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PRINT ISSN: 1454-7414<br />

ELECTRONIC ISSN: 2069-6727<br />

CD - ROM 2285-8148<br />

UNIVERSITATEA DE ŞTIINŢE AGRICOLE<br />

ŞI MEDICINĂ VETERINARĂ<br />

“ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD” IAŞI<br />

LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE<br />

SERIA AGRONOMIE<br />

VOL. 55, NR. 2<br />

EDITURA “ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD” IAŞI<br />

2012

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

2

3<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

COORDONATORII REVISTEI ,,LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’’<br />

Redactor responsabil: Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

Redactor adjunct: Prof. dr. Constantin LEONTE - USAMV Iaşi<br />

Membri:<br />

• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Lucia DRAGHIA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Liviu MIRON – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Benone PĂSĂRIN – USAMV Iaşi<br />

COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE AL SERIEI ,,AGRONOMIE’’<br />

Redactor şef: Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

Redactor adjunct: Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi<br />

Redactori:<br />

• Prof. dr. Wolfgang FRIEDT – Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Germany<br />

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi, România<br />

• Prof. dr. Andre FALISSE – Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques Gembloux, Belgium<br />

• Prof. dr. Christos TSADILAS – National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Soil Mapping<br />

and Classification Larissa, Greece<br />

• Prof. dr. Ioan ŢENU – USAMV Iaşi, România<br />

• Prof. dr. Karoly BODNAR – Universitatea din Szeged, Ungaria<br />

• Prof. dr. Vito Nicola SAVINO – Universitatea de Studii din Bari, Italia<br />

• Prof. dr. Mike RUSSELL – College of Agriculture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA<br />

• Prof. dr. Jan MOUDRY Jr. - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic<br />

• Prof. dr. Petr KONVALINA - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic<br />

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe CIMPOIEŞ – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova, Republica Moldova<br />

• Prof. dr. Boris BOINCEAN – Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova<br />

• Prof. dr. Andrei BALINSKY - Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova<br />

• Prof. dr. Adriano CIANI , Perugia University<br />

• Prof. dr. Carmen del CAMPILLO GARCIA -University of Cordoba, Campus of Rabanales, Spania<br />

• Prof. dr. Diego BEGALLI - Universitatea din Verona, Italia<br />

• Dr. Virginijus FEIZA – Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuania<br />

REFERENŢI ŞTIINŢIFICI:<br />

• Prof. dr. Ioan AVARVAREI – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Costică AILINCĂI – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Mihail AXINTE – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Daniel BUCUR – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Aurel CHIRAN – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Viorica IACOB – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Paul SAVU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Doina-Liana TOMA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe ŢÂRDEA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Eugen ULEA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Teodor IACOB – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Mihai STANCIU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Stejărel BREZULEANU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Elena GÎNDU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Culiţă SÎRBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

ISSN 1454-7414<br />

Editat cu sprijinul Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării<br />

© Editura ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice - vol. 55, Nr. 2/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

COORDINATORS OF JOURNAL “LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’<br />

Manager Editor: Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

Assistant Editor: Prof. dr. Constantin LEONTE - USAMV Iaşi<br />

Members:<br />

• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Lucia DRAGHIA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Liviu MIRON – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Benone PĂSĂRIN – USAMV Iaşi<br />

EDITORIAL BOARD OF “AGRONOMIE’’<br />

Editor- in -chief: Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

Assistant Editor: Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi<br />

Editors:<br />

• Prof. dr. Wolfgang FRIEDT – Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Germany<br />

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi, Romania<br />

• Prof. dr. Andre FALISSE – Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques Gembloux, Belgium<br />

• Prof. dr. Christos TSADILAS – National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Soil Mapping<br />

and Classification Larissa, Greece<br />

• Prof. dr. Ioan ŢENU – USAMV Iaşi, România<br />

• Prof. dr. Karoly BODNAR – Universitatea din Szeged, Ungaria<br />

• Prof. dr. Vito Nicola SAVINO – Universitatea de Studii din Bari, Italia<br />

• Prof. dr. M. RUSSELL – College of Agriculture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA<br />

• Prof. dr. Jan MOUDRY Jr. - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic<br />

• Prof. dr. Petr KONVALINA - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic<br />

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe CIMPOIEŞ – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova, Republica Moldova<br />

• Prof. dr. Boris BOINCEAN – Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova<br />

• Prof. dr. Andrei BALINSKY - Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova<br />

• Prof. dr. Adriano CIANI , Perugia University<br />

• Prof. dr. Carmen del CAMPILLO GARCIA -University of Cordoba, Campus of Rabanales, Spania<br />

• Prof. dr. Diego BEGALLI - Universitatea din Verona, Italia<br />

• Dr. Virginijus FEIZA – Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuania<br />

SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS:<br />

• Prof. dr. Ioan AVARVAREI – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Costică AILINCĂI – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Mihail AXINTE – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Daniel BUCUR – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Aurel CHIRAN – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Viorica IACOB – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Paul SAVU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Doina-Liana TOMA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe ŢÂRDEA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Eugen ULEA – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Prof. dr. Teodor IACOB – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Mihai STANCIU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Stejărel BREZULEANU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Elena GÎNDU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

• Conf. dr. Culiţă SÎRBU – USAMV Iaşi<br />

ISSN 1454-7414<br />

Editat cu sprijinul Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării<br />

© Editura ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice - vol. 55, Nr. 2/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

4

CONTENTS<br />

5<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Petr KONVALINA, Ivana CAPOUCHOVÁ, Zdeněk STEHNO, Jan MOUDRÝ jr.<br />

GENETIC RESOURCES OF EMMER WHEAT AND THEIR PROSPECTIVE USE IN<br />

ORGANIC FARMING .............................................................................................................................. 13<br />

Jan MOUDRÝ, jr., Zuzana JELÍNKOVÁ , Jan MOUDRÝ, Petr KONVALINA<br />

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS WITHIN THE PRODUCTION OF POTATOES IN<br />

CENTRAL EUROPE ................................................................................................................................ 19<br />

Mohamed A. KENAWI<br />

THE ROLE OF PACKAGING (MATERIALS &TREATMENTS) IN ADDITION TO<br />

SPICES EXTRACT ON STABILITY OF FROZEN BUFFALO MEAT PRODUCT ............................ 23<br />

Michel JACQUET, Luc MAERTENS<br />

VERS UN LOGEMENT DIFFÉRENT POUR LE LAPIN: UNE EXIGENCE SOCIÉTALE<br />

ET UN CHALLENGE POUR LES FILIÈRES CUNICOLES EUROPÉENNES .................................... 31<br />

Mehmet Arif ÖZYAZICI<br />

EFFECTS OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ON THE YIELD OF PLANTS IN THE ROTATION<br />

SYSTEM OF WHEAT-WHITE HEAD CABBAGE-TOMATO ............................................................. 35<br />

Valentina ANDRIUCĂ, Mădălina IORDACHE, Daniela GÎRLA, Ioan GAICA,<br />

Nicolai CAZMALÎ, Maria COLTUN<br />

RESEARCH OF PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL RELATED TO<br />

EARTHWORMS ABUNDANCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND BACKGROUND<br />

AGROECOSYSTEMS AT DIDACTIC AND EXPERIMENTAL STATION “CHETROSU”,<br />

REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA .................................................................................................................... 45<br />

Ecaterina EMNOVA, Simion TOMA, Oxana DARABAN, Iana DRUTA<br />

ENZYME ACTIVITY IN SOYBEAN ROOT-ADHERING SOIL IN DEPENDENCE ON<br />

NUTRITION AND WATER CONTENT CONDITION .......................................................................... 51<br />

Marina LUNGU<br />

EVOLUTION OF GRAY FOREST SOIL IN AGRICULTURAL USE IN CENTRAL<br />

PART OF REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA ................................................................................................... 55<br />

VladimirROTARU<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF RHIZOBACTERIA AND PHOSPHORUS SUPPLY ON<br />

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS CONTENTS IN SOYBEAN UNDER<br />

INSUFFICIENCY MOISTURE OF SOIL ................................................................................................ 59<br />

Irina SENICOVSCAIA<br />

MICROBIAL BIOMASS IN SOILS OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA:<br />

ESTIMATION AND RESTORATION .................................................................................................... 63<br />

Carmenica Doina JITĂREANU, Cristina SLABU, Alina Elena MARTA, Simion CRISTINA<br />

DYNAMICS OF THE CONTENT OF FOLIAR PIGMENTS IN SOME GRAPEVINE<br />

VARIETIES CULTIVATED IN IAŞI, COTNARI AND BUJORU VINEYARDS IN THE<br />

VEGETATION PERIOD OF 2011 ........................................................................................................... 67

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Camelia IFRIM, Carmenica Doina JITĂREANU, Cristina SLABU, Alina Elena MARTA<br />

ASPECTS REGARDING THE CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS AT THE GRAPEVINES<br />

CULTIVATED IN IAŞI AND COTNARI VINEYARDS ....................................................................... 73<br />

Bogdan HORBANIUC, Carmen Cătălina IOAN, Gheorghe DUMITRAŞCU<br />

STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL QUICK FREEZING USING LIQUID NITROGEN: AN ECOLOGICAL<br />

FOODS FREEZING TECHNIQUE .......................................................................................................... 79<br />

Viorica IACOB, Eugen ULEA, Andreea-Mihaela BĂLĂU, Florin Daniel LIPŞA<br />

SAPROPHYTIC AND PARASITIC FUNGI ON ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FROM<br />

MOLDOVA AREA (ROMANIA) ............................................................................................................ 85<br />

Andy Felix JITĂREANU<br />

STUDIES ON GLOBAL TRENDS IN WINE MARKETING ................................................................. 89<br />

Marilena MĂRGHITAŞ , Constantin TOADER, Mihaela MIHAI, Lavinia MOLDOVAN,<br />

Maria HANGAN<br />

EVOLUTION OF THE REACTION FOR THE TYPICAL PRELUVOSOIL THROUGH<br />

DIFFERENTIATED FERTILIZATION FOR APPLE CULTIVATION<br />

IN THE REGHIN AREA .......................................................................................................................... 95<br />

Marilena MĂRGHITAŞ, Constantin TOADER, Mihaela MIHAI, Lavinia MOLDOVAN,<br />

Maria HANGAN<br />

PEDOAGROCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF APPLE TREE GROWING SOILS<br />

FROM THE REGHIN REGION ............................................................................................................... 99<br />

Alina Elena MARTA, Carmenica Doina JITĂREANU, Cristina SLABU, Simion CRISTINA<br />

ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH AT SOME GRAPEVINE VARIETIES<br />

CULTIVATED IN IASI AND TÂRGU BUJOR VINEYARDS IN 2011 ............................................. 105<br />

Alina Elena MARTA<br />

ECO-PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF VINE VARIETIES DURING THE GROWING<br />

SEASON OF 2011 ................................................................................................................................. 109<br />

Cristina SLABU, Carmen Doina JITAREANU, Alina MARTA, Cristina SIMION,<br />

Roxana IONAŞCU<br />

THE WATER REGIME OF SOME GRAPEVINE VARIETIES IN THE PEDOCLIMATIC<br />

CONDITIONS OF 2011 IN IASI AND BUJORUL VINEYARDS ...................................................... 113<br />

Silvica PĂDUREANU<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF COLD PLASMA PRODUCED BY GLIDARC WITHOUT WATER VAPOR,<br />

UPON THE CELLS DIVISION IN TRITICUM AESTIVUM L. ........................................................... 119<br />

Silvica PĂDUREANU<br />

THE CYTOLOGY OF POLLEN GERMINATION PROCESS AT LOTUS CORNICULATUS L.<br />

AND CORONILLA VARIA L. ................................................................................................................ 125<br />

Creola BREZEANU, Teodor ROBU, Petre Marian BREZEANU, Silvica AMBĂRUŞ<br />

THE STUDY OF QANTY – QUALITATIVE TRAITS OF FIVE GENOTYPES OF<br />

PHASEOLUS AUREUS ROXB. ............................................................................................................. 131<br />

Ioan ROTAR, Florin PĂCURAR, Roxana VIDICAN, Anca BOGDAN, Deneş DEAK<br />

MEADOWS AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT<br />

CONCEPT OF LOW-INPUT ................................................................................................................ 135<br />

6

7<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Petre Marian BREZEANU, Creola BREZEANU, Silvica AMBĂRUŞ, Maria CĂLIN,<br />

Tina Oana CRISTEA, Neculai MUNTEANU, Costel VÂNĂTORU<br />

MONITORING BEHAVIOR OF DIFFERENT TOMATO GENOTYPES CULTIVATED IN<br />

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM IN PROTECTED AREA ............................................................................. 139<br />

Dumitru BULGARIU, Feodor FILIPOV, Constantin RUSU, Laura BULGARIU<br />

PEDOGEOCHEMISTRY OF HORTIC ANTHROSOL FROM COPOU<br />

GREENHOUSE – IASI (I) ..................................................................................................................... 143<br />

Dumitru BULGARIU, Feodor FILIPOV, Constantin RUSU, Laura BULGARIU<br />

PEDOGEOCHEMISTRY OF HORTIC ANTHROSOL FROM COPOU<br />

GREENHOUSE – IASI (II) ................................................................................................................... 149<br />

Mihai CARA, Irina COROI, Gerard JITĂREANU<br />

INCREASING SOIL STRUCTURE STABILIZATION WITH CARBOXYLIC<br />

POLYECTROLYTE .............................................................................................................................. 155<br />

Gheorghe CHIRIAC, Lucian RĂUS, Gerard JITĂREANU<br />

EFFECT OF TILLAGE AND CULTIVAR ON OILSEED RAPE (BRASSICA NAPUS L.)<br />

YIELD IN THE NORTHERN AREA OF MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU ................................................. 159<br />

Irina COROI, Mihai CARA, Gerard JITĂREANU<br />

DISSIPATION OF ACETOCHLOR AND RESIDUE ANALYSIS IN PLANTS<br />

AND SOIL UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS ......................................................................................... 165<br />

Tina Oana CRISTEA, Constantin LEONTE, Maria PRISECARU, Creola BREZEANU,<br />

Marian BREZEANU<br />

EFFECT OF CARBOHYDRATE SOURCE OVER THE ANDROGENESIS OF<br />

BRASSICA OLERACEA L. ANTHERS CULTIVATED IN VITRO ...................................................... 169<br />

Daniel Costel GALEŞ, Lucian RĂUS, Costică AILINCĂI, Gerard JITĂREANU<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF AQUASORB ON MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES<br />

ON CORN AND SOYBEANS YIELD, IN THE CONDITIONS OF IASI COUNTY ......................... 173<br />

Daniel Costel GALEŞ, Costică AILINCĂI, Gerard JITĂREANU<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF LIGNOHUMAT ON SOME MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL<br />

PROPERTIES AND ON MAIZE AND SOYBEANS PRODUCTION, IN THE SOIL<br />

AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF IASI COUNTY ......................................................................... 179<br />

Mugurel COLĂ, Florica COLĂ, Constantin GĂVAN<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF MILKING PROCEDURES ON MILKING PERFORMANCES<br />

AND PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS ............................................................................................ 185<br />

Mugurel COLĂ, Constantin GĂVAN, Florica COLĂ<br />

RESEARCHES REGARDING 2X5 HERRINGBONE MILKING ROOM<br />

IN DAIRY COWS .................................................................................................................................. 189<br />

Bogdan Cătălin ENEA, Mihai TĂLMACIU, Nela TĂLMACIU<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS FROM THE WINTER<br />

SEASON ON BIOLOGICAL RESERVE OF LEPTINOTARSA DECEMLINEATA SAY.<br />

ADULTS, IN THE CENTER OF SUCEAVA PLATEAU .................................................................... 193<br />

Mihai TĂLMACIU, Bogdan Cătălin ENEA, Nela TĂLMACIU<br />

SOME ASPECTS CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS<br />

ON COLORADO BEETLE BIOLOGY IN SUCEAVA CONDITIONS, IN THE RANGE<br />

COMPRISED BETWEEN ADULTS EMERGENCE AND PONTE FIRST COATING ..................... 197

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Cristian HUŢANU, Dan PĂDURE<br />

THE STAGES OF REALIZATION OF THE GENERAL TECHNICAL CADASTRE<br />

ON THE LEVEL OF AN ADMINISTRATIVE TERRITORIAL UNIT .............................................. 203<br />

Valeriu MOCA, Daniel BUCUR<br />

WATER BALANCE IN THE TILE DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE SOIL WITH<br />

EXCESSIVE MOISTURE FROM BAIA DEPRESSION–SUCEAVA PLATEAU ............................. 207<br />

Marius MURARIU, Danela MURARIU, Constantin LEONTE, Dănuţ Petru SIMIONIUC<br />

GENETIC CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME LOCAL MAIZE LANDRACES COMING<br />

FROM ROMANIA BY RAPD METHOD ............................................................................................ 215<br />

Oprea RADU<br />

THE INFLUENCE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY OVER THE ROTOPĂNEŞTI-RĂDĂŞENI-<br />

FÂNTÂNA MARE DRAINAGE SYSTEM NETWORK ..................................................................... 221<br />

Oprea RADU, Feodor FILIPOV<br />

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER WITHIN THE SOIL AT THE BAIA, SUCEAVA<br />

COUNTY, EXPERIMENTAL AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE FIELD, 5 DAYS<br />

SUBSEQUENT TO THE INCIDENCE OF RAINFALL ...................................................................... 227<br />

Nicolae ŞARPE, Ioan IONIŢĂ, ELENA EREMIA, M. MASCHIO<br />

NEW RESULTS FOR MAIZE CROPS CULTIVATED IN THE NO- TILLAGE<br />

SYSTEM AT THE "RAMIRA" AGRICULTURAL COMPANY FROM MÂRŞA,<br />

GIURGIU COUNTY ............................................................................................................................. 233<br />

Denis ŢOPA, Costică AILINCĂI, Lucian RĂUS, Mihai CARA, Gerard JITĂREANU<br />

TILLAGE EFFECTS ON SOIL STRUCTURE AND GRAIN YIELD OF MAIZE ............................. 237<br />

Eugen ULEA, Florin Daniel LIPŞA, Evelina Cristina MORARI, Daniel GALEŞ,<br />

Irina Paraschiva CHIRIAC<br />

INFLUENCE OF AQUASORB AND DIFFERENT SOIL TILLAGE SYSTEMS<br />

ON SOIL MICROBIAL POPULATIONS IN FIELDS CULTIVATED WITH<br />

SOYBEAN (GLYCINE MAX MERR.) ................................................................................................... 241<br />

Eugen ULEA, Florin Daniel LIPŞA, Evelina Cristina MORARI, Daniel GALEŞ,<br />

Mihaela Andreea BĂLĂU<br />

INFLUENCE OF AQUASORB AND DIFFERENT SOIL TILLAGE SYSTEMS ON SOIL<br />

MICROORGANISMS IN FIELDS CULTIVATED WITH MAIZE .................................................... 245<br />

Florin Daniel LIPŞA, Eugen ULEA, Nicoleta IRIMIA<br />

INCIDENCE OF MAJOR GRAPEVINE FUNGAL DISEASES DURING 2012 IN<br />

AMPELOGRAPHIC COLLECTION OF USAMV IAŞI ...................................................................... 249<br />

Florin Daniel LIPŞA, Eugen ULEA, Evelina Cristina MORARI, Daniel GALEŞ,<br />

Iulian Constantin ARSENE<br />

EFFECT OF LIGNOHUMATE (HUMIC FERTILIZER) ON SOIL MICROORGANISMS ............... 253<br />

Gheorghe ODĂGERIU, Cătălin-Ioan ZAMFIR, Claudiu CREŢU, Valeriu COTEA<br />

COMPOSITIONAL ASPECTS OF QUALITY WINES PRODUCED IN AVEREŞTI<br />

VINE GROWING CENTRE OF HUŞI VINEYARD, HARVEST OF 2011 ........................................ 257<br />

Cristina Bianca POCOL<br />

CONSUMER PREFERENCES FOR DIFFERENT HONEY VARIETIES IN THE<br />

NORTH WEST REGION OF ROMANIA ............................................................................................ 263<br />

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9<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Constantin Iulian POPOVICI, Vasile VINTU, Costel SAMUIL, Mihai STAVARACHE,<br />

Ciprian CIOBANU<br />

NITROGEN CONTENT IN PLANT TISSUE AND VISUAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT<br />

OF THREE TURFGRASS MIXTURES INFLUENCED BY DIFFERENTIATED<br />

FERTILIZATION .................................................................................................................................. 267<br />

Constantin SĂICU<br />

THE EFFICIENCY OF FORAGE CROPS AND EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON<br />

FODDER PRODUCTION UNDER SUCEAVA PLATEAU CONDITIONS ...................................... 271<br />

Steluţa RADU<br />

OPTIMIZING THE CONTENT OF ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS IN EDIBLE FLOURS<br />

OBTAINED FROM CEREALS AND LEGUMINOUS GREEN ......................................................... 277<br />

Vasile STOLERU, Neculai MUNTEANU, Andy-Felix JITĂREANU<br />

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR FROM MOLDOVA AREA TOWARDS<br />

ORGANIC FOOD .................................................................................................................................. 283<br />

Sorin BÂRCĂ, Nistor STAN, Vasile STOLERU, Neculai MUNTEANU, Teodor STAN<br />

COMPARATIVE BEHAVIOUR FOR A NEW ASSORTMENT<br />

OF DWARF FRENCH BEANS IN IAŞI AREA ................................................................................... 287<br />

Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ, Mihaela CRISTICA, Elena CIORNEA, Elena ŢUŢU,<br />

Alexandru MANOLIU<br />

INFLUENCE OF CARBON SOURCES ON THE ACTIVITY OF BIOCHEMICAL<br />

INDICATORS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SAPROPHYTIC FUNGUS<br />

RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS ....................................................................................................................... 293<br />

Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ, Mihaela CRISTICA, Elena CIORNEA, Elena ŢUŢU,<br />

Alexandru MANOLIU<br />

INFLUENCE OF CARBON SOURCES ON SOME DEHYDROGENASES INVOLVED<br />

IN ENERGY METABOLISM OF RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS SPECIES ............................................... 299<br />

Alexandra – Andreea BUBURUZ, Elena TROTUŞ, Mihai TĂLMACIU<br />

RESULTS ON SPECIFIC HARMFUL ENTOMOFAUNA FROM RAPESEED CROPS<br />

IN THE CENTRAL MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU CONDITIONS ......................................................... 305<br />

Ana-Maria CIURUŞNIUC, Teodor ROBU<br />

STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF THE GENUS<br />

Monarda L. IN VASLUI COUNTY, TO INTRODUCE THEM IN CULTIVATION<br />

AS MEDICINAL, AROMATIC AND DECORATIVE PLANTS ........................................................ 309<br />

Manuela Elena CONCIOIU, Mihaela Ileana OPREA<br />

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS INFLUENCE DURING THE IN VITRO<br />

MULTIPLICATION PHASE OF SOME SPECIES AND CULTIVARS<br />

OF THE ACER GENUS ......................................................................................................................... 313<br />

Mihaela CRISTICA, Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ, Elena CIORNEA, Alexandru MANOLIU<br />

INFLUENCE OF SOME AMINOACIDS ON THE ACTIVITY OF CELLULOLYTIC AND<br />

XYLANOLYTIC ENZYMES IN THE FUNGUS TRICHODERMA REESEI QM-9414 ..................... 317<br />

Mihaela CRISTICA, Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ, Elena CIORNEA, Alexandru MANOLIU<br />

INFLUENCE OF PH ON ß-XYLANASE ACTIVITY IN THE FILAMENTOUS<br />

FUNGI TRICHODERMA REESEI, TRICHODERMA VIRIDE AND<br />

PHANEROCHAETE CHRYSOSPORIUM ............................................................................................. 321

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Ana-Andreea GHIURCĂ, Andrea LĂMĂŞANU, Florin-Constantin MIHAI<br />

RURAL-URBAN RELATIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.<br />

CASE STUDY: CUEJDIU VALLEY BASIN, NEAMT COUNTY ..................................................... 327<br />

Ana-Andreea GHIURCĂ, Andreea LĂMĂŞANU, Florin-Constantin MIHAI<br />

THE ANTROPOGENIC INFLUENCE ON CUEJDIU RIVER WATER QUALITY .......................... 331<br />

Mihaela SENCOVICI, Gabriela BUSUIOC<br />

EVALUATION OF THE GERMINATIVE ENERGY OF MEDICAVO SATIVA<br />

SPECIES CULTIVATED ON SALTY SOILS ..................................................................................... 337<br />

Andrei SIURIS<br />

RESEARCH REGARDING THE USE OF STRAW AS FERTILIZER<br />

ON ERODED SOILS ............................................................................................................................. 343<br />

Elena Ancuţa TULBURE, Neculai MUNTEANU, Lidia AVĂDANEI,<br />

Doina CONSTANTINESCU, Costel SAMUIL<br />

DESING ELEMENTS OF USED MATERIALS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF FORCED<br />

VEGETABLES CULTURES ................................................................................................................. 347<br />

Olga VIZITIU, Irina CALCIU, Cătălin SIMOTA, Ioana PĂNOIU, Alexandrina MANEA<br />

A PEDO-TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR PREDICTING THE PHYSICAL QUALITY<br />

OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS ............................................................................................................... 351<br />

Cătălin-Ioan ZAMFIR, Gheorghe ODĂGERIU, Valeriu V. COTEA<br />

ASPECTS CONCERNING THE PREDICTING POSSIBILITY OF ROSE WINES<br />

CHROMATIC PARAMETERS ON THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF MUSTS ............................ 355<br />

Emilian MERCE, Aurel CHIRAN, Tudor SĂLĂGEAN<br />

SCARCITY OF THE HOUSING STOCK OF THE INTER-WAR<br />

ROMANIAN VILLAGE ........................................................................................................................ 361<br />

Felix H. ARION, Iulia C. MUREŞAN, Camelia I. ALEXA, Anamaria E. VÂTCĂ<br />

IMPLICATIONS OF TRAININGS’ PARTICIPATION ON THE ENTREPRENEURSHIP ............... 365<br />

Lucica ARMANCA<br />

BUSINESS RISK DIAGNOSIS IN SC COSM-FAN CARMANGERIE<br />

SINNICOARA CLUJ ............................................................................................................................. 371<br />

Dan DONOSĂ, Raluca Elena DONOSĂ<br />

ASPECTS OF RURAL FINANCE ........................................................................................................ 375<br />

Gabriela IGNAT, Carmen Olguţa BREZULEANU, Andrei PRIGOREANU<br />

SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL RATIONS<br />

AT S.A. AGROMAX DELENI ............................................................................................................. 379<br />

Gabriela IGNAT, Carmen Olguţa BREZULEANU, Carmen COSTULEANU,<br />

Ioan PRIGOREANU<br />

STUDY OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING BASED OF FINANCIAL INDICATORS<br />

AT SC CREŢU COMPANY SRL, HÎRLĂU ........................................................................................ 383<br />

Carmen Luiza COSTULEANU, Gabriela IGNAT<br />

SATELLITE ACCOUNTS RECOMMENDED BY EUROPEAN UNION .......................................... 389<br />

Carmen Cătălina IOAN, Cornelia URSU<br />

GIARDIASIS: CONTROVERSY SUBJECT AND PREVENTION REQUIREMENTS .................... 393<br />

10

11<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Mădălina IORDACHE, Valentina ANDRIUCA, Iacob BORZA, Ioan GAICA,<br />

Daniela GÎRLA<br />

ORGANIC AGRICULTURE OF ROMANIA AS COMPARED WITH OTHER<br />

COUNTRIES OF EUROPEAN UNION ............................................................................................... 397<br />

Roxana MIHALACHE<br />

PECULIARITIES OF TEACHING ENGLISH IN UNIVERSITIES WITH<br />

AGRONOMIC PROFILE. A CASE STUDY ........................................................................................ 401<br />

Iulia C. MUREŞAN, Felix H. ARION, Camelia I. ALEXA, Marioara ILEA<br />

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE ENTREPRENEURSHIP<br />

TRAINING PERCEPTION ................................................................................................................... 405<br />

Olga PÂNZARU<br />

SEMIOTIC INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN TEXT AND VISUAL IMAGE ................................ 409<br />

Maria TOADER, Gheorghe Valentin ROMAN<br />

„ORGANIC BALKANET” PORTAL – AN INNOVATIVE METHOD OF ON-LINE<br />

TRAINING FOR ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN BALKANS REGION ........................................... 413<br />

George UNGUREANU, Aurel CHIRAN, Stejărel BREZULEANU, Elena GÎNDU,<br />

Eduard BOGHIŢĂ<br />

THE IMPACT OF COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY ON FARMERS<br />

INCOME IN ROMANIA ....................................................................................................................... 417<br />

George UNGUREANU, Mihai STANCIU, Cecilia POP, Olguţa BREZULEANU,<br />

Gabriela IGNAT, Radu MORARU<br />

OPTIMIZATION OF MAIZE TECHNLOGY USING PRODUCTION<br />

FUNCTION METHOD .......................................................................................................................... 423<br />

Nicolae-Gabriel URSUIANU, Manea DRĂGHICI<br />

EVOULUTION OF THE TOURIST ACCOMMODATION ACTIVITY IN AGROTOURIST<br />

GUESTHOUSES DURING 2005-2011 IN THE NEAMŢ COUNTY - ROMANIA ............................ 427<br />

Lucia Cintia COLIBABA, Valeriu V. COTEA, Marius NICULAUA, Bogdan NECHITA,<br />

Ştefan TUDOSE-SANDU-VILLE, Gabriel LĂCUREANU<br />

COMPOUNDS CAPTURED IN CO2 TAMAIOASA ROMANEASCA<br />

WINE FERMENTATION ..................................................................................................................... 431<br />

Gabriel Florin LĂCUREANU, Valeriu V. COTEA, Lucia Cintia COLIBABA, Marius NICULAUA<br />

COMPUNDS TRAPPED IN THE CO2 FLOW OF BUSUIOACĂ DE BOHOTIN<br />

ALCHOOLIC FERMENTATION ......................................................................................................... 435<br />

Delia MUNTEAN, Neculai MUNTEANU, Ana-Maria CIURUŞNIUC<br />

EVALUATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHENOLOGICAL ASPECTS<br />

OF THE SPECIES CUCURBITA PEPO L. IN IASI ............................................................................. 439<br />

Delia MUNTEAN, Neculai MUNTEANU, Iuliana ANDRIEŞ<br />

RESEARCH ON MAIN MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS<br />

OF THE SPECIES BRASSICA OLERACEA VAR. ACEPHALA IN IAŞI ............................................. 443<br />

Adalbert OKROS, Simona NIŢĂ, Casiana MIHUŢ, Lucian NIŢĂ,<br />

Anişoara DUMA COPCEA, Marius BOLDEA<br />

THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN BEBA VECHE, TIMIŞ COUNTY .......................................... 447

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Adalbert OKROS, Casiana MIHUŢ, Lucian NIŢĂ, Anişoara DUMA COPCEA,<br />

Marius Boldea<br />

PRESENTATION OF THE HYDRIC AND CHEMICAL INDICES OF THE MAIN<br />

TYPES OF SOIL IN RECAS VITICULTURE CENTRE, TIMIS COUNTY ...................................... 451<br />

Cristina ZEPA CORADINI, Valeriu TABĂRĂ, Roxana ZEPA BEJAN,<br />

Doru PETANEC, Lavinia MICU<br />

STUDIES CONCERNING THE MAIN CHARACTERlSTICS OF CALENDULA SEEDS<br />

APPERTAINING TO DIFFERENT LOCAL POPULATIONS FROM THE<br />

WESTERN OF COUNTRY ................................................................................................................... 457<br />

Mihaela Brînduşa TUDOSE, Flavian CLIPA<br />

CURRENT COORDINATES REGARDING THE FINANCING MANAGEMENT OF<br />

AGRICULTURAL FIRMS LISTED IN THE BUCHAREST STOCK EXCHANGE .......................... 461<br />

12

13<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

GENETIC RESOURCES OF EMMER WHEAT AND THEIR PROSPECTIVE USE<br />

IN ORGANIC FARMING<br />

Abstract<br />

Petr KONVALINA 1 , Ivana CAPOUCHOVÁ 2 , Zdeněk STEHNO 3 , Jan MOUDRÝ jr. 1<br />

e-mail: konvalina@zf.jcu.cz<br />

Emmer wheat [Triticum diccocum (Schrank) Schuebl] is an example of a crop which has been largely grown in less<br />

favourable farming areas (i. e. less fertile montane lands, arid areas, etc.). Our paper work aims at a description of an<br />

availability of the wheat genetic resources within Europe and an evaluation of the particular agronomically significant<br />

parameters and the elementary qualitative parameters of the emmer wheat genetic resources within the Czech Republic.<br />

Data for the evaluation of a structure and availability of the wheat genetic resources were drawn from the European<br />

Wheat Database and evaluated. Precise small-plot trials were established on the certified organic parcel of the<br />

University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice and used between 2009 and 2011. Eight emmer wheat genetic<br />

resources and two bread wheat control varieties were involved in the trials. Selected agronomic and elementary<br />

qualitative parameters were studied. The accessions were resistant to the common wheat diseases and competitive to<br />

weed plants. The mean yield rate achieved 2.03 t.ha -1 . A reduced resistance to lodging, just as a reduced spike<br />

productivity, were two most significant disadvantages of the wheat growing. The protein proportion achieved almost 17<br />

per cent. On the other hand, the emmer wheat proteins usually swell less than the protein of bread wheat (low values of<br />

Zeleny test). The emmer wheat is not, therefore, suitable for the traditional baking and processing but for other types of<br />

processing, i.e. a production of pasta, biscuits, etc. As for the yield formation, a legally protected variety Rudico was<br />

considered as the most prospective of all the tested emmer wheat accessions.<br />

Key words: genetics resources, wheat, emmer, organic farming<br />

Nowadays, the world collections of plant<br />

genetic resources include approximately 7.5 milion<br />

samples. The collections of Triticum and Aegilops<br />

species involve approximately 900 thousand<br />

samples (Börner A. et al., 2011). Wheat (Triticum<br />

spp.) is a self-pollinating annual crop belonging to<br />

the Poaceae family, and the Triticum genus too<br />

(Šrámková Z. et al., 2009). The amount of species<br />

belonging to the Triticum L. genus varies from five<br />

to twenty seven, depending on the various<br />

classification methods (Merezhko A.F., 1998). All<br />

the Triticum species are divided into three different<br />

categories, according to the amount of<br />

chromosomes. The elementary category includes<br />

seven, fourteen or twenty one chromosomes<br />

(Šrámková Z. et al., 2009), making duplications in<br />

the vegetative cells. Diploid, tetraploid, and<br />

hexaploid species contain the amounts of<br />

chromosomes as follows: 2x7=14; 4x7=28;<br />

6x7=42 (Belderok B. et al., 2000). The currently<br />

grown wheat species are divided into three<br />

different categories/subspecies (Hammer K., 2000;<br />

Feldman M., 2001): a diploid species (einkorn), a<br />

tetraploid species (hard wheat, emmer wheat,<br />

Polish and Persian wheat), a hexaploid species<br />

(bread wheat, spelt wheat, club wheat and Indian<br />

wheat). Farmers respecting the principles of<br />

organic or low-input farming systems are<br />

searching for the varieties being characterised by a<br />

higher diversity level, which are able to adapt to<br />

the particular land and climatic conditions. The<br />

wider the genetic base is, the more adaptable the<br />

variety is to unexpected environmental conditions<br />

(Becker H.C. and Leon J., 1988; Ceccarelli S. et<br />

al., 2001; Finckh M., 2008). Emmer wheat<br />

[Triticum dicoccum (Schrank) Schuebl] is a hulled<br />

wheat species, which has been traditionally grown<br />

and used as a part of the human diet (Marconi M.<br />

and Cubadda R., 2005). A domestication of emmer<br />

wheat started after a primitive farming activity had<br />

emerged (Zaharieva M. et al., 2010). As the<br />

varieties having firm spike cobs were extending<br />

(Marconi M. and Cubadda R., 2005), the emmer<br />

wheat has become a dominating species and it has<br />

been the dominating species for seven thousand<br />

years (Feldman M., 2001). It has extended to the<br />

1 University of South Bohemia in Č. Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Studentská 13, České Budějovice, CZ 37005<br />

2 Czech University of Live Sciences, Kamýcká 120, Prague, CZ 16521<br />

3 Crop Research Institute, Drnovská 507, Prague, CZ 16106

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Middle East and the Far East, Europe and the<br />

northern part of Africa. It has been grown together<br />

with barley (Zaharieva M. et al., 2010). The<br />

ancient Romans made mush, groats and bread of<br />

the emmer wheat (Braun T., 1995). It is still<br />

grown as a minor crop in Ethiopia, India, Italy<br />

(Marino S. et al., 2009) and Turkey (Giuliani A. et<br />

al., 2009). As the requirements for a diversity and<br />

a good quality of food have been increasing, the<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

A) Genetics resources of emmer wheat<br />

List of the emmer wheat genetic resources grown<br />

within Europe is available in the European Wheat<br />

Database (http://genbank.vurv.cz/ewdb/).<br />

B) Field trials and evaluation<br />

Tested varieties: The varieties came from the Gene<br />

bank of the Crop Research Institute in Prague-<br />

Ruzyně. The genetic resources of emmer wheat<br />

[Triticum dicoccum (Schrank) Schuebl] and two bread<br />

wheat varieties (Triticum aestivum L.) were chosen<br />

(Table 1).<br />

Field Trials: The seeds were sown in a randomized,<br />

complete block design on the organic certified<br />

research area in České Budějovice during 2009 and<br />

2011. The seeding rate was adjusted to the density of<br />

350 germinable grains per m 2 . The crop stands were<br />

treated in compliance with the European legislation<br />

(the European Council Regulation (EC)<br />

No. 834/2007, the European Commission Regulation<br />

(EC) No. 889/2008.<br />

Characteristics of the trial stations: the University of<br />

South Bohemia in České Budějovice (USB): Mild<br />

14<br />

emmer wheat becomes more and more interesting<br />

crop (Zaharieva M. et al., 2010). Our paper aims<br />

at: a) a description of an availability of the wheat<br />

genetic resources within Europe; b) an evaluation<br />

of agronomically important parameters and<br />

elementary qualitative parameters of the emmer<br />

wheat genetic resources within the Czech<br />

Republic.<br />

warm climate, soil type – pseudogley cambisols, kind<br />

of soil – loamy sand soil, altitude of 388 m. Results of<br />

agrochemical soil analysis are in Table 2.<br />

Evaluation during the growing period: length of plant<br />

(at the end of the flowering stadium – DC 69); index<br />

of lodging (combination of intensity and degree of<br />

lodging of the crop stand on each parcel, mean of two<br />

measurements, after the heading – DC 59, before the<br />

harvest – DC 87); the degree of mildew infestation<br />

(DC 37; 51–61; 77) and brown rust infestation (DC<br />

77) were expressed by a score in accordance with<br />

symptoms of a disease on plants (9 = no symptoms).<br />

After the harvest we measured the grain yield and<br />

calculated the protein yield per hectare.<br />

C) Baking quality analysis<br />

The following parameters were tested after the<br />

harvest and dehulling of the grains by the methods of<br />

the International Association for Cereal Chemistry<br />

(ICC): crude protein content (ICC 105/2); index of<br />

sedimentation - SDS test (ICC 151); wet gluten<br />

content (ICC 106/2) and gluten index (ICC 155).<br />

D) Statistical Data Processing<br />

Data were processed by the Statistica 9.0 (StatSoft.<br />

Inc., USA) program.<br />

Table 1<br />

Name of Variety/Accession<br />

List of tested varieties<br />

Identifier 1 Origin 2 Botanical Variety 3<br />

Triticum diccocum (SCHRANK) SCHUEBL<br />

Rudico 01C0200948 CZE rufum SCHUEBL.<br />

Weisser Sommer 01C0203993 DEU dicoccum<br />

May-Emmer 01C0203990 CHE dicoccum<br />

Triticum dicoccon (Brno) 01C0204022 CZE rufum SCHUEBL.<br />

Triticum dicoccon (Dagestan) 01C0204016 RUS serbicum A. SCHULZ<br />

Triticum dicoccon (Palestine) 01C0201261 ISR serbicum A. SCHULZ<br />

Triticum dicoccon (Tapioszele) 01C0201280 - semicanum KOERN.<br />

Triticum dicoccum (Tabor)<br />

Triticum aestivum L. - control<br />

01C0204318 - rufum SCHUEBL.<br />

SW Kadrilj 01C0104877 SWE lutescens (ALEF.) MANSF.<br />

Jara 01C0200100 CZE lutescens (ALEF.) MANSF.<br />

1 2<br />

EVIGEZ (http://genbank.vurv.cz/genetic/resources/asp2/default_c.h); Abbreviations of countries comply with ISO 3166-1 alpha-3;<br />

3<br />

Clasification according to: Dorofeev VF, Filatenko AA, Migušova EF (1980). Opredelitel pšenicy, Leningrad, 105 p.<br />

Table 2<br />

Agrochemical soil analysis<br />

Year pH (CaCl2)<br />

N-NH4 N-NO3 P<br />

[mg.kg<br />

K Ca Mg<br />

-1 ]<br />

2009 5.91 15.5 8.1 120 65 114 1452<br />

2010 6.67 2.42 7.3 111 86 1808 129<br />

2011 6.75 5.06 17.4 140 136 2034 98<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

There are more than 1 600 accessions of<br />

the genetic resources available in the European<br />

Wheat Database. Almost one half of the<br />

accessions do not have any indicated botanical<br />

variety. As for the other of the varieties, dicoccon,<br />

haussknechtianum A. SCHULZ, rufum<br />

SCHUEBL. and aeruginosum FLAKSB, prevail

(table 3). The emmer wheat genetic resources<br />

registered within Europe usually come from<br />

Armenia (234 varieties, which represent 13.4 per<br />

cent of all the emmer wheat varieties). Many<br />

varieties originate from Italy and Germany (figure<br />

1). The varieties having an unknown origin (23<br />

per cent of the accessions) represent an<br />

indispensable part of this category. The most of<br />

the emmer wheat varieties being registered within<br />

Europe are considered as „landraces“ (1075<br />

varieties), which represents 61.5 per cent of all the<br />

emmer wheat varieties ever. 471 varieties have an<br />

unknown status (almost 27 per cent) (figure 2).<br />

The most of the emmer wheat varieties being<br />

registered within Europe are also considered as<br />

“spring forms“ (833 varieties). Only 298 varieties<br />

belong to winter forms. Six varieties belong to<br />

“intermediate forms”, which make a negligible<br />

part of the total amount of the emmer wheat<br />

varieties. 610 varieties do not have any indicated<br />

form (figure 3). Nowadays, the most of the emmer<br />

wheat varieties are located in Russia (482<br />

varieties; 27.6 per cent), Germany (304 varieties)<br />

and in Ukraine (173 varieties). As for the Czech<br />

Republic, 133 varieties are located in this country,<br />

which represent 7.6 per cent (figure 4).<br />

The paper work also presents and<br />

summarizes the findings resulting from the field<br />

trials which were executed under the organic<br />

farming conditions at the trial station located in<br />

15<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

České Budějovice. All the tested emmer wheat<br />

varieties make part of the collection of the wheat<br />

genetic resources. Particular morphological,<br />

biological and economic characteristics, just as<br />

the qualitative indicators, were tested and<br />

evaluated by the researchers. The morphological<br />

structure of wheat highly determines whether the<br />

certain variety is suitable/unsuitable for the<br />

organic farming conditions. The length of plant is<br />

the most important morphological characteristic,<br />

as it determines an ability of a completing to<br />

weeds (Moudrý J. et al., 2011). The mean length<br />

of the emmer wheat plants (stalks) which were<br />

grown on the trial parcels located in České<br />

Budějovice achieved the value of 114 cm (as for<br />

the bread wheat plants, the mean value was lower<br />

– 98 cm) (table 4). According to Stehno Z. et al.<br />

(2008), the length of stalk may vary from 75 to<br />

120 cm. The longer the stalks are, the more<br />

competitive to weeds the plants are (Cudney D.W.<br />

et al., 1991). Resistance to lodging is an important<br />

and essential factor. The shorter plants are not<br />

automatically more resistant to lodging (Pagnotta<br />

M.A. et al., 2005). The tested emmer wheat crops<br />

were less resistant to lodging than the control<br />

bread wheat crops. Rudico was the most resistant<br />

emmer wheat variety (the plants were 122 cm<br />

long at average). Whereas T. dicoccon (Dagestan<br />

ASSR) was the least resistant emmer wheat<br />

variety (the plants were 107 cm long at average).<br />

Table 3<br />

Botanical variety<br />

Amount of emmer wheat varieties registered in the European Wheat Database<br />

Number of Accessions<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK 711<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. dicoccon 228<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. haussknechtianum A. SCHULZ 129<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. rufum SCHUEBL. 120<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. aeruginosum FLAKSB. 119<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. volgense (FLAKSB.) FLAKSB. 91<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. serbicum A. SCHULZ 59<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. arras (HOCHST.) KOERN. 52<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. atratum (HOST.) KOERN. 37<br />

Triticum dicoccon SCHRANK var. vasconicum (STOLET.) FLAKSB. 35<br />

Others 166<br />

Figure 1 Amount of accessions and countries of origin (Abbreviations according ISO 3166-1 alpha-3)

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 2 Amount of varieties and breeding levels<br />

Figure 3 Amount of varieties and types of growth<br />

Figure 4 Amount of varieties and countries of location (Abbreviations according ISO 3166-1 alpha-3)<br />

It means the variety (Rudico) producing<br />

longer stalks and plants was more resistant to<br />

lodging than the variety producing shorter stalks<br />

and plants [T. dicoccon (Dagestan ASSR)].<br />

Concerning the bread wheat varieties, SW Kadrilj<br />

proved to be resistant to lodging (the plants were<br />

84 cm long at average) - more resistant than an<br />

older Jara variety producing longer stalks than<br />

SW Kadrilj. The emmer wheat yield was formed<br />

via a high amount of productive tillers (1.6<br />

tillers). The emmer wheat plants were forming<br />

more tillers than the control wheat plants (1.3<br />

tillers). It also provoked a higher amount of<br />

emmer wheat spikes emerging just before the<br />

harvest itself. The emmer wheat grains were<br />

smaller than the control wheat grains (thousand<br />

16<br />

grain weight = 30 g). The yield research carried<br />

out between 2009 and 2011 has come to the<br />

following findings: the emmer wheat varieties<br />

achieved 67 per cent of the yield rate of the<br />

control bread wheat varieties (Jara and SW<br />

Kadrilj), it means 2.03 t.ha -1 at average (the<br />

control wheat varieties achieved the mean value<br />

of 3.02 t.ha -1 ) (table 4). The grains were rid of<br />

hulls, and the hulls represented 32 per cent of the<br />

yield volume. The volume weight of the emmer<br />

wheat varieties was lower than the volume weight<br />

of the control wheat varieties but the difference<br />

was insignificant. The emmer wheat varieties<br />

were resistant to the common wheat diseases (i. e.<br />

mildew, brown rust, fusarioses, etc.). However, a<br />

slight spot infection of leaves and spikes was

noticed. A lot of the emmer wheat genetic<br />

resources are resistant to the fungal diseases (i. e.<br />

17<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

rust, mildew) and drought (Zaharieva M. et al.,<br />

2010).<br />

Table 4<br />

Average of the evaluated characteristic values for three research years<br />

Variety<br />

Length of<br />

plant (cm)<br />

Number of<br />

spikes (m 2 Number Weight of thousand<br />

) of tillers grains (g)<br />

Yield rate<br />

(t.ha -1 )<br />

Amount of hulls<br />

(%)<br />

Emmer wheat [Triticum diccocum (Schrank) Schuebl]<br />

Rudico 122±20 351±70 1.8±1.0 29±0 2.05±0.53 70±0<br />

May-Emmer 114±25 395±71 1.4±0.6 30±0 1.86±0.33 72±0<br />

Weisser Sommer 110±33 427±46 1.5±0.4 29±0 1.53±0.20 71±0<br />

T. dicoccon..(Dagestan. ASSR) 107±23 395±97 1.4±0.5 32±0 2.05±1.06 66±0<br />

T. dicoccon..(Palestine) 115±11 298±68 1.5±0.6 30±0 1.46±1.24 62±0<br />

T. dicoccon..(Tapioszele) 113±16 473±169 1.5±0.4 34±0 2.50±2.38 75±0<br />

T. dicoccon..(Brno) 108±11 409±105 1.9±1.0 29±0 2.65±2.67 62±0<br />

T. dicoccum..(Tabor) 124±26 431±87 1.4±0.5 29±0 2.11±0.75 68±0<br />

Mean<br />

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)<br />

114±19 397±95 1.6±0.6 30±0 2.03±1.13 68±0<br />

Jara 113±28 336±139 1.3±0.6 34±0 3.02±0.41 100<br />

SW Kadrilj 84±20 298±56 1.3±0.6 40±0 3.01±1.18 100<br />

Mean 98±27 317±97 1.3±0.5 37±0 3.02±0.72 100<br />

The mean protein content achieved the<br />

value of 16.8 per cent (±2.2) in the emmer wheat<br />

grains and 13.3 per cent (±2.4) in the bread wheat<br />

grains. The emmer wheat grains also contained<br />

more wet gluten (39.89 per cent), whereas the<br />

control bread wheat grains contained 32.02 per<br />

cent of the wet gluten (table 5). The proportion<br />

and composition of proteins highly determine the<br />

quality of the emmer wheat grains. As for the<br />

emmer wheat grains, they may contain from 15 to<br />

20 per cent of the proteins (Perrino P. et al., 1996<br />

in Stehno Z. et al., 2008). Some literal sources<br />

even mention the proportion of proteins exceeding<br />

20 per cent (Stehno Z., 2007). Rudico, the legally<br />

protected emmer wheat variety proved the crude<br />

protein content of 17 per cent and wet gluten<br />

content of 41 per cent. The value of SDS<br />

sedimentation test amounted to 37.7 ml. However,<br />

Rudico gluten proteins swell less than the proteins<br />

contained in the other varieties; therefore, flour<br />

made of the emmer wheat grains is not suitable<br />

for the baking process. The emmer wheat is,<br />

however, suitable for a production of unyeasty<br />

products (Marconi M. and Cubadda R., 2005).<br />

Rudico, the legally protected emmer<br />

wheat variety, is the best option for all the farmers<br />

interested in the emmer wheat growing. This<br />

variety was formed by a collective positive<br />

selection of the varieties from the genetic<br />

resources (Stehno Z., 2007). It is resistant to the<br />

common wheat diseases, e.g. mildew, brown rust.<br />

The high proportion of crude proteins (19 – 20 per<br />

cent), the high proportion of gluten<br />

(approximately 45 per cent), are the most<br />

important qualitative parameters of the variety.<br />

The value of SDS sedimentation test may vary<br />

from 35 to 40 ml. The grain yield rate may be<br />

very high (when taking the wheat species into<br />

account) and may achieve 3 t.ha -1 (when the<br />

prevailing conditions are favourable for the wheat<br />

species). It achieved 4.38 t.ha -1 in 1998, when the<br />

small-plot trials were carried out. Our research<br />

trials have found out a lower grain yield rate (2.05<br />

t.ha -1 ) than (Stehno Z., 2007) mention.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The basic information on the availability<br />

of the emmer wheat genetic resources may be<br />

easily found in the European Wheat Database. A<br />

user may find an information about each<br />

accession concerning the country of origin, the<br />

organisation/institution the variety is stored in,<br />

the taxon, the status, the year when the variety has<br />

been included in the collection, the form of<br />

growth and the availability in the database. There<br />

are almost two thousand samples of the genetic<br />

resources available throughout Europe nowadays.<br />

The varieties originating from Armenia, Italy and<br />

Germany are the prevailing ones. In most cases,<br />

these are land races of the spring form of wheat.<br />

The highest number of the genetic resources have<br />

been localised in Germany and Russia.<br />

The emmer wheat is considered as a<br />

perspective crop from the yield formation point of<br />

view. It may be grown in the regions where the<br />

environmental conditions are less favourable or<br />

unfavourable for the bread wheat. Contrary to the<br />

bread wheat modern varieties, the emmer wheat,<br />

being grown in such regions, provides a sufficient<br />

yield rate. It is resistant to some fungal diseases as<br />

mildew, or brown rust. As for the quality, the<br />

emmer wheat plants contain a high proportion of<br />

proteins (almost 17 per cent) and wet gluten<br />

(almost 40 per cent) too, which are significant<br />

advantages of this crop. The emmer wheat<br />

proportions of proteins and wet gluten are higher<br />

than the proportions of proteins and wet gluten<br />

being found in the control bread wheat plants.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Table 5<br />

Average of the grain qualitative indicator values for three research years<br />

Variety Proportion of Wet gluten<br />

Gluten Index<br />

proteins (%) content (%)<br />

SDS-test<br />

(ml)<br />

Zeleny test<br />

(ml)<br />

Falling<br />

number (s)<br />

Emmer wheat [Triticum diccocum (Schrank) Schuebl]<br />

Rudico 16.6±2.0 40.7±4.8 15±10 38±5 18±1 304±28<br />

May-Emmer 17.0±1.6 41.7±2.3 17±1 42±11 17±7 331±64<br />

Weisser Sommer 16.5±1.8 43.5±9.7 16±11 43±4 17±5 332±34<br />

T. dicoccon..(Dagestan. ASSR) 16.7±2.2 36.0±0.0 12±0 19±6 10±3 200±104<br />

T. dicoccon..(Palestine) 19.2±2.8 46.6±0.0 17±1 28±4 15±1 279±135<br />

T. dicoccon..(Tapioszele) 17.2±2.6 39.6±3.7 12±8 23±6 10±1 327±9<br />

T. dicoccon..(Brno) 14.8±2.7 30.9±6.8 10±9 23±6 12±4 279±122<br />

T. dicoccum..(Tabor) 16.3±1.8 40.3±4.0 13±7 26±4 13±4 313±42<br />

Mean<br />

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)<br />

16.8±2.2 39.9±5.9 14±7 30±10 14±4 296±79<br />

Jara 14.2±2.7 36.4±10.5 63±10 65±6 38±6 278±65<br />

SW Kadrilj 12.4±2.3 27.7±6.8 68±6 76±8 45±7 269±78<br />

Mean 13.3±2.5 32.0±9.2 65±8 70±9 42±7 274±65<br />

On the other hand, the emmer wheat plants<br />

contain less swelling gluten protein types.<br />

Therefore, they are not suitable for the baking<br />

process. However, they are suitable for the<br />

production of unyeasty products. The mean<br />

emmer wheat yield rate has achieved 2.03 t.ha -1 .<br />

There were, nevertheless, significant differences<br />

between the individual emmer wheat varieties (the<br />

yield rate varied from 0.58 to 4.5 t.ha -1 ). Rudico, a<br />

legally-protected variety, is considered as a<br />

perspective and suitable variety for the organic<br />

farming conditions.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

Supported by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech<br />

Republic – NAZV, Grant No. QH 82272.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Becker, H.C., Leon, J., 1988 - Stability analysis in<br />

plant breeding, Plant Breed., vol. 101, p. 1-23.<br />

Belderok, B., Mesdag, H., Donner, D. A., 2000 -<br />

Bread-Making Quality of Wheat: a century of<br />

breeding in Europe, Springer, New York, USA,<br />

428 p.<br />

Börner, A., Neumann, K., Kobiljski, B., 2011 - Wheat<br />

genetic resources - how to exploit? Czech J.<br />

Genet. Plant Breed., vol. 47, p. S43-S48.<br />

Braun, T., 1995 - Barley cakes and emmer bread. In:<br />

Wilkins, J. et al. (Eds.), Food in Antiquity,<br />

University of Exeter Press, Exeter, p. 25-37.<br />

Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S., Bailey, E., Amri, A., El-<br />

Felah, M., Nassif, F., Rezgui, S., Yahyaoui, A.,<br />

2001 - Farmer participation in barley breeding in<br />

Syria, Morocco and Tunisia, Euphytica, vol. 122,<br />

p. 521-536.<br />

Cudney, D.W., Jordan, L.S., Hall, A.E., 1991 - Effect<br />

of wild oat (Avena fatua) infestations on light<br />

interception and growth rate of wheat (Triticum<br />

aestivum), Weed Sci., vol. 39, p. 175-179.<br />

Feldman, M., 2001 - Origin of cultivated wheat. In.<br />

Bojean, H. P., Angus, W. J. (Eds.), The world<br />

18<br />

wheat book: A history of wheat breeding,<br />

Lavoiser Publishing, Paris, p. 3-56.<br />

Finckh, M.R., 2008 - Integration of breeding and<br />

technology into diversification strategies for<br />

disease control in modern agriculture, Europ. J.<br />

Plant Pathol., vol. 121, p. 399-409.<br />

Giuliani, A., Karagöz, A., Zencirci, N., 2009 - Emmer<br />

Production and Market Potential in Marginal<br />

Mountainous Areas of Turkey, Mount. Res.<br />

Develop., vol. 29, p. 220-229.<br />

Hammer, K., 2000 - Biodiversity of the Genus Triticum.<br />

In: Wiethaler, C. et al. (Eds.), Organic plant<br />

breeding and biodiversity of cultural plants,<br />

NABU-FiBL, Bonn-Frick, p. 72-81.<br />

Marconi, M., Cubadda, R., 2005 - Emmer wheat. In:<br />

Abdel-Aal, E-S. M., Wood, P. (Eds.), Speciality<br />

grains for food and feed, American Association<br />

of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, USA, p. 63-108.<br />

Marino, S., Tognetti, R., Alvino, A., 2009 - Crop yield<br />

and grain quality of emmer populations grown in<br />

central Italy, as affected by nitrogen fertilization,<br />

Europ. J. Agron., vol. 31, p.233-240.<br />

Merezhko, A.F., 1998 - Impact of plant genetic<br />

resources on wheat breeding, Euphytica, vol.<br />

100, p. 295-303.<br />

Moudrý, J., Konvalina, P., Stehno, Z., Capouchová,<br />

I., Moudrý, J. jr., 2011 - Ancient Wheat Species<br />

Can Extend Biodiversity of Cultivated Crops, Sci.<br />

Res. Essays, vol. 6, p. 4273-4280<br />

Pagnotta, M.A., Mondini, L., Atallah, M.F., 2005 -<br />

Morphological and molecular characterization of<br />

Italian emmer wheat accessions, Euphytica, vol.<br />

146, p. 29-37.<br />

Stehno, Z., Konvalina, P., Dotlačil, L., 2008 -<br />

Metodika pěstování pšenice dvouzrnky<br />

(uplatněná metodika), VURV, Praha, 20 p.<br />

Stehno, Z., 2007 - Emmer Wheat Rudico Can Extend<br />

the Spectra of Cultivated Plants, Czech J.<br />

Genet. Plant Breed, vol. 43, p. 113-115.<br />

Šramková, Z., Gregová, E., Šturdík, E., 2009 -<br />

Genetic improvement of wheat - a review, Nova<br />

Biotechnologica, vol. 9, p. 27-51.<br />

Zaharieva, M., Ayana, N.G., Al Hakimi, A., Misra,<br />

S.C., Monneveux, P., 2010 - Cultivated Emmer<br />

Wheat (Triticum diccocum Schrank), an Old<br />

Crop with a Promising Future: a Review, Genet.<br />

Res. Crop Evol., vol. 57, p. 937-962.

Abstract<br />

19<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS WITHIN THE PRODUCTION OF<br />

POTATOES IN CENTRAL EUROPE<br />

Jan MOUDRÝ, jr. 1 , Zuzana JELÍNKOVÁ 1 , Jan MOUDRÝ 1 , Petr KONVALINA 1<br />

e-mail (first author): JMoudry@zf.jcu.cz<br />

Potatoes are cultivated in conventional as well as in organic farming systems and although the production area itself is<br />

not large as compared to other crops (e.g. 1.17 % of arable land in the Czech Republic, 2.14 % in Germany, but also<br />

14.89 % in the Netherlands), in terms of production and subsequent food usage they belong to the most important crops<br />

not only in Europe. Farming system, which is used for their cultivation, can be one of the main factors affecting the<br />

production of greenhouse gases. The work is focused on monitoring and calculating the value of emissions expressed in<br />

CO2 equivalent (CO2-eqv = 1x CO2 + 23x CH4 + 298x N2O) which is produced within the cultivation of potatoes in<br />

conventional and organic farming system. The results show that when comparing emission load within the agricultural<br />

production of potatoes there is an evident difference between conventional and organic farming systems, while different<br />

values can be observed in all parameters (field emission, planting, fertilizing, agrotechnical operations, pesticides).<br />

Although agrotechnical procedures themselves, including fertilization, are very similar in conventional and organic<br />

farming, the emission load produced per one kilogram of conventional potatoes is 0.145 kg CO2e while the load<br />

produced per one kilogram of ecological potatoes is for the amount of 0.126 kg CO2e by around 13 % lower.<br />

Key words: greenhouse gases emissions, potatoes, farming systems<br />

Climate changes have a significant impact<br />

on agricultural systems all over the world and can<br />

be a crucial factor in ensuring sustainable food<br />

production. The rate of human influence on these<br />

fluctuations has still been discussed. However, it is<br />

evident that within anthropogenic emissions of<br />

greenhouse gases it is possible to achieve certain<br />

reductions.<br />

Among other branches of human activity,<br />

the production of emissions of greenhouse gases is<br />

influenced also by agricultural production which,<br />

according to IPCC (2007), produces about 14 % of<br />

anthropogenic emissions, while the share varies<br />

among particular countries according to the<br />

intensity of agricultural production.<br />

According to Cole et al. (1997), agriculture<br />

contributes to the increase of annual emissions by<br />

about one-fifth, similarly, Cerri et al. (2009) states<br />

27 %. According to EIPRO (2006), 29 % of<br />

emissions produced within the EU are related to<br />

food production. These emissions produced within<br />

food production encroach even beyond their own<br />

field cycle, e. g. on the production of fertilizers and<br />

agrochemicals, processing or all process transports.<br />

One of the most common food crops, which<br />

is considered as the fourth most important crop<br />

after maize, rice and wheat (Staubli et al., 2008)<br />

1 University Of South Bohemia In Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic<br />

and which is widely grown also in the Czech<br />

Republic, are potatoes. Although in recent years<br />

according to the FAO, areas where potatoes are<br />

grown has reduced significantly in Central Europe,<br />

potatoes still belong to the most important crops in<br />

terms of their importance for food production.<br />

Similarly to other crops, potatoes show<br />

noticeable differences between conventional and<br />

organic farming systems. These are apparent<br />

especially in the different use of fertilizers and<br />

pesticides, when the organic farming with applying<br />

organic fertilizers and minimizing or absence of<br />

chemicals achieves better results in comparison<br />

with conventional farming system. Detailed<br />

analysis of particular farming systems enables us<br />

to define areas in which it is possible to achieve the<br />

reduction of GAG emissions production while<br />

maintaining production capabilities of the system.<br />

The monitoring of particular emission loads<br />

under different agricultural systems can be based<br />

on the LCA analysis. According to Kočí (2009),<br />

this analysis uses for the evaluation of the<br />

environmental impact the assessment of the<br />

material and energy flows that the monitored<br />

system shares with its surrounding space (the<br />

environment).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Environmentally friendly farming systems<br />

and adjustment of procedures in conventional and<br />

intensive farming systems can become an effective<br />

tool for the reduction of greenhouse gas emission<br />

within cultivation of crops.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

To compare the production of CO2e<br />

emissions in conventional and organic farming the<br />

simplified LCA analysis was used. In the first<br />

phase of the analysis a system boundary was set,<br />

as a functional unit was given one kg of the final<br />

product (potatoes), data quality geographically<br />

corresponds primarily to the Czech Republic, it is<br />

supplemented by data from the Ecoinvent<br />

database representing data for Central Europe, in<br />

terms of time primary data corresponds to the<br />

period 2009 - 2011, secondary data 2000 - 2011,<br />

from a technological point of view, it concerns the<br />

use of average technologies.<br />

In the second phase of the analysis all<br />

energy, matter and material inputs, outputs and<br />

flows in the system were defined. For these flows<br />

primary data was acquired through personal<br />

interviews with farmers, acquired data was<br />

supplemented by secondary data from expert<br />

appraisals, literature and available databases.<br />

Data for calculation of emission load<br />

differences in conventional and organic farming<br />

systems includes agricultural processes used for<br />

growing potatoes in both farming systems.<br />

Agriculture was defined by that of inputs and<br />

outputs related to one hectare (fuel consumption,<br />

consumption of seeds, pesticides, fertilizers / yield<br />

20<br />

per hectare). Into the process of agriculture were<br />

included N2O emissions from agricultural land,<br />

calculated according to the IPPC methodology (De<br />

Klein, 2006). Emissions of involved greenhouse<br />

gases are expressed in relation to their effect on<br />

climate change by an equivalent CO2e (CO2e = 1x<br />

CO2 + 23x CH4 + 298x N2O).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Growing potatoes in the EU is a traditional<br />

cultural activity. Currently it is implemented on<br />

about 1.17 % (35,000 hectares) of arable land in<br />

the Czech Republic (Žižka, 2011). A similar<br />

situation is also in other countries of the EU,<br />

according to FAO data for 2009 potatoes are<br />

grown in France on 0.90 % (165,576 ha), in<br />

Germany on 2.14 % (255,200 ha), in Great Britain<br />

on 2.28 % (138,000 ha), in Poland on 3.92 %<br />

(490,853 ha) and in the Netherlands even on<br />

14.89 % (156,969 ha) of arable land. In terms of<br />

total production according to the FAO data the<br />

largest global producer remains China<br />

(74,799,084 t), within the EU it is Germany<br />

(10,201,900 t), Poland (8,765,960 t), the<br />

Netherlands (6,843,530 t), France (6,582,190 t)<br />

and Great Britain (6,045,000 t).<br />

Acreage under potatoes with data on their<br />

share on the arable land and the annual production<br />

in selected countries of Central and Eastern Europe<br />

are shown in Table 1.<br />

Growing potatoes in selected countries of Central and Eastern Europe (based on FAO 2010)<br />

CZ PL A SK HU BG RO<br />

Table 1<br />

Acreage (ha) 35,000 490,853 21,973 11,000 20,242 13,800 246,982<br />

Share on arable land (%) 1.17 3.92 1.60 0.80 0.44 0.44 2.81<br />

Production (t) 682,511 8,765,960 671,722 125,900 439,897 251,100 3,283,870<br />

Production of potatoes is in terms of<br />

production of emissions differently demanding<br />

depending on habitat conditions, used agronomical<br />

processes and chosen agricultural system.<br />

Environmentally friendly farming systems, that use<br />

measures against erosion and advanced methods of<br />

nitrogen management, have the potential to<br />

sequestrate carbon and reduce GHG (Lal, 2004;<br />

Lal et al., 2003; West, Marland, 2002; Follett,<br />

2001; Paustian et al., 1997). This is confirmed by<br />

our results, where from comparison of emission<br />

load of agricultural production of potatoes in<br />

conventional and organic farming systems, which<br />

is shown in Figure 1, arises that one kg of<br />

conventional potatoes produces 0.145 kg CO2e,<br />

while one kg of organic potatoes 0.126 kg CO2e,<br />

i. e. about 13 % less. To even more significant<br />

differences came Dorniger and Freyer (2008) who<br />

calculated that the emission load is 0.081 kg<br />

CO2e/kg of tubers with conventionally and 0.035<br />

kg CO2e/kg of tubers i. e. 42.92 % with organically<br />

grown potatoes. Lackner (2008) calculated that the<br />

emission load within conventional growing of<br />

potatoes is 0.124 CO2e/kg of tubers while within<br />

organic production it is 0.044 kg CO2e/kg (data<br />

from the GEMIS database) which is a difference of<br />

31 %. Fritesche and Erbele (2007) give that the<br />

emission load is 0.199 kg CO2e/kg with<br />

conventional and 0.138 kg CO2e/kg with organic<br />

potatoes, i.e. 69 % of emissions. However,<br />

calculation frames usually vary e. g. depending on<br />

inclusion of emission from transport and storage.

kg CO2e kg -1<br />

0,160<br />

0,140<br />

0,120<br />

0,100<br />

0,080<br />

0,060<br />

0,040<br />

0,020<br />

0,000<br />

CO 2e-emissions from agriculture - potatoes CZ<br />

conventional organic<br />

Figure 1 shows also the partial composition<br />

of emissions from conventional and organic<br />

production of potatoes. While in conventional<br />

agriculture field emissions make up the largest<br />

share (0.053 kg CO2e - 36 %), in organic farming<br />

system this value is lower (0.037 kg CO2e - 30 %).<br />

Significantly higher is also the share of emission<br />

associated with fertilization which is in the<br />

conventional farming system 0.037 kg CO2e<br />

(26 %), while in the organic one only 0.014 kg<br />

CO2e (10 %). Conversely, for seed and<br />

agrotechnical operations the situation is reversed<br />

and more emissions are in the organic farming<br />

system (conventional system - agrotechnical<br />

operations - 0.028 kg CO2e (19 %), seed - 0.024 kg<br />

CO2e (17 %), organic system - agrotechnical<br />

operations 0.037 kg CO2e (30 %), seed 0.037 kg<br />

CO2e (30 %)). The value of emissions produced<br />

per one kg of potatoes in the conventional farming<br />

is increased by pesticide use (0.003 kg CO2e -<br />

2 %), which is completely missing in the organic<br />

farming system.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

This study is a partial output of the Project<br />

EUS- M00080 – SUKI – The possibilities for<br />

dining facilities within reduction of the emission of<br />

carbon dioxide using the outputs of the VZ: MSM<br />

6007665806 – The sustainable farming methods in<br />

submontane and mountain areas focused on the<br />

compliance between their production and nonproduction<br />

utilization.<br />

From the results it can be stated that the<br />

cultivation of potatoes in organic farming is less<br />

Figure 1 Emission from agricultural production of potatoes<br />

21<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

seeds<br />

operations<br />

pesticides<br />

fertilizers<br />

field emissions<br />

loading than conventional farming in terms of<br />

production of greenhouse gas emissions. Organic<br />

farming produces in general within the crop<br />

production less emission expressed in kg of<br />

CO2e/kg than conventional farming where the<br />

main factor causing this environmental load is<br />

production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.<br />

Under conditions of Central Europe and<br />

with the use of technologies and methods common<br />

in this region there is a saving of about 13 % of<br />

emissions CO2e/kg in the organic farming system<br />

as compared to the conventional one.<br />

Primary agricultural production is not the<br />

only air polluter. In the extended framework an<br />

important role in food production play also<br />

transport, processing of primary production to<br />

finished products, their long-term storage and<br />

preparation of food. Therefore, sustainable<br />

economic system must promote environmentally<br />

friendly organic production as well as regional<br />

production and consumption of fresh natural food.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

Elaborated on the basis of the projects EUS- M00080<br />

and VZ: MSM 6007665806.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cerri, C.C., Maia, S.M.F., Galdos, M.V., Cerri, C.E.P.,<br />

Feigl, B.J., Bernoux, M., 2009 - Brazilian<br />

greenhouse gas emissions: the importance of<br />

agriculture and livestock. Sci. agric. (Piracicaba,<br />

Braz.), vol. 6, p. 831-843.<br />

Cole, C.V., Duxbury, J., Freney, J., Heinemeyer, O.,<br />

Minami, K., Mosier, A., Paustian, K.,<br />

Rosenberg, N., Sampson, N., Sauerbeck, D.,<br />

Zhao, Q., 1997 - Global estimates of potential

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions by<br />

agriculture. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems,<br />

vol. 49, p. 221-228.<br />

De Klein, C., 2006 - 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National<br />

Greenhouse Gas Inventories. vol 4, Agriculture,<br />

Forestry and Other Land Use. IPCC, Genova, 84<br />

p.<br />

Dorninger, M., Freyer, B., 2008 - Aktuelle Leistungen<br />

und zukünftige Potentiale der Ökologischen<br />

Landwirtschaft für den Klimaschutz in Österreich.<br />

IFOL BOKU, Wien, 36p.<br />

EIPRO, 2006 - Environmental Impact of Products<br />

(EIPRO), European Commission Joint Research<br />

Centre, available at<br />

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ipp/pdf/eipro_rep<br />

ort.pdf.<br />

Follett, R.F., 2001 - Soil management concepts and<br />

carbon sequestration in cropland soils. Soil Till.<br />

Res., vol. 61, p. 77–92.<br />

IPCC, 2007 - United Nations Environment Programme:<br />

Assessment Report 4: Contribution of Working<br />

Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment<br />

Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate<br />

Change, Geneva, 104 p.<br />

Fritesche, U.R., Erbele, D., 2007 -<br />

Treibhausgasemissionen durch erzeugung und<br />

Verarbeitung von Lebensmitteln. Öko-Institute V.,<br />

Darmstadt/Hamburg, 13p.<br />

22<br />

Kočí, V., 2009 - Posuzování životního cyklu – Life cycle<br />

assessment LCA. Ekomonitor spol. s.r.o.,<br />

Chrudim, 263 p.<br />

Lackner, M., 2008 - Dimensionen der österreichischen<br />

Ernährung: Eine Szenarienanalyse. Wien, 66 p.<br />

Lal, R., 2004 - Soil carbon sequestration impacts on<br />

global climate change and food safety. Science, vol.<br />

304, p.1623–1627.<br />

Lal, R., Follett, R.F., Kimble, J.M., 2003 - Achieving soil<br />

carbon sequestration in the United States: A<br />

challenge to the policy makers. Soil Sci., vol. 168, p.<br />

827–845.<br />

Paustian, K., Anderson, O., Janzen, H., Lal, R.,<br />

Smith, P., Tian, G., Tiessen, H., van Noordwijk,<br />

M., Woomer, P., 1997 - Agricultural soil as a C sink<br />

to offset CO2 emissions. Soil Use Manage, vol. 13,<br />

p. 230–244.<br />

Staubli, B., Wenger, R., Wymann von Dach, S., 2008 -<br />

Potatoes and Climate Change. Info Resources,<br />

Zollikofen, Focus No 1/08, 16 p.<br />

West, T.O., Marland, G., 2002 - A synthesis of carbon<br />

sequestration, carbon emissions, and net carbon<br />

flux in agriculture: Comparing tillage practices in the<br />

United States. Agric. Ecosys. Environ., vol. 91, p.<br />

217–232.<br />

Žižka, J., 2011 - Situační a výhledová zpráva brambory.<br />

MZe, Praha, 47 p.

