Crop Profile for Onions in California - Regional IPM Centers
Crop Profile for Onions in California - Regional IPM Centers
Crop Profile for Onions in California - Regional IPM Centers
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Prepared: October, 1999<br />
<strong>Crop</strong> <strong>Profile</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Onions</strong> <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
General Production In<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
● Cali<strong>for</strong>nia is the number one producer of onions <strong>in</strong> the US, produc<strong>in</strong>g 26% of the nation’s onions.<br />
(1)<br />
● In 1996, Cali<strong>for</strong>nia farmers planted 26,600 acres of dehydrator onions, and 21,000 acres of fresh<br />
market bulb onions result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> yields averag<strong>in</strong>g 19 and 20.2 tons per acre, respectively. (13,14)<br />
● The total value of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion crops <strong>in</strong> 1995, 1996 and 1997 were $135 million, $128<br />
million and $144 million, respectively. (8)<br />
Production Regions<br />
<strong>Onions</strong> are grown throughout Cali<strong>for</strong>nia (Appendix 1). Dehydrator onions are produced <strong>in</strong> Imperial,<br />
Kern, and Fresno Counties and also <strong>in</strong> the Tulelake Bas<strong>in</strong> (Siskiyou and Modoc Counties). Fresh market<br />
bulb onions are produced <strong>in</strong> five ma<strong>in</strong> areas: Low Desert (Imperial and Riverside Counties), San Joaqu<strong>in</strong><br />
Valley (Kern, Fresno and San Joaqu<strong>in</strong> Counties), High Desert (eastern Los Angeles County), Central<br />
Coast (San Benito, Ventura, Santa Clara and Monterey Counties), and the Northern Mounta<strong>in</strong> Valleys<br />
(Siskiyou, Modoc, Shasta and Lassen Counties). (13,14)<br />
Area Plant Harvest<br />
Low Desert October – November May – June<br />
San Joaqu<strong>in</strong> Valley October – February June – October<br />
Northern Mounta<strong>in</strong> Valleys April September – October<br />
High Desert March – April August – September<br />
Central Coast December – April June – September
Cultural Practices<br />
There are many onion varieties planted <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. Onion varieties are generally classified by daylength<br />
(short, <strong>in</strong>termediate, long), market use (fresh bulb, dehydrator bulb), and bulb color with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
fresh market class.<br />
Dehydrator onions <strong>in</strong>clude short-day and long-day varieties. Short-day varieties (Creole, Creoso and<br />
Primero) are selected <strong>for</strong> their high dry matter content with soluble solid contents rang<strong>in</strong>g from 15 to<br />
25%. Long-day dehydrators (Southport White Globe varieties) have soluble solid contents rang<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
20 to 25%. (13)<br />
Fresh market bulb onions have the greatest number of varieties. Short-day market bulbs are usually<br />
Grono or Granex-Grono types and <strong>in</strong>clude yellow, red, and white varieties. Yellow varieties <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Henry’s special, Mr. Max, Rio Enrique, L<strong>in</strong>da Vista, Monsoon, Colossal, Chula Vista, and Rio Bravo.<br />
Red varieties <strong>in</strong>clude Rio Raji, Red Grano and Rojo. White varieties <strong>in</strong>clude Contessa, Diamante, Early<br />
Supreme and Rio Rondo. "Imperial Sweets" can also be considered short-day varieties. Imperial Sweet<br />
varieties range from five to seven percent soluble solid content, 2 to 6 moles of pyruvic acid per Kg of<br />
bulb, and a high sugar to pyruvic acid ratio. (14)<br />
Intermediate-day fresh market bulbs <strong>in</strong>clude varieties such as Stockton Yellow Globe, Stockton Red<br />
Globe, Cal Red, Fresno Red, Yega, Yula, San Joaqu<strong>in</strong>, Early Harvest, Card<strong>in</strong>al, Early Red Burger, Rio<br />
Corona, Dakata, Rio Seco, Cimarron, Utopia and many others. The <strong>in</strong>termediate-day varieties range<br />
from seven to n<strong>in</strong>e percent soluble solid contents and 5 to 9 moles of pyruvic acid per Kg of bulb. (14)<br />
Long–day fresh market bulb onions are Sweet Spanish and Fiesta types. Varieties <strong>in</strong>clude Fiesta,<br />
Blanco, Duro, Maya, Copra, Cache, Cheyenne, Dakota, Zuni, Tamara, Norstar, Valiant, Armada, Fuego,<br />
Tesoro, Vaquero and Condor. The long-day varieties range from eight to 12 percent soluble solids and<br />
10 to 20 moles of pyruvic acid per Kg of bulb. (14)<br />
<strong>Onions</strong> are biennial monocots that are cultivated as annuals. It is a cool-season crop that requires<br />
temperatures of at least 55° F to emerge. Optimum leaf growth rates occur at temperatures of 68° F to<br />
77° F. Between the temperatures of 45° F and 50° F bolt<strong>in</strong>g will occur. Cali<strong>for</strong>nia varieties beg<strong>in</strong> to bulb<br />
at 12 to 15 hour day lengths. (13,14)<br />
Most commercial acreage is direct seeded however transplant<strong>in</strong>g is used <strong>in</strong> some fall-planted fields to<br />
produce an early harvest. <strong>Onions</strong> are planted <strong>in</strong> multiple rows on raise-beds that are 40 to 42 <strong>in</strong>ches<br />
wide. When spr<strong>in</strong>kler irrigation is used, four to six rows are planted on the bed top at equidistant. When<br />
drip irrigation is used, four to six rows are planted with a space <strong>in</strong> the middle of the bed <strong>for</strong> the irrigation
tape. Seeds are planted half an <strong>in</strong>ch deep <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ely tilled, moist soil. The number of onion seeds per<br />
pound range from 100,000 to 130,000. Dehydrator and fresh market varieties are sown at 4 to 5 pounds<br />
per acre. (6,13,14)<br />
<strong>Onions</strong> are grown on a wide variety of soil types: sand, loam, clay or organic/peat. The soil must be<br />
uni<strong>for</strong>m and clod-free. After seed<strong>in</strong>g, onions must not be allowed to dry out. The soil is kept wet<br />
throughout the preemergence/post-plant stage and once the plants have emerged, frequent irrigation is<br />
required. The optimal time to irrigate is after 25 percent of available moisture has been depleted from<br />
the top two feet of the soil. An average onion crop uses 30 to 36 <strong>in</strong>ches of water per grow<strong>in</strong>g season.<br />
(13,14)<br />
When onions reach maturity, their leaves drop. Irrigation management at the time of harvest is crucial.<br />
Water use is high until maturity beg<strong>in</strong>s, when it decreases rapidly. The tim<strong>in</strong>g on the last irrigation<br />
requires special consideration, s<strong>in</strong>ce stopp<strong>in</strong>g too soon will reduce yield, and stopp<strong>in</strong>g too late can cause<br />
splitt<strong>in</strong>g, delay maturity and <strong>in</strong>duce disease. The optimal time <strong>for</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al irrigation is usually when ten to<br />
50 percent of the tops have fallen. (13,14)<br />
The market sometimes requires that onions be harvested at only 20 to 50 percent mature bulbs. Fresh<br />
market bulbs are harvested by hand. Hand harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volves roll<strong>in</strong>g tops, undercutt<strong>in</strong>g with a rod<br />
weeder and immediately harvest<strong>in</strong>g to avoid sunburn. Crews pull and hand clip bulbs <strong>in</strong>to buckets.<br />
Bulbs are then placed <strong>in</strong>to burlap bags and left <strong>in</strong> the field <strong>for</strong> 3 days to 2 weeks to cure. Cur<strong>in</strong>g allows<br />
the onions to dry and <strong>for</strong>m a protective outer layer that covers the bulb. After cur<strong>in</strong>g, the bags are loaded<br />
<strong>in</strong>to bulk trucks <strong>for</strong> transport to pack<strong>in</strong>g sheds, loaded <strong>in</strong>to bulk b<strong>in</strong>s <strong>for</strong> storage or field-packed. Pack<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves siz<strong>in</strong>g bulbs <strong>in</strong>to several groups: Colossal (> 4″ diameters), Jumbo (3 to 4″ ), Medium (2 ¼ to<br />
3″ ), Repacks (1 ½ to 2 ¼ ″ ) and Boilers (
Insect Pests<br />
In Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, onion thrips and onion maggot are the most significant <strong>in</strong>sect pests of onions. Other <strong>in</strong>sect<br />
pests <strong>in</strong>clude western flower thrips, seed corn maggot, pea leafm<strong>in</strong>er, armyworms, bulb mites, and wheat<br />
curl mites. (6,12)<br />
Insect resistance to organophosphate, carbamate and pyrethroid chemicals is suspected <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
although it has not been documented. Resistance has been documented <strong>in</strong> other states. If multiple<br />
treatments are required then alternat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>secticides with different modes of action is recommended.<br />
(6,12)<br />
Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) and Western Flower Thrips (Frankl<strong>in</strong>iella occidentalis)<br />
Thrips thrive <strong>in</strong> hot, dry environments; conditions found <strong>in</strong> many areas of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. Mature onion<br />
thrips are 0.05 <strong>in</strong>ches long and western flower thrips are 0.06 <strong>in</strong>ches long. Adults have two pairs of<br />
w<strong>in</strong>gs with long hairs while nymphs are w<strong>in</strong>gless. Because adult thrips fly, they are particularly<br />
important s<strong>in</strong>ce they can act as vectors <strong>for</strong> pathogens such as purple blotch, Alternaria porri. (12)<br />
Many reproduction cycles can occur every year. Typically one cycle is completed <strong>in</strong> two to four weeks;<br />
however at temperatures over 85° F the life cycle takes 10 to 11 days. Thrips produce progeny by both<br />
sexual and asexual reproduction. When asexual reproduction occurs only female offspr<strong>in</strong>g are produced.<br />
Each mature female can lay up to 80 eggs that are deposited <strong>in</strong> the plant tissue. (2)<br />
Damage occurs from the rasp<strong>in</strong>g and suck<strong>in</strong>g feed<strong>in</strong>g behavior of the nymphs and adults. Thrips rasp the<br />
leaf surface then suck the plant fluid. This causes dist<strong>in</strong>ctive silvery streak spots on the leaves. As a rule<br />
thrips feed <strong>in</strong> protected areas near the bulb; however, if there is a high population feed<strong>in</strong>g will occur on<br />
the outer leaf surfaces. In severe <strong>in</strong>festations the whole field will have a silvery appearance. Thrips can<br />
reduce onion yield and quality. (2,12)<br />
Thrips can be monitored one of two ways: either the foliage only or the whole onion plant is sampled.<br />
