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Bikini 

Atoll 

NOMINATION BY THE 

REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS 

FOR INSCRIPTION ON THE 

WORLD HERITAGE LIST 2010 

“For the good of mankind and to end all world wars” 

Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, military governor of the Marshall Islands, March 1946 

January 2009

Operation Crossroads Baker test, July 25, 1946 at Bikini Atoll (National Nuclear Security Administration, 1946) 

“mankind’s destiny is being decided today—now—this moment” 

Albert Einstein, May 1946 

“A peace enforced through fear is a poor substitute for a peace maintained through 

international cooperation based upon agreement and understanding. But until such a 

peace is brought about, this nation can hope only that an effective deterrent to global war 

will be a universal fear of the atomic bomb as the ultimate horror in war.” 

Report of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 

Operations Crossroads, June 30, 1947 

“Shall we put an end to the human race; or shall mankind renounce war? …There lies 

before us, if we choose, continual progress in happiness, knowledge and wisdom. Shall 

we instead, choose death, because we cannot forget our quarrels? We appeal, as human 

beings to human beings: Remember your humanity, and forget the rest.” 

Russell-Einstein Manifesto, July 1955 

1

Contents 

From the Senator for the People of Bikini .............................................................................................. 7 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ 9 

State Party .......................................................................................................................................................... 9 

State, Province or Region ................................................................................................................................... 9 

Name of Property .............................................................................................................................................. 9 

Geographical coordinates .................................................................................................................................. 9 

Textual description of the boundaries of the property ...................................................................................... 9 

A4 size map of the nominated property showing boundaries and buffer zone ............................................... 10 

Statement of Outstanding Universal Value ...................................................................................................... 11 

Criteria under which property is nominated .................................................................................................... 12 

Name and contact information of official local institution .............................................................................. 12 

1. Identification of the Property ........................................................................................................... 13 

1.a State Party .................................................................................................................................................. 13 

1.b State, Province or Region ........................................................................................................................... 13 

1.c Name of Property ....................................................................................................................................... 13 

1.d Geographical coordinates .......................................................................................................................... 13 

1.e Maps and plans, showing the boundaries of the nominated property and buffer zone ............................ 16 

1.f Area of nominated property and proposed buffer zone ............................................................................. 18 

Part 2. Description ................................................................................................................................ 19 

2.a Description of Property .............................................................................................................................. 19 

2.b History and Development .......................................................................................................................... 29 

Part 3. Justification for Inscription ........................................................................................................ 45 

3.a Criteria under which inscription is proposed, and justification for inscription under these criteria .......... 45 

3.b Proposed Statement of Outstanding Universal Value ................................................................................ 55 

3.c Comparative analysis (including state of conservation of similar properties) ............................................ 56 

3.d Integrity and Authenticity .......................................................................................................................... 61 

4. State of Conservation and Factors Affecting the Property ...............................................................63 

4.a Present state of conservation..................................................................................................................... 63 

4.b Factors affecting the property .................................................................................................................... 64 

5. Protection and Management of the Property .................................................................................. 65 

5.a Ownership .................................................................................................................................................. 65 

5.b Protective designation ............................................................................................................................... 65 

5.c Means of implementing protective measures. ........................................................................................... 66 

5.d Existing plans related to municipality and region in which the proposed property is located .................. 66 

5.e Property management plan or other management system ....................................................................... 66 

5.f Sources and levels of finance ...................................................................................................................... 66 

5.g Sources of expertise and training in conservation and management techniques ..................................... 66 

5.h Visitor facilities and statistics ..................................................................................................................... 67 

5.i Policies and programmes related to the presentation and promotion of the property .............................. 68 

5.j Staffing levels (professional, technical, maintenance) ................................................................................ 68 

6. Monitoring ........................................................................................................................................ 69 

6.a Key indicators for measuring state of conservation ................................................................................... 69 

6.b Administrative arrangements for monitoring property ............................................................................. 69 

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Bikini Atoll World Heritage Nomination January 2009

6.c Results of previous reporting exercises ...................................................................................................... 69 

7. Documentation ................................................................................................................................. 70 

7.a Photographs, slides, image inventory and authorization table and other audiovisual materials .............. 70 

7.b Texts relating to protective designation and management of property..................................................... 73 

7.c Form and date of most recent records or inventory of property ............................................................... 73 

7.d Address where inventory, records and archives are held .......................................................................... 74 

7.e Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................... 74 

8. Contact Information of responsible authorities ............................................................................... 79 

8.a Preparer ..................................................................................................................................................... 79 

8.b Official Local Institution/Agency ................................................................................................................ 79 

8.c Other Local Institutions .............................................................................................................................. 79 

8.d Official Web address .................................................................................................................................. 79 

9. Signature on behalf of the State Party ............................................................................................. 81 

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 81 

Bikini Atoll World Heritage Nomination January 2009 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. An aerial view of the Bravo crater .................................................................................................... 20 

Figure 2. Satellite Image of Bikini showing the Bravo crater in the north-west corner .................................... 20 

Figure 3. View of part of the Saratoga wreck ................................................................................................. 21 

Figure 4. Bridge of the Saratoga ..................................................................................................................... 21 

Figure 5. Ship showing structural damage from the Crossroads tests ............................................................. 22 

Figure 6. Damage from the Crossroads tests on the USS Independence.......................................................... 22 

Figure 7. Elevation drawing of the sunken Saratoga showing damage to the platework ................................ 22 

Figure 8. Actual positions of the sunken ships in or near the crater formed by the Crossroads Baker test ..... 23 

Figure 9. Monitoring bunker on Bikini Island ................................................................................................... 23 

Figure 10. Map showing key features from the nuclear testing ....................................................................... 24 

Figure 11. Scientist Zoe Richards collects samples of coral in the Bravo crater at Bikini ................................. 26 

Figure 12. Giant branching acropora have reestablished in the Bravo crater .................................................. 27 

Figure 13. Gray reef sharks at Shark Pass on Bikini Atoll .................................................................................. 27 

Figure 14. Aerial view of the rows of coconut trees ........................................................................................ 28 

Figure 15. “Eerily perfect” rows of coconut trees ............................................................................................ 28 

Figure 16. Bikinian woman and family prior to 1946 ...................................................................................... 30 

Figure 17. King Juda (right), the chief of the Bikinians in 1946 ........................................................................ 30 

Figure 18. Front page of the New York Times, January 25, 1946 ..................................................................... 33 

Figure 19. Filming the scene where Wyatt asks the Bikinians to leave their atoll ............................................ 33 

Figure 20. Bikinians load their possessions to leave Bikini............................................................................... 34 

Figure 21. Bikinian outrigger canoe being loaded for the trip to Rongerik ...................................................... 34 

Figure 22. Bikinian women carrying their possessions to leave Bikini ............................................................. 34 

Figure 23. The sign atop the Officers’ Club at Bikini Atoll reading “Up and Atom” .......................................... 35 

Figure 24. US Navy press release photo of the target area for Operation Crossroads .................................... 36 

Figure 25. The Crossroads Able test ................................................................................................................. 36 

Figure 26. The Crossroads Baker test .............................................................................................................. 37 

Figure 27. Aerial view of the Crossroads Baker test ......................................................................................... 38 

Figure 28. Stamp cancellation for Operation Crossroads ................................................................................ 39 

Figure 29. Decontamination of ships after Operation Crossroads .................................................................. 39 

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Figure 30. USS Skate in the aftermath of Able “very radio-active” .................................................................. 39 

Figure 31. The Castle Bravo bomb ................................................................................................................... 40 

Figure 32. Diving on the wreck of the Saratoga ............................................................................................... 44 

Figure 33. A view of the Baker shot showing the fleet, with Bikini island in the foreground .......................... 45 

Figure 34. Mushroom cloud from the Castle Romeo bomb test ...................................................................... 51 

Figure 35. This classic photo of Crossroads Baker was reprinted in newspapers around the world ................ 51 

Figure 36. “The First Bomb at Bikini” by Charles Bittinger ............................................................................... 51 

Figure 37. Fireball of H-bomb explosion after test blast over Bikini Atoll ....................................................... 51 

Figure 38. Michele Bernadini models the first Bikini in Paris, July 18, 1946 .................................................... 52 

Figure 39. Godzilla ........................................................................................................................................... 52 

Figure 40. Salvador Dali’s “The Three Sphinxes of Bikini” ............................................................................... 53 

Figure 41. Woodcut from Laurence Hyde’s graphic novel about Bikini, Southern Cross ................................ 53 

Figure 42. Captain Ahab points to Bikini Atoll as the likely location of the White Whale ................................ 53 

Figure 43. A cultivar of Iris, officially recognized in 1996 named “No Bikini Atoll” ......................................... 53 

Figure 44. Scene from staged version of Three Tales by Steve Reich and Beryl Korot ..................................... 53 

Figure 45. SpongeBob SquarePants lives on Bikini Bottom .............................................................................. 53 

Figure 46. The Tokyo Metropolitan Daigo Fukuryū-Maru (Lucky Dragon #5) Exhibition Hall ......................... 54 

Figure 47. Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein ............................................................................................... 54 

Figure 48. A monolith marking the position of the Trinity explosion ............................................................... 57 

Figure 49. The World Heritage-listed, Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) ..................................... 57 

Figure 50. Runit Dome on Enewetak ................................................................................................................ 60 

Figure 51. Divers on the Apogon conning tower .............................................................................................. 63 

Figure 52. One of Bikini’s boats in preparation for a dive on the sunken ships ............................................... 67 

Figure 53. Bikini Atoll accommodation on one of the most beautiful beaches in the Pacific ......................... 67 

Figure 54. A breifing is given before each dive giving the history of the sunken ships .................................... 68 

Figure 55. Bikini Island sunset ......................................................................................................................... 68 

Box 1. Major vessels sunk during Operation Crossroads ................................................................................. 23 

Box 2. The Bikinian Anthem ............................................................................................................................. 34 

List of Maps 

i. Map of Bikini Atoll showing reef and land .................................................................................................. 16 

ii. Map of Bikini Atoll showing boundary of property (red) and of buffer zone (green) ................................. 17 

iii. Map showing the location of Bikini Atoll within the Marshall Islands ........................................................ 18 

iv. Map showing location of the Marshall Islands in the Pacific region ........................................................... 18 

v. Map showing locations of key features from nuclear tests on Bikini Atoll ................................................. 19 

vi. Map showing locations of nuclear detonations on Bikini Atoll .................................................................. 19 

Annexes 

Annex 1 - Maps (A4 size) 

Annex 2 - A Brief Chronology of Nuclear Testing in the Marshall Islands 

Annex 3 - Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Plan (DRAFT) 

Annex 4 - Protective Ordinances (on DVD) 

Annex 5 - Photos and Images (on DVD) 

Annex 6 - Movies (on DVD) 

5 


From the Senator for the People of 

Bikini 

We, the representatives of the people of Bikini Atoll, are proud to endorse the nomination of Bikini Atoll 

to the World Heritage Centre for consideration by the World Heritage Committee. 

We welcome the World Heritage process as an opportunity for the dramatic events at Bikini Atoll to be 

remembered. The experience of nuclear testing, the displacement of our people from our homeland 

and the devastating contamination of our country is a story that has been repeated in many places 

around the world including Australia, French Polynesia, Algeria and Kazakhstan. As a World Heritage 

site, Bikini Atoll will forever tell the story of this period of human history. 

We wish also for the world to remember the role of our tiny atoll in the global politics of the 20 th Century 

- for the role of the Bikini tests in the start of the Cold War and the nuclear arms race. 

We, the people of Bikini, will always remember Bikini Atoll as our beloved homeland and will always feel 

pain for what we have lost. As a World Heritage site, Bikini Atoll will remind all of us, around the world, 

of the need for global peace and the elimination of weapons of mass destruction. Bikini Atoll may then 

actually fulfill the promise for which we reluctantly left our homeland, more than 64 years ago, “for the 

good of mankind and to end all world wars.” 

In support of this nomination and the ongoing protection and management of Bikini Atoll, the community 

will move to establish the Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Board and undertake to develop the 

resources and partnerships required to effectively implement the Bikini Atoll Conservation Management 

Plan. We will make every effort to tell the story of Bikini to visitors, to people around the world, and 

most of all to our children – “for the good of mankind”—and may we never forget. 

Sincerely, 

Hon. Tomaki Juda 

Senator for the People of Bikini 

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Executive Summary 

State Party 

Republic of the Marshall Islands 

State, Province or Region 

Bikini Atoll 

Name of Property 

Bikini Atoll 

Geographical coordinates 

UTM Coordinates N 11˚36’0” E 165˚22’50” (approximate centre of the 

property). 

Textual description of the boundaries of the property 

The property includes the lagoon, all islets and reefs of the atoll. The boundary 

is on the oceanward side of the atoll at the territorial baseline, being defined as 

a line connecting the seaward ocean shorelines of all islands at a depth of mean 

lower low water. The buffer zone consists of the surrounding seas extending five 

nautical miles seaward of the territorial baseline. 

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10 

A4 size map of the nominated property showing boundaries and buffer 

zone

Statement of Outstanding Universal Value 

Nuclear bomb tests at Bikini Atoll shaped the history of the people of Bikini, the history of the Marshall 

Islands and the history of the entire world. Bikini Atoll is distinctly 20th century heritage, standing 

testimony to the dawn of the nuclear age, the start of the Cold War and the era of nuclear colonialism 

– stages in human history of global significance. 

Bikini Atoll is an outstanding example of a nuclear test site. The entire landscape and seascape of 

Bikini testifies to its history as a nuclear test site, from the ensemble of sunken ships and the purposebuilt 

bunkers, to the disappeared islands and the Bravo crater. The lonely rows of coconut trees, 

placed in preparation for a failed resettlement, and the conspicuous absence of humans speak to the 

fate of a nuclear test site rendered uninhabitable. 

Bikini Atoll stands as a monument and memorial to the dawn of the nuclear age. At Bikini, the 

quintessential tropical paradise, beloved by our modern culture as a place of peace and simplicity, 

is juxtaposed with the artifacts of nuclear bomb testing, evoking a remembrance of a time of lost 

innocence—when men held and wielded a power reserved for gods. 

Bikini Atoll played host to events of global significance which are illustrated in the landscape and 

seascape. The sunken vessels bear witness to Operation Crossroads—the first peacetime atomic 

bomb tests, implicated in the start of the Cold War. The Bravo crater is evidence of the Castle Bravo 

test—the first deliverable hydrogen bomb, and the event that introduced the world to fallout. Aside 

from the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, few, if any, other nuclear weapons events have 

had this scale of impact on the world. 

The process of nuclear colonialism around the world is exemplified by Bikini, from the selection of 

Bikini as a remote site, distant from the population of the testing nations, to the representation 

of Bikini as a terra nullius, to the displacement of the Bikinians and the irradiation of Marshallese 

and military personnel. Bikini was the first site of nuclear colonialism and remains the outstanding 

illustration of this significant stage in human history. 

Ideas and beliefs of outstanding universal significance are directly and tangibly associated with Bikini 

Atoll. Emanating from this narrow circle of tiny islands in the middle of a vast ocean is a myriad of 

symbolism that has permeated our global culture, including the universally recognized and understood 

mushroom cloud, the bikini swimming costume, and the radioactive pop-culture icon, Godzilla. The 

breadth, diversity and global significance of Bikini’s symbolic reach is evidenced in the innumerable 

works of art, music, film and literature that have been touched and inspired by the events at Bikini, 

illustrating the profound impact of events at Bikini on the global culture and psyche. 

Events at Bikini led directly to the creation of political and ideological movements that have shaped 

global society in the second half of the 20th century, mostly connected with the Castle Bravo test 

on March 1, 1946. The return of the irradiated Daigo Fukuryū-Maru and her ill crew in March 1946 

led to the momentous “Suginami” petition, which in turn led to the establishment of Gensuikyo: the 

Japan Council Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs, an enormously significant mass movement in Japan. 

The Bravo shot led Albert Einstein and Russell Bertrand to write the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, which 

in turn led to the establishment of the Pugwash movement of influential scholars and public figures 

concerned with reducing the danger of armed conflict and seeking cooperative solutions for global 

problems. The anniversary of the Bravo test continues to be celebrated as “Bikini Day” in Japan, and 

as the “Nuclear Free and Independent Pacific Day” throughout the Pacific. 

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Criteria under which property is nominated 

Bikini Atoll is nominated as a cultural site against criteria (iv) and (vi) as set out in Paragraph 77 of the 

Operational Guidelines for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention, that it: 

(iv): be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble 

or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; and 

(vi): be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with 

beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. 

Name and contact information of official local institution 

Managing Institution 

Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government 

Post Office Box 1096 

Republic of the Marshall Islands, MH 96960 

Attention: Jack Niedenthal, Trust Liaison for the People of Bikini 

Phone: +692 625-3177 

Fax: +692 625-3330 

Email: bikini@ntamar.net 

Website: www.bikiniatoll.com 

Reporting Institution 

Clary Makroro, Director 

Alele Museum, Library and National Archives 


Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands, MH 96960 

Attention: Clary Makroro, Director 

Phone: +692 625-3372/3550 

Fax: +692 625-3226 

Email: alele_inc@ntamar.net 


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Part 1. Identification of the Property 

1.a State Party 


1.b State, Province or Region 

Bikini Atoll 

1.c Name of Property 

Bikini Atoll 

1.d Geographical coordinates 

UTM Coordinates N 11˚36’0” E 165˚22’50” (approximate centre of the property). 

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1.e Maps and plans, showing the boundaries of the nominated property 

and buffer zone 

A4 size copies of these maps are attached in Annex 1, and are included in jpeg and pdf form on the accompanying 

DVD. 

1.e.(i) Map of Bikini Atoll showing reef and land 

(Note: a topographical map is not available as all land is below about 2m above sea level). 


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1.e.(ii) Map of Bikini Atoll showing boundary of property (red) and of buffer zone (green) 

15 


1.e.(iii) Map showing the location of Bikini Atoll within the Marshall Islands 

1.e.(iv) Map showing location of the Marshall Islands in the Pacific region 


16

1.e.(v) Map showing locations of key features from nuclear tests on Bikini Atoll 

1.e.(vi) Map showing locations of nuclear detonations on Bikini Atoll 

(Source of data on location of detonations: Noshkin et al., 1997) 

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1.f Area of nominated property and proposed buffer zone 

Area of nominated property: 73,500 ha. 

Buffer zone: 130,425 ha. 

Total: 203,925 ha. (2,039 square kilometers or 787 square miles) 


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Part 2. Description 

2.a Description of Property 

Forgotten by the world, and isolated in the mid-Pacific, a tiny island bears witness 

to survival, and to loss. It recalls the innocence of another age. This is Bikini; a 

coral atoll in Micronesia. It is the home of a people whose lives were destined to be 

changed. For in 1946 they were banished from it, their peaceful lagoon filled with 

warships… It was the beginning of the atomic age. 

(Livingston & Rawlings, 1992) 

Bikini Atoll played host to astounding spectacles, the facts and the myths of which were to change 

life in the 20th century forever. Despite being the stage for enormous displays of destructive power, 

Bikini Atoll today has a remarkable beauty and sense of peace. A ring of tiny, low-lying islands 

bordered by sweeping white-gold beaches and covered in lush green vegetation and swaying palm 

trees surround a lagoon of invitingly warm turquoise waters. It is one of the images treasured by 

modern culture—the untouched, wild, desert island. 

Upon closer inspection, however, this island paradise bears deep and dramatic scars from the 

testing of twenty-three nuclear weapons by the United States of America. Today, the remains 

of crumbling grey concrete bunkers and monitoring stations emerge incongruously from the 

vegetation reclaiming the islands. A gaping hole a mile wide on the north-western side of the 

atoll reminds us where the world’s first deliverable hydrogen bomb, code-named Castle Bravo, 

destroyed three islands before its fallout covered eighteen thousand square kilometers (seven 

thousand square miles) of the Pacific Ocean. 

The lagoon is home to spectacular, very large branching Acropora and other corals, arrays of multicolored 

fish, sponges and giant clams. A reef of remarkable health and richness of species, hovering 

and gliding seabirds and significant populations of rare and endangered animals, including sharks 

and turtles, exist here largely free from human disturbance. 

Beneath the waters of Bikini lie sixteen sunken naval vessels, the evocative remnants of the 

Operation Crossroads tests. “Eerily perfect” (Davis, 2005, p. 616) rows of coconut trees cover the 

larger islands, speaking to the failed resettlement of the people of Bikini. What cannot be seen, 

although they can be measured, are the invisible and persistent radioactive elements in the soil, 

plants and animals of Bikini. 

At one time the cherished and idyllic home to less than two hundred Bikinians, the beautiful and 

productive atoll witnessed the comings and goings of tens of thousands of military personnel, 

enormous quantities of machinery and equipment, and the detonation of weapons of massive 

destructive capacity. Bikini has now been largely abandoned: “The atoll has the air of a house 

long unoccupied, but also the feel of an old battlefield, of great events that once were” (Weisgall, 

1994, p. 315). The site, as it stands today, eloquently illustrates the fate of a nuclear test site. The 

entire property of Bikini Atoll—the technological ensemble of sunken ships, along with the various 

bunkers, the craters and disappeared islands, and the conspicuous absence of people—stands as 

testimony to a significant stage in human history that encompasses nuclear colonialism, the start 

of the Cold War and the age of nuclear weapons. 

19 


2.a.(i) Geography of Bikini Atoll 

Bikini Atoll is the northern-most atoll in the western, 

Ralik, chain of atolls—one of 29 low-lying coral atolls 

that rise over 6,000 meters from the abyssal plain to 

no more than a couple of meters above sea level, and 

comprise the Marshall Islands, known to the Marshallese 

as Aelōn̄ Kein. The atolls consist of biotic limestone on 

a deep basalt core, built over millions of years by living 

coral organisms that grew as the basalt core slowly 

subsided, creating a marine environment extremely rich 

in productivity, diversity and complexity. 

The entirety of the Marshall Islands lies in the centralwestern 

part of the Conservation International Polynesia- 

Micronesia Hotspot (Conservation International, 

2007) and the northern Marshall Islands form the 

Key Biodiversity Area, Kabin Meto (Conservation 

International, 2004). Bikini Atoll lies in this drier, 

northern part of the Marshall Islands. Air and water 

temperatures hover around 28 degrees Centigrade (82 

Fahrenheit) year round, varying little from this. Annual 

rainfall is an average of 1500mm (60 inches). 

Figure 1. An aerial view of the Bravo crater (E. 

Hanauer, 2006) (above) 

Figure 2. Satellite Image of Bikini showing the 

Bravo crater (center left of image) in the northwest 

corner (Google Earth, 2008) (right) 


20 

Bikini’s 23 islands, a total land area of only 720 hectares 

(1780 acres) encircle an elongated and irregular lagoon 

which extends 40 kilometers (26 miles) long, east to 

west, 22 kilometers (15 miles) wide, north to south, and 

is around 60 meters (200 feet) at its deepest. Most of 

these islands are joined by a shallow reef, with several 

deep channels on the southern side of the lagoon. Eneu 

Channel, the largest, is 15 kilometers (9 miles) wide. 

Most of the islets on Bikini are small; Bikini Island is the 

largest with a total area of 212 hectares (524 acres) and 

Eneu the next largest at 115 hectares (284 acres). 

2.a.(ii) Man-made features 

The Bravo crater 

Originally there were 25 islands around the reef of 

Bikini, but three of these in the north-west of the atoll— 

Bokonijien, Aerokojlol and part of Nam—were destroyed 

by the Bravo shot in 1954. While there are other craters 

around the atoll at the sites of detonations, the Bravo 

crater—at over 2 km wide (over a mile wide) and 80 

meters (250 feet) deep—is the most obvious physical 

scar on Bikini (see Figures 1 and 2).

The sunken vessels 

Five kilometers from Bikini Island, in 60 meters of 

water, lies the Saratoga, victim of Bikini’s second bomb, 

Crossroads Baker. Upright on the lagoon floor, her masttop 

sits just below the surface. Three Helldiver planes 

and an Avenger torpedo bomber sit on her deck, with 

500 pound bombs stacked on nearby racks and her antiaircraft 

guns facing skyward. Nearby lies the flagship of 

the Japanese fleet, the Nagato—the scene of operational 

planning for the attack on Pearl Harbor. These are but two 

of the ten ships and several lesser vessels that were sunk 

directly as a result of Crossroads Able and Baker tests, 

comprising the most prominent remains of the nuclear 

testing on Bikini. As leading maritime archaeologist, 

Delgado (1991), describes: 

The ships assembled at Bikini for Operation 

Crossroads and sunk in the tests represent 34 years 

of naval design and development , from the oldest 

ship, Arkansas, built in 1912, to the newest, ARDC- 

13, which was rushed to completion in March 1946. 

These vessels, as the test planners intended, reflect 

a range of ship types, construction methods, and 

hull forms and in total represent in microcosm 

many of the elements of a typical naval force, with 

an aircraft carrier, battleships, cruisers, destroyers, 

submarines, attack transports, and landing craft. 

Some of these vessels, such as USS Anderson, are 

the sole surviving intact representatives of specific 

classes of ships… Most ships now sunk at Bikini also 

had significant World War II careers including roles 

in major engagements and battles—the Bismarck 

breakout, Pearl Harbor, the Battle of the Coral Sea, 

Midway, the Aleutians campaign, the Battle of the 

Solomons, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and the 

Battle of the Leyte Gulf—and represent some of 

the better known and significant aspects of the war 

at sea such as wolf pack attacks in the submarine 

war of attrition against Japan, the seaborne line of 

supply and replenishment, shore bombardment, 

kamikaze attacks, and the development of the fast 

carrier task force. (Delgado et al., 1991, p. 143) 

21 

Figure 3. View of part of the Saratoga wreck (E. Hanauer, 2006) 

Figure 4. Bridge of the Saratoga (E. Hanauer, 2006) 


Most of these vessels lie in their original deposition, 

clustered in and around the shallow crater formed by 

the Crossroads Baker test of July 25, 1946. All exhibit 

structural damage from the Crossroads tests, as can 

be seen in the drawings of the plate damage on the 

Saratoga in Figure 7, and in the photos of the damage 

of ships after the blasts in Figures 5 and 6. A remarkable 

assemblage of war technology, nine of these ships are 

accessible to divers, forming the basis of a small-scale 

tourism operation and one of the most sought-after 

diving experiences in the world. It is a unique aesthetic 

experience to observe the slow reclamation by nature 

of the once-sleek warships resting here—their smooth 

grey surface now replaced by a patina of gloriously 

colored algae, sponges and corals—while sharks, turtles, 

groupers and myriad fish and other animals make their 

home in these wrecks. 

The global significance of these ships is not in their role in 

the development of naval technology nor in their World 

War II actions, but in their role as test instruments for 

atomic weapons. As Delgado explains, “each of these 

vessels passed over a threshold at the ‘crossroads’ 

between conventional and nuclear warfare, as did the 

world that had built and manned them” (Delgado et al., 

1991, p. 144). The significance of the ships is further 

discussed in Part 3. 

Figure 5. Ship showing structural damage from the Crossroads 

tests (Bob Landry, 1946, Time Inc.) 

Figure 6. Damage from the Crossroads tests on the USS 

Independence (Fritz Goro, 1947, Time Inc.) 

Elevation drawing of the sunken 

Figure 7. Saratoga showing 

damage to the platework on the starboard side (L. Nordby and J. 

Livingston in Delgado et al., 1991, p. 107-108) 


22

Major vessels sunk during the “Able” test 

of July 1, 1946 

Destroyer USS Anderson 

Destroyer USS Lamson 

Attack Transport USS Gilliam 

Attack Transport USS Carlisle 

Cruiser HIJMS Sakawa 

Major vessels sunk during the “Baker” 

test of July 25, 1946 

Aircraft carrier USS Saratoga 

Battleship HIJMS Nagato 

Battleship USS Arkansas 

Submarine USS Apogon 

Submarine USS Pilotfish 

Box 1. Major vessels sunk at Bikini Atoll during Operation 

Crossroads 

Figure 8. Actual positions of the sunken ships in or near the 

crater formed by the Crossroads Baker test, as plotted by the 

US Navy in 1989 (R. Jackson in Delgado et al.,1991,p. 84) 

23 

Bunkers and buildings 

On Eneu Island of Bikini Atoll there are two structures 

from the testing period: the remains of the concrete 

Communications Station, where the officials stationed 

on Bikini would call the President of the United States 

requesting permission to go forward with the various 

nuclear tests, and also the concrete Monitoring Bunker 

from where the tests were viewed by the US military. 

In the late 1980s the local government decided to tear 

down the Bomb Assembly Building because it was in 

very poor condition. 

On Bikini Island there is a small bunker at the back 

of the island that was used for storage and also 

communications. On several of the outer islands of 

Bikini Atoll there are concrete monitoring stations that 

are still intact. These stations can be found on Aerkoj, 

Aerkojlol, Enemaan, Nam, Bukor, and Aoemen. 

Figure 1. 

Figure 9. 

Monitoring bunker on Bikini Island (E. Hanauer, 2006) 

Other buildings 

More recent construction was carried out to develop 

facilities for tourism on Bikini. Also on Eneu Island there 

is a crushed coral runway that allows for the landing of 

aircraft ranging from large propeller planes to small Lear 

jets. Eneu Island has a small airport terminal, several 

warehouses, crew quarters, a pier and dock, repair 

shops, a power plant, and several unfinished buildings 

that at one time were intended to be utilized for tourism 

until it was decided by the Local Government Council to 

use Bikini Island to accommodate tourists. 

On Bikini Island there are two buildings used to house 

tourists that are situated along the beach, a large 

structure utilized as a dining hall and warehouse for 

supplies, a dive shop and tank filling station, a garage 

that also houses a water-making complex, a TV/briefing 

room and office used for the tourism program, several 

buildings used by the US Department of Energy for their 

ongoing monitoring program, a dock facility, a fuel farm, 

a power plant, and several buildings used as repair shops 

for routine maintenance work on the facilities. 


Figure 10. Map showing key features from the nuclear testing: the Bravo crater, the locations of bunkers and monitoring stations and the ships 

sunk during Operation Crossroads 


24

Radiation 

The International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 

Bikini Advisory Group preliminary findings issued in 

1996 contain the following statements with regard to 

background radiation on Bikini: 

It is safe to walk on all of the islands...The 

Advisory Group reaffirmed: although the residual 

radioactivity on islands in Bikini Atoll is still higher 

than on other atolls in the Marshall Islands, it is 

not hazardous to health at the levels measured. 

Indeed, there are many places in the world where 

people have been living for generations with higher 

levels of radioactivity from natural sources—such 

as the geological surroundings and the sun--than 

there is now on Bikini Atoll...By all internationally 

agreed scientific and medical criteria...the air, the 

land surface, the lagoon water and the drinking 

water are all safe. There is no radiological risk 

in visiting the lagoon or the islands. The nuclear 

weapon tests have left practically no cesium in 

marine life. The cesium deposited in the lagoon 

was dispersed in the ocean long ago. 

The main radiation risk would be from the food: 

eating locally grown produce, such as fruit, 

could add significant radioactivity to the body... 

Eating coconuts or breadfruit from Bikini Island 

occasionally would be no cause for concern. But 

eating many over a long period of time without 

having taken remedial measures might result in 

radiation doses higher than internationally agreed 

safety levels. (quoted in Niedenthal, 2002, pp. 

162-163) 

The majority of radionuclides 1 produced in nuclear 

weapons testing are short-lived, so radiation on Bikini 

was most severe in the few days following a testing 

event. Radionuclides of concern at Bikini today include 

residual concentrations of cesium-137 ( 137 Cs, half-life 

1 A “radionuclide” is an unstable form of a chemical element 

that decays spontaneously, emitting radiation. 

25 

30 years), strontium-90 ( 90 Sr, half-life 28 years), and, to 

a lesser extent, plutonium-239 ( 239 Pu, half-life 24,100 

years), plutonium-240 ( 240 Pu, half-life 6,560 years), 

and americium-241 ( 241 Am, half-life 433 years). The 

cesium-137 radiation burden on Bikini is about 160 times 

the usual expected from globally-deposited fallout, and 

in some parts of the atoll it could vary up to 1000 times 

the expected background level due to heterogeneous 

fallout deposition (Hamilton & Robison, 2004). 

Various reports on the radiological conditions of Bikini 

point out that there are places in the world where 

people have lived for many generations with higher 

levels of environmental radiation from natural sources. 

However, during predictive human dose assessments on 

Bikini by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 

(LLNL) in the 1980s, it was realized that “the most 

significant pathway for human exposure to residual 

fallout contamination in the Marshall Islands was 

ingestion of 137 Cs present in locally grown foods such 

as coconut, breadfruit, and pandanus” (Hamilton & 

Robison, 2004, p. 5). The reason that this particular 

pathway is significant is that coral atoll soil is potassiumpoor, 

and so plant uptake of the chemically-similar 

cesium is higher than on continental soils. As part of 

this finding, the application of potassium fertilizer 

was found to be effective in reducing the cesium-137 

uptake in plants, and large-scale field experiments were 

established on Bikini. 

Radiological assessments have focused on the potential 

for resettlement on Bikini. The recommendations 

consistently state that if rehabilitation of the land 

by a combination of soil-scraping and application of 

potassium were carried out, and if food were a mixture 

of imported food and locally grown, then people could 

live safely on Bikini, subject to radiation doses higher 

than the average, but lower than many populated areas 

in the world (Lokan et al., 1998; Hamilton & Robison, 

2004). 


2.a.(iii) Natural environment 

The natural environment is discussed in some depth 

here although at this time Bikini is being nominated as a 

cultural site (and not as a cultural landscape or a mixed 

site). The natural environment of Bikini and its condition 

form an integral part of the part of the landscape and 

seascape comprising the nuclear test site. What is 

especially remarkable is the recovery of the marine 

environment to a healthy and diverse ecosystem, and 

the ecological processes in play as a direct result of the 

bomb detonations. It is thought that research on the 

attributes of the marine environment, discussed below, 

is of enormous value to science and, in the future, may 

constitute a justification for nomination of Bikini under 

criterion (ix): be outstanding examples representing 

significant ongoing ecological and biological processes 

in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh 

water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities 

of plants and animals. 

The Bikini property is a holistic single atoll system 

surrounded by open ocean. The location provides 

natural isolation from neighboring systems and from 

human intervention. This provides sufficient size for the 

ongoing functioning of the natural systems. While the 

terrestrial environment has been significantly disturbed, 

the marine environment reef system has a very high 

biodiversity, showing the range of species—including 

endemic biota, apex predators (sharks) and migratory 

species such as turtles—that demonstrate the system 

is functioning well. In addition, there are increasing 

numbers of birds, probably due to the absence of human 

hunting pressure. 

Marine environment 

Bikini Atoll presents an excellent example of the ongoing 

ecological and biological processes in the development 

and evolution of coral reefs, demonstrating an impressive 

recovery of corals and marine life after repetitive human 

intervention and modification through nuclear blasts. 

The study of this is of significant interest to science 

for understanding the impact on marine ecosystems 

following major disruption and the subsequent processes 

of recovery of these ecosystems. 

The Bravo crater resulted from three islands being 

pulverized and millions of tons of sediment and 

carbonate being airborne and subsequently suspended, 

transported and deposited. While this extraordinary 

disturbance event was devastating for reefs directly 

impacted, it created new lagoonal space and new 

opportunities for reef development and colonization. 

A coral biodiversity study conducted at Bikini in 2002 

presents stunning evidence of the recovery of coral reefs 


26 

in the Bravo crater five decades after the event (Richards 

et al., 2008). One of the most profound aspects of the 

Bravo crater site is the occurrence of huge thriving 

matrixes of branching coral. The coral clearly colonized 

the site after the bombing ceased, and it is suggested 

that through time, as more calcifying organisms inhabit 

the microhabitat provided by the branching (Porites 

cylindrica) coral, the reef will solidify to eventually form 

the consolidated patch reef that is typical of lagoonal 

habitat found elsewhere. In this way, Bikini Atoll, and 

particularly the Bravo crater site, provides a superb 

example of early succession and the development of 

reef structure. 

In providing a rare opportunity to examine the long-term 

impacts of nuclear testing on coral biodiversity in-situ, 

Bikini also offers science an opportunity to understand 

the resilience, or capacity for biodiversity to persist after 

disturbances of coral reefs—crucial information for 

devising appropriate management actions to mitigate 

biodiversity loss. Current records of long-term or largescale 

resilience to disturbances are scant. There are few 

opportunities to study large-scale impacts and long-term 

recovery because most disturbances are cumulative 

and on-going. Bikini Atoll provides an opportunity to 

investigate biodiversity resilience in-situ because the 

disturbance to the reef system was acute and there have 

been minimal subsequent anthropogenic or natural 

disturbances since the testing ceased. 

There is growing concern about the insidious effects 

of enhanced greenhouse gas concentrations on ocean 

chemistry (Feely et al., 2004). The ability for organisms 

to calcify is decreased and the ability for reefs to form 

and maintain their structure in increasingly acidic 

environments is compromised. Our understanding 

of the full range of consequences of changing ocean 

chemistry is extremely limited at present, hence the reef 

structures in the Bravo crater provide an unparalleled 

opportunity to document the geological processes of 

reef development under the current and forecasted 

future sub-optimal oceanic conditions in the absence of 

other anthropogenic impacts. 

Figure 11. Scientist Zoe Richards collects 

samples of coral in the Bravo crater at Bikini 

(S. Pinca, 2002)

In addition to its value for understanding coral reef 

ecosystem function, the marine environment of 

Bikini is home to many species that are threatened 

or depleted in the rest of the world, including coral 

species, giant clams, turtles and sharks. Recent redlisting 

of Scleractinian coral species revealed alarming 

results with one-third of reef-building corals threatened 

with extinction (Carpenter et al., 2008). Approximately 

50 of the 183 species of coral recorded at Bikini Atoll 

(Richards et al., 2008) fall within an IUCN threatened 

category. Given that Bikini Atoll reef ecosystems are 

relatively pristine (Pinca et al., 2002) in comparison 

to reefs occurring in more populated regions, Bikini 

provides some of the most significant reef habitat in the 

northern Pacific and, in effect, a refuge that may support 

the recovery in other more heavily impacted parts of the 

world such as South East Asia. Today, Bikini Atoll is the 

type locality of two species of coral (Acropora vaughnai 

and Acropora palmarae). Surveys of coral biodiversity 

carried out in 2002 (Richards et al., 2008) revealed that 

eleven species of coral occur at Bikini Atoll despite never 

before being recorded in the Marshall Islands. Four of 

these species are considered, on current records, to 

be regionally restricted to Bikini Atoll–Acanthastrea 

hillae, Acropora bushyensis, Montipora cocosensis 

and Polyphyllia talpina. Two species (Acanthastrea 

brevis and Montastrea salebrosa) were found to be 

locally abundant and distributed widely at Bikini Atoll, 

indicating that Bikini Atoll provides significant habitat 

for the conservation of these species. 

Figure 12. Giant branching acropora have reestablished in the 

Bravo crater (S. Pinca, 2002) 

The rare and threatened species of giant clam Tridacna 

gigas appeared to be particularly abundant in Bikini 

lagoon compared to many other atolls of the Marshall 

Islands. This species is literally disappearing from the 

Pacific region and is found freely growing in Bikini as 

well as in the nearby atolls of Rongelap and Ailinginae. 

The locations where it was mostly found in Bikini are the 

lagoonal sites in the northwest (near the Bravo crater) 

and central northern areas (in front of Aomoen Island). 

27 

At this latter site, many Hyppopus hyppopus giant clams 

are similarly found (Pinca et al., 2002). 

Pinca et al. (2002) found very high diversity of fish 

fauna at Bikini (species richness is 359) due to the 

high variability of habitats offered by lagoon, pass and 

ocean environments. The southern and eastern walls of 

Bikini sustain a high biomass of carnivores (Lutjaunidae, 

Lethrinidae, Sphyraenidae, Carangidae), while the 

lagoon is rich in invertebrate feeders and herbivores 

(Mullidae, Ephinephelidae, Caesionidae) (Pinca et al., 

2002). 

Figure 13. 

1999) 

Gray reef sharks at Shark Pass on Bikini Atoll (M. Harris, 

One special characteristic of Bikini that differentiates it 

from other atolls in the Marshalls and from many reefs 

in the world is the particularly high concentration of 

several shark species that are considered threatened, 

including gray reef shark (Charcharhinus amblyrhyncos), 

reef whitetip shark (Trienodon obesus), reef blacktip 

shark (C. melanopterus) and silvertip shark (C. 

albimarginatus). The highest concentration is found at 

the so-called Shark Pass in the south where hundreds 

of C. amblyrhyncos swim inoffensively and undisturbed 

along the inner wall and at the pass itself. Silvertips (C. 

albimarginatus) are in deeper water and more difficult 

to spot, but they are attracted by the visit of the casual 

diver and come often to shallower depths. Tiger sharks 

(Galeocerdo cuvier) are also known to inhabit the lagoon 

of Bikini and to approach the shore at night or to swim by 

the decompression bars in the middle of the lagoon. The 

spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) is also a frequent 

sight in the lagoon waters (Pers. comm.). 

