Cascade NTFP Regional Profile.pdf - First Nations in British ...

A Regional Profile of Commercial Harvesting of 

Non-Timber Forest Products in the 

Cascade Forest District, British Columbia 

Prepared for 

The Centre for Non-Timber Resources, 

Royal Roads University, Victoria, BC 

February 2008 

Written by: Michael E. Keefer 1 , Tyson Ehlers 2 , Nancy Macpherson 3 

1 

Keefer Ecological Services Ltd. 

3816 Highland Rd., Cranbrook, BC V1C 6X7 Ph. 250-489-0917 

mkeefer@shaw.ca 

2 Tysig Ecological Research 

R.R. #1, S.15A, Comp.1,Winlaw, B.C., V0G 2J0 

3 

Siska Traditions Society 

P.O. Box 519 Lytton, B.C. V0K 1Z0

Cascades NTFP Profile 

Acknowledgements 

This project would not have been possible without the assistance of a large number of 

people. We would like to thank Dr. Stephen Tyler for his efforts in completing the 

Ethical Review and also for his insightful editorial inputs. Jim Adams played a critical 

role in administering the contract with the Nicola Similkameen Innovative Forest 

Practices Society and provided direction throughout the project. Through the guidance 

of Chief Fred Sampson this project was successful in getting key input from the 

majority of the Nicola Tribal Association bands. The following representatives from 

the Bands provided highly valuable information for this project: Chief Harold Aljam, 

Chief David Walkem, Leonard Joe, Jean York, Philippe Badini, Lynne Jorgesen, Garry 

Arnold, and Sean Swakum. The following NTFR businesses provided information on 

their operations: Bob Meredeth, Doreen Hare, Don Murphy, and Terry Raymond. The 

following BC Ministry of Forests and Range staff members provided key input from 

the BC Government perspective: Dave Horn, Joyce Sam, Michael Blackstock, Rob 

Jonan, Martin Pantheon, Glen Hayes and Marlon Dosch. This project was funded by 

the Centre for Non-Timber Resources with support from BC Ministry of Forests and 

Range.


Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 2 

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 4 

Scope ............................................................................................................................... 4 

Methods........................................................................................................................... 5 

Description of Study Area .............................................................................................. 6 

Biophysical Setting ..................................................................................................... 6 

Historical Context ....................................................................................................... 7 

Socio Economic Profile .................................................................................................. 8 

Communities ............................................................................................................... 8 

Industry and Employment ........................................................................................... 8 

Education and Health ................................................................................................ 11 

First Nations .............................................................................................................. 12 

Transportation, Utility and Communication Networks ............................................ 15 

Forest Industry .............................................................................................................. 15 

Regional Forest Land Use ............................................................................................. 16 

Review of the Lillooet LRMP Pertaining to NTFRs ................................................ 16 

Agriculture ................................................................................................................ 18 

Tenure Holders and Management Trends ................................................................. 18 

Other Resource Industries ............................................................................................. 19 

Major Developments ................................................................................................. 19 

Identified Non Timber Forest Products ........................................................................ 19 

Edible and Medicinal Plants: major species, use and management .......................... 19 

Greenery, Boughs and Christmas trees ..................................................................... 21 

Native Plants for Horticulture and Restoration ......................................................... 22 

Basketry and other Crafts.......................................................................................... 23 

Small Diameter Wood............................................................................................... 23 

Mushrooms and Fungi .............................................................................................. 23 

Ethnobotanical Walks and Other Training ............................................................... 24 

Management Issues and Conclusions ........................................................................... 25 

Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 30 

Appendix I – Wild mushrooms lists ............................................................................. 33


Introduction 

The purpose of this project is to profile non-timber resources of the Cascades Forest 

District of British Columbia. Non-timber forest resources (NTFRs), also are well known 

as non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and include “all biological materials other than 

timber, which are extracted from forests for human use” (Belcher 2003). Included 

among NTFRs are botanical and mycological products and associated services of the 

forest such as wild food, medicinals and floral greenery, arts and crafts materials, 

specialty wood products and small diameter wood (non-conventional), ethno-botanical 

teaching and ecotourism (Centre for Non-Timber Resources 2007). Though also nontimber 

resources, wild animal products such as antlers and fur, or rangeland plants for 

forage are not included within the scope of this project. 

Non-timber forest resources pose unique challenges to the resource manager due to wide 

diversity in species and our general lack of knowledge about their ecology and 

productivity. Few attempts have been made to map their spatial extent and generally 

such efforts have been focussed on a small number of species of high commercial 

interest, for example the pine mushroom or American matsutake (Tricholoma 

magnivelare). There is a large body of local and traditional ecological knowledge held by 

First Nations, but this type of knowledge seldom reaches forest managers and there have 

been relatively few examples of this type of knowledge being incorporated into 

management decisions. Some of the plant species that are now commercially harvested 

have been valued and managed by First Nations for millennia. However, the knowledge 

base of the First Nations is in a fragile state due to the impacts of colonisation such as the 

loss of indigenous languages and ethnobotanical knowledge. The issues of First Nations 

rights and tenure in the light of current treaty negotiations are highly relevant to NTFR 

management. In BC NTFRs are increasingly being recognized as a new frontier in our 

relationship with the forests and their management. 

Scope 

The study area for this profile encompasses the Cascades Forest District, an area 

comprised of the Lillooet and Merritt Timber Supply Areas that is over 2.2 million ha. 

Communities within the District include Lillooet, Merritt, Princeton, Lower Nicola, 

Tulameen, Lytton, Goldbridge, Seton Portage and Pavilion. 

At an overview level, this profile will examine NTFRs within the District. In order to 

keep this profile manageable in scope it will focus mainly on key areas of activity. 

Undoubtedly the best known NTFR business in the District is Siska Traditions, a First 

Nations owned business that produces jams, soaps, teas and other products, and is also 

involved in education, fisheries and land management. The Nicola Tribal Association 

(NTA) research arm, Tmix w Research has been involved in documenting aboriginal land 

use for over a decade. Through the leadership of the NTA, key individuals have been 

contacted and interviewed to help identify interests and concerns relating to NTFR use. 

At a broader scale is the Nicola Similkameen Innovative Forest Practices Society 

(NSIFS), which has engaged multiple forest user and stakeholder groups to frame a


collaborative basis for NTFR management within the Merritt TSA. Along with the above 

entities, there are number of small businesses that have been identified in this research 

and are profiled to show the diversity of commercial NTFR use within the District. 

NTFRs play an important role as a primary source of cultural products and values for the 

different First Nations bands in the District, and an important seasonal source of 

nutrition. First Nations have also taken a leading role in commercialization of traditional 

NTFR use in the District through Siska Traditions, and indeed our surveys revealed few 

other commercial users. First Nations would be expected to play a central role in any 

future management efforts for NTFRs in the Cascades district. Yet it has often been 

difficult to build sufficient trust to engage First Nations around issues of NTFR use and 

management, and so their knowledge and use of the resource base has been neglected. 

For all these reasons, this study focuses on First Nations informants and NTFR users. 

Methods 

The information put forward in this profile is from a combination of literature, interviews 

with subject experts and the expert knowledge of the project team. There is a detailed 

body of ethnobotanical literature concerning the First Nations in the area that provides a 

strong foundation for assessing the region’s plant NTFRs. Until recently there was only 

scant information on the fungi in the region, but the interest in pine mushrooms and other 

gourmet fungi has led to a growing body of research in this area (Shannon Berch pers 

comm 2007). Prior to this study there was a near total gap in literature pertaining to the 

contemporary harvesting of NTFRs in this area other than fungi. 

Recognising the need for primary information from the users of the NTFR resources a 

process for interviews was developed to ensure the research was conducted ethically. A 

protocol developed between Siska Traditions Society and UBC was adapted to Royal 

Roads University’s Ethical Review Process to ensure First Nations knowledge and 

opinions were represented appropriately. First Nations interviewees were selected based 

on referrals from the Nicola Tribal Association member bands. People interviewed on 

their NTFP business activities were found through referrals, advertising and other 

sources. Government representatives for interviews were identified on the basis of their 

job descriptions. All interviews were conducted by Michael Keefer. 

Prior to interviews, the interviewees were provided a summary of the project that 

described its purpose and intent to ensure prior informed consent. Interview summaries 

were provided to and reviewed by all interviewees prior to publishing in this document to 

ensure accuracy. 

Prior to release this document has been peer reviewed by First Nations leaders and elders, 

as well as members of the forest industry, government and academia.


Description of Study Area 

Biophysical Setting 

This mountainous area is one of the most biologically diverse forest districts in the 

Province with ecosystems ranging from semi-arid low elevation grasslands in parts of the 

major valley bottoms to coastal temperate rainforest in some western valleys found 

within the Coast Range. In the western portions of the District, the valleys are typically 

deeply incised with narrow low altitude valley floors and rugged mountain tops extending 

up to 3000m. As one travels east in the District the mountains generally are less rugged 

and the valley floors more extensive and at higher elevation. Within the Lillooet TSA 

there are 6 biogeoclimatic zones and 46 mapped variants – this is 3 times the average of 

comparable sized areas in the interior (Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management 

(MSRM) 2004). This results in rare mixes of plant species associated with transitional 

ecosystem types, such as sword fern (Polystichum munitum) growing underneath 

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in the Siska area. The District is primarily in the 

Fraser River basin but the area near Princeton is in the Columbia basin. The spectacular 

Fraser Canyon provides the key ecological and logistical link between the coast and 

interior for humans, salmon and climate. The runs of pink, sockeye, chinook and coho 

salmon penetrate many of the major river systems in the District and have for millennia 

provided a crucial food source for people as well as nutrient inputs for terrestrial 

ecosystems. 