The latter is the most effective monitor<strong>in</strong>g method s<strong>in</strong>ce it reveals thrips <strong>in</strong> the onion bulb and well as<br />
under the leaf folds. Five samples should be taken from four areas of the field. Thirty thrips per plant at<br />
mid-season is a suggested threshold although this will vary. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Plant thrips-resistant cultivars such as Grano or Sweet Spanish and if<br />
possible, grow onions dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y season. Water<strong>in</strong>g from overhead irrigation and ra<strong>in</strong>fall will<br />
provide some thrips suppression. Because thrips suck on plant fluids, regular water<strong>in</strong>g can m<strong>in</strong>imize
damage. Under dry, hot conditions allow two to three weeks between each plant<strong>in</strong>g. New plant<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
should be made up w<strong>in</strong>d of older plant<strong>in</strong>gs to m<strong>in</strong>imize dispersal. Plant<strong>in</strong>g onions <strong>in</strong> proximity to other<br />
crops such as carrots will also aid <strong>in</strong> thrips management. (2,17)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- Beneficial organisms can be used to control thrips <strong>in</strong> bulb onions. These<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude p<strong>in</strong>k lady beetles (Coleomegilla imaculata), green lacew<strong>in</strong>g larvae, m<strong>in</strong>ute pirate bugs (Orius<br />
tristaclor), predatory mites (Neoseiulus cucumeris), lady bugs (Hippodamia convergens), and an <strong>in</strong>sectspecific<br />
fungus (Beauveria bassiana). None of these control agents provides acceptable control of thrips,<br />
there<strong>for</strong>e, research on the role of natural enemies <strong>in</strong> the onion system is clearly needed. (2,7,11)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- Thrips must be controlled dur<strong>in</strong>g the early bulb<strong>in</strong>g stage of onions,<br />
otherwise populations will <strong>in</strong>crease to the po<strong>in</strong>t that control later will be extremely difficult if not<br />
impossible. Typically, treatments are applied at the first sign of thrips. Thorough coverage of<br />
<strong>in</strong>secticides is necessary s<strong>in</strong>ce thrips hide <strong>in</strong> protected areas of plants. Even though onions can tolerate<br />
high populations near harvest, control measures may be necessary to reduce the annoyance to the harvest<br />
crew. (12)<br />
● Cypermethr<strong>in</strong> was applied to 26.8% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s bulb onion crop acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997. <strong>Onions</strong><br />
were treated with 2,895 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 740 applications. Applications are made by chemigation, air or<br />
ground at rates of 0.08 to 0.1 lbs. a.i. per acre and not to exceed 0.5 lbs. a.i. per acre per season.<br />
The label preharvest <strong>in</strong>terval (PHI) is 7 days, but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days. A permit<br />
from the county agricultural commissioner’s office is required <strong>for</strong> purchase and use.<br />
Cypermethr<strong>in</strong> can also be used to control onion maggot adults, armyworms and leafm<strong>in</strong>ers.<br />
(3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Methomyl was applied to 12.9% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s bulb onion crop acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 9,602<br />
lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 343 treatments. Applications are made at the rate of 0.5 lbs. a.i. per acre<br />
and repeated as needed not to exceed 5.4 lbs. a.i. per acre or eight applications. Typically, 5 to 7<br />
day application <strong>in</strong>tervals are required to obta<strong>in</strong> good population control. The label PHI is 7 days,<br />
but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days. To purchase or use this chemical a permit is required.<br />
Methomyl can also be used to control beet armyworms <strong>in</strong> onions. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Permethr<strong>in</strong> was applied to 12.8% of the bulb onion crop acreage <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia <strong>in</strong> 1997, when<br />
1,999 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 214 treatments. Applications by chemigation, air and ground are<br />
made at rates of 0.15 to 0.3 lbs. a.i. per acre and can be repeated up to a maximum of 2 lbs. a.i.<br />
per acre per season. Label PHI is 1 day, but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days. A permit is<br />
required <strong>for</strong> purchase and use <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. Permethr<strong>in</strong> can also be used to control adult onion<br />
maggots, armyworms and leafm<strong>in</strong>ers. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Diaz<strong>in</strong>on was used to spray 8.02% of the bulb onion crops <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 11,287<br />
lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 219 treatments. Aerial, ground and chemigation applications of diaz<strong>in</strong>on<br />
are made at the rate of 0.5 lbs. a.i. per acre and repeated after 7 days if necessary. Do not make
more than three applications per season. The label PHI is 14 days, but the actual PHI range is 30<br />
to 120 days. A permit is required <strong>for</strong> purchase and use. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Malathion was applied to 4% of the Cali<strong>for</strong>nia bulb onion crop <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 6,522 lbs. a.i. were<br />
applied <strong>in</strong> 138 treatments. This chemical is applied by ground, air or chemigation at the rate of<br />
0.94 lbs. a.i per acre. Malathion has a 3 day PHI, but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days. This<br />
chemical can also be used to control onion maggots. (3,5,6,11,13,14)<br />
● Methyl parathion was sprayed on 3.3% of the Cali<strong>for</strong>nia bulb onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
1,619 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 64 treatments. Ground or aerial applications can be applied at 0.5 lbs. a.i. per<br />
acre and repeated as needed. Methyl parathion has a 15-day PHI. A permit is required <strong>for</strong> its<br />
purchase and use <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. No use of methyl parathion has been reported <strong>for</strong> the Imperial<br />
Valley. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Oxamyl was applied to 2.1% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s bulb onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 1,179 lbs. a.i.<br />
were applied <strong>in</strong> 52 treatments. Ground, aerial or chemigation applications can be made at rates of<br />
0.5 to 1 lb. a.i. per acre and repeated at 14-day <strong>in</strong>tervals as needed not to exceed 4.5 lbs. a.i. per<br />
acre per grow<strong>in</strong>g season. Oxamyl has a PHI of 14 days. In Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, use of this chemical is<br />
limited to Modoc and Siskiyou Counties as required by the SLN (special local need) label. This<br />
chemical is used most often to control nematodes. (3,5,11,13,14)<br />
● Az<strong>in</strong>phos-methyl was applied to 0.02% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s bulb onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 12 lbs.<br />
a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 2 treatments. Applications can be made by ground or air at rates of 0.5 to 0.75<br />
lbs. a.i. per acre. Subsequent applications can be made at 7-day <strong>in</strong>tervals as needed. The PHI is<br />
28 days. Some <strong>for</strong>mulations list a one-day PHI on the label. (3,5,11,13,14)<br />
● Azadiracht<strong>in</strong> was applied to 0.4% of the crop <strong>in</strong> 21 applications <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia <strong>in</strong> 1997. A total of<br />
3 lbs. a.i. was used. This chemical can be applied by ground or air at rates of 0.1 to 0.7 oz a.i. per<br />
acre and repeated at seven day <strong>in</strong>tervals. If the thrips population is high the applications can be<br />
repeated at three to four day <strong>in</strong>tervals and no more than 0.7 oz a.i. per acre can be applied per<br />
season. Azadiracht<strong>in</strong> can be applied up until the day of harvest. This compound can also be used<br />
to control onion maggots, armyworms and leafm<strong>in</strong>ers. (3,5,11,13,14)<br />
● Insecticidal soap was applied to 0.2% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s bulb onions, <strong>in</strong> 9 treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 279 lbs.<br />
a.i. <strong>in</strong> 1997. It can be applied at the first sign of thrips and repeated at seven to 14 day <strong>in</strong>tervals.<br />
Rates of 1 to 2% v/v solution can be used. The PHI is 14 days. This chemical can also be used as<br />
a leafm<strong>in</strong>er control agent. (5,11,13,14)<br />
● Petroleum oil was not applied <strong>in</strong> 1997. This product can be applied, as needed by air or ground<br />
at rates of 1 to 2 gallons per 100 gallons of water. No PHI has been established <strong>for</strong> petroleum oil.<br />
It can also be used to control leafm<strong>in</strong>ers. (3,5,11,13,14)
● Pyrethr<strong>in</strong>s were applied <strong>in</strong> 43 onion treatments <strong>in</strong> 1997, us<strong>in</strong>g a total of 6 lbs. a.i. Applications<br />
can be made by ground or air at rates of 1 to 6 lbs. a.i. per acre as needed. No PHI has been<br />
established <strong>for</strong> pyrethr<strong>in</strong>s. It can also be used to control onion maggots and leafm<strong>in</strong>ers. (5,11)<br />
● Rotenone was applied <strong>in</strong> 41 treatments <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 4 lbs. a.i. was used. Rates of 0.004 to<br />
0.009 lbs. a.i. per acre are applied as needed to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> control of thrips populations. Rotenone<br />
may be tank-mixed with pyrethr<strong>in</strong>s. No PHI has been established. Rotenone can also be used to<br />
control leafm<strong>in</strong>ers and mites. (5,11,12)<br />
● Lambda-cyhalothr<strong>in</strong> can be applied by chemigation, air or ground at rates of 0.02 to 0.03 lbs. a.<br />
i. per acre <strong>for</strong> thrips control. Applications can be made at <strong>in</strong>tervals of no less than 5 days, not to<br />
exceed 0.24 lbs. a.i. per acre per season. The PHI is 14 days. Lambda-cyhalothr<strong>in</strong> can be used to<br />
control armyworms and adult onion maggots, seed corn maggots, and leafm<strong>in</strong>ers. This chemical<br />
has been registered recently, so use <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation is not yet available. (3,5)<br />