Abstract<br />

23<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE ROLE OF PACKAGING (MATERIALS &TREATMENTS)<br />

IN ADDITION TO SPICES EXTRACT ON STABILITY<br />

OF FROZEN BUFFALO MEAT PRODUCT<br />

Mohamed A. KENAWI 1<br />

e-mail: mohamedkenawi@ymail.com<br />

Proximate analysis, expressible water(EP), water holding capacity (WHC), pH value, total acidity, free fatty acids<br />

(FFA), thiobarbituric acid values (TBA), and microbiological examination were determined in order to evaluate the<br />

effect of packaging materials and treatments in addition to spice extracts on the shelf life of buffalo meat product stored<br />

for nine months under frozen condition. The samples were treated by spice extracts and packaged in two packaging<br />

materials low density polyethylene (LDPE) bags without vacuum, and laminated polyethylene/nylon bags under<br />

vacuum. The data showed that all the samples have expressed moisture loss during the 9 months storage period. The<br />

moisture loss and the (EP) were higher in the (LDPE) packaged samples, whereas, (WHC) values decreased with time<br />

during storage for all samples. The samples indicated an increase in the acidity values and a reduction in the pH values<br />

especially for the first four months of storage period. These changes were associated with an increase in the (FFA)<br />

values. The control samples showed the lowest pH value compared with the others, and this indicated the effect of<br />

natural antioxidants to retard the formation of (FFA). The (TBA) values for the control samples were higher than those<br />

packaged under vacuum or treated by spice extracts. Storage time had negative effect on the total bacterial counts and<br />

the coliform group for all samples. The rate of reduction was much higher in the vacuum packaged samples and the<br />

spice extracts treated samples as well especially those treated by black cumin extracts than the untreated or samples<br />

packaged without vacuum<br />

Key words: vacuum packaging, spice extracts, buffalo meat, frozen storage<br />

During production, processing, distribution,<br />

and storage, food undergoes deterioration from<br />

chemical and microbiological processes [22].<br />

Oxidation is a major cause of that deterioration<br />

because of its negative effects on organoleptic<br />

qualities (flavor, color, etc.). Oxidation of lipids<br />

can also have a marked negative effect on<br />

nutritional value, and could be responsible for the<br />

production of toxic compounds [14], [15].<br />

Lipid oxidation and bacterial contamination<br />

are the main factors that determine food quality<br />

loss and shelf life reduction. Therefore, delaying<br />

lipid oxidation and preventing bacterial crosscontamination<br />

are highly relevant to food<br />

processors [7]. Meat products, due to fat content<br />

are highly susceptible to lipid oxidation. Moisture,<br />

prooxidant pigments, storage, handling and display<br />

conditions contribute to lipid oxidation of meat<br />

products [14], [13], [15].<br />

Due to detrimental effects of lipid oxidation<br />

on color, flavor, texture, and nutritional value of<br />

foods; addition of synthetic antioxidants such as<br />

BHT and BHA has been effective because of their<br />

1 Dept. of Food Sci., Minia University, Egypt.<br />

low cost, high stability, and effectiveness.<br />

However, the use of such compounds has been<br />

related to health risks resulting in strict regulations<br />

over their use in food products and this has<br />

stimulated research for alternative antioxidant<br />

sources [13]. With increased consumer concerns<br />

about the amount of chemicals in their foods,<br />

processors are looking for more natural ways to<br />

protect their products. In the last few years, there<br />

has been an increasing interest in the use of natural<br />

additives in preference to synthetic substances for<br />

the stabilization of fat-containing food stuff.<br />

Among the natural antioxidants, extracts of herbs<br />

have played an important role [16], [5], [6]. The<br />

use of antioxidants like vitamin C and E had a<br />

significant effect in reducing oxidation of lipids<br />

and pigments of meat during storage [18]. In view<br />

of the fact that natural spices are widely used in a<br />

variety of food products, it is important to know<br />

the effects they have on the keeping qualities of<br />

such products. A number of studies have been<br />

made on the bactericidal and bacteriostatic<br />

properties of spices to evaluate their effectiveness

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

in preventing or retarding spoilage caused by<br />

microorganisms in addition to the antioxidant<br />

effect of spices on fats in certain foods [17].<br />

To obtain the optimum shelf-life of fresh red<br />

meat and its products, it is necessary to limit<br />

microbial contamination. Microbial spoilage can<br />

be delayed by storage of meat at low temperature<br />

by effects on the growth rate of the organisms.<br />

Since frozen meat is highly susceptible to<br />

dehydration as a result of moisture losses and<br />

temperature fluctuations, the protection of frozen<br />

meat against fluctuations in temperature during<br />

storage is important from the standpoint of quality<br />

retention. An obvious approach is the use of<br />

suitable packaging materials to meet various<br />

criteria, such as protection against moisture<br />

migration and mechanical damage [12].<br />

[19] Reported that vacuum packaging of<br />

meat may prolong the shelf life of retail cuts<br />

compared with those packaged in oxygenpermeable<br />

film. [24] Found that, when meat is<br />

vacuum-packaged and the contaminating flora is<br />

exposed to an atmosphere containing high levels of<br />

carbon dioxide and a low percentage of oxygen,<br />

the growth of aerobic microorganisms is<br />

depressed. Vacuum packaging helped in reducing<br />

TBA value of beef steaks during refrigerated<br />

storage [20], [8].<br />

The main purpose of this research was to<br />

investigate the protective effects of three spice<br />

extracts individually or in a mixture with<br />

combination of two packaging materials with or<br />

without vacuum on the subjective quality<br />

characteristics of buffalo meat products during<br />

frozen storage.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Antioxidant extracts: Dried spices<br />

(cardamom, thyme, and black cumin) were<br />

obtained from a local market, then powdered using<br />

a mortar and pestle. Powdered spice every (2g)<br />

was extracted with (10 ml) ethanol solution (50%)<br />

on a lab line orbit shaker at 60Xg for 2h. The<br />

solution was centrifuged at 1800Xg followed by<br />

filtration using Whattman No 1 filter paper. The<br />

final concentration of the stock solution was 20 g<br />

/100 ml.<br />

Preparation of buffalo meat product: The<br />

buffalo meat used in this study was obtained from<br />

the local market in El-Minia, Egypt, one hour after<br />

slaughter. The sample was trimmed, packed in low<br />

density polyethylene bags and held at 4±1 °C for<br />

24 hours, cut into cubes and minced twice to<br />

obtain ground buffalo meat. Buffalo meat product<br />

was prepared according to the following recipe in<br />

(table 1).<br />

All the ingredients were mixed well, and<br />

divided into five equal portions. Spice extracts<br />

24<br />

(individually or in mixture) were added to the first<br />

four portions in the ratio of (1ml/ 10g sample),<br />

whereas, the fifth portion was left without any<br />

additive as control.<br />

Table 1<br />

Formulation of buffalo meat product<br />

Ingredient %<br />

Ground meat<br />

Minced fat<br />

Bread crumb<br />

Eggs<br />

Potato starch powder<br />

Salt<br />

Black pepper powder<br />

64<br />

16<br />

12<br />

5<br />

2<br />

0. 99<br />

0.01<br />

Each portion was divided into small balls<br />

10±2 g each, then formed in a finger-like shape<br />

10±1 cm long, and packaged in single layer using<br />

two different packaging materials with or without<br />

vacuum. The samples were frozen at - 40°C for 6<br />

hours, then stored frozen at - 18°C for 9 months.<br />

Packaging materials and treatments: Two<br />

different packaging materials were used,<br />

commercial low density polyethylene (LDPE) 2 mil<br />

bags (1 mil = 0.001 inch) from Packaging<br />

Concepts and Design, a division of Bader Bag Co.,<br />

Madison Heights, MN., USA. The second<br />

packaging material was 3 mil laminated<br />

polyethylene / nylon bags from Cryovac Co., USA.<br />

Each portion of the buffalo meat product was<br />

divided into two equal parts. One part was<br />

packaged in a single layer in (LDPE) bags, then<br />

heat sealed under atmospheric pressure, while the<br />

other part was packed in laminated<br />

polyethylene/nylon bags and heat sealed under<br />

vacuum using a Deni Freshlock vacuum sealer.<br />

Analytical methods: Moisture, crude protein,<br />

crude fat, ash, and carbohydrate contents were<br />

determined according to the methods of the [3].<br />

Determination of expressible water (EP) and<br />

water holding capacity (WHC):<br />

Expressible water (EP) was determined<br />

according to [1], whereas, the water holding<br />

capacity (WHC) was calculated.<br />

pH measurement: A slurry was prepared by<br />

blending the meat product (5g/50ml distilled water).<br />

The pH of this slurry was measured by using the<br />

glass-electrode method according to the [2].<br />

Determination of total acidity: The acidity<br />

was determined by titration according to [11].<br />

Determination of free fatty acids (FFA): Free<br />

fatty acids (FFA), as measurement of enzymatic<br />

rancidity were assessed by the method described<br />

by [23].<br />

Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value: Frozen<br />

packaged samples were tested separately. TBAreactive<br />

substances were measured using the<br />

method of [10]. Colorimetric absorbance at 530 nm<br />

was measured using a Spectronic 710<br />

Spectrophotometer. Readings were converted to<br />

mg malonaldehyde /1000g meat product and<br />

reported as TBA values (mg TBA/1000g meat<br />

product).

Microbiological test: Total aerobic count,<br />

total anaerobic count, coilform, and psychrophilic<br />

count of buffalo meat product were made as<br />

(CFU/g) according to the methods described in the<br />

standard methods of [4], [21].<br />

Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed by<br />

analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine if<br />

treatments were significantly different [9].<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Table 2 presents the chemical composition<br />

of the treated and the control buffalo meat product.<br />

The data showed that there were no variations<br />

between the samples except for moisture content<br />

which was higher in the treated samples than the<br />

controlled ones and this could be due to the effect<br />

of the addition of the spice extract solutions which<br />

contain about 50% water.<br />

Packaging of food products in polymeric<br />

films is a technique designed to prevent moisture<br />

losses. Figure 1 show the relationship between the<br />

storage time and the moisture content for the<br />

untreated and the treated buffalo meat product<br />

stored frozen in two different packaging materials<br />

and treatments. It is shown from the results that all<br />

the samples have lost moisture during the storage<br />

period. The loss was higher in samples packaged in<br />

LDPE bags than the ones vacuum packaged in<br />

laminated PE/Nylon bags, and this was due to the<br />

higher rate of the water vapor permeability through<br />

LDPE compared to the laminated PE/Nylon bags.<br />

The effect of storage time and packaging<br />

materials and treatments on the expressible water<br />

(EP) and water holding capacity (WHC) for<br />

buffalo meat product was shown in (Figs. 2&3).<br />

The data revealed that the EP values<br />

increased along with storage period for all samples<br />

(control and treated with spice extracts), whereas,<br />

WHC values decreased with time during frozen<br />

storage.<br />

The increment of EP values was higher in<br />

the LDPE packaged samples without vacuum than<br />

the others packaged under vacuum in laminated<br />

bags. The data show that the vacuum treatment<br />

reduced the rate of decline in WHC.<br />

It is obvious that the increase in the EP<br />

values were likely related to the loss of WHC as a<br />

result of dehydration and denaturation of muscle<br />

proteins, or interaction of auto-oxidation<br />

breakdown products with proteins, or could be due<br />

to the cells which were punctured by ice crystals<br />

and volatile moisture loss through vapor<br />

permeability of packaging materials.<br />

Figures (4&5) clearly illustrate the effect of<br />

packaging materials and treatments as well as spice<br />

extracts on the pH changes and percentage acidity<br />

(as lactic acid) in frozen buffalo meat product.<br />

25<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

The data showed a slight decrease in the pH<br />

values and an increase in the acidity values for all<br />

samples along with storage time during the first six<br />

months of storage as a result of the increase of free<br />

fatty acids due to rancidity. The decrease in the pH<br />

values was lower in the untreated samples than the<br />

treated ones due to the effect of natural<br />

antioxidants which retarded the formation of free<br />

fatty acids.<br />

It is also obvious that the values of pH for<br />

the product were higher than that of the pH values<br />

of meat and this could be due to the interaction<br />

effect of the other ingredients which were added<br />

during the processing of meat products.<br />

Free fatty acids (FFA) and TBA values for<br />

the control and the treated samples packaged in<br />

two different packaging materials and treatments<br />

were illustrated in Figs. (6&7).<br />

The data showed that the (FFA) values for<br />

the control sample were significantly (p

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

This is particularly evident for the inhibiting<br />

effect of vacuum packaging and the spice extracts<br />

on the growth of aerobic microorganisms.<br />

The same trend of reduction was observed<br />

for the anaerobic total count for the treated and the<br />

untreated samples during the storage period as<br />

shown in (Fig.9). The reduction was lower for the<br />

vacuum packaged samples compared with the<br />

samples packaged without vacuum.<br />

26<br />

The effect of storage time in combination<br />

with packaging materials and treatments was clear<br />

on the total coliform count as shown in (Fig. 10).<br />

The data illustrated that the number of coliform<br />

decreased along with the storage period for all<br />

samples, and this effect was clear for the spice<br />

extracts treated samples and the vacuum packaged<br />

samples.<br />

Table 2<br />

Chemical composition of untreated and treated buffalo meat product ( g/100g on dry basis).*<br />

Samples<br />

Moisture<br />

content<br />

Crude protein Crude fat Ash Carbohydrate<br />

Control<br />

58.30±0.18 17.21±0.21 17.02±0.08 2.11±0.03 5.36±0.08<br />

Cardamom ext. 59.84±0.10 16.74±0.08 16.41±0.12 2.03±0.06 4.98±0.11<br />

Thyme ext.<br />

60.11±0.18 17.11±0.15 16.71±0.21 2.07±0.01 4.00±0.08<br />

Black cumin ext 60.10±0.17 17.45±0.21 16.28±0.18 2.01±0.10 4.16±0.12<br />

Mixture<br />

60.18±0.24 17.01±0.09 16.19±0.12 2.11±0.06 4.51±0.06<br />

*Means of three determinations ± Standard Error.<br />

% Moisture content<br />

Cont. C. Ext. thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

62<br />

60<br />

58<br />

56<br />

54<br />

52<br />

Zero time<br />

3 months<br />

6 months<br />

9 months<br />

Zero time<br />

3 months<br />

6 months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Laminated /Vac.<br />

9 months<br />

Cont. = Control. C. Ext. = Cardamom extract. Thy. Ext. = Thyme extract. Bc. Ext. = Black cumin extract.<br />

Mix. = Mixture of extracts. LDPE W/O Vac. = Low density polyethylene without vacuum.<br />

Laminated /Vac. = Laminated polyethylene/nylon with vacuum.<br />

Fig. 1. Effect of storage time, Packaging materials and treatments on moisture content<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.<br />

EP content<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

Zero<br />

time<br />

3<br />

months<br />

6<br />

months<br />

9months Zero<br />

time<br />

3months 6months 9<br />

months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Laminated / Vac.<br />

Fig. 2. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on expressible water (EP)<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.

WHC value<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

Zero time<br />

3 months<br />

6 months<br />

9 months<br />

27<br />

Zero time<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

3 months<br />

6 months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Lamintaed /Vac.<br />

9 months<br />

Fig. 3. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on water holding capacity (WHC)<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.<br />

% acidity (lactic acid)<br />

pH Value<br />

6,5<br />

6,4<br />

6,3<br />

6,2<br />

6,1<br />

6<br />

0,6<br />

0,5<br />

0,4<br />

0,3<br />

0,2<br />

0,1<br />

0<br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

Zero<br />

time<br />

3 months 6 months 9 months Zero<br />

time<br />

3 months 6 months 9 months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Laminated / Vac.<br />

Fig. 4. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on pH value<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.<br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

Zero<br />

time<br />

3<br />

months<br />

6<br />

months<br />

9<br />

months<br />

Zero<br />

time<br />

3<br />

months<br />

6<br />

months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Laminated / Vac.<br />

9<br />

months<br />

Fig. 5. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on % acidity as (lactic acid)<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The data also showed that some of the spice<br />

extracts treated samples have no coliform bacteria<br />

starting from the sixth month of storage which<br />

indicates the inhibiting effect of spice on the<br />

growth of coliform flora.<br />

Total psychrophilic counts of all samples<br />

showed a reduction for the first six months of<br />

F.F.A. µ mole/g<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

28<br />

storage under frozen condition. The reduction was<br />

significant (p

Log bacterial count (CFU/g)<br />

4,5<br />

4<br />

3,5<br />

3<br />

2,5<br />

2<br />

1,5<br />

1<br />

0,5<br />

0<br />

29<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

Zero time 3 months 6 months 9 months Zero time 3 months 6 months 9 months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Laminated / Vac.<br />

Fig. 9. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on the total anaerobic plate count (CFU/g)<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.<br />

Log bacterial count (CFU/g)<br />

3<br />

2,5<br />

2<br />

1,5<br />

1<br />

0,5<br />

0<br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

Zero time 3 months 6 months 9 months Zero time 3 months 6 months 9 months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. Laminated / Vac.<br />

Fig. 10. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on the total coliform count (CFU/g)<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.<br />

Log bacterial count (CFU/g)<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

Cont. C. Ext. Thy. Ext. Bc. Ext. Mix.<br />

Zero<br />

time<br />

3<br />

months<br />

6<br />

months<br />

9<br />

months<br />

Zero<br />

time<br />

3<br />

months<br />

6<br />

months<br />

LDPE W/O Vac. laminated / Vac.<br />

9<br />

months<br />

Fig. 11. Effect of storage time, packaging materials and treatments on the total psychrophilic count (CFU/g)<br />

of untreated and treated buffalo meat product.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The application of spices extract (as natural<br />

antioxidant) and vacuum packaging technique was<br />

very effective which interacted with low storage<br />

temperature and produced impact effect resulted in<br />

inhibiting the oxidation of fat and reduction of<br />

bacterial count and coliform group for buffalo<br />

meat product.<br />

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Influence of manufacturing process conditions on<br />

gels made from sardine surimi. In”Food Proteins<br />

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D. and Amothes R., VCH. Verlagesellschaft,<br />

Germany. 1992, 347-53.<br />

AOAC.: Official methods of Analysis. Association of<br />

Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC,<br />

1975.<br />

AOAC.: Official methods of Analysis. Association of<br />

Official Analytical Chemists International,<br />

Arlington, 1995.<br />

APHA.: American Public Health Association (15 th Ed.),<br />

USA. 1985, 97-98.<br />

Bekhit A.E.D., Geesink G.H., Ilian M.A., Morton J.D.,<br />

and Bickerstaffe R.: The effect of natural<br />

antioxidants on oxidative processes and<br />

metmyoglobin reducing activity in beef patties,<br />

Food Chem., 2003, 81:175-87.<br />

Bozin B., Mimica-Dukic N., Samojlik I., and Jovin E.:<br />

Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of<br />

rosemary and sage (Rosmarinus officinalis L. and<br />

Salvia officinalis L.,Lamiaceae) essential oils,<br />

J.Agric. Food Chem., 2007, 19:7879-85.<br />

Fernandez-Lopez J., Zhi N., Aleson-Carbonell L.,<br />

Perez-Alvarez J.A., and Kuri V. : Antioxidant<br />

and antibacterial activities of natural extracts:<br />

application in beef meatballs. Meat Sci., 2005, 69:<br />

371-80.<br />

Fu, A.H.; Molins, R.A.; and Sebranek; J.G.: Storage<br />

quality characteristics of beef rib eye steaks<br />

packaged in modified atmospheres. J.Food Sci.,<br />

1992, 57: 283-287,301.<br />

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Animal and Medical Sciences (2 nd Ed.). ISBN.<br />

USA. 1981.<br />

Harold E., Ronald S.K., and Ronald S.: Pearson’s<br />

Chemical Analysis of Food, Churchill Livingstone,<br />

Edinburgh, UK, 1981.<br />

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microbial growth in ground beef extended with<br />

varying levels of textured soy protein, J.Food Sci.,<br />

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frozen storage, Food Chem., 1994, 51: 69-74.<br />

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Smorgiewicz W.: Effect of gamma irradiation in<br />

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composition and TBARS concentration of ground<br />

beef coated with an edible active coating.<br />

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75.<br />

30<br />

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and Buckley D.J.: Evaluation of the antioxidant<br />

potential of natural food/plant extracts as<br />

compared with synthetic antioxidants and vitamin<br />

E in raw and cooked pork patties, Meat Sci.,<br />

2001, 57:45-52.<br />

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L.H.: The antioxidative activity of plant extracts in<br />

cooked pork patties as evaluated by descriptive<br />

sensory profiling and chemical analysis, Meat<br />

Sci., 2004, 68:485-95.<br />

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stoke on yukwa (oil popped rice snack) base<br />

during storage, J.Food Sci., 2002, 67: 98-102.<br />

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USA, 1980.<br />

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antioxidants and vacuum packaging on the<br />

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M.O.; and Carpenter, Z.L.: Effect of degree<br />

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Microbiological and some physical and chemical<br />

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of Methods for the Microbiological examination<br />

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Association. Washington, DC, 1992.<br />

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Antioxidant activity of rosemary and sage extracts<br />

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1985, 50: 1003-1006.

Abstract<br />

31<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

VERS UN LOGEMENT DIFFÉRENT POUR LE LAPIN:<br />

UNE EXIGENCE SOCIÉTALE ET UN CHALLENGE POUR LES FILIÈRES<br />

CUNICOLES EUROPÉENNES.<br />

Michel JACQUET 1 , Luc MAERTENS 2<br />

e-mail: michel.jacquet@facw.be<br />

The changing societal perception of animal welfare imposed to change the traditional animal housing and production<br />

concepts. Also rabbit production is not spared: an EFSA (2005) report highlighted the inadequacy of the conventional<br />

small wire cages with the natural behavioral needs of the rabbit. Moreover, organizations defending animal welfare<br />

impact both the public opinion and the retail with actions in the public media. Thus, for the future, it will be necessary<br />

also for rabbit production, to design alternative housing facilities in accordance with these new societal aspirations. The<br />

challenge is to design a housing that meet the expectations of the society but also those of the producers: to increase<br />

really the animal welfare, to present a production with an acceptable image, to preserve the technological and sanitary<br />

progress previously acquired and finally to guarantee the economic viability of rabbit production. This text describes<br />

first the conventional commercial rabbit housing with the so called double-purpose cages, used both for reproduction<br />

and for fattening in a “duo” management system. The technical and sanitary advantages are reviewed but also the critics<br />

of which it is subjected from animal welfare viewpoint. Then, in a European context, it synthesizes the efforts already<br />

done or in progress by the professional rabbit sector towards a housing with increased welfare. For this it analyses, in<br />

regard of the above expectations, the existing alternative systems: the enriched cage, the wire-mesh park system and<br />

park housing on a straw bedding. Moreover, current research to develop new promising alternatives as the “combi”<br />

group housing for females or the double-purpose park system is discussed. Finally legislative aspects, either in progress<br />

at EU level or already existing or in progress at national level, are reviewed.<br />

Key words: Rabbit - Animal Welfare - Conventional and alternative housing<br />

Introduction<br />

Le logement conventionnel des lapins<br />

Dans l‟élevage cunicole professionnel, la<br />

maternité et l‟engraissement sont séparés. De part<br />

et d‟autre, les lapins sont logés dans des cages<br />

identiques, de grillages métalliques galvanisés,<br />

disposées sur un étage. Ces cages<br />

conventionnelles, qui mesurent 38 centimètres de<br />

large, 90 ou 100 centimètres de long et 30, voire 32<br />

centimètres de hauteur, sont bivalentes, elles sont<br />

utilisées en maternité (pour loger une mère et sa<br />

portée) et en engraissement (pour loger 6<br />

lapereaux) (EFSA, 2005); ce double usage est<br />

possible car l‟espace de nidification intérieur à la<br />

cage est escamotable.<br />

Cette cage est le fruit d‟une évolution<br />

technologique avantageuse pour la profession et la<br />

santé des lapins:<br />

- le plancher grillagé offre un avantage<br />

sanitaire, le lapin n‟est pas logé sur ses déjections;<br />

- le volume restreint, en réduisant<br />

l‟investissement est favorable à la rentabilité;<br />

- la bivalence (maternité et engraissement),<br />

dans un système duo, améliore sensiblement la<br />

gestion sanitaire. Dans le système duo, l‟élevage<br />

conduit par insémination artificielle et en bande<br />

unique, s‟effectue dans une infrastructure où les<br />

bâtiments sont utilisés par paire: 2 salles<br />

identiques, équipées de cages bivalentes. Dans la<br />

1 ère salle, les reproductrices mettent bas; au<br />

moment du sevrage, elles sont transférées dans la<br />

2 ème salle, pour une nouvelle mise bas. Les<br />

lapereaux quant à eux, restent dans la salle où ils<br />

sont nés, les cages bivalentes deviennent des cages<br />

d‟engraissement, dans lesquelles les lapins de chair<br />

restent jusqu‟à leur départ pour l‟abattoir. Dès ce<br />

moment, la salle vide est entièrement nettoyée et<br />

désinfectée, et les cages préparées pour la fonction<br />

maternité accueillent les reproductrices pour une<br />

nouvelle mise bas et ainsi de suite. Ce système<br />

permet le tout plein – tout vide, un nettoyage et<br />

une désinfection périodique des installations de<br />

1 Filière Avicole et Cunicole Wallonne (FACW), Chaussée de Namur, 47, Gembloux, Belgique<br />

2 Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Science Unit, Scheldeweg, 68, Melle, Belgique

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

production, et donc une meilleure maîtrise<br />

sanitaire.<br />

Dans la décennie „90, cette cage<br />

conventionnelle a commencé à être critiquée et<br />

actuellement, elle est régulièrement remise en<br />

question:<br />

- En 2005, à la demande de la Commission<br />

Européenne, un groupe d‟experts indépendants,<br />

dans le cadre du panel AHAW (Animal Health and<br />

Welfare), a élaboré un rapport sur l‟état actuel de<br />

l‟élevage et les conséquences pour la santé et le<br />

bien-être des lapins. Basé sur les données<br />

scientifiques disponibles et l‟expérience des<br />

membres du groupe de travail, le rapport évoque la<br />

nécessité d‟améliorer le bien-être du lapin en<br />

modifiant le logement. Il recommande<br />

d‟augmenter la taille de la cage, de limiter la<br />

densité, d‟enrichir l‟environnement (matériau à<br />

ronger, cachette, …) et d‟utiliser repose-pattes et<br />

plate-forme.<br />

- D‟autre part, cette cage est critiquée par les<br />

associations militant en faveur du bien-être<br />

animal ; celles-ci reprochent l‟exiguïté du<br />

logement, l‟absence d‟enrichissement, l‟inconfort<br />

du grillage de sol, le logement individuel des<br />

reproducteurs, moins propice au bien-être animal,<br />

…<br />

Pour la profession, un changement s‟impose<br />

pour plus de bien-être animal. Le challenge est<br />

d‟apporter des réponses aux critiques, en<br />

concevant un logement qui permet aux lapins de<br />

mieux exprimer leurs besoins comportementaux<br />

naturels : se dresser, faire des bonds, s‟isoler, se<br />

cacher, ronger, …, tout en conservant, autant que<br />

possible, les avantages techniques et sanitaires du<br />

système actuel.<br />

MATERIEL ET METHODE<br />

Ce texte est une synthèse, dans une<br />

dimension européenne, du cheminement de la<br />

profession vers des logements améliorés pour le<br />

bien-être des lapins. Il analyse, au regard des<br />

attentes, les systèmes alternatifs existants: la cage<br />

aménagée, le parc au sol et le parc hors sol et la<br />

recherche sur des pistes d’alternatives nouvelles<br />

prometteuses: le combi-huisvesting et le parc hors sol<br />

bivalent en système duo. Les auteurs traitent enfin,<br />

de l’aspect législatif, soit en préparation au niveau<br />

communautaire, soit en préparation voire existant à<br />

l’échelon national dans l’UE.<br />

RESULTATS ET DISCUSSION<br />

1. Les alternatives à la cage conventionnelle<br />

La cage aménagée ou enrichie est une cage<br />

grillagée, commercialisée et déjà installée dans<br />

quelques élevages en Hollande, en Belgique, en<br />

France, … Sa largeur et sa longueur sont<br />

32<br />

classiquement et respectivement de 38 et 100<br />

centimètres. Elle est par contre, plus haute que la<br />

cage conventionnelle ; sa hauteur de 60<br />

centimètres permet la constitution d‟une<br />

mezzanine au départ d‟un fond grillagé d‟au moins<br />

20 centimètres de profondeur, placé à 30<br />

centimètres au-dessus du fond de la cage. De plus,<br />

cette cage est toujours équipée d‟un repose-pattes<br />

en plastique, de 20 x 40 cm, fixé sur le fonds<br />

grillagé.<br />

La cage aménagée permet aux lapins de se<br />

dresser et le balcon permet à la mère de s‟isoler de<br />

sa portée, au moins tant que les lapereaux ne sont<br />

pas capables d‟y monter. Cette cage améliore le<br />

confort, par la quantité et la qualité de l‟espace et<br />

elle est compatible avec le système duo (une lapine<br />

et sa portée ou 7 lapereaux à l‟engraissement).<br />

En revanche, elle est jugée trop exigüe par<br />

des associations de défense du bien-être animal.<br />

Du reste, l‟image négative de la cage grillagée<br />

subsiste.<br />

Le « combi-huisvesting » (Rommers et de<br />

Jong, 2011) est une variante, testée en Hollande, de<br />

la cage enrichie. Son principe repose sur<br />

l‟aménagement de portes latérales pour permettre<br />

la libre circulation des reproductrices dans un<br />

module de 8 cages.<br />

Le combi-huisvesting est une piste<br />

intéressante d‟évolution pour la garde en<br />

collectivité des reproductrices. Ce logement en<br />

groupe est toutefois temporaire, car il est<br />

difficilement compatible avec le comportement<br />

maternel en période de parturition et les portes<br />

latérales ne peuvent être ouvertes qu‟après 15 jours<br />

post-partum.<br />

Toutefois, le combi-huisvesting conserve<br />

l‟image négative de la cage grillagée. En outre, il<br />

peut présenter l‟inconvénient d‟un manque de<br />

praticité de la structure.<br />

Le parc au sol sur litière est une alternative à<br />

la cage. Peu courant, il est appliqué pour les lapins<br />

à l‟engraissement. En Suisse : enclos pour 20 à 25<br />

lapins, 1 500 et jusqu‟à 2 500 cm 2 par animal, avec<br />

une aire surélevée (Bigler, 2010). En Belgique :<br />

enclos pour 130 à 150 lapins, 1 250 cm 2 par<br />

animal, avec étages (Jacquet et al., 2005). Pour les<br />

reproductrices, des enclos pour 6 à 8 lapines sont<br />

utilisés en Suisse, avec au moins 16 000 cm 2 par<br />

lapine et enrichi d‟une aire surélevée (Bigler,<br />

2010). (En Suisse, l‟Ordonnance SST pour les<br />

systèmes de stabulation particulièrement<br />

respectueux des animaux sous-tend la production<br />

en garde alternative).<br />

Avec ce logement plus spacieux et enrichi<br />

(étage, matériau à ronger, …), la satisfaction des<br />

besoins comportementaux naturels du lapin est

améliorée et l‟image négative de la cage grillagée<br />

disparaît.<br />

En contrepartie, le parc au sol est très<br />

exigeant en management et en quantité de travail ;<br />

les coûts de production sont triplés au regard de<br />

l‟élevage conventionnel. En outre, plusieurs<br />

questions subsistent vis-à-vis de la garde collective<br />

des reproductrices : s‟agissant du management de<br />

la reproduction, de l‟agressivité des femelles, …<br />

(Bigler, 2010). Le coût de production élevé (maind‟œuvre<br />

et indice de conversion alimentaire)<br />

(Jacquet et al., 2005) et les inconvénients liés à la<br />

gestion sanitaire rendent improbable la<br />

considération de ce mode de garde comme<br />

alternative applicable à l‟ensemble de la<br />

cuniculture professionnelle. Cette forme de<br />

logement est appropriée pour une production<br />

différenciée (labellisée) (Bigler, 2010).<br />

Le parc hors sol est une alternative à la cage.<br />

Ce logement est encore peu utilisé en pratique<br />

(Belgique, Allemagne, Hollande, …) et seulement<br />

pour l‟engraissement. Les parcs hors sol en<br />

production commerciale ne sont pas standardisés,<br />

ils sont variables en dimensions, caractéristiques (y<br />

compris la nature (matériel) du plancher) et<br />

enrichissement. Dans des parcs hors sol, enrichis et<br />

entièrement grillagés de 1,9 mètres de long par 1<br />

mètre de large, destinés à la garde de 30 lapins de<br />

chair, en Belgique, à l‟ILVO, entre 1999 et 2003,<br />

des travaux menés dans l‟objectif de définir un<br />

système de logement plus favorable au bien-être du<br />

lapin et à l‟image de la production, ont conclus à la<br />

faisabilité en petits groupes (30 à 40 individus)<br />

avec un enrichissement suffisant (plate-forme,<br />

tuyaux refuges et matériau à ronger) et moyennant<br />

une croissance de 3 à 4% inférieure par rapport au<br />

logement en cages conventionnelles, soit 100 à 150<br />

grammes de poids vif en moins en fin<br />

d‟engraissement ou 3 jours supplémentaires<br />

d‟engraissement nécessaires (Maertens, 2011).<br />

Le parc hors sol, enrichi par plate-forme,<br />

matériau à ronger et cachette permet une meilleure<br />

satisfaction des besoins comportementaux naturels<br />

du lapin; celui-ci peut y ronger, se dresser, se<br />

cacher et faire des bonds successifs. Par ailleurs, il<br />

ne présente pas l‟image négative de la cage.<br />

Le même parc hors sol sur fonds (plancher)<br />

grillagé préserve un avantage sanitaire, en<br />

revanche, le plancher grillagé est critiqué par les<br />

associations militant en faveur du bien-être animal<br />

et son image est négative vis-à-vis du public. Pour<br />

l‟image, ce plancher pourrait avantageusement être<br />

remplacé en tout ou en partie par un caillebotis de<br />

plastique. Ceci se rencontre déjà dans la pratique,<br />

toutefois, faute de données de référence, il n‟y a<br />

pas de caractéristiques optimales établies pour le<br />

caillebotis plastique. Des travaux sont nécessaires,<br />

33<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

pour définir la meilleure formule<br />

(caillebotis/grillage) et le cas échéant, les<br />

caractéristiques idéales du caillebotis (profil,<br />

épaisseur, résistance contre le rongement, …) pour<br />

le meilleur compromis entre l‟image de la<br />

production, le confort et la santé de l‟animal. En<br />

outre, le parc hors sol, bien qu‟étant une piste<br />

prometteuse dans la recherche d‟un logement<br />

alternatif pour le lapin, n‟a jusqu‟ici, été appliqué<br />

en production commerciale que pour<br />

l‟engraissement. Or, à terme, une adoption<br />

généralisée, même avec un plancher ad hoc, n‟est<br />

envisageable que dans le cadre d‟une alternative<br />

pour l‟ensemble de l‟élevage (maternité et<br />

engraissement) avec tout plein - tout vide, système<br />

duo et bivalence du logement (maternité et<br />

engraissement).<br />

Le parc hors sol bivalent en système duo.<br />

Les parcs hors sol doivent être modulés pour les<br />

mères, permettant leur application dans un élevage<br />

fermé, utilisant le tout plein – tout vide dans la<br />

lutte contre les maladies (Maertens, 2011).<br />

Maertens et al., 2011 proposent un système de<br />

logement par module de 4 espaces maternité<br />

individuels de 5 000 cm 2 de plancher (50 cm de<br />

large et 100 cm de profondeur) plus la plate-forme,<br />

facilement transformables (par enlèvement des<br />

cloisons intérieures amovibles) en un parc de<br />

20 000 cm 2 plus les plates-formes, dès que les<br />

lapereaux sortent du nid. Quand on supprime les<br />

séparations intérieures, un parc de 20 000 cm 2 plus<br />

plate-forme permet l‟engraissement des lapereaux<br />

issus de 4 portées, soit 36 lapereaux, en tenant<br />

compte de 9 lapereaux sevrés par portée. Au<br />

sevrage, les femelles sont transférées comme dans<br />

le système duo et les lapereaux restent jusqu‟à<br />

l‟abattage dans leur parc.<br />

Ce système est un compromis entre les<br />

besoins de l‟animal (bien-être), ceux de l‟éleveur<br />

(insémination artificielle, bande unique et<br />

investissement réduit) et l‟image de la production<br />

animale (Maertens et al., 2011). Ce dispositif est<br />

actuellement en testage en Belgique (ILVO); il<br />

s‟agit d‟éprouver le concept et de déterminer les<br />

modalités optimales d‟application (dont l‟étude du<br />

plancher, avec les options grillage/caillebotis).<br />

2. Les aspects législatifs<br />

2.1. Au niveau communautaire<br />

Il n‟existe actuellement aucune législation<br />

communautaire régissant le bien-être du lapin en<br />

élevage. Un projet de recommandation européenne<br />

est cependant en cours d‟élaboration; il en est à<br />

une 18 ème version. Les représentants de la<br />

profession des pays producteurs européens, réunis<br />

dans un groupe de travail cunicole au sein du<br />

COPA-COGECA (Comité des Organisations

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Professionnelles Agricoles de l‟Union Européenne-<br />

Confédération Générale des Coopératives<br />

Agricoles de l‟Union européenne) œuvrent pour<br />

une harmonisation européenne du logement du<br />

lapin.<br />

2.2. Au niveau national dans l’UE<br />

L‟absence d‟un règlement européen est<br />

regrettée par la profession. En cette absence, sous<br />

la pression des associations de défense du bien-être<br />

animal, de l‟impact d‟actions médiatiques sur la<br />

distribution et sur l‟opinion publique, des états<br />

membres s‟engagent sur la piste d‟une<br />

règlementation nationale. En Hollande, depuis<br />

2006, une législation est en vigueur, pour une<br />

évolution progressive de la profession vers 100%<br />

de cages enrichies en 2016. En Belgique, un accord<br />

a été établi entre la profession et les associations<br />

militant pour le bien-être animal, au sein d‟un<br />

groupe de travail dans le giron du service public<br />

fédéral ayant le bien-être animal dans ses<br />

attributions. Cet accord porte sur une feuille de<br />

route pour une transition progressive, à l‟horizon<br />

2025, vers des parcs hors sol enrichis, pour les<br />

lapins de chair et pour les reproductrices. Ce terme<br />

tient compte des délais d‟amortissement des cages<br />

actuelles et de la disponibilité des résultats des<br />

recherches scientifiques; en effet, comme<br />

beaucoup de données sont manquantes sur ce type<br />

de logement alternatif, toutes les étapes de la<br />

feuille de route sont conditionnées aux résultats<br />

positifs des recherches menées parallèlement. Cette<br />

feuille de route sera probablement transcrite en<br />

texte de loi, tout en maintenant la conditionnalité<br />

aux résultats des recherches en cours.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

La cage conventionnelle pour le logement des<br />

lapins en élevage est de plus en plus remise en<br />

question, en raison du bien-être animal. Pour l‟avenir<br />

de la production cunicole, il devient nécessaire de<br />

concevoir un logement différent, qui rencontre les<br />

besoins de la Société, mais aussi ceux de la<br />

production. En l‟absence d‟une règlementation<br />

européenne, des états membres (Hollande, Belgique)<br />

s‟engagent sur la piste d‟une règlementation<br />

nationale. Parmi les logements alternatifs potentiels,<br />

le parc hors sol enrichi bivalent, en système duo,<br />

pourrait constituer un compromis acceptable entre les<br />

attentes de la Société et celles de la production. En<br />

effet :<br />

La cage enrichie ou aménagée (et le combihuisvesting,<br />

une variante pour le logement collectif<br />

des femelles) peut satisfaire, moyennant des délais de<br />

transition économiquement supportables, les besoins<br />

de la production. Peut-elle aussi satisfaire les attentes<br />

de la Société, influencée par les associations militant<br />

en faveur du bien-être animal? Par analogie, dans le<br />

34<br />

secteur des poules pondeuses, après l‟échéance du 1 er<br />

janvier 2012 pour la mise en œuvre de la directive<br />

européenne, des campagnes de boycott continuent<br />

d‟être organisées à l‟encontre des œufs de poules en<br />

cages enrichies; la cage enrichie pour les lapins ne<br />

serait peut-être pas l‟option la plus sûre pour une<br />

solution durable.<br />

Le parc au sol, une alternative aux cages,<br />

rencontre les besoins de la Société par amélioration<br />

des possibilités d‟expression du comportement<br />

naturel du lapin et par l‟image. En revanche, pour des<br />

raisons économiques et sanitaires, le parc au sol ne<br />

constitue pas une alternative généralisable à<br />

l‟ensemble de la cuniculture commerciale.<br />

Le parc hors sol est une autre alternative aux<br />

cages, déjà un peu utilisé pour l‟engraissement en<br />

production commerciale (Allemagne, Belgique,<br />

Hollande). Le parc hors sol pourrait être un<br />

compromis, pour une solution durable, entre les<br />

attentes de la Société et celles de la production. Pour<br />

cela, il est nécessaire que soient établies les<br />

conditions optimales de faisabilité pour sa<br />

standardisation, et qu‟il soit modulé pour les<br />

reproductrices de manière à être utilisé, dans un<br />

modèle tout plein tout vide en système duo. Une<br />

solution que pourrait représenter le parc hors sol<br />

bivalent en système duo. Il appartient maintenant à la<br />

recherche d‟apporter des réponses aux questions qui<br />

subsistent sur cette alternative prometteuse.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bigler L., 2010 – Les expériences suisses : Le logement<br />

de groupe sur le sol. Journée à thème : Bien-être<br />

des lapins, Bruxelles, octobre 2010. 11 p.<br />

Conseil belge du bien-être des animaux, groupe de<br />

travail lapin. Avis du Conseil relatif à<br />

l’hébergement des lapins, 2012. 3 p.<br />

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2005 - The<br />

Impact of the current housing and husbandry<br />

systems on the health and welfare of farmed<br />

domestic rabbits, EFSA Journal, 137 p.<br />

Jacquet M., 2011 – Quel logement demain pour le<br />

lapin? 11 ème Journée des Productions porcines et<br />

avicoles, Gembloux, 30 novembre 2011: 40-46.<br />

Jacquet M., Teller C., Van Santfoort L., 2005 –<br />

Résultats de deux centres de référence et<br />

d’expérimentation de production du lapin en<br />

Belgique : engraissement en parc sur litière et<br />

conduite en bande unique. 11 èmes Journées de la<br />

Recherche Cunicole, Paris, 29-30 novembre<br />

2005 : 7-10.<br />

Maertens L., 2011 – Du mouvement dans le logement<br />

des lapins, Revue Filière Avicole et Cunicole<br />

Wallonne, 2 ème Trimestre 2011, 38 : 3-5.<br />

Maertens L., Rommers J., Jacquet M., 2011 – Le<br />

logement des lapins en parcs, une alternative<br />

pour les cages classiques dans un système<br />

“duo”? 14 èmes Journées de la Recherche<br />

Cunicole, Le Mans, 22-23 novembre 2011 : 85-<br />

88.<br />

Rommers J.M., de Jong I., 2011 – Combihuisvesting<br />

van voedsters: Resultaat na één jaar<br />

proefdraaien. NOK Kontaktblad, 29 : 3-10.

Abstract<br />

35<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EFFECTS OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ON THE YIELD OF PLANTS IN THE<br />

ROTATION SYSTEM OF WHEAT-WHITE HEAD CABBAGE-TOMATO<br />

Mehmet Arif ÖZYAZICI 1<br />

e-mail: arifozyazici@hotmail.com<br />

This research was carried to determine the effects of sewage sludge applications on the yield and yield components of<br />

plants under crop rotation system. The field experiments were conducted in the Bafra Plain, located in the north region<br />

of Turkey. In this research, the “wheat-white head cabbage-tomato” crop rotation system have been examined and the<br />

same crop rotation has been repeated in two separate years and field trials have been established. Seven treatments were<br />

compared: a control without application of sludge nor nitrogen fertilization, a treatment without sludge, but nitrogen<br />

and phosphorus fertilization, applied at before sowing of wheat and five treatments where, respectively 10, 20, 30, 40<br />

and 50 tons sludge ha -1 . The experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replications. The results<br />

showed that all the yield components of wheat and yield of white head cabbage and tomato increased significantly with<br />

increasing rates of sewage sludge as compared to control. As a results, 20 t ha -1 of sewage sludge application could be<br />

recommended the suitable dose for the rotation of wheat-white head cabbage-tomato in soil and climatic conditions of<br />

Bafra Plain.<br />

Key words: sewage sludge, tomato, wheat, white head cabbage<br />

The generation of sewage is increasing due<br />

to rapid urbanization. The municipalities all over<br />

the world are concerned with safe and feasible<br />

methods of its disposal. The current methods for<br />

disposal include land filling, incineration, dumping<br />

in sea and field application for agricultural use.<br />

Incineration and land filling are not popular<br />

because of the high cost and environmental<br />

hazards involved. Therefore, the only viable option<br />

left for sludge management is its utilization in<br />

agriculture as a source of organic matter and plant<br />

nutrients, which is perhaps the most convenient<br />

and feasible practice of its disposal.<br />

The motivation for recycling of sewage<br />

sludge to agricultural soil is the low cost of this<br />

disposal method, the soil organic matter<br />

preservation effect and the fertilization effect.<br />

Sewage sludge (biosolids), which is enriched in<br />

nitrogen, phosphorus, organic matter and other<br />

trace elements, represents a good source of<br />

nutrients for plant growth and a good soil<br />

conditioner to improve soil physical properties.<br />

Due to its high organic matter content,<br />

sewage sludge can improve physical, chemical,<br />

and biological properties of soil (Stamatiadis et al.<br />

1999; Aggelides and Londra 2000; Benitez et al.<br />

2001; Selivanovskaya et al. 2001; McBride 2003;<br />

Sanchéz-Monedero et al. 2004; Gonzáles-Pérez<br />

1 Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute-SAMSUN-TURKEY<br />

Martha et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2007; Alcantara et<br />

al. 2009; Angın and Yağanoğlu 2009). Thus,<br />

sludge application helps to reduce soil erosion and<br />

improves the soil quality as a plant growth<br />

medium. The fertilizer effect enables a reduction in<br />

cost for nitrogen and phosphorus mineral fertilizers<br />

and may improve crops yield on sludge treated<br />

fields (Wild and Jones 1991; Petersen et al. 2003).<br />

Considerable research has been<br />

accomplished worldwide on the use of sewage<br />

sludge on soil and crop. In many investigations<br />

with different climatic and soils conditions have<br />

reported a substantial increase in plant growth,<br />

crop yield and biomass production upon sewage<br />

sludge application (Azam and Lodhi 2001; Chatha<br />

et al. 2002; Bozkurt and Yarılgaç 2003;<br />

Mohammad and Athamneh 2004; Dursan et al.<br />

2005; Casado-Vela et al. 2006 and 2007; Jamil et<br />

al. 2006; Samaras et al. 2008; Togay et al. 2008;<br />

Angın and Yaganoğlu 2011).<br />

However, the main problems of an excessive<br />

application of sewage sludge are plant toxicity due<br />

to accumulation of heavy metals in soils (Jarausch-<br />

Wehrheim et al. 1999; McGrath et al. 2000) but<br />

also the increase in its salt content (Hao and Chang<br />

2003). Sewage sludge can substitute for<br />

commercial fertilizers and organic matter if applied<br />

in the right amounts to soil. By using sludge, it is a

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

possibility for farmers to supply their lands with<br />

organic fertilizer at low costs. Therefore, recycling<br />

of sludge for agricultural purpose seems to be an<br />

appealing solution for sustainable management of<br />

sludge.<br />

This study was conducted in order to<br />

determine the effects of different doses of<br />

municipal sewage sludge on yield and some yield<br />

components in the rotation of wheat-white head<br />

cabbage-tomato.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Location of the research areas<br />

The investigation was carried out in the Bafra<br />

Plain, located in the north region of Turkey (longitude<br />

35 o 30’-36 o 11’ E, latitude 41 o 26’-41 o 45’N, and<br />

altitude 7 m). Investigations conducted during 2002-<br />

2005 at the Samsun Black Sea Agricultural Research<br />

Institute have followed the influence of different<br />

sewage sludge rates on yield agricultural<br />

characteristics. In this research, the “wheat-white<br />

head cabbage-tomato” crop rotation system was<br />

examined and the same crop rotation was repeated in<br />

two separate years and field trials were established.<br />

The experimental region has a semiarid<br />

climate with long-term mean annual minimum and<br />

maximum temperatures of 10.3ºC and 18.3ºC,<br />

relative humidity of 74.8%, and annual precipitation of<br />

737.4 mm.<br />

Soil and sewage sludge properties<br />

Some characteristics of sewage sludge used in<br />

the experiment and soils are given in Table 1. In<br />

general, the experimental soils were clayed in texture,<br />

slightly alkaline in reaction (pH), moderate level<br />

calcareous and organic matter. The soils showed no<br />

signs of salinity problem, available phosphorus (P)<br />

content was at poor level, available potassium (K)<br />

content was high (Ülgen and Yurtsever, 1995) (Table<br />

1).<br />

Sewage sludge material used in the research<br />

was provided from Bafra Municipality Wastewater<br />

Treatment Facility (Samsun-Turkey). Treatment<br />

facility was designed according to the long aerobic<br />

active sludge system process. When Table 2 is<br />

examined, it can be seen that the sewage sludge<br />

material contains, 4.50-5.25% N, 1.95-2.23% P and<br />

0.36-0.64% K. pH was 6.49-7.55, EC content was<br />

7.11-8.00 dS m -1 and total Fe was 0.91-1.42%.<br />

According to the Regulation on Control of Soil<br />

Pollution which was promulgated in Turkey tolerated<br />

maximum heavy metal rates that can be included in<br />

the sewage sludge that will be used in the soil are<br />

determined as follows: 750 ppm for lead, 10 ppm for<br />

cadmium, 1000 ppm for chrome, 1000 ppm for<br />

copper, 300 ppm for nickel and 2500 ppm for zinc (in<br />

oven in dry soil) (Anonymous, 2010). According to<br />

that; when the heavy metal contents in the sewage<br />

sludge to be used in soil are examined, it has been<br />

determined that it contained less heavy metal content<br />

values included in “Regulation on Control of Soil<br />

Pollution”. In addition, Fecal Coli content that limits<br />

the usage has not been determined in the results of<br />

microbiological analysis of sewage sludge.<br />

36<br />

Plant and inorganic fertilizer materials<br />

In the research Panda has been used as the<br />

variety of wheat. Local variety is used for white<br />

headed cabbage seed and it is very widespread in<br />

the region. Tomato variety 5656 F1 was used as a<br />

plant material. The form of inorganic fertilizer was<br />

used as ammonium sulfate (21% N) and triple super<br />

phosphate (43-44% P 2O 5).<br />

Experimental design<br />

The experiment was conducted using a<br />

complete randomized block design with three<br />

replications in 21 plots, each measuring 56.40 m 2<br />

(5.64 m x 10 m), with a separation strip of 1 m<br />

between them. Each plot was randomly assigned to<br />

receive one of seven treatments as follows:<br />

Control: (a control without application of sludge<br />

nor nitrogen fertilization)<br />

S1: 10 t ha -1 sewage sludge<br />

S2: 20 t ha -1 sewage sludge<br />

S3: 30 t ha -1 sewage sludge<br />

S4: 40 t ha -1 sewage sludge<br />

S5: 50 t ha -1 sewage sludge<br />

Fertilizer (NP): (a treatment without sludge,<br />

nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization: for wheat 200<br />

kg N ha -1 and 90 kg P 2O 5 ha -1 , for white headed<br />

cabbage 130 kg N ha -1 and 100 kg P 2O 5 ha -1 , for<br />

tomato 130 kg N ha -1 . Since the soils were rich in<br />

potassium (Table 1), K was not applied).<br />

Mineral nitrogen application rates were based<br />

on the agronomic nitrogen requirement of wheat,<br />

white headed cabbage and tomato (Deniz and<br />

Özdemir 1980; Özdemir and Güner 1983a, 1983b).<br />

In NP treatment, since beneficial phosphorus<br />

enough for tomato has been found in the sample soil<br />

examined after cabbage cropping period phosphorus<br />

fertilizer was not applied to the tomato.<br />

Field applications<br />

The dates of important cultural practices<br />

applied in the experiment are given in Table 2.<br />

Sewage sludge were applied to mixed in the depth of<br />

soil 20 cm by hand using a shovel before sowing of<br />

wheat which is the first plant of crop rotation.<br />

Wheat sowing was made with aerobic<br />

combined grain seeder 180 kg of seed were sowed<br />

per hectare. Plot size was 5.64m x 10m=56.40 m 2 .<br />

The seedlings of white head cabbage and tomato<br />

were spaced 5.00m x 9.75m and 5.60m x 9.60 m in<br />

the field, respectively. Row spacing was 100 cm<br />

(white head cabbage) and 140 cm (tomato).<br />

In NP treatment, half of the nitrogenous<br />

fertilizer was applied before wheat sowing and before<br />

planting of white headed cabbage and tomato the<br />

other was applied when at middle tillering stage of<br />

wheat, at 2nd hoe of white head cabbage and at the<br />

fruits are seen of tomato. All phosphorus fertilizer was<br />

used during sowing/planting time.<br />

All recommended cultural practices such as<br />

irrigation, eradication of weeds and plant protection<br />

were adopted uniformly according to standard crop<br />

requirements.<br />

The wheat harvesting was done by cutting with<br />

a sickle. Crop of each plot was harvested separately.<br />

Threshing was done by a small plot thresher and<br />

cleaned using experimental winnowing machine. After<br />

threshing the grains were dried and weight to record<br />

the grain yield. The weights of grain and straw per

plot were converted to hectare basis. The cabbages<br />

were harvested on the 80th day of cultivation<br />

(seedling plantation), and they were weighed for total<br />

commercial biomass. Outer dirty or broken leaves<br />

were removed to obtain the commercial biomass, and<br />

the head circle of the commercial products was<br />

37<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

measured. The tomato harvesting was done by hand.<br />

Total marketable yield in kg and harvested number of<br />

fruits per plot was recorded. Based on the surface of<br />

the plot and the yield in kg, yield in kg per hectare<br />

was calculated.<br />

Table 1<br />

Soil<br />

Characteristics of soil and sewage sludge used in the study<br />

Sewage sludge<br />

Parameters<br />

1 st period<br />

trial material<br />

2 nd period<br />

trial material<br />

Parameters<br />

1 st period<br />

trial material<br />

2 nd period<br />

trial material<br />

Clay, % 56.3 57.1 Solid Substance,% 40 87<br />

Silt, % 36.2 35.6 Combustion Loss, % 61 73<br />

Sand, % 7.6 8.2 pH 7.55 6.49<br />

Textural Class clayed clayed EC 25 o C, dSm -1 7.11 8.00<br />

pH 7.80 7.93 Total N, % 4.50 5.25<br />

Electrical Conductivity (EC),<br />

2.638 1.953 Total P, % 2.23 1.95<br />

dSm -1<br />

Calcareous (CaCO3), % 5.5 5.8 Total K, % 0.64 0.36<br />

Organic Matter, % 2.77 2.76 C/N 8 8<br />

Available P, kg P2O5 ha -1 30 30 Total Fe, % 1.42 0.91<br />

Available K, kg K2O ha -1 990 900 Total metal concentrations (ppm)<br />

Total metal concentrations (ppm) Mn 812 986<br />

Cu 55.14 35.60 Cu 136 120<br />

Zn 83.38 58.81 Zn 718 926<br />

Cd 0.12 1.37 Cd 1.5 1.1<br />

Cr 54.40 54.92 Cr 45 39<br />

Ni 175.00 150.00 Ni 57 42<br />

Pb 1.47 16.72 Pb 35 9 37<br />

Agricultural<br />

operations<br />

Sewage<br />

sludge<br />

application<br />

Sowing/<br />

planting<br />

The second<br />

half of the<br />

application<br />

time of<br />

nitrogen<br />

fertilizer<br />

Wheat<br />

Hoe ---<br />

Harvest 03.07.2003<br />

Table 2<br />

Dates of cultural practices in field experiments<br />

1st period field experimental 2nd period field experimental<br />

White head<br />

cabbage<br />

Tomato Wheat<br />

White head<br />

cabbage<br />

Tomato<br />

23.10.2002 --- --- 13.10.2003 --- ---<br />

18.11.2002 30.07.2003 15.05.2004 10.11.2003 19.08.2004 12.05.2005<br />

13.03.2003 09.09.2003 23.06.2004 15.03.2004 01.10.2004 15.06.2005<br />

1st:12.08.2003<br />

2nd:09.09.2003<br />

22.10.2003<br />

06.11.2003<br />

20.11.2003<br />

Plant measurements and analysis<br />

Data of wheat were recorded for grain yield (kg<br />

ha -1 ) and straw yield (kg ha -1 ), 1000-grain weight<br />

(1000 GW) (g), grain protein percentage (%). For<br />

1000-grain weight, two samples of thousand grains<br />

were counted from threshed clean lot of each<br />

treatment, their weight was taken and average<br />

calculated (Kün, 1983). Total nitrogen content of<br />

wheat grains was determined by micro-Kjeldahl<br />

method. The protein content was determined from per<br />

1st:31.05.2004<br />

2nd:22.06.2004<br />

3rd:09.07.2004<br />

26.07.2004<br />

02.08.2004<br />

06.08.2004<br />

11.08.2004<br />

16.08.2004<br />

20.08.2004<br />

24.08.2004<br />

31.08.2004<br />

---<br />

08.07.2004<br />

1st:15.09.2004<br />

2nd:01.10.2004<br />

07.12.2004<br />

31.12.2004<br />

1st:30.05.2005<br />

2nd:15.06.2005<br />

3rd:12.07.2005<br />

21.07.2005<br />

26.07.2005<br />

01.08.2005<br />

09.08.2005<br />

16.08.2005<br />

23.08.2005<br />

01.09.2005<br />

07.09.2005<br />

cent total nitrogen multiplied by 5.85 (Kacar and İnal,<br />

2008).<br />

Data of cabbage and tomato were recorded for<br />

total head and fruit yield (kg ha -1 ), respectively.<br />

Statistical analysis<br />

Statistical analysis was conducted using the<br />

MSTAT-C statistical package. The F test was then<br />

applied to examine the statistical significance of<br />

differences among treatments. Statistical analysis of<br />

the two years data was done at 1% or 5% level of

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

probability using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test<br />

(DMRT) to test the difference between the individual<br />

means (Yurtsever, 1984).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Effects of sewage sludge on the yield and<br />

yield components of wheat<br />

The data recorded on grain yield, straw<br />

yield, grain protein percentage and 1000-grain<br />

weight are presented in Table 3. It revealed that all<br />

the different doses of sewage sludge increased the<br />

grain yield over control significantly (p

treatments. There was no significant difference<br />

between the 1000-grain weights for the S2 and the<br />

NP treatments during 2004. In the both periods, the<br />

lowest (39.67 and 33.67 g, respectively) 1000grain<br />

weight were obtained from the application of<br />

control treatments (Table 3).<br />

Effects of sewage sludge on the yield of<br />

white head cabbage<br />

The different levels of sewage sludge<br />

application had a significant (p

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Lodhi (2001) found that in their study with wheat<br />

the above ground plant components responded<br />

positively to the application of both fertilizer N and<br />

Sewage biosolid. In this experiment, similar results<br />

were obtained with Naggar and El-Ghamry (2001)<br />

and Bilgin et al. (2004).<br />

Hernandez et al. (1991), Jamil et al. (2004),<br />

Jamil et al. (2006) and Tamrabet et al. (2009)<br />

reported that sewage sludge increased the grain<br />

yield and straw production of wheat. They<br />

mentioned that the maximum yields in both grain<br />

and straw were obtained at 40 t ha -1 of sewage<br />

sludge application. Al- Mustafa et al. (1995), Singh<br />

and Singh (1999), Al Zoubi et al. (2008) and<br />

Aılıncăı et al. (2010) also reported highest increase<br />

in the grain and straw yield of wheat treated with<br />

sewage sludge.<br />

The results of this study corroborated results<br />

from others investigations. Sabey and Hart (1975)<br />

reported that addition of sewage sludges at the rate<br />

of 0, 25, 50, 100 and 125 t ha-1 to loamy sand<br />

affected the germination of sorghum, Sudan grass<br />

and pearl millet but sowing of wheat after three<br />

months later resulted in increased yield of wheat.<br />

Tsadilas et al. (1995) studied the influence of<br />

sewage sludge application on soil properties and<br />

growth of wheat and maize under pot house<br />

conditions. Wheat and maize responded well to<br />

sludge application. Bouzerzour et al.(2002)<br />

reported that the application of sewage sludge<br />

increased leaves dimensions, leaf area index,<br />

accumulated above ground dry matter, tillering<br />

capacity and plant height of barley (Hordeum<br />

vulgare L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) genotypes,<br />

evaluated in pots experiment. Antolın et al. (2005)<br />

reported that application of sewage sludge<br />

increased barley grain yield because the soil<br />

amended had improved microbiological properties,<br />

which promoted the recycling of nutrients for the<br />

crop. Akdeniz et al. (2006) reported that sewage<br />

sludge application positively affected grain yield,<br />

leaf nitrogen, harvest index, and total N uptake of<br />

sorghum more than chemical fertilizer, except for<br />

dry matter yield. Khan et al. (2007) reported that<br />

with the increased application of sewage sludge<br />

increased wheat grain and total dry matter yield.<br />

They mentioned that the maximum yields were<br />

obtained at 80 Mg ha -1 of sewage sludge<br />

application. This application rate was not<br />

recommendable because of very high rate and to<br />

avoid the possible risk of metals uptake and<br />

accumulation in the soil. The recommendable rate<br />

is 40 Mg ha -1 .<br />

As a results, nitrogen content and uptake of<br />

wheat were increased by applications of inorganic<br />

nitrogen fertilizer and sewage sludge. Sewage<br />

sludge applications affected nitrogen content and<br />

40<br />

uptake of plant more than inorganic nitrogen<br />

fertilizer. This results indicated that some of<br />

nitrogen requirement of plant can be provided by<br />

using sewage sludge. The higher grain protein of<br />

the sludge treatments appears to be the result of the<br />

greater available soil N levels at the latter part of<br />

the growing season (Lerch et al., 1990). These<br />

results agree with Lerch et al. (1990), who reported<br />

increased grain protein content for sewage sludge<br />

application. Mamo et al. (1999) reported that plant<br />

N uptake increased with sewage sludge application<br />

and N fertilization. Naggar and El-Ghamry (2001)<br />

reported that a significant increase in plant N<br />

content of wheat was found in biosolid treated soils<br />

as compared with the Control. Yağmur et al.<br />

(2005) reported that sewage sludge and mineral<br />

fertilizers treated plants had higher seed proteins<br />

than did the Control seeds.<br />

It has been indicated in various researches<br />

that the municipal sewage sludge applied in<br />

increasing amounts increase the plant growth and<br />

nitrogen content of various plants which have been<br />

subjected to testing (Menelik et al. 1991; El-<br />

Dawwey 1993; Mohammad and Battikhi 1997;<br />

Arcak et al. 2000; Şensoy et al. 2000; Bozkurt et<br />

al. 2001).<br />

This increase in 1000-grain weight may also<br />

be the result of improvement in the soil fertility<br />

due to sewage sludge application. Barbarick et al.<br />

(1998), Elsokkary and Salam (1998), Jamil et al.<br />

(2004), Khan et al. (2007) and Tamrabet et al.<br />

(2009) have also reported similar findings.<br />

Nutrients contained in sludge increase plant<br />

biomass and yield (Snyman et al. 1998; Brofas et<br />

al. 2000; Cogger et al. 2001). In our results, fruit<br />

yield of tomato plant and head yield of white head<br />

cabbage were increased by the increasing<br />

applications of sewage sludge rates for each years.<br />

Önal et al. (2003) reported that plant dry matter<br />

and fruit yield, mineral contents including N, P, K,<br />

Ca and Mg in fruits of tomato plant were increased<br />

by the increasing applications of sewage sludge<br />

rates. Many investigators have reported a<br />

substantial increase in plant growth and fruit yield<br />

of tomato upon sewage sludge application<br />

(Kalembasa 1996; Navarro-Pedreno et al. 1996;<br />

Pedreno et al. 1996; Perez-Espinosa et al. 1999;<br />

Topcuoğlu et al. 2001). Wei and Liu (2005)<br />

reported that the yields of Chinese cabbage<br />

generated positive response to the sewage sludge<br />

compost application. El-Dewiny et al. (2006)<br />

showed that dry weight of radish and spinach<br />

plants increased with application of sewage sludge.<br />

The experimental results showed that yield<br />

and yield components of wheat, yield of white<br />

head cabbage and tomato increased significantly<br />

with increasing rates of sewage sludge over

control, which shows that sewage sludge have a<br />

beneficial effect for the rotation of crop. The<br />

studies further elucidated that 20 t ha -1 sewage<br />

sludge was the suitable dose for the rotation of<br />

wheat-white head cabbage-tomato in soil and<br />

climatic conditions of Bafra Plain.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Sewage sludge application to agricultural<br />

land has been a widely accepted practice during<br />

recent years. Its use in agricultural land is<br />

promoted because it is considered that it will solve<br />

not only the problem of disposal but also will<br />

increase productivity in agriculture. However,<br />

negative effects of sewage sludge such as elevated<br />

heavy metal levels resulting from the usage of<br />

sewage sludge must also be taken into<br />

consideration (Smith, 1996). Sewage sludge<br />

containing pathogenic organisms should be<br />

handled and applied in a proper manner to reduce<br />

the risks to human and animal health.<br />

At levels above the agronomic<br />

recommended rate, however, the potential for<br />

negative externalities may be quite substantial.<br />

Monitoring the soil periodically for nutrient levels<br />

would be prudent to avoid any excess levels on N<br />

or other plant nutrient. More continuous long-term<br />

experiments are needed to improve the<br />

understanding of the effects of sewage sludge on<br />

soil fertility and crop yield to contribute to the<br />

development of sustainable agricultural practices.<br />

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RESEARCH OF PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL RELATED<br />

