Literary Terms Poetry speaker persona free verse meter caesura ...

Literary Terms
Poetry
speaker
persona
free verse
meter
caesura
enjambment
rhyme
diction
alliteration
juxtaposition
hyperbole
negative capability
objective
correlative
impersonal theory
Fiction
narrator
narrative
story
plot
setting
ellipses
flashback
flashforward
character
point of view
Iceberg
Principle
parable
allegory
epiphany
catharsis
climax
General
dramatic irony
situational irony
verbal irony
ethical significance
representation
ambiguity
style
image
symbol
metaphor
motif
allusion
historical sense
"make it new"
Literary Movements
Romanticism
Realism
Impressionism
Naturalism
Modernism
Post‐Modernism
Minimalism
allegory
A type of storytelling in which the characters and events stand for other ideas; in other words, there is a
figurative meaning above and beyond the literal appearance of the story. Sometimes allegory is obvious;
imagine a character named "Hope" who is attempting to escape an abusive family situation. Other
times, the allegorical meaning is difficult to see without breaking down the elements of the story. Of
course, not all stories are allegorical, so we need to be careful not to look for allegorical meanings when
we should be more interested in the literal meaning. You can think of an allegory as an extended simile.
Instead, of just one comparison, there is a whole string of comparisons that together tell a universal
story through a particular situation.
alliteration
The repetition of sounds at the beginning of two or more words. In poetry, alliteration is one way to
create effects that draw attention to the words or help with the song quality of the verse. Ex) "Failing to
fetch me at first keep encouraged."
allusion
The reference in a work of literature to another work of art or literature, an historical event, some real
person or place, etc. The use of allusions usually indicates an interest in the past and how the meaning
of the present is dependent on the past. Related to the Modernist concept "make it new", allusions help
the reader see that complete understanding of a poem is impossible without a wider knowledge of the
works of literature that came before it. Sometimes allusions are subtle and easy to miss, but other
times, they are used in a poem in a straightforward way. The reader must then search out the source of
the allusion and think about the connection. Think about "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" as an
example.

ambiguity
A situation, sequence of events, scene, character, line of dialogue, etc. that does not have a clear
meaning. If something is ambiguous, it is difficult to interpret with certainty. However, ambiguity is a
good way to enrich a story; in real life, we are not always sure what is going on around us, so we should
not expect to know exactly what is going on in a novel or poem either. At the same time, if every part of
a story were ambiguous, we might have good reason to throw up our hands. Ambiguity can leave us
confused and asking questions, and it can inspire us to think about different possibilities. When there is
more than one interpretation, after all, then we have something to talk about with our friends. If an
author uses ambiguity, for instance, to help us see the world through a character's eyes or to challenge
our minds, we should embrace the difficulty.
caesura
A natural pause or break in the middle of a line of poetry, instead of at the end of the line. For instance,
there is a caesura in a poem by Robert Frost called "Mending Wall." The period between "side" and "I,"
like a wall, breaks the line in half and creates a natural pause. Compare this to the punctuation marks at
the end of the lines, where we would expect them to be:
We wear our fingers rough with handling them.
Oh, just another kind of out‐door game,
One on a side. It comes to little more:
There where it is we do not need the wall:
He is all pine and I am apple orchard.
catharsis
The purging of emotional tension that an audience is meant to experience at the climactic moment of a
story or play. This experience can provide relief and, at the same time, allow us to think more clearly
about the consequences of a character's decisions, our sympathy with them, and our concern that we
might find ourselves in a similar situation if we are not careful. The emotions we feel during this purging
experience are generally pity and fear, pity for the suffering of the character and fear that we might be
just as vulnerable in our own lives. Catharsis, therefore, is an occasion to engage our ethical sensibility.
This release of tension is usually associated with tragedy, in which the main character suffers from his
own weaknesses; however, comedies, which always end happily, can produce emotional tension as well.
character
This term refers to two distinct ideas: 1) an individual in a short story, novel, or play and 2) the
personality or identity of that individual. The double meaning of this term is important to understanding
how a writer tells the story. We usually ask, for instance, "what motivates this character?" and "how
does this character change over time?" while analyzing the a short story or a novel. In that case, we are
talking about character as an individual: what kind of characters does this writer put in his novel? But we
can also consider the term character to mean the sum of qualities in an individual: does her character
change as the story unfolds?
climax
In a work of literature, the highest point of anxiety or tension in the story being told. The climax is an
element of the plot and is usually placed near the end of a story, but not right at the end. Following a
climax, which sometimes leads to catharsis, is a period of restoration of order and stability. At the
climactic moment, however, the central character confronts and deals with the consequences of all
actions and choices or faces the antagonist in a battle or conflict. The easiest way to identify the climax