● Zeta-cypermethr<strong>in</strong> can be applied at the first sign of thrips. Applications can be made by<br />
chemigation, air or ground at the rates of 0.0375 to 0.05 lbs. a.i. per acre not to exceed 0.25 lbs. a.<br />
i. per acre. The PHI is 7 days. Adult onion maggots, armyworms and leafm<strong>in</strong>ers are also<br />
controlled by zeta-cypermethr<strong>in</strong>. This chemical has been registered recently so use <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation is<br />
not yet available. (3,5)<br />
Onion maggot (Delia antiqua) and Seed corn maggot (D. platura).<br />
Seed corn maggot can be found <strong>in</strong> onion crops throughout Cali<strong>for</strong>nia whereas, onion maggot is restricted<br />
to the cooler coastal areas. These pests are 0.25-<strong>in</strong>ches long, legless, whitish maggots found <strong>in</strong> most<br />
soils high <strong>in</strong> organic matter. (12)<br />
These <strong>in</strong>sects are multivolt<strong>in</strong>e. It takes approximately 45 to 65 days to complete one reproductive cycle.<br />
The adult female lays clusters of approximately 200 eggs over a period of several days. These eggs are<br />
deposited <strong>in</strong> the ground near the onion stalk. The eggs hatch after ten days. The newly emerged maggots<br />
bore <strong>in</strong>to the stem of the onion and feed on the bulb <strong>for</strong> two to three weeks, damag<strong>in</strong>g the plants. The<br />
maggots then drop to the soil to pupate until the adults emerge. (5,12,17)<br />
The first sign of maggot damage may be stunted or wilted plants. Seedl<strong>in</strong>g plants are most susceptible to<br />
severe damage. Seed corn maggots attack germ<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g seedl<strong>in</strong>gs whereas, onion maggots attack the plant<br />
at any stage. (12,16)<br />
No efficient method has been developed to monitor onion maggots, although, adult populations can be<br />
monitored with yellow sticky traps. (12)
CULTURAL CONTROL- Avoid plant<strong>in</strong>g onions <strong>in</strong> fields high <strong>in</strong> organic matter. Volunteer onions<br />
should be removed from fields rather than be<strong>in</strong>g plowed under. Avoid plant<strong>in</strong>g successive onion crops.<br />
(12,16)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- Natural enemies of onion maggot and seed corn maggot <strong>in</strong>clude: lady<br />
bugs, beetles, birds, parasitic wasps, nematodes, and parasitic fungi. Diatomaceous earth is another<br />
nonchemical control that can be used. The use of sterile onion maggot flies to control populations is<br />
under <strong>in</strong>vestigation. (5,17)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- The most effective <strong>in</strong>secticide application tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> control of onion<br />
maggot and seed corn maggot is at plant<strong>in</strong>g. These treatments should be considered <strong>for</strong> fields with<br />
histories of maggot problems and fields high <strong>in</strong> organic matter. If high fly adult populations becomes a<br />
problem applications to control the adults may be desirable. (6,12)<br />
● Chlorpyrifos was applied to 4.1% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion crop acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 3,276 lbs. a.<br />
i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 85 treatments. Applications can be made <strong>in</strong>-furrow at the time of plant<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
kill larvae. A maximum of one treatment per season can be applied at rates of 0.9 to 1.05 lbs. a.i.<br />
per acre. The actual PHI range is 200 to 240 days. (3,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Cypermethr<strong>in</strong> is an onion maggot adulticide. See onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Diaz<strong>in</strong>on – see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control onion maggot and seed<br />
corn maggot larvae are 2 to 4 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Malathion – see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control onion maggot and seed<br />
corn maggot larvae are 1.6 to 1.9 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Permethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control onion maggot and seed<br />
corn maggot adults are 0.1 to 0.3 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Pyrethr<strong>in</strong>s are used to treat adult onion maggots. See onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Azadiracht<strong>in</strong> is an onion maggot larvae treatment. See onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● L<strong>in</strong>dane was applied 1 time <strong>in</strong> 1997 us<strong>in</strong>g 0.49 lb. a.i. to treat 1 acre of bulb onions. It can be<br />
used at the rate of 0.81 fl. oz a.i. per 100 lbs. of seed to control seed corn maggots <strong>in</strong> onions.<br />
(5,11,13,14)<br />
Other chemicals that can be used to control onion maggots and seed corn maggots are listed below.<br />
● Lambda-cyhalothr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control onion maggot<br />
and seed corn maggot adults are 0.015 to 0.025 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)
● Zeta-cypermethr<strong>in</strong> is an onion maggot adulticide. See onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Cyromaz<strong>in</strong>e was given a Section 18 <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia <strong>in</strong> 1998. This chemical can be used to control<br />
seed corn and onion maggots. It is applied to seed at rates of 1 lb. per 15 lbs. seed. (4)<br />
Pea leafm<strong>in</strong>er (Liriomyza huidobrensis).<br />
Pea leafm<strong>in</strong>er is a black and yellow fly found <strong>in</strong> onion crops throughout Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. Leafm<strong>in</strong>er is not a<br />
serious pest of onions unless populations become so high that foliage is prematurely killed. (12)<br />
Leafm<strong>in</strong>ers produce numerous generations per year. Adult flies deposit white, oval eggs <strong>in</strong>dividually<br />
<strong>in</strong>side foliage. After the eggs hatch, larvae go through four <strong>in</strong>stars. It is dur<strong>in</strong>g these larval stages that the<br />
leafm<strong>in</strong>er does its damage. After the last <strong>in</strong>star, the larvae drop and pupate <strong>in</strong> the ground. The life cycle<br />
is complete when the adults emerge. (12)<br />
M<strong>in</strong>es are damage mark<strong>in</strong>gs made as leafm<strong>in</strong>ers feed on the <strong>in</strong>ner tissue of leaves. The adult female also<br />
makes stippl<strong>in</strong>g marks on the leaf surface when she feeds or deposits an egg. However adults cause<br />
<strong>in</strong>significant levels of damage to the foliage. (12)<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g can be done by count<strong>in</strong>g the number of m<strong>in</strong>ed leaves <strong>in</strong> randomly sampled plants throughout<br />
the field. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Plant<strong>in</strong>g onions <strong>in</strong> close proximity to other crops such as lettuce, celery, or<br />
sp<strong>in</strong>ach that may have leafm<strong>in</strong>er problems should be avoided. M<strong>in</strong>imize leafm<strong>in</strong>er problems by work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
soil well and allow<strong>in</strong>g sufficient time <strong>for</strong> pupae <strong>in</strong> the soil to emerge from fields that have been<br />
previously planted with lettuce, celery or sp<strong>in</strong>ach. (12)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- Natural enemies of onion maggot and seed corn maggot <strong>in</strong>clude: lady<br />
bugs, beetles, birds, parasitic wasps, nematodes, and parasitic fungus. Diatomaceous earth is another<br />
nonchemical control that can be used. The use of sterile onion maggot flies to control populations is<br />
under <strong>in</strong>vestigation. (5,17)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- Management decisions should be based on the level of larval <strong>in</strong>festations <strong>in</strong><br />
the plants. (12)<br />
● Cypermethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western thrips. Labeled rates used <strong>for</strong> adult leafm<strong>in</strong>er control are<br />
0.04 to 0.1 lbs. a.i per acre. (5)
● Permethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Labeled rates used <strong>for</strong> adult leafm<strong>in</strong>er control<br />
are 0.1 to 0.3 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Azadiracht<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Fatty acid salts - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Petroleum oil - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Pyreth<strong>in</strong>s - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Rotenone - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
Other chemicals that can be used to control leafm<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>in</strong> onions are listed below.<br />
● Lambda-cyhalothr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control adult<br />
leafm<strong>in</strong>ers are 0.015 to 0.025 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Zeta-cypermethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used <strong>for</strong> adult leafm<strong>in</strong>ers are<br />
0.028 to 0.05 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
Beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua).<br />
Beet armyworm moths are found all year <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. Larvae are green, hairless with broad stripes<br />
down each side. (9,12)<br />
Beet armyworms produce many generations per year. Each reproduction cycle takes approximately 24 to<br />
36 days. After mat<strong>in</strong>g, the female moth will lay up to 600 eggs <strong>in</strong> clusters of 80 on plant leaves. Damage<br />
to onion plants occurs dur<strong>in</strong>g the period 14 to 21 days after hatch, as armyworms complete their five<br />
larval stages. After feed<strong>in</strong>g on foliage, larvae pupate at a one-<strong>in</strong>ch depth <strong>in</strong> the soil <strong>for</strong> 7 to 14 days until<br />
they emerge as moths. (9,12,15)<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g is done at regular <strong>in</strong>tervals by count<strong>in</strong>g larvae and not<strong>in</strong>g damage on randomly sampled<br />
plants through out the field. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Fields should be disked immediately after harvest to destroy larvae and<br />
pupae. Remov<strong>in</strong>g weeds along field borders will also help m<strong>in</strong>imize armyworm problems. (12)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- Bacillus thur<strong>in</strong>giensis (B.t.) was applied <strong>in</strong> 4 treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 7 lbs. a.i.