The area is under the influence of three major air masses: wet Pacific air, cold air from 

the plateau in the North and dry interior air from the east and south (Ministry of 

Sustainable Resource Management (MSRM) 2004). Precipitation ranges from 300 in dry 

Interior valleys to 2,000 mm in the west within the Lillooet TSA (Ministry of Sustainable 

Resource Management (MSRM) 2004). 

The following protected areas are entirely within or adjacent to the District: Manning 

Park, Cathedral Park, Stein Valley Nlaka’pamux Heritage Park, Spruce Lake Protected 

Area (South Chilcotin), Duffy Lake Park, Skwaha Lake Park, Marble Canyon Park, 

Skihist Park and Goldpan Park. 

Forests within the District contain a diversity of native tree species that include: 

lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), ponderosa pine, western white pine (Pinus monticola), 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), amabilis fir (Abies 

amabilis), western red cedar (Thuja plicata), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), trembling 

aspen (Populus tremuloides), black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) 

and others. Within the Merritt TSA, lodgepole pine is the predominant tree species and 

occupies roughly 60% of the timber harvesting landbase (Snetsinger 2005). 

The District currently has a number of forest health problems, including mountain pine 

beetle (MPB) (Dendroctonus ponderosa), Douglas fir beetle (D. pseudotsugae), spruce 

beetle (D. rufipennis), western pine beetle (D. brevicomis), western spruce budworm 

(Choristoneura occidentalis), and armillaria root disease (Armillaria ostoyae). MPB is 

currently the most serious forest health problem in the District with over 195 000 ha of


timber currently infested with the beetle (Senger 2007a ; Senger 2007b). The total area 

of the District that is susceptible to MPB and not currently infested is over 346 000 ha 

(Senger 2007a ; Senger 2007b). Current estimates of MPB infestations are only for 

lodgepole pine; though ponderosa pine is also susceptible it is not included in these 

figures (Martin Pantheon pers. com. 2007). Western pine beetle and MPB are 

collectively believed to be killing large areas of ponderosa pine in the Southern Interior. 

It is widely believed that the current MPB infestation will kill the majority of the 

lodgepole pine trees in the Southern Interior (Martin Pantheon pers. com. 2007). 

The scale of the MPB infestation is so vast in this District and indeed in the interior of 

BC that the resources of the Ministry of Forests and Range and the licensees are severely 

stretched. Accessible beetle infested areas within the timber harvesting landbase are 

being actively salvaged. Within the Lytton TSA, much of the terrain is difficult to 

operate in, and so substantial areas of timber kill are not being salvaged (Senger 2007b). 

The removal of such vast areas of forest cover has major ramifications for the ecology of 

the region. Water resources are expected to be impacted with the freshet occurring 

earlier with higher flows (Helie, Peters et al. 2005). Warmer stream temperatures due to 

the reduced tree cover are likely. Grasses and forbs responding to the newly open areas 

may be expected to produce relatively short-lived forage boom (Glen Hayes pers. com 

April 2007). Noxious weeds may be expected to vastly increase in number and dispersal 

due to widespread soil disturbance and increased light levels on the forest floor. In 

higher elevation areas plants such as the black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) 

are likely to respond positively. There is a current lack of policy concerning the 

compatible management of beetle-affected areas with non-timber values (Martin 

Pantheon pers. com. 2007). 

Historical Context 

The rich natural diversity where the Cascades Forest District is now situated has 

supported people for thousands of years. The Nlaka’pamux, Okanagan, St’át’imc, 

Secwepemc , and Ts’ilhqot’in are the First Peoples of this area and are part of a broad 

cultural division known as the Plateau Culture Area. Their traditional pithouses were 

built with ponderosa or lodgepole pine and formed their homes for the winter months 

(Turner 2005). Travelling extensively through their territories according to routine 

seasonal rounds, they used over 120 different species of plants for food, flavouring or 

beverages and implements(Turner 1990). Included in these rounds was hunting, trapping 

and fishing. Salmon was undoubtedly the most significant staple animal protein food. 

Trade routes among the different peoples allowed for procurement of foods and materials 

unavailable within one’s own territory(Turner 2005). 

Since Simon Fraser first travelled through this area in 1808 there have been vast changes 

in the ways resources are used. An extensive fur trade greatly diminished wildlife 

populations by the 1830’s. In 1858 there was a gold rush in the Fraser Canyon which 

brought with it 25,000 miners from California, which changed the lifestyle of the First 

Nations dramatically (Harris 1997; Laforet 1998). By the 1890’s, along with the Cariboo 

wagon road, ranching and farming were well established. The building of the CN and


CPR railroads further contributed to the demand for beef. The railroads also facilitated 

the movement of resources and brought logging to the area. Throughout this period, 

mechanization of these industries created more efficiency and growth. Although First 

Nations still maintained many of their traditional harvesting rounds throughout these 

upheavals, their access to resources became more controlled through the reserve system 

finalized in the 1890’s and other government policies aimed to control the movement of 

Aboriginal people (Harris 1997; Laforet 1998). Today Aboriginal peoples continue some 

traditional harvest rounds and are recovering and revitalizing many traditional practices 

in a contemporary context (Turner 2005). 

Socio Economic Profile 

Communities 

The Cascades Forest District boundaries are distinct from the Regional Districts, the 

health regions and the provincial and federal electoral districts and First Nations 

Territories. Therefore, custom tabulations from BC Statistics Local Health Areas 29 

Lillooet, 30 South Cariboo, 31 Merritt, and 17 Princeton were used for this socioeconomic 

analysis. These local health areas combined closely correspond to the Cascade 

Forest District area. 

The population of the Cascades Forest District is approximately 21,750 (Statistics Canada 

2001). The four major settlements make up almost 60% of the population including 

Lillooet (2,700), Lytton (320), Merritt (7,100), and Princeton (2,600). The Aboriginal 

population is 5,700 making up 25% of the total Cascades population with approximately 

half living on reserve. In the rural areas of the Cascades 44% of the population is 

Aboriginal. The Aboriginal population is also younger demographically with 28% of 

people under 15 years old compared to 20% for the general population within Cascades 

and 18% for BC (Statistics Canada 2001). 

The Cascades include segments of the Thompson- Nicola, Okanagan-Similkameen and 

Squamish-Lillooet Regional Districts. All major regional district centres (Squamish, 

Whistler, Kamloops, Penticton) are situated outside the Cascades boundaries, therefore 

the Cascades area is less economically robust than the corresponding Regional Districts, 

and the economy is predominantly rural. 

Industry and Employment 

Forestry, mining, ranching and agriculture are the important industries of the Cascades 

Forest District. The forestry sector is the biggest private employer, although several mills 

in the district have scaled back shifts or shut down entirely including Boston Bar Mill 

(MOFR 2005), and most recently Lytton Lumber (Hoekstra 2007). The railways are the 

second largest private employer with tourism becoming increasingly important and with a 

large potential for growth (Ministry of Forests 1995). Figure 1 shows direct employment


according to the 2001 census organized within North American Industry Classification 

System (NAICS). Direct employment in forestry and agriculture was a combined 12% for 

the Cascades Forest District. Construction and manufacturing (Including: Wood 

Manufacturing and paper manufacturing including sawmill and wood preservation, 

veneer, plywood and engineered wood product manufacturing, and other wood product 

manufacturing) combined made up 17% of employment for the region (Statistics Canada 

2001). The labour force employment in sales and service is equal to forestry. Direct 

employment in the forestry sector may be similar to other industries but it significantly 

supports other employment indirectly, in particular the transportation and service sectors. 

It is estimated for each 100 full-time direct forestry jobs another 20-40 jobs are supported 

as compared to tourism which supports an additional six to 13 jobs (Ministry of Forests 

and Range (MOFR) 2001a). The provincial government also receives substantial revenue 

through stumpage, corporate taxes and income tax. The 1996-1999 base case harvests of 

1,445,550 m 3 in the Merritt TSA generates $51.3 million in provincial government 

revenue, while the 635,900 m 3 

2005 base case harvests in the Lillooet TSA produce 

$10.1 million in provincial government revenue (Ministry of Forests and Range (MOFR) 

2001b; Ministry of Forests and Range (MOFR) 2005). 

Figure 1. Cascades Forest District Labour Force Activity by Industry 

Educational services, 

health care and social 

assistance 

17% 

Cascades Forest District Labour Force Activity by Industry 

Arts, entertainment, 

recreation, accomodation 

and food services 

11% 

Public administration 

8% Forestry, agriculture 

Other services 

17% 

12% 

Mining 

2% 

Construction and 

Manufacturing 

17% 

Wholesale and 

retail trade 

11% 

Transportation and 

warehousing 

5% 

(Statistics Canada 2001)


The 2001 unemployment rate in the region is 13 percent compared to 8.5 percent for the 

province. The Aboriginal unemployment rate at 23 percent is similar to that of the 

provincial rate. Shown in figure 2 the average income for population 15 and older in the 

District is 15 percent ($4800) lower than the provincial averages at $26,700. The average 

income for Aboriginal people in the District is 37 percent ($11,700) lower than the 

provincial at $19,800. There is a significant gender difference in average earnings with 

women overall earning 37% less then men, while Aboriginal women earned on average 

33% less then Aboriginal men (Statistics Canada 2001). The average income for the 

Cascades is also lower than the corresponding regional districts as demonstrated in figure 

3 (Statistics Canada 2001).


