Coral Reefs - Zoological Survey of India

Fauna of
Ecosystems of India
Coral Reefs
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
Special Publication Series on the occasion of CBD CoP-11, 2012 - India

Fauna of Ecosystems of India
Coral Reefs
Compiled by
K. Venkataraman
Raj Kumar Rajan
Ch. Satyanarayan
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
Prani Vigyan Bhawan, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata 700 053
Phone: +91 33 2400 6893, +91 33 2498 6820
website: www.zsi.gov.in

CITATION
Venkataraman, K. Raj Kumar Rajan and Satyanarayan, Ch. 2012, Fauna of the
Ecosystems of India: Coral Reefs: 1-30. (Published by the Director, ZSI, Kolkata)
Published : September, 2012
© Government of India
Published at the Publication Division by the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata- 700 053. Printed at Hooghly Printing Co., Ltd.,
Kolkata 700 071

Introduction
Major reef areas in India, beginning from northwest, include Gulf of
Kachchh (GOK), Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar (GOM) and Andaman
and Nicobar. Excepting Lakshadweep, which are atoll reefs, the
remaining are mostly fringing types. In addition to these, there are
several patch reefs (e.g. Malvan in Maharashtra coast), submerged
reefs (Malvan, in the coasts of Andhra, Orisssa, and Kerala states,
and near-shore Chennai), and the indication of a barrier reef in the
west coast of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These comprise some
of the most diverse, least disturbed and a few unexplored reef areas
of the Indian Ocean.
Despite the comparatively lower account of biodiversity assessments,
the fauna and flora known so far from Indian reefs include: 1284
species of fishes, 3271 species of molluscs, 765 species of
echinoderms, 519 species of sponges, 274 species of corals, 607
species of crustaceans and 624 species of algae. About 6000 species
were recorded from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, amounting to
7.5% of the total Indian fauna, which include nearly 3% of the
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terrestrial fauna and 4.6% of marine fauna (Alfred, 1998). The checklist
of corals and their associated organisms are published by the
Zoological Survey of India (Venkataraman et al., 2004).
The reefs play a substantial role in the socioeconomics of the State
and the population in near reef coastal areas of mainland India and
the islands. Fisheries, Tourism, Ports and Shipping (light houses) are
important avenues of income generation. However, very little data
exist on the resource status and the extent of impact of these
activities. Unlike fisheries and tourism sectors the activities under
port and shipping are under state control; irrespective of which,
policies towards conservation are largely ignored in the development
schemes under all these activities.
Conservation measures in Indian reefs are enforced under The Wild
Life (Protection) Act (WLPA) 1972 Marine Fishing Regulation Act
(MFRA), 1983, 2000, and The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
Notification, 2011. Creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by
the State under the provisions of Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, is
one of conservation measures impinging on coral reefs, and 3 out
of 5 designated MPAs in India are meant for the protecting coral
reefs. Nonetheless, the reef areas in Lakhadweep and Palk Bay do
not have any protection and only 6.61% of the reef area in Andaman
Nicobar is under the coverage of Marine Protected Area
(Venkataraman et al., 2012).
The threats to the sustenance of reefs are mainly, developmental
activities on the coast and within reef areas, pressures on resource
exploitation, natural disasters and climatic changes. Vivekanandan
et al., (2010) predict that, bleaching would become an annual or
biannual event for all the reef regions in India.
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General Description of Indian Reefs
As per the latest estimate, the aerial extent of the 4 major reef areas
including the Malvan reefs is 2383.873 km2 (SAC, 2010). Besides the
difference in reef types each reef area is different in terms of their
geographical set up, climatic patterns, ecology, biological diversity
and also issues related to conservation.
1. GULF OF KACHCHH (GOK) is 7350 km2 in area and located in
the northwest coast of India is known for characteristic arid climate,
large semi-diurnal tidal amplitudes and negative water balance, and
is tectonically unstable. This area has 42 islands in its southern part;
of which 34 islands have coral reefs. An area of 220.71 km2 located
between Okha (22°30' N; 69°00' E) and Khijadia (22°30' N; 70°05' E)
was declared as a Marine Sanctuary in 1980, which was later (in the
year 1982) expanded to 457.92 km2 in the year 1982, covering all
the 42 islands in the Gulf, while notifying part of the area under the
Sanctuary and 32 islands covering 162.89 km2 as Marine National
Park (Singh, 2002). The MNP is an assemblage of coral reefs,
mangroves, mudflats and seagrass beds. According to Rao and Sastry
(2005) the area may have retained luxuriant biota till early seventies,
and periodical observations thereafter by them suggested gradual
deterioration of faunal wealth. A total of 736 species of fauna and
180 species of flora have been listed from GOK (Rao and Sastry,
2005).
The area of coral reefs in GOK obtained from the satellite data of
