen
under which the plate was made. A difficulty
is that the inks are not perfectly transparent,
and as one is used over another there is less
perfect gradation of shades than when the
images from the three negatives are superimposed
upon a screen in color photography.
With experience, however, the results, already
good, will undoubtedly be improved. An enthusiastic
prediction is that illustration in natural
colors will become general, and that the
mezzochrome will supplant the ordinary halftone
photogravure as effectually as the latter
has taken the place of the steel engraving.
Fluid Telescope Mirror
The mercury telescope used last summer by
Prof. R. W. Wood of Baltimore is a tw-entyinch
basin of mercury that on being rotated by
a motor becomes a concave mirror of variable
focus. A disadvantage is that the mirror must
be kept horizontal. When the irregularities of
running have been overcome so as to give the
necessary steadiness, it is hoped to have a
mirror ten or twenty feet in diameter constructed
for some southern station, where it
can be used for photographing details of the
planets as they pass directly overhead.
Tin From Waste
The waste from making tin cans is so large
that the saving of the metals contained is a
matter of importance, the iron separated from
the scrap being now in great demand as well
as the more valuable tin. In the process of Iv.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 67
Goldschmidt, the scrap is packed tightly into
baskets, and these are placed mechanically in
closed vessels, into which, after cooling,
chlorine is pumped at a pressure of four atmospheres.
Chlorine and stannic chloride are
afterwards drawn off by suction. Used cans
are now cleansed and treated with ordinary
scrap, anel in all 75,000 tons of the tin plate
waste are now dctinned yearly in Germany,
25,000 in tbe rest of Europe, and 60,000 in the
United States— a total of 3,0(10 lo 3,500 tons
of tin being separated from the iron.
Europe's Water Power
Guesses at the water power of different
countries vary greatly anel all may be wide of
the mark. These are recent estimates of Otto
Mayr, a German engineer: Norway, 7,525.000
available of which only 301,000 horse power
is utilized; Sweden, 6,750,000 available, 200,000
used; Italy 5,500,000 available, 464,000 used;
France, 5,524,000 available, 1,190,000 used;
Austria, 5,125,000 available, 450,000 used ; Germany,
1,677,600 available, 503,300 useel; Switzerland,
1,500,000 available, 380,000 used, and
Hungary, 550,000 available, 65,000 used. This
is a total of 34,151,600 horse power for the
continent of Europe, of which only 3,553,300,
or less than 10.5 per cent., is utilized. The
figures seem not wholly up to date, as Italy
has been reported to have used 830,000 horse
power, or 15.3 per cent.—all but 90,000 for
electric energy.
Compass on Land
The trackless land is as difficult to travel as
the trackless sea. The chief engineer of the
Honduras National railway cautions engineers
to take special precautions against being lost,
as in the tropical forest one speedily becomes
bewildered, and without a compass there is absolutely
no way of determining direction. The
sun is always invisible, except possibly when
directly overhead. There is no moss on the
trees to serve as a guide and any neighboring
elevations are hidden by the density of the
foliage. It is further pointed 'out that there
are sunny plains where also the compass is
much needed. On the treeless llanos of South
America, with no hills in sight, the sun indicates
direction when it is near rising and setting,
but at midday it gives no clew, as it is
directly overhead, so that a man covers his
own shadow.

68
Rain After Earthquakes
Mist and rain so often follow great earthquakes,
like that of Messina, that it is thought
there must be some connection and Prof.
Milne bas suggested that thc shock, transmitted
by the area shaken, it the condensation
of water vapor. Comparing the magnitude of
earthquakes by the area shaken, it is found
that the Messina shock affected not more than
95,000 square miles, while that of California in
1906 was felt over 372,500 square miles and
that in India in 1S97 shook up 1,750,000 square
miles.
Dangerous Ventilation
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
A test of ventilating fans in Brussels has
shown that in many places they do more harm
than good by stirring up germ laden dust, fn
the restaurants and cafes investigated, the
number of bacteria in each cubic meter of air
ranged from 10,000 to 22,000 before the ventilators
were started, from 17.000 to 48,000
after they had been running an hour, and
from 27,500 to 85,000 after two hours' running.
In a laboratory where remedies for
tuberculosis were prepared, the bacteria increased
from 8,500 before the ventilator was
started to 45,000 after one hour's running and
75,000 after two hours', fn a private parlor
the bacteria numbered 650 before the starting
nf the ventilator, 2,500 in one hour and 4,000
in two hours, and then—the ventilator being
stopped—diminished to 700 in two hours.
A Life Saving Cannon
Wrecked vessels are usually unprovided
with any means of throwing a life line to
shore, but the new apparatus brought before
a British committee of experts by A. J. Mc-
Leod of West Hartlespool is designed especially
for use from the ship. It is in the form
of a cannon, with a barrel live feet long
mounted on a four-wheeled carriage. Compressed
air is the propelling power and a
crank wheel on each' side gives a means of
quickly generating hy hand sufficient energy
to throw the line carrying projectile half a
mile. A special check keeps the line from
unwinding from its winch so rapidly as to
become tangled. In the trials made this apparatus
seems to have proved more efficient and
to have a longer range than the ordinary
rocket, and, as it uses no explosive, it can be
employed without risk of firing any combustible
or explosive cargo. Line firing from
the vessel has a number of advantages. The
apparatus is promptly at hand, the wind is
usually toward shore and the land is a much
better target than the life savers have when
working from shore.
Sanctum Shots
WHEN TO STOP ADVERTISING.
Will a merchant who is wise
Ever cease to advertise?
Yes—when the trees grow upside down;
When the beggar wears a crown;
When ice forms on the sun ;
When the sparrow weighs a ton ;
When gold dollars get too cheap;
When women secrets keep ;
When a fish forgets to swim ;
When Satan sings a hymn;
When girls go back on gum ;
When the small boy hates a drum;
When no politician schemes ;
When mince pie makes pleasant dreams;
When it's fun to break a tooth ;
When all lawyers tell the truth ;
When the drummer has no brass—
When these all come to pass,
Then the man that's wise
Will neglect to advertise.
—Exchange.

VOL. X.
iPEnra
B I T J S S M ^ I L ^ S
-MM £
SEPTEMBER 1909 No 2
T h e R o c k y River Bridge
SOMETIME ago we published the picture of the wash drawing of
the concrete bridge which is being built to span the Rocky River,
west of Cleveland. This bridge is to replace the ancient steel affair
which has been considered unsafe for a long time.
Sixty feet of ground was purchased one side of either end of the
old bridge for the location of the new one, which will be 70S ft. long,
with a central span of 280 ft. and a roadway of 40 ft.
The contract was let to Schillinger Uros., Columbus, O., their bid
of $208,302 being the lowest and under the estimate of $45,318.00. Bids
ranging from that accepted up to $400,000 were submitted. The contractors
have been at work on this contract for some time, and it bas
progressed to a point which will insure most of tlie work being out of
the way before severe weather makes conditions unsafe.
The machinery problem on a contract of this kind and the handling
of the materials was one of the first things to be considered in estimating
on this work. It is very evident that the first machine that would be
needed would be a hoisting engine with a derrick for excavating foundations
and for handling some of the lighter materials. It will be seen
that this one would be limited to the radius of the boom and necessitate
a large number for constant moving of this class of machines. To
obviate this a cable-way was installed, having movable towers located on
the approaches of the bridge, and by means of hoisting drums of larger
diameter the loads are being handled by means of a carrier running on
a 2-in. cable. The hoisting machinery in the head tower is of the Lidge-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
the material is received for making the concrete. Sand is dumped onto
p ground and handled by a derrick and Willi am 3 bucket. The other
ingredients ol the concrete are handled in the same manner and
deposited to the mixei.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 71
Concrete is received from mixer into bottom dump buckets
CDoud type), which rests on a car. This car runs
over under the cableway.
This illustrates the traveler on the
cableway, as originally built, but it
would not run along the cable easily.
The towel at tlie engine end i.s higher
and the carrier and load was allowed to
run down to tlie work, but did not
operate.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
This shows the improved type of carrier
now used, which operate easily, allowing
the load to run down to tne work
without the use of the engines.
wood make and handles the carrier the whole distance, the loads in manycases
being simply deposited in reach of the derricks, which in turn deposit
them in their proper places.
These derricks are located on the large piers, at present, serving the
men at the forms on the right pier. It will be seen that there are two
General view of the work, showing tower at loading end and Doud bucket in mid-air.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 75
Showing- derrick on pier which was built first. The material for the arch is handled
from the Doud bucket on the cableway.
piers at the base of the arches,—in fact, there are two main arches.
The derricks are operated by a double drum engine and the boom
swung by means of ropes attached up along the sides, and which finally
come to the nigger heads at the engine. A man handles the two ropes
and controls the movement of the boom.

74 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The derricks are constructed as shown in the diagram, and consist
of an A-frame with legs and sills which are anchored down over the
corners of the piers, as shown in the photograph. As will be seen, the
derricks handle the buckets of material from the cable way, to the forms,
for this can be done far more carefully with former than with the latter.
At the driving tower end the materials are received by wagon and
dumped on the ground, from which it is handled by a Williams bucket
on a derrick to mixing plant. From the mixing plate it is dumped into
the buckets sitting on a car that are to carry the forms. The car carries
the buckets over tinder the cableway, where they are carried out to the
derricks.
Since the main arch is built on a steel form, more iron work is seen
than on ordinary concrete work, but much of this steel will be used in
the construction of the floor of the bridge.
In addition to the machinery mentioned, a compressed air plant with
its boiler was installed, the latter giving steam for one of the hoisting
engines.
Our front cover shows a general view of the work at Rocky River
bridge and on the cable is suspended a Doud center dump bucket which
is being used to deposit concrete in the forms.
These buckets are of the double-door center dump type and since the
doors open symmetrically the load is dropped vertically and exactly central,
eliminating all side splashing or side jumping of the body as when
being emptied.
Attention is called to the entire absence of all slides in the construction
of the opening mechanism.
This is very important as recognized by contractors and others ex-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 75
perienced in the handling of concrete or other cementing substances that
any holding or conveying device employing the use of slides in connection
with its operating or discharging mechanism and which is subject to contact
with thc material inside, as in the case of buckets, not only receives
excessive wear, but is also very liable to become clogged. The cement
collecting on the sliding parts cause untimely delays and often rendering
the bucket useless.
Not a slide or spring is used in the construction of Doud's Acme
Center Dump Bucket and every movable part is strongly pivoted on pin or
trunnion centers, protected as thoroughly as possible from any contact
with the substance handled. The inventor claims this as a strong feature,
to be considered by prospective customers.
The bucket is constructed of Neary material strongly reinforced, with
the corners rounded to a six-inch radius and the bottom opening very
large, thus providing quick, clean-dumping bucket adapted to the handling
of all classes of material at a minimum cost.

A Cellar Excavation and Its Cost
THE excavation is located at Euclid Ave. and E. 12th St. in Cleveland.
Ohio. When this valuable property was leased for 09 years
to ex-Governor Brown of Pennsylvania, who resides in Xew Castle
(Pa. ) he immediately prepared to build a fine six-story building on the site.
Mr. J. Milton Dyer was chosen architect. Hayes & Greeley received the
contract for the necessary excavating, stating they would remove 20,000
yards in the startling time of 40 working days. They owned the Thew
automatic steam shovel which has proved such a fine free advertisement
for its makers.
In order to thoroughly appreciate what an average of 500 yards a
'day means, glance over the following facts. There are ten hours in the
working day or 600 minutes. That means that a cubic yard must be loaded
and dumped every one minute and twelve seconds under all conditions of
digging and weather. With anything short of an army, laborers only for
"
'
fl
• _B"
"•^
#_ .
..*• * miming . • «•
2SC, 1 ~4
/
_SSf^'_£"-r-
M__^_/J
'' m 0
y i ^ J ^ f f i ^ *
^ "
General view of the excavation.
E-';-:. . • •. r .
Wb #00*^""
' '" ,«r'5

^m
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. / /
Hki-P'
0 ? « <
'aB_B_^_^__r__S_2l RJHjf—-~wTr—1 _i^^
DBBhsmv j^r r "A ' "^^^B-i •
lt!_>^_HPM^_K •'z .^^tA^&JB f|# i ; »%# •;; m i
mmm Mm W lw ^ * _ *
•B p_i0_iflflH f JBm
mdimf' 'tt
H_M_H -i RIE52V^ W
___P*^/1 e .__*
_t- \ -1__H
iSpx -
u\\\\\\\\\\\\^sW.s\\s\\\\\s\\sWs\w££ M
'•tfw •'
*'"'/••
: ./ • -'
§W
The shovel at close range, showing the maximum lift.
Note the wide traction wheels.
maintaining this record would be impossible. But a small steam shovel
may handle even as much as 650 or 700 yards per day. The author timed
the shovel and found that with its y yard bucket it could load three yards
in 45 seconds. Think, six times this shovel dug up its bank, revolved, and
loaded the wagon, in 45 seconds. If this rate could be maintained, 800
yards a day would be excavated.
The reason why the rate cannot be maintained is the old problem of
dumping. First there is a charter mile dump haul and in the midst of a
large city it would be impossible to run a dump train. So there must be
teams. Thirtv-five are on the job. The teaming i.s what keeps the average
down for the horses must haul their load up a steep grade of heavy sand.
So steep is the grade and so heavy the traveling that a hoisting engine
is necessary to aid the horses up the slope. A small wire cable is hooked
to the shaft of the wagon, power is slowly applied and the heavy laden
cart is steadily drawn to the street above. (See illustration.) This heavy
hauling takes place in the excavation proper. The dump i.s located one
block north of Euclid and a block west on an alley.
Digging was begun Monday, August 16th. To date (Sept. 1st), 450
yards a day has been the average, excellent considering the time necessary

78
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
to get under way and to solve such problems on the property as the hauling
(spoken of previously).
The shovel is peculiarly suited for just this work. It is mounted on a
light carriage with contractors wheels, which, being moved by the shovel's
power, eliminates the nuisance of rails and track-laying. The shovel revolves
a complete circle, thereby reaching the maximum area, with the
greatest facility for loading. But one operator is required, saving the
expense of a crew of three as is often required, and insuring the quickest
handling of the shovel for both digging and loading. So quick is the "ideal
excavator" that even the thirty-five teams cannot keep the operator at his
post and he had plenty of time to feed his fire and fill his oil cups.
.Showing how t • cable is attached to drag teams up the
incline of heavy sand.
The small steam shovel, light, quick, "elastic," has ushered in another
era for minor excavations. It has come to stay.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 79
The cost of excavation of 20,000 yards may be estimated as follows:
Care, feed, lodging 35 teams \)/2 months $2,000.00
Pay for 35 teamsters, 40 working days 2,000.00
Pay for 12 laborers, 40 working days 800.00
Steam shovel engineer, 40 working days. . . 150.00
Hoisting engine engineer, 40 working days 125.00
Coal (3 tons a day), 40 working days 300.00
Bosses ($10 a day), 40 working days 400.00
Total $5,775.00
Add 10 to 12 per cent for accidents, repairs, depreciation, etc. . 625.00
Grand total estimated cost $6,400.00

Standard Specifications for Portland
Cement Sidewalks
Adopted January, 1909, by National Association of Cement Users.
MATERIALS.
1. Cement—The cement shall meet the requirements of the specifications
for Portland Cement of the American Society for Testing Materials,
and adopted by this Association (Specification No. 1), January,
1906.
AGGREGATES.
2. Fine Aggregates—Fine Aggregate shall consist of sand, crushed
stone or gravel screenings, graded from fine to coarse, passing when dry
a screen having j4-in. diameter holes, shall be preferably of silicious materials,
clean, coarse, free from vegetable loam or other deleterious matter,
and not more than six per cent shall pass a sieve having 100 meshes per
linear inch.
Mortars composed of one part Portland cement anel three parts fine
aggregate by weight when made into briquets shall show a tensile strength
of at least 70 per cent of the strength of 1: 3 mortar of the same consistency
made with the same cement and standard Ottawa sancl.
3. Coarse Aggregates—Coarse Aggregate shall consist of inert material,
graded in size, such as crushed stone or gravel, which is retained on
a screen having %-in. diameter holes, shall be clean, hard, durable and free
from all deleterious materials. Aggregates containing soft, flat or elongated
particles shall be excluded.
The maximum size of the coarse aggregate shall be such that it will
not separate from the mortar in laying and will not prevent the concrete
fully filling all parts of the forms. The size of the coarse aggregate shall
be such as to pass a 1^4-in. ring.
4. Water—Water shall be clean, free from oil, acid, strong alkalies,
or vegetable matter.
FORMS.
5. Material—Forms shall be free from warp, and of sufficient
strength to resist springing out of shape. All mortar and dirt shall be removed
from forms that have been previously used.
6. Setting—The forms shall be well staked to the established lines
and grades, and their upper edges shall conform with finished grade of the
walk, which shall have sufficient rise from the curb to provide proper
drainage; but this rise shall not exceed three-eighths (}i) of an inch per
foot, except where such rise shall parallel the length of the walk.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 81
7. Wetting—All forms shall be thoroughly wetted before any material
is deposited against them.
size and thickness of slabs.
8. Size—Slabs, without reinforcement, shall not contain more than
36 square feet, or have any dimension g 2ater than 6 feet. For greater
area, slabs shall be reinforced with o%e- uarter (X) inch steel rods, not
more than nine (9) inches apart, or othei teinforcement equally as strong.
9. Thickness—The minimum thickness of the pavement shall not
be less than four (4) inches.
SUB-BASE.
10. Preparation—The sub-base shall be thoroughly rammed, and all
soft spots removed anel replaced by some suitable hard material.
11. Fills—When a fill exceeding one foot in thickness is required,
it shall be thoroughly compacted by flooding and tamping in layers of not
exceeding six (6) inches in thickness, and shall have a slope of not less
than one to one and a half (1 : ly2).
The top of all fills shall extend at least 12 inches beyond the sidewalk.
12. Wetting—While compacting, the sub-base shall be thoroughly
wetted and shall be maintained in that condition until the concrete is deposited.
13. Proportions—The concrete for the base shall be so proportioned
that the cement shall overfill the voids* in the fine aggregate by at least
'••To determine voids, fill a vessel with sand aud let net weight of sand
equal B. Fill same vessel with water and let net iveiqht of water equal . I.
A x 2.63 — B
Per cent, -voids = x mo
. I .1- 2.65
This formula max also be used in determining voids in crushed stone
and screenings by substituting for 2.63 the specific gravity of the stone.
The following is a more simple method for determining voids in
coarse aggregate. Fill a vessel with the aggregate and let net weight equal
B. Add water slowly until it iust appears on the surface aud weigh. Let
net weight equal A. Fill same vessel with water aud let net zvcight
equal C.
A—B
Per cent, voids = x 100
C
Use a vessel of not less than one-half X-< ) cubic foot capacity. The
larger the vessel, the more accurate the result.
five (5) per cent, and the mortar shall overfill the voids in the course
aggregate by at least ten (10) per cent. The proportions shall not exceed
one (1) part of cement to eight (8) parts of the fine and coarse aggre­
gates.

82 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
14. Voids—When the voids are not determined, the concrete shall
have the proportions of one (1) part cement, three (3) parts fine aggregates
and five ( 5 ) parts co - jates. A sack of cement ( 94 pounds )
shall be considered to hay, -f one (1) cubic foot.
G.
15. Mixing—The ingre >i concrete shall be thoroughly mixed
in the desired consistency. ing shall continue until the cement
is uniformly distributed ; s is uniform in color and homogeneous.
(a) Measuring Proportions—Methods of measurement of the proportions
of the various ingredients, including the water, shall be used
which will secure separate uniform measurements at all times.
(b) Machine Mixing—When the conditions will permit, a machine
mixer of a type which insures the proper mixing of the materials throughout
the mass shall be used.
(c) Hand Mixing—When it is necessary to mix by hand, the mixing
shall be on a water tight platform and the materials shall be turned until
they are homogeneous in appearance and color.
(d) Consistency—The materials shall be mixed wet enough to produce
a concrete of such consistency as will flush readily under light tamping,
and which, on the other hand, can be conveyed from the mixer to the
forms without separation of the coarse aggregate from the mortar.
16. Retempering—(e) Retempering—Retempering mortar or concrete,
i. e., remixing with water after it has partially set, shall not be permitted.
PLACING OF COXCRETE.
17. Placing—(a) Methods. After the addition of water, the mix
shall be handled rapidly to the place of final deposit, and under no circumstances
shall concrete be used that has partially set.
(b) Freezing Weather. The concrete shall not be mixed or deposited
at a freezing temperature unless special precautions are taken to
avoid tbe use of materials containing frost or covered with ice crystals,
and in providing means to prevent the concrete from freezing after being
placed in position and until it has thoroughly hardened.
18. Protection—Sidewalks shall be laid in such a manner as to insure
the protection of the pavement from injury due to changes in foundations
or from contraction and expansion.
Workmen shall not be permitted to walk on freshly laid concrete.
and where sand or dust collects on the base it shall be carefully removed
before the wearing surface is applied.
19. Thickness—The wearing course shall have a thickness of at
least one (T ) inch.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 83
20. Mixing—The wearing surface shall be mixed in the same manner
as the mortar for the base, but the proportion nf one ( 1 ) cement to
two (2) of fine aggregate, and it shall be of such consistency as will not
require tamping, but will be readily floated with a straight edge.
21. Depositing—The wearing surface shall be spread on the base immediately
after mixing, and in no case shall more than fifty (50) minutes
elapse between the time that the concrete for the base is mixed and the
time that the wearing course i.s floated.
22. Marking—After being worked to an approximately true surface,
the slab markings shall be made directly over the joints in the base with a
tool which shall cut clear through to the base and completely separate the
wearing courses of adjacent slabs.
23. Edges—The slabs shall be rounded on all surface edges to a
radius of not less than one-half (X) inch.
24. Troweling—When required, the surface shall be troweled smooth.
The application of neat cement to the surface in order to hasten the
hardening is prohibited.
25. Roughening Wearing Surface—On grades exceeding five (5)
per cent, the surface shall be roughened. This may be done by the use of
a grooving tool, toothed roller, brush, wooden float or other suitable tool;
or by working coarse sand or screenings into the surface.
26. Color—Where color is used it shall be incorporated uniformly
and the quantity and quality shall be such as to not impair the strength
of the wearing surface.
SINGLE COAT WORK.
27 Proportions—Single coat work shall be composed nf one part of
cement, two parts of fine aggregate and three parts of coarse aggregate.
and the slabs separated as provided for in the specifications for two coat
work.
28. Finishing—The concrete shall be firmly compacted by tamping
and evenly struck off and smoothed to the top of the form. Then, with a
suitable tool, the coarser particles of the cmicrete shall be tamped to a
depth which will permit of finishing the walk as under "Wearing Surface."
PROTECTION7 AND GRADING.
29. Protection—When completed, the walk shall be kept moist and
protected from traffic anel the elements for at least three days.
30. Grading—Grading after the walks are reaely for use should be on
the curb side of the sidewalk, one and one-half (\y2) inches lower than
the sidewalk, anel not less than one-quarter ( X) inch to the foot fall
towards the curb or gutter, ( hi the property side of the walk lhe ground
should be graded back at least two (2) feet and not lower than the walk:
this will insure the frost throwing the walk alike on both sides.

84 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
CURBS.
31. Trench—The trench shall be excavated to a depth not greater
than the bottom of the curb and a width not greater than the thickness of
the curb plus six (6) inches.
32. Thickness—The thickness of the curb shall not be less than six
(6) inches.
33. Wearing Surface—After the forms are set, about one ( 1 ) inch of
wearing surface shall be placed on the inside of the curb form; then the
concrete shall be deposited at one operation and firmly tamped to within
one (1) inch of the top of forms. The top wearing surface shall then be
placed and be of the same composition as that specified for sidewalks.
34. Joints—Joints shall be made three-fourths ( -X ) the depth of the
curb, continuous with joints nf the sidewalk and in no case more than
six (6) feet apart.
35. Faces—The forms shall be removed as soon as practical and
the faces finished at one operation floating down six (6) inches with a one
to one mixture of cement and fine aggregate of sufficient thickness to produce
a smooth surface.
36. Gutter—When a combination curb and gutter is required, they
shall be cast at the same time and finished at one operation.

Selling Value of Buildings
By Charles T. Main
To get the selling value of a building, the cost of a new and modern
building should be depreciated.
First—For the difference in style of construction.
Second—For lack of light which makes it necessary to produce- more
artificial light.
Third—For the amount of floor space which is unavailable, clue to
the subdivision of the space or the style of construction.
Fourth—For the increased cost of operation due to inconvenience of
arrangement of rooms or buildings.
Fifth—for the increase in cost of insurance over that on a modern
mill.
Besides the actual cost of producing artificial light where it is dark.
which can be estimated, there is a loss due to a little less production, also
because the production is not fully equal in quality to that made where
there i.s plenty of daylight.
The amount of this depreciation for the difference in style of construction
would vary, decreasing as the building approaches in strength,
form, and convenience that of a modern structure. The depreciation for
lack of light can be determined if it is known how much more artificial
light must be burned, and the extra expense of the same, anel capitalizing
this at the proper rate of interest. The depreciation for inconvenience and
extra cost of running could be determined if the extra cost of running is
capitalized at the proper rate. The depreciation for unavailable floor space
is just the percentage which cannot be used. The depreciation on account
of higher insurance rates can be estimated by ascertaining at what rate the
factory insurance companies would take the risk with buildings constructed
according to their ideas, and to find the difference between the
cost of insurance on the old plant anel the new one. This difference would
represent interest on a sum which one could afford to lay out on new
buildings, or the sum which the old buildings should be depreciated on this
account.
The proper rates at which to capitalize these amounts would vary according
to the idea which a person might have as to a satisfactory return
for money expended. It is safe to say that any one would be willing to
make an expenditure toward a new building which would return 10 per
cent gross on the investment. If an old building is replaced by a new
one, the charges for taxes, insurance, and depreciation will be no more,
and probably less, than for the old building.

86 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
From the above it appears that, if the extra expense in total cost of
running due to the inconvenience of the building is 10 per cent of the
cost of new buildings, the buildings are valueless for the purpose to which
they are put, because an expenditure for new buildings would return 10
per cent on the investment.
It might be possible by certain changes to make the buildings as light
and convenient as modern buildings, and if new, they would be equal to
the cost of such modern buildings minus the cost of making the changes.
After determining the value of the buildings, if they were new, according
to the above method, there remains to be applied the depreciation
from age. This to a certain extent must be an arbitrary quantity, but
based upon the average life of buildings of the character of those under
consideration. It would seem that one per cent per year is little enough
for brick buildings substantially built, credit being given for any extraordinary
repairs, renewals or additions.
We must not lose sight of the fact that, although a building may not
at the end of 100 years be completely worn out, the character of the
business may so change that the buildings are not adapted to it, and they
will be rebuilt, as we have seen the older buildings replaced with new
ones of different style.
The depreciation of wooden buildings is greater than brick, depending
iiiioii the purpose for which they are used. Buildings which are kept
dry. and not subjected to much wear and tear, would, if well built, last a
hundred years; while wooden dyehouses, subjected to steam and wet, will
not last over, say, 25 years. The length of life depends largely upon the
care that has been given to repairs.
y&^

Immense Scrap Heaps
At San Francisco—Their Origin, Rise and Decline
—Some Long Shipments
CALIFORNIA is the possessor of the largest scrap heaps in the
world, relics of the great conflagration of April, 1906. The principal
accumulations are those in the yards of the Great Western
Iron and Steel Co., located at Folsom and Steuart streets. One scrap heap,
the only one remaining in tact of four of equal size and proportions, is 40
ft. high, 100 ft. square, and contains 20,000 tons, all cut in equal length
of 18 inches, and piled in one solid mass with sides as smooth and solid
as a brick wall. There were four scrap heaps in that row anel they contained
eSO.000 tons.
The (ireat Western Iron & Steel Co. has handled 150,000 tons since
the fire. It has six large shears in operation to cut the iron and steel,
either for the furnace or that it may be better handled for shipment. Besides
the four heaps which are piled in ship-shape trim, there are other
piles of uncut scrap, forming heaps high above the fence surrounding the
scrap yard, but appearing insignificant beside the scrap heaps, above
mentioned.
Very little of this scrap is used in San Francisco, thc bulk of it being
shipped to the Atlantic coast or to European ports, only to be returned to
San Francisco, in part at least, as a manufactured article. Thus San
Francisco and, incidentally, California, loses the money which would be
paid in wages for converting the scrap into fabricated articles, and in
addition must pay the freight for hauling the scrap away and bringing the
iron and steel back for use. This is caused by the labor conditions here
and in Europe being in such a state that the manufacturers can underbid
those in California.
MANY PILES OF IRON AND STEEL.
Along the bay awaiting shipment, are many scrap heaps of various
sizes. Among those that have such piles are the Judson Mfg. Co. in San
Francisco and at Emeryville, across the bay : at the Pacific Rolling Mills,
the Pacific Coast Steel Co., Baker & Hamilton, also in the railroad freight
yards, and on the long wharf at the Oakland shore are many awaiting
furnace ship or freight car.
Among the extensive shippers of scrap may be mentioned Bates &
Chesebrough, who have carried 6.000 tons of scrap as filling for freight
during the past two seasons. Geo. W. McNear & Co., agents for a
French Line have sent quite a few cargoes to Italian ports and large

88 • THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
cities in the U. S. Geo. McNear, the head of that firm, said that the bulk
of steel scrap, such as railroad scrap, finds a better market in the U. S.
than abroad. Cast and wrought irons are of greater value locally, and
are used by plants on the Pacific coast. Steel scrap is exported to Atlantic
and Italian ports in the spring when few other products are sent out from
that district.
HISTORY OF THE SCRAP HEAPS.
After the fire of April, 1906, about the only thing that remained of
the buildings was the scrap iron and pipe, boilers, tubes and metal. Some
of the more enterprising men and boys commenced to "pick up' this scrap
that was scattered over all the empty lots. This scrap was unclaimed
and the majority of the people were glad to have their lots cleared up
and paid these men for doing so. A few of the prudent men made fortunes
simply by hiring boys for picking up this scrap and would probably
pay them a trifle for the stuff. The business started at a season when
scrap was in demand for filling vessels carrying cargoes of light material,
and it pays to ship scrap in the hold. For a time the scrap heaps grew, but
the enormous profits realized during the early period of the trade lured
many others to start up, and finally competition drove the prices of scrap
to the limit. A great deal of this scrap has been disposed of but there are
still large piles of it in some of thc yards, ready for shipment. The demand
of same has also been diminished, and some dealers will be lucky if
they realize cost on what thev have on hand.
The scrap heaps are still a great sight for the stranger, but they
arc diminishing and soon will be no more than the ordinary size.

Brake Design and Construction
By Victor W. Fage, M. E.
THE object of brake design is to increase the frictional adhesion
existing between bodies as much as possible, as the greater the
coefficient of friction between the substances the superior will be
the braking effect due to the absorption of power between them.
MATERIALS EMPLOYED.
As previously stated, the materials employed in brake construction
must possess several qualifications ; they must have a high coefficient of
friction and yet must be capable of performing their work without excessive
wear. The common materials employed may be of two kinds,
those of a metallic character and those which are not.
The materials vary with the type of the brake and the opinions of
the designer.
As band brakes arc the most common, we will consider the materials
used as brake linings which are not metallic anil may be fibre, leather,
textile belting, and cork.
FIBRE.
This material is very common anel is well known to the majority of
motorists, as it is used in various applications about a motor car, chiefly
as a frictional and insulating material. It has been used as a facing for
clutches, and as a lining for brakes, it being more successful in the latter
application than when used in a clutch, for constant slipping will burn
and char it, rendering the substance very brittle, it rapidly losing its
strength under these circumstances. The writer has used it as a brake
lining with success, however. The material is very stiff, and cannot be
applied to a steel band in the form of a long strip. If applied to a band,
it must be in small blocks, in order that the band retain its shape and
spring. Fibre comes in two forms, hard and flexible. Both are formed
from vegetable fibre which has been through a chemical treatment, by
pressure, and are not soluble by ordinary solvents, such as ammonia,
alcohol, ether, naphtha, benzine, kerosene and oils. It will swell when
placed in either hot or cold water, which, when dried out, leaves the fibre
in its original condition. In service it is found very satisfactory as far as
wear is concerned, but is not very reliable if subjected to heat. It is
freely machined with either wood or metal working tools, and may be
easily applied. It is sometimes so hard and dense that it will wear thc
metal surface to which it is applied more than will be manifested upon
its own surface.

90 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
LEATHER.
Leather forms an excellent lining for brakes of large proportions,
but has disadvantages. It must be kept moist or it will char and the wear
of the surface will be excessive, becoming brittle and breaking off. The
kind generally used is oak bark tanned leather, which has very good wearing
qualities as well as a very good coefficient of friction when used in
connection with a metallic drum. It is easily applied, arid is comparatively
cheap.
TEXTILE BELTINGS.
Textile beltings are very popular and are made in a number of different
manners. Ordinary cotton belting is made of from four to ten thicknesses
of cotton duck stitched together, and is very strong. It is waterproof
anel cheaper than leather, is easier of application than either leather
or fibre anel has a yen- satisfactory coefficient of friction. It has an advantage
of not charring so readily, and it is claimed that its wearing
qualities are better under rubbing. The writer has found camel's hair
belting very suitable, as also a textile belting which has an interlaced or
basket weave appearance, though the materials of which it is composed
or its trade name is not known. A number of brake manufacturers are
marketing fabrics of which asbestos is the main element, which have
great resistance to heat and good wearing qualities.
CORK.
There has been a great increase in the use of inserts of cork in
metallic brakes and clutches, and that cork possesses valuable properties
when used in this connection has been amply proven by a variety of
efficiency tests as well as by practical service in thousands of different
brakes and clutches.
Cork is the bark of a tree, known as the cork tree, and is the lightest
known solid. It weighs but one-eleventh part of aluminum, and onethirtieth
part of cast iron. Cork may be obtained in sheets, or in special
shapes. It has a very high coefficient of friction, and is not affected by
many of the conditions which seriously impair the efficiency of other
substances.
THE LIGHTEST SOLID.
Cork possesses qualities which distinguish it from all other solids.
namely its power of altering its volume to a very marked degree in consequence
of change of pressure. It consists, practically, of an aggregation
of minute air vessels, having thin, water-tight, anel very strong walls,
hence, if compressed, the resistance to compression rises in a manner
more like the resistance of a gas than to that of an elastic solid, such as
a spring. The elasticity of cork has a wide range and is very persistent.
Thus, in the better grade of corks, such as are used for bottling, the corks

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 91
expand the minute they escape from the neck of the bottles; this expansion
may amount to an increase of volume of 75 per cent., even after
they have been in theXottle for years.
THE MOST ELASTIC SOLID.
It is this elasticity which makes it a very valuable material when used
as an insert in a metal shoe. Cork is of rather a brittle nature, though
extremely strong, anel it could not be used as leather, that is, applied in
the form of a lining or facing, because of its brittleness. The method
of application is well shown by reference to several of the illustrations
which show brake shoes so equipped. Cork is not particularly affected
by heat or oil, and will largely increase the efficiency in any application
to a brake or clutch.
In application, the corks always work alone at low and medium pressures,
at high pressures the metallic surfaces also come into engagement.
It is said that this largely accounts for the excellent wearing qualities of
such combination surfaces and when the corks form a relatively large
proportion of one of the contact surfaces, they prevent cutting, no matter
whether there is a lubricant present or not. Then, again, in the presence
of lubricant, which would usually cause slippage between plain metal
surfaces, the corks so largely increase the frictional adhesion that slippage
is practically impossible.
RAPID WEAR IMPOSSIBLE.
The wear of the corks themselves is very slight, as the manner of
incorporating them in the sockets under pressure causes them to remain
at their original height above the metal surface for a great length of time,
and the natural physical properties of the material are such that rapid
wear is almost impossible. That it retains its elasticity for indefinite
periods is well shown by noting the cork of a wine bottle, which may have
been in aging vaults for half a century or more, spring back to a larger
volume, and that it cannot be reinserteel into the neck of the bottle without
the expenditure of considerable force. This property of elasticity
determine that the application of frictional contact between the surfaces
shall be made gradually, meaning that it is possible to stop a car with a
minimum amount of jar but with positiveness when brakes are equipped
with inserts of this material.
BRASSES AND BRONZES.
Where metal to metal surfaces, with or without cork inserts, are
used, the surfaces are usually of different materials. The most common
material for drums in all cases is steel, but that of shoes is either malleable
cast iron, brass or a bronze. Different metals make a better wearing
surface, and some combinations will have a higher degree of fric­
tional adhesion than others.

92 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION.
As has been previously stated, in the selection of materials for brakes,
the coefficient of friction is an important element in the determination of
those suitable.
The following will give some of the relative values which exist between
combinations of different materials :
Metal to Wood 0.25 to 0.50
Metal to Fibre 0.27 to 0.60
Metal to Leather .0.30 to 0.60
Metal to Metal 0.15 to 0.30
Metal to Cork 0.36 to 0.65
The coefficients van- greatly, not being dependent only on the character
of the materials, but also upon the pressures maintaining the parts
in contact and the condition of the surfaces. There will be greater resistance
between rough and yielding surfaces than between hard and
smooth surfaces. Where metal to metal surfaces are employed, it is
customary to use a hard anel a softer metal in combination, the common
metals being steel against bronzes.

A Standard of Quality
A WELL-KNOWN maker of mathematical instruments was once
asked by a client what would be the price of a perfect straightedge.
Fie replied that such an article would cost, approximately,
ten thousand dollars. Noticing the look uf blank surprise upon the face
of the inquirer, he added that a straight-edge which would be true within
one-tenth of a wave-length of light could probably be made for one
thousand dollars. Upon this, the customer stated that if he had a ruler
which did not vary more than one-thousandth part of an inch he would
be satisfied. The man of mathematics had only one standard of perfection,
and this was absolute truth. The commercial man would be content
with a standard which only presented nn errnr to the naked eye.
And so in every phase of life the standard of quality varies with the
mind or idea of the observer.
A brick manufacturer once said, in a pretense of self-humiliation
that all his life he had been trying to make a perfect brick, but had nnt
yet succeeded. Whether he was right or not depends upon the problem
to be solved and the conditions to be met. If he meant that a brick should
be as true on face and eelge as the above-mentioned ruler, bis statement
was corrct, but with little reason. If he meant that he had never made a
brick which would perfectly serve its purpose, he was wrong; because in
this sense millions of perfect brick are made every year by himself and
his competitors.
Tbe standard of quality in any article, whether grown or manufactured,
is one of fitness. If the purpose be well served, the article is
perfect as regards that purpose.
There are many standards by which a product may be judged; it
may lav claim to accuracy, strength, beauty, durability, comfort, fashion,
color, size, simplicity, lightness, flavor or what not; it will win favor as
it fulfills the purpose for which it is intended, and as it is suited t the
work it must perform.
According to this fitness, the purpose being more or less perfectly
fulfilled, there has grown up in manufacture a practice of selection and
grading. An expert in diamonds will separate the stones, not only as to
weight, but also as to color and brilliance. They are all diamonds, but
not all of equal value as ornaments; but when a glazier needs a diamond
in his business, he looks only for a small piece for cutting glass. In the
manufacture of steel rails, the product is examined for flaws which would
impair the strength ; the steel may be all of precisely the same composition,
but the process of rolling may have produced rails, some perfect,

94 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
some imperfect. The cabinetmaker, in selecting the lumber for an important
piece of work, has to consider not only strength, but appearance;
and so through the whole gamut of trades and professions there are
articles which are classed as firsts, seconds, thirds and even lower grades,
according to the demand.
Now it must be observed that a classification such as this is often
an arbitrary thing; there are many cases where the difference between
the first and second quality is one which is merely fanciful. In the manufacture
of fine linen handkerchiefs the perfect article must fold exactly
square to the corners ; the handkerchief which fails to meet at the edges
when folded is precisely as good a piece of linen as that which folds
four square ; it will serve its purpose as a handkerchief fully as well, and
yet it is classed as seconds and sold at a lower price. The case of the
steel rails already mentioned is different; here the flaw is a real defect,
the rail is weakened and is rightly rejected.
The manufacturer of clay products is particularly subject to an invidious
and unnecessary standard of quality. If an architect has a certain
color-scheme upon which the appearance of his building may seem
to depend, he is apt lo insist that every brick in the wall be of precisely
the same shade. It is impossible to produce from any kiln or set of kilns,
even from the same clay, bricks which are perfectly uniform, anel so the
manufacturer is forced to sort the contents of his kilns into a multitude
of tints, and to make thousands of brick in order to fill an order for
hundreds, and the labor anel expense are quite unnecessary. If a wall of
uniform color be required, why not paint the brick and have done with
it? As a matter of fact, the subtle variation in color which is displayed
by the natural unselected brick is much more satisfactory than any flat
tone can be ; the light vibrates from such a surface, anel affords an unrivaled
lift and quality. There is no cjiiestion here as to the fitness of the
brick from a structural point of view ; it is merely a mistaken standard
of what constitutes excellence. In the use of roofing tile the same ideas
prevail. Tile of a uniform red color are demanded, and there is but little
advantage gained over a roof of painted tin. If tile of different shades
are used and laid by a skilled workman, the play of color on the roof is
restful and harmonious. When glazed tile are selected for a wall, it is
tbe fashion to demand not only an absolutely uniform shade of color, but
also tile perfectly true as to their shape or form. Here again let it be
borne in mind that no question of the quality of the tile substance or
glaze is under consideration, but merely a fanciful idea which is founded
upon a mistaken notion as to the kind of surface the glazed tile should be
expected to present. As a matter of fact, this close selection of true
uniform tile works to the disadvantage of the purchaser. The tile-maker

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 95
is compelled to market at a loss all tile which are slightly warped, or which
have minute specks upon them; and consequently, if he is to make any
profit at all, he is obliged to charge a high price for those which are classed
as perfect.
There are many imitations of glazed tile offered, as, for example, a
cement which is marked off in squares and coated with a white enamel.
This is uniform enough in color to satisfy the ultra-fastidious; but it need
hardly be pointed out that the expedient is not only apt to wear badly, but
is a gross deception. The even color of the surface is, moreover, gained at
the loss of the far more precious quality—endurance.
What then should be the standard of quality by which judgment shall
be passed upon clay products, and especially upon wall and floor tile, with
which these pages deal?
First, fitness. No substance or material which is not fit for its purpose
may lay claim to quality. Clay wares which are for use on the table
must hold their contents in a cleanly and convenient manner; if they are
to be handled, they must be so formed as to be held with ease and comfort,
and they must be readily cleansed. Structural wares must be substantial,
unobtrusive and quietly decorative. Wares purely ornamental must
possess some special value in form, color or treatment, and above all in
individuality.
Tile are expected to meet several of these conditions ; they are to be
of use especially in a floor where they are to be walked upon, and must be
easily cleansed ; they are structural, and therefore must have solid substance
; they are ornamental, and must possess qualities of color and individuality.
Well-made and well-burned tile, whatever the nature of the
finish, meet the first two requirements, and tile which are put forth with
interesting and harmonious colors or clear white certainly possess superlative
qualities of ornateness and individuality; the ordinary and unavoidable
defects of manufacture do not change these fulfilments in the slightest
degree.

Some Comments on Our
Engineering Education and the
Men It Produces
By W. D. Taylor
DURING the five years spent in the university and ending three
years ago I listened to a number of engineering lectures arranged
for by the university by a number of eminent engineers and managers
of great industrial corporations. Some of these lectures were to me
very interesting but many of them were quite the contrary. Those that
did not very much interest me were generally made by some expert in
some particular kind of engineering work who generally knew quite well
how to do his engineering work but not so well how to interest a body of
students.
There were many of these lectures that I was sorry that I attended,
many of them being, for the most part, bare recitals of the outlines of
machines that had been used to effect this or that end, or lectures in which
the author made a laborious undertaking of the description of the minutest
details of the methods by which some great work had been accomplished.
There was one thing about the attention that the students gave these lectures
that was quite remarkable and that was that where a man discussed
a real live question, such as how to get a water-supply out of one valley
through a chain of mountains to a city in an adjacent valley, the students
always sat up and gave alert attention.
But whenever the same lecturer began to use his lantern slides to show
how every little detail of a piece of work was carried out. interest immediately
lagged and watches were consulted to see how much was left of
the hour. I often noticed the same phenomenon in teaching my own
classes until I got experience enough to at least try to omit details and
methods as far as possible and to confine my instruction to principles and
tn a discussion of the broader questions connected with each subject.
LIMITING ENDEAVOR.
Perhaps you will say that as an engineering instructor I ought to have
taken an active interest in all these things and perhaps you are right. But
I want to say that I have found that I can't do it all. I have found that
I am a man of very ordinary capacity, certainly so far as the whole broad
field of knowledge is concerned, even of engineering knowledge. So I
have learned to content myself with making a very modest endeavor to

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 97
keep abreast with one very narrow field of engineering. But let me do my
very best and still I will come very far short nf perfection in learning even
to properly construct anel maintain a railroad. I know that I can't become
an expert in the other fellow's line and I am really afraid to try. I fear
that every time I reach out and gra^p a great big idea that belongs in the
other fellow's field that, my own head being of such limited capacity,
something else equally as valuable to me in my own line of work will run
over and spill out of the old vessel.
So, after I have spent such a part of each day as I can in making such
headway as I may in my own line of work, I do not wish oftentimes to
invade the domain of other engineers. I would rather walk into that wider
domain that belongs to the brotherhood of all mankind. I would rather
use that time in reading some of the good things stored up by generations
of eminent scholars, in wandering in imagination through the interesting
Scottish highlands with the great Sir Walter, in watching Miss Maude
Adams in Peter Pan, or some such play, or in simply playing ball at home
with my little boys. And I know that these things do me far more good.
MORALITY NOT DISCUSSED.
But before I leave the subject of these engineering lectures I want to
tell yon of an objection lei every one of them, anel yet many nf these lectures
were given by men wdio command our sincerest regard. But in all
these lectures that 1 heard there was not, if I remember correctly, a single
discussion of a moral question. The ideas dominant in every one of them
were the Thomas Gradgrind facts as to how the work was done, the results
achieved and how much money was gained or saved thereby. Seemingly
there was to be no distinction in the future lives of the students, as conceived
by these lecturers, between right and wrong. The .strenuous life w7as
urged for all it was worth, but no hint was made to these young men at
this, the character funning stage of their existence, of the world's need of
their living clean, upright lives filled with beauty, simplicity, repose, and
neighborly kindness. Perhaps it was thought that these things were too
obvious to mention. But it is in this especial matter that the addresses to
students of public men differ from those that wc used to hear twenty-five
and thirty years ago.
And now let me ask the teachers present if the objections I have
pointed out against these engineering lectures cannot with some justice be
made to much of the whole training of our engineer students. In our
eagerness to fill their heads with a smattering of knowledge of all forms
of engineering, or at least of as many as we can possibly crowd into our
curricula,—in our eagerness to make of them good craftsmen, playwrights,
draftsmen, mechanics, and engineers, are we not forgetting to cultivate

98 THE IN DC STRIAE MAGAZINE.
that side of their lives which must be developed if they are to become men
—real vires not mere hominies.' Do we not assume too much in supposing
that by directing our attention partly perhaps to their manual dexterity but
principally to the growth of their minds that their moral and spiritual wel­
fare will take care of itself?
Now I trust that vou will not take me for an old croaker dissatisfied
with all of the existing state of affairs. And I don't want you to believe
that I have come up here with a bad taste in my mouth, nor that I am suffering
from either melancholia or hysteria. On the contrary, I have abundant
faith in American youth and in our country's future. And I have
really little fault to find with the technic itself of modern engineering
training, except perhaps, that we try to use too much of it.
GOING TOO FAST.
In our modern training for our engineers, as in our modern life, I fear
we are going too fast. And in our haste to discard the older forms of
training we have shelved, I fear, much that the lives of centuries of distinguished
scholars have shown to be of the utmost value. I mean the development
of the moral or higher anel nobler side of the lives of our
students.
Perhaps it is a subject which should not be discussed before such an
audience as this, but I feel that I must say that I believe there is in our
colleges and universities a great deal of inefficient teaching. We make a
teacher's promotion depend upon his success in research work. And it is
beyond dispute that the qualities of mind which befit a man to do research
work generally unfit him to clo efficient work as a teacher. There is room
for a long discussion here, but I will cut it short anel only say that there is
neit a nobler work in this world than that of devoting one's self to the
profession of teaching, pure anil simple, that of leading out, expanding and
helping to grow, the bodies and minds of the young men of the land, the
profession of man building. And it i.s a pity that we cannot have in our
colleges a teacher's standing and promotion determined bv his sue
doing the thing he is employed to do, and for which he is paid.
Thc student comes to an engineering college to acquire the fo
thought, of speech, of work, and of action that he is to use in his ] r
sional life. If we teach him our subjects about after the manner
burglar would use in instructing an apprentice, we could not expect
much to his stock of integrity and refinement. But wc might acle
other things are quite so desirable. If, on'the other hand, we ma •
instruction savor of manliness, courtesy and uprightness, and we
to bring into our lectures and recitation rooms occasional instanc ,
examples calculated to exercise the students' sense of justice as web a-- I

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 99
finer feelings, I have that faith in absorptive power of the American
student to believe that he will seize and appropriate to his own use a goodly
share of those desirable characteristics while they are passing his way.
Every teacher who has brought himself close to the lives and aspirations
of his students knows and feels this to be true.
SOME DEFINITE CHARGES.
And now I want to make some definite charges against the engineering
graduate of today and to say wherein he impresses me as not being quite
the equal of former college men in seime of the characteristics of a true and
noble man. Please note that though I say I make charges, I do not attempt
to prove logically that those charges are correct.
I grant at once, of course, and I am proud of the fact, that the modern
engineer graduate is far more helpful than that older man was in advancing
the industrial progress nf the world. One must be a fool to argue
otherwise. But it is difficult to see why, in these modern days when
everything else has improved so much, our students should advance in one
direction and recede in another. If it be true that there is a recession in
some ways, it must be the fault of the student's training and environment,
for the American Caucassian youth is the same today that he has been for
a hundred years. And if he is receding in this respect his teachers should
shoulder the responsibility, for, as of old, they can mould to honor or dishonor,
even as the potter has power to fashion his clay. The great body
of our young graduates is just what their teachers and their mothers have
made them.
Let me give you an instance now of the power of thc teacher in molding
students' morals: I taught for a period of seven years ending in 1898
in the school on the banks of the Mississippi river in Louisiana that was
founded before tbe Civil War with the man who afterwards became Gen.
W. T. Sherman as its head. Gen. Sherman, as all of you know, was a
West Pointer, and he made much of drilling his early students in the need
of their observing tbe same code of honor that he himself had learned to
observe at West Point. If you should go to a student in that school and
ask him what is the sentiment among his companions on the subject of
cribbing, he would stiffen his shoulders and haughtily reply, that any man
who is allowed to attend the Louisiana State University must prove himself
too much of a gentleman to cheat. And the boast is not a vain one.
I taught there seven years and in that time we had one serious case of
cribbing. In this case the faculty had no need to issue an edict of suspension.
The students took care of that part of the case as soon as guilt was
established.
NOT A SECTIONAL QUESTION.
But now I can take vou to some northern schools in this same country

100 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
of ours, very much larger and of very much greater reputation, where if
you seek out any thoughtful conscientious student and ask him the same
question as to the sentiment of thc same subject among his companions h e
will invariably tell you it is about as bad as it well could be. It is a fact
that at some of these schools there is hardly a general examination ever
held that a number of students are not punished in one way or another for
cribbing.
And now bow is the difference in the sentiment on this subject to be
accounted for at these schools ? Would you say that the southern youth is
naturally more honorably inclined than his northern neighbor? I know
from personal experience with the youth of both sections that this is not
true. I can tell you of a school in the south similar to the one referred to
on the banks of the Mississippi river wdiere the student sentiment on this
subject i.s fully as bad as at any nothern school.
I tell you the difference is accounted for by the unanimous continuous
assertive force of the teachers in the interest of common honesty in the one
case, and by the lack of concerted action and moral force on the part of the
faculty in tbe other.
To me this is a painful subject, but I should like to ack this question
before I leave it. If we permit our students to form the habit of cribbing
and cheating their way through school, what guarantee have we that they
will not persevere in the habit after they leave our care and go on cheating
and swindling their way through the world? Are there degrees of culpability
in the acts of cribbing, cheating, swindling and stealing? I have
never been able to see such a distinction. Anel vet I don't wish to fight
any duels for saying that 1 believe it is true that a man wdio cribs his way
through school will, as a rule, steal his way through his business life if
opportunity offers.
And now I make my first and most serious charge against the engineer
graduate of today; owing to the fact that the development of his moral nature
is somewhat neglected in present-day training, he is apt to be less
entirely honest than were the graduates of former clays.
TOO MUCH CROWDING.
I will follow the first charge immediately with the second, and will say
that owing lo the fact that we crowd our modern engineering classes so
full the present-day engineer graduate is liable to be less thorough than the
old-time graduate was. Twenty-five years ago, 15 or 16 hours of recitation
per week was considered enough. Extraordinary students were sometimes
permitted to take 18. Now from 20 to 21 are required and frequently extraordinarily
bright students, or those who have conditions to make up, arc
permitted to take from 25 to 30.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 101
In this connection let me tell you of an experience with modern men.
A few years ago a couple of junior students were secured from tbe school
that claims to be tbe foremost engineering school in the United States to
work one summer on one of the western railroads. These young fellows
were specially recommended by their teacher to do the work at which they
were put. They worked for three clays in a vain attempt to connect two
tangents out on an open prairie by a simple three-degree curve. Instead of
getting the work done they brought in a demonstration purporting to show
that the tangents could not be so connected. The same two men ran a line
of levels four miles long several times and never once came within 3 feet
of the true result, nor did any two trials give results within 3 feet nf each
other. I should like tn give you a lot of individual experiences I hav*e had
with new college men where their lack of thoroughness in the very things
they were supposed tn know best has clearly cost the railway companies
employing them and me, and caused the young men to be ,-et back instead
of forward in their profession, but time forbids.
GRADUATE'S SHORTCOMINGS.
My third and last charge is that the present-day graduate, having
skimmed so hastily over so many subjects without thoroughly mastering
any or all of them, and not having his sense of duty keenly developed, is in
some degree wanting in real efficiency, in contentment, fortitude, loyalty,
and true manliness.
Perhaps, as President Woodrow Wilson intimates, it is characteristic
of American national life to be discontented with one's lot and to be continually
striving for something higher and better. I hit the degree of unrest
among the engineer graduates in the positions into which they fall seems
to exceed even the national unrest.
It used to be supposed that if a man received a promotion in railway
work once in every three or four years, be was doing well, but like the
labor union men. if the wages of the average graduate is not increased in
railway work three or four times a year he feels sure that the road he is
working for doesn't appreciate his eminent services.
I made it a practice while at Madison to ask my boys to write back to
me after they had been out of school a while to let me know how they
fared. I got together one da)' 25 such letters that I had received in the
previous two or three years and went through them with a special purpose
in view. Out of the 25 there were just three that expressed any satisfaction
whatever with the work they were doing. Now let me tell vou that
every single one of those fellows had better positions than could possibly
have been hoped for at so early a date in their career if they had graduated
25 years ago.