Figure 2. Average Employment Income: Comparison between CFD and 

British Columbia 

Average Income 

$40,000 

$35,000 

$30,000 

$25,000 

$20,000 

$15,000 

$10,000 

$5,000 

$0 

Average Employment Income 

Comparison between CFD and British Columbia 

Total Male Female 

British Columbia British Columbia-Aboriginal Cascades Cascades- Aboriginal 

(Statistics Canada 2001) 

Figure 3. Average Employment Income: Comparison between CFD and 

Regional Districts 

$40,000 

$30,000 

$20,000 

$10,000 

Average Employment Income 

Comparison between CFD and regional districts 

$0 

All women All men 

Okanagan-Similkameen 

Regional District 

Thompson-Nicola Regional 

District 

Squamish-Lillooet Regional 

District 

Cascades Forest District 


Education and Health 

Education is an important socio-economic indicator and a determinant for health status 

within British Columbia (B.C. Provincial Health Officer 2002). (B.C. Provincial Health 

Officer 2006) As demonstrated in figure 4, education levels in the Cascades Forest 

District are lower than Provincial averages. Education level is often directly linked to 

income. In the Cascades, reliance on the primary industries provide employment with


higher salaries and lower educational requirements. Therefore education may not have as 

great an impact on income and health determinants as other regions. However regions 

more dependent on primary industries are more vulnerable to economic downturns in the 

economy. 

The traditional economy of First Nations may be another factor attributing better health 

within this region despite the low socio-economic status. Research into Canadian 

Aboriginal economies demonstrates the substantial monetary value of traditional resource 

acquisition (Berkes 1994). The most recent Public Health Officers Report (2006) 

identifies the importance of traditional diets to health of Aboriginal people. Considering 

the standard of living is 20 percent lower for Aboriginal people in British Columbia than 

other British Columbians poverty and food security are continued concerns (B.C. 

Provincial Health Officer 2006). These issues are paramount in considering the use and 

management of NTFRs in the region. 

Figure 4. Highest Level of Schooling in Population 15 years and older 

Percent of population 

15 years and older 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Grade 9 - 13 with 

secondary school 

graduation certificate 

Highest Level of Schooling 

Trades certificate or 

diploma 

University with 

bachelor's degree or 

higher 

Females with Postsecondary 

Males with Postsecondary 

Cascades-Aboriginal BC-Aboriginal Cascades-Total Population BC- Total Population 


First Nations 

There is a large and diverse First Nations population in the District, with the 

Nlaka’pamux, Okanagan, Secwepemc, St’át’imc, and Ts’ilhqot’in all having a 

considerable interest in the landbase (MOFR 2007c). These Nations have asserted rights 

and title over the land, waterways, air and the natural resources within their traditional


territories (Union of B.C. Indian Chiefs 1978). Within the Lillooet TSA, half the 6,500 

people are of First Nations decent (Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management 

(MSRM) 2004). Other than the Ts’ilhqot’in whose language is part of the Athabascan 

language group the other First Nations languages are all in the Salishan group of 

languages. The information found within this section comes entirely from previously 

published sources available online. The descriptions of the First Nations and their 

traditional territories is provided out of respect to the First Nations, to illustrate the 

complexity of their territorial interests and to facilitate understanding. The information in 

this section is in no way intended to limit or define rights or interests of the various First 

Nations. 

The Ts’ilhqot’in do not have any permanent settlements within the forest district. 

According to a recent map, their territorial interests extend into the northern portion of 

the Lillooet TSA 7 (Ministry of Education 2007). In their land claims declaration, the 

Ts’ilhqot’in describe their territorial interests as follows: 

From the Fraser River to the Coastal Mountains and from the territory of the 

St’át’imc to the territory of the Carrier Nations is Tsilhqot'in country. The heart of 

our country is Tsilhqox (The Chilcotin River) and its tributary lakes and streams. 

This has been the territory of the Tsilhqot'in Nation for longer than any man can 

say and it will always be our country; the outlying parts we have always shared 

with our neighbours - Nuxalk, Kwakiutl, St’át’imc, Carrier and Secwepemc - but 

the heartland belongs to none but the Tsilhqot'in. Our mountains and valleys, 

lakes, rivers and creeks all carry names given to them by the Tsilhqot'in people: 

Anahim, Niut and Itcha; Tsilhqox, Taseko and Chilanko; Tatla, Nemiah and 

Toosey. Our territory is that which is named in our language. All living things in 

our country - animals, birds, insects, amphibians, reptiles, worms and flies, fish, 

trees, shrubs, flowers and other plants - also bear the names given to them in the 

language of theTsilhqot’in (Tsilhqot'in National Government 1997) 

The St'át imc are represented politically by the St'át imc Chiefs Council. Within the 

Cascades District, the St’át’imc have the following communities: Bridge River 

(Nxwisten), Pavilion (Ts'kw'aylacw), Cayoose Creek (Sekw'el'was), Seton Lake 

(Chalath), Lillooet (T'it'q'et), Fountain (Xaxl'ip), Anderson Lake (N'quatqua), Douglas 

(Xa'xtsa), Skatin and Samahquam (St’át’imc 2007). Found within the St’át’imc website is 

the Nxekmenlhkálha lti Tmícwa, Part I (the St.át’imc Preliminary Draft 

Land Use Plan). In this document are numerous references to NTFRs in the context of 

traditional use; there is no specific reference to the commercial harvest of these plants. 

Principle 10 of the plan reads: 

St’át’imc community economic development should be based on diverse activities, and where 

forestry is part of the mix, focus on producing value-added and non-timber forest products to 

encourage ecological, social, cultural and economic well-being, and stability. 

The St’át’imc describe their traditional territory as follows: 

The St'át'imc are the original inhabitants of the territory which extends north to 

Churn Creek and south to French Bar; northwest to the headwaters of Bridge 

River; north and east toward Hat Creek Valley; east to the Big Slide; south to the


island on Harrison Lake and west of the Fraser River to the headwaters of Lillooet 

River, Ryan River and Black Tusk (St’át’imc 2007). 

The Secwepemc do not have any permanent settlements within the District, but they do 

have communities in close proximity to the District boundary. The Secwepemc are 

represented by the Shuswap Nation Tribal Council, Northern Shuswap Tribal Council / 

Treaty Society and there are a small number of independent bands (SNTC 2007). For the 

purpose of a court proceeding, Ignace (2005) describes the Secwepemc territory: 

The term “Shuswap” is an Anglicization of the term Secwépemc, which means 

"spread-out people" (Ignace 1998). It refers to the members of the largest Interior 

Salish speaking Aboriginal Nation in Canada whose Aboriginal territory 

encompasses some180, 000 square kilometres (Palmer 1975a) in the south central 

area of what is now British Columbia, stretching from the British 

Columbia/Alberta Border near the Yellowhead Pass to the plateau west of the 

Fraser River, southeast to the Arrow Lakes and to the upper reaches of the 

Columbia River. The Secwepemc homeland is traversed and characterized by the 

two major rivers of the British Columbia Plateau, the Fraser River and the 

Thompson River, including its North and South branches. Most of the 

Secwepemc communities are and were located along the valleys of these rivers 

and their main tributaries, although the resource use territories encompassed the 

entire area associated by Teit and others with Secwepemc territory 

The Okanagan Nation bands (Sylix) are represented by the Okanagan Nation Alliance 

(ONA) at the tribal level, there are two member band communities within the District, 

Upper Nicola and Upper Similkameen – both of these communities are also sometimes 

listed as members of the Nicola Tribal Association. The Okanagan Nation describes their 

traditional territory as follows: 

Traditionally, Okanagan’s occupied an area which extended over approximately 

69 000 square kilometres. The northern area of this territory was close to the area 

of Mica Creek, just north of modern day Revelstoke, BC, and the eastern 

boundary was Kootenay Lake. The southern boundary extended to the vicinity of 

Wilbur, Washington and the western border extended into the Nicola Valley 

(ONA 2007). 

The majority of Nlaka’pamux communities lie within the bounds of the Cascades Forest 

District including: Coldwater, Cook’s Ferry, Kanaka Bar, Lower Nicola, Lytton, 

Nicomen, Nooaitch, Shackan, Siska. and Skuppah. The First Nation is represented by 

three different tribal councils, Nicola Tribal Association (NTA), Nlaka’pamux Nation 

Tribal Council (NNTC) and the Fraser Canyon Indian Administration; there are also 

unaffiliated bands. Tmixw Research describes the Nlaka’pamux territory as follows: 

The Nlaka’pamux Nation are Interior Salish speakers, making up 16 communities. 

The Nlaka’pamux Nations’ homelands encompass much of the Cascade Mountain 

Range including the drainages of the Fraser, Thompson, Tulameen, Similkameen, 

Coquihalla and Nicola river systems in the interior of British Columbia (B.C.), 

and extends into the northwest region of Washington State. (Markey and Sandy 

nd)


Transportation, Utility and Communication Networks 

The District is crossed by many of the Province’s major rail, highway transportation and 

energy corridors. These features provide a major geographical advantage in terms of 

accessibility over less served areas further north or west. 

The Fraser Canyon has both the CN and CP railway lines as well as the TransCanada 

Highway. The former BC Rail line, now owned by CN passes through the northern part 

of the District. The Coquihalla Highway and Highway 3 also pass through the area. In 

addition to these major primary corridors, the region has numerous secondary roads as 

well as a high density of logging roads. Generally this infrastructure provides an 

excellent transportation network. The steep topography and geologic instability pose a 

major challenge to the reliability of the network due to often frequent landslides and other 

forms of slope instability, particularly for the routes through the Fraser Canyon. 

The communication infrastructure is well developed in the larger towns and poorly 

developed in rural areas. Smaller communities typically don’t have cellphone coverage, 

even along the TransCanada Highway. Broadband internet is generally only available in 

the larger towns such as Princeton, Merritt, Lillooet and Lytton. Communities such as 

Siska are hampered by their lack of cell phone and broadband internet (Chief Fred 

Sampson pers. com 2006). 