<strong>in</strong> 1997. Rates typically used are 0.5 to 1.5 lbs. a.i. per acre. B.t. is not harmful to natural enemies and no<br />
PHI has been established. (3,5,12)<br />
Other beneficial organisms that can be used to control armyworms are Cotesia marg<strong>in</strong>iventris,<br />
Ste<strong>in</strong>ernema feltiae, S. carpocapsae and Trichogramma sp., Beauveria bassiana, diatomaceous earth,<br />
and NPV. (5)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- Applications are made at the first sign of armyworms. (12)<br />
● Cypermethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control armyworms are 0.04<br />
to 0.1 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Methomyl - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Permethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates <strong>for</strong> armyworm control are 0.15 to 0.3<br />
lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
● Azadiracht<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
Other chemicals that are registered to control armyworms are listed below.<br />
● Lambda-cyhalothr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips.<br />
● Zeta-cypermethr<strong>in</strong> - see onion and western flower thrips. Rates used to control armyworms are<br />
0.028 to 0.05 lbs. a.i. per acre. (5)<br />
Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus spp., Tyrophagus spp.).<br />
Bulb mites are t<strong>in</strong>y pearl-like, legged <strong>in</strong>sects that prefer cool and wet climates. Bulb mites can survive<br />
on onion crop residues <strong>in</strong> the field until the crop residues are completely decomposed. (12)<br />
Scattered patches of stunted plants are typical of fields <strong>in</strong>fested with bulb mites. Damage occurs when<br />
the mites penetrate outer layers of plant tissue. Mite damage also allows opportunistic pathogens to get<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the bulb. This results <strong>in</strong> bulb losses due to rot both <strong>in</strong> the field and <strong>in</strong> storage. (12)<br />
No specific monitor<strong>in</strong>g method has been developed <strong>for</strong> bulb mites except to exam<strong>in</strong>e onion bulbs under<br />
the microscope. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Flood irrigation and heavy ra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>hibit bulb mite populations. Fallow fields
to allow complete decomposition of vegetation. Successive onion or garlic plant<strong>in</strong>g should be avoided.<br />
Short crop rotation cycles will allow the mites to survive. (12)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- There is no biological control <strong>for</strong> the control of bulb mites <strong>in</strong> onions. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- Metam sodium was applied <strong>in</strong> 59 treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 182,958 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 1997<br />
on 2.5% of the bulb onion crop. It is <strong>in</strong>jected <strong>in</strong>to the soil at rates of 155 to 248 lbs. a.i. per acre and<br />
must be applied at least 14-days be<strong>for</strong>e plant<strong>in</strong>g. No PHI is established. Metam sodium is primarily used<br />
as a nematacide but is also used to control bulb mites. Use of metam sodium, however does not prevent<br />
re<strong>in</strong>festation through <strong>in</strong>fested bulbs. A permit is required from the county agricultural commissioner <strong>for</strong><br />
purchase and use. Metam sodium can also be used to control nematodes, p<strong>in</strong>kroot, and weeds.<br />
(11,12,13,14)<br />
Wheat curl mite (Eriophyes tulipae).<br />
Wheat curl mites are microscopic, white wormlike, organisms about 0.01 <strong>in</strong>ch long and are more<br />
elongated than bulb mites. (12)<br />
Under favorable conditions, it takes eight to ten days <strong>for</strong> these mites to complete one reproductive cycle.<br />
Female adults each lay three to 25 eggs. Eggs are laid one per day and are deposited on the foliage. Once<br />
eggs hatch, the juveniles migrate to the bulb where they feed and reproduce, ultimately caus<strong>in</strong>g the bulb<br />
to dry up. (7,12)<br />
These mites can cause damage to onion bulbs <strong>in</strong> the field and <strong>in</strong> storage. Also, they can be a vector <strong>for</strong><br />
other rot-caus<strong>in</strong>g organisms. (7,12)<br />
No <strong>in</strong>-field monitor<strong>in</strong>g method <strong>for</strong> wheat curl mites has been developed. However, onion bulbs can be<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed under the microscope <strong>for</strong> mites. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Flood irrigation and heavy ra<strong>in</strong>s can decrease populations. Avoid plant<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> fields follow<strong>in</strong>g onions, garlic, corn or sudangrass as the previous crop. Allow bulbs to dry at least<br />
eight hours at 75° F. (12)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- There is no biological control method <strong>for</strong> wheat curl mites at the present<br />
time. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- There is no chemical control available <strong>for</strong> wheat curl mites at the present<br />
time. (12)
Diseases<br />
Diseases can pose a serious threat to Cali<strong>for</strong>nia onion crops. Diseases <strong>in</strong>clude: bacterial soft rots, basal<br />
rot, black mold, blue mold, botrytis leafspot, downy mildew, botrytis bulb rot, p<strong>in</strong>kroot, purple blotch,<br />
stemphylium leafblight, sour sk<strong>in</strong>, white rot and rust. No biological controls currently exist <strong>for</strong> onion<br />
disease pathogens. (12)<br />
Downy mildew (Peronospora destructor).<br />
Downy mildew is the most important disease of dehydrator bulb and fresh market bulb onions. The<br />
disease is caused by a fungus found throughout Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, that survives on plant debris and can be<br />
spread very rapidly though spores when conditions are optimal. These conditions are: temperatures of<br />
43° F to 80° F and a m<strong>in</strong>imum leaf wetness of 1.5 hours. (10,12,13,14)<br />
Symptoms of downy mildew are grayish-white to purple colored growth on older leaves and yellow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of leaf tissue that leads to a collapse of the onion tops. Large yellow, circular clumps of plants a few feet<br />
<strong>in</strong> diameter may be scattered throughout the field. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- In fields where downy mildew has occurred, use a three-year rotation to<br />
crops other than onions, garlic or leeks. <strong>Crop</strong>s should be planted with disease-free seeds, sets or bulbs.<br />
Onion fields should be well dra<strong>in</strong>ed. Volunteer allium plants <strong>in</strong>, or around the field, should be destroyed.<br />
There are a few red onion cultivars such as Calred that are resistant to downy mildew. (10, 12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Metalaxyl was applied to 41.1% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, us<strong>in</strong>g 8,912 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong><br />
1,173 aerial, ground or chemigation treatments. When conditions are favorable <strong>for</strong> the disease but<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>in</strong>festation, a rate of 1.5 lbs. a.i. per acre is applied and repeated at 14-day <strong>in</strong>tervals not to<br />
exceed four applications per crop. The label PHI is 7 days, but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120<br />
days. Note that crops planted <strong>in</strong> fields <strong>for</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g 12 months must be registered <strong>for</strong><br />
metalaxyl. It can be tank-mixed with chlorothalonil. Other onion diseases controlled by metalaxyl<br />
are: purple blotch, stemiphylium leaf blight and botrytis leafspot. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Chlorothalonil was applied to 34.1% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997 us<strong>in</strong>g 58,872 lbs. a.i.<br />
<strong>in</strong> 964 treatments. Applications can be made by chemigation, air and ground when disease is first<br />
noticed. Rates of 0.75 to 1.5 lbs. a.i. per acre can be applied every 7 to 10 days. The label PHI is<br />
7 days but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days. Chlorothalonil can also be used to control
purple blotch, stemiphylium leaf blight, botrytis leafspot and p<strong>in</strong>kroot. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Mancozeb was applied to 31.8% of the Cali<strong>for</strong>nia onion crop <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 70,240 lbs. a.i were<br />
applied by chemigation, air and ground <strong>in</strong> 863 treatments. When the disease first appears, rates of<br />
1.5 to 2.25 lbs. a.i. per acre can be applied and repeated at seven day <strong>in</strong>tervals not to exceed 24<br />
lbs. a.i. per acre per crop. The label PHI is 7 days, but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days.<br />
Mancozeb can be used to control other onion diseases such as purple blotch, stemiphylium leaf<br />
blight and botrytis leafspot. (3,5,6,11,12)<br />
Several different copper compounds were applied to onions <strong>in</strong> 1997. Copper hydroxide was the<br />
most frequently used compound. It was applied to 15.8% of the onion crops <strong>in</strong> 350 treatments<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g 20,617 lbs. a.i. The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 1,120 lbs. a.i. consisted of various copper compounds<br />
applied <strong>in</strong> 37 applications. Plants treated with copper should be four to six <strong>in</strong>ches high.<br />
Applications are made at 0.75 to 1.5 lbs. a.i. per acre and repeated at 7 to 10 day <strong>in</strong>tervals. None<br />
of the copper compounds have established PHI’s. (3,5,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Iprodione was applied to 8.3% of the Cali<strong>for</strong>nia onion crop <strong>in</strong> 1997, us<strong>in</strong>g 5,374 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 297<br />
treatments. When conditions favor the disease, rates of 0.5 to 0.75 lbs. a.i. per acre can be applied<br />
not to exceed five applications <strong>in</strong> a season. If iprodione is tank-mixed then ten treatments are<br />
allowed. The label PHI is 7 days but the actual PHI range is 30 to 120 days. Iprodione can also be<br />
used to control purple blotch and stemiphylium leaf blight. (3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Maneb was applied to 10.4% of the Cali<strong>for</strong>nia onion crop <strong>in</strong> 1997, us<strong>in</strong>g 16,376 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 254<br />
aerial and ground treatments. When the disease first appears, rates of 1.5 to 2.25 lbs. a.i. per acre<br />
can be applied and repeated at seven day <strong>in</strong>tervals as necessary not to exceed 24 lbs. a.i. per acre<br />
per crop. Maneb can also be tank-mixed with fosetyl-alum<strong>in</strong>um. The PHI is 7 days. Maneb can<br />
also be used to control purple blotch, stemphylium leaf blight and botrytis leafspot.<br />
(3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Fosetyl-alum<strong>in</strong>um was applied to 2.3% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 4,847 lbs. a.<br />
i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 136 ground and aerial treatments. When conditions favor downy mildew,<br />
applications can be made at a rate of 4 lbs. a.i. per acre and repeated at seven day <strong>in</strong>tervals not to<br />
exceed seven applications per season. Fosetyl can be tank-mixed with Maneb. The PHI is 7 days.<br />
This chemical can also be used to control purple blotch and stemiphylium leaf blight.<br />
(3,5,6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Sulfur was used <strong>in</strong> 58 applications to onions <strong>in</strong> 1997. A total of 103,619 lbs. a.i. were applied by<br />