TO EARTHWORMS ABUNDANCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND BACKGROUND<br />

AGROECOSYSTEMS AT DIDACTIC AND EXPERIMENTAL STATION<br />

“CHETROSU”, REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA<br />

Abstract<br />

Valentina ANDRIUCĂ 1 , Mădălina IORDACHE 2 , Daniela GÎRLA 1 , Ioan GAICA 2 ,<br />

Nicolai CAZMALÎ 1 , Maria COLTUN 1<br />

e-mail: valandriuca@yahoo.com<br />

Within agroecological monitoring, an essential role is played by the biological monitoring, because surveillance of<br />

living organisms provides precious information regarding the vitality of agroecosystems and quality of environmental<br />

factors, essential for the quality of agricultural products and natural resources. The goal of earthworms’ complex<br />

research is establishment of the high efficient agrocoenoses, ecologically balanced, stable, based on the rational usage<br />

of the nutritive substances of soil, vegetable rests, water, and finally the application of environment-friendly<br />

technologies. From this point of view, earthworms can be used within the agroecological monitoring, because they can<br />

be easily extracted from their environment without affecting the population assembly. Essential for earthworms’ habitat<br />

is soil texture and soil humidity, physical-mechanical properties, organic debris, both quantitatively and qualitatively.<br />

The soil of the researched ecosystems was represented by calcic (carbonated) silt loamy chernozem. The limits of<br />

plasticity, resistance to penetration, and adherence of soil are influenced by humus content, fertilization type, and<br />

diversity of agrocoenoses. The forest strip and fallow farmland can contribute by providing with information the<br />

Database of background and agroecological (impact) monitoring. During the droughty seasons, earthworms were not<br />

found in soil, but a maximal number has been identified in forest strip (76 worms/m 2 ) at 0-30 cm depth, which<br />

represents a hiding habitat during the arid periods.<br />

Key words: agroecosystem, chernozem, plasticity, adherence, penetration, earthworms, background monitoring<br />

Within ecological security and integrated<br />

ecological monitoring, the biological monitoring<br />

has a great role, as a system of observations,<br />

interpretations, and prognoses of all constant<br />

changes appearing in the living world, but actually<br />

less applied in pedological studies. Research of<br />

pedofauna, of species with positive role for soil<br />

fertility; allow surveying the vitality and activity of<br />

soil, to avoid the critical levels of the anthropic<br />

impact on soil biota. Applying the integrated<br />

monitoring, pedoecological and of impact, through<br />

various approaches and activities, facilitate the<br />

permanent, complex observation of soils and<br />

agrocenoses, organisms with vital functions for<br />

soil.<br />

According to present researches in the field<br />

[Godeanu S., 1997], earthworms can be used in the<br />

agroecological impact monitoring because these<br />

species live over 2 years, sizes of bodies are<br />

enough large, they can be easily extracted from<br />

soil, can live in laboratory conditions, are bioaccumulators,<br />

and their extraction out of habitat<br />

1 State Agrarian University of Moldova, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova<br />

2 Universiy Agricultural and Veterinary Medicine of Banat, Timisoara, Romania<br />

does not affect the population assembly.<br />

Important for earthworms’ habitat are soil<br />

texture, humidity, physical-mechanical conditions<br />

(bulk density, compaction degree), organic rests<br />

under quantitative and qualitative aspects, and<br />

selection of the most favourable living conditions<br />

for them must consider the technological elements<br />

of sustainable development.<br />

Using earthworms in surveying agroecosystems<br />

with different anthropic impact allows<br />

the complex control of soil changes, including<br />

maintaining soil vitality and pedofauna habitat,<br />

control of seasonal changes on long and short term.<br />

Application of modern agricultural technologies,<br />

environment-friendly and pedofauna-friendly, also<br />

requires finding hiding habitats.<br />

Earthworms research in various<br />

agroecosystems and buffer areas was performed in<br />

long term experiments at Didactic and<br />

Experimental Station (DES) „Chetrosu”, State<br />

Agrarian University of Moldova (1990-2012), the<br />

present investigations representing a continuity of

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

previous others [Fedotova L., 1993; Cojocaru O.,<br />

1998], which assessed the earthworm abundance in<br />

control variants and in variants with various types<br />

and doses of fertilizers, forest strips, fallow<br />

farmland.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Within agroecosystems were investigated<br />

the influence of various types and doses of<br />

fertilizers (organic and mineral), crop rotations,<br />

permanent culture of maize (Zea mays L.), alfalfa<br />

(Medicago sativa L.), sun-flower (Helianthus<br />

annuus L.), winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.),<br />

fallow farmland, including forest strips with different<br />

composition of plant species: 1 – predominantly<br />

autochthonous wild species, and 2 –<br />

predominantly forestry species, soils with different<br />

erosion degree.<br />

There were established the presence and<br />

abundance of earthworms, soil humidity in the<br />

arable layer and sub-arable, bulk density,<br />

resistance to penetration, soil adherence and<br />

others.<br />

Pedological researches were performed –<br />

morphological description of soil, physicalchemical<br />

analyses, which diagnosed a medium silt<br />

loamy chernozem, with surface carbonates with<br />

profile Ap-Ahk-Bhk-BCk-Ck. There were investigated<br />

the agrophysical (texture, micro-aggregative<br />

46<br />

composition, humidity) and physical-mechanical<br />

indices of soil (plasticity, adherence and resistance<br />

to penetration).<br />

The research methods were those<br />

recommended and used in the pedological<br />

monitoring of Republic of Moldova [Cerbari V.,<br />

1997].<br />

Plasticity and plasticity index have been<br />

determined according to method of A. Vasiliev, soil<br />

adherence (Kpa) according to method of N.<br />

Kacinski, on metallic surfaces by 10 cm 2 , disc<br />

pressure - 0.005 Mpa, 30 seconds lasting, 10<br />

repetitions.<br />

The classical research method was<br />

performed for earthworm extraction from soil, using<br />

areas by 0.25 m 2 in 8 repetition, and soil sorting on<br />

layers of 10 cm until 40 cm depth, and afterwards<br />

the quantitative and qualitative analyse:<br />

abundance and weight.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Analytical data regarding texture, microaggregative<br />

composition, dispersion index, and<br />

physical-chemical properties of researched soil are<br />

listed in tables 1 and 2. Detailed presentation of<br />

physical-chemical and agro-physical data of the<br />

investigated variants have been already published<br />

[Andriuca V. et al., 2012].<br />

Table 1<br />

Granular composition (numerator) and micro-aggregative composition (denominator) of chernozem from<br />

Depth, cm<br />

0-10<br />

10-20<br />

20-30<br />

30-40<br />

40-50<br />

DES „Chetrosu”<br />

Diameter of fractions (mm) / content (%) Dispersion<br />

1-0.25 0.25-0.05 0.05-0.01 0.01-0.005 0.005-0.005

superior limit of plasticity (24.1%) was found in<br />

variants with chemical fertilisation (N160P90K90) in<br />

the arable layer. The unfertilised variants are<br />

significantly different as compared with fertilised<br />

ones. In table 4 are shown the values of inferior<br />

limit of plasticity, humidity which determines the<br />

optimal conditions for soil tillage and penetration.<br />

Data show that this parameter ranges in the<br />

unfertilised variant between 19-21%, and in the<br />

fertilised variants between 19-20%. Considering<br />

47<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

the inferior limit of plasticity, the researched<br />

variants insignificantly differ, except the forest<br />

strip. Difference between superior and inferior<br />

limit represents the plasticity index, shown in table<br />

5. Data show that the researched coenoses are<br />

significantly different considering the plasticity<br />

index, especially the variant with mineral<br />

fertilisation with significant decrease of superior<br />

limit of plasticity (table 3).<br />

Superior limit of plasticity of the calcic chernozem in various coenoses<br />

Depth, cm Unfertilised<br />

(30 years)<br />

Agrocoenoses<br />

Fertilised<br />

N160P90K90 24 t cattle manure + P30<br />

Fallow<br />

farmland<br />

Forest<br />

strip<br />

0-10 31.0 24.9 28.0 30.0 30.0<br />

10-20 31.2 23.8 27.6 29.7 28.1<br />

20-30 31.0 23.7 27.4 33.4 25.2<br />

30-40 30.0 24.5 28.9 33.2 24.6<br />

40-50 30.0 25.0 34.0 33.0 25.8<br />

50-60 29.7 24.5 33.7 32.5 27.8<br />

0-30 31.0 24.1 27.6 27.7 27.7<br />

30-60 29.9 24.6 32.2 32.9 26.0<br />

DL05=1.3<br />

Table 3<br />

Table 4<br />

Inferior limit of plasticity of the calcic chernozem in various conenoses<br />

Depth, cm Unfertilised<br />

(30 years)<br />

Agrocoenoses<br />

Fertilised<br />

N160P90K90 24 t cattle manure + P30<br />

Fallow<br />

farmland<br />

Forest<br />

strip<br />

0-10 19.4 18.3 19.3 19.2 21.6<br />

10-20 18.6 19.8 20.2 19.0 17.8<br />

20-30 20.3 19.1 20.4 19.5 17.0<br />

30-40 20.3 18.9 20.4 20.4 15.0<br />

40-50 20.5 20.9 21.0 21.0 17.0<br />

50-60 20.5 20.1 18.9 20.5 16.6<br />

0-30 19.4 19.0 19.9 19.2 18.8<br />

30-60 20.4 19.9 20.1 20.6 16.2<br />

DL05=1.4<br />

Table 5<br />

Plasticity index (%) of the calcic chernozem in various conenoses<br />

Depth, cm Unfertilised<br />

(30 years)<br />

Agrocoenoses<br />

Fertilised<br />

N160P90K90 24 t cattle manure + P30<br />

Fallow<br />

land<br />

Forest<br />

strip<br />

0-10 11.6 6.6 8.7 10.8 8.4<br />

10-20 12.6 4.0 7.4 10.7 10.3<br />

20-30 10.7 4.6 7.0 13.9 8.2<br />

30-40 9.7 5.6 8.5 12.8 9.6<br />

40-50 9.5 4.1 13.0 12.0 8.8<br />

50-60 9.2 4.4 14.8 12.0 11.2<br />

0-30 11.6 5.1 7.7 8.5 8.9<br />

30-60 9.5 4.7 12.1 12.3 9.8<br />

DL05=1.35<br />

In order to eliminate the influence of bulk<br />

density, structure, porosity and others on soil<br />

adherence, this physical-mechanical parameter has<br />

been studied in non-structured samples.<br />

As compared with soils in natural<br />

arrangement, the adherence of the researched<br />

variants was higher.<br />

Considering that adherence is directly<br />

influenced by soil humidity, researches have been<br />

carried out at a standard value of humidity – the<br />

superior limit of plasticity. Data are listed in<br />

table 6.<br />

Results show a significant difference of the<br />

researched conenoses and depths by adherence.<br />

The values of adherence in the unfertilised variant<br />

range between 13 - 15 g/cm 2 , between 7-8 g/cm 2 in

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

the arable layer of the fertilised variants, and<br />

intermediary values in fallow farmland (table 6).<br />

For all researched variants was observed a<br />

significant differentiation of parameter adherence<br />

in the arable and sub-arable layers of soil. In the<br />

soils with natural arrangement, the values of<br />

adherence ranges only between 3-4 g/cm 2 in the<br />

48<br />

loamy varieties, for humidity values close to those<br />

found in non-structured soil (table 7).<br />

It is obviously that degradation of soil<br />

structure will lead to adherence increase.<br />

Earthworms assessment under impact of fertilisers<br />

in background ecosystems (May, 1992) at DES<br />

„Chetrosu” is presented in figure 1.<br />

Table 6<br />

Adherence of calcic chernozem (numerator, g/cm 2 ) and humidity corresponding to the superior limit of plasticity<br />

(denominator, %) in various conenoses of DES „Chetrosu”<br />

Depth, cm Unfertilised<br />

(30 years)<br />

Agrocoenoses<br />

Fertilised<br />

N160P90K90 24 t cattle manure + P30<br />

Fallow<br />

farmland<br />

Forest strip<br />

0-10 15.0/31.0 9.2/24.9 9.3/28.0 15.1/30.0 16.6/30.0<br />

10-20 17.9/31.2 7.3/23.8 8.4/27.6 7.9/29.7 19.7/28.1<br />

20-30 15.3/31.0 3.6/23.7 6.8/27.4 17.4/33.4 11.0/25.2<br />

30-40 14.2/30.0 10.9/24.5 7.5/28.9 11.0/33.2 8.2/24.6<br />

40-50 12.8/30.0 12.5/25.0 8.1/34.0 8.4/33.0 16.5/25.8<br />

50-60 13.5/29.7 7.9/24.7 7.1/33.7 12.3/32.5 14.2/27.8<br />

0-30 16.0/31.0 6.7/24.1 8.1/27.6 13.4/31.0 15.7/27.7<br />

30-60 13.5/29.9 10.4/24.6 7.5/32.2 10.5/32.9 12.9/26.0<br />

DL05=1.35<br />

Table 7<br />

Relation between adherence (g/cm 2 ) and humidity (%) of arable and sub-arable layers of calcic chernozem in the<br />

agroecosystem of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), May 2011<br />

Depth, cm<br />

Humidity, % (numerator) and<br />

adherence, g/cm 2 (denominator)<br />

Plowing, cattle manure<br />

0-10<br />

Humidity, W, %<br />

Adherence, g/cm<br />

38.8 38.2 29.4 28.4 23.5<br />

2<br />

9.1 10.2 4.6 2.6 0<br />

10-20<br />

Humidity, W, %<br />

Adherence, g/cm<br />

37.9 33.1 28.4 25.3 26.9<br />

2<br />

6.0 5.3 4.3 2.9 0<br />

20-30<br />

Humidity, W, %<br />

Adherence, g/cm<br />

33.6 30.2 41.6 25.6 23.6<br />

2<br />

6.0 5.7 1.7 3.6 0<br />

30-40<br />

Humidity, W, %<br />

Adherence, g/cm<br />

35.7 33.0 28.0 25.2 23.5<br />

2<br />

7.3 4.9 2.2 2.5 0<br />

140<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

25<br />

Arabil, fără<br />

fertilizare<br />

Arable, no<br />

fertilisation<br />

91<br />

Arabil,fertilizare<br />

minerală<br />

Arable,<br />

mineral<br />

fertilisation<br />

116<br />

Arabil, fertilizare<br />

organo-minerală<br />

Arable,<br />

organic-mineral<br />

fertilisation<br />

95<br />

47<br />

Ţelină Fâşie forestieră<br />

Fallo<br />

w landfarm<br />

F<br />

orest strip<br />

Figure 1. Earthworm abundance in conenoses with and without anthropic impact (Fedotova L., 1993)<br />

Earthworms’ research in 2012 in various<br />

agroecosystems and buffer areas of DES<br />

„Chetrosu” is presented in table 8 and 9. Results<br />

showed that earthworms were found in maize<br />

unfertilised and sun-flower with both types of<br />

fertilisation (post-action), and in the other<br />

research variants the earthworms lacked – alfalfa,<br />

winter wheat with and without fertilisation, fallow<br />

farmland. Earthworms’ investigation (25 May<br />

2012) has been made in alfalfa, maize, sun-flower,<br />

winter wheat with and without fertilisation, fallow<br />

farmland, and forest strip 1 and 2. Results showed<br />

that earthworms have been found only in alfalfa<br />

culture, with and without fertilisation, in forest<br />

strip 1 and 2 (table 9).<br />

Researches performed in 2012 showed that<br />

maximal number of earthworms has been<br />

recorded in the forest strip 2 (72 worms/m 2 ),<br />

0.204 t/ha; in the other variants, the earthworm<br />

number ranged between 1-16 worms/m 2 , or 0.02-<br />

0.160 t/ha.

Alf<br />

alfa<br />

49<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 8<br />

Earthworms’ abundance in various agroecosystems at DES „Chetrosu”, 11 May 2012<br />

Earthworms/m<br />

Agroecosystem<br />

2 Earthworms/ha<br />

number of<br />

worms<br />

weight (g)<br />

number of<br />

worms, thousands<br />

weight<br />

(t)<br />

Maize, no<br />

fertilisers<br />

4 1.2 40 0.120<br />

Sun-flower,<br />

fertilised<br />

16 1.6 160 0.160<br />

Sun-flower, no<br />

fertilisers<br />

4 0.8 40 0.080<br />

Table 9<br />

Earthworms’ abundance in various agroecosystems at DES „Chetrosu”, 24 May 2012<br />

Earthworms/m<br />

Agroecosystem<br />

2 Earthworms/ha<br />

number of<br />

weight<br />

number of weight<br />

worms<br />

(g) worms, thousands (t)<br />

fertilised 4 0.4 40 0.040<br />

no<br />

fertilisers<br />

1 0.2 10 0.020<br />

Forest strip (1) 8 1.6 80 0.160<br />

Forest strip (2) 72 20.4 720 0.204<br />

There was observed that earthworm<br />

abundance and weight are directly influenced by<br />

the quantitative and qualitative vegetable debris,<br />

fertilisation type, tillage system. In parallel with<br />

earthworms abundance and weight, have been<br />

investigated several parameters as resistance to<br />

penetration, humidity, and soil adherence in natural<br />

arrangement in various agroecosystems.<br />

The soil of the forest strips is characterised<br />

by homogeneity of resistance to penetration in the<br />

layer 20-40 cm (29-31 kgf/cm 2 ), and also the same<br />

aspect has been distinguished for alfalfa with and<br />

without fertilisation, exception being noticed only<br />

in weeding plats.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Mineral fertilisation of the researched<br />

agroecosystems influenced the plasticity indices of<br />

soil. Fertilisation with organic matter of soil<br />

decreased the soil adherence, and the degradation<br />

of soil structure determined increase of the<br />

adherence.More favourable for earthworms was<br />

the organic-mineral fertilisation, in moderate doses<br />

of mineral fertilisers.<br />

During the droughty years, earthworms<br />

preferred the deep layers of soils.<br />

The forest strips represented a refuge habitat<br />

for earthworms.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />

Publishing of this paper was financially supported<br />

by the co-operation research grants ASM 14 RoA/2010<br />

(Republic of Moldova) and UEFISCDI-Capacitati-modul<br />

III no. 432/16.06. 2010 (Romania).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Andriuca, V., Gîrla, D., Iordache, M., 2012 -<br />

Comparative earthworm research in various<br />

ecosystems with different anthropic impact,<br />

Research Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 44<br />

(3), p.149-153.<br />

Cerbari V., 1997- Metodica instituirii monitoringului<br />

funciar în Republica Moldova (Training methods<br />

for land monitoring), Chişinău, Republic of<br />

Moldova, p. 117-125.<br />

Cojocaru O., 1998 - Productivitatea culturilor de câmp<br />

în agroecosisteme la diferit grad de influenţă<br />

antropică, (Productivity of field cultures in<br />

agroecosystems with various degree of anthropic<br />

influence), PhD Thesis, Chişinău, Republic of<br />

Moldova, p. 147-151.<br />

Fedotova L., 1993 - Orientarea şi aprecierea<br />

schimbărilor activităţii biologice ale solului diferitor<br />

agroecosisteme (Trends and changes<br />

assessment of biological activity of soils in various<br />

agroecosystems), PhD Thesis, Chişinău,<br />

Republic of Moldova, p. 91.<br />

Godeanu S., 1997 - Elemente de monitoring ecologic/<br />

integrat (Elements of ecological/ integrated<br />

monitoring), Bucharest, p. 81- 95.<br />

Iordache, M., Borza, I., 2012 – Earthworms response<br />

(Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) to the physical<br />

properties of soil under condition of organic<br />

fertilisation, Journal of Food, Agriculture and<br />

Environment, 10(2), p. 1051-1055.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

50

Abstract<br />

51<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

ENZYME ACTIVITY IN SOYBEAN ROOT-ADHERING SOIL IN<br />

DEPENDENCE ON NUTRITION AND WATER CONTENT CONDITION<br />

Ecaterina EMNOVA 1 , Simion TOMA 1 , Oxana DARABAN 1 , Iana DRUTA 1<br />

e-mail: kateemnova@yahoo.com<br />

Exo-enzymes secreted by plant roots in common with microbial exo-enzymes are involved in soil biochemical<br />

processes, namely the processes of mineralization of soil organic matter and providing by mobile species of nutrients.<br />

Rhizosphere soil enzyme activity is less studied than the bulk soil. Research aim was to assess the enzyme activity<br />

involved in nitrogen and phosphorus cycles in rhizosphere soil of soybean plants under different conditions of nutrition<br />

and soil water content. The greenhouse experiment was conducted in plastic pots (5 kg of dry soil - calcareous<br />

chernozem, humus content 1.85%, pH 7.93), in four replicates. The two soil water content were examined: optimal<br />

(70% WHC) and low (35% WHC), both in unfertilized and fertilized soil. Water stress period was 17 days. Enzyme<br />

activity of cultivated soil had higher values than the soil without plants, i.e. it is confirmed that rhizosphere soil is<br />

influenced by root exudation and rhizospheric microorganisms increased activity. In most cases in the rhizosphere of<br />

soybean variety Aura the enzymatic activities had a higher level in comparison with Clavera variety. In the soybean<br />

rhizosphere soil fertilized with mineral forms of N and P urease activity reached a higher level, but protease and<br />

phosphatase activities decreased compared with unfertilized soil. The mineral N and P amended before seeding regulate<br />

the processes of mineralization of soil organic matter and reduce soil enzymatic activity according to the feedback<br />

principle. Phosphatase activity determined at different pH values, showed the highest alkaline phosphatase activity in<br />

calcareous chernozem under soybean plants. Soil enzyme activity was negatively influenced by low soil moisture. One<br />

exception was the soil urease activity with significantly higher values (p0.05). The research results contribute to understanding the biochemical<br />

processes in rhizospheric soil to realize the potential of soybean productivity and to maintain the soil fertility.<br />

Key words: calcareous chernozem, soybean rhizosphere, enzyme activity<br />

Biochemical mineralization is the release of<br />

nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur from soil organic<br />

compounds by the action of soil extracellular<br />

hydrolytic enzymes [Tate R., 2000]. The plant<br />

mass formation rate is limited by the rate of<br />

mineralization processes of plant debris, organic<br />

fertilizers, and/or soil organic matter (SOM) by the<br />

soil microbial community. Also, large quantities of<br />

plant nutrients, immobilized directly in microbial<br />

biomass, as a part of SOM, can serve as an<br />

additional source of mineral nutrition for crops.<br />

The release of mineral nutrients from plant and<br />

microbial biomass depends primarily on the<br />

number of soil microbial populations producing the<br />

complex hydrolytic enzymes necessary for<br />

transformation, decomposition and mineralization<br />

of SOM.<br />

Plants of different varieties or genotypes can<br />

affect through the quantity and quality of root<br />

exudation (diffusates) the structure and functions<br />

of microbial community, which colonizes the<br />

1 Institute of Genetics and Plant Physiology, MAS, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova<br />

rhizosphere (root-adhering soil), [Brimecombe M.,<br />

2001]. Besides that, the soil extracellular enzymes<br />

can originate from both the microorganisms, as<br />

well as root exudation of plants (secretions)<br />

[Martens D., 1992, R. Yang, 2007]. Being<br />

secreted, the extracellular enzymes are not under<br />

the control of microorganisms and roots that were<br />

responsible for their production [Schloter M.,<br />

2003]. Their activity and persistence are influenced<br />

by soil physical condition and chemical properties.<br />

The climatic conditions throughout the<br />

Republic of Moldova can be characterized as<br />

unstable. Annual potential evaporation exceeds the<br />

rainfall, which creates soil water content deficit<br />

[Ursu A., 2011].<br />

Soya is a crop with specific requirements to<br />

nutrient and water regime, and reacts poorly to the<br />

direct application of fertilizer, especial in areas of<br />

unstable wetting [Novak A., 1964, Toma S., 2008].<br />

All soybean varieties cultivated in Republic of<br />

Moldova are vulnerable in drought condition

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

[Vozian, 2010]. Compared with nutrition of<br />

legumes by fixing of atmospheric N the soybean<br />

root nutrition is poorly studied, including at<br />

different soil water content.<br />

The aim of research was to assess the<br />

enzyme activity involved in nitrogen and<br />

phosphorus cycles in the rhizosphere soil (rootadhering)<br />

of soybean plants of two varieties<br />

(genotypes) in various conditions of soil water<br />

content and nutrition.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The experiment was conducted under<br />

greenhouse condition in plastic pots (5 kg of<br />

absolutely dry soil - calcareous chernozem with<br />

humus content 1.85% and pH value 7.93), in four<br />

repetitions. Two soil water content levels were<br />

examined: optimal (70% WHC) and low (35%<br />

WHC) in the unfertilized soil, as well as fertilized<br />

one. Fertilizers were introduced 3 days before<br />

sowing. The load was N = 50 mg N kg -1 soil in the<br />

form of salt Ca(NO3)2, and P = 100 mg P2O5 kg -1<br />

soil - salt KH2PO4. Two varieties of soybean seeds<br />

Clavera and Aura were processed before sowing<br />

with nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium japonicum.<br />

Water stress period constituted 17 days. The<br />

object of study was the enzymatic activity of<br />

rhizosphere soil.<br />

Urease activity (Ure) was determined with<br />

urea as the substrate and reagent Nesler [Mineev<br />

V., 1989]. The activity of protease (Pro) was<br />

measured with Na-casein (substrate) and Folin-<br />

Ciocalteu reagent according to the method of Ladd<br />

52<br />

and Batler (1972) [Alef K., Nannipieri, P.), 1995].<br />

Phosphatase activity (Ph) acidic and alkaline were<br />

determined in the presence of buffer solutions<br />

(respectively, pH 5.0, 10.2) using the method<br />

proposed by Tabatabai and Bremner (1969) with pnitrophenol<br />

phosphate disodium salt (pNP) as<br />

substrate [Khaziev F. 1990; Teylor J., 2002;<br />

Daraban O., 2012]. Actual Ph was measured under<br />

natural soil pH 7.5 (without buffer). Agro-chemical<br />

parameters were analyzed according to known<br />

methods [Mineev V., 1989].<br />

The program Microsoft Excel for Windows<br />

XP (Microsoft Office) was used for data analysis.<br />

The arithmetic means were appreciated by<br />

standard deviation (σ). Reliability of differences<br />

between arithmetic averages was analyzed by<br />

Student t-test (bilateral test, type 3 with unequal<br />

variation, p

Treatments<br />

Soil without<br />

plants (control)<br />

Soybean variety<br />

Aura<br />

Soybean variety<br />

Clavera<br />

Initial soil<br />

Nutritive<br />

regime<br />

NP<br />

non-fertilized<br />

NP<br />

non-fertilized<br />

NP<br />

non-fertilized<br />

53<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Agrochemical parameters of soybean rhizosphere soil<br />

Soil water content<br />

% WHC<br />

SOM<br />

mobile NH4 + mobile NO3 - P2O5<br />

Mean values ± S.D. (n = 4)<br />

70% 1.89±0.04 3.4±0.10 0.142±0.010 8.5±0.3<br />

35% 1.76±0.03*** 2.5±0.07*** 0.114±0.009*** 8.4±0.8<br />

70% 1.80±0.04 3.1±0.16 0.042±0.002 1.1±0.2<br />

35% 1.84±0.06 3.9±0.18*** 0.033±0.011 0.9±0.1**<br />

70% 1.88±0.04 2.5±0.16 0.003±0.000 6.3±0.8<br />

Table 2<br />

35% 1.83±0.06 2.2±0.05** 0.005±0.002** 8.7±0.9***<br />

70% 1.86±0.04 2.8±0.24 0.005±0.002 0.8±0.1<br />

35% 1.87±0.07 2.6±0.08* 0.004±0.001 0.7±0.1<br />

70% 1.83±0.04 2.8±0.14 0.003±0.001 6.8±0.7<br />

35% 1.87±0.03 2.2±0.15*** 0.006±0.002** 8.8±0.4***<br />

70% 1.92±0.03 3.0±0.13 0.002±0.001 0.8±0.2<br />

35% 1.79±0.05*** 2.7±0.21** 0.008±0.013 0.8±0.0<br />

1.88±0.02 1.2±0.02 0.033±0.002 0.7±0.0<br />

Note. NP – respective, 50 mg N kg -1 dry soil and 100 mg P2O5 kg -1 dry soil. SOM – Soil Organic Matter (humus), %; NH4 +<br />

– ammoniacal nitrogen, mg 100 g -1 dry soil; NO3 - - nitrate nitrogen g. mg 100 g -1 dry soil; P2O5 – anorganic phosphorus<br />

(Machigin), mg 100 g -1 dry soil; S.D.- standard deviation, σ. *Significant difference appreciation of parameters is shown<br />

for 70% WHC versus 35% WHC, *(P

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

(increase by 5.8%) was shown clearly (p 0.05).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The enzymatic activity of cultivated soil had<br />

higher values than the soil without plant, namely,<br />

the rhizosphere soil is influenced by the root<br />

exudation – directly, and by increased activity of<br />

rhizosphere microorganisms - indirectly. In most<br />

cases the enzymatic activities of soil under<br />

soybean variety Aura had a higher level in<br />

comparison with Clavera variety.<br />

The urease activity reached a higher level in<br />

soil fertilized with mineral forms of N and P, but<br />

protease and phosphatase activities decreased<br />

compared with unfertilized soil. Mineral fertilizers<br />

containing N and P (respectively, 50 and 100 mg<br />

kg -1 dry soil) regulated the processes of proteins<br />

and of organic phosphorus forms mineralization in<br />

the soil by reducing the corresponding enzymatic<br />

activity according to the feedback principle.<br />

The reduced soil water content negatively<br />

influenced the soil enzyme activity. The exception<br />

was the soil urease activity, which in all treatments<br />

had higher values as a response to low soil water<br />

content.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Alef, K., Nanipieri, P. (Ed.), 1995 - Methods in applied<br />

soil microbiology and biochemistry. New York,<br />

Acad. Press, p 313-315.<br />

Daraban, O., Zbanc, E., Emnova, E., Boincean, B.,<br />

Toma, S., 2012 – Activitatea fosfatazică a<br />

cernoziomului tipic în asolament de câmp.<br />

„Edificarea societăţii durabile”, conf. şt.-practică<br />

intern., Ch.: UASM, p. 162-168.<br />

Emnova, E., Toma, S., Boincean, B., Nica, L.,<br />

Daraban, O., Druţa Ia., Stadnic S., 2010 -<br />

Biochemical parameters of typical chernozem soil<br />

54<br />

under sunflower and vetch+oats in crop rotation<br />

with different fertilization Lucr. şt., seria<br />

<strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 53 (1), U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, CD-ROM<br />

Emnova, E., Toma, S., Daraban, O., Druţa Ia., 2011 –<br />

Activitatea hidrolitică a cernoziomului tipic şi<br />

mobilizarea elementelor nutritive ale plantelor, în:<br />

Creşterea impactului cercetării şi a dezvoltării<br />

capacităţii de inovare. Conf. şt. intern., dedicată<br />

aniversării 65 de ani de la fondarea USM.<br />

Ch.:USM. p. 230-234.<br />

Khaziev, F.H., 1990 – Soil enzymology methods.<br />

Moskva: Nauka, 192 p.<br />

Ladd, J.N., Butle,r J.H.A., 1972 - Short-term assays of<br />

soil proteolytic enzyme activity using proteins and<br />

dipeptide derivatives as substrates, Soil Biol.<br />

Biochem., vol. 37, p.1373-1385.<br />

Martens, D.A., Johanson, J.B., Frankerberger,<br />

Jr.W.T., 1992 - Production and persistence of soil<br />

enzymes with repeated addition of organic<br />

residues.. Soil Sci., vol. 153, p. 53-61.<br />

Mineev, V.G., 1989 - Handbook of agrochemistry,<br />

Editura Moscow State University. 304pp.<br />

Novak, A, 1964 – Soybean cultivation. Moscow : Rosselhozizdat,<br />

p. 56.<br />

Pinton, R., Varanini, Z., Nannipieri, P. (Eds.), 2001. -<br />

The Rhizosphere. Biochemistry and Organic<br />

Substances at the Soil-Plant Interface. New York-<br />

Basel, Marcel Dekker Inc. p.223-262.<br />

Schloter, M., Dilly, O., Munch, J.C. 2003 - Indicators<br />

for evaluating soil quality. Agr., Ecosyst. and<br />

Environ. Vol. 98, p. 255-262.<br />

Tabatabai, M.A., Bremner, J.M., 1969 - Use of pnitrophenyl<br />

phosphate for assay of soil<br />

phosphatase activity, Soil Biol. Biochem., vol. 1,<br />

p. 301-307.<br />

Tate, R.L. III. Soil Microbiology. Second Ed. John Wiley<br />

and Sons inc., NY, 2000, 508 p.<br />

Taylor, J.P., Wilson, B, Mills, M.S., Burns, R.G., 2002<br />

– Comparison of microbial numbers and<br />

enzymatic activities in surface soils and subsoils<br />

using various techniques. Soil Biol. Biochem., vol.<br />

34 (3), p. 387-401.<br />

Toma, S. (coord), 2008 - Aplicarea îngrăşămintelor în<br />

agricultură durabilă (Îndrumar practic). Ch.:<br />

Tipogr. A.Ş.M, 212 p.<br />

Toma, S., Emnova, E., Daraban, O., Druţa, Ia., 2011 -<br />

Proprietăţile agrochimice şi biochimice ale<br />

cernoziomului carbonatic fertilizat cu<br />

îngrăşăminte organice în funcţie de regim<br />

hidrotermic. Buletinul AŞM. Şt. vieţii. nr. 2(314).<br />

p. 98-105.<br />

Vozian, V., Iacobuţa, M., Taran, M., Glatchi, D.,2010 -<br />

Studiul influenţei secetei asupra productivităţii<br />

soiei în 2000-2009. In: Rolul culturilor<br />

leguminoase şi furajere în agricultura Republicii<br />

Moldova. Ch.: „Tipogr. Centrală”, CŞP „Selecţia”,<br />

Conf. Intern. Moldova, Bălţi, 17-18 iunie, 2010. p.<br />

362-365.<br />

Ursu, A., 2011 – Solurile Moldovei. Ch.: I.E.P. Ştiinţa,<br />

324 p.<br />

Yang, R., Tang, J., Chen, X., Hu, S., 2007 - Effects of<br />

coexisting plants species on soil microbes and<br />

soil enzymes in metal lead contaminated soils.<br />

Appl. Soil Ecology, vol. 37, p. 240-246<br />

.

Abstract<br />

55<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EVOLUTION OF GRAY FOREST SOIL IN AGRICULTURAL USE IN<br />

CENTRAL PART OF REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA<br />

Marina LUNGU 1<br />

e-mail: seamarinkam@gmail.com<br />

With deforestation and employment in the agricultural cycle the forest soils begins another stage in its development.<br />

But a great scientific interest presents the evolution of these soils in agriculture use under climatic conditions different<br />

from those in which they were formed. To highlight and evaluate changes of arable gray forest soils propreties under<br />

anthropogenic factor action, in order to develop and recommend a system of measures to minimize adverse<br />

consequences and increasing production capacity of these soils while long-term preservation of their quality, in the<br />

specific conditions of Moldova, we aimed to investigate changes occurred in the morphology, properties and the<br />

elementary processes of gray forest soils (grayzems), employed in the agricultural cycle, in climatic conditions<br />

favorable for the development of steppe vegetation and formation of chernozem on Ivancea village, Orhei district,<br />

Moldova`s Codrii area. To achieve this research we investigated using the method of comparison grayzem under forest,<br />

grayzem aside employed in agriculture about 100 years ago and grayzem that before being used systematically in<br />

agriculture had a long period of development under steppe.<br />

Key words: soil evolution, gray soil, grizom, anthropogenic factor, agriculture, pedogenesis.<br />

Being formed around the end of<br />

Pleistocene and early Holocene when the climate<br />

was colder and more humid, favorable for forest<br />

vegetation growth development (Adamenco О.М.<br />

and others, 1996), and developed in the present<br />

time in semiarid climatic conditions corresponding<br />

to the chernozems area, gray forest soils from<br />

Republic of Moldova is an interesting and peculiar<br />

object of research in point of view of their<br />

development both under the forest and as farmland.<br />

Thus now in the forests continues to evolve gray<br />

forest soils due to the biological factor, but under<br />

the climate regime typical for chernozem area. It<br />

gives them some characteristics that distinguish<br />

them from other regions. (Grati V. P., 1977). In<br />

addition to it, during subatlantic period, at the end<br />

of holocene when soils reached maturity<br />

anthropogenic factor started its influence on this<br />

area, influenced here during more than 3000 years<br />

and led to massive clearing of forests to get wood<br />

or use released land for growing crops.<br />

(Adamenco О.М. and others, 1996). Once forest<br />

land was cleared, there is established steppe<br />

vegetation, because there were no longer the<br />

conditions to return the forest. But if land cleared<br />

and it is used in agriculture how evolves these<br />

soils? Peculiarities of pedogenesis processes and<br />

soil properties changes as a result of changing<br />

conditions of gray soils development by use in<br />

agriculture are the questions which are discussed in<br />

this article.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

As the object of study were selected gray soils<br />

from the forest and those which were employed in<br />

agricultural use on the village Ivancea, Orhei<br />

district, in the central part of Moldova`s Codri area<br />

that are evolved on clayey-loamy loess deposits<br />

placed on the the pliocene alluvial deposits. The<br />

central part of Moldova is located between the<br />

150-250 m height, in the warm and semihumid<br />

climatic area. For research and comparison have<br />

been chosen four groups of the soil profile:<br />

gray soils of primary forest with<br />

semiprofound humus profile<br />

gray arable soil with semiprofound humus<br />

profile (used as arable land about 100 years);<br />

gray arable soil with moderately profound<br />

humus profile (free from the forest vegetation more<br />

than 100 years).<br />

cambic arable chernozem regradated from<br />

gray soil during prolonged pedogenesis under the<br />

steppe vegetation<br />

1 Institutul de Pedologie, Agrochimie și Protecție a Solului ”Nicolae Dimo”, Chișinău, Republica Moldova.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

66 59 53 54 52 55 56 61 8<br />

2<br />

Pădure<br />

65 57 51 9 58 60 63<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10<br />

1<br />

3<br />

Numărul câmpurilor<br />

Figure 1 Sole distribution scheme of investigated areas in the<br />

experimental field<br />

1 –gray arable soil semimoderately humiferous with<br />

semiprofound humus profile (used as arable land about 100<br />

years);<br />

2 - gray arable soil semimoderately humiferous with<br />

moderately profound humus profile<br />

3 - cambic arable chernozem moderately humiferous with<br />

deep profound humus profile<br />

4 –eroded arable leached chernozem with moderately<br />

profound humus profile<br />

gray soils of primary forest<br />

with semiprofound humus<br />

profile<br />

62<br />

gray arable soil with<br />

semiprofound humus<br />

profile (used as arable land<br />

about 100 years);<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Conducted research (Grati V. P., 1977, Lungu M.,<br />

2010) has shown that gray soil from the forest is<br />

characterized by a clear differentiation of the<br />

profile. During the 0-31 cm depth outlined three<br />

genetic horizons: AEhţ, AEh and Behtw with<br />

medium texture and low compaction, under which<br />

is located iluvial very compacted horizon. It was<br />

established that the loss of clay (90 t / ha) from<br />

eluvials horizons (AEhţ, AEh, BEh) of gray forest<br />

soil is about nine times smaller than its<br />

accumulation in iluvial horizons (835 t / ha). It<br />

confirms the leading role of weathering "in situ”<br />

processes in the textural profile differentiation of<br />

these soils (Grati V. P., 1975, Lungu M., 2010). Forest<br />

4<br />

Figure 3 Soil profiles of forest and arable gray soils.<br />

56<br />

Figure 2 Topographic map of the soil profiles<br />

location to study the evolution of gray soil as<br />

the result of human impact in central part of<br />

Moldova.<br />

gray arable soil with<br />

moderately profound<br />

humus profile (free from<br />

the forest vegetation<br />

more than 100 years).<br />

cambic arable chernozem<br />

evolved from gray soil during<br />

prolonged pedogenesis<br />

under the steppe vegetation<br />

soils are characterized by good structural state and<br />

hidrostability of soil aggregates in 0-20 cm layer.<br />

Humus profile of forest soils is characterized by<br />

thin swarded horizon on surface (8 ± 2 cm) with<br />

8.52 ± 0.56 % average humus content. In deep<br />

humus content decreases sharply and is equal to<br />

2.93 ± 0.20 % in AEh horizon. Average value of<br />

hydrolytic acidity for 0-34 cm layer of gray forest<br />

soil is 6.9 ± 2.9 me/100g.<br />

A common feature for both gray forest soils<br />

and the arable land is comparatively small depth<br />

(about 80 cm from surface) of occurrence of iluvial<br />

carbonate horizon extremely highlighted; the<br />

maximum carbonate content varies within 20-28%.<br />

Carbonates are shaped in massive accumulation of<br />

carbonate concretions and veined. This is a

consequence of contrast warmer hydrothermal<br />

regime under which influence soils were formed. It<br />

should be cautioned that in forest soils carbonate<br />

accumulations are more expressed than in arable<br />

soils. Hydrothermal regime changes to a more<br />

humid on arable gray soils have led to a more<br />

homogeneous distribution of carbonates in the all<br />

parental rock.<br />

Arable layer of the gray soil permanently<br />

used in agriculture around 100 years consists from<br />

mixture of genetic material from three forest soil<br />

surface horizons AEhţ, AEh şi BEhtw. This layer<br />

has lost initial favorable structure and became<br />

rough and highly compact, texture has changed<br />

from the middle to middle-fine and the color from<br />

gray to reddish brown. Arable and postarable layer<br />

(0-30 cm) practically lost its ability to keep the<br />

loose state after basic processing. Balanced bulk<br />

density (Fig. 4) of the arable layer at 10-30 cm<br />

depth (below the periodic tillage layer) to midsummer<br />

reach values equal to 1.50 to 1.55 g / cm ³,<br />

and the degree of compaction - 17 - 18%. As a<br />

result, the state of physical quality of this layer has<br />

become unfavorable for growth of crop plants.<br />

cm<br />

g/cm3<br />

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00<br />

0<br />

50<br />

100<br />

150<br />

200<br />

gray soils from forest<br />

gray arable soils with semiprofound<br />

humus profile<br />

gray arable soils with<br />

moderatelyprofound humus profile<br />

arable cernozem<br />

Figure 4 Values of soil bulk density of forest and<br />

arable gray soils.<br />

Under arable layer is placed iluvial horizon highly<br />

compacted identical to the the same horizon of the<br />

forest soil. As a result of use in agriculture the<br />

hydrolytic acidity (Fig. 6) in arable soils decreased<br />

with more than 2 times (from high to low), which<br />

in contrast hydrothermical regime conditions<br />

stopped the eluvial-iluvial process.<br />

cm<br />

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0<br />

0<br />

20<br />

%<br />

40<br />

60<br />

80<br />

100<br />

120<br />

140<br />

160<br />

180<br />

200<br />

gray soils from forest<br />

gray arable soils with semiprofound<br />

humus profile<br />

gray arable soils with<br />

moderatelyprofound humus profile<br />

arable cernozem<br />

Figure 5 Humus content of researched soils<br />

(average data)<br />

57<br />

cm<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

0<br />

10<br />

20<br />

30<br />

40<br />

50<br />

60<br />

70<br />

80<br />

90<br />

100<br />

me/100 g sol<br />

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0<br />

gray soils from forest<br />

gray arable soils with semiprofound<br />

humus profile<br />

gray arable soils with<br />

moderatelyprofound humus profile<br />

arable cernozem<br />

Figure 6 Hydrolytic acidity values of<br />

researched soils (average data).<br />

As a result of use in agriculture humus<br />

content (Fig. 5) in arable land has decreased in the<br />

profile section 0-34 cm on average by 1.43% or<br />

about 38% (about 70.5 t / ha) of initial humus<br />

content in this section of forest soil, having values<br />

of 2.33 ± 0.07%. The weighted average content of<br />

humus in the arable and postarable layer (0-34 cm)<br />

of gray arable soil with moderately profound<br />

humus profile is 2.61 ± 0.09%. In the profile of<br />

these soils humus content decreases with depth<br />

more slowly than the other two. Arable gray soil<br />

with moderately profound humus profile is very<br />

similar to those with semiprofound humus profile<br />

but differs from them by: thicker and darker humus<br />

profile and the presence of AB horizon more<br />

structured and less compact. As we found that gray<br />

forest soils being employed in agricultural<br />

production shall be subject to dehumification, and<br />

in forest soils humus is concentrated in the first 0-8<br />

cm being easily mineralized after grubbing, we<br />

consider that gray arable soil with moderately<br />

profound humus profile has passed a stage of<br />

development under steppe in its development.<br />

Gray arable soils throughout the profile are<br />

low in total phosphorus content, unlike the forest<br />

gray soils which are characterized by high content<br />

of total phosphorus in AEhţ horizon as a result of<br />

biological accumulation of this element from litter<br />

and other organic debris. It was determined that<br />

remediation of the properties of these soils should<br />

be directed towards increasing the content of<br />

organic matter in arable layer and improving the<br />

unfavorable structural condition in plowed layer.<br />

So during the research were determined<br />

three stages of degradation and gray soil<br />

regradation in the investigated region what<br />

corresponds to identified soil types:<br />

I. stage of conservative degradation - at this<br />

stage takes place the homogenization of the upper<br />

part of the profile, dehumification, destructuring of<br />

structural aggregates and soil compaction, reducing<br />

soil acidity, stopping eluvial-iluvial and cambic<br />

processes what led to the decreasing of humuso-

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

accumulative processes intensity and<br />

morphological and textural differentiation in the<br />

profile.<br />

II. Stage of partial regradation as a result of<br />

the short phases of arable gray soil pedogenesis in<br />

steppe vegetation (long swarding). It is<br />

characterized by intensification of humification<br />

process and increasing of humus profile thickness<br />

without significant changes in humus quality.<br />

III. Stage of regradation in chernozem under<br />

the influence of pedogenesis process under the<br />

steppe vegetation. Among characteristic features of<br />

soil at this stage are listed the intensification of<br />

humus accumulation, higher humus quality and the<br />

formation of the deeper humus profile.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Soils evidenced on the research area are<br />

characterized by the following morphological<br />

characteristics and common features:<br />

comparatively small depth of carbonates leaching<br />

(80-90 cm from ground surface) followed by<br />

formation of a highlighted iluvial carbonate<br />

horizon very compact when is dry; strong<br />

argilization in the middle part of the profile; the<br />

similar way of the clay distribution on the profile;<br />

existence of the special formation inherited from<br />

pedogenesis stage in forest vegetation (holes of the<br />

former roots of trees, Fe2O3 and MnO2 cutan on the<br />

walls of these holes)<br />

2. Gray soils used about 100 years in<br />

agriculture are characterized by following changes<br />

in morphological characters and properties:<br />

formation of the arable layer with average<br />

thickness 34 cm from the genetic material<br />

of the former three horizons of gray forest<br />

soil (AEhţ + AEh + BEhtw);<br />

increase in arable layer by about 6.0% clay<br />

content compared with the analog section<br />

58<br />

of the forest soil as a result of increasing<br />

"in situ" weathering process followed by<br />

the reduction of the textural differentiation<br />

on the profile;<br />

decrease of humus content in arable layer<br />

0-34 cm on average by 1.74% (43 percent<br />

of initial content) compared to the humus<br />

content in the same section of the forest<br />

soil;<br />

loss of resistance to compaction of arable<br />

layer, balanced bulk density achieve values<br />

to the 1.55 - 1.57 g/cm3 (strong<br />

compaction) and poor physical condition<br />

as the result of dehumification and weaker<br />

structure;<br />

reduction of 2-3 times the value of<br />

hydrolytic acidity in arable layer and<br />

stopping the eluvial-iluvial process and<br />

textural differentiation of the profile<br />

(positive change);<br />

3. cambic arable chernozem is characterized<br />

by intensification of humus accumulation process,<br />

higher quality humus formation (humato – fulvic<br />

or humatic) and the deeper humiferous profile.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Adamenko O. M. and others..,1996 Quaternary<br />

paleogeography of the ecosystem of the lower<br />

and middle Dniester. Kiev, 1996. 100 p.<br />

Grati V. P., 1977 - Forest soils of Moldova and their<br />

rational use. Chisinau: Ştiinţa,. 136 p.<br />

Grati V. P., 1975 - The nature of the texture<br />

differentiation on profile of the forest soils in<br />

Moldova. In: Soil Science., № 8, p. 15-19.<br />

Lungu Marina, 2010 - Evolution of gray arable soils in<br />

Central part of Moldova and measures to<br />

improve the negative properties. PhD thesis in<br />

biol., IPAPS ”N. Dimo”, Chișinău, 193 p.

Abstract<br />

e-mail: rotaruvlad@yahoo.com<br />

59<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF RHIZOBACTERIA AND PHOSPHORUS SUPPLY ON<br />

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS CONTENTS IN SOYBEAN UNDER<br />

INSUFFICIENCY MOISTURE OF SOIL<br />

Rhisophere bacteria have a beneficial impact on plant growth and development due to improvement of mineral<br />

nutrition. In order to elucidate the effect of azotobacter chroococcum and pseudomonas fluorescence on nitrogen and<br />

total and inorganic phosphorus concentrations in plants a pot experiment was carried out. Soybean (Glycine max. L)<br />

plants were cultivated on soil-sand mixture. A set of plants was subjected to water stress conditions of 35% WHC<br />

(water holding capacity) at flowering stage and other one grown under normal moisture of soil, 70% WHC.<br />

Experimental results revealed that the application of phosphorus alone or in combination with rhizobacteria did not<br />

change the concentration of nitrogen in leaves, but it was observed an increase of nitrogen contents in roots. The same<br />

trend was demonstrated in pattern of total phosphorus concentration in soybean parts. The utilization of suspension of<br />

microorganisms and phosphorus increased significantly the concentration of inorganic phosphorus under normal as<br />

well as under insufficient moisture level. Thus, biofertilizer application could be considered as a strategy to attenuate<br />

negative effect of drought through stimulation of nutrients contents in soybean.<br />

Key words: Glycine max., nitrogen, phosphorus, rhizobacteria, water stress<br />

Soybean is one of the protein and oil<br />

essential sources for human and livestock feed.<br />

Soybean plants due to their good capacity of<br />

nitrogen fixation improve soil fertility and reduce<br />

doses of industrial fertilizers.<br />

According to literature data this species is<br />

very susceptible to drought and low phosphates in<br />

soil (Wang X et al., 2010). However, most of the<br />

soils in Republic of Moldova as well as at global<br />

scale are characterized by low level of phosphorus<br />

availability (Andries S., 2007). A large portion of<br />

soluble inorganic phosphate applied to soil as<br />

chemical fertilizer is rapidly immobilized soon<br />

after application and becomes unavailable to plants<br />

(Yadav K., Dadarwal H., 1997). Likewise, reserves<br />

of rock- phosphorus are finite with an estimated<br />

depletion of sources expected to occur within the<br />

next 50–60 years (Vance C et al., 2003). It must be<br />

emphasized that the higher cost of phosphoric<br />

fertilizer became a limiting factor for crop<br />

production. Several plant growth-promoting<br />

rhizobacteria (PGPR) have shown potential to<br />

enhance phosphorus solublization and nutrition of<br />

crops (Adesemoye A., Kloepper J., 2009, Krey T<br />

et al., 2011). The application of rhizobacteria in<br />

soybean biotechnology could have a promising<br />

benefit for plant nutrition, partially overcome P<br />

ROTARU VLADIMIR 1<br />

1 Institute of Genetics and Plant Physiology, Republic of Moldova, Chisinau<br />

deficiency. Thus, in the context of increasing<br />

international concern for food and environmental<br />

quality, the use of PGPR for reducing chemical<br />

inputs in agriculture is a potentially important<br />

issue.<br />

PGPR have been applied to various crops to<br />

enhance growth, seed emergence and crop yield,<br />

and some have been commercialized (Dey R et al.,<br />

2004). Rhizosphere bacteria can affect plant<br />

growth through different mechanisms such as<br />

nitrogen fixation, production of plant growth<br />

regulators (Vessey K., 2003) and increasing plant<br />

water and nutrient uptake (Dey R et al., 2004,<br />

Rodrigues H., Fraga R., 1999). The ability of<br />

Pseudomonas strains to increase solubility of<br />

phosphate sources and non-absorbent organic<br />

phosphate emphasizes the need of using them to<br />

increase the absorbing of nutrients, especially<br />

phosphorus, in terms of nutrient shortages (De<br />

Freitas J et al., 1997).<br />

The objective of the research was to<br />

investigate under greenhouse conditions the<br />

influence of P and bacteria azotobacter<br />

chroococcum and pseudomonas fluorescence on<br />

the nitrogen, total and inorganic phosphorus<br />

contents in soybean under suboptimal moisture<br />

regime of soil.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

In order to accomplish the research<br />

objective it was carried out a factorial pot<br />

experiment under semi controlled environmental<br />

conditions with soybean (Glycine max. L cultivar<br />

Zodiac). The phosphorus deficiency soil was<br />

represented by cernoziom carbonated and was<br />

mixed with sand (1:1 v/v). The treatments included<br />

variants with suspension application of azotobacter<br />

chroococcum and pseudomonas fluorescence in<br />

soil without (P0) or with of phosphorus (100 mg P<br />

per kg of soil). Three plants were grown in each<br />

pot. There were four replications of treatment. The<br />

soybean seeds were inoculated with bacteria strain<br />

Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Plants were cultivated<br />

at two water soil regime 70% WHC (water holding<br />

capacity) as normal level and 35% WHC as<br />

suboptimal level. Soil water shortage was imposed<br />

at the flowering stage for two weeks. Plants were<br />

cut at ground level separated from roots, nodules<br />

60<br />

and dried at 60 ºC for 72 hours. These samples<br />

were finely ground and analyzed for nitrogen<br />

content by a Kjeldahl procedure and total and<br />

inorganic P determined by vanadate-molybdenum<br />

blue method (Murthy J., Riely J., 1962).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The bacterial species azotobacter<br />

chroococcum and pseudomonas fluorescence as<br />

well as phosphorus supply caused significant<br />

increase of dry weight of roots and shoots of<br />

soybean and the results have been reported (Rotaru<br />

V., 2012). The nutritional status of plants was<br />

evaluated by assay of nitrogen, total and inorganic<br />

phosphorus contents in leaves and roots (tab. 1, fig.<br />

1, 2). Under optimal water conditions the nitrogen<br />

concentration in leaves was higher of aninoculated<br />

plants compared to inoculated plants.<br />

Changes in nitrogen concentration (%, dry weight) in leaves and roots of soybean in relation to rizosferic<br />

bacteria and P supply under water stress conditions<br />

Treatments Leaves Roots<br />

70% WHC 35% WHC 70% WHC 35% WHC<br />

A week after water stress<br />

P0 5,13 4,77 3,25 3,44<br />

P20 4,84 4,66 2,77 2,86<br />

P100 4,83 4,52 2,83 2,93<br />

P0+MO 4,88 4,66 3,05 3,04<br />

P100+MO 4,64 4,96 3,02 3,18<br />

Two weeks after water stress<br />

P0 4,61 4,51 2,95 2,80<br />

P20 4,44 4,44 2,79 2,87<br />

P100 4,33 4,49 2,76 2,76<br />

P0+MO 4,19 4,49 2,77 2,80<br />

P100+MO 4,14 4,46 2,81 2,97<br />

Experimental results established an increase of<br />

nitrogen content in control roots compared to the<br />

plants with fertilization. Perhaps this result<br />

obtained in treatment without phosphorus<br />

application is due to biological dilution effect.<br />

The combined supply of microorganisms (MO)<br />

and phosphorus (P100 mg kg soil) increased<br />

nitrogen content in leaves by 6% of water stressed<br />

plants. The trend effect of rhizobacteria was not<br />

affected by soil moisture level. Likewise,<br />

combined application of microorganisms and<br />

fertilizer increased the concentration of nitrogen<br />

in roots by 8% (tab. 1). The data analysis of the<br />

second harvest of plants din not revealed any<br />

significant changes in distribution of total<br />

Table 1<br />

nitrogen in leaves. Under optimal moisture of soil<br />

phosphorus supplemental nutrition separately or<br />

in combination with MO decreased the nutrient<br />

concentration. However, in water-stressed plants<br />

the concentration of N in roots at the second<br />

harvest was increased by 7,1% due to both<br />

bacterial inoculation and P supply. Our results are<br />

consistent with the data obtained by Arnon I.,<br />

(1975) that have been demonstrated an increase of<br />

nitrogen in corn plants under water stress<br />

conditions.<br />

Phosphorus is one of the major nutrients,<br />

second only to nitrogen in requirement for plants.<br />

The growth conditions did not affect the<br />

concentration of total phosphorus in leaves

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

tissues. The experimental results shown weak modifications in leaves after bacteria<br />

Fig. 1. Concentration of total P in leaves and roots in relation to supplemental P nutrition and rizosferic<br />

bacteria application under suboptimal soil conditions (a week water stress)<br />

supply. However, it was observed an accumulation<br />

of phosphorus in roots in treatment of bacteria<br />

application without phosphorus supplemental<br />

nutrition of normal hydrated plants (fig. 1). The<br />

same trend was found after 8 weeks of plant<br />

growth (data are not presented). In treatment with<br />

MO application on native soil (P0) the content of P<br />

decreased from 9,9 to 7,7 mg P dry mass of leaves<br />

compared to reference treatment. Also, it was<br />

61<br />

demonstrated that the nutrient concentration in<br />

roots increased with increasing the dose of<br />

phosphorus under suboptimal moisture of soil<br />

Thus, the soil amendment with biofertilizer or P<br />

supply alleviated partly phosphorus nutrition of<br />

plants under drought conditions.<br />

An important character of phosphorus<br />

metabolism is considered the content of inorganic<br />

P in plant tissues.<br />

Fig. 2. Concentration of inorganic P in leaves and roots in relation to supplemental P nutrition and<br />

rizosferic bacteria application under suboptimal soil conditions<br />

Supplemental mineral nutrition contributed to<br />

modification of Pi contents in leaves and roots.<br />

The determination of this physiological parameter<br />

demonstrated that the insufficiency of soil moisture<br />

increased its concentrations in vegetative organs of<br />

plants (fig. 2). Its content in both parts increased<br />

due to alone application of P to stress plants (35%<br />

WHC). At the second term of plant harvest it was<br />

observed an increase of Pi concentration in leaves<br />

in treatment with MO application under normal<br />

moisture conditions. Our results are in accordance<br />

with the previous studies indicating increase P<br />

accumulation in Phaseolus vulgaris due to P<br />

application and PGPR inoculation (Heckman R.,<br />

Kamprath E., 1995; Olivera M et al., 2004). The<br />

data of present investigation show that the<br />

administration of phosphorus induced the<br />

accumulation of Pi in leaves especially under<br />

suboptimal water regime of soil. The use of MO<br />

together with P decreased the level of this

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

parameter in leaves irrespective of soil moisture<br />

level. But its concentration under limited water<br />

conditions increased in leaves with sufficiently P<br />

supply (P100). It should be noted that the<br />

application of microorganisms did not change the<br />

nutrient content under normal moisture but it was<br />

observed more pronounced beneficial effect under<br />

water stress conditions. An increased P uptake of<br />

16% was observed for soybean after the<br />

application of the mixture pseudomonas<br />

fluorescence and azotobacter chroococcum in the<br />

treatment without fertilization (fig. 2). The higher<br />

P concentration in the plant benefits the bacterial<br />

symbiont and the functioning of its nitrogenase<br />

leading to increase N fixation, which in turn<br />

promotes root development (Lee K., Ponhurst C.,<br />

1992). Hence, supplemental P nutrition as well as<br />

MO administration had a beneficial effect upon the<br />

absorption phosphorus in roots. For instance, under<br />

optimal soil moisture it was demonstrated an<br />

accumulation of Pi in tissues of roots due to<br />

application of phosphorus alone or in combination<br />

with MO.<br />

Thus, our research established that<br />

phosphate insufficiency in cernoziom carbonated<br />

decreased the concentration of phosphorus<br />

inorganic in roots and leaves irrespective of soil<br />

moisture regime. Taken together, results suggest<br />

that rhizobacteria are able to increase the mineral<br />

nutrition, thereby improving the growth of plants.<br />

The use of PGPR as inoculants biofertilizers is an<br />

efficient approach to replace chemical fertilizers<br />

for sustainable soybean cultivation in low fertility<br />

of soil. Further investigations, including efficiency<br />

test under field conditions, are needed to clarify the<br />

role of rizosferic bacteria as biofertilizers that exert<br />

beneficial effects on grain productivity of soybean.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Low availability of phosphates in cernoziom<br />

carbonated decreased the content of inorganic of<br />

phosphorus in roots and leaves of soybean<br />

irrespective of water soil regime.<br />

Our results suggest that soybean plants<br />

benefit from the bacterial application of<br />

Pseudomonas fluorescens şi Azotobacter<br />

chrooccocum under dry soil conditions mainly in<br />

terms of an improved mineral nutrition.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Adesemoye A. M., Kloepper J. W., 2009 - Plant–<br />

microbes interactions in enhanced fertilizer-use<br />

efficiency. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol vol. 85, p.1–<br />

12.<br />

62<br />

Andrieş S.V., 2007 - Optimizarea regimurilor nutritive<br />

ale solurilor şi productivitatea plantelor de cultură.<br />

Chişinău 384p.<br />

Arnon, I., 1975 - Fertilizer use in dry regions.<br />

Background and Principles. Leonard Hill, London.<br />

Adesemoye, A.O., Torbert, H.A., Kloepper, J.W., 2009<br />

- Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria allow<br />

reduced application rates of chemical fertilizers.<br />

Microb. Ecol. vol. 58, p.921–929.<br />

De Freitas J.R., Banerjee M.R., Germida J.J., 1997 -<br />

Phosphate-solubilizing rhizobacteria enhance the<br />

growth and yield but not phosphorus uptake of<br />

canola (Brassica napus L.). Biol. Fertil. Soils, 24,<br />

p.358-364.<br />

Dey, R., K.K. Pal, D.M. Bhatt, S.M. Chauhan, 2004<br />

Growth promotion and yield enhancement of<br />

peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) by application of<br />

plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Microbiol.<br />

Res., 159, p.371-394.<br />

Heckman R., Kamprath E.J., 1995 - Potassium<br />

accumulation and soybean yield related to<br />

potassium fertilizer rate and lacement. Commun.<br />

Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 26, p.123–143.<br />

Krey T., Caus M., Baum C., Ruppel S., B. Eichler-<br />

Löbermann. 2011 - Interactive effects of plant<br />

growth–promoting rhizobacteria and organic<br />

fertilization on P nutrition of Zea mays L. and<br />

Brassica napus L. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. vol. 174,<br />

p.602–613.<br />

Lee K.E., Ponhurst C.E., 1992 - Soil organisms and<br />

sustainable production. Aust. J. Soil res. 30,<br />

p.855-892.<br />

Murthy J., Riley J.P., 1962 - A modified single solution<br />

method for the determination of phosphate in<br />

natural water –Anal.Chem, vol. 27, p.31-36.<br />

Olivera M, Tejera N, Iribare C, Ocana A, Lluch C.<br />

2004 - Growth, nitrogen fixation and ammonium<br />

assimilation in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris<br />

L.): effect of phosphorus. Physiol. Plant. 121,<br />

p.498–505.<br />

Rodriguez H., Fraga R., 1999 - Phosphate solubilizing<br />

bacteria and their role in plant growth promotion.<br />

Biotechnol. Adv. 17, p.319–339.<br />

Rotaru V., 2012 – The influence of phosphorus and<br />

rhizobacteria on soybean (Glycine max.L) root<br />

growth under suboptimal moisture regime.<br />

Simpozionul şţiinţific internaţional Horticultura –<br />

ştiinţă, calitate, divesitate şi armonie. Iaşi, p.19.<br />

Vance C.P., Claudia U.S., Allan D.L., 2003 -<br />

Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical<br />

adaptations by plants for securing a<br />

nonrenewable resource. New Phytol. 157, 3,<br />

p.423–447.<br />

Vessey K.J., 2003 - Plant growth promoting<br />

rhizobacteria as bioferitilizers. Plant Soil, 255:<br />

571-586.<br />

Wang X., Yan X., Liao H., 2010 - Genetic improvement<br />

for phosphorus efficiency in soybean: a radical<br />

approach. Annals of Botany vol. 106, p.215–222.<br />

Yadav K.S., Dadarwal K.R., 1997 - Phosphate<br />

solubilization and mobilization through soil<br />

microorganisms. In: Sci Publis Jodhpur. Biot.<br />

Appr. Soil Micr. Sust. Crop Prod. p.93-308.