2005-06 is 352.5 km2 . The reefs are mostly fringing with patch,
platform and coral pinnacles in some places. These are the most
degraded reefs (Bahuguna and Nayak, 1998) due to natural as well
as anthropogenic impacts. Extreme temperature variations is one
such issue: In summer the sea surface temperatures exceed 35° C
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(Max. recorded: 44.8° C in May) and drops to 15° C in extreme winter
(Min. recorded: 7.8° C in January). These extreme changes may cause
coral mortalities. The tidal amplitude is the highest (4 -7 meters)
observed anywhere along the Indian coast and up to 5 km 2 of coast
is exposed during extreme low tides, which cause exposure and
thereby desiccation of corals. Typical intertidal reefscape in Gulf of
Kachchh). The tidal oscillations also cause re-suspension of sediments,
which enter the gulf from Indus Delta in the North, from the denuded
mangroves and barren mudflats in the East, and by the dredging
activities by the port. In addition to fin-fishery and prawn fishery
in the Gulf, the marine sanctuary area supports a rich shellfishery
constituted by edible oysters, windowpane oysters and sacred
chanks as well as several decorative shells (Rao and Sastry, 2005).
About 126 trawlers, 105 mechanised boats, 328 sail boats and many
canoes are owned by people from several fishing villages bordering
Marine Sacntuary (Rao andSastry, 2005). There are 4 petroleum
industries, 11 major ports and minor ports, 25 salt factories, in
addition to many chemical industries, fertilizer companies and
thermal power plants (SAC, 2010). Rao and Sastry (2005) summarized
the activities caused degradation, some of which still exist, as: i)
commercial fishing in the vicinity and subsistence fishing in the core
area, ii) coral collection for industrial and domestic use - resulted in
habitat destruction and heavy siltation iii) Commercial shell collection
- continued illegal exploitation, iv) felling and gracing of mangroves
- siltation in reefs, v) developmental activities - discharge of domestic
and industrial effluents, dredging for port activities, and vi) unguided
educational and recreational activities.
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2. LAKSHADWEEP reefs are the northernmost of the Laccadive-
Chagos ridge, extend between 12° - 8°N and 71° - 74° E in the Arabian
Sea. Comprising the only atolls in the Indian waters, there are 14
atolls (Baliyapaniyam, Cheriyapaniyam, Chetlet, Bitra, Kiltan, Kadmat,
Amini, Perumal Par, Bangaram, Agatti, Kavaratti, Suheli Par, Kalpeni
and Minicoy), 1 platform reef (Androth Island, where the reef extends
right from the island as a platform, and lacks a clear cut lagoon and
a reef flat), and 2 prominent submerged banks (Pitti and Elikalpeni).
Situated within these atolls and reefs are 12 inhabited islands (Chetlet,
Bitra, Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini, Bangaram - 2 Islands, Androth, Agatti,
Kavaratti, Kalpeni and Minicoy), 1 uninhabited island (Cheriyam)
and 12 islets ( Bangaram - 2 Nos., Pitti, Agatti -1 No., Suheli Par - 2
Nos., Kalpeni - 4 Nos., Minicoy - 2 Nos.). The atolls, except
Baliyapaniyam and Cheriypaniyam, within the boundaries have lowlying
islands on the east and a lagoon on the west connected to the
open ocean by one or two channels. The islands vary from 0.1 - to
4.4 sq km in size and are oriented NE-SW wards. The islands together
with the islets have a total land area of 32 km 2 . The reef area in
Lakshadweep is 933.7 km 2 , including the lagoon area of 510 sq km
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(SAC, 2010). Bitra is the smallest inhabited island (0.1 km2 ) with the
largest lagoon (42 km2 ).
The islands experience warm tropical climate (air temperature 200
- 450) with the humidity at the higher range all through the year.
Sea water salinity levels and sea surface temperatures range from
34 to 39.4 ppt and 280 - 310C respectively. The annual rainfall is
about 1600 mm (Mannadiar, 1977). The height of the land above
sea level in the islands is generally 1 - 2 m and the terrain is mostly
flat. The tides at these islands are semi-diurnal type, with the spring
tidal range of about 1.2 m and the neap tidal range of about 0.3 m
(Chandramohan et al., 1993). Total population of these islands is
around 70000 (60595 in the year 2001). Fisheries, coconut cultivation
and tourism are the major economic activities in these islands. There
are about 6200 fishermen engaged in fishing using 900 boats. The
total fish landings in these islands per year are about 15000 tonnes
(Rajan et al., 2011). The island people are dependent on the mainland
for all essential supplies including fuel, vegetables, packaged foods,
and infrastructure. The existing tourist infrastructure in government
sector extends to 5 islands (Kavaratti, Kalpeni, Kadmat, Agatti and
Minicoy), and one Island (Bangaram) leased to private sector, with
the annual average tourist arrivals of about 3000 domestic and
1500 foreigners (Rajan et al., 2011).
Earliest faunal survey was by J. S. Gardiner (1903-06) with the account
of 4 species of birds, 6 species of herpetofauna, some annelids
including a new species, 2 new species of nemertians, 40 species of
crustaceans including 3 new species, 70 species of insects including
6 new species of Hymenoptera, and 12 species of Echinoderms.
Nagabhushanam and Rao (1972) added 698 species to Gardiner's
06

