Part II Archaeological Excavations - Center for the Study of Eurasian ...

Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age
ues reveal when and by whom the Ustyurt sanctuaries were
created. Large numbers of daggers, swords, torques, and bracelets
identical to those carved on the Ustyurt statues, have been
excavated in Sarmatian burials dating to the 4 th –2 nd centuries
BC. An iron dagger, as well a mirror, and bronze arrowheads,
typical of those belonging to the Sarmatian Culture, were recovered
from burials at the Baite III and Teren sanctuaries. It is
apparent, therefore, that the Ustyurt real objects and their representations
on the sculptures, have direct parallels with artifacts
from a huge number of Eurasian steppe sites dating between
the 4 th –2 nd centuries BC. The Eurasian sites, predominantly
comprised funerary complexes, and have been identified
both to the north of the Ustyurt Plateau in the Black Sea
maritime region, the Volga and Ural regions, and northern
Kazakhstan as well as to the south in Khorezm and Sogdiana.
Without doubt, weapons, harnesses, and household goods
spread quickly and widely throughout the Great Steppe Belt
and were used by ethnically unrelated groups. Consequently, it
is not possible in this case to regard the majority of artifacts
including weapons, jewelry, tools, and ceramic vessels as reliable
ethnic indicators.
Many common religious and mythological concepts resulted
in the use of essentially similar funeral rites by the ancient Iranian-speaking
nomads of Eurasia, including the Sarmatians and
Saka-Massagetae, each divided into a number of tribal groups.
It is within the context of funerary rituals, however, that it is
possible to identify the unique traits of each specific ethnic
group. The anthropomorphic statues and rectangular sacrificial
altars, the most typical elements at the Ustyurt sanctuaries,
do not have analogies within the adjacent nomadic cultures.
Similarity in planigraphy, and the use of monumental statues
installed in rows very close to supra-tombs (kurgans) are known
from sanctuaries in southeastern Anatolia –the hyerotesyions –
dating from the 1 st century BC (at Nimrud-Dag, Kara-Kush,
etc.). It is necessary to note that although the Hellenic Culture
and its monumental art, so vividly embodied in the Anatolia
complexes, undoubtedly made an impact on the Ustyurt artisans
(Schlumberger 1970), this does not resolve the issues of
ethnos in the desert locale.
Another archaeological indication identified at the Baite III
sanctuary is the so-called Sarmatian tamgas 2 that are apparent
on a number of anthropomorphic statues (Fig. 8). These are
identical to a large group of tamgas widely spread throughout
the western Eurasian steppes during the 1 st century BC to the
4 th century AD (Drachuk 1975; Vainberg and Novgorodova
1976). Essentially all scholars relate the tamgas to the
Sarmatians (Solomonik 1959). The location of the tamgas on
the anthropomorphic statues, however, suggests that they were
added to the sculptures at a later date. This assertion is also
supported by the fact that the time period assigned to the sculpting,
as suggested by the dagger style, does not coincide with
the period when tamgas were widespread throughout the Eurasian
steppes, approximately 100–150 years later. The tamgas,
therefore, may be considered evidence for the presence, perhaps
only temporarly, of a Sarmatian population in the territory
of the Ustyurt sanctuaries.
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Concerning the ethnicity of the Ustyurt peoples, it is very difficult
to combine archaeological evidence with historical
sources to determine who they might have been. Information
in Chinese and Classical texts relating to the inhabitants of the
Eurasian steppes and deserts is fragmentary, contradictory, and
semi-legendary. As all nomads of Middle and Central Asia during
the second millennium BC were preliterate, the texts, nevertheless,
are an extremely valuable source of information. A
critical analysis of written sources has enabled us to establish
that during the Early Iron Age (7 th to 3 rd centuries BC),
Sauromatians and Sarmatians inhabited the steppes of the Trans-
Volga and southern Urals, while the Saka, Massagetae, Dakhi
(Dai) 3 , Scythians, and a number of smaller nomadic tribes resided
in the steppes and deserts of the Aral Sea maritime zone,
Kazakhstan, and Central Asia (Mandelshtam and Gorbunova
1992:13-20; Vainberg and Stavisky 1994). All these cultures
followed a similar lifestyle; they were warrior horse riders,
hunters, and nomadic herders, and were famous for their bellicosity
and love of freedom. A review of the archaeological data
indicates that the majority of nomads of the Eurasian steppes
used essentially the same weaponry and household items.
It is not possible to ascribe the creation of the Ustyurt sanctuaries
to the Sarmatians because it is likely that they, along with
the Massagetae and Dakhi (Dai), had the same weaponry and
decorative elements. These later two tribes would have been
the closest relatives and neighbors of the former that belonged
to the union of Sarmatian-Saka-Massagetae community. It is
likely that the Baite type sanctuaries originally belonged to the
Massagetae (or the Dakhi-Massagetae). At a later date another,
probably related group of nomads, who belonged to the
Sarmatian ethnotribal association, appeared in the Ustyurt sanctuary
region. But what motivated the nomads to install a network
of sanctuaries, linked with the cult of heroic-ancestors
and military chieftains, and relate the idea of military power
and regeneration in this particular location in the Ustyurt desert?
A hypothesis relating to the historical reconstruction
The latter half of the 4 th and early 3 rd centuries BC was a time
of violent political and ethnocultural cataclysms across the entire
ancient world; a time of clashes, and of great commingling
of European and Asian cultural traditions. This period also is
linked with the famous Macedonian king, Alexander the Great.
Alexander generally succeeded with his brave attempts to win
over the Asia region that was familiar to him following his
victory over the huge, but politically weak, Achaemenid Persian
Empire in 331 BC. A large number of countries in the
Near East and Central Asia (e.g. Hyrcania, Parthia, Margiana,
and Sogdiana) surrendered to his forces. The Greeks came to
the East, however, not only as conquerors but also as the bearers
of the high Hellenic civilization, a culture extremely different
than that of the Ancient Near East. Greek architects built
dozens of cities and fortresses in Central Asia based on Hellenic
styles, and elements of Greek culture including sculptures,
temples, and theaters came to embellish many of the ancient
cities that had previously existed. The local sedentary
population and, to a lesser extent, the nomadic and semi-nomadic
tribes (initially the nobility) could not fail to fall under