102 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
EFFECT OF FEMININE INSTRUCTION.
I sometimes think that our high schools, which are so largely taught by
women, and where the number of female students is generally about three
to one, are more potent in robbing our young men of real manliness than
any other cause. A graduate of an average high school is really a graduate
of a female seminary. A recent critic says that the average high school
male graduate has learned from his association at school about enough to
become a milliner or a dressmaker and that is about all. Look up some of
the recent writings and speeches of the leading psychologist in America,
Dr. Stanley Hall, and you will be surprised to see what such an authority
as he thinks is the effect on our young men of our women-taught high
schools. Dr. Hall is c|tioted as saying that when a mother has brought her
son to the age of 14. she ought to untie her apron strings from around him,
hand him over to his father and say, "Here is our son, I have had the
care nf him now for 14 years and have made the best buy out of him that
I could. Now it's up to you to take him and make him a man."
This world is full of noble women, and no man has a keener appreciation
of womankind, nor a greater respect for a true woman, than I, but I
never saw one yet that could impart any manliness to a youth. A fellow
must acquire manliness by brushing up hard against men.
Now when we get these women-taught high school men in college
what should we do to rub out the feminity that they bave absorbed? If
the feminity is well grounded is sticks pretty close. Did you ever notice
how diffidently a fellow acts and feels among men who has been so unfortunate
as to be raised in a house full of nothing but women and girls?'
Such are the boys that stanel on tbe side lines and bleachers and scream
while the real men of the school are winning the football and baseball
games. The poor creatures, the}- don't know how tn yell.
TEACH HOW TO 111-: MANLY.
The college needs to teach such students how to be men as well as
how to think. And no small part of its duty is to teach them how to fight
anel how to stand up for one's own. And when I say they need to be
taught to fight and to stand up for their own, 1, of course, don't mean that
they should do this in any brutal or unmanly way. But it is ton often the
case that young men are discredited because they do not know how to
assert themselves in a firm and dignified way that commands attention.
I like authority and I like discipline, and the good old hickory switch
fur bad boys and something very like unto it fur obstreperous young men.
There are a few real men developed in this world who have not been well
exercised by both—by discipline and authority.
I have long ago gotten the idea out of my head as a teacher that the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 103
way to become popular with students was to make things easy for them ;
in other words, to let them have their own way. The way to win a young
man's lasting affection and gratitude is to lead him, or drive him if need be,
to develop a power or capacity that he did not know was in him; or, in
other words, to bring him to achieve.
CAUSES OF FAILURE.
I could give you man}- an instance where young men have failed to
accomplish the results expected of them for lack of the qualities named in
my third charge above, and yet young graduate engineers who fail as I
have indicated often wonder why, in railroad work, brakemen, telegraph
operators, section foremen, and station agents, men oftentimes who have
not enough education to solve a problem in the rule of three, are promoted
ahead of them. The reason is clear to the railroad manager. He knows
that while the college man was attending the woman-taught high school
and going to college where he sat up late at night and ruined his health
by eating indigestible suppers, and where he listened to easy lectures that
appealed to him intellectually only in a dim and clistant way, the brakeman
and the telegraph operator had been learning by getting down close
to sweating humanity the lesson of how to get there. And now when the
railroad needed men to get things done, it wanted men wdio had brushed
up hard against other men until they knew how to act like men.
I was talking one day, a year or two ago, to a level-headed, thoughtful,
public-spirited anil charitable business man who has been connected
with the administration of the financial affairs of one of the large schools
of the country for a great many years, anel I mentioned some of the ideas
that I have just related and asked him to what he ascribed these objectionable
tendencies in so many of our young men.
He said that he had noticed the same shortcomings in the young men
with whom he came in contact and that he believed that there was something
almost radically wrong with any system of education that did not
imbue the graduates of the schools with a higher sense of duty and a
greater love of work for its own sake. In effect what he said was:
SPIRIT OF TEACHERS.
I believe that the whole trouble is accounted for by the spirit of the
teachers in our schools. The students are taught that the chief end of
their education is, not to learn to enjoy life and to be useful citizens, but
that thev must expect to get right up to the top at once in whatever calling
they enter ; nothing else is worth while. These teachers in industrial and
engineering schools study one subject until their minds become warped
and they come to think that nothing else besides their own little subject

104 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
counts. Further, they study the one subject until they become proficient
in it, and coming in contact for the most part only with students of immature
minds, they unconsciously assume an air of superiority to the
rest of mankind. The student unconsciously apes his teacher and after
he has passed his examinations come to believe he, too, has mastered the
subjects m his course and become a superior being; he adopts the condescending
tone of his teacher and falls heir to his teachers sense of
superiority.
When the student goes into business his employers and associates
don't take kindly to the attitude the young man assumes. What they generally
want is work and help instead of arrogance and advice. The busy
world sits down on the graduate good and hard and the young man become
despondent and moves away in search of some other position where
those eminent abilities of his will be more appreciated.
NOT ROOM FOR ALL AT THE TOP.
And now, young gentlemen, I want to say that in these days there
are too many engineering graduates for all of you to hope to stand at
the tiptop of your profession. It is an old saying that there is room at
the top, but as the industrial world is at present organized, the top men
must have a good many strong men upholding the platform on which they
stand. Take for example, the organization of your great railroad here,
the Chicago & Northwestern. It has use for hundreds of young men as
track supervisors, bridge supervisors, draftsmen, assistant engineers,
signal engineers, clerks, train electricians, roundhouse foremen, road
masters, yard masters, train masters, division superintendents, etc. In
the next eight years, I doubt not it would be possible for everyone of you
young men to get into the service of that great corporation in some such
capacity as I have named, where you would have a chance to do some
useful work and to earn a decent and honest living. But I wish to remind
you of the fact that that road has only one president, one general manager,
and one chief engineer. And while I do not wish to discourage you, I
doubt very much if it will ever have an urgent need for any one of you
in any one of these positions. Even if it does, it will be safe to say that
it will be so far in the future that you can't safely count on it now. It
will not be until the sap has been pretty well dried out of your youthful
bodies, and your minds and bodies have been strengthened by having
successfully withstood many a trial and many a hardship.
But I want to say that the great need of the Chicago & Northwestern
Railroad, and of the industrial world which it typifies, is one of men who
will do their work well in ordinary fields. It is a need of a man in each
position who can be depended upon, who does not feel the need of the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 105
applause of his fellowmen to make him do his best. It is a need of men
who are not seeking the spectacular and the heroic, but who are willing to
do the same thing over and over again every day of their lives, doing it
too with the same thoroughness and conscientiousness that our mothers
used when we were boys in regularly washing the dishes three times a day.
But men seldom work that way these days. No sooner does a man
become familiar enough with his tasks to be able to do them thoroughly,
than he is off again to find something different if not better. Sameness
tires him. The modern young man must have his work program changed
at least as often as the bill of the vaudevill show that he attends.
In these days we never teach our young men that there is for each
man such a thing as finding his own level, and that when that level is
found he will make the world better and himself far happier and more
useful by adapting his life to it and quietly staying in it.
THE HAPPY LIFE.
I have known several men in my life that had found their level and
who consistently refused to be led out of it. And I wish I had time to
relate to you the happiness that has come to some of them who declined
"promotion" for the sake of duty or in order to live a quiet, orderly anel
useful life. There are many such men who fill up the measure of their
existence fully as well as Mr. Roosevelt or Mr. Taft does his.
There are thousands of places in our great industrial country where
young men as engineer graduates can easily secure useful work that will
make you and the world better for doing it. And this work does not need
always to be clone at the top of the ladder. I sincerely believe that tbe
greatest kindness I could possibly do to this fine body of young men
would be to make each one of you feel that in an engineer's life there is
something worth while besides what's at the top, that there are many
things in this life better than money, and that for the present the chief
concern of each one of you should be to make himself a whole man.

Structures
Secondary Stress in Framed
By E. W. Pittman
S E C O N D A R Y stresses in framed structures are due, primarily, to
faulty details. Attention will be directed to some of the more
common faults and inconsistencies that are of frequent occurrence
in structural details, and an effort made to illustrate their effects upon
the strength of the structures.
In the general design of an articulated structure, such as a bridge
or roof truss, it is assumed that the axes of the various members meeting
at a joint are concurrent; that is, intersecting at a common point, and
that they are free to rotate about this point as elastic deformation takes
place.
In the case of a pin connected truss, the assumed conditions are very
nearly realized, but in the case of a riveted truss, the last condition is not
fulfilled. The riveted joint fixes the direction of the members at their
ends, and when the structure deflects under a load, all members are placed
in double curvature.
The computation of the resulting bending moments in the members
is a rather tedious process, as it involves the determination of the angular
displacement of each joint. For bridge trusses of ordinary proportions,
the deflection is small, and the resulting bending stresses in the members
may be safely neglected, but for the shallow trusses with deep gusset
plates, they should be considered.
This condition of secondary stress is sometimes further accentuated
by faulty joints, such as shown in Fig. 1. The axes of the members are
noncurrent, and a bending moment is, therefore, induced at the joint.
All members are bent in opposite directions at their ends, and by approximately
the same amounts. This places them in double curvature and
makes a point of contra flexure, or zero moment, at their centers. All
members, therefore, resist the bending moment due to eccentricity in
proportion to their relative rigidities. The angular displacement of the
joint is the same for all members meeting at the joint, and is resisted by
all, acting as beams fixed at one end, the joint, and free at the other end,
the middle point, where the moment is zero. The angular displacement

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 107
at the joint then is the deflection of the middle point of any member,
M, /
divided by the half length of that member, or: a = where M1 is
3 E I
the bending moment, resisted by one member, / its half length, E its
modulus of elasticity, and / its moment of inertia.
3 EI a
From the above, we have M, =
/
Since E and a are the same for all members, it is seen that the total
bending moment is divided among the several members in proportion to
/
their respective values —
/
In order to make this result more tangible, and to illustrate the effect
of this construction, let us assume an actual case and derive the numerical
values of these secondary stresses.
Fig. 1 shows a joint in the top chord of a Warren truss. The makeup
and properties of the several members are marked in the figure.
-o r for, joirvb P.-Tj C. O C
Fiq I a
Taking A as a center of moments, we have for the total bending moment,
due to eccentricity, 35 600 X 7.5 •= 267 000 in. pounds. Apportioning

108 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
this between the four members meeting at the joint according to their
I
values of — it is found that each chord section resists a bending moment
/
of 97 000 in. pounds, and each web member resists a bending moment of
36 500 in. pounds. The extreme fibre stress /, which these bending
moments induce, in the members, is given below :
M y 97 000
For Chords / = = = 14 400 lb. per sq. in.
/ 26.94
M v 36 500 X 2.75
For Web Members f = = = 14 850 lb. per sq. in.
/ 6.76
Thus it is seen that the secondary stresses due to eccentricity are one
and one-half times as great as the primary stresses, which alone were
considered in proportioning the members.
Another condition which tends still further to increase the secondary
stresses in the web members is the eccentricity of the rivet lines to the
center of gravity axes of the members. This eccentricity is /, as marked,
and the resulting bending moment is 35 600 in. pounds. The general
equation for extreme fibre stress for compression member with fixed ends,
is
M y 35 600 X 2.75
f — _= =15 320 lb. per sq. in.
35 600 x 9216
PI- 35 600 X 9216
/ 6.76
3 2 E 896 000 000
Particular attention is directed to this result, because this eccentricity
of rivet line to center of gravity axis is a fault of very common occurrence
in all types of riveted structures. Where angles are used to resist
direct stress, and connected through one leg only, the gauge line for the
rivets should be set in as close to the back of the angle, or as near to the
center of gravity axis as possible. This matter is of fundamental importance,
and yet it is habitually disregarded in detailing structural work.
It is customary to use so-called "standard gauges'' for angles, pitching
the rivets from the back of the angle a distance somewhat greater
than the half width of the leg. The rivet clearance for machine driving
is shown in Fig. 1 a. In the case of the web members just discussed, the
dimension A would be j| in. Adding to this the thickness of the outstanding
leg, we obtain IX in. as the permissible gauge of these angles.
This coincides exactly with the center of gravity axis of the angles, and

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 109
if the rivets were so placed, the fibre stress of 15 320 lb. per sq. in. would
be entirely eliminated.
Rivets in eccentric connections are sometimes subjected to secondary
stresses yen- much in excess of what they arc designed to resist. A good
illustration of this is afforded by standard connections for beams. Fig. 2
shows the standard connection for a 10-in. beam 25 lb. section. The
Manufacturers' Hand Books give 9X ft- as the minimum span length
for which this connection may safely be used with a beam loaded to its
full capacity. From the table of safe loads, we find that a 10 in. beam,
25-lb. section, 9\2 ft. long, will sustain a uniform load of 13.72 tons,
giving an end reaction of 13 720 lb., as shown in Fig. 2. This end reaction
may be replaced by an equal force parallel thereto, and passing
through the center of gravity of the rivet cluster, and a couple with a
moment:
M = 13 7201b. X 3.25 in. = 56 290 in. lb.
Each rivet in the cluster is subjected to a direct stress,
13 720
. = 4573 lb., and a stress due to bending moment.
3
The stress in any rivet due to bending moment varies directly as its
distance from the center of gravity of the cluster, and its resisting moment
varies as the square of this distance. Calling a the stress in a rivet due
to bending at a unit's distance from the center of gravity, we have the
equation:
M = a(d yd +d )
M 56 290
transposing, a
d yd
—
d
= 8 650 lb.
6 513

110
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Now the stress in each rivet due to bending is equal to this figure,
multiplied by the distance of the rivet from the center of gravity.
S1 = 8 650 X 1-46 = 12 640 lb.
S.. = 8 650 X 1.46 = 12 640 lb.
X = 8 650 X 1.5 = 12 980 lb.
Fiq 5
O-O-'O-O— O-Q-O-,
F,q 6
These forces are drawn in the figure, and combined with the forces
5 = 4573 lb. The resultant stress on rivets 1 and 2 is 15 600 lb., as
shown.
The web thickness of a 10-in. 25Tb. beam is .31 in. The bearing
area of a y rivet is, therefore, .31 X .75'= .2325 sq. in.
15 600 pounds divided by .2325 = 62 100 lb. per sq. in. bearing stress
on web of beam. That this is excessive can hardly be denied. Let us
hope that in the next issue of the Manufacturers' Hand Books, this table
giving minimum span length for which standard connections may safely
be used, will be revised.
Fig. 3 shows a joint in a riveted Pratt truss that is of common occurrence.
Here the axes of the members are concurrent, but the rivet
connection through the chord is eccentric to the intersection of the lines
of stress, and a bending moment results. The proper construction of
this joint is as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 shows the heel of a roof truss. This detail has been made
familiar by its wide use, and yet the fault is pronounced. The three

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. Ill
forces acting at the heel, namely the compression in the rafter, the
tension in the bottom chord and the column, or wall, reaction arc noncurrent.
A bending moment results which induces large fibre stresses
in the members. This detail is susceptible of the same analysis as the
eccentric joint of the Warren truss.
Fig. 6 is, likewise, an improper detail unless the heel plate is thick
enough to resist the bending moment between the point of intersection
of the three forces and its attachment to the members. The plate should
also be planed or chipped flush with the backs of the angles of the bottom
chord when it is not possible to get sufficient rivets immediately over the
column to transmit the total reaction into the plate.
Fig. 7 shows an efficient and proper detail for the heel of a roof truss.
The practice of using %.-m. and jfo-in. gusset plates in roof trusses
is very common, yet considerations of economy, as well as efficiency, would
Fiq 8
Fiq 9
seem to dictate the use of thick plates. The plates should be of such
thickness that the bearing value of a rivet in the plate is about equal to
the value of the rivet in double-shear. This would reduce the number of
rivets at a joint by nearly one-half, and reduce the size of the plate correspondingly.
Whatever slight increase in weight the thicker plates entail
is more than compensated by the reduction in rivets. The use of smaller
plates and fewer rivets also measurably reduce the secondary bending
stresses in the members due to fixity of their ends. This is quite an
advantage, and would justify the use of thick plates aside from any other
consideration.
Fig. 8 shows the detail of a knee brace connection to a column, which
is not uncommon in mill building construction. This detail is open to

112 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the same criticism as the other eccentric connections already discussed.
It is especially to be condemned in view of the fact that the knee brace
is subject to tension, as well as compression, and when the knee brace is
in tension, the entire stress must be resisted by two rivet heads. Fig. 9
shows the proper detail fe:>r this connection. The gauge. A, for the rivets
connecting the knee to the column flange should be as small as possible,
and the thickness of the connection angles should be such that their
moment of resistance at the rivets is equal to the bending moment. This
bending moment is equal to one-half the horizontal component of the
stress in tbe knee brace, multiplied by A.
Fig. 10 shows the detail of a bracket for the support of a crane runway
girder. As usually detailed, this style of support has a dangerous
weakness, and it has come to be regarded with distrust. When the bracket
is correctly detailed, however, and all forces properly provided for, it

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 113
affords an economical and efficient support for light crane runway gir
Through bolts should be used at the top of the bracket capable of resisting
Pa
a stress equal to
b
The load P being eccentric to the axis of the column, bending
moments M and 3/( are induced.
Pc Pc
M = Xd M. = X(L— (bfd)
I I
These beneling moments, in the case of light cranes, are usually much
less than the bending moment at the foot of the knee brace due to wind
load, and the bracket attachment requires only a small increase in the
moment of resistance of the column. Herein lies the economy of the
bracket support over the direct column support, as shown in Fig. 11.
The metal in the wide web plate below the crane seat takes the crane
reaction and relieves the bending moments in column due to this reaction,
but it does not measurably increase the moment of resistance of the column
at the point of maximum bending moment; that is, at the foot of
the knee brace.
This leads to a consideration of what is, perhaps, the most common
fault in mill buildings with knee braced bents, and that is the inefficiency
of the column at the foot of the knee brace. In a very large proportion
of the mill buildings, as ordinarily constructed, the column above the
crane seat is made from six to ten inches wide, regardless of theoretical
requirements, and in most cases the columns are insufficient to resist the
bending moments due to the wind load for which the building purports
to have been designed. Most specifications for mill buildings that are
regarded as standard require that the structure be designed to withstand
a wind pressure of 20 to 40 lb. per vertical square foot. Nevertheless
it is probable that half the knee braced mill buildings standing today
would actually collapse under a wind pressure of 10 or 15 lb. per sq. ft.
In view of this fact, an assumed wind pressure in excess of 20 lb. may
well be regarded as absurd.
If the columns and knee braces of a mill building about 60 ft. wide
with 20-ft. bays and 40 ft. high to the chord were properly proportioned
to resist a wind pressure of 30 lb. per sq. ft., the result would be startling.
The columns at the foot of the knee brace would be from 20 to 24 in.
deep, and the knee brace, chords and main web members of the truss
would be correspondingly massive.
Purchasers of mill buildings seem to derive some satisfaction in
specifying high wind pressures, but they usually seem satisfied to accept

114 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the design submitted by the lowest bidder. It is hardly necessary to add
that this design is made in utter disregard of the specifications. While a
designer is, perhaps, justified in disregarding absurd requirements in
specifications, there is certainly no justification in many, if not most, of
the designs for high mill buildings.
This stricture applies with particular force to such construction as is
shown in Fig. 12. This construction is sometimes used, in lieu of a knee
brace, in order to economize head room and to avoid obstructing the crane
trolley travel. This is a gross and flagrant fault. The knuckle plate
should never be used as a substitute for the knee brace in a building high
enough for a crane.
Knee braces, at best, are not very efficient, and they should be resorted
to only when there is no better method of bracing a building to
withstand the horizontal wind pressure.
When a building is of indefinite length, or subject to future extension,
knee braces are necessary, as each bent must be self-sustaining, and transmit
all of its portion of the wind load to the foundations direct.
In the case of a building of fixed length, however, it is generally more
economical to make the bottom chord lateral system a horizontal truss
to transmit the wind loads to the gable ends of the building, and thence
through diagonal bracing, to the foundations. In this case the eave struts
are the chords of the horizontal truss, and they should be made stiff
enough to act as compression members, unsupported for the panel length.
Fig. 13 shows a bottom chord lateral system suited to this condition.
In all cases, whether knee braces are used or not, the bottom chord lateral
bracing should be made continuous in order to insure good alignment for
the columns. This is very important, especially where traveling cranes
are used.
Figs. 14 and 14a show two systems of continuous bottom chord bracing,
either of which will serve the purpose of aligning the tops of the
columns, anel, therefore, the crane runways.
Fig. 15 shows discontinuous bottom chord lateral bracing which is
nut uncommon. Nevertheless it is a glaring fault, and should be avoided
even in the cheapest buildings without cranes.
A few years ago, there came under my observation a building with
discontinuous bottom chord bracing where high speed, heavy cranes were
in use. Acute trouble developed in the use of the cranes due to bad
alignment of the runways. Operation of the cranes was suspended for
a few days, and the master mechanic of the plant undertook to correct
the trouble by rectifying the alignment of the rails. This was done with
a transit, and new holes were drilled in the flanges of the runway girders,
where necessary, and the rails clamped in place. On completion of the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 115
work, all rails were straight from end to end of building, and no further
trouble was anticipated. Operations were resumed, and at the end of a
few days, there was a recurrence of the same old trouble. It was discovered
that the rails were as badly out of line as ever. The master
mechanic was nonplused, and in his uncertainty he was overwhelmed with
suggestions from interested employees. Some suggested the reinforcing
of the columns below the crane seat, and some suggested the tearing
down of the building and its total reconstruction. Sane advice finally
prevailed, however, and the trouble was permanently cured by the simple
expedient of making the bottom chord bracing continuous throughout.
The rails and clips were replaced in their former position, and the building
was pulled into line and held there by means of nuts and turnbuckles
on the bottom chord lateral rods.
/ \ X
X
X
X
/
X
/
Fiq 13
Fiq 15
X
X
x-
LX
X
X
A. X7
/y
XX
\y
' \ X.x
\/\
X X
\ \ *
\/ *
\ x
•' \
V
X \
Xx
Xx
\y
v
A A
X
X
'
F,q 143
In a building of indefinite length, the function of the bottom chord
bracing is simply to prevent the lateral movement of adjacent bents relative
to each other, and to reduce the unsupported length of the bottom
chords of the trusses. This second function is important because in knee
braced buildings the bottom chord is subjected to compression stresses,
due to wind action, sometimes in excess of the dead load tension stresses,
and it must, therefore, be designed as a strut, as well as a tie.
Of late, there has been a marked tendency toward heavy construction
in mill buildings. This is manifested in the many new specifications
in which low unit stresses are specified, and in which it is provided that
no metal of a less thickness than & in. or X in. shall be used in the
structure. Of course, this provision is designed to procure a stronger
and more stable structure, but it fails woefully in its purpose.
It serves only to concentrate metal and weight in parts of the structure
where it does absolutely no good. The use of high unit stresses, and
the use of X in., or even A in. metal is not undesirable, if the building

116 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
is scientifically designed and all details intelligently worked out. The
destruction of mill buildings by corrosion is not nearly so rapid as the
destructive action of racking forces due to insufficient bracing and faulty
details. Unless all the various forces that may act on a building are
considered and proper provision made for their resistance, the building
will rapidly deteriorate, and soon rack itself to pieces, however low we
take our unit stresses, and however thick we make our metal.
In conclusion, it is urged that cognizance be taken of some of the more
common faults m existing mill buildings, and steps be taken to prevent
their perpetuation.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. W. G. Wilkins: Mr. Pittman's remark about a building supposed
to be designed for a wind pressure of 30 lbs., which he thought
would collapse under a very much less wind pressure, reminds me of a
remark one of my classmates made to me some years after we graduated.
He said, as engineer for thc Railroad Commission, in a large number of
the railroad bridges in a certain State he had calculated the strains in a
large number of the railroad bridges in that State, and from the results of
his figures he could not understand why many of them had not fallen
down long ago, but they were still standing and carrying teams over them
every day.
Mr. Willis Whited: It might be well to remind the younger members
of the Society that it is not well to place too much reliance on the
flexibility of pin-connected joints, especially in old bridges. I have in
mind a viaduct whose columns were pin-connected at top and bottom,
which, by the settlement of a pier under an adjacent span, was pushed
about 6 in. out of place, throwing the columns that much out of plumb,
but instead of the columns hinging at the bottom, as they should have
done, they were rusted so firmly into the shoes that, being well anchored
to the masonry, one side of the coping was lifted about l}2 in. off the pier.
This, of course, involved raising the span about X in.
Speaking of knee braces, I call to mind a building about 75 ft. high,
in which the knee braces consisted of two 4 by 3 by j% in. angles, while
the member of the roof truss, which connected to the bottom chord at the
top end of the knee brace and had to carry practically all the stress from
the knee brace to the other members of the truss, consisted of one 2 by 2
by y in. angle.
As to internal stresses, practically every piece of every structure
contains numerous internal stresses due to punching, riveting and straightening.
Mr. Hermann Laub: Secondary stresses in framed structures are
not only due to faulty design, but principally to imperfect workmanship.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. ]]j
The abutting joints of compression members are not always accurate, especially
on large sections, and must therefore produce eccentric or secondary
stresses in adjoining members. Likewise the pin holes cannot be
bored accurately, perpendicular to the bridge axis of chord and post sections,
which again will cause eccentric or secondary stresses after being
connected up to the structure. Such imperfections in the workmanship,
which can hardly be avoided, are the weakest spots of our pin-connected
bridges and may be of very serious consequences on large spans. This is
accentuated by the fact that we do nut know to what extent of accuracy
the work is or can be done, which makes it difficult to take proper precautions
by additional reinforcement of sections.
Secondary stresses are sometimes beneficial to the structure for the
sake of stiffness and rigidity. Railroad companies now-a-days build
bridges up to 200 ft. spans of riveted trusses, which involve at the joints
far more secondary stresses than on pin connected bridges. On ordinarily
light roof trusses we introduce knee braces s0 as to make the structure
safe against lateral forces, but we know that such struts are the cause
again of secondary stresses in roof trusses and posts tn which these knee
braces are attached.
These secondary stresses can never be avoided, but must be calculated
and taken care of in the most efficient manner, especially if the
structures are very large.
Mr. G. H. Danforth : I ran across a case the other day that shows
some people imagine eccentric loading may be avoided. Up in New Vork
State, a job as designed called for a column to be connected to a beam
that passed some 15 inches to one side of the column center. The
drawing room in detailing put riveted brackets on the sides of the column
and rested the beam on the brackets, making a good stiff connection on
the column.
The architect on the job condemned the connection at once, and
would not have it "on account of the eccentricity of the loading." He
made a detail to avoid this eccentricity which consisted of substituting a
diaphragm riveted into the web of the plate and angle column for the
brackets riveted into the flanges of the column. This, in his opinion,
avoided the eccentric loading, but as the point of application of the load
remained the same, it would require peculiar reasoning to show how the
bending moment on the column was reduceel in any way, and certainly
the column was not re-enforced. The connection was made as reeiuested,
as the matter was not of sufficient serious nature to call for a protest,
but it all forms a rather humorous commentary on present efforts of well
intentioned people to avoid conditions that are liable to lead to serious
results.

lis
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Mr. j. A. McEwen : I noticed a statement in one of the hand books
that where a sufficient snow and dead load were assumed the lateral wind
pressure could be ignored in truss.es up to 100 ft. span. I think, however,
that is a very radical statement. The question of taking care of wind
stress is one on which there are a great many different opinions.
Mr. P. S. Whitman: We have heard a careful review of the
present theory governing the action of secondary stresses. There can beno
doubt of the truth of the mathematical deductions ; yet how are we to
account for the fact that every day one sees structures built in utter disregard
of the theory of secondary stress, which still continues to stand
up, often carrying external loads much above the limits for which sections
have been designed. How are we to account for such contradictory
phenomena? Tbe only logical answer is that certain conditions working
for safety must exist of which our theory takes no account. In my mind
the saving conditions in the friction between adjacent parts. The pieces
of steel are closely held together by tension on the rivet heads, thus producing
a much greater internal resistance than tbe actual shearing value
of the rivets. As this frictional resistance is difficult to estimate mathematically
and as its action is always on the side of safety it seems to be
the practice to ignore it completely. However, I think that therein lies
the secret why our buildings stand up instead of falling down as they
theoretically should.
Mr. Pittman's paper dwelt at considerable length on theory and value
of knee braces in a mill building. On this point there seems to exist a
wide diversity of opinion. Quite a common mill building detail is to omit
the knee braces. The columns in such buildings are frequently called to
take heavy bending moments from crane runway girders attached to
brackets; which stress must be taken care of by the tensile strength of the
column flanges in addition to the wind pressure. In such a design it is
apparent at once that the only actual condition which prevents the building
from falling over i.s the stress in the anchor bolts at the base of the column.
With a good system of continuous bottom chord bracing the local
wind anel crane loads at any given column are uniformly distributed to
every column brace in the structure. No steel in a building can be used
to better advantage than that in a good design of continuous bottom chord
bracing. The saving grace of such a system does not seem to be generally
appreciated. The building without knee braces is simply another example
of the fact that our theory considers the stress taking direct path only ;
while as a matter of fact it may be taken care of entirely, through an indirect
path.
Mr. H. S. Prichard: In calculating stresses in trusses and bracing,
it is the general practice to assume articulated, frictionless joints, and the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. llo
intersection at a single point of the axes of all the members meeting at
each joint; and it is the further practice to term the stresses so determined
"primary."
Not so many years since the determination of the primary stresses
was all that was considered necessary, even in cases where it was evident
that the assumptions were quite different from the real conditions. In
thc eighties scarcely anyone but so-called "cranks" paid much attention
to arranging riveted connections so that truss members would intersect in
common points at the nodes, or to placing pin holes in the centers of
gravity of end posts and top chord sections, composed of channels and
cover plates; even after comparative tests at the Watertown Arsenal
showed that columns composed of two channels latticed both sides stood
more total load than columns composed of similar channels, but with
cover plates in place of one set of lattice, when the pins were placed in the
center line of the channels instead of placing them in the center of gravity
of the cover plates and channels combined.
There has been a marked and commendable tendency of late years
to make the actual construction conform more nearly to the theoretical
assumptions, where it is practicable to do so without loss of stiffness, anel,
where it is not practicable to follow the assumptions, to consider the effect
of departures therefrom. The paper of the evening is a valuable contribution
and should help to establish good practice in these regards.
In the general sense in which the author has used the term secondary
stresses, it includes all the stresses which make up the difference between
the primary stresses and the actual stresses which the assumed static load
w-ould produce; whether due to deformation, to deliberate eccentricity, or
to imperfect workmanship or construction.
The method of determining the secondary stresses due to eccentricity
in beam connections, which the author has so clearly explained, is similar
to the method used and published in an article on standard connections of
beams* by the speaker, while he was Engineer of the New Jersey Steel
and Iron Company.
The author has expressed the hope that his method of proportioning
beam connections will be adopted in place of those now in use. The
speaker entertained a similar hope when he published his article on the
subject in 1895, and subsequently he wrote to Engineering Newsf
criticising the tables of strength of beam connections, given in manufac-'
Hirers' hand books, and the methods by which they were computed. To
this Mr. Christie, for A. & P. Roberts Co.J and Mr. Thackray, for Cambria
Iron Company, replied by making tests, which they published, claiming
that they refused the speaker's criticism. This stimulated the speaker
to make a few tests for the New Jersey Steel and Iron Company, which

120 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
were published in a letter,* which is here reproduced in part, as follows :
"It is well to state the requirements for safe connections. At 16,000
lb. extreme fiber stress, a steel beam has a factor of safety of about two,
as regards the beginning of failure, and about four, as regards complete
failure; supposing it to fail by bending. The factor of safety required for
the connections are illustrated in the accompanying cuts, Fig. 16. The
L':X
O
1,6,6;
l/X
>.
Case 3
(\"9:am Tuned Bote.
Machine Fit)
?

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 121
of the rivets to prevent the rivets from getting any bearing on the beam,
the object being to test the frictional resistance from the clamping power
of the rivets. In Case 6 the connection angles were bolted to the beam
with rough bolts forced to a bearing before the test, anel the nuts were
screwed up tight so as to give all the frictional resistance practicable. The
rivets and bolts were all X-in. diameter, the rivets were machine driven,
and the holes were punched 13-16 in. diameter, except those for the turned
bolts and those in the web of the beam in Case 5.
It was intended to test the connections only and not the beams, and
to insure the beam from failing distributing flats were placed between the
top flange and the pressure edge of the testing machine. In Cases 1 and
2 the flats were not added till the beam began to fail.
The results of the tests are given in the table below, to which is added
a comparison between the calculated safe loads for the connections and
those indicated by each test separately considered.
RESULTS OF TESTS FOR STRENGTH OF
STANDARD BEAM CONNECTIONS.
Load , Safe Load ,
at the ,—Calculated by—
beginning Ultimate Indicated Usual Writer's
of failure. Load. by Test. Method. Method.
Case. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb.
1.' 2 000 24 900 1000 6 900 1470
2} 13 000 6 500 6 900 1 765
3.3 9 500 17 790 4 450 13 800 2 940
4." 12 500 40 310 6 250 13 ,800 3 530
5." 2 000 1 000 ....
6.6 4 000 24 700 2 000 6 900 1470
•Beam split from bole "a" to edge at 22 800 lb., after ultimate had
been reached.
2Did not fail under load of 24 900 lb.
3At 17 790 lb. bolt "a" sheared off.
*At 35 000 lb. cracking noise; cause not discovered. At 40 310 lb.
rivet "a" sheared off.
"Frictional resistance test, carried to slipping point only.
6 At 22 000 lb. one clip began to crack; at 24 700 lb. bolt "a" sheared
off.
In calculating the safe loads by the usual method the bearing value
for both rivets and bolts is taken at 20,000 lb. per sq. in. In calculating
by the writer's method, the bearing for bolts was taken at 18,000 lb. per sq.
in. and for rivets 21,600 lb. per sq. in., to agree with the article on beam
connections in Engineering News of May 16, 1895. In obtaining the safe

122 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
loael indicated by each test a factor of two was used with regard to the
beginning of failure, and of four with regard to complete failure.
The point at which the connections began perceptibly to rotate with
reference to the web of the beam was taken as the beginning of failure.
In Case 5 it was possible to obtain this point easily and accurately because
after the point was reached the pressure on the machine remained stationary
for a few moments. In the other cases, however, it is probable
that the results are a little high, as it is difficult to perceive by simple observation
the very slight movement which accompanies the beginning of
the crushing of the bearing surfaces.
In arranging for the tests the beams were first supported at the ends
by resting the flats connecting the outstanding legs of the connection
angles on a pair of channels. After the connection at one end of a beam
had failed, a support was placed under the beam at that end.
The load was applied midway between supports in each case, and
one-half the pressure indicated by the machine was taken as the load on
a connection. In each case the connection angles rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the web of the beam, as shown in the photograph, Fig. 17,
bringing pressures in opposite directions on the two bolts or rivets connecting
the clips to the beam. That the pressure on the bolt or rivet nearest
to the edge of the beam was much greater than on the other one was
shown by the amount the holes enlarged and by the shearing of the bolts
and rivets. The connection angles at each end of each beam also rotated
in a plane perpendicular to the web of the beam, anel in opposite directions,
as shown in the photograph, so that their tops approached each other,
producing a toggle joint action, and firmly clamped the beam. The effect
of this was to weaken the connection of the outstanding legs to the flat
and strengthen the connection to the web of the beam. The clamping
pressure developed was in some cases so great that the webs of the beams
were crushed a full 1-32 in., and a bearing thus secured at the upper edges
of the clips. The strength added to the connection to the web of the beam
by this toggle-joint action appears to have been the chief element in causing
the high ultimate strength which most of the connections developed.
It is probable that it also added considerable strength to some of the connections
before failure began. This is indicated by the fact that in Case 2,
in which the chance for toggle-joint action was greater and the bearing
surface of the rivets less than in Case 4, the point at which failure began
was higher than in Case 4. The writer's theory also neglected the partial
fixedness of the ends and the frictional resistance from the clamping effect
of the rivets and bolts. If the ends were partially fixed it would have
some indirect as well as direct effect on the strength of the connections by
modifying the toggle-joint action, but the writer's experiments have not

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 123
covered this point. The frictional resistance from the clamping power of
the rivets and bolts amounted to 2000 lb. in Case 5. In Case 4, by comparison
with Case 3, in which the nuts simply touched, it was probably
about 3000 lb., and in Case 6, by comparison with Case 1, about 2000 lb.
That the loads at which failure commenced in Cases 1 and 6, were
small as compared with the other cases, is probably due to the fact that the
bolts did not fill the holes and consequently had very little bearing at thc
start (theoretically only a line of bearing.) As the bolts would get their
full bearing before failure had progressed very far. the safe load indicated
by the tests can hardly be regarded as a fair criterion. That Case 4, in
which rivets were used to connect the clips to the beam, developed so
much greater ultimate strength than Case 3, in which turned bolts were
used, were due partly to the fact that the rivets were initially tight, while
the bolts w^ere not, partly to the fact that the rivets were steel, while the
bolts were iron, and partly to the fact that the great strength of the rivets
made them last longer and thus enableel a greater toggle action to be developed.
The most seemingly astonishing fact was that in Case 1, the ultimate
strength was much greater than in Case 3, notwithstanding the fact that in
Case I rough bolts were useel, against turned bolts in Case 3, fewer rivets
connected the outstanding legs of the clips to the flats, and the bearing
surface of the bolts was 50 per cent less. This fact is probably explained
by the greater toggle-joint action permitted by the construction in Case 1.
Mr. Christie's, Mr. Thackray's and the writer's experiments, considered
together, show conclusively that the strength of a connection cannot
always be obtained by simply multiplying the nominal strength of one rivet
(or bolt) by the number of rivets in the connection, and that the strength
of a connection depends not only on the bearing anel shearing strength of
the rivets (or bolts), but on a number of other elements. Whether or not
it is good practice to rely at all on these elements of strength is an open
question."
The speaker is decidedly of the opinion that it is best not to rely on
them, especially in view of the possibility of loose rivets. The number of
rivets in a beam connection is small at best, sometimes as low as two, and
one loose rivet may cause a large proportional loss in efficiency. It is to
be hoped that the author will have more success than the speaker had in
persuading manufacturers to reduce tbe amounts indicated in their handbooks
as the safe loads for beam connections.
A method of analysis similar to that which the author uses so well
in dealing with eccentric beam connections, indicates that even when all
the axes of the various members joined by a common connection plate,
intersect in a common point, there will be some modification of the stresses

124
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
if a line of rivets by which a member is connected is placed eccentrically;
but the greatest bending moment at any point, instead of being the product
of the eccentricity of the line of rivets and the combined longitudinal
component of all of the rivets, is the product of the eccentricity and the
longitudinal component of, usually, one rivet. A general proof of this
proposition is complicated, but it can be easily demonstrated, and the gen-
,-ZoooVl
Zoooli. ,
~
NlornenC dutjiram
eral principles can be readily illustrated by the specific case shown in
Fig. 18. Three members, each composed of two 3-in. by 1-6-in. bars, are
connected to a common plate, their center lines intersecting in a common
point C, and each making angles of 120 degrees with each of the others.
Two of these members are connected to the plate by rivets located on
their center lines which are likewise their axes. The third, a vertical
member C F, is connected by a line of three rivets with one inch eccentricity
to the right of the axis and spaced \y2 in. on centers. Conceive
three forces of 18 000 lb. each, in the direction of the members, to be
applied to them at points in their axes at their free ends. These forces,
according to the conditions of the problem, will form a balanced system!
The member C E, separately considered, is held in equilibrium by the
downward vertical force of IS 000 lb. at F, and forces applied at the
rivet points A, B and D. According to the theory outlined bv the author
m dealing with beam connections, each of the forces at A, B and D will
have an upward vertical component of 18 000 lb. ~ 3 = 6000 lb.; the
forces at A and D will have horizontal components (18 000 lb. X 1 in.)

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 125
-r- 9 in. = 2000 lb. (acting to the left at A and to the right at D), while
at B, which is the center of gravity of the group of rivets, there will beno
horizontal component.
As the force at F is applied at the axis in the direction of the axis,
and as there is no other force applied between /•' and D, there will be
no bending moment from F to D, but simply a direct tension of 18 000 lb.
or 18 000 -r- (area = 1) = 18 000 lb. per sq. in. of gross section. From
D to B, the direct tension will be 18 000 lb. — 6000 lb. = 12 000 lb., and
there will be a bending moment of 6000 in. lb. at D:
[(6000 lb. X 1 in.) -- (2000 lb. X 0 in.)]
Which gradually decreases to zero anel then increases in the opposite
direction to 3000 in. lb. at B :
[ (6000 lb. X 1 in.) — ( 2000 lb. X 4>-2 in.) ]
At B. by reason of the one inch eccentric application of an additional
upward force of 6000 lb., the moment takes a sudden shift to 3000 in. lb.
in the former direction, and then gradually changes toward A to 6000 in.
lb., in the reversed direction, but shifts to zero at A, as indicated in the
diagram in Fig. 18.
The intent of this analysis is not to contend for the absolute accuracy
of the method used in making it, but to refute the theory that thc member
with the eccentrically placed rivets will at any point be subject to a bending
moment of the entire direct force times the eccentricity. The assumption
that the vertical components of the forces from the three rivets will be
equal is not strictly accurate, the eccentric position of the holes will affect
the position of the axis, the concentration of pressure at the points of application
of the rivets will intensify stresses, and practical considerations,
such as loose rivets, may affect the actual stress distribution. In general
it is good practice to place the rivets as nearly symmetrical with regard to
the axis as possible.
In addition to the secondary stresses pointed out by the author, the
speaker calls attention to the bending stresses which floor beams produce
in the vertical posts to which they connect; the bending of floor beams and
the stresses in stringers produced by the endeavor of the floor system to
share in the chord stresses; the stresses in the end connections of floor
beams and stringers produced by the' effort of the connections to fix the
ends; the bending in stiff chords from the deflection of the trusses; and
the bending in chords and columns from imperfect butt joints.
In the design for the new Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad bridge at
Beaver, Pa., expansion joints m the stringers occur at every second or
third floor beam, to avoid secondary stresses from the endeavor of the
floor system to share in the chord stresses.
In view of the formidable array of frequently unconsidered stresses

126 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
of largely unknown amount which the margin of safety is expected to
take care of, it is well that there are some circumstances which mitigate
the penalty when the said margin is over worked and the elastic limit of
the material is, in consequence, exceeded. In many cases it is only a small
portion of the material which is overstraineel and this portion simply yields
to the force it cannot resist, and thereby either relieves the structure of
the over-stress or diverts it to other and stronger lines of resistance. The
overstrained metal usually does not break but simply becomes plastic as
regards the excess stress and recovers from this temporary fatigue with
increased ability to resist the kind of stresses which originally overstrained
it. There are other cases in which secondary stresses cannot be relieved
by overstraining and it is therefore highly desirable that engineers should
have a thorough understanding of the principles involved to aid them in
forming correct judgments.
Mr. E. W. Pittman : The method of deriving the fibre stress in the
angles, Fig. 1, due to eccentricity of rivet line to center of gravity axis has
been questioned, and attention directed to the fixity of the ends as a condition
tending to reduce this fibre stress. The equation used takes this into
consideration and is perfectly general and rigidly correct.
The general equation for fibre stress due to bending moment in fixed
end members is
-1/ v
/ =
PI'
1 +
32E
In the case of free end members M y
f = :
PI'
1 +
1 OE
In both of these equations the plus sign in the denominator is to be
used in the case of tension members and the minus sign in thc case of
compression members. The second member in the denominator takes into
account the small increment of bending moment due to the deflection of
the member, equal to direct stress multiplied by deflection. Applying these
formulae to the web members of the truss shown in Fig. 1, we obtain the
following values:
Compression, free ends, f = 17 500 lb. per si], in.
Compression, fixed ends, f = 15 300 lb. per sq in.
Tension, free ends, f = 12 300 lb. per sq. in.
Tension, fixed ends, f — 13 700 lb. per sip in.

4 / ^ D V e S T B I A L
> 4
feOC^65
Increase of Transportation Facilities Essential
A weekly market letter from Cincinnati in
regard to the iron and coke trade says:
"The coke situation, as far as demand is concerned,
has improved with the iron situation,
but there is great trouble in some of the coke
fields, owing to the shortage of labor, and also
owing to the inability of the railroads to supply
rolling stock."
This statement but confirms what the Manufacturers'
Record has been for many months
insisting would soon come about, namely, a
From Manufacturers' Record*
general shortage in the car supply of the
country. As a matter of fact, many of the
railroads are now, with the beginning of the
crop movement, short of locomotives and cars.
Some of the operating officers are already seriously
disturbed as to how to meet the situation
they see ahead. They are beginning to
realize that it will be difficult to get in orders
for ears and locomotives to be delivered in
time to meet their needs, or to be safe in securing
delivery of materials for shops and
tracks, unless orders are put in promptly. One
road has been advised by one of its operating
men to order structural steel for delivery next
year, on the ground that unless this be done at
present there will be long delays in getting it.
Xo one could intelligently study the figures
which have been from time to time presented
showing the foundation of material progress
in this country, the rapidity of our growth and
the lack of progress in railroad expansion,
without realizing that there would soon come
a period in which the consumer would be begging
for the finished product as against the
efforts which the producers have for the last
two years been making to find a market for
their goods. We have warned our readers repeatedly
in the last 12 or IS months to do all
possible construction work while labor and material
were cheap. We have urged them not to
delay until the rush was upon them, but to get
ready in advance for the rush, and thus he
prepared for the activity and prosperity which
was sure to come. Those who have followed
this advice will now he prepared to make the
profit. Those who from pessimism failed to
elo so will have to make their enlargements on
a rising market for materials with an increasing
scarcity of labor, and thus longer time in
construction work and higher cost. In the near
future we are to see just as great a scarcity of
labor as we had in 1906 and the early part of
1907, and a railroad freight congestion even
worse than the country then had to endure.
In the meantime business men, ei|iiipped with
the facilities for expanding trade, will have an
opportunity such as they have not had for the
last two years to increase the volume of their
business and their profits. The outlook is exceptionally
promising.
The need for broad expansion of our railroad
facilities is strongly presented in an address
delivered by B. F. Yoakum of the Rock
Island-Frisco system before the Farmers'
Union of Oklahoma, in which Mr. Yoakum
said:
"Railroad construction has practically been
abandoned. There is no great construction
under way and no encouragement for the near
future. This is the one disappointing sign of
the country's future growth and prosperity.
New railroad construction is just as essential
for the great development which should take
place in the next 25 years as it was in the last
25."
During the last 25 years considerably more
than 100,000 miles of railroad was built. During
the coming 25 we should very largely exceed
that. An average increase of 4000 miles
a year would not begin to measure up to the
necessities of the country. In the next 25
years we will add probably over 50,000,000 to
our population, and by reason of the increasing

128
productive power of men and the fact that
business grows with much greater rapidity
than population, the 50,000,000 or more increase
in the next quarter of a century will have a potentiality
probable' much greater than that of
the 88,000,000 of today. The 140,000,000 or
145,000,000 people who will inhabit this country
25 years hence will probably do almost twice as
much productive work as would an equal number
under present conditions. It is not alone
that population is increasing so rapidly—that
is the smallest factor. Modern methods of doing
business, improved machinery, improved
transportation by better roads, by better railroad
facilities, the wonderful growth of the
gas and gasoline engine and the influence of
the telephone and other aids to industry and
commerce will make the growth of the last
25 years seem very small as compared with
what the next 25 will show, unless, perchance,
our natural growth is halted by the inadequate
transportation facilities of the country. If conditions
are such that it cannot be made possible
to bring about a period of great railroad
expansion commensurate with the opportunities
of the day, our whole country will greatly suffer.
If the demagogue is to mislead the people
and continue the hostility between the public
and the railroads, if railroad managers are to
continue, as many of them have been in the
past, shortsighted in their grasp of the situation
and more or less indifferent to the just
complaints of the public, then both railroads
and people will have to pay the penalty.
This is looking to the future of five or ten
years hence. So far as the present is concerned,
it is easily seen that within the next
year or two tbe growth of traffic will overtax
the railroads of the land
Longest Draw Span in the
World
A new double-track railway bridge bas just
been completed by the Spokane-Portland-Seattle
Railroad Company, which spans the Willamette
River, just below the city of Portland, Oregon.
One very noteworthy feature of this new
bridge is the great length of the draw span.
This is 521 feet long, measuring from center
to center of end piers, perfectly balanced on a
great, massive eight-square pier. Engineers
claim that this drawbridge is the longest of
any bridge in the world, without exception
On each side of the draw span are two fixed
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
spans, approximately 269 feet, center to center
of piers, making four fixed spans in all. On
each end of the bridge is an 80-foot deck plate
girder approach span. The total length of
this bridge is 1,762 feet.
The entire superstructure, which is of structural
steel, rests on five huge piers, built of reinforced
concrete and faced with granite.
More than a year was required to complete
this work, and total cost of the bridge approximated
$750,000. It is the second largest
railway bridge in the w-hole northwestern territory.
This bridge stands only a few miles west
of the great bridge that spans the mighty
Columbia River, between Vancouver, Wash.,
and the Oregon shore. This latter structure
is claimed to be the largest railway bridge in
the world, being one mile and a half long, including
the approaches.
(Sometime ago I sent you photos and description
of the great Columbia River bridge,
which you used in "Industrial Magazine.")
Both of these bridges belong to the Spokane-
Portland-Seattle Railroad Company, and are
on the direct line from Spokane to Portland.
This line has just been completed, and is over
400 miles long. It is part of the Great Northern
(James J. Hill) System. The Columbia
River and Willamette bridges alone cost the
railway company nearly $3,000,000.
J. Mayne Baltimore,
San Francisco, Cal.
Byerlyte
For many years asphalt has been recognized
as a most valuable and important material for
the making of pavements, roofings, waterproofing,
black varnishes, Japans and various
other similar usages.
Heretofore natural asphalts from the West
Indies, Utah and California have been widely
used for such purposes. But experience proves
that these natural asphalts have but a short
period of usefulness—their durability is shortlived.
After a brief exposure to atmospheric
conditions, especially water, sheets of this
asphalt will disintegrate and go to pieces.
Analysis shows that this effect of atmospheric
influence is due to thc quantity of volatile
oils these asphalts contain and which are
evaporated through exposure.
Moreover, these asphalts have such a low
melting point and are of such a hard and
brittle character that they cannot be worked

alone. For practical purposes they must be
tempered with petroleum residuum in order
to make them fit for use. Petroleum residuum
also contains a considerable quantity of volatile
matter and when mixed with the asphalt
greatly increases its tendency to disintegrate.
Another great objection to the use of natural
asphalts is their lack of uniformity even
when taken from thc same mine.
With Byerlyte conditions are entirely
changed.
Byerlyte is pure asphalt, as the following
analysis will readily show. It is a product of
petroleum, and is manufactured in a number
of different grades, each differing from the
other in degree of hardness only.
ANALYSIS.
Byerlyte :
Carbon , 86.48
Hydrogen 10.33
Nitrogen 61
Oxygen 258
Sulphur aud Impurities 0.00
100.00
Trinidad :
Carbon 80 32
Hydrogen 6.30
Nitrogen 50
Oxygen 1.40
Sulphur and Impurities 11.48
100.00
Gilsonite:
Carbon 69.33
Hydrogen 10.98
Nitrogen 5.71
Oxygen 13.23
Sulphur and Impurities 75
100.00
Egyptian :
Carbon 85.29
Hydrogen 8.24
Oxygen 6.22
Nitrogen 25
Sulphur and Impurities 0.00
100.00
Byerlyte weighs 7.7 lbs. to the gallon and is
100 per cent pure bitumen.
Byerlyte is made any hardness desired. The
melting point ranges from 350° Fahrenheit for
the hardest to 130° Fahrenheit for the softest.
The process used in the manufacture of
Byerlyte is such that the product is at all
times under control, and is the only method
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 129
by which a uniform product can he made anel
the volatile ingredients entirely eliminated.
Byerlyte is the onl)' asphalt that is absolutely
uniform at all times, both as to melting
point and quality,—thc most essential factors
of any asphalt.
Byerlyte is useel for the following:
Varnishes, [mints, sheet and block asphalt
pavements, roofing and block filling, roofing
paints, ready roofing and roofing cement, pipe
dipping, waterproofing, cellars, foundations,
insulating, etc.
Byerlyte has a decided advantage in varnishes
and paints over other asphalts, as it is
the deepest black and produces a more elastic
coat, and will take a much larger amount of
thinner than other blacks, ft is used in the
same manner as other asphalt for varnishes
and paints, although it requires less linseed
oil than other blacks, and will take any amount
of rosin from equal parts or less to one part
Byerlyte to live parts rosin.
By reason of its indestructibility, Byerlyte is
especially adapted for paving. It is produced
in the actual consistency required for such
purposes and requires no admixture with any
volatile unoxidized material. It is a homogeneous
whole, unaffected by acids or alkalies.
and is impervious to atmospheric influences.
On the other hand, asphalts are not soluble
in residuum,—the mixture is merely mechanical,
and the residuum is not changed. Mureover,
residuum, the tempering material used,
is soluble in water, as is also natural asphalt,
and subject to evaporation when exposed to
the weather. Thus it is that the asphalt pavements
usually installed are subject to disintegration.
This tendency to disintegrate is
increased as the proportion of residuum is increased.
By reason of it being possible to produce
Byerlyte of any degree of hardness or softness
required, no tempering material is needed
in its use. Although possessing a high melting
point Byerlyte is far more flexible than other
asphalts. This is an exclusive feature that
cannot be secured by any other process nor
from any natural asphalt.
"Byerlyte" is worked in just the same manner
as other asphalts after they have been
tempered with residuum, and can be applied
by any roofer or asphalter.
The fact that Byerlyte is indestructible also
makes it a superior article for all roofing purposes.
Unaffected as it is by water, it will not
run in the hottest weather or crack in the
coldest.

130
Being free from any volatile oils, it will not
disintegrate by the action of the sun, anel possessing
a lighter specific gravity than coal tar
pitch it will cover one-third more pound for
pound. All natural asphalts and artificial asphalts
are of heavier specific gravity than Byerhte
anel consequently cannot cover as much.
Byerlyte costs no more than disintegrating
natural or artificial asphalts, it is durable and
permanent, anel it produces far more satisfactory
results.
The Lakes-to-Gulf Report
The advocates of the lake-to-gulf ship channel
have found an unexpected adversary in the
government board which has just completed
an examination. Instead of endorsing this ambitious
project tbe engineers condemn it as
both impracticable and undesirable. This report
will doubtless cause consternation in Chicago,
St. Louis and New Orleans, the city
which would have been most directly benefited
by the fourteen-foot waterway.
ft would be an error to believe that this
adverse report by government engineers upon
one of the chief items in the program of internal
waterway improvements means an
official condemnation of the whole project of
waterway improvement. The fourteen-foot
channel from Chicago to the gulf is decreed
impracticable : a channel of smaller capacity is
to be reported on later.
This Chicago-to-tbe-gulf project entirely
aside, tbe general proposal to improve the nation's
important streams, canalizing and connecting
them where conditions warrant the
expense, will not be denied. The fact remains
that the United States, endowed with the finest
system of rivets in tbe world, utilizes them
less than almost any other country calling itself
civilized, ft is true that the railroads have
for the time being displaced the rivers as highways
of commercial intercourse, but this condition
is temporary. The railroads cannot
now, there is reason to believe they cannot in
the future, care for the freight business of the
country. Even if the roads could, with an expenditure
for improvements that no one now
thinks they will be able or willing to make.
meet the commercial requirements of the future,
river transportation is naturally the
cheaper service and always tends to keep rates
equitable.
The movement for a more general improvement
and use of rivers is certain to prosper,
because it is backed by essential justice. It
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
will win because it deserves to win. An adverse
report on this or that particular project
will have no appreciable effect on tbe movement
as a whole.
Bridge May Cost More
If New Bide ate Asked Expense
will be * 100.000
The superstructure of the Denison-Harvard
bridge may cost tbe county $100,000 more than
it would have a few months ago. Unless the
McClintic-Marshall Company, awarded the
contract by a Supreme Court decision, cares to
go ahead with the work, there may be a long
delay. If new bids are necessary the increase
in the cost of material will bring the cost of
construction 20 per cent higher than originally
contemplated.
Attorneys for the McClintic-Marshall Company
said that the company would carry out
the contract, now that it had been taken away
from the King Company. The former company
claimed that their bid was the lowest,
and sued the commissioners. The check for
$5,000 given hy the McClintic-Marshall Company
at thc time the bids were made, was returned
when the contract was awarded to the
other company.
At the meeting of the county commissioners
yesterday the court's mandatory order was received.
A resolution was adopted granting the
contract for the work to the McClintic-Marshall
Company.
County Surveyor Lea is anxious that the
work be begun as soon as tbe bridge foundations
are ready for the steel.
Wood Waste Decreasing
The waste wood heap continues to diminish
and pass away.
A Massachusetts manufacturer of brushes
recently made a discovery in Maine which supplied
him with material exactly suited to his
purpose. He went to the Pine Tree State to
buy wood for the backs of hair brushes and
the handles of shaving brushes, and chanced to
visit the yards of a spool maker who was using
white birch. The spool man took the wdiite
part of the wood only, and was throwing away
the red hearts. Thousands of cords had been
burned or dumped in the lake to be rid of it.
The red hearts were exactly what the brush
maker wanted, and at little more than the expense
of freight he supplied his factory.

This is typical of the trend of manufacturing.
Waste of wood is still great, but it is
decreasing. What one factory can not use,
another turns to profit. Formerly mills threw
awav half the forest—tops left in the woods,
sawdust clumped in streams to pollute them
and destroy fish, slabs burned in perpetual bonfires,
and defective logs and low grade lumber
abaneV"ied as not worth moving.
This policy does not generally prevail now.
Some mills have put in machinery to work up
their own by-products, others sell their waste
to manufacturers who can use it, as in the
case cited in Maine. The properties and uses
of woods are now subjects of careful investigation,
and the problem of turning to account
the odds and ends and the by-products is
brought more to the front now than formerly.
The United States Forest Service has taken
up this study in a comprehensive and systematic
way. Investigations of the woods of particular
states are being conducted, usually in
co-operation with the states concerned. The
plan, when fully carried out, will include every
commercial wood in the United States, not
fewer than 200 species. The properties of each
will be investigated, its hardness, toughness,
elasticity, durability, weight, fuel value, size of
tree, regions where grown, the common names
by which it is known in different localities, and
other matters of this kind. A history of the
wood's uses in the past will be given, and an
account of present uses, together with suggestions
for a wider range of usefulness in the
future by pointing out in what capacities it
will serve best and be most valuable.
A double-track, high-speed electric railroad
is to be built across the state of Missouri from
St. Louis to Kansas City.
It is the intention of the promoters of the
road to have the line as straight as possible
from one city to another. Not a curve will be
permitted that can possibly be avoided. It will
be an almost gradeless road, for on 80 per cent
of the line the grade will be 1-10 of 1 per cent,
and less than 1 per cent on the remainder.
Making the road gradeless and curveless will
add greatly to the cost of construction, but the
promoters think it can be done for $5,000 a
mile.
The road will be 250 miles long, which is 26
miles shorter than the shortest steam road connecting
the cities. The multiple-phase system
will be employed and the greatest speed practicable
will be attained.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 131
A $15,000,000 corporation has been formed to
build the road.
English cablegrams say that American iron
and steel manufacturers have placed large orders
for the immediate shipment of fire claybricks
for the erection of many additional blast
furnaces. Most of these orders have been
placed with Scottish makers, with instructions
that the material is to be delivered in the
United States as quickly as possible.
In England these orders are accepted as an
additional indication that tbe iron and steel
trades here are booming.
Work has been started on the development
of the Isabella Coke Company's $7,000,000 tract
in the Connellsville district. The main line of
the Monongaliela division of the Pennsylvania
road will be changed to take in the plants
which will have a capacity of 2,500,000 tons of
high grade coke yearly. There will be 1,600
ovens erected at once and the capacity of the
plant will he extended gradually.
Because the pipe mills are too rushed with
orders to accept new business for immediate
delivery, the Union Petroleum Company of
Buffalo has purchased 80 miles from the National
Supply Company of Pittsburg. This pipe
was made about 20 years ago, and was laid in
the Fort Wayne field of Indiana 18 years ago.
The pipe, however, is in prime condition. Tbe
pipe will be laid from the Chatham gas field in
Ontario to Sarnia, Out.
Four mills at the Elwood plant of the
American Sheet & Tinplate Co., against which
the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel
and Tin Workers are on strike, resumed operation.
About 150 men are working in the place
of 700 who struck here.
Bridge Contract Let
The board of public safety of Cleveland let
contracts Monday for the construction of a
bridge over the Nickel Plate tracks at Cornell
road. L. W. Mackenzie will build the substructure,
to cost $14,661, and the Cowing
Engineering Co. the superstructure, costing
$3,790.
A franchise has been granted to Hendersonville,
N C, Light & Power Co. for a street
car line.