(1903-06) account. Extensive surveys were carried out by Zoological
Survey of India during 1982-87, which gave an account of 152 species
meiofauna, 69 species of polycheatea, 17 species of spipuncula, 7
species of Echiura, 13 species of Stromatopoda, 79 species of Insecta,
168 species of Mollusca, and 72 species of Echinodermata (Ghosh,
1991). Pillai (1989) noted the presence of 104 species of corals under
37 genera. The occurrence of 4 species of marine turtles such as
Erethmochelys imbricata, Lepidochelys olivacea, Chelonia mydas,
Dermochelys coriacea, of which the first three listed in the
endangered category of the IUCN Red list of threatened animals, is
noteworthy (Ghosh, 1991). The reefs also support a good wealth of
seaweeds, algae and seagrass (in the lagoon) and hitherto more
than 100 species of flora have been recorded (Rao, 1991). The
economy of these islands is heavily dependent on the fishery (Tuna)
and coconut cultivation, though it was estimated that up to 24%
could be contributed by means of fishery resources other than tuna
(Kumaran and Gopakumar, 1986).
Pitti Island, which has been declared as the Bird Sanctuary is the
only PA in these islands. Rao (1991) observed that increasing human
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activities in the islands, overexploitation
of certain
resources, pollution of lagoon
waters have put pressure on
the reefs, in addition to
natural forces such as
cyclones, storms, explosion of
Acanthaster planci causing
damage. These coral reefs
were the most severely affected during the bleaching event in the
year 1998, with the record of more than 80% of coral mortalities.
Though recovery has been observed, the studies noted increased
population pressures on coral colonization (Jeyabaskaran, 2004;
Arthur, 2008). There is also pressure adding up on the reefs due to
the developmental activities in the islands.
3. GULF OF MANNAR (GOM) located between 8° 48´N, 78° 9´E and
9° 14´ N, 79° 14´ E on the southeast coast of India has a chain of 21
islands on the Indian side running parallel to the coastline at an
average distance of 8 km from shore. These islands were supposed
to be formed by an uplift that occurred 5000 years ago, resulting in
the emergence of contemporary reefs and islands. All these islands
have fringing reefs at 50-500 m from the shore often without a well
defined reef flat, with the total estimated reef area of 75.93 sq km
(SAC, 2010). Seagrass beds are available on the western side of the
islands and near the coast and the area estimated is 85.5 sq km
(Umamaheswari, 2009).
The mangroves are known to have patchy occurrence confined to
the shorelines of the islands. GOM is the first Marine Biosphere in
India (declared in the year 1989), with 560 sq km of core area
(comprising the islands and the surrounding reefs, declared as Gulf
of Mannar Marine National Park in 1980) which is surrounded by 10
km wide, 160 km long buffer zone of shallow marine habitats. The
biosphere reserve is deemed a priority area under the authoritative
reference work published by the World Bank, the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park authority and World Conservation Union (Venkataraman
et al., 2002).
This region hosts interesting fauna in terms occurrence of an endemic
Hemichordate (Phychodera fluva) - and flagship species such as
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Dugong dugong, 3 species of dolphins, 2 species of whales, at least
5 species of turtles and 68 species of elasmobranchs, among many
others. Venkataraman et al., (2002) lists the notable faunistic studies
since 1888, in this region. Inventory on faunal resources of GOM,
from 1988-96 by Zoological Survey of India, reported a total of 1097
species of fauna under 254 families and 567 genera, which included
85 species of corals, 15 gorgonids, 16 sea anemones, 24 prawns, 3
lobsters, 21 crabs, 88 molluscs, 108 Echinodermates, 2,
Hemichordates, 2 Cephalochordates, 78 Tunicates, 553 fishes, 6
reptiles, 63 birds, 6 Mammals (Venkataraman et al., 2002).
The obvious signs of threats to sustenance of the GOM resources
are (i) depletion of the resources and (ii) the degradation to the coral
reefs surrounding the Islands, which are due to lack of Ecosystem
Approach to Fisheries, and the failure to implement the core
objectives of the Biosphere reserve (Rajan and Venkataraman, 2012).
Twenty percent of the marine fish catch of the state of Tamil Nadu
is accounted of GOM (Venkataraman et al., 2002). 50,000+ people
involve about 850 trawlers, 7400 small-scale fishing vessels (SFV),
and 300 catamarans for fishing and allied fisheries (Gopakumar, et
09

al., 2011). About 5000 women
are also involved in
harvesting seaweeds, ~4500
divers are collecting sea
cucumbers, of which ~1000
are also involved in chank
(Turbinella pyrum) collection
in GOM (Rajagopalan, 2011).
Venkataraman et al., (2002)
report the exploitation of large volume of gorgonids (106 Tons
exported from 1975-1992); brachyuran crabs; chanks (landing of 1
- 1.5 millions / year); and the trading of large numbers of sea urchins,
brittle stars, sea lilies, sea anemones and 60 species of ornamental
fishes as aquarium animals. In a recent assessment of estimation of
stock sizes using trawl surveys (Swept Area Method, Pauly, 1980) in
GOM showed no relation between total biomass per haul and the
target fishery (P ? 0.000), which indicated that there is severe
depletion on valuable fisheries due to excessive demand, thereby
causing the non-target biomass dominating the total catch (ZSI,
2011). Rajagopalan (2011) observes that trawler fishing - which is
largely conducted from landing sites outside the GOMNP area, has
more impact on marine resources. Department of Forests identified
the use of prohibited fishing gear and techniques near the islandsincluding
dynamite or blast fishing, pair trawling, purse-seining, use
of roller nets and drag-nets and seaweed collection-as major threats
to the sustenance of the reefs.
The degradation to the reefs is also accelerated by developmental
activities in the shore, industrial pollution, sewage disposal, waste
dumping etc., which is evidenced by heavy sedimentation, excessive
algal growth, and the occurrence of coral diseases.
4. ANDAMAN NICOBAR ISLANDS lie at 13° 40' - 6° 45' N and 92°
12' - 93° 57' E in the southeast of Bay of Bengal. There are 350 islands
in total, including the exposed islets and rocky outcrops. These are
high islands considered as the emerged part of a seismic mountain
chain that extends southwards from the Arakan Yoma of Myanmar
to the Indonesian Island Sumatra. The islands which are located
north of 10° N Latitude are known as Andaman group of islands and
those located south of 10° N Latitude are called Nicobar group of
10