in a story is to ask yourself, "when does the main character change?" Leading up to this climactic
moment is usually a crisis during which tension and anticipation build.
diction
The selection of words made by an author in a work of literature. Diction, for obvious reasons, has a
central importance in an art based on words; selecting the appropriate word for a particular effect is a
poet's main concern, especially in poems that do not have many words. Writers use words to convey
action, reveal character, imply attitudes, identify themes, and suggest values. Sometimes diction helps
us recognize the style of a poet, and sometimes a poet will avoid diction that is overly difficult or
noticeable. Consider the diction choices in the poem "The Red Wheelbarrow" by William Carlos
Williams. The poem is deceptively simple because the diction seems simple. But so much depends upon
the words he chooses:
so much depends
upon
a red wheel
barrow
glazed with rain
water
beside the white
chickens.
dramatic irony
A literary effect created when the reader or a character knows something that another character does
not. The difference in knowledge often creates tension that helps a short story or novel gain momentum
toward a climax in dramatic development.
ellipses
Periods of time that have been left out of the narrative. The ellipsis is usually marked by a gap that
indicates some events in the story have been skipped over. This plot technique allows a writer to focus
on events that are more significant than others and to juxtapose in the narrative different times and
different settings.
enjambment
The opposite of a caesura, which inserts a pause in the middle of a line, enjambment allows the
continuation of a phrase or sentence from one line of a poem to the next line without a pause. This
technique allows a poet to emphasize poetic rhythms in a longer sequence of words that might go
unnoticed in regular prose. An example would be in the poem "The Snow Man" by Wallace Stevens.
Notice how the following stanza reads continuously like a sentence even though there are line breaks:
One must have a mind of winter
To regard the frost and the boughs
Of the pine‐trees crusted with snow;

epiphany
A sudden realization or insight experienced by a character. This higher level of clarity might reveal the
truth about a situation, but most often, an epiphany is a sudden insight into oneself. In fiction, the
epiphany is a useful tool to mark a significant moment of change in a character; moreover, because an
epiphany is sudden, the moment is usually a surprise twist in the story, making use of situational irony
to involve the reader in a new level of understanding.
ethical significance
A work of literature has ethical significance if it encourages the reader to ask questions of an ethical
nature. Not to be confused with moral significance, which refers to the ability of a work of literature to
teach a lesson about how one should live, ethical significance is found where the truth is not always
obvious, the right decision is not always clear, and the best way to live is difficult to determine.
Literature that shows us how to ask questions and why we need to ask questions by raising difficult
issues tends to stay with us.
flashback
A moment in a narrative that describes a past action or event. The past tense of a short story or novel, a
flashback is one plot technique for rearranging the chronological events of a story.
flashforward
A moment in a narrative that describes a future action or event. The future tense of a short story or
novel, a flashforward is one plot technique for rearranging the chronological events of a story.
free verse
Free verse is a technique for writing poetry in which the poet does not follow any strict or regular rules
of meter, line length, or rhyming. The result is a poetry that sometimes appears to be spontaneous and
disordered; however, do not confuse free verse with randomness. Free verse poetry is often the
outcome of careful design and deliberate arrangement.
historical sense
The "historical sense" is an important part of writing and reading poetry in a mature way, according to T.
S. Eliot: "the historical sense involves a perception, not only of the pastness of the past, but of its
presence; the historical sense compels a man to write not merely with his own generation in his bones,
but with a feeling that the whole of the literature of Europe from Homer and within it the whole of the
literature of his own country has a simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order." If a
writer has this sense, then he will not merely express personal emotions in poetry or try to be original
but open himself up to the past and see how he is part of a tradition bigger than himself. Each new work
of art is influenced by this tradition and changes this tradition. The historical sense can also help us, as
readers of literature, not think only of ourselves when we try to understand a poem.
hyperbole
A figure of speech in which an author exaggerates on purpose in order to create an effect for the reader.
An expression of exaggeration can attract attention to an idea in a poem or story. At times, an author
might use hyperbole in an ironic way, by trying to make something quite unimportant sound grander
than it really is. If something trivial is made to sound important, its smallness becomes even more
obvious. We all use hyperbole in everyday conversation, but poets use it as part of their art.