Forest Industry 

Forestry is a significant economic driver within the Cascades Forest District as described 

in the socioeconomic profile. In the District there are two different approaches being 

taken to land management in its two TSAs (Timber Supply Areas). Within the Lillooet 

TSA there is the Lillooet Land and Resource Management Plan, in which First Nations 

declined participation (Lillooet LRMP). The Merritt TSA does not have an LRMP 

process, however, it has the Nicola Similkameen Innovative Forest Practices Society, a 

group which brings together the 6 major forest licensees, First Nations and key 

stakeholders to help manage ‘the entire Merritt TSA as one landbase’ (NSIFS 2007). The 

District has a total AAC (Annual Allowable Cut) of over 3 450 000 cubic metres of 

which 635 900 m 3 is in the Lillooet TSA and 2 814 171 m 3 is in the Merritt TSA. Within 

the Lillooet TSA, the full AAC has not been harvested for a number of years. This 

undercut has been attributed to ‘coastal terrain with interior trees’ and long haul distances 

to the sawmills making logging economically marginal (Marlon Dosch pers. com 2007).


Regional Forest Land Use 

Similar to other forested areas of the Province, the primary management objectives of the 

forest landbase are centred on timber harvesting. 

Review of the Lillooet LRMP Pertaining to NTFRs 

Found within the Lillooet LRMP (2004) is direction concerning the management of 

NTFRs. Objective number 4 in section 2.1, reads: “Encourage innovative silvicultural 

and harvesting regimes to achieve management objectives for non-timber resources”. 

There are two areas of management direction for this objective: 

4.1 Encourage timber harvesting where it would benefit wildlife (refer to details 

in wildlife, Species at Risk, and Forest Biodiversity and Grassland Ecosystems) 

4.2 Where management for non-timber resources has the potential to make 

harvesting timber harvest land base (THLB) uneconomical, consider innovative 

regimes to resolve the conflicts 

The measures of success/target are: Innovative silvicultural and harvesting regimes used 

to achieve management objectives for non-timber resources. The intent is: 

The entire THLB will not require innovative silvicultural or harvesting systems to 

achieve management objectives for nontimber resources. A significant proportion 

of the plan area is currently managed using innovative practices. These practices 

might include: adjusted cutblock, size or shape to retain visual quality; modified 

clearcut systems, such as small patch clearcuts, feathered edges, green tree 

retention or deciduous tree retention; harvest and leave patterns; alternative 

harvesting systems, such as highlead, helicopter, small machinery or horselogging; 

and alternative silvicultural systems, such as selection or shelterwood (p. 

8). 

Objective 10 reads: “Minimize impacts of resource management activities on botanical 

forest products”. Its management direction is: “10.1 Review the impacts of resource 

management activities on the use and collection of botanical forest products.” There are 

no measures of success listed. 

Section 3.3 Cultural and Historic Resources also contains language pertaining to NTFRs 

in relation to First Nations. Objective 3 reads: “3. Manage First Nations cultural symbols 

e.g., traditionally used plants, animals, and natural features), so that their value is 

acknowledged in planning for other resource activities”. There is no other text to 

support this objective, likely because the Province remains involved in consultations with 

the First Nations on this document. 

Section 3.5, Access and Transportation does not address issues concerning the access of 

NTFRs. Section 3.5.2 does mention the need to work with First Nations on the 

transportation infrastructure to meet the needs of their activities. 

Section 4.3.3 grizzly bear includes discussion about NTFRs such as the huckleberry and 

its management. Referenced within this discussion is the need to prevent damage to 

huckleberries though timber harvesting.


Section 4.4.2 Biodiversity in Dry Forest and Grasslands contains numerous pieces related 

to the encouragement of plant NTFRs in dry valley bottom settings. A few key 

recommendations are: 

• Explore and encourage First Nation research initiatives to reintroduce 

burning practices back into traditional use areas, 

• Consider available First Nations’ knowledge of traditional use and 

prescribed burning when developing burn plans, 

• Implement management prescriptions that include management for fire 

dependent species and ethnobotanical purposes, 

• Consult with First Nations during the development and implementation of 

district burn plans, 

• Utilize First Nations’ knowledge of and traditional management regimes 

for NDT4 ecosystems 

This document provides a basic foundation to facilitate the management of NTFRs over 

time in the Lillooet TSA.


Agriculture 

The District is perhaps best known in the Province for its cattle industry, an industry 

which depends heavily on the leasing of Crown grazing areas. Agricultural production 

includes beef, seed, tree fruits, agritourism, vegetable and ginseng production ((Ministry 

of Sustainable Resource Management (MSRM) 2004)). Agriculture is limited by the 

mountainous terrain, high land prices, irrigation and range leasing opportunities. 

Roughly 3% (31,500 ha) of the Lillooet TSA area is in the Agricultural Land Reserve 

(ALR), this land is equally distributed between Crown and Private Land (Ministry of 

Sustainable Resource Management (MSRM) 2004). 

Most ranches in the District include grazing on Crown lands as part of their operations. 

According to the District Range Officer, Glen Heyes, the district has a current total of 

136 358 AUM (Animal Unit Months) of grazing per year resulting in roughly 30 000 

head of cattle grazing on crown lands annually (pers. com 2007). There are currently 

102 grazing licences and 25 grazing leases. The conversation with Mr. Heyes illustrated a 

number of challenges to the cattle industry, including: poor margins, noxious weeds, 

rapid reforestation of logged areas leading to reduced forage production among others. 

The current MPB infestation poses both threats and opportunities to ranching; these 

include a short-term forage glut in logged pine forests and also the loss of natural barriers 

from logging resulting in the need for large investments in the fencing of grazing tenures. 

A search of the BC Forest Practices Branch Invasive Alien Plant Program reveals a large 

number of recorded weed sites. Common noxious weeds in the District include spotted 

knapweed (Centauria biebersteinii), diffuse knapweed (Centauria diffusa) and Dalmatian 

toadflax (Linnaria dalmatica); all of these species are known to limit the potential of 

agriculture and NTFRs. 

Tenure Holders and Management Trends 

Within the District there are two main types of tenure for timber resources, replaceable 

and non replaceable forest licences, there are no Tree Farm Licences within the District. 

Within the Lillooet TSA the licensees are: Teal Cedar Products Ltd., Ainsworth Lumber 

Co. Ltd., Lytton Lumber Ltd., and Interwest Timber Ltd. The licensees in the Merritt 

TSA are: Ardew Wood Products Ltd., Aspen Planers Ltd, Tolko Industries Ltd., 

Weyerhaeuser Company Ltd., Stuwix Resources Ltd., Nicola Pacific Forest Products 

Ltd., Qwa’eet Forest Products Ltd., Princeton Wood Preservers Ltd, Hu’kwa Resoruces 

Inc., Princeton & District Community, Upper Nicola Band, Applied Timber Management 

Ltd. and G& B Enterprises Ltd (MOFR 2007a; MOFR 2007b). Not included in this list 

are a number of non-replaceable licences being developed by First Nations as part of their 

Forest and Range Opportunities Agreements. 

The District has a single Christmas tree permit tenure, held by Murphy Christmas Tree 

Farms. Unlike the low elevation Douglas fir stump culture farms found in the East 

Kootenay, this permit is high elevation and subalpine fir is the primary species harvested.


Murphy Christmas Trees: 

This business includes a Christmas tree farm in the Fraser Valley along with its tenure in 

the District. This innovative tenure originated when owner, Don Murphy learned that 

one could apply for such tenures and made contact with staff at the District office. He 

subsequently searched the area near his home in the Tulameen for suitable sites and 

located the site for his tenure. According to Don, subalpine fir trees are a premium 

product as their form is attractive, the foliage is deep green, as well, the needles are long 

lasting and aromatic. The business harvests around 1000 stems per year and could 

double in production given good market conditions. Currently the largest limiting factor 

for the business is the marketing of this premium product that currently wholesales for 

$25.00 per tree. The Alberta market is currently being examined as an opportunity for 

expansion. 

Website: http://www.murphytrees.com/contacts/contacts.htm 

Email: murphytrees@yahoo.com 

Phone: (604) 856-2268 

Other Resource Industries 

Major Developments 

There is one major tourism development pending in the region, the Coquihalla Pass 

Resort Development, an all seasons resort. The infrastructure for this proposed 

development includes: 3300 dwelling units; ski lifts, trails for skiing, hiking and biking; 

roads and sewage treatment (Westscapes Development Inc 2007). Along with the resort 

area is an area that is proposed to be co-managed with local First Nations. A key plant 

species listed in the project description is black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum). 

If fully built out, this resort’s population could exceed the population of the District’s 

largest existing town during peak periods. 

Identified Non Timber Forest Products 

Edible and Medicinal Plants: major species, use and management 

The District is home to a large diversity of edible and medicinal plant species whose 

leaves, shoots, roots and berries have long histories of human usage. Likely the most 

well known group of species are the berries with huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.) and 

Saskatoon berries (Amelanchier alnifolia), being the most widely available and 

flavourful. Roots in pre-contact times represented crucial parts in people’s diets; today 

many of them remain cherished for both food and medicine. Likely the best known 

edible plant shoot species in the region is wild asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) and the 

Indian consumption plant (Lomatium nudicale). Though there are a number of leaves 

eaten as food, they are probably best known for use in teas and herbal medicines. 

Plants such as the Saskatoon, bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), balsamroot (Balsamhoriza 

saggitata), glacier lily (Erythronium grandiflorum), spring beauty (Claytonia lanceolata), 

and huckleberries were likely managed by First Nations in protoagricultural systems in


pre-contact and post-contact times. These systems have been well described in Deur and 

Turner (2005) for coastal First Nations and involve management activities of various 

intensities that include planting, weeding, burning, pruning and other activities. 

Berry species with well recognised values as NTFRs include the black huckleberry, oval 

leaved blueberry (V. ovalifolium), grouseberry (V. scoparium), Saskatoon, Kinnikinnick 

(Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), soopalalie (Shepherdia canadensis), black raspberry (Rubus 

leucodermis), red raspberry (R. idaeus), thimbleberry (R. parviflorum) and Oregon grape 

(Mahonia aquifolium). In contemporary times the black huckleberry has seen a rapid 

increase in popularity due to its excellent flavour and value as a nutraceutical. The 

popularity of the black huckleberry has generated conflict in the northern US and southeastern 

BC between First Nations, recreational harvesters and commercial harvesters 

(Gayton 2000; Forest Practices Board 2004; Richards 2006). Though not specifically 

referred in the literature there is also controversy in the Cascades District about these 

berries between commercial and subsistence harvesters. 