air and ground to 5.2% of the acreage. Applications are made either when the disease first<br />
appears or when the conditions are favorable <strong>for</strong> disease development. Rates of 2.4 to 9 lbs. a.i.<br />
per acre can be used and repeated as needed. No PHI has been established <strong>for</strong> sulfur.<br />
(3,5,6,11,12,13,14)
Purple blotch and Stemphylium leaf blight (Alternaria porri and Stemphylium vesicarium).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter, stemphylium leaf blight and purple blotch are found throughout Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. In the<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>g, these diseases are usually only found <strong>in</strong> the Imperial Valley. Both diseases cause the same<br />
symptoms and are treated the same way. Fungi that overw<strong>in</strong>ter on plant debris <strong>in</strong> and around fields cause<br />
these diseases. The fungi are favored by wet conditions. Infection is often associated with downy<br />
mildew lesions. (10,12)<br />
Symptoms of purple blotch and stemphylium leaf blight are water-soaked areas on leaves that gradually<br />
develop <strong>in</strong>to deep purple lesion and yellow streaks. The lesions extend along leaf marg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> both<br />
directions, caus<strong>in</strong>g leaves to die. Bulb decay may happen dur<strong>in</strong>g and after harvest. The bulb neck<br />
becomes soft and has a yellow to w<strong>in</strong>e-red discoloration. The <strong>in</strong>fection moves throughout the onion<br />
tissues. The bulb dries out and takes on a papery texture towards the outside. (10,12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- The variety ‘Fiesta’ has tolerance to purple blotch and stemphylium leaf<br />
blight, whereas Sweet Spanish onions are very susceptible to <strong>in</strong>fection. <strong>Onions</strong> should be properly<br />
handled and dried dur<strong>in</strong>g harvest<strong>in</strong>g. Infected onions should be destroyed. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Metalaxyl - see downy mildew.<br />
● Chlorothalonil – see downy mildew.<br />
● Mancozeb – see downy mildew.<br />
● Iprodione – see downy mildew.<br />
● Maneb – see downy mildew.<br />
● Fosetyl alum<strong>in</strong>um – see downy mildew.<br />
● V<strong>in</strong>clozol<strong>in</strong> was applied to 0.5% of onion crops <strong>in</strong> 1997, when 337 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 15<br />
ground and aerial treatments. Applications at plant<strong>in</strong>g can be made at the rate of 0.75 lbs. a.i. per<br />
acre and repeated four to six weeks after crop emergence. No more than 10 lbs. a.i. per acre or<br />
four treatments can be applied <strong>in</strong> one season. The PHI is 18 days. V<strong>in</strong>clozol<strong>in</strong> can also be used to<br />
control white rot. (3,5,6,11,13,14)
White rot (Sclertium cepivorum).<br />
A fungus that can survive <strong>in</strong> soil as sclerotia and rema<strong>in</strong> dormant up to 20 years without a host causes<br />
White rot. White rot can occur <strong>in</strong> an onion crop with as little as one sclerotium per ten kilograms of soil.<br />
The sclerotia are spread by irrigation water, equipment and plant material. Optimum temperatures <strong>for</strong><br />
white rot are from 60° F to 65° F. The disease does not occur at temperatures above 78° F. (12)<br />
Symptoms of white rot will first appear on older leaves and will <strong>in</strong>clude yellow<strong>in</strong>g of the leaves, leaf<br />
dieback, wilt<strong>in</strong>g roots rott<strong>in</strong>g, and fluffy white growth around the base of the bulb. Onion plants can<br />
become <strong>in</strong>fected at any stage, but the disease is most common dur<strong>in</strong>g the second half of the grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
season. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Proper equipment sanitation will prevent soil migrat<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>fected areas<br />
to un<strong>in</strong>fected areas. Do not move cull bulbs, litter, and soil from <strong>in</strong>fested to non-<strong>in</strong>fested fields. Sets and<br />
transplants can carry sclerotia, but onion seed only rarely carries sclerotia. Once a field becomes<br />
<strong>in</strong>fected, the field should not be used aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>for</strong> allium crops. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Iprodione – see downy mildew.<br />
● Metam sodium can also be used but does not provide reliable control. See bulb mites. (12)<br />
● Methyl bromide is a fumigant that was applied <strong>in</strong> 5 treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 2,903 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 1997.<br />
Typical rates are 180 to 300 lbs. per acre. Methyl bromide is often applied <strong>in</strong> a mixture with<br />
chloropicr<strong>in</strong>. Basal rot is another onion disease <strong>for</strong> which methyl bromide is used. Methyl<br />
bromide is be<strong>in</strong>g phased-out under the provisions of the Clean Air Act and will no longer be<br />
available after 2005. (11,12,13,14)<br />
● V<strong>in</strong>clozol<strong>in</strong> – see purple blotch.<br />
● Dicloran was not applied <strong>in</strong> 1997. In 1995, it was applied <strong>in</strong> three treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 66 lbs. a.i. It<br />
can be applied by ground at the time of seed<strong>in</strong>g. Typical rates of 15 to 24 lbs. a. i. per acre are<br />
used. Dicloran is also used to treat botrytis bulb rot. (3,5,11)<br />
● Thiophanate-methyl is applied to the seeds or directly <strong>in</strong> the furrows at plant<strong>in</strong>g at rates of 8.4<br />
to 11.2 lbs. a.i. per acre. In 1997, it was applied <strong>in</strong> two treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 7 lbs. a.i. (5,11)<br />
Botrytis leafspot (Botrytis c<strong>in</strong>erea).
A fungus causes botrytis leafspot. When leaves are wet <strong>for</strong> 20 or more hours and temperatures reach 75°<br />
F, spores can become established. The spores produce enzymes that damage foliage by caus<strong>in</strong>g leaf<br />
spots. When spott<strong>in</strong>g becomes numerous, leaf tips dieback and entire leaves may be killed. (10,12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Isolat<strong>in</strong>g seed fields away from fresh market and process<strong>in</strong>g onion fields<br />
can m<strong>in</strong>imize leafspot s<strong>in</strong>ce bulbs are a major source of spore <strong>in</strong>oculum. Fields should be on a three-year<br />
rotation, away from onions, garlic or leeks dur<strong>in</strong>g which time volunteer and cull onions are destroyed.<br />
(10,12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Chlorothalonil – see downy mildew.<br />
● Mancozeb – see downy mildew.<br />
● Maneb – see downy mildew.<br />
● Iprodione – see downy mildew.<br />
● Metalaxyl – see downy mildew.<br />
Botrytis bulb rot (Botrytis allii).<br />
A fungus that is found throughout Cali<strong>for</strong>nia causes botrytis bulb rot. The fungus can survive on plant<br />
residue and <strong>in</strong> the soil as sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia <strong>for</strong> long periods of time. The sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia germ<strong>in</strong>ate under moist,<br />
warm conditions and produce airborne conidia that land on and <strong>in</strong>fect onion tissue. The optimum<br />
conditions <strong>for</strong> bulb rot are dur<strong>in</strong>g periods of high relative humidity with temperatures rang<strong>in</strong>g from 50°<br />
F to 75° F. (12)<br />
Symptoms of bulb rot normally appear dur<strong>in</strong>g storage, however, the <strong>in</strong>fection occurs <strong>in</strong> the field.<br />
Symptoms are a soften<strong>in</strong>g of the bulb neck tissue, which becomes water-soaked and turns brown, and<br />
later a gray felt-like growth appears on rott<strong>in</strong>g scales. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- M<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g damage to the bulbs dur<strong>in</strong>g handl<strong>in</strong>g can reduce botrytis bulb<br />
rot <strong>in</strong>fection. Heavy or late applications of nitrogen fertilizer should be avoided. Harvest only when<br />
crops are fully mature, and properly cure the bulbs be<strong>for</strong>e storage. Stor<strong>in</strong>g onions at temperatures of 41°<br />
F or less with low relative humidity m<strong>in</strong>imizes the disease <strong>in</strong>cidence. (12)
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Dicloran – see white rot.<br />
Basal rot (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cepae).<br />
Fungi that can survive <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>itely <strong>in</strong> the soil cause basal rot. Symptoms of basal rot are a progressive<br />
yellow<strong>in</strong>g and dieback from the leaf tip, dark brown roots and occasionally, a white fungal growth at the<br />
base of the bulb. Basal rot is often associated with p<strong>in</strong>k root, maggots, or other <strong>in</strong>sect <strong>in</strong>jury and is more<br />
prevalent <strong>in</strong> transplants. Optimum conditions <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>fection are moist soils with temperatures rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from 79 to 82° F. Basal rot may progress after harvest if the bulbs are stored <strong>in</strong> moist conditions. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- <strong>Onions</strong> should not be planted <strong>in</strong> fields with a history of basal rot. Basal rot<br />
<strong>in</strong>fection can be m<strong>in</strong>imized by a three to four year crop rotation (crops other than onions, garlic or<br />
leeks), proper cur<strong>in</strong>g prior to storage and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of cool storage temperatures. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Methyl bromide – see white rot.<br />
P<strong>in</strong>kroot (Phoma terrestris).<br />
A fungus that can survive <strong>in</strong> soil <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>itely causes p<strong>in</strong>kroot. Dra<strong>in</strong>age water or dirty equipment can<br />
easily spread the fungus. Optimum conditions <strong>for</strong> p<strong>in</strong>kroot are temperatures rang<strong>in</strong>g from 75° F to 85° F<br />
with high relative humidity. (12)<br />
P<strong>in</strong>kroot causes roots to turn p<strong>in</strong>k, darken and eventually die. Roots produced thereafter become<br />
diseased and die. This cont<strong>in</strong>ues throughout the grow<strong>in</strong>g season, and results <strong>in</strong> stunted bulbs. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Several varieties of onions such as Durango, Yula, Yellow Globe Danvers,<br />
and others are resistant to certa<strong>in</strong> stra<strong>in</strong>s of p<strong>in</strong>kroot. <strong>Crop</strong>s should be on a five-year or more long-term<br />
rotation out of onions and not be planted follow<strong>in</strong>g a cereal crop. Proper fertilization, irrigation,<br />
cultivation, and <strong>in</strong>sect control will m<strong>in</strong>imize <strong>in</strong>fection. Solarization of the soil is also used <strong>in</strong> the San<br />
Joaqu<strong>in</strong> Valley to prevent p<strong>in</strong>kroot. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL
● Chloropicr<strong>in</strong> was applied <strong>in</strong> seven treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 4,069 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 1997. Applications by<br />
<strong>in</strong>jection are made two weeks prior to plant<strong>in</strong>g at rates of 200 to 400 lbs. per acre.<br />
(3,5,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Dichloropropene is a preplant treatment that is applied by ground or by <strong>in</strong>jection at rates of 103<br />