Iceberg Principle
Also known as the "theory of omission," the iceberg principle was proposed by Ernest Hemingway: "If a
writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the
reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the
writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of the iceberg is due to only one‐eighth of it being
above water. The writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in
his writing." This principle is about dignity and movement in fiction. Leaving out the obvious makes
writing more dignified because it is not bloated with details that make the reader's experience with the
story too easy. These omissions help move a story along because the reader is permitted to witness just
enough to figure out what is happening.
image
Any verbal construction that conveys a concrete detail by appealing to the senses: sight, hearing, taste,
smell, or touch. An image does not have to be a visual figure of speech, as seen in Whitman's famous
phrase "the scent of these arm‐pits aroma finer than prayer."
impersonal theory of poetry
According to this theory, proposed by T.S. Eliot in "Tradition and the Individual Talent," poetry should
not simply be the emotional expression of the poet's personality. Like a catalyst in a chemical reaction,
the mind of the poet should neither be affected by nor be mixed into the final product: the poem. The
concept objective correlative comes out of this theory. The mind of the mature poet will be able to use
ordinary emotions in new combinations to give rise to meaningful poetry: "The emotion of art is
impersonal. And the poet cannot reach this impersonality without surrendering himself wholly to the
work to be done." Another poet to include in this theory is Wallace Stevens, who often thought that
poetry should not glorify or express opinion but look for "what will suffice" and say what people need to
hear.
Impressionism
An approach to storytelling that attempts to show how the world seems to the consciousness and/or
senses of a character with a limited point of view. The important word here is attempts. What the
reader reads on the page is but the illusion of an impression of reality. Impressionist literature tends to
emphasize the way characters experience the world, not necessarily the way the world actually is. As a
result, this approach often deals with ambiguity and partial understanding. For some writers, such as
Henry James, impressions are all that we have to make sense of the world because we are on the
outside looking in, trying to interpret our surroundings.
juxtaposition
A literary technique in two images, two events, two settings, etc. that do not normally go together are
placed next to each other to create a disorienting contrast or to suggest a connection or similarity that
most of us would not normally consider or notice.
"make it new"
This Modernist concept suggests that writers look to the past for help in the search for meaning.
Although "make it new" might suggest originality or creativeness, it primarily means that the old can be
resurrected in order to show the present age what has been lost. If meaning is difficult to find here and
now, perhaps the past can show us the way. The use of allusions is one way to "make it new" because
the reader then has to look up the past to understand the present.

metaphor
A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another without using the words like or as. A simile
is a comparison that uses like or as to make the connection. Metaphor: "The touch of the sea is
sensuous, enfolding the body in its soft, close embrace" (sea is compared to a lover). Simile: "The foamy
wavelets curled up to her white feet, and coiled like serpents about her ankles" (wavelets are compared
to serpents). In both cases, the thing used as a comparison is not really there (lover and serpents).
meter
The rhythm of a line or lines of poetry. Sometimes meter can be regular enough to establish an obvious
pattern, like in a pop song; other times, the meter from one line to the next will vary so that the
rhythmic pattern is more difficult to trace. Either way, poets are usually concerned with the rhythm of
their lines, so meter is always an element of poetry worth considering in your analysis.
Minimalism
An approach to writing literature that tries to say as much as possible using as few words as possible.
There are several possible motivations for this method. Minimalist writing can put a lot of pressure on
the reader to read carefully and look for significance behind the bland surface of reality; this experience
might help the reader relate to the characters in a story. This method also comes out of a belief that
language is unstable and limited; it must be carefully controlled to avoid creating deceptive illusions in
writing. Related to but not the same as the Iceberg Principle, Minimalism is a kind of realism because it
allows a writer to tell a story in the most direct way possible.
Modernism
A movement in literature that attempts to find meaning in a broken world by looking to the past and
"making it new." Modernist literature tends to emphasize the loss of confidence in the present world by
showing how it has fallen apart due to war, social injustice, and empty materialism. Although it might
seem that Modernist writers are pessimistic and judgmental, they are interested in finding a solution to
the predicament and restoring meaning to a world that has lost its way. As a result, this approach to
making art often deals with moral concerns and the consequences of bad choices.
motif
A thematic element in a poem or story that is repeated in some memorable way, sometimes to the
point of creating a pattern. A motif could arise through a symbol, an image, a stylistic feature, diction
choice, or a line of dialogue, as long as it is repeated and points to a theme of the story. Authors use
motifs to help the audience see the message of a work of literature; we tend to think in patterns, and
repetition is a good way to appeal to pattern thinking. Of course, some authors will point to motifs in
more subtle ways than others (such as the style used to represent things instead of the things
themselves).
narrative
The story as told in words by a narrator, constructed through a particular point of view and arrangement
of events. The components of a narrative are the story itself, the plot, and the point of view, not to be
confused with one another. A closely related term is narration, which is the act of telling a story.
narrator
An essential element of fiction (rarely found in poetry or plays), the narrator is the consciousness or
entity telling the story. The narrator is not necessarily the same person as the author, but is sometimes a
character in a story told in first‐person. Conventionally, narrators are third‐person, omniscient, looking