132
Comment
Our attention has been called to an expression
as follows: "The crushed slag which is
being used as aggregate and which shows in
the foreground, etc., etc."
Also the following: "Washer for concrete
aggregates."
We think that some better term or word can
be used in place of the word aggregate, which
writers are using to mean the larger substances
that are put into concrete with sand and cement.
The word aggregate signifies a whole collection
and also a summation or it could be applied
for the word concrete as the latter is an
aggregate of several substances. It is hard to
find the word aggregate used as a noun, for
the Standard Dictionary shows it as an adverb,
as an adjective or intransitive verb. It is used
in the ordinary language to mean an assemblage,
mass or collection of quantities of the
same thing or different things brought together,
and in this sense might be concluded to
be a noun, in that the broken stone is a collection
of quantities of the same thing.
This also reminds us of the use of the word
"obtain," which we bave often seen in print in
a somewhat similar manner. For instance, it
is often seen in sentences like the following:
"Some conditions may obtain in this as in
southern states."
When we think that the ordinary obtain
means to secure something, we cannot perceive
from the above what the conditions in
both cases are to secure. Here a different word
should be used, such as prevail, exist.
Let us be more careful with our English and
if necessary coin a word for a new condition
of affairs rather than use a word that is con­
fusing, which is evidently so to those of the
foreign population coming into our country
and endeavoring to pick up the peculiarities of
our language.
Industrial News
The Modern Machinery, which was published
for a number of years in Chicago, 111.,
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
has been purchased by the Mackenzie-Klink
Publishing Co.
They will conduct the affairs of this publication
from their offices, 960 Manadnock bldg.
Some time ago this periodical was turned
into a popular magazine, but it is the intention
of its present owners to restore it to its legitimate
place as a progressive machinery journal.
For the purpose of forming an organization
of wider scope and greater strength, the Manufacturers'
Publicity Corporation has been organized
with Benjamin R. Western, president:
Walter Mueller, vice-president and general
manager; W. H. Denney, treasurer; and W.
Hull Western, secretary. The offices of this
corporation are located at the Hudson Terminal
bldg., 30 Church St., N. Y.
The Messrs. Western are of the Manufacturers'
Advertising Bureau and the others of
the Banning Co.
The contract for the construction of a Hydro
electric development across Paulin's Kill, Columbia,
N. J., for the Warren County Power
Co., Meikleham & Dinsmore, engineers, has
been awarded to Frank B. Gilbreth, Xo. 60
Broadway, X\ Y.
This contract includes the construction of a
Ransom hollow dam, 30 ft. high and 350 ft.
long, as designed by Ransom & Headley, of
Providence, R. I., a reinforced concrete power
house and tailrace, etc.
The contract for building 1,000 ft. of reinforced
concrete docks for the Deering works
of the International Harvester Co. of Chicago,
has been awarded to the Raymond Concrete
Pile Co. of N. V. and Chicago. The docks are
located along the north branch of the Chicago
river.
The Raymond Concrete Pile Co. of N. Y.
and Chicago secured the contract for placing
about 700 Raymond concrete piles in the foundations
of the new high school building on
North Washington st., Wilkes Barre, Pa.
Owen McGlynn is the architect of the building,
and the Sax & Abbot Construction Co., Philadelphia,
Pa., the general contractors.
gv5s*a

Engineering and Practical Articles
Quicksand a Big Problem
Quicksand no longer has its terrors for
modern building contractors, as w-as evidenced
in the construction of the new $1,000,000 structure
for A. A. Pope on Euclid Avenue. Steel
and concrete have overcome every obstacle.
From an engineering standpoint nothing of the
kind had ever been attempted in this city before,
and the success which attended it leads
contractors generally to defy treacherous foundations
which have perplexed them these many
years.
So solid and massive is the foundation of
the new skyscraper, say engineers, that if it
were lifted out of the hole by some giant hand
the foundation would come with it intact. Nor
could it he separated without gigantic labor,
for it is tied and laced together in a concrete
mass which would defy even dynamite to tear
to pieces.
The foundation is the deepest ever attempted
in Cleveland. From the curb line to the bottom
it is forty-two feet. There is a basement,
to be used for mercantile purposes, to be on a
level with a future subway, and a sub-basement
which will contain machinery. As the sewer
is only eleven feet underground, water which
collects in the sub-basement must be elevated
a number of feet to be drained off. Water is
allowed to enter freely at a number of places.
as it is believed that the waterproofing would
be injured if any attempt were made to exclude
it.
HOW THE WORK WAS DONE.
The excavation made for the basement was
about 165 feet long, with frontages on Euclid
Avenue and Huron Road of 100 feet each. The
buildings previously located on the site did not
have basements, so excavating was begun practically
at the curb line, being carried down
twelve feet through dry sand with sloping
sides. Then 600 pieces of 35-pound steel sheet
piles 35 feet in length were driven in the form
of a great cofferdam about the site. Tw»
large steam hammers were useel for this driving,
except where a house set almost on the
west line and a drop hammer was utilized.
The piles were driven down to the solid clay
and bedded two feet into it to make a watertight
connection. The entire space above this
clay was filled with quicksand, which ran like
water at times, and was extremely hard to
control, for it persisted in leaking in.
The jaws of each steel sheet pile were fitted
with a soft pine spline for their entire length,
pieces being wedged into place every few feet
as the piles were driven. Joints were thus made
almost watertight, though a few leaks were
discovered from time to time. About a dozen
piles were driven every day, tin,ugh on one
occasion a record of about twice that number
was made. When the drop hammer was used
only four piles a day were driven. Unusual
care was exercised in preserving the alignment.
When the piles came to a point where they
closed together no effort was made to seal
them, but they were overlapped for a few feet
and this was found sufficient.
Small wooden pneumatic caissons were used
in a number of places alongside interior and
exterior surfaces of the piles to reduce leakage.
This was el,me by cleaning the surface
expose,', and depositing concrete about it.
FOUNDATION FLOATS ON SAND.
The foundation literally floats mi a bed of
quicksand, which was not disturbed to anyperceptible
degree. A number of feet of this
quicksand rest upon the clay stratum, the bottom
of the floor of the big basement being
waterproofed by a six-inch layer of concrete
covered with the usual tar and felt waterproofing
flashed upon all sides of the vertical
walls. On top of this was placed a sixteeninch
layer of concrete, and on this were located
the grillages useel for the foundation
pro] er
Forty thousand cubic yards ,,f concrete were
used in the basement alone, tbe work to the
curb being estimated to cost $200,000 About
1,600 tons of steel were used in the basement,
while 1,800 tons were used in the superstructure,
all of which is heavily fireproofed with
concrete according tu the requirements of the
city's building code.
The new building is 210 feet aboee the street
line and forty feet below it. The two street
facades are of white glazed terra cotta with
iron spot markings
Telling Oil by its Color
Few motorists can tell the difference between
automobile cylinder oils. Given a dozen
samples of this form of lubricant the average
automobilist would not be able to select with

134 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
any degree of assurance tbe one which would
serve for the cylinders of his automobile.
There is a simple, quick method, however,
of determining at sight the relative value of
oils for automobile cylinder lubrication. Inasmuch
as chemical tests cannot be made outside
of a laboratory all reference to an oil's
viscosity, fire test, specific gravity or any other
of its physical qualities are usually meaningless
to the motorist.
Compelled to use some kind of an oil, but
knowing nothing about it himself, he must
either take what is offered to him by some
supply dealer, whose opinions may he qualified
by the fact that he makes a profit out of what
he sells, or if not that way the motorist must
buy at random one of the oils he has seen advertised,
and between these it is difficult to
choose, as they are all claimed to be the "best."
It is opportune how to put the matter of
automobile lubricating oils in a common sense
light and to tell bow and why the color of an
oil—something everyone can see—indicates its
value for motor lubrication.
The primary object of lubrication is to prevent
or lessen friction. Between tbe cylinder
walls and piston rings of a gas engine there is
friction. Oil is injected to lessen this friction.
The hot gas in the cylinder burns up the oil.
When tins oil is burned up it deposits a residue
of carbon. This carbon deposit is harmful
anel is responsible for an endless variety of
engine troubles.
In producing an oil for motor lubrication,
therefore, it is necessary that it shall be as freeas
possible from the impurities which cause It
to deposit carbon. There is only one known
process of removing these impurities from
mineral oils, and that is the process of filtration.
The more an oil is filtered the less impurities
it contains, the less carbon it will deposit, and
the lighter and clearer it becomes in color.
The color, then, in indicating the extent to
which the impurities of "free carbon" have
been removed from an oil, also indicates its
relative value for use in the cylinders of auto­
mobiles.
Black oils, such as steam cylinder oil. showing
no filtration whatever, would if used in a
gas engine so befoul the cylinders with carbon
residue- as to speedily ruin them. Red or ruby
colored oils, such as are in general use at
present, are better than the black oils, but not
so good in turn as tbe pale or amber colored
oils, the latter showing more filtration than the
ruby.
White oils that have been completely filtered
show almost no carbon deposit whatever.
Kerosene is filtered to a pure white color because
of the amount of char or carbon it would
otherwise deposit on the wick. Inferior kerosene,
which is yellowish in color, encrusts the
wick very much more than white kerosene.
It is true that too much oil is better than
no oil at all, but do not flood your cylinders
with oil. Use enough oil certainly, but do not
let your engine smoke, for smoke is a signal
that you are getting too much. On other parts
of your car—the wheels, bearings, transmissions,
etc.—use all the oil and grease you want
to.—From Motoring on Land and Water.
Sawing Wood With Paper
Centrifugal force is the active agent in some
interesting phenomena, such as keeping a bicycle
upright, causing a top to return to a certain
position after being disturbed, and giving
to a soft iron disc the rotatory tension that
enables it to cut through heavy armor plate.
A disc of cardboard revolved rapidly in a lathe
behaves like sheet metal. A report of Genuaexperiments
states that the cardboard can no
longer be bent, and if struck with a hammer
it emits a sound like that from bronze. Even
paper acquires quite unusual properties. An
eight-inch disc of good paper, perfectly circular,
was placed on tbe shaft of an electric
motor, and when rotated at the motor's highest
speed it easily sawed through cigar box
wood. Centrifugal force may give many other
curious effects. For example, a small chain
may be fitted as a closed ring on a rotating
drum in such a way that it can be slipped off
when the drum reaches its highest speed, and
the chain will then roll on a table like a solid
ring and bounce up like a hoop on striking the
ground.
Triangle of Forces
Triangle of forces, in mechanics, is the name
given to a proposition which is merely a formal
modification of the Parallelogram of Forces
(q. v.), and as generally stated, is its converse.
The parallelogram of forces enunciates that, if
two forces, P and Q (fig.) represented in direction
aud magnitude by AB and AC—inclined
at an angle to each other, act on a point
A, their resultant, R, is represented in direction
and magnitude by the diagonal, AD, of
the parallelogram formed on the two lines AB

and AC. Now, as the resultant, R, is equivalent
to the combined action of P and Q, it
would exactly counterbalance them if acting
in the opposite direction AR', but would still
be fully represented by the diagonal line AD,
taken as from D to A. Also, instead of AB,
CD may be taken to represent P. Hence as the
sides of the triangle ACD completely represent
the three forces, we have the proposition, that
if three forces in the same plane be in equilibrium
on a particle, and if in that plane any
three mutually intersecting lines be drawn parallel
to the directions of the forces, the lengths
of the sides of the triangle thus formed will be
proportional to the magnitudes of the forces.
Its proof rests upon the previously ascertained
fact, that R', P and Q, three equilibriating
forces at A, are proportional to AD, CD, AC,
and on the geometrical theorem, that a triangle
whose sides are respectively parallel to those
of another triangle, has its sides proportional
to those of the latter; P, and Q, are fully represented
by ad, cd, and ac, the sides of the
triangle aeel. .Again, as the sides of a triangle
are to one another as the sides of the opposite
angles, so also are the forces which the
sides represent. Hence
P : Q : R' • : CD : AC : AD
: : sin.CAD : sin.ADC: sin.ACD
(and substituting the sines of the supplementary
and singles)
: sin.QAR' : sin.PAR' : sin.PAQ ;
that is, each force is proportional to the sine
of the angle between the directions of the other
two.
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 135
Treve'lyan Experiment
Treve'lyan experiments (so-called from the
person who first carefully studied the phenomenon).
When a block of iron or copper is considerably
heated, and laid on a block of cold
lead, a sound of some intensity, and more or
less musical, is often heard. Trevelyan, after
many trials, adopted for the "rocker," as it is
called, a form somewhat resembling a fireshovel,
with a thickish block of metal instead
of the blade. This is poised delicately on the
lead block, so as to bear with nearly equal
pressure on two points separated by a groove ;
and the rounded end of the handle is also sup-
AVB
ported. The annexed fig. shows a section of
the head of the rocker and of the lead block.
The rocker being heated, supposed it poised so
as to touch the lead at A only. It heats the
lead at A, and therefore suddenly expands it
near that point, since lead is a bad conductor
of heat. Thus, the lead, as it were, swells up
at A, and tilts the rocker over to B. There
the same process takes place, and so on ; and
as the rocker thus moves alternately from A to
B, the successive impacts, occurring at nearly
equal intervals, form a musical sound. This
can be altered at pleasure by loading the rocker,
or by altering its moment of inertia. By
proper care, almost any conducting body- may
be made thus to rock upon another, though, in
the majority of combinations, the effect is very
slight. The explanation of the phenomenon, as
given above, is due to Faraday.
Some Inventions
Chargem Lofts, the well-known iceman, has
perfected his ice box and refrigerator on which
he has been working for several years. The
invention is not only ingenious, but remarkable
in its way. Beneath the ice chamber is placed
a flat firebox, which has a smokestack running
up the hack of the refrigerator, fn the fire
box may be burned coal or wood, or if desired
a gas burner may be connected. Mr. Lotts
figures that by its use a hundred-pound cake
of ice may be melted in two hours.

136 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Mr. Whizzan Bumpp, the renowned auto
manufacturer, has completed his new phonograph
attachment for his 1907 model. The
phonograph is concealed in the body of the
machine, and is so regulated that whenever a
breakdown occurs it will begin by saying
"Isn't this aggravating?" and will then go right
along from "Can't you find out what is
wrong?" to "Will we ever get home?" A concealed
sw-itch, known only to the chauffeur,
makes it possible to turn on a cylinder of sotto
voce profanity.
A. Strapp Hanger announces that he has devised
a means of insuring comfort for those
who have to ride on crowded trolleys. The
invention consists of two full-size dummies,
made of rubber, which are to be inflated and
carried by the passenger. On boarding the
car he will place one dummy in front and the
other behind him, hooking them to the straps.
N. O. Buddy has applied for a patent on his
"Model After-Dinner Speech." His claims for
this speech are that it does not begin with
"When the toastmaster advised me that I was
to speak upon this topic I was filled with
trepidations," nor does it contain the phrases,
"With so many brilliant speakers on the list,"
"In my own weak way," "1 am reminded of
the story," or "Thanking you kindly."
Recent Inventions
A patent (No. 927,934) has been granted Albert
Bode and Karl Bottcher, Benrath, Ger-
>,
many, for the improvement in floating cranes
in which with beams movable in a vertical
plane it is well known to connect the weight in
such a manner that the weight tends to pull
the beam up, whereby the winding up device is
relieved to a certain extent.
The object of the present invention is to simultaneously
use these balancing counterweights
on floating cranes with jibs or beams to relieve
the winding-up device, which serves for
pulling up the beam on the floating cranes.
In the illustration the crane is set upon a
pontoon with the rotary column structure b
carrying a lifting member in the form of jib c,
the latter swinging in a vertical direction. The
drawing up of the beam c is effected by means
of the screw-spindle d which passes through a
swinging screw-nut c mounted at the edge opposite
to the turning axis of the beam. The
screw-spindle is rotated by means of a pair of
bevel-wheels g h, the wheel g being arranged
at the lower end of the screw spindle d and
the wheel h on the upper rear edge of the
column b.
An improvement in dredging machines has
recently been invented by J. W. Singleton, Columbus,
Ga. (No. 927,690).
This invention applies more to the suction
type, the object being to construct a head or
bucket that can be operated in either direction,
cross-wise or at an angle to the horizontal axis
of the float on which the mechanism is supported.
Further it is desired to construct a dredger
head that will operate to loosen the material
to be raised so as to prepare it to be withdrawn
from the head by the action of a suction pump.
It is also desired to prevent the entrance of
large objects into the body of the head and
also provide means for the admission of water
to prevent clogging.
Charles C. Jacobs of Chicago, 111., has recently
been granted a patent (No. 926,746), on
a multiple excavator and the rights for same
bave been assigned to F. C. Ostin Drayage &
Excavator Co.
This is similar in some ways to former patent
and in this case the general character of the
machine is as shown in the illustration, in
which sprocket chains travel around five pairs
of wheels and in such a fashion that the dirt
is carried up from the trench and leaves the
slope and bottom of both sides in the same
condition.

L
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 23
D E R I C K & B A S C O M R O P E CO.
•i i-hs^e WARREN ST. N.Y. \ ST. LOU IS, M 0.
WIRE ROPE VND AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway
in Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR.
This is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during
1907.
Asl^ for Catalog No 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
F O R HOISTING
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either with
or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200 PER CENT GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Macomber & Whyte
Your inquiries are solicited.
R o p e C o m p a n y
QUAiLITY
MANUFACTURERS
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO.
Mills, Coal City, 111.
York
New
Boston Pittsburg New Orleans Portland
J

24
The buckets going to the right being slightly
ahead of those in the left, so that this machine
travels along the edge.
D. T. Timberlake, Baileyville, Kans., has
patented (No. 927,085) an improvement in
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
%MmsmM;
Improved Dre-elge by J. W. Sinidetou
*7. W
llPS!!!?
traction engines and the object being to provide
means of distributing and equalizing the
weight of all four wheels on both trucks. Also
to equalize the power of the wheels and make
it uniform to all four wheels whether the machine
is on level or sloping ground.
J%-i-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARKi
Automatic Rotary Planer Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated)

26
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
A portable derrick has been invented by C. nected to and on some conveyance like a trac-
H. Roberts, Evansville, Ind. (Xo. 927,680). tion engine. It can be easily seen that the ap-
The invention has for its object the provis- plication of a derrick in this one would be very
ion of a derrick and operating machinery con- serviceable in a great many places
iz, "She
jz&yL
Portable Derrick- by C. H. Roberts

VOL. X. OCTOBER, 1909 No 3
IP EC IS
Construction of Cofferdams
THE proper meaning of a cofferdam is a water-tight enclosure.
Its construction depends em the depth it is to be carried, the depth
of the water and soil, and character of the soil. The depth that
a cofferdam is to be carried down is, in most cases, defined. Where it is
necessary to put in deep foundations, especially where there are ten or
twelve feet of water, considerable good judgment is ree[uireel. Unless
you drive the staves far in advance of the excavations, the water is very
apt to break under them during the process of driving. If the soil is
clay, you will experience very little trouble. If sand and gravel, the
water is very apt to force its way tinder the staves.
The size of a cofferdam clearance around the pier or abutment seems
to vary considerably. It should be made as small as possible—the smaller
the dam the less water it will hold, and that means less tax on your pumps.
Six feet is needed in one end for a centrifugal pump. A two-foot clearance
on the inside of the wale timbers is plenty.
These dimensions and the depth determined—if cofferdam is to be
constructed in water,—next in order is to drive four piles, if nothing else
to anchor to is provided, just inside of the frame at each corner. The
wale timber frames are then put in. If staves are of the Wakefield pattern,
three-ply 3 by 12, frames from four to five feet apart are made of
12 by 12. The struts should be of the same size and nut to exceed six
feet apart. It is verv necessary to have three of the frames set up; if
in water, the frames should be settled so the lower one rests on the river
bottom. Care must be taken to keep the frame level.
The driving of the staves is the next thing in order. As set up,
they should all be driven some two or three feet, just em nigh to hold them
until all are set. This done, one should follow around and drive them

138 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
down two "i" three feel farther. The advantage gained by setting up all
the- staves as indicated is to keep them from spreading. If staves are
very long, it may be necessary to bolt one t
t
f
*a
J»*
>Z * >1 ,
— fc' - —<
LUX it>**i •-
*
^ Oj
\
,
SecCiot «/ Wax, 5cef;on of end elcv*t.«*
Cofferdam Ccnstruction I tl.Hivtr Bridge
Toledo, fhori a and ii/cstern. flu Scaief'-/"
Office master Bridfes axdBu.iLdin.js
4'«*.
•5
a
5

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 139
one down, as fast as the excavations permit, until lhe regulation distan„
ce
has been reached. If these precautions are not taken, the staves are sure
to crowd in, thereby reducing the free space that has been allowed between
the curb and the masonry.
The method of driving staves has not been touched upon as yet.
For such staves as have been referred to in this subject, three-ply 3 by
12,—either a steam hammer or a common one such as is mostly useel,
weighing 2,500 to 2,800 pounds on a five to eight foot stroke—such as
are used in a common land or unmounted driver, can be- made to serve
the purpose. The one found must practical has a short set of leads.
say not over Id to 20 feet long, swung on the end of the derrick boom
with a hammer weighing not to exceed 1,400 pounds. (See half-tone
picture. Fig. 65. showing the leads swung and ready for operation. ) The
advantage of a driver of this kind over the other two is, it is more simple
and i.s easier to handle when driving. Hammer can be kept directly over
the head of the stave that is being driven and. when through driving,
laid down out of the way. When needed it is very quickly picked up
and put in operation. One man is all that is needed to hold the lower
end of the leads in place.
Thus far this report refers to cofferdams of rather heavy construction.
When knowledge is at hand of this class, it is a very easy matter
to master the smaller ones. In the appendix to this report some valuable
information is given in regarel to the smaller cofferdam construction.
Before concluding this report we wish to make reference to some
cofferdam work that has been carried on for the Toledo, Peoria & Western
Railway Company at Teoria. Illinois, in renewing three piers under their
Illinois River bridge. Tbis work was commenced in October, 1905, anel
completed December, 1007 During this time there was about eleven
months' delay, owing lo high water and severely cold weather. In order
to make this work plain to j-ou, cuts have been made of it. In producing
them there is some work shown that is not in line with the subject of
this report, as the plans were made not only to show the cofferdam work
but the manner of carrying the bridge and traffic during the renewal of
these three piers. It was thought best to produce the entire plan in hopes
that it may be of interest to our members. The cuts show two sets of
the frames of the cofferdams, excepting the bracing that was bolted on
as each frame was added in order to keep the struts from buckling. Near
the bottom of the two last dams the frames were put in three feet apart
and some of the struts reinforced. It was found necessary to do this on
account of the increased pressure caused by extreme high water (being
at times 15 feet deep, or a total of 26 feet from surface of water to the
bottom of the dams). You will note that there were no rods used in
connection with these frames. The cut shows, too, the kind of staves

140
K

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 141
the leads on the end of the derrick boom, using a 1,300-pound hammer.
A water jet of 150 pounds pressure with a lX-inch nozzle is provided.
The nozzle was kept as near as possible to the point of the staves. We
did the jetting all from one side—the inside of the clams. We were
obliged to do this on account of the stone that lay too near the outside
of the dams to do otherwise. This practice should not be followed. As
the jet loosened the dirt, naturally the point of the stave would follow the
jet and loose earth, and when the excavations were made it was found
that the bottom of the dam was somewhat smaller than the top, in some
cases as much as 12 inches. One would naturally think, inasmuch as the
staves would draw in 12 inches at the bottom, they would show an inclination
to lean out at the top. This was not the case. The corner stave
in every case went down straight; the next one to it would twist slightly
inward; this would give the next one a start, and as the center was
reached they would, in most cases, draw in from 8 to 12 inches. With
but one exception we jetted and drove the staves from 10 to 12 feet in
advance of the excavations. In fact, we aimed to drive them clear down
before making any excavations whatever.
You will notice in the cuts (see Nos. 6, 7, and 8), limestone rip rap;
this was of all shapes that you can imagine. In sizes stone ran from 75
to 150 pounds. In some places it lay five feet deep. You will notice
two cofferdams. The outer one was put in first with a view of getting
outside of as much of the stone as possible. The dam was put in very
carefully, and when completed two centrifugal pumps, one 10-inch, one
6-inch and one 5-inch steam pumps were started, and the water could be
lowered only 10 inches. The stone that most all of the lower ends of
the staves rested on formed an opening for the water. The next move
was to put in 25 carloads of clay, grading it over the entire enclosure
as best we could. Then the inner dam was put in, making it just as small
as was possible to work with. The staves in this were made of 2 by 12
by 16 feet S. 1. S. of the Wakefield design. The staves were all driven
as far as was possible on account of the stone. The pumps were again
started and at the same time the jet was put to work jetting the clay that
lay between the two dams down in the voids of the stone. This method
proved partially successful so far as keeping out the water was concerned.
When we commenced taking out the stone that lay on the inside of the
inner dam and tinder the staves of the same, trouble commenced. Every
stone that was pulled from under the staves brought with it a great leak
until we would drive the stave down as far as it could be for the next
stone. Driving the staves onto the stone, that lay in every shape and
angle, was proving very disastrous to their points. As a last and final
method we employed a diver. As fast as he would clear the stone from
under the staves they were driven to final depth.

142 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
If any reliable record bad been al band as to the character of the
foundation on which the old pier set, we could anel would have proceeded
very differently. We knew it did not extend—as tbe new ones do—to
solid stone, but we did not know whether it set on piling or simply the
river bed. It was found to rest on bed of river on a timber grillage. Had
we dredged the rip rap stone that lay around this pier out of the way for
the cofferdam, we undoubtedly would have turned the old pier over.
as in some places this stone lay below the bottom of the old pier.

f&4_«_iy;
. m .opiate, txa'-i"—
. . . .,
7
iJVo_f«
Hf'IB'.
THE l\DCS't RIAL MAGAZINE.
©
X J
Tic- ^T/
IP^«6-V«_,/-
-*• Sftrrup HanQet-~iir

Reinforced Concrete Culverts
TYPES of culverts under consideration are shown on accompanying
illustrations under sketches 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Fig. 1. Sketch 1
shows a reinforced flat top culvert, with side walls and foundations
of plain concrete. Sketch 2 shows culverts with flat tops, side walls
and foundations of reinforced concrete. Sketch 3 shows a reinforced
concrete semi-circular arch. Sketch 4 shows a reinforced concrete three
centered arch. Sketches are also presented, Fig. 26, showing a general
method for forms for flat top and arch culverts. As examples of this
kind of construction, illustrations are given to show reinforced concrete
culverts of these four types with a clear span of 8 feet and a clear height
of approximately 6 feet, Figs. 29-35. In order to emphasize tbe necessity
for proper reinforcing at joints large detailed sketches are shown of the
bar reinforcement at such places. (See Fig. 27.)
As all these types of culverts have been proven efficient and economical
for railroad structures, the question to determine is, which type is
the cheapest. To illustrate this there is shown a table (No. 12), giving
quantities of material and costs per lineal foot for various sizes of culverts
of these four types, and in order to show these costs at a glance,
curves are given, showing the cost per lineal foot of the various types
of culverts for different areas of waterway.
The tabulated costs for the steel, concrete and forms presented in
these tables are based upon the following unit prices :
4 cents per pound for reinforcing steel.
6X cents per foot B. M. lumber for arch centers and lagging.
4X cents per foot B. M. lumber for all other form work.
(Above prices include cost of material and labor on same.)
$5.00 per cubic yard of concrete for plain footings, bench-walls and
abutments.
$6.50 per cubic yard for covers and reinforced and solid footings.
$8.00 per cubic yard for thin side walls anil arch rings.
('Above prices for concrete include cost of material, labor of placing,
excavation, etc.)
These prices are only relative, and will vary with numerous circumstances.
The reader will probably have figures to suggest more nearlv
in line with conditions as he finds them. But the quantities are all given
and new costs can be worked out for any other prices that may be chosen.
Different prices per cubic yard of concrete are given to different parts of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 145
the section, in order that the final comparison of cost will take into
account the constructive difficulties which make certain classes of work
more expensive than others. Of course it would be impossible to say
just what part of the total cost could be charged up for any one part
of the structure, because most items of expense are charged to the
completed job. It is obvious, however, that the concrete in thin walls,
or where there is considerable reinforcement to interfere, will cost more
to place than concrete in large masses.
The price per pounel of steel is high enough to include the cost of
cutting, bending and placing.
The prices for forms are based on a first cost of 2l/2 cents for
material, which will be used twice, making the actual cost IX cents per
foot B. M. for one job. Labor is figured at 3X cents per foot B. M.
for ordinary work, and 5y cents per foot B. AI. for arch centers.
£Z_Zf
TYPE -A- BOX CULVERT
SKETCH -I-
cx
TYPE 3 BOX CULVERT
SKETCH-? -
TYPE "C ARCHCl/LVE8T.(3EMI-CIRCULA&) TYPE'D'ARCH CULVERT (3CENTERED)
SKETCH-3- SKETCH -f
-Types of Box and Arch Culverts
FORMS FOR ARCH CULVERT FORMS FOR 80/ CULVERT
Fig.

146 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
w
n
CORNEP TYPE "A" SECTION.
SKETCH-5-
tu
FOOT/NO TYPE "A" SECTION.
SKETCH- 6-
ii
CORNER TYPE'B" SECTION. FOOTING TYPE "B" SECTION
SKETCH-7- SKETCH-8-
— Method ol Eeinforcing Corners in Culvert Construction.
-Curves of Cost per Lineal Foot for Culverts of Various
Types and for Different Waterway Areas.
Fia. 2-3

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 147
The figures in the table show that type "I!" culverts are the cheapest,
that type "A" culverts have the highest cost and that the arch culverts
come in between. The average saving of type "1!" over type " \" is
about I6r/, . The saving of semi-circular arches, type "C" over type " \,"
is 13(/; for high fill and V, for low fill. The saving of arches "D" for
the low fill averages 2% The reinforced type "B" box culverts are 5%
cheaper than the type "C" arches under the high fill and S'/i under the
low fill, and 9% cheaper than type "D" under the low fill. The semicircular
type "C" arches are 3'/, cheaper than the three centered arches.
type "D." The double 10 feet x 10 feet culverts show a saving over
the single 20 feet x 20 feet culverts of 12% for type ' A," and 22%
for type "D." The double type "P." is 20',.' cheaper than the doubletype
"A.'
Curves drawn to show cost in the different sizes of culverts for tintypes
adopted and fills shown give a little more in formation regarding
the relative economy- of the sections. It is to be seen that the per cent.
of saving of the reinforced box culvert over the type witli plain concrete
walls is greater for small sizes and for any one size it is greater for
the high fill. bhe arches compare most favorably with the box culverts
where they come under a high fill and are of large size. The cost of an
arch culvert is as low as that of the most economical box culvert for
a span of 20 feet or more. The semicircular arches are cheaper than
the flat arches for small spans, but for large spans the flat arches have
the advantage.
If it is assumed that the various culvert sections discussed are of
equal strength, and that all differences in constructive details have been
accounted for in the estimates of cost, then the foregoing figures and
deductions give authority for a number of statements regarding the
relative economy of the alternative types. While these may be fairly
made from the data presented, still they exclude the consideration of
any special conditions not appearing in this discussion and are therefore
subject to numerous minor qualifications anel exceptions.
1. The rectangular sections which make the most use of reinforcements
are the most economical.
2. Arch sections for culverts are more economical than rectangular
sections for large spans and less economical for average sizes.
3. Semi-circular arches are more economical than flat arches for
spans under twenty feet.
4. Double culverts for large sizes are cheaper than single culverts.
Aside from the data upon which they were based, there are other
good reasons for the above statements:
(a) Reinforced concrete proves more economical than plain concrete
in almost every kind of structure yvhich can be built of tbis ma-

148 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
terial, and there are no distinctive features about culverts to make them
an exception.
(b) The arch rings were designed as if of plain concrete and the
reinforcement was not made much use of, therefore the arches are no
cheaper than box culverts for small sizes. For spans of 20 feet and
over the arches become cheaper, due to the mechanics of the problem.
(c) The comparison of high and flat arches is difficult, due to the
arbitrary way in which they are designed. It would seem, however,
that the flat arches with high, thick abutments ought to be more expensive.
When the spans are long, however, and the greatest part of
the material is in the arch ring, the flat arches may be cheaper.
(d) As the cover thickness varies about as the square of the span,
the use of the two spans instead of one will save material.
In the matter of strength, the two types of box culverts which we
are considering should be equivalent, since they have been designed by
rational methods to take the same loads with the same factors of safety.
Judging only from appearances the heavy section in Sketch 1 would seem
to have the advantage over the section in Sketch 2 in the matter of
stability. The type "B" section, however, is so thoroughly tied together
by reinforcement that it would probably be less liable to distortion, due
to unequal settlement, than the type "A" culvert. The thin thoroughly
reinforced footings of the former will carry the load over holes and soft
spots as well as deeper footings would, and if they are too shallow to
find a good bearing, they can be dropped as deep as necessary, allowing
the stream to fill up to its usual level. The arch culverts have the advantage
over rectangular types in regard to both strength and stability.
They have the material more advantageously placed; they tend to adjust
themselves to the load which comes upon them, and they make use of
the lateral thrust of the earth in resisting the vertical forces. The absence
of corners, which are always weak points in a section, is an advantage
in the arch. Small arches, especially, are similar to pipes, in that their
whole section acts together. The stresses in an arch are mainly compressive,
and this is a very desirable feature in a structure built of
material like concrete.
Under the head of practicability would be included ease of construction
and desirable waterway properties. The highly reinforced sections
and the arch rings present no difficulties which cannot be overcome by
a little more skill, labor and time. The additional cost due to these items
is included in the higher prices given to the materials in these structures,
and cannot be counted against them again. The shapes of the waterways
are the same for the box culverts and the arches to the height of the
spring line, so for ordinary flows all the types will be alike in so far as
carrying the water is concerned. When flowing full the slight change

IU ?>
EJ
V'ty.rctrs
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 149
._ Vs. 39"° uC___°
yy ^trrr*^~x •/../__& v •
Sv _J" I , \ X fe. so '5-". %-'/9'S".
7 Q' V
N
fs • I32C0
fc> 400
s'/e chs
al I2C-2* Foot 3 3Z&
STANDARD
Forms
B'XG' CULVERT.
TYPE "B' 8'*6' 16'PILL
Concrete Cover
Wall
Foot
Total
Steel Trans
Long
Total
Forms
Total Cost per Lmea
Rirft
55Cuvd
4T
.SS
155
83 8 *
25 5"
109 3 *
100 BM
Foot
Cost
»_->
35
36
44
45
SI9 *
8' X6' CUL VEPT I'ReiriFOPCEO WALLS)
IS'4"-
-Type "B," Box Culvert for 16 ft. Fill.
Fig 4

.it)
IHE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
in the shape of opening clue to the arched roofs will have no appreciable
effect.
As stated in this conclusion, the shape of the opening is the same for
all the types which are compared. They are low and wide and are the
*
H
_, _.
HfTsX Pi fs- 14900
___ /tv - fc 600. L
- eltK>:*ji
vC. \
A
fs * 15100
fc • 450
yr v
3 "By 101 6"Ctrs
i
f.Jf

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 151
best to use with type "A" section. The relation of the height of the
opening to the width will affect the quantity of material in the various
sections differently. To determine what this relation of height to width
should be for a minimum aim unit of material in alternative designs of
the same waterway, a few trial designs were made. A section 12 feet
span and 8 feet rise was compared with a section of the same area of
8 feet 9 inches span and 11 feel rise. The flat section was found lo
require less material in the t_y pc "A" design, where the side walls are
heavy, while in type "I!." where the walls are thin and most of the
material is in the cover, the higher opening is more economical. It is
difficult to draw conclusions regarding lhe arch, bul il seems that a
longer span with lower abutments is the better to use.
The shape of the opening, however, does not affect the quantities
in the section very materially in any case, but it eloes change lhe discharge
capacity of the culvert. The wider openings have their centers of pressure
lower than lhe narrower openings, so under flood conditions the
water will not back up so high in developing the necessary head. The
contraction of the waterway under ordinary flow will also be less for
the wider opening. Since the wide and low shape of waterway which
has been adopted in these designs is the most suitable for its purpose.
then the most economical section for this shape of waterway is the most
economical section for culverts in general.

T h e Erection of Girder Spans
John C. Wilkins
IT would be very interesting to know just how the first girder spans
were erected. The advent of what is now called the plate girder,
opening up a new field for inventive genius, but unfortunately or
fortunately, there are few records of the triumphs and troubles of the
first erecting engineers. We may know to a certainty when, where, why,
and by whom, the first cast or wrought iron spans were designed and
fabricated, but with a few exceptions we do not know that they were
ever erected. Of the few about which we know, some were practically
fabricateel and erected in position on temporary platforms which would
correspond to the false wrork now used in the erection of truss spans.
Others were erected complete on level ground in line with the foundations
and launched in position by means of rollers and supporting false work.
This method is used in rare cases at present.
There are really only three methods of erecting girder spans in common
use at present. They are: First, by the use of the gin pole; second,
by the use of the gallows-frame or bent; and third, by the use of the
derrick car. For the purpose of comparison, each method will be described
briefly.
First: The gin pole method is the most primitive in use at present.
The equipment consists of one or two poles, blocks and lines, necessarysmall
tools, and some kind of power. The pole i.s always cut at or near the
side, provided suitable material is available. If the work is not in a timbered
country, a steel pole in suitable sections for shipping is sometimes
used. The blocks and lines are for one set of main falls for hoisting and
four guys for holding the pole in position. A light hoisting engine, a crab
operated by hand or a team of horses may be used for power. This
method is used quite often for isolated operations, especially on light
spans, because the freight charges on the necessary equipment amount to
practically nothing.
Second : One occasionally- is confronted with the problem of erecting
a heavy railroad span on some short independent line which is so far
from the base of supplies that transportation charges make the use of more
modern equipment prohibitive. The only alternative may be the use of
the gallows-frame or bent as it is sometimes called. Figure 1 shows a
typical bent with the necessary rigging. Two bents are required which

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 153
are guyed to each other and to some permanent support such as the Hack
or trestle. The timbers for the bents are usually bought in the most convenient
market and framed at the site. The usual arrangement is to place
one bent on each pier or abutment; but if this cannot be done they can
rest directly on the ground or on cribbing. The girders are taken directly
from the car and lowered in position after which the temporary pile trestle
Standard Cent For JO Ton G*rdr,
_" Dents raaj
usually found at bridge sites, is removed and the floor system placed. Iheprincipal
objection to this method is that it usually costs more to frame
and raise the bents than it does to do the actual work of erecting the
girders.
Third: The modern derrick car is of steel construction throughout
with the possible exception of the cab and lockers for tools. It is equipped
with Westinghouse air brakes, an air compressor for operating same
which may also be used for riveting purposes, and has a special propelling
device which enables it to do necessary switching. Figure 2 shows a
typical car with size and arrangement of falls. The dotted lines show
the positions of the mast and boom when the car is ready for shipment.
The engine is enclosed in the cab which can be thrown open when operating
the car or securely closed for transportation. This cab is shown
with a sliding door at the side but a better arrangement provides folding
doors which can be dropped down and form a cantilever platform for

154
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the men around the engine. This car is also provided with connections
for two auxiliary booms of about 15 ton capacity which operate from the
same mast and can be used for handling material or guying the car. They
are not used on ordinary erection.
The usual method of erecting girder spans with the above equipment
is apparent from the form of car. The girders were unloaded on the fill
to the rear of the derrick car, from the completed track. They were then
picked up with the boom in the proper position for setting; the car was run
out to the bridge site and girders were lowered in position. If the necessary
arrangements regarding the use of track could have been made, a
more economical way to have handled this work would have been to take
the girders from the track directly underneath.
7C 7irn J~4-r/ /Pfrr/rA" c~er
If it is necessary to maintain traffic over a road while the erection is
being done, and there is not sufficient time between trains to tear out
the old structure and erect the new, the latter is sometimes erected on
false work at one side of the track and riveted up complete. The old
structure is then removed and the new span slid in position.
A complete outfit for handling a number of scattered girder spans
within a few miles of each other would consist of a locomotive anel crew
for switching and transportation, a heavy derrick car similar to the one
shown in Figure 2, kitchen and sleeping cars for the men, and a gondola
and box car for coal, miscellaneous tools and supplies. Such an outfit
would perform only the actual erection leaving the riveting and painting
to be done by a less expensive organization.
The first problem of the erecting engineer is to determine the most
economical method to be used for the erection of any particular work.
The location and character of the work, as well as local conditions at
the site, are important factors in this consideration. The preferable

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 155
method for all heavy railroad spans would be the derrick car, but such
equipment is very expensive which fact is recognized by the transportation
companies who charge exorbitant rates for transporting them. This
transportation feature alone often makes a return to the old gin pole or
gallows-bent absolutely necessary.

By B. D. Williams
Setting Hydrants
IN the course of laying out the hydrants for the water works system
of the city, the location of the former becomes an interesting problem.
In small towns the requirements for fire protection may differ widely,
for example, a town of from 4,000 to 5,000 inhabitants where a small
mercantile business is carried on, the fire risk is not so great as in a town
of the same size whose prospects depend entirely upon two or three factories,
located, perhaps, in one group of buildings. A fire in the latter case
would be a serious matter.
In the former case four or five streams would be sufficient, while in
the latter case eight or ten would have to be supplied. The number of fire
streams is based upon the size of a stream of about 250 gal. per min.,
which is generally considered to be about right as the average value of
good fire streams in business districts. For a residence district, 175 gal.
to 200 gal. stream usually meet the requirements.
For the average condition the number may be calculated by the formula
n = 2.8 x p, where n is = to the number of streams anil p the population
(in thousands). About 2y\ of this number should be capable of
being concentrated upon a block or group of buildings.
Fire hydrants must be sufficiently numerous and so located that they
will meet the requirements set forth in the preceding paragraphs.
Hydrants are "one-way, two-way, or three-way," according to tbe
number of hose connections.
For most purposes the two-way hydrant is considered the most convenient,
but in the dense portion of a large city, where many connections
must be provided, three-way and four-way hydrants can be used to good
advantage. Hydrants should, in any case, be numerous enough to enable
the required number of streams to be furnished with a suitable nozzle
pressure. At points where a large number of streams are required, fire
cisterns are sometimes used instead of hydrants. These cisterns are fed
by large pipes, and have an advantage over hydrants in that they allow
several steamers to obtain their supply at one point.
For a 250-gallon stream the required nozzle pressure is 45 pounds,
and the loss of head per 100 feet of ordinary 2X-inch hose is about 18
pounds, so that, with a hydrant pressure of 100 pounds, the length of
hose to supply a 250-gallon stream cannot exceed 300 feet. A 175-gallon

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 157
stream, with a 1-inch nozzle, requires 35 pounds' nozzle pressure, and
causes a loss of head of 9 pounds per 100 feet of hose. With a hydrant
pressure of 100 pounds, the length of hose in this case might be 700 feet.
With a hydrant pressure of 75 pounds, which is quite common, a 250gallon
stream could not be supplied through a length of hose greater than
about 200 feet; and a 175-gallon stream, through a length greater than
about 450 feet. Hence the general rule that hydrants should be so spaced
X
r
A^B»K-
F
E
nr
-4on^"Hyot
-S^on^Hydt
TABLE SHOWING MINIMUM DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF TEE TO CENTER OF
HYDRANT FOR WATER PIPE.
A
B
16x6 16x4
l'-6" 2'-4"
2'-0" 2'-0"
12x6
l'-7"
12"
12x4
l'-6"
12"
10x6 10x4 8x6 8x4
l'-S" l'-S" l'-S" l'-4"
10" 10" 10" 10"
6x6 6x4
VA" l'-2"
IU" 10"
4x4
l'-lX"
10"
C
D
13X'
10"
13"
7"
13h_" 13"
10" 7"
13X' 13"
10" 7"
13X'
10"
13"
7"
13'."
10"
13"
7"
13"
7"
E
f
S'-lyi" 5'-8"
4i-2%" 4'-io"
5'-2'/_ ' 4'-10' 5'-0X' 4'-9" 5'-0'/_" 4'-8" 4'-ll'/_' 4'-6" 4'-5'/_"
v-iyy 4'-Qn 4'-\y4n y-\Y'A'-iyy y-w A'-w/y y-t\" y-7y
\'ote—l\l
20"
24"
30"
36"
42"
48"
iiimuni caulking distances are as follows:
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-6"
3'-0"
3'-0"
3'-0"
that no line of hose should exceed 500 to 600 feet; and for at least half
the streams required at any point, the length of hose should not exceed
250 to 350 feet, according to the hydrant pressure. These lengths cannot
be much increased even where fire engines are used. In outlying districts,
two two-way hydrants should be available at any point, with a distance of
not more than 500 to 600 feet to the more remote of the two.
The most convenient location for hydrants is at the street intersections,
as they are then readily accessible from four directions. Tn cities

158 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
of moderate size, the required number of streams can be readily supplied
by locating a hydrant at each street intersection ; but in large cities intermediate
hydrants are often necessary. Thus, if blocks are 300 feet long
in each direction, and a two-way hydrant is placed at each corner, then a
fire could be served from eight hydrants, with a maximum length of hose
of about 450 feet, giving sixteen good fire streams; while a fire at a street
corner could be served from thirteen hydrants, eight of which would,
however, require hose-lengths of 600 feet. With blocks 600 feet by 300
feet, a two-way hydrant at each intersection would supply not less than
eight streams at any point, without exceeding 600 feet of hose. If only
four streams are required, then one-fourth of the hydrants might be
omitted, or every other hydrant in alternate streets.
Our illustration shows a sketch of four or six-inch hydrants with the
work dimensions from curb and pipe line.
An illustration is also given of the size of trench and "bell-hole" for
standard cast iron water pipes and the amount of lead used per joint is
also given.
C = Standard cover for pipe.
D = Average amount of lead per joint in lbs
Water Pipe Trenches. Covers
Size "A" "B" "C"
4" 3'-0" 3'-6" 6'-0"
6" 3'-0" 3'-6" 6'-0"
8" 3'-0" 3'-6" 6'-0"
10" 3'-6" 4'-0" 6'-0"
12" 4'-0" 4'-6" 6'-0"
16" 4'-0" 4'-6" S'-6"
20" 4'-0" 4'-6" 4'-6"
_24" 4'-0" 5'-0" 4'-6"
30" 6'-0" 8'-0" 3'-6"
36" 6'-0" 8'-0" 3'-6"
42" •S'-O" io'-o" yyr
48" 8'-0" 10'-0" 3'-0"
and Web
"D"
7"
10"
13"
16"
21"
31"
40"
sr
78"
98E
120"
160"
Table of water pipe trenches.
Table of water pipe cover.
Table of average weight of lead joints.
ht of Lead
Remarks.
Lead a\erages
taken in 1907.

T h e Valuation of Manufacturing
Property
By Walter B. Snow
IN a discussion of the basis for proper valuation for taxation of property
employed for manufacturing purposes, Charles T. Alain, mill
engineer and architect, of Boston, shows that no mill will have the
value of its machinery and buildings after a few years of operation equal
to when it is new; for depreciation, although not visible, begins almost
immediately, and no matter how much care is taken with repairs and
renewals, the value of the plant is not that of a new plant.
If buildings are radically wrong for light, owing to their antiquated
construction, thus requiring artificial light, their value is lessened. Their
selling value is lessened if, since their construction properly, other buildings
have been attached, thus shutting out the light.
The value of the land where restrictions are placed upon it in connection
with water power is a nominal sum, and the burden of taxes
might be great if the values were placed as high as adjacent land used
for other purposes and unrestricted. It is of no more value for manufacturing
purposes than a lot in an open field, instead of being located perhaps
in the congested portion of a citv. The valuation should be moderate
in order not to make the tax too great in proportion to tbe purpose to
which it is put.
The value of the steam plant should depend upon its age and condition
; but it does not appear that the assessors should pay any attention
to its economical working. If the owners choose to run an uneconomical
plant, whose cost is not quite, but nearly, as great as an economical one,
that has no bearing upon its value for taxes. If, however, it is necessary
to go to great expense, for instance in foundations for engines, boilers,
and chimney, owing to bad soil to build upon, or to build an extraordinarily
long smoke flue, the taxable value should be no more than if these extraordinary
expenditures had not been required ; for the return is no more,
and the market value is no more, than that of a much more simple plant.
The tax value of a water-power privilege should be ascertained in
comparison with the cost of steam power produced in the most economical
method at any convenient location where coal is cheap, or by comparison
with the cost of other water power favorably located. Unless this is done,
false values will be obtained. If the value of the water power varied

160 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
directly as the cost of fuel, then the farther from a railroad the power is
located, and the more it costs to haul coal to it, the more valuable would
be the power. If raw material is to be brought to the mill and finished
product to be taken away, it is a self-evident fact that the nearer the railroad
or sea-port the mill can be located the more valuable the power
which drives it.

H o w O n e of the Railroads Selects Its
N e w Machine Tools
I T may be of interest to man)- of our readers to know just h
10W a
large railroad, such as the Pennsylvania, selects its new machine
tools. In the fall of each year each grand division submits to th
e
general superintendent of motive power its estimated requirements for
new tools for the coming year, covering replacements and additional
equipment, to meet the conditions which it is estimated will obtain at the
several shops of the respective divisions. These requirements are studied
in the office of the general superintendent of motive power and eliminations
and additions made as deemed advisable, after which a tool program
is prepared therefrom, with the estimated costs, and is submitted to the
executive officers for approval.
After the program has been approved, each division is informed as to
the amount appropriated, anil the superintendents of motive pcnver reepiest
the purchasing agent to obtain bids from the various manufacturers for
the kind and style of tools they desire. In requesting these bids the purchasing
agent forwards to the marine tool builders a form covering the
particular tool required. One of these forms, for a shaper, is shown in
the illustration. In returning these blanks, filled in, to the purchasing
agent, the bidders usually write to him. calling attention to anv neyv attachments
which may be on the machines, etc.
These letters are forwarded to the superintendent of motive power
who requested the bids, and the information is transferred to a sheet,
which condenses the information from all the bidders. After further investigation
of the relative merits and adaptability of the tools the requisitions
are made out by the superintendent cf motive power and sent to
the office of the general superintendent of motive power for approval, together
with the individual bids and the condensed sheet before mentioned,
as well as a letter explaining their preference for the machines specified
on the requisitions. When the requisitions and bids are received in the
office of the general superintendent of motive power they are carefully
gone over. If the general superintendent of motive power can advise that
there is some other machine in the market with features that make it
more adaptable for the service than the one specified, or when it is known
that the machine specified has not been a success at some other point,
the requisition is changed accordingly. When approved by the general

162
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
superintendent of motive power, the requisition is returned to the
superintendent of motive power, who forwards it through the regular
channel to the purchasing agent.
It is understood that the various divisions, as well as the office of the
general superintendent of motive power, shall keep in touch with the
improvements that are made in machine tools from time to time, by
THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY.
lUMTBEBH 11-1,111 HllL'lF '. ' •* f.: • 1
i Juurcr * 9u>_o-[ ___ic-u>*i> Con**
TRANSACTION No
which should conform to the following requirements:
Number required,
Type,
Stroke of tool,
11m distance b-lw«en tool-, (double bead)
( Belt,
Drive. (J Motor, Toltnge,
. Cyclo*,
Motor, tullftge, ... . . .
Attachment*,
The following information should be fiirrusbcdby the manufacturer
Mailmum stroke, „ . Length of bed,
Mai loirgriluiliual travol of head,
Max. anil min. disUnce from table to underside oT bead, ...
Speed cif cutting stroke, - ... .. ,.. . Ratiocut to return.
Range of ejwed., . ._ ._ Range of feeds,
Horse [>ower of motor, , .... ._ _ , ,.
Weight, (without niolor)-, _ ... _
F. 0 B, a. _ . . _
Karlieat delivery.
Price,
Name of manufacturer,
Agent,
NOTE Any >-,rl»ilon Ik '•jIIi • ix.sl in.I IMI |
carefully noting the catalogs and descriptive matter received from the
machine tool builders, and by personal visits to other shops and manufacturing
plants, making notes of machines for special work, anel new
attachments on machines yvith which the motive power department is
familiar, for future reference.—Am. Enq. & Ry. Journal.

Tracing Carload Shipments
By Harold E. Goodhue
THERE may be among our readers, those who are interested in the
shipment of products either manufactured or otherwise and the
following from the "Bookkeeper" may be helpful:
The shipping of large numbers of cars loaded with comparatively
loyv-value commodities, such as pulp-wood, lumber, etc., is often complicated
by the trans-shipment of the contents in transit by one of the carrying
railroads.
This trans-shipment may be necessitated by injury, through collision,
or otherwise, to the original car; by excessive dimensions of original car
for the different tunnel or bridge systems on the receiving railroad lines;
by failure of the equipment of thc- original car as of air-brakes, couplings,
etc., to conform to the regulations of the receiving road, or, as was recently
very noticeably the case, by the desire on the part of the receiving
road to make as little use of "foreign" rolling stock as possible, thus
minimizing the rental charges, or mileage, which it would have to pay on
cars belonging to another road traveling oyer its own lines.
If the final delivering railroad would show on the freight bill it presents
to the consignee the number and initials of the original car from
which the load was trans-shipped, a considerable amount of trouble now
caused both consignor and consignee would be avoided, but this is too
seldom done.
It is the practice of some consignors to consign cars to themselves at
destination, thus retaining control of their shipments, ami sending instructions
to the railroad agent at destination to deliver cars to the consignor's
customers.
This practice is of benefit to the consignor if he wishes to divert the
cars in transit to another destination, or on arrival at destination to a
different customer. But it has the disadvantage of affording the railroad
another opportunity of complicating matters and transfer orders occasionally
disappear from or never arrive at their destination, with the
result that car rental charges accrue against the consignee for the delay.
Reverting to the paragraph above concerning the trans-shipment of
contents en route, which was the principal reason for the designing of this
scheme for tracing cars, it will be readily seen that a customer may receive
trans-shipped carload shipments without knowing from whom they come.

I64 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
In the case of shipments of pulp-wood, cars received at the mill
during one month are usually supposed to be paid for about the 15th of
the following month. Suppose, for example, that a car is shipped on
the 25th of March and is to be hauled some four hundred miles to the
mill. Tbe consignor does not expect that this car will arrive at the mill
YOUR FtLE
T R A C E R
EASTERN TOWNSHIPS LUMBER COMPANY
Agent, Grand Trunk: Ry., SHERBROOKE. QUE. __l£c_: £• rpj_l__
Aston,_Qu-.
hsflse snort DturcRr or BLLOH-nenrioNCe c~- conrmtima ruirrrooo, civihg DLLiyE/rr cute Alio n*m or conpanr m nnon pcLirc
No. 12345
Initial G-T-R-
SHirrta J"P_ _ _•. /3PJ__ Frron A9_ton ____•"/< S___-IL
Cons/aneo Eastern Town-hip luaAer_Co.* AT Detroitt Mich. »r,oo*oe*
Sirrn ra rsaivrc* ra _ 1*. _ .4_*_ ?a_1l!l_i^ * . * _._ 5? "_ >r co«ram neve rrf/tns-SHifreo £H fiovre fittSE AOVI3K as
nr once 4ho coimnut rancino T0 3*orv CCLtretr Youva TKU*.r,
EASTERN TOWNSHIPS LUMBER COMPANY
No. _ ^345 BXiVt->JL-k Ql .-Gx>-_-_X-SJ_
until about April 5 ; therefore no payment may be looked for before May
15. The load of this car is trans-shipped in transit, arrives at its destination
in due time, is handed over to the mill in accordance with the transfer
orders on file at the railroad office, and, as the mill is ignorant of the name
of the consignor, the car number i.s placed on the mill's "waiting list."
May 15 passes and the shipper receives no payment for his car. He
writes tbe mill, which replies that the car referred to has not been received.
Then the shipper begins to trace the car from its loading point.
The dilatory methods employed by many railroads in making the
usual tracers result in the shipper not learning of the trans-shipment of
contents from thc original car until June 15, or so, which precludes the
idea of any settlement being received that month from the mill. The
consequence is that the shipper is deprived of his money and the interest
on it for a month or longer. The writer is familiar with a number of
cases where the delay has been over a year.
With the method illustrated in the form shown herewith the results
have been more satisfactory. The "tracer" form is filled out in the manner
shown, the car number being placed both in the oblong space in the center
of the sheet and in the lowfer left corner. When filled out. this form

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 165
gives all the information necessary for the railroad, including routing,
name of destined customer, if the car is consigned to order, and the instructions
given for its transfer. In case it becomes necessary to write
again to the railroad, after receiving the railroad's acknowledgment of the
tracer, the file number of the railroad is inserted in the place provided.
The last sentence on the tracer should be noted. This serves as a
short cut, as, when the railroad follows its instructions and advises that
the load was trans-shipped into such and such a car en route, the shipper
immediately writes the mill, giving this information and asking if the
latter car has been received, thus saving considerable time.
In operation the tracer is filled out as soon as it is found that a car
has not been delivered as shipped, a copy is taken with a roller copyer, the
tracer being printed in copying ink, the original mailed to the railroad on
which shipment originated, and the copy filed, preferably on an arch file.
These copies are filed in the numerical order of the car numbers, that is.
car No. 15,295 precedes car No. 15,362, no matter what the initials of the
several cars may be, and the number of the car being in the lower corner
facilitate reference to it. Each week this tracer file is checked over, and
tracers which have had no reply from the railroad are repeated, a rubber
stamp marking "SECOND REQUEST" on the face of the tracer. If this
fails to bring the desired results the matter is brought directly to the attention
of the division freight agent, car service agent or other major official
of the railroad on which the shipment originated. It has been
found that this form brings good results of itself.
The usual dictated tracer, in the form of a letter, often fails to give
some detail needed by the railroad, whereas, with a printed form designed
to prevent any such omission, all necessary information is presented
to the railroad in a compact anel convenient arrangement. Mailed
under letter postage, and being of sufficient size to keep it from being
readily lost or mislaid, it is found to produce better results than a similar
form on a post-card. It can be readily adapted to the needs of many
businesses differing greatly from the pulp-wood and lumber business, for
which it was primarily designed.