The Saskatoon is widespread at lower elevations and its abundance is easiest to see in the 

spring when it produces a profusion of white flowers. This species was one of the most 

important berry crops to pre-contact First Nations. Its fruits were processed in a number 

of ways for later re-use throughout the year (Turner 1975; Turner 1990; Kuhnlein and 

Turner 1991; Turner 1997). 

The wild root species are undoubtedly most used by the First Nations and in particular 

Elders. The District’s grasslands are known to produce abundant resources of root 

vegetables that were critical for subsistence in pre-contact times. Many of these roots are 

inulin-containing, including balsamroot, mariposa lily (Calochortus spp.), glacier lily, 

and others. Inulin is a complex carbohydrate that is rendered edible through slow 

roasting. Traditionally these roots were prepared by cooking in pit-ovens (Turner 1990). 

Spring beauty has been well documented in both the ethnobotanical and archaeological 

literature as a food resource. Populations of this species near Lytton have been managed 

by the Nlaka’pamux for millennia through fire and selective harvesting; this harvest 

remains a highly popular traditional activity for contemporary Nlaka’pamux people 

(Chief Fred pers. com 2007). There are a number of desert parsley species (Lomatium 

spp.) that were traditionally harvested as foods and medicines. The fern-leaved desert 

parsley (L. dissectum) is a species that is used by the herbal industry in medicines (Diane 

Luchtan pers. com 2006). 

Plants with edible shoots include fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), thimbleberry, wild 

rose (Rosa spp.), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), raspberry, twisted stalk (Streptopus 

spp.), false Solomon’s seal (Maianthemum racemosa) and wild asparagus. In disturbed 

areas the fireweed is a plant that produces prolific volumes of edible shoots in the spring. 

Young soft-tissue growth from the thimbleberry, wild rose and the raspberries may be 

harvested in late-spring and early-summer; these shoots may be peeled and eaten raw or 

cooked. Though unpleasant to touch when alive, the sting in the stinging nettle shoots 

and leaves is destroyed by cooking rendering them edible and delectable. The twisted 

stalk and false Solomon’s seal are members of the lily family with shoots that some say


are superior to asparagus (Dianne Luchtan pers. com 2004). Asparagus is another 

member of the lily family, it has escaped cultivation to become a naturalised species. 

Leaves from a wide number of plant species are harvested. Some like the miner’s lettuce 

(Claytonia perfoliata) and Indian consumption plant are harvested as wild edible greens 

for fresh eating. Many such as Canada mint (Mentha arvensis), Labrador tea (Ledum 

groenlandicum), huckleberry leaves, yarrow (Achillea millefolium), pineapple weed 

(Matricaria discoides) and others are harvested to make herbal teas. Others such as the 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), black hawthorne (Crataegus douglasii) leaves, stinging 

nettle are more used for medicinal teas. Siska Traditions produces wild plant teas from a 

wide variety of species. It is believed that there is a market for large volumes. 

Mini Profile of Siska Traditions Society 

Siska Traditions Society (STS) is an initiative of the Siska Indian band. Located just 

south of Lytton on the Trans Canada highway the Siska are members of the Nlaka’pamux 

First nation. In 2001as part of a legal process to head off potentially destructive logging 

plans on their traditional territory, the band undertook a brief overview of non timber 

forest products (NTFP) on the land in question, carried out by the renowned 

ethnobotanist, Dr Nancy Turner from the University of Victoria. Siska legal counsel, 

Darwin Hanna is a member of the Nlaka’pamux First Nation; he has a strong interest and 

background in ethnobotany. To the Siska the harvesting and traditional use of berries, 

teas and mushrooms plus the land as a refuge and a source of recreation are vital to their 

cultural survival. 

Siska Traditions Society (STS), a non-profit society that is distinct from the Siska Band 

Administration, was incorporated to implement the NTFP initiative and oversee fisheries, 

tourism and forestry, aiming at enhancing social, cultural and economic development 

within the community. Its programs are as follows: 

- Forest and Range Agreement (FRA) plus NTFP side agreement. 

- NTFP food, tea and soap business enterprise. 

- NTFP harvester’s certification program. 

- Eco-tourism ventures, an NTFP Centre and a Fraser Canyon marketing plan. 

- Major experimental forestry and an industrial logging joint ventures 

- Research and development alliances with Royal Roads University and UBC (a 

protocol agreement on traditional knowledge was recently negotiated with UBC) 

- Working relationship with a forest company on a joint venture forest tenure. 

- First Nations land use planning process with Nicola Tribal Association 

Greenery, Boughs and Christmas trees 

Floral greens found within the District include the boughs of conifers such as western red 

cedar, Douglas fir, stems of shrubs such as falsebox (Pachistima myrsinites), willow 

(Salix spp.), red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) and above ground portions of 

grasses such as hair bentgrass (Deschampsia caespitosum) as well as herbs like baby’s


breath (Gypsophila paniculata) and sagebrush. During the autumn in the Fraser Canyon 

one may frequently see pickup trucks leaving the mountains with large loads of cedar 

branches. The extent of the local floral greens industry is difficult to track as the District 

is so close to Vancouver allowing individuals to travel to and from Vancouver as part of 

their work day. 

Unlike the East Kootenay where the wild cultured Christmas trees remain an important 

industry (Keefer 2006), there is little activity in this region with wild trees. As previously 

described there is one Christmas tree tenure in the district. It is estimated that in a 

typical year harvest permits are given out for the harvest of approximately 1000 trees 

(Marlon Dosch pers. com 2007). These trees are harvested on rights of way, permits for 

trees of less than 3 m in height are worth $0.20 per tree. 

Within the District the harvesting of conifer boughs is considered to be a minor activity 

with low risk to the conifer plantations (Rob Jonas pers. com 2007). According to Jonas 

and Dosch (pers. com 2007) there have been no recorded incidents of damage to the 

conifer stock from bough harvesting activities; in fact the bough industry is regarded as 

beneficial. 

There are few requests for permits to harvest any type of floral greens. In the past (date 

uncertain) one free-use permit was issued to a green harvester interested in Oregon grape 

(Rob Jonas pers. com 2007). 

Native Plants for Horticulture and Restoration 

This sector includes native plant nurseries, native seed businesses, landscaping 

companies that use native plants as well as the use of these plants for ecological 

restoration. Native conifer seeds and seedlings produced for reforestation efforts in the 

silviculture industry are not included in this analysis. 

Due to the widespread death of pine trees from the MPB epidemic there have been 

increasing requests for permits to transplant wild trees at the Cascade District office (Rob 

Jonan pers. com 2007). District staff members are currently working on drafting 

language for a free-use permit that will allow the removal of trees for re-planting of 

mostly urban landscapes. 

Shackan Greenhouse 

The Shackan Greenhouse is a native plant nursery that was opened in response to 

concerns about the loss of fish habitat by the Nicola Tribal Association in partnership 

with the Shackan Band. The business has been open since 1996 and employs 2 full time 

and a number of seasonal workers. Annually the business produces around 60,000 

seedlings that are primarily grown for reclamation and ecological restoration projects. 

This stock goes to projects including road deactivation, mine reclamation, riparian 

revegetation and education. Though some seeds are purchased externally, most are 

collected locally by nursery staff. Species grown include: black cottonwood, trembling 

aspen, chokecherry, Saskatoon, red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) and many others.


Seedlings typically spend their first year growing inside polystyrene block containers and 

are often grown out a second year in larger pots. 

Ph. 250-458-2466 

Basketry and other Crafts 

Though small in financial scope, the basketry and craft sector in this region is fairly 

vibrant as many of the gift shops in and adjacent to the District sell these locally made 

products. Locally made products that may be found in local stores include: Nlaka’pamux 

basketry, pine needle baskets, birch baskets and cradles, willow furniture, other willow 

art, sweet grass sticks and other products. Unlike products such as conifer boughs, these 

products are typically produced with minimal amounts of material and large amounts of 

labour. 

Small Diameter Wood 

The small diameter wood sector includes materials taken from trees and shrubs that are 

typically made into value added products. For the purpose of this analysis, the post and 

rail industry is not included as it is already well documented. One business Aspen Grove 

Wood Design that uses small diameter wood was identified, but representatives could not 

be contacted for this profile. 

Mushrooms and Fungi 

Though not well documented, the harvesting of wild mushroom is one of the best known 

NTFR activities in the District. Most of the major popular edible wild mushrooms in 

British Columbia are known or expected to occur in the Cascades Forest District (Table 

1). Commercial species include the Pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare), 

chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.), blue chanterelle (Polyozellus multiplex), morels 

(Morchella spp.), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), boletes (Boletus spp. and 

Suillus spp.), yellowfoot (Craterellus tubaeformis), Lion’s mane (Hericium coralloides 

and H. coniferarum), hedgehog mushrooms (Hydnum spp.), Lobster mushroom 

(Hypomyces lactifluorum), angel wings (Pleurocybella porrigens), cauliflower 

mushroom (Sparassis crispa), chicken-of-the-woods (Laetiporus conifericola) (Berch 

2003). Some pine mushroom habitat mapping has been done, mostly within the 

Nahatlatch River valley, just outside the Cascade District (Freeman ; Berch and 

Wiensczyk 2001; Williams 2002). 

The three most economically important species in the district are pine mushroom, 

chanterelles and morels. The first two are mycorrhizal species dependent on mature 

forests for their production. Morels thrive the spring after a site has been disturbed, 

particularly through wildfire. The relatively dry, hot climate of the area is predisposed to 

periodic major wildfires, such as the most recent Sleetsis fire near Lytton in 2005. 