Abstract<br />

63<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

MICROBIAL BIOMASS IN SOILS OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA:<br />

ESTIMATION AND RESTORATION<br />

Irina SENICOVSCAIA 1<br />

Email: irina_sen@mail.ru<br />

The content, reserves and profile distributions of microbial biomass in the different soil types and subtypes of the<br />

Republic of Moldova have been investigated in the connection of the soil carbon sequestration and environmental<br />

protection. Sampling was carried out in 11 profiles per soil horizons to a depth of 170 - 200 cm and from 0 - 30 cm<br />

layer separately. Database was evaluated statistically by the variance and correlation analysis. The negative effects on<br />

soil microbial biomass were observed as a result of erosion processes and long-term land management practices without<br />

of organic fertilizers. The content and reserves of microbial carbon in soil profiles decreased with its depth. The<br />

reserves of microbial biomass in virgin and fallow soils were 5.9-12.7 t ha -1 , in arable soils with the normal profile –<br />

3.6-7.2 t ha -1 , in eroded arable soils – 1.6-1.9 t ha -1 in the 0 - 100 cm layer. The microbial biomass was connected with<br />

the humus content and amounts of agronomic valuable aggregates. Correlation coefficients constitute 0.58-0.97 and<br />

0.86 respectively. The significance of microorganisms in the formation of the water-stable structure in soils is<br />

discussed. The organic farming system with the application of 50 t ha -1 of manure and green manure crops returns the<br />

organic matter to the soil and creates conditions for the carbon stock. The microbial carbon content in the arable layer of<br />

the leached and ordinary chernozem increases by 1.5 times. The use of organic fertilizers has been recommended for the<br />

restoration of the microbial communities and improvement of carbon fluxes into degraded soils.<br />

Key words: microbial biomass, soil, carbon, humus<br />

Soil microbial community plays an<br />

exceptional role in organic matter transformations,<br />

nutrient cycles, the support of soil stability and the<br />

ecological aspects of sustainability of soil fertility<br />

[Zvyagintsev D., Dobrovolskaya T., et al., 2003;<br />

Inubushi K. et al., 2005]. Microbial carbon acts in<br />

soil as a “living engine”, realizing the global<br />

turnover of carbon and other elements,<br />

maintaining the soil fertility and protecting the<br />

soil from the contamination and degradation. Soil<br />

microbial biomass represents 1-5 % of the total<br />

carbon content, is estimated in arable soils of the<br />

Republic of Moldova as 3.6-7.2 t ha -1 without<br />

calculation of the turnover rate and numbers of<br />

microorganisms generations [Senicovscaia I., and<br />

oth., 2012]. The index of the soil microbial<br />

biomass (or microbial carbon) are suggested for<br />

the estimation of soil quality [Kennedy A.,<br />

Papendick R., 1995; Hargreaves, P., Brookes, P.,<br />

et al., 2003] as well as for the stability of<br />

agricultural and natural ecosystems in conditions<br />

of anthropogenic impacts [Bending, G.D., Turner,<br />

M.K., et al., 2004;]. The objective was to obtain<br />

an indication of the microbial biomass status of<br />

the zonal soils and to assess the impact of the<br />

1 Nicolae Dimo” Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection<br />

long-term use of soils and erosion processes on<br />

the microbian carbon in soils from different<br />

regions and various management systems in the<br />

connection of the soil carbon sequestration and<br />

environmental protection.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Our comparative study has been<br />

performed in different zones of the Republic of<br />

Moldova. The content, reserves and profile<br />

distributions of microbial biomass of zonal arable<br />

soils with the normal profile in the condition of<br />

long-term field experiments were investigated in<br />

comparison with the undisturbed soils in natural<br />

ecosystems. Additionally, the microbial biomass<br />

parameters of one of the zonal soils (ordinary<br />

chernozem) were compared with soils of different<br />

degrees of erosion. Investigations were performed<br />

on the typical, leached, ordinary, xerophyte-forest<br />

chernozem and the gray forest soil. Sampling was<br />

carried out in 11 profiles per soil horizons to a<br />

depth of 170 - 200 cm and from 0 - 30 cm layer<br />

separately. The database of the soil microbial<br />

biomass indicator covers the period between 1986<br />

and 2011. Soil samples were also collected from

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

sites with the organic fertilizers management<br />

(farm manure, green manure) from 0-25 cm layer.<br />

The microbial biomass C was measured by<br />

the rehydratation method based on the difference<br />

between C extracted with 0.5 M K2SO4 from dried<br />

soil at 65-70 0 C within 24 h and fresh soil samples<br />

with Kc coefficient of 0.25 [Blagodatsky S.,<br />

Blagodatskaya E. et al., 1987]. K2SO4 –<br />

extractable organic C concentrations in the dried<br />

and fresh soil samples were simultaneously<br />

measured by dichromate oxidation. The quantity<br />

of K2SO4–extractable C was determined at 590<br />

nm with "СФ-46" (Russia) and "Specol-221"<br />

(Germany) spectrophotometers. Stocks of<br />

microbial biomass have been calculated taking<br />

into account the carbon content of the microbial<br />

cell and the bulk density of soils [Senicovscaia I.,<br />

2001; Senicovscaia I., et. al., 2012]. Organic C<br />

was analyzed by the dichromate oxidation method<br />

[Arinushkina E., 1970]. The humus content was<br />

calculated using the coefficient of 1.724. Humus<br />

reserves were calculated taking into account the<br />

bulk density of soils. The microbial biomass index<br />

was evaluated statistically by the variance and<br />

correlation analysis.<br />

RESULTS AND DICUSSIONS<br />

Microorganisms of virgin and fallow soils<br />

exist in conditions of the high supply of the<br />

organic matter and its conservation within the<br />

limits of the ecosystem. As a consequence, soils in<br />

conditions of the natural ecosystems are<br />

characterized by a higher biomass of soil<br />

microorganisms in comparison with arable soils<br />

which are as a normal profile as eroded (fig. 1; 2).<br />

Microorganisms in natural soils are concentrated<br />

in the 0-60 cm layer (78-83 %), the biomass index<br />

decrease sharply in the soil profile to a depth of<br />

30-50 cm.<br />

In arable soils the base mass of microbes is<br />

concentrated in the 0-30 cm layer, while in the<br />

arable eroded soils – in the layer 0-10 cm. The<br />

highest level of the microbial biomass and organic<br />

carbon content have been determined in the A1<br />

horizon of the virgin and fallow soils and whereas<br />

the lowest – in the BC and C horizons of all<br />

profiles. The quantity of the microbial biomass<br />

reaches in the virgin gray forest soil to 1631.1 μg<br />

C g -1 soil, in the 40-year-old fallow typical<br />

chernozem – to 979.5 μg C g -1 soil (fig. 1). Arable<br />

soils are characterized by the gradual decrease in<br />

the biomass with the depth as compared to soils of<br />

natural phytocenoses.<br />

The reserves of the microbial biomass in 0-<br />

100 cm layer of natural soils with the normal<br />

profile constitute from 6.3 to 12.7, of eroded soil<br />

under fallow – 4.3 t dry matter ha -1 (fig. 2). The<br />

long-term use of plowing leads to the decrease of<br />

64<br />

the content and reserves of microbial biomass in<br />

arable soils as in the upper horizons, and as a<br />

whole in the soil profile. Profiles of the soil is<br />

covered by the degradation process as a whole.<br />

The reserves of the microbial biomass in the 0-<br />

100 cm layer of the modern arable soils is<br />

declined to the level of 3.6 - 7.2 t dry matter ha -1 .<br />

The soil microbial biomass content<br />

decreased on average from 415.6-876.0 to 244.3-<br />

318.4 μg C g -1 soil as a result of the long-term<br />

arable land management without the application<br />

of organic fertilizers (tab.1). The content of the<br />

microbial carbon in soils affected by the longterm<br />

arable use (layer 0-30 cm), lower in 1,2-3,6<br />

times compared with soil-standards. This<br />

regularity is observed on the mean values of<br />

indicators as well as their confidence intervals.<br />

Confidence intervals of the microbial biomass of<br />

arable chernozems are approximately equal but<br />

differ from those the arable gray forest soil<br />

statistically. In the most cases, there is a high<br />

variability of the microbial biomass index,<br />

because the soil is characterized by the<br />

heterogeneity of habitats and the patchy<br />

distribution of microorganisms in the soil.<br />

cm<br />

0<br />

30<br />

60<br />

90<br />

120<br />

150<br />

180<br />

µ g C g<br />

250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750<br />

-1 soil<br />

typical chernozem, 40-year-old-fallow<br />

arable typical chernozem<br />

virgin xerophyte-forest chernozem<br />

arable xerophyte-forest chernozem<br />

virgin gray forest soil<br />

arable gray forest soil<br />

Figure 1. The profile distribution of microorganisms<br />

in the virgin, fallow and arable soils<br />

t ha -1<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

12,7<br />

7,9<br />

5,9<br />

6,3<br />

4,3<br />

7,2<br />

y = -3,7834Ln(x) + 11,583<br />

4,8<br />

R 2 = 0,8347<br />

5<br />

3,6<br />

1,9 1,6<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11<br />

Figure 2. Reserves of microbial biomass in soils of<br />

natural and agricultural ecosystems (0-100 cm):<br />

1– virgin gray forest soil (Orhei reg.); 2–typical<br />

chernozem, 40-year-old-fallow (Drokia reg.); 3–typical<br />

chernozem, 60-year-old-fallow (Beltsy t.); 4–virgin<br />

xerophyte-forest chernozem (Cahul reg.); 5–moderately<br />

eroded ordinary chernozem, 58-year-old-fallow (Cahul<br />

reg.); 6–arable leached chernozem (Orhei reg.); 7–<br />

arable typical chernozem (Drokia reg.); 8-arable<br />

xerophyte-forest chernozem (Cahul reg.); 9–arable<br />

ordinary chernozem (Cahul reg.); 10-moderately eroded<br />

arable ordinary chernozem (Cahul reg.); 11–severely<br />

eroded arable ordinary chernozem (Cahul reg.)

65<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 1<br />

Statistical parameters of the microbial biomass content (μ g C g -1 soil) in zonal soils of the Republic of Moldova<br />

under different land management (0-30 cm)<br />

Soil Land use n min max Mean value V,%<br />

S<br />

x<br />

Confidence interval<br />

(P ≤ 0.05)<br />

Typical chernozem<br />

Fallow land<br />

(10-23-year-old)<br />

10 244.8 584.3 355.8 35 39.1 267.5-444.1<br />

Arable land 12 238,6 520,8 318,4 26 23.9 265,9-370,9<br />

Leached chernozem Arable land 24 191,0 434,0 314,7 21 13.5 286,8-342,6<br />

Ordinary chernozem<br />

Fallow land<br />

(55-year-old)<br />

6 389.31 452 415.6 8 13.6 380.7-450.5<br />

Arable land 20 176,9 360,9 288,3 17 10.8 265,8-310,8<br />

Gray forest soil<br />

Virgin land<br />

Arable land<br />

8<br />

18<br />

529.0<br />

119,6<br />

1105.5<br />

331,2<br />

876.0<br />

244,3<br />

26<br />

28<br />

79.7<br />

16.3<br />

686.9-1065.1<br />

209,9-278,7<br />

The content of microbial biomass in the<br />

severely eroded chernozem amounts in average to<br />

110.0 μ g C g -1 soil, which is 2.6 times less than in<br />

the soil with normal profile (tab. 2). A similar<br />

trend in decrease has been noticed in the<br />

confidence intervals, minimal and maximal values<br />

of this index. The variation coefficient of the<br />

microbial biomass index increased from 16.8% to<br />

46.3%, which indicates that the equilibrium and<br />

natural resistance of the soil microbial association<br />

decreases being higher in the chernozem with a<br />

normal profile and lower in the severely eroded<br />

soil. These negative changes reflect the<br />

catastrophic effect of erosion processes on soil<br />

microorganisms, destruction and loss of the most<br />

valuable compounds of soil organic matter – the<br />

microbial carbon.<br />

Table 2<br />

Statistical parameters of the microbial biomass content (μ g C g -1 soil) in eroded soils of the Republic of<br />

Moldova under different land management (0-30 cm)<br />

Land use<br />

Degree of<br />

erosion<br />

n min max Mean value V,% S<br />

x<br />

Confidence interval<br />

(P ≤ 0.05)<br />

Fallow<br />

land<br />

Moderately<br />

eroded<br />

13 376,6 496,1 445,5 10,6 13,1 417,0-474,0<br />

Normal profile<br />

(standard)<br />

20 176,9 360,9 288,3 16,8 10,8 265,8-310,8<br />

Arable Slightly eroded 14 112,6 336,9 224,6 31,6 19,0 183,6-265,6<br />

land Moderately<br />

eroded<br />

12 74,8 264,5 159,4 36,1 16,6 122,9-195,9<br />

Severely eroded 25 0 178,1 110,0 46,3 10,2 89,0-131,0<br />

The application of fallow contributes to the<br />

increase of the microbial biomass and humus<br />

stocks in eroded chernozem. The microbial<br />

biomass content in 0-30 cm layer increased by<br />

2.5, humus content - from 1.57% to 3.14% that<br />

represents an increase of 0.027% on average per<br />

year. The reserves of the microbial biomass in 0-<br />

170 cm layer increased from 1.6 to 4.3 t dry<br />

matter ha -1 (fig. 2). The microbial biomass<br />

accumulation in the soil was registered in amount<br />

of 2.63 t ha -1 which represents an average of 45.4<br />

kg ha -1 per year. Humus reserves in the 0-100 cm<br />

soil layer increased from 74.4 t ha -1 to 192.8 t ha -1 ;<br />

the annual growth rate was of 2 t ha -1 . The<br />

transition of the eroded chernozem from the<br />

category of arable land to the category of fallow<br />

land increases microbial carbon stocks and carbon<br />

sequestration.The microbial biomass is<br />

connected with the humus content. The<br />

correlation coefficient (R 2 ) between the<br />

biomass and humus content in the typical<br />

chernozem under arable constitutes 0.58, in<br />

conditions of 15-old-years fallow 0.76, of 60old-years<br />

fallow 0.94. The profile distribution<br />

of the microbial biomass demonstrated the<br />

close linear connection with the humus<br />

content in soils, the correlation coefficient<br />

reached 0.97. Strong positive correlation links<br />

were found between the microbial biomass<br />

and the amount of agronomic valuable<br />

aggregates, R 2 = 0.86 (tab. 3). Microbial<br />

biomass in the typical chernozem is localized<br />

in fractions of 5-3, 3-2, 2-1 mm and partly in<br />

7-5 mm fraction. The link between the<br />

microbial complex and the amount of<br />

fractions >10 mm and

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

favorable effect of the farmyard manure and<br />

green manure management on the microbial<br />

biomass in the ordinary and leached<br />

chernozem has been noted both as the average<br />

values of indicators and as the confidence<br />

intervals.<br />

Table 3<br />

The correlation coefficients between the content of microbial biomass and the aggregates content in the typical<br />

chernozem under different land management (0-25 cm)<br />

Aggregates content with the diameter (mm)<br />

∑ 10-0.25 ∑ >10+10 10-7 7-5 5-3 3-2 2-1 1-0.5 0.5-0.25

67<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

DYNAMICS OF THE CONTENT OF FOLIAR PIGMENTS IN SOME GRAPEVINE<br />

VARIETIES CULTIVATED IN IAŞI, COTNARI AND BUJORU VINEYARDS IN<br />

THE VEGETATION PERIOD OF 2011<br />

Carmenica Doina JITĂREANU 1 , Cristina SLABU 1 , Alina Elena MARTA 1 , Simion CRISTINA 2<br />

Abstract<br />

e-mail : doinaj@uaiasi.ro<br />

In the last decade the effects of climatic change have made themselves present in Romania and they have lead to an<br />

increased number of drought phenomena and flooding negatively influencing the cultures productivity and reducing the<br />

biodiversity of flora and fauna. Influenced by drought, plants suffer from cell and tissue dehydration and from the<br />

considerable increase of their body temperature. The plants’ resistance to draught represents their capacity to deal with<br />

overheating (the plants’ resistance to extreme heat). The plants’ overheating modifies the chemical features of cell<br />

protoplasm and metabolism, causing different adjustment and defence reactions from the plants. The study undertaken<br />

allowed the analysis of the ecophysiological reaction of the grapevine varieties, reaction estimated after studying the<br />

dynamic evolution of foliar pigments in relation with the drought conditions from the North-Eastern area of Moldova<br />

and Covurlui Plateau, in the climatic conditions of 2011.<br />

Key words: grapevine varieties, photosynthesis, draught<br />

Understanding the impact of climatic<br />

change is essential for the wine growing activity<br />

as the most valuable varieties of grapes have been<br />

obtained in different geographical regions; for the<br />

grapevine, global warming shortens the vegetation<br />

cycle of many varieties with 6 to 25 days,<br />

positioned in various locations (Gore A., 2007,<br />

Jones G., 2006).<br />

The increased temperature, solar radiation<br />

intensity and UVB content will affect the quantity<br />

as well as the quality of grape production (Schultz<br />

H., 2008), while the hydric deficit will influence<br />

the quantity of the wine and its quality (Chavez<br />

M.M., 2007, Bloomm A., 2009).<br />

One of the most important physiological<br />

phenomena influenced by drought is<br />

photosynthesis. The content of chlorophyll<br />

pigments in the leaves can be considered an<br />

indicator of the plant’s physiological condition<br />

(Steele M., 2008).<br />

The results presented in this paper are part<br />

of a more complex study that included grapevine<br />

varieties (Fetească albă, Fetească regală,<br />

Riesling italian, Băbească gri, Frâncuşă, Grasă<br />

de Cotnari, Tămâioasă românească) cultivated in<br />

Moldova, in three different areas Iaşi, Cotnari and<br />

Târgu Bujor.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Analysis of climatic conditions<br />

The temperature values and the amount of<br />

rain have been recorded every ten days during<br />

spring – summer and the average values of the<br />

temperature and the amount of monthly<br />

precipitations have been compared to the average<br />

multiannual values.<br />

Analysis of foliar pigment content<br />

Foliar pigment analyses have been<br />

performed in the months of June and July during<br />

blossoming in a moment when the grapes were<br />

growing and at the beginning of September during<br />

grape maturation. They were made on the leaf<br />

beneath the cluster, on the fertile shoot and on the<br />

leaf from the same level on the sterile shoot. The<br />

pigment content in the leaves was analyzed<br />

spectrophotometrically, being estimated in relation<br />

with the pigment acetonic extract’s capacity to<br />

absorb light (1%) in the visible spectrum (400-700<br />

nm) and in the close UV (320 nm).<br />

The ecophysiological reaction of the 7<br />

varieties of grapevine was estimated based on the<br />

content of photosynthetic and flavonoid foliar<br />

pigments. Chlorophyll a 663 can evaluate the<br />

intensity of photosynthesis in the reaction centre<br />

and chlorophyll a 435 and chlorophyll b 453 can<br />

asses the light absorption capacity in the light<br />

absorption centre of the photosynthetic systems;<br />

flavonoid pigments with absorption in close UV<br />

(320 nm) can asses the plants’ reaction to<br />

different climatic stress factors.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The evolution of climatic change in Iaşi,<br />

Cotnari and Bujoru vineyards<br />

In 2011, the climatic change in Iasi<br />

vineyard recorded average monthly temperatures<br />

higher than normal, with deviations ranging<br />

between 0.1 o C in April and 2.3 o C in September;<br />

the highest temperatures varied between 31.6 o C

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

in May and 35.5 o C in July. The monthly amount<br />

of precipitations indicated an intense hydric<br />

68<br />

deficit in May and July – September. (table 1)<br />

Table 1<br />

Climatic conditions – temperature and humidity – in Iasi, Cotnari and Târgu Bujor vineyards in 2011<br />

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X<br />

Iaşi vineyard<br />

Temperature o C<br />

Monthly average -2,4 -2,3 3,5 10,3 16,7 20,7 22,9 21,6 18,1 8,8<br />

Deviation from normal -0,7 -1,1 0,1 0,1 0,4 1,0 1,7 1,1 2,3 -1,3<br />

Maximum 10,3 15,3 21,6 24,7 31,6 34,6 35,5 33,1 31,9 28,5<br />

Monthly amount of precipitations (mm)<br />

Monthly amount 13,2 13,7 8,4 82,2 32,3 84,1 37,8 32,1 18,7 40,2<br />

Deviation from normal -17,3 -14,7 -24,4 33,1 -26,8 -4,6 -45,0 -24,8 -33,3 7,4<br />

Cotnari vineyard<br />

Monthly average -1,3 -2,6 3,5 10,4 16,3 20,0 22,0 21,2 18,7 9,3<br />

Deviation from normal 1,3 -1,3 0,5 0,8 0,8 1,2 1,6 1,2 3,2 +0,8<br />

Maximum 11,2 15,9 19,9 22,6 28,8 32,2 33,6 31,0 29,9 27,1<br />

Monthly amount of precipitations (mm)<br />

Monthly amount 8,7 28,0 14,0 58,2 12,8 114,4 70,8 13,4 18,0 31,0<br />

Deviation from normal -12,6 6,6 13,4 8,5 -46,2 35,8 -13,8 -46,3 -26,0 1,8<br />

Târgu Bujor vineyard<br />

Monthly average -2,90 -2,90 3,30 9,70 15,90 19,90 22,60 21,80 19,20 9,40<br />

Deviation from normal -0,1 -1,9 -0,2 -0,6 -0,1 0,4 1,3 1,1 3,2 -1,0<br />

Maximum 8,9 14 20,7 22,2 28,8 33,9 33,3 32,5 32,9 27,5<br />

Monthly amount of precipitations (mm)<br />

Monthly amount 28,0 22,6 6,4 55,0 73,2 86,2 14,8 22,0 3,0 32,2<br />

Deviation from normal 3.0 -1,8 -22,0 12,4 16,1 10,8 -54,2 -35,2 -42,7 0,3<br />

Referring to the Cotnari vineyard the<br />

average monthly temperatures were also higher<br />

than normal, with values between 0.8 o C in April –<br />

May and 3.2 o C in September. The highest<br />

temperatures were recorded in April – 22.6 o C and<br />

July – 33.6 o C. The quantity of precipitations<br />

indicated a severe deficit in May and August. In<br />

June, an excess of precipitations was recorded,<br />

with values with 35.8 mm higher than the normal<br />

ones, thus diminishing the effects of the drought<br />

from July, when the hydric deficit was lower.<br />

As far as the Bujoru vineyard is concerned,<br />

the average monthly temperatures presented<br />

values higher than the normal ones, with values<br />

ranging between 0.4 o C in April – May and 3.2 o C<br />

in September. The maximum temperatures varied<br />

between 22.2 o C in April and 32.9 o C in<br />

September. In July, August and September a high<br />

deficit of precipitations was recorded, while in<br />

April – June slight excesses were noticed, with<br />

values of 10.8 – 16.1 mm, higher than normal.<br />

The dynamics of photosynthetic pigment<br />

content from the leaves of the grapevines<br />

studied<br />

The dynamic analysis of the photosynthetic<br />

and flavonoid pigment content based of the light<br />

absorption capacity in characteristic wave lengths,<br />

demonstrates that in Iasi vineyard, the chlorophyll<br />

a content 662 – 663 nm, the component of the<br />

reaction centre from the photosynthetic systems<br />

point out maximum values in the blooming<br />

phenophase and during the maturation of the<br />

fruits, respectively, between which there are<br />

minimum values in the grape’s growing<br />

phenophase at all varieties except from the<br />

Riesling italian at which the uniapical curve does<br />

record maximum values in this phenophase<br />

(fig.1).<br />

The highest values of chlorophyll a<br />

content 662-663 nm in all the phenophases are<br />

recorded at the Băbească gri variety, while the<br />

lowest ones are recorded at Grasă de Cotnari.<br />

The chlorophyll a content 431-432 nm, the<br />

main component of the light absorption system<br />

from the photosynthetic systems generally<br />

registers the same behaviour, minimum values in<br />

the grape growing phenophase compared to the<br />

blooming and fruit maturation phenophase. In<br />

absolute values, the maxim content of this<br />

pigment during the blooming and maturation<br />

phenophase is recorded at the Băbească gri<br />

variety, while the minimum content at Grasă de<br />

Cotnari, Fetească albă and Frâncuşă (fig 2).<br />

This behaviour is fully in concordance with<br />

the intensity dynamics of the photosynthesis<br />

process in grapevine, which records the highest<br />

values during the blooming phenophase and fruit<br />

maturation phenophase (Jităreanu C.D., 2011).<br />

The content of flavonoid pigments records<br />

a dynamics opposite to that of the photosynthetic<br />

pigments, registering maximum values during the<br />

growth phenophase at all the varieties studied,<br />

except for Frâncuşă. The highest values are<br />

recorded at Băbească gri, Tămâioasă românească<br />

and Fetească regală (fig. 3).

69<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 1 The dynamics of chlorophyll a content 662 – 663 nm estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Iasi vineyard<br />

Figure 2 The dynamics of chlorophyll a content 431 – 432 nm estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Iasi vineyard<br />

Figure 3 The dynamics of flavonoid pigment content estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Iasi vineyard<br />

This behaviour demonstrates a species<br />

characteristic of grapevine, characteristic that<br />

provides higher resistance to different varieties in<br />

ecological conditions of hydric and thermic stress<br />

that usually exist in June – August in Iasi<br />

vineyard, the flavonoid pigments being directly<br />

related to these features. It was noticed the<br />

minimum content of flavonoid pigments in the<br />

fruit maturation phenophase at the autochthonous<br />

variety Tămâioasă românească but also at the<br />

allochthonous Riesling italian, feature that can be<br />

determined by the genetic features coming from<br />

the general and local ecological conditions of<br />

these varieties. In the case of Tămâioasă<br />

românească, most probably, the role of flavonoid<br />

pigments is taken over by the high quantity of<br />

volatile compounds which provide the flavour of<br />

the fruits.<br />

The dynamic analysis of the foliar pigment<br />

content in Cotnari vineyard demonstrates an<br />

evolution based on the uniapical curve of<br />

chlorophyll a content 662 – 663 nm at the<br />

following varieties Grasă de Cotnari, Frâncuşă<br />

and Fetească albă with maximum values in the<br />

grape growth phenophase.<br />

During the blooming phenophase all the<br />

three varieties present minimum values, quite<br />

similar. In the maturation phenophase of the<br />

fruits, extremely low values are recorded by<br />

Grasă de Cotnari and Frâncuşă, while Fetească

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

albă presentes a linear evolution if compared to<br />

the grape growth phenophase.<br />

During the blooming phenophase the three<br />

varieties present relatively similar minimum<br />

values. During the maturation phenophase of the<br />

fruits, the values of Grasă de Cotnari and<br />

Frâncuşă are extremely low, while Feteasca albă<br />

70<br />

presents a linear evolution if compared to the<br />

grape growth phenophase.<br />

Tămâioasă românescă presents a relatively<br />

linear evolution during all the analyzed<br />

phenophases, with maximum values during<br />

blooming as well as during fruit maturation if<br />

compared to the other varieties (fig.4).<br />

Figure 4 The dynamics of chlorophyll a content 662 – 663 nm estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Cotnari vineyard<br />

The chlorophyll a content 431 – 432 nm<br />

maintains its uniapical curve shape only at the<br />

Grasă de Cotnari and Frâncuşă varieties,<br />

manifesting an identical evolution of chlorophyll<br />

a 662 – 663 nm (fig. 5).<br />

Figure 5 The dynamics of chlorophyll a content 431 – 432 nm estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Cotnari vineyard<br />

Tămâioasă românească variety presents<br />

minimum values of this pigment during the grape<br />

growth phenophase, maintaining its maximum<br />

values if compared to the other varieties during<br />

the blooming phenophase and fruit maturation<br />

phenophase. The content of flavonoid pigments<br />

with the maximum absorption in 320 – 325 nm<br />

presents similar values at all the four varieties<br />

included in the study, both during the blooming<br />

phenophase and during the grape growth<br />

phenophase; nonetheless it presents different<br />

values during the grape maturation phenophase,<br />

the maximum values being noticed at Grasă de<br />

Cotnari and the minimum ones at Frâncuşă (fig.<br />

6). In Bujoru vineyard, the chlorophyll a content<br />

662 – 663 nm records the shape of the uniapical<br />

curve only at two varieties Băbească gri and<br />

Riesling italian. The Fetească albă variety<br />

presents an ascending dynamics while a<br />

descending dynamics is recorded by Fetească<br />

regală. Comparing the varieties it results<br />

maximum values at Riesling italian and minimum<br />

values at Fetească regală, the differences between<br />

the varieties not being important in the flowering<br />

phenophase (fig. 7).

71<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 6 The dynamics of flavonoid pigment content estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Cotnari vineyard<br />

Figure 7 The dynamics of chlorophyll a content 662 – 663 nm estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Bujoru vineyard<br />

During the growth phenophase, Fetească<br />

regală records high decrease of the chlorophyll a<br />

content 662 – 663 nm, while the other varieties<br />

present much higher values, the maximum ones<br />

being recorded at Băbească gri.<br />

In different varieties of grapes, the plants<br />

react to the hydric deficit by reducing the stomatal<br />

conductance under the control of ABA; the hydric<br />

deficit probably leads to lower ATP productions<br />

and lower activity of the ATP enzyme in the<br />

chloroplasts (Chavez et al., 2010). This behaviour<br />

demonstrates that this variety reacts at the<br />

dehydration caused by intense hydric deficit by<br />

reducing the intensity of photosynthesis and by<br />

intensifying the absorption and dissipation<br />

capacity of the radiant solar energy capable of<br />

photo protecting the photosynthetic apparatus<br />

during dehydration. During the fruit maturation<br />

phenophase, the analyzed varieties present certain<br />

differences, resulting very high values at Fetească<br />

albă while the values of the other ones are very<br />

low. The chlorophyll a content 431 – 432 nm<br />

presents the same dynamics at Fetească regală,<br />

descendent towards the end of the vegetation<br />

period, while the other varieties maintained their<br />

uniapical curve. During the grape maturation<br />

phenophase it is noticed a content similar to that<br />

of chlorophyll a of 662-663 nm, with maximum<br />

values at Fetească albă (fig. 8).<br />

The content of flavonoid pigments presents<br />

maximum values during blooming and fruit<br />

maturation phenophase, similar to the four<br />

varieties of grapes studied and low values during<br />

grape growing phenophase, with a minimum at<br />

the Riesling italian variety (fig. 9).<br />

This behaviour demonstrates that the<br />

reaction of this allochthonous variety to the<br />

dehydration caused by intense hydric deficit<br />

consists in reducing the intensity of<br />

photosynthesis and intensifying the absorption<br />

and dissipation capacity of the solar radiant<br />

energy capable of assuring the photo protection of<br />

the photosynthetic apparatus during dehydration.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. The evolution of temperature and rain<br />

fall during the vine’s vegetation season points out<br />

the process of climate warming, represented by<br />

the apparition of the drought in 2011 in all the<br />

experimental areas.<br />

2. The high hydric deficit recorded in<br />

May and July – September lead to minimum<br />

values of photosynthetic pigments content during<br />

the growth phenophase, compared to the<br />

blooming and fruit maturation phenophase, while<br />

the content of flavonoid pigments is directly<br />

related to a species characteristic of the vine<br />

which provides higher resistance of the varieties

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

to the ecological conditions, of thermic and hydric<br />

stress that normally exist in the months of July –<br />

72<br />

August in Iasi vineyard.<br />

Figure 8 The dynamics of chlorophyll a content 431 – 432 nm estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Bujoru vineyard<br />

Figure 9The dynamics of flavonoid pigment content estimated on the basis of the<br />

absorption of light, in Bujoru vineyard<br />

3. The results obtained in Cotnari point<br />

out that Grasă de Cotnari variety presents the<br />

highest light absorption capacity during the grape<br />

growth phenophase and the highest photosynthetic<br />

efficiency during fruit maturation, characteristic<br />

that demonstrates this variety’s high capacity to<br />

adjust in its origin area.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bloom, A., 2009 - Effective use of water (EUW) and not<br />

water-use efficiency (WUE) is the target of crop<br />

yield improvement under drought stress. Field<br />

Crop Research,112,119-123.<br />

Chavez, M.M., Zarrouk, O., Francisco, R. et al., 2010 -<br />

Grapevine under deficit irrigation: hints from<br />

physiological and molecular data. Annals of<br />

Botany, AOB Preview published online.<br />

Gore, A., 2007 - Un adevăr incomod. Grupul editorial<br />

Rao, Bucuresti, Romania.<br />

Jităreanu Carmenica Doina et al., 2011 - Studies about<br />

the dynamics of some physiological processes<br />

during the grape vine shoot growth. Journal of<br />

Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.9 (3&4);<br />

JFAE; 793 – 798.<br />

4. In Bujoru vineyard Fetească albă<br />

variety presents the lowest photosynthetic<br />

efficiency, proved by the maximum content of<br />

chlorophyll pigments, while the Băbească gri<br />

variety presents a maximum photosynthetic<br />

efficiency manifested by a minimum content of<br />

chlorophyll pigments and maximum production<br />

values.<br />

Jones, G., 2006 - Climate change and wines:<br />

Observation, impacts and future implications.<br />

Wine Industry Journal, 21, 4, 21-25.<br />

Schultz, H., 2008 - Climate changes and viticulture: An<br />

European perspective on climatology, carbon<br />

dioxide and UVB effects. Australian Journal of<br />

Grape and Wine Research, 6, 1, 2-12.<br />

Steele M., Gitelson, A., Rundquist, D., 2008 -<br />

Nondistructive estimation of leaf chlorophyll<br />

content in grapes. American Journal of Enology<br />

and Viticulture, 59. 3, 299/305.

Abstract<br />

73<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

ASPECTS REGARDING THE CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS AT THE<br />

GRAPEVINES CULTIVATED IN IAŞI AND COTNARI VINEYARDS<br />

Camelia IFRIM 2 , Carmenica Doina JITĂREANU 1 , Cristina SLABU 1 , Alina Elena MARTA 1<br />

e-mail : camicris@yahoo.com<br />

The major function of calcium oxalate crystals in plants implies the adjustment of calcium (Ca) metabolism and the<br />

protection against herbivorous animals. The main types of crystals considered to play a protective role are the raphides,<br />

their shape being essential in this sense. Recent studies suggest that the crystals’ aspect depends of the species, their<br />

shape and dimensions being characteristic. The types of Vitis studied in this paper make themselves noticed due to the<br />

morphological variety of the crystals, their structure in vegetative organs or in the specialized tissues of the same organ.<br />

From the five types of crystals mentioned in the specialized literature, three of them were noticed: raphides, druses and<br />

prismatic crystals. The differences noticed between the varieties can suggest they had been influenced by the<br />

characteristics of the soil, the environmental conditions and even by some genetic factors.<br />

Key words: Vitis, calcium oxalate, raphides, druses, idioblasts<br />

The living organisms for which calcium<br />

represents a key element in growing and<br />

developing have created intracellular control<br />

mechanisms for calcium concentration. This is<br />

determined by the toxicity of free calcium when<br />

present in high concentration levels.<br />

Among the calcium salts the most frequent<br />

in plants is calcium oxalate which is present in<br />

most botanical families, with few exceptions.<br />

Calcium oxalate is present as mono and dihydric<br />

salts in more than one crystalline from.<br />

Monohydrate is a lot more stable and frequent in<br />

plants.<br />

A large number of studies sustain the<br />

hypothesis that the formation of calcium oxalate<br />

crystals counteracts the excess of calcium and<br />

eliminates it from the metabolic process so to<br />

regain the normal calcium level of the cell.<br />

Studying the development of crystals and the<br />

rapid evolution of a large number of crystals<br />

results that the formation of calcium oxalate<br />

represents a cellular controlled process and not a<br />

simple precipitation phenomenon (Li, X., D.<br />

Zhang, V. J. Lynch-Holm, T. W. Okita and V. R.<br />

Franceschi, 2003).<br />

Different forms of crystals perform<br />

different functions as providing protection against<br />

herbivorous, adjusting calcium metabolism,<br />

increasing tissue resistance, collecting and<br />

reflecting light and it is associated to heavy metal<br />

tolerance (Prychid Christina J., Jabaily Rachel<br />

Schmidt, Rudall Paula J., 2008).<br />

The most frequent types of calcium oxalate<br />

crystals are: a) prismatic crystals, prisms of<br />

various shapes, usually one in a cell; b) raphides,<br />

acicular crystals present in fascicles; c) druses,<br />

spherical or prismatic aggregates of crystals; d)<br />

styloids, oblong crystals with sharp or dentated,<br />

one or two in a cell and e) crystalline sand, very<br />

small crystals, usually in high number.<br />

The localization and the types of calcium<br />

crystals within the same taxon can be constant,<br />

situation in which they become useful for<br />

taxonomic classifications.<br />

Calcium oxalate crystals develop according<br />

to specific anatomic patterns indicating that their<br />

formation is controlled by the plant. The<br />

environmental conditions as the changing of the<br />

seasons can influence the amount of oxalate<br />

produced as well as the number of crystals formed<br />

(Prychid, Christina J., Rudall Paula J., 1999).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The botanical material included in this<br />

study consisted in the fertile and sterile young<br />

shoots of seven grapevine varieties (Vitis vinifera<br />

L): Băbească gri, cultivated in Iaşi; Fetească<br />

albă, cultivated in Cotnari; Fetească regală,<br />

cultivated in Iaşi; Frâncuşă, cultivated in Iaşi;<br />

Grasă de Cotnari, cultivated in Iaşi and Cotnari;<br />

Riesling italian, cultivated in Iaşi; Tămâioasă<br />

românească, cultivated in Iaşi and Cotnari. The<br />

material was collected during the blooming<br />

phenophase.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The material subjected to the histological<br />

analysis (Şerbănescu-Jitariu & colab., 1983) has<br />

been fixed and preserved in 70% ethylic alcohol.<br />

The sections were cut by microtome,<br />

subsequently coloured with iodine green and<br />

rutheniu red, then analyzed in a Optika light<br />

microscope. The light micrographs were<br />

performed by means of the same light<br />

microscope, using Canon A540 camera.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The representatives of the Vitacae family<br />

have in their vegetative and reproductive organs<br />

(especially in the fruits) a variety of crystals, the<br />

presence of raphides being characteristic to them<br />

(Metcalfe, C.R., L. Chalk, 1950, Zanoschi, V., C.<br />

Toma, 1985). From the five types of crystals<br />

recognized by the specialized literature, raphides,<br />

druses and prismatic crystals were noticed in the<br />

material included in our study. Styloids and sand<br />

crystals were not present, confirming the data<br />

from the specialized literature.<br />

Crystals develop in idioblasts, specialized<br />

cells that isolatedly differentiate from one another.<br />

One idioblast presents only one type of crystal,<br />

raphide, druse or prismatic crystal.<br />

Raphides are fascicles of needlelike<br />

crystals, representing the most common type of<br />

crystals in monocotyle plants, while druses<br />

(cluster-type crystals) are almost spherical<br />

aggregates, present especially in dicotyle plants.<br />

The development of raphides is bidirectional,<br />

while for the druses, the deposit of calcium is<br />

relatively simultaneous on all the crystal’s<br />

surfaces.<br />

The idioblasts with raphides are obviously<br />

larger than the surrounding cells, so that they are<br />

easily noticed; on the other hand, the dimensions<br />

of the dimensions of the idioblasts presenting<br />

druses or prisms is comparable to those of the<br />

surrounding cells. The idioblasts with raphides are<br />

axially-elongated cells, almost cylindrical, each of<br />

them presenting a crystalline chamber (known as<br />

Metcalfe and Chalk bag) with numerous acicular<br />

crystals oriented along the cell’s axis.<br />

The number of druses varies as well as<br />

their dimensions from few small crystals to one<br />

big crystal. Actually, each druse represents an<br />

aggregate of numerous crystals with different<br />

aspect.<br />

The position of the druses in certain tissues<br />

with similar dimensions can be correlated with the<br />

environmental conditions in which the plant<br />

develops and which are related to the transpiration<br />

rate and the calcium level at a specific moment in<br />

the plant’s development (Prychid Christina J.,<br />

Jabaily Rachel Schmidt, Rudall Paula J., 2008).<br />

74<br />

The defense role against herbivorous is<br />

accomplished by the raphides, their acicular shape<br />

being the key factor of this defense mechanism.<br />

Depending of the micromorphological<br />

characteristics of the raphides, more than one type<br />

of raphides can be presented (Saadi A. I., A. K.<br />

Mondal, 2012).<br />

Type I raphides - are the most frequent one<br />

and they consist of four-sided single crystals with<br />

two symmetrical pointed ends.<br />

Type II raphides – are also four-sided; they<br />

present one pointed end while the other one is<br />

bidentate or forked. The bidentate end resulted<br />

from crystal twinning.<br />

Type III raphides – are crystals with six to<br />

eight sides and symmetrical pointed ends.<br />

Type IV raphides – includes h shaped<br />

twinned crystals in transversal section and<br />

asymmetrical ends (one end is wedge-shaped<br />

while the other is sharply pointed).<br />

In general, raphides are present in the<br />

idioblast in groups with a very uniform aspect<br />

(fig. 1), the acicular crystals having similar<br />

lengths and parallel distribution. There have also<br />

been noticed situations in which this uniformity is<br />

not present, the crystals having variable lengths<br />

and disordered distribution (fig. 3).<br />

The distribution of idioblasts with raphines<br />

corresponds to the information present in the<br />

specialized literature (Metcalfe, C.R., L. Chalk,<br />

1950). In the stem they are more frequent in the<br />

medullary parenchyma, especially in the outer<br />

layers near the wood parenchyma, and the shape<br />

of the cells is similar to the surrounding cells,<br />

situation present at the level of the petiole. In the<br />

leaf, elongated idioblasts, with an aspect different<br />

from that of the surrounding cells, were noticed in<br />

the main parenchyma from the median nervure as<br />

well as between the nervures, in the mesophile. In<br />

this second case, the idioblasts are positioned at<br />

the border between the palisade and the lacunose<br />

tissue, most frequent being parallel to the<br />

epidermis (fig. 2) and in a small number of cases,<br />

almost perpendicular.<br />

This type of idioblasts in the mesophile is<br />

similar to the flexible tubular structures noticed in<br />

the leaves of some Vitis species (V. labrusca, V.<br />

mustangensis and V. lupina) (Webb M.<br />

A., Cavaletto J. M., Carpitan N., Lopez L.,<br />

Arnott H.J., 1995).<br />

The raphides present in the idioblasts<br />

presented above belong to the second type of<br />

raphides described in the literature dealing with<br />

this subject and observed in a small number of<br />

families, among which we can mention Vitaceae.<br />

In the material included in this study, we<br />

also observed cells with a very low number (4-5)

of unparallel acicular crystals (fig. 4) which<br />

resemble more type I raphides.<br />

In the material taken into consideration by<br />

us were also noticed cells with a very low number<br />

(4-5) of unparallel acicular crystals (fig. 4) which<br />

resemble more to type I raphides.<br />

Druses are present in the stem and the<br />

petiole and less in the leaf’s limb. Their<br />

distribution is varied in the cellulosic parenchyma,<br />

especially in the proximity of the pericyclic fibers,<br />

in the medullary rays of the phloem or in the<br />

phloem (fig. 5). From the observations of the<br />

biological material resulted the presence of these<br />

crystals in collenchyma cells (fig. 6) and in the<br />

medullary rays of the xylem (fig. 7). Parenchyma<br />

cells with crystals may have lignified walls with<br />

secondary thickenings, but the wood most often<br />

presents prismatic or rhomboidal crystals. The<br />

specialized literature (Everet R.F., 2006) mentions<br />

situations in which the parenchyma cells are<br />

divided, each section having one crystal, in our<br />

case we refer to druses situated in the petiole (fig.<br />

8). The prismatic crystals analyzed taken from the<br />

material included in the study were found in<br />

different positions (in the parenchyma and the<br />

phloem) and presented various shapes<br />

(rhomboidal or cubic – fig. 9) and dimensions.<br />

Figure 1 The Fetească regală variety, cultivated<br />

in Iaşi, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section of the<br />

stem for underlining the raphides (x 1200)<br />

Figure 3 The Tămâioasă românească variety,<br />

cultivated in Iaşi, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section<br />

of the petiole for underlining the raphides (x<br />

1200)<br />

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<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

The parenchyma cells of the petiole<br />

presented crystals with different aspect,<br />

intermediate between druses and prisms (fig. 10).<br />

After analyzing the botanical material that<br />

was cultivated in different locations, the varieties<br />

of grapevines presented various differences, as<br />

well as their fertile and sterile young shoots. Thus,<br />

at the fertile shoot of Grasă de Cotnari cultivated<br />

in Iasi no crystals were noticed, while at the<br />

Riesling variety cultivated in Iasi only the fertile<br />

shoot presented druses next to the pericyclic<br />

fibers. The Fetească albă variety cultivated in<br />

Cotnari, presented in its sterile shoot fewer<br />

crystals than the fertile shoot, while the<br />

morphological and location diversity are<br />

diminished. The correlation between the<br />

dimension of the crystals and the taxon they<br />

belong to is difficult because size can vary along<br />

with type, partly due to some intrinsic factors<br />

(genetic), but partly due to some environmental<br />

factors that include the amount of calcium<br />

available during the formation of the crystal.<br />

Dimension, localization and other characteristics<br />

of the crystal can be influenced by physical,<br />

chemical and biological conditions (Meric, Ciler,<br />

2009) as temperature, light, pressure, pH level,<br />

ion concentration or the presence of herbivorous.<br />

Figure 2 The Băbească gri variety, cultivated<br />

in Iaşi, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section of the<br />

limb for underlining the raphides (x 700)<br />

Figure 4 The Fetească albă variety, cultivated<br />

in Cotnari, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section of the<br />

petiole for underlining the raphides (x 1200)

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Figure 5 The Fetească albă variety, cultivated in<br />

Cotnari, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section of<br />

the petiole for underlining the crystals (x 700)<br />

Figure 7 The Fetească albă variety, cultivated in<br />

Cotnari – Cross-section of the fertile shoot for<br />

underlining the druses (x 1200)<br />

Figure 9 The Fetească regală variety, cultivated<br />

in Iaşi, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section of the strain<br />

for underlining prismatic crystals (x 1200)<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. The varieties of grapevines analyzed<br />

showed the presence of calcium oxalate crystals in<br />

an obvious morphological variety, being three<br />

types of crystals: raphides, druses and prismatic<br />

crystals.<br />

2. The localization of calcium oxalate<br />

crystals is also varied, them being present in<br />

parenchyma, phloem and even xylem tissue.<br />

3. The morphological diversity and the<br />

localization of crystals is smaller in the leaf’s<br />

76<br />

Figure 6 The Frâncuşă variety, cultivated in Iaşi,<br />

(fertile shoot) – Cross-section of the petiole for<br />

underlining the druses (x 700)<br />

Figure 8 The Frâncuşă variety, cultivated in<br />

Iaşi, (fertile shoot) – Cross-section of the strain<br />

for underlining the druses (x 1200)<br />

Figure 10 The Tămâioasă românească variety,<br />

cultivated in Cotnari, (fertile shoot) – Crosssection<br />

of the petiole for underlining the crystals<br />

(x 1200)<br />

limb (especially in the mesophyle) compared to the<br />

stem (annual shoot) and the leaf’s petiole.<br />

4. Various differences have been pointed out<br />

between the varieties studied as well as between<br />

the fertile and sterile shoots of the same variety as<br />

far as the type of crystals and their distribution is<br />

concerned, differences that are caused by genetic<br />

and environmental factors.

REFERENCES<br />

Arnott, H. and M. Webb, 2000 - Twinned raphides of<br />

calcium oxalate in grape (Vitis): Implications for<br />

cristal stability and function. Int. J. Plant Sci., vol.<br />

161, p. 133-142.<br />

Evert R.F., 2006 - Esau’s Plant Anatomy: Meristems,<br />

Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their<br />

Structure, Function and Development, 3rd ed.<br />

(Hoboken, NY: John Wiley & Sons).<br />

Li, X., D. Zhang, V.J. Lynch-Holm, T.W. Okita and<br />

V.R. Franceschi, 2003 - Isolation of a crystal<br />

matrix protein associated with calcium oxalate<br />

precipitation in vacuoles of specialized cells.<br />

Plant Physiol., vol. 133, p. 549-559.<br />

Meric, Ciler, 2009 - Calcium oxalate crystals in some<br />

species of the tribe Inuleae (Asteraceae). Acta<br />

Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica, vol.51(1),<br />

p. 105–110.<br />

Metcalfe, C.R., L. Chalk, 1950 - Anatomy of the<br />

Dicotyledons. 1-2, Clarendon Press, Oxford.<br />

Prychid, Christina J., Jabaily Rachel Schmidt, Rudall<br />

Paula J., 2008 - Cellular ultrastructure and crystal<br />

development in Amorphophallus (Araceae). Ann.<br />

Bot., vol.101(7), p. 983-995.<br />

Prychid, Christina J., Rudall Paula J., 1999 - Calcium<br />

oxalate crystals in monocotyledons : a review of<br />

their structure and systematics. Ann. Bot., vol. 84,<br />

p. 725-739.<br />

Saadi A. I., A. K. Mondal, 2012 - Studies on the calcium<br />

oxalate crystals (Raphides) and idioblast of some<br />

selected members of Araceae in Eastern India,<br />

African. Journal of Plant Science, vol. 6(9), p.<br />

256-269.<br />

Şerbănescu-Jitariu & colab., 1983 - Practicum de<br />

biologie vegetală. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Zanoschi, V., C. Toma, 1985 - Morfologia şi anatomia<br />

plantelor cultivate. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Webb M.A., Cavaletto J.M., Carpitan N.C., Lopez L.E.,<br />

Arnott H.J., 1995 - The intravacuolar organic<br />

matrix associated with calcium oxalate crystals in<br />

leaves of Vitis. Plant Journal, vol. 7, p. 633-648.<br />

77<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

78

Abstract<br />

79<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL QUICK FREEZING USING LIQUID NITROGEN:<br />

AN ECOLOGICAL FOODS FREEZING TECHNIQUE<br />

Bogdan HORBANIUC 1 , Carmen Cătălina IOAN 1 , Gheorghe DUMITRAŞCU 1<br />

bogdan_horbaniuc@yahoo.com<br />

Freezing represent one of the most utilized food preservation methods. Classical freezing techniques have harmful<br />

environmental effects especially because of the refrigerants, which contribute to the ozone layer depletion and to the<br />

increase of the greenhouse effect. Individual quick freezing (IQF) by direct contact with cryogenic agents such as liquid<br />

nitrogen (LN) has a significantly reduced ecological footprint, since nitrogen is a component of atmospheric air, and<br />

therefore it does not pollute. Liquid nitrogen is a by-product of air liquefaction which otherwise should be disposed.<br />

The effectiveness of liquid nitrogen IQF is vastly superior to that obtained by means of classical methods. The paper<br />

aims at highlighting this superiority, reflected mainly by the greatly reduced freezing time. The Lacroix and Castaigne<br />

method is used to determine the total time necessary to reach the prescribed freezing temperature in the thermal center<br />

of the product (in this case, green peas). This way, we prove that individual quick freezing using liquid nitrogen is<br />

characterized by much higher process rates and in addition it benefits from using an environmentally friendly<br />

refrigerant, thus contributing to sustainable development.<br />

Key words: individual quick freezing, liquid nitrogen, freezing time, environmentally friendly refrigerants, sustainable<br />

development<br />

Individual quick freezing (IQF) with direct<br />

contact with cryogenic agents represents a modern<br />

freezing technique for small size foods, such as<br />

fish fillets, shrimp, fruit – blackberries, raspberries,<br />

strawberries, and vegetables – green peas, diced<br />

carrots, etc. (Archer L.A., 2004). This way<br />

dehydration is avoided (Chourot J.M., Lauwers J.,<br />

Massoji N., Lucas T., 2001), the method is very<br />

well suited for continuous feeding processes, and<br />

the cold losses are much lesser (7%) than those of<br />

the air-blast technique, characterized by 20 ... 30%<br />

losses (Horbaniuc B., 2007). Classical freezing<br />

methods using air or brines involve the<br />

employment of freons or ammonia, which either<br />

put the ozone layer in jeopardy and act as<br />

greenhouse gases (freons), or are toxic (ammonia).<br />

The issue of designing environmentally<br />

friendly refrigeration processes is critical, since<br />

these represent a sustainable development<br />

component in agriculture and in related industries<br />

(Robu B., Ioan C.C, Robu E., Macoveanu M.,<br />

2009).<br />

Sustainable development concepts, which<br />

are permanently renewed and enriched, direct<br />

towards seeking for new paths to attain specific<br />

desiderates based on the creation of an ecological<br />

attitude in setting the foundations and in defining<br />

1 „Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi, Romania<br />

innovative refrigeration techniques and methods<br />

(Ioan C.C., Horbaniuc B., Dumitraşcu Gh., 2005),<br />

(Ioan C.C., 2008). In the area of freezing, one of<br />

such methods is IQF using liquid nitrogen (LN).<br />

Liquid nitrogen has the advantage of being a<br />

by-product of air liquefaction, which otherwise<br />

would be disposed in the atmosphere, having no<br />

other significant applications. Being an<br />

atmospheric air component, nitrogen is totally<br />

harmless and this is why it represents the ideal<br />

cryogenic agent from the standpoint of its<br />

environmental impact. Other reasons that lead to<br />

the adoption of this cryogenic agent are related to<br />

its properties (odorless, colorless, chemically inert,<br />

non flammable, non combustible, does not<br />

explode) and to the fact that it reduces product<br />

dehydration to a minimum – under 1% (Horbaniuc<br />

B., 2006), (Horbaniuc B., 2007).<br />

When using LN as a freezing agent, 48% of<br />

the heat removed from the product is turned into<br />

latent heat of vaporization and 52% into sensible<br />

heat.<br />

The advantages of liquid nitrogen individual<br />

quick freezing (LNIQF) are:<br />

- low freezing time;<br />

- good preservation of the initial product<br />

properties, which results in a very high food

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

quality;<br />

- small size of the freezing equipment;<br />

- almost complete automation possible;<br />

- high productivity.<br />

LNIQF can be performed in two ways:<br />

1. by immersion − nowadays abandoned,<br />

because it only uses the latent heat of<br />

vaporization and produces cracks on the<br />

product’s surface (Pham Q.T., Le Bail<br />

A., Hayert M., Tremeac B., 2005);<br />

2. by spraying − products pre-cooled in the<br />

gaseous nitrogen stream resulted from the<br />

vaporization of the cryogenic agent are<br />

sprayed with LN and thus the entire<br />

cooling capacity is used. One ton of LN<br />

has the equivalent of 100 kW of<br />

mechanical refrigeration power.<br />

Nitrogen has a drawback: when in high<br />

concentration in air, it causes suffocation.<br />

Therefore, work safety prescriptions in work<br />

places where LN freezing facilities are in operation<br />

are very severe, a very effective ventilation being<br />

required.<br />

Liquid nitrogen is transported in special<br />

tanks and is subsequently transferred at the<br />

consumer in 20 … 50 t thermally insulated tanks<br />

where it is stored at atmospheric pressure. The<br />

temperature of the liquid agent is maintained by<br />

controlled release of the vapor resulting from the<br />

isobaric boiling of the nitrogen. Losses are of the<br />

order of 0.5% per day.<br />

Due to its extremely low temperature, use of<br />

LN requires special precautions. Atmospheric<br />

oxygen, which boils at −183°C, may condense on<br />

un-insulated surfaces of the freezing equipment<br />

that have the temperature of LN and liquid oxygen<br />

drops may fall on on organic materials such as<br />

lubricants, rubber, etc., which instantaneously<br />

burst into flames, the combustion being explosive.<br />

Usual materials such as carbon-steel, rubber,<br />

plastics, which parts of the equipment are made of<br />

become brittle at LN temperature and therefore one<br />

must use other materials that are less affected by<br />

low temperatures (stainless steel, copper,<br />

aluminum, etc.).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The main advantage of LNIQF is<br />

represented by the high rate of the process, which<br />

results in reduced residence times of the product in<br />

the freezing equipment. In order to design it, one<br />

needs to determine the total time necessary for the<br />

temperature in the thermal center of the product to<br />

reach the prescribed value.<br />

It is difficult to calculate this time, because<br />

the process is composed of three stages (precooling,<br />

freezing, and subcooling), during which<br />

80<br />

the thermophysical properties of the material have<br />

different values, and during freezing, the phase<br />

transition of the contained water takes place.<br />

Moreover, the shape of the products is complex,<br />

which results in further complications of the<br />

numerical modeling (Perusello C. A., Mariani V. C.<br />

Amarante A.C., 2011).<br />

The methods used to determine the total<br />

freezing time are very diversified: analytical (Zorilla<br />

E., Rubiolo A., 2005a), (Zorilla E., Rubiolo A.,<br />

2005b), (Frolov S.V., 1997 ), numerical (Santos<br />

M.V., Lespinard A.R., 2011), semi-empirical<br />

(Lacroix C., Castaigne F., 1988), (Becker B.R.,<br />

Fricke B., 1997), (Becker B.R, 1999), etc.<br />

In order to get a quick and at the same time<br />

sufficiently accurate estimation of the freezing time,<br />

Plank’s equation is usually applied for simple<br />

geometrical shapes (Plank, R., 1941):<br />

2<br />

L <br />

v PD RD <br />

(1)<br />

T T<br />

<br />

<br />

s m f<br />

where τ is the freezing time, Lv is the volumetric<br />

latent heat of freezing, Ts is the freezing<br />

temperature, Tm is the temperature of the cooling<br />

medium, D is the characteristic length (in the case<br />

of spheres, this length is the diameter), α is the<br />

convective heat transfer coefficient, λf is the<br />

thermal conductivity of the product at the final<br />

temperature, and P and R are factors that take into<br />

account the geometry of the product.<br />

Since one needs to take into account the<br />

pre-cooling and cooling times, we have considered<br />

a more elaborated model, derived from that of<br />

Plank, which has been proposed by Lacroix and<br />

Castaigne and that allows to also determine these<br />

times (Lacroix C., Castaigne F., 1988). According<br />

to this model, the total time τtotal necessary to<br />

reach the prescribed temperature in the thermal<br />

center of the product is the sum of the three times:<br />

pre-cooling (τ1), freezing (τ2), and subcooling (τ3):<br />

total 1 2 <br />

3<br />

(2)<br />

The expressions for the three intervals are<br />

(Lacroix C., Castaigne F., 1988):<br />

TmT0 1 f1lg j1 <br />

(3)<br />

Tm Ts<br />

<br />

where f1 and j1 are coefficients that depend on the<br />

shape of the product and of the Biot number, and<br />

T0 is the initial temperature of the product.<br />

2<br />

LD <br />

v P<br />

2 <br />

Ts Tm<br />

<br />

<br />

f <br />

2Bi<br />

f<br />

<br />

R<br />

<br />

<br />

(4)<br />

where P and R are functions of the geometrical<br />

shape of the product, and Bif is the Biot number for<br />

freezing, defined by:<br />

D<br />

Bi f <br />

<br />

(5)<br />

Tm Ts<br />

<br />

3 f3lg j3 <br />

Tm Tc<br />

<br />

f<br />

(6)

where f3 and j3 are coefficients that depend on the<br />

the shape of the product and of the Biot number,<br />

81<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

and Tc is the final temperature of the process,<br />

measured in the thermal center of the product.<br />

Table 1<br />

Calculus of coefficients f and j for spheres (Lacroix C., Castaigne F., 1987)<br />

Range for the Biot number Equations for f and j<br />

Bi 0.1<br />

fa ln10<br />

2<br />

L 3Bi<br />

j 1.0<br />

0.1Bi 100<br />

Bi 100<br />

fa ln10<br />

2 2<br />

L w<br />

2 sin cos<br />

j <br />

w sin wcos w<br />

In the equations from table 1, a is the<br />

thermal diffusivity of the product, and L is a<br />

characteristic length equal to the radius in this<br />

case.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

We chose a product of spherical shape,<br />

namely green peas. For this geometrical shape, the<br />

coefficients P and R have the values P = 0.19665<br />

and R = 0.03939 respectively (Lacroix C.,<br />

Castaigne F., 1987). From the same paper<br />

published by Lacroix and Castaigne, table 1<br />

presents the equations for the factors f and j for<br />

spherical products. The thermophysical properties<br />

of the product have been compiled from (Barbos-<br />

Cànovas G.V., Juliano P., Peleg M., 1999) and<br />

(Iliescu Gh., Vasile C., 1982).<br />

The diameter of the green pea beans has<br />

been selected in the range 6 … 12 mm and the<br />

intensity of the cooling process has been<br />

considered by means of the convection heat<br />

transfer coefficient α, the values of which have<br />

been chosen in the range 30 ... 300 W/m 2 K.<br />

The considered temperatures were:<br />

- the initial temperature of the product:<br />

t0 = 20°C;<br />

- the freezing temperature: ts = −1.3°C;<br />

- liquid nitrogen temperature: tm = −198°C;<br />

- the final temperature of the product in the<br />

thermal center: tc = −28°C.<br />

With these entry data, we have calculated<br />

the times of the three stages and the total freezing<br />

time and the results have been plotted in figs. 1…3.<br />

The plot in fig. 1 presents the variation<br />

(versus the diameter) of the time intervals<br />

corresponding to pre-cooling (τ1), freezing (τ2),<br />

subcooling (τ3) and of the total time (τtotal)<br />

respectively for a value of 150 W/m 2 K of the<br />

convective heat transfer coefficient, which can be<br />

w w w<br />

Bi Bi<br />

4 5<br />

<br />

2 3<br />

w 1.573729 0.642906ln Bi 0.047859 ln Bi 0.03553 ln Bi <br />

0.004907 ln 0.001563<br />

ln<br />

fa<br />

0.2333<br />

2<br />

L<br />

j 2.0<br />

easily achieved by the LNIQF method. As<br />

expected, as the pea diameter increases, the<br />

process stage times increase from τ1 = 16.4 s,<br />

τ2 = 5.2 s, τ1 = 4.9 s for D = 6 mm, to τ1 = 57.9 s,<br />

τ2 = 13.6 s, τ1 = 16.9 s for D = 12 mm, the total<br />

time varying in the range 26.5 ... 88.4 s.<br />

Figure 1 Time intervals for the three stages and the<br />

total freezing time versus the diameter, for<br />

α = 150W/m 2 K<br />

The plot of the partial and total times<br />

versus the intensity of the convection heat transfer<br />

for 9 mm diameter peas is presented in fig. 2.<br />

Figure 2 Time intervals for the three stages and the<br />

total freezing time versus α, for D = 9 mm<br />

One notices that the partial times decrease<br />

as α increases, but this decrease is less important<br />

(about 43% for τ1, respectively 50% for τ3). The<br />

freezing time τ2 represents an exception, exhibiting<br />

a more pronounced variation of about 71%.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 3 The total freezing time versus α, for<br />

diameter values within the considered range<br />

The total time varies by approx. 45%.<br />

Overall, one notices a relatively little variation of<br />

partial and total times, although the convective<br />

heat transfer coefficient varies within very large<br />

limits (30 … 300 W/m 2 K). Its less significant<br />

influence can be explained by the important<br />

temperature difference between the product and the<br />

cryogenic agent. Consequently, measures to<br />

increase α are not absolutely necessary, a fact that<br />

does not happen in the case of air-blast IQF<br />

equipment, where it is crucially important to obtain<br />

the highest possible values of this coefficient. This<br />

way, important savings are achieved in terms of<br />

IQF equipment design and its energy consumption<br />

during operation. Noting that the time plot versus α<br />

is steeper for small values of the latter and then<br />

flattens, it results that it is not economically<br />

justified to achieve high values of α because the<br />

gain ceases to be significant. Therefore, in the case<br />

of the example considered in fig. 2, a value of 120<br />

W/m 2 K is optimal from the economical<br />

standpoint. This is in fact the value usually<br />

achieved in LNIQF plants (Horbaniuc B., 2007),<br />

(Kennedy C.J., 2000). The total freezing time<br />

versus the convective heat transfer coefficient is<br />

plotted in fig. 3 for the chosen values of the<br />

diameter. One has to notice the high process rate,<br />

even in the case of large size products, which leads<br />

to a high productivity of LNIQF installations<br />

compared to that of classical ones, either air or<br />

brine operated. This can be explained by the large<br />

temperature difference between the product’s<br />

surface and the freezing medium, which<br />

determines a very high intensity of the process.<br />

Also, all of the plots have the same shape,<br />

exhibiting a quasi-flatness for values of α higher<br />

than 120 W/m 2 K.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Individual quick freezing using liquid<br />

nitrogen is a high productivity food freezing<br />

technique characterized by low environmental<br />

82<br />

impact due to the use of LN as a by-product of air<br />

liquefaction units.<br />

The verification of the Lacroix-Castaigne<br />

model for the calculus of the partial and total times<br />

of the freezing process in the case of green peas<br />

has led to the following conclusions:<br />

1. The greater the diameter of the product,<br />

the longer the process, as a result of the increase of<br />

the pre-cooling, freezing and subcooling time<br />

intervals.<br />

2. The magnitude of the variation of precooling<br />

and subcooling times for a fixed diameter<br />

as a function of the convection heat transfer α is<br />

low, whereas that of the freezing time τ2 is a little<br />

more pronounced. These effects are transferred on<br />

the total freezing time τtotal so as to determine a<br />

steep decrease in the domain of low values of α<br />

followed by an almost insignificant diminution at<br />

high values of the convection heat transfer. This<br />

behavior makes heat transfer coefficient<br />

enhancement measures unnecessary above<br />

120 W/m 2 K, which can be considered as the<br />

optimal value.<br />

3. Regardless of the product diameter, the<br />

process rate is much higher than in the case of airblast<br />

IQF, and the total freezing time plots have all<br />

the same shape, exhibiting an insignificant<br />

decrease as α increases in the domain of high<br />

values. Liquid nitrogen equipment is similar to that<br />

using classical agents and is used for IQF or prefreezing<br />

(frozen crust building on the surface of<br />

sensitive products). The typical residence time is of<br />

the order of seconds, and the maximum<br />

productivity can be up to 5 t/h. From the<br />

configuration standpoint, the cryogenic spraying<br />

equipment is practically identical to air-blast one:<br />

tunnels, spirals, and with discontinuous (batch)<br />

feeding.<br />

Tunnels are the cryogenic version of airblast<br />

tunnels. They are provided with nozzles that<br />

spray liquid nitrogen on the products that are<br />

placed on a moving belt. In cryogenic tunnels<br />

freezing rates are much higher than those of airblast<br />

ones and the versatility is highly superior<br />

since while in air-blast tunnels the cooling rate is<br />

fixed from design by the maximum speed of the<br />

fans that blow the air over the heat transfer surface<br />

of the evaporator, in LN tunnels it can be adjusted<br />

by modifying the flow rate of the cryogenic agent<br />

that is sprayed by the nozzles. Some of the<br />

cryogenic tunnels (the simple ones) consist of two<br />

zones: a spraying region, where the product is<br />

sprayed with LN and a circulation one, where the<br />

gaseous nitrogen resulted in the first zone, being<br />

still very cold, finishes the freezing. At the more<br />

sophisticated ones the spray nozzles are distributed<br />

along the product path, allowing a very accurate

temperature tuning by adjusting the flow rate of<br />

each nozzle. Thus, the cooling load can be put into<br />

correspondence with the cryogenic agent<br />

consumption and therefore, the outlet temperature<br />

of the latter results close to the final temperature of<br />

the product, leading to important energy savings. A<br />

special issue arises in equipment having a single<br />

spraying region because of the imprecise<br />

temperature control, which results in a poor<br />

cooling potential recovery of LN, which leaves the<br />

installation at a temperature much different from<br />

that of the product.<br />

A correct set up of the gaseous agent<br />

circulation results in an effective and energysaving<br />

operation of the equipment. An example is<br />

represented by the tunnel Cryo-Quick VT<br />

manufactured by the American company Air<br />

Products, where a specially-shaped ceiling induces<br />

two eddies which facilitate a very effective mixing<br />

and recirculation of the gaseous agent (Kennedy C.<br />

J., 2000). Thus, the heat transfer coefficient<br />

reaches values in excess of 120 W/m 2 K, which is<br />

the double of that achieved by an air-blast tunnel.<br />

The fans are placed underneath the belt in order to<br />

obtain a better circulation of the agent.<br />

The comparison criterion of LNIQF<br />

equipment is the specific consumption that is the<br />

amount of cryogenic agent consumed to freeze one<br />

kilogram of product. Typically, the specific<br />

consumption of cryogenic tunnels ranges between<br />

0.3 for low humidity products to 2 for “difficult”<br />

ones (sea food for example).<br />

Spirals are used when long residence times<br />

impose an unacceptable linear length of the belt<br />

and therefore, this length is “wrapped” in a spiral,<br />

thus resulting an acceptable size of the freezing<br />

equipment. Batch-fed equipment is less employed<br />

because of its lower productivity caused by “dead”<br />

times necessary to load/unload the products.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Archer, L.A., 2004 – Freezing: An Underutilized Food<br />