The special abundance of sharks at Bikini Atoll is 

indicative of a healthy and diverse ecosystem. Many 

studies have proved that top predators are indicators of 

elevated biodiversity, individual density and ecosystem 

complexity and productivity (Sergio et al., 2006). A 

location capable of supporting a dense population of 

top predators is able to support populations of smaller 

species. 


Vegetation 

So dramatic was the impact of testing on the islands that 

a vegetation survey by Fosberg (1986) in 1985 reported 

that on all the islands of Bikini “no unaltered vegetation 

has survived” (p. 2), although the native species have 

survived. There are several stands of important species on 

some of the islands, including Pisonia grandis, a favorite 

nesting place for birds, and Pemphis acidula, which is a 

species of cultural importance in the RMI (Reimaanlok, 

2008). Fosberg (1986) describes the islands of Eneu 

and Bikini as dominated by planted coconut palms “on 

a precisely laid-out 30 foot square grid system” (p. 3). 

These trees remain untended, and the physiognomy of 

the plantation varies from tall and luxuriant, with dense 

undergrowth, to stunted coconut palms with sparse 

undergrowth. Vegetation on other islands in 1985 

showed a mixture of the usual atoll strand vegetation 

(Scaevola and Tournefortia) and exotic species. Fosberg 

(1986) was reluctant to predict the rates of succession 

and the resulting communities on Bikini Atoll, and there 

is a need to carry out a vegetation survey to understand 

how these atoll terrestrial systems have recovered from 

the testing and associated impacts. 

Figure 14. Aerial view of the rows of coconut trees (Google Earth, 2008) 


28 

Birds 

The impressive feature of Bikini’s birds are described 

by Vandervelde and Vandervelde (2003). Upon arriving 

on Eneu, one can observe boobies and terns. Mixed 

flocks of terns feed in front of the resort, but these 

are insignificant delights compared to visiting the bird 

nesting grounds on islands in the north and southwest 

of the atoll. Twenty-six species of birds are documented 

for Bikini Atoll, including 3 IUCN Red-listed species: 

Buller’s Shearwater (Puffinus bulleri), Sooty Shearwater 

(Puffinus griseus) and the Bristle-thighed curlew 

(Numenius tahitiensis). It is thought that the birds of 

Bikini have benefited from the absence of humans, as 

they were traditionally eaten by the people of Bikini. 

The Red-tailed Tropicbird (Phaeton rubricauda) now 

nests on Bikini, but was unknown to Bikinians prior to 

the testing. 

Figure 15. 

“Eerily perfect” rows of coconut trees (J.S. Davis, 2002)

2.b History and Development 

2.b.(i) The formation of Bikini Atoll 

The geological development of Bikini is typical of many 

Pacific atolls, as described by Scott and Rotondo (1983) 

and Dickinson (2004), with coral reefs growing on a 

subsiding volcanic island. After volcanic activity ceased 

in the Miocene period, the rocks cooled and the original 

island subsided slowly below sea level, and was covered 

by a thick coral reef. In the Pleistocene (the last two 

million years) the atoll underwent erosion when exposed 

by low sea level during ice ages, and reef growth when 

sea level was close to its present level during warm 

periods. Drilling at Bikini and Enewetak Atolls showed 

that the coralline limestone caps on these atolls exceed 

1,200 meters in depth, and provided the first subsurface 

evidence to support Darwin’s subsidence theory of atoll 

formation. Although the form of the atoll is several 

million years old, the youngest islands only breached 

the surface between 2,000 and 4,000 years ago, amid a 

slight lowering of sea-level. 

2.b.(ii) First settlement & traditional 

life on Bikini 

In order to understand the significance of the loss of 

Bikini to its people, it is important to understand the 

history and traditional life of the Bikinians and the 

depth of connection to place that had developed over 

thousands of years and still persists. The lifestyle and 

culture described here survived largely intact up until 

the Bikinians left their island in 1946, at which point the 

way of life for this community was irrevocably changed. 

It is thought that people began to populate the Marshall 

Islands shortly after the emergence of land, between 

2,000 and 3,500 years ago (Rainbird, 1994). The oral 

history of the settlement of Bikini as related by Kilon 

Bauno (in Niedenthal, 2002) describes the journey of 

Larkelon, an “iroij” or chief, who brought his people from 

Wotje Atoll to Rongelap. There they intermarried with the 

Rongelap people, and then, looking for a new kingdom, 

sailed on to Bikini. People were already living on Bikini, 

led by the chief Laninbit. Faced with the bold Larkelon 

and his many people and canoes, Laninbit conceded the 

lands and waters of Bikini. Laninbit ordered his people 

to collect their belongings and in a matter of hours the 

original Bikinians sailed off to the south, resting only for 

a short moment on one of the southern islands in the 

atoll then continuing into the sunset never to be heard 

from again. It was if the great seas of the earth had 

swallowed their boats whole, and drowned the entire 

clan of people. Larkelon triumphantly began his reign 

as the chief of Bikini (pp. 15-20). Bikinians today trace 

29 

their lineage directly to Larkelon; “King Juda,” the chief 

at the time of the nuclear testing in 1946, was a direct 

descendant of Larkelon (Weisgall, 1994, p. 40). 

Traditional life on Bikini was much like life elsewhere in 

the Marshalls and on other Micronesian atolls. Houses 

were small, simple thatched huts with woven pandanus 

mats covering the ground. The few tools and utensils 

were made only from the island’s resources: wood, 

coral, shell and fibers from coconut and pandanus. 

Bikinians were accomplished seafarers who travelled 

between islands, and between atolls, in sturdy, 

double-prowed canoes lashed together from planks of 

breadfruit trees. These canoes, with an asymmetric hull 

balanced by an outrigger, are widely considered to be 

masterpieces of sailing technology. Likewise, fishing 

was a sophisticated activity using a range of tools from 

the simple hook and line to nets, traps, spears, clubs, 

rope and coconut fronds. Some methods involved the 

participation of many people, and some were practiced 

by the individual. Fishing was accompanied by complex 

taboos, procedures and magic chants that integrated the 

spiritual and social life with the methods for gathering 

food (Petrosian-Husa, 2004). The Bikinians were skilled 

agro-foresters, carefully cultivating several varieties of 

breadfruit and pandanus in the poor atoll soils and often 

difficult growing conditions. A wide range of plants and 

associated rituals were used in traditional medicine. 

The relative isolation of the atoll created for the 

Bikinians a tightly integrated society bound together 

by close extended family association and tradition, 

where the amount of land you owned was a measure of 

your wealth. Unlike in the rest of the Marshall Islands, 

Bikinians identify a chief from among themselves and 

resist any claims to chief-status from others. 

Marshallese traditional life incorporated sophisticated 

and well-adapted technologies, integrated with a 

spiritual and social life that was based on the interaction 

with the natural environment. Bikini Atoll forms the 

basis of identity for the Bikinians, in the same way that 

sea and country do for indigenous peoples around the 

world. 

2.b.(iii) European contact, Germans 

and the copra trade, 16 th century to 20 th 

century 

Hezel (1983) describes the first recorded contact 

between Marshallese and Europeans as the landing of 

the Florida, captained by Saavedra, on the islands of 

“Los Jardines”—thought to be either Bikini or Enewetak 

Atoll—on October 1, 1529. The meeting was mostly 

friendly and the islanders greeted the Spanish with 


singing, dancing and a feast of fish, breadfruit and 

coconut. There was an incident where a musket was 

fired to demonstrate its function to the curious chief, at 

which “most of the Marshallese flew out of the house 

and dashed madly through the bush, most of them not 

stopping until they were in their canoes heading for safe 

refuge on another part of the atoll” (p.16). Although 

much of the rest of the Marshall Islands was “discovered” 

by Gilbert and Marshall in 1788, Bikini was not seen 

again by Europeans until almost 40 years later, in 1825, 

when Russian Otto von Kotzebue’s ship sighted the atoll 

from the mast top 11 miles away. Kotzebue named the 

atoll Eschscholtz after the ship’s scientist and doctor—a 

name that persisted even when the site was announced 

in the New York Times in 1946 as the location chosen for 

nuclear testing. 

Wesigall (1994) records reports of a trading schooner 

calling at the atoll in 1834, a visit during which it is 

believed the captain and two crew were murdered, 

resulting in retaliation by the crew of a sister ship who are 

thought to have murdered some thirty Bikinians—onethird 

of the population. The first documented contact 

between Bikinians and non-Marshallese occurred in 

1858 when Chramtschenko, Kotzebue’s lieutenant, 

returned, locating a channel and entering the lagoon of 

Bikini. In 1957, a year prior to Chramtschenko’s visit, 

American Protestant missionaries arrived on Ebon in the 

far south of the Marshalls to establish the first mission, 

having much success as Christianity spread throughout 

the archipelago. Missionaries did not travel to the 

northern parts of the Marshalls until much later and it 

was not until 1908 that a Marshallese pastor arrived to 

establish the first mission on Bikini. 

German copra traders arrived in the Marshall Islands 

in the 1860s and established a trade centered on Jaluit 

and Likiep Atolls. Seeing an opportunity to expand 

colonial power in Micronesia, Germany signed a treaty 

with a paramount chief for access rights to several 

ports and, in 1885, declared the Marshalls a German 

protectorate with the approval of Britain. The fertile 

atolls in the southern Marshalls were attractive to the 

traders because they could produce a much larger 

quantity of copra. Thus, while the Bikinians engaged 

in a subsistence-level copra trade in order to buy 

rice, sugar and other goods, no Germans settled on 

Bikini. Bikinians maintained isolation, had their own 

dialect and, while people in the southern isles were 

more actively engaged in the copra trade and adopted 

western dress, the Bikinians wore traditional coconut 

and pandanus woven mats and skirts well into the 20 th 

century. A chiefly system of rule had developed in the 

Marshalls with some chiefs having jurisdiction across 


30 

several atolls, but Bikini maintained independence from 

this system until the late 19 th century. 

Figure 16. Bikinian woman and family prior to 1946 (unknown, n.d.) 

Figure 17. King Juda (right), the chief of the Bikinians in 1946 

(unknown, 1946) 

2.b.(iv) The Japanese, militarization 

and World War II, 1915-1944 

Japan took control of most German holdings in 

Micronesia at the outbreak of World War I and, in 1919, 

was awarded the Marshall Islands as a class “C” mandate 

of the League of Nations. Although fortification and 

militarization of the islands was banned under the 

mandate, in the 1930s Japan closed Micronesia to the 

rest of the world and commenced military build-up 

throughout the islands in anticipation of World War II. 

As Niedenthal (1991) explains, “Bikini and the rest of 

these peaceful, low-lying coral atolls in the Marshalls 

suddenly became strategic” (p. 1). 

The Bikini Islanders’ life of harmony drew to an abrupt 

close when, early in the Pacific conflict, the Japanese 

decided to build and maintain a watchtower on their 

island to guard against an American invasion of the 

Marshalls. Throughout the war the Bikini station served 

as an outpost for the Japanese military headquarters in 

the Marshall Islands at Kwajalein Atoll. Life under the 

Japanese military was difficult; young men were sent

to school to learn Japanese and put to work laboring, 

and often there were cruel beatings as punishment for 

resisting the Japanese soldiers (“Japanese on Bikini,” 

1990). 

Toward the end of the war in the Pacific, February of 

1944 saw a gruesome and bloody battle in which the 

American forces captured Kwajalein Atoll, effectively 

crushing the Japanese hold on the Marshall Islands. The 

battle involved 40,000 US troops and resulted in 372 

Americans and 8,000 Japanese dead. The day after an 

airstrike aimed at the watchtower on Bikini, an American 

ship pulled into the lagoon. The five remaining Japanese 

soldiers, hiding in a foxhole, then killed themselves with 

a grenade. Bikini was liberated. 

2.b.(v) The Nuclear Age arrives 1945-1946 

The war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945 with the 

unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany. From July 16 

to August 2, Josef Stalin, Winston Churchill (replaced later 

by Clement Attlee) and Harry S Truman met in Potsdam, 

Germany to determine the administration of post-Nazi 

Germany. The US and Britain were suspicious of Stalin’s 

motives as communist governments had already been 

installed in the countries under Soviet influence. Not 

knowing if the Soviets knew about atomic bombs, 

during this meeting Truman mentioned an unspecified 

“powerful new weapon” to Stalin—a move widely seen 

as a subtle warning for the Soviets to regard the United 

States’ might with respect. 

During the Potsdam Conference, on July 26, Japan 

was given an ultimatum by the United States, Great 

Britain, and China to surrender, or meet “prompt and 

utter destruction” (Potsdam Declaration, 1945). Japan 

declared that it would ignore the ultimatum and Truman 

ordered the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6 

and of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, killing as many as 

140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki. 

The atom bomb had entered the world. Within a few 

weeks, Japan had surrendered and the war in the Pacific 

was over. 

Establishment of the United Nations 

Atomic Energy Commission 

Over the coming months a series of meetings was held 

by the Soviet Union, United States, China, France and the 

United Kingdom to try to determine peace agreements 

with defeated nations and settle territorial disputes 

outstanding at the end of World War II. At the center 

of this geopolitical maneuvering, particularly between 

the United States and the USSR, was the question of 

who owned atomic secrets, and who controlled atomic 

power. In the December Interim Meeting of Foreign 

31 

Ministers in Moscow, at the instigation of US secretary 

of state, James F. Byrnes, it was agreed to establish a 

“commission to consider problems arising from the 

discovery of atomic energy and other related matters” 

under the United Nations (Soviet-Anglo-American 

Communiqué, 1945). The United Nations Atomic Energy 

Commission (UN AEC 2 ) was established as the very first 

resolution of the first United Nations General Assembly 

on January 24, 1946, and called for the “elimination 

from national armaments of atomic weapons and all 

other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction” 

(United Nations General Assembly, 1946). 

While American diplomacy was taking these steps, 

within the United States there was dissent about what 

to do with nuclear weapons. In 1945 the Americans 

were unsure how far the Soviets had proceeded in the 

development of the bomb. Truman considered the 

Moscow agreement a general commitment only, as his 

distrust of Stalin deepened. Congress and the public 

were not ready for an international body to take control 

of nuclear technology that was currently only in the 

hands of the United States (Weisgall, 1994, p. 59). 

The Cold War begins 

It is difficult to say precisely when the Cold 

War began. There were no surprise attacks, 

no declarations of war, no severing even of 

diplomatic ties. There was, however, a growing 

sense of insecurity at the highest levels in 

Washington, London and Moscow, generated 

by the efforts the wartime allies were making to 

ensure their own post-war security. 

(Gaddis, 2007, p. 27) 

Several events in the next few months brought tension 

in post-World War II relations to a head. After the defeat 

of Japan, Stalin had protested that the Soviet Union was 

offered little role in the occupation of post-war Japan. 

On February 9, 1946, in a speech to constituents, Stalin 

expressed hostility towards capitalism and declared 

a 5-year plan to double output of iron, steel, coal and 

oil (1946). On February 12, the Soviets announced 

that a new communist government had been formed 

in North Korea (Weisgall, 1994, p. 60), breaking an 

agreement reached at the Moscow conference the 

previous December to jointly assist Korea to become 

an independent democracy (Soviet-Anglo-American 

Communiqué, December 27, 1945). The next day George 

F. Kennan sent his famous “Long Telegram” from the 

2 The acronym UN AEC is used here to distinguish the United 

Nations Atomic Energy Commission from the United States Atomic 

Energy Commission established in August 1946, and also known as 

the “AEC”. 


US embassy in Moscow to Washington, describing the 

Soviet outlook: “Soviet power,” he wrote, is “impervious 

to the logic of reason and highly sensitive to the logic of 

force” (quoted in Weisgall, 1994, p. 60). This telegram 

confirmed for Washington the threat of Soviet expansion 

and galvanized hard-line policy towards Moscow. On 

March 2, the Soviet Union refused to withdraw troops 

from Azerbaijan in Iran, an area of “vital strategic and 

economic importance to the West” (Weisgall, 1994, p. 

61), as had been agreed early in the war. Three days 

later, on March 5, 1946, Churchill delivered his “Sinews 

of Peace” address, reinforcing that the United Nations 

organisation was critical to peace, but that: 

It would nevertheless be wrong and imprudent 

to entrust the secret knowledge or experience of 

the atomic bomb, which the United States, Great 

Britain, and Canada now share, to the world 

organization, while it is still in its infancy. It would 

be criminal madness to cast it adrift in this still 

agitated and un-united world. 

He further declared that “a shadow has fallen upon 

the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory. 

Nobody knows what Soviet Russia and its Communist 

international organization intends to do in the immediate 

future, or what are the limits, if any, to their expansive 

and proselytizing tendencies” (Churchill, 1946). Stalin 

saw this as an ultimatum, describing Churchill as a 

racist “warmonger” and likening him to Hitler (“Stalin 

compares,” 1999). The Sinews of Peace address is 

considered by many to be the start of the Cold War. 

Is the Navy obsolete? – Operation 

Crossroads is conceived 

Meanwhile in the United States, public opinion expressed 

in the press and in Congress a “nearly universal belief 

that the atomic bomb had rendered navies obsolete” 

(Weisgall, 1994, p. 13). “It does seem to me…that 

atomic energy has driven ships off the surface of the 

sea,” said Senator Edwin C. Johnson before the Senate’s 

Special Committee on Atomic Energy, in December, 

1945, “I don’t see how a ship can resist the atomic 

bomb” (quoted in Weisgall, 1994, p. 13). 

In a report reprinted in Life magazine in November 1945, 

Army Air Force Commanding General Henry H. Arnold 

wrote: 

The influence of atomic energy on Air Power can 

be stated very simply. It has made Air Power 

all-important… The only known effective means 

of delivering atomic bombs… is the very heavy 

bomber... Development of the air arm, especially 

with the concurrent development of the atomic 


32 

explosive, guided missiles and other modern 

devices, will reduce the requirement for, or 

employment of mass armies and navies. (quoted 

in Weisgall, 1994, p. 13) 

At this time, most military aviators flew in the Army 

Air Force. These discussions “represented one more 

chapter in the decades old rivalry and mistrust between 

the Army and the Navy and the culmination of the 25year 

debate over the role of airplanes and ships” and 

furthered a push for an independent air force, separate 

from both army and navy (Weisgall, 1994, p. 18). This 

debate, combined with various recommendations to 

dispose of 38 captured Japanese vessels and a desire 

to better understand the effects of nuclear weapons, 

resulted in a plan for tests. A joint army-navy program 

of atomic tests was announced by Admiral Ernest J. 

King, commanding officer of the Navy, on October 27, 

1945. The tests would involve 80 to 100 ships from 

captured Japanese and German fleets, and from surplus 

US vessels. Planning commenced in earnest and the 

tests were approved by Truman on January 10, 1946. 

The “hole in the map”—Bikini is chosen 

In the midst of vacillating US policy on control of 

nuclear weapons, Vice Admiral Blandy’s first job upon 

his appointment as commander of Joint Task Force 

One, in January 1946, was to select a site for the tests 

of atomic weapons on a naval fleet. On January 15, 

Truman announced that the United States would insist 

on being the United Nations trustee of the Pacific islands 

captured from Japan during the war, although this was 

not formalized until April 2, 1947. Military planners had 

been working to select a site as early as October 1945, 

and more than a dozen locations had been considered in 

the Pacific, Atlantic and Caribbean. Serious consideration 

was given to: Ulithi in the Caroline Islands, to the west 

of the Marshalls; two northern Marshall Islands sites, 

Bokak and Bikar; and even to the Galapagos Islands in 

the eastern Pacific (Weisgall, 1994, p. 32-33). Weisgall 

outlines the criteria for selection of the site: 

The site had to meet numerous conditions: it had 

to be in an area controlled by the United States, 

in a climatic zone with predictable winds and free 

from storms and cold temperatures, and with a 

large sheltered area for anchoring target vessels 

and measuring radiation effects. It had to be 

located within 1,000 miles of a B-29 air base, as 

the first test was to be an air drop. The site had 

to be uninhabited or have a small population 

that could be easily relocated. As Blandy later 

wrote, ‘It was important that the local population 

be small and cooperative so that they could be

moved to a new location with a minimum of 

trouble.’ But most important, given the risk of 

radioactive contamination, the site had to be 

far away from population centers in the United 

States. As the AEC later stated to Congress, it felt 

that ‘tests should be held overseas until it could 

be established more definitively that continental 

detonations would not endanger the public health 

and safety.’ (1994, p. 31) 

In the end, Bikini was selected, in part, for its proximity 

to Kwajalein Atoll to the south and Enewetak Atoll to the 

west—US military installations that could accommodate 

aircraft for the test. Comedian Bob Hope explained the 

selection process differently: “As soon as the war ended, 

we located the one spot that hadn’t been touched by 

war and blew it to hell” (quoted in Weisgall, 1994, p. 

33). 

Figure 18. Front page of the New York Times, January 25, 1946 

33 

On January 24, 1946, the very same day that the UN 

General Assembly established the Atomic Energy 

Commission with a goal of disarmament, Blandy 

announced to Congress that Bikini Atoll, in the Marshall 

Islands, was to be the site of this major atomic 

experiment. Blandy also announced the name of the 

tests—Operation Crossroads—“because seapower, 

airpower and perhaps humanity itself are at the 

crossroads” (quoted in Shalett, 1946). 

Questions started to be asked about the purpose of the 

just-announced Operation Crossroads. Atomic scientists 

from the Los Alamos team who had developed the bomb 

strongly opposed the tests. Influential Senator Scott 

Lucas spoke on the Senate floor on January 31: “If we 

are to outlaw the use of the bomb for military purposes, 

why should we be making plans to display atomic power 

as an instrument of destruction?” (Weisgall, 1994, p. 

73). 

In February of 1946, Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, the 

military governor of the Marshalls, traveled to Bikini. 

On a Sunday after church, he assembled the Bikinians 

to ask if they would be willing to temporarily leave 

their atoll so that the United States could begin testing 

atomic bombs for “the good of mankind and to end all 

world wars.” King Juda, then the leader of the Bikinian 

people, stood up after much confused and sorrowful 

deliberation among his people, and announced, “We 

will go, believing that everything is in the hands of 

God.” The meeting was re-enacted for the film cameras 

on the Bikinians’ last day on their homeland on March 

6. Several takes were needed to convey the desired 

effect that the Bikinians were, indeed, happy to leave. 

(Weisgall, 1994, p. 113). 

Figure 19. Filming the scene where Wyatt asks the Bikinians to 

leave their atoll “for the good of mankind” needed at least eight 

takes to convey the desired effect (US Government, 1946) 


One hundred and sixty-seven Bikinians set sail for 

Rongerik on March 7. Emso Leviticus describes leaving 

Bikini Atoll: 

We left our island after loading everything we 

owned including our canoes, various kinds of 

food, bibles, dishes, tools and even some pieces 

of our church and Council house. We loaded it all 

onto one of the big ships…and then, after finding 

our places on the ship, we waved goodbye to our 

islands and sailed to Rongerik. (in Niedenthal, 

2002, p. 52) 

Bikinian Anthem 

Written in 1946 by Lore Kessibuki (1914-1994) at the time 

of exodus from Bikini, this song remains the anthem of 

the displaced Bikinians even today. 


34 

Figure 20. Bikinians load their possessions to leave Bikini (US 

Government, 1946) 

I jab ber emol, aet, i jab ber ainmon 

ion kineo im bitu 

kin ailon eo ao im melan ko ie 

Eber im lok jiktok ikerele 

kot iban bok hartu jonan an elap ippa 

Ao emotlok rounni im lo ijen ion 

ijen ebin joe a eankin 

ijen jikin ao emotlok im ber im mad ie 

No longer can I stay; it’s true. 

No longer can I live in peace and harmony. 

No longer can I rest on my sleeping mat and pillow 

Because of my island and the life I once knew there. 

The thought is overwhelming 

Rendering me helpless and in great despair. 

My spirit leaves, drifting around and far away 

Where it becomes caught in a current of immense power 

And only then do I find tranquility. Figure 21. Bikinian outrigger canoe being loaded for the trip to 

Rongerik. (US Government, 1946) 

Box 2. 

The Bikinian Anthem 

Figure 22. Bikinian women carrying their possessions to leave Bikini (unknown, 1946)

Within four days of the Bikinians’ removal an immense 

military effort focused on making Bikini ready for the 

tests, scheduled for May 15. Preparations involved 

blasting channels, bulldozing large areas and erecting 

buildings and concrete bunkers, the placement of multitonned 

concrete mooring blocks to hold a test fleet 

of “target” ships in position in the lagoon, towers to 

mount test instruments and cameras, seven pontoon 

causeways, seaplane landing ramps, a water distillation 

and distribution system, power-generators, moorings for 

small boats, and huts to house technical equipment: 

By June, parts of Bikini looked like a huge 

playground. The island was equipped with five 

concrete basketball courts, ten volleyball courts, 

four base-ball fields, a 100-foot-square concrete 

athletic court, swim floats, life-guard platforms, 

swimming beaches, a beer garden, an archery 

range, courts for horseshoe pitching, paddle 

tennis courts, twenty-six dressing huts, and a trapshooting 

range. The island even had its own local 

radio station, “Radio Bikini,” which interviewed 

Crossroads participants and broadcast the comings 

and goings of various dignitaries. (Weisgall, 1994, 

pp. 148-149) 

Tens of thousands of military personnel, scientists, and 

observers arrived as Bikini’s various islands and lagoon 

were transformed into a massive military base and a 

test platform for three tests—an air burst and shallow 

and deep water tests. In stark contrast to what existed 

here for thousands of years, the entire landscape and 

culture of Bikini had been utterly, radically transformed 

in a remarkable few months. As Firth comments, “Bikini 

was changed almost beyond recognition” (1987, p. 

6). “Bikini” was lost now as a homeland to its people 

and became, instead, part of the US’s “Pacific Proving 

Ground.” 

Figure 23. The sign atop the Officers’ Club at Bikini Atoll reading 

“Up and Atom” (1946, © Time Inc.) 

35 

The Acheson-Lilienthal Report and the 

Baruch Plan 

In January 1946, as the Truman administration was 

trying to formulate international policy on the control 

of atomic weapons in support of the establishment of 

the UN Atomic Energy Commission, a special committee 

was established. Led by Dean Acheson, and assisted 

by a technical advisory group led by David E. Lilienthal, 

the special committee prepared a plan—the “Acheson- 

Lilienthal Report”—that laid out a policy by which “no 

nation would make atomic bombs or the materials for 

them” (Acheson and Bush radio address, quoted in 

Weisgall, 1994, p. 70) through careful control over the 

production of fissionable material by an international 

body. The report was publicly released on March 28, 

1946 to widespread praise. 

On March 22, Truman postponed the Operations 

Crossroads tests from May 15 to July 1, an act that 

provided some reassurance to the UN Security Council 

meeting held the following Monday. Days earlier Moscow 

radio had accused the United States of “brandishing 

the atomic weapon for purposes which have little in 

common with the peace and security of the nations” and 

Stalin had emphasized that the United Nations’ strength 

was based on “the principle of equality of states and not 

of one state over others” (quoted in Weisgall, 1994, pp. 

91-92). There was speculation that the tests would be 

cancelled altogether. The conflict between attempts at 

international atomic diplomacy and preparations for this 

massive atomic experiment were debated repeatedly in 

Congress. 

On June 14, 1946 Bernard Baruch presented the “Baruch 

Plan”—adapted from the Acheson-Lilienthal Report—to 

the UN Atomic Energy Commission. The Soviets refused 

to sign it, and less than three weeks later, the United 

States detonated the world’s first peace-time atomic 

bomb at Bikini Atoll. 


2.b.(vi) Ground Zero: Bikini as a 

nuclear test site 1946-1958 

Operation Crossroads 

In all, 242 naval vessels sailed to Bikini, where 

approximately half would serve as “target ships” for 

the tests in the lagoon. Forty-two thousand men, 37 

women nurses and 150 aircraft participated in what 

the New York Times called the “most stupendous 

single set of experiments in history” (“Star’s Secrets”, 

1946). Two hundred pigs, 200 mice, 60 guinea pigs, 204 

goats and 5,000 rats were exposed to the explosions 

to better understand the effects of an atom bomb on 

humans (Shurcliff cited in Weisgall, 1994, p. 120). More 

than 700 film and still cameras were set up to record 

the event, 328 of these airborne, manned by over 500 

photographers. More than 10,000 instruments, including 

some developed specifically for the tests at Bikini, were 

placed on ships, aircraft and the surrounding islands. 

One hundred and seventy journalists set up “a floating 

newsroom” on the Appalachian (DeGroot, 2006, p. 119). 

According to Weisgall, “Operation Crossroads was above 

all else, an extravaganza. It was the grandest scientific 

experiment ever, more exhaustively photographed, 

reported, and measured than any previous event in 

history” (1994, p. 117). 

The ninety-five ships assembled as “targets” for 

Operation Crossroads represented naval technology from 

the 1910s through the 1940s. Altogether, they formed 

the fifth or sixth largest “navy” in the world at that time 

and included every type of ship that had fought in the 

Second World War, as well as veterans from the First 

World War. Battleships, aircraft carriers, submarines, 

cruisers, destroyers, attach transports, landing craft—all 

Figure 24. US Navy press release photo of the target area for 

Operation Crossroads (1946) 


36 

were brought to Bikini. The majority of the ships were 

United States-built, although one German (the stateof-the-art 

Prinz Eugen) and two Japanese warships also 

filled out the test contingent. 

Test Able was carried out on July 1, 1946. A bomb 

named “Gilda” was dropped from a B-29, and exploded 

300m (1,000 feet) above the lagoon, and half a mile 

from the planned target. Five of the vessels moored 

in the lagoon sank immediately. However, observers 

were stationed far away from the explosion and there 

was a general disappointment expressed by witnesses 

and in the media that the bomb did not live up to its 

hype. Laurence, the New York Times reporter who had 

witnessed the Trinity explosion a year earlier, as well 

as the bombing of Nagasaki, described the Able test: “I 

saw a reddish-purple ball of fire, smaller than the one I 

had seen in New Mexico, shooting upward like a meteor 

going in the wrong direction. It was quickly surrounded 

by a gigantic spherical envelope of fog. The envelope 

collapsed with great violence, like a balloon punctured 

by an invisible hand. Out of it, like a monster hatched 

from a giant egg, emerged a mushroom-topped cloud” 

(quoted in Graybar, 1986, p. 901). 

Figure 25. The Crossroads Able test (Photo: National Nuclear 

Security Administration / Nevada Site Office, 1946)

Figure 26. 

The Crossroads Baker test (Photo: National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site Office, 1946) 

The submarine Test Baker followed on July 25, suspended 

30 meters below the surface of the water and detonated 

at 8:35 am. The countdown was broadcast worldwide. 

Weisgall (1994) imagines the scene: 

As they waited for the blast, many observers saw 

the test as a harbinger of push-button warfare. 

Men pushed buttons, an atomic bomb was set off, 

and to add a Wellsian touch, crewless drone boats 

and robotic pilotless planes would move through 

the lagoon and over the ghost fleet of abandoned 

ships. (p. 221) 

The water column, holding 2 million tons of water, 

reached a mile high within one second. Shock waves 

hit the islands at speeds of over 5,000 kilometers per 

hour. A crater was carved in the lagoon floor moving 

2 million cubic yards of material, and five ships and 

37 

three other vessels were sunk. According to Weisgall, 

“the Baker shot unleashed the greatest waves ever 

known to humanity, with the possible exception of 

those produced by the 1883 explosion of the island of 

Krakatoa” 3 (1994, p. 224). While the spectacle of Baker 

created quite a different impression than that of Able, 

it was the radioactive fallout that was most significant. 

It was with surprise that the navy found the radioactive 

contamination could not be scrubbed away, and that 

ships would be ineffective at protecting their crews in 

nuclear warfare. 

This submarine explosion elicited quite a different 

response from eyewitnesses to the previous Able 

explosion: New York Times journalist, Laurence, wrote 

that “the phenomenon itself was one of the most 

spectacular and awe-inspiring sights ever seen by man 

3 The first wave was measured at 94 feet (30 meters) high. 


on this planet,” while the New York Herald Tribune 

correspondent, White, exclaims that it was an “explosion 

so fantastic, so mighty and so beyond belief that men’s 

emotions burst from their throats in wild shouts” 

(quoted in Weisgall, 1994, p. 222). 

The New York Times headline of July 25 summed up the 

extraordinary juxtaposition of a plan for international 

control of atomic energy with the display of nuclear 

thunder: “Atomic Bomb Sinks Battleships and Carriers; 

Four Submarines are Lost in Mounting Toll; Soviet Flatly 

Rejects Baruch Control Plan” (Weisgall, 1994, p.255). 

Soon after, the Soviet newspaper Pravda reported that “If 

the atomic bomb did not explode anything wonderful, it 

did explode something more important than a couple of 

out-of-date warships; it fundamentally undermined the 


38 

belief in the seriousness of American talk about atomic 

disarmament” (quoted in Graybar, 1986, p. 902). 

After Operation Crossroads the US moved all testing to 

Enewetak Atoll, 350 km (200 miles) west of Bikini, where 

a total of 43 devices were tested between 1948 and 

1958. A comparison of Enewetak and Bikini is carried 

out in section 3.c Comparative Analysis. Bikini was not 

used again as a test site until the dramatic and deadly 

Operation Castle Bravo experiment nearly eight years 

later. 

Figure 27. 

Aerial view of the Crossroads Baker test (Photo: National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site Office, 1946)

Figure 28. Stamp cancellation for 

Operation Crossroads (US Navy, 1946) 

39 

Figure 29. Decontamination of ships after Operation Crossroads 

(National Archives, 1946) 

USS 

Figure 30. Skate in the aftermath of Able, its superstructure crushed, conning tower bent, and 

“very radio-active” (National Archives, 1946) 


Figure 31. 

The Castle Bravo bomb (1954, U.S. Airforce/ Defense Nuclear Agency) 

Operation Castle Bravo 

On March 1, 1954, for the people of Rongelap just 130 

km east of Bikini Atoll, two suns rose. One in the east 

brought light, warmth and life, and the other brought 

unimaginable destruction that changed the world 

forever. The world’s first deliverable hydrogen bomb 

test, Castle Bravo, was conducted at Bikini Atoll. Bravo 

introduced the world to horrors of nuclear weapons 

beyond those known from Hiroshima or Nagasaki— 

fallout and resulting radiation illness at a great distance 

from the explosion—and sowed the seeds of the global 

nuclear disarmament movement. 

In preparation for the test, the US military weather 

station on Rongerik, a smaller atoll east of Rongelap, 

began regular observations to determine barometric 

conditions, temperature, and the velocity of the wind up 

to 30,000 meters above sea level. The weather briefing 

the day before the detonation stated that there would 

be no significant fallout for the populated Marshalls. 

A later briefing, however, stated that “the predicted 

winds were less favorable; nevertheless, the decision 

to shoot was reaffirmed, but with another review of 

the winds scheduled for midnight” (Martin & Rowland, 

quoted in Niedenthal, 2002, pp. 6-7). The midnight 

briefing “indicated less favorable winds at 10,000 to 

25,000-foot levels,” winds at 6,000meters (20,000 feet) 

“were headed for Rongelap to the east,” and “it was 

recognized that both Bikini and Eneman Islands would 


40 

probably be contaminated” (Martin & Rowland, quoted 

in Niedenthal, 2002, pp. 6-7). 

Early in the morning on March 1, 1954 the device, 

code-named “Shrimp,” was detonated on the surface 

of the reef in the northwestern corner of Bikini Atoll. 

The area was illuminated by a huge and expanding flash 

of blinding light. A raging fireball of intense heat that 

measured into the millions of degrees shot skyward 

at a rate of 500 kilometers (300 miles) an hour. Within 

minutes the monstrous cloud, filled with nuclear 

debris, shot up more than 35 kilometers (20 miles) and 

generated winds hundreds of kilometers per hour. These 

fiery gusts blasted the surrounding islands and stripped 

the branches and coconuts from the trees. Joint Task 

Force ships, stationed about 60 kilometers (40 miles) 

east and south of Bikini in positions enabling them to 

monitor the test, detected the eastward movement of 

the radioactive cloud from the 15 megaton blast. They 

recorded a steady increase in radiation levels that became 

so high that all men were ordered below decks, and all 

hatches and watertight doors were sealed. Millions of 

tons of sand, coral, plant and sea life from Bikini’s reef, 

from three islands and the surrounding lagoon waters, 

were sent high into the air by the blast, leaving a crater 

more than 2 kilometers wide (over a mile wide) and 80 

meters (250 feet) deep.

One-and-a-half hours after the explosion, 23 fishermen 

aboard the Daigo Fukuryū-Maru (Lucky Dragon #5), 

a Japanese fishing vessel, watched in awe as a “gritty 

white ash”—which the Japanese came to know as shi no 

hai (the ashes of death) (“Ashes to Ashes,” 1954)—began 

to fall on them. The men aboard the ship were oblivious 

to the fact that the ash was the fallout from a hydrogen 

bomb test. Shortly after being exposed to the fallout 

their skin began to itch and they experienced nausea 

and vomiting. All 23 crew developed radiation sickness. 

The boat’s return to Japan two weeks later and the 

death of one crew member within months, from acute 

radiation illness, was to have a resounding impact in 

Japan, as Saito describes: 

Japanese were in shock when Yomiuri Shinbun 

scooped on March 16, 1954 that the crew on 

the tuna fish boat Lucky Dragon 5 had been 

exposed to the nuclear fallout in Bikini Atoll. 

After the tuna were unloaded and distributed to 

local markets all over Japan, it was discovered 

that they contained high levels of radiation. As 

tuna—part of the Japanese staple diet—were 

now exposed to nuclear pollution, people began 

to feel that the entire nation was threatened 

by nuclear weaponry. The fear of radioactive 

materials and their threat to Japanese everyday 

life was pervasive. Newspapers were relentless 

in reporting medical conditions of the crew 

of Lucky Dragon 5 and objects contaminated 

by the H-bomb fallout, such as raindrops and 

vegetables. Groups of people flooded to Tokyo 

University Hospital to ask physicians for medical 

examination because they had eaten tuna; the 

so-called tuna horror, the fear of tuna exposed to 

radioactivity (“A-bomb tuna”), was widespread. 

Several episodes of people who mistook white 

substances like pollen as H-bomb fallout were 

also reported. Public arenas were saturated 

with narratives and images expressing fear of 

nuclear weapons. According to the opinion poll 

conducted by Asahi Shinbun (May 20, 1954), 70 

percent of the population was afraid of exposure 

to radioactivity. (2006, p. 368) 4 

Meanwhile, on Rongelap Atoll, located about 150 km 

east of the test on Bikini, John Anjain, at his breakfast at 

the time, describes the event: 

On the morning of the ‘bomb’ I was awake and 

drinking coffee. I thought I saw what appeared 

to be the sunrise, but it was in the west. It was 

truly beautiful with many colors—red, green and 

4 See also Totten & Kawakami, 1964. 

41 

yellow—and I was surprised. A little while later 

the sun rose in the east. Then some time later 

something like smoke filled the entire sky and 

shortly after that a strong and warm wind—as in a 

typhoon—swept across Rongelap. Then all of the 

people heard the great sound of the explosion. 

Some people began to cry with fright. (Dibblin, 

1990, p. 25) 

Three to four hours after the blast, the white, snow-like 

ash began to fall from the sky onto the 64 people living 

on Rongelap and also onto the 18 people residing on 

Ailinginae Atoll. The Rongelapese, not understanding 

what was happening, observed with amazement as the 

radioactive dust soon formed a layer on their island 

two inches deep, turning the drinking water a brackish 

yellow. Children played in the fallout; their mothers 

watched in horror as night came and they began to show 

the physical signs of exposure. Lomoyo Abon, living on 

Rongelap at the time, describes the experience: 

That night we couldn’t sleep, our skin itched so 

much. On our feet were burns, as if from hot 

water. Our hair fell out. We’d look at each other 

and laugh—you’re bald, you look like an old man. 

But really we were frightened and sad. (Dibblin, 

1990, pp. 24-25) 

The people experienced severe vomiting and diarrhea, 

and their hair began to fall out; the island fell into a 

state of terrified panic. Two days after the test the 

people of Rongelap were taken to Kwajalein for medical 

treatment. 