Theory and Application of
Rheostatic Controllers
A. C Eastwood
ALL materials offer a resistance to the flow of electric currents. The
amount of this resistance varies with the material. The resistance
of some materials, such as glass, porcelain, silk, cotton, etc., is so
high that practically no current will flow through them at ordinary voltages,
and they are known as non-conductors or insulators. Other materials,
notably those of a metallic nature, offer a relatively low resistance,
and are known as conductors. Copper and aluminum are among the best
conductors of commercially practical use. Iron offers a much higher resistance
than copper, and cast iron a much higher resistance than wrought
iron.
When an electric current flows through a conductor a loss in pressure
or voltage occurs. Just as a loss in pressure or head occurs when a
current of water flows through a pipe. This loss in voltage is due to the
resistance of the conductor, and, as would naturally be supposed, the
resistance increases as the conductor grows smaller in section and also
increases with the length of the conductor. In other words, the resistance
of a given conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-section and
elirectly proportional to the length of the conductor.
The loss in pressure or voltage which occurs when a current flows
through a conductor is proportional to the strength of the current and to
the resistance of the conductor—in fact, this loss, expressed in volts, is
equal to the product of the current in amperes and the resistance in ohms.
For example, if a current of 100 amperes flows through a resistance of
2y2 ohms the loss or drop in voltage will be 100 x 2X = 250 volts.
From this it will be understood that wdien it is desirable to reduce
the voltage at which a given current is to be delivered, a conductor having
the required resistance may be inserted in the circuit and the reduction
in voltage will be equal to the product of the current in amperes and the
resistance in ohms.
Such a conductor, arranged in an organized structure and used to
reduce the voltage at which current is delivered, is known as a "rheostat."
A rheostat is used in starting and in controlling the speed of practically
all direct current motors.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 167
A motor of any size, when its armature is at rest, offers a very low
resistance to the flow of current and an excessive and perhaps destructive
current would flow through it if it were connected across the supply mains
while at rest. Take the case of a motor adapted to a normal full load
current of 100 amperes and having a resistance of 25-100 ohms; if this
motor were connected across a 250-volt circuit a current of 1,000 amperes
would flow through its armature—in other words, it would be overloaded
900 per cent with consequent danger to its windings and also to the driven
machine. In the case of the same motor, with a rheostat having a resistance
of 2 25-100 ohms inserted in the motor circuit, at the time of
starting the total resistance to the flow of current would be the resistance
of the motor (25-100 ohms) plus the resistance of the rheostat (2 25-100
ohms), or a total of 2X ohms. Under these conditions exactly full load
current, or 100 amperes, would flow through the motor, and neither the
motor nor the driven machine would be overstrained in starting. This
shows the necessity of a rheostat for limiting the flow of current in
starting the motor from rest.
An electric motor is simply an inverted generator or dynamo—consequently
when its armature begins to revolve a voltage is generated within
its windings just as a voltage is generated in the windings of a generator
when driven by a steam engine or other primemover. This voltage generated
within the moving armature of a motor opposes the voltage of the
circuit from which the motor is supplied, and hence is known as a
''counter-electro-motive force." The net voltage tending to force the current
through the armature of a motor when the motor is running is.
therefore, the line voltage minus the counter-electro motive force.
In the case of the motor above cited, when the armature reaches such
a speed that a voltage of 125 is generated within its windings, the effective
voltage will be 250 minus 125, or 125 volts, and, therefore, the resistance
of the rheostat may be reduced to one ohm without exceeding the full load
current of the motor. As the armature further increases its speed the
resistance of the rheostat may be further reduced until when the motor
has almost reached full speed all of the rheostat may be cut out and the
counter-electro motive force generateel by the motor will almost equal the
voltage supplied by the line so that an excessive current cannot flow
through the armature.
In practice, a rheostat is provided for starting an electric motor, the
resistance conductor being divided into sections, such that the entire
length or maximum resistance of the rheostat is in circuit with the motor
at the instant of starting and the effective length of the conductor, and
hence its resistance may be reduced as the motor comes up to speed.
In cutting out the resistance of a starting rheostat care must be used

108 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
not to cut out the resistance too rapidly. If the resistance is cut out more
rapidly then the armature can speed up, a sufficient counter-electro motive
force will not be generated to properly oppose the flow of current, and
the motor will be overloaded.
If all the resistance of the starting rheostat is not cut out the motor
will operate at reduced voltage, and hence at less than normal speed. A
rheostat so arranged that all or a portion of its resistance may be left in
a motor circuit to secure reduced speeds is called a "rheostatic controller."
Such rheostatic controllers are almost universally used for controlling
series and compound wound motors driving cranes, charging machines,
mill-tables and similar machinery requiring variable speed under the
control of an operator.
In the case of a series-wound motor the speed varies inversely as
the load—the lighter the load the higher the speed. A series-wound motor
of any size when applied with full voltage under no load, or a very light
load, will "run away" just as will a steam engine without a governor when
given an open throttle.
For a given load a series-wound motor draws the same current irrespective
of the speed and for a given load the speed varies directly as the
voltage. As has already been seen the voltage at the motor terminals
may be reduced by inserting a rheostat in cicruit with the motor and the
voltage, and hence the speed at a given load may be varied by varying
the length of resistance conductor in the motor circuit—in the meantime
if the load on the motor be constant the current drawn from the line will
be constant regardless of the speed.
The above statements relate to the use of a rheostat in series with a
series-wound motor. If a resistance or rheostat be placecl in parallel
with the field of a series-wound motor the speed will be increased instead
of decreased at a given load. This is known as shunting the field of the
motor. This shunt would never be applied till the motor has been brought
up to normal full speed by cutting out the starting resistance. Wilh a
"shunted field" a motor is driving a load at a speed higher than normal
and therefore requires a correspondingly increased current.
If a resistance is placed in parallel with the armature of a series
motor, the motor will operate at less than normal speed when all of the
starting resistance has been cut out. This connection is known as a
"shunted armature connection" and is useful where a low speed is desired
at light loads and is particularly useful in some cases where the load becomes
a negative one, that is, where the load tends to overhaul the motor,
as in lowering a heavy weight.
A shunt-wound motor, unlike a series motor, when supplied with full
voltage, maintains practically a constant speed regarelless of variations in

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 169
load within the limits of its capacity. It automatically acts like a steam
engine having a very efficient governor.
The speed of a shunt-wound motor may be decreased below normal
by a rheostatic controller in scries with its armature and may be increased
above normal by means of a rheostat in series with its field winding. The
latter rheostat is known as a "field rheostat," and, to be effective, must
have a high resistance owing to the small current which flows through the
shunt field winding.
Rheostatic controllers are also employed for the control of alternating
current induction motors of the so-called "slip-ring type." Such
motors have characteristics in many ways similar to those of direct current
shunt-wound motors, and speeds lower than normal may be obtained by
inserting resistance in series with the windings of the secondary or rotor.

Paving Lake Shore Boulevard
ALONG stretch of the Lake Shore Boulevard, extending from
Cleveland through Lake County, O., is being paved with an 18foot
strip of brick. This paving is placed on the right hand siele
of the boulevard when driving toward the city anel consists of a
cement gutter and curb and the edging near the center of the road which
protects the brick on both sides.
Under the brick is laid a 4-inch concrete foundation, the mixture
being part cement, that is 2X parts of sanel and 5 parts of crushed stone.
After the road-bed was cut out anel leveled and the cement roadbed
and edge put in, the intervening space yvas rolled eloyvn hard and the
crushed stone and sand distributed in piles with a space between which
allowed the operation of a Foote Continuous Mixer.
This machine is arranged to receive sanel on one side, stone on the
other anel cement from the top, ami, after mixing the proper proportions
of same, the material is conveyed to the rear end and weighted down to
the proper consistency. From the end of the machine the mixture is
hauled bv wheelbarrow and clumped onto the ground and tamped into
position. The machine requires an engineer anil fireman combined in
one person, and the following distribution of laborers:
( me man carries cement to the top of the machine, another distributes
it into tbe hopper, two men shovel sand into the shoot at the side, five
shovel stone into tbe shoot at the opposite side, one man on the top of
the machine opens and closes the gate that deposits the mixture in the
wheelbarrow. Three barrow men are kept busy delivering to one man
who rakes the deposit into shape and two tampers who level oft'.
We think this gang of seventeen men and one boss and a machine
will mix enough for 1,600 feet. IX feet wide and 4 inches deep, in a day.
The illustration shows a cross section of the paved portion of the
boulevard and extends within 12 inches of the street car track, yvherever
these are laid.
At some points on the boulevard the original road-bed is lowered
about 50 inches, and iu other cases brick will be higher than the old
level.
After laying the foundation as described above, the pavers have a
gang ahead of them separating the sand to the depth of two or three
inches upon which the bricks are laid. Tbis sand is not tamped, but the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 171
bricks are afterwards rolled by means of light steam roller which settles
them into the sand properly. The bricks extend above the curbing about
y2 inch, and this amount i.s decreased by the roller until they are prac-
, feafr'arn^ i i I i ^ n l r r ^ f i i j }k?f y
_J_s! i___ l,-i
?•-„_?/-
Seclioo ol' Paving
tically level with the gutter. Before rolling, an inspector travels over
the surface and picks out anel replaces defective bricks.
The bricks are laid with the light extension on either side so that
they will have a small space between them into which a surface cutting
and sand cemented with water is washed, by means of brooms.
It is seen here, that two pavers kept two men busy handling brick
which were stacked in tiers of five each. Each paver laid four rows on
a trip across, starting at tbe outside and working towards the curb. This
gang, with three or four extra for laying spans, could put in place bricks
for about 250 feet in 10 hours. The cement yvash was allowed to stand
nearly a week before any traffic was permitted upon the pavement.
In ibis particular contract, brick for the paving was distributed along
the route previous to the excavating along the road-bed and laid upon
tbe side-walk, from where the men handled the bricks and practically
formed a string going back and forth across the street. By stacking them
in this way the end of the pile was practically opposite the pavers until
the sidewalk was cleared as the gang went along.
In turning the curves the bricks were laid so that in a short time
they became more than radial to the arc of the circle and cutting had to
be done to re-adjust the alignment. For long curves two adjustments
were necessary. In the last one made in such a manner, it often happens
that the bricks come out on a tangent which represents the largest portion
of the road in a nive manner. The edge of the concrete curves were
noticed in shaping around man-holes of the catch-basins, and the curb and
center were laid in lengths of 5 feet 4 inches, but in such a manner that
there was no crack out of joint. It will be seen by the sketch that a
3-inch drain tile i.s placed under the edge of the curbing, and this was
put in cinders before the gutter was cast.
The work as a whole will make an exceptionally fine job and will
be an enormous improvement over the old road-bed.

Creosoted Paving Blocks
WE can do no better than quote from that handy volume on road
work, Byrne's "Highway Construction," for any one who may
be interested in creosoted paving blocks.
"The gerat enemy of all wood pavements is decay, induced by the
action of the air and water, fermentation of the albumenoids of the sap,
insects and fungi. Several methods have been devised to prevent the
decay of wood from these causes. These consist in impregnating the wood
with various mineral salts and creosote oil from which the ammonia has
been expelled. The mineral salts are not well suited for preserving wood
used for paving as they are gradually washed out by the rainwater. The
process considered most effective for treating paving blocks is creosoting.
There is, however, considerable difference of opinion in Europe, at least,
as to the value of creosoting. Some maintain that the life of the timber
is materially increased, for the reason that the creosote coagulates the
albumen of the wood and thus arrests fermentation and decay; at the same
time the heavier portions of the creosote fill up the pores of the wood and
thus increases its permeability. Insects and fungi are also destroyed by it.
While the natural decay of the wood i.s prevented by the preservative, it
does not affect the wearing qualities. When used for paving all wood is
liable to wear before natural decay sets in.
"Creosote is obtained from both wood-tar and from coal-tar, the
latter being superior for the treatment of wood. Regarding the quality
of the creosote most suitable, the specification known as Dr. Tidey's is
now generally adopted. It provides (1) that the creosote shall be entirely
liquid at 100 degrees F., that no deposition shall take place until the temperature
falls below 95 degrees F.; (2) that not less than 25 per cent shall
remain undistilled at a temperature of 600 degrees F.; (3) that 8 per
cent of tar acids shall be present.
"The most effective method of applying the creosote is by placing the
timber to be treated in a closed cylinder and the air exhausted therefrom
by an air-pump until the pressure falls to about 2 pounds, or one-sixth or
one-eighth of an atmosphere. The creosote oil heated to a temperature
of 120 degrees F. is then allowed to flow in, and when the cylinder is full
a pressure pump is put into operation and the pressure raised to 150 or
200 pounds per square inch. The pressure is maintained until the wood
has absorbed the required amount of creosote, as indicated by a gauge on
the tank.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 173
"The amount of creosote which can be absorbed by wood varies with
its age and quality; soft woods take up more than hard woods. The
amount injected into soft woods varies from 8 to 12 pounds per cubic
foot; into oak and other hard woods il is difficult to force, even with the
greatest pressure, more than 2 or 3 pounds of oil.
"The woods which are best adapted for creosoting are those which
are the most absorbent and therefore the easiest and quickest destroyed.
The gums, cottonwoods, cypress, cedar, pine, and porous oak are absorbent
and can be successfully treated.
"The timber to be preserved should be thoroughly seasoned and
should be inspected before creosoting, as its quality and defects are not so
readily seen afterwards. The thorough penetration of the creosote may
be ascertained by cutting a few blocks in half. The test for absorption
may also be applied, for creosote blocks should not absorb more than onehalf
of one per cent of water.
"The process of clipping the blocks in coal-tar or creosote oil is useless
and injurious ; it affords a cover for the use of defective wood and it
hastens decay, especially of green wood; it closes up the exterior of the
cells of the wood so that moisture cannot escape, thus causing fermentation
to take place in the interior of the block, which quickly destroys the
strength of the fibres anel reeluces them to punk."

T h e Cost of Steam Shovel W o r k
"Probably no important railway system in the United States has not
on its right-of-way one or more steam shovel outfits engaged in the work
of bettering grades, making cut-offs or double tracking."
In Engineering News of January 17, 1907, appeared a paper of cost
on two pieces of excavation on the Burlington System with 65 ton Bucyrus
steam shovels filling trestles, using 5 yard dump cars. One having 251,711
cu. yds. was steam shovel work. And the cost of digging "steam shovel
(labor and supplies)" is given as $23,351, which was per yd. 8.9 cts. The
second, "there were handled 188,250 cu. yds. of material (about 40 per
cent hard pan, being about as hard a material as the shovel could dig
without resorting to blasting.)" The cost of digging "Steam shovel
(labor and supplies)" is given as $18,136, which was per yd. 9.6 cts.
On the Neivport News & Mississippi Valley R. R. the Souther shovel
used "exclusively in handling gravel which was very compact and somewhat
cemented, at a cost of 5.3 cts. per cu. yd.," which on 250,000 yds. is
an expense of $13,250. A difference of £10,000.
"Another embankment was made of about the same quantity, which
was in good easily- handled material and all-told cost less than 10 cents
per cu. yd."
"A road reports having three Souther shovels, one for 14 years, the
second 8 years and the third 2 years. Each shovel lias averaged 80,000
cu. yds. per year. Have sometimes loaded 1,200 cu. yds. per day of 10 hrs.
Have never kept cost of loading separate from handling. Have at times
dug, loaded, handled and dumped, on widening embankments for 6 cts.
per yd. In other places cost has been as high as one dollar per yd. A
large part of our work has been widening cuts and fills for second track,
work being done on single main track with large numbers of trains, both
passenger and freight, to be kept moving on same track, increasing cost
and decreasing amount of work done by work-trains and shovels."
"We excavated 26,494 cars of material, averaging about 8 yds. per
car with 2 Souther shovels during season, at a cost of 11 cts. per car for
clay and 8 cts. per car for gravel."
"I am glad to say that your excavator is doing good work in our formation
of tough clay with strata of limestone intermixed. The cost of
the excavated material loaded on the cars is somewhat less than io cts.
per cu. yd. including interest and depreciation. I have seen harder material
but it is as difficult a material to handle with a steam shovel without

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 175
blasting as I have seen. Your machine handled the material successfully
for the reason that all the working parts were of sufficient strength to
visit the full power of the engine, averting frequent breakages which occurred
with another machine (not of your make) where the- engine- was
too powerful for the strength of its organs."
In Railroad Construction, on the X. Y. Chi. ec St. L. building, the
following is almost the last analysis of efficiency both in output and outfit,
and deserves emulation: March 2d was agreed upon among the men to
see what could be accomplished in 1(1 hours, to test the capacity of the
steam shovel (the Souther). At 7 a. in. sharp, work commenced ; at 11 :30
the hoisting chain broke but was repaired while the men were al dinner.
L'p lo this time 100 cars had been loaded. At 6 o'clock 220 cars were
loaded, delivered and unloaded, or over 2000 yds. of each having been
handled! This work requires one engine to place cars for the shovel and
another engine and 44 cars to transport the earth as fast as loaded. There
were only 18 men employed on thc entire work. The cars are unloaded
by plow, requiring onl)- two men and a locomotive. The train of 22 cars
is unloaded usually in about 10 minutes.

T h e Atlantic Steam Shovel
IT is the purpose of this article to present such a description of tbe
Atlantic steam shovel, built by the Atlantic Equipment Company,
that those of our readers who have had experience with it may gain
a knowledge of its characteristic features and operation.
The construction of the Atlantic steam shovel can be readily followed
in the subsequent paragraphs from the cut shown on this page.
The different classes of this shovel are identified by the pull exerted
at the dipper; the clear height over which it can dump ; and the capacity of
the clipper. Thus, Class 45-16-2-X indicates a shovel able to pull 45,000
lbs. at the clipper, having a clear lift of 16 ft. and a dipper of 2X cubic
yards capacity.
This shovel is built in five standard classes as follows:
Class 25-11-1T 4
Class 35-15-1X
Class 45-16-2X
Class 60-17-3X
Class 80-18-4X
The first feature noticed on the Atlantic shovel is that the main
hoisting engine is mounted on the boom. The boom and turntable are
rigidly connected together through the medium of a heavy steel casting.
which is also the hoisting engine frame. The lines of the boom are
straight, tapering from the point to the base. This is to obtain greater
strength to resist the strains from swinging which tend to spread the boom
and loosen the rivets and bolts. No rubber gaskets are used in the
hoisting engine, all steam joints being ground face to face, or having
balled bronze rings ground in place. The hoisting engine valves are of
tbe plain D type. The valve motion is of the single eccentric type, which
is the simplest form of yalve motion used.
Wire hoisting rope is used. To obtain the greatest flexibility and
strength, thc parallel system is adopted. The two ends of the single
length of rope are fastened to the hoisting drum. The middle of the
rope is bent around an equalizer attached to the dipper. Thus the two
parts of the rope each bear half of the load at all times. The rope exerts
a direct pull on the dipper, no padlock sheave nor bail sheave being necessary,
since all power is obtaineel by gearing from main engine to hoisting
drum. Thus only one idler sheave is necessary. This, the point sheave.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 177
is of large diameter, as is necessary for use with wire rope. The oil
chamber in the hub of the- point sheave should be filled with oil about
once a week.
A new rope should be applied as soon as broken strands are noticed
in the one in service. The average life of a wire rope when properly ap­
plied is as long as a hoisting chain. Cable elope or pine tar should be
applied to the rope about once a week. No oil is needed.
Because there is no bail or padlock, a shorter boom will give the
required lift and reach. The use of a shorter boom increases the stability
of the shovel, making it less liable to tip over. The Atlantic shovel is
very easy to move, the danger of tipping over being very little since the
center of gravity of the boom is only about two-thirds the distance above
tbe rail of the center of gravity of the boom of the chain type machines.
The Atlantic shovel is often spoken of as a fast machine. The
speed of the dipper while digging is practically the same as that of the
chain shovel. In dropping into thc pit, the Atlantic is faster than the
chain type. Time is also saved in swinging. Tbe shorter boom of the
Atlantic shovel enables it to swing much faster with the same power than
the longer and heavier boom on the chain type machine.
The friction consists of two separate bands lined with wood blocks.
The valve of the ram is connected with the engineer's lever in such a
way that the ram is thrown in gradually as the lever is thrust forward;
that is, a small movement of the lever produces a short movement of the
ram. and to throw the ram clear in, the lever must be thrust forward as
far as it will go. This gives the engineer absolute control of the dipper,
and enables him to use the one friction for both hoisting and lowering,
the friction being of very great area to prevent overheating.
The gears are steel with machine cut teeth. This makes a noiseless,
smooth running machine, and gives long life to the gears.

178 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
•_-»-;••-,-
Atlantic Sleam slnivel in Operation
The well ilc-signed locomotive type of boiler is a strong feature of the
Atlantic shovel. Taking the hoisting machinery off" the car body gives
room to use as long a boiler as desired. The long flues and long firebox
give good steaming qualities as well as economy in fuel.
The water feed consists of one injector and one Marsh pump.
The swing and thrust engines are of the center valve type, the valves
used being the balanced piston type.
The saddle block bas no (J bolt, two straight bolts being used.
The boom guys or hog rods as well as the A-frame back guys are flat
eye-bars. This construction eliminates all welds in these members.
All lhe machinery being on the center line of the shovel, tbe car
body is made wilh two center sills of deep I beams, while the outside sills,
having no machinery to support, are constructed of angles. This leaves
lhe under side of the car open, and easy of access.
The jack arms are constructed of steel bars. The end casting which
takes the jack screw has a threaded bushing inserted which can be replaced
at anv time bv loosening the set screyvs on the side. The upper
member of the jack arm folds up on the car, while the lower member
i\vings on its own pin underneath the car body when moving the shovel
from place to place.

T h e Conveying of Material
THE simplest but also the least economical method of conveying material
from one operation of a manufacturing process to another
is the man with the wheelbarrow. An ordinary wheelbarrow with
a steel tray weighs from 55 to 70 lbs., and will hold about two cubic feel of
material when heaped up. A laborer in wheeling travels at the average
rate of 200 feet per minute and loads at the rate of about tyvo cubic feet
per minute, depending somewhat upon the weight of material. About
one-quarter minute is lost in dumping the barrow, resuming the shovel,
etc. If, therefore, it is necessary to convey 100 tons of coal 50 feet in 10
hours, six men will be required. For, assuming coal to weigh 55 lbs. per
cubic foot, a barrow load would consist of 110 lbs. and would require
one minute to load and one-quarter minute to dump, etc. At a speed of
200 feet per minute, the time consumed in wheeling the full barroyv and
returning with the empty one would be one-half minute. Hence to load a
barrow with 110 lbs. of coal, wheel and dump it and return with the empty
barrow to the pile would require 1 X T4 X ' - = U4 minutes. One man
can therefore convey 110 lbs. of coal 50 feet in 1 X minutes, or 3,772 lbs.
100 X 2000
in an hour. To convey 100 tons in ten hours, therefore, =
3772 X 10
5.4 men will be needed. With heavy materials a barroyv load may be considered
as 175 lbs. Such loads may be pushed over rough ground or up
flight inclines.
Larger wheelbarroyys having two wheels, the latter placed well under
the tray, and holeling as much as 9 cubic feet (or 500 lbs. of bituminous
coal) are also made. As these barrows themselves weigh something like
200 to 250 lbs., they are only suited to use on hard, level, smooth surfaces.
When used on the ground, runways made by bolting sheets of steel together
endwise should be used. These barrows are much employed for
bringing coal short distances to the boilers, or for conveying light substances
about the plant. The advantage of these large barroyvs is in the
saving of time consumed in making the trip. For instance, if loaded with
with 8 cubic feet of coal, in the example given in the preceding paragraph,
one man should convey 5,558 lbs. 50 feet in an hour.
Barrows with a round funnel-shaped nose are sometimes used where
material has to be dumped into a small, round opening, such as the mouth
*In The Chemical Engineer.

180
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
of a furnace or oven. When dumped the nose fits into the opening and
forms a sort of funnel, preventing the material from being spilled around
outside the latter.
The charging barroyv was formerly much used in metallurgical work
and is still used in even large chemical plants. These barrows hold from
10 to 20 cubic feet and themselves weigh from 325 to 450 lbs. Over a
Oven Char-gina Truck, and often usprl in furnace rooms
for hauling coal lo boilers.
ArthurKoppelCompany 1726
Kic. 4. Swivel Car for clumping end or side.
fairly smooth surface about 900 to 1,000 lbs. is the greatest load an ordinary
man can handle yvith them. When employed where material has
to be elevated, it is usual to wheel the barrow onto a platform elevator and
lift barrow and contents to the higher level where the barrow is pushed
by hand to the desired point. Another plan is to dump the material into
the boot of a bucket-elevator and carry the material by means of this to
the higher level, yvhere it is dropped by spouts or conveyed by means of
cars, barrows, or conveyors to the desired point. This latter plan is not
suited to material in lumps of over 4 or 5 inches in diameter. Charging
barrows may be lined with acid-proof enamel paint or with sheet lead
in cases where they are to be used for acid or corrosive substances. Charging
barows cost from $50 to $75, depeneling upon size, etc.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 181
Where material has to be charged through a vertical door into a furnace,
retort or oven, the form of truck shown in Fig. 1 is useful. In this
truck, one side may be lowered, as shown in the illustration, allowing thc
easy shoveling of the material into the furnace. This form of truck may
also be obtained with both sides hinged to lower. These trucks usually
handle about 1,000 lbs. of a material such as coal, although holding much
more of a heavy material, and cost from $50 to S75. They are intended
to be pulled about by a handle and can be moved by one man over a
smooth, hard floor or over a runway made of steel sheets. They are also
made larger for tracks and locomotive hauling.
Sar
kthur Koppel Compant
* ig. -
Ahihur Koppel Co'X'fj?
Fig. 3
Where tracks can be laid, considerably more material can be handled
by means of cars running upon these. Cars for this purpose should be
easily clumped. Where it is wished to dump material on the side of the
track, the V-shaped side dump cars shown in Fig. 2 may be used. These
cars are dumped bv tilting to either side and hence may be useel to advantage
where the track runs betyveen a royv of bins, ovens or furnaces,
These cars are made in a variety of weights, cars with very light bodies
being used for wood pulp and of much heavier construction for stone and
ores. They are also made in a variety of forms. For instance, a car with
a grill body of steel strips is used for carrying coke from the ovens to the
yards, allowing water played upon it to thoroughly permeate the coke to
cool and extinguish it. Cars with bodies punched full of holes are also
used for carrying pyrites, in order that the latter may be washed while in

182 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the car. For carrying lime from the kilns to the chemical plant, the cars
are usually provided with tops to prevent wetting of contents in rainy
weather. These cars are particularly adapted to carrying hot or acid substances,
as the}' can be lined with fire brick, sheet lead, enamel paint or
acid-proof tiles. The dumping arrangement may be maele either automatic
or by hand. The cars are usually made of about 12 to 45 cubic feet capacity
and weigh from 600 to 1,000 lbs. A 22-cubic-foot car costs about
$120.
An excellent form of car, which distributes its contents on both sides
of the track and which hence can be useel where the track runs directly
over the bins or hopper into which the material is to be dumped, is the
Coke Oven "l_ai-ry.s"
saddle-bottom form of car. In this car, the sides are hinged near the top
and are swung outward when the car i.s dumped. The nearer the doors
are hinged to the top, thc easier the car dumps. This is especially true
with wet material or material in large lumps, as the latter may arch and
wedge against tbe shh-s of the car anel refuse to dump without considerable

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 183
picking anel hammering with an iron bar. It is made in sizes from 15 to 40
cubic feet for narrow-gauge tracks. The former size costs about $80 and
the latter $150.
For dumping material at the end of a track or between the rails an
excellent car is one having its end hinged, Fig. 3. The Y-shapecl cars mentioned
in a preceding paragraph may also be obtained for this purpose, as
they are not only made when so ordered for end dumping but also with the
body mounted mi a syyiyel so that they- may be used either for end or side
dumping. Fig. 4 also shows a car which may be obtained for either end
or side dumping.
For charging rows of ovens or retorts "larries" or cars having spouts
on the side are much used. They are usually made to hold more material
than the ordinary "dump" cars, and the flow of material out of the car is
controlled by a slide or gate in thc latter. The spout extends far enough
from the track to come directly over the coke oven mouth and the material
is spouted directly into the latter. The larry in this illustration is
run by an overhead electric trolley wire.
Where the car is to be loaded by hand, the height of the top of the
car from the ground i.s always an important matter as this determines the
height which the men must lift the material in order to get it into the car
and consequently the time it takes to load the car.
The tracks are usually made of light T rails. These rails are graded
according to the number of pounds they weigh per yard : Thus a 9-lb. rail
weighs 9 lbs. per running yard. The size of the rail to be used is usually
determined bv the weight of the loaded cars passing oyer them and also
by the yvear upon them. A 9-lb. rail will support a four-wheel car ami load
(together) of 1-2 tons; a 12-lb. rail, 2-3X tons; a 16-11). rail. 3^'2-5 tons; a
20-lb. rail, 5-7 tons. The load, however, depends somewhat on the roadbed,
distance between ties, etc. The gauge is the distance between the
heads of the rails. The standard is 4' 8X", hut most industrial roads are
much narrower. For most work 24" is sufficient anel the cost of laying such
a track is fully one-third less than that of a standard gauge. The rails are
connected together by fish plates and bolts.
Metal ties are to be preferred to wooden ones, particularly for movable
tracks. A simple tie is made by cutting channel iron into appropriate
lengths and bolting the rail to the flat side of these by means of clips and
bolts. Ties are usually placed about 2' apart, although in portable tracks
the distance may be 3'. Cast plate tracks are also extensively used in
buildings where the obstruction of the rails is objectionable. They are
laid in the cement floor of the building.
The following table shows the material required to lay one mile of
track with rails of various weights:

184 THE INDUSTRLIL MAGAZINE.
MATERIAL FOR OXE MILE OF TRACK
Weight of Rails.
12-lb. 16-lb. 20-lb. 25-lh. 30-lb. 35-lb.
Rails,* tons 18.86 25.14 31.43 39.29 47.14 55.00
Spikes, size 2}/2xH 3y2xH 4x-& 4x'/2 4y2xy2 4y2xy2
Spikes (1 keg = 200 lbs.), lbs. .1,575 1,780 2,940 3,520 3,960 3,960
Splice joints, number .' 360 360 360 360 360 360
Bolts for splice joints, size Xx2 5«x2 ^_x2j4 f_x2;4 ?-^x2}-4 YfxlVi
Bolts for splice joints, number. 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440
Bolts for splice joints, lbs 550 550 586 586 614 614
Cross ties, 2' bet. centers, num. .2,640
Estimated cost exclusive of grading—
2,640 2,640 2,640 2,640 2,640
Low $900 $1,000 $1,200 $1,350 $1,550 $1,750
High 1,600 1,800 2,100 2,700 3,000 3,300
*A11 calculations are based on standard practice, 90% 30' long and 10% in
length down to 24'.
For moving the cars, men, horses, mules; electric, compressed-air or
steam locomotives; endless cables or cables anel drums may be used. In
considering the moving of materials in cars, etc., the weight of the car
itself must be included,' for this reason the latter should always be as light
as is consistent with wear and tear. The pushing or pulling power of a
man is ordinarily considered equivalent to 20 lbs. with a velocity of 2 feet
per second for 10 hours. The force required to push a car along a perfectly
horizontal track is merely that needed to overcome friction. This
may be considered for this class of cars equivalent to 25 lbs. per ton of
total weight moved.
20
1 Icnce one man may be considered to be able to push
on the level — = 0.8 ton at a speed of 120 feet per minute. The hauling
25
power of a horse is usually rated at 150 lbs. with a velocity of 3 feet per
second. Hence he can pull 6 tons at this velocity. If the track is not
level, the resistance due to gravity (or the distance the load is lifted i
must be considered. If the grade is 5 feet per 100, the lift is 5C/, of the
weight or 100 lbs. per ton.
20
Hence on this grade a man can only push
= 0.16 ton or 520 lbs. with a velocity of 120 feet per minute
100 + 25
Often it will be found practicable to so arrange the track that the
loaded cars are run down by gravity and the empty ones are drawn up by
mules or horses. In this case, excess grade over and above what is
needed to move the cars is to be avoided since the cars will require that
much more power to drayv them up. Sometimes it is practicable to connect
tyvo drums so that the descending loaded car, as its cable unwinds
from one drum, winds the cable of an empty car up on the other drum
and so draws an empty car up. Another plan i.s to so arrange the two
tracks that both are inclined slightly. Tbe loaded cars are run down on

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 185
one track and emptied, then they are raised by a platform elevator or cable
to the head of the other track, where they are dropped by gravity to the
stock piles for reloading. This arrangement is of course only possible
where the points of loading and dumping are about on the same level.
Small steam and electric locomotives are now extensively used to
draw cars both small and large around plants and are unquestionably to be
preferred to horses and mules, where much moving of material has to be
done. A small locomotive costs from $1,500 to $2,500 a year for its
maintenance, which is about what it would cost to keep three mules and
employ their drivers. Very satisfactory small locomotives suitable for
this work may be obtained for $3,000 to $4,000. The storage battery type
of electric locomotive is also much used for shop anel plant work where
the hauling is most of it under roof. They can not be used for grade
climbing, however, owing to tbe weight of the storage batteries. They can
Kig. 5. Hydraulic Lili tor Elevators
be very easily operated by a man of no skill and can be charged at night.
They cost less to operate than small locomotives, but considerably more to
purchase. Catalogues of the various makers of locomotives give the
tractive power of the latter. The weight thev will pull on a dead level
is usually founel by dividing the tractive force by the resistance due to
friction, which amounts to about 10 to 25 lb-, per ton with the class of
cars mentioned above and about 6'_ lbs. with railroad cars. The resistance
due to gravity when grades are to be climbed is 20 lbs. per ton of
2,000 lbs. for each rise of 1 foot in 100. Thus if the tractive force of a
locomotive is 1,500 lbs., and the frictional resistance of the cars is 10 lbs.
per ton, it will haul on a level 150 tons i including its own weight). On a
2% grade the total resistance would be 10 X 40, hence it would haul 30
tons.
Where the loaded cars have to be carried up a steep incline, two
methods are employed, in one the cars are hauled up by a rope anil in the
other they are run onto an elevator and carried up on this. The simplest
method is to pull the cars up ibe incline by means of a wire rope and drum.

186 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the latter being operated by either steam or electricity. The elevators maybe
run by either steam, electricity or yvater. In this case the platform is
usually merely lifted vertically by means of cables wound round a drum.
the latter being run by electricity or steam. Where a head of water is
available, water may be used as the power. The water merely acts against
a large piston, P (see Fig. 5), in a cylinder, C, open at one end. When
The tractive force of a locomotive is computed by multiplying the square of the
diameter of the cylinder in inches by the stroke in inches ; multiplying again by 85
per cent of the boiler pressure in pounds per square inch, and dividing by the diameter
of the driving wheel in inches.
Example.—The tractive force of a locomotive with cylinders 5 inches diameter
by 10 inches stroke, 150 pounds boiler pressure, anel driving wheels 20 inches diameter
•
sX'iox-SSx^o
= 1,594 lbs.
20
the car is to ascend, water is let into the cylinder forcing the piston out.
Attached to the piston is a traveling sheave, D, and wound around this
sheave and also a fixed one, R, are a number of turns of wire rope. One
end of this rope is attached to the elevator and the other is anchored. As
the sheave, D, advances, the rope, A, is pulled in, and the car hoisted. The
ratio of the distance, D, travels to that traveled by the car depends, of
Hoisting
Fig. R. Blast Furnace Charging Skip Dumping
course, upon the turns of rope around the two sets of sheaves. If only one
complete turn, the car travels twice as far as the sheave; if two complete
turns are made, it travels four times as far, etc. The theoretical hoisting
power will be the pressure against the piston multiplied by its area, divided

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 187
by the number of times farther the car travels than the sheave, D. The
actual lifting power is, of course, less than this, due to friction. The
sheaves must move independently of each other. The car should also be
balanced by ropes, pulleys and weights, as this lessens the power required
to lift it. The principle involved is that of the block and tackle reversed.
The cylinders are usually horizontal. For rapid work the same arrangement
of piston cylinder and sheaves is used. In this case the traveling
sheave usually moves about half as far as the car and is often vertically
placed. In this arrangement a 12-inch piston under 150 lbs. pressure will
lift about 5 tons where the car moves twice as far as the piston. In some
cases the car platform is attached directly to a piston working in a vertical
cylinder. This of course makes a very rapid hoist, but the cylinder must
be placed in a well, in order to get the necessary room.
The hoisting power of steel wire hoisting ropes may be found by the
following formula:
d'
L = 20000 X 6" — 757600 X •
D
Where d = diameter of rope in inches, D = diameter of drum in
inches and L = proper working load in pounds. From this we find that a
^-inch steel wire rope with a 2-foot drum will hoist with safety—
H
20000 X 1/a — 757600 X — = 5000 — 3946 = 1054 lbs.
24
These ropes are usually made 19 wires to the strand, six strands to the
rope and with a hemp center in order to make them flexible. The durability
and hoisting power of a wire rope depends principally upon the diameter
of the drums, sheaves, etc. The diameter of these latter increases with
the size of rope used. A 19-wire rope, y2 inch in diameter, should not be
used upon a drum less than 22 inches in diameter, a ^-inch rope on less
than a 28-inch drum, a y-'mch rope on less than a 34-inch drum, and a 1inch
rope on less than a 45-inch drum. When used on an inclined plane,
supporting rollers, to prevent the rope dragging on the ground, should be
provided at intervals of from 15 to 30 feet, depending on the grade,
gradual inclines requiring them nearer together than steeper ones. These
rollers are of wood 5 to 6 inches in diameter and 18 to 24 inches long, and
bave an iron axle.
Automatic systems for carrying cars up an incline by means of endless
cables or chains on which are catches which take hold of the car and carry
it up the incline are on the market and are much used in mining where a
large amount of hauling has to be done. In these systems, the cars are
sometimes carried around a horizontal loop, where they are dumped either

188 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
automatically or by hand, and sometimes they are run into dumpers
which tilt or even completely revolve the car—emptying out its contents.
When material has merely to be elevated, buckets with hinged bottoms
and "skips" which run up an incline and dump automatically may be employed.
These are used to a great extent in blast furnace work for charging
the furnace. Fig. 6 shows the simplest arrangement of this sort. In
this the rear wheels of the skip have a very wide flange and project some
distance to each side of the front ones. When the point for dumping is
reached, the front wheels run off on a level track and the rear wheels being
caught up by rails placed outside the regular track, owing to their wide
flanges, the bucket is tipped and dumped as shown in the illustration.
Fig. 7 shows the method usually employed for dumping skips which
are hoisted vertically. In this case there is usually a small wheel on the
O
^ '
Vo
r -i
J
Kig. 7. Verticallj Hoisted Skip and Method of Dnmping
side of the skip. This passed in between two rails at the point where the
dumping is desired and inclines the car as shown to the right of the illustration.
Where material has to be conveyed over rough country and across
streams, the aerial cableway or wire rope tramway will be found cheapest
and most practicable. This consists of a wire rope suspended from

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 189
towers. Along this rope run carriages from which are suspended skips
or buckets. The motive power is usually an endless wire hoisting rope,
driven by a drum or sheave. The buckets or skips may be dumped automatically
or by hand. These systems have been used for distances as great
as two miles, and single spans as long as 1,500 feet have been employed to
cross rivers, deep ravines, etc. Sometimes the motive power is supplied by
a small motor located on the carriage which is run by electricity from a
trolley and wire.
The cable hoist-conveyor is really a combination of the cable hoist and
wire rope tramway. Two types are made—one in which the hoisting and
conveying are done by separate ropes and the other in which the carriage
descends by gravity and but one rope is required. The first system is much
more generally used, as it is adapted to many more conditions. It is generally
known as the "endless rope" system, and consists of a main cable
passing over towers or masts and firmly anchored to the ground at each
end. Upon this cable runs the carriage or trolley, which is moved backward
and forward by an endless rope. The hoisting is done by means of
another rope which runs through a pulley on the carriage. Both ropes are
operated by a specially designed hoisting engine located at either end of
the span. The drums of the engine are so arranged that the hoisting rope
is played out automatically as the carriage advances along the cableway.
The tubs or skips may be picked up at any point along the line and only
one man is needed to operate both ropes. When sufficient inclination may
be obtained the endless rope can be dispensed with and the carriage allowed
to run along the cable to the loading point by gravity. Here it is arrested
by a stop-block, which may be clamped to the cable at any point, and the
skip lowered. Cable hoist-conveyors are much used to connect quarries
and mills, as the system will allow loads of 20 tons or less to be picked up
at any point. Spans are seldom over 1,500 feet and the system is, compared
with other conveying and hoisting systems, fairly cheap, particularly
where ravines or rivers are to be crossed. For various types of cable
hoists, see an article by F. T. Rubidge, on "The Construction and Operation
o'f Cableways," in the Colorado Journal of Engineering. A number
of firms make a specialty of these wire rope systems of haulage and they
should be consulted for estimates of cost, plans, etc.
Extensive systems, working upon somewhat the same general principle
as the cable-hoist-conveyor, but of much more substantial construction and
elastic use than the latter, have of late years come into prominence for the
handling of coal and ore in large quantities. In such systems, the wire
cable is usually replaced by a steel bridge supported on towers or legs. This
bridge may be pivoted at one end so as to swing around in a circle, the leg
at the other end running on a circular track of either one or two rails. Or

190 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the bridge may move in a straight line along two parallel tracks. Where
boats are to be unloaded one end of the bridge usually extends out beyond
its tower over the water. Traveling on this bridge is a trolley or carriage
operated by an endless rope and also a rope to hoist the bucket just as is
done in the cable hoist-conveyor. The bucket may be loaded by hand, but
the automatic scoop buckets and buckets of the clam-shell and orange-peel
type are now almost universally used for this work. These latter two
buckets automatically open and shut, the operation being controlled by a
third rope. The clam-shell bucket is almost universally employed for ore
and coal unloading, and the orange-peel bucket for dredging—its sharp
points fitting it for digging.
Fig. 8 shows a system for handling ore. The ore is brought in by
barges. The bridge is moved along its parallel track until its water end is
over the barge, the clam-shell bucket is run out over the latter by means of
the trolley, lowered and filled by closing its two halves. The closing acts
by scraping to fill the bucket. The latter is then hoisted to the trolley and
Ore Handling System with Sturage Pile
run along over the storage pile to the proper dumping point, where it is
opened and its contents allowed to drop out. The operation of the bucket
is controlled from the operator's cabin located on one of the towers. (In
a few of the electrically driven systems the cabin motors, etc., are located
on the carriage and move along the bridge.) When drawing from the
piles the clamp-shell bucket picks up the material and places it in small
dump cars which run to the mill. These systems are adapted to the storage
of many thousands of tons of material. They seldom cost less than $25,000
and are designed especially to meet conditions. Their erection requires
especial knowledge and great engineering skill, and those contemplating

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 191
their installation should consult one of the engineering firms making a
specialty of such work. Such systems frequently handle from 250 to 300
tons of ore per hour.
A much simpler method where smaller quantities of ore are to be unloaded
and either stored or sent to the mill, consists of the revolving locomotive
crane equipped with a clam-shell bucket, Fig. 9. In this the
material is taken from the barge, or the pit into which cars are dumped, by
means of a clam-shell bucket mounted on the revolving boom or arm. The
bucket is hoisted from the pit to the end of the boom, when the latter is
revolved to a point over the pile where the material is dumped. Instead
of dumping into a pile the material may be dumped into a hopper and run
through a spout on to a belt conveyor or into a car and carried to the mill
or storage pile. In this latter case the expensive locomotive crane may be
Fig. 9. Revolving Locomotive I'raiie
displaced by a much less costly fixed one. Where vessels are unloaded,
the outfit often consists of a fixed arm or boom extending out over the
water. On this arm a carriage moves and the bucket is suspended from
this. When filled it is hoisted, the carriage drawn in over a hopper and the
bucket dumped into this. The material is then carried to the mill on belt
conveyors or in cars, etc.

Series Parallel Control
A. C Eastwood
A S pointed out in the last preceding matter, an electric motor is really
an inverted generator and when its armature is rotated under the
influence of a magnetic field, a counter-electro-motive force or
voltage is generated in its windings. The voltage available for forcing current
through the windings of the motor is, at any instant, the differencebetween
the impressed voltage and the counter or armature voltage.
When two motors are employed to drive a common load, the counterelectro-motive
force generated by one motor may be made to reduce the
voltage at which current is supplied to the other motor. This result is
accomplished by connecting the motors in series. With the series connection
the same current flows through both motors, flowing first through
one and then through the other. With the motors connected in series the
flow of current through them is opposed by the sum of the counter-electromotive
forces generated by each of them. This being the case, if the
motors be equally loaded, they will each operate at somewhat less than
one-half normal speed, the actual speed depending upon the load if the
motors be series wound.
This result will be readily understood when it is considered that the
speed of a series motor varies directly with the voltage supplied at its terminals
and with two motors connected in series, the voltage at the terminals
of either motor is the line voltage minus the counter-clectro-motive
force generated by the other motor. The sum of the counter-electro-motive
forces generated by the two motors will be somewhat less than line
voltage and if the motors be equally loaded the counter-electro-motive
force of each motor will be approximately one-half the line voltage so that
the voltage available at the terminals of either motor will be the line
voltage minus approximately one-half the line voltage and consequently
the motor will operate at approximately one-half normal speed.
In starting the motors from rest a resistance is, of course, first inserted
in series with them and this resistance is cut out as the motors speed
up. Since, however, the motors will attain only one-half normal speed
with all resistance cut out, the series connection offers a highly efficient
method of operating a pair of motors at one-half normal speed.
To obtain higher speeds it is necessary to connect the motors in
parallel, that is to say, each motor is given its own connections to the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 193
supply mains so that it is unaffected by the counter-electro-motive force
generated by the other motor. Each motor is then supplied with full voltage
and will operate at normal speed.
As to the matter of torque, twice as much torque can be obtained
with a given current drawn from the line, with the motors connected in
series, as can be obtained with the same motors connected in parallel.
These two advantages, that is, a highly efficient half speed and a high
total starting torque with relatively small current consumption, have led
to the almost universal use of series-parallel control on electric railway
cars. In street railway work in addition to the advantages of series-parallel
control, the conditions for its appXation are particularly favorable.
Series-parallel control, of course, requires the use of tyvo or more motors.
In street railway service conditions of clearance will not permit of concentrating
the driving power in a single large motor so that the use of
two or more smaller motors follows as a natural result with the advantage
that a motor may be geared to each axle, thus rendering the entire weight
of the car available for traction. In addition to this the cars run upon
approximately level tracks on the average and possess a large amount of
inertia which carries them forward while the circuit changes from series
to parallel are being made—conditions which are particularly favorable to
series-parallel control.
Two types of these series-parallel control are in general use in connection
with so-called railway-type controllers.
In one type the main circuit is opened while the motor connections are
being changed from series to parallel. In the other type when it is desired
to change the motor connections from series to parallel, one motor is short
circuited and the second motor carries the entire load while the first motor
is being arranged in parallel with it. In the first case it will be seen that
there is an entire cessation of driving power during the transition from
series to parallel while in the second case the available driving power is
cut in half and the motor remaining in circuit may be seriously overloaded.
In the case of a manually operated controller of the railway type
the period of time during which this abnormal condition may exist depends
upon the speed at which the operator moves the handle of his controller,
through the transition notches. In railway service where the car
runs horizontally and possesses a large amount of inertia which causes it
to coast for a very considerable distance even with power entirely cut off,
this condition does not produce serious results beyond frequent discomfort
to passengers when the motor connections are changed from series to
parallel. However, where the same systems have been applied to mill machinery
(particularly on the hoists of cranes, ore unloaders and bridges)
the results have been generally unsatisfactory. In these cases in place of

194 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the load being driven along a horizontal track it is hoisted directly against
gravity so that any undue or extended reduction in driving power is very
promptly met with a slowing down of the load. In many cases the load
has been known to come entirely to rest during the transition from series
to parallel. This causes the load to be again started with a severe jerk
when the first parallel position is reached, and results in a damaging shock
to the motor and driven machinery. If it is sought to remedy this difficulty
by operating the controller with extreme rapidity heavy rushes of
current, with equally severe strains on the motor and mechanism are likely
to result.
The Electric Controller & Mfg. Co. early recognized the defects in
existing systems of series-parallel control, but also appreciated the advantages
inherent in the series-parallel mode of operation. We therefore,
after much study and investigation, devised a system of control with the
intention of eliminating the objectionable features of other systems. We
have succeeded in accomplishing this and in addition have added a numbei
of valuable features.
In the E. C. & M. Co.'s system of series-parallel control the change
of motor connections from series to parallel is not governed directly bv the
hand of the operator but the change in connection is effected instantaneously
at a speed independent of the speed at which the operator moves
his controller handle. The motor connections are governeel by a transition
unit composed of tyvo double pole switches closed by magnets and
opened by a combination of springs and gravity. One of these double pole
switches governs the series connection of the motors and the other governs
the parallel connection. A mechanical interlock, which takes the form of
a simple pivoted bar, prevents one switch from closing when the other is
closed. The operating controller becomes a simple resistance switch with
the addition of a pair of light contacts controlling the circuits of the magnets
which operate the transition switches. These contacts overlap in
such a way that the circuit of the magnet governing the parallel switches is
closed before the circuit of the series switch magnet is opened.
Under these conditions the parallel switch tends to close before the
series switch opens but is prevented from doing so by the mechanical interlock.
The condition of affairs may then be compared with a gun which
is loaded and cocked and needs only the touch on a hair trigger to set it
off—the instant the circuit of the magnet of the series switch is opened the
parallel switch closes.
The change in motor connections, therefore, depends upon the position
of the lever of the operating controller but does not depend upon the
speed at which the operator moves this lever.
As a matter of fact the transition from series to parallel is accom-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 195
so brief that its effect is not indicated by a delicate Weston ammeter placed
in the motor circuits. In passing from series to parallel not the slightest
retrogression of the needle toward zero can be observed.
This system of series-parallel control was first installed, some three
years ago, on the hoist of an ore bridge in which a load of twenty tons is
hoisted vertically against gravity. The transition from series to parallel
cannot be detected in watching either the motors or the load. The transition
is effected so rapidly that as far as results are concerned there is no
cessation in the flow of current. The acceleration of the motors is smooth
and even from rest to full parallel speed.
The introduction of this controller eliminated the excessive breaking
of cables, stripping of gears and other troubles both mechanical and electrical
which had formerly occurred on the same machine when equipped
with an ordinary railway type controller. Its successful operation has led
to the adoption of this type of controller on many other machines used in
steel works operation.
In addition to eliminating the objectionable features of transition
from series to parallel, this type of controller offers distinctive advantages.
By removing the series and parallel contacts from the operating controller,
the latter becomes a simple resistance switch. All of the heavy arcing is
taken on the contacts of the transition switch, which are efficiently protected
by individual magnetic blow-outs. There is practically no arcing on
the contacts of the operating controller, and hence the life of the contacts
is increased and they remain smooth so that ease of operation is insured,
a feature which is appreciated in cases where rapid operation is essential.
Only one side of the line enters the operating controller directly ami the
voltage between adjacent contacts is very low, which eliminates the danger
of accidental short circuits.
The use of magnetically operated switches for controlling the transition
offers a ready means of protecting the motor against both overload
and failure of voltage, the circuit breaker in either case being reset by
simply returning the controller lever to the off position.
Cut-out switches are provided by means of which either motor may be
disconnected in case of trouble and the load carried by the remaining
motor. The arrangement of these switches is such that they may be
mounted at any convenient point independent of the controller, there
being no necessity of a mechanical interlock which limits the operation of
the controller to the last series notch. The latter arrangement is commonly
found in controllers of the railway type and proves confusing to
the operator when the operation of his controller is unexpectedly limited
to half its normal sweep.
In the E. C. & M. Co.'s series-parallel controller the controller may be

196 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
operated on any of its steps irrespective of whether either or both motors
are in service.
The E. C. & M. Co.'s series-parallel controller proves particularly desirable
in cases where large motors driving heavy machinery are to befrequently
stopped and started since, with this controller, the same starting
torque can be secured with but one-half the current required by tyvo motors
connected in parallel or by a single driving motor of double their size.
This greatly reduces the peak loads on the power station and distributing
system and also reduces the heating of the motors.
Having demonstrated its successful operation under the most unfavorable
conditions, that is, in the control of motors hoisting a heavy load
against gravity, this system of control is, of course, perfectly applicable to
motors driving the bridge motion of cranes and charging machines, transfer
cars, electric locomotives, etc.