islands. As per the year 2001 census, 25 islands in Andaman group
and 13 islands in Nicobar group are inhabited with a total population
of 3,56,265 people. The costal line covering all these land forms
extends to about 1962 km. Fringing reefs occur intermittently around
the islands. Reef platforms extend about 500 m from the shore in
Andaman Islands to ~ 1000 m from shore in the Nicobar Islands, the
latter having small surge channels (Reddiah, 1977). The total reef
area in these islands is 1021.46 sq km (SAC, 2010). Among the total
106 PAs (96 wildlife sanctuaries, 9 National Parks and 1 Biosphere
reserve), in these islands, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park,
Rani Jhansi Marine National Park and Lohabarrack Wildlife Sanctuary
are designated Marine Protected Areas - the former two for the
conservation of coral reefs and the later for conservation of saltwater
crocodiles.
These reef areas are where largest number of genera and species of
major fauna are recorded in India. The list include 235 species of
corals, 111 soft corals, 112 sponges, 411 crustaceans, 1422 molluscs,
430 echinoderms, 750 fishes, 4 mammals, 14 reptiles, 50 marine
birds and 64 algae (Rajan et al., 2011). The islands are nesting sites
11

and habitats for
Leatherback, Hawksbill,
Olive Ridley and Green
turtles and the mammal
Dugong.
Andaman & Nicobar
Islands reefs receive
minimal human impacts
and are by far healthy
among other Indian
reefs. Being fringing reefs these are affected by developmental
activities along the coast, which causes terrestrial runoff and siltation.
There have been incidences of coastal pollution from agricultural
and urban sources. Venkataraman (2003) observed coral mortalities
around Port Blair and freshwater runoff damages near Mahatma
Ghandhi Marine National Park (Venkataraman, 2003). Bad forming
practices have been cited as reason for siltation in Hut Bay in Little
Andaman Island (Venkataraman, 2003). Mangrove deforestation is
another cause of siltation in the reefs. Andaman Islands, having an
estimated cover of 518 km2 of mangrove (8.1% of the total land
area) are threatened due to the demand for land for agricultural,
tourist operations, and other coastal developmental activities.
Uncontrolled exploitation of shells, ornamental fishes can adversely
affect the ecology and cause depletion of stocks in the reefs. Trochus
niloticus and Turbo sp. were the dominant shell fishery exploits in
the islands to the tune of 400-600 and 100-150 t per year respectively
(Dorairaj and Soundararajan, 1977). There were also several cases
of harvested sea cucumber being confiscated from local as well as
international poachers. Fishing as such is not a destructive activity
in these waters and there are about 2500 fishermen using 1600
country craft and 250 mechanized vessels, and the annual fish
landing here is ~ 26,000 t (Rajan et al., 2011). However, some
destructive fishing techniques employed here, mostly by foreign
poachers: crude bombs made with chemical fertilizers, such as
Ammonium / Potassium Nitrate are dropped into coral areas, killing
or stunning schools of reef fishes; branching, tabulate and foliose
hard corals get shattered while massive and columnar corals develop
fractures. Reefs subjected to repeat blast fishing are often reduced
12