On Bikini Atoll the radiation levels increased dramatically. 

In late March following the Bravo test, the off-limit 

zones were expanded to include the inhabited atolls 

of Rongelap, Utrik, Ujelang and Likiep. In the spring 

of 1954, the atolls of Bikar, Ailinginae, Rongelap and 

Rongerik, were all contaminated by the Yankee and Union 

weapons tests which were detonated on Bikini Atoll. 

They yielded the equivalent of 6.9 and 13.5 megatons 

of TNT respectively. The people of Rongelap did return 

to their homeland in 1957 but were evacuated again in 

1985 by the Greenpeace Rainbow Warrior. 

Bravo, at 15 megatons, was a thousand times more 

powerful than the Fat Man and Little Boy atomic 

bombs that were dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. 

Its “success” was beyond the wildest dreams of 

the American scientists who were involved in the 

detonation—they thought that the blast would only 

carry a payload of approximately 5 megatons. Bravo is 

to this day the largest detonation ever conducted by the 

United States. As Weisgall (1994) describes: 


The Bravo shot finally brought home to the 

American public and the world the realization 

that the killing power of radioactive fallout 

from a thermonuclear bomb greatly exceeds 

the fiery blast and heat of the direct explosion 

that causes it. Its impact and scope are mindnumbing…Hiroshima 

paled in comparison to 

Bravo, which represented as revolutionary 

advance in explosive power over the atomic 

bomb as the atomic bomb had over the 

conventional weapons of World War II. (pp. 

306-307) 

Other tests 

While Operation Crossroads and the Castle Bravo tests 

were the most significant, 23 additional nuclear tests 

were carried out between 1946 and 1958 on Bikini, of a 

total of 67 tests in the Marshall Islands (see Annex 2 for 

a list of all tests). In 1958, the United States anticipated 

the acceptance of a call for suspension of atmospheric 

nuclear testing and assembled a large number of devices 

for testing before the moratorium came into effect. As 

a result, Operation Hardtack was a series of 35 tests 

carried out in the Pacific Proving Grounds in only five 

months between April and August, 1958; ten of these 

on Bikini. 

While a radiological survey in 1947 had determined that 

within a few years the islands could be re-inhabited, 

the United States decided not to return the Bikinians. 

Instead, the islands were retained as a military testing 

ground with an additional twenty nuclear tests taking 

place between 1954 and 1958. As these additional 

tests occurred, further changes–the construction of 

additional, larger concrete bunkers, the placement of 

additional test equipment, and the laying of miles of 

undersea cables—continued the alteration of Bikini Atoll. 

At the end of the testing in 1958, Bikini’s landscape, both 

above and below the surface of the water, reflected its 

transformation. 

Bikini was and remains the world’s first large-scale 

nuclear landscape—an area of the globe forever 

transformed by nuclear testing, and this landscape 

remains essentially untouched and unaltered. The 

physical legacy of the testing is inherent in the many 

bunkers and test equipment left on the islands, in the 

cables and sunken ships, in the various nuclear blast 

craters in the lagoon, and, markedly, in the vanished 

islands and the large “Bravo” crater that disrupts the 

atoll’s chain of islands. These, as well as the fallout 

remaining in the islands’ soil, all bear testimony to the 

enormous destructive power of the technology that was 

demonstrated here. The lonely rows of coconut palms, 


42 

planted in the hope the Bikinians could return to their 

home and resume their way of life, now symbolize the 

loss of this way of life forever. 

2.b.(vii) The “Nuclear Nomads” of 

Bikini 

In 1946, the Bikinians had arrived on Rongerik Atoll 

to the east of Bikini, an atoll that had been previously 

uninhabited due to a lack of food and water resources, 

and a traditional belief that an evil spirit lived there and 

contaminated the fish. Within a short time the Bikinians 

began to suffer from food shortages and fish poisoning. 

In 1947, Ujelang was selected for the Bikinians’ new 

home and a new village was constructed there in 

preparation. However, in December of that year the US 

decided to use Enewetak as an additional nuclear test 

site and to relocate the people of Enewetak to Ujelang, 

based on their traditional ties to that atoll. 

On the verge of starvation, in March 1948, the Bikinians 

were moved to a tent city on Kwajalein Atoll while a new 

home was found for them. In June the Bikinians selected 

Kili Island—a single island with no lagoon or protected 

anchorage in the southern Marshall Islands—because 

the island was not ruled by a paramount king, or iroij, 

and was uninhabited. This choice ultimately doomed 

their traditional diet and lifestyle, which were both 

based on lagoon fishing. 

In November, 1948, the Bikinians moved to Kili. Most 

of the year Kili is surrounded by 3 to 5 meter waves 

that deny the islanders the opportunity to fish and sail 

their canoes. After a short time on Kili—a place that 

the islanders believe was once an ancient burial ground 

for kings and is therefore overwrought with spiritual 

influence—they began to refer to it as a “prison” 

island. Because the island does not produce enough 

local food for the Bikinians to eat, the importation of 

US Department of Agriculture rice and canned goods 

and other purchased food had become an absolute 

necessity for their survival. In the following years rough 

seas and infrequent visits by the field trip ships caused 

food supplies to run critically low many times on the 

island and once even required an airdrop of emergency 

food rations. These difficult conditions continued 

for the people of Bikini over the next decade. (Note: 

Source of the above paragraphs: Micronitor, 1996; 

Niedenthal, 2002; Weisgall, 1994; Dibblin, 1990. For 

more information on the chronology of the “nuclear 

nomads” of the Marshall Islands see Annex 2).

2.b.(viii) Resettling Bikini 

In 1967, US government agencies began considering 

the possibility of returning the Bikinian people to their 

homelands based on data on radiation levels on Bikini 

Atoll from the US scientific community. This scientific 

optimism stemmed directly from an US Atomic Energy 

Commission (AEC) report that stated “The exposures of 

radiation that would result from the repatriation of the 

Bikini people do not offer a significant threat to their 

health and safety” (Shields et al., 1967, p. 1). 

Accordingly, in August of 1968 (the story appeared on 

the front page of the New York Times) President Lyndon 

B. Johnson promised the 540 Bikinians living on Kili and 

other islands that they would now be able to return to 

their homeland and ordered the atoll to rehabilitated and 

resettled (“US to let Bikinians back on A-test Isle,” 1968; 

Bromley Smith draft memorandum to President Johnson 

cited in Weisgall, 1994, p. 314). A group of nine Bikinians 

visited Bikini Atoll on behalf of the Bikinians living on Kili 

and other islands. Upon seeing the landscape, one man 

murmured “It’s all changed, it’s not the same,” while 

the others nodded silently in agreement (“9 Return to 

Bikini,” 1968). 

In August of 1969 an eight-year plan was prepared for 

the resettlement of Bikini Atoll. The first phase of the 

work involved the clearing of the radioactive debris on 

Bikini Island, accomplished by bulldozers being driven 

methodically between the trees in neat rows, and then 

pushing the debris into huge piles which were later 

removed. This operation created a massive grid pattern 

over the entire islands of Bikini and Eneu. By late 1969 

the first cleanup phase was completed. The second 

phase of the reclamation included the replanting of 

the atoll, construction of housing and the resettlement 

of the community. During the year of 1971 this effort 

proceeded slowly as the US government withdrew their 

military personnel and equipment, and brought to an 

end the weekly air service that had been operating 

between Kwajalein Atoll and Bikini Atoll. 

In late 1972 the planting of the coconut trees was finally 

completed. During this period it was discovered that as 

the coconut crabs grew older on Bikini Island they ate 

their sloughed-off shells. Those shells contained high 

levels of radioactivity; hence, the AEC announced that 

the crabs were still radioactive and could be eaten only 

in limited numbers. The conflicting information on the 

radiological contamination of Bikini supplied by the 

AEC caused the Bikini Council to vote not to return to 

Bikini at the time previously scheduled by American 

officials. The Council, however, stated that it would not 

prevent individuals from making independent decisions 

43 

to return. Three extended Bikinian families, their desire 

to return to Bikini being great enough to outweigh the 

alleged radiological dangers, moved back to Bikini Island 

and into the newly constructed houses. They were 

accompanied by approximately 50 Marshallese workers 

who were involved in the construction and maintenance 

of the buildings. 

The population of islanders on Bikini slowly increased 

over the next 5 years to about 100 people until in June 

of 1975, during regular monitoring of Bikini, radiological 

tests discovered “higher levels of radioactivity than 

originally thought.” US Department of Interior officials 

stated that “Bikini appears to be hotter or questionable 

as to safety” and an additional report pointed out 

that some water wells on Bikini Island were also too 

contaminated with radioactivity for drinking. A couple 

of months later the AEC, on review of the scientists’ 

data, decided that the local foods grown on Bikini Island, 

including pandanus, breadfruit and coconut crabs, were 

also too radioactive for human consumption. Medical 

tests of urine samples from the 100 people living on 

Bikini detected the presence of low levels of plutonium 

239 and 240. (Note: Source of above three paragraphs: 

Niedenthal, 2002, pp. 10-12) 

In October of 1975, after contemplating these new 

and confusing reports on the radiological condition of 

their atoll, the Bikinians filed a lawsuit in US federal 

court demanding that a complete scientific survey of 

Bikini and the northern Marshalls be conducted. As a 

result the US agreed to conduct an aerial radiological 

survey of the northern Marshalls, but meanwhile the 

Bikinians, unaware of the severity of the radiological 

danger, remained on their contaminated islands. In 

May of 1977 the level of radioactive strontium-90 in the 

well water on Bikini Island was found to exceed the US 

maximum allowed limits. A month later a Department 

of Energy study stated that “All living patterns involving 

Bikini Island exceed Federal guidelines for thirty year 

population doses.” Later in the same year, a group of US 

scientists, while on Bikini, recorded an 11-fold increase 

in the cesium-137 body burdens of the more than 

100 people residing on the island. Alarmed by these 

numbers, the DOE told the people living on Bikini to eat 

only one coconut per day and began to ship in food for 

consumption. In April of 1978 medical examinations 

performed by US physicians revealed radiation levels in 

many of the now 139 people on Bikini to be well above 

the US maximum permissible level. The very next month 

US Department of Interior officials described the 75% 

increase in radioactive cesium 137 as “incredible.” The 

Interior Department then announced plans to move 

the people from Bikini within 75 to 90 days, and so in 

September of 1978, Trust Territory officials arrived on 


Bikini to once again evacuate the people who were living 

on the atoll (Note: Source of above paragraph: Hamilton 

& Robison, 2004; Niedenthal, 2002; Lokan et al., 1998; 

Simon, 1995). The nuclear landscape of Bikini, which 

prior to the testing had been a treasured and productive 

homeland, had been rendered uninhabitable. 

Since the aborted repatriation to Bikini in the 1970s, a 

number of scientific studies have been performed on 

Bikini Atoll. Beginning in the late 1970s through to the 

present day, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 

has studied the radiological conditions of Bikini, usually 

with two missions per year. In the early 1980s, the 

Bikini Atoll Rehabilitation Committee (BARC), a group 

of highly regarded American scientists, completed and 

submitted a report about the radiation on Bikini Atoll 

to the US Congress. In February of 1995 the Nationwide 

Radiological Study was completed by Dr. Steven Simon 

and a group of scientists from all over the world for the 

Marshall Islands government. In addition, the National 

Academy of Sciences also released a report about 

Rongelap Atoll in which Bikini Atoll cleanup options 

and radiological conditions were discussed. Beginning 

in the early 1990s, the Bikinians have had their own 

independent scientist reviewing these studies. In 

1996 the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 

responded to requests from the Marshall Islands to 

comprehensively review and validate the radiological 

studies to date, which was reported on in 1998. (Note: 

Source of above paragraph: Niedenthal, 2002; Hamilton 

and Robison, 2004; Lokan et al., 1998) 

2.b.(ix) Bikini as a tourist destination 

In 1989 the US Navy and the US National Park Service 

Submerged Cultural Resource Unit conducted an 

assessment of the sunken ships of Operation Crossroads 

to determine potential hazards from leaking fuel, 

unexploded conventional ordnance, heritage value and 

tourism potential. The teams surveyed the lagoon, 

located most of the sunken ships, and conducted a series 

of dives, extensively documenting the USS Saratoga, 

HIJMS Nagato, USS Arkansas, and USS Pilotfish (Delgado 

et al., 1990). 

Development of the infrastructure to support the 

clean-up and resettlement programs on Bikini Atoll 

started early in calendar year 1991. The program was 

concentrated at Eneu Island, which had been declared 

safe for habitation, and was the main support base for 

the clean-up activities. Warehouses, crew quarters 

and a power plant were constructed and potassium 

fertilizer was spread throughout Eneu Island as a safety 


44 

measure. 5 

With the opening of the tourism program on Bikini Island 

in 1996, there were numerous upgrades and additions 

to the facilities. In 1998, cleanup activities began on 

Bikini Island with a 120 hectare (300 acre) land-clearing 

project. However, the adoption of a new 15 millirem 

EPA radiological cleanup standard in December of 1998 

placed the cleanup of Bikini on hold pending further 

funding from the US government. Since 1996 Bikini has 

hosted up to around 250 tourists each year and provided 

the unparalleled experience of diving amidst the sunken 

vessels and abundant sharks, and relaxing in the 

beautiful surrounds of Bikini Island. Bikini has become 

a renowned dive location, consistently being reviewed 

as one of the premier diving experiences in the world 

(Note: see http://www.bikiniatoll.com/divetour.html for 

examples of reviews). 

Figure 32. Diving on the wreck of the Saratoga (E. Hanauer, 2006) 

5 The application of potassium on coral-soils has been found 

to reduce the uptake of radioactive Cesium-137 into plants, and thus 

into the human food chain.

Part 3. Justification for Inscription 

3.a Criteria under which inscription is proposed, and 

justification for inscription under these criteria 

Nuclear bomb tests at Bikini Atoll shaped the history of the people of Bikini, the history of the 

Marshall Islands and the history of the entire world. Bikini Atoll is nominated as a cultural site 

against criteria (iv) and (vi) as set out in Paragraph 77 of the Operational Guidelines for the 

implementation of the World Heritage Convention. 

Figure 33. 

A view of the Baker shot showing the test fleet, with Bikini island in the foreground (US Navy, 1946) 

45 


3.a.(i) Criterion (iv): be an outstanding 

example of a type of building, 

architectural or technological ensemble 

or landscape which illustrates (a) 

significant stage(s) in human history; 

Bikini Atoll is an outstanding example of a nuclear test 

site—both a technological ensemble and a landscape/ 

seascape—bearing witness to the dawn of the nuclear 

age, the start of the Cold War and the era of nuclear 

colonialism. As a nuclear test site, Bikini Atoll is distinctly 

20 th century heritage. The World Heritage Committee 

and ICOMOS have acknowledged the need to include 

works of outstanding universal value from the heritage 

of the modern age, taking into account that the 20 th 

century is now history (ICOMOS, 2004). 

The entire landscape and seascape of Bikini Atoll testifies 

to its history as a nuclear test site, from the ensemble of 

sunken ships—which lie in the positions where they were 

placed and subsequently sunk as “targets”—and the 

purpose-built bunkers and buildings, to the disappeared 

islands and the Bravo crater. Even the abandoned rows 

of coconut trees, planted in preparation for the failed 

resettlement, symbolize the fate of a nuclear test site— 

ongoing contamination making it unsuitable for human 

habitation. 

Outstanding universal value under this criterion is 

demonstrated through recognition of Bikini Atoll as: 

• 

• 

• 

A monument and memorial to the dawn of 

the nuclear age; 

A site bearing witness to nuclear testing 

events of global significance—turning points 

in the world’s history; 

A testimony to nuclear colonialism. 

A monument and memorial to the dawn of 

the nuclear age 

A tiny island bears witness to survival, and to loss. It 

recalls the innocence of another age. 

(Livingston & Rawlings, 1992). 

Bikini Atoll is of outstanding universal value as a 

monument and memorial to the dawn of the nuclear 

age—the era that defined the second half of the 

20th Century. 

In its landscape, natural environment and in the 

artifacts of the testing, Bikini Atoll offers an opportunity 

to memorialize many of the contested meanings of the 

nuclear age for its different audiences. For the people 

of Bikini, the atoll is remembered as the abundant and 

beautiful homeland and remains the locus of their 


46 

spiritual and cultural identity. For the people of Rongelap, 

Utrik and other affected atolls, Bikini is the source of 

their radiation illness and loss of their homelands. For 

victims of nuclear colonialism and testing around the 

world, Bikini speaks to their experiences, losses and 

grief, as it does for the servicemen of Bikini and other 

nuclear test sites who were exposed to radiation. 

More than this, Bikini Atoll is a monument and memorial 

of global significance, for it reminds us of the world’s 

lost innocence. At first glance we see the quintessential 

tropical paradise—white beaches, palm trees, turtles 

and sharks swimming on a vibrant reef in clear, turquoise 

waters—images beloved by modern culture, as well 

as by the islanders themselves. These are images that 

bring to mind an idyllic, peaceful, and simple world. 

In the abandoned, poisoned land, the sunken ships, 

the disappeared islands and the abundant photos and 

footage of the nuclear tests, we remember clearly the 

time where innocence was lost—when men held and 

wielded a power reserved for gods. 

As a nuclear test site, Bikini has, in a way, stood as a 

monument and memorial to the loss of innocence from 

the moment it was chosen. Even prior to the testing, 

E.B. White (March 9, 1946) wrote in the New Yorker of 

this symbolic loss of innocence: 

Bikini Lagoon, although we have never seen it, 

begins to seem like the one place in the world 

we cannot spare… it grows increasingly valuable 

in our eyes—the lagoon, the low-lying atoll, the 

steady wind from the east, the palms in the wind, 

the quiet natives who live without violence. It all 

seems unspeakably precious, like a lovely child 

stricken with a fatal disease. (quoted in Weisgall, 

1994, p. 152) 

The trace, memory and spirit of the time—the zeitgeist— 

of Bikini Atoll as a nuclear test site is recorded in films, 

photos, journalism, technical reports, oral histories, 

memoirs and works of art. The mechanisms by which 

Bikini Atoll functions as a monument and a memorial is 

expanded from the tangible by the inclusion of symbols, 

works of art and representations of Bikini that have 

accompanied the process of its journey from a beloved, 

beautiful home to an abandoned nuclear test site. These 

are discussed in more detail below, in the justification 

under Criterion (vi).

A site bearing witness to nuclear testing 

events of global significance—turning 

points in the world’s history 

Bikini Atoll bears witness to individual events of global 

significance—in particular Operation Crossroads in 

1946 and the Castle Bravo detonation in 1954. Both 

of these events represent turning points in the world’s 

history. Operation Crossroads, the first peace-time 

nuclear detonations, was extensively documented and 

publicized, and was a prominent event contributing to 

the start of the Cold War. The Castle Bravo test, the first 

deliverable hydrogen bomb, introduced the world to the 

devastating, persistent and extensive nature of nuclear 

fallout, and sowed the seed of international action for 

nuclear disarmament. 

Operation Crossroads: As discussed in Part 2b. History 

and Development, Operation Crossroads occurred 

at a time of awkward diplomacy between the Soviets 

and the Americans, and the display of power by the 

US conflicted with ongoing efforts to place nuclear 

weapons under the control of the United Nations, thus 

contributing significantly to the distrust and paranoia 

that characterized the start of the Cold War. Farrell 

(1987) suggests the significance was such that “at the 

crossroads of Bikini, the country [the US] opted for 

a diplomatic, military, political and cultural Cold War 

that has persisted, with minor variations, to this day” 

(p.65). The cover article for Time magazine, on July 1, 

1946 speaks of the “Tremor of Finality” of Operation 

Crossroads: 

Against the peaceful backdrop of palm frond and 

pandanus, on this most “backward” of islands, 

the most progressive of centuries would write 

in one blinding stroke of disintegration the inner 

meaning of technological civilization: all matter is 

speed and flame. (“Crossroads,” July 1, 1946) 

Delgado (1991) explains the significance of the ships 

sunk during Operation Crossroads: 

The place of these ships in the history of naval 

development, their roles in naval history and 

their World War II combat records establish 

their significance only up to the moment they 

were selected for Operation Crossroads. From 

that point on their previous histories become 

secondary, for the pre-Crossroads significance of 

the ships is overshadowed by the social, political, 

and military decisions that brought them to Bikini, 

and the forces unleashed by the detonation of 

two atomic bombs that sent them to the bottom 

of the atoll’s lagoon. Each of these vessels 

passed over a threshold at the “crossroads” 

47 

between conventional and nuclear warfare, as 

did the world that had built and manned them. 

Regardless of type, age, or career, each vessel 

that now lies where it was sunk by the Able and 

Baker test blasts is of equal significance as the 

only uncompromised material record of the early, 

formative stages of nuclear weapons design and 

the development of a nuclear military policy. (p. 

144) 

The ships now lying at the bottom of Bikini Atoll in their 

shallow crater bear witness to this turning point in the 

history of the 20 th Century. 

Castle Bravo: The world’s first deliverable hydrogen 

bomb was a landmark event in the history of the world. 

Just as the atomic weapons dropped on Hiroshima and 

Nagasaki had brought the theories of nuclear physicists 

into a terrible reality, this next major technological 

development was to shock the world and directly give 

rise to the nuclear disarmament movement. The Castle 

Bravo event, although conducted in great secrecy, was 

to be the US’s greatest radiological disaster and would, 

very publicly, introduce the world to “fallout.” In his 

definitive History of the World Nuclear Disarmament 

Movement, Wittner (1997) states the significance of the 

Bravo event: 

Although the US government had tested the 

world’s first thermonuclear device in 1952 and 

the Soviet Union had made its own nuclear 

breakthrough the following year, not until 1954 

did nuclear testing deeply impress itself on 

public consciousness. The turning point was the 

first US H-Bomb test, conducted by the Atomic 

Energy Commission [USAEC] on March 1, 1954. It 

occurred at Bikini Atoll. (p.1) 

Boyer (1985) situates the cultural impact of the Bravo 

test at that time: 

In the mid-1950’s the issue of nuclear weapons 

again surged dramatically to the forefront, once 

more becoming a central cultural theme. …The 

reason was fear… It was the United States’ 1954 

test series [the Castle Series] that really aroused 

alarm, spreading radioactive ash over seven 

thousand square miles of the Pacific, forcing the 

emergency evacuation of nearby islanders, and 

bringing illness and death to Japanese fishermen 

80 miles away. (p. 352) 

Ralph Lapp, a physicist on the Manhattan Project and 

author of the bestselling book about the incident, 

Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (1958) claims that: 


The true striking power [of nuclear weapons] was 

revealed on the deck of the Lucky Dragon. When 

men 100 miles from an explosion can be killed by 

the silent touch of the bomb, the world suddenly 

becomes too small a sphere for men to clutch the 

atom. For this knowledge, gained so strangely 

from the adventures of 23 men, the world may 

some day rank this voyage with that of Columbus. 

(p. 198) 

The Bravo crater in the north-western corner of the atoll, 

along with the still-contaminated, uninhabited islands 

of Bikini, stand as testimony to the Castle Bravo event— 

the detonation of the world’s first H-bomb. Aside from 

the bombs dropped on civilian populations of Hiroshima 

and Nagasaki, no other single nuclear weapons events 

have had this scale of impact on the world. 

A testimony to nuclear colonialism 

The effects of colonialism and military activity in the 

Pacific have been accepted as significant themes for 

Pacific World Heritage (Thematic Framework for World 

Cultural Heritage in the Pacific, 2005; Smith & Jones, 

2007). The United States, the United Kingdom and 

France all tested nuclear devices in the Pacific between 

1946 and 1996, enabled by their colonial histories in 

the region. The process of Pacific nuclear colonialism 

finally gave rise to the Nuclear Free and Independent 

Pacific Movement based on the understanding of Pacific 

peoples that nuclear tests could be halted only if their 

countries were decolonized and became sovereign 

nations. Due to similarities in landscape, culture and 

experience with other Pacific nuclear test sites, Bikini 

is presented as exemplary testimony to this significant 

phase in Pacific history—that of nuclear colonialism. 

However, nuclear colonialism was not restricted to 

the Pacific and Bikini Atoll, now unpeopled, stands as 

exemplary testimony to a lost way of life, on behalf of 

all victims of nuclear colonialism. Over 2,050 nuclear 

devices have been detonated worldwide in the years 

since 1945. Major testing programs were carried out by 

the United States, the Soviet Union, France and Britain 

(in conjunction with Australia). Countries that carried 

out lesser programs are China, India, Pakistan and North 

Korea. Some test sites bear familiar names such as 

Nevada, Maralinga, Trinity and Moruroa. Other sites are 

less familiar to us: Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan, Amchitka 

in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, Kiritimati (Christmas 

Island) in Kiribati, Lop Nur in western China, and Novaya 

Zemlya in the Barents Sea. All the sites used for testing 

bear irreversible scars telling their powerful stories of 

lost lands, lost health, and lost cultures and ways of life. 

In all cases the people and institutions running the tests 


48 

ignored the presence of local indigenous populations, 

or displaced them. In all cases local communities were 

involuntarily exposed to radiation and fallout from the 

tests. In all cases servicemen were exposed to radiation 

without information or choices. In the worst cases, 

people were used as human guinea pigs. 

The Abolition 2000 6 Conference in 1997 recognized 

the burden that nuclear colonialism has placed on 

indigenous peoples by releasing the Moorea Declaration 

on Colonialism: 

This meeting, held in Te Ao Maohi a year after the 

end of French nuclear testing, has highlighted the 

particular suffering of indigenous and colonised 

peoples as a result of the production and testing 

of nuclear weapons. The anger and tears of 

colonised peoples arise from the fact that there 

was no consultation, no consent, no involvement 

in the decision when their lands, air and waters 

were taken for the nuclear build-up, form the very 

start of the nuclear era. 

Colonised and indigenous peoples have, in 

the large part, borne the brunt of this nuclear 

devastation - from the mining of uranium and the 

testing of nuclear weapons on indigenous peoples 

land, to the dumping, storage and transport of 

plutonium and nuclear wastes, and the theft of 

land for nuclear infrastructure. (Abolition 2000, 

1997, paras.2,3) 

Of enormous significance not only to the Bikinians, but 

to all indigenous peoples who were victims of nuclear 

colonialism, Bikini demonstrates what can happen when 

an idyllic society, living a quiet subsistence lifestyle, 

meets a global superpower with enormous wealth and 

military or industrial capability: 

A pattern of militarisation, environmental 

devastation and the displacement of Indigenous 

or local peoples is visible in the landscapes of 

many Cold War test sites, island and continental. 

However, in the Pacific Islands where all human 

behaviour is informed by the oceanic environment 

of fragile islands amid vast tracts of water, the 

archaeological expression of nuclear testing is 

unlike that found elsewhere. The tiny, remote 

islands affected by nuclear testing represent a 

large portion and in some cases the entire land 

surface on which particular peoples have lived or 

regularly visited for at least a millennium. Some 

of these archaeological landscapes are readily 

6 Abolition 2000 is a network of over 2000 organizations in 

more than 90 countries world-wide working for a global treaty to 

eliminate nuclear weapons.

characterised by material remains—military 

hardware, bunkers, concrete domes, shipwrecks, 

airstrips. More insidiously, some are recognisable 

only in the illnesses of those who have dwelt in 

these landscapes while others now exist only 

in the memories of those who once lived there 

(Smith, 2007, p. 52). 

Bikini is isolated, remote and difficult to access—all 

reasons why it was chosen as a site for nuclear testing. 

This same inaccessibility means that relatively few 

people will actually experience Bikini, and much of its 

meaning as the world’s heritage is contained in the 

representations of Bikini as a place, and the portrayal of 

the events of Bikini to the world. Davis (2005) discusses 

the role of representation in legitimizing nuclear 

colonialism: 

Representations are a means of transmitting 

certain conceptualizations of a place to other 

people. Since these representations emphasize 

some characteristics of a place at the expense 

of others… They ‘do work’ by reinforcing 

conceptualizations of a place that legitimize certain 

uses and prohibit others. In turn, the new form 

of landscape informs a new conceptualization. (p. 

609) 

What was to the Bikinians their homeland, a place of 

abundance and life, was represented to the world as a 

“deserted Isle” (Davis, 2005), a barren and uninhabited 

terra nullius distant from the home population of the 

testing nation and therefore a safe place for tests. 

Representations of Bikini were made in the form of films, 

radio broadcasts, magazines and leading newspapers 

such as the New York Times, thus legitimizing the use 

of Bikini as a test site. Bikini and Enewetok Atolls were 

renamed to the “Pacific Proving Grounds”—a name that 

removed any connotation that this was a real place and 

a real home for real people: “The ‘hole in the map’ was 

a pre-condition for a nuclear hole in the ground; it alone 

created the necessary marginality for experimentation 

to be deemed acceptable” (Cosgrove quoted in Davis, 

2005, p. 613). 

In January 1946, Bikini was the landscape of a small 

group of people living within the ecological carryingcapacity 

of the atoll, with technologies developed and 

adapted over two thousand years for life on an atoll: 

fishing, navigation, sailing canoes and agriculture. Just a 

few months later the homesick Bikinians were banished 

to inhospitable islands while Bikini was radically 

transformed to conduct the largest scientific and military 

experiment in history. Cameron (1970) describes the 

following: 

49 

Bikini had been, after all, a place of human 

habitation, a homeland. When the atoll was 

acquired by the US Navy, it had about 150 

inhabitants. It had, however, something even 

more important: geography. The trifling life of 

the little island could not reasonably share in a 

transcendental experience that was, when all was 

said and done, dedicated to death. The whole 

function of Bikini was to be remote, far away, 

and as inaccessible as possible from anything 

valued by man, because it was to be destroyed… 

A place had to be found where the principle of 

overkill could be examined, where nuclear bombs 

could be tested in the atmosphere without 

inconveniencing anyone, at least anyone much. 

The Micronesian people of the central Pacific are 

by definition nobody much. (p. 24) 

This process of representation is exemplary of what 

subsequently happened elsewhere. Bikini was the first 

colonial nuclear test site and set the precedent for similar 

representations to be made of the homelands of other 

indigenous communities around the world subjected to 

nuclear colonialism, including in the tropical atolls of 

Kiribati and French Polynesia, the deserts of Australia 

and Algeria, the rocky islands of Aleutian Alaska and 

the vast and arid steppes of Kazakhstan. Bikini Atoll 

shares much in common with other test sites—places 

of nuclear colonialism—around the world, but is an 

outstanding example due to its resonating symbolism, 

integrity and authenticity as will be discussed in section 

3.c. Comparative Analysis. 


3.a.(ii) Criterion (vi): be directly or 

tangibly associated with events or 

living traditions, with ideas, or with 

beliefs, with artistic and literary works 

of outstanding universal significance 

Ideas and beliefs of outstanding universal significance 

are directly and tangibly associated with nuclear testing 

on Bikini Atoll. Emanating from this narrow circle of 

tiny islands in the middle of a vast ocean is a myriad 

of symbolism that has permeated our global culture. 

Events at Bikini led directly to the creation of political 

and ideological movements that have shaped global 

society in the second half of the 20th century. 

The outstanding universal value of Bikini Atoll under this 

criterion is demonstrated through recognition of Bikini 

as: 

• 

• 

A source of globally significant cultural symbols 

and icons of the 20th century, and 

The location of events giving rise directly to 

the globally significant nuclear disarmament 

movement. 

A source of globally significant cultural 

symbols and icons 

The events at Bikini Atoll have inspired various cultural 

symbols and icons of the 20th century. These symbols 

are of outstanding universal significance by virtue of their 

ubiquity, universal recognition, and for the meanings 

they carry. In the case of the mushroom cloud, the 

symbol creates a focal point for the values attributed to 

nuclear weapons—enormous power, fear of spectacular 

annihilation, and later, of radioactive fallout. Godzilla 

initially arose from the Pacific Ocean floor as the very 

embodiment of nuclear devastation and radioactivity, 

a manifestation of Japan’s terror of the bomb. The 

bikini swimming costume and SpongeBob SquarePants 

are icons of popular culture, one created before the 

world truly understood nuclear weapons, and the other 

devised long after the threat of nuclear weapons was 

anything but a backdrop—a cultural wallpaper. In line 

with the high technology of the bomb testing, these 

icons are modern and technological themselves—truly 

late 20th century popular culture. 


50 

The Mushroom Cloud: Images of the mushroom cloud 

were the primary way that information about the 

atomic tests was conveyed. Initially, photographs of 

the mushroom clouds were shown to Bikinians living on 

Rongerik to explain what was happening on Bikini. In 

1954 Life magazine issued a pictorial special about the 

hydrogen bomb tests (April 19, 1954). Spectacularisation 

of nuclear testing using images of the mushroom cloud 

was a deliberate ideological move designed to make the 

population (of the US in particular) comfortable with 

the bomb—to make it commonplace. Images from 

Nevada and Bikini, in particular, were used to do this 

(Rosenthal 1991, Kirsch 1997). It was through images 

of the mushroom clouds that information about nuclear 

tests was made available to the public. 

The universally recognized and understood mushroom 

cloud became the primary symbol used in propaganda 

both by the military, and by the anti-nuclear movement. 

The mushroom cloud was “associated not only with 

possible annihilation, but also with actual radioactive 

fallout and controversies over genetic defects” (Kirsch, 

1997, p. 246). Rosenthal (1991) describes the significance 

of the mushroom cloud as a cultural symbol: 

A quarter century after the nuclear mushroom 

cloud has been seen in real life, it remains the 

unchallenged symbol of the nuclear age because 

its name, shape, and size make it adequate to 

carry all the meanings we need for it to bear. 

Clearly a culmination of the scientific knowledge 

our century values supremely, the mushroom 

cloud stands as apt image of science’s power over 

nature. Clearly a triumph of the technology our 

country claims as measure of its superiority, the 

mushroom cloud stands tall as image of “America 

first.” Clearly both a product and a prophecy of 

war, the mushroom cloud stands as undisputed 

sign of military might. Clearly a power of life-anddeath 

proportions, the mushroom cloud stands as 

appropriate symbol for our secular age’s placing 

in human hands the judgment once assumed to 

be in God’s. And in its remarkable receptivity to 

projections upon it of even vaguely congruent 

images, whether fetus or phallus or smiling face, 

brain or tree or globe, the mushroom cloud 

projects back the array of human responses to all 

that it stands for: responses of pride, parochial 

possessiveness, creative resistance, denial, 

despair. (p.88)

51 

Figure 34. Mushroom cloud from the Castle Romeo bomb test 

(US Government, 1954) (left) 

Figure 35. This classic photo of Crossroads Baker was reprinted in newspapers around the world, and remains the symbol of the bomb even 

today (US Government, 1946) 

Figure 36. “The First Bomb at Bikini” by Charles Bittinger, official 

artist for the US Navy (Naval Historical Center, Washington DC, 

1946) 

Figure 37. Fireball of H-bomb explosion after test blast over 

Bikini Atoll (1956, © Time Inc.) 


The Bikini: The bikini swimming costume is a pop 

culture icon that has forever changed fashion. Originally 

named “le Atome” for its small size by its inventors—two 

French designers, Louis Réard and Jacques Heim,—it was 

launched upon the world as “le Bikini” on July 5, 1946, 

just days after the first test at Bikini Atoll. Political, social 

and fashion commentary conflated the meaning of the 

bikini at this time as Rosebush (n.d.) summarizes: 

Réard’s famous fashion statement changes the 

world; like the bomb, the bikini is small and 

devastating. Vogue editor Diana Vreeland calls 

the bikini “the atom bomb of fashion,” and a Paris 

fashion writer suggests it is the image of a woman 

emerging tattered from the blast. Perhaps the 

shock of seeing the Marshallese islanders in the 

nuclear age enable the Technologists to discover 

seeing themselves in the tribal age. And to enjoy 

it. 

Figure 38. Michele Bernadini models the first Bikini in Paris, July 

18, 1946 (unknown) 


52 

Figure 39. 

Godzilla (1946, © Toho Co. Ltd.) 

Godzilla: Godzilla is the premier pop culture icon of 

Japan. The first Godzilla movie (Gojira, 1954) appeared 

just months after the Bravo test and the return of the 

irradiated Daigo Fukuryū-Maru and its crew to Japan. 

The movie refers overtly to the fishing boat and the US 

hydrogen-bomb tests at Bikini and Enewetak. In the 

film, American nuclear weapons testing in the Pacific 

awakens a seemingly unstoppable, radioactive dinosaurlike 

beast that attacks Tokyo, symbolizing the resurgent 

grief over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and fear that these 

events would be repeated. Godzilla is now one of the 

world’s most recognized monsters, having appeared 

in over 60 films, and his most well-known power is his 

atomic breath. Ryfle proposes that “Godzilla, then, is 

arguably the most important and enduring postwar 

monster movie—important because it attempted to 

address a global issue that still resonates 50 years later” 

(2007, p. 52). 

Other works of art and culture: Works of art and 

culture that are directly inspired and touched by Bikini 

are too numerous to catalogue but some examples 

are presented here to show the breadth, diversity and 

global significance of Bikini’s symbolic reach. Salvador 

Dali, in his 1947 painting “The Three Sphinxes of Bikini,” 

presents us with images of the mushroom cloud mixed 

with images of trees and of the human head, suggesting 

the interaction of man, nature and atomic weapons. At 

the commencement of testing on Bikini in 1946, artist 

Laurence Hyde saw it as “a microcosm of the world-tobe 

if humanity, for the last time, failed to live up to its 

name. It would appear that Hiroshima and Nagasaki 

were not enough.” Hyde developed a series of woodcuts 

that became the graphic novel Southern Cross, telling 

the story of both the testing, and the displacement 

and destruction of a Bikinian family. In the 1956 film 

Moby Dick (directed by John Huston and scripted by Ray 

Bradbury), Captain Ahab (Gregory Peck), when asked 

where he expects to find the whale, points on a chart to 

Bikini Atoll—a symbolic connection of the White Whale

to the bomb. A little more offbeat, in 1996 a cultivar of 

iris was officially named “No Bikini Atoll,” possibly for its 

resemblance to the mushroom cloud. In 2002, critically 

acclaimed composer Steve Reich and artist Beryl Korot 

(2003) created the documentary video opera, “Three 

Tales” which tells the story of the Hindenberg disaster, 

the tests at Bikini Atoll and the cloning of Dolly the 

sheep, selected as three signposts of the 20 th century. 

The music accompanying footage of the removal of the 

Bikinians and the detonations is described as “some of 

the saddest music Reich has composed” (Packett, 2002). 

SpongeBob SquarePants, a broadcasting phenomenon, 

is the most popular children’s television program in 

the world, broadcast in 25 languages in 170 countries. 

SpongeBob SquarePants lives on Bikini Bottom, beneath 

the tropical isle of Bikini Atoll and episodes contain 

occasional references to the actual testing with footage 

of the bombs. In 2007, Time magazine named Sponge 

Bob Square Pants one of the “100 Best TV Shows of All 

Time” (Poniewozik, 2007). These are but a smattering of 

the works of art that are directly associated with Bikini. 

Figure 40. Salvador Dali’s “The Three Sphinxes of Bikini” 

(1947) (top right) 

Figure 41. Woodcut from Laurence Hyde’s graphic novel 

about Bikini, Southern Cross (1951) (right) 

Figure 42. Captain Ahab points to Bikini Atoll as the likely 

location of the White Whale in the 1956 film, Moby Dick 

(lower right) 

Figure 43. A cultivar of Iris, 

officially recognized in 1996 

named “No Bikini Atoll” 

(Cooley’s Iris Garden, n.d.) (left) 

Figure 44. Scene from staged version of Three Tales by Steve Reich 

and Beryl Korot (W. Bergmann, 2002) 

53 

Figure 45. SpongeBob 

SquarePants lives on Bikini 

Bottom (© Nickelodeon) 


Events giving rise directly to the globally 

significant nuclear disarmament 

movement 

Events at Bikini were the seed from which grew 

movements (expressions of values) demonstrating the 

global significance of the nuclear age in the late 20th 

century: the nuclear disarmament movement. 

The very same month of the return of the Daigo Fukuryū- 

Maru to Japan, a group of middle-class housewives 

from Tokyo began the “Suginami Appeal”—a campaign 

against the hydrogen bomb. In his definitive history of 

nuclear disarmament movements around the world, 

Wittner (1997) describes that the campaign “blossomed 

into a nationwide movement and, by the following year, 

had attracted the signatures of 32 million people—about 

a third of the Japanese population” (p. 8). Between 

March 18 and October 22, 1954, all of the 46 prefectural 

parliaments passed anti-nuclear resolutions (Hiroshima 

City in Saito, p.369). 