to 285 lbs. a.i. per acre. This pesticide can also be mixed with chloropicr<strong>in</strong>. It was applied <strong>in</strong> four<br />
treatments us<strong>in</strong>g 10,801 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 1997. (3,5)<br />
● Metam sodium - see bulb mites.<br />
Bacterial soft rots (Erw<strong>in</strong>ia carotovora carotovora, E. chrysantherni, Pseudomonas gladioli, and<br />
Entererobacter cloacae).<br />
Bacterial soft rots are caused by soil borne organisms that can be spread through irrigation or ra<strong>in</strong>water.<br />
Symptoms appear at harvest or later. They can be characterized by soften<strong>in</strong>g and water soak<strong>in</strong>g of one or<br />
more of the <strong>in</strong>ner fleshy scales of the bulb, yellow<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>fected tissue and a soften<strong>in</strong>g of the bulb neck.<br />
(12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Once onions start to bulb, soft rot <strong>in</strong>fections can be m<strong>in</strong>imized by us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
furrow irrigation rather than spr<strong>in</strong>kler irrigation. Harvest should be made only after onions have fully<br />
matured and the onions should be cured prior to storage. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- No chemical controls are available <strong>for</strong> soft rots. (12)<br />
Black mold (Aspergillus niger).<br />
Black mold is caused by a fungus that is found <strong>in</strong> desert areas of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. The fungus survives <strong>in</strong> the<br />
soil on decay<strong>in</strong>g organic matter and <strong>in</strong>fects damaged onions by enter<strong>in</strong>g via wounds. Symptoms of black<br />
mold are moldy growths appear<strong>in</strong>g on the top or sides of bulbs, water soaked scales, and black masses of<br />
spores that become visible between outer scales. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- There is no direct control of black mold, however <strong>in</strong>fection can be reduced<br />
if bruises and other damage to bulbs is m<strong>in</strong>imized dur<strong>in</strong>g handl<strong>in</strong>g, and if keep<strong>in</strong>g storage and<br />
transportation temperatures are ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed between 33° F and 55° F. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- No chemical controls are available <strong>for</strong> black mold. (12)
Blue mold (Penicillium spp.).<br />
Blue mold rot can be caused by several fungi. Infection occurs through wounds, bruises or uncured neck<br />
tissue of the bulb and is favored at temperatures from 70° F to 77° F and high relative humidity.<br />
Symptoms appear near of harvest time and dur<strong>in</strong>g storage. Signs <strong>in</strong>clude water soaked areas on the outer<br />
surface of the scales, a blue-green powdery mold on the surface of bulbs and f<strong>in</strong>ally,<strong>in</strong> advanced stages,<br />
the bulbs dis<strong>in</strong>tegrate <strong>in</strong>to a watery rot. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Blue mold rot <strong>in</strong>fection can be m<strong>in</strong>imized by controll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sect damage,<br />
proper cur<strong>in</strong>g and careful handl<strong>in</strong>g. Stor<strong>in</strong>g bulbs at temperatures of 41° F or less with low relative<br />
humidity also helps m<strong>in</strong>imize the impact of the disease. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- No chemical controls are available <strong>for</strong> blue mold. (12)<br />
Sour sk<strong>in</strong> (Pseudomonas cepacia).<br />
Sour sk<strong>in</strong> is caused by the bacterium, Pseudomonas cepacia, an organism that can survive long periods<br />
of time <strong>in</strong> the soil. It is splashed onto plants dur<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong> or irrigation and enters the plant through wounds<br />
caused by mechanical or <strong>in</strong>sect damage. The optimum temperature <strong>for</strong> sour sk<strong>in</strong> is 85° F. (12)<br />
Symptoms of sour sk<strong>in</strong> are wilt<strong>in</strong>g and dieback of <strong>in</strong>fected leaves. The <strong>in</strong>ternal leaf tissue and the bulb<br />
neck become soft, watery and tan-colored, slimy r<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>for</strong>m throughout the bulb. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Once the onions start to bulb, furrow irrigation should be used rather than<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>kler irrigation. Sour sk<strong>in</strong> can be m<strong>in</strong>imized by allow<strong>in</strong>g tops to fully mature prior to harvest<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
properly dry<strong>in</strong>g bulbs prior to storage. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- No chemical control methods have been established <strong>for</strong> sour sk<strong>in</strong>. (12)<br />
Rust (Pucc<strong>in</strong>ia porri).<br />
Rust is usually only a problem <strong>in</strong> onions <strong>in</strong> fields where the crop is planted next to a heavily <strong>in</strong>fested<br />
garlic crop. Symptoms are red to orange colored lesions on leaf blades. Heavily <strong>in</strong>fested plants may turn<br />
yellow and collapse prematurely. The size and quality of onion bulbs is severely reduced by rust<br />
problems. (12)
CULTURAL CONTROL- Avoid plant<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> or near fields with a history of rust. (12)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- There are no chemical controls <strong>for</strong> rust <strong>in</strong> onions. (12)<br />
Onion Smut (Urocystis cephalae).<br />
Onion smut is caused by a fungus that can live saprophytically <strong>in</strong> the soil <strong>for</strong> many years. Symptoms<br />
appear early <strong>in</strong> plant development when blisters are seen on the lower part of the stems near the ground.<br />
After these blisters erupt a large number of black spores are released. Onion smut reduces both yield and<br />
quality of onions. (10)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Avoid plant<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> fields with a history of onion smut. (10)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Thiram comb<strong>in</strong>ed with carbox<strong>in</strong> was granted a Section 18 <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia <strong>in</strong> 1998. Rates used are<br />
6.0 fl. oz. per 100 seeds. In 1997, 528 lbs. thiram and 160 lbs. carbox<strong>in</strong> were used to treat seeds.<br />
(4,10,11)<br />
Nematodes<br />
Three ma<strong>in</strong> types of nematodes associated with Cali<strong>for</strong>nia onions are stem and bulb nematode, root knot<br />
nematode and stubby root nematode. Of these pests, stem and bulb nematode and the root knot<br />
nematode are major pests <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia. (12)<br />
Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci). The stem and bulb nematode lives <strong>in</strong>side the plant.<br />
Significant damage occurs when the nematode penetrates the onion and destroys the bulb as it feeds.<br />
Plants <strong>in</strong>fested with this nematode may have the follow<strong>in</strong>g symptoms: distorted and bloated plant tissue<br />
with a spongy appearance; stunted plants with shortened and thickened leaves often with brown or<br />
yellowish spots; soft tissue develops at the neck of the bulb and moves downward; scales that become<br />
pale gray, and under dry conditions, bulbs desiccate and split at the base. Opportunistic <strong>in</strong>fections by<br />
other organisms such as bacteria, fungi and onion maggots are common and can result <strong>in</strong> further decay.
(12)<br />
Root knot nematode (Meliodogyne hapla, M. <strong>in</strong>cognita, M.. javanica and M. chitwoodi). The root<br />
knot nematode enters the onion as a second stage juvenile and rema<strong>in</strong>s there to feed until it reaches<br />
maturity. Mature female nematodes produce an egg mass just outside the root or just below the surface<br />
of the root. Damage can result <strong>in</strong> severe stunt<strong>in</strong>g of the plant and stand reduction. Infestations cause<br />
galls on roots. M. hapla produces small galls that are difficult to see while other nematodes produce<br />
larger, more visible galls. (12)<br />
Stubby root nematode (Paratrucgidirys spp.). The stubby root nematode is a migrat<strong>in</strong>g ectoparasite<br />
that feeds on but does not penetrate the root. This nematode lays <strong>in</strong>dividual eggs directly <strong>in</strong> the soil.<br />
Populations <strong>in</strong>crease dur<strong>in</strong>g cool, damp weather. Symptoms of feed<strong>in</strong>g are extremely short roots with<br />
yellow to brownish cast. Damage can result <strong>in</strong> stunted plants and stand reduction. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Sanitiz<strong>in</strong>g equipment and prevent<strong>in</strong>g the movement of <strong>in</strong>fested soil to<br />
un<strong>in</strong>fested areas can decrease nematode migration. In addition, well-dra<strong>in</strong>ed soil will prevent nematode<br />
problems. The root knot nematodes (M. <strong>in</strong>cognita, M. javanica and M. arenaria) are <strong>in</strong>active at<br />
temperatures below 64° F. Thus plant<strong>in</strong>g onions when the soil temperatures are <strong>in</strong> this range can<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imize nematode damage. Grow<strong>in</strong>g nonhost crops such as carrots and lettuce <strong>for</strong> several years helps<br />
decrease stem and bulb nematode populations. However, this is not feasible with root knot nematode and<br />
stubby root nematode because of their wide host range. (12)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- Myrothecium verrucaria, botanical extracts, pathogenic fungus, and<br />
diatomaceous earth are biologically derived nematacides that may be used <strong>in</strong> onion crops. (5)<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL<br />
● Oxamyl – see onion thrips and western flower thrips.<br />
● Pyrethr<strong>in</strong>s – see onion thrips and western flower thrips.<br />
● Metam sodium – see bulb mites.<br />
Weeds<br />
Weeds can be problematic to onion producers. <strong>Onions</strong> are slow grow<strong>in</strong>g plants with shallow roots<br />
and narrow, upright foliage and are among the least competitive of all crops. Several flushes of
weeds can occur dur<strong>in</strong>g one crop cycle. These factors make onions susceptible to weed<br />
competition. Weed management is further complicated by the fact that onions are sown <strong>in</strong> high<br />
plant densities that makes hand-weed<strong>in</strong>g and cultivation more difficult. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g weeds <strong>in</strong> fields<br />
and keep<strong>in</strong>g records is a key weed management strategy. Records should <strong>in</strong>dicate weed species, air<br />
temperatures and time of year. (12)<br />
Region of<br />
Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
Low<br />
Desert<br />
High<br />
Desert<br />
San<br />
Joaqu<strong>in</strong><br />
Valley<br />
Northern<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
Valleys<br />
Central<br />
Coast<br />
Weeds<br />
annual bluegrass,<br />
canarygrass, little<br />
mallow, nettleleaf<br />
goosefoot<br />
mustards, Russian thistle,<br />
yellow and purple<br />
nutsedge<br />
barnyardgrass,<br />
cheeseweed, common<br />
lambsquarter, common<br />
purslane, dodder,<br />
groundcherry, London<br />
rocket, nightshades,<br />
yellow and purple<br />
nutsedge, pigweeds,<br />
shepherdspurse,<br />
sowthistle<br />
Common lambsquarter,<br />
Kochia nightshade,<br />
pigweeds, Russ<strong>in</strong>a thistle,<br />
annual bluegrass, burn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nettle, common<br />
groundsel, common<br />
lambsquarter, common<br />
purslane, hairy<br />
nightshade, little mallow,<br />
pigweeds,<br />
shepherdspurse.