Betty’s Best, a BC company that purchases and distributes wild mushrooms, set up a 

buying station one year after the fire in the spring and summer of 2006, this burn became 

the centre of commercial morel harvesting in B.C.


In 2001/2 Siska Traditions Society teamed up with Betty’s Best to operate a wild 

mushroom buying station on Siska land near Lytton. This business had the goal of 

capturing middle-manager revenues from wild mushrooms for the benefit of the Siska 

community. Unfortunately the start of the business coincided with poor pine mushroom 

crops during that and the subsequent year so this business opportunity wasn’t realized 

(Chief Fred Sampson pers. com 2007). 

Predictive habitat models for a number of culturally important mushroom species have 

been developed for the Merritt TSA (Nicola-Similkameen Innovative Forestry Society 

(NSIFS) 2007). Culturally important species to the Interior Salish include pine 

mushroom, lightning mushroom (Lepista praemagna), oyster mushroom, cottonwood 

mushroom (Tricholoma populinum), chanterelles and shaggy mane (Coprinus comatus) 

(Turner 1979; Turner 1990; Kuhnlein and Turner 1996). These models are useful in 

predicting the species habitat distribution in accordance with mapped biogeoclimatic 

units (Predictive Ecosystem Mapping). Some ground-truthing of these models was done 

in 2006, and the resultant maps provide detailed information on distribution of these 

species in the Merritt TSA. Ultimately, accurate habitat maps will enable harvesters to 

locate mushrooms and will provide forest managers with information needed to ensure 

wild mushrooms are recognised in their management plans. 

Fungi have unique medicinal properties that are well-known in the prevention and 

treatment of various diseases, including cancer (Stamets 2002). There are several 

important medicinal fungi in British Columbia that are known or expected to occur in the 

Cascades Forest District (Table 2). These include: artist conk (Ganoderma applanatum), 

hemlock varnish conk (G. tsugae), red-belted conk (Fomitopsis pinicola), Turkey Tail 

(Trametes versicolor), Lion’ mane (Hericium abietis), wood-ear (Auricularia auricula); 

Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), birch polpore (Piptoporus betulinus)oyster mushroom, gilled 

polypore (Schizophyllum commune), Agarikon (Fomitopsis officinalis), Ice Man Polypore 

(Fomes fomentarius), Gypsy mushroom (Rozites caperata). 

Ethnobotanical Walks and Other Training 

Though not often thought of as a resource by many, the teaching of ethnobotanical 

knowledge to tourists and students is within the realm of NTFRs. Ethnobotany is defined 

as the study of human relations with plants. Research for this sector found a number of 

initiatives. Siska Traditions Society, as part of their harvester certification training 

includes ethnobotany in its harvester training program. The Nicola Valley Institute of 

Technology offers courses in Ethnobotany. The Kumsheen Secondary School in Lytton 

has a well developed program that is explained below.


Mini-Profile of the Kumsheen Cultural Education Program by: 

Freda Loring, Aboriginal Student Support Worker, Kumsheen 

Secondary 

Kumsheen Secondary students, staff and the First Nations 

elders of the Nlaka’pamux territory plan outdoor fieldtrips 

into the valleys and mountains of the Lytton area, to pick 

natural plants and other resources. The students explore 

the traditional ways of digging and picking the roots 

plants, utilizing the whole plant 

eweteʔ 

ʷ (balsamroot), múleʔ (chocolate 

lily) and many other roots are gathered for uses in 

traditional recipes at school. They enjoy the many edible 

berries too. Also the students are shown the value of the 

cedar tree and the many uses like cedar roots to make cedar 

root baskets, using the bark, and the wild cherry bark to 

create the design for baskets, and other trees like the 

juniper tree, the fir tree with its lichen that is edible, 

pine trees for pitch, cones, bark and needles to make 

projects. There are many advantages for the Kumsheen 

students to venture outdoors with the local elders to learn 

the proper harvesting techniques to help preserve the 

traditional foods and natural resources that our ancestors 

valued. “There is food from the bottom of our rivers to 

the tops of the mountains”. - local elder Mandy Brown. 

Management Issues and ConclusionsThe interviews for this project 

revealed a number of themes that were widely shared. These were: sustainability of the 

NTFR harvest, access, impacts from mountain pine beetle, logging pressure and other 

First Nations needs with respect to NTFRs. The connection that First Nations have to 

these resources was undoubtedly the most significant theme of the interviews. 

It is challenging to do justice in describing the connection to the land of the First Nations 

as it is multidimensional and highly complex. As previously described, many of the 

NTFR species were traditionally managed through active and passive means. This 

management undoubtedly had a major role in shaping the landscape as it was at the time 

of European contact (Deur and Turner 2005). Though this relationship with the land has 

evolved in many important ways since contact, there is still a strong sense among First 

Nations of their role as the stewards of this land. The low level of cash income in these 

communities makes subsistence NTFR values of high importance for cultural, food, and 

medicinal purposes.


In order to provide insight into the peoples’ needs, Chief Sampson described a situation 

of a fairly typical unemployed community member who will be called John for this 

description. 

As typical with many of his community members, John dropped out of the school 

system at a young age. Facing systemic discrimination and low self-esteem, John 

never went back to school or got another type of certification. Over the years, 

John has developed a number of substance abuse issues. Due to the poor 

economy in the Fraser Canyon, John only gets occasional wage work and 

primarily depends on the welfare system for income. A source of great pride for 

him are his skills as a hunter, fisher and gatherer. Through these skills, he is able 

to meet most of his need for animal protein from the sometimes bountiful salmon. 

Due to a lack of management, the ungulate resources have declined significantly 

since the time of his childhood and he can no longer hunt deer near his 

community on a sustained basis. The Saskatoon berries are of great value to him 

as they are available with an easy walk, are easy to preserve and can be sold to 

Siska Traditions Society. Huckleberries are his family’s favourite berry, but 

given the distance to the berry patch, he can only afford to go picking once a year 

unless he sells some of his product. If the berries are abundant, he can pick his 

family’s needs and sell a surplus, on poor years or if he encounters a blocked road 

he may get none and can’t afford the gas to look elsewhere. On the subject of 

commercialisation, he is greatly afraid of the prospect. Though he harvests small 

quantities of plants on a commercial basis, he does this under strict guidelines 

from Siska Traditions and his elders that help ensure he never over harvests. 

Black huckleberry was mentioned by virtually all interviewees as a plant species of 

special concern. The species is abundant in the region at higher elevations in key 

ecosystems; it is primarily found fruiting in early seral stand conditions and at higher 

elevations in open mature stands within transitional ecosystem types (ICH – ESSF). 

Historically the best huckleberry habitat was found following fire, a number of the First 

Nations interviewees reported that low intensity fire was historically used as a 

management tool. This burning resulted in a patchy landscape with less alder and other 

shrub species and more huckleberries (Jean York pers. com 2007). The majority of good 

huckleberry sites are now found in logged areas. Prior to the construction of the 

Coquihalla Highway, the Coquihalla Pass was primarily used by First Nations for berry 

picking (Harold Aljam pers. com 2007). Historically the area is important to bands from 

the Merritt area but also to more distant bands such as the Lower Similkameen Band 

(Dixon Terbasket pers. com 2007). Following the construction of the highway, the area 

effectively became front country and now there are many berry harvesters competing for 

what is believed to be a shrinking resource. Several interviewees reported confrontations 

with crews of farm labourers who were brought to the area from the lower Fraser valley 

to harvest huckleberries on a commercial basis. 

To further compound the situation around the Coquihalla pass, there is the proposed 

Coquihalla Pass Resort Development. This development is located in key huckleberry 

habitat and has the potential to either increase or decrease the berry supply depending on


how the vegetation is managed at the resort and whether this resource greatly increases 

the harvest pressure as could be expected by a major influx of people. 

After huckleberries, the most frequently mentioned species of concern were bitterroot and 

spring beauty. Both these species are reported to be damaged by the trampling action of 

cattle causing soil compaction, on private, reserve and Crown lands. Interviewees report 

that this soil compaction causes the roots to be both harder to harvest and smaller. Issues 

of private property were frequently mentioned as a key issue as well. Recently many 

properties have changed ownership causing confusion to the new landowner and the 

traditional root harvesters. In the past many of the owners of the private lands had 

informal agreements with the root harvesters allowing for them to use private land to 

harvest these plants. As many of the properties have been bought and sold numerous 

times in recent years, knowledge of these arrangements is largely lost. 

As previously mentioned, the harvest of conifer boughs in the district is not considered a 

compliance issue by most District Staff. Cascade District Aboriginal Liaison, Joyce Sam 

indicated that this harvest is of some concern to First Nations, as conifer branches are 

used for ceremonial purposes by the Nlaka’pamux, who would be reluctant to encourage 

more extensive commercial harvesting in accessible areas. These concerns appear to be 

also linked with the loss of boughs due to the MPB infestation as well as damage to 

Douglas fir foliage by the spruce budworm. 

A number of the interviewees reported damage to their preferred basket material 

harvesting areas through forestry activities. Birch and bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata) 

are both important species for basketry and are frequently ‘brushed out’ during conifer 

release treatments in plantations. Good stands of cedar for root harvesting are relatively 

rare, logging was reported to have damaged many of these stands. There are 

opportunities for the forest industry and the Ministry of Forests and Range to work with 

First Nations in protecting these values. 

Asparagus, though introduced from Eurasia, is a much sought after and actively managed 

plant species. In the early spring one may see people out burning low elevation sites in 

the Nicola Valley mostly to encourage the asparagus (Joyce Sam, pers. com 2007). Most 

of this burning occurs on private and reserve lands. In Spence’s Bridge the asparagus 

grows in the valley bottoms and is intensively sought after. There are issues of trespass 

on the Cook’s Ferry Reserve where non-locals are trespassing to harvest the asparagus 

for commercial and personal use (Jean York pers. com 2007). 