In August 1955, the First World Conference against 

Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs was held in Hiroshima, 

leading directly to the establishment of Gensuikyo: 

The Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen 

Bombs in September of the same year (Introducing 

the Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs 

(Gensuikyo), n.d.). Wittner states that “Gensuikyo 

became one of Japan’s most important and enduring 

mass movements” (1997, p. 9). The reach and significance 

of the Gensuikyo organization in the anti-nuclear 

movement is demonstrated by the petition of over 100 

million signatures presented in 2000 to the UN Office 

for Disarmament Affairs in support of the “Appeal from 

Hiroshima and Nagasaki for a Total Ban and Elimination 

of Nuclear Weapons” (Dhanapala, 2000). 

The Daigo Fukuryū-Maru has been retained as a 

monument of the events at Bikini Atoll and is now on 

display at the Tokyo Metropolitan Daigo Fukuryū-Maru 

Exhibition Hall which receives over 300,000 visitors 

every year, and educates on the devastating effects of 

nuclear weapons (Daigo Fukuryū-Maru Exhibition Hall, 

2005; Kennedy, 1999). 

The horror experienced by Japan, and the exposure 

of the Marshallese to fallout, quickly gave rise to antinuclear 

sentiment in direct response to the Bravo shot 

on Bikini in 1954. Prime Minister Jawarlal Nehru of India 

was the first to propose a ban on nuclear testing—shortly 

after the US Bravo test in April 1954. The Bravo shot at 

Bikini provoked Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein to 

write the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, launched at the 

first Pugwash conference in July 1955. The manifesto 

was signed by the leading scientists at the time. The 


54 

influential Pugwash movement was awarded the Nobel 

Peace Prize in 1995. 

Figure 47. Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein 

wrote the Russell-Einstein manifesto as a 

response to the Bravo test on BIkini. 

The Castle Bravo detonation resonates around the 

world even today as the blast, and its consequences 

are commemorated in a peace march held each year 

in Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan. This march calls for 

the abolition of nuclear weapons and commemorates 

the death of Aikichi Kuboyama, the radio operator of 

the Daigo Fukuryū-Maru who has become a symbol of 

the test in Japan (“Peace march”, 2008). In the Pacific 

Islands, the “Nuclear Free and Independent Pacific 

Day” is celebrated on the same day. In the Marshall 

Islands, the day is commemorated by the Bikinians. All 

these commemorations refer to this day—March 1, the 

anniversary of the Castle Bravo—as “Bikini Day.” 

(Note: An in-depth discussion of the early days of the 

nuclear disarmament movement, galvanized to action 

by the Castle Bravo detonation, can be found in Wittner, 

1997). 

Figure 46. The Tokyo Metropolitan Daigo Fukuryū-Maru (Lucky 

Dragon #5) Exhibition Hall receives over 300,000 visitors each year 

(anonymous, n.d.)

3.b Proposed Statement of Outstanding Universal Value 

Nuclear bomb tests at Bikini Atoll shaped the history of the people of Bikini, the history of the Marshall 

Islands and the history of the entire world. Bikini Atoll is distinctly 20th century heritage, standing 

testimony to the dawn of the nuclear age, the start of the Cold War and the era of nuclear colonialism 

– stages in human history of global significance. 

Bikini Atoll is an outstanding example of a nuclear test site. The entire landscape and seascape of Bikini 

testifies to its history as a nuclear test site, from the ensemble of sunken ships and the purpose-built 

bunkers, to the disappeared islands and the Bravo crater. The lonely rows of coconut trees, placed in 

preparation for a failed resettlement, and the conspicuous absence of humans speak to the fate of a 

nuclear test site rendered uninhabitable. 

Bikini Atoll stands as a monument and memorial to the dawn of the nuclear age. At Bikini, the 

quintessential tropical paradise, beloved by our modern culture as a place of peace and simplicity, 

is juxtaposed with the artifacts of nuclear bomb testing, evoking a remembrance of a time of lost 

innocence—when men held and wielded a power reserved for gods. 

Bikini Atoll played host to events of global significance which are illustrated in the landscape and 

seascape. The sunken vessels bear witness to Operation Crossroads—the first peacetime atomic bomb 

tests, implicated in the start of the Cold War. The Bravo crater is evidence of the Castle Bravo test—the 

first deliverable hydrogen bomb, and the event that introduced the world to fallout. Aside from the 

bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, few, if any, other nuclear weapons events have had this 

scale of impact on the world. 

The process of nuclear colonialism around the world is exemplified by Bikini, from the selection of Bikini 

as a remote site, distant from the population of the testing nations, to the representation of Bikini as 

a terra nullius, to the displacement of the Bikinians and the irradiation of Marshallese and military 

personnel. Bikini was the first site of nuclear colonialism and remains the outstanding illustration of 

this significant stage in human history. 

Ideas and beliefs of outstanding universal significance are directly and tangibly associated with Bikini 

Atoll. Emanating from this narrow circle of tiny islands in the middle of a vast ocean is a myriad of 

symbolism that has permeated our global culture, including the universally recognized and understood 

mushroom cloud, the bikini swimming costume, and the radioactive pop-culture icon, Godzilla. The 

breadth, diversity and global significance of Bikini’s symbolic reach is evidenced in the innumerable 

works of art, music, film and literature that have been touched and inspired by the events at Bikini, 

illustrating the profound impact of events at Bikini on the global culture and psyche. 

Events at Bikini led directly to the creation of political and ideological movements that have shaped 

global society in the second half of the 20th century, mostly connected with the Castle Bravo test on 

March 1, 1946. The return of the irradiated Daigo Fukuryū-Maru and her ill crew in March 1946 led to 

the momentous “Suginami” petition, which in turn led to the establishment of Gensuikyo: the Japan 

Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs, an enormously significant mass movement in Japan. 

The Bravo shot led Albert Einstein and Russell Bertrand to write the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, which 

in turn led to the establishment of the Pugwash movement of influential scholars and public figures 

concerned with reducing the danger of armed conflict and seeking cooperative solutions for global 

problems. The anniversary of the Bravo test continues to be celebrated as “Bikini Day” in Japan, and as 

the “Nuclear Free and Independent Pacific Day” throughout the Pacific. 

55 


3.c Comparative analysis (including state of conservation of similar 

properties) 

Bikini Atoll is being presented for World Heritage nomination as an outstanding example of a nuclear test site. In 

comparing Bikini Atoll with several other key atomic test sites, the primary purpose is to show that the powerful 

symbolism, the remembrance of events and the integrity of Bikini’s nuclear landscape uniquely position Bikini Atoll 

to stand testament to all the nuclear test sites of the world, and to tell the story of all the peoples who have suffered 

at the hands of nuclear colonialism. Due to the significance of the nuclear age for humanity, the specific heritage 

values expressed by Bikini leave opportunity for other sites expressing different values of the nuclear age, such as 

technological achievement, to be added to the World Heritage list at a later time. 

The following discussion compares Bikini with a small number of nuclear test sites from around the world, and also 

with Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome). The comparative analysis is carried out thematically, on the basis 

of the values presented in section 3.a: 

(i) 

(ii) 

(iii) 

(iv) 

(v) 

monuments and memorials to the dawn of the nuclear age; 

sites of nuclear testing events of global significance; 

sites bearing testimony to nuclear colonialism; 

sources of nuclear-related globally significant cultural symbols and icons; and 

the location of events giving rise directly to the nuclear disarmament movement. 

In addition we compare Bikini and other sites on the basis of the overall expression of attributes of a nuclear test site 

based on the integrity and authenticity of these attributes and the state of conservation. 

On the basis of the expression of nuclear weapons values and on its role as a nuclear test site, the sites selected for 

comparison include: the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome)—already inscribed on the World Heritage List, 

Trinity—the site of the world’s first nuclear detonation, Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands, and several other key 

nuclear test sites in the Pacific region and around the world. The table below summarizes the framework for the 

comparative analysis, which is discussed in more detail under each theme. 

Bikini Atoll 


Hiroshima Peace Dome 

(Genbaku), Japan 

56 

Trinity, USA 

Enewetak Atoll, Marshall 

Islands 

Moruroa and Fangataufa, 

French Polynesia 

Maralinga and Emu Field, 

Australia 

Kiritimati (Christmas Island), 

Kiribati 

Monument and memorial to the dawn of 

the nuclear age 

+++ +++ ++ + - - - - - 

Nuclear testing events of global 

significance 

+++ +++ +++ + + + + + + 

Expression of nuclear colonialism +++ - - ++ ++ ++ + - ++ 

Symbolism of global significance +++ +++ ++ + + - - + - 

Giving rise directly to the nuclear 

disarmament movement 

+++ +++ - - +++ + - - - 

Expression of nuclear attributes in the 

landscape 

+++ +++ +++ +++ + + + +++ + 

Authenticity +++ +++ +++ +++ + + ? +++ ? 

Integrity of the site +++ + + + + - ? - - 

State of Conservation +++ +++ + + ++ - ? ? - 

Sites are rated for Outstanding Universal Value against the attributes above as: +++ exceptional, ++ 

considerable, + some, - insignificant, and ? not known 

Nevada, United States 

Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan

3.c.(i) Monuments and memorials to the 

dawn of the nuclear age 

Delgado (1991) emphasizes that “the effort to 

memorialize and celebrate the impact of the bomb began 

at the same time the new age dawned” (p. 144). The site 

of Trinity was proposed as an “Atomic Bomb National 

Monument” in 1946, and was declared a National 

Historic Landmark in 1965. The Peace Park at Hiroshima 

was established under a law in 1949 that aimed to have 

all of Hiroshima rebuilt as a “Peace Memorial City.” To 

date only one site representing the nuclear age is listed 

on the World Heritage List—Genbaku, the Hiroshima 

Peace Memorial. 

These sites of Hiroshima, in Japan, and Trinity in New 

Mexico, along with Bikini Atoll, are the three outstanding 

sites representing the dawn of the nuclear age; however, 

they each carry unique meanings and symbolism. The 

Trinity Site was proposed as a national monument as a 

celebration of technological achievement—a symbol of 

American national pride in the skill and investment that 

resulted in the detonation of the “world’s first nuclear 

device” on July 16, 1945 (National Park Service, n.d.). 

In stark contrast, the Genbaku Dome, the Hiroshima 

Peace Memorial, is the pre-eminent symbol of the first 

use of nuclear weapons on a civilian population. It was 

inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1996 and has 

been conserved in the state it was after the bombing 

of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 as the only building 

remaining standing in the vicinity of ground zero. The 

Peace Dome and the Peace Park that surrounds it form 

a “locus of contested memory and contested values” 

(Beazley, 2007, p.33) commemorating the 140,000 lives 

that were lost, and at the same time, the peace that 

nuclear weapons have brought to the world. Bikini is 

an exceptional monument to the dawn of the nuclear 

age as it has a different and unique meaning from these 

sites of comparison at Trinity and Hiroshima – Bikini 

stands as a monument and memorial to the ushering 

in of the Cold War and the era of nuclear colonialism, 

and, as discussed in section 3.a, evokes remembrance 

of humanity’s loss of innocence. 

57 

Figure 48. A monolith marking the position of the Trinity explosion, 

the “world’s first nuclear device” in 1945 at White Sands, New 

Mexico (Anonymous, n.d.) 

Figure 49. The World Heritage-listed, Hiroshima Peace Memorial 

(Genbaku Dome) (Anonymous, n.d.) 


3.c.(ii) Nuclear testing events of global 

significance 

Of the more than 2,000 nuclear testing events since 

1945, only a few are truly globally significant, most 

notably the following: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Trinity—the first detonation of a nuclear device 

on July 16, 1945. 

Operation Crossroads Able and Baker on July 1 

and July 25, 1946 – the most public of all the tests, 

with international press and observers present, 

and the globally significant contribution to the 

start of the Cold War at this time. 

Ivy Mike on Enewetak—the world’s first 

thermonuclear (hydrogen) device and significant 

as a key technological development. 

Castle Bravo on March 1, 1954—the world’s 

first deliverable hydrogen device but more 

importantly, the contamination of the Daigo 

Fukuryū-Maru and the fallout across the Marshall 

Islands introduced the world to radioactive fallout 

from such a weapon. 

“Big Ivan” (known as “Tsar Bomba” in the 

west), tested by the Soviets on October 31, 

1961–significant as the largest thermonuclear 

weapon ever tested at 50 megatons. 

The Little Boy dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 

and Fat Man dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 are 

not compared here as they were not experiments, but 

were weapons deliberately used against a population in 

wartime. 

Thus Bikini was host to two of the world’s most significant 

nuclear testing events, however the significance and 

impact of these tests was distinct from other nuclear 

testing events, particularly the role that Crossroads 

played in the start of the Cold War, and the global 

resonance of the Bravo test as described in section 3a. 


58 

3.c.(iii) Expression of nuclear 

colonialism 

The ultimate expression of nuclear colonialism is either 

the displacement of people to make way for the testing, 

or their exposure to the effects of nuclear testing. In 

both cases, these events have catastrophic effects on 

the lives of individuals, their cultural identity, economic 

situation, health and way of life. Bikini Atoll is the 

strongest expression of nuclear colonialism due to: 

• 

• 

• 

The forced displacement of the Bikinians, and the 

catastrophic health concerns and displacement of 

other Marshall Islanders resulting from radioactive 

contamination of a swathe of these islands and 

their people; 

The extensive documentation of the entire 

process of nuclear colonisation, as part of the 

development of the Bikini Atoll nuclear test site; 

and 

The representation of Bikini as a “deserted isle” 

in order to legitimise the testing—representation 

that was unprecedented, and that established the 

form for representation of other sites of nuclear 

colonialism. 

The sites of Enewetak and Moruroa have similarly 

strong expressions of nuclear colonialism. Enewetak’s 

history is similar to Bikini’s with the people of Enewetak 

being displaced to make way for the testing. The 

experience of nuclear colonialism in French Polynesia, 

while not displacing people from the atolls, which were 

initially uninhabited, did transform the local economy 

and culture and gave rise to a strong domestic struggle 

against the French colonialists, eventually leading to 

the regionally-significant Nuclear Free and Independent 

Pacific Movement (Danielsson & Danielsson, 1986; 

Smith, 2007). However, the entire process of nuclear 

colonialism, as it happened in other places around the 

world, is exemplified by Bikini, from the selection of 

Bikini as a remote site distant from the population of 

the testing nations, to the representation of Bikini as a 

terra nullius, to the displacement of the Bikinians, the 

irradiation of Marshallese and military personnel and 

the resulting uninhabitable lands. Bikini was the first 

site of nuclear colonialism and remains the outstanding 

example, in part because every phase of the process was 

documented. In presenting Bikini Atoll as the strongest 

expression of nuclear colonialism, it is not intended in 

any way to diminish the experience of other victims 

of nuclear colonialism. Instead, it is suggested that 

Bikini can stand as a particularly evocative example; a 

testimony for all victims of nuclear colonialism.

3.c.(iv) Source of symbols and icons of 

global significance 

While the preeminent symbol of the nuclear age, the 

mushroom cloud, is associated with all atmospheric 

nuclear test sites as well as with Hiroshima and 

Nagasaki, images that have propagated this symbol are 

sourced mainly from the Bikini and Nevada test sites 

(Rosenthal 1991, Kirsch 1997). Other key symbols and 

icons of the age of nuclear weapons readily come to 

mind: the peace symbol which made its first appearance 

on the first Aldermaston march in 1958, shortly after 

Britain conducted its first nuclear tests in the Pacific; 

and the Greenpeace Rainbow Warrior, sunk by French 

intelligence agents in Auckland Harbour in 1985 while 

preparing to travel to Moruroa to protest French nuclear 

testing. However, both of these important symbols are 

only tangentially connected to place. Bikini stands out 

from all other nuclear test sites as the place which is the 

single source of an array of diverse and iconic symbols 

representing different and conflated meanings of the 

nuclear age, and as the source of the works of art and 

culture that are inspired directly by Bikini. 

3.c.(v) Giving rise directly to the 

nuclear disarmament movement 

The global significance of events at Bikini, and the role 

they played in the early establishment of the nuclear 

disarmament movement worldwide, starting in 1954, 

is described in section 3a. Bikini played a particular 

role in the 1950s during the phase in which the 

movement became established and organized as a mass 

movement, most significantly in Japan. Later on, the 

movement gained momentum as public outcry against 

proposed British tests on Kiritimati (Christmas Island) 

became more vocal, leading to the establishment of 

the powerful Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 

(CND) in 1958. Similar mass movements developed 

in America and across Western Europe from 1957, 

related in general to the fallout events from testing in 

the Pacific and leading to the US and USSR moratorium 

on atmospheric testing in 1958 (Wittner, 1997). It 

was the testing on Moruroa and Fangataufu in French 

Polynesia starting in 1966, along with the experience 

of the Marshall Islands, which provided the impetus 

for the nuclear disarmament mass movement in the 

Pacific and Australasia. The “Conference for a Nuclear- 

Free Pacific” was convened in Fiji in 1975, initiating 

the Nuclear Free and Independent Pacific Movement. 

This movement played a profoundly important social, 

cultural and political role in the region, recognizing the 

need for independence of Pacific colonies and setting 

the tone for the public’s attitude towards not only 

nuclear weapons, but nuclear technologies in general. 

59 

The movement led directly to the establishment of the 

South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty ratified by 16 

state parties in the region. Thus, while other test sites 

(Kiritimati, Moruroa and Fangataufu) played significant 

roles in the nuclear disarmament movement in later 

times, it is events at Bikini Atoll which gave rise to the 

early days of the movement. 

3.c.(vi) Authenticity, integrity and state 

of conservation 

Bikini Atoll is exemplary of other nuclear test sites, 

however Bikini stands out from all these sites in the 

degree of documentation and publicity that was given 

to these sites. The removal of the Bikinians was scripted 

and filmed (several times), much effort went into 

portraying the post-war military site and the biology and 

geography was surveyed extensively both before and 

after the tests as well as the very detailed and specific 

records of the tests themselves. Nowhere else in the 

Pacific or in other distant-nation test sites were the 

activities so well documented or publicized; most were 

carried out in utmost secrecy (and information on some 

is still unavailable or was never collected). The integrity, 

authenticity, well documented cultural history and the 

well-preserved artifacts of the testing, including the 

ships, along with the accessibility of the site to tourists 

who can explore firsthand these material remains of the 

testing era, make Bikini an outstanding example of a 

nuclear test site. 

Trinity and Hiroshima: Delgado (1991) has compared 

the artifacts of Bikini to those of Trinity and the Japanese 

target cities: 

The ships of Operation Crossroads, lying where 

they were sunk by two nuclear blasts, are the 

last “vestigial” remnants of that time and place. 

Substantially unchanged, they are the only 

essentially unmodified museum of the dawn of 

the era of the atomic bomb—unlike the pickedover, 

filled-in, and fenced ground zero of the 

Trinity Site, or the rebuilt Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 

(Delgado et al., 1991, p. 143) 

Enewetak Atoll: At the close of testing in 1958 Enewetak 

continued to be used for US military purposes until the 

start of a cleanup and rehabilitation program in 1977. 

An estimated 73,000 cubic meters of contaminated soil 

as well as debris from the testing was removed from 

the islands, mixed with cement, placed in a bomb crater 

on Runit Island, and capped with a concrete dome now 

known as the “Runit Dome.” Enewetak Atoll was declared 

safe for habitation and people returned to the southern 

islands of their atoll in 1980, while the northern part of 


the atoll around the Runit Dome remains off-limits. The 

Runit Dome in itself is a remarkable artifact of nuclear 

testing, and in itself forms a monument to the nuclear 

era. However, Bikini Atoll stands out from Enewetak as 

a nuclear test site due to the fact that it has not been 

used for other purposes (except small-scale tourism) 

since the testing, and so the entire atoll, rather than 

one island as for Enewetak, retains the authenticity and 

integrity of a nuclear test site. 

Figure 50. Runit Dome on Enewetak (Defense 

Special Weapons Agency, n.d.) 

Nevada Test Site (NTS), United States: The enormous 

Nevada site, as the primary testing location for US 

nuclear devices, is clearly a significant nuclear test site, 

having seen more than four decades of nuclear testing, 

but it differs fundamentally from Bikini in that it is 

continental, and on the homeland of the testing nation 

and was host to over 900 tests—an order of magnitude 

greater than Bikini. A further difference is that the NTS 

remains today an active site for various other activities 

such as hazardous chemical spill testing, emergency 

response training, conventional weapons testing, and 

waste management and environmental technology 

studies. (Source: Nevada Test Site, 2008) 

Semipalatinsk Test Site (STS), Kazakhstan: The 

Semipalatinsk Test Site was the primary venue for Soviet 

nuclear weapons testing, witnessing over 450 tests 

between 1949 and 1989. STS was the largest underground 

nuclear test site in the world; however, between 1997 

and 2000 a joint US-Kazakhstan program—the “Weapons 

of Mass Destruction Elimination Initiative”—destroyed 

key testing infrastructure including the extensive tunnel 

network, and the site is not fenced, allowing animals and 

people free access to the site. Three nuclear research 

reactors are now housed on the site and there are 

reports of scrap metal collection and mining on the site. 


60 

The STS differs substantially from Bikini in that it is a 

continental site, was devoted primarily to underground 

testing, and is today used for many different purposes. 

(Source: Loukianova et al., 2008) 

Moruroa and Fangataufa, French Polynesia: In French 

Polynesia, Fangataufa atoll is abandoned but Moruroa 

remains guarded by French Legionnaires (Smith, 2007, 

p. 62). Both atolls were host to atmospheric testing 

from 1966 to 1974, and then underground testing from 

1975 to 1996. The underground blasts involved drilling 

down into the basalt geological structures supporting 

the reefs. Moruroa exhibits a highly modified landscape 

with roads, quarries, blockhouses and towers—all 

artifacts from the nuclear testing. However, strict 

military secrecy by the French means that much less is 

known about the testing at Moruroa and so there is a far 

lesser degree of authenticity and documentation than 

for Bikini. 

Maralinga and Emu Fields, Australia: The evidence 

and artifacts left from nuclear tests in Maralinga 

and Emu Fields differ from Bikini in several ways. 

The tests themselves were relatively fewer, and were 

a mixture of atomic weapons and what were called 

“minor trials”–conventional explosives used to disperse 

radioactive plutonium. Subsequent cleanup efforts are 

now thought to have dispersed this waste even further 

thus these sites have little integrity as former nuclear 

test sites. 

3.c.(vii) Summary statement of 

comparative analysis 

Bikini Atoll is shown to have a different and unique 

meaning when compared to existing monuments and 

memorials of the dawn of the nuclear age, Hiroshima 

Peace Memorial and the Trinity Site. Bikini was host 

to two of the world’s most significant nuclear testing 

events, the significance and impact of which are 

distinct from other nuclear testing events. Bikini Atoll 

is an exemplary expression of the entire process of 

nuclear colonialism from the selection of the site, the 

displacement and irradiation of people, to the resulting 

uninhabitable lands, thus being able to represent this 

process for all sites of nuclear colonialism. Bikini Atoll 

stands out from all other nuclear test sites as the single 

source of a diverse array of globally significant, iconic 

symbols related to the nuclear age. Events at Bikini, in 

particular the Bravo shot, gave rise to the establishment 

of the nuclear disarmament movement in the 1950s, 

with other sites playing a role in later stages of the 

movement. The authenticity, integrity and the state of 

conservation of the nuclear attributes of Bikini make it 

an internationally outstanding example of a nuclear test

site. 

3.d Integrity and Authenticity 

3.d.(i) Statement of Authenticity: 

The authenticity of Bikini Atoll as a place, and in its 

various cultural meanings, is extensively documented 

and expressed in a wide range of ways. Many of these 

information sources are readily accessible primary 

sources of documentation, either from the period 

of nuclear testing itself, or from more recent times. 

Because of the relatively recent nature of the historic 

events at Bikini (less than 70 years ago), there remain 

people in the Marshall Islands, United States, Japan 

and throughout the world who remember the events at 

Bikini. 

The significant attributes of Bikini Atoll include: 

− 

− 

− 

− 

the physical artifacts and the landscape, including 

the sunken vessels, remnant structures of bunkers 

and monitoring stations, the craters in the reef, 

the grids of planted coconuts, and the radiation; 

the natural ecosystems, both marine and 

terrestrial, and changes in these ecosystems 

during and since the nuclear tests; 

the representation of Bikini, and the symbolism 

and meaning that emanates from Bikini 

throughout global culture; and 

the meaning of Bikini as a homeland lost to its 

people. 

The tangible expressions of nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll 

are documented in scientific and descriptive studies of 

the physical artifacts. The ships were documented in 

an archaeological survey (Delgado et al., 1991) and have 

been written about and photographed in a wide range of 

respected publications, including National Geographic 

(Eliot, 1992). The landscape and technological 

assemblage was extensively filmed and photographed 

during the testing and the current remnants are easily 

identifiable against this documentation. Radiation, 

although unseen, is clearly a physical attribute of the 

site and has been documented in several studies during 

and since the testing. 

The authenticity of Bikini and of the significance of events 

at Bikini was well-documented through US media, and 

this has been greatly supported in more recent years by 

the release of military and government documents and 

film footage through the Freedom of Information Act. 

In presenting the universal significance of Bikini Atoll, it 

is difficult to ascertain, for example, the degree to which 

61 

the events at Bikini impacted the Soviet’s approach to 

the negotiations at the start of the Cold War. As Graybar 

states, “In the absence of documents from the Kremlin 

one can never be sure what impact the tests had on the 

talks at the United Nations” (1980, p. 122). 

The integrity of the site has not been compromised. The 

artifacts from the testing, and the physical condition of 

the natural environment are authentic in that they have 

not been modified or rebuilt since the testing events 

and the subsequent clean-up efforts. The results of the 

clean-up efforts (the bulldozed land and the untended 

grids of coconut trees) are themselves part of the 

evolution of a nuclear test site, as they demonstrate 

a growing understanding of the persistent nature of 

radiation from nuclear bombs. 

Hines (1963) states that “Operation Crossroads 

unquestionably was the most thoroughly documented, 

reported, and publicized peacetime military exercise in 

history” (p. 32) while Weisgall (1994) places it as “the 

grandest scientific experiment ever, more exhaustively 

photographed, reported, and measured than any 

previous event in history” (p. 117). The events of the 

actual tests, between 1946 and 1958, are captured in the 

plethora of reports, radio recordings, photos, films and 

documentaries of the period. Most of this information, 

originally recorded by the US military, is now in the 

public domain. 

The global political climate at the time of the testing, 

and Bikini’s role in it, is documented in newspaper 

articles, letters, speeches, petitions, records of meetings, 

and in manifestos. Bikini’s importance in all of this is 

evidenced by the many articles in the New York Times 

and Washington Post, both on the front page and in 

special reports. The Soviet newspaper, Pravda, reported 

on both Operation Crossroads and on the Bravo shot, 

and the Bravo test was covered closely by the Yomiuri 

Shimbun (Saito, 2006), Japan’s largest circulation daily 

newspaper. All these are primary sources that attest to 

the authenticity of Bikini Atoll’s global significance. The 

resonance of Bikini as a source of nuclear symbolism 

has made its way into art, film, television, literature and 

a plethora of commentaries on global culture and the 

nuclear bomb in the second half of the 20th century. In 

fact, the wide range of information sources that present 

and interpret Bikini’s symbolism illustrates beautifully 

the profound social, psychological and cultural impact 

the events of Bikini have had on generations of humans, 

all over the world. Many of these sources are referenced 

throughout this document. 

The spiritual connection of the Bikinians with their 

islands, and their experience of forced migration as 


subjects of nuclear colonialism, is recorded in interviews 

and transcribed into books, as well as being captured by 

the cameras of the US military. The history of the people 

of Bikini is retained in their culture as an oral tradition. 

3.d.(ii) Statement of Integrity: 

The Bikini property is a holistic single atoll system 

surrounded by open ocean. It has a very high degree 

of integrity for two reasons: the first being the reason 

for selection as a nuclear test site—its remoteness; 

the second being the unintended effects of testing— 

persistent environmental radiation that has prevented 

people from returning here to live. It is now a place that 

is far from man-made disturbances and is impacted only 

by a very small number of tourists and residents. 

Artifacts of the nuclear testing: 

Artifacts, buildings and submerged ships related to 

testing are in good condition, given the usual natural 

processes of deterioration. Bikini, in its totality, is a 

protected and managed “archaeological park” with 

its various components creating a vast and whole 

“nuclear landscape” above and below the water. The 

archaeological integrity of the site has been protected 

by its isolation and by its “off limits” nature, as well as 

radioactive contamination. Very few materials have 

been removed, and those which have been removed 

have been part of the ongoing process of nuclear site 

management as weapons and the equipment evolved 

during the active use of Bikini as a test site. Bikini 

evolved as a nuclear landscape, and within this context, 

the shifting of platforms, the erecting of new bunkers, 

even the planting of rows of trees and the construction 

of homes for the failed resettlement reflect the evolution 

of Bikini. 

Archaeological assessment of the ships was undertaken 

in 1989-1990 by the US National Park Service. The ships 

and the surrounding landscape were determined to be 

eligible, were they in the US, for designation as a National 

Historic Landmark district, and potentially, again if in 

the US, as a unit of the national park system because 

of the unique nature of the site and its archaeological 

integrity. In addition to the ships, artifacts observed 

and documented included test equipment and items 

left inside and on the ships, as well as material lying 

on the lagoon floor. In the case of the aircraft carrier 

USS Saratoga, for example, the archaeological integrity 

of the ship as a contributing element to the entire site 

included small arms such as pistols in small arms lockers, 

the ship’s silver service in the galley, shells in ready 

ammunition lockers, aircraft in the hangar, fire- fighting 

equipment, test towers on the flight deck, scattered lead 


62 

sheets from test gauges, a field artillery piece on the 

flight deck, and vehicles and aircraft washed off the deck 

and lying alongside the carrier on the lagoon floor. In the 

case of the aircraft, their cockpits still held 50-gallon fuel 

cans strapped empty in the seats to simulate a pilot’s 

chest cavity during the blasts, and 500-lb. bombs in the 

bomb bays. A pair of thick protective goggles to allow 

observers to gaze at the “Able” surface test detonation 

was observed lying on the carrier’s navigation bridge. 

The ships in particular demonstrate a high level of 

archaeological integrity reflecting the events of July 1 

and July 25, 1946. 

The processes of deterioration, especially in the ships, 

are irreversible and directly related to the atomic 

tests. In the case of the ships, blast damage introduced 

micro-fractures and may have turned steel into the 

isotope of steel, accelerating the deterioration of the 

ships. As such, the unnatural processes at work, and 

the ultimate disintegration of the ships over the next 

century is demonstrative of the legacy of the tests, and 

an integral and key aspect of this landscape—as such, 

these processes and the ongoing changes in the ships 

and structures should be monitored, assessed and 

documented. Even in a deteriorated form the ships are 

a highly significant archaeological site. 

Natural environment 

The terrestrial environment of Bikini has been very much 

disturbed from its natural state by the construction of the 

test site, the bomb blasts that stripped away vegetation 

and the rehabilitation efforts to reduce contaminated 

soil and replant coconut trees. These disturbances are 

clearly physical, but another more insidious result is the 

invasive plants and animals that arrived on the many 

vessels and aircraft that came and went from Bikini. 

Thus, the integrity of Bikini’s natural terrestrial system 

is not intact, but these impacts further illustrate the fate 

of a nuclear test site. 

The marine environment has recovered remarkably from 

the testing and the reef system has a very high biodiversity, 

showing the range of species, including endemic biota, 

apex predators (sharks) and migratory species such as 

turtles, that demonstrate the system is functioning well. 

The buffer zone of the site extends 5 nautical miles out, 

affording the atoll ecosystems additional integrity. It 

is thought that neighboring Rongelap Atoll, some 150 

kilometers to the east, has played a role in re-colonizing 

the coral reefs of Bikini Atoll. Rongelap Atoll also enjoys 

a high level of conservation management and protection 

by its owners, thus further enhancing the integrity of 

Bikini’s natural marine system.

Part 4. State of Conservation and Factors 

Affecting the Property 

4.a Present state of conservation 

4.a.(i) Decomposition of the sunken 

vessels 

The natural processes of corrosion and deterioration 

inherent in all sunken vessels appears to be accelerated 

at Bikini. There are two theories currently being 

evaluated. The first is that the nuclear blasts introduced 

consistent micro-fractures throughout the structure 

of the steel of each ship, that this nuclear effect has 

resulted in a higher level of chloride absorption and 

subsequent accelerated corrosion, and that the steel, 

as it deteriorates, is subject to larger scale fracturing. 

Another possibility is that the radiation from the two 

bursts converted elements in the steel into isotopes. 

The isotope of steel is said to have a half life of seven 

years, and several generations of half lives have further 

weakened the steel. Deterioration is most apparent 

on USS Saratoga, where the flight deck is collapsing, 

interior spaces with overheads are collapsing, and the 

“island” superstructure has tilted and begun to collapse 

inward and to the port (left) side of the ship (Delgado et 

al., 1991). It was recently reported that the gun director 

on top of the Saratoga bridge had collapsed into the 

elevator shaft (J. Niedenthal, pers. comm., January 

2008). 

The gradual loss of structural integrity of the ships does 

not represent a loss of archaeological integrity, nor does 

it represent a loss of heritage value. The Bikini test ships 

are representative of more than historic shipwrecks. 

They are large test instruments exposed to the effects 

of nuclear blasts, and the deterioration of the vessels 

is a long-term effect of the blasts, and as such is a 

representative and significant feature of the site. 

4.a.(ii) Deterioration of buildings 

The few buildings from the testing period that remain 

on Bikini, Eneu and Aemon are in a general state of 

disrepair. The construction of reinforced concrete is 

subject to deterioration in the salty environment as the 

reinforcing bars rust and expand, cracking the concrete. 

As for the ships, the natural deterioration process of 

these few buildings is illustrative of the long-term fate of 

an abandoned nuclear test site and as such, the current 

state of conservation is a part of the characteristic of the 

site as a whole. 

63 

Figure 51. Divers on the Apogon conning tower. The ships at Bikini 

Atoll appear to demonstrate accelerated corrosion as a result of the 

atomic tests (E. Hanauer, 2006) 


4.b Factors affecting the property 

4.b.(i) Development pressures 

None of these pressures applies at Bikini. There are 

no plans to resettle or develop Bikini except for the 

potential for small-scale tourism development. 

4.b.(ii) Environmental pressures 

Climate change and illegal fishing discussed here are 

not expected to have an impact on the cultural artifacts, 

but are discussed here with relation to Bikini’s natural 

attributes. 

Climate change 

As with all low-lying atolls, Bikini Atoll is threatened by 

climate change; however, it is as yet unknown how this 

will impact the atoll in the long-term. Climate change 

is predicted to result in sea-level rise, and increased 

exposure to storm surge and rising tides that are known 

to wash over entire islands. As this deposits salt in the 

soil, existing terrestrial flora may change or degrade, 

potentially leading to desertification. In addition, 

climate change is predicted to result in warmer sea 

temperatures and changes in the major oceanic currents 

that currently provide climate regulation. This leads to 

unpredictable impacts, but we could expect to see an 

increase in coral bleaching events and possibly a shift in 

species assemblages within coral reefs to those species 

with higher temperature tolerance. Ocean acidification 

is predicted to seriously impact the ability of corals to 

grow and form skeletons. 

Illegal fishing pressure 

Illegal fishing of Bikini sharks can be a serious threat to 

richness and the ecological balance of this atoll. Reef 

shark fins are highly valued by the Asian market and some 

illegal longline fishing has happened in the near-shore 

waters of a few atolls including Bikini. A shark-finning 

boat found fishing off Bikini in 2002 was successfully 

prosecuted and no major incidents have been reported 

since. This threat is not only detrimental to the tourism 

industry, sharks being one of the main attractions of the 

atoll, but could greatly damage the functioning of the 

reef trophic web, naturally dominated by sharks. One 

of the challenges of protecting the natural values of the 

atoll will be the monitoring and enforcement of illegal 

fishing activities. 


64 

4.b.(iii) Natural disasters and risk 

preparedness 

Bikini Atoll only experiences the occasional storm, as 

the Marshall Islands rarely experiences typhoons. The 

entire area of the Marshall Islands is very geologically 

stable and does not experience earthquakes. With 

climate change, there is an expectation of increased 

incidence of storm surges, but it is unlikely these would 

significantly affect the residential quarters on the 

leeward side of Bikini Island. 

4.b.(iv) Visitor/tourism pressures 

The current and expected future levels of tourism to 

Bikini Atoll remain very low, mainly due to the relative 

inaccessibility of the atoll. At present, there are less 

than 10 resident workers and no more than 12 tourists 

there at any one time. The total number of tourists 

per year historically has been 200-250. This might be 

expected to increase to a total of 400 with developments 

in tourism. 

Divers on the sunken vessels pose some threat through 

damage to the vessels and unauthorized removal of 

artifacts. Two other activities available on Bikini are 

diving and snorkeling of the reef, and sport fishing. Both 

of these activities will have negligible impact on Bikini, 

again due to the low numbers. General movement 

of visitors walking or driving on the islands does not 

impact the site due to the highly disturbed nature of the 

terrestrial environment. 

4.b.(v) Number of inhabitants within 

the property and the buffer zone 

Estimated population located within: 

Area of nominated property 25 

Buffer zone N/A 

Total 25 

Year 2008

Part 5. Protection and Management of 

the Property 

5.a Ownership 

As in the rest of the Marshall Islands, land on Bikini 

Atoll is held under customary tenure through traditional 

clan relationships. Land is divided into parcels, called 

‘weto’, under specific customary ownership. Bikini Atoll 

has a recognized ‘Iroij’ or chief, and each parcel of land 

also has ‘Alaps’ (caretakers of the land) and ‘Dri-jerbal’ 

(workers). 

Under Marshall Islands law, all marine areas (lagoon 

and ocean) below the mean high water mark are 

legally owned by the people of the Marshall Islands, 

through the Government of the Marshall Islands, with 

the recognition of traditional and customary rights of 

landowner, clan and municipality to control the use 

of and materials in marine areas (Public Lands and 

Resources Act, 1996). 

Local governments have the power to make any 

ordinances over the area of local government 

jurisdiction, so long as they are not inconsistent with any 

other legislative instrument that has the force of law in 

the Marshall Islands (including regulations from national 

agencies but not including other municipal ordinances). 

local government jurisdiction is to a distance of 5 miles 

from the mean low water line (Constitution of the 

Republic of the Marshall Islands). In effect, this means 

that the ownership and control of resources in Bikini 

Atoll comes under both customary landowners, and the 

Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government. 

All rights, title and interest to the ships sunk by the 

nuclear tests in 1946 in Bikini Atoll’s lagoon were 

transferred from the Government of the United States to 

the people of Bikini under Section 177 of the Compact of 

Free Association of 1985. This agreement is significant 

because it is the only place in the world where the United 

States has ceded its rights to its sunken naval vessels 

(Agreement Between the Government of the United 

States and the Government of the Marshall Islands for 

the Implementation of Section 177 of the Compact of 

Free Association, Article VI, 1985). 

5.b Protective designation 

Legislation, regulations and ordinances have been 

established at national and local level to ensure the legal 

protection of the artifacts and natural environment at 

Bikini Atoll. 

65 

5.b.(i) Protection of historic and 

cultural resources 

The property currently has a high degree of protection 

through local ordinances and strictly controlled access. 

The Historic and Cultural Preservation Act (1991) and 

its subsidiary regulations protect historic and cultural 

resources including governing access to submerged 

resources, the export of historic and cultural artifacts 

and control over land modification activities. The 

act provides for fines of up $10,000 or six months 

imprisonment for violations (The Historic and Cultural 

Preservation Act: Title 45, Ch 2, 1991; Regulations 

Governing The Taking And Export Of Artifacts, 1991; 

Regulations Governing Access To Prehistoric And Historic 

Submerged Resources, 1991; Regulations Governing 

Land Modification Activities, 1991). 

In addition, Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government established 

ordinances in 1988 prohibiting entry to Bikini Atoll or 

diving on ships without a permit issued by KBE Local 

Government, and prohibiting removal of any object 

from Bikini lagoon (Ordinance No. 14-1988). These were 

updated in 1996 to additionally require that all divers 

be accompanied by the official Bikini dive operation 

(Ordinance No. 2-1996). All divers and yachts visiting 

Bikini Atoll are required to gain permission from KBE 

Local Government (through the Tourism Manager) and 

to sign a liability waiver confirming that they understand 

their responsibilities (Yacht Liability Waiver, 2008). 