at the events and characters from the outside, but sometimes a narrator will be as limited as a single
character in the short story or novel, not seeing and knowing everything. The narrator will also have a
point of view or a tone of voice that makes the story more interesting to experience.
Naturalism
An approach to storytelling that attempts to show how mankind is somehow at the mercy of the forces
of nature. Naturalist literature tends to emphasize the way characters struggle to survive when up
against the dangerous phenomena of the universe, not the social forces that mankind itself creates.
Although it might seem that the universe is against mankind in this worldview, usually nature is
considered to be indifferent to man's existence or survival. As a result, this approach often deals with
life‐death situations in which moral concerns are insignificant.
negative capability
As an element of a speaker's persona, negative capability refers to the willingness and the ability to live
with uncertainty without the desperate need to find answers to life's most profound questions. If one
has negative capability, he will confront difficulty and confusion with a certain level of comfort and
curiosity, not despair or frustration. On some level, negative capability is necessary to ask serious ethical
questions.
objective correlative
This term was coined by T.S. Eliot: "The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding
an objective correlative; in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the
formula of that particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory
experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked." This definition relates to the impersonal
theory of poetry that Eliot held in such high regard. According to this theory, if poetry is simply an
expression of personal emotion, it carries no significance beyond that person and so offers nothing new
to extend tradition or meaning to the world. The formula for an emotion, on the other hand, can have
meaning for almost anyone who is willing to pay close attention to the objects or events in that formula.
parable
A type of story meant to teach a lesson by representing an abstract value with a concrete example.
Parables seem simple on the surface but are actually deeply mysterious and can only be understood by
those who are willing to humble themselves to grasp the truth they contain. Most often found in the
New Testament, parables have become a model for all kinds of fictional stories that are meant to inspire
thought more than teach obvious moral lessons.
persona
In relation to poetry or fiction, persona refers to the consciousness of the speaker or narrator,
respectively. This persona is a creation of the author to distinguish the speaker in a poem or a narrator
in a short story or a novel from the author or a character. If we describe the tone of voice in a poem, for
instance, then we are saying something about the persona of the speaker. If a narrator seems to
sympathize with a character in a novel, we might describe the narrator's persona as sympathetic.
plot
A component of narrative, plot refers to the arrangement of events in a story. Not to be confused with
the story itself or the events themselves (which are always chronological), a plot can mix up the events,
put them in order, reverse their order, layer them in parallel fashion, etc. A plot can begin and end with