Follow<strong>in</strong>g is a list of weeds that pose particular problems <strong>in</strong> onion crops:<br />
Yellow sweet clover and white sweet clover. These are difficult to control because none of the<br />
registered products are effective aga<strong>in</strong>st clover. The best solution is to avoid plant<strong>in</strong>g onions <strong>in</strong><br />
fields with high clover <strong>in</strong>festations. (12)<br />
Yellow and purple nutsedge. These are perennial weeds that are particular problems <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
summer planted crops. They reproduce from underground tubers that can survive <strong>in</strong> the soil <strong>for</strong><br />
several years. Deep plow<strong>in</strong>g with moldboard plows results <strong>in</strong> 95 to 98% control of nutsedge. (12)<br />
Annual bluegrass. In the lower Colorado River desert, annual bluegrass can reach very high plant<br />
populations <strong>in</strong> a field and become difficult to control. In this area, some fields are no longer be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
used to grow onions because of annual bluegrass. One reason <strong>for</strong> this is the regular use of selective<br />
grass herbicides (sethoxydim and fluazifop) that do not control annual bluegrass. Herbicides that<br />
control annual bluegrass <strong>in</strong> the San Joaqu<strong>in</strong> Valley and coastal valleys (bensulide on onions) do<br />
not effectively control annual bluegrass <strong>in</strong> the low desert area. Clethodim does control annual<br />
bluegrass. (12)<br />
Dodder. This is a parasitic weed that is problematic <strong>in</strong> the San Joaqu<strong>in</strong> Valley and coastal grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
areas. The only solution available is to avoid grow<strong>in</strong>g onions <strong>in</strong> any field with dodder. (12)<br />
CULTURAL CONTROL- Control weeds be<strong>for</strong>e they become established <strong>in</strong> rotational crops and<br />
never allow weeds to set seed. Plant onions <strong>in</strong> fields relatively free of weeds. Mechanically cultivate<br />
bed shoulders and furrows. After harvest, fields should be clean cultivated or a green manure crop<br />
should be planted. Be<strong>for</strong>e plant<strong>in</strong>g preirrigate to stimulate weed seed germ<strong>in</strong>ation then shallow<br />
cultivate or flame with a propane burner to kill them. Soil solarization can also help control<br />
weeds. (12)<br />
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL- No biological controls exist <strong>for</strong> weeds <strong>in</strong> onion crops.<br />
CHEMICAL CONTROL- S<strong>in</strong>ce onions are planted <strong>in</strong> high densities, it is not possible to hand<br />
weed or mechanically cultivate the bed tops. There<strong>for</strong>e, weed control on bed tops is dependent<br />
upon herbicides. These chemicals have three general categories: preplant, preemergence, and<br />
postplant postemergence. See Appendix 2. (12)<br />
● DCPA is a preemergence herbicide that was applied to 19.6% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion acreage<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1997 when 89,993 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 402 ground and chemigation treatments. Rates<br />
used are 4.5 to 10.5 lbs. a.i. per acre. It controls a broad range of grasses and broadleaf<br />
weeds. This product is no longer be<strong>in</strong>g manufactured, and when exist<strong>in</strong>g supplies have been
depleted will no longer be available. (3,6,11,18,13,14)<br />
● Metam sodium is a fumigant that provides control of most onion weeds with the exception<br />
of clovers, little mallow and yellow nutsedge. See bulb mites. (12)<br />
● Glyphosate was applied to 5.1% of onion crops <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 4,264 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong><br />
75 ground treatments. Rates used are 1 to 4 lbs. a.i. per acre. Glyphosate is used<br />
postemergence to the weeds but preemergence to the crop. It has a broad range of control<br />
however it only provides partial control of problematic weeds such as yellow and purple<br />
nutsedge, little mallow and clovers. Glyphosate has a three day preplant <strong>in</strong>terval, and the<br />
actual PHI range is 200 to 240 days. (3,6,11,12,13,14,18)<br />
● Paraquat was applied to 0.9% of the onion crops <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 740 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 9<br />
ground treatments. Paraquat is used postemergence to the weed but preemergence to the<br />
crop. Paraquat controls some broadleaf weeds and grasses when applied at rates of 0.625-<br />
0.94l lbs. a.i. per acre. The PHI is 60 days. A permit is required <strong>for</strong> purchase or use of this<br />
product. (3,6,11,12,18)<br />
● Bensulide is a preplant-<strong>in</strong>corporated herbicide applied at 4 to 6 lbs. a.i. per acre. Please<br />
note, the higher rate may cause <strong>in</strong>jury to crops. In 1997, it was applied to 0.5% of the<br />
acreage us<strong>in</strong>g 1,366 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 12 treatments. Bensulide controls a limited number of<br />
broadleaf weeds and some grasses <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g common purslane, pigweeds and annual<br />
bluegrass. No PHI is specified on the label. (3,6,11,12,18)<br />
● Oxyflurofen is a postemergence herbicide that was applied to 51% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s onion<br />
crop <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 9,030 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 1,133 ground treatments. Applications are<br />
made when onion plants are <strong>in</strong> the two to four true leaf stage. Rates used are 0.12 to 0.25<br />
lbs. a.i. per acre. Oxyflurofen is used to control broadleaf weeds particularly little mallow<br />
and it has some residual soil activity after treatment. The label PHI is 45 days, but the<br />
actual PHI range is 60 to 150 days. (3,6,11,12,13,14,18)<br />
● Bromoxynil, a postemergence herbicide, was applied to 31.7% of onions <strong>in</strong> 1997 when<br />
10,841 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 579 treatments by ground at the rates of 0.25 to 0.375 lbs. a.i.<br />
per acre. Plants are treated <strong>in</strong> the two to four true leaf stage. It is important to apply this<br />
with at least 50 gallons of water per acre otherwise it will severely <strong>in</strong>jure or kill the onion<br />
plants as well as the weeds. Bromoxynil is very effective aga<strong>in</strong>st broadleaf weeds<br />
particularly mustard species. The actual PHI range is 120 to 180 days. (6,11,12,13,14,18)<br />
● Fluazifop-p-butyl is a postemergence herbicide that was applied to 9.7% of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia’s<br />
onion acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 2,096 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 142 ground and chemigation<br />
treatments at the rates of 0.094 to 0.375 lbs. a.i. per acre. It is effective aga<strong>in</strong>st grasses<br />
except annual bluegrass. The label PHI is 45 days, but the actual PHI range is 50 to 120
days. (3,6,11,12,13,14,18)<br />
● Pendimethal<strong>in</strong> is a preemergence herbicide that was applied to 16.4% of the onion crop <strong>in</strong><br />
Cali<strong>for</strong>nia <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 11,150 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 206 ground treatments. Applications<br />
are made at rates of 0.618 to 1.237 lbs. a.i. per acre when crop is <strong>in</strong> the two to six true leaf<br />
stage. Pendimethal<strong>in</strong> is not effective aga<strong>in</strong>st emerged weeds. Pendimethal<strong>in</strong> controls some<br />
broadleaf weeds such as pigweeds and common lambsquarter as well as many annual<br />
grasses such as barnyardgrass, and annual bluegrass. The label PHI is 60 days, but the<br />
actual PHI is 100 to 150 days. (3,6,11,12,13,14,18)<br />
● Clethodim is a postemergence herbicide that was applied to 7.3% of onions <strong>in</strong> 1997, when<br />
1,061 lbs. a.i. were applied <strong>in</strong> 111 treatments at the rates of 0.1 to 0.25 lbs. a.i. per acre. It is<br />
effective aga<strong>in</strong>st annual grasses and some perennial grasses. Specifically, it can control<br />
annual bluegrass <strong>in</strong> the two- to three-leaf stage. The label PHI is 45 days, but the actual<br />
PHI range is 50 to 120 days. (6,11,12,13,14)<br />
● Sethoxydim is a postemergence herbicide that was applied to 8.2% of the Cali<strong>for</strong>nia onion<br />
acreage <strong>in</strong> 1997 when 1,541 lbs. a.i. was applied <strong>in</strong> 127 treatments by air or ground at rates<br />
of 0.09 to 0.26 lbs. a.i. per acre. Sethoxydim is effective aga<strong>in</strong>st many annual (except annual<br />
bluegrass) and perennial grasses and is safe to the crop. The label PHI is 30 days, but the<br />
actual PHI is 50 to 120 days. (3,6,11,12,13,14,18)<br />
● Triflural<strong>in</strong> is a preemergence herbicide that was applied to 0.9% of the onion crop, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
342 lbs. a.i. <strong>in</strong> 18 ground treatments. Rates used are 0.375 to 0.625 lbs. a.i. per acre. This<br />
chemical is effective preemergence only and has no effect on emerged weeds. The label PHI<br />
is 60 days. (11,13,14,18)<br />
See Appendix 2 <strong>for</strong> relative rat<strong>in</strong>gs of herbicides.<br />
AREAS OF RESEARCH<br />
● Steve Koike at UCCE Monterey County will be screen<strong>in</strong>g new fungicides <strong>for</strong> control of<br />
downy mildew on onions.<br />
● Mike Davis at UC, Davis will be evaluat<strong>in</strong>g pesticides products and management techniques<br />
<strong>for</strong> control of soft rot and white rot.<br />
● Carl Bell at UCCE Imperial County, Steve Fennimore and Tom Lan<strong>in</strong>i, UCD Vegetable<br />
<strong>Crop</strong>s and Milt McGiffen, UCR will be conduct<strong>in</strong>g field efficacy trials to f<strong>in</strong>d a replacement<br />
<strong>for</strong> DCPA (Dacthal) as a preemergence herbicide.