5.b.(ii) Protection of biological 

resources 

Bikini has a high level of biodiversity protection, 

based on a decree (July 30, 1997) from the KBE Local 

Government that it is illegal to fish for sharks or turtles 

in the lagoon, or to use gill nets or throw nets within the 

lagoon area. All bird habitats are preserved by this same 

decree. All fishing around the area of the sunken ships 

is prohibited. Additionally, at national level, licensed 

pelagic fishing vessels are prohibited from fishing within 

the 12 nautical mile territorial seas of any atoll. 


5.c Means of implementing 

protective measures 

Access to Bikini is restricted to recreation and tourism 

visitors, and to scientific survey teams. All people 

wishing to visit Bikini by aircraft must obtain prior 

permission from the Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government 

through an established permitting procedure. 

Divers on the sunken vessels must be accompanied by 

a diver employed by Bikini. Divers that visit Bikini are 

usually very experienced and well-certified to dive on, 

and to penetrate, the sunken vessels without causing 

damage. Divers are required to sign waivers and are 

prohibited from removing artifacts from the ships. This 

may be enforced by bag checks upon departure. Yachts 

are able to visit Bikini but must gain permissions from 

Bikini Atoll Local Government, and are not permitted to 

dive the wrecks unless accompanied by a diver employed 

by Bikini. 

Nationally, licensed fishing boats are required to be 

part of the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), which 

allows the Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority 

(MIMRA) to track the position of vessels and if they are 

found within 12 nautical miles of any atoll, to pass this 

information on to the Sea Patrol operation (an arm of 

the Marshall Islands Police) and support apprehension 

and prosecution for any illegal fishing. 

When the dive operation is running on Bikini, staff there 

can observe unauthorized vessels in or near the lagoon. 

They can then approach the vessel using one of the boats 

on Bikini Atoll and collect evidence, such as photos, 

to support prosecution. They can radio the Marshall 

Islands Sea Patrol to pursue the unauthorized vessel. 

Bikini Atoll has successfully pursued one prosecution of 

an unauthorized vessel fishing for shark fins in 2002. 

All of these protective measures are more difficult 

to implement when the regular dive operation is not 

running. An option is being developed to install a radar 

system at the western end of the atoll to notify staff on 

Bikini Island of any unauthorized vessel in the vicinity, 

which can then be reported to Sea Patrol. 

5.d Existing plans related to 

municipality and region in which 

the proposed property is located 

No existing relevant plans. 


66 

5.e Property management plan or 

other management system 

Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Plan—DRAFT. 

(See Annex 3). 

5.f Sources and levels of finance 

The Bikini Atoll Tourism Operation is financed from 

three different sources. The maintenance, fuel costs, 

and some of the operations costs of the tourism 

operation are funded from the Resettlement Trust Fund 

for the People of Bikini (US Public Law 100-446). For 

the calendar year 2007 the amount funded by the trust 

was $624,000. The second source of funding is from 

the revenues of the tourism operations. In calendar 

year 2007, the gross revenue from the operation 

amounted to $529,062. The third and final source of 

revenue is from the US Department of Energy for fuel 

and water charges for the operation of their field station 

that amounted to $32,202 in 2007. As the day-to-day 

aspects of conservation and management of the site will 

be integrated with the tourism operation, this funding 

should cover the infrastructure, operating costs and 

personnel. 

Finance for conservation assessments and interpretation 

of the site will need to be sought externally, in the form of 

international assistance. It is expected that international 

expert partners will assist in project development and 

fundraising to achieve the necessary financing. 

5.g Sources of expertise and 

training in conservation and 

management techniques 

The Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government has had the benefit 

of internationally renowned expertise in the assessment 

and management of both cultural and natural resources 

of Bikini Atoll, and is in the process of developing new 

partnerships to enhance this capacity. 

James P. Delgado is the President of the Institute of 

Nautical Archaeology and one of the world’s leading 

maritime archaeologists. He is the author or editor 

of some thirty books, including the British Museum 

Encyclopaedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology 

and host of the international TV documentary series 

The Sea Hunters. Since leading the initial resource 

assessment of the sunken vessels at Bikini, Delgado has 

advised Bikini Atoll on management and interpretation 

of these artifacts. 

William Jeffery of James Cook University and Vickie 

Richards of the Western Australian Maritime Museum

ecently carried out a state of conservation assessment 

of the sunken vessels in Chuuk Lagoon, in the Federated 

States of Micronesia. Bikini Atoll is in the early stages 

of developing a partnership with these experts and 

their institutions to carry out a baseline assessment of 

the state of conservation and establish a monitoring 

protocol. 

Charles D. Beeker is the Director of the Office of 

Underwater Science at Indiana University. This group’s 

focus is on the research and interpretation of submerged 

cultural and biological resources emphasizing park 

development and sustainable use. Bikini Atoll is in the 

early stages of developing a partnership with Indiana 

University to develop interpretation and field guides for 

the artifacts at Bikini, and to enhance the management 

of visitation to the site. 

Zoe Richards of James Cook University, Maria Beger 

of the University of Queensland and Silvia Pinca of 

the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, form a core 

of marine biologists who have carried out biological 

resources assessments on several atolls in the Marshall 

Islands, and who have made recommendations for the 

conservation management of these sites. These experts 

conducted a biological survey of Bikini Atoll in 2002 and 

have an established partnership with Bikini Atoll. 

5.h Visitor facilities and statistics 

5.h.(i) Organized diving tourism 

The main visitors to Bikini Atoll over the past several 

years have been as part of the dive tourism program run 

by Bikini Atoll Divers, a business owned by the Kili-Bikini- 

Ejit Local Government. To date, tourism on Bikini has 

mainly been focused on the sunken vessels which are 

considered one of the premier SCUBA diving experiences 

in the world (see http://www.bikiniatoll.com/divetour2. 

html for articles, reviews and testimonials of the 

tourism-diving experience of Bikini Atoll). While the 

vessels sunk during Operation Crossroads in 1946 are 

the premier attraction, there is also the opportunity 

to go sport fishing and to dive or snorkel some of the 

beautiful coral reef, or to walk on and explore some of 

the islands. 

The current and expected future levels of tourism to 

Bikini Atoll remain very low, mainly due to the relative 

inaccessibility of the atoll and the associated high costs. 

In the history of the tourism operation, there have been 

no more than 12 tourists on Bikini at any one time. The 

total number of tourists per year has been between 200 

and 250. 

With the difficulties encountered in air travel within the 

67 

Marshall Islands resulting in the stranding of visitors 

on a couple of occasions in 2007 and 2008, the Kili- 

Bikini-Ejit Local Government has reluctantly closed the 

organized tour operation on Bikini until the domestic 

airline problems are resolved. The facilities described 

below are maintained on Bikini until the dive operation 

can resume. 

It is understood that World Heritage listing has the 

potential to greatly increase tourism interest in Bikini; 

however, tourism will continue to be constrained by 

transport issues. Thus, even with World Heritage listing 

the number of tourists might be expected to increase to 

a total of only 400 per year. 

Diving facilities: A typical visit to Bikini over a week 

includes 12 deep decompression dives—these are dives 

that are below normal recreational diving limits and 

require the use of staged decompression stops prior 

to surfacing. Facilities for divers include tanks, two 

dive boats, a tank filling station for both air and nitrox 

(decompression gas), oxygen generation equipment, 

and dive equipment repair shop. Decompression stops 

are facilitated by a decompression station that is hung 

from the dive boat. 

Figure 52. One of Bikini’s boats in preparation for a 

dive on the sunken ships. (Bikini Atoll Divers, n.d.) 

Accommodation and dining: Visitors to Bikini sleep in 

private, air-conditioned comfort with 24 hour power and 

hot running water, on one of the most beautiful beaches 

in the Pacific. A dining hall provides an “all you can eat” 

buffet style selection for breakfast, lunch and dinner. 

Figure 53. Bikini Atoll accommodation on one of the most beautiful 

beaches in the Pacific (J. Niedenthal, 1996) 


Interpretation and explanation: Over the course of the 

week-long dive tour of Bikini historical documentary 

films are shown, complete briefings about each of the 

ships and their respective histories are given, and there 

is a tour of the island and the atoll. The Bikinians feel 

this to be important because this allows their story to be 

taken away by tourists and retold to their families and 

friends. In short, the tourism program helps perpetuate 

a story the islanders want the world to remember. 

Before each dive the divemasters give a full briefing 

about the vessel’s history and unique characteristics, 

and a comprehensive dive plan. Most visitors to Bikini 

access the official website, http://www.bikiniatoll.com/ 

and its wealth of information before making the journey 

to Bikini. 

Figure 54. A breifing is given before each dive giving the history of 

the sunken ships (Bikini Atoll Divers, n.d.) 

Visiting yachts and private vessels: Yachts and private 

vessels may visit Bikini, as long as they meet requirements 

for safety and are able to manage decompression diving. 

All boats wishing to visit must obtain a permit from the 

Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government. 

5.i Policies and programmes 

related to the presentation and 

promotion of the property 

Bikini Atoll Website: Aside from the on-site interpretation 

program run as part of the dive operation, the Bikini Atoll 

official website http://www.bikiniatoll.com/ presents 

detailed information about the site, tourism, the history 

of the atoll and the people of Bikini. 

Marshall Islands Peace Museum: A project is under 

development to establish a Peace Museum on Majuro 

that would present the nuclear history of the Marshall 

Islands in order to promote the cause of world peace. 

Youth Conservation Theatre Program: A proposal has 

been developed for a travelling youth theatre program 

to promote the natural and cultural values of the 

Marshall Islands with a particular focus on the values of 


68 

the proposed World Heritage sites, Bikini and Ailinginae. 

Significant start-up funding and technical assistance is 

required for this program and is being sought. 

5.j Staffing levels (professional, 

technical, maintenance) 

A small number of professional and technical staff are 

employed for the management of the Bikini Atoll site and 

the dive operation. When the organized dive tourism is 

operational, the following job roles are in place: 

Staff Position Location Number 

Tourism Manager Majuro 1 

Tourism Assistant and 

Reservation Manager 

Majuro 1 

Head Divemaster - Bikini Bikini 1 

Assistant Divemasters- Bikini Bikini 2 

Dive guides Bikini 2 

Cook, housekeeping Bikini 3 

Maintenance Bikini 6 

Responsibilities for monitoring the state of conservation, 

and for surveillance of the atoll for violations of any rules 

will be assigned to existing staff roles. 

Figure 55. 

Bikini Island sunset (E. Hanauer, 2006)

Part 6. Monitoring 

6.a Key indicators for measuring 

State of Conservation 

6.a.(i) Cultural resources 

The state of conservation of the site mainly refers 

to the condition of the sunken vessels and the few 

buildings remaining as part of the landscape. Bikini 

Atoll is developing a program in partnership with 

maritime archaeologists and conservation scientists at 

James Cook University, and at the Western Australian 

Maritime Museum. This program will conduct a baseline 

assessment of the state of conservation of the vessels 

and buildings, and develop a protocol and indicators 

for a regular assessment of the state of conservation of 

these artifacts. Local staff divers of Bikini Atoll will be 

trained in how to conduct a regular state of conservation 

assessment. Monitoring protocol will likely involve 

taking photographs at fixed monitoring points and 

comparing these photographs over the years. 

Other features of the site that contribute to the overall 

character of an abandoned nuclear test site include the 

rows of coconut trees and the generally low level of 

buildings and construction. The Bikini Atoll Conservation 

Management Plan outlines the need to assess any 

proposed demolition, construction, land-clearing, 

earthmoving etc. in light of its impact on the attributes 

of Bikini Atoll as a former nuclear test site. Thus an 

indicator for the state of conservation of the site will 

relate to the presence or absence of these activities and 

the impact of such activities on artifacts of the testing 

era and on the overall landscape. 

6.a.(ii) Natural resources 

A team of scientists carried out a baseline survey of the 

marine environment Bikini Atoll in 2002, establishing 

a set of indicators for monitoring the condition of the 

marine environment. These indicators include: 

- Coral and fish biodiversity: presence/absence 

and semi-qualitative abundance in timed 

swims 

- Macroalgae target species and genera semiquantitative 

abundance 

- Percent cover of substrate, coral and algae 

- Reef health including counts of Acanthaster 

planci (crown-of-thorn starfish), dead and 

bleached coral 

69 

- 

- 

Counts of target species of invertebrates 

Fish size and abundance of commercially and 

ecologically important species 

While the survey established a baseline in 2002, there 

is no ongoing program of monitoring due to lack of 

available resources. There is a need to carry out baseline 

assessment of avifauna and vegetation on the island and 

to develop monitoring indicators. 

6.b Administrative arrangements 

for monitoring property 

Responsible Agency: 

Jack Niedenthal, Trust Liaison for the People of Bikini 




Phone: +692 625-3177 

Fax: +692 625-3330 



6.c Results of previous reporting 

exercises 

The most recent archeological assessment occurred 

in 1991 (Delgado et al., 1991), revealing the historical 

and archaeological significance of the artifacts at Bikini 

Atoll, and leading to the development of interpretation 

materials and the opening of Bikini Atoll to dive tourism. 

The most recent assessment of the marine biodiversity 

(Pinca et al., 2002) revealed the remarkable recovery 

of the coral reef ecosystem at Bikini and the impressive 

biodiversity, presence of threatened species and health 

of the marine environment. 


Part 7. Documentation 

7.a Photographs, slides, image 

inventory and authorization table 

and other audiovisual materials 

7.a.(i) List of multi-media items 

accompanying nomination in CD/ DVD 

format 

Maps of the site and buffer zone in PDF and JPEG format 

(Annex 1). 

Images including photographs and artwork catalogued 

in table below (Annex 5). 

Operation Crossroads Parts I and II [Motion Picture] 

(1946). (Annex 6). 

Joint Task Force 7 Operation Castle Commander’s Report. 

[Motion picture] (1954). (Annex 6). 

Bikini: Forbidden Paradise [Motion picture] (1992). 30 

copies on DVD included with submission of nomination 

to the World Heritage Centre (separate DVD). 

7.a.(ii) Internet resources 

The official Bikini Atoll website is at www.bikiniatoll. 

com. The website includes a wealth of information on 

the site, the history of the Bikinian people and of the 

nuclear testing, cultural significance of Bikini Atoll and 

information for tourists. 

Many more resources related to Bikini Atoll and the 

nuclear testing on Bikini can be found on the internet. 

The US Government and its various agencies have made 

many documents, images and photos available on the 

internet through publicly available and searchable 

archives. Other groups interested in the history of 

nuclear weapons, or the prevention of their use in the 

future also have material on Bikini Atoll. These resources 

can be best located through a “Google” search. 


70

7.a.(iii) Image Inventory and Photograph and Audiovisual Authorization Form 

Id. 

No 

Format 

(slide/ 

print/ 

video) 

Caption Date of Photo 

(mo/yr) 

Photographer 

/Director of the 

video 

71 

Copyright owner 

(if different than 

photographer/ 

director of video) 

Contact details 

of copyright 

owner(Name, 

address, tel/fax, and 

email) 

001 jpeg Bikinian Outrigger 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

002 jpeg Coconut trees- before 1946 

testing 

US Government Public domain Yes 

003 jpeg Traditional house 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

004 jpeg King Juda 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

005 jpeg Bikinian Woman and 

Family pre-1946 

1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

007 jpeg Women carryingleaving 

Bikini 


008 jpeg Leaving Bikini 1946 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

009 jpeg Bikinian Church 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

010 jpeg Live Coral 1946 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

011 jpeg Giant Clam 1946 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

012 jpeg Filming of Wyatt and 

Juda with Bikinians 

March 6, 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

013 jpeg Church 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

014 jpeg Canoe being loaded 

on ship 


020 jpeg Operation 

Crossroads- Able 

July 1, 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 


Crossroads-Baker 











026 jpeg Radio Bikini June 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

027 jpeg Saratoga going down July 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

028 jpeg Cleaning ship after 

crossroads 

July 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

029 jpeg Goats during 

Operation Crossroads 

July 1946 US Government Public domain Yes 

030 jpeg Bravo explosion March 1954 US Government Public domain Yes 

031 jpeg Bravo March 1954 US Government Public domain Yes 

032 jpeg H-bomb from LIFE 

magazine 

March 1954 Unknown Time Inc. No 

036 jpeg Castle Romeo March 1954 US Government Public domain National 

Nuclear Security 

Administration / 

Nevada Site Office 

Yes 

040 jpeg Bikinians’ tent city on 

Kwajalein 

n.d. US Government Public domain Yes 

051 jpeg Resort on Bikini 1996 Jack Niedenthal bikini@ntamar.net Yes 

Island 


Marshall Islands, MH 

96960 

Phone: +692 625- 

3177 

Non 

exclusive 

cession of 

rights 


052 jpeg Bunker 2006 Eric Hanauer ehanauer@san.rr.com 

7151 Rock Valley 

Court, 

San Diego CA 92122. 

053 jpeg Rows of coconut 

trees- aerial view 


72 

Ph: +1 858 558-7278. 

2008 Google Earth For usage permission 

requests go to: 

http://www.google. 

com/permissions/ 

geoguidelines.html 

054 jpeg Gazebo at resort 1998 Jack Niedenthal - As above Yes 

055 jpeg Hammerhead dive 

boat 

n.d. unknown No 

056 jpeg Bravo crater 2006 Eric Hanauer - As above No 

057 jpeg Helmet on Saratoga 2006 Eric Hanauer - As above No 

059 jpeg Saratoga bridge 2006 Eric Hanauer - As above No 

060 jpeg Saratoga elevation 1991 L. Nordby and J. Public domain Yes 

drawing 

Livingston/ US 

Government 

061 jpeg Saratoga island 2006 Eric Hanauer - As above No 

062 jpeg Rows of coconut 2002 Jeffery Sasha - sashadavis@yahoo. No 

trees 

Davis 

com 

064 jpeg Bravo crater- Google 2008 Google Earth - For usage permission No 

Earth 

requests go to: 

http://www.google. 

com/permissions/ 

geoguidelines.html 

065 jpeg Sunset on Bikini 2006 Eric Hanauer - As above No 

066 jpeg Apogon conning 

tower 

2006 Eric Hanauer - As above No 

067 gif Bikinian Flag ? KBE Local 

Government 

As above Yes 

M1 mpeg Operation Crossroads 1946 Handy (Jam) Public Domain from http://www. Yes 

Part I 

Organization - Creative archive.org/details/ 

(Producer) Commons License Operatio1946 

M2 mpeg Operation Crossroads 1946 Handy (Jam) Public Domain http://www. 

Yes 

Part II 

Organization - Creative archive.org/details/ 

(Producer) Commons License Operatio1946_2 

No 

No

7.b Texts relating to protective 

designation and management of 

property 

Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Plan- DRAFT 

(as of December 2008). A management plan under 

development to protect and conserve the site, and to 

interpret and communicate the heritage values of Bikini 

Atoll. Annex 3. 

Marine Resource Ordinance (Dated July 28, 1997): 

Ordinance passed in 1997 with the object of conserving 

the marine and wildlife resources of Bikini Atoll. Annexed 

on DVD. 

Ordinance No. 14-1988 (October 8, 1988): Ordinance 

to prevent unauthorized diving in Bikini Atoll lagoon 

and to prevent removal of artifacts from ships. This 

ordinance was created soon after the ships were made 

the property of the Bikinians under Section 177 of the 

Compact of Free Association in 1986. Annexed on DVD. 

Ordinance No. 2-1996 (May 30, 1996): Ordinance to 

prevent unauthorized diving in Bikini Atoll lagoon and to 

prevent removal of artifacts from ships. This ordinance 

was developed soon after the establishment of a 

commercial dive operation on Bikini Atoll and required 

that all divers be supervised by the authorized dive 

operation. Annexed on DVD. 

Liability Release Form and Express Assumption of Risk 

for Diving at Bikini Atoll: All tourist divers at Bikini are 

required to sign a liability release form that also informs 

them of the rules regarding removal of artifacts. During 

times when the dive operation is active, each diver is 

required to sign this form. Visiting yachts are required 

to sign this form also. Annexed on DVD. 

The Historic and Cultural Preservation Act (Title 45, 

Ch 2) (1991) Available at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/ 

Marshalls/html/RMILAW/HPA1991.html 

Regulations Governing The Taking And Export Of 

Artifacts 1991 Available at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/ 

Marshalls/html/RMILAW/RMI_HPO_Law.html 

Regulations Governing Access To Prehistoric And 

Historic Submerged Resources 1991 Available at http:// 

marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/RMILAW/RMI_ 

HPO_Law.html 

Regulations Governing Land Modification Activities 

1991 Available at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/ 

html/RMILAW/RMI_HPO_Law.html 

73 

7.c Form and date of most recent 

records or inventory of property 

Submerged Cultural Resources Survey, 1991: The most 

recent assessment of the sunken vessels on Bikini Atoll 

was carried out in 1991 by a US National Park Service 

Team. The assessment was carefully documented in a 

report and an illustrated book, as listed below. 

Delgado, J.P., Lenihan, D.J, & Murphy, L.F. (1991). 

The Archaeology of the Atomic Bomb: A 

Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of 

the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at 

Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Lagoons, Republic 

of the Marshall Islands. Santa Fe, N.M.: US 

Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service, Submerged Cultural Resources Unit. 

Note: an online version can be found at http:// 

www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/ 

swcrc/37/contents.htm 

Delgado, J. P. (1996). Ghost Fleet: the Sunken Ships of 

Bikini Atoll. Honolulu: University of Hawaii 

Press. 

Marine Biodiversity Survey, 2002: A survey of the health 

and biodiversity of marine life was carried out by a team 

of scientists on Bikini in 2002. The report was published 

in print form only, a copy of which is held in the Kili- 

Bikini-Ejit Local Government office. 

Pinca, S., Beger., M., Richards, Z., & Peterson, E. 

(2002). Coral Reef Biodiversity: Communitybased 

Assessment and Conservation Planning 

in the Marshall Islands: Baseline surveys, 

capacity building and natural protection and 

management of coral reefs of the atolls of 

Bikini and Rongelap. Report to the Rongelap 

Government, Republic of the Marshall Islands. 

Radiological Surveys, ongoing: The last complete survey 

was done by the RMI by Dr. Steve Simon. This was the 

Marshall Islands Radiological Survey of Bikini Atoll, part 

of the Marshall Islands Nationwide Radiological Study in 

February of 1995. All of the scientific findings regarding 

Bikini Atoll were reviewed by a panel of scientists put 

together by the International Atomic Energy Agency 

(IAEA) in 1996 and released in 1998. Lawrence Livermore 

National Laboratories, in conjunction with the US 

Department of Energy, has ongoing studies monitoring 

the environment of Bikini Atoll. This includes soil and 

water sampling to measure the rate of radiological 

decay. A 2004 report provides an overview of the history 

and current radiological conditions at Bikini. 


Lokan, K., Gonzalez, A.J., Linsley, G., Robinson, W. , 

Simon, S.L., Gnugnoli, G., Stegnar, P. & Delves, 

D. reviewed by G. Webb and G. C. Mason. 

(1998). Radiological Conditions at Bikini Atoll: 

Prospects for Resettlement, Report of an 

Advisory Group of the International Atomic 

Energy Agency. Vienna, Austria: IAEA. 

Hamilton, T.F & Robison, W.L. (2004). Overview of 

Radiological Conditions on Bikini Atoll UCRL- 

MI-208228. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore 

Laboratory, University of California. 

7.d Address where inventory, 

records and archives are held 




Phone: +692 625-3177 

Fax: +692 625-3330 




74 

7.e Bibliography 

The following Bibliography is a list of references used in 

the preparation of this nomination. 

Books 

Boyer, P. (1985). By the Bomb’s Early Light: American 

Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic 

Age. New York: Pantheon Books. 

Danielsson, B. & Danielsson, M. (1986). Poisoned 

Reign: French nuclear colonialism in the Pacific. 

Melbourne: Penguin. 

DeGroot., G. J. (2006). The Bomb: A Life. Cambridge, 

Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 

Delgado, J.P., Lenihan, D.J. & Murphy, L.F. (1991). The 

Archaeology of the Atomic Bomb: A Submerged 

Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet 

of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein 

Atoll Lagoons, Republic of the Marshall Islands. 

Santa Fe, N.M: US Department of the Interior, 

National Park Service, Submerged Cultural 

Resources Unit. Note: an online version can be 

found at http://www.nps.gov/history/history/ 

online_books/swcrc/37/contents.htm 

Delgado, J. P. (1996). Ghost Fleet: The Sunken Ships 

of Bikini Atoll. Honolulu, Hawai’i: University of 

Hawai’i Press. 

Dibblin, J. (1990). Day of Two Suns: US Nuclear Testing 

and the Pacific Islanders. New York: New 

Amsterdam Books. 

Firth, S. (1987). Nuclear Playground. Sydney: Allen & 

Unwin. 

Gaddis, J.L. (2007). The Cold War: A New History. New 

York: Penguin. 

Hezel, F. X. (1983). The First Taint of Civilization: A 

History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in 

Pre-Colonial Days, 1521-1885. Pacific Islands 

Monograph Series, No.1. Honolulu : University of 

Hawaii Press. 

Hines, N. O. (1963). Proving ground; an account of the 

radiobiological studies in the Pacific, 1946-1961. 

Seattle, Washington: University of Washington 

Press . 

Lapp, R. E. (1958). The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon. 

New York: Harper.

Niedenthal, J. (2002). For the Good of Mankind: A History 

of the People of Bikini and their Islands. Majuro: 

Bravo Publishers. 

Weisgall, J. M. (1994). Operation Crossroads: The Atomic 

Tests at Bikini Atoll. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval 

Institute Press. 

Wittner, L. S. (1997). The Struggle against the Bomb, 

vol. 2: Resisting the Bomb: A History of the World 

Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1954-1970. 

Stanford: Stanford University Press. 

Articles 

Beazley, O. (2007). A paradox of peace: The Hiroshima 

Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) as world 

heritage. In John Schofield and Wayne Cocroft 

(Eds.) A Fearsome Heritage: Diverse Legacies of 

the Cold War. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast 

Press. 

Cameron, J. (1970). Twenty-three nuclear explosions 

later. New York Times Magazine, March 1: 24+. 

Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, G., Aronson, R.B., 

Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chiriboga, A., Cortes, J., 

Delbeek, J.C., DeVantier, L., Edgar, G.J., Edwards, 

A.J., Fenner, D., Guzman, H.M., Hoeksema, B.W., 

Hodgson, G., Johan, O, Licuanan, W.Y., Livingstone, 

S.R., Lovell, E.R., Moore, J.A., Obura, D.O., 

Ochavillo, D., Polidoro, B.A, Precht, W.F., Quibilan, 

M.C., Reboton, C., Richards, Z.T., Rogers, A.D., 

Sanciangco, J., Sheppard, A., Sheppard, C., Smith, 

J., Stuart, S.N., Turak, E., Veron, J.E.N., Wallace, 

C., Weil, E. and Wood, E. 2008. One-Third of 

reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk 

from climate change and local impacts. Science 

321(5888), 560-563. 

Davis, J.S. (2005). Representing Place: ‘‘Deserted Isles’’ 

and the Reproduction of Bikini Atoll. Annals of 

the Association of American Geographers, 95(3), 

607–625. 

Davis, J. S. (2007). Scales of Eden: conservation and 

pristine devastation on Bikini Atoll . Environment 

and Planning D: Society and Space, 25, 213-235. 

Eliot, John L. (1992). In Bikini Lagoon Life Thrives in 

a Nuclear Graveyard. National Geographic 

Magazine, June 1992. 

Fairclough, G. (2007). The Cold War in context: 

Archaeological explorations of private, public 

and political complexity. In John Schofield and 

75 

Wayne Cocroft (Eds.) A Fearsome Heritage: 

Diverse Legacies of the Cold War. Walnut Creek, 

California: Left Coast Press. 

Farrell J. J. (1987). The Crossroads of Bikini. The Journal 

of American Culture 10(2), 55 – 66. 

Feely, R.A., Sabine, C.L., Lee, K., Berelson, W., Fabry, V.J. 

& Millero, FJ. (2004). Impact of Anthropogenic 

CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans. Science, 

305, 362-366. 

Fosberg, F. R. (1988). Vegetation of Bikini Atoll, 1985. 

Atoll Research Bulletin, 315, 1-28. 

Garrett, K.L. & R. W. Schreiber. (1988). The Birds of Bikini 

Atoll, Marshall Islands: May 1986. Atoll Research 

Bulletin, 314, 1-42. 

Graybar, L.J. (1986). The 1946 Atomic Bomb Tests: 

Atomic Diplomacy or Bureaucratic Infighting? The 

Journal of American History, 72 (4), 888-907. 

Hughes, T. P., Baird, A. H., Bellwood, D. R., Card, M., 

Connolly, S. R., Folke, C., Grosberg, R., Hoegh- 

Guldberg, O., Jackson, J. B. C., Kleypas, J., Lough, 

J. M., Marshall, P., Nystrom, M., Palumbi, S. R., 

Pandolfi, J. M., Rosen, B., and Roughgarden, J. 

(2003). Climate change, human impacts, and the 

resilience of coral reefs. Science, 301, 929-933. 

Kirsch, S. (1997). Watching the Bombs Go Off: 

Photography, Nuclear Landscapes and Spectator 

Democracy. Antipode 29(3), 227-255. 

Noshkin, V. E., Eagle, R. J., and Robison, W.L. (1997). 

Sediment Studies at Bikini Atoll Part 1. Distribution 

of Fine and Coarse Components in Surface 

Sediments. Livermore, California :Lawrence 

Livermore National Laboratory. (source of data 

for locations of detonation). 

Rainbird, P. (1994). Prehistory in the Northwest Tropical 

Pacific: The Caroline, Mariana, and Marshall 

Islands. Journal of World Prehistory 8(3),293-359. 

Richards, Z. T., Beger, M., Pinca, S., & Wallace, C.C. 

(2008). Bikini Atoll coral biodiversity resilience 

revealed; five decades after nuclear testing. 

Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56, 503-515. 

Rosenthal, P. (1991). The nuclear mushroom cloud as 

cultural image. American Literary History, 3(1), 

63-92. 

Ryfle, S. (2007). Godzilla’s Footprint. The Virginia 

Quarterly Review, Winter 2005, 44-63. 


Saito, H. (2006). Reiterated Commemoration: Hiroshima 

as National Trauma. Sociological Theory 24 (4), 

December 2006, 353-376. 

Scott, G.A.J. & Rotondo, G.M. (1983). A model for the 

development of types of atoll and volcanic islands 

on the Pacific lithospheric plate. Atoll Research 

Bulletin 260. 1-33. 

Sergio F., Newton I., Marchesi L., Pedrini P. (2006). 

Ecologically justified charisma: preservation of 

top predators delivers biodiversity conservation. 

Journal of Applied Ecology 43, 1049-1055. 

Smith, A. (2007). Colonialism and the bomb in the 

Pacific. In John Schofield and Wayne Cocroft 

(Eds.) A Fearsome Heritage: Diverse Legacies of 

the Cold War. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast 

Press. 

Totten, G.O. & Kawakami, T. (1964). Gensuikyo and the 

Peace Movement in Japan. Asian Survey, 4(5), pp. 

833-841. 

Zuberi, M. (1999). “Operation Crossroads”: Meeting 

the Bomb at Close Quarters. Strategic Analysis, 

22 (11), 1667-1679. 

Reports 

Bradsher, R.V., Robison, W.L., & Hamilton, T.F. (2004). 

The Marshall Islands Dose Assessment and 

Radioecology Program (1974-2003): A Bibliography 

of :Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Staff 

Publications. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore 


Conservation International-Melanesia Center for 

Biodiversity Conservation. (2004). Ecosystem 

Profile: Polynesia-Micronesia Biodiversity Hotspot. 

Atherton,QLD: Conservation International. 

Hamilton, T.F & Robison, W.L. (2004). Overview of 

Radiological Conditions on Bikini Atoll UCRL- 

MI-208228. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore 


Lokan, K., Gonzalez, A.J., Linsley, G., Robinson, W. , 

Simon, S.L., Gnugnoli, G., Stegnar, P. & Delves, D. 

reviewed by G. Webb and G. C. Mason. (1998). 

Radiological Conditions at Bikini Atoll: Prospects 

for Resettlement, Report of an Advisory Group of 

the International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna, 

Austria: IAEA. 

Petrosian-Husa, C.C.H. (2004). Traditional Fishing 

Techniques on the Marshall Islands. Alele Report 


76 

2004/03. Majuro: Republic of the Marshall Islands 

Historic Preservation Office. 

Pinca, S., Beger, M., Richards, Z., and Peterson, E. 

(2002). Coral Reef Biodiversity Communitybased 

Assessment and Conservation Planning in 

the Marshall Islands: Baseline surveys, capacity 

building and natural protection and management 

of coral reefs of the atolls of Bikini and Rongelap. 

Report to the Rongelap Government, Republic of 

the Marshall Islands. 

Reimaanlok National Planning Team. (2008). Reimaanlok: 

National Conservation Area Plan for the Marshall 

Islands. N. Baker: Melbourne. 

Shields, W. (1967). Report of the Ad Hoc Committee to 

evaluate the radiological hazards of resettlement 

of the Bikini Atoll. DOE/CIC 41847. Retrieved 

on December 22, 2008 from https://www. 

osti.gov/opennet/servlets/purl/16366666mt53LQ/16366666.pdf 

Vander Velde, N. and Vander Velde, B. (2003). A Review 

of the Birds of Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands with 

Recent Observations. Unpublished report for 

Bikini Atoll Local Government: Majuro. 

Martin, E. & Rowland, R. (1982). Castle Series, 1954. 

Washington DC: Defense Nuclear Agency. 

Newspaper and news magazine 

references 

Ashes to Ashes. (October 4, 1954). Time magazine. 

Retrieved December 8, 2008 from http://www.time. 

com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,857552,00. 

html. 

Color pictures of hydrogen test (April 19, 1954). Life 

magazine. 

Crossroads. (July 1, 1946). Time magazine. Retrieved 

December 8, 2008 from http://www.time.com/ 

time/magazine/article/0,9171,803775,00.html 

US to let Bikinians back on A-test Isle. (August 13, 1968). 

New York Times, p. 1-2. 

9 Return to Bikini; Will Tell Others ‘It’s Not the Same’. 

(September 4, 1968). New York Times. 

Laurence, W.L. (April 24, 1946). Star’s Secrets May 

Unfold to Myriad Gauges at Bikini. Special to the 

New York Times. New York Times, p.1,7. 

Shalett, S. (January 25, 1946). Test Atomic Bombs to 

Blast 100 Ships at Marshalls Atoll. Special to the 

New York Times. New York Times, p. 1, 4.

Speeches and historical documents 

Abolition 2000. (1997). Moorea Declaration on 

Colonialism (Supplement to the Abolition 2000 

Founding Statement). Adopted at the Abolition 

2000 Conference, Moorea, Te Ao Maohi (French 

Polynesia), January 25, 1997. Retrieved December 

28, 2008 from http://www.abolition2000. 

org/site/c.cdJIKKNpFqG/b.2729841/k.5D08/ 

NewsReleasesStatements.htm 

Churchill, W. Sinews of Peace (the Iron Curtain Speech). 

Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri. March 

5, 1946. Retrieved on September 17, 2008 from 

http://www.historyguide.org/europe/churchill. 

html 

Dhanapala, J. (December 12, 2000). Message to 

Gensuikyo from Jayantha Dhanapala Under- 

Secretary-General for Disarmament Affairs United 

Nations. Retrieved December 8, 2008 from http:// 

disarmament.un.org/speech/goki.htm 

Potsdam Declaration (or the Proclamation Defining Terms 

for Japanese Surrender). (July 26, 1945). Issued at 

the Potsdam Conference by US President, Harry S. 

Truman, UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and 

President of China, Chiang Kai-shek. Retrieved 

December 9, 2008 from http://en.wikisource.org/ 

wiki/Potsdam_Declaration 

Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly During its 

First Session: 1. Establishment of a Commission to 

Deal with the Problem Raised by the Discovery 

of Atomic Energy. (24 January, 1946). Retrieved 

December 9, 2008 from http://daccessdds. 

un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/032/52/ 

IMG/NR003252.pdf?OpenElement 

Russell, B. & Einstein, A. (July 9, 1955). The Russell- 

Einstein Manifesto. Issued in London, 1955. 

Retrieved December 9, 2008 from http://www. 

pugwash.org/about/manifesto.htm 

Soviet-Anglo-American Communiqué. Moscow 

Conference. December 27, 1945. Retrieved 

December 9, 2008 from http://www.nautilus. 

org/DPRKBriefingBook/agreements/CanKor_ 

VTK_1945_12_27_soviet_anglo_american_ 

communique.pdf 

Stalin, J. Speech delivered by J. V. Stalin at a meeting 

of voters of the Stalin Electoral District, Moscow. 

February 9, 1946. Retrieved December 8, 2008 

from http://www.marx2mao.com/Stalin/SS46. 

html 

77 

Motion pictures 

Handy (Jam) Organization (Producer). (1946). Operation 

Crossroads Parts I & II. US Navy, Prelinger Archives. 

Retrieved on January 19, 2009 from http://www. 

archive.org/details/Operatio1946 

Joint Task Force 7 (Producer). (1954). Operation Castle 

Commander’s Report. Retrieved on January 

21, 2009 from http://www.archive.org/details/ 

CastleCommandersReport1954 

Livingston, W. (Producer) & Rawlings, J. (Writer/ 

Producer). (1992) Bikini: Forbidden Paradise 

[Motion picture]. United States: ABC Television. 

Reich, S. (Composer) & Korot, B.(Video) (2003). Three 

Tales [Motion Picture and Score]. New York: 

Nonesuch. 

Stone, R. (Producer/ Director). (1987). Radio Bikini 

[Motion Picture]. United States: IFC. 

Websites 

Conservation International. (2007). Biodiversity Hotspots: 

Polynesia-Micronesia. Retrieved January 9, 

2009 from http://www.biodiversityhotspots. 

org/xp/hotspots/polynesia/Pages/default.aspx 

Daigo Fukuryū-Maru Exhibition Hall [Official Website 

in Japanese language]. (2005). Retrieved 

December 9, 2008 from http://d5f.org/ 

Introducing the Japan Council against Atomic and 

Hydrogen Bombs (Gensuikyo). (n.d.). Retrieved 

December 8, 2008 from http://www.antiatom. 

org/GSKY/en/discription_gensuikyo.htm 

The Japanese on Bikini as described by Rubon Juda & 

Biamon Lewis to Jack Niedenthal, May 1989, 

September 1990. (1990). Retrieved December 

28, 2008 from http://www.bikiniatoll.com/ 

Loukianova, A., Djumanae, U., Dvali, A., Aben, D., Butler, 

K. & Mukhatzanova, G. (2008). Kazakhstan 

Profile: Nuclear Facilities, Semipalatinsk Test 

Site. Washington D.C.: Nuclear Threat Initiative. 

Retrieved January 6, 2009 from http://www.nti. 

org/e_research/profiles/Kazakhstan/Nuclear/ 

facilities_semipalatinsk.html#nukes 

Kennedy, B. (1999). CNN.com/COLD WAR Special CNN 

Interactive, “Episode 8: Sputnik/ The Lucky 

Dragon.” Retrieved December 9, 2008 from 

http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ 

episodes/08/spotlight/ 


National Historic Landmarks Program, National Parks 

Service. (n.d.). Trinity Site. Retrieved December 

16, 2008 from http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cf 

m?ResourceID=351&resourceType=District. 

Nevada Test Site. (2008). Official Website of the Nevada 

Test Site. Retrieved December 28, 2008 from 

http://www.nv.doe.gov/nts/default.htm 

Operation Crossroads. (2001). Website of the Department 

of the Navy—Naval Historical Center. Retrieved 

December 28, 2008 from http://www.history. 

navy.mil/ac/bikini/bikini1.htm 

Packett, K. (2002). Review of Three Tales by Steve Reich 

and Beryl Korot, 19 October 2002: Brooklyn 

Academy of Music — Brooklyn, New York. 

Retrieved December 26, 2008 from http:// 

www.popmatters.com/music/concerts/r/ 

reich-steve-021019.shtml 

Peace march held in Shizuoka to mark 1954 Bikini Atoll 

H-bomb test. (March 1, 2008). Associated 

Press article. Retrieved March 16, 2008 

from http://www.breitbart.com/article. 

php?id=D8V4J3H80&show_article=1 

Poniewozik, J. (2007). The 100 Best TV Shows of All Time. 

Time magazine website. Retrieved March 16, 

2008 from http://www.time.com/time/special 

s/2007article/0,28804,1651341_1659196_165 

2730,00.html 

Rosebush, J. (n.d.). 1945-1950: The Very First Bikini. 