The potential effects of the mountain pine beetle were mentioned by virtually all who 

were interviewed for the project. The scale of the infestation is so immense that it is 

difficult to even visualise what the all the impacts will be. Water as a resource was the 

most frequently mentioned value being affected by the beetle. Interviewees mentioned 

concerns over future water quality, quantity and also timing of high waters as key 

concerns. The removal of forest cover is well known to change hydrological regimes, 

and the scale of beetle uplift havesting may have major impacts on the water resources. 

Many interviewees also expressed concern over the loss of the understory species in the


forest from the intense beetle logging. The MPB logging was mentioned as a major 

concern for Upper Nicola for many understory species, in particular Labrador tea. 

Perhaps the most important result from the interviews was the broad consensus that the 

land base should be managed for NTFRs. To move from the current situation of minimal 

management to active management, major steps will need to be taken. The 

overwhelming importance of the NTFRs to First Nations means that there should be 

leadership coming from the First Nations in terms of how and where to move forward. In 

order to make this transition back to deliberate management for these species it would be 

germane to consider a keystone approach in which steps are taken first for the species of 

most importance. 

Concerning the commercial use of NTFRs, there were mixed opinions. A number of the 

interviewees expressed concern about such a use of these plants. Many said that when 

Siska Traditions started business that it made them feel very uncomfortable, however, as 

time has passed their thoughts have evolved and now believe in the importance of this 

type of business as a modern means of continuing ancient traditions. It appears that if 

commercial harvesting is done within appropriate confines that don’t impact subsistence 

harvesters then its growth may be acceptable, especially when driven by communities 

within the area. 

In order to more fully understand the effects of timber harvesting, fire and other impacts 

on NTFRs, it is critical to build our understanding of the NTFR species. Currently there 

are two BC Forest Science Program funded research projects underway, one being led by 

the Ministry of Forests and Range Research Branch called the Huckleberry Synthesis 

Project and the other being led by Siska Traditions Society called “Measuring Success in 

Managing for Saskatoon berries and other NTFPs”. The former project is developing a 

synthesis of knowledge on huckleberry management from the literature with the goal of 

developing black huckleberry management guidelines. The latter project is a multi-stage 

project that involves two experimental cutblocks that will have logging, prescribed fire 

and or pruning treatments along with a control, one of this project’s deliverables is 

guidelines for Saskatoon berry, Oregon grape, beaked hazelnut and soopalalie. These 

projects have overlapping research teams and the guidelines produced will be using a 

consistent and accessible format. 

Along with the need to understand the impacts on the environment it is also germane to 

more fully understand the current and potential benefits of theses species to First Nations 

and others. Currently the Heskw’en’scutxe Health Services Society, Siska Traditions and 

Tmix w 

Research are working out a project that has the goal of promoting health through 

the increased use of wild foods in the diet. Many health problems have been linked with 

the move from wild foods to processed foods with First Nations. It is believed that a 

move back to the use of more traditional foods will promote healthier living (David 

Walkem pers. com 2007). 

The Nicola-Similkameen Innovative Forestry Society (NSIFS), in conjunction with 

T’mixw Research and consultants have developed a predictive mapping system for the


modelling of plants and animals distribution. 1 

This system is based on BC’s Predictive 

Ecosystem Mapping standards and could prove to be a valuable tool in the management 

on NTFRs, especially in conjunction with forest management. By querying a map the 

user may find information on what plant species may be expected to occur at a site. 

Though based on a series of assumptions, the PEM mapping for the Cascade District is 

considered by current users to be reasonably accurate (Brenda Aljam pers. com 2007). 

Research for this profile has revealed that though there are major pulses of NTFR 

harvesting such as morel harvesting following wildfires and huckleberries at Coquihalla 

Pass that this region has less commercial activity than that found in the Kootenay region 

(Keefer et. al 2006). Combined with the lower commercial harvest is probably a far 

higher subsistence harvest that is difficult to measure and even more difficult to set an 

economic value on. Though the commercial harvest is currently low compared to other 

areas; the well developed transportation infrastructure and proximity to the Lower 

Mainland may result in growing commercial pressure on NTFRs in the Cascades District. 

Because there is only a draft LRMP for the Lillooet TSA and no LRMP for the Merritt 

TSA there is a need to develop a framework for management of NTFRs. There is some 

data and modelling on NTFR habitat, but little on actual abundance, and scanty evidence 

these valued resources are considered in forest planning. The most important NTFR uses 

in the district are undoubtedly those of FN traditional use and subsistence. Some 

members of the First Nations communities depend heavily on NTFRs, and there are very 

old traditions of territorial management tied to particular species. There is also a growing 

interest among contemporary FN leaders to encourage greater use of traditional foods for 

reasons of health and nutrition. Due to this re-awakened interest, First Nations should be 

central to the development of the planning and implementation of NTFR management. 

1 

http://aardvark.gov.bc.ca/apps/acat/viewReport.do?reportId=1527


Bibliography 

B.C. Provincial Health Officer (2002). The Health and Well-being of Aboriginal People 

in B.C. (2001 Annual Report). P. H. Officer. Victoria, Ministry of Health. 

B.C. Provincial Health Officer (2006). Food, Health and Well-being in British Columbia: 

Public Health Officer's Annual Report 2005. P. H. Officer. Victoria, Ministry of 

Health. 

Belcher, B. M. (2003). "What isn’t an NTFP?" International Forestry Review 5(2), (161). 

Berch, S. M., & Cocksedge, Wendy (2003). Commercially Important Wild Mushrooms 

and Fungi of British Columbia What The Buyers are Buying. B. M. o. F. S. 

Program: 11. 

Berch, S. M. and A. M. Wiensczyk (2001). Ecological description and classification of 

some Pine Mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare) habitat in British Columbia. 

Southern Interior Forest Extension Research Partnership (SIFERP). Victoria and 

Kamloops, Ministry of Forests. 

Berkes, F. (1994). "WIldlife Harvesting and Sustainable Regional Native Economy in the 

Hudson and James Bay Lowland, Ontario." Arctic 47(4). 

Centre for Non-Timber Resources. (2007). "Critical Information for Policy Development 

and Management of Non-Timber Forest Products in British Columbia: Baseline 

Studies on Economic Value and Compatible Management, Executive Summary.", 

from http://www.royalroads.ca/programs/faculties-schools-centres/non-timberresources/resources-publications/. 

Deur, D. and N. J. Turner (2005). Keeping it living: traditions of plant use and cultivation 

on the Northwest Coast of North America. Seattle and Vancouver, University of 

Washington Press; UBC Press. 

Forest Practices Board (2004). Integrating Non-Timber Forest Products into Forest 

Planning and Practices in British Columbia. F. P. Board. Victoria, B.C., Forest 

Practices Board. 

Freeman, S. An Estimate of Pine Mushroom Production in the Nahatlatch 

Watershed. . F. R. B.C. 

Gayton, D. V. (2000). Non-timber forest product workshop: Report and 

recommendations., Creston, B.C., Southern Interior Forest Extension and 

Research Partnership. 

Harris, C. (1997). The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essays on Colonialism and 

Geographic Change. Vancouver, UBC Press. 

Helie, J. F., D. L. Peters, et al. (2005). Review and Synthesis of Potential Hydrologic 

Impacts of Mountain Pine Beetle and Related Harvesting Activities in British 

Columbia. C. F. Service., Natural Resources Canada: 24. 

Hoekstra, G. (2007). Lumber Sector Feeling Pinch. Prince George Citizen. 

Ignace, M. (2005). Anthropological Expert Witness Report re:Regina v. Deneault et al. 

Kamloops, Simon Fraser University. 

Keefer, M. E., Tyson Ehlers & Nancy MacPherson (2006). A Profile of Non-Timber 

Forest Products and Associated Businesses in the Kootenay Region of British 

Columbia. Cranbrook, Royal Roads University and Kootenays Forest Innovation 

Society: 51.


Kuhnlein, H. V. and N. J. Turner (1991). Traditional plant foods of Canadian indigenous 

peoples : nutrition, botany, and use. New York, Gordon and Breach. 

Kuhnlein, H. V. and N. J. Turner (1996). "Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian 

Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use." 

Laforet, A. A. Y. (1998). Spuzzum: Fraser Canyon Histories 1808-1939. Vancouver, 

UBC Press in association with the Canadian Museum of Civilization. 

Markey, N. and M. Sandy (nd). Tmixw Research Nlaka’pamux Nation – Cultural 

Context. Merritt. 

Ministry of Education. (2007). "Map of First Nations Peoples of British Columbia." 

Retrieved March 16, 2007, from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/abed/map.htm. 

Ministry of Forests (1995). Lillooet Timber Supply Socio-economic Analysis. Victoria, 

MoF. 

Ministry of Forests and Range (MOFR) (2001a). Merritt TImber Supply Area Public 

Discussion Paper. Victoria, MoFR. 

Ministry of Forests and Range (MOFR) (2001b). Merritt Timber Supply Analysis Report: 

140. Victoria, MoFR. 

Ministry of Forests and Range (MOFR) (2005). Lillooet Timber Supply Area Timber 

Supply Review #3 Analysis Report. M. o. F. F. A. Branch: 152. 

Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management (MSRM) (2004). Draft Lillooet Land and 

Resource Management Plan. Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, BC: 

151. 

MOFR (2005). Urgent timber supply review for the Merritt timber supply area - Public 

Discussion Paper. M. o. F. F. A. Branch: 13. 

MOFR (2007a). Lillooet TSA AAC, Apportionment and Commitments. MOFR. 

MOFR (2007b). Merritt TSA AAC, Apportionment and Commitments. MOFR, BC 

Government. 

MOFR. (2007c). "Cascade Forest District Homepage." Retrieved March 14, 2007, from 

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/dcs/District/background.htm. 

Nicola-Similkameen Innovative Forestry Society (NSIFS) (2007). Species models for the 

Merritt TSA. 