« f / ^ D V « T B I A L
G R E A T activity prevails in the ore trade
on the lakes, from Cleveland and other
ports, and the ore region of Superior
Four million tons of ore came to Cleveland
in the month of August, and six million tons
are expected during September.
Forty-nine boats came through the Soo
Canal Friday, Sept. 10th, anel forty-one went
north.
In the old days a year's freight of ore reaching
8,000,000 or 9,000,000 tons was considereel
huge. Now the average is 30,000,000.
Much comment has arisen about the bad
form of rooms in the Cuyahoga County Court
House at Cleveland.
The circuit court room, which is 29 ft. wide
with a 37 ft. ceiling, is considered so badly
out of proportion that accoustic properties will
be completely off.
Their height exceeds their width by eight
feet, whereas it is the custom to nearly always
make the ceiling lower than either the floor
dimensions.
Extras and changes on the new building to
date have reached the sum of $150,058.88, and
it is believed that it will sum to $250,000 before
the building is completed, and much is
blamed on the architects.
Uncle Sam Making Immense
Improvements
The United States Government is now engaged
in making some immense improvements
at "Old Fort Mason," in San Francisco. Cal.
These works consist of the construction of
three great docks that are to be used for the
government transports. The building of these
big wharves will be the largest piece of government
work undertaken for some years past.
T>
^^Xv.
-x^x; rw -~yri
The total cost of these improvements—including
what the railroad company will expend—will
reach about $2,000,000 in the aggregate.
Already the contract for the construction
of the three great docks has been let.
The San Francisco Bridge Company, of San
Francisco, was the successful bidder, the bid
aggregating $1,182,200. The contract was
awarded that firm October, 1908, and called
for the completion of the wharves within
30 months from the date of the awarding.
Work was commenced soon after the contract
was let, and has been actively prosecuted
ever since. It is progressing very well, and
will be completed within the period required
in the contract. However, the above given
sum does not include the complete improvements
to be made at that point, according to
the plans prepared by Rankin, Kellogg and
Crane, architects, at Philadelphia. Contracts
for the full completion of this immense improvement
will be awarded just as soon as
present work is sufficiently developed to proceed.
The work is under the general supervision
of Major George McK. Williamson, constructing
quartermaster, U. S. A., assisted by Otto
W. Degen, civil engineer, Quartermaster Department.
Reinforced concrete and steel will constitute
the principal material used in the building of
these expensive improvements by Uncle Sam
The sea wall will be 1,023 feet long, constructed
of reinforced concrete, and will start
from the northeast corner of Laguna and Tonquin
streets, thence along the north edge of
Tonquin street 688 feet, and north 123 feet,
and east 212 feet to Fort Mason Military
Reservation.
This wall will be 25 feet wide at the base,
and 57 feet high; depth in front of the sea
wall will be 32 feet at low water. A crib wall
will be constructed on the east side of Laguna

198 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
street, from the corner of Tonquin street, to
the reservation line, about 600 feet of sunken
timber and stone crib, with reinforced concrete
wall on top. The area enclosed by both
these walls will be filled in with warehouses
erected thereon.
The wharves proper will start from the face
of the sea wall, each 500 feet long; two will be
81 feet wide, the middle one having a width of
118 feet, the basins between being 200 feet
wide. The docks will be constructed of concrete
cylinders, placed 1SJ-4 feet on centers,
and the entire superstructure built of reinforced
concrete and steel beams; the sheds
will also be reinforced concrete and steel, well
lighted and containing two railroad tracks
each. Each concrete cylinder will he 7 feet
in diameter
The top of the docks will be elevated 105
feet, and the entire area dredged to a uniform
depth of 32 feet below low water. The main
entrance to these immense transport clocks will
be on Laguna street. When completed, six
large transports can easily be docked at one
time at these wharves.
The Southern Pacific Railroad Co. is now
constructing a tunnel 1,000 feet long, through
the Military Reservation, under Fort Mason.
and tracks will later be laid from the mainland
out to the huge docks and connect directly
with the great sheds. The tunnel tracks will
be a part of the Belt Line along the water
front, and the latter will be connected with
the Harriman System.
The road will be completed in time to be
used when the docks are completed. Later,
other contracts are to be let in connection with
the wharves. These further improvements
will comprise the building of an immense retaining
wall to protect the bluff at Fort Mason;
also power house, warehouses, twelve officers'
quarters, administration building, and stables,
etc. The purpose of the government is to have
all of these great improvements completed
about the same time.
The San Francisco Bridge Co. have verysuperior
facilities for carrying forward the
work with expedition. A large cement mixing
plant has been installed on the temporary
works, and operations are being crowded with
all haste, and without any loss of time. A
large force of cement workers are employed—
day and night—several shifts being worked to
the best advantage.
Immense quantities of both cement and steel
will be used in building the huge docks, and
large orders have been placed both iu California,
and with Eastern firms.
J. MAYNE BALTIMORE,
San Francisco, Cat
Alaska Yukon Expo. Will Pay
For Itself
The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition ended
its last quarter with every cent of its floating
indebtedness paid. Nearly all of its bonds are
retired and the attendance is increasing. This
week's profits should pay the remainder of the
bonds.
The Engineers' Club of Philadelphia is now
situated at 1317 Spruce Street, Philadelphia
The chairman of the Advertising Committee
is now Mr. H. E. Ehlers, and the secretary,
Mr. W. P. Taylor.
Mr. George H. Frost, president of the Engineering
News Publishing Co., has just placed a
contract with Frank B. Gilbreth, 60 Broadway,
New York, for the construction of a brick and
reinforced concrete building, to be used as a
publishing house.
This building will be strictly fireproof and
modern in every respect.
Frederick A. Waldron, 37 Wall street, New
York, has been retained as architect and industrial
engineer in charge of the mechanical
layout of the plant.
A 40-Ton Triplex Chain Block
When the ordinary mechanical man thinks
of a chain block it is invariably of the smaller
capacities, ranging from }% differential to the
1, 2 or maybe 5-ton blocks of higher efficiency
Even engineers who should be hoisting experts,
but who are not directly in touch with
the latest practice in the use of hand hoists,
too often think of chain blocks above 10 tons
as something unusual; experiments to be tried
only when no other means of handling heavy
loads can possibly be made available.
The larger sizes of chain blocks are just as
available under certain circumstances as the
differential is for light loads. The Yale &
Towne Manufacturing Co. has regularly for
years made their Triplex chain blocks up to
20 tons capacity. The 40-ton Triplex illus-

trated above has recently been developed to
meet the demands of engineers for a dependable
hand hoist to handle very heavy loads,
where the installation of an electric crane or
powerful steam hoist, because of time or cost.
would be out of the question.
The 40-ton Triplex is composed of two 20ton
units with equalizing bars at top and bottom.
This provides for single point stispen-
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 199
Ill-Ton Triplex Chain Block
sion and for a single point for attachment of
load. The equalizing bars are made of two
channels placed back to back with separators.
Provision is made for the swiveling of each
unit at top and bottom. The clevises or points
of attachment enable the user to easily put the
hoist in place wherever used, and also afford
a convenient point for the attachment of the
load.
It will find its greatest fields of usefulness
in wrecking work (especially marine) ; in
manufacturing plants ; at mines and quarries,
and in building operations, and generally for
It may he installed over railroad tracks on a
properly guyed temporary or permanent
trestle. Lateral motion may be secured by one
or more trolleys running on a large "1" beam.
It is available for handling heavy ordinance,
etc., where head room, cost, infrequency of
lift, or other conditions do not permit the use
of power cranes of sufficient capacity. The
hand chains are arranged to permit 2, 4 or 8
larger than 40 tons it is generally of sufficient
size to permit two of these hoists to be worked
together, giving a capacity of 80 tons.
Practical Lumbermen Will Aid
in Conservation of Yellow Pine
The interest being taken by practical lumbermen
in the conservation of the forests was illustrated
at the semi-annual meeting of the
Yellow Pine Manufacturers' Association, which
was recently held in Chicago. The report of
the committee on the conservation of the yel­
loading and unloading.
low pine forests received much attention anel
men to work effectively. Where the load is was adopted unanimously.

200
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Among the chief recommendations made by
the committee in its report was for the cutting
down by lumbermen of their timber by two
operations with an interval of from fifteen to
twenty years, the ripe timber being removed
during the first cutting, and to leave from 2,-
500 to 3,000 feet of standing timber on each
acre. It was shown by such a method of lumbering
that a decided advantage would accrue
to the lumbermen through the increased
growth and consequent gain in timber which
would be had between the first and second
cuttings.
The Association also adopted the recommendation
of the committee providing for the
appointment of a committee with power to act
and to expend funds to co-operate with the
Forest Service, on matters of education, forest
fires and taxation.
Wood Users of Northwest Much
Interested in Wood
Preservation
Interest in the preservative treatment of timber
to increase its length of life is developing
at a rapid rate throughout the northwestern
states. A few years ago, when all kinds of
wood were cheap and plentiful, people selected
the kinds which were most durable and best
suited for their purposes. The result is that
the most valuable species are nowadays comparatively
scarce and high, and the cost of
wood has become a big item particularly to
farmers, railroads, mines, and telephone companies.
The men controlling these industries
naturally began to cast about for some means
of reducing the cost of fence-posts, piling,
railroad ties, mine timbers, telephone and telegraph
poles, and other timbers likely to decay,
and making them last longer The thought
naturally occurred: "If there were some way
to make the common anel cheap kinds of timber
last longer, it might help some.'' Various
people got busy and worked out several different
methods of treating timber cheaply and
yet effectively. Probably thc United States
Government, through the Forest Service, has
worked on this longer than anyone else in this
country. Now the processes have been so well
developed that the economy of timber treatment
is a sure thing. The life of almost any
wood can at least be doubled by thorough impregnation
with creosote or zinc chloride. This
alone means a great saving, both in the original
cost of the timbers and in the labor of replacing
them. But better yet, cheap woods when
well treated are just as good as the valuable
and naturally durable kinds, and will last considerably
longer than those which are naturally
durable but untreated. Then cottonwood, willow,
spruce, lodgepole pine, or jack pine can
be used in place of cedar for posts; birch, hemlock,
or tamarack in place of oak for ties;
lodgepole pine in place of cedar for poles;
anel in every case the treated substitute will
last longer than the wood commonly used, and
will cost less.
The railroads, always alert for greani
economy in management, were the first to
adopt preservative treatment for their ties.
The Northern Pacific now creosotes nearly
every tie used. Its two creosoting plants at
Brainerd, Minn., and Paradise, Mont., are running
to their full capacity and using any species
of wood. The Great Northern operates
a large plant at Somers. Mont., where it uses
zinc chloride instead of creosote. Two new
plants will be erected very soon by the Great
Northern, one at Cass Lake, Minn., anel another
near the western end of the line, in
Washington. The new transcontinental road,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, is
also planning to build a very large treating
plant in Montana within a short time.
The large mining companies are not far behind
the railroads in adopting preservative
treatment for the timber used in the mines, as
enormous quantities of timber are used each
year for supports. While a great deal of this
is temporary in character, there are many
tunnels anel shafts which must be kept open
for a long term of years. Here, where the
wood decays very rapidly, and the cost of replacing
the timbers is very great, a good deal
of money can be saved by treating the timber
with a preservative. The Bunker Hill & Sullivan
Mining & Concentrating Co. of Kellogg,
Idaho, and the Hercules Mining Co. of Burke,
Idaho, last year obtained the assistance of the
Forest Service in designing and building treating
plants. The Forest Service furnished an
engineer in wood preservation to take charge
of the plants until employes of the companies
had become familiar with tlie work, the companies
paying the expenses. After six months'
operation under the supervision of the Forest
Service, the latter withdrew and the plants are
now being run by the companies themselves
Any person who so desires can obtain similar
co-operation with the Service by application
to the District F"orester at Missoula, Mont

Equivalent to a College
A student of Sibley College, Cornell University,
inquiring as to how much credit hewould
obtain for shop work done during the
vacation, was told that it was the practice to
give one hour's credit for every two hours
devoted to actual work in a shop or foundry,
provided the latter were approved hy the
faculty as a proper place for gaining useful
experience.
Asking if the Yale & Tovvne Works at
Stamford would fit this description, he was
informed that double credit would be given
for any time spent in these works, as, in the
opinion of the faculty, it was the full equivalent
of the instruction given at the college, and
that in this respect it ranked with a very few
of the leading industries of the United States
New Word Coined
There is a growing tendency to call the
larger particles that go into concrete with
sand and cement, aggregates, when in fact the
whole mixture is the aggregate or sum.
A very close study of the word fails to re­
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 201
veal any definition which would imply that it
could be used as a name of an object, and since
the broken stone, slag, cinder or other things
put in with the cement and sands are objects,
such a term that means the whole is entirely
out of place.
Hence, I suggest the word copard, to mean
anything of a larger size that will be used in
concrete with sand and cement. Copards are
the co-partners of the sand and cement to
make up the aggregate or sum total, which is
the concrete. Then to use the word, say "the
copards in the concrete mixture were slag,'' or
'a washer for copards should be built near the
source of supply." Or if no new word is
needed do not use aggregate, as it is confusing
and improper.
Comments
The Iron Trade Review is now publishing a
daily paper, with a large edition, to come out
on the day when the weekly edition comes
forth. This affords them an opportunity to
get in their market reports and other matter,
which would probably be allowed to wait for
the weekly edition.

Engineering and Practical Articles
Observed Expansion in a Long
Steam Line Does Not
Prove the Rules
The question of expansion is always an interesting
one, but never was it of greater
interest or importance than in this day of uncommonly
large and long steam lines subjected
to varying degrees of unusually high temperature.
The Valve World gives an illustration, showing
the actual expansion of a 10-inch steam
line now in service, the measured elongations
indicating that most of the accepted rules for
expansion are not applicable to all conditions.
The line, shown in the accompanying etching,
was anchored near the center, and the
expansion was taken up by high U bends at
each end.
On the left-hand side of the anchor 292 feet
of pipe expanded eight inches, and on the
right of the anchor 438 feet of pipe expanded
ten inches, which is equivalant to an elongation
of 2.74 inches per 100 feet, and 2,28 inches
per 100 feet on the respective sides.
!
V0
7^
HO
-es.7-
-22-11-
kiL/^
"*£-. 50.1.-50 |,5Qd So | ,5o| 50
t- 8 ->r^_?r4i4('34* *2?*TI!'T'**l*3*r*4'4'5^6
7 7 l'-S.
Long Steam Line Showing Expansion
The difference in temperature was 335 — 59
= 276 degrees, Fahr., and the expansion agrees
fairly w-ell with the table in Haswell, which
gives an expansion in steel rod of .00763 for
each 100 feet per degree of difference in temperature
: but it is much greater than the assumed
expansion of other authorities.
Under the Haswell rule the 292 feet should
expand 6.15 inches, nnd the 438 feet 9.22 inches,
or a total of 15.37 inches, as against an actual
observed expansion of 18 inches. According
to other authorities the elongation in this line
should be about 13 inches.
The Use of Sextant in Polar
Explorations
The sextant, whose service in polar trips has
been reported by the explorers, is an instrument
small enough to be conveniently held in
the hand and is equally well adapted for measuring
the altitude of celestial objects, in order
to obtain the latitude and local time, or for
measuring the angle between the moon and
sun, of the moon and a fixed star, to ascertain
the longitude.

?rTT> OFXE-Z&r
GSXrEtfrivB-T,
Z&cxdtj&j*
w
v\^*OTr
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 203
Showing Use of Sextant
it is called sextant because the measure is
recorded on an arc of 60 degrees, one-sixth of
a circle. It consists of a frame, usually of
metal, stiffened by cross braces. The arc at
the bottom of the frame is marked off with
double the number of degrees actually measured.
This is done because the fixed and movable
glasses attached to the instrument give a
double reflection of the objects observed and
thus form an angle with reference to each
other equal to only half the angular distance
between such objects, one of which is seen directly
and the other by reflection. The arc of
120 degress thus records the actual angle.
Midway on the frame on one side is a telescope
and opposite, on the other leg of the
frame, is a glass, transparent in the upper half
and silvered in the lower half. Both the
telescope (E-T in the accompanying figure)
and the glass (H) in the figure, are firmly attached
to the frame. At the top of the frame
is a mirror (C in the figure), which is movable
by means of an arm (R-M) in the figure) to
which it is fastened. C is called the index
glass and the arm (R-M) revolves around it.
At M is a shifting scale for making fractional
measurements and called a vernier.
The observer takes the instrument in his
hand and holds the telescope horizontally.
Looking through the telescope he may see the
horizon through the transparent surface of the
horizon glass H. Then, if wishing to bring the
sun into line, he manipulates the mirror C as a
child handles a hit of looking glass for the pur­
pose of catching the sun's glare and throwing
it into the eyes of a companion. He turns the
arm R-M until the mirror C carries its reflection
and throws it back to the silvered surface
of the glass H. When the sun is thus made to
coincide with the horizon the section of the
graduated arc over which the arm R-M has
passed indicates the measure of the angle in
degrees, which is exactly determined by the
movable fractional scale or vernier.
Arabian astronomers are credited with having
used a sextant as far back as the year 995,
with a radius of 59 feet 9 inches. The modern
instrument was invented independently about
1730 by Thomas Godfrey of Philadelphia and
Captain Hadley of the British navy.
Economy in Second-Hand
Bridges
Builders of new lines may find it to their
advantage in preparing estimates on bridge
work to obtain figures as to the cost of secondhand
railway steel bridges which have been
discarded because of the increasing weight of
the equipment of steam railways. Many of
the structures which have been cast aside are
in good condition and some of them have been
in service for but a short time. It goes without
saying that they can be secured for less
than the cost of new steel bridges, and where
the feature of prompt delivery is to be considered
they can be had in much shorter time

204
than is required for the manufacture of new
material. In many instances structures of this
sort may be secured direct from the purchasing
agent of some large steam line, although
there are brokers who make a specialty of this
class of material.
Which the Stronger ?
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Will a post stand greater pull in the direction
of BC or AB?
A pull in the direction of BA will put the
soil in a state of compression, while in a pull
in the opposite direction will break or lift the
soil out ahead of the post. The resistance of
the solid against compression mch greater
/
than to being broken out, so that the post will
stand a greater pull in the direction of BA
than BC.
Manganese, according to the American Machinist,
is the best deoxidizing agent for nickel
and its alloys, and is now extensively used.
Not only does it remove the oxygen, but the
sulphur as well.
Wireless telegraph messages have been received
at Point Loma from Sitka, a distance
of 1905 miles. This is the longest distance
across which a message has been sent on the
Pacific coast.
Paper making in Japan has been very active
for the past year or so. New companies have
been formed and old ones enlarged. Most
Japanese mills use steam for motive power,
and nearly all machinery used is of American
make.
Cost of Breaking Boulders by
Heating
Two boulders, one 154 cu. yd., and other 1%
cu. yd. These two were found on the same
day. The rock was mica schist. That evening
two men worked overtime to break up these
boulders. Discarded boards used in the runways
were split up to make the fire. In an
hour the stones were heated enough to break
them so they could be sledged, and 15 minutes
more were consumed in sledging them. Thus
the first breaking by heat cost 30 cents, with
wages at 15 cents per hour, and the sledging
cost 7% cents. This gave a cost of about 10
cents per cu. yd. for the heating and about 3
cents per cu. yd. for sledging.
On another day a boulder having 2% cu. yds.
in it, and one with W2 cu. yds. were dug out,
and it took two men two hours to heat and
break these, the extra time being needed on
account of the increased size of one of the
boulders. This was at cost of 16 cents per
cu. yd. for breaking up the boulders so that
they could be loaded into a wagon by hand
Nothing has been allowed for the wood, as it
was waste and would have been thrown away.
A dispatch from Berlin states that the Wireless
Spark Telegraph Company claims to have
beaten the Marconi transatlantic wireless record
by about 300 miles. They transmitted messages
for 2290 miles, between Hallen, near
Berlin, anel a Hamburg-American Line steamer,
the Cap Blanco, off Teneriffe, in the
Canary Islands.
According to L'Electricien, a Vienna firm
has recently placed on the market brushes
made of glass, which are to replace emery
cloth for cleaning and polishing the commutators
of dynamos and motors. These brushes
are said to clean the commutators without
scoring the metal, and their use avoids the inconveniences
and dangers of emery cloth.
The occurrences of spinel in blast furnace
slags appears to have been first determined in
1880 by Muirhead, who found that highly
aluminous slags left a proportion of very intractable
residue varying from five per cent
to seventeen and a half per cent of the whole
weight. This when analyzed proved to be
spinel, with about one-third of the magnesia
replaced by iron.

L
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 23
^ R O D E R I C K & EfcASCOM R O P E C O .
BRftKCrl ?.§ WARREN ST. N.Y. \ ST.LOUIS,MO.
WIRE ROPE \and AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway
in Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR'
This is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during
1907.
Asl^ for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
F O R HOISTING
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either wiih
or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200 PER CENT GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your inquiries are solicited.
M a c o m b e r S t W h y t e
__ ^-^ _-___--_.-_., QUALITY
R o p e C o m p a n y manufacturers
271 So. Clkiton St., CHICAGO. Mills, Coal City, 111.
New York Boston Pittsburg New Orleans Portland
J

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Professor Wiechert at Gottingen, Germany,
has just had constructed two great seismographs,
the instruments which record
earthquakes, even when the region shaken is
thousands of miles away. One of them has a
horizontal, the other a vertical pendulum. The
horizontal pendulum weighs seventeen tons.
Four levers placed in series multiply the movements
of the ground 2200 times. This apparatus
is so sensitive that it registers the shocks
transmitted to the earth by a gas motor a mile
and a half distant. The vertical pendulum
weighs 2600 pounds, and its multiplying levers
amplify the movements of the soil 160 times.
A little more than twenty years ago, Auer
von Welsbach, who was engaged on researches
on the rare earths, invented the modern incandescent
mantle. His first mantles were made
of zirconia and yttrite earth, in the proportion
to make a normal zirconate. Shortly afterwards,
he found that the best material has a
basis of thoria. Pure thoria, which requires
care in its preparation, gives very little light,
but if a small percentage of a colored and permanent
oxide, such as ceria, is added, it gives
good illumination.
Was Devised by Lord Dewar.
The bottle that keeps its contents hot or
cold for hours was no catch-penny invention.
The glass vacuum jacket was first devised by
Lord Dewar in 1895 for his experiments in
liquefying air and gas.
Explosions from Machine Belts.
To show how great may be the generation
of static electricity in German factories, Prof.
M. M. Richter has drawn sparks an inch to an
inch and a half long from a five-inch belt on
a wheel making 10,000 revolutions a minute.
The risk of explosion in dust or gases seems
to have been overlooked. Coating with bronze
or aluminum powder prevented static charges,
while a weekly application of acid free glycerin
was a remedy and added durability to the
leather.
The mineral production in the United States
now exceeds two billion dollars per annum,
and it contributes more than 65 per cent to the
total freight traffic of the country. We now
produce nearly 500,000,000 tons of coal per annum,
or 40 per cent of the world's product. We
also produce 58 per cent of the world's iron;
22 per cent of the world's gold; 60 per cent of
the world's copper.
To find the weight of castings multiply the
cubic inches by 0.27 for iron, 0.29 for steel and
0.30 for brass.
New Kind of Motor.
The curious toy motor of Lucien Fourmer,
lately awarded the grand prize at a French exhibition,
seems at first to furnish energy from
nothing. Over a shallow vessel is mounted
horizontally an axle, with a heavy, loose fitting
rod passing at right angles through it, and the
ends of axle and rod are connected by cords
of hemp. When liquid is poured into the vessel
the two lower cords are soaked and
shrink, forcing the rod up. This raises the
center of gravity, and the tipper end of the
rod falls, turning the axle and immersing the
other pair of cords. Evaporation relaxes the
top cords, so that the rod is again pushed up.
Slow rotation can be thus kept up, and with
several rods and sets of cords it can be made
fairly regular and continuous.
To preserve wire rope from wear or exposure,
cover it thickly with linseed oil, or with
paint formed of equal parts linseed oil and
Spanish brown or lamp-black.
If used under water or under ground, the
best preservative is made by adding to one
barrel of tar one bushel of fresh slacked lime,
boil well and while hot saturate the rope. Sawdust
or oatmeal is sometimes added with good
effect.
Wonderful Boring Machine.
The new tunnel boring machine of E. F.
Terry of New York and O. S. Proctor of
Denver is a kind of gigantic auger that chips
its way through solid rock by means of pneumatic
chisel headed hammers. It is expected
to prove capable of doing something like 200
times the work of an ordinary air drill, with
one-tenth of the proportionate power, and a
recent test indicated that an eight-foot tunnel
could be driven through granite seventy-two
lineal feet in twenty hours. The cost of removing
5,000 cubic feet per day is estimated at
$300. The machine designed has an eightfoot
drill head, with twenty-five hammers,
which are arranged to cut in concentric overlapping
circles, so that the rock will be chipped
away over the entire face of the excavation.
The rock fragments are caught in steel pockets
and carried to the rear by a conveyor. The
frame of the machine is mounted on two
trucks, the forward one of two wheels and
the rear one of four, the latter running on a

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARKi
Automatic Rotary Planer Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS
(Incorporated*
Philadelphia, Pa.

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
22-inch gauge track, with a rack rail in the
center. A spur gear meshing into the rack rail
drives the whole machine forward. A compressed
air engine on the rear truck turns the
feed gear, another air engine on the forward
part of the frame rotates the drill head and
air for the hammers is carried through the
hollow driving shaft. In making a tunnel of
the usual size—say fifteen or twenty feet—the
eight-foot whole would he enlarged by the ordinary
drilling and blasting.
Light Without Heat.
The "perpetual lamp" of Prof. Molisch is a
glass flask of gelatine supporting a colony of
phosphorescent bacteria. The light is less than
that of a candle, but is sufficient for photography,
and germinating peas and lentils turn
to it as a source of energy. Being without
heat rays, it represents the much sought cold
light
Radium Energy Tremendous.
The change that a decade has wrought in
the conception of atoms anel molecules is not
easily grasped. Attempting to make it moreclear
in a late Royal institution lecture, Sir
J. J. Thomson pointed out that radium, representing
the greatest concentration of power
known, breaks up with the emission of a million
times as much energy as is produced by
the combination of an equal weight of oxygen
anel hydrogen. The corpuscles or atoms of
helium thrown off move with a tenth of the
velocity of light—or about 18,000 miles a second.
A ship under the fire of Dreadnoughts
would be exposed to mere child's play as compared
with the bombardment of an atom by
these particles ; and some idea of the condition
of a gas under the action of radium can
be had by imagining a town bombarded byshots
as large as houses and moving with a
thousand times as great velocity as any projectile
ever shot from a cannon. To account
for this amazing power is one of the most
interesting of problems.
Charity coeers a multitude of skins.
Recent Inventions
Dump Car.
The object of this invention is to provide a
dump car which is low-built anel which may
be readily- dumped and brought back to posi­
tion, while at the same time to provide mechanism
by means of which the car may be
locked in its normal position and released
from either side, the car being automatically
locked upon its return after dumping.
By the use of a cycloid curve on the cradles,
the inventor claims to be able to build the
dump car lower and that at the same time
there is greater adjustability of the cradle to
FIG. 1
different sizes of car bodies. By changing
the location of the cradle in relation to the
center of gravity of the car body a great range
of possibilities can be obtained in regard to
the more or less easy dumping or returning to
center position of the empty car body.
The inventor is Karl H. Hanson, of Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania.
Grab Bucket.
The special objects of this invention are to
provide a powerful, wide opening grab bucket
that shall be strong and durable; wdiich shall
have maximum closing and digging power;
and, which shall be provided with positive and
effective opening means comprising a minimum
number of parts.
The invention consists generally in a grab
bucket comprising a frame which carries the
closing mechanism of the bucket, in combination
with bucket members or scoops having
their upper ends pivoted upon said frame, a
toggle device having its ends pivoted upon
said scoops, a stirrup at the knee of the toggle
and an operating cable or cables extending upwardly
therefrom.
The inventor is Herman P. Anderson, of
Chicago. Illinois.

VOL. X
IF EC S3
T I M E
NOVEMBER, 1909 NO. 4
Fast Ship Faces Problem as it Nears
Speed Limit.
t< T DO not look for very much faster steamships than the fastest that
are now on the Atlantic," saiel Gustave 11. Schwab, head of
I
Oelrichs & Co., general agents of the North German Lloyd
Steamship Co. "I know that expectations grow to be a common belief
that we shall eventually drive ships at the speeel of express trains, but
T am afraid that popular imagination takes too little account of physical
conditions. It may seem easy to cut the time of the voyage in half,
which some optimists say will be clone in the regular course of things
in another few years, basing their views on the marvels of invention that
each decade brings forth in this inventive age, and they may find reason
for their convictions in the continued improvement in seagoing steamships,
which has kept pace with all the progress of the clay, but they
forget that there is a limit to all development and a limit to the development
of speed in all its applications, whether it be in the speed of man.
horse, railroad train or steamship, and I am of tbe opinion that the
bmit for steamships bas almost been reached. Thirty-five years ago
fifteen days was fair average time in crossing the Atlantic. I have an
impression that a record made in 1872, of something like thirteen and
one-half days, was thought remarkable anel now it is five days and
eight hours.
"In this comparison some prophets find the assurance of equal
betterment in shorter time with the coming years. They figure it out by
a rule of arithmetic, but it can't be figured that way on the record of
past and present performances. As I see it, the advances that have

206 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
been made have brought us nearer and nearer the best that can be done,
so that now it is not a question of attaining a doubling of efficiency,
but of gaining a knot or a quarter of a knot mi the best in new models.
"It may be that in five or ten years we may have some boats in
the ocean fleets that will do thirty knots, but beyond that a practical
man cannot look. This dues not mean so much as to cause amazement.
The Mauretania has developed about twenty-five knots. For a time
our line held the ribbon at 23.58. That extra knot has come hard and
has taken a long time. Five knots more will come harder and the ratio
of expense will increase with each succeeding knot that is added.
"Steamships cost millions of money. They cannot be set aside for
the introduction of new types that might lessen a voyage of 3.000 miles
or more a few hours. Neither can they be remodeled on experimental
lines and these considerations alone, which are those of business and
common sense, in the absence of any mechanical principle that is better
than those now employed, make it look to me as if we should plod along
as we are going for a good many years to come, adding now anel then.
of course, a ship to this fleet and another to that which may be a little
more comfortable and a little bit faster.
"What is an extra knot to a passenger? It is about twenty-five
miles, roughly speaking, a day ; a saving of something like five hours
in the passage of tbe Atlantic, reckoned in the speeel of the fastest
ship. An extra knot, on the other hand, means an extraordinary outlay
for the steamship companies. It means additional horse power, anel
that means bigger ship's, anel it means more fuel and more fuel capacity.
It must be potent that there is of necessity a limit to tbe size and the
cost of ships, and if we have not reached it wc must, at least, be approaching
it. So I say that if we ever do get a speeel of five knots more this
will be about as far as development can go. unless something that i.s not
known to science be discovered.
"You will hear of the wonders that are to be performed by the substitution
of this and that fuel for coal, anel so far as I know all experiments
with these strange fuels have been failures, but assuming that they
were successful and that they would greatly increase tbe efficiency of
a ship, advantage would be only theoretical, because those fuels are
neither universal nor abundant, and ships must have fuel they can get
at any station, anel of which the supply and period of duration can be
Eiccurately measured. It would be a difficult thing, indeed, to induce
shipowners to change their dependable fuel for an independable fuel, no
matter yvhat the saving in time and cost might appear on paper. Consequently,
I look for no help from that source. With what may come
from discoveries not vet known to man I clo not concern myself. T am

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 207
not rainbow chasing. I take things as they are and in them I do not
find the basis for a radical departure in ocean travel.
"I am not forgetting, either, that a learned Englishman declared at
the time that steamboats were first run that it was preposterous to
expect that a steam vessel would ever cross the ocean. Seeing how far
he was wrong, I might well be mistaken, but if I am satisfied it will
not be because of application of the things now at hand. Beyond what
i.s known to the inventors and the engineers, I would not try to penetrate
and, for all I know, they may not agree with me. I am only a businessman."

By Lawrence W. Cady
INTRODUCTION.
Electric Heating
W H E N asked last fall to prepare a paper on electric heating for
this society, I was unaware of the admirable paper which
Mr. W. S. Hadaway, Jr., was to read in November at New
York. I had roughly blocked out my paper, before reading the one
prepared by Mr. Hadaway, and the lengthy discussion which followed.
This paper and discussion appears in the February number. 1909, of the
Proceedings of this society. Although strongly tempted to dwell at
length on the theory and design of electric heating devices. I have modified
my first version, and will tell yyhat these devices are doing, and the
work for which electric heat can best be useel. After this paper is read,
T shall be glad to describe the apparatus before us.
DOMESTIC USE OF ELECTRIC HEATING.
You are all doubtless familiar with the little device yvhich has done
so much to introduce electric heating apparatus into our homes. The
electric flatiron when it first appeared was considered an expensive toy
only to be experimented with by people of wealth. The first ones were
naturally of crude design, and cost more for repairs than the current
consumed. Many of the recent models have a long life, are very efficient,
and are considered indispensable by their enthusiastic owners. In
fact, the speaker bas beard of house maids who would refuse to be
employed, unless their future mistress had electric flatirons. Not only
is Bridget pleased with them, but milaely has a small three pound iron
which she carries when she travels. She connects it to the lamp socket
in her room at the hotel and finds many little things to iron with it.
I wish there was time for a description of the many kinds of electric
heaters which are making home life easier and more comfortable. The
small water heaters yvhich will heat water for shaving in tyvo or three
minutes, can lie used so conveniently when hot water is needed at any
time, are much in demand. Then there is the heating pad which is
taking the place of the clumsy and heavy rubber bottle, filled with water.
This electric pad is adjusted, so that it can be useel for three different
heats, and will keep the temperature at which it is set as long as the

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 209
current is turned on. These are entirely safe from fire risks and have
enclosed thermostats, which turn off the current if the pads become too
hot.
The electric ovens make baking almost an exact science. The
speaker remembers that after he had perfected one, he had the principal
of the Boston cooking school bake pies, biscuits, and other things in it.
To her surprise, the color of the crust on the bottom of the food was the
same as the top crust. This did not seem so strange when she learned
that thermometers were placed all around the sides of the oven while
being tested, and that the heat was so distributed that they all read
nearly the same.
A type of oven has recently been mentioned by Mr. H. W. Hillman,
yvhich is of the tireless cooker variety. Its advantage lies in the fact
that it requires much less current to operate than the ordinary kind,
because it is turned off after a certain temperature has been reached.
Mr. James I. Ayer read a paper on electric heating before the National
Electric Light Association, at its Boston Convention in 1904, from
which the following is taken:
"The apartment house kitchen, supplied with hot water from a central
source, affords a fine opportunity for electric cooking. The freedom
from heat, offensive products of combustion, and leaky valves, the inevitable
soot, dirt, and chance explosions, incident to gas, and the absence
of all cooking devices between periods of use owing to the portability
of electric heaters, are tangible advantages when you can cook by the
clock, not by guess. While it may require slightly more instruction at
first to get the best results with electric apparatus because of greater
general familiarity with the use of gas for such work, yet after a brief
acquaintance the certain results which follow in a given time with the
current on, or with a given position of the regulating switch become
known, and the clock is depended on. There is no more frequent opening
of the oven, or lifting of the lid, and we all know it is well to 'keep
the lid on' for best results. That this is the ideal method is apparent
from a very brief investigation. To simply turn a switch, anel have.
without flame or any visible effect the broiler, stove, griddle, waffle-iron
or oven, change its temperature from that of the room to the point
necessary for perfect cooking in from two to five minutes, savors of
magic. A variety of cooking devices, each perfectly adapted to its work,
entirely independent of each other, separately controlled, having fixed
temperature limits, so that successive operations may be performed under
exactly the same conditions, all operating with no measurable effect on
the room temperature, constitutes in brief the electrical method. When
it is realized that the principal reason for the failure of the cook to re-

210 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
produce her best results is because the heat supply fluctuates between
such wide limits, due to improper care, we can see what opposition we
shall meet from the medical doctors when they realize this personal
equation is being eliminated from cooking operations."
A partial list of the household devices noyv on the market would
include ovens, chafing dishes, cereal cokers, waffle-irons, broilers, griddles,
toasters, corn poppers, coffee percolators, baby milk warmers, immersion
coil heaters, many forms of water heaters and stoves, plate
yvarmers, and other articles such as curling irons, soldering irons, sealing
wax heaters, glue pots, foot warmers, and air heaters. In fact the list
is: steadily growing and the numerous articles are constantly being im­
proved.
INDUSTRIAL FIELD.
As the flatiron was the forerunner of electric heating in the household,
so was the glue pot in the industrial world. In fact the possibilities
and use of electric heating in our manufactories is so little known
that a description of some of this apparatus may be of some interest at
this time.
This description will give a brief outline of this field, and show in
several cases that the electric method is much the best one of supplying
the heat required.
The speaker had the privilege of designing the "jacketless" electric
glue pot. So-called because it doesn't require a yvater jacket. It took
much experimenting to find the right metal, amount of heat and radiating
surface to keep the glue hot and not burn it. When this yvas ascomplished
it yvas amusing to see the prejudice that had to be overcome,
before it was adopted. The head pattern maker of the factory where
this yvas made, said that it was no good, that the principle of it was
wrong. He yvas at last persuaded to give it a trial; although he declared
a feyv hours' use would show its yvorthlessness. In his estimation
the vital defect was that a dry heat was supplied to the glue. The
speaker couldn't see why a dry heat of a certain temperature could have
any different effect on the glue from a wet one of the same temperature,
especially as the heat in either case yvas about 212 cleg. F. anel was supplied
to the outside of the pot. Much to the patternmaker's surprise, the
pot yvas even more satisfactory than the old method, which consisted of
a tank of water heated by steam, and having holes in which small pots
were set. He wanted the old method discarded, and put in an order for
twenty-five electric pots, for he said, "They can be connected to lamp
sockets here where they are needed, anel the glue will ahvays be hot,
instead of gradually cooling, as is the case when the pots are removed
from the water heater and carried to the place where the glue is needed."

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 211
Another advantage was that each patternmaker could make- just the- right
quality of glue which he required and he could dissolve the dry glue- in
the electric pot. This form of pot doesn't burn the glue- or injure- the
heater even if the glue dries up. There- arc- other forms of electric gluepots
which have water jackets, the same as the- kind that is placed in a
stove at home. If the water boils away in tbis jacket the heater usually
burns up, as does also the glue.
Ginn & Co., the school book publishers, who turn out an average- of
fifteen thousand books per day, recently built a large addition to their
plant. Electricity yvas to be used as much as possible in working their
machinery, and they hoped it might replace steam in beating some of
their apparatus. Book binders' glue has a certain amount of flexibility,
and care must be used in applying it at a certain temperature. A special
two gallon pot of the "jacketless" variety yvas designed, and fifty of
them were installed. After thev had been in use- about a year, the
speaker asked one of the operators what he- thought of it. He replied,
that he liked it very much and that it bad but one fault, yvhich was, that
the electric pot always kept the glue at the proper temperature. The
old style steam heated ones would oyer beat or get cold due to varying
Steam conditions, anel thus give him a little time to loaf.
At this same plant the embossing presses bad formerly been heated
by steam. These presses were useel in stamping all the gold letters on
look covers. The gold leaf has a kind of glue painted on one side
yvhich becomes soft on the application of heat. The type on these presses
yvas kept hot, and when they were pressed into the book covers would
melt the glue on the gold leaf directly under the surface of them, thus
fastening the gold leaf to the covers. The surplus gold leaf being easily
brushed off. A form of electric heater yvas designed to supply the required
heat, and this method made the press room much more comfortable
to work in during the hot weather. As formerly the pipes, supplying
steam to heat the presses, also distributed much heat to the room. Some
of the printing presses using colored inks for high class colored plates,
required a certain heat yvhich yvas supplied by electricity.
Another important field yvhich has scarcely been touched is the heating
of shoe machines by electricity. It is perhaps new to many, that
much of this machinery requires to be heated. The stitching machines
require not only the wax to be heated, but also all of the wheels over
yvhich the wax cord passes, and even the needle and guides require
enough heat to keep the wax from cooling, as this would cause it to
become sticky and break the cord. In one factory- the speaker saw the
machines idle and the men were playing checkers. The steam pressure
was low, and the wax pots on the machine were cold. As these men

212 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
were "piece workers," thev were not in an enviable frame of mind. The
electrically heated machines are supplied yvith a constant heat, and if
thc heaters become damaged they can be easily replaced by new ones.
There are a large variety of shoe machines that are being electrically
heated, and the list is increasing.
One of the fields yvhere electric heating is superior to any other
method, is that-which has to do yvith the embossing anel burning designs
on wood. The speaker yvas asked to inspect an embossing heater
which yvas located in a yvooel novelty factory near Gardiner, Mass.
This heater yvas in the form of a hollow cylinder, the outside surface
of yvhich had a pleasing design engraved on it. This cylinder was
heated by means of a gasoline blow torch. The cylinder yvas slowly
revolved, anel pieces of soft yvooel yyere placed between it and a roller,
and forced between them much as clothes are put through a wringer.
The design yvas thus burnt into the wood as it passed between the rollers.
Although this method is a common one, it bas several elefects. The
intense heat soon destroys the burners, thc use of gasoline greatly increases
the insurance rates, as when these factories once take fire, they
usually burn down, for the wood dust quickly spreads the fire in all
directions. A form of electric heater was designed for this cylinder,
which was then so well heated, that five or six impressions could be
burnt per minute.
Electric heat is successfully being applied in the manufacture of
food products. To again quote from Mr. Aver. "In the winter of 1902-3
the Natural Food Co. of Niagara Falls began the manufacture of a new
product they call 'Triscuit,' it being a cracker of shredded yvheat baked
or toasted by having heat applied to both sides at the same time. The
operation consists of passing the product through a machine between
two endless belts enclosed except at one end. The links of the belts
are electric stoves, and are so arranged that the triscuit is feel in
and held pressed between the faces of two stoves throughout the complete
circuit of the machine. The operation is continuous. Each
machine has about twenty-five hundred stoves and has a product of
seventeen thousand five hundred triscuits an hour. They are operating
about ten thousand of these stoves, and their failures up to date have
been less than one per cent from all cases.
"This is the largest development of electric cooking in the world, and
is successful in every way, the cost for baking, including labor, being less
for the same amount of product of triscuits than for shredded yvheat
biscuits using coal. There is no practical way of baking by applying
heat uniformly on both sides at once under pressure except by
electricity."

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 213
Electric heat can be used to a great advantage in chemical processes,
where certain fixed temperatures are required. It is used in the heat
treatment of steel alloys. Dentists are using it in their vulcanizers; to
anneal their gold, to heat water, anel their various instruments. Electric
welding has been brought to a high state of perfection. By tbis process
different metals can be cheaply anil perfectly welded together. Some
of the most efficient gas engine valve stems are made by this process.
The head being of a steel alloy best suited to resist the corroding gases
and to stand the severe pounding anel the stem of another alloy selected
to withstand the strains imposeel on it.
Electric soldering irons, solder pots and pots for the melting of
alloys of low fusing temperature arc in general use.
A very important field has been opened by the advent of the electric
furnace. It has been found that the electric furnace offers the best
knoyvn method of purifying steel. This fact is of special interest to
railroad officials, who have been experiencing so much trouble yvith defective
rails. There are over a dozen of these electric furnaces in
continuous operation, producing thousands of tons of high grade tool
steel, from the very- same raw material and the same oxidizing furnaces
of which the steel rails of this country are being made.
Some of the finest laundries are entirely equipped yvith electric
heating devices. These electric devices arc considered more satisfactory
than any other form of heat device. Many of the clothing manufacturers
are using electric irons, in fact it is surprising to learn of the wide
field in which they are being used. Manufacturers of these irons have
for the most part neglected to provide them with automatic heat regulating
attachments. Several of these protective attachments are noyv on
the market, and they will remove the last defects in this line of apparatus.
THE DESIGN OF ELECTRIC HEATING APPARATUS.
We will now consider the design of electric beating apparatus. This
part of the subject is of special interest to the speaker, and he would
like to go at length into the theory of electric heat, a critical comparison
of it yvith other forms of heat producing apparatus, and the gradual
evolution of electric heating devices. He realizes that this would require
a paper by itself, and that as it has been quite fully treated by other
writers, a brief description of some of the types of heaters used in the
present devices will be of more interest, at the present meetings.
The problem reduced to the simplest terms, is first to find the best
heat producing material to meet the requirements of temperature anel
voltage, then to keep the temperature of this material as low as possible.
In other words to draw away the heat so easily, that the constant

214 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
temperature of the heating element is not much greater than the material
it is required to heat. The- lack of sufficient attention being given to
this latter fact, was the chief cause of the failure of the earlier devices.
Some of the present apparatus on the market would be greatly improved
if this part of the design yvas given more attention. A number of devices
using the well known cartridge heating unit, were returned with the
statement that they bad burned out after being in use only a few hours.
On investigation it yvas found that the layer of mica insulation between
the edgewise winding of the resistance coil and the metal shell yvas a
few hundredths of an inch too thick. These coils bad been wound on
an arbor that was a little smaller in diameter than the standard one,
and so the assembler added enough mica to make the coils fit snugly in
their cases. This extra thickness of mica insulated enough heat to raise
tbe temperature of the coil much above its normal working one, and
this caused its destruction. When properly made these coils have an
active life of several thousand hours. The speaker remembers a life
tcst of several that stood a severe overload of over four thousand hours.
Although electric heating apparatus seems very simple to one yvho has
given it little study, it bas required much investigation and experimenting
to produce many of the present devices on the market. The recording
pyrometer is of great help in finding the limiting and working temperatures
of heating elements.
After the heat has been successfully developed, the next problem
is to place it where it will do the must work. The- immersion coil heater
is the most efficient form of device for heating licpricls, as the heat
generated is at once absorbed where needed. ( hie of its drawbacks is
that it is usually destroyed if the liquid boils away anel leaves it exposed
tn the air as the latter is a poor conductor of heat compared yvith liquids.
Some forms of electric beaters require a very even distribution of beat.
Three different kinds of metals were tried before one yvas found which
made the jacketless glue pot a success. Many of thc improved electric
heating elements, are elue to tbe neyv resistance alloys noyv on the
market. It would require a special paper to describe the number of
substances that have been anel are used to generate heat. The majority
of the heaters noyv in use are made from wire or ribbon. The speakcr
has tried various kinds of substances and obtained surprising results
from some of them. The metal silicon seemed very promising at first,
but its resistance would greatly lower when it became hot, which yvas
just thc reverse of the thing needed. An ammeter would register, say
one ampere at the start, when a unit made of this substance yvas placed
in circuit, and rise to fifteen amperes, in less than the half of that number
of seconds. It is needless to add that thc clement would soon become

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 215
very hot. Several other faults developed yvhich caused this mate-rial to
be abandoned.
A type of apparatus on the market has a coating of paint
made from rare metals yvhich is spread on sheets of mica. This paint
doesn't oxidize and will stand a high temperature. This matter of
oxidization is of great importance when high temperatures arc needed.
The following will illustrate this. A cartridge unit having a German
silver tube for its case, was heated over a copper disc at one end. This
cartridge yvas placed in a flatiron, anel subjected to a high degree of heat
for many hundred hours. When it yvas removed from the iron, the
German silver tube showed little deterioration, but only a few flakes of
copper oxide remained of the copper disc.
Platinum has long remained a favorite metal for electric heaters,
because no oxide will form on it, but its comparatively low temperature
coefficient, and very high cost, has prohibited the general use of it.
Iron is extensively used for loyv intensity heaters, such as car and other
lypes of air heaters. The fact that its resistance increases greatly as
its temperature rises would make it an ideal metal to use, but its affinity
for oxygen is so great that it has a limited field. German silver has
been and is used to a large extent, but the copper, nickel and other
secret alloys, some of yvhich have fifty times the resistance of copper,
are the most popular materials at present useel in thc manufacture of
electric heating elements.
Next to the importance of the best producing conductor, is its
electrical insulator. While this must insulate the electricity, it must be a
very poor heat insulator. Mica has proved to be one of the best substances
found up to date. Some kinds of enamel answer the purpose very well.
In fact one of the best kinds of heating apparatus has heaters yvhich
consist of loops of wire imbedded in enamel. This enamel conducts
the heat from the wire so quickly, that a much smaller wire is requireel
than could be used if it yvas exposed to the air. The cartridge units
consist of resistance ribbon wound edgewise in a closed spiral, the turns
being insulated yvith enamel. Other successful heat units consist of
wire or ribbon firmlv pressed between metal heat conductors, and insulated
with mica. Low intensity heaters often consist of coils of wire
or ribbon exposed to the air.
There is much room for improvement and the near future will
doubtless bring many valuable discoveries in electric heat producing
elements.
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES OF ELECTRIC HEATING.
Before discussing the future possibilities of electric heating, it may
be well to briefly state the heat values of various of the common materials

216 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
used for combustion, by means of thc British thermal unit, yvhich is
equivalent to 778 foot pounds. Anthracite contains about 14,000 B. t. u.
per pound. Dry wood has about 8,000 units per pound. Petroleum about
20,000 units per pound. Natural gas liberates from 1,000,000 to
1,200,000 units per 1,000 feet. Of course the above units are obtained
only by perfect combustion. (Inly a small proportion of these units are
available in the form of electric heat, when obtained by the ordinary
method of conversion. The electrical unit or kilowatt hour is the
equivalent of 3,412 British thermal units. It may be of interest to see
what fraction of an electrical unit we can secure from a pound of coal
which has an effective value of 14,500 B. t. u. or a little over four kilowatt
hours. According to Thurston, a good steam boiler should deliver 65
per cent of these units, yvhich would be 9,400. Allowing the fuel
efficiency of a steam engine to be 10 per cent, would leave 940 units
delivered to the dynamo. Allowing an efficiency of 90 per cent to the
generator, the electrical energy would equal 846 B. t. u. Considering
that 90 per cent of this energy is delivered as heat by the electric heater,
wc would get about 761 units or l-19th of the heat units liberated from
the coal. Estimating that 1 yvatt hour is equal to 3 41-100 thermal units;
the number of yvatt hours absorbed by the heater would be equal to
1 kilowatt hour. Although this is a very wasteful method, it is the one
in common use today.
The cost of electric heat varies yvith the price of fuel and the capacity
of the electric power station. Of course other items enter into
the cost also.
As the natural combustible materials become exhausted other forms
of energy must be used. Unless some cheap new form of energy is
discovered, electricity will be the agent employed to deliver heat where
it is needed. In fact tbe ability of electricity to deliver and concentrate
heat, at the required spot, with a comparatively small transmission loss
makes this method, in spite of its cost, the best one to employ in an increasing
number of cases.
Among tbe natural forces which can be utilized, are the waterfalls,
the wind, thc tide, anel the solar energy. The waterfalls head this list,
and are already supplying a large amount of electrical power. According
to Prof. Geo. T. Swain, the average cost of the mechanical horse power
from water power in this country is about $10 per year. To have this
compete with high grade coal at five dollars per ton, it should not exceed
$6 per horse power vear.
The speaker, if permitted, would like to describe the last three
sources of natural forces mentioned. As none of them have been developed
on a large scale, it would be but a rough estimate of their

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 217
possibilities. They would require in each instance a very large investment
per unit of power produced.
As heat advances in price, the methods of delivery and consuming
must be refined. Although a certain amount of heat may be required, it
can be so concentrated that but little escapes not use-el. To illustrate this,
suppose a varying amount of water is to be electrically- heated at the
smallest waste of current. A very good method would be to equip a
lank of sufficient yvater capacity yvith electric beating coils, and insulate
the outside of this tank with some non heat conducting material. Then
place a high intensity yvater heater uf very small size near the- faucet
where the yvater is to be delivered. This latter heater should be- of the
instantaneous variety, yvith the current on only when the yvater is
flowing. If the water from the faucet should require a temperature of
160 degrees Fab., and the temperature of the yvater entering the large
tank yvas 50 degrees Fab., the heating coils in tbe large tank would be
designed to raise the yvater 30 degrees and keep it about 80, while the
small instantaneous heater would then raise- it 80 degrees more, so that
tbe final temperature would be 160 degrees, yvhich is required.
One might at first think the better way would be to heat the large
lank to the recpiireel temperature. This would be satisfactory if a definite
amount of yvater yvas useel; but where this amount varies, it is best
to bring up to maximum beat only the actual amount of water needed.
The question may be asked, why not supply all of the beat by means of
the instantaneous heater. The chief objection to this method is that unless
large copper conductors were useel in the supply wires, there would
be a heavy T. R. loss, anel if this yvas part of a lighting circuit, it would
afflict the light of thc incandescent lamps.
Another illustration of electric heat economy would be the electric
beating of residences. There is a great difference of opinion among
people in the amount of heat required for this purpose. If one's clothing
is so designed and arranged as to insulate the body, without being heavy
cr closing the pores of the skin, one can enjoy the best of health in a comparatively
cool room, providing the air is pure. The present forms of
heaters in use, such as stoves, radiators and registers, tenel to concentrate
the heat in certain parts of the room. It is the unequal distribution of
heat yvhich makes a room either unbearably cold or uncomfortably hot.
The hot air from a radiator rises to the ceiling anel slowly descends. By
the time this layer of hot air is lowered to one's head, the feet continue
with most of the body, to remain cold. Before the feet are satisfied the
head rebels, and a yvindoyv or door is opened. The radiator also has the
disadvantage of not being able to supply fresh air to the room. If a small
fan motor is allowed to circulate the air near the register or radiator, a

218 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
ioom can be kept very comfortable with a small expenditure of fuel. A
small electric foot warmer will quickly show the wisdom of heating one's
feet rather than head.
An ideal method of heating residences by electricity would be to have
air flues connected to some source of pure air and leading to the various
rooms by numerous inlets. In these flues could be located low intensity
heaters, with convenient switch and thermostatic control. There should
also be placed several electric fans to draw out the air. This method of
distribution would provide a constant supply of pure air at any required
temperature. Electricity will have much to do in making the homes of
tbe future comfortable and many of these comforts will be furnished by
electric heating devices.

PAINT FOR RADIATORS.
Scientific Progress
W H E T H E R painting radiators has any effect on heating is a
problem of much interest. A practical investigation has been
reporteel by John R. Allen to the American Society of Heating
and Ventilating Engineers, and has brought to notice the influence of
various kinds of paint.
The transmission of heat yvas found to be about the same yvith
fourteen coats of paint as yvith two, the effect produced seeming to
depend upon the last coat applied. It is concluded that the condition
of the surface affects the heating more than the material through yvhich
the heat is conducted, but the vehicle carrying the pigment has some
influence.
Copper bronze and shellac gave better results than copper bronze
and linseed oil. Copper and aluminum bronzes seemed to be the poorest
coverings, enamels the best materials tried, but lead and zinc paints transmitted
heat very nearly as well as the enamels.
THE NEWEST PORTABLE WIRELESS.
The automobile yvireless telegraph station of tbe French army
resembles an ordinary limousine in appearance, weighs 7.260 pounds with
a crew of six men, can be driven tyventy-six miles an hour on a level byits
twenty-two-horse poyver motor, and can be made ready for operation
in six minutes, the normal radius of action being more than ninety miles.
The rear of the two compartments of the car contains a five-horse
power dynamo, the receivers and the operating key. A telescopic mast,
consisting of a number of concentric metal tubes ten feet long, is raised
to a height of sixty-six feet in a few seconds, the five antenna wireseach
160 feet long—being attached to its top. the loyver end of four
being insulated from the ground and the fifth passing to the receiver.
GETTING POWER FROM THE AIR.
If the wind blowing over London to a height of 500 feet could be
harnessed, Sidney Ransom estimates, it would do work equivalent to
that of a steam engine of 500.000-horse power, working day and night.
Wind turbines can be used for many purposes, are simple to erect and
do not usually require towers more than fifty feet high. In Germany a
wind power electric generating equipment has been brought out. No
attention is needed except to reduce the sail area of the wind wheel in
storms, a storage battery stores the excess current from the dynamo
until needed and a special regulator automatically keeps at constant

220 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
pressure the current supplied for house lighting or driving small farm
or other machines.
MELTED WOOD A USEFUL SUBSTANCE.
"Melted yvooel," first produced seventeen or eighteen years ago, yvas
forgotten after having been recorded as a scientific curiosity. Francis
Marre reports that further experiments have been lately made in France
and that after the volatile substances have been distilled from yvooel chips
the fibrous skeleton and the mineral salts are heated in a boiler to 1500
degrees Fahrenheit for tyvo hours, in an atmosphere of somewhat compressed
nitrogen. The exclusion of oxygen prevents combustion. The
mass thus obtained is hard and homogeneous, but the melting can be
performed without drayving off the distillation products, anel then the
fused yvooel becomes a hard amorphous solid, with a fine grain, and
taking a fine polish. The new material, yvhich can be cast and molded
and made indestructible bv preservatives, seems to be adapted to many
uses.
DIG UP LUMBER FOR COFFINS.
Mining for wood is the rather unusual industry found at Mongtze,
upper Tonkin, by the French consul. At some time a pine forest yvas
swallowed up, and the trees—lying in a slanting direction and some of
them a yard in diameter—are covered by eight or ten yards of sanelysoil.
The perfect preservation of the tops indicates that the trees were
buried at a comparatively recent period. Tbe timber supply seems to
be imperishable and is especially prized by the Chinese as coffin making
material.
STORAGE BATTERY LAMP
A decorative tabic lamp for public dining rooms, free from the disadvantages
of candles and having no troublesome wires, is simply an
electric lamp carrying a storage battery. The whole can be set in a
vase of cut floyvers anel tbe light, gleaming through the floyvers and yvater.
is very soft anel pleasing in effect.
A GYROSCOPE COMPASS.
The gyroscope compass, invented some years ago by Dr. Anscbuetz
Kaempfe of Kiel, seems to have proved a practical instrument. It is
based on thc principle—already applied in the automatic steering of
torpedoes—that a rapidly rotating body tends to keep in the same plane,
and during a nine months' test during a cruise of the Deutschland, in
different parts of the world, it kept the true direction, and on one
occasion yvas left untendeel and unchecked for a month. On being
adopteel in the German navy it is expected especially to prove much
more reliable than the magnetic compass for submarines.

A Unique T r a c k Grading Machine
Frank C Perkins
THE accompanying illustration shows the novel construction of
International grading machine designed by A. W. Snow and
constructed at Dttluth, Minn., for track service.
Thc car is 10X feet wide and 41 feet 7 inches long and thc extreme
lift of track is 4 feet, while the extreme width of shovel arms when open
is 20 feet 8 inches.
The car is equipped yvith a leveling device using tyvo independent
steam cylinders for pulling the wedge bet-ween the top of the wheel and
the frame of the car on the front truck, thereby putting the load directly
on the rail anel taking it off the springs and journals as well as reducing
the vibration to a minimum when the machine is in operation.
The car is equipped yvith steam and hand brakes and the trucks arc
of Steel Diamond pattern yvith inside journal boxes and draft riggings,
front and rear yvith automatic couplings. There are four propelling
chains operated by friction clutches and the main engines arc 10 inches
by 12 inches.
A dour drum tandem hoist is used witli \s inch wire cable double
yvith independent reversible engines for the swinging gear utilizing a
1 inch swinging chain.
The steam is supplied tn the carriage on the boom through tyvo inch
copper tubing, carried by a drum for that purpose, the metallic tubing
being paid out as the carriage moves to the forward end of the boom
and reels it up again as the carriage moves back to the car.
A locomotive type of boiler is used, having a diameter of 5 feet and
a length of 12 feet 8 inches, equipped yvith a Garfield injector and a
duplex steam boiler feed pump.
The boom is of steel, 36 feet in length, extending from the front
end of the car and swinging through 60 deg., the boom also having a
vertical movement of the same arc. There are four independent reversible
engines for the thrust motion on the carriage and it is stated that
tbe machine is operated most successfully yvith only three men. The
wheel base of the car is 34 feet and its weight complete is 45 tons.
It is stated that this track grading machine is one of the most
important labor saving machines yvhich has been invented in recent
years for the economical and rapid work required of it in electric railway
and steam railway service.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
View of Car and Convey*
Interior View of Car.