Safety Technology?, International Journal of<br />

Food Microbiology, Vol. 90, p. 127-138.<br />

Barbos-Cànovas, G.V., Juliano, P., Peleg, M., 1999 –<br />

Engineering Properties of Foods, in UNESCO -<br />

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, online at<br />

www.eolss.net.<br />

Becker, B.R, 1999 – Freezing Times of Regularly<br />

Shaped Food Items, International<br />

Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol.<br />

26, No.5, 617-626.<br />

Becker, B.R., Fricke, B., 1997 – Computer Algorithms<br />

for Calculating the Cooling and Freezing Times,<br />

Refrigeration Loads and Thermal Properties of<br />

Foods and Beverages, ASHRAE Report,<br />

ASHRAE.<br />

Chourot, J.M., Lauwers, J., Massoji, N., Lucas, T.,<br />

2001 – Behavior of Green Beans During the<br />

Immersion Chilling and Freezing, International<br />

83<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Journal of Food Science and Technology, Vol.<br />

36, p. 179-187.<br />

Frolov, S.V., 1997 – On the Freezing Time of Cylinders<br />

and Spheres, Journal of Engineering Physics and<br />

Thermophysics, Vol. 70, No. 2, p. 309-314.<br />

Horbaniuc, B., 2006 - Instalaţii frigorifice şi de<br />

condiţionare în industria alimentară, Vol. I,<br />

Termodinamică. Teoria frigului şi climatizării,<br />

Editura „Cermi” Iaşi.<br />

Horbaniuc, B., 2007 - Instalaţii frigorifice şi de<br />

condiţionare în industria alimentară, Vol. II,<br />

Maşini şi instalaţii frigorifice specifice industriei<br />

alimentare, Editura „Cermi” Iaşi.<br />

Iliescu, Gh., Vasile, C., 1982 – Caracteristici termofizice<br />

ale produselor alimentare, Ed. Tehnică,<br />

Bucureşti.<br />

Ioan, C.C., 2008 - Awareness and development of the<br />

ecological attitude, key elements in education for<br />

sustainable development, The 8 th International<br />

Conference of. Technology and Quality for<br />

Sustained Development, Bucuresti, AGIR<br />

Publishing House, p.353-359.<br />

Ioan, C.C., Horbaniuc, B., Dumitraşcu, Gh., 2005 -<br />

Education for Sustainable Development<br />

Guidelines, Environmental Engineering and<br />

Management, Vol. 4, No. 3, 405-419.<br />

Kennedy, C. J. (editor), 2000 - Managing Frozen<br />

Foods, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge,<br />

England.<br />

Lacroix, C., Castaigne, F., 1987 – Simple Method for<br />

Freezing Time Calculations for Infinite Flat Slabs,<br />

Infinite Cylinders and Spheres Canadian Institute<br />

of Food Science and Technology Journal, Vol.<br />

20, No. 4, p. 252-259.<br />

Lacroix, C., Castaigne, F., 1988 – Freezing Time<br />

Calculation for Products with Simple Geometrical<br />

Shapes, Journal of Food Process Engineering,<br />

Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 81-104.<br />

Perusello, C. A., Mariani, V. C., Amarante A.C., 2011<br />

– Combined Modeling of Thermal Properties and<br />

Freezing Process by Convection Applied to<br />

Green Beans, Applied Thermal Engineering,<br />

Volume 31, p. 2894-2911.<br />

Pham, Q.T., Le Bail, A., Hayert, M., Tremeac B., 2005<br />

– Stresses and Cracking in Freezing Spherical<br />

Foods: a Numerical Model, Journal of Food<br />

Engineering, Vol. 71, p. 408-418.<br />

Plank, R., 1941 – Beitrage zur Berechnung und<br />

Bewertung der Gefriergeschwindigkeit von<br />

Lebensmitteln, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Kalte<br />

Industrie, Vol. 3, No. 10, p. 1-24.<br />

Robu, B., Ioan, C.C., Robu, E., Macoveanu M., 2009 -<br />

European Frame for Sustainable Agriculture in<br />

Romania: Policies and Strategies, Environmental<br />

Engineering and Management Journal, Vol 8,<br />

No.5, p. 1171-1179.<br />

Santos, M.V., Lespinard, A.R., 2011 – Numerical<br />

Simulation of Mushrooms During Freezing Using<br />

the FEM and an Enthalpy: Kirchhoff Formulation,<br />

Heat ad Mass Transfer, p. 813-820.<br />

Zorilla, E., Rubiolo, A., 2005a – Mathematical Modeling<br />

for Immersion Chilling and Freezing of Foods.<br />

Part I: Model Development, Journal of Food<br />

Engineering, Vol. 66, p. 329-338.<br />

Zorilla, E., Rubiolo, A., 2005b – Mathematical Modeling<br />

for Immersion Chilling and Freezing of Foods.<br />

Part I: Model Development, Journal of Food<br />

Engineering, Vol. 66, p. 339-351.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

84

Abstract<br />

85<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

SAPROPHYTIC AND PARASITIC FUNGI ON ORNAMENTAL PLANTS<br />

FROM MOLDOVA AREA (ROMANIA)<br />

Viorica IACOB 1 , Eugen ULEA 1 , Andreea-Mihaela BĂLĂU 1 , Florin LIPŞA 1<br />

e-mail: iacobviorica@gmail.com<br />

This study presents a mycology note that reflects further research for several years of teaching staff of the Faculty of<br />

Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University<br />

conducted on ornamental plants in parks and gardens. Research conducted on ornamental plants led to a ten fungal<br />

reports, two of them are new for the country, one fungus is new for Moldova microflora, four are new cited like hosts in<br />

Romania, one fungus is cited on a new hosts in Moldova and two are very rare citated in Moldova.<br />

Key words: ornamental plants, fungus, host plant<br />

Fungi are one of the most important groups<br />

of organisms on the planet.Fungi may limit the<br />

kinds of ornamental plants that can grow in a large<br />

geographic area.<br />

These 'pathogenic' or disease-causing fungi<br />

get inside the plant either by making a hole in its<br />

skin (epidermis), or by growing in through the<br />

plant's breathing holes (stomata). Then they kill the<br />

plant cells before absorbing food from them, or<br />

simply steal nutrients from the living cells. The<br />

spores of some fungi come through the air and<br />

attack leaves, making dead spots or even killing<br />

the whole leaf. Some fungi live in the soil and<br />

enter roots.<br />

They can either block the water-conducting<br />

cells or kill them, causing the plant to wilt. In<br />

many cases the plants is seriously damaged or may<br />

even die. So such pathogenic fungi can threaten the<br />

ornamental plans.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Ornamental plants were followed under<br />

phytopathological aspect throughout the year and<br />

degraded specimens of different pathogens were<br />

collected, brought to the laboratory and were<br />

subjected to macroscopic and microscopic<br />

investigations. For each plant attacked were made<br />

determinations, microscopic sections and<br />

micrometer measurements to asexual or sexual<br />

organs, in order to establish systematic<br />

classification of parasitic or saprophytic fungal<br />

species.<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

During the vegetation and the rest of<br />

ornamental plants were isolated and determined the<br />

following micromycetes:<br />

1. Colletotricum orchidearum Allesch.,<br />

Rab. Kr. Fl., VII, p.563(1903 ); Sacc. Syll. XVIII,<br />

p.467(1906); Died., Krypt. der Mark Brand.,<br />

p.819(1915); Migula, Kr. Fl. Bd.III, Pilze,4 teil,1<br />

Ab, p.558(1921); Grove, British Stem and Leaf<br />

Fungi,vol.II, p.233 (1967). On Phalaenopis x<br />

leaves were observed large spots, elliptical, 10 x<br />

4-5 cm on their surface the upper epidermis arises<br />

yellowing and drying area. Affected area has<br />

numerous small black spots represented by<br />

acervuli up to 500 micrometre located on a brown<br />

parenchymatous tissue. These acervuli are lined<br />

with brown spikes of 80-130 x 4 μm (fig.1, a). The<br />

conidia from hyaline conidiophores are, elongated,<br />

cylindrical, botuliforme, hyaline, of 17.5 to 20 x 4<br />

μm (fig.1,b).<br />

a) b)<br />

Figure 1 Acervuli of Colletotricum orchidearum<br />

(a), Conidia of Colletotricum orchidearum (b)<br />

The fungus is new for Romanian microflora where<br />

now are imported a lot of species and hybrids of

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

orchis. In this case it is a hybrid that has purple<br />

flowers.<br />

2. Pestalozzia cupressina Niessl, Hedwigia,<br />

1883, p.188 (1864); Sacc. Syll. Fung. III, p.792<br />

(1884). This fungus determined on<br />

Cupressocyparis leilandi Dall. plants, appears on<br />

the dry leaves areas as acervuli with conidiophores<br />

initial developed on lower epidermis of leaf. It<br />

support brown conidia with 3 transverse walls,<br />

with 2 terminal hyaline cells endowed with cilia<br />

hyaline. The 3 cell brown, almost square in shape,<br />

were about 20 x 7.5 μm. Pestalozzia cupressina<br />

fungal founded in Iaşi on 12.02.2011 is a harmful<br />

parasite and is new for Roumanian microflora.<br />

3. Lophodermium macrosporum (Hart.)<br />

Rehm, Rabenh. Kr. Fl.Deutsch. 1(3) p.45 (1887);<br />

Dennis, British Ascomycetes, p.201 (1968);<br />

Mititiuc M.,Viorica Iacob, Fungus on trees and<br />

shrubs in our forests, p.182 (1997). On Pinus<br />

sp.needle founded in Iasi on 15.07.2011, were<br />

brown spots, with stromatic black streaks parallel<br />

to the main ridge . Inside stroma that swell cuticle,<br />

are forming apothecia with ascus about 100 x 15<br />

μm , gelatinous walls with 8 ascospores hyaline<br />

about 75 x 1,5 μm (fig.2).<br />

Figure 2 Ascospores of Lophodermium<br />

macrosporum<br />

Fungus is cited on pine, in Romania by<br />

several authors: Banhegyi (1942), Blada (1961), C.<br />

Georgescu (1955,1960); Lungescu Elena (1966);<br />

Precup et all. (1965), Richiţeanu (1971, 1976,<br />

1980), Bontea 1977, under synonymy of<br />

Hypoderma macrosporum Hart. Is cited by Tr.<br />

Săvulescu et all. In 1951 . This micromyceta is<br />

new for Moldova.<br />

4. Gliocladium atrum Gilman and Abbott, A<br />

summary of the soil fungi Iowa, p.225 (1927);<br />

Gilman J.C, A Manual of Soil Fungi, p.291 (1957).<br />

This micromyceta were isolated from Saintpaulia<br />

ionantha Wendl. plants that presented withered<br />

leaves touching the ground soil, become brown and<br />

after rot. Affected area by the fungus is covered<br />

with a gray micelyum, formed by smoth and<br />

flexuos conidiophores about 300 x 3 μm (fig.3).<br />

Conidia appear grouped on conidiophores<br />

branches. Primary branches are oblong measuring<br />

9 x 3 μm. Metula are also oblong with 8 x 3 μm<br />

and phialides are about 8 x 2 μm. Conidia has<br />

smoth walls from 2,5 x 2 μm. Fungus were isolated<br />

86<br />

on 12.04 2011 in Iasi and it was mentioned only on<br />

greenhouse soil then Saintpaulia ionantha Wendl.<br />

Is a new host in Romania.<br />

Figure 3 Conidiophores of Gliocladium atrum<br />

5. Microsphaera polonica Siemaszko,<br />

Rev. Path. Vég. et Enrom. Agr.XX (1933); Olga<br />

Săvulescu, Hydragea Oidium. Com. Acad. R.P.R.<br />

IV, p.9-10 (1954); C. Sandu-Ville, Erysiphaceae<br />

fungus in Romania, Bucuresti (1967). Fungus were<br />

identified on Romania in 1954 by Olga Săvulescu<br />

and E. Docea at Bucuresti and by C.-Sandu-Ville<br />

at Iaşi, on greenhouse C.F.R. Now we mention it<br />

on Hydrangea macrophylla DC, at Iasi on 20.IX<br />

2011 that is a new host in Romania.<br />

6. Volutella ciliata (Alb. Et Schwein) Fr.<br />

,S.M., III, p.467(1832); Mont., A.S.N 2,<br />

sér.VI,p.30(1835); Lindau, Rab. Kr. Fl., IX,<br />

p.483(1910); Diedicke, Kr.der Mark. Brand.,<br />

p.710(1915); Migula, Kr. Fl. Bd. III, Pilze, 4 Teil,<br />

2 Ab., p.493,Tab.CLXII, fig.17-19(1934); Gilman,<br />

A Manual of Soil Fungi, p. 356(1957). Fungus<br />

develop on Phalaenopis x plants a white-pink<br />

mycelium with obvious pustules, hemisferical,<br />

about 200 μm in diameter. They had on margins<br />

numerous seta about 250 x 8 μm .Conidiophores<br />

are sunt simple, hyaline (colored in pink) and are<br />

supporting elliptical conidia, hyaline from 5-7 x 2<br />

μm (fig. 4). In Romania this mycromiceta is<br />

mentioned on differet substrates by: Grinţescu<br />

(1916), Alteraş (1970), Căpuşan et all (1959),<br />

Comes (1965), Georgescu (1955), Moruzi (1970),<br />

Eugenia Eliade and Cristurian (1971) however we<br />

mention it on Phalaenopis x that is a new host in<br />

Romania.<br />

7. Glomerella cingulata (Stone)Sp. et<br />

Schr., The bitter rot fungus, Sci. XXVII, p.750-<br />

751(19030), The bitter rot of apples, US Dep. Of<br />

Agr.,Bur. Plant Industry, p.44-54, tab.I-IX(1903);<br />

Sandu-Ville, Ciuperci Pyrenomycetes-Sphaeriales,<br />

p.188(1954).Syn.-Guignardia microsticta Sacc.,<br />

Syll XXII, p.75(1913); Arx end Muller, Beitr. Zur<br />

Krypt. Fl., der Schweitz, p.,188(1954). Perithecium<br />

appear in rare groups, on dry area of Phalaenopis<br />

x. leaves. Are about 150-170 μm in diameter with a<br />

thick perithecium of 15 μm. Asca is from 50 x 7<br />

μm, elongated, easily cudgel, with ascospores<br />

placed on two rows with 10 x 4 μm and a<br />

granulated content. Fungus were determined on

Phalaenopis x leaves that represent a new host for<br />

Romania.<br />

Figure 4 Conidiophores and conidia of Volutella<br />

ciliata<br />

8. Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.)Link.,<br />

Tent. Disp. P.75 (1797) ex S.F.Gray (1821);<br />

Lindau, Rabenh. Kr. Fl.Deutsch., Őesterr.,und<br />

Schweiz, VIII,p.800 (1907); Migula,Kr. Fl.Bd.<br />

Pilze 4 Teil, 2 Ab., p.300 (1934); M.B.Ellis,<br />

Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes, p.313 (1971). On<br />

Dianthus barbatus L. leaves and steams that<br />

whintering appear a black mycelium form by<br />

conidiophores and conidia of fungus.<br />

Conidiophores appear in bunches, borwn, septated,<br />

long about 1/3 mm, thick of 3-6 μm that are<br />

sustaining by elongated conidia, bicelled,<br />

cylindrical, lightly sharp at one of ends, smooth<br />

membrane from 15-20 x 5-7 μm. Mycromiceta is<br />

cosmopolitan but Dianthus barbatus L. is a new<br />

host for Moldova microflora.<br />

9. Diplodia deflectens Karst., Frag. Myc.<br />

VIII(1882) Hedwigia XXIII, p.18(1896); Karst,<br />

Symb. XIII, p.12(1874); Sacc. Syll. III,<br />

p.345(1884); Migula, Kr. Fl. von Deuts. Deuts.,<br />

Őesterr. und Schw. Bd. III, Pilze 4, Teil 1Ab.<br />

p.327(1921).<br />

Figure 5 Bicelled spores of<br />

Diplodia deflectens<br />

On Lonicera tatarica L. branches in the<br />

spring of march 2012- were observed numerous<br />

picnidia with black wall , coal –like about 1000-<br />

1500 μm in diameter. Brown spores that go aut<br />

from pycnidia have from 15-20 x 7-8 μm, are<br />

bicelled, with round ends without oiled drops (fig.<br />

5). Fungus is mentioned in Romania by Tr.<br />

Săvulescu and C. Sandu-Ville in 1935 and by C.<br />

Sandu-Ville and I. Rădulescu in Moldova on 1954.<br />

Mycromiceta is rare mentioned in Moldova.<br />

10. Camarosporium Xylostei Sacc.,Syll.<br />

III, p.461 (1884); Allesch., Die Pilze, Fungi<br />

87<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

imperfecti, p.271 (1903); Diedicke,Kr., der Mark<br />

Branden., p.676 (1915); Migula, Kr. Fl. von Deuts.<br />

Deuts., Őesterr. Und Schw. Bd. III, Pilze 4, Teil<br />

1Ab. p.367 (1921); Grove, British Stem and Leaf –<br />

Fungi, Coelomycetes vol. II p.98(1967). On<br />

Lonicera tatarica L. parched bark appear<br />

numerous black spots that are suddenly opened by<br />

breaking represented by Camarosporium type<br />

pycnidia, black, spherical with a papilla that are<br />

going out pycnospores. These are brouwn,<br />

elongated, with rounded ends, with 3-4 transversal<br />

walls about 18-20 x 8 μm (fig.6). Fungus was<br />

mentioned in Romania only once by C. Sandu-<br />

Ville and his mycology collective from Iasi in<br />

1962. Mycromiceta is rare mentioned in Moldova.<br />

Figure 6 Pycnospores of Camarosporium<br />

Xylostei<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Determinated fungus were noted and included<br />

in Herbarium Mycologicum Moldavicum to<br />

expand the mycological collection. After researchs<br />

conducted on ornamental plants have been pointed<br />

out ten fungal: two are new for the country, one<br />

fungus is new for Moldova microflora, four are<br />

new cited like hosts in Romania, one fungus is<br />

cited on a new hosts in Moldova and two are very<br />

rare citated in Moldova.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bontea, Vera.,1985 - Ciuperci parazite şi saprofite din<br />

România, Bucureşti.<br />

Dennis R. W. G. (1968) - British Ascomycetes,<br />

Stuttgart,Germany.<br />

Ellis, M.B., 1971 - Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes,<br />

Surrey-England.<br />

Gilman, J.C., 1957 - A Manual of Soil Fungi, Iowa State.<br />

Grove, W.B., (1967) - British Stem and Leaf<br />

Fungi(Coelomycetes), New York .<br />

Migula, W., 1921 - Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutsch.,<br />

Deutsch-Őesterreich und Schweiz, Berlin.<br />

Mititiuc, M., Viorica Iacob, 1997 - Ciuperci parazite pe<br />

arbori şi arbuşti din pădurile noastre, Iaşi,<br />

România.<br />

Sandu-Ville, C., 1954 - Ciuperci Pyrenomycetes-<br />

Sphaeriales, Bucureşti.<br />

Sandu-Ville, C., 1967 - Ciupercile Erysiphaceae din<br />

România, Bucureşti.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

88

Abstract<br />

89<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

STUDIES ON GLOBAL TRENDS IN WINE MARKETING<br />

Andy Felix JITĂREANU 1<br />

e-mail: andyjitareanu2@yahoo.com<br />

Given the complex nature of the product itself and of the market for wine, plus the fact that research has only<br />

relatively recently begun to understand wine consumer behavior, wine is one of the most difficult consumer products to<br />

market. Wine growing has become identified as an important tool of regional development. However, at the global level<br />

wine production is increasing faster than wine consumption making for an increasingly competitive wine business<br />

environment. Research indicates that there is no such thing as the wine market nor is there a typical wine consumer.<br />

Instead, the wine market is made up of several, sometimes very niche, segments that are influenced by demographics,<br />

psychographics and the situation in which it is being consumed. Unlike most food products, the taste of the wine can<br />

vary due to the specific vintage, even if the brand and other extrinsic information remains the same. The consumers<br />

cannot usually taste the wine before purchase, so they must make their decision based on the available information on<br />

the label and bottle. One of the great myths of the wine industry is that „a great wine will sell itself‟, but the truth is that<br />

the consumer has to know certain things about the wine and then decide to purchase it, often in the face of competition<br />

from many other options, many of which will not even be wine. Furthermore, the decision to purchase is also situational<br />

in terms of motivations, needs, atmosphere, social situation, budget, convenience, fashion, peer pressure and many other<br />

factors.<br />

Key words: wine marketing, consumption, consumer behaviour, advertising.<br />

Wine is a complex product, beeing at once: a<br />

provider of sustenance and a luxury item;<br />

associated with healthy living; a symbol of status,<br />

but also a „peasant‟ drink; of immense religious<br />

and cultural significance; a fashion item,<br />

experience and commodity all in one (Hall C.M.,<br />

1996).<br />

At a very basic level, wine can be divided<br />

into two broad categories: bulk wines and premium<br />

wines. This binary is important to any discussion<br />

of wine marketing as the two are historically very<br />

different products but, despite the fact that bulk<br />

wines account for a significant proportion of<br />

production, „almost invariably those who discuss,<br />

sell or write about wine refer to it as if it were a<br />

single, homogeneous product, albeit in various<br />

styles‟ (Charters S., 2006).<br />

They can also be distinguished from each<br />

other on the basis of the aesthetics and social<br />

purpose of wine consumption and, often, by the<br />

place from which they originate. Premium wines<br />

provide greater aesthetic outcomes (rather than<br />

sustenance or lubrication), they are a marker of<br />

social status and social capital and they tend to<br />

come from cooler climate regions (while bulk<br />

wines come almost is exclusive from hot regions<br />

where growing conditions allow for higher yields.<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Research methods used in this paper are<br />

bibliographic study, observation and comparative<br />

analysis. The research was conducted in<br />

Germany, in the Rheingau area, where several<br />

issues have been analyzed: the current situation of<br />

the european wine market, wine marketing mix<br />

characteristics, specific product features,<br />

advertising methods, store shelf display, consumer<br />

behaviour and purchase criteria.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Consumption<br />

While wine consumption is on increase in<br />

many New World wine markets, it has been in<br />

decline in most Old World markets for at least the<br />

last three decades. Wine growing has become<br />

identified as an important tool of regional<br />

development. However, at the global level wine<br />

production is increasing faster than wine<br />

consumption making for an increasingly<br />

competitive wine business environment. The<br />

growing body of wine marketing literature has<br />

identified differences in the wine consumer<br />

behavior of men and women, between different<br />

generations, amongst different ethnic groups and in<br />

different countries. It is also possible to identify<br />

different markets depending on how they purchase

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

and consume wine and the meanings it has for<br />

consumers. Research indicates that there is no such<br />

thing as the wine market nor is there a typical wine<br />

consumer. Instead the wine market is made up of<br />

several, sometimes very niche, segments that are<br />

influenced by demographics, psychographics and<br />

the situation in which it is being consumed.<br />

Research into wine consumers and their behavior<br />

is becoming increasingly sophisticated so that it<br />

now includes explorations of personality, levels of<br />

involvement and different motivations for<br />

purchasing wine. Unfortunately, however, much of<br />

this research is still not filtering down to those that<br />

need it the most – the wineries themselves and<br />

those that control its sale and distribution – while<br />

many other parts of the wine supply and<br />

distribution chains are also unaware about how<br />

their business success is interrelated with the<br />

success of the chain as a whole in meeting<br />

consumer demands. Given the complex nature of<br />

the product itself and of the market for wine, plus<br />

the fact that research has only relatively recently<br />

begun to understand wine consumer behavior,<br />

wine is one of the most difficult consumer products<br />

to market.<br />

Consumer behavior<br />

Understanding how consumers choose wine<br />

continues to be a complex problem for researchers<br />

and practitioners alike. Wine is a difficult and<br />

confusing product for consumers to choose due to<br />

number of cues on the label, such as brand name,<br />

region, grape variety. Unlike most food products,<br />

the taste of the wine can vary due to the specific<br />

vintage, even if the brand and other extrinsic<br />

information remains the same. In other grocery<br />

categories consumers easily switch between<br />

different brands in accordance with market share<br />

and are not very concerned with taste or quality<br />

differences behind the different labels (Ehrenberg<br />

A., 2000). Brands on the shelf are seen as easily<br />

substitutable for one another. Wine provides a very<br />

different product category. Wine producers and<br />

sensory scientists focus for obvious reasons on the<br />

taste of wine as their key criterion for wine choice<br />

by consumers. Due to the number of products<br />

available and vintage variation, consumers may not<br />

be able to predict how the wine will taste before<br />

they buy. Understanding consumer tastes and<br />

being able to create wines to specific taste profiles<br />

is an important goal for wine companies and<br />

researchers. However, when consumers are<br />

shopping for wine, they face a bewildering array of<br />

products bearing a wide range of information. The<br />

consumers cannot usually taste the wine before<br />

purchase, so they must make their decision based<br />

on the available information on the label and<br />

bottle.<br />

90<br />

Cellar door wine marketing<br />

Advantages and disadvantages of wine<br />

tourism for wineries<br />

Advantages<br />

Increased consumer exposure to product and<br />

increased opportunities to sample products;<br />

Brand awareness and loyalty built through<br />

establishing links between producer and<br />

consumer, and purchase of Company-branded<br />

merchandise;<br />

Increased margins through direct sale to<br />

consumer, where the absence of distributor<br />

costs is not carried over entirely to the<br />

consumer;<br />

An additional sales outlet or, for smaller wine<br />

producers who cannot guarantee volume or<br />

constancy of supply, the only feasible sales<br />

outlet;<br />

Marketing intelligence on products - wine<br />

producers can gain instant and valuable<br />

feedback on the consumer reaction to their<br />

existing products, and are able to trial new<br />

additions to their product range;<br />

Marketing intelligence on customers – winery<br />

visitors can be added to a mailing list which can<br />

be developed as a customer database to both<br />

target and inform customers;<br />

Educational opportunities - visits to wineries<br />

help create awareness and appreciation of wine<br />

and the wine industry, the knowledge and<br />

interest generated by this can be expected to<br />

result in increased consumption.<br />

Disadvantages<br />

Increased costs and management time -<br />

operation of a tasting room may be costly,<br />

particularly when it requires paid staff. While<br />

the profitability gap is higher on direct sales to<br />

the consumer, profit may be reduced if wineries<br />

do not charge for tastings;<br />

Capital required - suitable facilities for hosting<br />

visitors may be prohibitively expensive,<br />

especially as wine-making is a capital intensive<br />

business;<br />

Inability to substantially increase sales - the<br />

number of visitors a winery can attract is<br />

limited and if a winery cannot sell all of its<br />

stock it will eventually need to use other<br />

distribution outlets.<br />

Hall C.M. (1996) provides a typology of<br />

wine tourists based on their motivations for<br />

visiting wineries and wine regions and their<br />

behavior. Based on Hall‟s work it is possible to<br />

identify three segments:<br />

1. The „wine lover‟: Who is extremely wine<br />

interested and who is an experienced winery<br />

visitor, visiting the region solely for wine. They are

likely to be mature with high income and education<br />

levels and are highly likely to purchase at the<br />

winery and add their name to any mailing list;<br />

2. The „wine interested‟: Who have a high<br />

interest in wine (include wine in wider lifestyle<br />

choices), who are likely to have visited other wine<br />

regions but wine is not the sole purpose of the visit<br />

to the destination. They will likely be in the<br />

moderate to high-income bracket and tend to be<br />

university educated. They are likely to purchase at<br />

the winery and add name to any mailing list and<br />

may become a repeat purchaser through having<br />

visited winery;<br />

3. „Curious tourist‟: Moderately interested<br />

in wine, who is motivated to visit the region by<br />

non-wine factors and wineries seen as „just another<br />

attraction‟. Their curiosity for the visit is likely to<br />

have been aroused by drinking or seeing winery<br />

product or general tourism promotion or<br />

pamphlets. They are likely to have a moderate<br />

income and education and they may purchase at<br />

the winery but will not join mailing list.<br />

Wine is an industry of intermediaries (or<br />

„middlemen‟), who provide services of different<br />

forms that distribute wine from the producer to the<br />

retailer or consumer. There are many different<br />

forms of intermediary, each with a different role to<br />

91<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

play and each of whom has the potential to add<br />

cost and, hopefully, value to the wine. Because the<br />

types of intermediaries are many and varied, there<br />

are an overwhelming number of permutations for a<br />

winery when it comes to the selection of<br />

intermediaries. This is especially the case for<br />

smaller wineries that, unlike their larger<br />

counterparts, do not usually have the selling<br />

power, volume of production or resources to bypass<br />

intermediaries and sell directly to retailers or<br />

to negotiate contracts that benefit both winery and<br />

intermediary. The nature of the relationships<br />

between winery, intermediary and retailer is,<br />

therefore, critical to the ability of a supply chain<br />

involving intermediaries to add value to the wine.<br />

Premium wine, as a complex, symbolic and highly<br />

technical product, relies on a complex interaction<br />

of information sources and impressions for the<br />

development of brand image. Image is an abstract<br />

concept that incorporates the influences of past<br />

promotion, reputation, and peer evaluation of the<br />

alternatives and connotes the expectation of the<br />

user (Gensch D.H., 1978; Stern B.M., 2001).<br />

Wine advertising<br />

Use and capacity of selected advertising<br />

communications channels in developed countries<br />

with respect to premium wine and food products.<br />

Table 1<br />

Wine brands’ ability to communicate<br />

Communication channel Reach Wine price Wine quality Wine product information<br />

Television High Good Moderate Moderate<br />

In-store advertising High Moderate Moderate Moderate<br />

Radio High Poor Poor Poor<br />

Newspaper High Moderate Moderate Moderate<br />

Magazine High Moderate Moderate Moderate<br />

Internet advertising High Moderate Poor Poor<br />

Websites High Good Moderate Good<br />

In-store retail market samples Medium Excellent Excellent Good<br />

Coupons and price promotions Medium Moderate Poor Poor<br />

Home mailings Medium Poor Poor Poor<br />

Friends / family recommendations Medium Excellent Excellent Excellent<br />

Magazine / newspaper inserts Medium Moderate Poor Poor<br />

Cinema advertising Medium Poor Poor Poor<br />

Toll free numbers Medium Poor Poor Poor<br />

E-mails Medium Poor Poor Poor<br />

Event sponsorship Low Poor Moderate Poor<br />

Experts recommendations Low Moderate Excellent Good<br />

Restaurant table promotion Low Poor Moderate Moderate<br />

Travel by public transport Low Poor Poor Poor<br />

Travel by airplane Low Poor Moderate Poor<br />

Television advertising by wine producers is<br />

relatively rare for a number of reasons. One reason<br />

is that alcohol advertising may be restricted or<br />

banned in certain media. Charters S. (2006) also<br />

suggests that „even where formal restrictions are<br />

not in place, informal controls and the power of<br />

lobby groups may impose practical limits, such as<br />

influencing the advertising of wine on commercial<br />

television stations‟. However it is just as likely that<br />

only large producers can afford the high cost of<br />

production and transmission of television<br />

advertisements. Television also has a relatively<br />

broad market and it is therefore more difficult to<br />

target wine consumers, although particular shows<br />

would likely appeal to the wine market and these<br />

could be useful to be associated with. Radio has a<br />

more targeted audience as radio stations usually<br />

attract a very narrow demographic of listeners. For

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

nationally syndicated radio programs and<br />

primetime listening slots advertising airtime can be<br />

expensive, but most radio stations have cheaper<br />

off-peak slots and local stations can be a very<br />

cheap advertising channel. However, care must be<br />

taken to ensure that a radio station‟s listeners are a<br />

demographic that matches the brand‟s target<br />

market, as the narrow demographics may mean<br />

that the advertisement completely misses its target.<br />

Billboards can be very effective at reaching<br />

a wide audience, but may not necessarily have a<br />

high degree of conversion to sales. Breweries<br />

around the world have been very effective at using<br />

billboards and often they involve innovative<br />

concepts and many use humor to great effect.<br />

Humor is one way that billboards can be<br />

particularly effective, but Solomon M.E. (1992)<br />

suggests that, while humorous advertisements do<br />

get attention, especially those relating to alcoholic<br />

beverages, care must be taken to ensure that humor<br />

is appropriate for the product. While wineries<br />

might find it useful to use billboards as an<br />

advertising channel, it may not be appropriate to<br />

follow the lead of breweries and it would be<br />

advisable to seriously consider whether humor<br />

would be appropriate for their brand image.<br />

Bus shelter billboards have been used<br />

effectively in Australia by Labels are an important<br />

part of the promotional mix for wineries. They are<br />

critical at the point of sale as they attract the<br />

consumer to a particular brand. In some stores<br />

there could be several thousand different labels and<br />

consumers must make a choice based on what<br />

impression the label makes. There is a lot<br />

information that a label presents and Lockshin L.<br />

and Hall J. (2003) describe this as the “Brand<br />

Constellation” and it might include: „the company<br />

name, wine color, country, region, sub-region and<br />

vineyard, price including discounts, varietal names<br />

or combinations, winemaker(s) and style (sweet,<br />

light, heavy, tannic, etc. – often on the back label)‟.<br />

However, more importantly front labels in<br />

particular must also evoke more abstract concepts<br />

about the wine and its brand image (Rocchi B.,<br />

Stefani G., 2006).<br />

Charters S. (2006) suggests that wine label<br />

has therefore become a work of art and „the artistic<br />

label acts as metaphor for the wine; the consumer<br />

may be unable to appreciate the aesthetic qualities<br />

of the drink, at least until the cork is pulled, but the<br />

label signifies what its aesthetic value will<br />

ultimately be‟. The overall message about the wine<br />

is therefore developed through the choice of colors,<br />

materials and graphic elements and artistic design<br />

of the label (Rocchi B., Stefani G., 2006).<br />

The design of the wine label is critical to the<br />

marketing strategy of the winery as it is ultimately<br />

92<br />

what sets the brand image for the wine and the<br />

expectations of consumers. The image presented in<br />

the label should follow through into other design<br />

elements for the winery, including stationary,<br />

websites and advertising and promotional material.<br />

It is vital that professional designers are used and<br />

that an appropriate budget is set aside when<br />

developing the brand.<br />

One of the great myths of the wine industry<br />

is that „a great wine will sell itself‟. The truth is<br />

that in order to be sold, the wine and the consumer<br />

have to be brought together. This means at the very<br />

least there has to be a distribution channel. But<br />

more than that the consumer has to know about the<br />

wine and then decide to purchase it, often in the<br />

face of competition from many other options,<br />

many of which will not even be wine. Furthermore,<br />

the decision to purchase is also situational in terms<br />

of motivations, needs, atmosphere, social situation,<br />

budget, convenience, fashion, peer pressure and<br />

many other factors. Indeed, a key realization in<br />

understanding wine purchasing patterns is that the<br />

vast majority of wine is consumed within 24 hours<br />

of purchase, something which is not akin to the<br />

image of buying a bottle „to put it down‟ often,<br />

perhaps unwittingly still conveyed in the popular<br />

wine media. In fact, one of the things that we<br />

would like to „put down‟ is the archaic production<br />

focus that still exists with many in the industry.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Trends and issues in consumption and<br />

consumer behavior to 2015<br />

On the basis of world consumption trends<br />

since 1995 (OIV, 2006), world wine consumption<br />

will continue to increase. However, this increase<br />

will not keep up with the rate of estimated<br />

population growth and therefore world wine<br />

consumption per capita will continue to fall.<br />

National markets showing continued<br />

economic growth and rising incomes per capita<br />

demonstrate some of the best growth potential for<br />

increasing wine consumption. However, the<br />

potential of such markets needs to be understood in<br />

relation to such factors as religious and cultural<br />

attitudes to alcohol and wine in particular;<br />

adoption by existing and emerging middle class of<br />

western-oriented consumerism in which wine has a<br />

role as a status good; and increased competition<br />

from other beverages, alcohol and otherwise.<br />

On the basis of such analysis in terms of<br />

non-traditional wine growing areas India and<br />

China will be primary markets for growth in wine<br />

consumption, and Korea, Japan, the Nordic<br />

countries and Singapore significant secondary<br />

markets. In terms of areas in which wine growing<br />

is established then the USA and Russia appear to

e primary growth markets, and South Africa and<br />

some of the transition economies of Eastern<br />

Europe significant secondary markets.<br />

Existing wine-growing countries will<br />

continue to be the most significant markets for<br />

premium wines, with the possible exception being<br />

Singapore. India and China will be important but<br />

primarily by virtue of the sheer size of their<br />

markets rather than the overall pattern of consumer<br />

behavior and consumption. The health benefits of<br />

moderate wine consumption will continue to grow<br />

as an important selling feature especially as<br />

population ages in developed countries. Women<br />

will continue to become even more significant as<br />

the drivers behind wine brand choice and as<br />

consumers of wine. The take home wine market<br />

will continue to grow with this primarily being<br />

purchased from supermarkets. Continued drink<br />

driving campaigns in a number of developed<br />

countries will serve to reinforce this trend. The<br />

lifestyle and fashion dimensions of wine which<br />

have developed substantially in recent years will<br />

have particular influence on the increasingly<br />

gendered nature of wine brand choice in which<br />

women are becoming more important as household<br />

drivers of brand choice, particularly in a retail<br />

environment.<br />

This may well have substantial implications<br />

for wine marketing strategies including channel<br />

choice for medium to larger wine companies while<br />

also having implications for some of the<br />

specialized marketing strategies of small wineries.<br />

The health dimensions of wine are also<br />

increasingly likely to become a focal point of wine<br />

promotion, where alcohol advertising regulation<br />

makes this possible, as a result of the aging<br />

populations of many western societies. In the<br />

various countries in which alcohol advertising law<br />

prevents such statements from being made it is<br />

likely that companies will become more inventive<br />

with respect to circumventing regulations, that is,<br />

through encouraging appropriate stories in the<br />

media, as well as direct lobbying on lawmakers to<br />

change alcohol advertising law.<br />

Trends and issues in production and<br />

production behavior to 2015<br />

Competition between wine producers and<br />

wine regions will continue to increase. There will<br />

be ongoing turbulence in the production of wine as<br />

a result of overproduction relative to consumption.<br />

EU and other national support schemes for the<br />

wine industry, including vine pull schemes, will<br />

only have marginal impacts on world wine<br />

production overall although they will have<br />

significant regional impact. The industrial structure<br />

of wine production, particularly in New World<br />

wine countries, will continue to emphasize a small<br />

93<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

number of very large companies and a large<br />

number of very small companies. Such structures<br />

will increasingly give rise to policy tensions as<br />

grape growers and small wineries come under<br />

increasing financial pressures. Winegrowers will<br />

face increased competition for access to<br />

increasingly scarce water supplies in a number of<br />

regions including Southern Europe, USA, British<br />

Columbia, South Africa and Australia. As a result<br />

of increased mobility of people, freight and<br />

agricultural commodities the rate of transmission<br />

of pests and diseases will increase.<br />

The role of transnational supermarket and<br />

other retail chains will continue to grow in<br />

importance in terms of volume of wine sold. Wine<br />

growth internationally will continue to come from<br />

high value rather than high-volume markets. Wine<br />

tourism and wine events will be increasingly<br />

adopted by wine regions and some winegrowers as<br />

a business and market strategy. Web 2.0 will<br />

provide wineries with new networking<br />

opportunities but will require new business<br />

strategy approaches in order to be able to manage<br />

the co-creation possibilities.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The author is grateful for the financial support provided<br />

by the European Social Fund through the national<br />

project ID 89/1.5/S62371, regarding “Education<br />

and training in support of economical growth and<br />

development of knowledge-based society”.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Charters, S., 2006 - Wine and Society - The Social and<br />

Cultural Context of a Drink, Butterworth -<br />

Heinemann.<br />

Ehrenberg, A., 2000 - Repetitive Advertising and the<br />

Consumer, Journal of Advertising Research, Volume<br />

40, Issue 06, pp 39 - 48.<br />

Fifield, P., 2007 - Marketing Strategy - The Difference<br />

Between Marketing and Markets (Third Edition),<br />

Taylor & Francis.<br />

Gensch, D.H., 1978 - Image - Measurement<br />

Segmentation, Journal of Marketing Research, 15(3),<br />

pp 384 - 395.<br />

Hall, C.M., Mitchell R., 1996 - Wine Marketing: A<br />

practical guide, Butterworth – Heinemann, 1st<br />

edition.<br />

Lockshin, L., Hall, J., 2003 - Consumer Purchasing<br />

Behaviour for Wine: What We Know and Where We<br />

are Going, International Wine Marketing Colloquium<br />

in Adelaide, Wine Marketing Unit. University of<br />

South Australia.<br />

Rocchi, B., Stefani, G., 2006 - Consumers’ perception<br />

of wine packaging: A case study, International<br />

Journal of Wine Marketing, Vol. 18 Iss: 1, pp 33 - 44.<br />

Solomon, M.E., 1992 - Consumer Behavior: A<br />

European Perspective, Prentice Hall.<br />

Stern, B.M., 2001 - Images in Marketing: Congruence of<br />

Store, Brand and Corporate Images, Marketing<br />

Theory, 1(2), pp 201 - 224.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

94

Abstract<br />

95<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EVOLUTION OF THE REACTION FOR THE TYPICAL PRELUVOSOIL<br />

THROUGH DIFFERENTIATED FERTILIZATION FOR APPLE<br />

CULTIVATION IN THE REGHIN AREA<br />

Marilena MĂRGHITAŞ 1 , Constantin TOADER 1 , Mihaela MIHAI 1 , Lavinia MOLDOVAN 1 ,<br />

Maria Hangan 1<br />

E-mail: mmarghitas@usamvcluj.ro<br />

The ecologic diversity of our country, as well as a shift in the forms of property in the last period have led to confusion<br />

and tremendous technologic inabilities and implicitly to obtaining agricultural and horticultural productions under the<br />

soil's biologic potential, as well as their production capacity, a situation inconceivable 22 years after the change in<br />

agricultural systems. The aim of the research resides in the study of the effect of a differentiated fertilization system, in<br />

the fruit-tree basin of Reghin, on the agrochemical evolution of the reaction of the typical preluvosoil cultivated with<br />

apple towards the optimum economic measures to be undertaken for fertilization, ecologic protection and an increase of<br />

both a quantitative and qualitative nature of fruit production, as well as maintaining it to the optimum parameters of the<br />

soil reaction and agriecosystem balance. The research relies on rigorous experiments on a typical preluvosoil in the<br />

Reghin area, with differentiated fertilization systems employing complex mineral, organic and organomineral<br />

fertilization, applied to the soil and foliarly for the Golden Delicious and Starkrimson apple varieties, widely spread in<br />

the area and on high consumer demand. In this context, the paper aims at approaching an area that nature and man have<br />

endowed with priceless gifts, that can only be referred to in the superlative. Despite the country's policy of destruction<br />

following the Revolution that was perceivable in all sectors of economy, including agriculture, farmers in the fruit tree<br />

basin of Reghin have risked enourmously and fought by all means to save their fruit farms and keep this ackowledged<br />

fruit treebasin from beinf destroyes. The research materials and methods employed are those in agrochemical<br />

methodology and pecific to the crop techology of apple cultivated on fruit-tree plantations. The importance, originality<br />

and degree of novelty of these agrochemical expeirments are due to yest unsolved issues with regard to fertilizing<br />

combinations, by implementing a differentiated complex mineral fertilization system, both organic and organo-mineral,<br />

applied to the soil and foliarly to the Golden Delicious and Starkrimson varieties, in order to maintain and enhance the<br />

organic matter content in the soil and forming humus according to the climate specificity of the Reghin area and the<br />

specific and global consumption requirements of the apple varieties in the area. This fertilization system accompanied<br />

by a rigorous agrochemical control must provide a diversity of practical solutions in achieving the agrochemical<br />

optimum soil-plant-fertilizer and prevent soil and agriecosystem degradation and obtaining productions that are<br />

qualitatively superior and have met the parameters for food safety and security.<br />

Key words: soil, fertilization, agrochemical modifictions, apple<br />

The cultivated apple adapted to the<br />

temperate climate where it was formed is an<br />

interspecific hybrid that has naturally resulted from<br />

the spontaneous consecutive cross of several<br />

species. It is the fruit tree species that occupies the<br />

first species as world production. This is first due<br />

to the special part that apples play in human diet,<br />

fresh as well as processed. Fresh apples contain<br />

important amounts of sugars, organic acids, pectic<br />

substances, tanoids, proteins, vitamins, mineral<br />

salts etc. For the food industry, apples are a<br />

significant raw matter, as they are employed in jam<br />

preparation, fruit preserves, juice, dry fruit and<br />

alcoholic bevrages. The existance of over 10.000<br />

apple varieties worldwide, with different ripeneing<br />

periods, provides fresh fruit consumption<br />

throughout the year and especially winter, when<br />

the possibilities for the human organism to supply<br />

itself with vitamins is rather reduced.<br />

Statistic data regarding the spread of the<br />

apple worldwide and in our country proves that<br />

this fruit-tree species is the first species cultivated<br />

in temperate climate. The soil and climate of our<br />

country provide most favourable conditions for<br />

apple cultivation, towards superior apple<br />

productions that consumers highly appreciate.<br />

The paper relies on rigorous experiments in<br />

a classical apple plantation, on a typical<br />

preluvosoil (brown argiloilluvial) in the Reghin<br />

area, that followed the effect of differentiated<br />

fertilization systems, mineral complex, organic and<br />

organo-mineral applied to the soil and foliarly in<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

the case of the Golden Delicious and Starkrimson<br />

apple varieties.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The experiments were conducted in<br />

conditions similar to those needed for apple<br />

production in the hilly region, throughout three<br />

experimental years on a typical preluvosoil (brown<br />

argiloilluvial) in the fruit-tree region of Reghin,<br />

namely the apple plantation of S.C. Heliantus (from<br />

the former IAS Reghin), at the estern border of th<br />

Trasylvania Plain, north-west of Reghin, along<br />

National Road Reghin to Nasaud, neighboring<br />

villages are Sântu, Lunca Tecii and Dedrad. The<br />

surface area, where the farm is located, is<br />

characterized by an overall great diversity of relief,<br />

including small plates at an altitude of 400-500<br />

meters, deep valleys, extensive slope processes<br />

across the entire slope caused by surface erosion<br />

but especially landslides, some very prominent,<br />

others not so severe making up small platforms of<br />

irregular configuration.<br />

To fight erosion and landslides, serious<br />

investments have been made before the<br />

Revolution, by setting up fruit plantations<br />

organized as farms, where agriculture is practiced<br />

correctly aiming at the production of great organic<br />

fruit both quantitatively and qualitatively that is<br />

required for export.<br />

The experiment was conducted over a<br />

three year period (2008-2010) and was<br />

polifactorial, on a representative lor in the apple<br />

plantation, according to two facors and the<br />

random-block design, with three annual repetitions,<br />

with the following graduations:<br />

Factor A: apple variety with graduations:<br />

a1 – Golden Delicious;<br />

a2 - Starkrimson;<br />

Factor B: level of fertilization with<br />

graduations:<br />

b1 – 0N + 0P2O5 + 0K2O (kg s.a./ha) + 0 t/ha<br />

stable manure (Unfertilized control);<br />

b2 – 0N + 0P2O5 + 0K2O (kg s.a./ha) + 20<br />

t/ha stable manure, once a year;<br />

b3 – 60N + 60P2O5 + 60K2O (kg s.a./ha) +<br />

20 t/ha stable manure, once a year;<br />

b4 – 100N + 80P2O5 + 100K2O (kg s.a./ha) +<br />

40 t/ha stable manure, once every 3 years;<br />

b5 – 100N + 80P2O5 + 100K2O (kg s.a./ha) +<br />

0 t/ha stable manure;<br />

b6 – 120N + 100P2O5 +120K2O (kg s.a./ha) +<br />

0 t/ha stable manure;<br />

b7 – 60N + 60P2O5 + 60K2O(kg s.a./ha) +<br />

foliar;<br />

b8 – 100N + 80P2O5 + 100K2O (kg s.a./ha) +<br />

foliar;<br />

b9 – 120N + 100P2O5 + 120K2O(kg s.a./ha) +<br />

foliar.<br />

In the case of polifactorial experiments with<br />

two factors, the first with two graduations and<br />

second with nine graduations, resulted in a number<br />

of 18 variants (table 1). For each variant 5 trees<br />

96<br />

underwent the study according to 3 repetitions,<br />

resulting in 15 trees each year for a variant and<br />

repetition yearly. Fertilization levels established in<br />

the experiment were consistent with the purpose of<br />

research and pedo–agrochemical soil<br />

characteristics of the typical preluvosoil in the<br />

Reghin area, held by the owner of the orchard at<br />

the time of the research. The manure used in<br />

fertilizing the trees was household- produced as it<br />

was also a livestock farm, particularly for young<br />

cattle for meat and dairy cows. Mineral fertilizers<br />

were purchased by the owner, in that period, with<br />

grants from city hall and from farm earnings.<br />

The fruit tree plantation under study is the<br />

classic type, of "lobed cross" crown in both apple<br />

varieties Golden Delicious and Starkrimson,<br />

grafted on rootstock 'M 11', where trees are<br />

planted at a distance of 7 m between rows and 6 m<br />

a row, resulting in 238 trees/ha. The type of crown<br />

chosen is well adapted to the lot, ensuring light<br />

penetration, thus aiming at an optimal<br />

development of trees, with a balanced distribution<br />

of structure capable of handling production of 300,<br />

up to 400 kg/tree in the case of a plantation<br />

reaching its full fruitition potential.<br />

The varieties under study were those in the<br />

plantation and are most common both in the area<br />

and nationwide for their high production potential<br />

and tasty fruit in high consumer demand, fresh as<br />

well as processed.<br />

To attain the objectives set, in autumn,<br />

respectively in October, organic fertilizers were<br />

applied (in the autumn of 2008, every three years)<br />

alongside chemical fertilizers with phosphorus and<br />

potassium (applied each autumn), according to the<br />

doses provided in the experimental variants.<br />

Soil fertilizer incorporation was performed<br />

during the autumn plowing at a depth of 20-25 cm<br />

with plow type PP 2-30 in aggregate with 445 U<br />

DT. Plots were fertilized with a nitrogen fertilizer<br />

performed in spring, namely in March, using<br />

ammonium nitrate, for production during each<br />

experimental year, according to the doses provided<br />

in the experimental variants. Incorporation of<br />

chemical fertilizers with nitrogen, was conducted<br />

immediately following application, by disking with<br />

tractor type U 445 DT and harrow aggregate GDP<br />

2.5 at a 15-18 cm depth.<br />

Foliar fertilizers were applied simultaneously<br />

with phytosanitary treatments during the growing<br />

season and the phenophases that exhibited the<br />

main nutrient consumption for conventional apple<br />

during their full ripening period, the two<br />

applications. The practical tree cutting work was<br />

performed during the dormant period, each year.<br />

Maintenance during the growing season, aimed at<br />

fighting weeds, soil aeration and at the control of<br />

pests and diseases in order to maintain clean<br />

foliage trees, for the longest period of time<br />

possible.<br />

Diseases and pest control was carried out in<br />

time, depending on the time of their occurrence by<br />

means of pesticides or fungicides either mixed with

insecticides, or by themselves, according to the<br />

degree of attack and crop year, beginning with<br />

March-April, up on or around July 20-25, when a<br />

final spray is regularly applied before harvest. This<br />

time span is absolutely necessary to achieve a<br />

required rest period of about 45-50 days from the<br />

last spray and up to the harvest, in order to<br />

eliminate the toxic effect of pesticides used on<br />

apple fruits. Apple fruit harvesting was performed<br />

manually, before consumption maturity, because<br />

their ripening completes after picking perfected,<br />

during transport and storage.<br />

Determination of the production was done by<br />

weighing each variant, according to quality<br />

classes (Extra, Class I, Class II and Substas),<br />

making the alternative mean according to tree and<br />

variant, only to finally report apple production per<br />

unit area (hectare). To establish the necessary tree<br />

fertilizers to trees, agrochemical studies were<br />

conducted as follows:<br />

Soil agrochemical analyses were performed<br />

according ICPA methodology for agrochemistry<br />

laboratories "Agrochemical analysis methodology<br />

97<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

to assess the fertilizer and amendment<br />

requirement" ICPA 1981<br />

The chemical analysis of the major mineral<br />

elements in plants was conducted according to the<br />

methodology ICPA laboratories agrochemistry<br />

"Plant analysis methodology to assess the mineral<br />

nutrition state", ICPA 1980.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The preluvosoil in the acknowledged fruit<br />

growing basin of Reghin under study during the<br />

experimental period is representative for this area<br />

and shows the essential traits of the argiloilluvial<br />

class, with weak acidic traits and lack of alkali<br />

saturation. Its reaction is at the border of moderate<br />

acidic to weak acidic with pH values ranging from<br />

5.01 to 5.85, the two sampling depths of soil where<br />

most roots of fruit trees expand (table 1).<br />

Table 1<br />

The pH evolution of the typical preluvosoil (brown argiloilluvial) through differentiated fertilization in Golden<br />

Delicious and Starkrimson varieties, in the fruit tree basin of Reghin<br />

(Experimental years: 2008-2010)<br />

Fertilizat<br />

ion<br />

variant *<br />

Agrochemical evolution of the pH on a typical Agrochemical evolution of the pH on a typical<br />

preluvosoil under Golden Delicious cultivation<br />

preluvosoil under Starkrimson cultivation<br />

2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010<br />

pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH<br />

H2O<br />

0-20 cm<br />

H2O<br />

20-40cm<br />

H2O<br />

0-20 cm<br />

H2O<br />

20-40cm<br />

H2O<br />

0-20 cm<br />

H2O<br />

20-40cm<br />

H2O<br />

0-20 cm<br />

H2O<br />

20-40cm<br />

H2O<br />

0-20 cm<br />

H2O<br />

20-40cm<br />

H2O<br />

0-20 cm<br />

H2O<br />

20-40 cm<br />

V1 5.49 5.60 5.50 5.61 5.50 5.62 5.27 5.60 5.28 5.61 5.29 5.61<br />

V2 5.35 5.50 5.37 5.51 5.39 5.56 5.11 5.01 5.12 5.03 5.15 5.05<br />

V3 5.27 4.94 5.28 4.95 5.30 4.99 5.01 4.80 5.03 4.82 5.05 4.85<br />

V4 5.07 5.26 5.09 5.28 5.10 5.30 5.39 5.54 5.40 5.57 5.44 5.60<br />

V5 5.11 4.85 5.11 4.85 5.11 4.88 5.34 5.65 5.35 5.66 5.36 5.67<br />

V6 5.28 5.11 5.28 5.11 5.29 5.14 5.52 5.54 5.54 5.55 5.56 5.56<br />

V7 5.53 5.27 5.54 5.28 5.55 5.30 5.44 5.45 5.46 5.46 5.48 5.46<br />

V8 5.51 5.52 5.52 5.54 5.54 5.56 5.30 5.45 5.30 5.45 5.31 5.47<br />

V9 5.52 5.59 5.53 5.61 5.55 5.64 5.47 5.26 5.48 5.27 5.49 5.28<br />

Changes of the state of reaction due to<br />

differentiated fertilization in apple, reveals the<br />

striking protective and ecological character of the<br />

classic application of manure, every three years,<br />

within organic fertilizing variants and organomineral<br />

ones, due to the humifiable organic matter<br />

supply resulted from a significant raw plant<br />

material accumulation in the soil superficial<br />

horizon. The organic support provided by the<br />

application of organic manure in doses of 20 - 40<br />

t/ha shows a favorable agrochemical and<br />

meliorating environment for the soil's physical and<br />

chemical properties, while the additional<br />

application of mineral fertilizers causes a greater<br />

bioavailability of nutrients and a better<br />

capitalization by fruit trees, when soil moisture<br />

conditions are optimal. In foliar fertilized variants,<br />

constant pH values of 5.54 to 5.55 highlight the<br />

protective nature of foliar fertilizers for the soil<br />

reaction and maintain it at least at the initial level<br />

of fertilization.<br />

One-sided fertilizations with complex<br />

mineral fertilizers (NPK), either in normal or<br />

increased doses causes a significant acidification of

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

the soil solution, due to a specific trait of the<br />

preluvosoil, as devoid of alkali saturation. These<br />

exclusively mineral fertilization of preluvosoils on<br />

fruit farms determines the acidification<br />

phenomenon, and therefore, it is absolutely<br />

necessary to take measures to implement mineral<br />

assortments more able to protect reaction minerals,<br />

as well as attracting organic nutrients that can<br />

prevent soil degradation through acidification.<br />

CONCLUSIONS AND<br />

RECOMMENDATIONS<br />

The typical preluvosoil (argillic brown),<br />

typical to the fruit growing basin Reghin is clearly<br />

favorable for tree plantations by applying differing<br />

systems of organo-mineral fertilization with an<br />

organic substrate provided every three years,<br />

essentially changing the soil reaction, upon<br />

exclusively mineral fertilization.<br />

Organic fertilization applied periodically, on<br />

the fruit trees cultivated in the area positively<br />

changes soil reaction on the long term, when you<br />

may encounter, by neutralizing it, the<br />

alkalinization of the adsorptive complex of the soil<br />

and thus to improve its physicochemical<br />

characteristics.<br />

Organo-mineral fertilization, consistent with<br />

the biological and nutritional requirements of the<br />

apple fruit, increases the bioavailability of the<br />

nutrients in the soil, with organic contribution<br />

exhibiting a direct or residual effect in the years<br />

immediately following application, improving the<br />

soil's undesired reaction, maintains and enhances<br />

soil fertility in fruit-tree plantations.<br />

It is increasingly recommended for soils<br />

with limited fertility levels and for their productive<br />

capacity, to use manure as basic fertilizer. As such,<br />

rational use of crop residues and livestock waste all<br />

98<br />

contribute to increasing the content of organic<br />

matter in soils and the nutrient supply for plants,<br />

supplemented by mineral fertilizers where specific<br />

consumer requirements and overall fruit species<br />

grown, require it.<br />

Foliar fertilization alongside its<br />

complementary role as plant nutrients protects soil<br />

reaction and maintain it at optimal values in<br />

compliance with fruit tree requirements.<br />

Agrochemical results presented lead to<br />

recommendations for dissemination in the field of<br />

agriculture, promoting the organo-mineral fertilizer<br />

systems and complex mineral and foliar one,<br />

protecting soil fertility and effective for apple<br />

cultivation in the area. To the same extent, for<br />

other crops, recommendations can be made to<br />

improve the soil reaction, combined with specific<br />

fertilization procedures in the areato aim atreal<br />

protection for agriecosystems of the Reghin basin.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bordeianu, T., Dumitrache, I., 1968, Influence of stable<br />

manure and foliar fertilizers on fruit tree growth<br />

and fruitition, in Romanian, ICPP Piteşti, vol.<br />

I:225-233;<br />

Hangan Maria, 2011, Research on the agrochemical<br />

evolution of the typical preluvosoil and argic<br />

chernozem through differentiated fertilization for<br />

apple-tree growing in the Reghin area, PhD<br />

Thesis;<br />

Mărghitaş Marilena, M. Rusu, Tania Mihăiescu, 2005,<br />

Fertilization of agricultural and horticultural plants,<br />

AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca;<br />

Mărghitaş Marilena et al., 2011, Good practice manual<br />

for the fertilization technology for agricultural<br />

plants, AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca.<br />

Rusu Mihai, Marilena Mărghitaş, Constantin Toader,<br />

Mihaela Mihai, 2010, Agrochemical mapping-<br />

agrochemical soil study, AcademicPres, Cluj-<br />

Napoca;

Abstract<br />

99<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

PEDOAGROCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF APPLE TREE<br />

GROWING SOILS FROM THE REGHIN REGION<br />

Marilena MĂRGHITAŞ 1 , Constantin TOADER 1 , Mihaela MIHAI 1 , Lavinia MOLDOVAN 1 ,<br />

Maria Hangan 1<br />

E-mail: mmarghitas@usamvcluj.ro<br />

The soil is considered the fundamental natural resource of the agricultural system, and is at the same time the essential<br />

support of life. It is known that over 90% of human and animal food is produced in or on the soil and the origin of all<br />

the living organisms on „Earth” is directly or indirectly connected to the soil. In contrast to other means of production,<br />

the soil layer of the Earth, of one country or one region is limited from a quantitative point of view and consequentially<br />

the attainment of increasingly higher crops is not to be done through extensive agriculture, but only by increasing the<br />

production per surface unit. Also, the soil is the result of the rock, the relief, clime and vegetation, being formed through<br />

the permanent and symultaneous action of the biosphere, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere on the litosphere and also<br />

of human activities. The purpose of our research is the description of the main pedoagrochemical characteristics of<br />

representative Reghin region soils, such as typical preluvosoil [SRTS-2003], brown argiloilluvial soil [SCRS-1980] and<br />

argic chernozem [SRTS-2003], and argiloilluvial chernosiem [SCRS-1980] destined for fruit tree plantations. It is a<br />

known fact that the favorability of soils for apple growing are closely related to the clay content of soils, as it was<br />

proved that these species grows normally at indicator values between 20 and 40% [Teaci et al., 1976]. The state of the<br />

research is given by rigorous experiments in a classic apple tree plantation performed on a typical preluvosoil and an<br />

argic chernozem from the Reghin region using the Golden Delicious and Starkrimson apple tree varieties that are<br />

representative for the region and are very popular both inside and outside Romania’s borders. The studied territory lies<br />

at the Eastern edge of the Transylvanian Plain, northwest of the ciry of Reghin, where from a geological point of view,<br />

the sedimentary fragmentations are superposed, in an alternance of thin layers of clay marl, sandy marl and cohesive<br />

sands. This geological constitution favors both surface and profound erosion. The importance, originality and degree of<br />

novelty of these experiences is related to problems yet to be solved concerning the control of soil erosion on<br />

representative slopes from fruit tree plantations, and also the measures taken for the preservation and enhancement of<br />

organic matter content and the formation of humus in accordance with the climatic specificity of the Reghin region and<br />

the unfavorable repercussions of recent climatic anomalies.<br />

Key words: soil, fertility, pedoagrochemical modifications, apple tree<br />

Agricultural activity has in numerous ways<br />

made a major contribution in the sustainable<br />

development of the economy of a country, the<br />

most important component being the soil and its<br />

characteristics. Agriculture is not only the support<br />

of biomass production or the activity that ensures<br />

human food, but it also is the basis of the existence<br />

of life on „Earth”. The people who perform<br />

agricultural acitivities have to assume the<br />

responsibility of protecting the soil and other<br />

resources of the environment that can be damaged<br />

through irrational exploitation. The fruit tree area<br />

of Reghin, an established region for apple tree<br />

plantations, where our research was conducted, has<br />

a moderate temperate climate, specific to the hill<br />

region with either sunny, or shadowed slopes that<br />

cause temperature differences. Also, the valleys<br />

favour frequent fog and the abrupt slopes run a<br />

high risk of erosion. Usually the soils from fruit<br />

tree plantations have physical, chemical and<br />

biological characteristics that are not proper for<br />

specific technologies and are many times detached<br />

from the requirements of fruit tree species. As a<br />

consequence, the accomplishment of production<br />

and productivity performance for these soils, one<br />

must take the pedoagrochemical characteristics<br />

into account, in order to assess and manage the<br />

eficient sustainment, enhancement and protection<br />

of the productive capacity of soils, especially their<br />

fertility. In this respect, this paper describes the<br />

main pedoagrochemical characteristics of soils that<br />

are representative for typical preluvosoils (brown<br />

argiloilluvial soil) and argic chernosem<br />

(argiloilluvial chernosem) from the established<br />

fruit tree area of Reghin, particularly, soils from<br />

the S. C. Heliantus Fruit Tree Farm, that was<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

created after the dissolution of the former State<br />

Agricultural Enterprise Reghin.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Depending on the soils and landforms,<br />

throughout history, people of the Reghin area have<br />

been mostly grain growers, as well livestock and<br />

fruit-growing farmers, turned and used some of the<br />

agricultural land through biennial and triennial crop<br />

rotation, have established the right places to grow<br />

vines, fruit trees and hayfields or pastures for<br />

grazing animals. The location of experiments was<br />

decided on representative soils of the fruit-tree<br />

basin of Reghin, namely the typical argic<br />

chernozem and preluvosoil respectively, occupying<br />

large areas in this region, where classic and<br />

intensive fruit-tree plantations were established.<br />

This research relied on digging along soil profiles,<br />

study and describe their pedoagrochemical<br />

characteristics, performing analyses both in the<br />

field and the laboratory, to assess the fertility state<br />

and their favorability for apple culture in the fruit<br />

growing basin of Reghin. Soil profiles were<br />

conducted on a typical preluvosoil (Figure 1) and<br />

argic chernozem (Figure 2) representative of a<br />

classic apple plantation on S.C.Heliantus fruit<br />

growing farm S.C. Heliantus (from the former IAS<br />

Reghin), at the estern border of th Trasylvania<br />

Plain, north-west of Reghin, along National Road<br />

Reghin to Nasaud, neighboring villages are Sântu,<br />

Lunca Tecii and Dedrad. The surface area, where<br />

the farm is located, is characterized by an overall<br />

great diversity of relief, including small plates at an<br />

altitude of 400-500 meters, deep valleys, extensive<br />

slope processes across the entire slope caused by<br />

surface erosion but especially landslides, some<br />

very prominent, others not so severe making up<br />

small platforms of irregular configuration. To fight<br />

erosion and landslides, serious investments have<br />

been made before the Revolution, by setting up<br />

fruit plantations organized as farms, where<br />

agriculture is practiced correctly aiming at the<br />

production of great organic fruit both quantitatively<br />

and qualitatively that is required for export.<br />

Pedoagrochemical soil profile analyses were<br />

performed according to ICPA methodology for<br />

agrochemistry laboratories "Agrochemical analysis<br />

methodology to assess the fertilizer and<br />

amendment requirement" ICPA 1981 and<br />

description of soil profile according to SRTS -<br />

SRCS 2003 - 1980.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

a) Typical preluvosoils (argillic brown)<br />

are known in literature under the names of argillic<br />

brown soils, brown soils and brown textural<br />

degraded soils.<br />

For SRCS (1980), the argillic brown soil<br />

type is defined as exhibitig an argillic B horizon<br />

100<br />

(Bt), of any color (other than the one mentioned for<br />

brown- reddish soils), and values greater than 3.5<br />

wet, at least in structural elements and the first<br />

subhorizon. They are widespread soils in Romania,<br />

being found in the same area with luvic brown<br />

soils, albic luvisoils and planosoils. The typical<br />

preluvosoil, namely the typical argillic brown soil,<br />

is spread over an area of about 640.000 ha in<br />

agriculture, in theTransylvanian Plateau,<br />

Carpathian foothills. In terms of pedogenesis, we<br />

encounter grassy vegetation conditions (vernal<br />

species) as well as woody, with an extremely<br />

varied parental material. From a climate<br />

perspective, the average annual temperature and<br />

rainfall varies quite broadly, namely 6-9 o C<br />

temperature and 500-900 mm rainfall. Parent<br />

material is generally composed of rich calcium<br />

clays, marls, marly clays. Argillic brown soil<br />

genesis is specific: bioaccumulation is moderate,<br />

sometimes intense, forming mull type humus,<br />

where fulvic acids still predominate; alteration<br />

processes, dealkalinization, acidification, leaching<br />

and migration of colloids does not show to be too<br />

intense, only soluble salts are totally leached,<br />

CaCO3 is also encountered in depth and by means<br />

of the migration and accumulation of clay, a clear<br />

differentiation of a Bt horizon is achieved, devoid<br />

of CaCO3, where structural aggregates are covered<br />

by a thin film of clay. The typical preluvosoil has<br />

the following sequence of horizons on the profile<br />

[SRTS - 2003]: A0 – Bt – CCa<br />

Reghin The pedoagrochemical<br />

characterisation of the typical prleuvosoil in<br />

Reghin:<br />

Pedogenetic conditions (figure 1):<br />

Northern slopes are moderately inclined, on a 6 o<br />

slope, with north, north-eastern, western<br />

exposition, partially exhibiting old agriterraces,<br />

soil appearance: crust, parent material of marly<br />

clay, underground water depth > 10 m. Natural<br />

vegetation: Stipa lessingiana , Festuca sulcata,<br />

Andropogon ischaemum, Artemisia campestris,<br />

Agrostis sp., Trifolium sp., Thymus glabrescens.<br />

Used for conventional fruit tree plantation.<br />

The typical preluvosoil (SRTS-2003), brown<br />

argillic (SRCS-1980), physically (according to the<br />

pedological profile) has a medium to heavy texture<br />

of clayey loam, with an obvious compact argillic<br />

horizon (Bt), which may jeopardize the airhydric<br />

regime and porosity at the depth explored by roots.<br />

The pedoagrochemical characetristics of<br />

the typical preluvosoil in Reghin:<br />

Pedoagrochimice soil analyses from<br />

conventional orchards are required every four<br />

years, as agro-chemical parameters of soil<br />

productivity condition soil productivity in fruit tree<br />

plantations and must be unconditionally correlated

with specific consumer requirements and necessary<br />

nutrients of apple varieties under question. The<br />

analysis of the main agrochemical indices of<br />

typical preluvosoil in Reghin (table 1) reveals the<br />

acidic, dealkalinized character of the soil in a the<br />

Profile make-up: Ao – A/B – Bt – C.<br />

101<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

classic apple plantation, which requires, first,<br />

ameliorative measures to correct the reaction by<br />

means of calcareous amendments. It is average<br />

supplied in humus and nitrogen and low on<br />

phosphorus and potassium.<br />

Fig. 1. Morphologic traits for the typical preluvosoil in Reghin (2008)<br />

Physical and chemical analyses of the typical preluvosoil in the fruit-tree basin of Reghin (2008)<br />