to rubble fields. With the demand for high value export fishes, there
is also the threat of target fishing where certain groups like groupers
and snappers are targeted. In groupers, the target species are of
genera Plectropomus (Coral trout). In this case it is possible to over
fish them and eventually deplete the stock. Another major threat
to the reef is through uncontrolled tourism infrastructure
developments. While tourism earns large amounts of revenue to
the people and to the state, the ill effects of it are manifested in
terms of solid waste accumulation, construction of tourism
infrastructures that cause increased sedimentation, and coral
damages through boat anchoring, diving, and snorkelling. Tourism
also encourages the collection of souvenirs thus impacting reef
resources. Besides, (Sirur, 1999) notes that government expenditure
on the tourism sector has increased from the year 1993, though the
net earnings are negligible.
These reefs suffered extensive damages by the Earthquake and
Tsunami in December 2004, with the characteristics of the damages
varying from North to South Andaman and in the Nicobar groups:
In the Nicobar Islands reefs were impacted by the Tsunami as
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observed from
uprooted/upturned
corals and also the reefs
covered with beach
sands; The indirect
damages include
siltation in to the reefs
through the land
subsidence. Seawater
inundated coconut
grove in Nicobar (a) and a scene of heavy erosion in Teressa Island,
Nicobar (b)); The impact was moderate to nil in south and middle
Andaman Islands, though impacts may be observed in the long run
due to inundation of agricultural lands; In the North heavier mortality
of corals and habitat destruction were observed due to the
subduction related up lift. An uplifted reef in Landfall Island, North
Andaman). Several tracts of mangrove were killed by inundation
due to seismic induced subdution after the earthquake in December,
2004. Reports of bleaching from Andamans noted that the Little
Andaman island reef was severely affected and in Dugong creek site
the live coral coverage was only 12.0% (Jeyabaskaran, 1999). The
reefs were bleached again in 2010 (Krishnan et al., 2011)
Status of coral reefs 2010-11
Despite several comprehensivestudies on diversity of marine
organisms, including fauna of coral reefs - reviewed in the article by
Venkataraman and Wafar (2005) - quantitative measure of the status
of health of coral reefs in India were not begun, until the initiative
by Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), in 1998. A
comprehensive base-line status assessments based on GCRMN
protocols or otherwise, are available for Gulf of Mannar
(Venkataraman et al., 2004; Patterson et al., 2005a, 2008;
Venkataraman and Raghuram, 2006) and Andaman Nicobar reefs
(Turner et al., 2001; Kulkarni et al., 2008). There were also studies
addressing specific issues which also provided information on reef
status: such as extent and impact of bleaching during 1998 in Indian
reefs (Wafar, 1999; Venkataraman, 2000; Arthur, 2000; Pet-Soede et
al., 2000; Kumaraguru et al., 2003), reef status and restoration
14

activities in Gulf of Mannar (Patterson, 2002), disease and stressinduced
mortality in Indian reefs (Ravindran et al., 1999); coral
community patterns in Andaman Nicobar (Kulkarni and Saxena,
2002); post-bleaching recovery in Lakshadweep (Arthur et al., 2006;
Arthur, 2008); impact of reef area loss due to earthquake in Andaman
Islands (Rajan et al. 2008); impact of Tsunami on Indian reefs
(Patterson et al., 2005b), Post-Tsunami status in Andaman Nicobar
Islands (Saxena et al., 2008); and the latest bleaching episode in
Andaman Nicobar islands (Krishnan et al., 2011). Besides, information
on status of Indian reefs is also available on the overall status reports
for South Asia (Wafar, 1999; Rajasuriya et al., 1999; 2000a; 2000b;
2002; 2004; Muley et al, 2000; Tamelander et al., 2008).
A total of 13 reef areas in GOK, have been covered in March 2011
for this report. Study locations in GOK are shown in the map. Four
Island reefs namely Kavaratti, Agatti, Amini and Minicoy were
monitored over a period of 4 years beginning 2006. Six island reefs
in the northeast of GOM (Mandapam group) were covered in January
2011. The study locations are shown in the fig. Six reefs in South
Andaman Islands were assessed in July 2009 (study locations are
shown in Fig.). A separate assessment was made in May 2010 for all
the Andaman Nicobar reefs coinciding with the bleaching episode:
The data estimated include the live coral cover (LC + bleached cover)
and bleached cover. The data in the bleaching estimate were
summarized for 8 zones namely North Andaman (4 stations), Middle
Andaman (8), Ritchie's Archipelago (18), South Andaman (18), Little
Andaman (8), Car Nicobar (6), Nancowry (9) and Great Nicobar (9).
A minimum of three stations were marked in each reef for these
assessments. In general, LIT (English et al., 1997), video transects
15

and Quadrat methods were employed, where quadrat is placed at
5 equidistant intervals along the transect line. Photo qudrats and
video transects were analyzed in the lab. The data were categorized
into six broad categories such as, Live Coral (LC), Dead Coral (DC),
Dead coral grown over by Algae (DCA), Dead coral grown over by
turf algae (DCTA), Dead Coral Rock (DCR), Others (soft coral, sea
cucumbers and other sessile benthos) (OT), Algae, Sand (S) & Rubble
(R)). The dead coral cover estimated here includes all the dead coral
colonies i.e., the ones dead some time ago and their skeletal
structures intact, and the not the recently dead or bleached dead
colonies alone. Species composition was estimated both within and
outside the transects / quadrats. Specimens of Scleractinians were
photographed in-situ using underwater digital cameras with macro
option, for identification up to species level.
Gulf of Kachchh: The percent cover values of biophysical
characteristics estimated for 13 representative island reefs of the
Gulf of Kachchh are presented in (Table 1). Though the average
values of live coral cover for these reefs shows a good picture, the
values varied greatly between the reefs. The live coral cover values
in 6/13 reefs surveyed (Piroton, Goose, Laku, Paga, Pashu, Bural)
were >25% - Fair to good - as per Gomez and Yap (1988) - which
had 20% had very low live coral cover (ex., Narara, Kalubar). It was
observed that the live coral cover dominated reefs are located close
to the open sea, where as the algae/dead coral/rubble dominated
reefs are located near shore. Species diversity assessments showed
dominance of a few species. Favia favus followed by Porites
compressa were found dominating most of the reefs. The other
species with significant coral cover and had common occurrence in
the reefs surveyed were Cyphastrea serailia, Turbinaria peltata,
Goniastrea pectinata, Coscinarea monile, and Platygyra sinensis.
Lakshadweep: The values of biophysical parameters for the four
atolls monitored from 2006-10 is presented in Fig. In all the islands
either DCA or DCR were the highest values followed by live coral
cover, i.e., in Kavaratti and Minicoy the algal cover dominated the
biophysical categories and in Agatti and Amini atolls DCR was found
as the dominating category (Fig.). The live cover values registered
16