Retrieved December 9, 2008 from http://www. 

bikiniscience.com/chronology/1945-1950_ 

SS/1945-1950.html 

Stalin compares Churchill to Hitler. (1999). CNN.com/ 

COLD WAR Special CNN Interactive, “Episode 

2: Iron Curtain.” Retrieved December 9, 2008 

from http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ 

episodes/02/1st.draft/pravda.html 

USS Saratoga Association. (2008). Saratoga V. Retrieved 

January 10, 2009 from http://www.uss-saratoga. 

com/saratoga5.pdf 

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17, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 

Nuclear_testing 


78 

World Heritage guidelines 

ICOMOS. (2004). The World Heritage List: Filling the 

Gaps - an Action Plan for the Future: An Analysis 

by ICOMOS. Paris: ICOMOS. 

Smith, A. & Jones, K. (2007). Cultural Landscapes of the 

Pacific Islands: ICOMOS Thematic Study. Retrieved 

January 7, 2009 from http://www.icomos.org/ 

studies/cultural-landscapes-pacific.htm 

Thematic Framework for World Cultural Heritage in the 

Pacific 5 – 8 September 2005, Port Vila: Report. 

(2005). Vanuatu. Retrieved January 7, 2009 

from http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/ 

documents/activity-7-1.pdf 

Laws and regulations 

Agreement Between the Government of the United 

States and the Government of the Marshall 

Islands for the Implementation of Section 177 of 

the Compact of Free Association, Article VI 198 

Constitution of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, 

1979. 

Public Lands and Resources Act, Title 9 Ch 1, 1996 

The Historic and Cultural Preservation Act (Title 45, Ch 

2) (1991) 

Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (comp.) (2000). Cultural Heritage 

Legislation in the Republic of the Marshall Islands 

. Regulations Governing Access To Prehistoric 

And Historic Submerged Resources 1991 Albury: 

http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/ 

RMILAW/Reg_Submerged.html 

Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (comp.) (2000). Cultural 

Heritage Legislation in the Republic of the 

Marshall Islands . Regulations Governing 

Land Modification Activities 1991. Albury: 

URL: http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/ 

RMILAW/Reg_LandMod.html 

Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (comp.) (2000). Cultural 

Heritage Legislation in the Republic of the 

Marshall Islands . Regulations Governing The 

Taking And Export Of Artifacts 1991. Albury: 

URL: http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/ 

RMILAW/Reg_Export.html 

Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government Ordinance No.14-1988 

Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government Ordinance No.2-1996 

Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government Yacht Liability Waiver, 

2008

Part 8. Contact Information of responsible 

authorities 

8.a Preparer 

Nicole Baker 

19 Bridge Street 

Northcote VIC 3070 Australia 

Phone: +61 3 9481-7345 or +61 410 568 011 

nicole.f.baker@gmail.com 

8.b Official local institution/ 

agency 

Managing institution 

Jack Niedenthal, Trust Liaison for the People of Bikini 




Phone: +692 625-3177 

Fax: +692 625-3330 



Reporting institution 

Clary Makroro, Director 

Alele Museum, Library and National Archives 



Phone: +692 625-3372/3550 

Fax: +692 625-3226 

Email: alele_inc@ntamar.net 

8.c Other local institutions 

Marshall Islands Visitors Authority (MIVA) 



Majuro Marshall Islands 96960 

Phone: +692 625-6482 

Fax: +692 625-6771 

tourism@ntamar.net 

79 

Historic Preservation Office 



Phone: +692 625-4476 

Fax: +692 625-4476 

rmihpo@ntamar.net 

Republic of the Marshall Islands Environmental 

Protection Authority (RMIEPA) 



Phone: +692 625 3250 

Fax: +692 625 3685 

rmiepa@ntamar.net 

Executive Director 

Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority (MIMRA) 



Phone: +692 625-8262/5632 

Fax: +692 625-5447 

gjoseph@mimra.com 

Youth to Youth in Health 



Phone: +692 625-3098/3326 

Fax: +692 625-5449 

Julia_alfred@yahoo.com 

8.d Official web address 

http://www.bikiniatoll.com 

Contact Name: Jack Niedenthal 

E-mail: bikini@ntamar.net 


Part 9. Signature on behalf of the 

State Party 

Clary Makroro 

Director, Alele Museum, Library and National Archives 


January 2009 

81 


Acknowledgements 

The Nomination Document and Management Plan for Bikini Atoll were prepared with the support 

of an International Preparatory Assistance Grant from the World Heritage Centre. The Nomination 

Document and the Management Plan were prepared for the Republic of the Marshall Islands by Nicole 

Baker who would like to thank the following for their written contributions, advice and assistance in 

the preparation (in alphabetical order): 

Maria Beger, University of Queensland, Australia 

Jeffery Sasha Davis, Vermont, United States 

James Delgado, Institute of Nautical Archaeology, United States 

Paul Dingwall, Wellington, New Zealand 

Anna McMurray, Istanbul, Turkey 

Silvia Pinca, Secretariat of the Pacific Communities, New Caledonia 

Jack Niedenthal, Kili-Bikini-Ejit Local Government, Marshall Islands 

Zoe Richards, James Cook University, Australia 

Anita Smith, La Trobe University, Australia 

Dan Zwartz, Canberra, Australia. 

83 


“Remember your humanity, and forget the rest.”

Annex 1 – Maps 

(A4 Size)

Annex 1-1 


(i) Map of Bikini Atoll showing reef and land

Annex 1-2 Bikini Atoll World Heritage Nomination January 2009 

(ii) Map of Bikini Atoll showing boundary of property (red) and of buffer zone (green)

Annex 1-3 


(iii) Map showing the location of Bikini Atoll within the Marshall Islands


(iv) Map showing location of the Marshall Islands in the Pacific region

Annex 1-5 


(v) Map showing locations of key features from nuclear tests on Bikini Atoll


(vi) Map showing locations of nuclear detonations on Bikini Atoll

Annex 2 – A Brief Chronology of 

Nuclear Testing in the 

Marshall Islands

1946 

1947 

1948 

Nuclear Nomads –A Brief Chronology of 

Marshallese in the Nuclear Age 

(Source: Micronitor, 1996; Niedenthal, 2002; Weisgall, 1994; and Dibblin, 1990) 

March US Navy moves 167 Bikinians to Rongerik Atoll, 200 km (125 miles) to the east, 

to make way for the first peace‐time nuclear tests. Rongerik has been previously 

uninhabited due to a lack of food and water resources, and a traditional belief that it 

is a home for an evil spirit that contaminated the fish. As the food supply on Rongerik 

quickly runs out, the Bikinians begin to suffer from starvation and fish poisoning due 

to the lack of edible fish in the lagoon. Within two months after their arrival they ask 

U.S. officials to move them back to Bikini. 

May As a safety measure, islanders from Enewetak, Rongelap and Wotho atolls are 

relocated for the duration of Operation Crossroads. 

July Operation Crossroads is conducted with “Able” and “Baker” tests—both the size 

of the Hiroshima “Little Boy” weapon. 

July The Marshall Islands and the rest of Micronesia became a United Nations 

strategic Trust Territory administered by the United States. Among other obligations, 

the US undertakes to "promote the economic advancement and self‐sufficiency of the 

inhabitants, and to this end...protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands 

and resources." A medical officer from the U.S. visits the island finding the Bikinian 

people to be suffering from malnutrition. A team of U.S. investigators determined in 

the fall, after a visit to Rongerik, that the island had inadequate supplies of food and 

water and that the Bikini people should be moved from Rongerik without delay. 

November The Bikinians work with Navy Seabees to construct a new community on 

Ujelang Atoll. 

December The US Navy selects Enewetak Atoll for a second series of nuclear tests and 

immediately moves the people of Enewetak to Ujelang Atoll, leaving the Bikinians 

again without their chosen home. 

March On the verge of starvation, the Bikinians are moved from Rongerik Atoll to a 

temporary camp on Kwajalein while a new home is found for them. 

April Operation Sandstone begins on Enewetak Atoll. 

June Bikinians choose Kili Island—a single island with no lagoon or protected 

anchorage—in the southern Marshalls because the island is not ruled by a paramount 

king, or iroij, and is uninhabited. This choice ultimately dooms their traditional diet 

and lifestyle, which were both based on lagoon fishing. 

November The Bikinian people are moved to Kili Island. Most of the year Kili is 

surrounded by 10 to 20 foot waves that deny the islanders of the opportunity to fish 

and sail their canoes. After a short time on Kili‐‐a place that the islanders believe was 

once an ancient burial ground for kings and therefore overwrought with spiritual 

influence‐‐they began to refer to it as a "prison" island. Because the island does not 

produce enough local food for the Bikinians to eat, the importation of USDA rice and 

canned goods, and also food bought with their supplemental income, has become an 

absolute necessity for their survival. In the following years rough seas and infrequent 

visits by the field trip ships caused food supplies to run critically low many times on 

the island and once even required an airdrop of emergency food rations. 

1951 April Operation Greenhouse is conducted at Enewetak 

1952 

November Operation Ivy begins at Enewetak, and includes the first test of a staged 

hydrogen device. The Mike test vaporizes Elugelap Island, leaving a vast crater. The 

King test contaminates Ujelang Atoll, over 200km away with radioactive fallout. 

Annex 2-1 BIKINI ATOLL WORLD HERITAGE NOMINATION JANUARY 2009

1954 

1 March 1954 Bravo is detonated at Bikini, despite winds blowing towards Rongelap, 

Rongerik, Utrik and other inhabited atolls. At 15 megatons, Bravo is 1,000 times the 

strength of the Hiroshima bomb. Rongelap islanders are evacuated 48 hours later, 

and Utrik is evacuated 72 hours later. Both groups were taken to Kwajalein for 

observation where they suffered radiation illness and burns. The Daigo Fukuryū‐Maru 

(Lucky Dragon #5) returned to Japan with its crew also suffering from radiation illness. 

April Rongelap, Rongerik, Ailinginae are again contaminated from the Union test at 

Bikini. 

May These atolls as well as Bikar are again showered with fallout from the Yankee 

test at Bikini. The Rongelap people are moved to Ejit Island in Majuro as Rongelap is 

still highly contaminated. The people of Utrik are told their atoll is safe, and are 

returned and told not to eat the local food. 

1956 May Operation Redwing begins at Enewetak and Bikini. 

1957 

July Rongelap is now declared safe for rehabitation and the people of Rongelap return 

to their home. Brookhaven National Laboratory Scientists report that: “Even though 

the radioactive contamination of Rongelap is considered perfectly safe for human 

habitation, the levels of activity are higher than those found in other inhabited 

locations in the world. The habitation of these people on the island will afford most 

valuable ecological radiation data on human beings.” 

1958 May Operation Hardtack, consisting of 32 nuclear tests is carried out on Enewetak 

and Bikini and continues until August. Ujelang, Ailinginae and Wotho Atolls are all 

exposed to fallout. In August, after exploding 23 nuclear devices on Bikini and 43 

nuclear devices on Enewetak, the US announces that it is concluding atmospheric 

testing in the Pacific. 

1963 The first thyroid tumours begin to appear among the Rongelap people exposed to the 

fallout from Bravo. 

1968 

June President Lyndon B. Johnson promises the 540 Bikinians living on Kili and other 

islands that they would now be able to return to their homeland. The President states 

that, "It is our goal to assist the people of Bikini to build, on these once desolated 

islands, a new and model community." He then ordered Bikini to be resettled "with 

all possible dispatch." 

1969 October Bikini Atoll is declared safe for rehabitation by US officials. 

1972 

1975 

1976 

October The Bikini Council votes not to return the entire community to Bikini, but 

several families move back into newly built homes on Bikini Atoll. 

June Radiological monitoring at Bikini shows “higher levels of radioactivity than 

originally thought” and it “appears to be hotter or questionable as to safety”. 

August AEC surveys suggest groundwater is too radioactive for use and suggest 

prohibiting consumption of pandanus, breadfruit and coconut crabs. 

July A Brookhaven National Laboratory report shows that 69 percent of Rongelap 

people who were under 10 at the time of exposure to Bravo have developed thyroid 

tumours. Utrik people begin to show an even higher rate of thyroid cancer. 


1977 

1978 

1980 

1985 

May Nuclear cleanup on Enewetak begins. 100,000 cubic yards of radioactive soil and 

debris are dumped in a bomb crater on Runit Island, sealed with a cap of cement. 

June A Department of Energy study reports: “All living patterns involving Bikini Island 

exceed Federal (radiation) guidelines for 30 year population doses.” More than 100 

Bikinians continue living on Bikini. 

May Interior Department officials describe the 75 percent increase in radioactive 

cesium found in the people living on Bikini as “incredible”. Plans are announced to 

move the people within 90 days. 

August A radiological survey revises the list of atolls exposed from Bikini, Enewetak, 

Rongelap and Utrik to include 10 other atolls and islands, including inhabited atolls of 

Ailuk, Likiep, Mejit, Ujelang and Wotho. 

September The 139 people on Bikini are evacuated. 

March US Defense Nuclear Agency declares the Enewetak cleanup complete and 

Enewetak islanders begin to return home to the southern part of the atoll. Runit 

Island is off limits forever. Six months later 100 people return to Ujelang reporting 

that Enewetak’s trees are not bearing fruit. 

May People of Rongelap are evacuated by the Greenpeace boat, Rainbow Warrior. 

They move to a small island, Mejatto, on Kwajalein Atoll. In July, en route from the 

Marshall Islands to protest French testing at Moruroa, the Rainbow Warrior is sunk by 

French intelligence agents in Auckland Harbour. 


List of US Nuclear Tests on Bikini and Enewetak Atolls 

in the Marshall Islands 

Test Date of Site of Test Type Yield in Operation Test Code 

No Test 

Kilotons Code Name Name 

1 6/30/46 Bikini Airdrop 21.00 CROSSROADS ABLE 

2 7/24/46 Bikini Underwater 21.00 CROSSROADS BAKER 

3 4/14/48 Enewetak Tower 37.00 SANDSTONE XRAY 

4 4/30/48 Enewetak Tower 49.00 SANDSTONE YOKE 

5 5/14/48 Enewetak Tower 18.00 SANDSTONE ZEBRA 

6 4/7/51 Enewetak Tower 81.00 GREENHOUSE DOG 

7 4/20/51 Enewetak Tower 47.00 GREENHOUSE EASY 

8 5/8/51 Enewetak Tower 225.00 GREENHOUSE GEORGE 

9 5/24/51 Enewetak Tower 45.50 GREENHOUSE ITEM 

10 10/31/52 Enewetak Surface 10,400 IVY MIKE 

11 11/15/52 Enewetak Air Drop 500.00 IVY KING 

12 2/28/54 Bikini Surface 15,000 CASTLE BRAVO 

13 3/26/54 Bikini Barge 11,000 CASTLE ROMEO 

14 4/6/54 Bikini Surface 110.00 CASTLE KOON 

15 4/25/54 Bikini Barge 6,900 CASTLE UNION 

16 5/4/54 Bikini Barge 13,500 CASTLE YANKEE 

17 5/13/54 Enewetak Barge 1,690 CASTLE NECTAR 

18 5/4/56 Enewetak Surface 40.00 REDWING LACROSSE 

19 5/20/56 Bikini Air Drop 3800.00 REDWING CHEROKEE 

20 5/27/56 Bikini Surface 3,500 REDWING ZUNI 

21 5/27/56 Enewetak Tower 0.19 REDWING YUMA 

22 5/30/56 Enewetak Tower 14.90 REDWING ERIE 

23 6/6/56 Enewetak Surface 13.70 REDWING SEMINOLE 

24 6/11/56 Bikini Barge 365.00 REDWING FLATHEAD 

25 6/11/56 Enewetak Tower 8.00 REDWING BLACKFOOT 

26 6/13/56 Enewetak Tower 1.49 REDWING KICKAPOO 

27 6/16/56 Enewetak Air Drop 1.70 REDWING OSAGE 

28 6/21/56 Enewetak Tower 15.20 REDWING INCA 

29 6/25/56 Bikini Barge 1,100 REDWING DAKOTA 

30 7/2/56 Enewetak Tower 360.00 REDWING MOHAWK 

31 7/8/56 Enewetak Barge 1,850 REDWING APACHE 

32 7/10/56 Bikini Barge 4,500 REDWING NAVAJO 

33 7/20/56 Bikini Barge 5,000 REDWING TEWA 

34 7/21/56 Enewetak Barge 250.00 REDWING HURON 

35 4/28/58 Near 

Enewetak 

Balloon 1.70 HARDTACK I YUCCA 

36 5/5/58 Enewetak Surface 18.00 HARDTACK I CACTUS 

37 5/11/58 Bikini Barge 1,360 HARDTACK I FIR 

38 5/11/58 Enewetak Barge 81.00 HARDTACK I BUTTERNUT 

39 5/12/58 Enewetak Surface 1,370 HARDTACK I KOA 


40 5/16/58 Enewetak Underwater 9.00 HARDTACK I WAHOO 

41 5/20/58 Enewetak Barge 5.90 HARDTACK I HOLLY 

42 5/21/58 Bikini Barge 25.10 HARDTACK I NUTMEG 

43 5/26/58 Enewetak Barge 330.00 HARDTACK I YELLOWWOOD 

44 5/26/58 Enewetak Barge 57.00 HARDTACK I MAGNOLIA 

45 5/30/58 Enewetak Barge 11.60 HARDTACK I TOBACCO 

46 5/31/58 Bikini Barge 92.00 HARDTACK I SYCAMORE 

47 6/2/58 Enewetak Barge 15.00 HARDTACK I ROSE 

48 6/8/58 Enewetak Underwater 8.00 HARDTACK I UMBRELLA 

49 6/10/58 Bikini Barge 213.00 HARDTACK I MAPLE 

50 6/14/58 Bikini Barge 319.00 HARDTACK I ASPEN 

51 6/14/58 Enewetak Barge 1,450 HARDTACK I WALNUT 

52 6/18/58 Enewetak Barge 11.00 HARDTACK I LINDEN 

53 6/27/58 Bikini Barge 412.00 HARDTACK I REDWOOD 

54 6/27/58 Enewetak Barge 880.00 HARDTACK I ELDER 

55 6/28/58 Enewetak Barge 8,900 HARDTACK I OAK 

56 6/29/58 Bikini Barge 14.00 HARDTACK I HICKORY 

57 7/1/58 Enewetak Barge 5.20 HARDTACK I SEQUOIA 

58 7/2/58 Bikini Barge 220.00 HARDTACK I CEDAR 

59 7/5/58 Enewetak Barge 397.00 HARDTACK I DOGWOOD 

60 7/12/58 Bikini Barge 9,300 HARDTACK I POPLAR 

61 7/14/58 Enewetak Barge LOW HARDTACK I SCAEVOLA 

62 7/17/58 Enewetak Barge 255.00 HARDTACK I PISONIA 

63 7/22/58 Bikini Barge 65.00 HARDTACK I JUNIPER 

64 7/22/58 Enewetak Barge 202.00 HARDTACK I OLIVE 

65 7/26/58 Enewetak Barge 2,000 HARDTACK I PINE 

66 8/6/58 Enewetak Surface FIZZ HARDTACK I QUINCE 

67 8/18/58 Enewetak Surface 0.02 HARDTACK I FIG 

Source: U.S. Department of Energy. United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992. 

Document No. DOE/NV‐209 (Rev. 14), December 1994. Cited on http://www.bikiniatoll.com/BombYields.html 


Bikini Atoll 

Conservation 

Management Plan 

Working Draft v 2.0 

January 20, 2009 

Prepared by: Nicole Baker 

1 BIKINI ATOLL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT PLAN 

DRAFT JANUARY 2009

Contents 

Purpose and Scope of this Plan .............................................................................................................................. 3 

Part 1. Background ................................................................................................................................................. 4 

1.1 Bikini Atoll and World Heritage .................................................................................................................... 4 

1.2 A Brief History of Bikini Atoll ........................................................................................................................ 4 

1.3 Location, Access and Geography .................................................................................................................. 5 

1.4 Boundary of the Proposed World Heritage Site ........................................................................................... 7 

1.5 Cultural Resources ........................................................................................................................................ 8 

The Sunken Vessels ........................................................................................................................................ 8 

Bunkers .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 

1.6 Natural Resources ........................................................................................................................................ 9 

Marine Environment ...................................................................................................................................... 9 

Terrestrial Vegetation .................................................................................................................................. 10 

Birds ............................................................................................................................................................. 10 

1.7 Radiation .................................................................................................................................................... 10 

1.8 The People of Bikini .................................................................................................................................... 10 

1.9 Ownership and Management of the Site ................................................................................................... 10 

Ownership .................................................................................................................................................... 10 

Management................................................................................................................................................ 11 

1.10 Existing Uses ............................................................................................................................................. 11 

Tourism ........................................................................................................................................................ 11 

Traditional uses, rights and management practices .................................................................................... 11 

1.11 Key Challenges and Threats...................................................................................................................... 11 

Deterioration of nuclear testing artifacts .................................................................................................... 11 

Removal of artifacts ..................................................................................................................................... 11 

Risks to divers .............................................................................................................................................. 12 

Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing ............................................................................................... 12 

Overfishing or overharvesting ..................................................................................................................... 12 

Climate change and sea‐level rise ................................................................................................................ 12 

Invasive species ............................................................................................................................................ 12 

1.12 Existing Legal Framework ......................................................................................................................... 12 

Protection of Historic and Cultural Resources ............................................................................................. 13 

Protection of Biological Resources .............................................................................................................. 13 

List of Ordinances ........................................................................................................................................ 13 

Updating the Local Government Ordinances .............................................................................................. 13 

2. The Plan ............................................................................................................................................................ 14 

2.1 Goals and Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 14 

Goal .............................................................................................................................................................. 14 

Cultural Heritage Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 14 

Biological Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 14 

2. 2 Management Strategies ............................................................................................................................ 14 

Strategy 1. Controlled Access to the Site ..................................................................................................... 15 

Strategy 2. Visitor Management .................................................................................................................. 15 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

Strategy 3. Regulations, Surveillance and Enforcement .............................................................................. 16 

Strategy 4. Impact Assessment of Proposed Developments on Bikini........................................................ 16 

Strategy 5. Interpretation, Education and Awareness ................................................................................. 17 

Strategy 6. Research and Monitoring .......................................................................................................... 18 

2.3 Management, Administration and Reporting ........................................................................................... 19 

Roles and Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................ 19 

Location ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 

Key Equipment and Materials ...................................................................................................................... 20 

Marshall Islands and the implementation of the World Heritage Convention ............................................ 21 

Periodic Reporting to the World Heritage Centre ....................................................................................... 21 

Appendices: .......................................................................................................................................................... 22 

A.1 Selected References ................................................................................................................................... 22 

A.2 Existing Local Government Ordinances ..................................................................................................... 23 

Purpose and Scope of this Plan 

This plan is prepared for the management of Bikini Atoll as a proposed World Heritage site. As a former US 

nuclear test site, Bikini Atoll is home to a remarkable assemblage of wartime technology in the form of sunken 

vessels, and the atoll’s depopulated and scarred landscape and seascape bear witness to the destructive 

capacity of nuclear weapons and the persistent nature of radiation. As a tropical coral atoll which is not 

subject to the usual human pressures, Bikini Atoll hosts significant populations of endangered species, and 

offers important insights to science on how coral reefs can recover from a major trauma. 

This management plan covers the protection of the cultural and natural heritage values of Bikini and 

compatible use of the atoll for tourism, research, cultural use and education. 

Recent work on the recovery of corals at Bikini, and the possibility of World Heritage listing of Bikini for its 

cultural attributes has increased the interest from experts in both fields on the effective study, conservation 

and interpretation of Bikini Atoll. At present, preliminary discussions are underway with experts mentioned in 

this document and in the Bikini World Heritage Nomination Dossier to develop a program of work. These 

discussions will continue to inform the development of this plan, which is presented here as a working draft. 

Future developments will include specific assessment, monitoring and reporting protocols and interpretation 

of the site both for visitors to Bikini, and for presentation through websites, publications and other means of 

conveying the globally significant values of Bikini. 

In addition, effort is required to discuss the elements of the management plan with the local government, 

leaders and community of Bikini Atoll and to adapt the plan according to their input. 


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Part 1. Background 

1.1 Bikini Atoll and World Heritage 

In 2005 the Marshall Islands included Bikini Atoll in the Tentative List of possible sites for inclusion on the 

World Heritage List. In 2006 work began to develop the nomination dossier for Bikini Atoll to be considered 

for listing by the World Heritage Committee for its cultural values as a nuclear test site. The Republic of the 

Marshall Islands is submitting its nomination for Bikini in 2009 for consideration by the World Heritage 

Committee in 2010. 

While Bikini Atoll is being nominated to World Heritage on the basis of cultural values only, it has globally 

significant natural values in terms of biodiversity conservation and the scientific study of coral reef systems. 

1.2 A Brief History of Bikini Atoll 

Bikini Atoll is thought to have been first settled by humans between 2000 and 3000 years ago. The people of 

Bikini lived a quiet, subsistence lifestyle well into the 20 th century when, during the build‐up to the Pacific War 

in World War II, the Japanese military established an outpost on Bikini. In 1945, at the end of the war, the 

Marshall Islands was captured by the Americans and the people of Bikini were released from a difficult time 

under Japanese martial rule. In 1946 Bikini Atoll was selected by the US to be the site of the first peace‐time 

nuclear weapons tests. The people of Bikini reluctantly agreed to leave their treasured homeland “for the 

good of mankind and to end all world wars” and commenced their many years of unhappy displacement 

within the Marshall Islands. Within months the traditional villages were gone and a huge military installation 

hosting 42,000 personnel had changed the face of Bikini Atoll forever. In July 1946 the first of 23 nuclear tests 

to be held on Bikini was conducted. Operation Crossroads was the bombing of a fleet of over 90 retired naval 

vessels, 16 of which today lie on the bottom of Bikini lagoon. In 1954 another enormously significant testing 

event occurred: the Castle Bravo, the world’s first deliverable hydrogen device, which destroyed 3 islands and 

left a crater a mile wide. Fallout from the Castle Bravo was distributed across the Marshall Islands, having 

particular impact on the people of Rongelap and Utrik, and on the crew of a Japanese tuna boat. In the 

meantime, 43 nuclear tests were carried out on the neighboring atoll of Enewetak. Nuclear testing on Bikini 

finished in 1958, and after some attempts to clean‐up the radioactive site, the Bikinians were allowed to 

return home in the 1970s. Within a couple of years, however, monitoring revealed the levels of radiation in 

their bodies was unacceptably high and Bikini was again abandoned. In 1985 the US Government handed over 

ownership of the sunken vessels to the people of Bikini, and these became the basis of a small‐scale tourism 

operation. The population of Bikini today remains restricted to a few people monitoring the radiation, 

employees of the dive operation, and the visiting tourists. The people of Bikini, although now living elsewhere 

retain strong links of identity to their lost homeland. 


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1.3 Location, Access and Geography 

Bikini Atoll is the northern‐most atoll in the western, Ralik, chain of atolls—one of 29 low‐lying coral atolls that 

rise over 6,000 meters from the abyssal plain to no more than a couple of meters above sea level, and 

comprise the Marshall Islands, known to the Marshallese as Aelōn̄ Kein. The atolls consist of biotic limestone 

on a deep basalt core, built over millions of years by living coral organisms that grew as the basalt core slowly 

subsided, creating a marine environment extremely rich in productivity, diversity and complexity. 

The entirety of the Marshall Islands lies in the central‐western part of the Conservation International 

Polynesia/Micronesia Hotspot and the northern Marshall Islands form the Key Biodiversity Area, Kabin Meto. 

Bikini Atoll lies in this drier, northern part of the Marshall Islands. Air and water temperatures hover around 28 

degrees Centigrade (82 Fahrenheit) year round, varying little from this. Annual rainfall is an average of 

1500mm (60 inches). 

Bikini Atoll is 800 kilometers (500 Miles) from the main centre of Majuro, and an international airport. Access 

to Bikini is by the national domestic airline, Air Marshall Islands, or by boat. Weekly flights are scheduled to 

Bikini Atoll however during 2007 and 2008 Air Marshall Islands has been experiencing severe operational 

problems and so access to Bikini by aircraft is extremely limited and unpredictable at this time. 


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Bikini’s 23 islands, a total land area of only 720 hectares (1780 acres), encircle an elongated and irregular 

lagoon which extends 40 kilometers (26 miles) long, east to west, 22 kilometers (15 miles) wide, north to 

south, and is around 60 meters (200 feet) at its deepest. Most of these islands are joined by a shallow reef, 

with several deep channels on the southern side of the lagoon. Eneu Channel, the largest, is 15 kilometers (9 

miles) wide. Most of the islets on Bikini are small; Bikini Island is the largest with a total area of 212 hectares 

(524 acres) and Eneu the next largest at 115 hectares (284 acres). 


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1.4 Boundary of the Proposed World Heritage Site 

The boundary of the core proposed World Heritage site of Bikini Atoll is clearly delineated by the outer visible 

reef of the atoll. A buffer zone extends 5 nautical miles from the baseline (basically the outer reef edge). No 

unauthorized vessels are to enter waters within 5 nautical miles of Bikini except as required for passage by 

international law. A further protective zone is established by fishing license conditions in the Marshalls Islands 

preventing any licensed boat from fishing within the territorial seas (12 nautical miles) surrounding each atoll. 


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1.5 Cultural Resources 

The Sunken Vessels 

Five kilometers from Bikini Island, in 60 meters of water, lays the Saratoga, victim of Bikini’s second bomb, 

Crossroads Baker; upright on the lagoon floor, her mast‐top just below the water line. Three Helldiver planes 

and an Avenger torpedo bomber sit on her deck, with 500 pound bombs stacked on nearby racks and her anti‐ 

aircraft guns facing skyward. Nearby lays the flagship of the Japanese fleet, the Nagato. These are but two of 

the sixteen ships that lie on the bottom of Bikini lagoon; the most prominent remnants of the nuclear testing 

on Bikini. Most of these vessels are clustered in and around the shallow crater formed by the Crossroads 

Baker test of July 25, 1946. 

Bunkers 

On Eneu Island of Bikini Atoll there are two structures from the testing period: the remains of the cement 

Communications Station, and the cement Monitoring Bunker. On Bikini Island there is a small cement bunker 

at the back of the island. On several of the outer islands of Bikini Atoll there are cement monitoring stations 

that are still intact. 


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1.6 Natural Resources 

Marine Environment 

Because it is essentially uninhabited, Bikini Atoll has been able to experience a remarkable recovery from the 

devastation caused by the bomb testing program. It is of immense interest to science for studying the effects 

on, and recovery of, marine ecosystems following major disruption. The Bravo crater is of particular interest 

as the Bravo explosion created new lagoonal space and new opportunities for reef development and 

colonization. 

Approximately 50 of the 183 species of coral recorded at Bikini Atoll (Richards et al. 2008) fall within an IUCN 

threatened category. Given Bikini Atoll reef ecosystems are relatively pristine (Pinca et al. 2002) in 

comparison to reefs occurring in more populated regions, Bikini provides some of the most significant reef 

habitat in the northern Pacific and in effect a refuge that may support the recovery in other more heavily 

impacted parts of the world such as South East Asia and the “Coral Triangle”. Surveys of coral biodiversity 

carried out in 2002 (Richards et al. 2008) revealed eleven species of coral occur at Bikini Atoll despite never 

before being recorded in the Marshall Islands. Four of these species are considered, on current records, to be 

regionally restricted to Bikini Atoll—Acanthastrea hillae, Acropora bushyensis, Montipora cocosensis, 

Polyphyllia talpina. Two species (Acanthastrea brevis and Montastrea salebrosa) were found to be locally 

abundant and distributed widely at Bikini Atoll indicating Bikini Atoll provides significant habitat for the 

conservation of these species. 

The rare and threatened species of giant clam Tridacna gigas appear to be particularly abundant in Bikini 

lagoon compared to other atolls of the Marshall Islands. This species is literally disappearing from the Pacific 

region and is found freely growing in Bikini as well as in the nearby atolls of Rongelap and Ailinginae. The 

locations where it is mostly found in Bikini are the lagoonal sites in the northwest (near Bravo crater) and 

central northern areas (in front of Aomoen island). At this latter site, many Hyppopus hyppopus are similarly 

found. 

Fish fauna in Bikini is very diverse (species richness is 359) due to the high variability of habitats offered by 

lagoon, pass and ocean environments. The southern and eastern walls of Bikini sustain a high biomass of 

carnivores (Lutjaunidae, Lethrinidae, Sphyraenidae, Carangidae), while the lagoon is rich in invertebrate 

feeders and herbivores (Mullidae, Ephinephelidae, Caesionidae). 

One special characteristic of Bikini that differentiates it from other atolls in the Marshalls and from many reefs 

in the world is the particularly high concentration of several shark species that are considered threatened 

including gray reef shark (Charcharhinus amblyrhyncos,) reef whitetip shark (Trienodon obesus), reef blacktip 

shark (C. melanopterus) and silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus). The highest concentration is found at the so‐ 

called Shark Pass in the south where hundreds of C. amblyrhyncos swim inoffensively and undisturbed along 

the inner wall and at the pass itself. Tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) are also known to inhabit the lagoon of 

Bikini and to approach the shore at night or to swim by the decompression bars in the middle of the lagoon. 

The spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) is a frequent sight in the lagoon waters. 

The Bikini property is a holistic single atoll system surrounded by open ocean. The location provides natural 

isolation from neighboring systems and from human intervention. This provides sufficient size for the ongoing 

functioning of the natural marine systems. While the terrestrial environment has been significantly disturbed, 

the marine environment reef system has a very high biodiversity, showing the range of species that 

demonstrate the system is functioning well including endemic biota, apex predators (sharks) and migratory 

species such as turtles. 


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Terrestrial Vegetation 

So dramatic was the impact of testing on the islands that a vegetation survey by Fosberg in 1985 reported that 

on all the islands of Bikini “no unaltered vegetation has survived” (1988: 2) although the native species have 

survived. There are several stands of important species on some of the islands, including Pisonia grandis, a 

favorite nesting place for birds, and Pemphis acidula, which is a species of importance in the RMI (Reimaanlok: 

2008). The islands of Eneu and Bikini are dominated by planted coconut palms “on a precisely laid‐out 30 foot 

square grid system” (Fosberg 1988: 3). These trees remain untended and the physiognomy of the plantation 

varies from tall and luxuriant, with dense undergrowth, to stunted coconut palms with sparse undergrowth. 

Vegetation on other islands in 1985 was a mixture of the usual atoll strand vegetation (Scaevola and 

Tournefortia) and exotic species. There is a need to carry out a vegetation survey to understand how these 

atoll terrestrial systems have recovered from the testing and associated impacts. 

Birds 

Bikini Atoll is seeing an increase in avifauna, probably due to the absence of human hunting pressure. Twenty‐ 

six species of birds are documented for Bikini Atoll, including 3 IUCN Red‐listed species: Buller’s Shearwater 

(Puffinus bulleri), Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus) and the Bristle‐thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis). 

The Red‐tailed Tropicbird (Phaeton rubricauda) now nests on Bikini, but was unknown to Bikinians prior to the 

testing. (Vander Velde and Vander Velde 2003). 

1.7 Radiation 

The residual radioactivity on Bikini is higher than on other atolls in the Marshall Islands, however there is no 

radiological risk from visiting the lagoon or the islands. It is safe to walk on the islands, swim in the lagoon and 

the drinking water is safe also – that is, the residual radioactivity is lower than the natural radioactivity 

occurring in many places in the world. It is also deemed safe to eat marine life. The main radiation risk is from 

eating food grown locally on Bikini, including coconuts and breadfruit, over a long period of time. This includes 

coconut crabs which are known to bio‐accumulate the radioactive cesium remaining in the soil and plants. 

1.8 The People of Bikini 

The Bikinians left Bikini in 1946 and after many years as nuclear nomads, the main populations of Bikinians 

now reside on Ejit, a small islet of Majuro Atoll, and on Kili, an inhospitable island in the south‐west reaches of 

the Marshall Islands. While the Bikinians that left Bikini Atoll in 1946 numbered only 167, the number of 

people that identify as Bikinian today is over 4,000. The people of Bikini are still active in the governance and 

management of Bikini Atoll through the Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government. This plan will establish a further 

mechanism for involvement through the establishment of the Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Board. 

1.9 Ownership and Management of the Site 

Ownership 

As in the rest of the Marshall Islands, land on Bikini Atoll is held under customary tenure through traditional 

clan relationships. Land is divided into parcels, called ‘weto’, under specific customary ownership. Bikini Atoll 

has a recognized ‘Iroij’ or chief, and each parcel of land also has ‘Alaps’ (caretakers of the land) and ‘Dri‐jerbal’ 

(workers). 

Under Marshall Islands law, all marine areas (lagoon and ocean) below the mean high water mark are legally 

owned by the people of the Marshall Islands, through the Government of the Marshall Islands, with the 

recognition of traditional and customary rights of landowner, clan and municipality to control the use of and 

materials in marine areas. (Public Lands and Resources Act, 1996) 

Local governments have the power to make any ordinances over the area of local government jurisdiction, so 

long as they are not inconsistent with any other legislative instrument that has the force of law in the Marshall 


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Islands (including regulations from national agencies but not including other municipal ordinances). Local 

Government jurisdiction is to a distance of 5 miles from the mean low water line (Constitution of the Republic 

of the Marshall Islands). In effect, this means that the ownership and control of resources in Bikini Atoll comes 

under both customary landowners, and the Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government. 

All rights, title and interest to the ships sunk by the nuclear tests in 1946 in Bikini Atoll's lagoon were 

transferred from the Government of the United States to the people of Bikini under Section 177 of the 

Compact of Free Association of 1985. This agreement is significant because it is the only place in the world 

where the United States has ceded its rights to its sunken naval vessels (Agreement Between the Government 

of the United States and the Government of the Marshall Islands for the Implementation of Section 177 of the 

Compact of Free Association, Article VI, 1985). 

Management 

The management of Bikini Atoll, including all cultural heritage resources, is the responsibility of the Kili‐Bikini‐ 

Ejit Local Government. 

1.10 Existing Uses 

Tourism 

The existing use of Bikini is limited to a small dive tourism operation, visiting yachts, ongoing radiation 

monitoring activities of the US Department of Energy and occasional visits by the people of Bikini. 

More recent construction was carried out to develop facilities for tourism on Bikini. Also on Eneu Island there 

is a crushed coral runway that allows for the landing of aircraft ranging from large propeller planes to small 

Lear jets. Eneu Island has a small airport terminal, several warehouses, crew quarters, a pier and dock, repair 

shops, a power plant, and several unfinished buildings that were at one time going to be utilized for tourism 

until it was decided by the Local Government to use Bikini Island for this purpose. 

On Bikini Island there are two buildings used to house tourists that are situated along the beach, a large 

structure utilized as a dining hall and warehouse for supplies, a dive shop and tank filling station, a garage that 

also houses a water making complex, a TV/briefing room and office used for the tourism program, several 

buildings used by the US Department of Energy for their ongoing monitoring program, a dock facility, a fuel 

farm, a power plant, and several buildings used as repair shops for routine maintenance work on the facilities. 

Traditional uses, rights and management practices 

(to be completed) 

1.11 Key Challenges and Threats 

Deterioration of nuclear testing artifacts 

The processes of deterioration, especially in the ships, are irreversible and directly related to the atomic tests. 

In the case of the ships, blast damage introduced micro‐fractures and may have produced isotopes of steel, 

accelerating the deterioration of the ships. Similarly deterioration of the concrete structures remaining on 

land is inevitable due to the harsh, salty environment. These processes at work, and the ultimate 

disintegration of the ships and bunkers is demonstrative of the legacy of the tests, and an integral and key 

aspect of this landscape—as such, these processes and the ongoing changes in the ships and structures should 

be monitored, assessed and documented. 

Removal of artifacts 

There are reports of unauthorized visitation and removal of artifacts in the early 90It is important to ensure 

the ongoing integrity of the site by preventing unauthorized removal of artifacts. This is addressed through 


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estricted access to the site, supervised diving and visitation and a provision to allow for inspection of visitors 

bags upon departure from Bikini Atoll, or from the Marshall Islands. 

Risks to divers 

The ships at Bikini are at depths of up to 60 meters (200 feet) which is well below recommended recreational 

diving depths. Diving at these depths involves extended periods below water to allow for decompression 

before surfacing. In addition, penetration of the wrecks themselves requires a good level of skill, experience 

and comfort in diving. All these factors mean that divers must be well qualified and experienced, and must be 

aware of the risks prior to undertaking diving at Bikini Atoll. This requires good information and briefing to 

visitors prior to arriving at Bikini and prior to each dive, and also requires the signing of a waiver form 

acknowledging this information and releasing Bikini Atoll from liability. 

Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing 

Several fishing vessels have been caught in recent years fishing illegally in the atolls of Bikini, Ujelang, Jaluit 

and Mili. In 2002 a vessel was found fishing for sharks at Bikini Atoll and was successfully prosecuted. The 

current extent of illegal fishing is not known due to difficulties in surveillance and monitoring, however 

effective surveillance and enforcement and the prevention of illegal fishing is an objective of this management 

plan. 

Overfishing or overharvesting 

Atoll ecosystems were traditionally carefully managed to prevent overfishing and depletion of fish stocks, or 

other species. While the level of harvesting pressure is expected to remain low due to the isolation of Bikini, 

the ability for the people of Bikini and other visitors to carry out some harvest is important, as is occasional 

sport fishing for tourists on Bikini. This management plan and the correlating regulations will place restrictions 

on different species, or seasons and fishing methods to protect and maintain the current healthy populations 

of fish and other species at Bikini. 

Local government ordinances placing restrictions on harvesting levels and sport‐fishing 

Climate change and sea-level rise 

Climate change is a major threat to the low‐lying Marshall Islands. The islands are at risk from storm surge in 

the short to medium term, and complete inundation in the future. Rises in sea temperature will likely cause 

coral bleaching – the extent and impact of which is unpredictable. Ocean acidification is predicted to seriously 

impact the ability of corals to grow and form skeletons. Bikini Atolll will best retain some resilience to climate 

change through maintaining the health and protection of its coral ecosystems. 

Invasive species 

Many land and marine invasive species, both plants and animals, are threatening the biodiversity of the 

Marshall Islands. Once an invasive species becomes established it can be extremely difficult and expensive to 

control or eradicate. Invasive species can cause the extinction of native and endemic species by taking over 

their positions in the ecosystem, or through predation. Bikini Atoll has many invasive exotic plant and animal 

species, particularly apparent in the terrestrial environment, due to the huge military and clean up operations 

here carried out over many years. At this point there are no plans to take particular measures to address 

either the introduction of new species or the eradication of established invasives due to the scale of the 

existing problem. With further assessment of the terrestrial environment and bird populations, however, it 

may be desirable in the future to establish a program to address invasive species. 

1.12 Existing Legal Framework 

Legislation, regulations and ordinances have been established at national and local level to ensure the legal 

protection of the artifacts and natural environment at Bikini Atoll. 


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Protection of Historic and Cultural Resources 

The property currently has a high degree of protection through local ordinances and strictly controlled access. 

The Historic and Cultural Preservation Act (1991) and its subsidiary regulations protect historic and cultural 

resources including governing access to submerged resources, the export of historic and cultural artifacts and 

control over land modification activities. The Act provides for fines of up $10,000 or six months imprisonment 

for violations. (The Historic and Cultural Preservation Act: Title 45, Ch 2, 1991; Regulations Governing The 

Taking And Export Of Artifacts, 1991; Regulations Governing Access To Prehistoric And Historic Submerged 

Resources, 1991; Regulations Governing Land Modification Activities, 1991) 

In addition, Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government established ordinances in 1988 prohibiting entry to Bikini Atoll or 

diving on ships without a permit issued by KBE Local Government, and prohibiting removal of any object from 

Bikini lagoon (Ordinance No.14‐1988). These were updated in 1996 to additionally require that all divers be 

accompanied by the official Bikini dive operation (Ordinance No.2‐1996). All divers and yachts visiting Bikini 

Atoll are required to gain permission from KBE Local Government (through the Tourism Manager) and to sign a 

liability waiver confirming that they understand their responsibilities (Yacht Liability Waiver, 2008). 

Protection of Biological Resources 

Bikini has a high level of biodiversity protection also, based on a decree (July 30, 1997) from the KBE Local 

Government that it is illegal to fish for sharks or turtles in the lagoon, or to use gill nets or throw nets within 

the lagoon area. All bird habitats are preserved by this same decree. All fishing around the area of the sunken 

ships is prohibited. Additionally, at national level, licensed pelagic fishing vessels are prohibited from fishing 

within the 12nmile territorial seas of any atoll. 

List of Ordinances 

Marine Resource Ordinance (Dated July 28, 1997): Ordinance passed in 1997 with the object of conserving 

the marine and wildlife resources of Bikini Atoll. 

Ordinance No. 14‐1988 (October 8, 1988): Ordinance to prevent unauthorized diving in Bikini Atoll lagoon and 

to prevent removal of artifacts from ships. This ordinance was created soon after the ships were made the 

property of the Bikinians under Section 177 of the Compact of Free Associated (year? And ref). 

Ordinance No. 2‐1996 (May 30, 1996): Ordinance to prevent unauthorized diving in Bikini Atoll lagoon and to 

prevent removal of artifacts from ships. This ordinance was developed soon after the establishment of a 

commercial dive operation on Bikini Atoll and required that all divers be supervised by the authorized dive 

operation. 

Liability Release Form and Express Assumption of Risk for Diving at Bikini Atoll: All tourist divers at Bikini are 

required to sign a liability release form that also informs them of the rules regarding removal of artifacts. 

During times when the dive operation is active, each diver is required to sign this form. Visiting yachts are 

required to sign this form also. 

Updating the Local Government Ordinances 

Due to the evolving nature of the activities on Bikini Atoll, there is a need to consolidate all these ordinances, 

ensure consistency and make copies available to all visitors and to all Bikinians. These regulations are to be 

updated to reflect the rules laid out in this management plan, upon approval by the KBE Local Government of 

the management plan. 


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2. The Plan 

2.1 Goals and Objectives 

Goal 

To identify, protect, conserve, present and transmit the cultural heritage values of Bikini in relation to the 

World Heritage Listing, and to protect the biodiversity of Bikini Atoll. 

Cultural Heritage Objectives 

− To continue to identify and characterize the cultural values of Bikini Atoll. 

− To maintain and protect the cultural values of Bikini Atoll. 

− To provide an extraordinary experience for visitors to Bikini Atoll. 

− To present and transmit the cultural heritage of Bikini Atoll throughout the Marshall Islands, the 

Pacific Ocean region and throughout the world. 

Biological Objectives 

− To protect the biodiversity of Bikini Atoll from key threats of illegal fishing, overharvesting, 

invasive species and pollution. 

− To study and monitor the ecosystem of Bikini Atoll in order to understand processes of recovery 

of a coral reef ecosystem from a major trauma. 

2. 2 Management Strategies 

The diagram below indicates how the key management strategies outlined in this plan link to the achievement 

of the objectives for the site. 

Cultural Heritage 

Biological 

Management Objectives Management Strategies 

To continue to identify and 

characterize the cultural values of 

Bikini Atoll. 

To maintain and protect the cultural 

values of Bikini Atoll. 

To provide an extraordinary 

experience for visitors to Bikini Atoll. 

To present and transmit the cultural 

heritage of Bikini Atoll throughout the 

Marshall Islands, the Pacific Ocean 

region and throughout the world. 

To protect the biodiversity of Bikini 

Atoll from key threats of illegal fishing, 

overharvesting, invasive species and 

pollution. 

To study and monitor the ecosystem of 

Bikini Atoll in order to understand 

processes of recovery of a coral reef 

ecosystem from a major trauma. 

1. Controlled Access to the Site 

2. Visitor Management 

3. Regulations, Surveillance and Enforcement 

4. Impact Assessment of Developments 

5. Interpretation , Education and Awareness 

6. Research and Monitoring 


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Strategy 1. Controlled Access to the Site 

Access to Bikini Atoll is restricted to recreation and tourism visitors, and to scientific survey teams. All people 

wishing to visit Bikini by aircraft must obtain prior permission. All vessels wishing to enter Bikini Atoll must 

obtain prior permission from the KBE Local Government through the permitting procedure. Yachts and boats 

may visit Bikini (with a permit) but, if diving, must be accompanied by a diver and an observer in the employ of 

the Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government. 

Key Actions Timing Responsibility Partners and Additional 

Resources Required 

Document and formalize 

permitting procedure for access to 

Bikini Atoll. 

Jun 2009 Jack Niedenthal ‐ 

Strategy 2. Visitor Management 

The visitor experience of Bikini is very closely managed due to the remoteness of the atoll, controlled access to 

the site, the depth of the dives and the need to protect the ships and artifacts. Visitors to Bikini can expect an 

amazing experience due not only to the spectacular location and activities, but the professionalism and 

hospitality of the Bikini Atoll staff, and the comfortable facilities on offer. 

Bikini Atoll has been open to tourists since 1996 and is considered one of the World’s premier dive 

destinations. Visitors to Bikini Atoll generally come as part of the dive tourism program run by Bikini Atoll 

Divers, a business owned by the Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government. To date, tourism on Bikini has mainly been 

focused on the sunken vessels which are considered one of the premier SCUBA diving experiences in the world 

(see http://www.bikiniatoll.com/divetour2.html for articles, reviews and testimonials of the tourism‐diving 

experience of Bikini Atoll). While the vessels sunk during Operation Crossroads in 1946, are the premier 

attraction, there is also the opportunity to go sport fishing and to dive or snorkel some of the beautiful coral 

reef, or to walk on and explore some of the islands. 

The current and expected future levels of tourism to Bikini Atoll remain very low, mainly due to the relative 

inaccessibility of the atoll and the associated high costs. A restricted number of divers visit the site each year 

for diving the wrecks of the sunken ships. To date this has been a maximum of 12 per week during the dive 

season from March to November, a total of between 200 and 250 per year. In the future, depending on 

transport options to Bikini, the number may expand to around 20 visitors per week, or 400 per year. 

Unfortunately 2008 has seen the temporary closure of the Bikini Atoll Divers operation due to the unreliable 

nature of Air Marshall Islands, the national airline servicing Bikini. The failure of the airline to fly scheduled 

routes throughout 2007 and 2008 left visitors to Bikini Atoll stranded for weeks at a time. During the 2008 

season Bikini Atoll Divers and the KBE Local Government made the difficult decision to cancel the remainder of 

the season and to close the dive operation for 2009. 

The facilities described below are maintained on Bikini until the dive operation can resume. 

DIVING FACILITIES 

A typical visit to Bikini over a week includes 12 deep decompression dives—these are dives that are below 

normal recreational diving limits and require the use of staged decompression stops prior to surfacing. 

Facilities for divers include tanks, two dive boats, a tank filling station for both air and nitrox (decompression 

gas), oxygen generation equipment, dive equipment repair shop. Decompression stops are facilitated by a 

decompression station that is hung from the dive boat. 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

ACCOMMODATION AND DINING 

Visitors to Bikini sleep in private, air‐conditioned comfort with 24 hour power and hot running water, right on 

one of the most beautiful beaches in the Pacific. A dining hall provides an "all you can eat" buffet style 

selection for breakfast, lunch and dinner. 

INTERPRETATION AND EXPLANATION DURING THE VISIT 

Over the course of the week’s dive tour historical documentary films are shown, complete briefings about each 

of the ships and their respective histories are given, and there is a tour of the island and the atoll. The 

Bikinians feel this to be important because this allows their story to be taken away by tourists and retold to 

their families and friends. In short, the tourism program helps perpetuate a story the islanders want the world 

to remember. Before each dive the divemasters give a full briefing about the vessel's history and unique 

characteristics, and a comprehensive dive plan. 

VISITING YACHTS AND PRIVATE VESSELS 

Yachts and Private Vessels may visit Bikini, as long as they meet requirements for safety and being able to 

manage decompression diving. The conditions of this visit are that they are accompanied by a diver and by an 

observer affiliated with the KBE Local Government to ensure there is no damage to or removal or artifacts. 

Strategy 3. Regulations, Surveillance and Enforcement 

Access to Bikini is restricted to recreation and tourism visitors, and to scientific survey teams. All people 

wishing to visit Bikini by aircraft must obtain prior permission from the Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government 

through an established permitting procedure. 

Divers on the sunken vessels must be accompanied by a diver employed by Bikini. Divers that visit Bikini are 

usually very experienced and well‐certified to dive on, and to penetrate, the sunken vessels without causing 

damage. Divers are required to sign waivers and are prohibited from removing artifacts from the ships. This 

may be enforced by bag checks upon departure. Yachts are able to visit Bikini but must gain permissions from 

Bikini Atoll Local Government, and are not permitted to dive the wrecks unless accompanied by a diver 

employed by Bikini. 

Nationally, licensed fishing boats are required to be part of the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), which allows 

the Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority (MIMRA) to track the position of vessels and if they are found 

within 12 nautical miles of any atoll, to pass this information on to the Sea Patrol operation (an arm of the 

Marshall Islands Police) and support apprehension and prosecution for any illegal fishing. 

When the dive operation is running on Bikini, staff there can observe unauthorized vessels in or near the 

lagoon. They can then approach the vessel using one of the boats on Bikini Atoll and collect evidence, such as 

photos, to support prosecution. They can radio the Marshall Islands Sea Patrol to pursue the unauthorized 

vessel. Bikini Atoll has successfully pursued one prosecution of unauthorized shark finning in 2002. 

All of these protective measures are more difficult to implement when the regular dive operation is not 

running. An option is being developed to install a radar system at the western end of the atoll to notify staff 

on Bikini Island of any unauthorized vessel in the vicinity, which can then be reported to Sea Patrol who can 

then pursue and prosecute. 

Strategy 4. Impact Assessment of Proposed Developments on Bikini 

Features of Bikini Atoll that contribute to the overall character of an abandoned nuclear test site include the 

rows of coconut trees and the generally low level of buildings and construction. There is a need to assess any 

proposed demolition, construction, land‐clearing, earthmoving or similar activity in light of its impact on the 

attributes of Bikini Atoll as a former nuclear test site. There are established permitting requirements for this 

that assess the impact of a development against impacts on environmental and heritage resources. Any 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

earthmoving or construction activity must gain a permit from the Republic of the Marshall Islands 

Environmental Protection Authority (RMIEPA) and from the Historic Preservation Office (HPO). In addition to 

this, the Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Board must consider any proposal to carry out works on Bikini 

in light of the effects the work may have on the outstanding universal value of the site. In this respect they 

shall also seek advice from ICOMOS and the World Heritage Centre, and from other international experts. 



Ensure proper assessment of any Ongoing Chair, Bikini Access to international experts 

proposed works on Bikini including 

Atoll 

will be required. 

consultation with international experts 

Conservation 

and ICOMOS. 

Management 

Board 

Strategy 5. Interpretation, Education and Awareness 

Education and awareness about Bikini is to be designed for three key target audiences. The first is the people 

of the Marshall Islands and the people of Bikini Atoll living on Kili, Majuro and elsewhere. The second is 

foreign visitors and tourists to Bikini and the Marshall Islands. The third is more generally people around 

world. Several programs are under development that will contribute greatly to the transmission of the World 

Heritage values of Bikini Atoll including the following: 

BIKINI ATOLL WEBSITE 

The official website of Bikini Atoll http://www.bikiniatoll.com/ has been developed and maintained by Jack 

Niedenthal for several years and contains a wealth of information about Bikini Atoll. This website will continue 

to be developed to incorporate more information about the World Heritage values of Bikini, and to present 

them to a global audience. 

ON‐SITE INTERPRETATION 

Bikini Atoll will continue to deliver and develop its on‐site interpretation program for visitors, as described in 

Strategy 2.Visitor Management, above. This will be done with the assistance of international experts in 

submerged heritage. 

ENVIRONMENT AND HERITAGE YOUTH THEATRE PROJECT 

Youth to Youth in Health (Y2Y) is a community‐based NGO that supports at‐risk youth to develop and deliver 

peer‐to‐peer education programs. Y2Y specialize in using the medium of theatre and music to positively impact 

young people’s lives by exploring issues such as sexual health, alcohol and drugs, and family life. Inspired by 

the World Heritage project and other conservation activities in the Marshalls, Y2Y propose to develop a 

theatre program that focuses specifically on the issues of natural and cultural heritage of the Marshall Islands, 

starting with the nuclear heritage of Bikini Atoll as a proposed World Heritage site, and the natural and cultural 

values of Ailinginae Atoll. While a proposal has been developed, the project needs substantial technical 

assistance and funding to become established. 

MARSHALL ISLANDS PEACE MUSEUM 

A project is currently under development as a partnership between the Marshall Islands government and 

interested parties in Japan to establish a Peace Museum in Majuro, commemorating the nuclear history of the 

Marshall Islands, with the intention of promoting peace throughout the world. The Peace Museum will include 

exhibits on nuclear tests in the Marshalls and the impacts on the Marshallese people, including the events and 

people of Bikini Atoll. 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009



Maintain and upgrade Bikini Atoll Dec 2010 Jack Niedenthal Consider support from a web‐ 

website to present material on Bikini’s 

design and/or heritage 

proposed World Heritage values 

management faculty as a 

graduate project. 

Upgrade interpretive materials on the Dec 2010 Jack Niedenthal Partnership with Charles Beeker 

sunken vessels and other site to 

enhance visitor experience 

at Indiana University 

Establishment of Environment and Dec 2010 Youth to Youth Dependent on recruitment of 

Heritage Youth Theatre Program 

in Health theatre professional and raising 

$250k. 

Development of exhibit for proposed Dec 2010 Peace Museum In partnership with experts 

Peace Museum in Majuro 

helping to establish the Peace 

Museum 

Strategy 6. Research and Monitoring 

SCIENTIFIC STUDY, MONITORING AND INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES 

The most recent archeological assessment carried out 1991 (Delgado et al., 1991) by the US National Parks 

Service revealed the historical and archaeological significance of the artifacts at Bikini Atoll, and led to the 

development of interpretation materials and the opening of Bikini Atoll to dive tourism. There is a need to 

develop partnerships with universities and research institutions to enable the ongoing identification and 

characterization of the cultural heritage resources at Bikini. 

Bikini Atoll is in the early stages of developing a program in partnership with maritime archaeologists and 

conservation scientists at the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, James Cook University, and at the Western 

Australian Maritime Museum. This program will conduct a baseline assessment of the state of conservation of 

the vessels and buildings, and develop a protocol and indicators for a regular assessment of the state of 

conservation of these artifacts. Local staff divers of Bikini Atoll will be trained in how to conduct a regular 

state of conservation assessment. The monitoring protocol will likely involve taking photographs at fixed 

monitoring points and comparing these photographs over the years. A partnership with Charles Beeker’s 

Underwater Science group at Indiana University is also being developed which will lead to the development of 

interpretation materials for the site. These partners will help to develop the funding and expert resources 

required to carry out these activities. 

SCIENTIFIC STUDY AND MONITORING OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT 

Bikini Atoll provides as unique opportunity to study the recovery of a coral reef system, and a terrestrial 

system, after the major disturbance of nuclear testing and persistent radiation. Scientific study and 

monitoring of Bikini Atoll will allow increased understanding of the ecosystem and processes of Bikini, and 

therefore of other atolls and coral reef systems. It will enable the study of the impacts of climate change and 

other remote impacts on coral reef systems in the absence of pollution and over‐harvesting of resources. A 

scientific program should be managed in a way that that benefits the people of the Marshall Islands. 

Partnerships with scientific research organizations are to be sought and established to enable long‐term 

monitoring of the condition and biodiversity of the site. Zoe Richards of James Cook University, Maria Beger 

from the University of Queensland and Silvia Pinca of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community form a core of 

marine biologists who have carried out biological resources assessments on several atolls in the Marshall 

Islands, and who have made recommendations for the conservation management of these sites. 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

A team of scientists (including the three mentioned above) carried out a baseline survey of the marine 

environment Bikini Atoll in 2002, establishing a set of indicators for monitoring the state of conservation of the 

marine environment. These indicators include: 

‐ Coral and fish biodiversity: presence/absence and semi‐qualitative abundance in timed swims 

‐ Algae diversity and abundance 

‐ Percent cover of substrate, coral and algae 

‐ Reef health including counts of Acanthaster planci (crown‐of‐thorn starfish), dead and bleached coral 

‐ Counts of target species of invertebrates 

‐ Fish size and abundance of commercially and ecologically important species. 

While the survey established a baseline in 2002, there is no ongoing program of monitoring due to lack of 

available resources, however, with recent interest in a scientific paper on Bikini in 2008, (Richards et al. 2008) 

it is expected that more resources will become available for research and monitoring on Bikini. There is a need 

to carry out baseline assessment of avifauna and vegetation on the island and to develop monitoring 

indicators. 



Carry out baseline assessment of state Dec 2010 Jack Niedenthal James Cook University and 

of conservation of artifacts 

Western Australian Maritime 

Museum 

Develop interpretation materials for the Dec 2010 Jack Niedenthal Charles Beeker at Indiana 

sunken vessels 

University 

Continuation of partnership with marine Ongoing Jack Niedenthal Experts from various 

scientists to carry out monitoring of 

international research 

biodiversity on Bikini Atoll. 

institutions, MIMRA and the 

College of the Marshall Islands. 

2.3 Management, Administration and Reporting 

Roles and Responsibilities 

KILI‐BIKINI‐EJIT LOCAL GOVERNMENT 

Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit (KBE) Local Government is the elected local government for the community of Bikini, now living 

on Ejit Islet in Majuro and on Kili Island. The Bikini Atoll Local Government is responsible for the management 

of the site. 

BIKINI ATOLL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT BOARD 

Under this management plan, The Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Board (BACMB) will be established 

under the auspices of the KBE Local Government, and will meet at least every three months. The Bikini Atoll 

Conservation Management Board membership will consist of: 

− Bikini Liaison Officer/ Tourism Manager 

− Head Divemaster of the Bikini Atoll Dive Operation (when running) 

− Conservation Project Manager (see below) 

− Traditional leader representative 

− Elected council representatives 

− Youth representative 

− Women’s representative. 

The role of the Management Board is to: 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

− Carry out management planning; 

− Recommend rules, regulations and procedures; 

− Ensure the effective implementation of the Bikini Atoll Conservation Management Plan. 

EXPERT HERITAGE ADVISORS 

International experts in marine archaeology or cold war heritage and conservation will be recruited to provide 

advice on an as‐needs basis, either on a volunteer basis or with the support of their institutions. It is expected 

that this pool of experts will include individuals with an established knowledge of Bikini, such as James P. 

Delgado (maritime archaeologist), Jeffrey Sasha Davis (cultural geographer), Anita Smith (archaeologist) as well 

as experts established in their fields such as Charles Beeker of Indiana University, Vickie Williams of the 

Western Australian Maritime Museum and William Jeffery of James Cook University, as discussed earlier. 

The role of the Expert Heritage Advisor/s will be to: 

− Advise on conservation actions for the artifacts; 

− Assist in developing proposals and grant applications for the ongoing study and interpretation of the 

site; 

− Carry out assessments and assist in the development of interpretation materials; and 

− Advise on the impact of proposed developments on Bikini—whether they will affect the heritage 

values. 

CONSERVATION PROJECT MANAGER 

The Conservation Project Manager will be based in Majuro with regular visits to Bikini to work with 

conservation officers there. The Conservation Project Manager role is not expected to be full‐time, but could 

be combined with an existing role under the KBE Local Government. The role of the Conservation Project 

Manager will be to: 

− Work with stakeholders at local, national and international level to implement the Bikini Atoll 

Conservation Management Plan; 

− Develop partnerships, funding sources for implementation of the Bikini Atoll Conservation Management 

Plan; 

− Oversee day‐to‐day management of the conservation area: develop work plans, ensure staff carry out the 

activities stated in their job descriptions and work plans; 

− Conduct regular education and awareness, community consultations; 

− Identify training and capacity‐building needs for staff and ensure staff receive this training; 

− Provide reports to meet the requirements of donors and grant contracts; 

− Monitor the implementation of the plan and adapt the management of the site as appropriate. 

BIKINI ATOLL DIVERS 

Bikini Atoll Divers is the dive operation owned by the KBE Local Government. The staff of Bikini Atoll Divers 

will play an active role in the day‐to‐day management, monitoring and surveillance of the site. They will also 

be trained to conduct monitoring of the state of conservation of the sunken vessels and buildings. 

Location 

The Majuro‐based staff will be located in the KBE Local Government Offices. The Bikini‐based staff will be 

located at the dive tourism facilities on Bikini Island. 

Key Equipment and Materials 

The dive operation on Bikini Atoll is equipped with two boats for dive tourism. These boats will be used also 

for the surveillance of the atoll in the case that an unauthorized vessel is in the vicinity. Due to the distance 

from Bikini Island on the eastern side of the atoll where the operations are based, and the uninhabited 

western side of the atoll, it is not possible to visually see unauthorized vessels. It is intended to install a radar‐ 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

ased remote surveillance system which would transmit a signal to a station at Bikini Island. It is expected that 

a basic installation will cost of the order of $100,000. 

Marshall Islands and the implementation of the World Heritage Convention 

In general the Marshall Islands, as a small island developing state, has very limited technical capacity. To 

compound this, the Marshall Islands is party to various international conventions, due in large part to the 

efforts of these conventions to include small island developing states and so limited resources are further 

stretched in order to meet the considerable obligations of such conventions. The management, interpretation, 

presentation and conservation of Bikini Atoll will require ongoing support and assistance from the World 

Heritage Centre, the Advisory Bodies and other state parties to the convention. 

Periodic Reporting to the World Heritage Centre 

In the case that Bikini is included on the World Heritage List, periodic reporting to the World Heritage Centre 

will be required. Monitoring and reporting on the state of conservation of the property will be the 

responsibility of the Kili‐Bikini‐Ejit Local Government and reporting on general issues of implementation of the 

convention will be the responsibility of the focal point of the convention, which at this time is the Alele 

Museum. Both responsible agencies are likely to require assistance and support from the World Heritage 

Centre and the Advisory Bodies in the preparation of periodic reports. 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

Appendices: 

A.1 Selected References 

Delgado, J.P., Lenihan, D.J, & Murphy, L.F. (1991). The Archaeology of the Atomic Bomb: A Submerged Cultural 

Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll 

Lagoons, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Santa Fe, N.M.: US Department of the Interior, National 

Park Service, Submerged Cultural Resources Unit. Note: an online version can be found at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/swcrc/37/contents.htm 

Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1988. Vegetation of Bikini Atoll, 1985. Atoll Research Bulletin 315: 1‐28. National 

Museum of Natural History, The Smithsonian Institution: Washington, D.C. 

Pinca, S., Beger., M., Richards, Z., and Peterson, E. 2002. Coral Reef Biodiversity Community‐based 

Assessment and Conservation Planning in the Marshall Islands: Baseline surveys, capacity building and 

natural protection and management of coral reefs of the atolls of Bikini and Rongelap. Report to the 

Rongelap Government, Republic of the Marshall Islands. 

Reimaanlok National Planning Team. 2008. Reimaanlok: National Conservation Area Plan for the Marshall 

Islands. N. Baker: Melbourne. 

Richards, Z. T., M. Beger, S. Pinca, and C. C. Wallace. (2008). Bikini Atoll coral biodiversity resilience revealed; 

five decades after nuclear testing. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 56, 503‐515. 

Vander Velde, Nancy and Brian Vander Velde. 2003. A Review of the Birds of Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands with 

Recent Observations. Unpublished report for Bikini Atoll Local Government: Majuro. 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

A.2 Existing Local Government Ordinances 

Marine Resource Ordinance (Dated July 28, 1997): Ordinance passed in 1997 with the object of conserving 

the marine and wildlife resources of Bikini Atoll. Attached. 

Ordinance No. 14‐1988 (October 8, 1988): Ordinance to prevent unauthorized diving in Bikini Atoll lagoon and 

to prevent removal of artifacts from ships. This ordinance was created soon after the ships were made the 

property of the Bikinians under Section 177 of the Compact of Free Association in 1986. Attached. 

Ordinance No. 2‐1996 (May 30, 1996): Ordinance to prevent unauthorized diving in Bikini Atoll lagoon and to 

prevent removal of artifacts from ships. This ordinance was developed soon after the establishment of a 

commercial dive operation on Bikini Atoll and required that all divers be supervised by the authorized dive 

operation. Attached. 

Liability Release Form and Express Assumption of Risk for Diving at Bikini Atoll: All tourist divers at Bikini are 

required to sign a liability release form that also informs them of the rules regarding removal of artifacts. 

During times when the dive operation is active, each diver is required to sign this form. Visiting yachts are 

required to sign this form also. Attached. 


DRAFT JANUARY 2009

LIABILITY RELEASE AND EXPRESS 

ASSUMPTIONS OF RISK FOR DIVING AT BIKINI ATOLL 

This Is a release of my rights to sue Bikini Atoll Divers, the People of Bikini, 

the Kili/Bikini/Ejit Local Government Council, and/or any of their employees, agents 

and assigns, and any entity that exists for the benefit of the People of Bikini for 

personal injuries or wrongful death that may occur during your forthcoming dive 

activities at Bikini as a result of the inherent risks associated with scuba 

diving/snorkeling and the unique environment at Bikini Atoll. 

________ 1. I acknowledge that I am a certified scuba diver trained in safe diving practices. I have been trained in the proper use 

of skin and scuba diving equipment and certified through: 

agency name card # date certified 

Note: Please indicate your highest level of certification and include a photocopy of the front and back of your 

certification card. 

________ 2. I understand that diving with compressed air involves certain inherit risks, including decompression sickness, 

embolism, or other hyperbaric injuries. I further understand that even though I follow all the appropriate dive 

practices, there is still some risk of sustaining these injuries, and I expressly assume the risk and responsibility of 

said injuries. 

________ 3. I understand that there is no recompression chamber at Bikini Atoll, that Bikini Atoll is a remote site, that the closest 

recompression chamber is several hundreds miles away and that it could take as long as 24 hours for me to 

obtain access to such recompression chamber. I still choose to proceed with diving at Bikini Atoll in spite of the 

absence of the recompression chamber in proximity to Bikini’s dive sites. 

________ 4. I understand that most of the dives I will conduct at Bikini are well beyond suggested recreational limits. Specifically, 

I understand that most dives will be between 60 and 180 feet. I hereby acknowledge that I have received the 

proper training or have the necessary skills and experience to safely conduct dives at these depths. 

________ 5. Because of the extreme depth involved in diving at Bikini, I understand that I may be engaging in “staged 

decompression diving.” I understand that this is a specialized procedure, and I hereby acknowledge that I am 

experienced in and comfortable with the procedures associated with staged decompression diving. 

________ 6. I have made _________ dives. 

________7. My certification level is _______________________________________________________. 

________8. The approximate date of my last dive was __________________________________. 

________9. I carry adequate private insurance to handle any medical problems may develop in connection with my upcoming 

dive and stay at Bikini. 

Insurance Company: __________________________________________ 

Number: __________________________. 

Contact-Information: 

_______________________________________________________________________________.

________10. I certify that I am in good physical and mental health. 

________11. I understand that the United States Government conducted twenty-three(23) atomic and hydrogen bomb 

experiments at Bikini Atoll between 1946 and 1958 and that the ships I will dive on at Bikini received radiation 

from two (2) 1946 atomic tests. I acknowledge that I have received and read a ten (10) page report by W.L. 

Robinson of Lawrence National Laboratory entitled Estimates of Radiological Dose to People Living on Bikini 

Island for Two weeks While Diving in and Around the Sunken Ships in Bikini Lagoon. I have also read the 

summary of this report, which states: “The potential dose to a person swimming in the Bikini Lagoon around or 

through the sunken ships is so low from both the activation products originally induced in the ships and from 

radionuclides in the lagoon’s sediment that it can be considered essentially zero.” I further understand that 25% of 

the world’s population dies of cancer. Nevertheless, I expressly assume the risk (however low it may be) that I 

may contract cancer or any other radiation-induced disease or illness as a result of my visit to Bikini. 

________ 12. I understand that safe practices of skin and scuba diving include but are not limited to the following: 

a) I will not skin or scuba dive at Bikini while under the influence of alcohol, drugs and/or any other 

controlled substance. 

b) I will not dive alone or with a person with whom I have not thoroughly discussed the dive plan. Each of 

us will review one another’s diving equipment and emergency procedures before each dive. 

c) I will dive with a buoyancy control device that has a power inflation system, a depth gauge, a 

submersible pressure gauge and a timing device. 

d) I will adjust weights to maintain neutral buoyancy with no air in my buoyancy control device at the 

surface of the water and position weights to keep the quick-release buckle centered and accessible at 

all times. 

e) I will not dive in conditions in which I do not feel comfortable or that I believe exceed my physical 

abilities. 

f) I will surface with at least 300-500 psi in my air tank and will not stay underwater until my air supply is 

exhausted. 

g) I am proficient with the use of a dive table and/or a dive computer. 

h) I understand that the boat captain and divemaster(s) will make the final selection of a dive location, 

based upon weather and water conditions, and I will abide by their selections. 

i) I understand that, in the event of a diving accident or other emergency, I will be responsible for using my 

own vessel’s communications equipment to call for any kind of rescue vessel or airplanes, if one is 

available. I also understand that it is unlikely that Air Marshalls will be able to send a rescue airplane to 

Bikini Atoll because Air Marshalls is unreliable and is frequently unable to fly airplanes on their regular 

schedules due to ongoing maintenance problems. 

________ 13. I understand that it is illegal, under an ordinance passed by the Kili/Bikini/Ejit Local Government Council, to take 

any artifact or artifacts from any of the sunken ships at Bikini Atoll or to accept any artifact or artifacts from any 

employee of Bikini Atoll Divers. I also understand that pursuant to this ordinance I will be subject to a fine of 

$10,000 for each artifact taken, or, in the case of an artifact worth more than $10,000, a fine equivalent to be 

double the appraised value of the artifact taken. By signing this Liability Release and Express Assumption of Risk, 

I hereby grant to the boat captain and/or divemaster(s) permission to search my belongings if he/she has 

reasonable grounds to believe that I have acted in violation of this ordinance. 

________ 14. I understand that skin diving and scuba diving are physically strenuous activities and that I will be exerting myself 

during my diving at Bikini. If I am injured at Bikini as a result of a heart attack, panic attack, hyperventilation or 

other injury/illness related to diving, I expressly assume the risk of said injuries. 

________ 15. I understand that there are no buoys on the sunken ships at Bikini Lagoon, and I further understand the risk and 

safety issues, which I shall assume, if my own vessel is not properly anchored. 

________ 16. I have made all payments owed Bikini Atoll Divers prior to my arrival at Bikini Atoll. 

________ 17. I understand that my vessel will be held strictly liable, under Marshallese law, for any environmental damages to 

Bikini's lagoon and or its surroundings.

________ 18. I assume all responsibility for any damage to my aircraft that is associated with landing on or taking off from the 

airstrip on Eneu Island at Bikini Atoll. I understand that this runway is made of crushed coral, which can sometimes 

result in small rocks being thrown up onto parts of airplanes that land and take off at Eneu Island, and that such 

rocks could result in damage to my aircraft. 

________ 19. I state that I am at least twenty-one (21) years of age and legally competent to sign this Liability Release and 

Express Assumption of Risk. 

________ 20. I am signing this form at least forty-five (45) days prior to my departure for Bikini Atoll. 

________ 21. I understand that this Liability Release and Express Assumption of Risk constitutes a contract between myself and 

the released parties listed above and that I have signed this document of my own free will. 

I HAVE FULLY INFORMED MYSELF OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS LIABILITY 

RELEASE AND EXPRESS ASSUMPTION OF RISK BY READING IT BEFORE I SIGNED IT 

ON BEHALF OF MYSELF, AND HEIRS AND MY ESTATE. 

IT IS ADVISED THAT THIS RELEASE BE CONSIDERED AND SIGNED BEFORE 

PURCHASING AIRFARE AS SOME AIRFARES MAY NOT BE REFUNDABLE. 

Signature of Diver __________________________________________ Date _______________________. 

Printed Name of Diver ______________________________________________________ 

Signature of Boat Owner or his appointed representative: 

__________________________________________ Date _______________________. 

Printed Name of Owner ______________________________________________________

LIABILITY RELEASE AND EXPRESS 

ASSUMPTIONS OF RISK FOR DIVING AT BIKINI ATOLL 

This Is a release of my rights to sue Bikini Atoll Divers, the People of Bikini, 

the Kili/Bikini/Ejit Local Government Council, and/or any of their employees, agents 

and assigns, and any entity that exists for the benefit of the People of Bikini for 

personal injuries or wrongful death that may occur during your forthcoming dive 

activities at Bikini as a result of the inherent risks associated with scuba 

diving/snorkeling and the unique environment at Bikini Atoll. 

________ 1. I acknowledge that I am a certified scuba diver trained in safe diving practices. I have been trained in the proper use 

of skin and scuba diving equipment and certified through: 

agency name card # date certified 

Note: Please indicate your highest level of certification and include a photocopy of the front and back of your 

certification card. 

________ 2. I understand that diving with compressed air involves certain inherit risks, including decompression sickness, 

embolism, or other hyperbaric injuries. I further understand that even though I follow all the appropriate dive 

practices, there is still some risk of sustaining these injuries, and I expressly assume the risk and responsibility of 

said injuries. 

________ 3. I understand that there is no recompression chamber at Bikini Atoll, that Bikini Atoll is a remote site, that the closest 

recompression chamber is several hundreds miles away and that it could take as long as 24 hours for me to 

obtain access to such recompression chamber. I still choose to proceed with diving at Bikini Atoll in spite of the 

absence of the recompression chamber in proximity to Bikini’s dive sites. 

________ 4. I understand that most of the dives I will conduct at Bikini are well beyond suggested recreational limits. Specifically, 

I understand that most dives will be between 60 and 180 feet. I hereby acknowledge that I have received the 

proper training or have the necessary skills and experience to safely conduct dives at these depths. 

________ 5. Because of the extreme depth involved in diving at Bikini, I understand that I may be engaging in “staged 

decompression diving.” I understand that this is a specialized procedure, and I hereby acknowledge that I am 

experienced in and comfortable with the procedures associated with staged decompression diving. 

________ 6. I have made _________ dives. 

________7. My certification level is _______________________________________________________. 

________8. The approximate date of my last dive was __________________________________. 

________9. I carry adequate private insurance to handle any medical problems may develop in connection with my upcoming 

dive and stay at Bikini. 

Insurance Company: __________________________________________ 

Number: __________________________. 

Contact-Information: 

_______________________________________________________________________________.

________10. I certify that I am in good physical and mental health. 

________11. I understand that the United States Government conducted twenty-three(23) atomic and hydrogen bomb 

experiments at Bikini Atoll between 1946 and 1958 and that the ships I will dive on at Bikini received radiation 

from two (2) 1946 atomic tests. I acknowledge that I have received and read a ten (10) page report by W.L. 

Robinson of Lawrence National Laboratory entitled Estimates of Radiological Dose to People Living on Bikini 

Island for Two weeks While Diving in and Around the Sunken Ships in Bikini Lagoon. I have also read the 

summary of this report, which states: “The potential dose to a person swimming in the Bikini Lagoon around or 

through the sunken ships is so low from both the activation products originally induced in the ships and from 

radionuclides in the lagoon’s sediment that it can be considered essentially zero.” I further understand that 25% of 

the world’s population dies of cancer. Nevertheless, I expressly assume the risk (however low it may be) that I 

may contract cancer or any other radiation-induced disease or illness as a result of my visit to Bikini. 

________ 12. I understand that safe practices of skin and scuba diving include but are not limited to the following: 

a) I will not skin or scuba dive at Bikini while under the influence of alcohol, drugs and/or any other 

controlled substance. 

b) I will not dive alone or with a person with whom I have not thoroughly discussed the dive plan. Each of 

us will review one another’s diving equipment and emergency procedures before each dive. 

c) I will dive with a buoyancy control device that has a power inflation system, a depth gauge, a 

submersible pressure gauge and a timing device. 

d) I will adjust weights to maintain neutral buoyancy with no air in my buoyancy control device at the 

surface of the water and position weights to keep the quick-release buckle centered and accessible at 

all times. 

e) I will not dive in conditions in which I do not feel comfortable or that I believe exceed my physical 

abilities. 

f) I will surface with at least 300-500 psi in my air tank and will not stay underwater until my air supply is 

exhausted. 

g) I am proficient with the use of a dive table and/or a dive computer. 

h) I understand that the boat captain and divemaster(s) will make the final selection of a dive location, 

based upon weather and water conditions, and I will abide by their selections. 

i) I understand that, in the event of a diving accident or other emergency, I will be responsible for using my 

own vessel’s communications equipment to call for any kind of rescue vessel or airplanes, if one is 

available. I also understand that it is unlikely that Air Marshalls will be able to send a rescue airplane to 

Bikini Atoll because Air Marshalls is unreliable and is frequently unable to fly airplanes on their regular 

schedules due to ongoing maintenance problems. 