Fertility and productivity of the soil are too<br />

low to support a plantation of apple during fruition<br />

in order to reach biological production potential. In<br />

this respect, organo-mineral fertilization is<br />

paramount, relying on a thorough agrochemical<br />

study to obtain quantitative and qualitative fruit<br />

production to ensure food safety and security.<br />

The pedoagrochemical features of the<br />

typical preluvosoil in Reghin (table 1) are essential<br />

in setting technologies for rational fertilization in<br />

classic apple plantations, to obtain high yields of<br />

quality fruit and to prevent negative phenomena<br />

dof soil and environment degradation, to promote<br />

the harmonization of the environment and<br />

anthropogenic factors with the objectives of<br />

economic activities.<br />

b) Argic-chernozem-soil type (argillic<br />

chernozem) is known in literature as the degraded<br />

chernozem or highly leached chernozem.<br />

The SRCS-1980 argillic chernozem soil type<br />

is defined by a mollic horizon A (I), with chromes<br />

smaller than 2 and an argillic horizon B (Bt),<br />

Ao 0-22 cm, brown-gray granular structure, grainy destroyed, roots,<br />

and coprolites with a layer of smooth porous soil, compact, moist,<br />

loam-clay texture;<br />

A/B 22-41 cm, light rusty brown, polyhedral angular structure, loam<br />

clayey structure, plastic, adhesive, thick roots, coprolites, fine porousporous,<br />

moderately compact, moist, gradual transition;<br />

Bt 41-58 cm, yellowish brown, gray, with average angular polyhedral<br />

structure, separation points, roots, and coprolites, finely porous,<br />

moderately compact-compact, moist, loam-clayey texture, gradual<br />

transition;<br />

C 58-120 cm, mottled with dark yellowish brown and whitish spots,<br />

rough, textured clay, and small bobovine and separation points, finely<br />

porous, compact, wet, waterproof.<br />

Table 1<br />

Horizon and pH Humus N total P2O5 mobile K2O mobile SH V% Mecanic analysis Texture<br />

depth (cm)<br />

% % mg/100 gr mg/100gr<br />

Coarse Fine Dust<br />

sol sol<br />

sand sand clay<br />

Ao 0-20 5.07 3.61 0.199 2.2 1.31 14.2 58,7 3.2 23.1 38.4 LA<br />

A/B 25-40 4.86 3.51 0.188 1.0 7.9 14.2 58.7 3.2 24.3 36.2 LA<br />

Bt 41-58 5.04 1.77 - - - 12.3 56.0 5.2 24.3 39.4 LA<br />

C 70-90 5.27 - - - - 12.6 65.6 4.0 25.6 53.6 A<br />

having in the superior layer, smaller chromes and<br />

values under 3.5 wet and lower values than 5.5 dry.<br />

According to SRTS-2003 argic chernozem<br />

is deemed as a part of that argic subtype of<br />

phaeosem and partly, part of the argic chernozem<br />

subtype, evidence that pedogenetic conditions are<br />

almost similar to those of the cambic chernozem.<br />

There soils are widespread in Romania,<br />

occupying an area of about 590.000 ha,<br />

representing approximately 2.5% of the total land<br />

and are common in the most humid steppe area,<br />

near forest areas, of transition and in some<br />

sumountainous depressions, where one can<br />

encounter a rich herbaceous and woody vegetation.<br />

Herbaceous vegetation is represented by<br />

different species of steppe: fescue (Festuca<br />

vallesiaca) stipa (Stipa joannis), bulbous bluegrass<br />

(Poa bulbosa), species of sedge (Carex praecox),<br />

wormwood (Artemisia Austrian) and other<br />

species.Woody vegetation is usually composed of<br />

mixtures of heaven, flasks, oaks, greyish oak,<br />

downy oak, oak, mixture of lime, ash and common<br />

maple.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

From a climatic point of view, the mean<br />

annual temperature does not fall below 8.5 °C<br />

while mean annual precipitation is regularly 550<br />

mm.<br />

Parent material is generally composed of<br />

sedimentary rocks, loess, sand, clay and marl rich<br />

in CaCO3.<br />

Argillic chernozem soil genesis is specific:<br />

bioaccumulation is moderate, sometimes intense,<br />

forming mull humus type, humic acids are<br />

predominant, alteration processes, dealkalinization,<br />

acidification, leaching and migration of colloids<br />

are not too intense, only soluble salts are entirely<br />

leached, CaCO3 is also active in depth and through<br />

the migration and accumulation of clay, a clear<br />

differentiation of a Bt horizon is achieved, without<br />

102<br />

CaCO3, where structural aggregates are covered by<br />

a thin film of clay. The argic chernozem, has the<br />

following sequence of horizons along the profile<br />

(SRTS - 2003): Am – Bt – CCa<br />

Pedoagrochemical characterization of the<br />

argic chernozem in Reghin:<br />

Pedogenetic conditions (figure 2): Northern<br />

slopes are moderately inclined, on a 6 o slope, with<br />

north, north-eastern, western exposition, partially<br />

exhibiting old agriterraces, soil appearance: crust,<br />

parent material of marly clay, underground water<br />

depth> 10 m. Natural vegetation: Festuca sulcata,<br />

Agrostis sp., Trifolium sp., Used for conventional<br />

fruit tree plantation.<br />

Fig. 2. Morphologic traits for the argic chernozem in Reghin (2008)<br />

The argic chernozem (SRTS-2003), argillic<br />

chernozem (SRCS-1980), physically (according to<br />

the pedological profile) has a medium to heavy<br />

texture of clayey loam, with an obvious compact<br />

argillic horizon (Bt), which may jeopardize the<br />

airhydric regime and porosity at the depth explored<br />

by roots.<br />

Pedoagrochemical traits of the argic<br />

chernozem in Reghin:<br />

Pedoagrochemical soil analyses from<br />

conventional orchards are required every four<br />

years, as fruit trees exploit the same substrate for<br />

agreat number of years, and the current concept of<br />

fertilizing fruit orchards correlates soil fertility<br />

agrochemical indices with differentiated<br />

requirements for specific consumption of the main<br />

nutitive elements.).<br />

Physical and chemical analyses of the typical preluvosoil in the fruit-tree basin of Reghin (2008)<br />

From a pedoagrochemical point of view, the<br />

argic chernozem in Reghin (Table 2), has a<br />

moderate acidic reaction. It has an average humus<br />

supply, as well as moderate in nitrogen and<br />

phosphorus, but exhibiting high potassium content.<br />

Fertility and productivity of the soil is good, but to<br />

support a plantation of apple to its full biologic<br />

Am 0-45 cm, dark brown or very dark brown when wet,<br />

glomerular structure that is more or less stable;<br />

Bt 45-120 cm, dark amber-brown to yellowish brown wet with<br />

prismatic structure, with structural elements covered by a thin<br />

film of clay;<br />

C 120-140 cm, yellow-whitish, with strong effervescence,<br />

when dry and brown-yellow when wet devoid of any<br />

structure.<br />

Table 2<br />

Horizon and pH Humus N total P2O5 mobile K2O SH V% Mechanic analysis Texture<br />

depth (cm)<br />

% % mg/100gr<br />

soil<br />

mobile<br />

mg/100gr<br />

Coarse<br />

sand %<br />

Fine dust% clay%<br />

sand<br />

D.a.<br />

g/cm<br />

soil<br />

%<br />

3<br />

Am 0-20 5.24 4.61 0.286 2.7 4.26 14.2 58.7 0.2 16.2 53.0 30.6 1.03 LA<br />

20-45 5.51 4.51 0.188 1.2 7.19 14.2 58.7 0.2 16.2 52.4 30.6 1.22 LA<br />

Bt 45-120 5.60 1.77 0.073 - - 12.3 59.0 0.2 15.0 52.0 34.4 1.45 LA<br />

C 120-140 6.10 - - - - 12.6 65.6 0.1 19.8 51.8 28.3 1.50 A<br />

production potential, rational fertilization<br />

technologies are necessary to obtain quantitative<br />

yields and higher quality fruit.

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The typical preluvosoil of Reghin for fruit<br />

growing, shows the class and type pedological<br />

characteristics, including dealkalinization and<br />

acidification phenomena and accompanying clay<br />

and alkali eluviation towards the middle horizons<br />

of the profile. The pedoagrochemical<br />

chacterisation of the typical prelvosoil reveals that<br />

ecologically limiting factors are: high clayey<br />

structure of Bt and C horizons, dealkalinization of<br />

the adsorption complex, the average supply of<br />

humus and nitrogen and low phosphorus and<br />

potassium supply. It is clear that a technology that<br />

combines calcic amendment calcium, as well as<br />

mineral or organo-mineral fertilization are<br />

effective measures in increasing soil fertility. The<br />

argic chernozem of Reghin for fruit growing, has<br />

the typical class and type attributes and acquired,<br />

over time, as a consequence of technologies for<br />

multiannual and preponderantly mineral<br />

fertilization, those pedoagrochemical<br />

characteristics that are favorable to apple<br />

cultivation. Soil profiles presented show the<br />

influence of climate and heterogeneous parent<br />

materials on the physico-chemical properties of<br />

soils leading their grouping into categories such as<br />

those of acidic or moderately acidic soils with<br />

acidic and moderately acidic reaction and degraded<br />

texture, recommending growers in the area to aim<br />

at correct fertilizer application technologies in<br />

orchards in accordance with the requirements of<br />

specific and overall consumption of fruit species.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bordeianu, T., Dumitrache, I., 1968, Influence of stable<br />

manure and chemical fertilizers on fruit-tree<br />

growth and fruition in Romanian, ICPP Piteşti,<br />

vol. I:225-233;<br />

Hangan Maria, 2011, Research on the agrochemical<br />

evolution of the typical preluvosoil and argic<br />

chernozem through differentiated fertilization for<br />

apple-tree growing in the Reghin area, in<br />

Romanian. PhD Thesis.<br />

Mărghitaş Marilena, M. Rusu, Tania Mihăiescu, 2005,<br />

Feretilization of agricultural and horticultural<br />

plants, AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca;<br />

Mărghitaş Marilena et al., 2011, Good practice manual<br />

for the fertilization technology for agricultural<br />

plants, in Romanian - AcademicPres, Cluj-<br />

Napoca;<br />

Rusu Mihai, Marilena Mărghitaş, Constantin Toader,<br />

Mihaela Mihai, 2010, Agrochemical mapping-<br />

soil agrochemical study in Romanian-<br />

AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca;<br />

Teaci D., Tutunea C., Burt M., Predel Fl., Maria<br />

Muneianu, 1974, Aspecte privind raionarea<br />

pedoclimatică şi bonitarea terenurilor agricole din<br />

Romania pe judeţe (la scara 1:200 000). Analele<br />

ICPA, vol. XL.<br />

103<br />

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

104

105<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Stiintifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH AT SOME GRAPEVINE VARIETIES<br />

CULTIVATED IN IASI AND TÂRGU BUJOR VINEYARDS IN 2011<br />

Alina Elena MARTA 1 , Carmenica Doina JITĂREANU 1 , Cristina SLABU 1 , Simion CRISTINA 2<br />

Abstract<br />

e-mail : martaalinaelena@yahoo.com<br />

Climate changes and their impact on vineyards represent an extremely important issue for the researchers in various<br />

fields. These changes are interesting for the specialists in the vine industry as the vineyards producing quality wines are<br />

extremely sensitive to any pedoclimatic changes. The general warming of the clime disturbed the evolution of the<br />

natural factors in the grapevine ecosystems: summers have become wormer and doughtier every year autumns have<br />

become longer, winters shorter and rarely excessive, the drought periods more frequent and the damp ones excessively<br />

rainy. Global warming has severely disrupted the grapevine ecosystems, grape varieties being forced to modify their<br />

annual vegetation cycle, the consequences on the quality and the quantity of grape production and wine being most<br />

often negative. In Iasi and Târgu Bujor vineyards the vegetation season of 2011 was characterized by drought caused by<br />

the high hydric deficit from July – September. The present paper consists in the analysis of the effect of these climatic<br />

conditions on the quantitative and qualitative parameters of grape production, as well as on the dynamics of the<br />

chlorophyll content in the leaves of the following varieties of grapevines Fetească albă, Fetească regală, Riesling<br />

italian şi Băbească gri.<br />

Key words: grapevine, eco-physiology, photo synthetic pigments<br />

Numerous researches point out the<br />

importance of photosynthesis in the quantitative<br />

and qualitative formation of grapevine production<br />

(Flexas J., 2009; Lebon G., 2008). Photosynthesis<br />

is the most drought sensitive process (Palliotti A.,<br />

2009; Zulini L., 2005). The stress caused by the<br />

lack of water and related to it the water deficit has<br />

severe effects mostly them they appear suddenly,<br />

are highly intense and are accompanied by high<br />

temperatures (Cifre J., 2005; Jităreanu Carmenica<br />

Doina, 2011). The present paper studies the ecophysiological<br />

reaction of some grapevine varieties<br />

and it is assessed on the base of the chlorophyll<br />

content in the leaves, confronted by the drought<br />

conditions in Northern Moldova.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The research was conducted in the<br />

vegetation season of 2011 on the following<br />

grapevine varieties Fetească albă, Fetească<br />

regală, Riesling italian and Băbească gri,<br />

cultivated in Iasi and Târgu Bujor vineyards. The<br />

evolution of the climate between January –<br />

October was assessed by recording the average<br />

temperatures and the minimum and maximum<br />

monthly values ( o C) as well as the monthly rain<br />

fall (mm). These data were related to the normal<br />

values in Iasi and Târgu Bujor vineyards. As<br />

production indicators, we considered the grape<br />

production values (kg/vine) and the sugar content<br />

in the unfermented wine (g/l).<br />

The eco-physiological reaction was<br />

estimated using a parameter of the<br />

photosynthesis process, represented the<br />

chlorophyll content index in the leaves (CCI) using<br />

the field method and a CCM 200 plus device. The<br />

results were obtained in dynamics, during the<br />

blooming, grape growth and maturation<br />

phenophase.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Evolution of climatic conditions in Iasi<br />

and Târgu Bujor vineyards<br />

In 2011, the climatic conditions from Iasi<br />

vineyard recorded average monthly temperatures<br />

higher than normal, with deviations ranging<br />

between 0.1 o C in April and 2.3 o C in September<br />

and maximum temperatures of 31.6 o C in May and<br />

35.5 o C in July. From the analysis of the amount of<br />

rain it resulted an intense hydric deficit in May<br />

and July – September. The values recorded in<br />

April and June were very close to normal, the<br />

hydric deficit being of only 4.6 mm.<br />

In Târgu Bujor vineyard, the average<br />

monthly temperatures recorded were higher than<br />

normal, with values ranging between 0.4 o C in<br />

April – May and 3.2 o C in September. The<br />

maximum temperatures recorded ranged between<br />

22.2 o C in April and 32.9 o C in September. The

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

precipitation level registered high deficit in July,<br />

August and September, while in April – June<br />

slight precipitations excess was noted; their values<br />

being with 10.8 – 16.1 mm higher than normal.<br />

Just like in Iasi, in Târgu Bujor vineyard the<br />

months of July – August – September 2011 were<br />

106<br />

characterized by intense drought, while April –<br />

June the precipitation excess from Târgu Bujor<br />

compensated for the effects of the drought in<br />

June, when the hydric deficit was lower (tab. 1).<br />

Table 1<br />

Climatic conditions – temperature and humidity – in Iasi and Cotnari vineyards in 2011<br />

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X<br />

Iaşi vineyard<br />

Temperature o C<br />

Monthly average -2.4 -2.3 3.5 10.3 16.7 20.7 22.9 21.6 18.1 8.8<br />

Deviation from normal -0.7 -1.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 1.0 1.7 1.1 2.3 -1.3<br />

Maximum 10.3 15.3 21.6 24.7 31.6 34.6 35.5 33.1 31.9 28.5<br />

Monthly amount of precipitations (mm)<br />

Monthly amount 13.2 13.7 8.4 82.2 32.3 84.1 37.8 32.1 18.7 40.2<br />

Deviation from normal -17.3 -14.7 -24.4 33.1 -26.8 -4.6 -45.0 -24.8 -33.3 7.4<br />

Târgu Bujor vineyard<br />

Monthly average -2.90 -2.90 3.30 9.70 15.90 19.90 22.60 21.80 19.20 9.40<br />

Deviation from normal -0.1 -1.9 -0.2 -0.6 -0.1 0.4 1.3 1.1 3.2 -1.0<br />

Maximum 8.9 14 20.7 22.2 28.8 33.9 33.3 32.5 32.9 27.5<br />

Monthly amount of precipitations (mm)<br />

Monthly amount 28.0 22.6 6.4 55.0 73.2 86.2 14.8 22.0 3.0 32.2<br />

Deviation from normal 3.0 -1.8 -22.0 12.4 16.1 10.8 -54.2 -35.2 -42.7 0.3<br />

The effect of climatic conditions on production<br />

indicators<br />

Grape production is the result of two<br />

grapevine characteristics, fertility and<br />

productivity, as a result of complex<br />

transformations in their mechanisms that take<br />

place in successive phases and in the presence of<br />

certain factors. The quantity of the harvest<br />

depends of the number and the size of the grapes,<br />

so that varieties with the same percent of fertile<br />

shoots or with the same fertility coefficient lead to<br />

different grape productions. The climatic<br />

conditions from the vegetation season of 2011<br />

lead to higher quantities of grapes in Iasi vineyard<br />

at the following varieties: Fetească albă, Fetească<br />

regală, Riesling italian and in Târgu Bujor<br />

vineyard at Băbească gri. The quantitative<br />

Variety Vineyard<br />

Fetească albă<br />

Fetească regală<br />

Italian Riesling<br />

Băbească gri<br />

Grape production of the grapevine varieties studied in 2011<br />

Grape production<br />

(kg/vine)<br />

production of grapes was considered the grape<br />

production (kg/vine), the average number of<br />

grapes/vine even if the average weight of a grape<br />

was higher in Târgu Bujor vineyard (tab. 2). The<br />

quality of the production, represented by the sugar<br />

content in the grapes (g/l) was higher at the<br />

following varieties Fetească albă, Riesling italian<br />

and Băbească gri from Târgu Bujor vineyard, and<br />

the glucoacidmetric index was higher at Fetească<br />

albă and Fetească regală from Iasi vineyard and<br />

Riesling italian and Băbească gri from Târgu<br />

Bujor vineyard. At the same time, the mass of<br />

1000 berries (g) was higher at Fetească albă,<br />

Fetească regală, Riesling italian from Iasi<br />

vineyard and Băbească gri from Târgu Bujor<br />

vineyard (tab. 2).<br />

Production<br />

calculated per<br />

hectare (t/ha)<br />

Average number of<br />

grape son a vine<br />

Table 2<br />

Average weight of a<br />

grape (g)<br />

Iasi 2.77 10.5 26.4 105<br />

Bujoru 2.21 9.2 21.3 104<br />

Iaşi 3.77 14.3 32.8 115<br />

Bujoru 3.02 12.6 22.4 135<br />

Iasi 1.98 7.5 21.8 91<br />

Bujoru 1.92 8.0 20.4 94<br />

Iasi 4.62 17.5 23.3 198<br />

Bujoru 4.83 20.1 20.5 235<br />

It can be considered that the thermic factor<br />

from the two vineyards respected the best<br />

ecological conditions for the grapevine. The<br />

precipitations from April – June diminished<br />

the effects of drought in Târgu Bujor, not<br />

being responsible for the quantitative<br />

production which was higher in Iasi,<br />

influencing the quality of the grapes by

accumulating higher quantities of sugars.<br />

Lebon et al. (2008) underline the role of<br />

sugars in the flowering process; the low<br />

availability of sugars disturbs the formation of<br />

flowers and their abortion. At the same time,<br />

sugars can be signal molecules involved in<br />

stress reactions. The source of sugars is<br />

photosynthesis, and drought reduces the<br />

Variety Vineyard<br />

Fetească albă<br />

Fetească regală<br />

Italian Riesling<br />

Băbească gri<br />

Grape quality of the grapevine varieties studied in 2011<br />

Sugars<br />

(g/L)<br />

107<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Stiintifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

photosynthetic capacity during summer<br />

(Palliotti A., 2009). At the same time, the<br />

temperature values and the amount of rain<br />

from September and October favoured the<br />

maturation and the quality of the grapes from<br />

Târgu Bujor vineyard, increasing the sugar<br />

content and the mass of 100 berries<br />

Total acidity<br />

(g/L H2SO4)<br />

Mass of 100<br />

berries (g)<br />

Table 3<br />

Glucoacidmetric index<br />

Iasi 195 4.00 177 48.75<br />

Bujoru 198 4.36 169 45.41<br />

Iaşi 235 4.50 181 52.22<br />

Bujoru 216 4.69 177 46.05<br />

Iasi 220 5.5 133 40.00<br />

Bujoru 246 4.95 125 49.69<br />

Iasi 175 5.65 193 30.97<br />

Bujoru 198 5.30 209 37.35<br />

Dynamics of the chlorophyll content<br />

from the leaves of the grapevine varieties<br />

The dynamics of the chlorophyll<br />

content from the leaves of the grapevine<br />

varieties cultivated in Iasi vineyard, assessed<br />

using the chlorophyll content index (CCI)<br />

during the vegetation period of 2011, presents<br />

itself as a uniapical curve at all the varieties of<br />

grapes studied, except for Fetească regală,<br />

presenting maximum values during the<br />

growing phenophase.<br />

The chlorophyll content is maximum<br />

at Băbească gri and minimum at Fetească<br />

albă (fig. 1).<br />

The resulting data confirm the<br />

information present in the specialized<br />

literature refer to the colour of the leaves,<br />

light green at Fetească albă (Rotaru Liliana,<br />

2009). At the same time, it can confirm the<br />

photosynthesis high efficiency during<br />

blooming and fruit maturation phenophases,<br />

which is characteristic to the grapevine. The<br />

peak recorded in July – August can be<br />

correlated with the photosynthetic activity<br />

which was reduced by the stress caused by the<br />

drought. Pigments can play a part in the<br />

absorption and the dissipation of excessive<br />

radiant solar energy.<br />

Figure 1. Chlorophyll content dynamics (CCI) in the leaves of the grapevine varieties<br />

cultivated in Iasi vineyard<br />

The comparative analysis of the CCI<br />

values in the leaves of the grapevine varieties<br />

studied in Iasi and Târgu Bujor vineyard<br />

during the fruit formation phenophase point<br />

out similar values at the following varieties

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Fetească regală, Riesling italian and<br />

Băbească gri, especially during the<br />

development of the berries (fig. 1 and 2).<br />

Fetească albă presented a completely<br />

different behaviour, having a much higher<br />

chlorophyll content in Târgu Bujor vineyard<br />

especially during fruit maturation phenophase<br />

(fig. 2).<br />

108<br />

Relating these results to the<br />

quantitative and qualitative values of grape<br />

production (t/ha), the sugars content and the<br />

glucoacidimetric index, higher values are<br />

recorded by Riesling italian and Băbească<br />

gri cultivated in Târgu Bujor vineyard and<br />

lower at Fetească regală and Fetească albă<br />

from the same vineyard.<br />

Figure 2. Dynamics of chlorophyll content (CCI) in leaves of varieties<br />

cultivated the Targu Bujor vineyard<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. The climatic conditions from Iasi<br />

and Târgu Bujor vineyards in 2011 are<br />

characterized by intense drought in July –<br />

August – September while in April – June the<br />

excess of rain from Târgu Bujor vineyard<br />

counteracted the effects of drought from July<br />

when the hydric deficit was lower.<br />

2. The climatic conditions of the<br />

vegetation season of 2011 lead to higher grape<br />

production in Iasi vineyard at Fetească albă,<br />

Fetească regală and Riesling italian while the<br />

quality of the production, represented by the<br />

sugar content in the grapes (g/l) was higher at<br />

Fetească albă, Riesling italian and Băbească<br />

gri cultivated in Târgu Bujor vineyard.<br />

3. The dynamics of chlorophyll content<br />

in the leaves indicate the participation of<br />

photosynthesis in the formation and the<br />

maturation of grapes in Iasi vineyard and the<br />

existence of high sugar levels in the grapes<br />

from Târgu Bujor vineyard in the given<br />

ecological conditions.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cifre J. et al., 2005 - Physiological tools for irrigation<br />

scheduling in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). An<br />

open gate to improve water-use efficienty?.<br />

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 106,<br />

159-170.<br />

Flexas J. et al., 2009 - Photosynthesis limitations during<br />

water stress acclimation and recovery in the<br />

drought - adapted Vitis hybrid Richter 110 (V.<br />

berlandieri- V. ruprestris). J. Exp. Bot., 60, 8,<br />

2361-2377.<br />

Jităreanu Carmenica Doina et al., 2011 - Studies<br />

about the dynamics of some physiological<br />

processes during the grape vine shoot growth.<br />

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol. 9<br />

(3&4); JFAE; 793 – 798.<br />

Lebon G.et al., 2008 - Sugar and flowering in the<br />

grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). J. Exp. Bot.,59, 10,<br />

2565-2578.<br />

Palliotti A. et al., 2009 – Photosynthetic and<br />

photoinhibition behavior of two field-grown<br />

grapevine cvs. under multiple summer stress. Am.<br />

J. Enology and Viticulture,60,2.<br />

Rotaru Liliana, 2009 - Soiuri de viţă de vie pentru<br />

struguri de vin. Ed. „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi.<br />

Zulini L. et al., 2005 – Effects of drought stresss on<br />

chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic<br />

pigments in grapevine leaves (Vitis vinifera cv.<br />

White Riesling). Acta Horticulture, ISHS, 754 –<br />

Intern. Workshop on Advances in grapevine and<br />

wine Researches.

Abstract<br />

109<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

ECO-PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF VINE VARIETIES<br />

DURING THE GROWING SEASON OF 2011<br />

Alina Elena MARTA 1<br />

e-mail : martaalinaelena@yahoo.com<br />

Climatic changes, characterized by extreme weather conditions, particularly influences plant growth and development.<br />

Extreme meteorological conditions acting on both biological cycle and their productive potential. In recent years global<br />

warming has produced many disturbances in ecosystems vine, vine varieties being forced to change their conduct<br />

annual cycle of vegetation, with consequences often negative for the quality and quantity, including the grape wines<br />

production results. The research aimed at the effect of the meteorological conditions of 2011, on physiological<br />

processes represented the intensity of photosynthesis, transpiration rate and water use efficiency in red wine cultivars,<br />

Coarnă neagră, Gelu, Moldova and Purpuriu, grown in the vineyards of Copou, Iasi.<br />

Key words: climatic changes, grapevine , physiological processes<br />

Meteorological factors acts restrictive on<br />

the biological cycle and the productive potential<br />

of plants. In vines cultivation, temperature is the<br />

main factor limiting crop area, starting and<br />

completion phases of vegetation, quantity and<br />

quality of production. Vine is a plant considered<br />

relatively resistant to drought due to deep root<br />

system (Burzo et al., 1999), resulting in dry years<br />

production of a high quality. In recent years<br />

prolonged droughts have negative effects on some<br />

varieties of Vitis vinifera, recent research<br />

demonstrating the negative effects of lack of<br />

rainfall over the normal physiological processes.<br />

Under the drought action plants suffer from<br />

dehydration of plant cells and tissues and cause<br />

considerable increase their body temperature, with<br />

direct implications on photosynthesis process<br />

(Thomas et al., 2008) and indirectly effects on the<br />

whole metabolism. This paper contains results<br />

obtained in 2011, directed determined in the field,<br />

red wine cultivars Coarnă neagră, Gelu, Moldova<br />

and Purpuriu grown in Copou, Iaşi.<br />

1 USAMV Iasi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Four red wine cultivars, Gelu, Coarnă<br />

neagră, Moldova and Purpuriu, were studied in<br />

the Iaşi wine growing region at the Science<br />

Center, Farm SDE of the U.Ş.A.M.V. Iasi.<br />

Temperature and rainfall were recorded decades<br />

in spring-autumn season and average<br />

temperature values and monthly rainfall amount<br />

reported average annual values. Analysis of<br />

physiological processes, represented by the<br />

intensity of photosynthesis, transpiration rate and<br />

water use efficiency were obtained LCpro + -<br />

Intelligent portable photosynthesis determination.<br />

Field measurements were conducted in three<br />

distinct phenophases: flowering and shoot growth,<br />

growth and ripening grapes.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Evolution of climatic conditions in Iasi<br />

vineyard<br />

Temperatures recorded in 2011 in Copou,<br />

Iasi area were higher than the annual average with<br />

+0.4 o to +3.4°C, in 8 of the 12 months of the<br />

year. Lower than the annual average temperatures<br />

were observed in February, April, October and<br />

November (tab. 1). The highest values of<br />

deviations occurred in the autumn-winter with<br />

+2.3° C in September and +3.4° C in December.<br />

Lowest monthly minimum temperature was<br />

observed on January 5, 2011, of -16.6°C and<br />

maximum monthly 20th July was +35.5 o C.<br />

Tempearatures high above the annual average of<br />

the month were recorded in all months analyzed<br />

(tab. 1). In terms of temperatures, the year 2011<br />

can be characterized as a year above the annual<br />

average, but not a hot oe very warm one.<br />

Regarding rainfall in Copou, Iasi area in<br />

2011, we can say that the year was particularly<br />

dry. In two months (April and October) of the 12<br />

analyzed were recorded excess fluid, in the other<br />

deficits were observed between -4.6 mm and -45.0<br />

mm of precipitation (tab 2). The biggest deficit of<br />

the year was in July, -45.0 mm of annual average

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

amount. In total fluid deficit of 2011 to the<br />

amount of the annual average rainfall was -248.2<br />

110<br />

mm (tab.2).<br />

Table 1<br />

Climatic conditions – temperature – in Iasi vineyard in 2011<br />

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII<br />

Temperature o C<br />

Dec I -4,8 2,2 -3,4 9,0 11,7 22,3 20,5 22,0 18,9 14,4 6,0 3,9<br />

Dec II 2,8 -3,8 6,3 8,0 17,0 20,8 25,7 21,2 20,1 6,5 0,9 3,7<br />

Dec III -4.9 -6,0 7,3 13,8 22,9 19,0 24,7 21,5 15,3 6,4 1,1 4,0<br />

Monthly<br />

average<br />

-2,4 -2,3 3,5 10,3 16,7 20,7 22,9 21,6 18,1 8,8 2,7 2,6<br />

Normal -3,1 -1,2 3,4 10,4 16,3 19,7 21,2 20,5 15,8 10,1 4,4 -0,8<br />

Deviation<br />

from normal<br />

0,7 -1,1 0,1 -0,1 0,4 1.0 1,7 1,1 2,3 -1,3 -1,7 3,4<br />

Minimum<br />

-16,6<br />

on 5<br />

-13,1<br />

on 16<br />

-15,7 on<br />

3<br />

1,5 on 10,7 on 10,4 on<br />

3,8 on 6<br />

12<br />

15 4<br />

10,2on<br />

30<br />

4,9 on<br />

26<br />

-3,7 on<br />

27<br />

-7,9 on<br />

30<br />

-10,2<br />

on 25<br />

Maximum<br />

10,3 on<br />

18<br />

15,3<br />

on7<br />

21,6 on<br />

15<br />

24,7<br />

on29<br />

31,6 on 34.6 on 35,5 on<br />

30 24 20<br />

33,1 on<br />

23<br />

31,9 on 28,5 on 14,3 on 15,6 on<br />

12 5 4 4<br />

Table 2<br />

Climatic conditions – humidity – in Iasi vineyard in 2011<br />

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII<br />

Monthly amount of precipitations (mm)<br />

Dec I 0,0 0,0 0,4 16,3 19,7 13,1 9,7 23,1 13,8 30,7 0,4 2,1,<br />

Dec II 4,3 6,6 2,5 58,2 11,0 12,9 6,2 9,0 0,0 8,1 0,0 6,0<br />

Dec III 8,9 7,1 5,5 7,7 1,6 58,1 21,9 0,0 4,9 1,4 0,2 0,6<br />

Monthly<br />

amount<br />

13,2 13,7 8,4 82,2 32,3 84,1 37,8 32,1 18,7 40,2 0,6 8,7<br />

Normal 30,5 28,4 32,8 49,1 59,1 88,7 82,8 56,9 52,0 32,8 35,1 31,5<br />

Deviation<br />

-17,3<br />

from normal<br />

-14,7 -24,4 33,1 -26,8 -4,6 -45,0 -24,8 -33,3 7,4 -34,5 -22,8<br />

Analysis of physiological processes with LCpro + - Intelligent portable photosynthesis determination<br />

Tabel 3<br />

Dynamics of average values of photosynthesis (A), transpiration and water use efficency –(WUE) in all<br />

phenophases analyzed<br />

Qleaf Tch Tl ci E A A/E<br />

Coarna neagră - bloom 156,00 30,89 29,63 316,89 0,43 0,72 1,65<br />

Coarna neagră – growth 126,42 27,92 25,90 337,32 0,36 1,09 3,03<br />

Coarna neagră - fruit<br />

maturation<br />

119,40 28,40 26,80 355,90 0,24 0,17 0,71<br />

Moldova - bloom 520,40 32,01 30,28 339,30 0,79 0,07 0,09<br />

Moldova – growth 120,18 27,87 25,45 342,77 0,57 0,78 1,38<br />

Moldova - fruit maturation 172,50 28,90 26,70 360,65 0,87 0,76 0,87<br />

Gelu - bloom 277,00 31,99 29,72 362,00 1,28 0,04 0,03<br />

Gelu – growth 114,22 29,64 27,44 347,20 0,60 0,45 0,74<br />

Gelu - fruit maturation<br />

120,15 27,70 25,75 397,15 0,36 -0,02<br />

-0,04 denota<br />

fotorespiratie<br />

Purpuriu - bloom 152,67 33,48 30,37 355,44 1,86 0,47 0,25<br />

Purpuriu – growth 94,04 28,26 26,13 331,17 0,55 2,15 3,89<br />

Purpuriu - fruit maturation 156,45 28,80 26,75 368,70 0,48 0,41 0,85<br />

Analysis of physiological processes,<br />

represented by the photosynthesis intensity of (A),<br />

transpiration rate and water use efficiency (WUE)<br />

highlights differences between species and<br />

between phenophases of the same variety.<br />

Gross photosynthesis rate (A)<br />

Intensity of carbon assimilation or gross<br />

photosynthesis rate (A) varied from one variety to<br />

another and from one to another phenophase<br />

throughout the growing season of 2011. The<br />

lowest values were recorded in all phenophases<br />

variety Gelu with flowering and ripening fruit<br />

trough, phenophases thermally characterized by<br />

high temperatures and significant water deficit,<br />

which had the effect of reducing leaf-level of<br />

carbon assimilation in Gelu particular variety,<br />

semi-early variety with medium vegetation period<br />

(fig.1). High values were observed at Moldova,<br />

Coarnă neagră cultivars and maximum value on<br />

Purpuriu (2.15 mole CO 2 m -2 s -1 ) (fig.1). The most<br />

intense of carbon assimilated occurred mainly in<br />

the phenophase of growth of berries all varieties

analyzed, a period characterized by temperatures<br />

up to 1.7° C compared to the annual average, with<br />

peaks of 35.5° C and the high water deficit of<br />

2011. Weather conditions did not significantly<br />

affect carbon assimilation in this phenophase due<br />

to the increased need for assimilate biosynthesis<br />

Transpiration rate (E)<br />

Leaf removing water level recorded<br />

maximum values at all analyzed varieties in<br />

flowering phenophase, influenced less by<br />

temperature (normal this time), and to a greater<br />

extent, poor rainfall regime and the foliar<br />

characteristics, in the process of cell extension,<br />

Leaf removing water level recorded<br />

maximum values at all analyzed varieties in<br />

flowering phenophase, influenced less by<br />

temperature (normal this time), and to a greater<br />

extent, poor rainfall regime and the foliar<br />

characteristics, in the process of cell extension,<br />

which is poorly developed cuticle. The lowest<br />

values were found in fruit maturation phenophase<br />

to all varieties analyzed, due to leaf maturation<br />

Figure 1. Dynamics of gross photosynthesis (A)<br />

Figure 2. Dynamics of transpiration rate (E)<br />

111<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

to effect the growth of berries. In Gelu variety, in<br />

September there was a massive attack of mildew,<br />

which negatively influenced the rate of<br />

photosynthesis, the plants being practical<br />

photorespiration as a form of plant resistance to<br />

biotic stress.<br />

which is poorly developed cuticle. The lowest<br />

values were found in fruit maturation phenophase<br />

to all varieties analyzed, due to leaf maturation<br />

and development of defense tissues, and the<br />

drought intensified in this period (fig.2).<br />

and development of defense tissues, and the<br />

drought intensified in this period.<br />

Water use efficency –WUE<br />

Calculated as the ratio of photosynthesis<br />

rate (A) and transpiration rate (E), depending on<br />

the biological characteristics of the variety, the<br />

WUE has minimum or maximum values in<br />

different phenophases. The highest values were<br />

recorded in growth phenophase to all varieties<br />

analyzed, with a maximum at Purpuriu variety.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The lowest values were observed in phenophase<br />

of flowering (bloom) in most varieties except<br />

Coarnă neagră variety, results influenced by<br />

water deficit recorded throughout the growing<br />

season, but more pronounced towards the end (fig.<br />

3). High values of WUE can be interpreted as a<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Weather conditions of 2011 did not<br />

significantly affect carbon assimilation (A), the<br />

most intense recorded in the comparable growth<br />

phenophase of all varieties analyzed, high values<br />

were observed for cultivars Moldova and Coarnă<br />

neagră and maximum value in Purpuriu (2.15 mol<br />

CO2 m -2 s -1 ).<br />

2. Leaf transpiration (E) recorded maximum<br />

values at all analyzed varieties in flowering<br />

(bloom) phenophase influenced by the poor<br />

rainfall regime and foliar characteristics, in the<br />

process of cell extension, which cuticle is<br />

underdeveloped.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Blum A., 2005 - Drought resistance, water-use<br />

efficiency, and yield potential—are they<br />

compatible, dissonant, or mutually exclusive?,<br />

Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 56<br />

(11) 1159–1168<br />

Burzo I., Toma S., Olteanu I., Dejeu I., Delian E.,<br />

Hoza D., 1999 – Fiziologia plantelor de cultura.<br />

Vol.3. Ed. Ștința, Chisinau. p 399-404.<br />

Eamus, D. , 1991, The interaction of rising CO2 and<br />

temperatures with water use fficiency. Plant,<br />

Cell & Environment, 14: 843–852. doi:<br />

10.1111/j.1365-3040.1991.tb01447.x<br />

Jitareanu Carmen Doina, Liana Doina Toma,<br />

Cristina Slabu, Alina Elena Marta, 2011 -<br />

Figure 2 Dynamics of water use efficency –WUE<br />

112<br />

result of increased atmospheric CO2 (Eamus D.,<br />

1991), due to its location near the experimental<br />

field of urban area. Reducing the amount of water<br />

in the soil is reflected by increased plant WUE as<br />

a reaction to the reduction of field potential and<br />

drought (Blum A., 2005).<br />

3. Dynamics of water use efficiency (WUE) shows<br />

the highest values in growth phenophases in all<br />

cultivars analyzed, with a maximum for Purpuriu<br />

cv. and lowest in phenophase of flowering in most<br />

varieties, except the variety Coarnă neagră, water<br />

deficit influenced results recorded throughout the<br />

growing season, but stressed to the end.<br />

Acknowledgment<br />

“This work was cofinanced from the European Social<br />

Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme Human<br />

Resources Development 2007-2013, project number<br />

POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 ,,Postdoctoral Schole in<br />

Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area”<br />

Effect of weather conditions on photosynthetic<br />

and flavonoid pigment contents in leaves of<br />

grapevine cultivars during growing season,<br />

International Journal of Food, Agriculture &<br />

Environment, 9, p. 793-799.<br />

Moise Cristina, 2010 - ÎNCĂLZIREA GLOBALĂ:<br />

CAUZE SI CONSECINŢE. <strong>Lucrări</strong>le<br />

Simpozionului ”Valorificarea resurselor naturale<br />

și antropice ale satelor pastorale din zona<br />

montană” Sibiu, 26 noiembrie 2010, p. 178-182.<br />

Toma Liana Doina, Jitareanu Carmen Doina, Mustea<br />

M., Slabu Cristina Radu Mirela, 2006 –<br />

Researces on the eco-physiological reaction in<br />

grpe vine in the 2004 sommer. Lucr. Ştiinţifice,<br />

seria Horticultură, vol. 49, Iaşi, p.37-42.

Abstract<br />

113<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE WATER REGIME OF SOME GRAPEVINE VARIETIES IN THE<br />

PEDOCLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF 2011 IN IASI AND BUJORUL<br />

VINEYARDS<br />

Cristina SLABU 1 , Carmen Doina JITAREANU 1 , Alina MARTA 1 ,<br />

Cristina SIMION 2 , Roxana IONAŞCU 2<br />

e-mail: cristinaslabu@yahoo.com<br />

Climatic changes, characterized by extreme meteorological conditions, influence especially growth and development of<br />

plants. The meteorological factors act restrictively on their biological cycle as well as on their productive potential.<br />

Referring to the grapevine, air temperature is the key factor that limits the areas where grapes can be cultivated, the<br />

beginning and the development of the vegetation phases, the production quantity as well as its quality. The research was<br />

focused on the effects of the meteorological conditions of 2011 on the plants’ water regime at the following grapevine<br />

varieties Fetească albă, Fetească regală, Riesling italian and Băbească gri cultivated in Iasi and Bujorul vineyards.<br />

Key words: climatic changes, water regime, grapevine<br />

The plants’ growth and development, the<br />

vegetation period of species and varieties, their<br />

distribution within the country and finally but not<br />

last, the harvest, they all depend to a great extend<br />

on the clime. Climatic changes, usually<br />

characterized by extreme meteorological<br />

conditions, influence greatly the plant’s growth<br />

and its development. Meteorological factors<br />

restrict the biological cycle as well as the plant’s<br />

productive potential. If we refer to the grapevine,<br />

air temperature is the main factor that limits the<br />

area where it can be cultivated, the beginning and<br />

the development of the vegetation phases, the<br />

quantity and the quality of the production.<br />

Grapevine is considered to be a relatively resistant<br />

plant to drought due to its deep root system<br />

(Burzo et al., 1999), the years characterized by<br />

MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ<br />

This paper focuses on the results of the<br />

primary biosynthetical processes that differentiate<br />

the grapevine varieties Feteasca albă, Feteasca<br />

regală, Riesling italian and Băbească gri cultivated<br />

in Iasi and Bujorul vineyards in the climatic<br />

conditions of 2011 during the following<br />

phenophases flowering, berry growth and grape<br />

maturation.<br />

The climatic conditions of 2011 were<br />

analyzed decadal and monthly by determining the<br />

average temperature values and the amount of<br />

1 USAMV Iasi<br />

2 SCDVV Bujoru – Târgu Bujor<br />

drought leading to high quality productions.<br />

Nonetheless, the prolonged droughts from the past<br />

few years have had serious effects on certain Vitis<br />

vinifera varieties. Recent studies have<br />

demonstrated the negative effects the lack of<br />

precipitations has on the normal course of<br />

physiological processes. Influenced by drought<br />

plants experience cellular and tissue dehydration<br />

and suffer from the considerable growth of their<br />

body temperature; all of them have direct impact<br />

on photosynthesis (Toma et al, 2008) and indirect<br />

impact on the entire metabolism. The present<br />

paper includes the preliminary results of the<br />

analyses performed on Feteasca albă, Fetească<br />

regală, Riesling italian and Băbească gri varieties<br />

cultivated in different ecological conditions in Iasi<br />

and Bujorul vineyards.<br />

precipitations, values that were afterwards<br />

compared to the normal values.<br />

The physiological information followed<br />

aspects related to the water regime and the<br />

photosynthesis. The content of free water in the<br />

leaves and the dehydration rhythm of the leaves<br />

stand for indicators of the intensity of the sweating<br />

process (Jitareanu et al., 2002), and the water use<br />

efficiency is correlated to the photosynthetic<br />

activity. The water regime indicators were analyzed<br />

using gravimetric methods performed at the<br />

electronic balance. The dehydration rhythm was<br />

evaluated using the Ivanov method (Jitareanu et

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

al., 2010). For free water it was considered that<br />

particular quantity of water lost after 24 hours of<br />

dehydration of the vegetal material at room<br />

temperature; bonded water was considered that<br />

quantity of water lost after drying at 105 o C until the<br />

constant weight of the vegetal material dehydrated<br />

for 24 hours. The sweat intensity and the transport<br />

activity of the assimilated were estimated in<br />

relation to the free water content.<br />

The water use efficiency was calculated as<br />

the relation between the intensity of<br />

photosynthesis and sweat determined with the<br />

LCPro + device. For establishing the values, the 4 th<br />

or the 5 th leaf from the bottom of the inflorescence<br />

and of the cluster, respectively, were used, the<br />

paper presenting the average values of the<br />

obtained results.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The analysis of climatic data pointed out that in<br />

Iasi vineyard, the average monthly temperatures<br />

were higher than the multiannual average, between<br />

114<br />

May and September, the deviations ranging<br />

between 0.1 o C to 2.3 o C, to which a precipitation<br />

deficit was added for the entire active vegetation<br />

period, extremely intense in May and July –<br />

September (tab. 1). The absence of rain and the<br />

high diurnal and nocturnal temperatures lead to the<br />

appearance of pedological, atmospheric and<br />

physiological drought, thus shortening the<br />

phenophases (Jităreanu et al., 2009). In Bujoru<br />

vineyard, the dynamic study of the average<br />

monthly temperatures proved that the average<br />

temperatures recorded negative deviations in<br />

January – May (0.1 o – 1.9 o C), while in June –<br />

September the values recorded were higher than<br />

the normal values recorded in that area with 0.4 o –<br />

3.2 o C.<br />

The amount of precipitation recorded in the<br />

period of time that was analyzed characterized<br />

itself by deficit in March, July and August and<br />

excess in April – June (tab. 2), values that<br />

influenced the shoot’s growth.<br />

Evolution of climatic factors in 2011, in Iasi vineyard<br />

Specification I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII<br />

Temperatures ( o C)<br />

Dec I -4,8 2,2 -3,4 9,0 11,7 22,3 20,5 22,0 18,9 14,4 6,0 3,9<br />

Dec II 2,8 -3,8 6,3 8,0 17,0 20,8 25,7 21,2 20,1 6,5 0,9 3,7<br />

Dec III -4.9 -6,0 7,3 13,8 22,9 19,0 24,7 21,5 15,3 6,4 1,1 4,0<br />

Average -2,4 -2,3 3,5 10,3 16,7 20,7 22,9 21,6 18,1 8,8 2,7 2,6<br />

Monthly<br />

-3,1 -1,2 3,4 10,4 16,3 19,7 21,2 20,5 15,8 10,1 4,4 -0,8<br />

normal<br />

Deviation 0,7 -1,1 0,1 -0,1 0,4 1.0 1,7 1,1 2,3 -1,3 -1,7 3,4<br />

Precipitations (mm)<br />

Dec I 0,0 0,0 0,4 16,3 19,7 13,1 9,7 23,1 13,8 30,7 0,4 2,1,<br />

Dec II 4,3 6,6 2,5 58,2 11,0 12,9 6,2 9,0 0,0 8,1 0,0 6,0<br />

Dec III 8,9 7,1 5,5 7,7 1,6 58,1 21,9 0,0 4,9 1,4 0,2 0,6<br />

Monthly<br />

13,2 13,7 8,4 82,2 32,3 84,1 37,8 32,1 18,7 40,2 0,6 8,7<br />

amount<br />

Normal 30,5 28,4 32,8 49,1 59,1 88,7 82,8 56,9 52,0 32,8 35,1 31,5<br />

Deviation -17,3 -14,7 -24,4 33,1 -26,8 -4,6 -45,0 -24,8 -33,3 7,4 -34,5 -22,8<br />

Evolution of climatic factors in 2011, in Bujoru vineyard<br />

Specification I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII<br />

Temperatures ( o C)<br />

Dec I -5,2 -0,2 -3,5 8,4 11,3 20,1 20,1 21,7 19,8 15,4 6,7 2,9<br />

Dec II 2,4 -3,1 5,9 8,1 16,6 20,2 25,2 21,6 21,1 7,1 1,0 3,8<br />

Dec III -5,7 -6,2 7,2 12,5 21,5 18,7 24,7 22,1 16,6 6,4 0,7 1,0<br />

average -2,9 -2,9 3,30 9,7 15,9 19,9 22,6 21,8 19,2 9,4 2,8 2,2<br />

Monthly<br />

normal<br />

-2,8 -1 3,5 10,3 16 19,5 21,3 20,7 16 10,4 4,4 -0,8<br />

Deviation -0,1 -1,9 -0,2 -0,6 -0,1 0,4 1,3 1,1 3,2 -1,0 -1,6 3,0<br />

Precipitations (mm)<br />

Dec I 1,2 0,0 0,3 8,2 32,0 25,4 7,8 12,8 2,6 31,2 0,2 7,5<br />

Dec II 8,3 10,4 1,2 44,8 27,2 7,4 1,2 9,2 0,0 1,0 0,0 6,0<br />

Dec III 18,5 12,2 4,9 2,0 14,0 53,4 5,8 0,0 0,4 0,0 0,3 2,7<br />

Monthly<br />

amount<br />

28,0 22,6 6,4 55,0 73,2 86,2 14,8 22,0 3,0 32,2 0,5 16,2<br />

Normal 25,0 24,4 28,4 42,6 57,1 75,4 69,0 57,2 45,7 31,9 32,9 29,2<br />

Deviation 3.0 -1,8 -22,0 12,4 16,1 10,8 -54,2 -35,2 -42,7 0,3 -32,4 -13,0<br />

Table 1<br />

Table 2

Foliar dehydration rhythm<br />

The foliar dehydration rhythm, analyzed at<br />

intervals of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 24 hours during<br />

flowering, presents minimum values at Fetească<br />

albă, Fetească regală and Riesling italian<br />

varieties cultivated in Iasi vineyard, compared to<br />

the same varieties cultivated in Bujorul vineyard.<br />

Băbească gri variety recorded almost the same<br />

foliar dehydration rhythm, regardless of the<br />

vineyard (fig. 1). The intense evaporation process<br />

present at the three varieties cultivated in Bujorul<br />

vineyard might be due to the amount of rain<br />

recorded in May (73.2 mm), compared to the data<br />

recorded in Iasi vineyard (32.3 mm) as well as to<br />

an average monthly temperature lower with 0.6 o C,<br />

which determined the existence of higher<br />

percentage of initial leaf fresh weight<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

Fetească albă Iasi<br />

Fetească albă Bujorul<br />

Fetească regală Iasi<br />

Fetească regală Bujorul<br />

Riesling italian Iasi<br />

Risling italian Bujorul<br />

Băbească gri Iasi<br />

Băbească gri Bujorul<br />

During the phenophase of berry growth,<br />

influenced by the climatic conditions existent in<br />

Iasi vineyard, the dehydration rhythm of<br />

Băbească gri, Fetească albă and Tămâioasă<br />

românească recorded low values. The free water<br />

content maintains itself at high quotas at Fetească<br />

percentage of initial leaf fresh weight<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

115<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

quantities of total water if compared to those<br />

existent in Iasi vineyard. Referring to Băbească<br />

gri variety, the water content in the leaves<br />

presented insignificant differences between the<br />

two vineyards (tab. 3). Observing the behaviour<br />

of the previously mentioned varieties in each<br />

vineyard, in Bujorul it was noticed a minimum<br />

dehydration rhythm at Băbească gri and a<br />

maximum one at Fetească albă and Riesling<br />

italian. On the other hand, the free water values<br />

were exactly the opposite, minimum at Băbească<br />

gri and very high at the other varieties. In Iasi<br />

vineyard, the highest values were recorded at<br />

Frâncuşă and the lowest ones at Băbească gri<br />

(fig. 1 and tab. 3).<br />

1h 2h 3h 4h 24h<br />

Figure 1. Foliar dehydration rhythm during flowering<br />

0<br />

Fetească albă Iasi<br />

Fetească albă Bujorul<br />

Fetească regală Iasi<br />

Fetească regală Bujorul<br />

Riesling italian Iasi<br />

Risling italian Bujorul<br />

Băbească gri Iasi<br />

Băbească gri Bujorul<br />

regală and Băbească gri (tab. 3). In Bujorul<br />

vineyard, Băbească gri presents an opposite<br />

behaviour with respect to the previous<br />

phenophase regarding the dehydration rhythm and<br />

the free water content (49.9% compared to 36.1 %<br />

at flowering).<br />

1h 2h 3h 4h 24h<br />

Figure 2. Foliar dehydration rhythm during berry growth phenophase<br />

During the grape maturation phenophase, the foliar<br />

dehydration rhythm was more intense at Fetească

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

albă, the one cultivated in Iasi vineyard, the other<br />

varieties presenting almost the same rhythm of<br />

percentage of initial leaf fresh weight<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

Fetească albă Iasi<br />

Fetească albă Bujorul<br />

Fetească regală Iasi<br />

Fetească regală Bujorul<br />

Riesling italian Iasi<br />

Risling italian Bujorul<br />

Băbească gri Iasi<br />

Băbească gri Bujorul<br />

116<br />

losing water, regardless of the vineyard (fig. 3).<br />

1h 2h 3h 4h 24h<br />

Figure 3. Foliar dehydration rhythm during grape maturation<br />

Table 3<br />

The effect of genotype and ecological conditions from the two vineyards on the water content and its states in<br />

the leaves (% of fresh weight)<br />

Variety Vineyard<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Riesling<br />

italian<br />

Băbeasca<br />

gri<br />

Total<br />

water<br />

Phenophase<br />

Flowering Berry growth Grape maturation<br />

Free<br />

water<br />

Bound<br />

water<br />

Total<br />

water<br />

Free<br />

water<br />

Bound<br />

water<br />

Total<br />

water<br />

Free<br />

water<br />

Bound<br />

water<br />

Iasi 33,3 32,4 0,9 66,0 65,8 0,2 71,0 64,6 6,4<br />

Bujorul 62,3 61,1 1,2 73,3 45,2 28,1 68,2 43,4 24,8<br />

Iasi 43,4 41,5 1,9 59,0 45,5 13,5 63,8 50,7 13,1<br />

Bujorul 55,0 53,9 1,1 76,7 49,3 27,4 70,3 49,1 21,2<br />

Iasi 33,0 25,9 7,1 59,7 52,3 7,4 64,3 58,9 5,4<br />

Bujorul 58,1 52,9 5,2 70,7 50,5 20,2 66,6 49,6 17,0<br />

Iasi 41,8 40,0 1,8 37,6 36,1 1,5 69,8 62,5 7,3<br />

Bujorul 38,5 35,5 3,0 69,9 49,9 20,0 70,4 48,7 21,7<br />

Water use efficiency (WUE - μml/mmol) was<br />

calculated as the relations between the raw rates<br />

of photosynthesis and sweat.<br />

During the flowering phenophase the water<br />

use efficiency recorded the highest values at<br />

Fetească regală variety cultivated in Bujorul<br />

vineyard (4.6 μml/mmol) as well as at Fetească<br />

albă variety from Iasi vineyard (2.6 μml/mmol);<br />

at the other varieties, regardless of the area, the<br />

values ranged between 0.3 – 1.5 μml/mmol.<br />

During the growth phenophase, the water use<br />

efficiency recorded values between 0.3 μml/mmol<br />

at Fetească albă in Bujorul vineyard and 4.3<br />

μml/mmol at Băbească gri in Iasi vineyard. It<br />

must be pointed out that the low values of the<br />

water use efficiency recorded at all the varieties<br />

studied from Bujorul vineyard were caused by the<br />

climatic conditions existent when the data were<br />

recorded. During the grape growth phenophase,<br />

the varieties cultivated in Iasi vineyard presented<br />

higher values of water use efficiency, except from<br />

the Riesling italian variety (fig.4). In this case, the<br />

grape production on hectare is lower than the one<br />

obtained in Bujoru vineyard, as a consequence of<br />

the decrease of the average weight of the grapes<br />

(tab. 4). The research studies of Patakas et al.<br />

(1996) demonstrated that for cv. Roditis that the<br />

water use efficiency level was higher in the fully<br />

developed leaves (35 days after their appearance)<br />

and remained relatively high in the older leaves.<br />

In this case, the water use efficiency levels differ<br />

more from one variety to the other depending also<br />

of the vineyard and less of the phenophase, due to<br />

the different values of the climatic factors<br />

(temperature, light and CO2 supply) in different<br />

phenophases. It must be noticed the ecophysiological<br />

reaction of Băbească gri cultivated<br />

in Bujorul vineyard, at which the water use<br />

efficiency during the berry growth phenophase<br />

was lower, after which it recovered during the<br />

berry maturation phenophase, which made the<br />

average vine production to be similar to the one in<br />

Iasi; this is probably due to a more efficient<br />

transport system of the assimilated during grape<br />

maturation. The average weight of a grape from<br />

Bujorul was of 235 g comparative to 198 g<br />

recorded at Iasi (tab. 4). Generally speaking, 2011<br />

favoured the production of high quality wines. As<br />

far as the quantities of grapes are concerned, the<br />

grapevine varieties cultivated in Bujorul vineyard<br />

did not reach their genetic production potential<br />

because of the inauspicious meteorological<br />

conditions, mainly drought (Donici Alina, 2012).

flowering berry's growth grapes ripening<br />

Iasi Bujorul Iasi Bujorul Iasi Bujorul Iasi Bujorul<br />

Fetească albă Fetească regală Riesling italian Băbeasca gri<br />

117<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 4. Eficienţa utilizării apei în procesul de fotosinteză<br />

The grape production of the studied grapevine varieties<br />

Soiul Podgoria<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Riesling<br />

italian<br />

Băbească<br />

gri<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The climatic conditions of 2011 were<br />

characterized by thermic and hydric stress on the<br />

grapevine varieties in both cultivated areas.<br />

The plants’ water regime represented by the<br />

foliar dehydration rhythm, water content and<br />

states depended by the soils characteristics and the<br />

climatic conditions of the area.<br />

The grape production at Fetească albă,<br />

Fetească regală and Riesling italian was<br />

influenced especially by the lower number of<br />

clusters on the vine, consequence of the drought<br />

recorded during the flowering phenophase, while<br />

the grape production of Băbească gri was<br />

influenced by the lower average grape weight<br />

influenced by the troubled transport of<br />

assimilated.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Burzo I., Toma S., Olteanu I., Dejeu I., Delian E.,<br />

Hoza D., 1999 – Fiziologia plantelor de cultura.<br />

Vol.3. Ed. Ștința, Chisinau. p 13-20.<br />

Donici Alina, 2012 - Podgoria Dealu Bujorului: bilanţ<br />

viticol 2011. Revista Ferma http://www.revista-<br />

Producţia<br />

de struguri<br />

(kg/butuc)<br />

Nr.<br />

mediu<br />

de<br />

struguri<br />

pe butuc<br />

Greutatea medie<br />

a unui strugure<br />

(g)<br />

Table 4<br />

Iasi 2,77 26,4 105<br />

Bujoru 2,21 21,3 104<br />

Iaşi 3,77 32,8 115<br />

Bujoru 3,02 22,4 135<br />

Iasi 1,98 21,8 91<br />

Bujoru 1,92 20,4 94<br />

Iasi 4,62 23,3 198<br />

Bujoru 4,83 20,5 235<br />

ferma.ro/articole-horticultura/podgoria-dealubujorului-bilant-viticol-2011.html.<br />

Jitareanu Carmen Doina, 2002 - Influenţa secetei<br />

prelungite asupra unor procese fiziologice la<br />

diferiţi hibrizi de floarea soarelui, Lucr. şt., seria<br />

<strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 50, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 20-26<br />

Patakas, A., Noitsakis, B. and Chartzoulakis, K.<br />

1997 - Changes in WUE in Vitis vinifera as<br />

affected by leaf age. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 449:457-<br />

460.http://www.actahort.org/books/449/449_63.h<br />

tm<br />

Toma Liana Doina, Jitarean Carmen Doina, Mustea<br />

M., Slabu cristina, Radu Mirela, 2008 –<br />

Researces on the eco-physiological reaction in<br />

grpe vine in the 2007 sommer. Lucr. şt., seria<br />

<strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 50, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 20-26.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

118

119<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF COLD PLASMA PRODUCED BY GLIDARC WITHOUT<br />

WATER VAPOR, UPON THE CELLS DIVISION IN TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.<br />

Abstract<br />

Silvica PĂDUREANU 1<br />

Email: silvyp27@yahoo.com<br />

This paper presents the influence of cold plasma on mitotic division in Triticum aestivum L. Cold plasma is a fourth<br />

state of matter existing in the universe. Cold plasma electrodes was produced by a GlidArc, in the absence of water<br />

vapor. This study aimed to highlight the role of water vapor in the cold plasma upon the cells mitotic. Wheat seeds were<br />

exposed by cold plasma in four time: 2 minutes, 5 minutes, 20 minutes and 40 minutes, resulting in four experimental<br />

variants, which were compared with a control. Seeds treated with cold plasma were put to germinate and root meristems<br />

were used for cytogenetic analysis. Cytogenetic analysis had aimed to establish the mitotic index and any possible<br />

chromosomal aberrations. Cold plasma without water vapor has a inhibitory effect on mitotic division in root meristems<br />

of wheat, reducing the value of mitotic index in direct correlation with proportional action during cold plasma. Cells<br />

reacted differently in each mitotic phase in cold plasma action: cell proportions metaphases and anaphases are reduced<br />

compared to the control, compared with prophase and telophase cells. Mitotic index was affected very significantly in<br />

all experimental cases. Chromosomal aberrations induced by cold plasma in the absence of the water vapors, were<br />

insignificant in frequency. In experimental variants with 20 minutes and 40 minutes, they were not induced. This<br />

phenomenon is explained by the absence of water vapor during the performance of cold plasma treatment. The present<br />

study highlights the major role of this water vapor during production of cold plasma on cell mitogen. Water vapor<br />

potentiates the mutagenic effect of cold plasma.<br />

Key words: cell, cold plasma, mitotic division, mitotic index<br />

Cold plasma is the fourth state of existence<br />

of matter in the universe. Experimentally it can be<br />

produced by special reactors. Cold plasma has<br />

found wide application in the biomedical field, due<br />

to its highly effective sterilization of surfaces. In<br />

this way you can eliminate the traditional<br />

chemicals which use significant impact on the<br />

environment. So can be promote the organic<br />

farming (Röder O. et al., 2009).<br />

Cold plasma is widely used for<br />

decontamination of surfaces. This method has<br />

been successfully applied in agriculture and<br />

biomedicine for seed quality improvement and<br />

pathogenic micro-organisms inactivation (Kylián<br />

O. et al, 2006; Selcuk M. et al, 2008).<br />

Also, cold plasma is used to stimulate seeds<br />

germination (Dubinov A.E., et al., 2000; Živković<br />

S. et al., 2004; Carvalho R. et al., 2005; Sera B. et<br />

al., 2008; Filatova I. et al., 2010; Sera B. et al.,<br />

2010). If the vine, cold plasma growth-stimulating<br />

effects of grapes (Dardeniz A. et al., 2006).<br />

The effects induced of cold plasma is due to<br />

oxygen atoms species and molecules presented in<br />

air plasma. Should be noted that the composition<br />

of air plasma depends by discharge on the<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iassy<br />

environment (Burlică R. and Locke B., 2007;<br />

Brisset J. L. et al., 2008; Burlică R., 2009).<br />

The purpose of this study is the influence of<br />

cold plasma produced in an environment without<br />

water vapor discharge, upon the cell division from<br />

Triticum aestivum. Similar studies have been<br />

performed, except that the cold plasma was<br />

produced in an average discharge of water vapor<br />

(Pădureanu S. et al., 2009).<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