Mike Davis<br />
Plant Pathologist<br />
Dept. of Plant Pathology<br />
University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia Davis<br />
(530) 752-0303<br />
Carl Bell<br />
Farm Advisor<br />
University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
Cooperative Extension<br />
Imperial County<br />
(760) 352-9474<br />
Robert Ehn<br />
Agricultural Consultant<br />
1508 Tollhouse Rd.<br />
Suite D<br />
Clovis, CA<br />
(559) 297-9322<br />
Richard Smith<br />
Farm Advisor<br />
University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
Cooperative Extension<br />
Monterey County<br />
(831) 759-7350<br />
Kurt Hembree<br />
Farm Advisor<br />
University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
Cooperative Extension<br />
Fresno County<br />
(559) 456-7556<br />
<strong>Profile</strong> reviewed by<br />
Contacts
Cali<strong>for</strong>nia Pesticide Impact Assessment Program<br />
(530) 754-8378<br />
References<br />
1. Cali<strong>for</strong>nia Drug and Food Association, Cali<strong>for</strong>nia production statistics 1996. Webpages:<br />
www.cdfa.ca.gov/kids/commodities/onions.html#1<br />
2. Cornell University, Cornell International Institute <strong>for</strong> Food, Agriculture and Development,<br />
Global crop pests, Thrips tabaci, 1995. Webpages: www.aruba.nysaes.cornall.edu/ent/<br />
hortcrops/english/thrips.html<br />
3. <strong>Crop</strong> protection reference, 15 th ed., C&P Press, New York, 1999.<br />
4. Department of Pesticide Regulation, Current section 18 emergency exemptions, 1999.<br />
Webpages: www.cdpr.ca.gov/cgi-b<strong>in</strong>/sec18/list.pl?stat=4<br />
5. Disease and <strong>in</strong>sect control guide, Meister Publish<strong>in</strong>g Company, Willoughby, OH, 1998.<br />
6. Ehn, Robert. American Dehydrated Onion and Garlic Association (ADOGA), Dry bulb<br />
onion production <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation, 1997.<br />
7. Institut National de la Recherche Agroonomique, Eriophyes tulipae Keifer, 1998.<br />
Webpages: www.<strong>in</strong>ra.fr/HYPPZ/RAVAGEUR/6eritul.htm<br />
8. National Agricultural Statistics Service, CASS, Commodity statistics, <strong>Onions</strong>, 1998.<br />
Webpages: www.nass.usda.gov/ca/bul/709veg.htm#<strong>Onions</strong>,All<br />
9. North Carol<strong>in</strong>a State University, Insect and related pests of vegetables. Webpages:<br />
ipmwww.ncsu.edu/AG295/html/beet_armyworm.htm<br />
10. Oregon State University, <strong>Onions</strong> <strong>for</strong> dehydration, 1998. Webpages: www.agro<strong>in</strong>dia.org/<br />
horttech/prod/oniondhy.html<br />
11. Cali<strong>for</strong>nia Department of Pesticide Regulation. Annual Pesticide Use Report 1997.
12. University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, Pest management guidel<strong>in</strong>es, Pests of onions and garlic, 1999.<br />
Webpages: www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.onion-and-garlic.html<br />
13. University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, Vegetable Research and In<strong>for</strong>mation Center, Dehydrator onion<br />
production <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, 1999. Webpages: vric.ucdavis.edu/richome/html/veg<strong>in</strong>fo/<br />
commodity/onion/oniondehy.pdf<br />
14. University of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, Vegetable Research and In<strong>for</strong>mation Center, Fresh market onion<br />
production <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, 1999. Webpages: vric.ucdavis.edu/richome/html/veg<strong>in</strong>fo/<br />
commodity/onion/onionfmkt.pdf<br />
15. University of Florida Cooperative Extension, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,<br />
Armyworms, 1997. Webpages: www.edis.ifas.ufl.edu/scripts/htmlgen.exe?<br />
DOCUMENT_<strong>in</strong>016<br />
16. University of Ma<strong>in</strong>e Cooperative Extension, Pest management, Onion maggot Factsheet,<br />
1994. Webpages: www.pmo.umext.ma<strong>in</strong>e.edu/factsh/onionm94.html<br />
17. University of Vermont Extension, Onion pests, Entomology leaflet 76, 1997. Webpages:<br />
www.ctr.uvm.edu/ctr/el/el76.html<br />
18. Weed control manual, Meister Publish<strong>in</strong>g Company, Willoughby, OH, 1998.<br />
Appendices<br />
Appendix 1. Major onion produc<strong>in</strong>g areas of Cali<strong>for</strong>nia.<br />
1. San Joaqu<strong>in</strong> Valley<br />
2. Low Desert<br />
3. High Desert<br />
4. Central Coast<br />
5. Northern Mounta<strong>in</strong> Valleys<br />
S. A. Fennimore, N. L. Flewell<strong>in</strong>g and S. J Richard<br />
Extension Specialist, Post Graduate Researchers<br />
UC Davis, Department of Vegetable <strong>Crop</strong>s
1636 E. Alisal St.<br />
Sal<strong>in</strong>as, CA 93905<br />
Appendix 2. Herbicide Effectiveness <strong>in</strong> Onion Weeds <strong>in</strong> Cali<strong>for</strong>nia*<br />
ANNUAL WEEDS MET BRO FLU OXY PAR SET GLY PEN CLE BEN<br />
barley, hare C N C P P C C P - P<br />
bluegrass, annual C N N P P N C C C C<br />
canarygrass C N C P P C C C C C<br />
cereals C N C P P C C P - N<br />
chickweed, common C N N N C N C C N P<br />
clovers N N N P P N P N N N<br />
crabgrasses C N C N C C C C - C<br />
cudweeds C C N N N N C N N N<br />
docks C C N P P N C P N N<br />
dodders C N N N C N C N N N<br />
fiddlenecks C C N C P N C C N N<br />
filarees C P N C P N P N N N<br />
fleabane, hairy C C N P C N C N N N<br />
foxtails C N C N C C C C - C<br />
goosefoot C C N C C N C P N N<br />
groundcherries C C N C C N C P N N<br />
groundsel, common C C N C C N C N N N<br />
henbit C C N C C N C C N N<br />
horseweed C C N P P N C N N N<br />
knotweed, common C P N P P N C C N C<br />
lambsquarters, common C C N C P N C C N P
lettuce, prickly C C N C P N C N N N<br />
lovegrasses C N C C P C C C - C<br />
mallow, little N P N C N N P P N N<br />
morn<strong>in</strong>gglories P C N C P N C N N N<br />
mustards C C N C C N C N N N<br />
nettles C C N C P N N N N N<br />
nightshade, black P C N C C N C N N N<br />
nightshade, hairy C C N C C N C N N N<br />
oat, wild C N C P P C C P - N<br />
panicum, fall C N C N P C C C - C<br />
pigweeds C C N C C N C C N C<br />
puncturev<strong>in</strong>e C C N C C N C P N N<br />
purslane, common C N N C C N C C N C<br />
radish, wild C C N P C N C N N N<br />
rocket, London C C N C C N C C N N<br />
ryegrasses C N C N P C C C - P<br />
shepherdspurse C C N C P N C N N N<br />
sowthistles C C N C P N C N N N<br />
sunflower, wild C C N C P N C N N N<br />
thistle, Russian C C N P C N C P N N<br />
PERENNIAL WEEDS<br />
bermudagrass C N P N N P C N P C<br />
bermudagrass<br />
(seedl<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
C N C N P C C C C N<br />
b<strong>in</strong>dweed, field C N N N N N P N N N<br />
b<strong>in</strong>dweed<br />
(seedl<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
C N N N P N C P N N
johnsongrass C N C N N C C N - C<br />
johnsongrass<br />
(seedl<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
nutsedge,<br />
purple<br />
nutsedge,<br />
yellow<br />
* Taken from<br />
UC <strong>IPM</strong> Pest<br />
Management<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es:<br />
<strong>Onions</strong>/Garlic<br />
webpages<br />
Rat<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
C = control<br />
P = partial<br />
control N =<br />
no control<br />
- = no<br />
<strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation<br />
Herbicides<br />
BEN =<br />
bensulide<br />
MET =<br />
metam<br />
sodium<br />
BRO =<br />
bromoxynil<br />
OXY =<br />
oxyfluorfen<br />
C N C N C C C C - N<br />
N N N N N N P N N N<br />
P N N N N N P N N N
CLE =<br />
clethodim<br />
PAR =<br />
paraquat<br />
FLU =<br />
fluazifop-Pbutyl<br />
PEN =<br />
pendimethal<strong>in</strong><br />
GLY =<br />
glyphosate<br />
SET =<br />
sethoxydim<br />
Database and web development by the NSF Center <strong>for</strong> Integrated Pest Managment located at North Carol<strong>in</strong>a State<br />
University. All materials may be used freely with credit to the USDA.