400,000,000 T o n s of Coal Saved by
a Fire Wall
ACROSS the mountain from Mauch Chunk, l'a., lies the famous
Panther Creek valley. Under its ragged suface lies 400,000,000
tons of anthracite coal. Tf it were possible to offer that coal for sale at
tidewater tomorrow it would bring two thousand million dollars. Yet,
for more than half a century a fire has been gnawing deep in the entrails
of the earth under the valley. Nobody knows how this fire started, or
when. It yvas on February 19, 1859, that it yvas discovered. The mine
was operated by the Lehigh Coal ee Navigation Companv, then as now
the owner of the fabulous deposits of Panther Creek.
ALL PLANS FAIL.
That fire started in a way so trivial that there is no record of it.
has burned clay and night, year in anel year out, without cessation, while
two generations have been born and grown to manhood.
Succeeding administrations of company management, superintendents
and miners have essayed to halt the progress of the insidious disease
eating away at the vitals of mother earth. One plan after another has
been trieel only to result in failure anel disappointment.
In the earlier days yvater yvas tried. I hit there isn't enough yvater
in the Lehigh river to make an impression on that fire. It is a principle
noyy familiar to mining engineers that water on an underground fire—
that is, yvater in anything less than submergence—is only so much fuel to
the combustion.
The engineers of the Lehigh Navigation Company poured yvater on
the Panther Creek fire, and it spread like molten metal from a broken
cupola, eating up everything in its path.
From a tiny beginning the fire grew and spread anel greyv, defying
every effort to check it. Sometimes it went fast anil sometimes slow, as
the conditions yvere favorable or otherwise, but ahvays it spread.
liURNS FIFTY YEARS.
When the fire originated in 1859, the stamp of a foot or a cup of
yvater might have extinguished it. Chance permitted it to spread into
the coal seam. A battle of 50 years was begun.
In this half century that underground fire has eaten up 10,000,000
tons of coal. A conservative estimate places the loss to the company to
date at $25,000,000.

224 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Almost as if directed by some demon intelligence, the fire for 50
years worked toward the rich prize of $2,000,000,000 worth of coal.
When it seemed as if the entire Panther Creek basin was to be at the
mercy of this mysterious conflagration, and that its efforts of 50 years
were to be rewarded by an assurance of life indefinitely to come, complete
subjugation yvas decreed.
It yvas W. A. Lathrop, the president of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation
Company, who evolved the plan which checked the fire's progress,
saved the 400,000,000 tons of coal and made it only a question of time
before thc conflagration, confined to the thumblike spud, will eventually
burn itself out.
DIG MANY HOLES.
The last attempt to check the fire yvas by means of "slushing holes."
A line of bore holes was put down across the spur and in advance of the
fire. These holes were driven to the yvater level. Into the holes was
poured millions of gallons of mud, yvith the idea of forming a barrier of
wet clay between the fire and the main coal basin. There yvere 700 holes,
and the deepest syvallowed 8,000 tons of "slush." But no amount of
mud could have stopped that fire. It ate through the barrier, and then
sprang forward yvith alarming rapidity.
It yvas in December, 1908, that Mr. Lathrop turned upon the problem
his great knowledge, born of scientific training and long practical experience.
He determined to put between the fire and the 400,000,000 tons of
virgin coal a fireproof wall, built on exactly the same principle as a
fireproof wall in a city building. A city wall might be 12 inches thick.
iimmi
rJAtH -pAtiTHER CffE£H FIELD
\-400V0pOOO TQiyQ OF COAL.
Wr/sCPE
IWAiX WAS
:'-v;;--h
&^£;{.v£x£\,^^
. /V':'-"''-'''--"-,"'>A''f'''-'-'';""'-v'--*"--''^v;.r''*

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 225
The wall that was to conquer the Panther Creek fire yvas planned to be
12 feet thick, 1,050 feet long, and in some places running down into the
earth for a distance of 247 feet.
The fire was but 400 feet away when the work yvas begun. The
engineers realized the danger in the proximity of the conflagration, yvhich
was traveling fast. But if the wall were put back any further, it would
not cut off the main body of the coal basin, and would be useless as a
fire barrier.
DEADLY FIRE DAMP.
Even the foresight of the engineers could not have grasped the
extent of the difficulties. As soon as the first shafts were sunk they
created a draft which carried the fire literally roaring toward the barrier
line.
The rocks through which the men had to cut became so hot that
a miner could not touch them yvith his bare hands. An insidious gas,
which is an accompaniment of all mine fires, steamed through the crevices
of the rocks. It is called "fire stink" by the miners. Its chemical name
is carbonic oxide.
This deadly clamp suffused the shaft. Lights would not burn in it.
Its first effect on the men who breathed it was to exhilarate them, and
then they fell over paralyzed. The result would have been quick death
yvere not relief measures immediately at hand. It is the proud record of
President Lathrop that not a man has died during the building of his
great underground fire wall.
Thirty minutes was as long as men could work in the heat and
fetid atmosphere. So every half hour the entire force in a shaft was
changed.
All the time the fire kept coming nearer and nearer. It became a
grave question whether the wall could be built before flames would
break out in the shafts themselves. Twelve hundred men were set to
work to hurry the construction and the work of excavation is practically
rompleted.
The cost of the work is estimated at $250,000, but if it does its
work—and there are no misgivings on this point—it will save a 400,000,-
000 coal-filled field.

Lumber Crop Important
By U.S. Forest Service
L U M B E R is one of the chief freight commodities produced by land.
Its weight per acre surpasses corn, barley, oats, yvheat and rye.
Few people arc ayvare of the care used by railroads in keeping
tab on the productiveness of land along their lines from the standpoint
of the amount of freight produced by various crops. Heavier the crops
per acre, the more business for the railroads. Nor are there many
people who think of lumber as a crop, and one of the most important
crops at that, which contributes a large share of the freight business of
railroads.
The quantity of freight produced by a crop depends upon soil,
region, and kind of crop. Railroads figure it from that point of view.
Their profit depends upon tonnage and class, and thev want to know
what crop pays the carrier best.
Many averages in many localities arc necessary to reach reliable
results. Care is necessary, too, in applying to one region the figures
obtained in another. Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky are the center of
a vast productive region, anel averages there possess as much value as
those of any part of the country, but, of course, they cannot be applied
everywhere. An acre is credited yvith yield as follows:
Cabbage 21.000 pounds per acre
( hiions 19,950
Potatoes 4,680
Lumber 3,000
Hay 2,710 " " "
Corn " 1,728 "
Barley , 1,210 " "
Oats 886 " " "
Tobacco 877 " "
Rye 848 "
Wheat 792 "
As the list shows, tbe three- heaviest freight producing crops are
cabbage, onions and potatoes. Lumber is fourth. Up to the present
time timber has been cut almost exclusively from wild land, without
much regard to the acres gone over. But the time is coming when the
yield of wood per acre will be calculated as carefully as the yield of corn,
and as much thought will be given to growing it, though 'not as much
work. How much wood groyvs on an acre in a vear?

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 227
Some of the abused, burnt, washed and neglected lands arc producing
only little. It has been estimated that the typical hardwood regions of
Tennessee, where fire is kept out, arc growing about 3.000 pounds of
yy-ood yearly per acre. Good stands of young pines in other parts of
the country arc probably doing as well or better. But this is not the
limit, for foresters say woodland can do much better under forestry
methods. Good timber must be selected, the ] r cut out, just as the
farmer plants the best kinds of corn and rejects the poor. In Europe,
where they raise crops of trees, they get, under favorable conditions,
an annual growth of 4,500 pounds to 6,500 pounds of wood per acre.
This country can do at least as well.
The freight carriers, however, seldom transport the whole- wood
growth. The waste is left in the woods or at the mill. This is much or
little, depending upon what is made of the wood before the- transportation
company gets it. It is apparent, however, that after deducting- for waste,
the growth nf an acre of timber furnishes more freight than an acre
of any one of the agricultural crops except cabbage, onions and potatoes.
The quantity nf any one nf these three commodities that will go
to the market is limited by demand, but the demand for lumber is not
diminishing. All that the forests ami planted lots can supply will g0 to
the market.
Woodland, under care, yields yearly crops as regularly as wheat
fields. The marketable timber only is cut at regular intervals, and new
growth is always coming mi. As a freight producer, a timber tract mayhe
depended upon as surely as a potato field. In fact, it is surer; for
land in farm crops wears out unless ciinstantly fertilized, but timberland
fertilizes itself with its leaves, and becomes richer. It will yield
undiminished crops forever.
Trees grow on rough land where agriculture cannot profitably be
carried on, and the freight anel other returns from such regions are
largely clear gain since such land would otherwise be producing little or
nothing.
A record nf the wholesale prices of lumber f. o. b. mill for the
quarter including April, May and June, last, based on reports submitted
by more than 2,000 nf the largest manufacturers nf lumber in all parts
nf the country, has been issued by the United States Forest Service.
Requests for data for the second quarter, ending September 30, will be
sent out in several weeks, and will be published in the early part of
October.
The record covers thc principal items of all the commercial yvoods
cut in nearly every state. The compilation yvas undertaken for the double
purpose of having a continuous statistical record ni such prices and to

228 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
shoyv, in contrast to market prices—which include the important items of
freight charges and selling costs—just what the manufacturers of lumber
receive for their product at the mill.
For more than a year, a monthly record has been compiled showing
the prices of lumber in 18 of the largest markets of the country. The
market prices published do not shoyv what the lumber is worth at the
mill, as the freight charges, selling costs, and other items were included,
but the quarterly record eliminates these items and shows the mill price.
Only a few representative grades in each of the hardyvoods and softwoods
were taken, but from them lumbermen can drayv deductions so
as to give tbe approximate values of grades on yvhich prices were not
requested. In addition to the numerous items on yvhich prices were
secured, the value of the mill run—the average of all grades of lumber
produced—yvas also obtained for all the commercial woods.

N e w Hoisting Engine
THE accompanying illustration is an elegant birdseye view of the
new plant of the Clyde Iron Works, Duluth, Minn., who are
placing on the market hoisting engines for contractors' use and all
other purposes for which hoisting engines are made. They are developed
from several years' experience in logging machinery, which requires the
hardest and most severe use of a hoisting engine. There are a number of
features embodied which are great improvements and, for strength and
durability, they are unequaled. The bed plates are cast solid in one
piece, extra heavy, and the metal distributed to the best advantage. All
the faces to receive the cylinders, stand bearings, or other parts, are
p'aned true to gauge and all drilling and tapping from jigs and templates,
so that the parts are absolutely interchangeable. The gears and
pinions, on all sizes from 8*4 x 10 anel up, are made of steel and on
smaller engines, they are made either of iron or steel, as specified. The
gears are made from accurately cut metal patterns. The ratchet rings
on the drums are also steel, bolted to the drums. The frictions are of
the double "Y" type yvith long segments, bolted securely to the spur
gear and made of proper angle to insure the most effective anel efficient
service. The bearings are all extra long and shaft made heavy and
of the best material for the purpose that can be secured. The connecting
rods are forged solid and the ends mortised out and no yveld in any
part of the same. The crossheads are extra long, so as to give a good
bearing and insure the maximum life of brasses and crosshead guides.
The engines are equipped yvith foot brake bands, winch heads, and
all fixtures complete, including tools, so that a purchaser who receives
Birdseye View of the Clyde Iron Works, Duluth, Minn.

.30 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
one of these engines can rest assured that it is all ready to start up and
complete in every detail.
They have recently issued a very complete and well illustrated catalogue,
giving all types of hoisting engines, from the smallest to the
Two Types of Hoisting Engines Built by the Clyde Iron Works, Duluth, Minn.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 231
largest, and of the greatest variation of types, so that a selection can
be made for any purpose to yvhich such a piece of machinery is put.
The Clyde Iron Works are the pioneers in introducing up-to-date
steam machinery for logging purposes and their efforts in this line have
revolutionized the methods of logging during the past ten years. The
same high quality of workmanship, power and strength, that has been
prevalent yvith their logging machinery is embodied in their hoisting
engines. Anyone interested and desiring a full description of this machinery
would do well to communicate yvith the company and get a
copy of their catalogue above referred to.
-*t^ yy

Public W o r k of C u y a h o g a County
A. N. Lee, Civil Engineer
PUBLIC spirited men urged the construction of good roads and
bridges throughout the county on a systematic plan, long before
the work yvas actually undertaken. The people of the county
early appreciated the importance and value of good roads and encouraged
their public officials in the construction of them.
Public work began on a large scale eight years ago. At the present
time, the summer of 1909, it is at its height. The engineering department
of the county has under supervision the construction of 165 miles of
STATE ROAD.
Medina Block Stone is Used Here Because
of the Grade.
BROADVIEW ROAD.
View Near Belt Line Railway, Showing
New 14-foot Brick Pavement.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 233
Most Traveled Road in Cuyahoga County. Brick Pavement in Euclid Township.
pavement, two great bridges and a number of lesser improvements. One
of the bridges is across Rocky River at Detroit avenue and is the longest
concrete arch ever built without reinforcement of steel. The other is
across the Cuyahoga River, from Denison avenue to Harvard road, a
distance of three-fourths of a mile.
The attention of engineers anel of others interested in public yvork
has been attracted by the large amount of high-grade, standard construction
in this county and its loyv cost. No other Ohio county has so many
miles of permanent pavement. The assertion has been made that Cuyahoga
County leads in the United States in miles of permanent pavement,
but the county engineer has not the data to verify this.

234 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The development of the excellent road system of the county is due
largely to the public spirit of citizens, who petitioned for the improvement
and willingly contributed taxes anel assessments. The county officials
provided for the best engineering and devoted the necessary time
for the rigid inspection of the yvork.
Fortunately, there i.s located in Cuyahoga County a city of half a
million inhabitants, yvhich affords the county- a tax valuation of $300,-
000,000, upon yvhich taxes may be levied anel other funds derived by
bond issues for the improvement of roads. Cleveland pays 85.7 per cent
of tbe taxes for road and bridge improvements.
EMBANKMENT. MILES AVENUE
Notice Where Fill Was Made to Obtain an Easy Grade.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 235
LAKE SHORE BOULEVARD.
.Showing Excavation, East of Euclid Beach Park, for the Laying of 18-foot Brick
Pavement.
The system adopted by the county officials contemplated first the
paving of the main thoroughfares leading out of Cleveland, and afterwards
the paving of the crossroads, thus forming a network of roads
spreading over the entire county. The chief roads radiate from Cleveland,
as a common center, to the east, south and west.
A WELL ORGANIZED SYSTEM.
The paving of roads of Cuyahoga County has cost $4,652,445, and
tbe building of bridges more than $2,500,000.
The county commissioners have an excellent system for disbursing

236 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
CENTER ROAD.
This is a Typically Bad Spot Between South Woodland and Kinsman Roads. The
Old Plank Road is Shown. The Road is Soon to be Payed.
this vast amount. Their office anel the county engineer's office, are organized
on a system that could be effectively used in any large business
enterprise. It gives high efficiency in the service, and the excellent results
attained in road and bridge building in this county.
The inspectors are on duty each day from the time that yvork starts
until it closes. Daily reports are written by the inspectors anel mailed
or taken to the engineer's office.
To facilitate inspection by the commissioners and engineers the
county has followed the plan of many business houses in purchasing
automobiles. Two machines are in almost constant use. Without them

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.. 237
BEDFORD ROAD.
Traveled Road From Cleveland to Bedford Village Tin,,null a Gardening
District; Material. Brick.
it would be impossible for the officials to reach all points where work is
iri progress. Thc county extends over a territory 31 miles long and
16 miles wide.
The system of inspection is so rigid that it is now practically impossible
for a contractor to neglect to carry out any part of a contract.
Poor yvork or substitution of material is quickly- discovered. A contractor,
in order to be paid as the work progresses, mud have the approval
of the inspector and must satisfy the visiting commissioners and
engineers.

258
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
MILES AVENUE
Showing Type of Concrete Curb. With Slanting Outer Face, Used in Country Work.
HISTORY OF ROAD IMPROVEMENTS.
The soil of Cuyahoga County roads, with few exceptions, is clay.
On unimproved roads the nature of the soil is practically prohibitive of
profitable or satisfactory travel for six months of the year.
Except for the plank reads, of yvhich there were only forty miles,
and a few miles of sandy loam base, the county yvas practically cut off
from Cleveland in the wet months, before the improvement of the roads.
It becomes necessary to maintain the roaels in the rural districts in good
condition every day of the year, else a hardship is put upon gardeners
and farmers anel the cost of living for residents of the city is increased.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 239
SETTLEMENT ROAD.
This View is Designed to Show the Combined Curb and Gutter of Concrete. Shocks
From Heavy Wheels do not Chip the Concrete.
For these reasons the county commissioners early considered the manner
of providing as much surface for travel as possible, of the most
permanent construction for economical cost.
At first the county attempted to macadamize some of the roads.
This process consists of rolling a clay foundation, placing upon it a sixinch
layer of tyvo and one-half inch stone, upon that a four-inch layer
of smaller stone, and then stone screenings to fill the voids. Each layer
is rolled.
These roads were utter failures, because they were not constructed
of good material and no heed yvas given to maintenance or drainage.

240
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
NORTHFIELD ROAD.
View Taken at Intersection of Interstate Street, Just South
The Road Leads to Canton.
if Bedford Village.
Thirteen years ago the commissioners then in the service of the
county determined to experiment with vitrified brick. South Woodland
load and Wooster pike were built. These pavements were constructed
of a width of only eight feet. The material yvas not up to the standard
of today. With lack of inspection and drainage the roads were not the
success expected. They bave been repaired the last year, and are now
in good condition and will last until the needs of the communities justify
wider pavements.
The commissioners again tried macadam, but the clav soil, carried

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 241
BROADVIEW ROAD.
To be Straightened and Improved South of Brecksville.
by the wheels of wagons, gathered up the surface of the macadam roads.
That and the automobile travel soon destroyed the roads.
About six years ago the commissioners tried bithulithic, a mixture
of tar and stone, on sections of Kinsman and State roads. These pavements
have greatly deteriorated, probably by lack of proper drainage and
of sufficient base to sustain the surface in proper form.
Now the county is building 165 miles of pavement, nearly all of
v/hich is to be four-inch vitrified brick on a concrete base. This is considered
the best pavement that can be obtained for the county.

242
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
RICHMOND ROAD.
Only Gravel Road in the County; Dries Quickly After a. Rain.
LAWS GOVERNING ROAD BUILDING.
The roads of Cuyahoga County are improved by virtue of a law
known as the Dodge road act, being sections 2822-1 to 2822-4 and 4637-1
to 4637-11 of Bates Revised Statutes of Ohio, sixth edition.
It is required that the owners of a majority of the property fronting
on a proposed improvement petition the Board of County Commissioners
for the improvement. The commissioners have adopted a form
of petition, which asks for the establishing of a grade, and the grading,
draining and improving. Under the latter classification is included paving.
The kind of pavement is left to the judgment of the county commissioners.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 243
NORTH RIDGE ROAD.
Brick; 14 Feet Wide.
Embraced in this petition is a waiver of damages, which the property
owners are requested to sign, releasing the county for damages arising
in any manner whatsoever from the improvement.
After the petition has been filed yvith the commissioners it is referred
to the county draftsman, who certifies whether sufficient frontage is
represented by the signers. The commissioners refer the petition to the
county engineer to make all necessary plans, profiles, specifications and
estimate of cost.
It is then sent back to the commissioners, who make an assessment
upon the abutting property on the basis of benefits derived from the

244 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
i-*s&
;""-*Mi.X
i¥M.
FISHER ROAD.
A Particularly Fine Brick Pavement Extending From Newburg to Bedford Township.
improvement. This assessment takes into consideration frontage, depth
of property, character of soil and distance from the city of Cleveland.
Usually it amounts to 25 per cent of the total cost. It is advertised in
newspapers for six consecutive yveeks. If there is no protest, the assessment
is certified to the county auditor, to be placed on the tax books
against the property.
In case any property owner objects to the assessment, the commissioners
appoint a board of revision to pass upon the fairness of the
assessment.
The assessment and the advertisement for bids are usually pub-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 245
RRECKSVILLE ROAD.
lished at the same time. The contract cannot be awarded until the
assessment has been certified to the county auditor for collection, and
10 per cent of the amount certified, usually about 2y2 per cent of the
total amount of the contract, has been paid into the county treasury.
Up to three years ago the roads were improved only after the assessment
had been wholly collected by taxation. In view of the numerous
requests made of the commissioners for pavements, and the high taxrate
in this community, the county engineer deemed it advisable to draft
a bill to permit the county commissioners to issue bonds for the improvement
of roads. The bill passed the legislature, and the commissioners
may noyv issue bonds to 1 per cent of the tax duplicate of the county.

246
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
PROSPECT ROAD.
View Taken Just South of Berea Village, Into Which the Road Leads.
As the duplicate is about $300,000,000, it yields an issue of $3,000,000
of bonds. Nearly this entire amount has already been issued, insuring
the paving of all the main roads of the county.
Until tyvo years ago it yvas practically impossible under the existing
statutes to keep paved roads in repair. The county engineer drafted a
bill and had it presented to the legislature, permitting the commissioners
to contract by competitive bidding for the necessary materials to repair
improved roads and for the employment of such labor as might be
needed.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 247
STATE ROAD.
View Taken Near the End, Showing Bithtilithic Pavement.
Under this law the commissioners have made extensive repairs of
roads that were in bad condition.
The law authorizes the commissioners to improve county roaels in
villages and hamlets yvhere they deem it necessary. Uneler this provision
splendid pavements have been laid through East Cleveland, Lakewood,
Bedford, Berea, Newburg and other suburbs of Cleveland. The
pavements extend beyond the municipalities and are main routes of
travel in the county. Some of these suburbs are as thickly settled as
Cleveland. Along the roads are beautiful residences anel lively business
places.

248
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
DETROIT AVENUE, LAKE-WOOD.
Paved With Asphalt to its Full Width, Except Car Tracks, by the County.
Iii cases yvhere roads have cost less than the engineer's estimate,
there remains in the county treasury a part of the fund of each road.
Such part of this balance as yvas paid by the owners of abutting property
is returned to them. What still remains in the fund is retained to pay
off the bonds issued for the construction of the road. If the money
is not all used in this way it is turned into the general road fund. The
money appropriated by the county for the building of a road is never
put to any other use than roacl purposes.
BUILDING THE ROADS.
Bids for the construction of roads are based upon the engineer's

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 249
estimates of the amount of work to be clone and quantities of materials
to be used. The bids on all items are by units. Instead of bidding a
lump price for an entire contract, the contractor bids a certain price per
cubic yard for excavating, a certain price per square yard for paving,
a certain price per lineal foot for laying curb, and so on. This is fair
to all parties, the contractor being paid for the amount of yvork actually
done.
Each bidder must deposit a check for $1,000. If he refuses, after
bidding, to enter into contract, he forfeits the check. After the contract
has been signed and a surety company bas executed a bond for an amount
equal to 40 per cent of the estimated cost of the improvement, the check
is returned to the contractor.
The improvement is usually to a width of 30 feet between ditches.
The first curb is usually set four or five feet from one of the ditches.
A pavement fourteen feet wide is built, leaving eleven or twelve feet of
dirt road between an inner curb and the second ditch. This dirt road is
graded. Tt is much used by farmers in dry weather. They dislike to
drive their horses on hard pavements continually. The dirt road, as a
rule, is in excellent condition, for it is rarely used except in good weather.
Three types of curb are used. The concrete curb is six- inches wide
at the top, twelve at the base, and fifteen dee]). The sandstone curb is
of tyvo sizes. When used for the curb nearest the ditch it is four inches
wide at the top and fifteen inches dee]). When used for the curb at the
inner edge of tbe pavement, over yvhich traffic drives, the top is five
inches wide.
The third type is vitrified brick and the dimensions are 4 by 7 by
15 inches for the outer curb and 5 by 7 by 15 for the inner. Embraced
in the vitrified curb i.s a core, or hollow, which is used as a French drain.
This reduces the cost of construction, by making it unnecessary to lay
a four-inch drain tile under the curb.
The concrete curb is composed usually of sanel. cement, and stone
or gravel. Blast furnace slag may be substituted for the stone or gravel.
By reason of the lightness anel strength of the material it makes a hard,
substantial job. In rural yyeirk it is especially economical in view of its
lightness, as a great factor in the cost is the weight of material to be
hauled. When pavements, built of slag more than three years ago, are
taken up for the laying of yvater or gas pipes, the macadam base is found
cemented together, indicating it to be a substantial material for macadam
roads.
Only Portland cement is used on county jobs and the standard tests
govern its acceptance.
The vitrified paving brick is subject to the tests for abrasion and

250 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
impact and for absorption. These tests are made according to the
standard methods prescribed by the National Brick Makers' Association.
Any brick that loses 20 per cent by abrasion, or increases more than
4 per cent or less than )/. per cent by absorption, is rejected.
The abrasion test is the revolving of brick and steel cubes in a
14-side steel barrel, at 30 revolutions a minute for one hour. It tests
lhe soundness of the brick.
In the absorption test tbe brick is thoroughly dried and then allowed
to stand in water forty-eight hours. The absorption is calculated upon
tlie dry weight of the brick.
Brick that fails in either test is rejected and the contractor is compelled
to haul it away and furnish a quality that is up to the standard.
COMPARATIVE COST AND HAULS.
A table compiled by the engineering department shows in figures
the advantages of hauling loads upon improved roads.
This table indicates in pounds the approximate loads a horse can
draw on the various kinds of surfaces. One horse on a paved surface
can draw as heavy a load as tyvo horses on a clay road, anel in some
eases can do better than that.
Kind of Surface. Load.
Clay, gooel condition 3,000 pounds
Clay, poor condition 1.000 "
Creosoted yvooel block 8,000
Medina stone 6,000 "
Vitrified paving brick 8,000
Sheet asphalt 7,000
Bithulithic 7,500
Macadam 7,000
The elimination of steep grades is one of the most important parts
of county road improvements and permits of the drawing of heavy loads
where formerly only light ones could be hauled.
The engineering department has compiled another table to shoyv the
relative cost of the various kinds of pavement, based on prices bid in
Cuyahoga County.
This table demonstrates that the four-inch brick pavement is the
cheapest in this county. One reason for this is that a number of brickyards
are located in the county, which lessens freight rates materially
and shortens wagon hauls.

Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement
in Concrete
By Ernest R. Matthews
Asso. M. In. C. E.
REINFORCED concrete should be avoided, it bas been said, as it
is a treacherous material to use owing to the fact that the metal
corrodes, and being covered by the concrete the extent of the
corrosion can never be ascertained, and therefore main- well-known engineers
ii]) to the present have avoided the use of the material owing to
this impression. If they were right in their assumption, and the steel did
corrode, and there yvas no remedy for it, then reinforced concrete would
soon have had its day, for its weakness in this respect would become
generally known, and it would naturally be avoided; but from a scries
of experiments yvhich the author has recently made, and which he describes
in this paper, he is in a position to state definitely that no such
fears need be entertained.
The results of these experiments—21 in number—have led to the
following conclusions:
(1) That rustv steel embedded in concrete will in a very short
time become bright, regardless of whether the concrete is in water or
air. This point has, in the author's opinion, been conclusively proved by
his experiments.
(2 I That the application of cement grout to steel is an effectual
safeguard against corrosion, but that the greatest care should be taken in
the grouting process to see that every portion of the steel is well coated,
anel that before the steel is embedded in the concrete the cement grout is
alloyved to become quite dry upon the steel.
(3) That if the aggregate useel for the concrete is not porous and
the concrete is well mixed, the reinforcement being yvell embedded, no
cement coating is needed. (Seeing that the application of a coat of
cement grout is such an inexpensive procedure the author makes it a
rule in carrying out yvork of this kind to have all reinforcement coated
in this manner.)
(4) That no porous materials, such as coke breeze or slag, should
be used in connection yvith reinforced concrete yvork, if such concrete is
intended to be under yvater or exposed to the air.
• From a paper read April 5, 1909, before the Society of Civil Engineers.

252 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
(5) That linseed oil or turpentine, or probably any other coating
except cement or lime, applied to steel before its insertion in concrete
facilitates rather than prevents the rusting of the metal.
(6) That it is of great importance to see that the reinforcing steel
is well embedded in the concrete, so that every portion of it is covered
yvith cement.
(7) That the best results were obtained when the aggregate consisted
chiefly of broken stone or brick-bats. Gravel would no doubt
answer as well.
The author yvas surprised that such a good result yvas obtained with
an aggregate composed of brick-bats.
(8) That river sand, generally speaking, is not satisfactory- for reinforced
concrete yvork, yvhere such yvork is required to be watertight.
The author ventures to think that the conclusions yvhich he has
arrived at are of great importance, and should ease the minds of those
engineers whn up to the present time have had considerable doubt regarding
this matter.
^ ^ S § ! » ;

Mixing Concrete by Hand
WHEN large quantities of concrete arc to be handled the powerdriven
mixture is the most economical, but there is, and perhaps
always will be, considerable concrete mixed by hand.
The gang for mixing and handling concrete on small jobs may vary
in number from one man to several, and of course the outfit will need to
be in proportion to the number of men.
On most jobs a large share of the concrete goes down: that is, after
being mixed and placed it is at a lower level than was the original
material.
This is especially true on small jobs, in many cases the concrete
being nearly all placed lower than the mixing platform.
This fact may well be taken advantage of to secure economy in the
yvork. For economy yvith good results is one of the strong points in
favor of concrete for foundation yvork.
To secure the greatest economy of labor, the material should be
properly placed when it is hauled to the job.
If for any reason the material cannot be properly placed for convenient
handling before beginning yvork it may be well lo have only
part of it hauled then, the rest being drawn as it is used.
Decide yvhere vou will locate the mixing platform, and whether you
will need to move it during thc yvork.
Then have the sanel anel gravel or crushed stone placed as near it as
possible. ( Ither things being equal, the platform should generally lie on
tbe highest available ground.
Large stones, yvhich are tn be placed in the forms without going on
the mixing platform, may often lie placed at different points near the
platform.
The source of the yvater supply may have something to do with the
proper place for the platform. It makes some difference whether the
water is to be carried from a nearby pump, drawn by team, or run
through a hose tn a tub. This latter may be the most economical, even
though the yvater is pumped by hand.
If the pump is higher than the mixing platform, you can attach a
hose, iron pipe, or conductor, and run the yvater into the tub, on or near
the platform.
Even if the yvater is carried in pails it is best to bave such a tub, as
there will then always lie enough yvater at hand to complete a batch. Let
tbe mixing platform be of good size.

254 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
The proper size depends somewhat on thc number of men at work.
Ten feet square is hardly large enough for a gang of four men.
Fifteen feet square is a good size when six or eight men are at work.
Such a platform can be made of matched lumber in sections, so it may
be readily handled. It should rest on joists not over three feet apart,
and should have a tyvo by four around the edge.
In many cases it will be possible to locate this platform so close to
the forms that thc concrete may be shoveled directly into them for at
least a part of the yvork.
In some instances, chutes may be used to convey the concrete from
the platform to the forms.
The remainder of the outfit may consist of square-pointed shovels.
In some cases small scoops will be better for a wet mixture.
One or tyvo wheelbarrows are needed on most jobs.
In some cases you will want tyvo or more pails for carrying concrete,
besides tbe pails and tub for yvater.
A bottomless box for measuring sanel or gravel. This should have a
capacity equal to two or more sacks of cement, so that it can be filled a
certain number of times for each batch.
It is to be bottomless, so that it can be set on a platform or in a
wheelbarrow, if the sand is to be wheeled, anel emptied by lifting it up.
You will need one or two rammers anel a spade or trowel, to run
down next the forms to let the air out and make smooth yvork.
For good yvork, the concrete must be thoroughly mixed, and for
economy you must so arrange the yvork that every time the material is
moved it will be getting nearer tn its final destination.
So the mixing platform should resemble in its yvork a river yvith its
branches, each bringing- something to be added to the total bulk, and as
the yvater of the different branches mingle, so the different materials
should be mingled as they pass on to thc forms.
The other materials should lie spread out and the cement spread
over them, then the mass should be shoveled toward the forms, again
shoveled in the same direction, the yvater being added after thc second or
third lime the mixture is shoveled over, anel then it should be once or
twice more turned over.—National Builder.
r^m^y?)

Railroad Operation as an Occupation
for Civil Engineers
A CIVIL engineer locates a railway, designs its structures and then
does not concern himself yvith the managerial functions of operating
it. At least this has been thc custom in the past, but the exodus
of engineers from strictly professional practice into managerial fields
has already begun to yvork a change in the operating departments of
some railways. For many years the maintenance of the structures of a
railway yvas not considered as within the province of the engineer. Noyv
it is not unusual to find roadmasters and superintendents of bridges and
buildings who are graduates of engineering colleges. All this is well,
but railway maintenance offers small opportunities for great achievements
compared yvith railway operation.
We believe that the era of managerial control of railway properties
by financial "geniuses'' is destined soon to pass away, and that yvith its
passing will come the era of engineering management. Concomitant yvith
this change will come the application of modern cost analysis to every
department of railway operation, maintenance and construction. We do
not mean that the present bookkeeping methods will be improved so as to
shoyv more clearly the efficiency- of heads of departments, but that an
entirely new scheme of supervision will be developed, following the
methods noyv in use by many large manufacturing establishments and
contracting companies, where costkeeping and bookkeeping are divorced.
From bis study of tbe accounting records and reports of a score or more
of railways, the writer has been astonished to find how cumbersome and
unsatisfactory all of them were as means for determining the efficiency
of men and machines. To illustrate the confused condition of affairs one
example will serve. A bridge yvas designed by the engineering department
and built yvith company forces under the superintendent of bridges
and buildings. The records of its cost were kept as usual by the
auditor's department. When the bridge yvas finished its cost yvas found
to have exceeded the engineer's estimate by 50 per cent. The auditor demanded
an explanation from the superintendent of bridges, who replied
that the engineering department had blundered in their estimate. The
chief engineer retorted yvith an accusation of inefficient management on
the part of the superintendent—and he yvas right—and asked for a detailed
statement of cost from the auditor. The latter replied that his
clerks were too busy to make it out at that time, and suggested that the
engineering department send some one to copy the voluminous accounts

256 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
relating to the bridge. Many letters passed back and forth between the
three departments, but nothing came of all the fuss and feathers except
more ill feeling.
The lack of co-ordination of departments and the confusion arising
from trying to make the accounting department record all the detailed
costs, are strikingly' evident to any engineer who has the opportunity to
study the inner workings of railway management. The accounting department
is not an engineering cost analysis department in any sense of
the term. It is purely a bookkeeping department, and, as such, should not
be burdened yvith any functions save those of keeping books.
The engineering department should be enlarged so as to control all
construction and maintenance of way, and, in exercising this control, the
first step should be the installation of modern costkeeping systems. Daily
reports from roadmasters and superintendents of bridges and buildings
should come to the engineering department, and should there be analyzed
and studied, so that inefficiency would quickly be discovered.
Among the records of railway construction cost in the possession
of the writer are the most amazing variations. The labor of framing
and erecting timber ranges between $5 and $20 per 1,000 ft. B. M. on
structures of the same design and built at the same time, but in different
places, although local conditions at those places were identical. The
costs as kept by the accounting department do not show these variations,
on the face, for they are not reduced to unit costs and are so mixed up
that it often takes hours of analysis to arrive at unit costs even on comparatively
small structures.
In the repairs of locomotives and cars and in the building of new
equipment the same unscientific methods prevail. This yvas strikingly
proved by the yvork of Mr. Harrington Emerson in the shops of the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. Mr. Emerson, by the application of
modern methods of costkeeping and management engineering, cut the
shop labor costs in tyvo.
That the movement of rolling stock is poorly handled, every railway
president realizes, but seems helpless to improve. When the average
freight car is credited yvith daily mileage no greater than a contractor gets
from a dump wagon drawn by mules, it takes no keen discernment to
perceive that "something is rotten in Denmark." The average freight
car spends nearly 60 per cent of its time at terminals. The railway
managers blame this waste of time upon the shippers and declare themselves
powerless to remedy it. Why do not thc railways themselves unload
and deliver all freight in the cities? Automobile trucks would enable
them to transport freight from the railway station to its destination
cheaper than it is noyv handled by trucking companies or by individuals.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 257
Were this method of prompt loading and unloading of cars adopted,
the large freight yards within the city limits would become unnecessary.
Mr. James J. Hill has said that what the railways need is not more
equipment in times of prosperity, but larger terminals yvhere cars can be
more expeditiously handled. In our opinion he has but partly reached the
root of the trouble. What is needed is not larger terminals, but a revolution
in methods of handling freight at terminals. If cars were loaded
anel unloaded without delay, smaller terminals within city limits would
suffice. Large yards for storing cars should be provided outside the
limits of cities. There smaller trains should be made up and run into the
city to be quickly unloaded by railway employees.
The problems of railway operation are largely engineering problems,
for the moment any improvement of the kind just indicated is proposed,
it becomes the province of the engineer to estimate the elements of cost
and to plan the construction necessitated. It should rest with engineers
to initiate these radical improvements in railway operation, but this can
only happen when engineers have worked their way into positions of
trust in the operating departments of railways.
Of the application of costkeeping and careful timing to the handling
of trains, we need only say that very little has been done as yet, and the
best of this that we have seen yvas originated by a civil engineer yvho is
now in one of the operating departments of a Western railway, and by
another civil engineer yvho is operating a small railway that had gone
into the hands of a receiver before it yvas put under this engineer's
charge.
Recording pressure gages on locomotives (so as to shoyv the character
of the fireman's work from hour to hour), the payment of bonuses for
minimum oil and fuel consumption, the lengthening of operating divisions
as a result of grade and curvature reductions, and scores of money-saving
changes suggest themselves to the civil engineer who studies present
methods of railway operation. But the best of ideas are usually of little
worth if presented to a railway official by an outsider. Indeed, a railway
organization is much like an army where the civilian—the outsider—is
apt to receive nothing but contempt for his pains in suggesting possible
improvements in the implements of war or in the methods of handling
them.
The civil engineer yvho aspires to accomplishing anything of moment
in the world of railway operation must lay aside his civil engineering for
a yvhile, and seek a minor position in one of the operating departments,
from which he can force his way upward. Eventually he will have
abundant opportunity to apply his engineering knowledge, and, if he is a
man of athletic mentality and long-winded courage, he may wedge his
way to a presidency.—Engineering-Contracting.

Concrete-Steel Caissons:
Their Development and Use for
Breakwaters, Piers and
Revetments
By W V. Judson,
Major, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E.
Presented May 19, 1909.
FOR some time yvork has been progressing in this district (Milwaukee)
yvhich has involved the study, design and construction
of reinforced concrete caissons for various structures. This system
of construction has proved so efficient and economical, and the
studies have been so promising that a full account of the yvork seems
desirable.
No dry clock is available in yvhich to construct the caissons, and
the development of the latter has been influenced by the fact that
the caissons must be built on ways anel launched therefrom like any
vessel. The heaviest caissons launched have weighed about 119 tons
each, but caissons weighing 352 tons each will be built and launched
at Milwaukee next summer, and there is no reason to doubt that much
heavier caissons can be launched yvith perfect facility.
The ways that have been employed consist each of three 12 in. by
12 in. stringers, descending into the yvater with a slope of one on ten.
With this slope the caissons start of themselves and do not bind.
The stringers are supported on capped pile bents, extend far enough
back to give building space, and terminate about six feet under yvater.
The caisson is begun upon a plank floor, 3 in. or 4 in. thick, yvhich
is launched yvith and forms a part of the caisson. Spikes are driven
through the plank so as to project upward into the concrete, and
building paper is pressed down upon the plank to reduce the leakage.
A temporary wooden deck is used yvhile launching and yvhile toyving
any considerable distance in the open lake. A caisson is designed so
as to have its width and depth proportionate to the yvork it is to do
in a breakwater or pier. Its length is limited partly by the undesirability
of too great aggregate weight, but more by the consideration
of longitudinal strength, considering the yvhole caisson as a beam
upon yvhich various stresses may be brought to bear under different

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 259
assumptions as to character of foundations. The reinforced concrete
walls, bottom anel cross-walls are limited in thickness by considerations
of buoyancy, but within the limits of buoyancy it is practicable
to design yvith reasonable economy.
Whether in a given caisson to employ thick walls and few chambers
or thin walls and many chambers is a question, in solving which
careful judgment should be employed. With thick walls and few of
them the cost of putting the reinforced concrete in place is reduced.
On the other hand yvith more numerous walls the spans are reduced
and the caisson even yvith thinner walls sometimes is a safer structure.
In some cases it would probably be advantageous to substitute
interior bracing for some of the cross walls.
In the general case small caissons, say 14 feet square in plan, such
as I am using for a number of light-house structures, must be monocellular,
for the reason that, if they were divided up, considerations
of buoyancy would require the use of such thin walls that excessive
care would be required in their construction, and the steel if sufficiently
embedded would be too near the center of the walls.
On the other hand, in the case of large caissons, such as the one
60 feet square in plan, hereinafter alluded to. it is best to have numerous
chambers, inasmuch as the cross walls, even if there are
many of them, may still be of reasonable thickness. It is not believed
that in many cases it would be true economy to use caissons which
would be lighter in weight than conditions of buoyancy require.
The stresses brought upon a caisson are ordinarily as follows:
those due to water pressure upon the outside; those arising from
excess of pressure, due to the filling, outward; those due to bending,
if the foundation be imperfect and the caisson be supported, for
example, under its tyvo ends, or under its middle; and those due to
wave action.
When the caisson is launched it may be but ten days old, and the
concrete relatively green. When launched, unless long anel expensive
ways are employed, the caisson plunges low in the water, and the
pressure due to the latter is at a maximum.
It is generally found that if the walls and the steel therein be
proportioned to care for this initial pressure safely, then the other
stresses are negligible, although investigation should always be made
as to the sufficiency of the longitudinal strength.
In designing caisson walls and bottoms, several methods have
been employed. ^For a time, following Merriman ("Mechanics of Materials,"
10th Edition, 1905). the steel near the surfaces of the walls

260 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
has been assumed to take up all the tension and compression, the
neutral axis to be in the center of the wall, anel the concrete to serve
only as the web of the beam. Later the more correct and economical
theory has been applied, that the steel on the tension side takes up all
tbe tension, yvhile the steel on the other side reinforces the concrete
in compression from the neutral axis up. The horizontal steel reinforcement
employed in the walls has been distributed in equal amounts
cm each side of the neutral axis.
Deformed bars are preferred, as plain bars might not form a
sufficient bond with the green concrete.
From study and experiment it is believed that the horizontal steel
mels in a wall may lie proportioned as follows: Assume a reasonable
thickness for tbe wall dependent upon flotation desired, etc., say
fr, ,111 12 tn lo inches. Consider the wall as a series of discontinuous
beams, one above the other, each yvith a distributed load corresponding
to an assumed maximum yvater pressure. Take the span in the
clear with allowance for the filling in of the corners yvhere yvalls
meet (this gives a factor of safety-). Neglect the facts that the wall
is a slab, due to the presence of vertical rods, and that it is a continuous
beam (these give additional factors of safety). Then proportion
the steel in accordance with the formulae stated on page 117.
Proceedings of the Am. Soc. C. E. for Feb.. 1909, allowing the steel
in tension to be strained to 18,000 pounds per square inch.* Mr.
Howard A. Hoenig- of this office has prepared from these formulae
diagrams by means of yvhich a graphical solution of anv ordinary
problem of this character can be quickly made.
The diagram shown on Plate I is based on a modulus of elasticitv
for concrete of 3,000.000. and may be used directly for allowable
tensile stresses in steel of 10,000 or 20.000 pounds per square inch.
It is easy with a simple computation, to use this diagram for anyother
selected allowable unit stress in the steel. This diagram is
applicable especially to caissons that are built in dry-docks, or in
general under such conditions that thc concrete may- age to 30 davs
before it is strained.
The diagram shown mi Plate IT is based on a modulus nf elasticity
for concrete of 1.250,000. yvhich is reasonably exact for concrete but
ten days old, anel on an allowable tensile stress in the steel of 18.000.
The use of these diagrams is explained in Appendix I.
In the walls a certain number of rods are introduced vertically.
They have generally been placed in pairs, spaced 2 feet apart. The
vertical rods add somewhat to the strength of the walls, and reinforce
against diagonal tension, considering the caisson as a single

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 261
beam. They also serve as supports for the horizontal rods in forming.
The steel in the bottom is determined as in the case of a wall. If
the caisson is to be placed on a pile foundation, the principal system
of rods ordinarily runs longitudinally to support the filling from one
pile bent to another. For use mi an enrockment the principal rods
in the bottom are ordinarily placed transversely. In the bottom, as in
thc walls, the rods are placed in pairs, one rod near each surface, and
again as in the walls, a lighter system of rods is employed at right
angles to the main system.
Wherever yvalls come together, the re-entrant angles are filled in
yvith concrete, as shown on the Plates, anel short mels are inserted in
these angles to stiffen them.
Inasmuch as no records were available where beams yvith equal
reinforcement top and bottom, and of concrete but ten days old, have
been tested to destruction, a few tests of this character have been
made. The results of these tests confirm the belief that the method
of designing above described will give reasonable factors of safety,
yvhich will be increased somewhat by other considerations that bave
already- been mentioned.
The experimental tests indicate that failures due to compression
in the concrete need not be apprehended except yvhere the percentage
of reinforcement is veryr large, larger in fact than would ordinarily be
employed in caissons following the method of designing proposed.
Where the shear is great, however, there should be an investigation
as to the sufficiency of the resistance to diagonal tension stresses.
Appendix II, prepared by Air. J. A. B. Tompkins, Assistant En­
gineer, describes and analyzes the tests above mentioned and states
the formulae recommended byr the special committee of the Am. Soc.
C. E., yvhich are applicable to the yvork under consideration. Among
the formulae are those for compression in extreme fiber of concrete
and for diagonal tension. Considering all of the conditions and the
results of the tests, it would appear that at time of launching compressive
stresses on extreme concrete fiber up to 1,000 pounds per
square inch and diagonal tension stresses up to 50 pounds per square
inch, both as determined by the formulae, where the caisson walls are
designed as herein proposed, would not be excessive.
At the time the caissons are launched, any failure would probably
result from failure in the green concrete in portions of a yvall yvhere
the percentage of steel is greatest, or from tension failures in the
steel where the percentage of reinforcement is small. But as the
concrete rapidly gains in strength, such designing as I have described

262 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
yvould make the walls, after the lapse of time, much stronger, and
yvhere the percentage of steel is greatest, approximately equally liable
to yield through tension or compression failures. It appears therefore
advisable to use steel yvith a high elastic limit, the gain being
most noticeable on portions of a wall yvhere the percentages of steel
are relatively small.
A method employed for investigating the longitudinal stiffness of
a caisson is shown on Plate III. The 54-ft. Milwaukee caisson has
been chosen for purposes of illustration. As this caisson is designed
to be supported on four bents of piling, the assumption is made that
one of the end bents is cut off too low to perform its function. Onethird
of the caisson yvould then be unsupported and yvould act as a
cantilever, bringing the steel near the top of the caisson into tension.
Assuming that the concrete serves no function except to unite the
steel rods and make them act together, the steel i.s projected into a
beam, under the assumption that all the steel in a given horizontal
plane is united together to form part of a flange or yveb. The maximum
bending moment is applied tn this hypothetical beam and the
tension in the extreme fiber thus determined is assumed to be the
tension in the steel rods near the top of caisson.
No difficulty has been experienced in securing yvater-tight walls.
The caissons are constructed of 1 :2 :4 concrete and the latter is
ordinarily dense enough yvithout treatment. Hoyvever, the caissons,
on the ways, have as a rule been partially filled yvith water, to test
water-tightness, and in some cases a grout wash, containing lye and
alum, has been applied to the exterior.
It is believed that the harmful effects of salt yvater yvould be reduced
to a minimum in the case of the dense concrete of the caissons.
One of the first thoughts that arose, when the permanent filline
ot the caissons yvas under consideration, yvas as to the effect of interim-
freezing. In the autumn of 1907 a small caisson, 7 feet long,
5.81 feet yvide, and 5.67 feet high, with bottom and yvalls varying in
thickness from 4 to 5 inches, yvas built on the Government dock at
Milwaukee, Wis., tumbled off the dock into the yvater, thus falling 6
feet, toyved to the month of the harbor, beached in 3.8 feet of yvater
in an exposed location on North Point, filled yvith sand, and paved
over yvith 6 inches of concrete. This caisson, which is still in place,
has not moved perceptibly nor suffered damage from any cause
whatever.
The first caissons for actual service were built bv day labor at
Kewaunee harbor, Wis., during the summer of 1908. They were used
in constructing a breakyyater at Algoma harbor, Wis.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 263
The caissons, 24 feet long (or 25 feet long yvith the guide timbers),
15 feet wide and 12 feet 4 inches high, yvith walls 12 inches
thick, one cross-wall 10 inches thick and a bottom 16 inches thick
(not including the 4-inch thickness of plank bottom), weighed 119
tons each in air. They were constructed on ways, of yvhich three
sets were provided, at the rate of one every third day after organization
was completed. There were no difficulties encountered in any
part of the yvork. The caissons, temporarily decked, were launched
and towed 12 miles in the open lake to Algoma harbor, Wis., yvhere
the decks were removed and the caissons parked until they could
conveniently be placed in the yvork. When launched, as the ways
terminated but 6 feet below datum, the caissons tilted forward until
the decks made an angle of about 30 degrees with the yvater surface,
and sunk until they were just submerged. They immediately righted
themselves and floated with a draft of 9.7 feet, corresponding to a
freeboard of 2.63 feet.
At Algoma the arm of the breakwater constructed of caissons yvas
511.7 feet long. The natural depth varied from 15.3 to 13.5 feet.
The breakwater faces approximately south-east bv south anel is exposed
to a fetch of about 140 miles measured normally to the breakwater.
At Algoma the caissons were sunk on a pile foundation so as to
project one foot above datum when placed. Intermediate between
the pile tops and the plank bottoms of the caissons were cast iron
disks, covering the pile tops and placed upon them, of course, before
the caissons yvere sunk. These disks were cast yvith waffle patterns
on each side, so that the corrugations, being pressed down into the
piles and up into the plank bottom, yvould introduce a desirable
amount of friction and at the same time somewhat equalize the loads
on the piles. The initial sinking was by means of yvater, introduced
through syphons. The caissons, except several that yvere filled otherwise
for experimental purposes and yvhich will be hereinafter described,
were then filled with broken stone to within 4 feet of the
tops. The rest of the filling was of lean concrete, and the breakwater
yvas completed by riprapping its sides and adding a concrete super­
structure.
I cannot speak too highly of the services of Mr. L. E. Lion, Assistant
Engineer, who yvas in local charge of the yvork. That this
undertaking, when so much yvas novel, progressed so smoothly yvas
largely due to his skill and careful foresight. Appendix III is a report
by Mr. Lion describing all the details of the work. His analyses
of cost are especially complete and valuable.

264 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Before the Algoma breakveater was commenced it was estimated
that its cost, if built of stone-filled wooden cribs of the type usually
employed on this lake, the same being placed on pile foundation and
capped yvith a standard concrete superstructure, would be $105.18
per lineal foot, and this yvas the cheapest way, following former
practice, in which the breakwater could have been built in permanent
form. The estimate for the caisson breakwater was $103.74
per lineal foot, large unit prices having been purposely assumed because
of the novelty of the yvork. The actual cost of the yvork proved
to be but $75.67 per lineal foot, although there should be added to
this, to make the estimates fairly- comparable, $2.62 per lineal foot
to allow for the saving on riprap stone that yvas obtained from the
demolition of the old south pier. It therefore appears that the
saving on the Algoma breakwater, due to the use of the caissons, yvas
$26.89 per lineal foot, or 25.57%
Incidentally it may be said that for the construction of the harbor
at Algoma there yvas available on Jan. 1, 1908, $44,822 cash, with
$100,000 additional authorized and subsequently appropriated. This
yvas considered but a fair allowance for the yvork projected, if done
by contract, anel in fact the prices bid by contractors, after formal
advertisement, were so large that the cost would have exceeded the
amount available. Using- Government plant and day labor, the harbor
is noyv completed, except for dredging 20,000 cubic yards, more
or less, and depositing about the pile pier 700 tons, more or less,
of riprap, and after this small amount of yvork is completed in the
spring there will remain of the amount originally available at least
$45,000.
Referring- to Appendix III, the following is a summary of tbe
cost of the caisson breakwater, on a unit price basis :
Cost of the 20 caissons up to delivery at Algoma. Wis.
Item 1.—Cost per cubic yard of reinforced concrete.
Plant charge, including cement warehouse $0,714
Charge for launching ways 0 750
Charge for forms q oqq
Materials:
Cement . «1 s io „„ i
• .q>t.->4y per cu. yd.
Sand and stone 1 900
Steel reinforcing bars (including wire and
spacers) 4014
Timber in bottoms, decks and guide timbers. . . 1.275
Xails, spikes and bolts 0 522
Fuel and miscellaneous supplies 0.225 $9 783

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 265
Labor, including superintendence 5.083
Towing 12 miles 0.423
Cost per cupic yard .$17,661
Total cost of the 20 caissons, containing- 1045 cubic yards of
reinforced concrete $18,456.75
Work at Algoma after caissons were delivered.
Item 2:—Cost of 820 cubic yards 1 :5 :10 concrete filling.
Materials and labor :
Cement 0.735 bbls. per cu. yd., at $1.15 $0,845
Aggregate, 1.001 cu. yds., at $1.25 1.251
Handling cement, per cu. yd. of concrete 0.033
Handling aggregate, per cu. yd. of concrete 0.314
Labor and superintendence, per cu. yd. of concrete. . . 1.295
Fuel, per cu. yd. of concrete 0.189 ^3.927
Plant charge, including warehouse 0.890
Forms 0.030
Total per cubic yard $4,847
Total for 820 cubic yards $3,974.54
Item 3:—Cost of 421 cubic yards 1 :3 :5 concrete superstructure.
Materials and labor:
Cement, 1.264 bbls. per cu. yd. of concrete, at $1.15. . $1,454
Aggregate, 0.998 cu. yd. per cu. yd. of concrete, at $1.25 . . 1.248
Handling cement, per cu. yd. of concrete 0.059
Handling aggregate, per cu. yd. of concrete 0.359
Labor and superintendence, per cu. yd. of concrete . . 2.660
Fuel, per cu. yd. of concrete 0.189
5.969
Plant charge, including warehouse 0.890
Forms • • • °'52?
Total per cubic yard $7,384
Total for 421 cubic yards $3,108.66

266 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Item 4:—Pile foundation, 376 piles, aggregating 15,040 lin. ft.
Cost of piles $2,481.60
Cast iron pile disks 176.40
Labor and superintendence; sharpening, driving, cutting
off and leveling pile foundation 1,261.34
Plant charge
$3,919.34
0.00
39'
Total $4,239.34
Cost per pile 4239.34-r-376=$l 1.275.
Item 5 :—Riprap stone.
Large stone purchased, 1572.45 tons, at $1.19 $1,871.22
Small stone purchased, 3825.52 tons, at $0.98 3,749.01
Riprap from demolition, 1231 tons, at $0.25 307.75
Labor and superintendence placing purchased riprap.... 1,718.24
Time of dredge casting riprap 124.41
Plant charge, scows and derrick- 264.00
Total cost of 6628.97 tons of riprap in place S8.034.63
Cost per ton 8034.63-r-6628.97=$1.212.
Item 6:—Miscellaneous.
Setting' ranges and preliminary work $ 71.81
Removing decks and preparing caissons for sinking 329.07
Towing with gasoline launch 323.2.1
Miscellaneous supplies 181.65
$905.78
Total cost of 511.7 lineal feet of break-water; aggregate of
Items 1 to 6 inclusive $37,718.58
Cost per lineal foot of completed breakwater $75.67
Having- thus stated in detail tbe cost nf tbe Algoma work it is
proper to study the figures yvith a view to ascertaining how estimates
for future yvork of a similar character may be based upon them.
First, it is to be remembered that the working hours were eight
per day, except that during the favorable working months of July,
August and September, by Executive Order, the hours on Saturdays
were reduced to four, although payments wrere made for full time.
Second, thc harbor at which the caissons were built yvas 12 miles
distant from the harbor where they yvere used. Under more favorable
conditions in this respect the towing charge yvould be much re-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 267
duced. Moreover, as the caissons were to be towed from one harbor
to another in the open lake the temporary decks employed were more
numerous, and the expense of placing the decks (calking, etc.) was
greater than would have been the case if a deck had been needed
when launching only. In the case of larger caissons the timber bottoms,
per cubic yard of concrete, yvould also be much reduced, anel it
is proposed hereafter to omit the guide timbers at the ends of tbe
caissons.
Third, the total volume nf the Algoma yvork yvas small, but
511.7 lineal feet of breakwater, containing 1,045 cubic yards of reinforced
concrete, having been constructed, although 22 caissons, containing
900.62 cubic yards, were built for Manitowoc harbor during
the same season and with the same ways and plant, thus reducing the
charges for these items. The Algoma caissons, and the Manitowoc
caissons as well, were small compared yvith others projected. The
walls ami bottoms yvere relatively thin, and for a given expenditure
they did not run rapidly- into "yardage." It is probable that larger
caissons, employed tn build mme considerable lengths of breakwater,
would cost considerably less per cubic yard for plant, forms, ways
and labor.
Fourth, in the case of the Algoma caissons 248 pounds of steel
per cubic y.ard nf concrete yvas employed. Careful study lias shown
that in the case of the larger caissons with cross-walls suitably spaced
the steel can lie safely reduced by a considerable amount.
All of these considerations lead one to believe that, where the
amount of work is sufficiently large, the cost of the reinforced concrete
of tbe caissons in place in the finished work may be estimated
under conditions noyv obtaining in this vicinity at about $16 per
cnbic yard, inclusive of all materials, labor, plant and contractor's
profit. But it is doubtful whether contractors will take their first
work of this character, on account of its novelty, at figures quite so
loyy-.
Five of the Algoma caissons yvere filled in experimental ways for
the sake of securing information. The 16th and 17th caissons from
The northerly end yvere filled yvith sand to within four feet of the
top, and the upper four feet with 1:5:10 concrete yvhich yvas supported
bv posts extending through the sanel to the bottoms of the
caissons. The 18th caisson was filled yvith sancl tn within two feet
of the top, and the upper two feet with 1:3:5 concrete. No supporting
posts were used in this caisson. In the 19th caisson sand
yvas used for filling to within tyvo feet of tbe top, the upper tyvo feet
being- filled with 1 :3 :5 concrete, yvhich yvas supported by posts. The

268 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
20th caisson yvas filled with riprap stone to within one foot of the
top, and the upper foot filled with 1 :3 :5 concrete supported by posts.
The first caisson for Algoma yvas molded on June 1, 1908, and the
last on August 24, 1908.
With the same plant, at Keyvaunee harbor, the construction yvas
immediately begun of a number of caissons required for use at Manitowoc
harbor. Wis., 29 miles distant. By this time the fnrce yvas so
well organized that it yvas found desirable to build one caisson every
other dav. To secure yvorking space, caissons four days old yvere
moved part way down the ways without difficulty. The Manitowoc
caissons are 24 feet long. 14 feet wide and 11 feet 4 inches high.
The bottoms are 18 inches thick (including 4 inches of timber).
The walls are 10 inches thick and the cross-yvall 8 inches thick; 22
caissmis yvere built for Manitowoc, of yvhich one yvas «,f "special"
shape. Eleven of these caissons were towed to Manitowoc anel
parked for the winter in the river ; the rest yvere storeel at Kewaunee.
Two special caissons still remain to be built for the Manitowoc
work, which yvill include about 580 lineal feet of concrete caisson
breakwater, completing the projected harbor there. Next spring the
Manitowoc caissons yvill be sunk on a riprap foundation and filled
yvith lean concrete. Eventually thev yvill receive a concrete superstructure,
but nnt before they have stopped settling. The Manitowoc
caissons are illustrated on Plates VIII and IX.
A contract has recently been let for the reconstruction of the
south pier at Milwaukee harbor. The outer 216 lineal Ieet of this
work will consist of four caissons, each 54 feet long- anel 18 feet wide.
The bottoms yvill be 21 inches thick, including- 3 inches nf planking.
The side and end walls yvill be 14 inches anel the two cross-walls
each 12 inches thick. These caissons yvill weigh 352 tons each. The
next 360 feet of pier will consist of 10 caissons, each 36 feet long and
15 feet wide. The bottoms yvill be 19 inches thick, including 3 inches
nf planking. The side and end walls yvill be 12 inches and the tyvo
cross-walls each 10 inches thick. These caissons yvill weigh 175 tons
each.
The Milwaukee caissons yvill be built on and launched from ways
located at Milwaukee belonging- to the Fruited States. They yvill
be sunk on pile foundation, as dredging must be done close up to
them. The United States yvill furnish the piles and the reinforcing
rods. The contract prices are $7.50 each for driving and cutting off
the piles; $15.50 per cubic yard for reinforced concrete in place;
(To be continued)

^ D V e S T B I A L
,Lr_ftOGiae«S^S
m ^g3_i_fc tTTVjf-'Hk
Detroit Tunnel Nears
Completion
T H E last section of the Michigan Central
railway tunnel under the Detroit river
was sunk into place September 14, and
it is expected that the twin tubes will heopened
for traffic January 1, 1910.
B. & O. Spends Millions
The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co., in Oil King Gets Control
completing its orders for new equipment de­
Complete reorganization of the Colorado
cided on hist month, has placed contracts with
Fuel &• Iron Co, giving full control to John
the Baldwin Locomotive works for twenty
D. Rockefeller and his associates, was planned
Atlantic type passenger locomotives, with the
at the annual meeting of stockholders and
American Locomotive Co., Richmond, Va.,
election of officers in Denver.
works for thirty-four consolidation freight
Not only the C. F & T. and ,1 holding com­
locomotives.
pany—the Colorado Industrial Co.—will be
Also with the Ralston Steel Car Co. of
reorganized hut subsidiary corporations, in­
Columbus. O., for 500 ventilated box cars.
cluding the Crystal River railroad, the Colo­
wilh the Whipple Car Co. of Chicago for 500
rado & Wyoming railroad, the Rocky Moun­
refrigerator cars, with the Standard Steel Car
tain Cal & Iron Co. and the Minnequa hand
Co. of Butler, Pa., for 1,000 box ears and
& Water Co.
with the General Electric Co. for two electric
An important matter to he authorized at a
locomotives.
meeting is the payment of cumulative interest
These orders call for an expenditure of
on $_\ooo,ooo preferred stock outstanding. No
something over $3,500,000 and together wilh
interest lias been paid since 190.S and about
those given out in August total upward of
52 per cent is now due, which will amount to
$10,000,000.
$1,000,000, Rockefeller and his associates will
collect.
Boost Prices of Glass
At a meeling of independent window glass
manufacturers from Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania,
West Virginia anel other states, representing
about 1,500 pots, it was decided to
make an immediate advance in the price on
all grades and sizes of window glass.
The discounts from the price list were
fixed at 90 and 30 per cent from the list on
single strength glass and double strength glass.
These discounts represent an advance of about
5 per cent on an average from the highest
prices, which have been prevailing and an advance
of above 20 per cent from the lowest
prices of last year.
In addition to discussing the price question,
that of a combination of lhe independent plants
of the country was taken 1111 and it is probable
that an announcement along this line will be
made soon.
In spile of the fact that the ore shipments
during August and September, on the lakes
have passed the 7,000,000 tons mark up to
October 1st, they were nearly 1,000.000 tons
behind the record of 1907.
fn order to equal lhe record of 1907, the
fleet will have to move ahout 12,000.000 tons
between October 1st and the close of navigatie
11.