a high in the recent estimations than the previous years in all the
islands studied -- except Minicoy where the live cover reduced from
the estimate in 2009 - confirmed by the averaged values for the year
2010 (Table 2). The DCA and DCR cover steadily reduced over the
monitoring years, while continued being the dominant category.
Correspondingly, there is an increase in live cover values which is
clearly shown by the averaged values for the years 2006-2010 (Fig.).
Gulf of Mannar : The percent cover of biophysical characters
estimated in 6 island reefs of Gulf of Mannar is presented in Fig. The
live cover values were highest in reefs which had comparatively low
algal cover (ex. Pullivasal and Shenbagamuruvai). Algal cover is the
dominating category in the rest of reefs studied. This is also shown
by high algal cover in the overall average values (Table 3.). The other
categories contributing >5% benthic cover are R (16.76 ± 6.02), S
(14.98 ± 3.14), LC (13.76 ± 11.15), DCTA (6.75 ± 4.34), Sediment (5.85
± .21) and DCR (5.56 ± 4.20). The species Montipora digitata, Acropora
hyacinthus, and Porites lutea, contributed >50% of the live coral
cover in the reefs of Shenbagamuruvai, Pullivasal and Kurusadai
17

espectively, which also showed >20% total live coral cover (Fig.).
The live coral cover of the remaining reefs assessed were 6.83% for
Shingle Island, 6% for Poomarichan Island and 3.2% for Manauliputti
Island.
Andaman Nicobar Islands: The percent cover of biophysical
categories for six reef areas, covering two Protected Areas (Jolly
Buoy - Mahatma Ghandhi Marine National Park; Henry Lawrence,
Havelock & Outram - Rani Jhansi Marine National Park) are presented
in Fig. Unlike other reef areas in India, live coral cover is the
dominiating category in all the reefs studied with a high average
cover (Table 4), except for Henry Lawrence under Rani Jansi Marine
National Park. However, DC observed as the second highest category
in all the reefs and the reefs which had high dead coral cover had
correspondingly lower live coral cover is clearly observed (Fig.).
Algae and Rubbles are either absent or covering very little of benthic
area in all the reef areas studied.
A total of 164 species were recorded from the reef areas surveyed
under this study. Each reef area has shown typical species dominance
patterns. Percent cover of species which showed a cover of >2%
were plotted for each survey area (Fig.). It could be observed that
the number of species which showed >2% cover decreased in the
reef areas which showed less coral cover and high dead coral cover.
The diversity and evenness indices (Table 5) estimated for each reef
area shows that, North Bay reef exhibiting moderate diversity and
evenness, and Chidiyatapu and Jolly Buoy exhibiting good diversity
and evenness values. In Henry Lawrence and Havelock Islands,
though the species diversity is less, evenness of species was observed
to be good, indicating that the reef though stressed is not under
degradation. Outram Island has shown significantly lower diversity
and evenness of species than other reef areas in South Andaman
with the unusual dominance of Heliopora sp. second to Porites
solida. Overall, reef areas with good live cover exhibited good
diversity and evenness of scleractinian species (e.g., Jolly Buoy Island,
Wandoor Marine National Park) the reefs which are degraded and
with low live coral cover showed low diversity.
The percentage of bleached coral of the total live coral, along with
the total live coral cover for the eight reef zones covered in a rapid
survey during the bleaching event in May 2010 is presented in Fig.
18

The live cover values ranged from 30.38% in the North Andaman to
61.23% in the Richie's Archipelago with an overall average of 45.39%.
The bleached corals contributed 45 - 73% of the live coral cover. The
average bleached coral cover in these reefs was 27.4 ± 7.5 %.
Findings
The >25% live coral cover in 6 of the total 13 reefs surveyed in GOK
(Fig.) shows an interesting picture that at least some of the reefs
have fair to good coral cover. An earlier study has observed that
coral cover and diversity is low and patchy in these reefs (Arthur,
1995). Apparently 30% of the corals bleached in March 1998 (Wafar,
1999). An average of 11% cover was observed in a survey after the
bleaching event, with the reefs showing comparatively low bleaching
related mortality of 1.92% of the coral cover (Arthur, 2000). About
20% live coral cover was observed in the year 2004 (Rajasuriya et
al., 2004). The comparatively high live cover (average: 32.62%) in
the present investigation shows the reefs have not succumbed to
further degradation. The variation in values (range: 4 - 89%) is due
to the geomorphology of the reefs assessed, where the intertidal
ones face exposure to sun due to the high tidal amplitude and heavy
siltation, and the near-shore reefs eutrophicated and algal dominated
(ex. Narara and Kalubar reefs), both of which favoured only poor
coral cover. On the other hand, the sub-tidal reefs exhibited good
coral cover. The reefs were also different in the dominance of species,
characterized by these physical conditions, though all the species
present in Gulf of Kachchh fall under stress tolerant category defined
in the coral morphology triangles by Edinger and Risk (2000).
Percent cover values of Biophysical parameters for the reefs of
Gulf of Kachchh.
19