ONA. (2007). "Okananagan Nation Alliance." Retrieved March 15, 2007, from 

http://www.syilx.org. 

Richards, R. S. (2006). A social history of wild huckleberry harvesting in the Pacific 

Northwest. Portland, OR, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 

Senger, E. (2007a ). 2007/2008 Merritt TSA Forest Health Strategy. M. o. F. a. Range: 

33. 

Senger, E. (2007b). 2007/2008 Lillooet TSA Forest Health Strategy. M. o. F. a. R.-C. 

District: 44. 

Snetsinger, J. (2005). Merritt Timber Supply Area Rationale for Allowable Annual Cut 

(AAC)Determination. M. o. F. a. Range: 58. 

SNTC. (2007). "Shuswap Nation Tribal Council." Retrieved March 15, 2007, from 

http://www.shuswapnation.org/. 

St’át’imc. (2007). "St’át’imc Chiefs Council." Retrieved March 16, 2007, from 

http://www.statimc.net/. 

Stamets, P. a. D. Y. (2002). MycoMedicinals: An informational treatise on the


medicinal properties of mushrooms., Olympia, Wash.: Mycomedia Productions, Fungi 

Perfecti. 

Statistics Canada (2001). Custom Tabulation for BC Statistics: Profile of Cascades Forest 

District. S. Canada. Ottawa. 

Tsilhqot'in National Government. (1997). "Tsilhqot'in Sovereignty Declaration Is Now 

Nation's Working Principle." Retrieved January 15, 2007, from 

http://sisis.nativeweb.org/tsilhqotin/oct97dec.html. 

Turner, N. J. (1975). Ethnobotany of the Okanagan Indians of British Columbia and 

Washington State. [Victoria, B.C.,, The Project]. 

Turner, N. J. (1979). Plants in British Columbia Indian technology. Victoria, B.C., British 

Columbia Provincial Museum. 

Turner, N. J. (1990). Thompson ethnobotany : knowledge and usage of plants by the 

Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Victoria, Royal British Columbia 

Museum. 

Turner, N. J. (1997). Food plants of interior First Peoples. Vancouver, UBC Press. 

Turner, N. J. (2005). The earth's blanket : traditional teachings for sustainable living. 

Vancouver, Douglas & McIntyre. 

Union of B.C. Indian Chiefs (1978). Aboriginal Title and Rights Position Paper, UBCIC. 

Westscapes Development Inc (2007). Coquihalla Pass Resort Development Project 

Description. 

Williams, H. C. F. D. (2002). Kookipi River Pine Mushroom Habitat Mapping Project 

Chilliwack Forest District. Draft Project Repor. B. T. S. Program, Madrone 

Consultants Ltd., Duncan, BC.


Appendix I – Wild mushrooms lists 

Table I Some edible wild mushrooms of B.C. Commercial species 

indicated in bold. 

Species Common Name 

Substrate and 

function 

Albatrellis ovinus 

Armillariella mellea 

Sheep polypore ectomycorrhizal 

(Armillaria mellea) Honey mushroom wood pathogen 

Auricularia auricula Tree ear, Wood ear wood saprobe 

Boletus aereus Queen bolete ectomycorrhizal 

Boletus barrowsii White king bolete ectomycorrhizal 

Boletus edulis King bolete, Porcini, Steinpilz ectomycorrhizal 

Boletus mirabilis admirable bolete ectomycorrhizal 

Boletopsis leucomelaena kurotake ectomycorrhizal 

Cantharellus cibarius var. 

ectomycorrhizal 

roseocanus Rainbow chanterelle 

Cantharellus formosus Pacific golden chanterelle ectomycorrhizal 

Cantharellus subalbidus white chanterelle ectomycorrhizal 

Calvatia gigantea Giant puffball soil saprobe 

Catathelasma imperialis Imperial mushroom, Cat ectomycorrhizal 

Catathelasma ventricosa 

Mock matsutake, Swollen-stalked ectomycorrhizal 

cat 

Chroogomphus tomentosus Wooly pine spike ectomycorrhizal 

Clavariadelphus occidentalis Western club coral ectomycorrhizal 

Collybia acervata Clustered collybia soil saprobe 

Coprinus comatus Shaggy mane soil saprobe 


Craterellus tubaeformis Yellow foot; winter chanterelle (wood saprobe) 

Dacrymyces palmatus Witch’s butter wood saprobe 

Flammulina velutipes Velvet foot, Enokitake wood saprobe 

Gomphidius subroseus Rosy gomphidius ectomycorrhizal 

Gomphus clavatus Pig’s ear ectomycorrhizal 

Gyromitra esculenta Brain mushroom, false morel soil saprobe 

Gyromitra gigas Snowbank false morel soil saprobe 

Hericium abietis Conifer coral hericium wood saprobe 

Lion’s mane, Bearded hedgehog, wood saprobe 

Hericium coralloides 

Bear’s head 

Hericium ramosum Comb hericium, comb tooth wood saprobe 

Hydnum repandum Hedgehog mushroom ectomycorrhizal


Hydnum umbilicatum Umbrella hedgehog ectomycorrhizal 

Hygrophoropsis olida None unknown 

Hygrophorus bakerensis Brown almond waxy cap soil saprobe 

Hygrophorus camarophyllus Sooty brown waxy cap soil saprobe 

Hygrophorus eburneus Ivory waxy cap soil saprobe 

Hygrophorus miniatus Scarlet waxy cap soil saprobe 

Hypomyces lactifluorum Lobster mushroom fungal parasite 

Laccaria laccata Common laccaria soil saprobe 

Lactarius deliciosus Delicious milk cap ectomycorrhizal 

Lactarius rubrilactius Bleeding milk cap 

Sulphur shelf, Chicken-of-the- 


Laetiporus conifericola woods wood saprobe 

Leccinum aurantiacum group Aspen bolete ectomycorrhizal 

Leccinum insigne Birch bolete, scaberstalk ectomycorrhizal 

Leccinum ponderosum none known ectomycorrhizal 

Leccinum scabrum Birch bolete, Common scaber stalk ectomycorrhizal 

Lepista nuda (Clitocybe nuda) Blewitt soil saprobe 

Lycoperdon perlatum Common puffball soil saprobe 

Lyophyllum decastes Fried chicken mushroom, Shimeji soil saprobe 

Mycorrhizal/ soil 

Morchella spp. unnamed 

saprobe 


Morchella angusticeps Burn morel, Narrow-head morel saprobe 


Morchella deliciosa White morel 

saprobe 


Morchella elata group Black morel, fire morel saprobe 


Morchella esculenta group White morel, Yellow morel saprobe 


Morchella semilibra Half-free morel 

saprobe 

Marasmius oreades Fairy ring mushroom soil saprobe 

Pleurocybella porrigens Angel wings wood saprobe 

Pleurotus ostreatus Oyster mushroom wood saprobe 

Polyozellus multiplex Blue chanterelle ectomycorrhizal 

Pink-tipped coral mushroom, ectomycorrhizal 

Ramaria botrytis 

Cauliflower coral 

Rozites caperata Gypsy mushroom ectomycorrhizal 

Russula brevipes Short-stemmed Russula ectomycorrhizal 

Russula emetica Emetic Russula ectomycorrhizal 

Russula rosacea Rose-red Russula ectomycorrhizal 

Russula xerampelina Shrimp russula ectomycorrhizal


Hawk wing, Scaly hydnum, ectomycorrhizal 

Sarcodon imbricatus Shingled hedgehog 

Sparassis crispa Cauliflower mushroom 

wood saprobe (root 

pathogen) 

Suillus spp. Slippery-jacks ectomycorrhizal 

Suillus carulescens Douglas-fir Suillus ectomycorrhizal 

Suillus cavipes Hollow foot ectomycorrhizal 

Suillus grevillei Tamarack jack ectomycorrhizal 

Suillus granulatus Granulated slippery Jack ectomycorrhizal 

Suillus tomentosus Blue-staining slippery jack ectomycorrhizal 

Booted Tricholoma, Brown ectomycorrhizal 

Tricholoma caligatum 

matsutake 

Tricholoma flavovirens Man-on-horseback ectomycorrhizal 

Tricholoma magnivelare pine mushroom ectomycorrhizal 

Tricholoma populinum Cottonwood mushroom ectomycorrhizal 

Verpa bohemica False early morel, Spring verpa soil saprobe 

Table II. Medicinal and nutraceutical fungi of B.C. (adapted from Pilz 

2003; Stamets 2002) 

Scientific Name Common Name(s) Substrate and function 

Amanita muscaria Fly agaric ectomycorrhizal 

Agaricus sulvaticus Woodland agaricus soil saprobe 

Auricularia auricula Tree ear, Wood Ear wood saprobe 

Fomes fomentarius Tinder polypore wood saprobe 

Fomes pinicola Red-belted polypore wood saprobe 

Ganoderma applanatum Artist’s conk wood saprobe 

Ganoderma oregonense Oregon varnished conk wood saprobe 

Ganoderma tusgae Hemlock varnished conk wood saprobe 

Inonotus obliquus Chaga, Black birch 

touchwood 

wood saprobe 

Fomes officinalis 

(Fomitopsis officinalis), 

(Laricifomes officinalis) 

Quinine conk, Agarikon wood saprobe 

Hericium coralloides Lion’s mane wood saprobe 

Laetiporus conifericola wood saprobe 

Lenzites betulina Gilled polypore wood saprobe 

Phellinus igniarius False tinder polypore wood saprobe 

Piptoporus betulinus Birch conk wood saprobe 

Pycnoporus umbellatus Umbrella polypore wood saprobe 

Rozites caperata 

(Cortinarius caperata) 

wood saprobe 

Schizophyllum commune Split-gill wood saprobe


Trametes versicolor Turkey tail wood saprobe 

Tremella fuciformis White Auricularia, 

Trembling fungus 

wood saprobe

Cascade NTFP Regional Profile.pdf - First Nations in British ...

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?