270
Canal Expense Grows-Panama
Commission Asks Big Increase
for Coming Year
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Wash i.\i,rox, Oct. 8.—The Panama canal
commission has submitted to the secretary ol
war an estimate of appropriations aggregating
$48,063,524 for work on the canal during the
fiscal year beginning July I, 1910. 'lhe total
appropriations made hy congress up to this
time on account of the canal are $210,070,468.
Col. Goethals, chairman and the chief engineer
of the commission, has declared it to
be his opinion that the greater waterway will
he completed by January 1, 1915. and has estimate,1
the total est at $375,000,000, which
includes the cost of sanitation and civil government
and lhe $50,000,000 purchase price
The unusually large amount asked lor lhe
new fiscal year probably i^ due to lhe fart that
work on the waterway has entered a more advanced
stage.
'fhe figure gives an idea of the magnitude
,,f lhe work that this nation is doing at Panama—a
work that is to benefit, not this country
alone, but the world. Fifty millions is a
large amount, hut no one will begrudge the
expenditure if it is properly used.
Many thought the Nicaragua belter than the
Panama route, hill in Ihe main thee kept their
peace after the question between sites had
been decided, hater, opinion was divided be
tween lhe sea level .'ind lhe lock types at Panama,
lui ihe advocates of the former have
now accepted lhe decision to build the latter.
The majority rules The only wish now is
(hat the lock s_\ stem may be so constructed
that it will do all ils advocates have claimed
for it; that thc canal may he completed as
soon as possible at as small ,1 cost as compatihh-
with quality.
Theodore N. Vail is presidenl of the American
Telephone & Telegraph Company, and in
.1 position to know a few things about the
"hello' machine al your desk. He says;
January 1, 1900, there were 9,500,000 telephones
in use with 21.000,000 miles of wire.
Of the world's total, ('1,617,1122 telephones
and 13,873,45 miles of wire are in America.
Europe has five times America's population
but its telephone development is only onetwelfth
as great.
Germany leads in Europe, hut Ohio has as
good showing in the records.
Estimated that .ner $3,000,000 a day is saved
1,: the people of America hy use of the telc-
|'l-,one.
The American telephone exchanges make
about ( .10(1 000,000 connections a year.
New Life for Waterways
Senator Burton of Ohio believes that we
can bring our dead waterways to life. He
advocates legislation that will enforce a policy
of live and let live as between the railroads
and the waterways He would prevent the
railroads from hauling freight at a loss for
the suppression of the water traffic hy prohibiting
rate cutting below a reasonable minimum.
He says that Germany has adopted this
policy and has developed the two systems of
railroad and water carriage side hy side.
It is evident that his idea is better entitled
lo be called up to date than that traditional
American idea to which eve have referred and
for proof of lliis we may glance at the experience
of several European countries. Prussia
is working out a scheme of waterway improvements
at an expense of more than $80,coo.ooo.
Austria-Hungary has well developed
plans that have been partly carried into effect
and that involve an expenditure of $150,000,ooo
France is spending $50,000,000 on new
development for the perfection of a system
that has cost hundreds e,f millions.
These countries all have railroads but for
canals and other waterways their doctrine is
one of vigorous life and growth. They do
rot intend that a great promoter of national
wealth. ,1 great agency for the benefit of the
people, shall be destroyed now or ever. And
Americans should applaud their policy, especially
after their varied experiences with
the underselling that is designed to create
monopolies.
As it has been the painful duty of the Wall
Street Journal to criticise lhe Commercial and
Financial Chronicle occasionally, it is only
fair to publish the following extract from the
editorial columns of that periodical, and to
acknowledge the entire truth of the statement.
T,, insist, as Senator Burton does, that the
people must pay rates above those which
would yield a living profit to the better equipment
for carrying, in order that the poorer
equipment may continue work for which it is
not well fitted, is to adopt lhe rule of labor
unions, which handicap the better workmen,

so that the poorer ones may not be left behind.
It is useless to argue such a proposition as
this; if the unwisdom of taxing thc community
to maintain those who arc unable to maintain
themselves under competition is not plain of
itself, no argument can make it so.
The Chronicle is talking about an attempt
to reduce railroad rates in order to enable
water transportation to compete successfully.
Senator Burton has a considerable following
which takes his view, but it need hardly be
said that the Chronicle is strictly right and
he is wrong.
Railroads Entering Into Prac­
tice of Forestry
Realizing the advantage of an assured future
timber supply, a number of railroads arc adding
to their forest holdings anel managing
their forest properties for the production of
a sustained yield of cross-ties for their own
roads.
The success and economy of preservative
treatment now make it possible to use for
cross-ties woods that are cheaper and more
abundant than the woods of longer life. By
their recent purchases of tracts of loblolly
pine the railroads are showing their appreciation
of this fact.
The practice of forestry- by the railroads is
especially significant, in that it includes, in
addition to conservative management, the
cemmercal utilization of timbers of lower
grade. In a number of cases planting is done,
also with a view to tie production, though
such planting is usually a subordinate part of
the forest policy.
The New Terminal
Laying out a new railroad terminal on a
scale that requires ten years of incessant
labor, and all the while handling a minimum
of 543 trains a day without holding up traffic,
is the task the New York Central has now well
under way.
The big excavation from 42cl street to 57th
street, was started on August 24, 1003. It is
believed that the whole work will he completed
in 1913.
Up to this time 1,340,000 cubic yards of dirt
and rock have been removed anel 90,000 square
yards of masonry have been pt.t up. The new
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 271
terminal will have two track levels, lhe bottom
being forty feet underground, and
reached by elevators. The lower level will be
used by suburban trains and eighteen feet
above the through trains will he handled.
There will he thirty-seven tracks on the bottom
level and forty-nine above it. There will
be thirty-two miles of tracks within the yards.
Across all of the streets beyond 45th street
there will be steel bridges and above the terminal
will be built office buildings to be rented
and for the use of the company.
One of the interesting things about the
buildings to rise over the terminal is that
none will have cellars or basements. All the
power and heating plants will be operated
high in the air instead of underground.
The stupendous work accomplished so far
has been carried on with a minimum of cost
of life to the workers. The constructing company
has a special hospital of its own, with
a surgeon in charge, where every arrangement
is perfect for the treatment of thc ill or
injured.
Starts New Auto Plant
Toledo will be the home of a new automobile
industry. The new company, with a
capital of $75,000, was incorporated this week
anel will be known as the Ohio Electric Car
Co.
Thc company expects to turn out 400 cars
during its first year, and the Milburn Wagon
works, which will build the bodies of the cars,
has been ordered to get out 100 cars as soon
as possible.
Teacher.—"Johnny, can you tell me howiron
was first discovered?"
Johnny.—"Yes, sir.''
"Well! Just tell the class what your information
is on that point."
"I heard father say yesterday that they
smelt it."—Selected.
An American Exposition will be held 111
Berlin, Germany, from May to July, 1910. At
the head of this exposition is a committee
consisting of representative business men of
the United States. A committee has also
been formed in Berlin, whose honorary president
is Prince Henry of Prussia. The conditions
governing the exposition have been

272 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
examined by the Bureau of Manufacturers
and appear to offer a great opportunity to
American enterprise.
The central location of the city of Berlin,
not only as the capital of the German Empire,
but also with respect to a great part of
northern, central, and eastern Europe, assures
a rare opportunity for showing ..merican
products abroad and for promoting the export
trade of the United States. As the exposition
is to be confined strictly to American
products, it becomes a matter of national
interest to have the exhibits thoroughly comprehensive
and of exceptional merit, so that
the exposition may serve to strengthen the
prestige of American industries abroad.
The committee is no doubt prepared to
answer all inquiries, but Mr. John M. Carson,
Chief of the Bureau of Manufactures, will
be glad to give further information whenever
it is within his power.
Fulton Exhibit, Engineering
Societies Building
1 he Hudson-Pulton celebration was essentially
a recognition of the explorer anel the
engineer. To show the relation of the latter
to the celebration, models of the Clermont and
other early steamboats, through the courtesy
of the Smithsonian Institution, were on exhibition
at the rooms of The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers in the Engineering
Societies Building, 29 W. 39th street. The
exhibit included the clermont ; the Phoenix,
built by John Stevens and one of John Fitch's
early types. Original drawings by Fulton, an
oil portrait of Fulton painted by himself, Fulton's
dining table, oil portraits and bronze
bust of John Ericsson, models of the Monitor,
all owned by the Society, and Ericsson's personal
exhibit at the Centennial Exposition,
were also exhibited. Through the courtesy of
the Hamburg-American line, a beautiful model
of the Deutschland shows the highest type of
thc development of steam navigation.
The model of the Clermont represents lhe
vessel as she was on her maiden trip. It
differs in some respects from the Clermont
as built for the Hudson-Fulton celebration as
the original boat underwent repairs after her
first trip to fit her for regular passenger
service. The original data are somewhat at
In the spring of 1809 the Phoenix made a
number of trips between New York and New
variance as to the dimensions of the vessel
and the design of the engine. The dimensions
of the model were taken from a letter
written by Fulton to James Watt, the length
of the boat being given as 175 ft., the width
12 ft. and the depth 8 ft. After making four
trips the length was reduced to 150 ft. and
the width increased to 18 ft. These are the
dimensions of the new Clermont. The engine
of the model also differs from that of the new
Clermont in that the engine of the model has
but one flywheel which is placed on the same
shaft anel between the two paddle wheel's,
while the new vessel has a flywheel outside
the hull on both sides.
On returning from lhe first trip the Clermont
underwent some improvements to better
fit her for regular passenger traffic. At the
end of this time the following rates to various
points from New York were advertised: Newburgh,
$3, 14 hr. ; Poughkeepsie, $4, 17 hr.;
Esopus, $4.50, 20 hr. : Hudson, $5, 30 hr.;
Albany, $7, 36 hr. In Renwick's life of Fulton,
in addition to the foregoing rates, the following
details are given:
All other way passengers to pay $1 for 20
miles passage anel a half dollar for each meal.
Children between 1 and 5 years, one-third
price if sleeping with those having charge of
them.
Young persons between 5 and 13 years, half
price sleeping two in a berth; full price sleeping
one in a berth.
Servants two-thirds price for one in a berth;
one-half price for two in a berth.
Each passenger paying full price was allowed
60 lbs. of baggage; if less than full
price, 40 lbs. of baggage. For surplus baggage
3 cents a pound was charged.
fn the meantime John Stevens was engaged
in building his steamboat Phoenix which was
launched on April 9, 180S, at Hoboken.
Stevens began his work in steam navigation
111 1791. In 1798. a steam-propelled vessel was
tried on the Passaic river. The New York
Legislature was petitioned by Stevens for a
monopoly of steam navigation but the petition
was not granted.
In 1804 a 68-ft. boat 14 ft. wide, fitted with
a single screw propeller, was built by Stevens
and in 1805 a twin-screw boat was launched
on the North river. The machinery of this
boat was afterward placed in a larger boat,
the Phoenix, 103 ft. 3 in. long, 16 ft. wide and
6 ft. 9 in. deep.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
^ R o d e r i c k & B a s c o m r o p e " c o ~
BRAHCH Z£ WARREN ST. N.Y. \ 5J LOUI5 fyj Q
WIRE ROPE and AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway
in Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR.
This is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during
1907.
Asl^ for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
F O R HOISTING
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either with
or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200 PER CENT GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your inquiries are solicited.
M a c o m b e r & W h y t e
K o p e C o m p a n y manufacturers
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO. Mills, Coal City, 111.
New York Boston Pittsbnr

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Brunswick, a distance of 27 miles in g1/- hours
including stops, but perhaps owing to the fact
that the nearly completed Rariton, Fulton's
second boat, was intended for operation over
this course it was decided to sail the Phoenix
to the Delaware river by way of the Atlantic.
She left New York on June 8, 1809, arriving
at Philadelphia on June 17. Thus was accomplished
the first sea voyage of a steampropelled
vessel.
The Phoenix ran as a passenger boat on the
Delaware, stopping at Philadelphia, Bordentown
and Trenton, where connection was
made with stages across New Jersey to New
Brunswick, one of the terminals of the Rariton.
After running for a number of years '
over this route the Phoenix was wrecked at
Trenton in 1814.
The model of John Fitch's steamboat represents
one built in Philadelphia in 1786, a
successful public trial being made on the Delaware
river on July 27 of that year. The
length was 34 ft.; width, 8 ft.; depth, 3 ft. 6
in. It was equipped with a steam engine,
which, connected by geared machinery, sprocket
wheel and chain, operated six oars placed
vertically in a frame on each side of the
boat.
In 1788 Fitch completed his first commercial
boat for carrying passengers, and it was
driven in a similar manner. This boat was
60 ft. long anel 8 ft. wide. On July, 1788, a
trip was made from Philadelphia to Burlington,
about 20 miles, the longest ever made by
any steamboat up to that date. In 1790 Fitch
built another boat, which attained a speed of
eight miles an hour, and continued to run
on the Delaware river, carrying passengers
anel freight, for three or four months.
Recent Inventions
Portable Jib Crane.
This invention relates to improvements in
portable jib cranes and more particularly to
that class of such cranes which are employed
where the rapid unloading and loading of material
and the removing of machine parts occurs
frequently and great facility in shifting
and moving the crane is desirable without requiring
the necessity of guying or bracing the
crane and each time it has been shifted and
the object of the invention is to provide a
crane of this kind, which is strong and durable
and reliable, and easy in action, and by
means of which a load can be raised and lowered
or shifted rapidly and which requires no
anchorage on the floor or ground or any guy
line or similar brace.
The inventors are Howard H. Maxfield and
George Clinton Gardner, Jr., of Trenton, New
Jersey.
Elevated Carrier.
This invention is an elevated carrier adapted
to run on an elevated track, and to carry material
from one place to another, and to auto­
matically dump it and then return to the starting
place. The construction and operation of

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARK)
Automatic Rotary Planer Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL
(Incorporated)
WORKS
Philadelphia, Pa.

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
the carrier will be obvious from the illustration.
The inventors are Albert H. Neller and Wm.
Louden, of Fairfield, Iowa.
The Future of Copper.
The world wants copper at a rapidly increasing
rate and it is perfectly fair to assume that
this rate will continue to increase for the future
at least as fast as it has for the last 27
years—i. e.. we may confidently expect that
the world will continue to absorb the production
of copper at an increase of at least 5.84
per cent per annum. This is enough for the
producer and consumer, as far as output is
concerned.
Now, as to the price of copper. Though
the price will vary from time to time, owing
to periodic market conditions, yet knowing
that the world is going to take copper in the
future even faster than it has in the past, we
also know that the world is going to pay for
this copper, and of a necessity, at a price
which will enable the producers to make a
profit.—John T. Morrow.
The first cost of creosoted wood for street
paying is greater than that of macadam, brick,
or asphalt, but not so great as granite or
sandstone. On the other hand, it must be remembered,
it exceeds any of the first group
in wearing qualities. Too much weight is
sometimes attached to the initial cost of
creosoted wood and too little to its counterbalancing
durability, which is equally important
in calculating investment returns. It costs
from $2.40 to $3.50 per square yard, laid, as
compared with an average of $3.50 for sandstone,
$3.26 for granite, $2.30 for asphalt, $2.06
for brick, and $0.99 for macadam, in a number
of cities in which a study has been made.
The immense ships known as "dreadnaughts"
are considered a waste of money.
That is the question practically answered by
a commission in England, and the ships now
in the course of construction represent a cost
of $125,000,000.00.
The cubic measure in the French metrical
system is the Stere. It is a cubic meter and
equivalent to 35.316581 English cubic feet, or
1.30802 English cubic yards. The decaster is
equal to 10 steres and decistere is one-tenth of
a stere.
This measure is much used for wood, especially
firewood, in comparison to one cord
measure.
The Architectural Draftsman
Over an old warped drawing-board
The sad-eyed draftsman stands;
The drudge, a hungry man is he,
With dirty, unwashed hands;
And the muscles of his skinny arms
Will stretch like rubber bands.
His hair is scraggy, thin and long,
His face is white as chalk;
His brow is wet with perspi-sweat,
His best clothes are in hock;
As none will trust him with their mon,
Forsooth, he owes not anyone.
Day in, day out, from eight to five,
You can hear his rubber scrape.
One wonders how he can contrive
So many bulls to make,
As plans he draws of many floors
With many a rank mistake.
He eats, he drinks, he loafs, he sleeps
From weary day to day.
Each morning sees some work begun,
Each Saturday comes his pay.
Something attempted, nothing done,
He works till his hair gets gray.
Bernhardt P. Shaw.
CORRECTION
The article on cranes which appeared in
the August issue of the INDUSTRIAL MAG­
AZINE should have been credited to Cassier's
Magazine.

m m $ \
IP SITE
. H S U
VOL. X DECEMBER, 1909 No. 5
Halfway M a r k at Culebra
CULEBRA CUT yvas half completed on ( Ictober 23. when 39,-
002,299 cubic yards bad been excavated, and a like amount of
digging remained to be clone. This halfway mark that has been
passed refers to the amount to be excavated by the Americans. Counting
the work done by the French the excavation in Culebra Cut is nearly
two-thirds completed. The record on October 23, 1909, stood:
Cubic Yards.
Excavation by French 24,588,520
Excavation by Americans 39,002,299
Excavation remaining 39,002,299
The section of the Canal yvork referred to as Culebra Cut is nine
miles long, extending from Bas Obispo to Pedro Miguel Locks. It will
have a yvidth of 300 feet at the bottom, yvhich will be at 40 feet above
sea level, the normal level of the yvater being fixed at 85 feet above the
sea. Excavation was begun at Empire by the French on January 20,
1882. and yvas continued by them until 1889, when the first company
became bankrupt. The new French company resumed the yvork in 1895,
and continued it until May 4. 1904, when the Americans assumed control.
The excavation each year since then has been as folloyvs:
Cubic Yards.
1904 (8 months) 243,472
1905 914,254
1906 2,702,991
1907 9,177,130
1908 13,912,453
1909 (9 months) 11,127,217

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
i — X X 01/ I
Mam Jea _tv_l Fjji
PROFILE OF CULEBRA CFTT ON CENTER LINE OF THE
CANAL.
Culebra Cut extends from Bas Obispo to Pedro Miguel Locks, a distance
of 9 miles. The horizontal scale of the above profile is 1 to 200,000,
and the vertical scale is 1 to 2,000.
A—Highest point of excavation, 534 feet above sea level, yvhich is
al Golden Hill, near Culebra.
B—Highest point of excavation on the south side of Culebra Cut
at Contractor's Hill, 410 feet above sea level.
C—Highest point of excavation on center line of the Canal between
Gold and Contractor's Hills, at 312 feet above sea level.
D—Normal elevation of yvater in Culebra Cut, 85 feet above sea
level.
E—Proposed bottom of the Canal at 40 feet above sea level.
F—Excavation on center line clone by the French.
C—Excavation on center line done by the Americans.
Part marked "Culebra Cut" sboyvs amount of excavation on the center
line yet to be clone betveeen Bas Obispo and Pedro Miguel.
At present the yvork is being prosecuted without appreciable inconvenience
on account of the rainy season, because of the effective drainage
system, and at a rate that should insure the completion of all excavation
in the Cut within four years. At the summit of the Cut near Empire,
the lowest point at yvhich a steam shovel is working, is 94 feet above

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 275
the bottom, at Las Cascadas 37 feet, and at Bas Obispo one cut has be
made for drainage purposes below the level of the bottom, at 33 feet
above sea level. On the south slope of the summit the lowest excavation
at Gold Hill is 78 feet above the bottom, at Cucaracha 30 feet above
bottom, and at Pedro Miguel part of the excavation is down to the bottom.
As the excavation advances the amount of rock handled in propor­
tion to earth increases as do the grades up which the spoil trains must go
to leave the Cut. The proportion of the total excavation that it has been
necessary to blast during each September since the Americans began
yvork is shown in the following statement:
Total Blasted
to ^^fL
Excavation. Material.
September Cu. Yards. Cu. Yards.
1904 25,220 13,367
1905 44,085 15,520
1906 201.452 198,083
1907 753,468 566,063
1908 1,122,860 896,346
1909 1,235,978 1,034,016
~~JN
CROSS SECTION OF CULEBRA CUT AT EMPIRE.
A—Excavation by the French.
B—Excavation by the Americans.
C—Excavation for Obispo Diversion by the Americans.
D—Surface of the yvater at elevation 85 feet.
E—Bottom of Canal at elevation 40 feet.
F—Dike built by the Americans along Obispo Diversion.
G—Excavation by the French for Obispo Diversion channel.
H—Berm on which Panama Railroad will run through Culebra Cut
at elevation 95 feet above sea level.

276 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
CROSS SECTION OF CULEBRA CUT NEAR CULEBRA.
A—Excavation by the French.
B—Excavation by the Americans.
C—Remaining to be excavated.
D—Surface of water at 85 feet above sea level.
E—Bottom of Canal at 40 feet above sea level.
CROSS SECTION OF CULEBRA CUT AT BAS OBISPO.
A-—Excavation by the French.
B—Excavation by the Americans.
C—Remaining to be excavated.
D—Surface of yvater at 85 feet above sea level.
E—Bottom of Canal at 40 feet above sea level.

Bookkeeping and Costing
for Contractors
By George M'Callum
THE methods outlined in this paper are for the advisement of trucking
contractors who in addition to conducting a regular business
of general trucking also contract to excavate cellars, foundations,
etc. They are also useful to the progressive contractor yvho undertakes
not only to dig the cellar and truck away the dirt but blasts rock, shores
up abutting property, sheath piles and, in short, is equipped to carry out
all details of the foundation yvork of a modern city office building. The
accompanying forms have proved satisfactory to the requirements of the
business and the usual forms of cash book, voucher record, requisitions,
etc., are in use and need not be shown.
TELEPHONE ORDER BOOK
The wires are generally kept hot and the messages are varied, from
the ordering of additional trucks to a certain point to the arrest of a
driver by a traffic officer, or occasional orders for sand, broken stone,
and the usual appointments of the day's yvork. The opening entries
show the day, date and weather remarks, and the temperature taken at
three periods of the day is also recorded. Excessive heat as well as
extreme cold are important factors in the business, and a carefully kept
record is a valuable aid in settling disputes as to the fitness of the weather
for serious work. The rule is simple and requires that all telephone
messages shall be suitably entered, yvith information as to the name of
the sender, etc., and the members of the office force refer to it and by
initialing the entry show that the subject has been given attention.
Tel £f*MO/v£ O*3oc& Book
Day Dr9T£: Weather renf*
r?£C£/y£0
H fl Bv
/}rr£cvo.
HM Gr
/V /t/~7£ 7Wt/a*eo oi* F~ROi~<
Fs}*" '
ra yy^^rt /?' £ ri >? *T/fj

278
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
DAILY TALLY BOOK
As the truck drivers finish the day's work they report their tally to
the office and turn over delivery vouchers and other information to the
tally clerk. The unit of trucking time is rated at 100 anel, as the drivers
are paid by the clay, having four quarters, it becomes a simple matter
to make distribution of the time in the folloyving manner: The driver
may report that be has delivered tyvo loads of sand and, as this is the
equivalent of a quarter clay's pay', the details are entered and sand is
charged 25; the remainder of the clay may have been spent in hauling dirt
from an excavation to a dumping point, and such contract will be charged
for the three-quarters of a day by the entry 75, making in all 100, or one
full trucking unit of 100. The vouchers for material delivered yvill be
examined for signatures and filed away in a card index and may be
exchanged for a suitable voucher to be given by the customer on delivery
of the charge bill. < >n the other hand, the driver on leaving the job
under contract yvill receive from the foreman a voucher for each load to
be taken to a dumping point which will be turned over to the dump
master to be forwarded to his office as primary proof of the dumping
charges. The tally clerk yvill size up the clay's work and if not up to the
standard will usually comment suitably thereon. All incidental information
is inscribed, such as the loss of blankets, water pails, feed bags, etc.
In some cases reference is made to the driver's indulgence in "wet goods";
this is particularly necessary as showing a probable relation to accidents
that may not have been reported by the driver and will be reported, thanks
to the "ambulance chasers," at some later date and in the least pleasant
form. A summary of the total day's work is carried forward to the
D*T£ Dr?tv-t:f MnT£Ftr?l»l- f- rr-O-t
/r"z: c af/ rur_r *•/*_. .5
S»»*\3r0„*. -,.c J
Oi/o>Pf/yG
MONTHLY RECAPITULATION
tvo -,_•
Con r- /?ac rj
CZor.r Svcj
Oo
OO
L ->>*_P. (Oj «
-_At the month's end the total units of trucking time are multiplied
by the prevailing rate per clay, usually $6 for a double team, truck and
driver charged en bloc directly to the material accounts or contract accounts
in the general ledger. A corresponding credit is given to Truck-
1
»

j
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 279
ing account, yvhich is the general account of the business. The total
number of loads dumped arc multiplied by the cost per load at the clump
point, usually sixty cents, and the Miscellaneous Trucking and Contract
accounts charged and the total credited to Dumping ace unit, postings
being made from this book to the general ledger. It may be said, in
l M&'r £:&,#/_£,
Dar\ SmrtD STO>1£ MfGc
I 1
1 -1
fi O IS T H L. Y. f? CC AP I T U L Ft T 10
D £T 0 I 7- S
C o ry T /? ? D i tzn -
Total. Loads Dvnmzo * * P^* i_qad -
foATr- 3
C&iSD/ TS
r&ucx'G Out-.f=o,
passing, that these credits to the Trucking account should cause the
latter to shoyv a final profit, business being normal, and should a loss be
shown a speedy examination yvill readily expose the loss. In order to
watch the stable activities, accounts are opened for Feed, Shoeing, Harness
Repairs, Stable Supplies, etc., and if the number of horses is not
increased or decreased their keep should shoyv on the books yvith almost
automatic precision, alloyving, of course, for extreme buying in bay,
feed, etc., at convenient seasons. The Dumping account is charged
through the voucher record yvith the charges rendered, and this should
not exceed the total value of the monthly recapitulation and in fact should
balance monthly. The best practice is to hold the monthly closing open
until assured that all of the dumping charges have been rendered, and
if any excess debits appear the fault yvill be readily shown by careful
tracing and any trafficking in the tickets stopped before serious loss is
incurred.
DAY BOOK
A simple account is opened yvith each debtor shown in the Daily
Tally Book, in a day book, and the contractor's charges are made from
this book, generally monthly, but the book is not used as a posting
medium, preference being given to the plan of press copying all bills
and posting to the debtor's accounts, crediting the impersonal accounts
from the summarized totals extended to a distribution of charges sheet.
PAY ROLLS
The driver's time is made up from the Daily Tally Book and is
entered in the usual weekly time book, and amount drawn is charged
directly to the Trucking account through the cash book. At the jobs

280 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
under contract, each steam, rock, shoring or other gang is taken care of
by devoting a time book to each gang, kept by the foreman and vouched
for by the superintendent and subject to careful scrutiny by one of the
principals of the firm. Generally these books are arranged to be forwarded
to the general office to be transcribed to the time books every
other clay or on odd and even days. These pay roll items are also
charged directly to the contract accounts kept in the general ledger.
Finally these books are collected and classified for the examination of
each class of risk under the policies of liability insurance.
GENERAL DETAILS
On the acceptance of a contract a personal account is opened in the
debtor's ledger and a contract account is opened in the general ledger.
The better plan appears to be that of debiting the debtor's account and
crediting the contract account, on making a requisition for payment of
work completed to a certain point rather than making a journal entry
which will debit and credit for the entire contract. This is an aid to
periodical closing as the value of work completed and not requisitioned
can be readily estimated. The contract account is debited with all direct
charges appearing against the contract in the voucher record and cash
book, and on completion of the contract the balance is carried to the
debit or credit of a recapitulation of current contracts account; against
this may be apportioned the burden of office expense, depreciation of
equipment, etc., and the balance carried to the Profit and Loss account
finally. For statistical purposes, data of cubic yards of dirt excavated
or rock taken out of each job, number of teams employed, equipment of
rock-drills, hoisting-engines, boilers, classes of men, etc., are compiled.
An ever-present feature is that of extras over the contract limitations.
On rock work there is more or less variation, and the contractor generally
agrees to accept the figures of the surveyor employed for the purpose.
Kindred items of charges for extras are the subject of special billing
and appear against the contract accounts from the regular charge book.
Extreme care is taken as to the matter of depreciation of plant and
equipment, and in this class of business the fallacy of capitalizing repairs
expense is promptly noted in losses on contracts, if indeed, any are
secured at all. Horses are re-valued, per head, annually, and suitable
provision made therefor; trucks and other equipment are kept in constant
repair, and, in addition, an annual deduction is made for depreciation.
An important feature of the statistical information maintained
is an account for each truck or piece of machinery operated to which is
charged all repairs expense. This information is especially useful at the
inventorying periods. A feyv contractors maintain their own blacksmith
and wheelwright shops for repairs and the rebuilding of trucks. The
Bookkeeper-

Brick Factory Chimneys:
Some Features of their Construction
By William Wallace Christie
(Presented at the meeting of the Neyv England Cotton Manufactu
Association, April 24.)
THERE are engineers who have said to me that chimneys will go
out of date soon anyway, and if not it is easy to throw up four
walls or a shaft and get the walls thick enough; but the question
is how do they knoyv that "thick enough" gives what would be considered
a good or economical structure.
In the United States there is no universally adopted rule for the
calculation of the stability of a brick chimney, which takes into consideration
the various strengths and kinds of masonry giving them a definite
value.
The principal method in design is to have the zero pressure line at
such a distance from the axis that the wind movement at any section
divided by the weight in pounds above that section is equal to or less than
one-sixth of the outside diameter of that section.
This method contains only the weight per square foot of masonry
and wind pressure per square foot to be predetermined.
The former frequently is given a value of, say, 120 pounds per cubic
foot and the latter 50 pounds per square foot, which yvith a factor equal
to 0.50 to give the equivalent value of the pressure on a diametral vertical
cutting plane of a chimney of circular cross section, gives us 25 pounds
per square foot.
The strains produced in a shaft by the continually changing direction
and pressure of the wind, the variations of the high temperature yvithin
the flue compared with the temperature of the outer surface, and the
influence of climate on the shaft, all make a chimney shaft a complex
structure as far as internal strains are concerned.
All of these tabulated values (taken from Stability of Chimneys, by
O. Jacker, Chief Engineer to H. R. Heinicke) of wind pressure are used
on the continent, the last one being used only in excessively dangerous
or exposed locations.

282 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Kilograms.
r square meter.
A
125
150
200
250
Pounds
per square
B
25
30
40
50
foot. For circular section.
Bx.66
16.66
19.8
26.6
33.5
The latest Austrian regulations suggest this value for A, in kilograms
per square meter; or 110 X 0.6 H.
Inj/a'e7bp diameter in eaffi case 8-0"
r y
r .
IJ/i/r 0/u/e,yn/ - HO/OS
fierct/LJic/oa/
IV1 A IM/idPressure t/niK10lte
perse/t o/c/ram ceo
c
tlru/o/iL/eryM "S/ds
W/ndpressc/reCn/r Jo/As
// r?5 LAj /j isser/Ze ro //ne mows
dcclr/oAl 7/re adore c/i//r/ney
tH*l'PresSL/rc'&t>''25/&l
lias collapse a'ander excessive a/iidpressare
Where Fl = height of shaft in meters, (One meter = 3.28 feet.)
For a 328-foot shaft A = 34 pounds per square foot = 22.5 pounds
per sciuare foot for a chimney of circular cross section using the cross
section coefficient = 0.66, in place of 0.5 as used in the United States.
For a 98.4-foot shaft A =
circular section.
about 17 pounds per square foot for
This is a wind pressure much bcloyv yvhat 50 x 0.50, or 25, a value
which has obtained here, would give.
It may be said that the Continental practice in using the coefficient
x = 0.66 for obtaining thc equivalent up on a round shaft is used in
17
r-

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 283
connection yvith the previous table anel the formula that follow it, and
the utmost care should be exercised by the person using the factor or the
chimney may contain much more material than is necessary.
On the continent a much used unit weight of brick is 99.84 pounds
per cubic foot with an adhesive strength used in formula equal to .63
pound per square inch for the shaft and for the foundation filled about
with earth .14 pound per square inch.
In order that an intelligent estimate might be made of the value of
the material used in the United States, I have searched all of the reports
of tests made by the United States government at the Watertown Arsenal,
testing department, and the results are left to the reader.
The ultimate strength of single bricks in compression, from tests of
bricks used in Washington, D. C, : yvas for:
Ultimate strength in lbs. per sq. inch.
Red brick 6,030, 6,050. 6,700, 8,530, 9,540
Presseel brick 5,060, 6,740, 9,190
Arch brick 6,800, 7,600, 10,290
Com. Eastern brick 1. crack noticed
at about 5,800, 12,995
tOld Bay State brick 2. crack noticed
at about 7,000, 10,390
Face bricks, 2.1 x 3.7 x 7.75 crack
noticed at 5,500 (lowest of a
set) 11.056
±3 Buff bricks tested flat 7,594, 8,378, 8,426
* 1883 Tests.
t 1, 2.1 x 3.5 x 8.1 inches.
2. 2.05 x 3.6 x 7.8 inches.
± 1897 Tests.
Ultimate strength
in lbs.
per sq. inch.
2 Buff bricks tested on edge 5,820, 5,972
6 White enameled 4-531 t0 4-774_
9 Tests San Francisco, terra cotta 2,669 to 3,165
9 Tests San Francisco, brown brick, 2.5 x 4.1 x 8.33 inches 5,034 to 6,868
17 Tests Akron Hydr. press brick 2.33 x 4 x 8 inches 10,050 to 25,220
EASTERN FACE BRICK. HARD BURNED RED.
Placed Ultimate Strength"!
Flatwise, lbs. sq. in 9,290 to 13,492 lbs. one brick.
Edgewise, lbs. sq. in 6,714 to 12,297 lbs. one brick.

284 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Endwise, lbs. sq. in 5,837 to 8,032 lbs. one brick.
Flatwise, lbs. sq. in 9,100 to 15,837 lbs. one brick.
Flatwise, lbs. sq. in £3,733 to §6,812 lbs. more than one hi i« k
* 1885 Tests.
t 1894 Tests.
15 Tests.
§ 2 Tests.
Ultimate strength in lbs. sq. in.
Standard. Paving.
Hydraulic press brick 5,266 to 17,558 lbs.
Hydraulic press brick 4,794 lbs. brown.
Chicago press brick 3,120 to 5,968 lbs. red.
Omaha press brick 12.907 to 13,511 lbs. red.
Northern press brick 7,599 to 7,575 lbs. dark red.
Findlav, O., press brick 9,686 to 12,372 lbs. med. hard burned
Eastern Ohio press brick 12,123 to 16,252 lbs. buff.
Phil. & Boston Face Brick Co 2,978 to 12,195 lbs. cream red.
Mather Brick Co., Mankato, Wis. ..11,043
Absorption of water by volume was from li.6 to 32.9 per cent, in
1804 samples tested above.
WEIGHT OF RADIAL BRICKS.
Of two radial bricks, which came to me as samples, which I presume
yvere made in the United States, one weighed 15 pounds, 8y2
ounces, or equivalent to 105 pounds per cubic foot of wall, no mortar
considered.
The other weighed 14 pounds, 3 ounces, or equivalent to 96 pounds
per cubic foot of wall, no mortar considered.
The bricks were four inches thick, 10?4 inches long on radial sides,
and 6X inches on the outer circle, and had 15 perforations y x 1 inch
extending through them.
I believe it is the practice of the radial brick chimney designers to
consider the weight of the wall made of these bricks as 109 to 110 pounds
per cubic foot.
The weight of radial bricks abroad has reached 124.8 pounds per
cubic foot.
The effect of using either Rosendale or Portland cement with lime
mortar, or alone, is clearly set forth by these tests* of red brick work.
When one part Rosendale or one part Portland cement is added to
tyvo parts lime, its effect is comparatively more serious with the Portland
than the Rosendale cement, either weakening the mortar to such an

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 285
extent that there is little difference in the resulting mortar, when either
kind of cement is used.
Ult. strength
Average of Tests. lbs. sq. in.
1 L, 3 S 124
1 P, 2 S 546
1 R 2 S 162
Clear Portlanel 3,482
Clear Rosendale 554
1 P, 2 Lime Mortar (1 L, 3 S) 192
1 R, 2 Lime Mortar (1 L, 3 S) 193
Piaster of Paris 1 931
Six-inch cubes used for tests.
Weight of Mortar
cu. ft. lbs.
109.08
116.89
108.62
129.93
96.77
107.42
105.20
74.37
Symbols.—L = Lime, S = Sand, P = Portland cement, R = Rosen­
dale cement.
* 1884 Tests.
From tests* made on 12 x 12 x 72-inch brick piers we may judge the
quality of brickwork with reference to the kind of mortar employed.
11 lime, 3 sand
Average of Tests.
Efficiency of
Piers,
per cent. 9.9
Pounds per
square inch.
1.133
Bay 1 lime, 3 sand
10,6
1,210
State 1 lime mortar (1 lime, 3 sand) 1 Rosendale cement.
14.4
1,646
Bricks. 1 Rosendale cement, 2 sand
17.3
1,972
2 lime mortar (1 lime, 3 sand) 1 Portland cement.,
12.4
1.411
Common|l lime, 3 sand, 5 tests
1 Portland cement, 2 sand
6.1 to
15.7
13.3 1,118 to 2,440
1.792
Brick. |1 Portland cement, 2 sand, 3 tests
Clear Portland cement
10.3, 10.9,
20.8|
14.8 1,887. 2,003,
2,375
2,720
Efficiency of pierr Unit strength of single brick.
Unit strength of pier.
From the above it is a question whether a factor of safety of 10
for the compressive strength of the brick in a wall is sufficient. As one
of the above results the first test was lower than that. The factor should
be made to suit both the mortar and the quality of brick used.
Tests on piers 22y2 inches high, 22 months old, built up of North
River brick 8 inches x 3y2 x 2% inches, in a mortar composed of one
part Newark Co.'s Rosendale cement and two parts sand give:

286 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Weight per Cubic Foot Ultimate Strength
2,021 145.5 113
1,805 130 113
113
111
111
1,944 140 112
Per Square Inch. Per Square Foot.
Lbs. Tons.
1,780 125.5
1,821 131
1,736 125
A terra cotta, light color, pier showed an ultimate compressive
strength of 3,424 pounds per square inch, but a crack enlarged when
one-thirteenth of that load had been reached.
In an eight part hollow terra cotta column, 48.6 inches high, the
ultimate compressive strength of the same material was 881 pounds per
square inch.
In the 1897 report thc coefficient of expansion of red bricks is given
as 0.000003 by heat, and by freezing it is about the same, yvhile the permanent
set after freezing is given as 0.002 to 0.0002 inches in 6 inches.
Title Tests 1S94
ine brick XX. Utica, III '2.66x4.39x9.20 7—5« 24 5 •1.2441 1'Cream
Fire brick XX. Utica, 111 12.65x4.32x9.00 7—7 18.6 3.966
6—6 0.70 12.ISO P. off
yntrified brick 2.25x3.58x7.67 6—7M 0.00 S 2.52 Dark red
y^itrified brick 12.24x3 62x7.73
1—o ^ 18.6 5,529
1—5H 18.2 4.7S2 Dark red
Japanese white fire brick 12.43x4.38x9.21 5—4% 5.1 [22.435
6—3'j 3.9 22.955
White
Japanese white fire brick 12.50x4.4.5x9 31 e—1334 16.3 | 7,017 White
Sweden Il 93x4.20x8.33 5—11 3.1 lli.l 6.501 Drab
Sweden ' 1.93x4.16x8 33
Brown
Sweden The fire above brick table tends to shoyv 12.47x4.77x7.43 in a general way that the greater the
power °"-eden to fire absorb brick water, the weaker \2 the 43x4.86x7.47 brick as to compressive strength,
anel the poorer it is as a material to furnish an air tight yvall about the
smoke flue of any chimney, whether storehouse or factory chimney.
Mr. George H. Stoddard in "Cold Storage, Nov., 1901," gives the
result of many experiments on brick treated with various water proofing.
A portion of brick weighing 22.2 ounces bare, 22.5 ounces when
treated yvith three coats of Bay State air and water proofing gained .0105

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 287
ounce after being in yvater 24 hours: .0388 ounce after 72 hours, and
.0529 after 120 hours.
A portion weighing 19.637 ounces bare, 20.356 ounces after tyvo
coats of a common mineral paint ground in oil, gained .04902 ounce
after being in yvater 24 hours; .07618 ounce after 72 hours; .08783
ounce after 96 hours; .10194 ounce after 120 hours.
Bare brick weighing 17.25 ounces, gained after 24 hours .7499
ounce, 72 hours 1.4 ounces, 120 hours .7499 ounce.
All that is needed to give a nonabsorptive surface to a chimney is
to have the exposed outer faces of the bricks used enameled; we may
either have the old standbys, red brick, so treated, or use for example
the radial brick as now made for chimney building.
Making use of 110 pounds per cubic foot for radial brick and 115
to 125 pounds per cubic foot for common red brick, I have calculated the
position of the line of zero pressure for about 100 feet down from the
top of three chimneys yvhich have been built for some time, using in each
case a wind pressure noted thereon per square foot of diametral area,
all of the shafts being circular, anel having the same inside diameter at
the- top, as shown in the drawing.
The dotted line is thc boundary of the "middle third," and if the line
of zero pressure passed through it under the above conditions the edge
pressure on the lee side would be double the unit pressure under yvind
pressure loads ; as the calculated zero line for each chimney, full line,
moves to the right of the line of tbe middle third the unit pressure on
the lee side edge increases very rapidly until when the zero line reaches
the right of outer edge the chimney would just be ready to tip over and
tensile strains would then appear in the windward side, yvhich is allowed
abroad, as for example in Chemnitz, yvhere 14.28 pounds tension is allowed
in chimneys up to 114.8 feet high, and must be zero for greater
heights, yvith a yvind pressure equal to 25.8 pounds square foot, and a
cross section coefficient of x = 2-3 for circular sections.
Austria alloyvs a maximum compression under static load of 114.28
pounels per square inch at a twofold security when yvind pressure is 30.96
pounds per square foot and coefficient of x = 2-3 for circular sections.
Prussia noyv has a neyv set of regulations under consideration yvhich
refer only to chimneys up to 245.9 feet high and 9.84 feet clear diameter,
taking yvind pressure 30.96 pounds per square foot and the circle cross
section coefficient x equal to 0.67 and the brick laid up in a mortar of
one part cement to 8/10 parts lime.
The strength of bricks used for chimneys abroad as a rule increases
in a greater ratio than their yveight, so that the stronger the brick the
lighter the walls may be made, for under certain conditions of strength

288 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
of material we ma)' safely allow the line of zero pressure to pass without
the middle third, but brittleness in the body, and particularly in the face
of the brick, is not to be desired, for it is in the very outer face of the
bricks that I might say "malleableness" is the most needed.
It is customary, however, to consider the strength as increasing in
proportion to the yveight, and from what little has been brought to your
notice it may be gleaned that by carefully weighing the various items that
should be considered in the design of a chimney, very much more economical
structures may be planned, and be at the same time sufficiently
strong to stand up under all conditions of wind and weather.
While much of this paper is taken up with going over ground familiar
to many, yet to some much of it is new, and it is hoped that it may
result in bringing out the experiences of others and reports of tests which
bave been made by others with bricks used in chimney shafts; failures
cf shafts; or any other notes which will add materially to a present
meager amount of published information in regard to a useful engineering
structure.

Increase Cost
Contractors Guarantys
CONTRACTORS yvho do public work in most states have to deposit
a certain amount to guarantee the permanency of the finished
product. The county commissioners require a deposit, in some
cases 5% of the job to remain a definite period for repairs, etc.
It is customary to hold the guaranty funds of contractors yvho work
on brick roads for three years and those yvho lay bithulithic or asphalt
pavement for five years.
This is done to meet needed repairs and as many contractors figure,
when bidding for a job, that they yvill lose the fund, they bill accordingly
and the people pay the extra amount.
If the amount yvas raised the contractor yvould have to figure
accordingly and the taxpayers would be up against a similar proposition.
Why should a contractor be required to keep a road in repair for
three of five years after it has been accepted any more than on other
yvork? If the commissioners had ironclad specifications and an inspector
that knew his business and an engineer that yvas qualified to accept or
reject, the contractor could be released when the job yvas finished and the
county could do the repairs at less cost than the guaranty fund supplied
by the contractor. Of course the county should be protected, but the
commissioners should never accept a job until it is as well done as
anyone can do it, and they may be at fault to let the lowest bidder do
the work.
The engineer should know whether the low bidder can consistently
do the work at that price and make a profit. There is one of tyvo things
evident, he either can not do it with prices of stock that the other bidders
must pay, too, or he will attempt to substitute a cheaper grade of material.
The lowest bidder gets the job according to law, but he invites
greater vigilance on the part of the inspector.
There are a number of things relative to public yvork that could be
changed with a profit to the taxpayer, and a corresponding saving to the
contractor.

Enormous Increase in Gold
Production and the Possible Effect
on the Markets of the World
A YEAR or two before the war in South Africa caused suspension
of yvork on the Rand mines one of the leading engineers," says
Air. Holland in The Wall Street Journal, "mining and hydrostatic,
came to the United States to inspect American mining machinery.
At that time he said that yvith thc methods modern science had perfected
and yvith the marvelous apparatus inventive skill had made applicable
for deep mining, it looked as though the mines in South Africa yvould
not only produce each year as much as a hundred millions in gold, but
in addition put upon the market an increase over that amount of from
ten millions to fifteen millions. In fact, he did not see, provided the
labor question yvas solved, why these South African mines should not
be, in the course of a few years, producing a hundred and fifty millions
in gold.
"That yvas just before the announcement of the discovery of gold in
the Yukon region. And after good demonstration yvas made that the
Alaska gold deposits were not mere surface deposits, but yvould provide
for profitable mining for many years, then it yvas announced that the
United States and South Africa yvould together be found producing
within ten years considerably in excess of tyvo hundred millions of gold
annually.
"About that time there came reports from Australia telling of gold
deposits there, yvhich, if transportation and climatic difficulties could be
overcome, and yvater provided, yvould make it possible for Australia
to produce possibly as much gold as South Africa. At that time one of
the foremost of American experts, Maurice L. Muehlman, ventured to
predict that within the course of a few years the gold production of the
world would be found somewhat in excess of four hundred millions each
year. From these figures Mr. Muehlman drew the inference that there
would be not only vast financial changes, possibly the shifting of the
center both of political and of money gravity ayvay from London (he
meant yvorld politics), but that also the price of commodities, as measured
in gold, yvould be greatly increased.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 291
"Today it is possible, by means of accurate information supplemented
by some fairly good estimates, to report that these surmises of
twelve years ago are found to be well within the truth. Probably on
the first of January, or soon after, reports will come from the Government
statisticians at Washington showing that throughout the world in
the year 1909 four hundred and fifty millions of gold was mined, or
fifteen millions more than the miners took from the earth in the year
1908.
"Now some of the most conservative of the men of- finance feel
justified in predicting that within three years the gold mines of the
yvorld yvill be found producing at the rate of five hundred millions
annually'. That prediction, somewhat qualified, is made by President
Frank A. Vanderlip in the monthly circular issued under his eye.
"W7hat this means to world politics, to the fiscal systems of the
yvorld, and particularly to the United States, yvhere new gold each year
mined will in all probability be much in excess of a hundred millions, it
is almost impossible to forecast. That it may cause continued high prices
of commodities is now generally accepted as probable, if not certain. That
it yvill serve the United States to maintain and increase her present poyver
in the world of money affairs will, of course, be unquestioned. And it
has been recently suggested that one of the reasons why the Bank of
England has found that its supremacy through the control of discount
rates is now somewhat impaired is dtie to tyvo facts: First, that the
United States can command each year in excess of one hundred millions
new gold, and that, too, without buying it, and in the second place that
presumably American agricultural products will have a money value each
year of not less than eight billion dollars.
"President Vanderlip's circular alludes to one of the great achievements
in gold mining. When the engineering expert of South Africa yvas
here in 1897 he said that the only important question in yvhich lay the
contingency of the increase or decrease in the gold output of the Rand
mines was whether they could be worked at much deeper levels than
those attained at that time. Now it seems that this question has been
satisfactorily answered, and it is asserted that the mines of the Rand
have this in their favor over every other gold mine in the yvorld, that
while elsewhere there is an increase of one degree in heat for every
fifty-five vertical feet of depth, yet the increase of one degree in the Rand
mines is only in tyvo hundred and sixty-five vertical feet. As these mines
increase in richness, or productiveness, as the depth groyvs greater, there
seems to be every reason for surmising that the output of the Rand mines
will increase for many years.

292 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
"Now that Mexico has based its currency system upon gold, and
that transportation facilities have greatly improved there, it is expected
that in the course of a few years the amazingly rich mines of that republic
will be shoiving large increases. The circular issued under the eye of
President Vanderlip intimates that hereafter China and the South and
Central American countries are to add greatly to the world's annual
output.
"One fact which is not in accordance with the common impression
is now asserted to have been recently demonstrated. For it has been the
impression that much the greater part of the gold mined the world over
has passed into circulation as money. But it seems to be established that
a little less than one-half of the new gold is made available for money.
The other half is used up in arts and manufactures, and no small part
of it is actually hoarded in the form of bullion. This is not only the era
of electricity and of industrial combination, but also of the world's
greatest era of gold production, and yet the demand is constantly abreast
of the supply; and that is to be in part attributed to the world-wide investment
of great capital, especially in the exploitation of new countries.

Preservation and Care of Poles
ALL telephone, electric light, poyver and traction companies, as well
as the government are beginning to realize the consequence of the
forest destruction of the past, and of doing something in the future
to preserve the trees and prolong the life of poles.
At the present time, there are nearly 12,000,000 poles in the telephone
field without counting the large number used by light and poyver, railroad
and telegraph companies. This will mean an enormous consumption of
poles to replace and maintain the present equipment each year, outside of
the constant growth. In spite of the fact that larger cities are using
underground systems in their centers, their outlying districts are growing
rapidly and the demand for extended service from both light and telephone
companies is a thing to be reckoned with.
At the present rate of consumption our present supply of poles will
last about ten years, this will mean importing from Canada or shipping
from the western states, at a great cost per pole in either case.
The use of preservatives is expensive, but will the expense of the
future pole exceed the expense of good plants for using the most expensive
methods of preserving wood?
It takes 200 years to groyv a tree to pole size and at the present fire
rate in the northern states, the supply may not last ten years, this will
mean that something must be done to preserve our present forests and
also preserve the poles to be put into use.
There are some good methods of preserving poles in use both in
America and Europe and have been made a study of by the separate
governments.
The first and most expensive, but the most permanent method is the
use of the closed tank where a pole may be drawn into the tank which is
sealed and live steam is forced into the interior, this is kept up for from
four to six hours, opening up all the pores in the wood, then a vacuum is
produced in the tank which removes all air and moisture from the wood,
then the tank is filled with creosote or some form of antiseptic solution
yvhich is kept under pressure for some time or until all the pores are
filled. The solution is then drawn off and the pole allowed to drip for
a short time. It is then ready for use.
A less expensive process, is the open tank method in which a tank
either vertically mounted over a furnace, into which the butts of the poles

294 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
are dipped in hot creosote, or the tank is built on a slope which allows
the poles to be rolled and lowered into it by the use of cables or ropes.
The poles are left for some time in the hot solution, then are suddenly
changed to a tank of cold solution which tends to close up the pores.
A still cheaper process is the brush method, using a paint brush and
hot creosote, which has some effect although not nearly so lasting as the
others, but is very much better than erecting the poles without even a
coat of oil and white lead. This process is used quite generally, especially
in rural telephone districts.
The destruction of the poles is caused by the lower animal life and
fungi which feed upon the parts of the wood which go to make up its
strength, leaving nothing but the worthless brittle portions. The wood
is said to be affected by dry rot. These insects must always have heat,
light and air yvith their food, and the greatest destruction is where the
poles leave the earth.
Treating a pole with preservatives such as creosote, zinc chloride,
corrosive sublimate and copper sulphate, poisons their food supply and
kills them off although they are in the wood before it has been cut down.
All treatment mentioned above will help preserve our poles, but good
treatment at the hands of construction and maintenance men will do as
much for new poles and especially old construction now in use.
Proper construction methods, rules and specifications governing the
handling and use of poles should be put into use enforced by every
operating company no matter how small, each lineman should be made
to feel he is helping his nation in preserving the present wood supply by
observing all rules and following all specifications governing such work.
The majority of light and power companies, smaller telephone companies
and rural telephone associations, do not make use of steps on their
poles. Iron steps from the height of ten feet and wooden steps below
should be used. This is an important matter which is vital to the life
of the pole. Many poles may be seen with a track up one side where
they have been cut to pieces by the climbers of linemen. This allows
water to soak into the pole and in a few years that pole will need to be
replaced, regardless of how large and sturdy it was. Careful handling of
poles during the construction work is essential. All guy wires should
be supported by metal strips to keep them from cutting into the pole, thus
letting in water. In cutting gains care should be taken to make them a
snug fit for the arms. A good coat of paint will help preserve the pole.
'Linemen should be required to use the step instead of climbing up
the pole with their spurs, as many of them do, because they think it looks

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 295
amateurish to use the steps. They were not put on for beginners, but
to help preserve the poles.
It has been said that poles yvill rot from the heart out, if painted
with ordinary paint; so that we had better spend a little more noyv and
use creosote than take the chances of early maintenance. In the country,
you will find hundreds of miles of telephone line (farmer and toll) poles
not cared for. These are comparatively new, six years at the most, the
life of an untreated pole is eight to ten years; it won't be long until the
maintenance will consume the profits.
There is another scheme for reducing the number of poles used.
You can go along many highways, streets and alleys anel find tyvo anel
three companies, poyver and telephone, each using a separate line of poles.
Joint routes should be arranged yvhere it is possible, which yvill reduce
the cost of construction and also liability of crosses and reduce the number
of poles to one-half yvhich yvould be a great saving all around. If
lines are metallic little trouble yvill be experienced from combination
light and telephone leads which are evenly balanced, anel yvith a proper
clearance, say five feet between the tyvo classes of service.
*W. & M. Telephone Wire News.