Cold plasma was produced by a reactor<br />

discharge GlidArc. Download medium consisted of<br />

blowing air without water vapor.<br />

Seeds of Triticum aestivum L., cv. Boema,<br />

fresh (from the previous year of this experiment)<br />

were exposed in cold plasma without water vapor<br />

for 2, 5, 20 and 40 minutes respectively. In each<br />

Petri dish were 100 seeds.<br />

The samples of treated seeds were placed<br />

into glass Petri dishes (8 cm in diameter) and the<br />

distance between the electrodes and the bottom of<br />

Petri dish was 15 cm. The temperature of<br />

discharge, measured simply by thermistor, was<br />

about 55 0 C.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Cold plasma composition produced by the<br />

two electrodes (in the absence of water vapor) was<br />

to: O2, N2, NO (Burlică R. et al., 2009).<br />

As a result four experimental variants which<br />

have been compared with the control ones. After<br />

plasma treatment the wheat seeds were putted to<br />

germinate in laboratory conditions, using Petri<br />

dishes on filter paper.<br />

For further cytogenetic investigations,<br />

treated and non-treated embryonic roots (control)<br />

were fixed in Carnoy’s fixing solution for 24 hours<br />

at 4 C, then were hydrolysed with HCl and<br />

coloured with the Carr basic colouring. The root<br />

meristem was displayed by using the squash<br />

technique. A number of 20 preparations and 10<br />

microscopic fields/preparation were examined for<br />

all variants and for control. Number of cells<br />

analysed for control was 6559, for variant 2<br />

minutes was 10549, for variant 5 minutes was<br />

10171, for variant 20 minutes was 6503 and for<br />

variant 40 minutes was 6216. The microscopic<br />

examination was carried out using the Hund<br />

Wetzlar microscope. Microphotographs were taken<br />

with the microscope camera.<br />

The dynamic of the growth in length of the<br />

embryonic roots and the sheets of the plantlets<br />

was monitored during the first phenophase.<br />

Measurements of plantlets were processed<br />

statistically using the method limit differences.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

120<br />

The main analysed parameters were: mitotic<br />

index, frequency of aberrant mitotic phases,<br />

frequency and type of chromosome aberrations,<br />

growth dynamics of plantlets.<br />

The dynamics of mitotic index<br />

The exposure to cold plasma determined<br />

significant modifications of the mitotic index (fig.<br />

1). Proporția de celule în diviziune a diminuat în<br />

toate cazurile experimentale. La variantele cu<br />

timpul de expunere de 2 și 5 minute, indicele<br />

mitotic are valori apropiate, însă sub nivelul<br />

martorului. La variantele cu 20 și 40 minute<br />

expunere la plasma rece, indicele mitotic a scăzut<br />

accentuat față de martor.<br />

The proportion of dividing cells decreased in<br />

all experimental cases. At the variants with time of<br />

exposure of 2 and 5 minutes, mitotic index has<br />

values close to but below the control. At variants<br />

with 20 and 40 minutes exposure to cold plasma,<br />

the mitotic index dropped very obvious compared<br />

to control.<br />

Statistical analysis of mitotic index in root<br />

meristems of wheat from seeds treated with cold<br />

plasma without water vapor demonstrates that<br />

without exception experimental mitotic index<br />

decreased very significantly compared to control<br />

(tab.1).<br />

Figure 1 Mitotic index in Triticum aestivum, after the treatment with cold plasma without water vapor<br />

Differences found after the treatment with cold plasma without water vapor upon mitotic division in<br />

Triticum aestivum<br />

Mitotic index<br />

variant<br />

average value<br />

(%)<br />

significance of difference<br />

control 29.14 -<br />

2 minutes 20.50 000<br />

5 minutes 19.34 000<br />

20 minutes 18.29 000<br />

40 minutes 12.50 000<br />

DL 5% = 1.04412<br />

DL 1% = 1.51872<br />

DL 0.1% = 2.27808<br />

Table 1

Detailed analysis of cells response in each<br />

phase of mitotic division, as a result of cold plasma<br />

treatment, shows the following situation:<br />

Thus, in prophase, the cell proportion was<br />

below the control level in all the tested variants<br />

(fig. 2). The smallest proportion of prophase<br />

cells was recorded in variant with 40 minutes<br />

exposure time.<br />

The metaphases registered a percentual<br />

decrease in comparison with the control, especially<br />

in variant with 40 minutes exposure time (fig. 3).<br />

By comparison on constat that between variants<br />

with 2 and 5 minutes of exposure to cold plasma,<br />

the differences are insignificant for prophase and<br />

metaphase.<br />

In anaphase, the lowest cells proportion was<br />

found at the variant with 40 minutes of exposure to<br />

cold plasma (fig. 4). In this case, there were only<br />

0.9% cells in anaphase.<br />

In telophase, the situation is different from<br />

the other phases of the division analyzed so far.<br />

The highest percentage of cells was recorded by<br />

variant with 2 minutes (4.31%), percentage which<br />

exceeded even the control (4.27). In variants with<br />

5 and 20 minutes, the percentages of cells in<br />

telophase has very close (4.06%, 4.05%<br />

respectively), while the variant with 40<br />

minutes exposure time, the percentage of cells<br />

is higher (4.17%) (fig. 5).<br />

A global analysis of response of<br />

meristematic cells of wheat to cold plasma<br />

treatments without water vapor can be seen in<br />

figure 6. It can be concluded that most affected<br />

were anaphases cells, especially in the variant<br />

with 40 minutes of cold plasma treatment.<br />

Figure 2 Frequency of cells in prophases in Triticum<br />

aestivum, after the treatment with cold plasma<br />

without water vapor<br />

121<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 3 Frequency of cells in metaphases in<br />

Triticum aestivum, after the treatment with cold<br />

plasma without water vapor<br />

Figure 4 Frequency of cells in anaphases in Triticum<br />

aestivum, after the treatment with cold plasma<br />

without water vapor<br />

Figure 5 Frequency of cells in telophases in Triticum<br />

aestivum, after the treatment with cold plasma<br />

without water vapor<br />

Frequency of aberrant mitotic phases<br />

In parallel to analyze the mitotic index were<br />

recorded and chromosomal aberrations.<br />

Interestingly is that chromosomal aberrations were<br />

almost absent. At variants with 2 and 5 minutes,<br />

frequency of chromosomal aberrations was<br />

insignificant (0.06%, 0.07% respectively), while at<br />

the variants with 20 and 40 minutes, they were<br />

completely absent (fig. 7).<br />

These chromosomal aberrations occurred<br />

only in anat-telophase. All the metaphases were<br />

normal.<br />

Other studies have shown that after cold<br />

plasma treatment, but produced an environment<br />

discharge of water vapor, resulting high frequency<br />

in chromosomal aberration at the same genotype<br />

of wheat (Pădureanu S. et al, 2009).<br />

Fequency and type of chromosome aberrations

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Chromosomal aberrations manifested in anatelophase<br />

consisted by chromosome bridges of<br />

single or multiple, thin, whole or broken, and in<br />

retardatari chromosomes (fig. 8, 9). These<br />

122<br />

chromosomal aberrations were induced only at<br />

variants with 2 and 5 minutes exposure of cold<br />

plasma.<br />

Figure 6 Frequency of mitotic phases in Triticum aestivum, after the treatment with cold plasma without water<br />

vapor<br />

Figure 7 Frequency of aberrant ana-telophases in Triticum aestivum, after the treatment with cold plasma<br />

without water vapor<br />

Figure 8 Telophase with broken multiple bridges in root meristem at wheat, treated with cold plasma without water<br />

vapor, 2 minutes (1000X) (Original)

123<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 9 Anaphase with bridge and chromosome retardatar in root meristem at wheat, treated with cold plasma<br />

without water vapor, 5 minutes (1000X) (Original)<br />

The growth dynamics of plantlets<br />

To make a correlation with the mitotic index<br />

value of root meristems was determined and the<br />

dynamic growth in length of plantlets. To this end<br />

have been measured the embryonic roots and the<br />

stalks from the third day after the onset of<br />

germination, until the tenth day.<br />

The dynamic growth of length at embryonic<br />

roots and stalks is plotted in figures 10 and 11. In<br />

all cases, the dynamic of growth in length of<br />

plantles has aspect sigmoidal.<br />

Differences in growth of plantles of wheat<br />

after 10 days of germination are very significant<br />

(in negative sens) by comparison to the control<br />

(tab. 2).<br />

Figure 10 The dynamics of growth of embryonic roots of wheat, after the treatment with cold plasma without<br />

water vapor<br />

Figure 11 The dynamics of growth of stalk of wheat, after the treatment with cold plasma without water vapor

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Table 2<br />

Differences found after the treatment with cold plasma without water vapor upon plantlets of<br />

Triticum aestivum<br />

length of the embryonic root after 10 length of the lenght of stalk after 10 days (mm)<br />

variant<br />

days (mm)<br />

average value significance of<br />

(mm)<br />

difference<br />

average value (mm)<br />

significance of<br />

difference<br />

control 106.83 - 128.43 -<br />

2 minutes 103.00 000 107.83 000<br />

5 minutes 90.00 000 107.67 000<br />

20 minutes 89.17 000 100.83 000<br />

40 minutes 71.17 000 91.50 000<br />

DL 5% = 1.48071<br />

DL 5% = 0.33264<br />

DL 1% = 2.15376<br />

DL 1% = 0.48384<br />

DL 0.1% = 3.23064<br />

DL 0.1% = 0.72576<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Central European Agriculture, vol. 7, no. 3, p.<br />

389-396.<br />

This experiment showed the effect of cold<br />

plasma discharge produced in the environment<br />

without water vapor, upon the mitogen cells in the<br />

Dubinov, A.E., Lazarenko, E.R, Selemir, V.D., 2000 –<br />

Effect of glow discharge air plasma on grain<br />

crops seed, IEEE Transactions on Plasma<br />

Science, vol. 28, no. 1, p. 180-183.<br />

root meristem of wheat.<br />

Thus, it was shown that cold plasma in the<br />

absence of water vapor has an effect especially on<br />

the mitotic index, that it significantly reduces by<br />

comparison with control. This aspect is reflected in<br />

increased the plantlets..<br />

Without water vapor, cold plasma can not<br />

induce chromosomal aberrations than sporadic,<br />

insignificant.<br />

Filatova, I., Azharonok, V., Kadyrov, M., Beljavsky,<br />

V., Sera B., Hruskova, I., Spatenka, P., Sery,<br />

M., 2010 - RF and microwave plasma application<br />

for pre-sowing caryopsis treatments, Publications<br />

of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade, vol.<br />

89, p. 289-292.<br />

Kylián O., Sasaki T., Rossi, F., 2006 - Plasma<br />

sterilization of Geobacillus Stearothermophilus by<br />

O2:N2 RF inductively coupled plasma. Eur. Phys.<br />

J. Appl. Phys. vol. 34, p. 139-142.<br />

Pădureanu, S., Hnatiuc, E., Oancea, S., Hnatiuc B.,<br />

Different effects produced by cold plasma<br />

without water vapor, compared with cold plasma<br />

with water vapor, upon the cells mitogen, can be<br />

explained by the active chemical species and<br />

Gavril, B., 2009 – Induced effects by GlidArc<br />

treatmenton the mitotic division and the growth<br />

process in Triticum aestivum L.,19-th<br />

International Symposium on Plasma Chemistry,<br />

Bochum, Germania, p. 204-209<br />

reaction products in the respectively environment Röder, O., Jahn, M., Schröder, T., Stahl, M., Kotte, M.,<br />

of the type of cold plasma.<br />

Beuermann, S., 2009 – E-ventus technology –<br />

an innovative treatment method for sustainable<br />

REFERENCES<br />

reduction in the use of pesticides with<br />

recommendation for organic seed, Journal für<br />

Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit,<br />

Brisset, J. L., Moussa, D., Doubla, A., Hnatiuc, B,<br />

Kamgang, G.Y., Herry, J.M., Naitali, M., Bellonvol.<br />

4, no. 2, p. 107-117<br />

Selcuk, M., Oksuz, L., Basaran, P., 2008 –<br />

Fontaine, M.N, 2008 – Chemical reactions<br />

Decontamination of grains and legumes infected<br />

induced by discharge and temporal post<br />

with Aspergillus spp. and Penicillum spp. by cold<br />

discharge in water treated by gliding arc in humid<br />

plasma treatment, Bioresource Technology, no.<br />

air, Hakone XI, Oleron Island, Franța, p. 535.<br />

99. p. 5104-5109<br />

Burlică, R., Locke, B., 2007 – The effect of confined Sera, B., Stranak, V., Sery, M., Tichy, M., Spatenka,<br />

plasma gliding arc discharges on reactive species<br />

P., 2008 – Germination of Chenopodium album in<br />

formation in aqueous solutions, European<br />

response to microwave plasma treatment,<br />

Research in cold Plasma Applicsations<br />

Plasma Science and Technology, vol. 10, no. 4,<br />

Conference, Iași, p. 127-144.<br />

p. 506.<br />

Burlică, R., Hnatiuc, B., Hnatiuc, E., Todirași, G., Sera, B., Sery, M., Stranak, V., Spatenka, P., Tichy,<br />

Gavril, B., 2009 – The effects of frequency on<br />

M., 2009 – Does cold plasma affect breaking<br />

reactive species generation in water in pulsed<br />

dormancy and seed germination?A study on<br />

GlidArc reactors, 7-th International Conference<br />

seeds of Lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium album<br />

on Electromechanical and Power Systems,<br />

agg.), Plasma Science and Techno9logy, vol. 11,<br />

SIELMEN, Iași, România, vol. 1, p. 195-198.<br />

Carvalho, R., Carvalho, A., Silva, M., Demarquette N.,<br />

no. 6, p. 750-754.<br />

Živković, S, Puač, N., Giba, Z, Grubišć, D., Petrović,<br />

Assis, O., 2005 - Use of thin films obtained by<br />

Z.L., 2004 – The stimulatory effect of non-<br />

plasma polymerization for grain protection and<br />

equilibrium (low temperature) air plasma<br />

germination enhancement, Qimica Nova, vol. 28,<br />

pretreatment on light-induced germination of<br />

no. 6, p. 1006-1009.<br />

Paulownia tomentosa, Seed Science and<br />

Dardeniz, A., Tayyar, Ș., Yalcin, S., 2006 – Influence of<br />

low frequency electromagnetic field on the<br />

vegetative growth of grape cv., USLU, Journal of<br />

Technology, vol. 32, no. 3, p. 693-701.<br />

124

Abstract<br />

125<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE CYTOLOGY OF POLLEN GERMINATION PROCESS AT LOTUS<br />

CORNICULATUS L. AND CORONILLA VARIA L.<br />

Silvica PĂDUREANU 1<br />

Email: silvyp27@yahoo.com<br />

The paper presents the characteristics of the germination process in Lotus corniculatus L. and Coronilla varia L. pollen.<br />

We made estimates on the length of pollinic tubes in the dynamics of germination (after 1, 2, 24, 48 and 72 hours since<br />

the inoculation on medium), according to the glucidic concentration of the nutritive mediums used in this experiment.<br />

We pointed out the maximum lengths of the pollinic tubes, correlated to the lengths of flower stiles from the two<br />

taxons. Achieving a certain length of the pollinic tubes is very important, because the fertilization of ovules is thus<br />

ensured and, implicitly, the fructification of the respective taxons. We also referred to the way of the emergence of<br />

pollinic tubes from the two taxons. The bicellular pollen-type of the two Fabaceae is shown by pointing out the<br />

generative cell in the pollinic cell, which, after the mitotic division, produces two spermatic cells having the value of<br />

immobile male gametes. We have also shown the type of anomalies of the pollinic tubes and the frequency of these<br />

anomalies during the process of pollen germination at the two taxons from the Fabaceae family. The obtained results<br />

were correlated to pollen germinating potential of the two taxons, to geographic spreading area, and to native resistance<br />

of the two taxons to various abiotic factors. Although the phylogenetic connection between the two investigated taxons<br />

is very tight, there are distinctive traits of the germinating process, which have a diagnosis value and may represent<br />

valuable genetic and physiological indicators.<br />

Key words: pollen tube, generative cell, vegetative cell, anomalies of pollen tubes<br />

A direct correlation between pollen size<br />

(volume) and style length has likewise been<br />

observed. This may show the importance of the<br />

pollen food reserves in sustaining the growth of its<br />

pollen tube along the style (Ortega O. et al., 1997).<br />

On the other hand, we know that pollen ranges<br />

from 2.5% to 61% protein content. Most pollen<br />

proteins are likely to be enzymes that function<br />

during pollen tube growth and subsequent<br />

fertilization. Pollen protein concentrations are<br />

highly conserved within plant genera, families, and<br />

divisions. It was found that the need for growing<br />

pollen tubes plays a important role in determining<br />

pollen protein content (Roulston H. et al., 2000).<br />

Has been shown in some cases at fabacee, that selfsterility<br />

can be: prezygotic mechanism, when<br />

pollen tubes are rejected in style and ovary;<br />

postzygotic mechanism, when the fertilized ovules<br />

aborting (Valtueña F.J. et al., 2010). Vital issues<br />

related to achieving fertilization in fabacee<br />

focused: durations of stigmatic receptivity,<br />

pollen viability and pollen tube growth. At<br />

Vicia faba L., pollen tubes at up to three days took<br />

to reach the ovules furthest from the stigma<br />

(Stoddard F.L. et al., 1986). In this paper we<br />

propose to complete studies of pollen germinating<br />

potential of two fabacee - Lotus corniculatus and<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iassy<br />

Coronilla varia (Pădureanu S. 2010; Pădureanu S.,<br />

2011) with investigations of peculiarities of the<br />

male gametophyte development. Lotus corniculatus<br />

was born by hybridization between L. alpinus<br />

and/or L. tenuis (likely female parent) with L.<br />

uliginosus (likely male parent), followed by<br />

doubling the number of chromosomes. So, Lotus<br />

corniculatus is a hybrid, so a allopolyploid, namely<br />

a allotetraploid (2n=4x=24) (Grant W.F., 1999; Da<br />

Silva Neide, Pagliarini M.S., 2002). Biochemical<br />

and genetic evidence indicates that this species is<br />

an allotetraploid (Grant W.F., Small E., 1996).<br />

Lotus corniculatus not prefers own pollen, ie is<br />

self-incompatible (Dobrofsky S., Grant W.F.,<br />

1980). Coronilla varia is originally a autoploid<br />

namely a autotetraploid (2n=4x=24) (Berchtold<br />

D.J. et al.,1973). Coronilla varia L., is relatively<br />

self-incompatible. The self-incompatibility is<br />

manifested partly in the stigma, style and ovary<br />

(Baluch S.J. et al.,1973).<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The biological material is represented by<br />

pollen collected by Lotus corniculatus L. and<br />

Coronilla varia L. taken from two stationary placed<br />

in the surroundings of the Ceahlău National Park:

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

an unpolluted control stationary called Potoci<br />

village and a polluted stationary called Taşcamarshalling<br />

yard. Last stationary is affected by<br />

polluting noxa, which come from the cement<br />

factory of Taşca. Pollen was sampled from the two<br />

taxons, at the anthesis phase, and was analysed<br />

from the viewpoint of the germination process. Pollen<br />

grains have been inoculated on agar nutritive<br />

mediums, at which sucrose was added at different<br />

concentrations, from 0 to 200%. The quantity of<br />

pollen inoculated on these mediums was the same in<br />

all the cases. For each experimental variant, we have<br />

done 15 preparations. In order to maintain a wet<br />

medium, which was vital for pollen viability, we have<br />

used “van Tieghem” wet chambers.<br />

Micromeasurements for determining the dynamics for<br />

the extension of pollen tubes were carried out every<br />

2, 24, 48 and 72 hours since the inoculation of pollen<br />

grains on nutritive medium for Lotus corniculatus and<br />

1, 24, 48, 72 hours for Coronilla varia. For pointing<br />

out the characteristics of pollen tube from this taxon,<br />

photographs were taken at Hund Wetzlar optical<br />

microscope and drawings at camera lucida.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The cytological analysis of the<br />

germination process was done at the same time<br />

with the analysis of the germinating potential.<br />

After 2 hours since the inoculation of the<br />

Lotus corniculatus pollen on artificial medium,<br />

pollinic tubes emerged at different rates, on the<br />

variants of nutritive mediums with 0-200%<br />

sucrose. Their ratio (8-55%) (Pădureanu S.,<br />

2010) is directly correlated to the germinating<br />

potential. The mean length of pollinic tubes was<br />

comprised between 56 and 728 μm for<br />

unpolluted stationary (control) and 55 – 729 μm<br />

for polluted stationary (fig. 1). On the mediums<br />

more concentrated than 55% sucrose, the pollen<br />

not formed tubes in the first two hours after<br />

inoculation.<br />

After an hour since the inoculation of the<br />

Coronilla varia pollen on artificial medium,<br />

pollen tubes occurred on medium with 0%<br />

sucrose and on medium with the addition of up<br />

to 70% sucrose (fig. 2). Pollen tubes formed in<br />

the first hour after inoculation have lengths<br />

ranging between 67 and 199 μm, the longest are<br />

on the medium with 25% sucrose. No significant<br />

differences between control and polluted<br />

stationary. It noted a direct relationship between<br />

% germination and pollen tube length (Pădureanu<br />

S., 2011).<br />

After 24 hours since the inoculation, the<br />

pollinic tubes of Lotus corniculatus were<br />

elongated up to 3414 μm for control and 3413<br />

μm for polluted stationary (fig. 3). After 24 hours<br />

appeared pollen tubes and on mediums up to<br />

126<br />

200% sucrose. The longest tubes were formed on<br />

medium with 25% sucrose.<br />

Figure 1 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Lotus corniculatus, 2 hours after inoculation<br />

Figure 2 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Coronilla varia, 1hour after inoculation<br />

In Coronilla varia, after 24 hours, the<br />

pollinic tubes emerged on mediums with very<br />

high concentrations in sucrose (200%). The longest<br />

tubes were formed on medium with 45% sucrose,<br />

when the average length was 4691 μm for control<br />

and 4690 μm for stationary polluted (fig. 4).<br />

Figure 3 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Lotus corniculatus, 24 hours after inoculation<br />

Figure 4 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Coronilla varia, 24 hours after inoculation

In Lotus corniculatus, after 48 hours since<br />

inoculation, the pollinic tubes increased in length in all<br />

the experimental cases, achieving values comprised<br />

between 1700 μm and 3890 μm for control and 1771<br />

μm and 3891 μm for polluted stationary (fig. 5). The<br />

longest tubes formed on medium with 25% sucrose.<br />

In Coronilla varia, after 48 hours since<br />

inoculation, also, the pollinic tubes increased in<br />

length in all variants. Their length was between 2311<br />

μm and 5457 μm for control and 2310 μm and 5460<br />

μm for polluted stationary (fig. 6). The longest tubes<br />

formed on medium with 35% sucrose.<br />

Figure 5 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Lotus corniculatus, 48 hours after inoculation<br />

Figure 6 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Coronilla varia, 48 hours after inoculation<br />

After 72 hours since inoculation, the pollinic<br />

tubes of Lotus corniculatus were elongated to 3862<br />

μm for control and 3863 μm for polluted stationary<br />

(fig. 7). The pollen tubes of Coronilla varia have<br />

increased to 5534 μm for control and 5539 μm for<br />

polluted stationary (fig. 8). After this time, at the<br />

Lotus corniculatus remains directly proportional<br />

relationship between % germination and pollen<br />

tube length, while at Coronilla varia is an<br />

inverse relationship between % germination and<br />

pollen tube length (Pădureanu S., 2010, 2011).<br />

The dynamic analysis of pollen tube length<br />

in Lotus corniculatus show that in the first 24<br />

hours after inoculation, pollen tubes grow<br />

significantly, and the increase is less significant<br />

until 72 hours after inoculation. The longest tubes<br />

are formed on 25-45% sucrose in medium.<br />

Regarding the dynamics of pollen tube growth,<br />

127<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

there are no differences between control and<br />

polluted stationary (fig. 9, 10).<br />

Figure 7 The average lenght of the pollen tube<br />

at Lotus corniculatus, 72 hours after inoculation<br />

Figure 8 The average lenght of the pollen tube at<br />

Coronilla varia, 72 hours after inoculation<br />

Figure 9 Dynamics of average lenght of the pollen<br />

tube at Lotus corniculatus - control<br />

Figure 10 Dynamics of average lenght of the pollen<br />

tube at Lotus corniculatus - polluted stationary<br />

Same aspect analyzed at Coronilla varia<br />

leads to the conclusion that in the first 24 hours<br />

after inoculation, the pollen tubes are elongated<br />

significantly and continue to grow in the next<br />

few hours, but insignificant. The longest tubes

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

are formed on 25-55% sucrose in medium. No<br />

differences between control and polluted<br />

stationary with regard to the pollen tube growth<br />

dynamics (fig. 11, 12).<br />

Figure 11 Dynamics of average lenght of the pollen<br />

tube at Coronilla varia – control<br />

Figur<br />

e 12 Dynamics of average lenght of the pollen tube<br />

at Coronilla varia - polluted stationary<br />

The pollinic tubes from Coronilla varia are<br />

longer as compared to the ones of Lotus corniculatus.<br />

We can explain this phenomenon if we take into<br />

account the length of the flower stiles from the two<br />

taxons. The Coronilla varia flower stile has the mean<br />

length of 4.6 mm, while the same floral element from<br />

Lotus corniculatus has 3.8 mm (original values). There<br />

is a direct correlation, genetically determined, between<br />

the length of stile and that of pollinic tubes that must<br />

penetrate the tissues of the stile to the ovules (Ortega<br />

O. et al., 1997). It is very likely that “in vivo”, the<br />

pollinic tubes from the two taxons should be longer<br />

than those obtained “in vitro”. Another important<br />

phenomenon is the long term viability of Lotus<br />

corniculatus and Coronilla varia pollen tubes, which,<br />

even after 168 hours since inoculation, kept unchanged<br />

their vitality even on hyperconcentrated mediums.On<br />

low and hyperconcentrated sucrose in mediums, the<br />

inoculated pollen grains have known expulsions of the<br />

living content at high rates for the two taxons.<br />

The germination process starts (for both taxons)<br />

at by forming a small hill. In 1-2 hours, the small hill is<br />

lengthened, and thus the pollinic tube emerges. The<br />

nucleus of the vegetative cell is cantoned on the top of<br />

the tube, and the generative cell penetrates in the tube,<br />

being maintained at a certain distance from the nucleus<br />

of the vegetative cell. Therefore, it results that Lotus<br />

corniculatus and Coronilla varia pollen is bicellular.<br />

The different aspects of Lotus corniculatus and<br />

Coronilla varia pollinic tubes, formed on different<br />

nutritive mediums are presented in figures 13- 19.<br />

128<br />

Figure 13 The debut of edification of the pollen tube at<br />

Lotus corniculatus (400X) (Original)<br />

Figure 14 Pollen germination on 5% sucrose<br />

medium, 2 hours after inoculation at Lotus<br />

corniculatus (400X) (Original)<br />

Figure 15 Pollen germination on 25% sucrose<br />

medium, 24 hours after inoculation at Lotus<br />

corniculatus (400X) (Original)<br />

Figure 16 Pollen germination on 0% sucrose<br />

medium, 24 hours after inoculation at Lotus<br />

corniculatus (400X) (Original)

Figure 17 Pollen germination on 35% sucrose<br />

medium, 24 hours after inoculation at Coronilla<br />

varia. Arrow indicates the generative cell (1000X)<br />

(Original)<br />

Figure 18 Pollen germination on 35% sucrose<br />

medium, 24 hours after inoculation at Coronilla<br />

varia. Arrow indicates the nucleus of the vegetative<br />

cell (1000X) (Original)<br />

The pollen germination process of the two<br />

Fabaceae was marked by the emergence of atipic<br />

forms of pollinic tubes, known in literature as<br />

anomalies. These anomalies consisted for Lotus<br />

corniculatus in tubes which were branched at the top.<br />

For Coronilla varia these anomalies consisted in<br />

pollen grains with two tubes and dilatations at the top<br />

the pollen tube. In case of the pollen with two tubes,<br />

the generative cell was cantoned in a single tube.<br />

These anomalies are not correlated with sucrose<br />

concentration in mediums or with the environmental<br />

pollution. But the frequency of anomalies was higher<br />

in Coronilla varia pollen (19%), as compared to Lotus<br />

corniculatus (8%) (fig. 20-24).<br />

Figure 19 Pollen germination on 45% sucrose<br />

medium, 24 hours after inoculation at Coronilla varia<br />

(100X) (Original)<br />

129<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 20 Pollen tube branched, in Lotus corniculatus<br />

Arrow indicates the branching at the top of the tube (400X)<br />

(Original)<br />

Figure 21 Pollen grain with two tubes, in Coronilla varia<br />

(1000X) (Original)<br />

Figure 22 Pollen grain with two tubes, in Coronilla varia<br />

(1000X) (Original)<br />

Figure 23 Pollen tube with dilatation at the top of the tube<br />

in Coronilla varia. Arrow indicates the dilatation (1000X)<br />

(Orignal)<br />

Figure 24 The dilatation at the top of the<br />

tube in Coronilla varia. Arrow indicates<br />

the dilatation (1000X) (Orignal)

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The pollen of Lotus corniculatus and Coronilla<br />

varia is bicellular.<br />

The length of Lotus corniculatus and Coronilla<br />

varia pollinic tubes is, generally, positively correlated<br />

to the germination potential and especially, to the<br />

length of flower stiles.<br />

The Lotus corniculatus and Coronilla varia<br />

pollen has the ability of making pollinic tubes on<br />

mediums which glucidic concentration reaches<br />

saturation. This demonstrates that the two taxons have<br />

a high native resistance at long term droughts.<br />

Pollen tubes of Lotus corniculatus and<br />

Coronilla varia are viable "in vitro" up to seven days<br />

on mediums hyperconcentrated in sucrose.<br />

In pollen germination process of Lotus<br />

corniculatus and Coronilla varia occur anomalies with<br />

nonsignificant frequency, that not influence very high<br />

germination potential of the two fabacee. These<br />

anomalies could be correlated to genetic origin of the<br />

two taxons.<br />

The algorithm process of pollen germination at<br />

the two fabacee, the average of pollen tube length, the<br />

dynamics of pollen tube growth, the viability of the<br />

pollen tubes, the anomalies of pollen tubes were not<br />

affected by the polluted environment. This proves that<br />

all these issues have a strong genetic determinism.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Baluch, S.J., Risius, M.L., Cleveland, R.W., 1973 -<br />

Pollen Germination and Tube Growth after<br />

Selfing and Crossing Coronilla varia L., Crop<br />

Science, vol. 13, no. 3, p. 303-306.<br />

Berchtold, D.J., Cleveland, R.W., Risius, M.L., 1973 -<br />

Meiosis of Coronilla varia L., Crop Science, vol.<br />

13, no. 6, p. 642-645.<br />

Da Silva, Neide, Pagliarini M.S., 2002 - 2N gamete and<br />

jumbo pollen formation in Lotus corniculatus<br />

130<br />

(Fabaceae: Loteae), Nucleus (Calcutta) A., vol.<br />

45, no. 1-2, p. 1-5.<br />

Dobrofsky, S., Grant, W.F., 1980 - Electrophoretic<br />

evidence supporting self-incompatibility in Lotus<br />

corniculatus, Canadian Journal of Botany, vol. 58,<br />

no. 6, p. 712-716.<br />

Grant, W.F., 1999 - Interspecific hybridization and<br />

amphidiploidy of Lotus as it relates to phylogeny<br />

and evolution, P. R. Beuselinck, Ed., Trefoil: The<br />

Science and Technology of Lotus, American<br />

Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society<br />

of America, CSSA Special Publ. no. 28, Madison,<br />

Wisconsin. p. 43-60<br />

Grant, W.F., Small, E., 1996 - The origin of the Lotus<br />

corniculatus (Fabaceae) complex: a synthesis of<br />

diverse evidence, Canadian Journal of Botany,<br />

vol. 74, no. 7, p. 975-989.<br />

Ortega O., A., Ramos S., Rodríguez T., Devesa, J. A.,<br />

1997 - Floral biometry, floral rewards and pollenovule<br />

ratios in some Vicia from Extremadura,<br />

Spain, Edinburgh Journal of Botany, vol. 54, p.<br />

39-53.<br />

Roulston, H., Cane, J, H., Buchmann, S. L., 2000 -<br />

Wat governs protein content of pollen: pollinator<br />

preferences, pollen-pistil interactions, or<br />

phylogeny?, Ecological Monographs, vol. 70, no.<br />

4, p. 617–643.<br />

Pădureanu, S., 2010 - Morphological characterization<br />

and the germinating potential of Lotus<br />

corniculatus L. pollen, Lucr. st. U.S.A.M.V. Iasi,<br />

ser. Agron., vol. 53 (1), ISSN: 1454-7414, p. 52-<br />

59.<br />

Pădureanu, S., 2011 - Morphological characterization<br />

and the germinating potential of Coronilla varia L.<br />

pollen, Lucr. st. U.S.A.M.V. Iasi, ser. Agron., vol.<br />

54 (2), ISSN: 1454-7414, p. 84-89.<br />

Stoddard, F.L., 1986 - Floral Viability and Pollen Tube<br />

Growth in Vicia faba L., Journal of Plant<br />

Physiology, vol. 123, p. 249–262.<br />

Valtueña, F.J., Riaño, T.R., Espinosa, F., Olivencia,<br />

A.O., 2010 - Self-sterility in two Cytisus species<br />

(Leguminosae, Papilionoideae) due to earlyacting<br />

inbreeding depression, American. J. Bot.,<br />

vol. 97 no.1, p. 123-135.

Abstract<br />

131<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE STUDY OF QANTY – QUALITATIVE TRAITS OF FIVE GENOTYPES<br />

OF PHASEOLUS AUREUS ROXB.<br />

Creola BREZEANU 1 , Teodor ROBU 2 , Petre Marian BREZEANU 1 , Silvica AMBĂRUŞ 1<br />

Email: creola.brezeanu@yahoo.com<br />

This study was conducted in North East part of Romania at Vegetable Research and Development Station Bacau. The<br />

aim of research was to establish the proper technology and the most suitable genopypes of mung bean for cultivation in<br />

agro climatic condition of Moldova region.The biological material was represented by a small collection of five<br />

genotypes of Phaseolus aureus (PA1, PA2, PA3, PA4 and PA5). The weight of 1000 seeds varied from 23.80 g to 55.5<br />

g. Also the color, shape and aspects of seeds ranged from dark green, green, yellow – green, to mustard yellow; round<br />

to oval, dull to shiny. We organized our experimental field using three different densities and three different periods for<br />

sowing the seeds. We registered differences like number of pods per plant, number of seeds in pods and MMB. Density<br />

influenced: plant heights, number of branches of plant, port plant, the percentage of binding mode and productivity. Age<br />

influenced the duration to plant emergence, plant heights, number of branches to plant, port plant, precocity and<br />

productivity. Genotype influenced springing duration, plant heights, number of branches to plant, port plant, precocity<br />

and productivity. The average pod yield per hectare was 5.78 tons and the average seed yield per hectare was 1.62 tons.<br />

The results of our experiments allowed us to make recommendations regarding the best technology for cultivation in<br />

order to obtain the proper yield and high level of seeds quality. The paper presents also aspects regarding the protein,<br />

fats, water content of mungo seeds. Protein intake of Phaseolus aureus species is supported by higher protein content,<br />

27.5% versus 21.3% for Phaseolus vulgaris (used as control variant). Lipids were present in rate of 1.3% - 1.6% in<br />

Phaseolus aureus. Starch content which ranged from 54.35% to 55.85% in mungbean seeds depending on cultivar.<br />

Water content varied inversely with total dry matter and minerals content of seeds. The recorded values of water content<br />

of mungbean seeds varied from 8.24% to 9.75%. Phaseolus aureus culture can play an important role in crop rotation,<br />

having a key role in organic farming system.<br />

Key words: suitability, mungbean, seeds<br />

Mungbean Phaseolus aureus Roxb.<br />

synonyms (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek. is an<br />

important short-duration pulse crop, supplying a<br />

substantial portion of protein to the cereal-based<br />

diet of the poor. (Gentry J., 2011).<br />

Is it regarded as a quality pulse for its rich<br />

protein seed and excellent digestibility, especially<br />

when combined with cereals (Thirumaran A.S. and<br />

Seralathan M.A., 1988; Singh V. P., Chhabra A.,<br />

and Kharb R.P.S., 1988; Rachie K.O., Roberts<br />

L.M., 1974).<br />

Mungbean is a short duration summer<br />

legume crop, which flowers in approximately 45<br />

days and reaches maturity in 90–120 days.<br />

Mungbean plants are branching, erect and self<br />

pollinating. They have a rooting depth of between<br />

60 cm and 1 m (Olaru C., 1982).<br />

Mungbean areas require a very weak<br />

infrastructure can be easily cultivated on relatively<br />

light soils; one of the best run for winter cereals,<br />

1 Vegetable Research and Development Station Bacau<br />

2 University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

like all legumes species, Phaseolus aureus<br />

improves soil quality. Mungbean yields are more<br />

reliable when planted into a good profile of stored<br />

moisture. (Jenkins L., Cumming G., Serafin L.,<br />

2010).<br />

The species is distinguished by high protein<br />

content and resistance to drought and pathogens.<br />

This item recommends species for cultivation in<br />

actual economical situation. The main uses for<br />

mungbean are as a green vegetable, bean sprout, in<br />

cake manufacture, bean flour and livestock feed.<br />

Mungbeans are sold into three main grades: (1)<br />

sprouting – attracts the highest price, strict<br />

specifications focus on colour, germination, purity<br />

(99% or over), charcoal rot, size and oversoaks, (2)<br />

cooking – classified on appearance, size, range and<br />

purity, (3) processing – classified on appearance,<br />

size, range and purity. (Jenkins L., Cumming G.,<br />

Serafin L., 2010). According Romanian Official<br />

Catalogue of Varieties of Crop Plants – full edition

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

2011, in Romania there are any cultivated varieties<br />

of Phaseoulus aureus. The introduction of the<br />

culture of Vigna species would create new<br />

opportunities and provide alternative crops for<br />

farmers (best run for winter cereals, easy and<br />

cheap way to improve the quality of soil).<br />

Culture of Phaseolus aureus species may<br />

contribute to the development and diversification<br />

of agricultural production, the range of food and<br />

generally sustainable agriculture. Inputs in culture<br />

mungo beans are low, making it extremely<br />

valuable in the current economic crisis.<br />

Our conservation work aimed to develop a<br />

representative core collection of Phaseoulus<br />

aureus germplasm, to guide future studies on<br />

breeding and suitability for cultivation.<br />

Our study was divided in two parts:<br />

(1) screening the quantitative traits:<br />

phenological observation and biometrical<br />

measurements in order to establish the most<br />

suitable genotype for ecological cultivation.<br />

Quantitative traits: number of pods per plant,<br />

number of seeds in pods, plant heights, number of<br />

branches per plant, in order to establish the best<br />

pod and grain yield.<br />

(2) screening the qualitative traits: our<br />

investigations regards the content of proteins,<br />

lipids, starch, minerals (Na and K). Our<br />

investigations were performed on seeds, pods and<br />

sprouts.<br />

For the biological material presented above,<br />

(tab. 1), we used:<br />

- three different sowing time period: May 1 st ,<br />

May 7 th and May 14 th<br />

- three different densities: 30 plants/m 2 , 40<br />

plants/m 2 and 50 plants/m 2 .<br />

For qualitative traits we used the following<br />

methods:<br />

Lipids: continuous hot extraction in Soxhlet<br />

apparatus using petroleum ether as solvent.<br />

Extraction lasted 3 hours with 12 to 15 siphoning<br />

per hour. The total content of lipids was exprest in<br />

percentage of fat (crude fat).<br />

Proteins - Kjeldahl method.<br />

Minerals: after quantitative determination of<br />

mineral content, the ash was dissolved with 2 ml of<br />

nitric acid in 50 ml volumetric flask. The extract<br />

thus obtained was filtered and mineral elements<br />

were identified in inductively coupled plasma<br />

spectrometer.<br />

132<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The experiments regarding the investigation<br />

of quantitative and qualitative traits on mungbean<br />

cultivars Vigna radiata Wilzek were conducted at<br />

Vegetable Research and Development Station<br />

Bacau, Romania at elevation of 91 m, latitude<br />

46.521946 N, longitude 26.910278 E, in special<br />

condition of ecological agriculture.<br />

The biological material was represented by<br />

five cultivars of Phaseolus aureus. Our collected<br />

biological material has been analyzed, described,<br />

coded, labeled, and placed in to our gene bank<br />

(VRDS Bacau) and also in field collection.<br />

Table 1<br />

Collection of five accessions of mungbean<br />

Code<br />

Collection<br />

PA 1<br />

PA 2<br />

PA 3<br />

PA 4<br />

PA 5<br />

year<br />

2011<br />

2011<br />

2011<br />

2011<br />

2011<br />

habitat<br />

gene bank<br />

gene bank<br />

gene bank<br />

gene bank<br />

gene bank<br />

Colection Originated No of<br />

Seed color<br />

long. lat. elev. from seeds/g<br />

30.18E 59.56N 175.9 Japan 24 dark green<br />

30.18E 59.56N 175.9 Azerbaijan 20 green<br />

30.18E 59.56N 175.9 Russia 14 yellow<br />

30.18E 59.56N 175.9 China 34 light green<br />

30.18E 59.56N 175.9 Turkmenistan 21 green<br />

Starch principle of the method: it hydrolyses starch<br />

in acid and glucose resulting distributes a method<br />

for the determination of reducing sugars known.<br />

Determination of ascorbic acid was assessed by<br />

iodometric method.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Mungbean germination, emergence,<br />

vegetative growth and rate of pod development are<br />

all influenced by temperature.<br />

Figure 1 Variation of number of seeds in pod,<br />

number of branches and plant height at five<br />

accessions of mungbean<br />

The base temperature for emergence is<br />

10.5°C, but mungbeans prefer growing<br />

temperatures of 28 –30°C.<br />

Regarding yield our interest was in pods and<br />

in grains.

Figure 2 Variation of total grain yield of five<br />

genotypes at three densities<br />

Figure 3 Variation of total pods yield of five<br />

genotypes at three densities<br />

Comparing our five genotypes we observed<br />

a variation between seven and eleven seeds per<br />

pod, four to nine number of branches and the plant<br />

height vary from 20 to 50 cm. The highest number<br />

of seeds in pod was registered at genotypes PA3<br />

and PA4<br />

133<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

In terms of grain yield in case of all sowing<br />

periods the highest level was registered at density<br />

of 40 plants /m 2 ,<br />

Comparing genotypes PA1 registered 2.85 t/<br />

ha seeds at density of 40 plants/m 2 in second age<br />

and 2.55 t/ha at density of 40 plants/m 2 in third<br />

age.<br />

Figure 4 Content of Na and K in mungbean seeds<br />

Figure 5 Content of Na and K in mungbean pods<br />

Genotype PA1 obtained the highest pods<br />

yield, comparing other four genotypes. In VRDS<br />

Bacau climate condition the most suitable density<br />

in order to obtain the optimum pods yield was<br />

40plants /m 2 , and the proper time sowing was May<br />

7.<br />

Worldwide this species it is regarded as a<br />

quality pulse for its rich protein seed and excellent<br />

digestibility, especially when combined with<br />

cereals.<br />

For this reason our interest was in<br />

investigation of some qualitative traits of<br />

mungbean seeds and pods.<br />

Regarding minerals content:<br />

Na registered in mungbean seeds a small<br />

variation between 1.28 mg/L at PA3 and 2.2 mg/L<br />

at PA4.<br />

In case of pods the variation of Na content<br />

was from 1.52 mg/L at PA2 to 2.71 mg/L at PA1.<br />

The seed content of Na was comparable with<br />

pods content in Na.<br />

The total content of K varies in mungbean<br />

pods from 29.95 mg/L at PA1 to 34.21 mg/L at<br />

PA5. In case of seeds (fig. 4) the content of K was

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

higher, with a variation from 66.54 mg/L at PA1 to<br />

70.39 mg/L at PA4.<br />

Potassium is an electrolyte, along with other<br />

nutrients such as sodium or magnesium. Also,<br />

potassium is the one who helps the proper<br />

functioning of muscles, bones and cells.<br />

Seeds were distinguished by a high content<br />

of K compared with pods (almost double).<br />

The total content of K varies in mungbean<br />

pods from 29.95 mg/L at PA1 to 34.21 mg/L at<br />

PA5. In case of seeds (figure 4) the content of K<br />

was higher, with a variation from 66.54 mg/L at<br />

PA1 to 70.39 mg/L at PA4.<br />

Figure 6 Content of ash, fat, ascorbic acid and<br />

moisture of mungbean seeds<br />

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), an important<br />

antioxidant it was detected in mungbean seeds in<br />

all studied genotypes. The content varied form<br />

2.98 mg/100g at PA3 to 3.80 mg /100g at PA1 (fig.<br />

6)<br />

The ash content registered a small variation<br />

between 3.24% at PA1 and 3.78% at PA4.<br />

Figure 7 Content of protein and starch of mungbean<br />

seeds<br />

The studied genotypes registered a small<br />

variation of protein (26.45 % dry mater at PA1 and<br />

27.63 % dry mater at PA2 and starch content<br />

134<br />

(54.91 % dry mater at PA2 and 55.85 % dry mater<br />

at PA1) (fig. 7)<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The obtained yield results reported at inputs<br />

of culture demonstrates the suitability of species<br />

for cultivation in climate condition of North East<br />

of Romania in conventional and ecologycal<br />

system.<br />

Culture of this species may contribute to the<br />

development and diversification of agricultural<br />

production, the range of foodstuffs in general and<br />

the development of sustainable and ecological<br />

agriculture.<br />

The obtained grains and pods yield<br />

recommends the use of density of 40 plants per m 2 .<br />

In climate condition of North East of<br />

Romania the proper time sowing is 7 th May.<br />

Genotype PA1 obtained the best grain and<br />

pods yield and it can be recommended in breeding<br />

programs regarding production capacity.<br />

All studied genotypes are distinguished by<br />

high protein content.<br />

Seeds of genotype PA2, registered 27.63%<br />

the highest protein content, representing 1.29%<br />

more than Phaseolus vulgaris (Auria Bacaului).<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This work was cofinanced from the European<br />

Social Fund through Sectorial Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-20013 project<br />

number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 “Postdoctoral School<br />

in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Area”.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Gentry, J., 2011 Mungbean management guide - a<br />

compilation, 2 nd edition, – Department of<br />

Employment, Economic Development and<br />

Innovation, Queensland, Australia<br />

Jenkins, L., Cumming, G., Serafin, L., 2010. Summer<br />

crop production guide 2010, I&I NSW<br />

management guide p. 36-48<br />

Olaru, C., 1982 Fasolea, Edit. Scrisul românesc,<br />

Craiova: 20-22, 1982<br />

Rachie, K.O., Roberts, L.M., 1974 - Grain legumes of<br />

the lowland tropics, Advances in Agronomy;<br />

26:1–132.<br />

Singh, V.P., Chhabra, A. and Kharb R.P.S., 1988 -<br />

Production and utilization of mungbean in India.<br />

II nd International Mungbean Symposium<br />

Proceedings AVRDC, Shanhua, Taiwan, 486-<br />

497,<br />

Thirumaran, A.S., Seralathan, M.A., 1988 - Utilization<br />

of mungbean. II nd International Mungbean<br />

Symposium Proceedings. AVRDC, Shanhua,<br />

Taiwan. P. 470-485, 1988.

Abstract<br />

135<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

MEADOWS AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN THE CONTEXT OF<br />

CURRENT CONCEPT OF LOW-INPUT<br />

Ioan ROTAR 1 , Florin PĂCURAR 1 , Roxana VIDICAN 1 , Anca BOGDAN 1 , Deneş DEAK 1<br />

e-mail: rotarioan52@yahoo.fr<br />

The importance of grassland ecosystems exploited in low-input system has been increasingly demonstrated in recent<br />

years and changes be they political, economic and / or socially see how it affects not only the ecosystem but the whole<br />

agricultural system in the world. There is a clear similarity between the locations where farmland biodiversity has<br />

remained relatively stable and where low-input agricultural systems have continued to exist, while the opposite<br />

farmland biodiversity decline was the shift to more intensive and efficient agricultural systems. Management type of<br />

low-input grassland contributes for basis of decisions on effective environmental management by man, namely its<br />

location on the position of "nature partner".<br />

Key words: low-input, management, meadows, biodiversity<br />

At the livestock farm scale, specific and<br />

functional diversity of the vegetation depends<br />

greatly on how farmers manage grasslands and<br />

meadows, and how they are spatially arranged<br />

in the landscape (Duru et. al., 2005).<br />

Management practices implemented to fulfil<br />

different functions in livestock feeding<br />

systems generate functional diversity in plant<br />

communities between fields within a given<br />

farm (Duru et. al., 2005). Extensive grazing<br />

and extensive meadow management practices<br />

have been typically for subsistence-based or<br />

1 University of Agriculture Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca<br />

small-scale farming systems in areas of low<br />

agriculture productivity.<br />

Administration of large quantities of<br />

chemical fertilizers may strongly diminish the<br />

plant diversity of semi-natural grasslands<br />

[Păcurar et. al., 2012]. So, a growing number<br />

of scientists, farmers and public fear for the<br />

long term viability of products have made and<br />

put in balance external inputs.<br />

Our paper’s objective is to study how the<br />

management influences the biodiversity in<br />

low-input grasslands system.<br />

Table 1<br />

Pairwise comparisons for multiple comparisons (T1,T2-treatments, T – the t test, A – group homogeneity, p – the<br />

statistical significance)<br />

Treatments T A p-value Significance<br />

T1 vs T2 1.35726628 -0.04639493 0.95356399 -<br />

T1 vs. T3 -4.94752587 0.17564317 0.00134676 ***<br />

T1 vs. T4 -0.70667165 0.02639186 0.20844893 -<br />

T1 vs. T5 -4.52164814 0.13532349 0.00155657 **<br />

T2 vs T3 -4.75624136 0.18389344 0.00207438 **<br />

T2 vs. T4 -1.00375830 0.04822259 0.14568227 -<br />

T2 vs. T5 -4.54990832 0.15855930 0.00207798 **<br />

T3 vs. T4 -4.80417958 0.23439155 0.00179991 **<br />

T3 vs. T5 1.17084586 -0.04299096 0.89829784 -<br />

T4 vs. T5 -4.66980892 0.18130481 0.00135728 ***

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 1 The floristic composition depending on the ordering of treatments (T-treatments, R-replication)<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The experimental field is located in the<br />

Poienile Ursului, Garda de Sus village, Alba<br />

County, Apuseni Mountains at 1380 m elevation<br />

and started in 2009, using a randomized block<br />

design with five treatments with five replicates.<br />

The plot size is 6 m 2 in the following<br />

experimental treatments: T1 - abandoned meadow,<br />

T2 - traditional mowing (once per year, at 5-7 cm<br />

cutting height, no later than the 1 st of August), T3 -<br />

early mowing (once per year, at 5-7 cm cutting<br />

height, in the first part of June), T4 – (mowing twice<br />

per year; at 5-7 cm cutting height, first time in June<br />

and the second in August), T5 – imitating grazing<br />

through four times mowing per year, in: June, July,<br />

August and September, at 5 cm cutting height.<br />

The floristic studies have been performed<br />

according to Braun-Blanquet method. For floristic<br />

data analysis, we have used the PC-ORD Program<br />

which performs multivariate analysis of ecological<br />

data (McCune and Grace, 2002).<br />

Our emphasis is on nonparametric tools,<br />

graphical representation, randomization tests, and<br />

bootstrapped confidence intervals for analysis of<br />

community data and MRPP (Multi –response<br />

Permutation Procedures, which is a nonparametric<br />

procedure for testing the hypothesis of no<br />

differences between two or more groups of entities.<br />

We have also used non-metric multidimensional<br />

scaling (NMS) which is an ordination method that<br />

is well suited to data that are non normal or are on<br />

arbitrary, discontinuous, or otherwise questionable<br />

scales. NMS is generally the best ordination<br />

method for community data. A Monte Carlo test of<br />

significance is included.<br />

136<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSION<br />

In the first two experimental years there are<br />

not statistically recorded changes in any of the<br />

following experiments. In the second year followup<br />

Poaceaes have a weight average of 43.71 %,<br />

Fabaceaes 7.03 % and plants from other botanical<br />

families have the smallest share of 39,41 %. Some<br />

species increase their presence and others reduce<br />

their presence.<br />

The application of the five types of<br />

management after three experimental years has<br />

lead to vegetation ordering in two groups of<br />

floristic composition.<br />

The first consisting of these types of<br />

management: abandonment, traditional mowing<br />

and mown twice per year and the second group<br />

meets early mowing and grazing imitation (figure<br />

1).<br />

The plant community of the first treatment is<br />

not different in floristic composition from the plant<br />

community of the traditional mowing and the<br />

treatment which is mown twice per year (p>0.05)<br />

but is different from early mowing and grazing<br />

imitation (p

CONCLUSIONS<br />

A low-input grassland primarily requires<br />

extensive management with all their implications<br />

(moderate inputs, organic fertilizers, etc.)<br />

Floristic composition varies quite a bit, as<br />

determined type Agrostis capillaris L. - Festuca<br />

rubra L. in all three experimental years.<br />

It is obvious that less intensive farms<br />

contribute little to overproduction, environmental<br />

pollution and loss of biodiversity.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Braun– Blanquet J. (1932). Plant Sociology, the study<br />

of plant communities, Ed. Mc-Graw – Hill Book<br />

Company, Inc. New – York and London, 31-33<br />

M. Duru, J. Tallowin and P. Cruz (2005). Functional<br />

diversity in low-input grassland farming systems:<br />

characterisation, effect and management,<br />

Agronomy Research 3 (2), 125-138.<br />

McCune B., Grace J. B. (2002) Analysis of Ecological<br />

Communities, ISBN 0-9721290-0-6, 182-218.<br />

Păcurar Florin, Ioan Rotar, Anca Bogdan, Roxana<br />

Vidican (2012). The influence of long time<br />

mineral fertilization upon the Agrostis capillaris L.<br />

- Festuca rubra L. grasslands. European<br />

Grassland Federtion, vol. 17.<br />

137<br />

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

138

139<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55(2)/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

MONITORING BEHAVIOR OF DIFFERENT TOMATO GENOTYPES<br />

CULTIVATED IN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM IN PROTECTED AREA<br />

Petre Marian BREZEANU 1 , Creola BREZEANU 1 , Silvica AMBĂRUŞ 1 , Maria CĂLIN 1 , Tina<br />

Oana CRISTEA 1 , Neculai MUNTEANU 2 , Costel VANATORU 3<br />

Abstract<br />

e-mail: brezeanumarian@yahoo.com<br />

An increasing demand for organic vegetables is a great opportunity and a challenge for organic vegetable growers and<br />

also for researchers to develop new studies. Our challenge to develop research in ecological system has dual valence:<br />

(1) ecological systems has the potential to support biodiversity conservation through (increased number and variety of<br />

cultivated wild species, maintaining soil healthy and soil fauna, reducing the risk of water pollution) (2) use of the<br />

products obtained in organic farming is able to ensure safety food. The study was conducted on a diverse tomatoes<br />

collection cultivated in protected area in ecological culture system. We select different local populations known for high<br />

level of quality and also for resistance to pathogen attach. Our purpose is to provide healthy food for consumers and<br />

also to select the best forms for introduction in breeding programs. This research paper presents some results regarding<br />

type of growth, production potential (t/ha), precocity, plant resistance to pathogens, some fruit characteristics like:<br />

shape, color, weigh, lodge number, firmness, storage and split resistance.<br />

Key words: Biodiversity, biological culture system.<br />

In recent years people began to pay<br />

increasing attention to environment, demonstrating<br />

a growing concern for sustainable solutions to<br />

reduce the negative effects of pressure on the<br />

environment. In the same time consumers are<br />

interested in healthy products (internal and external<br />

qualities). In the last decades, quality concerns<br />

have become increasingly important worldwide<br />

and, therefore, many investigations have addressed<br />

the impact of plant nutrition on the quality of<br />

tomato fruit. Within cultivated tomato, genetic<br />

variation is very low; thus, there has long been an<br />

interest in searching for genes in exotic and<br />

primitive germplasm and closely related species.<br />

New breeding strategies now permit an in depth<br />

study and effective exploitation of the genetic<br />

diversity of wild relatives and landraces. (Passam<br />

H.C., et al. 2007). Use of local varieties perfectly<br />

adapted to environmental conditions can help to<br />

improve ecosystem health by reducing the need for<br />

pesticides and fertilizers and their effect on<br />

improving soil structure (Zhu S.D., et al., 2000,<br />

Gliessman S.R., 1998, Glass E.H., and Thurston<br />

H.D.,1978; Vandermeer J., 1995; Pimentel D., et<br />

al., 1997). Knowledge of agro-morphological and<br />

physiological characteristics of the parents in case<br />

1 Vegetable Research and Development Station Bacau<br />

2 University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

3 Vegetable Research and Development Station Buzau<br />

of tomato species is a prerequisite for breeding in<br />

order to obtain performance F1 hybrid. At<br />

Vegetable Research and Development Station<br />

Bacau, Romania, after a careful study of the main<br />

features were promoted from field base<br />

(collection), which holds over 80 cultivation, the<br />

sample area 30 genitors, with unlimited growth (SP<br />

+). Promoting the genitors form the field collection<br />

in field work was based on genetic stability of the<br />

main features traced in breeding. At all promoted<br />

to field work genitors were performed biometric<br />

measurements and observations, using the<br />

evaluation criteria UPOV standards.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

In this paper we present 12 valuable<br />

genotypes in terms of vigurozity, potential<br />

production (t/ha), precocity, plant resistance to<br />

pathogens, some qualitative fruit characteristics,<br />

etc. Selection method has been followed by<br />

positive selection of individual line and mass<br />

selection. As a calculation method it was used<br />

sequence variations, considering the values of s%:<br />

s < 10 - appropriated less variable,<br />

s between 10 and 20 - middle variability,<br />

s > 20 - high level of variability.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Biological material consists of 12 lines that<br />

have met the features that we have stabilized. The<br />

local population named PL1 was used as control in<br />

our research.<br />

There were performed biometric<br />

measurements and observations, using the<br />

evaluation criteria UPOV standards in case of all<br />

promoted field genitors. The main characteristics<br />

investigated for all genitors (SP) were: plant height<br />

(cm); the number of shoots per plant; the number<br />

of leaves (below the first inflorescence and per<br />

plant); type and structure of inflorescence;<br />

presence of pedicle, pedicle length; average<br />

weight of fruit; the total weight of fruit per plant; fruit<br />

firmness, crack and storage resistance; number of<br />

seeds in fruit; predominant shape of the fruit; fruit<br />

length, fruit diameter; external color of immature<br />

and mature fruit; the aspect of fruit surface;<br />

number of seminal lodges; skin and flesh color of<br />

fruit.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Agro-morphological characterization of 12<br />

tomato genotypes cultivated in protected area, in<br />

ecological culture system is presented in tables 1-3.<br />

Table 1<br />

The main characteristics of the tomato plant<br />

genitors SP +<br />

No.<br />

Type of<br />

inflorescence<br />

Structure of<br />

inflorescence<br />

Pedicle<br />

Length of<br />

pedicle<br />

PL1 bifurcate compact present long<br />

L2 bifurcate compact present long<br />

L19 linear lax present short<br />

L4 bifurcate lax present long<br />

L5 bifurcate lax present long<br />

L6 bifurcate compact present long<br />

L7 bifurcate compact present long<br />

L8 bifurcate compact present long<br />

PL9 bifurcate scattered present short<br />

L10 bifurcate lax present short<br />

L11 bifurcate lax present short<br />

L12 bifurcate scattered present short<br />

No.<br />

Predominant shape<br />

of fruit<br />

The main characteristics of the tomato fruit genitors SP +<br />

External color of<br />

immature fruit mature fruit<br />

140<br />

Synthesis of all phenological observations<br />

and biometrical measurements permitted us a<br />

concise characterization of studied material.<br />

Eleven from twelve lines presents bifurcate type of<br />

inflorescence. The structure of inflorescence was<br />

lax in five cases, compact at five and scattered in<br />

two cases at PL9 and L12. The pedicle was present<br />

and long.<br />

The total number of shoots per plant varies<br />

from 6 at L6 to 18 at PL1, L2, L7, L10 and L11.<br />

The number of leaves below the first inflorescence<br />

was 5 at L4, L6, L8 and 8 at L10. We registered a<br />

large variation in case of total number of leaves per<br />

plant form 22 at L4, L5 to 28 at L2 and L12. Plant<br />

height varies in small limits form 180 cm at L2, L5<br />

and L6, to 200 cm. (Fig. 1)<br />

Figure 1 Variation of plant height, number of<br />

leaves (below the first inflorescence and per plant),<br />

and number of shoots<br />

The shape of fruits was round, easy flattened<br />

and flattened. All lines presented at maturity fruits<br />

colored in red only L19 was dark red. The highest<br />

content of lycopene was in fruits of L19 (the fruit<br />

flesh color was dark red).<br />

The fruit height and fruit diameter registered<br />

a small variation between 4 and 6.5 cm at fruit<br />

height and from 4 cm to 7.5 cm in case of fruit<br />

diameter.<br />

Table 2<br />

Fruit surface Skin color Flesh color<br />

PL1 easy flattened light with lid red least ribbed red red<br />

L2 easy flattened light with lid red least ribbed red red<br />

L19 flattened light without lid dark red least ribbed red dark red<br />

L4 easy flattened light without lid red ribbed red red<br />

L5 round light without lid red netted red red<br />

L6 easy flattened green without lid red netted red red<br />

L7 easy flattened light without lid red least ribbed red red<br />

L8 easy flattened light without lid red netted red red<br />

PL9 round light without lid red netted red red<br />

L10 round light with lid red netted red red<br />

L11 round light with lid red netted red red<br />

L12 round light with lid red netted red red

The number of seminal loges varies from 3<br />

at L2 to 5 at L1, L5, L6 and L11, (Fig. 2).<br />

Figure 2 Variation of fruit height, fruit diameter and<br />

number of seminal loges<br />

L10 noted by the largest amount of fruit<br />

harvested from a plant, 4.4 kg and also by a highest<br />

number of fruits per plant, 40 (Fig. 3). L6<br />

registered the lowest yield of fruits per plant. The<br />

heaviest fruits were the fruits of L6, 220 g. For<br />

successful production of tomatoes, yield and fruit<br />

size (measured as weight) must be considered<br />

(Wessel-Beaver, L. and Scott, J.W., 1992).<br />

Figure 3 Variation of fruit weight, weight of fruits per<br />

plant and number of fruits per plant<br />

Table 3<br />

Fruits firmness, crack and storage resistance of the<br />

tomato fruit<br />

No. Fruits firmness<br />

Crack<br />

resistance<br />

Storage<br />

resistance<br />

PL1 good very good good<br />

L2 good very good very good<br />

L19 very good good very good<br />

L4 good good good<br />

L5 very good very good very good<br />

L6 very good very good very good<br />

L7 very good very good very good<br />

L8 very good very good very good<br />

PL9 medium good medium<br />

L10 very good very good very good<br />

L11 low medium medium<br />

L12 very good very good very good<br />

141<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55(2)/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Genotypes L5, L6, L7, L8, L10 and L12,<br />

were distinguished by firmness of fruits and<br />

resistance to crack and storage (Tab. 3). L11<br />

presented a low level of fruit firmness and medium<br />

resistance to crack and storage.<br />

Regarding the number of seeds in fruit the<br />

variation was between 365 seeds per fruit at L6<br />

and 290 seeds per fruit at PL1.<br />

Figure 4 Number of seeds in fruit<br />

In case of resistance to pest and disease nine<br />

lines presents very good resistance and three lines<br />

were resistant to pest attack and disease (Tab 4).<br />

All lines obtained a proper yield,<br />

quantitative superior to control variant, PL1, as<br />

follows: 122 t/ha at L4 and121 t/ha at PL9. The<br />

best yield 125 t/ha was registered at L10 (41 t/ha<br />

more than control variant). The control variant<br />

registered the lowest level of yield, 84 t/ha (Fig 5).<br />

Although the obtained yield is in accordance<br />

with the primary objective of tomato growers, to<br />

maximize the harvest of fruit per cultivation area,<br />

consumers put a great pressure on growers to<br />

improve both tomato yield and quality. (Žnidarčič<br />

D., et al, 2003).<br />

Figure 5 Comparison of yield of twelve cultivars and<br />

control variant

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Table 4<br />

Synthesis of results regarding yield<br />

Variant<br />

%<br />

Yield<br />

t/ha<br />

Difference on<br />

(control)<br />

Resistance to<br />

Disease Pest<br />

PL1 100.0 84 very good very good<br />

L2 136.9 115 +31 very good very good<br />

L19 139.2 117 +33 very good very good<br />

L4 145.2 122 +38 very good very good<br />

L5 128.5 108 +24 good good<br />

L6 133.3 112 +28 good good<br />

L7 140.4 118 +34 very good very good<br />

L8 138.0 116 +32 very good very good<br />

PL9 144.0 121 +37 very good very good<br />

L10 148.8 125 +41 very good very good<br />

L11 129.7 109 +25 good good<br />

L12 133.3 112 +28 very good very good<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Combinative ability of the parents is one of<br />

the most important attributes that determine the<br />

value of created new cultivars.<br />

Compared with the control variant PL1, all<br />

eleven advanced homozygous lines achieved total<br />

yield over 100 t / ha in organic culture system.<br />

Nine lines have a very good resistance to<br />

attack of pests and pathogens, which entitles us to<br />

conclude that they are suitable for organic culture.<br />

Six lines presented very good firmness,<br />

crack and storage resistance, meaning the<br />

genotypes are recommended for storage.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This work was cofinanced from the European Social<br />

Fund through Sectorial Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-2013<br />

project number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371<br />

―Postdoctoral School in Agriculture and<br />

Veterinary Medicine Area‖.<br />

142<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Glass, E.H. and Thurston, H.D., 1978 - Traditional and<br />

modern crop protection in perspective.<br />

Bioscience 28, 109—115<br />

Gliessman, S.R., 1998 - Agroecology: Ecological<br />

Processes in Sustainable Agriculture,- Ann Arbor<br />

Press<br />

Passam, H.C., Karapanos I.C., Bebeli P.J., Savvas D.<br />

2007 - A Review of Recent Research on Tomato<br />

Nutrition, Breeding and Post-Harvest Technology<br />

with Reference to Fruit Quality, The European<br />

Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology<br />

©2007 Global Science Books<br />

Pimentel, D., et al. 1995. - Environmental and economic<br />

costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits.<br />

Science 267: 11 17-1 123.<br />

Vandermeer, J., 1995. - The ecological basis of<br />

alternative agriculture. Annual Review of<br />

Ecological Systems 26: 201-224<br />

Wessel-Beaver, L. and Scott, J.W., 1992. - Genetic<br />

variability of fruit set, fruit weight, and yield in a<br />

tomato population grown in two high-temperature<br />

environments. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 117:867–<br />

870.<br />

Zhu, S.D., Lu, Z.Q., Chen, L.F., Yu, W., Zhang, S.J.,<br />

2000. Effect of temperature and food on<br />

Spodoptera litura population. Chinese Journal of<br />

Applied Ecology 11: 111-114.<br />

Žnidarčič, D., Trdan, S., and Zlatič, E., 2003. - Impact<br />

of growing methods on tomato (Lycopersicon<br />

esculentum Mill) yield and sensory quality. Zb.<br />

Biotech. Fak. Univ. Ljublj.Knet 81(2):341-348.