Lakshadweep atolls suffered severe bleaching in March 1998
associated with the ENSO event. Bleached corals comprised 82% of
the coral cover in the lagoon reefs of Lakshadweep with the bleaching
related mortality of 26% (Arthur, 2000), which corroborates with the
assessment of 43-87% bleaching cover by Wafar (1999). Arthur (2000)
recorded the live coral cover of 8% in Kavaratti after the monsoon
in the same year of bleaching. Observations in October and
November 1999 showed an increase of 10% cover (Pet-soede et. al.
2000). Jeyabaskaran (2004) reported live coral cover in these reefs
ranging from 5.5 to 32.5%, i. e., 5% - Amini Island, Kadmat - 7.0%,
Bangaram - 7.0%, Kavaratti - 8.5%, Kalpeni - 9.8%, Minicoy - 11.5%,
Androth - 11.8%, Chetlat - 14.5%, Kiltan - 15.25%, Agatti - 20.0% and
Suheli (an uninhabited island) 21.0% and 32.5%-Bitra island.
Observations after 5 years of bleaching showed again gains in coral
cover (approximately 19% at Kavaratti), in spite of the phase-shift
to algal dominance precluding the coral recovery (Arthur, 2006).
The present observation from 2006-2010, shown by the steady
reduction either in the DCA or DCR - in spite of them dominating
the categories (Fig.), indicate that the reefs have been recuperating
well. Concurrently, Arthur (2008) observed 20 % cover of DCTA (Dead
Coral covered with Turf Algae) which is considerably lower than his
previous estimate in 2000 which was between 30 and 50%, helped
apparently by the healthy populations of herbivorous fish particularly
Scarids and Acanthurids. The coral recovery has been observed by
the new recruits, which contribute to most of the live coral cover.
Average values of biophysical parameters for the Lakshadweep atolls.
20

The dominant recruiting species were of tabular and branching
Acropora (Arthur, 2008). However, the increase in live coral cover
has not occurred steadily in all the reefs monitored, attributes largely
to the localized stressors especially the elevated nutrient levels by
sewage seepage and siltation by the port activities both of which
favour algal growth and hinders recruitment and post-recruit
survivals. Interestingly, the availability of bare substrate (DCR) did
not comprehensively favoured new recruitment vis-a-vis increase
in live coral cover, is in conformity with the observations on the
eastern reefs where coral cover remained relatively low despite the
substrate not overgrown by algae (Arthur, 2006).
GOM was heavily exploited for fisheries and other resources until
te declaration as Marine National Park. Though coral mining in these
reefs has stopped, illegal fishing, collection of shells and sea
cucumbers still continue clandestinely. These activities causing
mechanical damages to live corals are evident from coral rubbles
dominating the benthic category in few reefs (Fig.), which is reflected
in the high average cover of rubbles next to algae. The average live
coral cover in the present estimation is lowest of the Indian reefs
(Table 3), and of the previous status reports from the Mandapam
group of Islands in Gulf of Mannar (Table 6). Except an anomaly
(lower value) in one report (Rajsuriya et al., 2002) the previous reports
of live coral cover were greater than >25% with a maximum value
of 37% during 2003 - 2005 (Table 6). However, the present values
are remarkably lower and most of the reefs studied were dominated
either by fleshy or turf algae (Fig.). Although the causes for the
overall degradation may be attributed to natural as well as local
disturbances, the drastic decline of >50% of the coral cover from
Percent cover values of Biophysical characters for Gulf of Mannar Islands
21

Species-wise average percent cover and % contribution of species Gulf of
Mannar reefs.
2008 calls for discussion over large-scale mortality events. Bleaching
in Gulf of Mannar reefs - also reported in the past - could be a major
factor, where local disturbances impeding the recovery. An average
of 89.24% of the corals were bleached in Gulf of Mannar during the
bleaching event in 1998 (Arthur, 2000) with the bleaching related
mortality of 82.49%, 60% and 53.31% respectively of the corals of
Mandapam, Keelakari and Tuticorin group of Islands (Venkataraman,
2000). These reefs may have experienced bleaching stressed coral
mortality, simultaneous to the episode in May 2010 in Andaman
and Nicobar reefs (Krishnan et al., 2011) - well before the present
assessment in January 2011 - may well be one argument. Despite
the reduction in live coral cover, however, no change in dominance
of species was observed from the previous estimation in 2000 (Arthur,
2000; Venkatarman, 2004), though a single species is found to
dominate reefs (% contribution >50), which have >20% total live
22