Derrick Cars and Bridge Erection.
With Some Tests of Iron
Pulley Blocks
J. H. Prior, M. W. S. E.
THE files of the Bridge & Building Department of the C. M. & St.
P. Ry. contain some records of tests on blocks, as well as some
designs of derrick cars and travelers, made under the direction
of Mr. C. F. Loweth, Past President of this Society, which it is thought
mav be of interest to the members.
Fig. 2.
DESIGN OP 80 DERRICK CAR.
In General. Most of the features of the car, designed by W. F.
Rech, are shown in Fig. 1, which shows a 15 ft. 3 in. mast, a 30 ft. boom,
some 2y in. by 2% in. bars for the backstays, together with the engine
and rigging mounted on a 50 ft. flat car of heavy construction.
The principal requirements of a derrick car are:
(1) Length of boom reach, with necessary stability of the car.
(2) Strength of parts, with the required lightness for handling.
The number of uses to yvhich a derrick car can be put are almost
in proportion to its length of boom.
The longer the boom and the greater its capacity, the greater must

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 297
fS;LJ
1
M
8
3
SI
1
! D
i c
-i
v
i .
! v
?
! V

298 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
be the longitudinal and lateral stability of the car. The longitudinal
stability (parallel with the track) is comparatively easily obtained by
increasing the length of the car, in this case to 50 ft., and by adding
the counter-weight required, to the weight of the engine and rigging
already in place. The lateral stability is, however, a difficult matter to
provide and is a more doubtful quantity than any other feature of the
car: this is due mostly to the fact that the width of base of the car
available against overturning is limited to the distance C. to C. of rails,
unless outriggers or guys are used. The lateral overturning moment
of the load is measured by the product of the load into its elistance
from the nearest rail, and this overturning is resisted by a moment
yvhich is the product of the yveight of the car into one-half the distance
between the rails.
As this half distance between the rails, or the lever-arm of lateral
moment of resistance, is only about 30 inches, it is apparent that the
capacity of the car for lifts at any distance from the center line of
track is limited. The exact figures are given in the table, Fig. 1.
To reduce the stresses in the boom tackle and its consequent yveight,
it is desirable to make the height of the toyver as great as possible, but
the permissible height of the toyver is limited by the clear head room in
through truss bridges and under telegraph yvires, during transit and also
when the car is at work.
In the design shown, the top of the tower is 21 ft. 3 in. above top
of rail, and it can be seen that the design of the connection at the top
of the tower makes practically all of this height effective.
The upper part of the tower consists of an "A" frame, shown in
Fig. 2, which can be removed when the car is in transit, thus bringing
the total height of the car well yvithin the overhead clearances of any
railroad.
The square tower is fully rigged so that when the "A" frame is
removed the car can be used for all purposes, but, as the stresses in
the top tackle are increased, the capacity of the car is reduced.
The shortest boom is made of tyvo 15 ft. sections; additional intermediate
sections of 20 ft. and 35 ft. are provided, making lengths of
boom of 30 ft., 50 ft., 65 ft., or 85 ft. available.
When heavy loads are being lifted, there is a provision for the
insertion of a tight fitting hard wood block between the body bolster of
the car and the side frame of the truck. This permits part of the load
to be transmitted directly from the car body bolster to the truck side
frame and relieves the side bearings and springs of whatever load passes
through the hard wood block.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 299
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.

300 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Fig. 1 shows the arrangement of lines, also of the clutches, brakes
and throttle under the control of the engineer. These features are
shown in diagram only and the cut does not represent the actual construction
of the engine.
All winch heads and drums shown are also provided yvith a ratchet
and pawl, not shoyvn in the diagram.
This diagram shows a 30 H.P. engine, of a type extensively used
in bridge erection. The chief characteristic of this type (yvhich is common
to the different makes) is that all shafts, together with all gear
wheels attached to same, are caused to revolve whenever steam is
admitted to the cylinder. The drums run loose upon their shafts and
can be made to revolve with the shafts, upon which they are carried,
by means of friction clutches. When the friction clutch is disengaged,
the drum can be held without motion by means of the brake or the ratchet
and pawl, the shaft, in the meantime revolving for the purpose of
handling other lines.
The winch heads are also loose upon their shafts, but may be fixed
to the shafts by the jaw clutches shown, or, when the jaw clutches are
disengaged, the winch heads may be held in one position by means of
ratchets at their ends and pawls connected to the frame of the engine.
When the winch head is held against motion by the pawl, it may be

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 301

302 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
used for fastening the line or holding the load, although the shaft upon
yvhich it is carried may be revolving yvhile the engine is handling other
lines.
With 110 lb. of steam pressure, the engine can exert a pull of about
8,000 lb. on a line fastened to the drum. As this 8,000 lb. is exerted at
a radius of eight inches from the center of the shaft, a considerably
greater pull can be exerted by the winch head, which has a somewhat
smaller radius.
As shown in Fig. 1, each swinging line and runner line after passing
from the front of tbe car is given a number of wraps around the winch
head and then passes into the hands of the yvinch head man. The
pull, yvhich the yvinch head exerts upon the line, depends upon the
number of yvraps which the line makes around the winch head, and also
upon the pull exerted by the winch head man upon the end of the line.
A very light pull, yvith only a few wraps around the winch head, permits
the winch head to slip and revolve within the line which is wrapped
around it; a greater pull and more yvraps causes the yvinch head to grip
the line yvith a force which can be increased up to the breaking strength
of the line. The boom line and the load line are fastened to the drum,
but before commencing operations at is usual to take a few wraps
around the drum, in order to reduce the stress yvhere the line is fastened
to the drum.
On this engine, one engineer controls the throttle, in addition to
operating the two friction drums. One yvinch head man operates the
tyvo swinging lines and a second winch bead man operates the runner
line when it is in use. This makes a total of three men in tbe cab, the
engineer doing his oyvn firing.
The car can propel itself with its oyvn power in either direction by
means of a chain wheel, which carries a 1% in. chain yvhich passes
around and drives a sprocket yvln-el keyed to the forward axle of the
rear truck. The chain yvbeel i.s elriven as folloyvs:
A gear wheel is placed on each end of the front shaft, Fig. 1. The
gear wheel at one end of the shaft is connected by a train of gears
yvith the chain wheel, so as to make it revolve in the direction yvhich
the engine is running and the gear yvheel at the other end of the shaft
is connected by a similar train of gears so as to make the chain yvheel
revolve in the reverse direction. The gears at the ends of the shaft
run loose and can each be throyvn into service (the other gear running
idle) by means of a jayv clutch, feathered to the middle of the shaft.
This arrangement permits the car to be propelled in either direction by
a non-reversible engine.
Some uses of the 30 ton car. On a structure such as the Peedee

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 303
Fis
Fig. 9.

304 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Viaduct, shown in Fig. 3, where the material must be brought out on
the track and where falsework cannot be economically used, a boom
of 80 ft. reach would be required to place a single bent ahead of
the portion of the structure already erected. The same result can be
accomplished yvith a shorter boom, though not so conveniently, by outhauling
the member beyond the reach of the boom, as is shown in Figs.
4, 5 and 6. These illustrations show the progressive stages in the erection
of a 75 ft. viaduct span ahead of the derrick car without the use of falsework.
The last view, Fig. 6, shows the 75 ft. track girder being placed
in position. At the conclusion of this operation the structure is selfsupporting
and, as soon as the laterals are placed, the track ties and rails
can be laid, which will permit the derrick car to move forward 75 ft.
and complete the erection of the 50 ft. toyver.
At the third crossing of the Missoula River, shown in outline in
Fig. 7, there is a 240 ft. span crossing a torrential mountain stream.
The bottom of this stream is bare rock and does not afford the anchorage
yvhich falsework would require to resist the force of the current. This
made it necessary to design the span so it could be erected as a cantilever;
the joints being arranged as shown in the figure, the structure yvould be
rendered self-supporting, yvith the completion of each connection.
Working from the end of the structure (to the right on Fig. 7),
the 70 ft. girders yvere first placed. Figure 8 shows the first member
for the 240 ft. span being placed by the derrick car standing at the end
of the completed 120 ft. span. Figure 9 shows the 240 ft. span selfsupporting
as a cantilever, with derrick car near the end ; thisillustration
also shows the guying of the car on the boom. Figure 10 shows the
last members in the 240 ft. span being placed.
The tyvo bents of falsework in Fig. 10 were placed to make the
handling of the last members of this span more convenient. The water
level shown in the photograph is considerably loyver than the level which
was expected at the time the erection was planned. In Fig. 11 is shown
one of the 80 ft. spans being placed and the structure practically completed.
The spans between toyvers of Cow Creek Viaduct, Fig. 12, are 61
ft. 8 in. In order to place a tower bent ahead of the completed portion
of the structure without outhauling, a boom of 66 ft. 8 in. reach would
be required. These bents, however, were placed with the 65 ft. boom
available, the small amount of outhauling being done with hand lines.
As shoyvn in Fig. 13, the material for this viaduct was brought out
*o the point yvhere it yvas required on a small tramway running on the
ground along the center line of viaduct, the material being delivered to
the tramway from the track above by a wrecking crane, which happened

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 305
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
V- - ' ___5_*&2*j; "
T* ^^••SE
.wv..--.*.-*-.-'^:

306 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
to be available. This method differs from that used at Peedee Viaduct,
Fig. 4, where all material was delivered above and carried to its position
suspended from the boom of the derrick car. This method of bringing
out the material on a tramway was made possible by the level bottom
of the valley yvhich the viaduct crosses.
This illustration also shows the lower story of the tower being
erected by a mule traveler, running on a wide gauge track and moving
continuously away from the portion of the structure erected. The details
of this traveler are shown in Fig. 14. This arrangement, yvhich kept
the derrick car continuously supplied yvith material without moving
from its position at the end of the completed portion, greatly increased
the erection speed. This viaduct, as shown in Fig. 12, consists of 27
spans, supported by 12 towers, and was erected by the company forces
in eighteen consecutive clays.
DESIGN OF 50 TON DERRICK CAR.
In General. Figure 15 shows the general features of the 50 ton
derrick car, designed by W E. Pruett. The principal requirements of
design and the difficulties encountered in satisfying them, as given in the
description of the 30 ton car, are equally true as applied to the 50 ton
car; but, in this case, the essentials of reach, stability, etc., yvere provided
in a somewhat different manner.
The longitudinal stability of the car yvas increased by the addition
of 25 tons of counter-weight; and its lateral stability by the use of outriggers.
Figure 15 shows this car to consist of a steel superstructure mounted
on a steel flat car. The "A" frame, yvhich performs the yvork of a mast,
is riveted to two transverse channels yvhich are fitted to the tyvo circular
castings 'Al", yvhich, in turn, rest on the plates yvhich are riveted to
the sides of the car. The channels form a box, into yvhich the I beam
outrigger telescopes when not in use and from yvhich it can be withdrawn,
when required, to either side of the car, depending upon the point from
yvhich the load is to be lifted. Tbe outer end of the outrigger rests on
blocking or a jack, bearing against the ground.
To reduce the stress in the boom tackle, the "A" frame i.s made as
high as possible, being as shown, 21 ft. Xiin. over all above the top
of rail. This height is within available clear headroom, but can be
materially reduced by revolving the "A" frame backwards around the
casting "M" (as shown in dotted lines) when the car is in transit.
At the top of the "A" frame is a forging revolving on its horizontal
axis and having bearings for its ends in the "A" frame anel back stays.
A vertical pin passes through this forging. To this vertical pin are
attached two short eye bars, which are also attached to the loyver block

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 307
of the top tackle. The backstays, as mentioned, are also connected to
this forging, which is about as central a connection as can be obtained in
a derrick car.
The boom is in sections and has a maximum length of 80 ft. yvhen
assembled. By the removal and substitution of intermediate sections,
this length can be reduced to 65 ft., 57 ft. or 42 ft. The thrust of the
boom at the bottom is transmitted by a casting terminating in a spherical
surface, to a bronze bushed socket forming a ball and socket joint. The
16 ft. bars shown at the end of the boom tackle are necessary to keep
Fig. 13.
same clear of the boom yvhen using long booms at high elevation. The
capacities of the boom in various positions are shown in tbe table, in
the engraving. Fig. 16. In spite of instructions, greater loads than these
have often been lifted in service.
In Fig. 16 is shown the arrangement of lines on the car, also a
diagram of the clutches, brakes, etc., but not the actual construction of
the car.
" The engine and propelling device on this car are of the same type

308 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
as described under the 30 ton car and are operated in a similar manner,
except that the engine is 50 H.P.
This car is equipped with a large locomotive air compressor. With
a boiler pressure of 110 lb., this compressor, with the assistance of two
storage tanks located underneath the car floor, will supply sufficient air
at 100 lb. pressure for the operation of five riveting hammers.
This compressor also furnishes the air for operation of the car air
brakes; the presence of an air brake on the car puts the movement of
the car as thoroughly under the control of the engineer as it is yvhen the
car is handled by a locomotive, and this has proven a valuable safeguard
when moving the car toward the end of the track on the completed portions
of high structures, often on a falling grade.
The car cab has a rolling lift front door and a folding side door, which
affords ample view for the engineer and wide openings for exit in case
of accident.
The two cars have been employed for over a year, often for duties
beyond their rated capacities, and have given satisfaction to the field
forces of the department.
The Blacktail Creek Viaduct, shown in Fig. 17, has intermediate
spans of 65 ft. Figure 18 shows a toyver bent being placed yvith the
80 ft. boom ; the great length of this boom making it possible to do all
this work without outhauling.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 309
TRAVELER FOR VIADUCTS.
In General. For structures like Tekoa Viaduct, where it was necessary
to erect the viaduct on a new line before the track had arrived at
that point, and for high structures like Clear Creek Viaduct, where
erection had to be hurried to completion before an approaching winter
in a country noted for heavy snow falls, it was necessary to design an
erection machine with a capacity for the continuous and economical
employment of a larger working force than would be possible with the
derrick cars; the increase in working force to result in proportional
increase in tonnage erected per day.
Such a device is the traveler, designed by H. C. Lotholz, shown in
general plan, Fig. 19, and with a diagram of lines, in Fig. 20.
It was the intention to use this traveler at three other viaducts and
so further distribute its cost, but this yvas prevented by some delay in
Fig. is.
the completion of a heavy rock cut, yvhere the traveler was to be erected,
and by other circumstances beyond the department's control.
The illustrations of this machine (Figs. 19 and 20) show a combination
structure of wood and iron, which spans the track, thereby
permitting material to be brought to the traveler on flat cars as far as
L-6, Fig. 19, and which also permits the passage of trains through the
traveler immediately after completion of the structure.
This traveler has a cantilever arm of 75 ft. and two 60 ft. wooden
booms, making a total reach of about 120 ft. As shown on Fig. 21, this
reach makes it possible to erect an entire tower in advance of the com-

310 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
M
i\,

./I-?->_,£,, Q £ -s
THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 311
i
*_
u ^ i -•'
'• His
c
;•
i
? Oi *i
«1
'• I,,. <
r,
Is
V
c
s (- j) s s
sirs
" 0
_ -:':
V
tl
' 1$
$
VJ ft
§
s^ IT)
I Hi
*) r-
^ -sl
£ ^
h^ 0
S
1
V
fci
ts.

312 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
„« PS
I I > * (. m

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 313

314 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
pleted portion of the structure, the toyver being stable in itself yvithout
the use of temporary braces, as shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6.
The cantilever arm is equipped yvith four trolleys, each of 15 tons
capacity. Each trolley is composed of a steel carriage on rollers, from
yvhich are suspended 2 four-sheave blocks, rove up yvith nine parts
of \y> in. rope.
A book of 10 tons capacity was hung from each boom and 30 tons
of rail for connter-yveight yvere placed at the rear end of the traveler.
Additional anchorage yvas provided by anchoring the traveler to the
girder yvith hooks. The traveler yvas also anchored sideways by means
of three iy\ in. hoisting cable guys, on each side, attached to top of the
traveler. The engines are of the same general type as described under
tbe 30 ton derrick car except that the front shaft is omitted and the H.P.
is someyvhat less.
The following is a rough description of the operation of the traveler
and as both sides of the traveler are alike, only one side yvill be described.
First. The 10 ton hook at the end of the boom is suspended from
a four-part tackle of X in. hoisting cable, the fall line of which leads
through the idler sheave at the top of the boom, thence through a
snatch block at the foot of the mast and thence to the lower drum of the
hoisting engine, yvhich is operated by the engineer.
Second. The boom is raised or lowered by a seven-part tackle of
X in. hoisting cable, the fall line of which leads through a snatch block
at the foot of the mast and thence back to the upper drum on engine,
which is also operated by the engineer.
Third. The boom is swung laterally by one five-part tackle (on
each side) of IX in. manila rope, the fall line of yvhich is led through
a series of snatch blocks, which prevents the lines from fouling other
parts of the traveler, to the outside yvinch head on hoisting engine. Both
of these lines are operated by one yvinch head man.
Fourth. Each of tbe 15 ton trolley hooks is supported by a ninepart
tackle of \y in. manila rope, the fall line of which passes through
a snatch block of two idlers at the forward end of cantilever arm and
thence back through a number of deck sheaves, yvhich keep the lines
from fouling other parts, to the inside winch head of engine. As there
are two trolleys, one fall line leads to each inside winch head on the
engine. This fall line is also used for traversing the trolley, there being
sufficient tension in the fall line, when holding the load." to move the
trolley forward, the trolley being also under the control of the trolley
tail line. One winch head man is required to operate each trolley tail line.
Fifth. The trolley tail line leads from its fastening to the trolley
through two snatch blocks to a cavel on the deck of the traveler This

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 315

316 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 317
arrangement is slightly different from that shown in Fig. 20. In order
to keep the trolley under control when it is being hauled forward by
means of its own fall line, the tail line which is snubbed around the
cavel, as just mentioned, is paid out at the ree|tiired speed from the
cavel. When the trolley is being hauled towards the rear of the traveler
for another load, the trolley fall line and the trolley tail line are inter-
Fig. 23.
changed from the position just described, the trolley tail line being
yvrapped around the yvinch head, as shown in Fig. 20, and used to haul
the trolley back, the trolley fall line being snubbed arounel the cavel and
paid out at the required speed. The entire attention of one man is
required for each trolley tail line.
Sixth. In addition to the lines shoyvn in Fig. 20, there are two
runner lines (shown on Fig. 21 and marked No. 1 anel No. 2), each
of which passes from the load to a snatch block fastened to a stump and

318 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
leads from the snatch block over the end of the traveler to the outside
winch head of engine, on which they are operated' simultaneously with
Fig. 21.
the swinging lines. These lines are operated by one of the regular men
on the traveler.
Six men have been enumerated in handling lines on one side of the
traveler, twelve men being required for both sides. Tyvo of these men
are usually available for handling signals, as they are not continuously
employed yvith their lines. A third signal man, yvith the assistance
mentioned above, transmits all signals. This gives a total of thirteen
men on top of the traveler; thirty-seven additional men yvere required
to fill the creyv for this yvork.
Figure 21 shows all lines, in operation, in the erection of the 195
ft. toyver of Clear Creek Viaduct. The tyvo booms are placing tyvo
columns yvith boom tackles No. 1 and No. 2; trolleys No. 3 and No.
4 are simultaneously placing tyvo other columns for the same toyver;
i tinner lines No. 1 and 2 are in service ready to outhaul these columns
to their exact location ; trolleys No. 1 and No. 2 are lowering to the
ground two loads of sway bracing, yvhich yvill afterwards be picked up
and placed in position by the runner lines No. 1 and No. 2, at present
running to the stump and being used for outhauling. This illustration
also shows a carload of columns yvhich have been run part way through

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 319
the traveler, yvhich yvill be lifted from the car by the trolleys and lowered
to the ground.
As shoyvn. the traveler is employed to its maximum capacity and
working fifty men'. Tbe viaduct, which is 210 ft. from base of rail to
ground, partly on a 10 degree curve, was erected in 28 working days,
by the forces of the Bridge & Building Department under the direction
of F. J. Herlihy.
Figure 22 shows Tekoa viaduct, on a new line, which, as mentioned,
yvas erected before the tracks reached its location. The material for this
viaduct was delivered to the foot of the inclined tramway, shoyvn in
Fig. 23, on yvhich it was hauled up the hillside on a 25r/t grade by means
of hoisting engine and cable rove into a six-part tackle.
Figure 24 shows the traveler mi the Tekoa viaduct yvhen the toyver
anel span bave been erected, and the long ties are being brought foryvard

320 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
from the rear of the traveler preparatory to moving the traveler forward
for the erection of the next span.
TESTS OF IRON PULLEY BLOCKS.
The tests of blocks yvhich yvere made in the testing laboratory of
the University of Wisconsin in 1908, by M. C. Withey are summarized
as follows:
Block No. 1. Fig. 26 Wt. 277 lb. Breaking Load 148,000 lb.
Block No. 2, Sim. to Fig. 2 Wt. 275 lb. Breaking Load 151,000 lb.
Block No. 3, Fig. 29 Wt. 225 lb. Breaking Load 86,500 lb.
Block No. 4. Fig. 31 Wt. 358 lb. Breaking Load 255,000 lb.
Block No. 5. Fig. 33 Wt. 350 lb. Breaking Load 258,000 lb.
Milwaukee Block, Fig. 36. ...Wt. 720 lb. Not Broken.
Part of the weight of the Mihvaukee block yvas due to the use of 21
in. sheaves to reduce the bending stress in the rope.
The blocks tested yvere furnished by the manufacturers for that
purpose.
General Description of Tests. The testing machine used was a
vertical hydraulic machine of 400,000 lb. capacity. The blocks to be
tested were pulled against a triple block, Fig. 36, made at the "Milwaukee
Shops," hereinafter referred to as the Mihvaukee block, and were designed
in the office of Mr. C. F. Loweth.
Both blocks were rove together with Ji in. hoisting cable, the ends
of the cable being fastened to the tail bolts of the upper and lower blocks
respectively, by means of three clips at each tail bolt, as shoyvn in Fig. 25.
The tension heads of the machine consisted of clevises with pins
of large diameter; these pins passed through the clevises of the blocks
to be tested. The load was applied gradually and continued until a
cracking sound was heard or some indication of failure was seen or
suspected. Then the load was released and the block was carefully examined
for signs of failure. After several repetitions, the load was
continued until the failure was complete. The Milwaukee block was in
the upper head of the machine and in all cases the lower block failed,
yvhile the upper block remained practically intact.
In these tests, the words above and beloyv refer to the block in the
position shown in the testing machine, the clevis being at the lower end
in all cases. In making photographs of blocks—No. 1, Fig. 26; No. 2,
Fig. 28, and No. 3, Fig. 30—it was necessary to invert the blocks from
the position in which they were tested.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 321
BLOCK NO. 1.
Weight of block complete, 277 lb. Maximum load, 148,000 lb.
Test of Block No. i. Details of this block are shown in Fig. 26;
1
T*V,
t-3|
3 i
-Insicfe 5hen PiaTe.
Fig. 26.
?i___k •#

322 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Description of Failure. Holes in inside shell plates began to elongate,
allowing clevis pin to bend; pin kept bending until inside shell plates
tore through ; this allowed the clevis pin to pull out entirely from the
side plates. Clevis was split on one side half yvay through. All sheaves
revolved after test.
BLOCK no. 2.
Weight of block complete, 275 lb. Maximum load, 151,000 lb.
Test of Block No. 2. Dimensions same as for block No. 1, except
that inside shell plates are X m- thick and outside shell plate are 3-16 in.
thick; appearance after failure, shoyvn in Fig. 28. End of cable was
fastened at center segment of tail bolt.
Description of Failure. Failed at 151,000 lb. Outside shell plate
and strap tore out below clevis pin on one side. Inside shell plates
buckled and split. Clevis pin bowed y in.
BLOCK no. 3.
Weight of block complete, 225 lb. Maximum load, 86,500 lb.
Test of Block No. 3. End of cable yvas fastened at center segment
of tail bolt. Details of block shoyvn in Fig. 29; appearance after test
in Fig. 30.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 323
Description of Failure. At load of 86,500 lb., clevis tore loose from
clevis pin on one side; \yA in. sheave pin badly bent, X in. tail bolt badly
-lr>si&e- 5lie.ll Plata
-Outside 51-iell Plate
-# "Plater
Fig. 30.
bent and ring filler split on center segment of tail bolt. After test,
inside sheave revolved easily, one outside sheave jammed tight, one
outside sheave revolved with difficulty.

324 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Weight of block complete, 358 lb. Maximum load, 255,000 lb.
Test of Block No. 4. End of cable yvas fastened at center segment
of tail bolt; details of block shown in Fig. 31; appearance after testing,
Fig. 32.
Ins/ere. 5r>ell Plate
Outbid* Stie/I Pla+e.
Turned Tail Bolt
Turned Collar, £ "la ^tto/t
Outside. Strap 3>i
e/vet ryitr? cast -fills
X Stleave. Pi n
f "co-r t-s.ro
Turned Cot/ar-
? Turned * /£, tiole. Mead P'n
Weight- 35& completa
A/1 ax Load FS5000*
Block Ala -2
Fig. 31.
BLOCK NO. 4.
Description of Failure. At 150,000 lb., load was released; no sign
of failure. At 170,000 lb., load released; clearance observed below
tail bolt; clevis scaling on inside; clevis pin bending. At 188,000 lb.,
load released; clevis scaling all over; inside and outside straps scaling;
inside strap moved down at least •% in., mark seen at top of strap. At
208,000 lb., load released; clevis pin easily seen to be bent. At 247,000
lb., cotter sheared off on clevis pin on one side; head pin bending up.
At 255,000 lb., cotter on sheave pin sheared off on one side, load dropped
to 229,000 lb. blocks failed with loud report.
Condition of Block After Failure. Sheave pin was sheared off at
edge of strap. Just before failure center section of head pin above
clevis pin was seen to be distorted; when block failed this pin had failed
in double shear at inside straps. Tail bolt was sheared off at outside
strap. Side straps spread apart from shell plates. One sheave came
entirely loose from block and was left hanging suspended in cable.
Weight of block complete, 350 lb. Maximum load, 258,000 lb.
Test of Block No. 5. This block was tested three different times.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 325
Details of block shown in Fig. 33; appearance after tests in Figs. 34
and 35.
First Test. Block was pulled to 196,000 lb., when rigging in testing
machine broke. End of cable yvas fastened to outside segment of tail
Fig. 32.
BLOCK NO. 5.
bolt. Tail bolt was bent in block where cable was attached. No other
sign of failure noticed.
Second Test. With cable undisturbed from first test, block was
pulled again. At 235,000 lb. clevis pin began to bend, causing block to
skew upward on side where tail bolt bent. Pin hole in plates at clevis
much elongated. At 255,000 lb., y in. tail bolt sheared off with a loud
report. As only the tail bolt had failed where cable was attached, it was

326 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
thought advisable to put in a larger tail bolt and test the block to com­
plete destruction.
• 4^i/i
-Inside. _>/?_>// Plate
-Out-side. Strell Pla+e
-4'"pi
Fig. 34.
Third Test. Old tail bolt yvas removed and a 1 in. wrought iron
bolt was substituted, the holes being drilled larger in block. This bolt
was taken from block No. 1. End of cable was fastened at center
segment of tail bolt. Load of 158,000 lb. yvas applied and released; tail
bolt was observed to be slightly bent. Maximum load applied was
258,000 lb., after which load was released and block examined. Sheave

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 327
Fig. 35.
/Pii rh'P/.ldPi^Inside Shell PI.
— . C~*-^^ . Ocrside *-,. ,— Shell •/ cl.^i Pi I o
i^e 3:—king —Bing Fills. rii
____ ^ ^ 4 " * Bolt.
ling Fills.
•i'x4'*h/ashar. y
^S"*Sheave Bolt.
\AKtl,
•&ng Fill.

328 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
pin badly bent, cotter broken off; both inside shell plates split; tail bolt
bent upward; both inside shell bolts had moved upward J4 in- '< due to
Aaoaq w \.\ \ \ \ i i i i i I 1 i i i i i
,1
£_)//-,A/, /X,X7^>9r7 Ir1/tr*> Pnnt> -,*-*
r"7l£2t?l& nOljl/FrC/ rrl/S fZOfJS. —j
^feOO'S __ -^-/-v-,,-,,-/-:- /QlrV,'mF^T ^ Z
^s^SEst 8E3.-C _--Z
'it 5} /// f ; -
^- e^ TmZLl^''
i>a 7s!r E37 -;
AlT'i TayT s\ 1 —— fl
7^22:5 £ 3l2_;_I_(,_---±:*
i?JS -f-)1// /-
77?e3 /Vfe/- tVcm^/ng' Z.O&C/ CO-T
i^opes over ^fr&zves
rig. 3 7
bolts and sheave pin bending. Load was reapplied to get complete
destruction: at 255,000 lb. inside shell plates had raised J4 in. and load

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 329
began going back until about 178,000 lb.; at this load block burst apart
with a loud report. Just previously inside shell plates had raised \y2 in.
Condition After Failure. Clevis pin almost straight. Both inside
shell plates pulled through at bottom. Straps and outside shell plates
intact at bottom. Sheave pin bent U shaped; ends bent downward at
45° angle. One sheave cracked at hub, by bending of sheave pin. Tail
bolt bent U shape, raising center shell plates about 2y2 in. above outside
shell plates. Tail bolt broken at outside shell plates, single shear. All
three y in. bolts failed. Both outside shell plates bent away from
sheaves, leaving 2 in. and 3y in. spaces between sheave and shell plate
on opposite sides. Both cotters gone in sheave pin. Clevis scaled but
in good shape. Clevis pin slightly bent. Straps badly bent and separated
from shell plates. Holes elongated and straps dented by head of
cotter. Holes badly distorted at sheave pin in outside shell plates.
In General:—The weights of the several blocks tabulated show that
the Mihvaukee block, Fig. 36, weighs somewhat more than twice as much
as the blocks which it tested to destruction. This additional weight,
however, was not due to heavier construction throughout, but was mostly
due to the use of 21 in. sheaves, in the Milwaukee block to reduce the
bending stresses in the wire rope.
These 21 in. sheaves are from 30 to 50% greater diameter than the
sheaves in the other blocks, and as shown by Fig. 37, a % in. rope on a
sheave of 60 in. diameter will carry a load of 9,600 pounds, but a % in.
rope on a sheave of 40 in. diameter will only carry a load of 6,000
pounds.
In Fig. 37, which is drayvn from tables of the Trenton Iron Company,
are given values of alloyvable loads for use in poyver transmission,
where the number of repetitions of bending and the consequent fatigue
of the metal is much greater than in erection yvork; nevertheless it illustrates
the point in question, although it was made for much greater
diameter of sheaves than were used in the derrick car.
Courtesy of the Wes 'em Society of Engineers

T h e Last Stage in the Construction
of the Panama Canal
Edward S. Farrow
T H E building of the Panama Canal is noyv in its fourth and final
stage. The first stage yvas the sanitation of the Canal Zone; the
second, the re-building of the Panama Railroad so as to supply
facilities for transporting the spoil from the excavations to the dumps;
the third, the excavation of the canal; the fourth, and last stage, the
building of the Gatun dam and locks, and the locks at Miraflores and
San Miguel. On August 1st of this year, the excavation (180,000,000
cu. yds., of which 40,000,000 cu. yds. available had been done by the
French) had advanced to a point where only 101,000,000 cu. yds. remained
to be done, yvhich, as officially stated by Col. Goethals, can be
finished by August 1st, 1911. The remaining excavation is proceeding
at the rate of about 3,000,000 cu. yds. per month.
Keeping pace with the speed of excavation are the construction
operations in connection yvith the Gatun clam and locks. The most important
part of the mechanical equipment are the 13 Lidgerwood high
speed cableways yvhich were especially designed and installed for building
the Gatun locks. UTpon 5 of these, known as the unloader cable-
Fig. 1.—The five high-speed Lidgerwood cableways which are handling, from
barges to the storage heaps, the 2,000.000 cu. yds. of broken stone and 1,000,000 eu. yds.
of sand required to build the Gatun locks.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 331
yvays, will fall the brunt of the work, and upon the ability of these 5 to
handle the amount guaranteed, or more, must depend the question of
whether the canal will be finished and in operation on January 1st, 1915,
or earlier. These cableways have exceeded their guaranteed capacity by
such a large percentage that the engineers in charge of this section of the
yvork are confident that it can be finished at a much earlier elate. They
are recognized unofficially by Col. Goethals as "that 1013 crowd."
The work of these 5 cableways is to handle the broken stone and
sanel which will be required for the walls and floors of the locks. There
are 6 locks, each 1,000 feet long in the clear anel 110 feet wide. They
lie side by side in flights of three, making a total length of more than
3,000 feet. Together they provide a total lift of 85 feet yvith some to
spare for changes in the initial yvater level. In these locks there yvill be
used 2,000,000 cu. yds. of broken stone, 1,000,000 cu. yds. of sand and
2,200,000 barrels of cement. The stone and sand arrive in barges on a
branch of the old French Canal. The nnloader cableway takes it out of
the barges with great grab buckets and delivers it 600 feet or more away
Fig 2.—A close view of the tail towers of the unloader cableways showing the
position of the barges and of the operators.

332 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
in heaps in the storage yard. From here it is taken by the cars of an
automatically operated electric railway to the mixers and from the mixers
the concrete is taken in other electric cars to where the second set
of 8 cableways can put it in place in tbe forms for the yvalls and floor.
Four cableways arranged in pairs on two sets of towers handle the
broken stone and a single cableway yvith independent towers unloads the
sand from the barges and deposits it on a storage pile. Each cableway
Fig. 3.—Looking down at a loaded barge from the operators' booth, showing the
ease with which the operators dirert the movement of the grab bucket.
has a span of 800 feet. In the duplex cableways the cables are 18 feet
apart. This corresponds with the distance apart of the transverse bulkheads
in the barges. The cableways are all mounted on steel towers 85
feet high. The toyvers are mounted on trucks and travel on tracks, so
that each cableyvay performs the function of a traveling crane. The unloader
cableways travel the length of the storage yard. Those for building
the locks travel more than 3,000 feet. They are all moved electrically,
each pair in unison. From the carriage of each of the 5 unloader cableways
there is suspended an improved special 70 cu. ft. iron-ore type of
excavating bucket. Each bucket grabs an average load of 54 cu. ft. The
load is hoisted 85 ft., conveyed about 600 ft., dumped on the storage
pile, and the carriage and bucket returned. This round trip has been
made in 1 minute and 8 seconds. The cableways were guaranteed to
handle 50 cu. yds. an hour each. They have carried 90 cu. yds. in an
hour and the average operation up to date is 60 cu. yds. per hour. This
ought to be materially increased with practice. The present record is
declared to be double that of any cableway previously employed anywhere.
The high speed and consequent increase in the capacity of the cableways
is due to the ease with which the operation of the cableways is controlled
; the rope-lead that simultaneously raises and traverses the bucket;

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 333
the high-speed shock-absorber with which the fall-rope carrier is equipped
and a new type of button-stop.
The hoisting and conveying machinery in the head tower is controlled
by an operator in the tall tower stationed on an elevated platform commanding
a clear view of the bucket at all times and in all positions. He
controls two 150-h. p. motors by master controllers of the New York
Subway type and the air brakes by tyvo levers operating magnet valves
800 ft. away. The physical effort of operation is so easy that the operator
can comfortably maintain the high speed. In all previous cableways
this effort was so fatiguing that, although it yvas possible to attain a
speed of 35 round trips per hour with mechanical levers, this could not
Fig 4 —One of the cableway operators in his booth, showing the simple apparatus
with which he controls the operation of the bucket and carriage.
be sustained for any length of time.
The rope-lead which simultaneously hoists and traverses the bucket
causes the latter to move in a curved line corresponding somewhat to the
hypothenuse of a triangle, instead of moving on the vertical and horizontal
sides. Considerable increase of speed and diminution of travel is thereby
effected. The high-speed shock-absorber with which the fall-rope
carrier is equipped is the invention of Spencer Miller. It permits the

334 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
carriage to travel at the unusual speed of 2,500 ft. per minute, more than
double the speed of any previous cableyvay. The button-stop employed
has been successfully tested experimentally yvith a fall-rope carrier run­
ning at the speed of 3,000 ft. per minute.
On account of the ease of operation of these cableyvays, considerable
difficulty has been experienced in restraining the operators from
racing yvith each other. The cableyvays have frequently been operated at
a speed of 3,000 ft. per minute, which, being at present too severe for
the fall-rope carriers, is noyv limited to 2,500 feet per minute. Some of
Fig. 5.—Another view of the carriage and buckets, showing also the fall-rope
carriers.
Fig. 6.—A set of the buttons which control the automatic spacing of the fall-rope
carriers on the cable as the carriage runs out.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 335
the small pieces forming the heads of the fall-rope carriers are being
replaced with heavier pieces which, it is believed, will admit of even the
higher speed.
Another feature of these cableways which is new is that the bucket
is counter balanced like a passenger elevator. Thus only the net load has
to be hoisted and only enough power is required to do this and overcome
friction and inertia.
The eight cableyvays used for putting the materials in place in the
millfllffflmifii-iiiiiiiiii 11111,1111110
Fi„ 7 —Plan of the cableways showing their relationship to the branch of the old
French Canal where the barges arrive, the cement shed, the storage yard, and the
automatic electric railways.

336 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
lock walls are similar in span, height, style of towers, and method of control
to those for unloading the materials, but they yvill never be called
upon for such rapid work. While they will handle the entire amount of
concrete, and besides this, the wooden forms and the many tons of old
rails which are to be put into the concrete for reinforcement, there are
eight of them as against five of the others, and each will have much less
to do. This is necessary as the placing of the concrete requires care and
deliberation. The immense quantity of concrete material for the Gatun
locks will perhaps be better appreciated if one remembers that handled
separately it amounts to more than 3,300,000 cu. yds. while the total
cubical contents of the Great Pyramid is only 3,800,000 cu. yds. Tradition
says that it took 100,000 men a hundred years to build the Great
Pyramid. The Gatun locks are morally sure to be finished before January
1st, 1915, and may be ready for opening the canal for use in 1913,
thus justifying the confidence of "that 1913 croyvd."

Concrete-Steel Caissons:
Their Development and Use for
Breakwaters, Piers and
Revetments
By W. V. Judson.
(Continued from November Issue of The Industrial Magazine)
$1.45 per ton for filling stone and riprap; and $6.00 per cubic yard
for lean concrete filling.
The designs of the Mihvaukee caissons are shoyvn on Plates X to
XII, inclusive.
The caissons thus far described have had vertical walls of uniform
thickness from top to bottom, except that the walls of the Mihvaukee
caissons are to be thickened somewhat at the top, the better to hold
the steel needed for longitudinal stiffness, and to avoid weakening
the caissons at the top where timber is ordinarily let into the concrete
for the purpose of holding the decks.
It is obvious that caissons with walls inclined inward from bottom
to top would better resist wave action Per cubic yard of contents
they would possess greater moments of stability against overturning
and at the same time the overturning moment due to wave action
would be lessened, inasmuch as the wave pressure would act normally
to the inclined front surface, and thus have a reduced lever
arm.
It is also obvious that, as tne vails are ordinarily subjected to the
greatest pressure at points near the bottom, they may to advantage
be made thicker near their bases.
To meet typical conditions in breakwater construction and the
like a number of caissons have been designed and it is noyv proposed
briefly to describe them.
Plates XIII and XIV show a breakwater designed for an exposed
location in Lake Michigan, where the water is 34 feet deep.
With stone at $1.40 per ton, timber at $40 per M. ft. B. M., reinforced
concrete at $16.00 per cubic yard, lean concrete at $5.00 per cubic
yard, and superstructure at $9.00 per cubic yard, the cost per lineal

338 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
foot of this breakwater yvould be $203.10 as against a cost of $206.20
per lineal foot for a breakwater of the ordinary type, yvooden cribs,
30 feet wide, stone filled, on riprap foundation, with timber superstructure,
taking timber at $40.00, iron at 5 cents per pound and stone
at $1.40 per ton, all unit prices covering materials in completed work.
To carry the comparison further, it may be said that in from 12
to 15 years the yvooden cribs would require a new superstructure,
which if built of concrete, in accordance with the usual practice,
would cost from $70 to $100 per lineal foot.
The efficiency of the caissons to resist overturning by wave action
would be about 1.2, if 1 be taken to represent the corresponding
efficiency of the yvooden cribs.
Plates XV and XVI represent a caisson designed as the top of an
enrockment breakwater in an exposed location in 42 feet of yvater.
The cost of such a breakwater, at unit prices similar to those
above mentioned, would be $273A2 per lineal foot, as compared with
a cost per lineal foot of $261.75 for a 30-ft. wide wooden crib breakwater.
But again the top of the wooden crib would be temporary,
and the efficiency of the concrete caissons to resist overturning would
be 1.7 times the efficiency of the wooden cribs. In this connection
the recent partial failure of the 30-ft. wooden crib breakyvater at
Michigan City, Ind., is deserving of consideration. The depth of
water at the outer end was about 30 feet, and the breakwater was
exposed to yvaves yvith a fetch corresponding to the greatest dimension
of Lake Michigan. It is understood that the outermost crib was
overturned toward the harbor side in a recent storm.
Plates XVII anel XVIII represent a caisson designed to surmount
an enrockment and form a breakyvater in an exposed location
in 48 feet depth of water. The breakwater complete would cost
$335.03 per lineal foot, and its efficiency to resist overturning would
be nearly twice that of a stone filled 30-ft. wooden crib breakyvater.
The three sloping wall caissons last described have been carefully
studied. If the enrockment were so uneven as to support a caisson
under its middle, or under its two ends only, no harm would result.
Specifications have been worked out for building a breakwater of
either of these caissons, on stone foundation, but space is lacking to
discuss at tbis time the proposed details of the work.
Plate XIX illustrates a caisson designed to surmount an enrockment
and form a breakwater in an exposed location in salt yvater
and on a soft foundation. Concrete is employed as a filling with a
view not only to its yveight. but in order to reinforce the parts of
the caisson that are to be most exposed to the action of sea water.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 339
With reinforced concrete at $17 per cubic yard, filling concrete at
superstructure concrete at $9, enrockment at $1.40 per ton, and reinforced
concrete slabs and columns at $11 per cubic yard, this breakwater,
in 50 feet depth of yvater, would cost $611.22 per lineal foot.
Voids are left in the interior of the caisson to reduce the yveight on
the foundation. Assuming that, due to arching effect in the enrockment,
the weight is so spread upon the bottom as to be uniform for
a width of 44 feet on each side of a vertical plane bisecting the caisson
longitudinally with the breakwater, then the weight on the bottom
will be 3,034 pounds per square foot. The berms in the case of this
enrockment are protected on the sea side by reinforced concrete slabs
each weighing 15 tons.
Figures 1 and 2, Plate XX, illustrate a possible use of caissons,
one on top of a second, for the construction of a breakwater in deep
water on a soft bottom yvhere it is necessary to reduce the weight
to a minimum. The lower caisson, at unit prices last mentioned,
would cost $345.78 per lineal foot of breakyvater, and the upper caisson
with filling and superstructure would cost $250.98 per lineal foot,
making the total cost of the breakwater $596.76 per lineal foot. The
weight per square foot brought upon the bottom by such a combination
of caissons as is last described would be 1866 pounds.
Another suggestion for a breakwater in salt water, where piles are
required by reason of the poor foundation available, and where, unless
they were protected, the pile heads might be destroyed by the
teredo, is shown in Fig. 3, Plate XX. This caisson would be provided
with large pipes, or wells, through which, after the caisson is
sunk in place, concrete would be forced down among the pile tops.
The space into which the concrete would be forced could be shut in
on the sides by dumping dredged material close beside the caisson.

^ D V ^ S T B I A L
) _ h f e O O B e 5 S
C I _ ____ga__%^^fMijj^
The Dodge Mutual Relief
Association
T H E Dodge Mutual Relief Association,
celebrated its twentieth year, July 31st.
This organization, made up of employees
of the Dodge Manufacturing Co., Mishawaka,
Ind., is the oldest of its kind in Indiana.
The object of the Association is the material
assistance of members in cases of disability
arising from sickness or accident when sufficient
to unfit them for their daily labor. In
case of death from any cause a special benefit
is paid to the family or heirs.
The Association is entirely in the hands of
Dodge workers, and membership is voluntary.
A complete executive force is maintained to
look after membership, claims and other business.
The membership is divided into two
classes: First, those whose weekly earnings
exceed $6, for which class the weekly dues
are 5 cents and the benefits 80 cents per day,
Sundays and holidays excepted. Second, those
whose earnings are less than $6 per week, for
which class the weekly dues are 2V* cents per
week and the daily benefits 40 cents per day.
All benefits continue for a period of 13 weeks
as a limit for any one term during 12 months
dating from the first date of disability. In the
event of death of a member of the first class,
$50 is paid; of the second, $25.
Cases of disability are investigated by a
committee, who make a report to the board of
directors, which issues the necessary order.
The fees are $1 for the first class, and 50 cents
for the second. The weekly dues are suspended
when the funds on hand amount to
$500, and resumed when they get as low as
$300.
This Association has proved a highly satisfactory
method of mutual assistance in cases
of misfortune, and the employees of the Dodge
Manufacturing Company, power transmission
engineers, generally approve its operation, and
the 2,000 on the pay-roll are members to a man.
Charles Endlich, secretary and treasurer of
the company, has served as treasurer of the
Association since its formation, July 31, 1889.
Since that time over $15,000 has been disbursed
in benefits, and a goodly sum is now on hand.
Book Reviews
Dictionary of Architectural and Building
Terms: Contains 104 pages, 4/4x7, profusely
illustrated. Price 50c. Published by the
fndustrial Book Co., 78 Fulton street, New
York. This book contains a large number
of terms used in architecture and building
and has been compiled from the best authorities.
The left hand page throughout the book
contains illustrations of the various parts in
architecture, such as arches, capitals, columns,
altars, bases, mouldings, windows, etc. Would
be exceedingly valuable to students of architecture.
Architectural Perspective: Pages 7J/2X8X
36 pages, fully illustrated by I. P. Hicks.
Published by the Industrial Book Co., 178 Fulton
street. New York. Price 50c. This is a
simple treatise on architectural perspective
and contains practical directions for drawing
perspective views from the floor plans and
elevations of houses, ft is by the author of
"Building Plans and How to Draw Them,''
anel other books. Well illustrated and printed.
Building Plans and How to Draw Them:
Is the same size as the above book and the
same price. Contains a series of simple, practical
lessons on architectural drawing, showing
every step necessary to draw the full
working plans of a building. It is intended
for self-instruction for building mechanics and
contains a large number of illustrations of
plans for cottages and other buildings. The
lessons are taken up in such a manner that
the student advances gradually with the work
and will gain a vast amount of good information.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
RODERICK & B A S C O M R O P E CO.
BRAHCH 7,6 WARREN ST. N.Y
ST.LOUIS,MO.
WIRE ROPE \and AERIAL WIRE ROPE
TRAMWAYS.
View of a Broderick & Bascom Patent Automatic Tramway
in Montana with a CAPACITY OF 30 TONS PER HOUR.
This is a part of the largest tramway contract placed during
1907.
Ask for Catalog No. 21 describing our system of transportation.
J
P a t e n t K i l i n d o N o n -
Rotating Wire Rope
F O R HOISTING
It positively will not spin, twist, kink or rotate, either with
or without load.
Combines high strength with flexibility.
200 PER CENT GREATER WEARING SURFACE.
Your inquiries are solicited.
M a c o m b e r S t W h y t e
R o p e C o m p a n y manufacturers
271 So. Clinton St., CHICAGO. Mills, Coal City, 111.
New York Boston Pittsburg New Orleans Portland
23

24 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Mission Furniture, How to Make It, Part
I. Cloth covers, 96 pages, 90 illustrations.
Price 25 cents. A practical, plainly written
handbook of instructions for making and finishing
twenty-one different pieces of this popular
style of furniture. The text is accompanied
by detailed working drawings, as well as halftone
illustrations. Popular Mechanics, Chicago.
Drawing Tables and Filing Cases.—The
Economy Drawing Table Co., Toledo, O., have
issued a new catalog, 48 6 x 9-inch pages,
describing their line of drawing tables, filing
cases, and office furniture. The catalog shows
a number of additions to the line formerly
made.
Camera Work for Profit, discloses many
useful ways whereby the camera may be made
profitable. Many camera users could make
money from pictures taken during their leisure
time. Price 25c. The National Book Co.,
Cleveland (Collinwood Sta.), Ohio.
Catalog Reviews
Wire rope and fittings of every description
are made by the American Steel & Wire Co.,
Cleveland, O. Catalogue, 75 pages, illustrated.
All products mentioned in catalogue.
Turbines and generators—The Ball & Wood
Co., Elizabethport, N. J. Catalogue, 22 pages,
illustrated. Describes fully the workings and
construction of the Rateau-Smoot turbines and
generators, also gives illustrations of plants
where they are installed.
The Positive Water Glass Guard, manufactured
by the American Steam & Gauge Valve
Co., Boston, Mass. Catalogue, 4 pages, illustrated.
Gives parts and description of the
positive glass guard, which avoids accidents
and lawsuits caused by bursting water glasses.
Concrete tile machines—The Raber & Lang
Manufacturing Co., Kendallville, Ind. Catalogue,
20 pages, illustrated. Sole manufacturers
of the Crescent Portable Concrete Tile Machine.
Illustrations of places of installation
given also.
Digging machinery and Hayward buckets,
manufactured by the Hayward Company, 50
Church Street, New York City. Bucket Catalogue
No. 35, 8x6, 28 pages. Gives illustrations
of different kinds of buckets, also uses
of each.
Grab buckets—The Andresen-Evans Co.,
engineers, 1501 Monadnock Bldg., Chicago, 111.
Bulletin number 2, 4 pages. Describes fully
type "A"-2 line, and type *'B"-3 or 4 line grab
buckets. Data and drawings of different parts
given.
Mine and Quarry is a magazine published
quarterly by the advertising department of the
Sullivan Machinery Co. Contains 30 pages on
articles of mining, also illustrations.
The St. Louis Steel Foundry, St. Louis, Mo.,
manufactures all kinds of good steel castings.
Catalogue No. 8, 36 pages, illustrated, describes
the different articles and shops where manufactured.
Gasoline Locomotives—Ernst Wiener Co., 50
Church St., N. Y., Bulletin No. 150, 9x6, 7
pages, illustrated, presents specifications for
different parts of gasoline locomotive, also
gives inquiry blank.
The Patten Hoist, manufactured by The
Patten Mfg. Co., Chattanooga, Tenn. Catalogue
and cuts represent parts, illustrations
and data for the different types, also date of
issue and places where used.
The Watson-Stillman Co., New York, N. Y.,
50 Church St. Catalog No. 74, 5x8, illustrated.
Presents views of different parts of
hydraulic coping and shearing machinery, also
some dimensions and testimonial letters are
given.
The Lockwood Automatic Buckets and Skips-
Cockburn Barrow & Machine Co., 30 Church
St., New York, catalogue, illustrated. Gives
explanation of workings and capacity of the
above, also prices and list of other articles
they manufacture.
The College of Engineering, published by
the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Magazine,
100 pages. Description of equipment and
announces the courses for 1909-1910. Information
on College of literature and arts, science,
agriculture, and law given upon request.
A catalogue on gravel and hardpan steam
shovel, issued by John Souther & Co., 185
Summer St., Boston, Mass., contains a full
description of the workings and types of
machines, letters from prominent firms proclaiming
its good qualities, and a few illustrations.
Power transmitting, elevating, conveying and
cement machinery are manufactured by the
Hill Clutch Co., of Cleveland, O. Catalogue
on tests of friction clutches for power transmission
by Prof. R. G. Dukes contains about
15 pages of description and illustrations. Also
some illustrations of other products manufactured
by them are given.

THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE. 25
N E W T O N
(REGISTERED TRADE MARKl
Automatic Kotary Planer Cutter Grinder
No. 2 S Beam Cold Sawing Machine No. 2 I
NEWTON MACHINE TOOL WORKS Philadelphia, Pa.
(Incorporated)

26 THE INDUSTRIAL MAGAZINE.
Recent Inventions
Hoisting Machine.
This invention relates to hoisting machines,
and particularly to portable machines of this
class for use in raising sucker-rods, tubing
or other parts from oil or other classes of
wells, or for lowering such parts therein, but
it is not restricted to such use.
The object of the invention is the provision,
in combination with a vehicle or other portable
mount of means for raising the mast
from or lowering it to reclinging position relative
thereto and shifting it to enable it when
raised to be positioned at either side of the
vehicle as the position of the parts to be operated
on relative to the vehicle or mount may
require.
The inventor is William M. Brown, of Gibsonburg,
Ohio.
The dumping elevator has been patented by
E. B. Symons, Milwaukee, Wis. (No. 926,909),
and relates to the improvements in automatic
devices used in handling buckets for carrying
concrete in the construction of buildings.
The object of this invention is to construct
an effective machine to carry the mixed concrete
to the different floors as the building progresses
and dumping same into a shoot from
which it can be drawn into wheel-barrows.
Ashes Quickly Disposed Of
T H E newest liners now dispose of their
ashes by forcing them through the bottom
of the hull by means of compressed
air. The old method of hoisting them and
dumping them overboard was disagreeable to
the passengers, and an attempted improvement
by which they were mixed with water and
pumped overboard was equally so when the
wind was in the wrong quarter.
In the new "expeller" a hopper receives the
ashes and clinkers and delivers them into a '
crusher, which breaks up the large pieces. Below
this is a drum revolving in a watertight
casing and open as it turns first to the crusher
chamber and then to the discharge pipe below.
In order to counteract the upward pressure of
the water compressed air at about 70 pounds
to the square inch is delivered to the interior
of the ash filled drum just before its opening
comes opposite that in the discharge pipe.
Thus the ashes are expelled with such force
that they are swept clear of the bottom of the
vessel. This expeller will get rid of the ashes
and clinkers from forty-eight furnaces under
forced draught, amounting to eight or ten tons
an hour.
Thc C. O. Bartlett & Snow Company, Cleveland,
announce the following recent sales:
Crow's Nest Pass Coal Co., Fernie, B. C—
Additional coal handling machinery.
Maryland Steel Co., Steelton, Pa.—Conveyors
and elevators.
National Refining Co., Findlay, O.—Conveyors
and elevators.
National Tube Co., Pittsburg, Pa.—Conveyors
and elevators.
Goldie & McCullough Co., London, Out—
Machinery for manufacturing pearled barley.
Winding Gulf Colliery Co., Cincinnati, O —
Complete coal tipple and Greene self-dumping
ear haul, through F. C. Greene, engineer.
United States Smelting, Refining & Mining
Co., Salt Lake City, Utah—Ore dryer.
Champion Rivet Co., Cleveland, 0.~Conveying
machinery.
International Salt Co., Utica, N. Y — Salt
conveyors.
James Cornhill, Chatham, Ont.—Brick dryer
and conveyor. j_
Pacific Coke & Coal Briquetting Co., Se"
attle, Wash.—Dryer and other machinery fo£
manufacturing coal briquets. *>
Upson Nut Co., Cleveland, O.—Complete
ash handling outfit.

•
m
w
r%X^
xx-^
c6 SL_V-t[X
~ y_v. * ^/w'j

inn
• • • - - • . __HS-H_i-^B-i^-H-a-H^-H
•— m H
ugl! liH Hi
esSS ' ' HUH R89
; I lliill lliii
3 1812 04297 1359