________ 13. I understand that it is illegal, under an ordinance passed by the Kili/Bikini/Ejit Local Government Council, to take 

any artifact or artifacts from any of the sunken ships at Bikini Atoll or to accept any artifact or artifacts from any 

employee of Bikini Atoll Divers. I also understand that pursuant to this ordinance I will be subject to a fine of 

$10,000 for each artifact taken, or, in the case of an artifact worth more than $10,000, a fine equivalent to be 

double the appraised value of the artifact taken. By signing this Liability Release and Express Assumption of Risk, 

I hereby grant to the boat captain and/or divemaster(s) permission to search my belongings if he/she has 

reasonable grounds to believe that I have acted in violation of this ordinance. 

________ 14. I understand that skin diving and scuba diving are physically strenuous activities and that I will be exerting myself 

during my diving at Bikini. If I am injured at Bikini as a result of a heart attack, panic attack, hyperventilation or 

other injury/illness related to diving, I expressly assume the risk of said injuries. 

________ 15. I understand that there are no buoys on the sunken ships at Bikini Lagoon, and I further understand the risk and 

safety issues, which I shall assume, if my own vessel is not properly anchored. 

________ 16. I have made all payments owed Bikini Atoll Divers prior to my arrival at Bikini Atoll. 

________ 17. I understand that my vessel will be held strictly liable, under Marshallese law, for any environmental damages to 

Bikini's lagoon and or its surroundings.

________ 18. I assume all responsibility for any damage to my aircraft that is associated with landing on or taking off from the 

airstrip on Eneu Island at Bikini Atoll. I understand that this runway is made of crushed coral, which can sometimes 

result in small rocks being thrown up onto parts of airplanes that land and take off at Eneu Island, and that such 

rocks could result in damage to my aircraft. 

________ 19. I state that I am at least twenty-one (21) years of age and legally competent to sign this Liability Release and 

Express Assumption of Risk. 

________ 20. I am signing this form at least forty-five (45) days prior to my departure for Bikini Atoll. 

________ 21. I understand that this Liability Release and Express Assumption of Risk constitutes a contract between myself and 

the released parties listed above and that I have signed this document of my own free will. 

I HAVE FULLY INFORMED MYSELF OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS LIABILITY 

RELEASE AND EXPRESS ASSUMPTION OF RISK BY READING IT BEFORE I SIGNED IT 

ON BEHALF OF MYSELF, AND HEIRS AND MY ESTATE. 

IT IS ADVISED THAT THIS RELEASE BE CONSIDERED AND SIGNED BEFORE 

PURCHASING AIRFARE AS SOME AIRFARES MAY NOT BE REFUNDABLE. 

Signature of Diver __________________________________________ Date _______________________. 

Printed Name of Diver ______________________________________________________ 

Signature of Boat Owner or his appointed representative: 

__________________________________________ Date _______________________. 

Printed Name of Owner ______________________________________________________

Bikini Atoll Divers 

PO Box 1096 

Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960 

Phone: 011-692-625-3177 e-mail: bikini@ntamar.net 

Fax: 625-3330 web: www.bikiniatoll.com 

Dive Operations Manager: Jack Niedenthal 

August 23, 2008 

To Whom It May Concern, 

The Kili/Bikini/Ejit Local Government Council met for several 

days during August, 2008, to consider its fiscal year 2009 

budget. It was decided at this meeting that Bikini Atoll would 

remain closed for normal tourism operations during 2009. The 

Council made this decision due to the ongoing reliability issues 

with our local airline, Air Marshall Islands, the rise in the 

world price of fuel, and the decline in the stock market and the 

impact that this has had on our trust funds (which were used to 

subsidise our dive program): Together, all of these issues have 

caused our operating expenses to rise beyond our means. 

Currently, the Council is engaged in negotiations with several 

entities which are interested in taking over the Bikini tourism 

operation. It is unknown how long these negotiations will last, 

or if they will prove fruitful, but, if there is an update 

regarding the tourism operation, it will be posted on this 

website. 

Bikini is allowing certain types of vessels to visit Bikini 

Atoll and dive on the wrecks provided definitive prior 

arrangements are made with Bikini Atoll Divers. 

These vessels or yachts must be completely self-contained, and 

must include: 

*adequate international communications equipment 

*housing, dining facilities, and supplies (all food, water, 

medical equipment, etc) 

*all equipment needed to fill tanks and take care of divers, 

including any nitrox, oxygen or specialized medical equipment 

*preferably have a helicopter for medical evacuation purposes 

During such visits our local government will send along a diver 

and up to two Local Government Council representatives--at the 

vessel owner's expense--to make sure that no artifacts are 

removed from the ships. 

If you want more information regarding this kind of expedition, 

please contact: bikini@ntamar.net.

Sincerely, 

Jack Niedenthal 

Dive Operations Manager 

For the People of Bikini 

Cc: Lani Kramer

R4lbjbofli.Med|Ifu 

Ministry of Intemal Affairs 

3!I STURIC rvRESXlIyArIOst Olilicr 

Pl.ae acept this lefter as a sign of the Republic ofthe MaBhall lslands Hiltonc PrceMtion ofte's 

(RMIHPO)suppofrand iiwrven€ntin B ik in i A r o l tb e c o m r n B a wond He/t4e site. Sikiniistrutyon€of 

the most idp.nant hktoncalpedod sit.sintheMaEhallklands,and beyond, and oor offt.e looks 

foruadro€nsu n3 the presetoalDni and highti8httng of thk hvairabte €eur@. 

Our office has an active prcgEm which inclodee rhe sooeying and reoding of the cutiuEt, hkroriGt, 

aid arha€olo8iel rcs!(es of all of the Rtvtsarottsand istands. Wehaveai.firhatinctud€s 

profe$ion.b metiry rJnired sbt.s qualified staff EquiEmenis *r fofth .r 36 cfR pan 6l who st€er 

ourrcFa..hahdpEsetoanonprcslams.rheRepublt.ofth.Ma.shallktandsako:bid€sbvrhe 

trrstodc Presedation Act and Re8ulairons of 1992 which diE.ts our offre and rhe harion ih hos Io 

siudt nsnage, and pBt€ct the RMr's cuhrtat Eeu@s. our ofi.eu and srafi @* hard to ensuE 

lhese rasarc undeEtoodand 6rled out:hrcughoutthe ktahds, lnclud hg at Bikini aro[. 

In reaftirmarion of rhG comnihent to Siktni Atott,r nodinarion, ou. olFre has b*n asked and has 

aeepted a *at on the Bikinl Aroll conseration ManaSement €o.rd- 

rtyou shourd haveanvfurrherquenionsorconcerns ptease ontadouroffice. 

s.cetary ol lnremal Affai6 

Hklonc Peseryation Ofiic.r 

Republlcof the Ma6hallhlands

RESOLUTIONNUMBER2OIO (|I2 

OT TIIE KILT/BIKIM/EJIT LOCAL GOVERI\IIENT COUNCIL 

WIEREAS, $e people of Bikini Aroll dd thei! covminc body, 6e Kili/Sikini€jit 

Local Govelmor Coucil f'Coucil"). wish ro €stablish ou honelmd s a World 

Hentage site because ve de aw of n\e Outslaldirs UniveBal Value of reraidng ed 

coNwins foi futu€ s€nelatioE those remmls of the nucled iestina era cuftntiy 

Dresn! on Bikini Atoll: ard 

WIIEREAS, tlt Intetutional CoBcil on Moruenls dd Sites 0COMOS), whioh is 

Nessing the noninalioD of Bikini Aloll as a Worid Heftaee site, has equiEd addjtional 

NOW, THEREFOi E, be il Esolved thati 

I The site shall be entilled "Bikini Atoll Nuclee Test Site" 

2. 

hereby adopts the anached 

"Cons*ation ed Mflagenent Plm for 

" Fhich will r*e €fect imedialely. It is udeBlood thar iiis 

plm is a work in progress ad will be uldated md adapt€d wh@ 

l. In ordq 10 fltrL'F! L\e conseflation dd ntragem.nt of Bikini Atoll d a Vorld 

Eerilwe site, the Coudl h6eby establishes tbe Bikini Aloll Conseryarion 

Mmgenenr Bodd, the role ol which will 6e ro cafry ou meagemdt plming; 

Fcomend rules, regulatios md pmcedresj md ensw rhe effective 

inpleae ltion oflhe Bikid AroI Consflation Mdagenent Pld. 

Tne Bikini Atoll CoseNation Meag€nenl Bodd shall consist of de following 

fte Mayor, the Semtor &d llc Execurive Comiftee of the 

Kiii/Bilini,€jil Local Cov€lmenl Coucil; 

BikiniToulsnRepresentalive/BikiniAtoll consedationMmasq; 

Resort Mmagef of the Bilini Aloil Touhn Olendon (when ir 

Bjkjni Project Mmasd oi his he! repFsentarive; 

Tnditional leader epresentalivc lron Bikinj Atoll; 

Won€n's lelresentativ€j md 

Menba 10 be appoin€d by the RMI Hi$onqL Eeseflaion Oifre. 

APPROVED by Lte K.|| B:turr F'., Lord co\emenr Couol 'hi, Ls 

day ol

A@4 ed 

-2-

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2&%3&-4!5676!

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Contents 

189:;?@!+A;:=!;B!CDE?GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG H! 

1>9C!7G!">AIJ9;8?@GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG K! 

7G7!"EIE?E!&C;FF!>?@!L;9F@!M=9EC>J= GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG K! 

7G5!&!"9E=B!ME9N!;B!CD=!19;:;J=!+EC= GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG Q! 

7GP!*8FC89>F!-=CE;? GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 76! 

"E9@< GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 76! 

7GQ!->@E>CE;? GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 76! 

7GR!'D=!1=;:F=!;B!"EIE?E GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 76! 

7GT!(W?=9?@!/>?>J=V=?C!;B!CD=!+EC= GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 76! 

(W?=9?>J=V=?CGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 77! 

7G76!,XEF!8J=V=?C!:9>ACEA=< GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG !""#"$%&##'()"'%*#+%,-./*-,0! 

7G77!$=N!*D>FF=?J=?@!'D9=>CCE;?!;B!?8AF=>9!C=9CEB>ACF!;B!>9CEB>AC< GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 77! 

-E?@!3?9=J8F>C=@!ZE?J=!>?@![F=U=F!9E

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Part 1. Background 

1.1 Bikini Atoll and World Heritage 

#?!566P!CD=!/>9FF!#?@J=!*;VVECC==!B;9!ECF!U>F8=!?8AF=>9!C=C!CD=!=?@!;B!CD=!W>9O!CD=! 

/>9FF!#?@:C89=@!\N!CD=!&V=9EA>??@!CD=!:=;:F=!;B!"EIE?E!W=9=!9=F=>!@EBBEA8FC!CEV=! 

8?@=9!2>:>?=9CE>F!98F=G!!#?!7TKS!"EIE?E!&C;FF!W>A=[CEV=! 

?8AF=>9!W=>:;?CE;?!;B!"EIE?E!C;@>N!9=V>E?!B=W!:=;:F=!V;?EC;9E?J!CD=!9>@E>CE;?O! 

=V:F;N==CE;?O!>?@!CD=!UE

1.3 Location, Access and Geography 

"EIE?E!&C;FF!EC;FF!E?!CD=!W=O!$>\E?!/=C;G!!! 

"EIE?E!&C;FF!FE=9C!;B!CD=!/>9FF!#?@?@!W>C=9!C=V:=9>C89=9;8?@!5R! 

@=J9==@=!eR5!Z>D9=?D=ECf!N=>9!9;8?@O!U>9NE?J!FECCF=!B9;V!CDEF!9>E?B>FF!E?!>U=9>J=!;B! 

7P66VV!eS6!E?AD=CE;?>F!@;V=E9FE?=O!&E9!/>9FF!#?@CG!!L==IFN!BFEJDC9=!E9A9>BC!E?@!8?:9=@EAC>\F=!>C!CDE

"EIE?E`?@!C;C>F!F>?@!>9=>!;B!;?FN!Q56!D=AC>9=A9=?!=F;?J>C=@!>?@!E99=J8F>9! 

F>J;;?!WDEAD!=XC=?@C!EC?@9=!];E?=@!\N!>!FF;W!9==BO! 

WECD!F!@==:!AD>??=FJ;;?G!!,?=8!*D>??=FO!CD=!F>9J=?@!E9J=!C;C>F!>9=>!;B!575!D=AC>9=A9=?@!,?=8!CD=!?=XC!F>9J=C!77P!D=AC>9=A9=

1.4 Boundary of the Proposed World Heritage Site 

'D=!\;8?@>9N!;B!CD=!A;9=!:9;:;J=!CE;?>F!F>WG!!&!B89CD=9!:9;C=ACEU=!h;?=!E\FE?N!FEA=?C!B9;V!BEF!8CEA>F!VEF=C;FFG!!! 

! 

7!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$#%#!&'())!*(%+,-.&'#(%!/&%&0,/,%'!1)&%! 

2&%3&-4!5676! 

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1.5 Cultural Resources 

The Sunken Vessels 

ZEU=!IEF;V=C=9I=9g!8:9EJDC!;?!CD=!F>J;;?!BF;;9O!D=9!V>9=!\8C!CW;!;B! 

CD=!9=!AF8?@!>9;8?@!CD=!FF;W!A9>C=9!B;9V=@!\N!CD=!*9;9=!CW;!CE;?CE;?O!>?@!CD=!A=V=?C!/;?EC;9E?J!"8?I=9G!!(?!"EIE?E!#?@!CD=9=!E!FF!A=V=?C!\8?I=9! 

>C!CD=!\>AI!;B!CD=!E?@G!!(?!F!;B!CD=!;8C=9!E?@

1.6 Natural Resources 

Marine Environment 

"=A>8\EC=@O!"EIE?E!&C;FF!D>\F=!C;!=X:=9E=?A=!>!9=V>9I>\F=!9=A;U=9N!B9;V!CD=! 

@=U>CE;?!A>89E?=!=A;?JF=bG!!+89U=NF!\E;@EU=999E=@!;8C!E?!5665!e-EAD>9@FG!566Rf!9=U=>F=@!=F=U=?!C!"EIE?E!&C;FF!@=9FF!#?@8%"';8;8=1#=.=O! 

A8-&>.#"G!!'W;!CE?J!"EIE?E!&C;FF!:9;UE@=?C!D>\EC>C!B;9!CD=! 

A;?CE;?!;B!CD=J;;?!A;V:>9=@!C;!;CD=9!>C;FF9FF!#?@CE;?U;!A9>C=9f!>?@! 

A=?C9>F!?;9CD=9?!>9=>?@fG!&C!CDECC=9!?N!E&>>8>$='>8>$=!>9=!9FN! 

B;8?@G! 

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ECE;?!B9;V!?=EJD\;9E?J!

Terrestrial Vegetation 

+;!@9>V>CEA!W>AC!;B!C=!U=J=C>CE;?!FF!CD=!E?@!>?F;I_! 

566RfG!!'D=!E?@?@!"EIE?E!>9=!@;VE?>C=@!\N!:F>?C=@!A;A;?8C!:>FV!:9=AEE@[;8C!H6!B;;C! 

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CD=!@9E?IE?J!W>C=9!EB=!>FC!E@E;>ACEUECN!E?!CD=!?>C89>F!9>@E;>ACEUECN! 

;AA899E?J!E?!V>?N!:F>A=FC!V>9E?=!FEB=G!!'D=!V>E?!9>@E>CE;?!9EFFN!;?!"EIE?EO!E?AF8@E?J!A;A;?8C?@!\9=>@B98ECO!;U=9!>!F;?J!:=9E;@!;B!CEV=G!!'DE\9=!I?;W?!C;!\E;[>AA8V8F>C=!CD=!9>@E;>ACEU=!A=E?E?J!E?!CD=!?@!:F>?CCE;?!/>?>J=V=?C!";>9@G! 

1.9 Ownership and Management of the Site 

Ownership 

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AF>?!9=F>CE;?FF=@!jW=C;`O!8?@=9!

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V;?EC;9E?J!>ACEUECE=9CV=?C!;B!,?=9JN!>?@!;AA>F!UE?@!CD=9=! 

E!A98F!98?W>N!CD>C!>FF;W?@E?J!;B!>E9A9>BC!9>?JE?J!B9;V!F>9J=!:9;:=FF=9!:F>?=FF! 

)=>9!]=C!FF!>E9:;9C!C=9VE?>FO!F!W>9=D;8?@!@;AIO!9=:>E9! 

?CO!>?@!F!8?BE?EC!;?=!CEV=!J;E?J!C;!\=!8CEFEh=@!B;9!C;89EF!0;U=9?V=?C!C;!8?@!CD=9=!>9=!CW;!\8EF@E?JC!>9=!C=@!>F;?J!CD=!\=>ADO!>!F>9J=! 

!@E?E?J!D>FF!>?@!W>9=D;8!J>9>J=!CD>C! 

>FIE?J!A;V:F=XO!>!'.d\9E=BE?J!9;;V!>?@!;BBEA=!8VO!>!@;AI!B>AEFECNO!>!B8=F! 

B>9VO!>!:;W=9!:F>?CO!>?@!F!\8EF@E?JE9!?A=!W;9I!;?!CD=!B>AEFECE=C!W;9IO!>?@!CD=!8FCEV>C=! 

@ECE;?!;B!CD=!CEU=!;B!CD=!F=J>AN!;B!CD=!C=?!E?C=J9>F!>?@!I=N! 

>:=c>?@!CD=!;?J;E?J!AD>?J=?@!?@!@;A8V=?C=@G!! 

Removal of artifacts 

'D=9=!>9=!9=:;9C8CD;9Eh=@!UECE;?!>?@!9=V;U>F!;B!>9CEB>AC9FN!T68CD;9Eh=@!9=V;U>F!;B!>9CEB>AC

Risks to divers 

'D=!F!BE?@!V;?EC;9E?JO!D;W=U=9! 

=BB=ACEU=!?A=!>?@!=?B;9A=V=?C!>?@!CD=!:9=U=?CE;?!;B!EFF=J>F!BE?>J=V=?C! 

:F>?G! 

Overfishing or overharvesting 

&C;FF!=A;9=B8FFN!V>?>J=@!C;!:9=U=?C!;U=9BE?@!@=:F=CE;?!;B!BEF! 

F!J;U=9?V=?C!;9@E?>?A=AE?J!9=?@!E?!?J=!CD9;8JD!V>E?C>E?E?J!CD=!D=>FCD!>?@!:9;C=ACE;?!;B!ECF!=A;?@!V>9E?=!E?U>F9=!CD9=>C=?E?J!CD=!\E;@EU=99FF!#?@?!E?U>?@!=X:=?@EA>C=G!!!#?U>CEU=!>?@!=?@=VEA!CE;?G!!"EIE?E!&C;FF!D>?N!E?U>?C!>?@!>?EV>F! 

9FN!>::>9=?C!E?!CD=!C=99=F!=?UE9;?V=?CO!@8=!C;!CD=!D8J=!VEFEC>9N!>?@!AF=>?!8:!;:=9>CE;?99E=@!;8C!;U=9!V>?N!N=>9?I=!:>9CEA8F>9!V=>@EA>CE;?!;B!=\FE@@9=CE;?O!9=J8F>CE;??@!;9@E?>?A=U=!\==?!=\FEC!?>CE;?>F!>?@!F;A>F!F=U=F!C;!=?F! 

:9;C=ACE;?!;B!CD=!>9CEB>AC?@!?>C89>F!=?UE9;?V=?C!>C!"EIE?E!&C;FFG!! 

12!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$#%#!&'())!*(%+,-.&'#(%!/&%&0,/,%'!1)&%! 

2&%3&-4!5676!

Protection of Historic and Cultural Resources 

'D=!:9;:=9CN!A899=?CFN!D>!DEJD!@=J9==!;B!:9;C=ACE;?!CD9;8JD!F;A>F!;9@E?>?A=?@!AA=CE;?CE;?IE?J!&?@!,X:;9C!(B!&9CEB>ACCE;?C=@!E?!7TTS!C;!>@@ECE;?>FFN!9=^8E9=!CD>C!>FF!@EU=9AA;V:>?E=@!\N!CD=!;BBEAE>F!"EIE?E!@EU=!;:=9>CE;?!e(9@E?>?A=!%;G5[7TTSfG!!&FF!;B!CD=?A=?@!8:@>C=@!WECD!CD=!:>9=!9=^8E9=@!C;!J>E?!:=9VE!DEJD!F=U=F!;B!\E;@EU=9F!@=A9==!e28FN!H6O!7TTQf!B9;V!CD=!$",!);A>F! 

0;U=9?V=?C!CD>C!EC!EF!C;!BEJ;;?!>9=>G!!&FF!\E9@!D>\EC>C9=!:9=9;8?@!CD=!>9=>!;B!CD=!CE;?>F!F=U=FO!FEA=?JEA!BE?N!>C;FFG!!! 

List of Ordinances 

1)"/*-%2-3#4"5-%6",/*)*5-!!eY>C=@!28FN!5RO!7TTQf_!(9@E?>?A=!:>?AC!;B!Z9==!&9m!&?@!9=BfG! 

6",/*)*5-%7#0%=:8;;>!e/>N!H6O!7TTSf_!(9@E?>?A=!C;!:9=U=?C!8?>8CD;9Eh=@!@EUE?J!E?!"EIE?E!&C;FF!F>J;;?!>?@!C;! 

:9=U=?C!9=V;U>F!;B!>9CEB>AC9=! 

9=^8E9=@!C;!!FE>\EFECN!9=F=>C!>FF!;B!>9CEB>ACACEU=O!=>AD!@EU=9!EADC9=! 

9=^8E9=@!C;!

2. The Plan 

2.1 Goals and Objectives 

Goal 

';!E@=?CEBNO!:9;C=ACO!A;??F!D=9EC>J=!U>F8=E?C>E?!>?@!:9;C=AC!CD=!A8FC89>F!U>F8=?@!:9;A=!V>];9!C9>8V>G!!! 

! 

2. 2 Management Strategies 

'D=!@E>J9>V!\=F;W!E?@EA>C=?>J=V=?C!C=JE=?!FE?I!C;!CD=!>ADE=U=V=?C! 

;B!CD=!;\]=ACEU=

Strategy 1. Controlled Access to the Site 

&AA=E9A9>BC!V8E?!:9E;9!:=9VECN!UEF!0;U=9?V=?CG!!! 

!"#$%&'()*+% ,(-(*.$ /"+0)*+(1(2('#$ 345'*"5+$4*6$%66('()*42$ 

/"+)75&"+$/"87(5"6$ 

7G Y;A8V=?C!>?@!B;9V>FEh=! 

:=9VECCE?J!:9;A=@89=!B;9!>AA=?>J=@!@8=!C;!CD=!9=V;C=?=AA=?@!>9CEB>ACBBO!>?@!CD=!A;VB;9C>\F=!B>AEFECE=FFN!A;V=!>9C!;B!CD=!@EU=!C;89EV!98?!\N!"EIE?E!&C;FF! 

YEU=9!\8E?FN!\==?! 

B;A8CE;?!*9;CC9>ACE;?O!CD=9=!EFC89=!;B!&E9!/>9FF!#?@CE;?>F!>E9FE?=!?@=@!B;9!W==IC!>!CEV=G!!Y89E?J!CD=!566R! 

F!0;U=9?V=?C!V>@=!CD=!@EBBEA8FC!@=AE?A=F!CD=!9=V>E?@=9!;B! 

CD=!?@!C;!AF;CE;?!B;9!566T!>?@!5676G!! 

!'D=!B>AEFECE=9=!V>E?C>E?=@!;?!"EIE?E!8?CEF!CD=!@EU=!;:=9>CE;?!A>?!9=F!UE

GOO6116HGPL67%G7H%HL7L7N% 

.E??C!\=A>8I=?!>W>N!\N!C;89EVEFE=?@!B9E=?@?@=9?C!CD=!W;9F@! 

C;!9=V=V\=9G!"=B;9=!=>AD!@EU=!CD=!@EU=V>\;8C!CD=!U=AC=9E!A;V:9=D=??G!!! 

MLQLPL7N%VGOUPQ%G7H%R2LMGP!%M!QQ!@Q% 

4>ADC?@!19EU>C=!.=F!0;U=9?V=?C!C;!=?J=!C;!;9!9=V;U>F!;9!>9CEB>ACE9A9>BC!V8E?!:9E;9!:=9VEC!UEE?!:=9VECE;?>FFNO!FEA=?9C!;B!CD=!.=?@9E?=!-=?@!EB!CD=N!>9=!B;8?@! 

WECDE?!75!?>8CEA>F!VEF=?N!>C;FFO!C;!:>!1>C9;F!;:=9>CE;?!e>?!>9V!;B!CD=! 

/>9FF!#?@?@!::9=D=??@!:9;?N!EFF=J>F!BECE;?!E?@!A;FF=AC!=UE@=?A=O!!?==@!C;!>9CDV;UE?J!;9!9!>ACEUECN!E?!FEJDC!;B!ECAC!;?!CD=! 

>CC9E\8C=

=>9CDV;UE?J!;9!A;?ACEUECN!V8E?!>!:=9VEC!B9;V!CD=!-=:8\FEA!;B!CD=!/>9FF!#?@F!19;C=ACE;?!&8CD;9ECN!e-/#,1&f!>?@!B9;V!CD=!ME@@ECE;?!C;! 

CDE9@!V899N!;8C!W;9ICE;?!WECD!E?C=9?>CE;?>F!=X:=9CCE;?! 

>?@!#*(/(+G! 

/>?>J=V=?C! 

";>9@!! 

Strategy 5. Interpretation, Education and Awareness 

,@8A>CE;?!>?@!>W>9=?=]89;!>?@!=FFFN!:=;:F=!>9;8?@! 

W;9F@G!!+=U=9>F!:9;J9>V9=!8?@=9!@=U=F;:V=?C!CD>C!WEFF!A;?C9E\8C=!J9=>CFN!C;!CD=!C9>?C;FFGA;Vd!!D>?@!V>E?C>E?=@!\N!2>AI! 

%E=@=?CD>F!FCD!;B! 

E?B;9V>CE;?!>\;8C!"EIE?E!&C;FFG!!'DEC=!V;9=!E?B;9V>CE;?! 

>\;8C!CD=!L;9F@!M=9EC>J=!U>F8=?@!@=U=F;:!ECCE;?!:9;J9>V!B;9!UE!:9;:;J=!?@!CD=!?>C89>F!>?@!A8FC89>F! 

U>F8==!&C;FFG!!LDEF=!>!:9;:;F!D>?CE>F!C=AD?EA>F! 

>9C?=99FF!#?@?@! 

E?C=9=9CE=:>?!C;!=\FE!1=>A=!/8]89;O!A;VV=V;9>CE?J!CD=!?8AF=>9!DE9FF!#?@A=!CD9;8JD;8C!CD=!W;9F@G!!'D=!1=>A=!/89FF?@!CD=!EV:>AC9FF=

! 

!"#$%&'()*+% ,(-(*.$ /"+0)*+(1(2('#$ 345'*"5+$4*6$%66('()*42$ 

/"+)75&"+$/"87(5"6$ 

HG />E?C>E?!>?@!8:J9>@=!"EIE?E!&C;FF! 

W=\F!;?!"EIE?E`J=!U>F8=@=!E?C=9:9=CEU=!V>C=9E>F?@!;CD=9!!?A=!UEJ=!4;8CD!'D=>C9=!19;J9>V! 

KG Y=U=F;:V=?C!;B!=XDE\EC!B;9!:9;:;A=!/8]89;! 

! 

Strategy 6. Research and Monitoring 

Y=A!5676! 2>AI!%E=@=?CD>F! *;?J=! 

V>?>J=V=?C!B>A8FCN!>! 

J9>@8>C=!:9;]=ACG! 

Y=A!5676! 2>AI!%E=@=?CD>F! 1>9C?=99F=?@!F=@!C;!CD=! 

@=U=F;:V=?C!;B!E?C=9:9=C>CE;?!V>C=9E>F?@!CD=!;:=?E?J!;B!"EIE?E!&C;FF!C;!@EU=!C;89EV!WEFF!A;?@8AC!>!\>9!>C=9!+AE=?A=!J9;8:!>C!#?@E>?>!3?EU=9@!C;!CD=!@=U=F;:V=?C!;B! 

E?C=9:9=C>CE;?!V>C=9E>F

!&!C=>V!;B!!\>9BE@!>?@!\F=>AD=@!A;9>F! 

[ *;8?C9J=C!?@!>\8?@>?A=!;B!A;VV=9AE>FFN!>?@!=A;F;JEA>FFN!EV:;9C>?C!EF>\F=!9=CE;?!/>?>J=V=?C!";>9@!e"&*/"f!WEFF!\=!=\FE8CE;?!/>?>J=V=?C!";>9@!V=V\=9@ECE;?>F!F=>@=9!9=:9=CEU=!B9;V!"EIE?E!&C;FFg! 

• 4;8CD!9=:9=CEU=g! 

• L;V=?`CEU=g!>?@! 

19!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$#%#!&'())!*(%+,-.&'#(%!/&%&0,/,%'!1)&%! 

2&%3&-4!5676!

• /=V\=9!C;!\=!>::;E?C=@!\N!CD=!-/#!MEF!19=CE;?!(BBEA=G! 

'D=!9;F=!;B!CD=!/>?>J=V=?C!";>9@!E99N!;8C!V>?>J=V=?C!:F>??E?Jg! 

! -=A;VV=?@!98F=CE;??@!:9;A=@89=V=@;!eV>9ECEV=!>9AD>=;F;JE!Y>UEF!J=;J9>:D=9fO!&?EC>!+VECD!e>9AD>=;F;JE\FE9F=BB=AC!CD=!D=9EC>J=! 

U>F8=CE;?!19;]=AC!/>?>J=9!9;F=!E?!=XECE;?!/>?>J=V=?C!1F>?g! 

! Y=U=F;:!:>9C?=9CE;?!;W?=@!\N!CD=!$",!);A>F!0;U=9?V=?CG!!'D=!BB!;B!"EIE?E!&C;FF!YEU=9N!>?!>ACEU=!9;F=!E?!CD=!@>N[C;[@>N!V>?>J=V=?CO!V;?EC;9E?J!>?@!?A=!;B!CD=!]89;[\>C=@!E?!CD=!$",!);A>F!0;U=9?V=?C!(BBEA=

Key Equipment and Materials 

'D=!@EU=!;:=9>CE;?!;?!"EIE?E!&C;FF!EC9FF!#?@9CN!C;!U>9E;8CE;?>F!A;?U=?CE;?9J=!:>9C!C;!CD=! 

=BB;9CFF!E?@!@=U=F;:E?J!C=?@!CE;?

Appendices: 

A.1 Selected References 

Y=FJ>@;O!2G1GO!)=?ED>?O!YG2O!q!/89:DNO!)GZG!e7TT7fG!C$?-.;'8N'7CE;?>F! 

/8C89>F!MEVG!!566RG!,1.J""#-8/Q':"7.8#"-'H8#=1%B"7.8#'0%1"'A-"#'N8%'7I=9_!/=F\;89?=G!! 

-EAD>9@?@=9!.=F@=O!%>?AN!>?@!"9E>?!.>?@=9!.=F@=G!566HG!!0',1B.1T'8N'7

! 

A.2 Existing Local Government Ordinances 

!"#$%&'(&)*+#,&'-#.$%"%,&!!89:;?@!5AB!7CCDEF!(G=HI:IJGJI=

1 ORDINANCE NU!/ffER 2O1l) _ 02 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

OF THE KTLI/BIKINVEJIT LOCAI GOWRNMEM COIINCIL 

VIiEREAS, the p€ople of Bikid Atoil ed their goveming body, the Xni,tsilid/Ejit 

tacal Govemdi Cowil ("Coucil"), *ish to esLblis! ou hodelmd s a V@ld 

Hditage site to retai! ad @rowe for tute gen@titu whose rc.l@ts of ihe nel6 

tsting da c@ndy !rcsnt on Bikini Atoll; ed 

9 WSEREAS, in ordd to n!'thd l,\€ @Maiion ad mtuagenenl of Bikini Aloll s a 

l0 Wodd Eelitage sile, th. Coucil has adolted a "Conselrdion ed Maug@cnt Plro br 

t2 

13 VHEREAS, 6 pan ofihe "Cotuaalion dd Maegcrcnt lle fo! Bikini A1oll," thc 

14 Coucil wishes to conslid.te ad bdng up to daie its nrl€s, rguhtiod, lwcitle@ ed 

15 oforcendt n6!Men1! @rc@ilg @ess ro Bikini Atotl, divilg, ed bdi!. 

16 E$u@si 

i8 

l9 

Now, TlMEro?€, !€ ft resorred r.\at: 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

3 I 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

4i 

42 

43 

,14 

45 

46 

1 A@ess to Bikini is EsEicted to !€cEation ed rowisn visitors ed ro sci.lrific 

swey ims. 

2. All p@ple wbhirg ro visii Bikini Aroll by ailchfi n6t obtai! pnor witta 

lenissioD ffoD lb. KiliBilioi-Ejit Locsl Gov.@ot. 

3. Divd on the sunken vs*li ot Bikini Atoll lagoo! tust be @onpsied by a 

divd enployed by the Coucil or ude! oortrsd 10 the Coucil. 

4- No v€ssel js 

!€mitled ro @tq Bikiri Atoll ldgmr withoul first obtainjng offioi.l 

pmits dd leeal wiq foms Aoh the Coucil. 

5. No !€!son is pe@itted lo divc withinthe confles ofBikini Alolt tag@nvilhoul 

ftst obbiling oficial pmiri, liabilily rel..re, waivd, expE$ 4sMprio! of 

risk, ed other Elwet lesal fm! &om thc Coucil. 

6. It is unla*:ffrl for ey p6or to lali. ey object fron fle warc! of Bihni Atoll 

losoon (dcept fish), whetha Eru&,r or ndEad€, This sclion specifically d.k6 

ii u:ia*.tuI for ay lenon ro bte ey obj@r wlEtsoever otr of tuy suntd v.6*l 

in Bikid Atoll lagoon. 

7, Any p6on interding to dive ar Bikitri Aioll lagoon is hercby put on noti@ tha,t 

his/her luggage will b€ e@L€d !rio. to de!.dw Aoh Bikili Aro[ in ordd to 

4u. @mplide wil Saion 6. above. 

8. 

-4!y !6on eho violals S@tion 6, abov., shatl be filed 95,000.00 pd object 

d(Vor be subjecl to a lwinu imprisoddl of six mdths i! pnaor in the 

Ma6hdl ldu&. 

9, Any v6el c€fying dive(9 i! Bikili Aloll laeoon pho h.vc failed to @b!ly 

with the tcm of Sectiors :, 4, dd/or 5, above, shat b" subject 10 confieation by 

the Coucil. 

10. No vessel hay agag€ in ey fishing opelaiion of oy knd witbin 12 dile! of 

Brkjni Abll wifiou exprAs witren lhhsion frob Lbe Cokil Thic imtudes 

dyndire. c' eide. dnh-ner or sy fom ot shql Eshing,

I 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1l 

D 

t3 

l5 

l6 

t7 

l8 

l9 

2A 

2l 

22 

23 

25 

26 

27 

29 

30 

ll 

32 

31 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

4l 

4S 

ll. Ex@F s provided in pdagraph 12, below, ay individlrl. coryoratlon d othq 

dtity foud to be i! violarion of Section 10, above, shall be subjecr to fine of 

$50,000 pd day lor cach viol.rion. 

12. Aly individurl. corlo61ion or oiher e iry foud to be in violaljon of Section 10, 

dbove, i! the cousc of tuhing for shelc of oy kin l shdl b€ subj4t b nne of 

$75.000 !€r day for eeh violatio4 

13. No srill-netr shall b. ued in ey prn ofBikiai Atoll, both lagoo! ed oc€Nide. 

14. ThFw-nets o! ffshirg rcds shrll be Ure sole neurod of gaihdins fish al Bikini 

15. Slorts-fish specis suDh d tevally ed bonelish shall be rclesed alive ed 

l6.Au wildlife o! md doud islddr bet*een Bikid, Aoemer &d Eneu shdl b€ 

proteded. This includes all birds ed nesling frrtls rnd dtei. eegs. 

17, All tudes re prclected ad shail nol be laken wilhoul prior pemksion fiom t'lc 

18.All mluai rcsoues not menl'oned in thse rcgulalions on dd doud Bilhi 

Aloll shall be !rcswed in such a way thar they N nol exploited, 

19. The quadrdts enconpEssed by the following loleitudes ed latitudes, 165" 

30'200 longiludq I 10 35'040 N latiMe dd 165' 30'93? lorgiMe, I I " 35'?34 

N laiitude, rhe dea of rne hoyed ships, shall be plolecbd Aon dy fon of 

fishing ed is considded a hdirc smcnDry by the Coucil. 

20. lte Coucil ir$Eucfs dE trut liaison for the People of Bjlid to publish tlis 

ordinece in dre Md$hall Islmds JoMal. post it prcminently in public @6 in 

dd @ud the KililBikjni,Ejft Local Gorem€nt Coucil ofrce. lost il in public 

Na at Bikini Atoll. dd provid€ a copy to ihe Ofr@ oftlle Anomey Gerdal of 

the Mdshall lslods covement 

A-PPFOvCD by rhe Kil,rBinrni,€ri. I ol.l Covemen'Coecrl fiis ZL da) o.Juur/.

8 

9 

t0 

u 

1,2 

l3 

t4 

l5 

t7 

1E 

l9 

20 

2l 

n 

23 

u 

.25 

a 

2E 

29 

30 

3l 

/1 --r' 

/OLA,D 

fuu) 

3 

t1

U.S. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

SUBMERGED CULTURAL RESOURCES UNIT 

NATIONAL MARITIME INITIATIVE

Reconstructing the Nuclear Detonations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

i

Sakawa, circa 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :::: :::: ::::: :.59 

... 

111

Five general purpose 500-lb. bombs, AN-Mk 64, on their bomb carts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 

Twoviews of the Helldiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...120 

iv

vii

Interior for International and Territorial Affairs 

ix 

Crossroads and the ships involved in the tests

Rizzuto, curator of USS Kidd (DD-661) in 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana, provided a tour of his 

x 

considerable information on the tests and faxed 

needed documents to the team in the Pacific.

II exist at Truk Lagoon, etc., nowhere in the such additional programs and activities as may 

1

could be hazardous, By acceptance of 

such right, title and interest, the 

2 

historical significance, marine park potential, 

and diving hazards associated with the sunken

Saratoga were sought. A set of microfilmed the Navy’s Bureau of Ships 1946 description of 

4

Majuro in the Marshall Islands. 

7

documentation of LCT-1175. 

10

on Tokyo, Nagoya, and Kobe. Soon, however, 

as historian Paul Boyer has noted, a grim 

12 

on an enormous scale.”4

1946, “The ultimate results of the tests, so far 

13

asked the Navy on September 18 that “a 

number of the Japanese vessels be made 

14 

surprising” within the next six months for a 

proposal “to test the effects of the new atomic

of the tests.’”9 Even more attractive was the from flash burn, gamma radiation, or 

15

The Able Target Array, showing the actual point of detonation. Shaded vessels sank as a result of the 

blast. 

16

The Baker Target Array, 

blast. Both i[iustrations 

showing the actual point of detonation. 

Shaded vessels sank as a result of the 

were redrawn by Robbyn Jackson of the NPS Historic American Engineering 

Record from JTF-I sketches. 

17

subject of the most preparation: organized in 

18 

had a cofferdam patch on the hull where a

Eugen), and one Japanese (Sakawa)--were scheduled for disposal to satisfy the Navy’s 

19

conditions .... Scientists do not need to kill 

elephants to determine the reaction of 

chemicals and drugs. They use small mice.”42 

20 

historic tests ....”47 It was also noted that “many 

other ships of the target group have equally 

glorious battle records and are similarly

Operation Crossroads. This fleet consisted of Sweden” surpassing it.5G 

22

into the crater, with the remainder dispersed 

27

World War II the United States built few large submarines Tuna, Searaven, Dentuda, and 

31

evaporators in the ship.go carried out ...may have only sketched in gross 

33

Israel, whom the Lord led into the Promised 

34

the resurvey ships sailed on the 29th. The 

flagship of the group, USS Chilton, arrived at 

Pearl Harbor on September 3. The task group 

36 

the House Milita~ Affairs Committee, which referred it 

to the House on June 13, The House passed the bill 

with amendments on June 20; subsequently most changes 

were removed in a joint conference. The bill was signed 

into law by President Harry S. Truman on August 1,

38 

effort, also see C. Sharp Cook, “The Legacy of

Mooney, ed. Dictiona~ of American Naval Fighting Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, 1947) Vol. III, 

39

[ 

I 

40


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