coral cover (Fig.). The high presence of Dead Coral with Turf Algae,
and Sediment over coral / coral rock in >5% covers indicate shorebased
pollution related degradation in these reefs.
The live coral cover of the present investigation in Andaman Nicobar
reefs shows very little reduction from the previous estimations -
average value of the total sites covered under each study - by
Jeyabaskaran (1999), Turner et al., (2001), Kulkarni and Saxena (2002)
(Table 6). Interestingly, from Turner et al. (2001) values, the present
estimations indicate an increase despite the impacts of the
earthquake and tsunami in 2004, to the continuing local disturbances.
Turner et al., (2001) average may be considered a conservative one
as this study covered different representative localities in many
fringing and sub-immersed reefs of the entire Andaman Islands as
part of the mapping exercise, which is observed by the huge variation
in the live cover estimates (Range: 28.3 - 73.7 %; 22.73 ±). It could
be argued that the reefs in South Andaman did not receive much
impact due to the tsunami and earthquake. However, damages on
account of reef up-lift in North Andaman and tsunami onslaught
in Nicobar island reefs had caused reduction in live coral cover (41%
and 55% less cover respectively for North Andaman and Nicobar
respectively), from the 2003 values, were documented (Rajan et al.,
2008; Kulkarni et al., 2008; Saxena et al., 2008). Though Turner et
al.(2001) argued that the Andman reefs do not seem to have
experienced severe bleaching in the past, there are reports that the
reefs may have bleached upto 80% of the corals in 1998 (Wafar,
1999). There are also anecdotal information of 80% bleaching (Sastry,
1998). Pet-soede et al. (2000) however, observed that quanditative
estimations of bleaching data were not available for these reefs for
the 1998 event. The account of bleaching in 2010 in South Andaman
reefs is reported by Krishnan et al. (2011): the cover of fully bleached
corals ranged from 8.27- 45.29 %. The bleaching observations under
the present study in May 2010 indicated bleaching stressed coral
mortality causing an overall 8% reduction in live coral cover.
Changes in community patterns of coral species in bleached reefs
are manipulated by thermal tolerence has been indicated earlier
(Done, 1999; Coles and Brown, 2003; Loya et al., 2001). The reefs in
India at present may have different benthic structure on account of
the difference in the levels of the past climatic and natural calamities
related impacts, notwithstanding, are strongly influenced by
23

localized stressors. Reefs with high dead coral cover (sign of continued
stress due to local factors) in Andaman and Nicobar (e.g., Henry
Lawrence, Havelock, and Outram in Rani Jhansi Marine National
Park show comparatively low live coral cover (Fig.), and 5 of the 6
reefs stuided in GOM were dominated by stress tolerant speices.
The dominance of species indicated by stress tolerators had been
identified in some Andaman reefs (Kulkarni and Saxena, 2002).
Shown by the diversity indices in Andaman reefs, there is also a
decrease in diversity from the earlier observations (Table 5). It could
be derived that the reefs with low indices in may be skewing towards
dominance of tolerable community in response to the local stressors.
Arthur et al. (2006) observed this in Lakshadweep reefs that local
and regional-scale factors, unrelated to belaching suceptibility could
determine species compostion in post-bleached recovery.
The above analyses also point to the fact that all the reefs in India
are facing impacts attributed to local activities, however with varying
degrees. In Gulf of Kachchh, the major factor for reef degradation
is siltation and eutrophication (Ravindran et al., 1999). It is evident
from the good status of reefs near open environment. In
Lakshadweep, the siltation is mainly due to dredging activities,
however the impact is low. The reason being the activity is not
intensive and the disturbed particles are heavy (of coral skeletal
origin) and do not remain suspended in the water column to be
transported to the reef zones, unlike fine clayey particles in Gulf of
Kachchh. Although some observations cite to the dense seagrass
Percent cover values of Biophysical categories in the reefs of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
24

growth in the lagoons of Lakshadweep to nutrient seepage, no
actual estimates pointing to this observation have been done. In
Andaman and Nicobar the siltation and eutrophication is through
deforestation activites, sewage discharge and ground water
discharge associated with the monsoons. Gulf of Mannar by far
seem the more stressed of the Indian reefs: shore-based pollution,
intensive fishing, illegal harvesting of protected resources have
severely degraded these reefs, resulting in to loss of species, alteration
in species dominance, and many algal dominated reefs. Rajasuriya
et. al., 2004 had predicted that unless the current rates of over
explotation and destrctive pratices are controlled the coral reefs in
India and Srilanka may degenerate completely by 2014.
It is also clear that climatic changes are having telling effects on
Indian reefs, though, the localized impacts are overriding is clearly
evident. The recovery from major bleaching and other catastrophic
events has been steady in reefs where the local stressors are minimal
is a promising trend (e.g. Lakshadweep). However, all the reef areas
in India, including Lakshadweep face a combination of global and
local stressors, which have direct bearing on reef health. Managing
reef health therefore depends on filling the lacunae in coral reef
studies in India. At the local scale, identifying as well as quantifying
pressures due to developmental and social activities is the first part.
For instance, though there are many studies that touched upon the
issue of pollution and regional stressors in Indian reefs, the sources
and behaviour of pollutants in a reef, their qualitative and quantitative
assessments and the impacts of which in the reef communities at
a spatial scale are some of the many lacuane to be addressed.
Devoted long-term monitoring of the benthic and fish communiities
is another significant one for interpreting the impact of unexpected
events (Arthur, 2008). Speical attention also to be given to address
social problems by understanding the availability of resources and
the long-term sustenance of resources. Lastly, facing global threats
should evolve from the understanding of resiliecne of each reef to
frequent and persistent global threats. Conservation efforts should
be based on the consultation from these studies and regional level
planning by involving discussions at the community level.
25

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