the same event, but a story cannot. The distinction is important because the plot of a short story or
novel can reveal meaning that the events themselves do not expose.
point of view
The position from which an event or character is seen, often determining its significance. Just as plot is
different from story, point of view is different from looking at something. Plot refers to the way a story is
told, and point of view refers to the way something is seen. The point of view of a narrator is frequently
objective and external, but the way a narrative might be written to suggest that the point of view is
subjective, belonging to or related to a particular character in the work.
Post‐Modernism
A movement in literature that attempts to communicate the instability of truth and the ways in which
meaning is largely a matter of personal perspective. In the absence of a reliable or universal code of
ethics, we must make do with the truth as we see it instead of pretending that there is a set truth out
there waiting to be discovered. Post‐Modernist literature tends to emphasize the broken condition of
the present world without passing judgment on it; the world may be falling apart, but there is not much
we can do about it. Language itself becomes less and less stable in this movement because authors
begin to think that the older conventions of storytelling were based on a false confidence in the ability
of language to get at the truth.
Realism
An approach to storytelling that attempts to show how the world really is: social forces, moral choices,
historical settings. The important word here is attempts. What the reader reads on the page is not
reality, obviously, but the illusion of reality is a strong goal in some writing. Realist literature tends to
emphasize characters who are faced with moral dilemmas because of social forces pressing down on
them.
representation
This general term refers to the way literature can, to some extent, mirror nature and life. But
representation of reality is not the same thing a reality itself. It is important to ask, "How is reality
represented here?" or "How does the author attempt to represent reality here?" NOT "What does this
poem tell us about the world?" or "What do we learn about the world from this novel?" We must always
remember when reading literature that we are reading words meant to represent something to us, not
to show us the thing itself. In addition to words, the form of a poem or the plot of a novel can represent
a worldview or an attitude toward reality.
rhyme
Rhyme refers to a pattern of sound repetition at the end of lines in a poem. Various patterns are
possible, and sometimes rhyme can occur in the middle of a poetic line. Rhymed sounds usually occur at
the end of words, not at the beginning.
Romanticism
An approach to storytelling and poetry writing that elevates the self as the main subject and the most
important concern. Romantic literature tends to emphasize explorations of identity and relationships
with others and the world that influence that identity. Nature is often valued in this approach because
of its untouched condition, with which the pure self can identify. The poet himself is a central figure in
this literary movement because of his expressive power; he is sometimes treated like a hero who has
come to show everyone else how to live to the fullest through sensation and experience.

setting
The place and time of a short story, novel, or play. A given work might have more than one setting and
switch back and forth between settings. The setting is an important consideration in analyzing literature
because it can shed light on particular themes in the work or its overall worldview.
situational irony
A literary effect created when something happens that the reader or a character does not expect to
happen. The difference between what happens and what is expected creates a sense of surprise that
makes a work of literature compelling and memorable. When the unexpected event occurs, we enjoy
the twist, but we are also left asking why we did not see it coming.
speaker
An essential element of poetry, the speaker is the consciousness or entity delivering the words in a
poem. The speaker is not necessarily the same person as the author, but is often an entirely invented
persona. The speaker might look at a scene or interpret an event in a way that is drastically different
from but still very interesting to the author. If you automatically equate the speaker with the author,
you might miss the message that is really behind the poem.
story
A component of narrative, the story consists of the events that happen, whether we directly read them
or infer them from what we read. If you list these events in their chronological sequence, you have the
story. Not to be confused with the plot, which is the arrangement of those events in the narrative, the
story is simply what happens. In other words, there really is no such thing as a plot summary, only a
story summary. The distinction is important because a short story or novel is often not nearly as
interesting as the way it is told. Most of the time, a work of literature captivates us because it has
arranged the events of a story in a way that helps us see its meaning.
style
This term refers to way an author uses words. Word choice, tone of voice, the rhythm of phrases,
sentence structure, the level of detail, etc. all contribute to our impression of an author's style. Style is
important to think about when analyzing literature because it reminds us that, in the end, we are
reading words, beautifully crafted to create a memorable effect.
symbol
Unlike metaphors and similes, symbols do not compare one thing to another. A symbol is a concrete
object or situation in a work of literature that represents a less tangible, more abstract idea. A bird in a
cage, for instance, might symbolize unjust imprisonment. The main thing to remember is that the
concrete object is really there in the poem or the story, unlike the objects for comparison in a metaphor
or simile.
verbal irony
A literary effect created when a speaker, narrator, or character says one thing but means another
(sometimes unintentionally). The difference between what is said and what is meant creates a sense of
surprise (often humorous) that draws attention to the words themselves. Sarcasm is the lowest form of
verbal irony, but on higher levels, verbal irony can create profound drama and suspense.