Abstract<br />

143<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

PEDOGEOCHEMISTRY OF HORTIC ANTHROSOL FROM COPOU<br />

GREENHOUSE – IASI (I)<br />

Dumitru BULGARIU 1,4 , Feodor FILIPOV 2 , Constantin RUSU 1,4 , Laura BULGARIU 3<br />

e-mail: dbulgariu@yahoo.com<br />

The soil from Copou greenhouse – Iasi is a mixic-proxicalcaric-hipohortic entianthrosol (profile IS.1), associated with<br />

proxicalcaric–hortic-anthrosol (profile IS.2). Characteristic for this anthrosol is the formation at depth of 12–48 cm of<br />

Ahok horizons, proto-frangipanes or frangipanes, which determined the differential evolution of pedogeochemical<br />

processes in soil profiles (geochemical segregation phenomena). The studied soils fall within the class of medium and<br />

fine textured, the dominant particles size fractions (with very close weight) being sand and clay. The migration and<br />

accumulation tendency of fine particles size fractions at Ahok(x)2 horizon level represent one of the conditions for<br />

frangipane horizons formation and developing of geochemical segregation phenomena. For upper horizons of profiles<br />

are characteristics neutral conditions – weak alkaline and moderately oxidizing, and for bottom horizons are<br />

characteristic neutral conditions – weak acid and moderately reducing. Following the total soluble salts content<br />

(variation limits: 152.92–688.02, average: 382.87 mg / 100 g soil), the upper horizons are highly salinized (Apk1) and<br />

moderately salinized (Apk2, Ahok(x)1 and Ahok(x)2), and the bottom horizons are weak salinized. The total<br />

phosphorus content varied between 94.57–768.05 μg P2O5/g soil, with an average of span by 53.95 % from total<br />

phosphorus. The inorganic phosphorus represents 46.03 % from total phosphorus, and the organic phosphorus is 53.95<br />

% from total phosphorus. The phosphorus extractable in acetate – lactate, non-occluded phosphorus, varied between<br />

90.09–740.09 μg P2O5/g soil, with an average of span by 366.50 μg P2O5/g soil (which represents 94.73 % from total<br />

phosphorus).<br />

Key words: hortic anthrosols from protected area, pedogeochemistry, pedogeochemical segregation<br />

The spread of soils in protected area is low,<br />

in solar and greenhouses, usually located near of<br />

big cities, being commonly cultivated with<br />

vegetables (Munteanu N. et al., 2010). Neither,<br />

European or national level does not exactly known<br />

the areas occupied by soils from protected areas.<br />

This is due, on the hand the fact that these soils<br />

have a relatively short operating time (compared<br />

with normal agricultural soils), and secondly that<br />

the cultivation technologies of these soils are<br />

periodically changed, at relatively short intervals.<br />

In consequence, the pedo-geochemical<br />

characteristics of the soils from protected area<br />

varied continuous, making it difficult to stick them<br />

in a certain class of soils.<br />

The soils from protected area (greenhouses<br />

and solariums) are frequently represented by<br />

entianthrosols and anthrosols, both characterized<br />

by relative large pedogeochemical variability, at<br />

subtypes and varieties level (Florea N., Munteanu<br />

I., 2003; Filipov F., 2005; Blaga Gh. et al., 2008).<br />

The frequency and regional distribution of soils<br />

from protected areas may not be related to<br />

lithology, formation factors of soils and<br />

pedogenetic processes, characteristic of certain<br />

physical-geographical areas. In addition, the<br />

arrangement technologies of protected areas and<br />

the exploitation methods require, both the<br />

modification of pedogeochemical characteristics of<br />

initial soils (over which are set the greenhouses<br />

and solariums), often to the almost complete<br />

blurring of their characteristics, and the continuous<br />

changes of pedogeochemical properties during of<br />

these soils exploitation (Mănescu B., 1984;<br />

Davidescu D., Davidescu V., 1992; Voican V.,<br />

Lăcătuş V., 1998).<br />

The anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi<br />

has been extensively studied, in this moment being<br />

one of the most well known antrosol from<br />

Romania. Existing papers, by undoubted quality<br />

addresses issues, treat different particular aspects<br />

(agricultural, pedological and agrochemical, etc.)<br />

1 „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Univeristy of Iaşi, Romania.<br />

2 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agronomice şi Medicină Veterinară „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi, România<br />

3 Universitatea Tehnică „Gh. Asachi” din Iaşi, România.<br />

4 Academia Română, Filiala din Iaşi–Colectivul de Geografie.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

of this anthrosol (Filipov F. et al., 2001; 2004;<br />

Călin M. et al., 2003; Filipov F., 2005; Bulgariu D.<br />

et al., 2008; 2009; 2010). Our studies provide new<br />

data related to the pedogenesis and<br />

pedogeochemistry of anthrosol from Copou<br />

greenhouse – Iasi, aspects that were insufficient<br />

clarified by the previous studies. In this first part<br />

are discussed problems related to the morphology,<br />

texture and physical-chemical characteristics of<br />

anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi. In the<br />

second and third parts of this study will be<br />

discussed mineralogy and pedogeochemistry<br />

aspects of this anthrosol.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

For experiments have been used soil samples<br />

from two representative profiles from Copou<br />

greenhouse – Iasi (fig 1, tab. 1). The two profiles<br />

were carried out across the middle span No. 16, at<br />

distance of 50 cm (IS.1 profile) and 1.0 m (IS.2<br />

profile) against heating register. The soil samples<br />

were drawing according with usual methodology<br />

(Borlan Z., Răuţă C., 1981; Bulgariu D., Rusu C.,<br />

General characteristics of studied soil samples<br />

144<br />

2005) from each horizon, at the end of plants<br />

vegetation period.<br />

Particle size analysis was performed by<br />

standard methodology by screening for particle size<br />

fractions > 0.02 mm, and pipetting for grain size<br />

fraction < 0.02 mm (Borlan Z., Răuţă C., 1981; Pansu<br />

M., Gautheyrou J., 2006)<br />

Figure 1 Cross section through the middle span No.<br />

16 from Copou greenhouse – Iasi. On figure are mark<br />

the relative position of soil profiles and sampling points. .<br />

Table 1<br />

Horizon # ΔH; cm Depth;<br />

H ; cm<br />

cm<br />

Vegetal<br />

materials,% *<br />

Parental<br />

materials, %* (1)<br />

Fine fraction,<br />

% (2)<br />

ρ;<br />

g / cm 3<br />

IS.1 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 6 3,5 6 0,38 3,68 95,94 2,6251 Medium loamy (LL)<br />

Apk2 6 - 14 10,0 8 0,61 2,91 96,48 2,5738 LL-TT transition<br />

Ahok(x)1 14 - 25 19,5 11 0,53 2,05 97,42 2,6107 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

Ahok(x)2 25 - 48 36,5 23 0,33 1,48 98,19 2,5669 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

BCk 48 - 56 40,5 8 0,11 3,19 96,70 2,6435 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

ABk 56 - 62 59,0 6 0,05 4,26 95,69 2,6288 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

Ck 62 - 75 68,5 13 0,00 3,88 96,12 2,6733 Sandy clay (TN)<br />

Average on profile 10,71 0,28 3,06 96,64 2,6174 Medium - Fine<br />

Average on upper horizons 8,33 0,50 2,88 96,61 2,6032 LL-TT<br />

Average on bottom horizons 9,00 0,05 3,77<br />

IS.2 PROFILE<br />

96,17 2,6485 TT-TN<br />

Apk1 0 - 5 2,5 5 0,43 3,41 96,16 2,6407 Medium loamy (LL)<br />

Apk2 5 - 12 8,5 7 0,38 3,09 96,53 2,5573 LL-TT transition<br />

Ahok(x)1 12 - 21 16,5 9 0,45 2,17 97,38 2,6197 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

Ahok(x)2 21 - 40 30,5 19 0,27 1,75 97,98 2,5584 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

BCk 40 - 60 50 20 0,08 4,07 95,85 2,6915 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

Ck 60 - 75 67,5 15 0,13 3,65 96,22 2,6085 Sandy clay (TN)<br />

Average on profile 12,50 0,29 3,02 96,68 2,6126 Medium - Fine<br />

Average on upper horizons 7,00 0,42 2,89 96,69 2,6059 LL-TT<br />

Average on bottom horizons 17,50 0,10 3,86<br />

SPAN<br />

96,03 2,6500 TT-TN<br />

Average on span 11,60 0,28 3,04 96,66 2,6150 Medium - Fine<br />

Average on upper horizons 7,66 0,46 2,88 96,65 2,6045 LL-TT<br />

Average on bottom horizons 13,25 0,07 3,81 96,10 2,6492 TT-TN<br />

Average on Ahok(x)2 horizons 21,00 0,30 1,61 98,08 2,5626 Medium loamy clay (TT)<br />

#<br />

Notations according with SRTS-2003 (Florea N., Munteanu I., 2003). ΔH [cm] – depth interval where the horizon<br />

Texture #<br />

appears; H [cm] – average depth where the soil horizon appears. *Gravimetric percents reported to raw soil sample.<br />

(1) Fraction Φ > 2.00 mm (soil skeleton). (2) Fraction Φ < 2.00 mm. ρ – absolute density. Ahok(x)2 – frangipane horizon (on<br />

pedogeochemical segregation). Upper horizons – above the Ahok(x)2 horizon. Bottom horizons – below Ahok(x)2<br />

horizon.<br />

Loss of material from grain size analysis were<br />

0.68–1.14 % (average: 0.86 %), and the analysis<br />

errors (determined by triplicate measurements) have<br />

been estimated to 1.39 % (reported to raw soil<br />

quantity). The determination of absolute density was<br />

done by picnometric method, using samples with

grain size < 0.02 mm and benzene as dispersion<br />

liquid (Bulgariu D., Rusu C., 2005).<br />

pH has been determined by potentiometric<br />

method, suspension procedure (10 g soil / 50 mL<br />

solution, sample grain size < 0.01 mm) in twice<br />

distilled water and in 0.1 M KCl solution, with a pHmeter<br />

Basic 20+ type, equipped with a combine<br />

Crison glass electrode. The redox potential (E h) was<br />

determined by direct method (suspension procedure,<br />

10 g soil / 50 mL solution, sample grain size < 0.01<br />

mm) using a potentiometer Basic 20+ model,<br />

equipped with a combined platinum Crison electrode<br />

(Bloom P.R., 2000; Bulgariu D. et al., 2005).<br />

The total soluble salts content (TSS) was<br />

conductometric determined, in aqueous extract (1:5),<br />

with a conductometer EC-meter GLP 31+ model and<br />

a conductometric cell +Pt1000 Crison type. The<br />

electrical conductibility measurements (CE; s/cm)<br />

have been converted in TSS mg /100 g soil) values,<br />

using the following semi-empirical equation: CE = -<br />

0.0054xTSS 2 + 18.98xTSS – 63.633 (R 2 = 0.9848; n<br />

= 54), obtained from experimental results. For the<br />

analytical control of results the TSS was determined<br />

and gravimetrically (Borlan Z., Răuţă C., 1981).<br />

The total phosphorus was analyzed<br />

spectrophotometrically (with ammonium molybdate,<br />

reduction with sodium bisulphite, λ max = 660 nm) after<br />

dissolution with HClO 4 (20 mL / 1 g sample). Organic<br />

phosphorus was analyzed in the same manner, after<br />

extraction in HCl (hot and cold; 10 mL / 1 g sample)<br />

(Borlan Z., Răuţă C., 1981; Pansu M., Gautheyrou J.,<br />

2006; Bulgariu D. et al., 2009).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The soil from Copou greenhouse – Iasi has<br />

pedological and chemical-pedological properties<br />

(tab. 1, 2, 3) characteristic of mixic – proxicalcaric<br />

– hipohortic enthiantrosol (IS.1 profile), associated<br />

with proxicalcaric–hortic anthrosol (IS.2 profile).<br />

Although, the studied anthrosol occupies a relative<br />

small surface, the development of soil horizons is<br />

not uniform (fig. 1, tab. 1). The average thickness<br />

of the horizons ranged from 10.71 to 12.50 cm,<br />

with a span average of 11.60 cm. Better developed<br />

are the bottom horizons, whose thickness varied<br />

between 6 and 13 cm (average: 9.00 cm) in IS.1<br />

profile and between 15–20 cm (average: 17.50 cm)<br />

in IS. 2 profile. Between horizons the most well<br />

developed in both profiles are Ahok, Ck and BCk.<br />

The results of grain size analysis (tab.2)<br />

falling the soils from Copou greenhouse – Iasi in<br />

the class with medium and fine texture (fig. 3):<br />

medium loamy (LL) – Apk1 horizon; transition<br />

between medium loamy (LL) and medium clay<br />

loamy (TT) – Apk2 horizon; medium clay loamy<br />

(TT) –Ahok(x)1, Ahok(x)2, BCk and ABk<br />

horizons; sandy clay (TN) – Ck horizon (notation<br />

according with Florea N. et al., 2007). Between<br />

particle size fractions, the sand dominates (span<br />

average: 41.20 %) and clay (span average: 36.06<br />

%). On profile is found a slight decrease of sand<br />

145<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

(cca. 2 %) and an accentuated increase of clay<br />

(cca. 6 %) in bottom horizons.<br />

Drainage filter<br />

IS.2<br />

Apk1<br />

IS.1<br />

Apk1<br />

Apk2 Apk2<br />

Ahok(x)1<br />

Ahok(x)2<br />

BCk<br />

Ck<br />

Ahok(x)1<br />

Ahok(x)2<br />

ABk<br />

BCk<br />

60 cm 50 cm 50 cm<br />

Figure 2 Schematic representation of toposequences<br />

in anthrosols from Copou greenhouse –<br />

Iasi.<br />

The soil skeleton (> 2.00 mm) has an<br />

average content approximately constant on span<br />

and profile (1.48–4.26 %; average: 3.04 %) with<br />

lower values in upper horizons (2.88 %) in<br />

comparison with bottom horizons (3.81 %). The<br />

lowest values of skeleton are observed in case of<br />

Ahok(x)2 horizon (1.61 %).<br />

Figure 3 Framing of studied soils in triangle diagram<br />

of texture (according ICPA Bucharest methodology).<br />

Notations: ■ upper horizons; ● bottom horizons; <br />

Ahok(x)2 horizon. Other notations – see tab.1.<br />

The mineralogical composition of parental<br />

material has a relatively large variety, and the<br />

variation way on profile is slightly only influenced<br />

by pedogenetic processes. The parental material of<br />

anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi has many<br />

and different sources, and supply of materials was<br />

carried out periodically and differentiated (as<br />

texture and mineralogical-petrographical nature).<br />

Heavy minerals and rock fragments have an<br />

Ck<br />

0<br />

10<br />

20<br />

30<br />

40<br />

50<br />

60<br />

70<br />

Depth, cm<br />

Heat register

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

atypical variability and shows weak correlations<br />

with other chemical-mineralogical components of<br />

anthrosol.<br />

The grain size fraction 2.00–0.02 mm<br />

(sand): (i) varied on span between 33.04 and 45.09<br />

%, with an average of 39.81 %; (ii) average<br />

contents are not significantly different between<br />

upper and bottom horizons; (iii) fine sand has the<br />

dominant weight – the ratio between fine and<br />

rough sand varied between 4.13–22.89 (average:<br />

9.74), with maxim values at Ahok(x) horizon; (iv)<br />

chemical-mineralogical composition of sand is<br />

varied, both in terms of contents, and in the<br />

146<br />

mineralogical-petrographic nature of components –<br />

dominants are primary minerals (quartz, feldspars,<br />

biotite, chlorite, dolomite, heavy minerals –<br />

magnetite, garnet, rutile, zircon, tourmalin,<br />

hornblende, etc.) and granules of different rocks<br />

(gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite–schists, andezite,<br />

marls etc.) associated with their weathering<br />

products; apparition frequencies, occurrence forms<br />

and distribution way on profile, and even in the<br />

same horizon does not indicate characteristic<br />

variations and association ways for the<br />

mineralogical-petrographic components from sand.<br />

Results of grain size analysis for the anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi<br />

Table 2<br />

horizons ΔH; cm<br />

Sand (2.00–0.02 mm)<br />

Nt Ng Nf<br />

Dust (0.02–0.002 mm)<br />

Pt Pg Pf At<br />

Clay (< 0.002 mm)<br />

Ag Af Afiz.<br />

IS.1 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 6 45.09 6.15 38.94 18.75 10.35 8.40 30.19 17.91 12.28 23.26<br />

Apk2 6 - 14 42.65 4.83 37.82 20.53 8.76 11.77 31.76 15.35 16.41 28.66<br />

Ahok(x)1 14 - 25 37.52 1.57 35.95 21.60 5.33 16.27 36.93 10.36 26.57 41.95<br />

Ahok(x)2 25 - 48 36.47 1.91 34.56 20.07 4.28 15.79 39.86 5.35 34.51 52.33<br />

BCk 48 - 56 34.94 3.42 31.52 24.18 6.98 17.20 36.19 11.91 24.28 38.95<br />

ABk 56 - 62 36.86 5.88 30.98 18.46 8.35 10.11 38.75 18.16 20.59 34.13<br />

Ck 62 - 75 39.52 7.69 31.83 13.29 7.51 5.78 41.61 23.82 17.79 30.46<br />

Average on profile 39.01 4.49 34.51 19.55 7.36 12.18 36.47 14.69 21.77 35.68<br />

Average on upper horizons 41.75 4.18 37.57 20.29 8.14 12.14 32.96 14.54 18.42 31.29<br />

Average on bottom horizons 37.11 5.66 31.44 18.64 7.61 11.03 38.85 17.96 20.88 34.51<br />

IS.2 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 5 43.83 5.67 38.16 21.07 9.76 11.31 28.75 16.26 12.49 23.53<br />

Apk2 5 - 12 44.26 7.04 37.22 19.55 9.15 10.40 32.51 15.83 16.68 29.01<br />

Ahok(x)1 12 - 21 38.11 2.36 35.75 23.15 5.91 17.24 34.26 9.16 25.10 40.03<br />

Ahok(x)2 21 - 40 33.04 2.15 30.89 22.46 6.33 16.13 40.57 12.76 27.81 43.57<br />

BCk 40 - 60 39.40 4.59 34.81 23.07 8.48 14.59 39.83 19.08 20.75 34.34<br />

Ck 60 - 75 45.08 8.15 36.93 11.22 5.93 5.29 38.05 17.33 20.72 34.30<br />

Average on profile 40.62 4.99 35.62 20.08 7.59 12.49 35.66 15.07 20.59 34.13<br />

Average on upper horizons 42.06 5.02 37.04 21.25 8.27 12.98 31.84 13.75 18.09 30.86<br />

Average on bottom horizons 42.24 6.37 35.87 17.14 7.20 9.94 38.94 18.20 20.73 34.32<br />

SPAN<br />

Average on span 39.81 4.74 35.07 19.82 7.47 12.34 36.06 14.88 21.18 34.90<br />

Average on upper horizons 41.91 4.60 37.30 20.77 8.21 12.56 32.40 14.14 18.25 31.07<br />

Average on bottom horizons 39.67 6.01 33.65 17.89 7.40 10.48 38.89 18.08 20.81 34.42<br />

Average on Ahok(x)2 horizons 34.75 2.03 32.72 21.26 5.30 15.96 40.21 9.05 31.16 47.95<br />

Nt – total sand content (2.00–0.02 mm). Ng – rough sand (2.00–0.20 mm). Nf – fine sand (0.20–0.02 mm). Pt – total dust<br />

content (0.02–0.002 mm). Pg – rough dust (0.02–0.01 mm). Pf – fine dust (0.01–0.002 mm). At – total clay content (<<br />

0.002 mm). Ag – rough clay (0.002–0.001 mm). Af – fine clay (< 0.001 mm). Afiz. – physic clay (< 0.01 mm): Afiz. = 1.2xAt<br />

+ 6 (Canarache A., 1990). Other notations – see. tab. 1.<br />

The grain size of 0.020–0.002 mm (dust):<br />

(i) on span, the content varied between 11.22 and<br />

23.15 %, (average: 19.82 %), with a proportion<br />

subordinate of sand and clay; (ii) the average<br />

contents are not significantly different between<br />

upper and bottom horizons; the maximum<br />

observed in case of Ahok(x)2 and BCk horizons<br />

are correlated with processes of frangipane<br />

formatin, argilization and clay-luviation, or<br />

stagnogleization in case of Ck horizon,<br />

respectively; (iii) fine dust has dominant<br />

proportion – the ratio between fine and rough dust<br />

varied between 0.76 an 3.68, with maximum<br />

values in case of Ahok(x) horizon; the intensity of<br />

these variations are lower than in case of sand;<br />

(iv) variations on profile of fine and rough dust<br />

are antagonistic, trends on profile is the increase<br />

for fine dust and decrease in case of rough dust;<br />

(v) in case of Ahok(x) horizons, the fine dust has<br />

dominant weight reported to the total dust content<br />

– on span, the fine dust / rough dust ratio in case<br />

of Ahok(x) horizons is 3.11; (vi) the chemicalmineralogical<br />

composition has a more reduced<br />

variability than in case of sand – quantitatively<br />

dominant are clay minerals, oxides and oxyhydroxides<br />

of silica (amorphous silica, SiO2),<br />

aluminium and iron, phosphates and sulphates<br />

(mainly basic, present as amorphous varieties),

etc.; to these are added in varying amounts form<br />

horizon to horizon, primary minerals (feldspars,<br />

147<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

chlorite, biotite, magnetite, garnet etc.).<br />

Physical-chemical characteristics of anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi<br />

Horizons ΔH; cm pHH 2O<br />

pH KCl Eh; mV rH (1) TSS (2)<br />

Table 3<br />

Phosphorus; μg P2O5 / g soil<br />

P(T) P(A) P(O) P(NO)<br />

IS.1 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 6 7,91 6.36 521.37 33.79 675.49 747.15 350.48 396.66 734.67<br />

Apk2 6 - 14 8.28 7.12 495.06 33.63 315.51 439.72 208.21 231.51 426.74<br />

Ahok(x)1 14 - 25 7.84 6.95 365.19 28.27 369.73 325.81 125.63 200.17 308.05<br />

Ahok(x)2 25 - 48 6.59 6.31 296.45 23.40 417.61 658.36 141.48 516.87 583.37<br />

BCk 48 - 56 6.04 5.56 249.62 20.68 288.38 112.59 60.99 51.60 108.94<br />

ABk 56 - 62 5.41 5.29 214.77 18.22 152.95 94.57 54.67 39.89 90.09<br />

Ck 62 - 75 6.17 5.43 211.81 19.64 305.82 124.55 77.56 46.98 115.21<br />

Average on profile 6.89 6.14 336.32 25.38 360.78 357.53 145.57 211.95 338.15<br />

Average on upper horizons 8.01 6.81 460.54 31.90 453.57 504.22 228.10 276.11 489.82<br />

Average on bottom horizons 5.87 5.42 225.40 19.51 249.05 110.57 64.40 46.15 104.74<br />

IS.2 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 5 8.03 6.64 517.83 33.91 688.02 768.05 362.12 405.93 740.09<br />

Apk2 5 - 12 8.19 6.97 508.44 33.91 340.76 457.61 230.56 227.05 439.67<br />

Ahok(x)1 12 - 21 6.81 5.77 336.06 25.20 357.19 367.18 147.97 219.21 341.05<br />

Ahok(x)2 21 - 40 6.35 5.68 301.38 23.09 429.41 703.27 139.66 563.60 633.50<br />

BCk 40 - 60 5.87 5.25 263.55 20.82 315.83 121.75 57.96 63.79 116.62<br />

Ck 60 - 75 6.03 5.09 220.08 19.64 298.61 105.63 69.18 36.45 98.25<br />

Average on profile 6.88 5.90 357.89 26.10 404.97 420.58 167.90 252.67 394.86<br />

Average on upper horizons 7.67 6.46 454.11 31.01 461.99 530.94 246.88 284.06 506.93<br />

Average on bottom horizons 5.95 5.17 241.81 20.23 307.22 113.69 63.57 50.12 107.43<br />

SPAN<br />

Average on span 6.88 6.02 347.10 25.74 382.87 389.05 156.74 232.31 366.51<br />

Average on upper horizons 7.84 6.63 457.32 31.45 457.78 517.58 237.49 280.08 498.37<br />

Average on bottom horizons 5.91 5.29 233.60 19.87 278.13 112.13 63.98 48.13 106.09<br />

Average on Ahok(x)2 horizons 6.47 5.99 298.91 23.24 423.51 680.81 140.57 540.23 608.43<br />

pHH 2O<br />

- pH in water. pH - pH in 0.1 M KCl. Eh – redox potential. KCl<br />

(1) Calculated with relation: rH = 34.4827xEh + 2xpH.<br />

(2)<br />

Total contents of soluble salts, in mg / 100 g soil. P(T) – phosphorus total content. (PA) – inorganic phosphorus. P(O) –<br />

organic phosphorus. P(NO) – non-occluded phosphorus (extractable in acetate - lactate). Other notations – see tab. 1.<br />

The size fraction < 0.002 mm (clay): (i)<br />

content varied between 28.75 and 41.61 %<br />

(average: 36.06 %), with weight close to the sand;<br />

(ii) average contents from upper horizons (28.75–<br />

36.93 %; average: 32.40 %) are lower than those<br />

from bottom horizons (36.19–41.61 %; average:<br />

38.89 %); (iii) fine clay has the dominant weight –<br />

the ratio between fine and rough clay varied<br />

between 0.68–6.45 (average: 1.97), with maxim<br />

values in case of Ahok(x) horizon; the amplitude<br />

of these variations is less than for sand; (iv)<br />

profile variation of fine and rough clay are<br />

synchronous, trends is the accumulation in<br />

Ahok(x) horizons and subordinated in bottom<br />

horizon; from our point of view, the accumulation<br />

tendency of fine clay in Ahok horizons represent a<br />

characteristic of anthrosols from protected area<br />

and a formation condition of frangipane and<br />

proto-frangipane horizons; (v) chemicalmineralogical<br />

composition of clay has a reduced<br />

variability than dust and sand, which is reflects in<br />

the variation and diversity within narrower of<br />

chemical-mineralogical components – dominants<br />

are clay minerals, oxides and oxy-hydroxides of<br />

silica (amorphous silica), aluminium and iron<br />

(predominantly colloidal), to which are added, in<br />

variable amounts, from horizon to horizon,<br />

carbonates, sulphates, phosphates (mainly basic,<br />

present as amorphous varieties), chlorides,<br />

nitrates, different amorphous silicates and<br />

aluminium silicates gels; the chemicalmineralogical<br />

components of clay are found<br />

almost invariant in the composition of soil<br />

aggregation binder.<br />

The pH (H2O), varied between 5.41 and<br />

8.28 (average: 6.88), with higher values in<br />

superior horizons (5.41–6.17; average: 5.91). On<br />

profile, trend is the decrease in pH, and the<br />

variations of pH(H2O) and pHKCl are similar and<br />

synchronic. According with pH values, the soils<br />

from Copou greenhouse – Iasi are fall in weak<br />

alkaline – upper horizons and weak acid – bottom<br />

horizons, respectively.<br />

The redox potential (Eh) varied between<br />

211.81 and 521.37 mV (average: 347.37), with<br />

higher values in upper horizons (336.06–521.37<br />

mV; average: 457.32) in comparison with bottom<br />

horizons (211.81–263.55 mV; average: 233.60),<br />

and has an accentuate decrease tendency on<br />

profile. According with Eh values, the upper

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

horizons correspond to oxidizing conditions, and<br />

the bottom horizons to weakly reducing<br />

conditions.<br />

The total content of soluble salts (TSS)<br />

varied between 152.92 and 688.02 mg/100 g soil<br />

(average: 382.87), with higher values in upper<br />

horizons 315.51–688.02 mg/100 g soil; average:<br />

457.78) in comparison with those bottom horizons<br />

(152.95–315.83 mg/100 g soil; average: 278.13)<br />

and an accentuated downward trend on profile.<br />

According with TSS values, the upper horizons<br />

are strong (Apk1) and moderate (Apk2, Ahok(x)1<br />

and Ahok(x)2) salinized, and the bottom horizons<br />

are weak salinized.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The soil studied in Copou greenhouse – Iasi<br />

is an mixic – proxicalcaric – hipohortic<br />

enthiantrosoil (profile IS.1), associated with<br />

proxicalcaric – hortic anthrosol (profile IS.2).<br />

Characteristic for this anthrosol is the formation at<br />

depths of 12–48 cm of Ahok horizons, protofrangipane<br />

or frangipane, determining the<br />

differential evolution of pedogeochemical<br />

processes in soil profiles (pedogeochemical<br />

segregation phenomena). The studied soils fall<br />

within the class of medium and fine texture, the<br />

dominant grain size fractions being sand and clay.<br />

The fine fractions has dominant weight, and the<br />

variations of the ratio between fine and raw<br />

fractions present maximum values at Ahok(x)1<br />

and Ahok(x)2 horizons. This migration and<br />

accumulation tendency of fine grain size fraction<br />

at the Ahok(x)2 horizon level represent one of the<br />

condition of frangipane horizons formation and<br />

developing of pedogeochemical segregation<br />

phenomena. For upper horizons of profiles are<br />

characteristic neutral conditions–weak alkaline<br />

and moderate oxidizing, with high-moderate<br />

salinity, and for bottom horizons are characteristic<br />

neutral conditions–weak acid and moderate<br />

reducing, with reduced salinity.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

Financial support for the studies was provided<br />

by the Ministry of Education and Research, Romania –<br />

A.N.C.S (contract PNCDI no. 51045 / 2007).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Blaga, Gh., Filipov, F., Rusu, I., Udrescu, S., Vasile,<br />

D., 2008 – Pedologie. Ed. Academic Pres, Cluj<br />

Napoca.<br />

Bloom, P.R., 2000 – Soil pH and the pH buffering. In:<br />

M.Sumner (ed.) „Handbook of soil science”, p.<br />

B333-B352, CRC Press, Boca Raton.<br />

148<br />

Borlan, Z., Răuţă, C., 1981 – Metodologia de analiză<br />

agrochimică a solurilor în vederea stabilirii<br />

necesarului de amendamente şi de<br />

îngrăşăminte (vol. I-II). Academia de Ştiinţe<br />

Agricole şi Silivice a României, Bucureşti.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Rusu, C., Bulgariu, L., 2005 – The pH<br />

Determination in Heterogeneous solid / aqueous<br />

solution Systems. (I) Applications in Analytical<br />

Geochemistry. Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii<br />

din Oradea – fascicula Chimie, XII, p. 37-52.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Rusu, C., 2005 – Metode instrumentale<br />

de analiză în geoştiinţe. Vol. 1.. Casa Editorială<br />

Demiurg, Iaşi.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Buzgar, N., Filipov, F., 2008 –<br />

Contributions to the study of organic-mineral<br />

complexes from hortic anthrosols. Lucr. Şt.,<br />

seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 50, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Bulgariu, L., Rusu, C., Filipov, F., 2009<br />

– Distribution, mobility and bioavailability of<br />

phosphorus into soils from glass houses. Lucr.<br />

Şt., seria Horticultură, Tom LII / vol. 52 /2009,<br />

UŞ.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 869-874.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Filipov, F., Rusu, C., Bulgariu, L., 2010<br />

– Mineralogy and geochemistry of soils from<br />

glass houses and solariums. Geophysical<br />

Research Abstracts, vol. 12, A-14024.<br />

Canarache, A., 1990 – Fizica solurilor agricole. Ed.<br />

Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Călin, M., Filipov, F., Tomiţă, O., Chiruţă, C., 2003 –<br />

Estimarea materiei organice a solurilor din sere.<br />

Simpozion Ştiinţific a Facultăţii de Horticultură,<br />

U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 1 (46), p. 749-752, Ed. „Ion<br />

Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi.<br />

Davidescu, D., Davidescu, V., 1992 – Agrochimie<br />

horticolă. Ed. Academiei. Române, Bucureşti.<br />

Filipov, F., Tomiţă, O., Zaharia, M., Ulea, E., 2001 –<br />

Modificarea unor însuşiri fizice ale antrosolului<br />

hortic din seara Copou – Iaşi, sub influenţa<br />

tehnologiilor intensive de cultivare a plantelor.<br />

Lucr. Şt., seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi.<br />

Filipov, F., Tomiţă, O., Lupaşcu, A., 2004 – Procese<br />

de degradare a solurilor din sere. Factori şi<br />

procese pedogenetice din zona temperată, vol.<br />

3, p. 219-224.<br />

Filipov, F., 2005 – Pedologie. Ed. „Ion Ionescu de la<br />

Brad”, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi.<br />

Florea, N., Bălăceanu, V., Răuţă, C., Canarache, A.<br />

(coord.), 1987 – Metodologia elaborării studiilor<br />

pedologice (vol. I-III). Academia de Ştiinţe<br />

Agricole şi Silvice, I.C.P.A., Bucureşti.<br />

Florea, N., Munteanu, I., 2003 – Sistemul Român de<br />

Taxonomie a Solurilor. Ed. „Estfalia”, Bucureşti.<br />

Mănescu, B., 1984 – Culturi forţate de legume. Ed.<br />

Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.<br />

Munteanu, N., Bireescu, L., Bulgariu, D., Hura, C.,<br />

Stoian, L., Stoleru, V., 2010 – Monografia<br />

producţiei agricole ecologice din Nord-Estul<br />

României: Posibilităţi şi riscuri. Ed. „ARHIP<br />

ART”, Iaşi.<br />

Pansu, M., Gautheyrou, J., 2006 – Handbook of Soil<br />

Analysis. Mineralogical, Organic and Inorganic<br />

Methods. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.<br />

Voican, V., Lăcătuş, V., 1998 – Cultura protejată a<br />

legumelor din sere şi solarii. Ed. Ceres,<br />

Bucureşti.

Abstract<br />

149<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

PEDOGEOCHEMISTRY OF HORTIC ANTHROSOL FROM COPOU<br />

GREENHOUSE – IASI (II)<br />

Dumitru BULGARIU 1,4 , Feodor FILIPOV 2 , Constantin RUSU 1,4 , Laura BULGARIU 3<br />

e-mail: dbulgariu@yahoo.com<br />

The mineralogy of anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi is dominated by clay minerals that appears in a variety of<br />

types and occurrence forms, and has specific variations on profile. Amorphous clay minerals are subordinate to the<br />

crystalline, and their share is higher than in case of ordinary soils. Smectites, illlites and kaolinite are representative clay<br />

minerals, and subordinate may appear: halloysite, hydromicas, glauconite etc. Carbonates are limited as type, but very<br />

varied as occurrence forms. Are dominant the crystalline carbonates, calcite has the major share and subordinated may<br />

appear: dolomite, siderite and a variety of basic carbonates (generally amorphous). Iron oxides and oxy-hydroxides<br />

have relative low contents, the crystalline varieties are mainly represented by magnetite, and those amorphous by<br />

hematite, göethite and lymonite. The total content of organic matter is higher (compared with ordinary soils), and its<br />

dynamic has a particular character. Non-humic organic compounds have unexpectedly high contents and include a wide<br />

variety of compounds. In humus composition, dominants are huminic acids, but the fulvic acids are unexpectedly high.<br />

On profile, the fulvic acids contents increased to values comparable with huminic acids content – case of bottom<br />

horizons. Correlated with these variations the humus character is changed: from mull type humus – top horizons, to<br />

mull-calcic humus, and then moder type – bottom horizons.<br />

Key words: hortic anthrosol from protected area, pedogeochemistry, pedogeochemical segregation, frangipane<br />

Literature requires the absence of<br />

summarizing papers that to be directly addressed to<br />

the issues of the soils pedogeochemistry from<br />

protected areas. Studies from recent years,<br />

although different target cases, have allowed the<br />

general aspects on pedogenesis and<br />

pedogeochemistry of soils from protected areas<br />

(Filipov F. et al., 2004; 2008; Filipov F., 2005;<br />

Secu C.V., Patrichi C.V., 2007; Bulgariu D. et al.,<br />

2010): (i) frequent and intense changes of soils<br />

profile (especially in the top horizons); (ii) relative<br />

high variation of chemical-mineralogical<br />

components; (iii) formation at depth of 30–50 cm<br />

of compact horizon, with particular structure and<br />

chemical-mineralogical composition, that in some<br />

conditions can evaluated on proto-frangipane and<br />

even frangipane; (iv) high values of saturation<br />

degree of bases, of accessible phosphorus and of<br />

the ratio between huminic and fulvic acids; (v)<br />

particular dynamic of organic matter and<br />

distribution processes of macro- and micro-<br />

chemical elements; (vi) evolution of<br />

pedogeochemical processes in conditions of some<br />

“quasi-close systems”, with thermal regime and<br />

almost constant humidity, but with high average<br />

values – under these conditions the decomposition<br />

and mineralization of organic matter arising faster<br />

and print of humification processes different<br />

mechanism compared with ordinary soils; (vii)<br />

fertilization with generally large doses of mineral<br />

and organic fertilizers which determined the sever<br />

changes of pedogeochemical processes dynamic<br />

and pedological characteristics of soils – by<br />

uncontrolled evolution of these processes, in some<br />

cases can be initialled degradation processes with<br />

faster evolutions and negative effects on soils<br />

quality.<br />

Unlike other soils, the chemicalmineralogical<br />

composition of soils from protected<br />

areas is reflected in a lesser extent in the parental<br />

material composition. The antropic, frequent and<br />

intense modifications, determined changes of the<br />

“normal” pedogenesis and the initiations of some<br />

neo-pedogenesis processes that prints a particular<br />

aspect of topo-sequences from these soils, and of<br />

minerals associations and paragenesis, respectively<br />

1 Universitatea „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” din Iaşi, România.<br />

2 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agronomice şi Medicină Veterinară „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi, România.<br />

3 Universitatea Tehnică „Gh. Asachi” din Iaşi, România.<br />

4 Academia Română, Filiala din Iaşi – Colectivul de Geografie.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

(Secu C.V., Patrichi C.V., 2007; Filipov F. et al.,<br />

2008; Bulgariu D. et al., 2010).<br />

Our studies, presented in this paper provide<br />

some new data related to the mineralogy and<br />

pedogeochemistry of anthrosol from Copou<br />

greenhouse – Iasi, issues less addresses in the<br />

literature. A special attention was paid to the<br />

evolution of chemical-mineralogical equilibriums,<br />

in the conditions of soils from protected areas, and<br />

the correlation between these and processes of<br />

pedogeochemical segregation, salinization and<br />

neo-pedogenesis , respectively.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Our studies were performed on soils samples<br />

collected from two profiles from Copou greenhouse –<br />

Iasi, across the middle bay No. 16, about 50 cm (IS.1<br />

profile) and about 1.00 m (IS. 2 profile), towards the<br />

heating register. The data related to the profiles<br />

localization, general characteristics, texture and<br />

physic-chemical conditions of antrosol were<br />

presented in a previous paper (Bulgariu D. şi colab.,<br />

2012).<br />

Chemical-mineralogical composition of soils<br />

was determined on the basis of studies and analysis<br />

conducted by: (i) X-ray diffraction – power method,<br />

CuK radiation, (40 kV, 30 mA), X-ray diffractometer<br />

Philips model (Whitting L.D., Allardice W.R., 1996);<br />

the results being interpreted in relation to data from<br />

Powder Diffraction File (Jenkins R. şi colab., 1988);<br />

(ii) IR spectrometry – pellet method in KBr (White<br />

J.L., Roth C.B., 1986), FT-IR Bruker Vertex 7.0<br />

Spectrometer, in 350–4500 cm -1 spectral domain, and<br />

the results were processed by de-convolution spectra<br />

method (Zou M.-Y., Unbehauen R., 1995) with Opus<br />

6.5 and ACDLab. Spec 5.25 software, and interpreted<br />

in relation to spectra of references materials from<br />

databases accessible on-line; (iii)differential thermal<br />

analysis – Netzsch TG.209 thermo-balance, Pt<br />

crucible, reference: -Al 2O 3, normal atmosphere,<br />

2.5 o C / min. (Tan K.H. et al., 1986); (iv) microscopic<br />

studies – optic microscope MEYJ model, on thin<br />

section (polyepoxydic resin), in natural and polarized<br />

light, scanning by transmission and reflexion Cady<br />

J.G. et al., 1986); (v) chemical analysis – performed<br />

on raw soil samples and mineral concentrates<br />

obtained by fractionation (isodynamic magnetic<br />

method and heavy liquid method) of soil samples<br />

(McBride M.B., 1986; Dean J.A., 1995; Jackson M.L.<br />

et al., 1996; Lăcătuşu R., 2000).<br />

Non-humic organic compounds were extracted<br />

with dichloretane / methanol and fractioned on<br />

chromatographic column with silicagel (70-320<br />

mesh), inactivated with n-hexane. Identification and<br />

determination of organic compounds from extracted<br />

fractions was performed by gas chromatography (GC-<br />

FID) with a HP 5972 chromatograph (Schnitzer M.,<br />

Schuppli P., 1989; Swift R.S., 1996).<br />

Humus was analyzed after soluble organic<br />

compounds (by successive extraction with toluene,<br />

95 % ethylic alcohol and mixture toluene – ethylic<br />

alcohol 1:1, 10 mL / extraction), by separation with<br />

Na 2P 2O 7 0.1 M–NaOH 0.1 M (pH=13) mixture and<br />

150<br />

potentiometric titration in extract (Aiken G.R. et al.,<br />

1985; Pansu M., Gautheyrou J., 2003). The humus<br />

fractionation was done according with the method<br />

describe by Swift R.S. (1996). On extracted organic<br />

fractions have been performed chemical analysis and<br />

microscopic and IR spectrometry studies. In<br />

determining of the type and content of humus<br />

components were correlated the results of these<br />

analyzes.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

● Clay minerals appear in relative wide<br />

variety of types and occurrence forms, have an<br />

average of 44.54 % on the bay and characteristic<br />

variation on profile. Total content of clay minerals<br />

increases in the profile, and decrease with the<br />

distance from heating register. As dominant<br />

varieties are crystalline clay minerals (tab.1).<br />

Amorphous clay minerals are subordinated to<br />

crystalline, but their shape at the mineralogical<br />

composition of anthrosol is significant. There is a<br />

strong tendency of amorphous clay minerals to<br />

accumulate in Ahok(x) horizon, and a slow<br />

decrease with distance from heating register.<br />

In the anthrosol from Copou greenhouse –<br />

Iasi, the clay minerals are three types of genetics:<br />

(i) primary clay minerals – formed by parental<br />

minerals weathering in other conditions than in<br />

greenhouse; (ii) secondary clay minerals from first<br />

generation – formed by transformation in<br />

greenhouse conditions of some primary minerals<br />

(feldspars, biotite, chlorites, etc.); (iii) secondary<br />

clay minerals from second generation – formed<br />

from primary clay minerals and pedogenetic<br />

minerals from first generation.<br />

The clay minerals representative for the<br />

anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi are<br />

smectites, illites and kaolinite, subordined can<br />

appear: halloysit, hydromice, vermicullite, dickite,<br />

beidellite, glauconite etc.<br />

The distribution and association way of<br />

smectites, illites and kaolinite on profile is<br />

different – the smectites have an accumulation<br />

tendency in the Ahok(x) horizon, and kaolinites<br />

and illites have an antagonist distribution towards<br />

to smectites; synchronous with smectites varied<br />

amorphous clay minerals.<br />

Smectites (montmorillonite, subordinated:<br />

beidellite) have an average share on bay of 15.54<br />

%, and manifest an accentuated accumulation<br />

tendency in Ahok(x) horizon. Montmorillonite: (i)<br />

appear as compact masses associated with illites,<br />

kaolinite and subordinate beidellite; (ii) in Ahok(x)<br />

horizon is frequently associated with silicates gels;<br />

(iii) can form: (a) deposits with unifying role in the<br />

inter-granular spaces; (b) compact deposits where<br />

are embedded primary minerals grains, (c) in the

association with oolite aspect, (d) in the<br />

pseudomorphoses after lymonitic glauconite (top<br />

horizons); (iv) is well developed in Ahok(x)<br />

horizon and in bottom horizons, and is under<br />

represented in the top horizons; (v) can easily<br />

switch from colloidal phase in organic-mineral<br />

complexes (very sensitive equilibrium to changes<br />

of physical-chemical conditions from soil).<br />

Illites (illite; subordinate: hydromicas,<br />

beidellite) have a close share to smectites, but<br />

antagonist distribution tends. Illite: (i) appear as<br />

spherical or lenticular aggregates associated with<br />

iron oxides and oxy-hydroxides and organic<br />

matter; (ii) are formed by weathering of potassium<br />

151<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

feldspars, biotite and muscovite (first generation)<br />

or by transformation other clay minerals (second<br />

generation); (iii) illite from first generation is well<br />

developed in bottom horizons (weak alkaline and<br />

weak reducing media); (iv) illite from second<br />

generation is better developed in the top horizons<br />

(weak alkaline and moderate oxidizing media); (v)<br />

by hydration can be transformed in<br />

montmorillonite; (vi) correlations illites –<br />

montmorillonite and illites – kaolinite indicate a<br />

cyclic reversibility of transformation and not a<br />

direct reversal of the three clay minerals in<br />

conditions of hortic antrosol from Copou<br />

greenhouse.<br />

Table 1<br />

Mineralogical composition of anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi. Clay minerals<br />

Horizons # ΔH; cm TCM<br />

CCM ACM<br />

%<br />

Kaolinite Smectites Illites OCCM<br />

FF % TCM % FF % TCM % FF % TCM % FF % TCM % FF % TCM % TCM<br />

IS.1 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 6 41.71 38.13 91.42 3.57 8.57 7.67 18.39 13.84 33.18 15.98 38.33 1.52<br />

Apk2 6 - 14 40.35 37.08 91.90 3.26 8.09 7.50 18.59 14.01 34.72 14.68 36.39 2.18<br />

Ahok(x)1 14 - 25 44.77 39.93 89.17 4.84 10.82 6.75 15.08 18.32 40.92 13.91 31.08 2.08<br />

Ahok(x)2 25 - 48 47.70 39.98 83.81 7.71 16.18 3.42 7.17 21.71 45.51 12.65 26.53 4.59<br />

BCk 48 - 56 44.26 40.29 91.05 3.96 8.94 6.78 15.32 17.03 38.48 15.78 35.65 1.58<br />

ABk 56 - 62 47.67 43.33 90.90 4.33 9.09 8.48 17.79 16.48 34.56 17.50 36.71 1.81<br />

Ck 62 - 75 50.73 47.25 93.13 3.48 6.86 9.83 19.37 15.44 30.44 21.19 41.76 1.53<br />

Average on profile 45.31 40.86 90.20 4.45 9.79 7.20 15.96 16.69 36.83 15.96 35.21 2.18<br />

Average on TH 42.27 38.38 90.83 3.89 9.16 7.30 17.35 15.39 36.27 14.86 35.27 1.93<br />

Average on BH 47.55 43.63 91.69 3.92 8.30<br />

IS.2 PROFILE<br />

8.36 17.50 16.32 34.49 18.15 38.04 1.64<br />

Apk1 0 - 5 40.00 37.30 93.24 2.70 6.75 8.54 21.36 14.01 35.01 13.88 34.70 2.15<br />

Apk2 5 - 12 40.55 37.50 92.46 3.05 7.53 8.33 20.56 12.19 30.06 16.39 40.43 1.40<br />

Ahok(x)1 12 - 21 41.77 36.55 87.51 5.21 12.48 7.32 17.52 13.96 33.43 14.46 34.63 1.91<br />

Ahok(x)2 21 - 40 48.60 42.33 87.10 6.26 12.89 4.61 9.49 21.31 43.84 14.40 29.63 4.13<br />

BCk 40 - 60 45.13 39.52 87.56 5.61 12.43 7.98 17.68 13.10 29.03 17.48 38.74 2.10<br />

Ck 60 - 75 46.61 42.86 91.95 3.75 8.04 11.40 24.45 11.85 25.44 19.01 40.78 1.27<br />

Average on profile 43.78 39.34 89.97 4.43 10.02 8.03 18.51 14.40 32.80 15.94 36.48 2.16<br />

Average on TH 40.77 37.12 91.07 3.65 8.92 8.06 19.81 13.38 32.83 14.91 36.59 1.82<br />

Average on BH 45.87 41.19 89.75 4.68 10.24 9.69 21.07 12.48 27.23 18.24 39.76<br />

SPAN<br />

1.68<br />

Average on span 44.54 40.10 90.08 4.44 9.91 7.62 17.23 15.54 34.82 15.95 35.85 2.17<br />

Average on TH 41.52 37.75 90.95 3.77 9.04 7.68 18.58 14.39 34.55 14.89 35.93 1.87<br />

Average on BH 46.71 42.41 90.72 4.30 9.27 9.02 19.28 14.40 30.86 18.20 38.90 1.66<br />

Average Ahok(x)2 horizon 48.15 41.15 85.46 6.99 14.53 4.01 8.33 21.51 44.68 13.53 28.08 4.36<br />

#<br />

Notations according with SRTS-2003 (Florea N., Munteanu I., 2003). TCM – total content of clay minerals. CCM –<br />

crystalline clay minerals. ACM – amorphous clay minerals. OCCM – other crystalline clay minerals (appear subordinate<br />

to kaolinite, smectites and illites – see in text). % FF – gravimetrical percents reported to fine fraction of soil (< 2.00 mm).<br />

% TCM – percents from total clay minerals content. TH – top horizons. BH – bottom horizons.<br />

Candites (kaolinite; subordinate: halloysite,<br />

dickite) have a subordinate share to smectites and<br />

illites and a distribution tends on profile similar<br />

illites, but antagonist smectites. On span, kaolinite<br />

has an average share of 7.62 %, and on profile, the<br />

kaolinite content varied similar with illites.<br />

Kaolinite: (i) appear as compact masses formed<br />

from granular aggregates, associated with<br />

montmorillonite and halloysite; (ii) kaolinite from<br />

first generation is associated with feldsprs and<br />

feldspatoides, and those from second generation is<br />

associated with montmorillonite; (iv) has higher<br />

share in bottom horizons (acid conditions, weak<br />

reducing), being frequently associated with dikite<br />

in the binder of soil aggregates (tab. 1).<br />

● Carbonates are generally limited as type,<br />

but very varied as occurrence forms. The total<br />

content of carbonates varied in a relative large<br />

interval (tab. 2), have an average content on span<br />

by 4.93 % and on profile present an accumulation<br />

tendency in the bottom horizons. As varieties,<br />

dominants are crystalline carbonates, and the major<br />

share at the total content of carbonates has calcite.<br />

Subordinate can appear: dolomite, rhodochrosite<br />

and siderite (in bottom horizons); a mixes<br />

carbonate Ca(Mg,Fe)(CO3)2 (possible ankerite) and

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

a large variety of basic carbonates (generally<br />

amorphous). Calcite: (i) appear as: (a) microgranular<br />

aggregates associated with soluble salts or<br />

clay minerals in the matrix of soil aggregates; (b)<br />

normal granular aggregates formed, probably, by<br />

chemical precipitation or re-crystallization of<br />

calcite amorphous gels; (ii) in inter-granular spaces<br />

from Apk, BCk and Ck horizons appear low oolitic<br />

depositions (2–5 mm) associated with variable<br />

quantities of sulphates, amorphous silica and<br />

phosphates.<br />

Horizons # ΔH; cm<br />

152<br />

Siderite (FeCO3) was identified only in<br />

bottom horizons, is on pedogenetic nature and<br />

appears as component of some spheluric<br />

formations, micro-nodules (with dimensions of 1–5<br />

mm) associated with calcite, manganese oxides<br />

and amorphous silica. In these micro-nodules, the<br />

siderite has graduated transitions on chlorite,<br />

lymonite and hematite. They genesis is correlated<br />

with weak acid – weak reducing media and<br />

bicarbonate, or carbonatation of iron oxyhydroxides<br />

from bottom horizons.<br />

Mineralogical composition of hortic antrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi<br />

Total;<br />

% FF<br />

Table 2<br />

Carbonates Silica (SiO2) Iron oxy-hydroxides<br />

Cryst.;<br />

% FF<br />

Amorph. Total;<br />

% FF<br />

Cryst.;<br />

% FF<br />

Amorph. Total;<br />

% FF<br />

Cryst.;<br />

% FF<br />

%<br />

Amorph.<br />

FF % TCarb. % FF % TSi % FF % FeOx<br />

IS.1 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 6 4,38 2.93 1.44 33.01 5.86 4.91 0.94 16.16 2.72 0.89 1.82 67.04<br />

Apk2 6 - 14 4,10 3.08 1.01 24.74 5.33 4.01 1.32 24.85 3.04 0.72 2.32 76.19<br />

Ahok(x)1 14 - 25 2,82 2.39 0.43 15.27 4.99 3.61 1.38 27.72 3.44 0.60 2.84 82.44<br />

Ahok(x)2 25 - 48 2,19 1.88 0.31 14.35 7.61 2.15 5.45 71.65 3.85 0.21 3.64 94.45<br />

BCk 48 - 56 8,94 7.65 1.29 14.45 6.25 2.28 3.97 63.47 2.91 0.67 2.24 76.95<br />

ABk 56 - 62 4,25 3.44 0.80 18.91 2.88 0.89 1.98 68.84 2.02 0.18 1.83 90.72<br />

Ck 62 - 75 10,69 9.60 1.09 10.21 5.85 3.74 2.11 36.05 2.63 0.75 1.87 71.14<br />

Average on profile 5,34 4.42 0.91 18.71 5.54 3.09 2.45 44.10 2.95 0.58 2.37 79.85<br />

Average on TH 3,77 2.80 0.96 24.34 5.40 4.18 1.22 22.91 3.07 0.74 2.32 75.22<br />

Average on BH 7,96 6.90 1.06 14.52 4.99 2.30 2.68 56.12 2.52 0.53 1.98 79.60<br />

IS.2 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 5 3,97 2.84 1.12 28.27 4.65 4.00 0.65 14.06 3.17 1.20 1.96 61.96<br />

Apk2 5 - 12 3,76 3.12 0.63 16.80 4.88 3.27 1.61 33.05 2.28 0.98 1.30 57.01<br />

Ahok(x)1 12 - 21 3,19 2.62 0.56 17.68 5.43 3.65 1.77 32.70 3.26 0.57 2.69 82.38<br />

Ahok(x)2 21 - 40 2,58 2.32 0.25 9.88 7.69 2.54 5.15 66.97 3.52 0.32 3.19 90.72<br />

BCk 40 - 60 5,39 3.58 1.80 33.46 5.59 3.10 2.48 44.40 2.13 0.76 1.37 64.39<br />

Ck 60 - 75 8,21 6.97 1.23 15.06 7.37 4.61 2.76 37.46 2.48 0.98 1.49 60.25<br />

Average on profile 4,51 3.58 0.93 20.19 5.94 3.53 2.40 38.11 2.81 0.80 2.00 69.45<br />

Average on TH 3,64 2.86 0.77 20.92 4.99 3.64 1.34 26.60 2.90 0.92 1.98 67.12<br />

Average on BH 6,80 5.28 1.52 24.26 6.48 3.86 2.62 40.93 2.31 0.87 1.43 62.32<br />

SPAN<br />

Average on span 4,93 4.00 0.92 19.45 5.74 3.31 2.43 41.10 2.88 0.69 2.18 74.65<br />

Average on TH 3,70 2.83 0.86 22.63 5.19 3.91 1.28 24.75 2.99 0.83 2.15 71.17<br />

Average on BH 7,38 6.09 1.29 19.39 5.74 3.08 2.65 48.52 2.41 0.70 1.71 70.96<br />

Average on Ahok(x)2 2,39 2.10 0.28 12.11 7.65 2.35 5.30 69.31 3.69 0.27 3.42 92.59<br />

% FF – gravimetrical percents reported to the fine fraction of soil. % TCarb. – percents from total carbonates content. % TSi –<br />

percents from total silica content. % FeOx – percents from total iron oxides and oxy-hydroxides content. Cryst. –<br />

crystallized minerals. Amorph. – amorphous mineral. TH – top horizons (situated above of Ahok(x)2 horizon). BH –<br />

bottom horizons (situated below Ahok(x)2 horizon).<br />

● Total content of silica has an average<br />

value of 5.74 % (tab. 2), and quantitative dominant<br />

shape has crystalline silica (quartz). Amorphous<br />

silica has unexpected higher contents, large<br />

variation limits and has a maximum value in<br />

Ahok(x)2 horizon (5.20 %). Amorphous silica: (i)<br />

is presented as: (a) colomorph aggregates, with<br />

frequently inclusions of clay minerals, iron oxides<br />

and oxy-hydroxides and organic matter; (b)<br />

pelicular depositions on the surface of soil<br />

aggregates; (c) spheroidal depositions (bottom<br />

horizons); (d) binder constituent of soil aggregates;<br />

(ii) is present as main component of some<br />

depositions with solid solution character: SiO2-<br />

Al2O3 (Fe2O3, MPO4, MCO3); (iv) amorphous<br />

silica was probably formed by deposition from<br />

solution or colloidal forms, the dynamic of this<br />

process being controlled by local variation of pH.<br />

The absence of clear genetic relationship between<br />

amorphous and crystalline forms of silica suggest<br />

that the probable formation of silicate gel by silica<br />

leaching processes from authigenic minerals,<br />

silica-organic or organic minerals complexes,<br />

under a slightly alkaline pH, followed by rapid<br />

deposition (in top horizons) or slower (in bottom<br />

horizons, in conditions of weak acid pH).<br />

● Iron oxides and oxy-hydroxides have<br />

lower contents compared with ordinary soils,

although the extractable iron is higher. This shown<br />

that a significant quantity of iron is included in<br />

clay-iron-humic complexes composition.<br />

Dominant share have amorphous iron oxides and<br />

oxy-hydroxides, with an average content of span of<br />

2.18 % and a higher value for the Ahok(x)2<br />

horizon – cca. 92.59 % from total iron oxides and<br />

oxy-hydroxides content (tab. 2).<br />

● Compared with ordinary soils, in the<br />

anthrosol from Copou greenhouse – Iasi, the total<br />

content of organic matter is higher (average on<br />

span: 8.86 %), and the distribution way on profile<br />

and its dynamic has a particular character.<br />

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Non-humic organic compounds have<br />

unexpected higher contents (tab. 3) and include a<br />

wide variety of compounds – polar organic<br />

compounds, with medium and small molecular<br />

mass, from mono- and di-carboxylic acids,<br />

aminoacids, phenolic acids, hydroxialdehydes and<br />

hydroxiketones, phosphoric esthers of organic<br />

acids, olygomer polypeptidesmono- and oligosaccharides,<br />

etc. The particular note of organic<br />

matter from studied antrosol is given by the high<br />

content of phytic cids and phosphoric esthers of<br />

these – especially in case of Ahok(x) horizons.<br />

Organic components of anthrosols from Copou greenhouse – Iasi<br />

Table 3<br />

Horizons # ΔH; cm TMO Non-humic compounds(1) Humus Huminic acids Fulvic acids<br />

% FF % TOM % FF % TOM % FF % TOM % FF % TOM<br />

IS.1 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 6 9.65 0.10 1.03 9.55 98.97 8.16 84.56 1.34 13.93<br />

Apk2 6 - 14 11.72 0.15 1.30 11.57 98.70 9.99 85.23 1.51 12.91<br />

Ahok(x)1 14 - 25 9.85 0.12 1.27 9.73 98.73 6.92 70.31 2.73 27.71<br />

Ahok(x)2 25 - 48 10.60 0.39 3.73 10.21 96.27 5.49 51.87 4.60 43.42<br />

BCk 48 - 56 7.19 0.14 1.99 7.051 98.01 4.11 57.18 2.90 40.37<br />

ABk 56 - 62 7.50 0.20 2.71 7.30 97.29 4.12 54.87 3.12 41.64<br />

Ck 62 - 75 3.75 0.03 0.87 3.72 99.13 2.12 56.51 1.58 42.10<br />

Average on profile 8.61 0.16 1.84 8.45 98.16 5.85 65.79 2.54 31.73<br />

Average on top horizons 10.40 0.12 1.20 10.28 98.80 8.36 80.03 1.86 18.18<br />

Average on bottom horizons 6.15 0.13 1.86 6.02 98.14 3.45 56.19 2.54 41.37<br />

IS.2 PROFILE<br />

Apk1 0 - 5 10.79 0.91 8.41 9.89 91.59 8.47 78.55 1.37 12.72<br />

Apk2 5 - 12 11.13 0.88 7.98 10.25 92.02 8.59 77.12 1.62 14.42<br />

Ahok(x)1 12 - 21 9.47 0.14 1.50 9.34 98.50 6.73 71.07 2.54 26.76<br />

Ahok(x)2 21 - 40 10.97 0.35 3.17 10.62 96.83 5.75 52.37 4.79 43.63<br />

BCk 40 - 60 9.00 0.78 8.66 8.22 91.33 4.25 47.16 3.91 43.45<br />

Ck 60 - 75 3.28 0.03 0.87 3.25 99.13 1.90 57.91 1.33 40.51<br />

Average on profile 9.11 0.65 6.61 8.59 94.90 5.95 64.02 2.59 30.25<br />

Average on top horizons 10.46 0.65 5.96 9.82 94.04 7.93 75.57 1.84 17.96<br />

Average on bottom horizons 6.14 0.81 9.29 5.74 95.23 3.07 52.54 2.62 41.98<br />

SPAN<br />

Average on span 8.86 0.41 4.22 8.52 96.53 5.90 64.91 2.57 30.99<br />

Average on top horizons 10.43 0.38 3.58 10.05 96.42 8.15 77.80 1.85 18.08<br />

Average on bottom horizons 6.14 0.47 5.57 5.88 96.68 3.26 54.36 2.58 41.68<br />

Average Ahok(x)2 horizon 10.78 0.37 3.44 10.41 96.55 5.62 52.12 4.69 43.52<br />

TOM – total organic matter. % FF – percents reported to the fine fraction of soil (< 2.00 mm). % TOM – percents form total<br />

content of organic matter. (1) Un-bonded compounds on humus (soluble).<br />

In humus composition, dominants are<br />

huminic acids (tab. 3), but the fulvic acids content<br />

is unexpected high compared with ordinary soils.<br />

On profile, the content of fulvic acids increase,<br />

until at value comparable with huminic acids<br />

content – case of bottom horizons. Correlated<br />

with this variation is changed and the humus<br />

character: from mull type humus – top horizons,<br />

to calcic mull type humus and then morder type –<br />

bottom horizons.<br />

In conditions from top horizons, the<br />

mineralization and decomposition processes of<br />

organic matter are very vigorous, resulting in a<br />

higher degree of maturation of humus (but its<br />

lower accumulation soil), the existence of relative<br />

reduced fraction of non-humic organic<br />

compounds and a strong accumulation of nutritive<br />

elements and nitrogen compounds (Lăcătuşu R.,<br />

2000; Filipov, F., 2005). In conditions of bottom<br />

horizons, the oxidation processes of organic<br />

matter are weak and arising relative slow, and its<br />

decomposition load to the formation of organic<br />

acids and then to CH4, H2S etc. As a results, the<br />

humification processes are slowly, being favoured<br />

by bitumization processes of fats, waxes and<br />

resins (Lăcătuşu R., 2000). In consequence, for<br />

bottom horizons of anthrosol from Copou<br />

greenhouse – Iasi, characteristic are relative<br />

reduced maturation degree of humus (morder type<br />

humus) and the existence of relative high and<br />

wide fraction of non-humic organic compounds.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Dominant mineral components of anthrosol<br />

from Copou greenhouse – Iasi are clay minerals.<br />

These appear in a relatively wide variety of types<br />

and occurrence forms, and present characteristic<br />

variation on profile. Representative clay minerals<br />

are smectite, illitele and kaolinite; subordinate<br />

may appear: halloysite, hydromicas, vermicullite,<br />

dickite, beidellite, glauconite, etc.<br />

In the anthrosol from Copou greenhouse –<br />

Iasi, the total content of organic matter is higher<br />

than in ordinary soils (average: 8.86 %), and the<br />

distribution way on profile and its dynamic has a<br />

particular character. Non-humic compounds have<br />

unexpected higher content and include a wide<br />

variety of chemical compounds. The particular<br />

note of non-humic organic matter from studied<br />

antrosol is given by high contents of phytic acids<br />

and phosphoric esther of these, in case of Ahok(x)<br />

horizons. In composition of humus, dominant are<br />

huminic acids. On profile, the fulvic acids content<br />

increase until a comparable values with huminic<br />

acids content. Correlated with this variation is<br />

changed and the humus character: from mull type<br />

humus (top horizons), to mull calcic humus and<br />

then morder type humus (bottom horizons).<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

Financial support for the studies was provided<br />

by the Ministry of Education and Research, Romania –<br />

A.N.C.S (contract PNCDI no. 51045 / 2007).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Aiken, G.R., McKnight, D.M., Wershaw, R.L.,<br />

McCarthy, P. (eds.), 1985 – Humic substance in<br />

soil, sediments and water: geochemistry,<br />

isolation, and characterization. Wiley, New York.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Filipov, F., Rusu, C., Bulgariu, L., 2010<br />

– Mineralogy and geochemistry of soils from<br />

glass houses and solariums. Geophysical<br />

Research Abstracts, vol. 12, A-14024.<br />

Bulgariu, D., Filipov, F., Rusu, C., Bulgariu, L., 2012<br />

– The pedogeochemistry of hortic anthrosol from<br />

Copou – Iaşi glass house (part I). Lucr. Şt., seria<br />

<strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 55 / 2012, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi (in<br />

press).<br />

Cady, J.G., Wilding, L.P., Drees, L.R., 1986 –<br />

Petrographic Microscope Techniques, p. 185-<br />

218. In: Klute A. (ed.), „Methods of soil analysis.<br />

Part I – Physical and mineralogical methods”.<br />

SSSA Book Ser. No. 5. SSSA and ASA,<br />

Madison, WI.<br />

Dean, J.A., 1995 – Analytical Chemistry Handbook.<br />

McGraw Hill, Inc., New York.<br />

Filipov, F., Tomiţă, O., Lupaşcu, A., 2004 – Procese<br />

de degradare a solurilor din sere. Factori şi<br />

procese pedogenetice din zona temperată, vol.<br />

3, p. 219-224.<br />

Filipov, F., 2005 – Pedologie. Ed. „Ion Ionescu de la<br />

Brad”, U.Ş.A,M.V. Iaşi.<br />

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Filipov, F., Bulgariu, D., Secu, C., Buzgar, N., Stoian,<br />

M., 2008 – Contributions to the study of<br />

mineralogy and geochemistry of hortic<br />

anthrosols from Bacău glasshouses. Lucr. Şt.,<br />

seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 50, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi.<br />

Florea, N., Munteanu, I., 2003 – Sistemul Român de<br />

Taxonomie a Solurilor. Ed. „Estfalia”, Bucureşti.<br />

Jackson, M.L., Lim, C.H., Zelazny, L.W., 1986 –<br />

Oxides, Hydroxides, and Aluminosilicates, . 101-<br />

150. In: A.Klute (ed.) „Methods of soil analysis.<br />

Part I – Physical and mineralogical methods”,<br />

2nd ed. SSSA Book Ser. No. 5. SSSA and ASA,<br />

Madison, WI.<br />

Jenkins, R., McClune, W.F., Maguire, T.M.,<br />

Holomany, M.A., Mrose, M.E., Post, B.,<br />

Weissmann, S., Zwell, L., Morris, M.C., 1988 –<br />

Powder Diffraction File. Inorganic Phases.<br />

JCPDS International Center for Diffraction Data,<br />

PA, USA.<br />

Lăcătuşu, R., 2000 – Mineralogia şi chimia solului. Ed.<br />

Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” din Iaşi.<br />

McBride, M.B., 1986 – Magnetic Methods. In: Klute A.<br />

(ed.) „Methods of soil analysis. Part I – Physical<br />

and mineralogical methods”, 2nd ed. SSSA<br />

Book Ser. No. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI.<br />

Pansu, M., Gautheyrou, J., 2006 – Handbook of Soil<br />

Analysis. Mineralogical, Organic and Inorganic<br />

Methods. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.<br />

Schnitzer, M., Schuppli, P., 1989 – Method for the<br />

sequential extraction of organic matter from soil<br />

and soil fractions. J. Amer. Soil Sci., 53, 5, p.<br />

1418-1424.<br />

Secu, C.V., Patriche, C.V., 2007 – Solurile lumii.<br />

Clasificare, răspândire, caracteristici. Ed. „Terra<br />

Nostra”, Iaşi.<br />

Swift, R.S., 1996 – Organic matter characterization, p.<br />

1018-1020. In: „Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3.<br />

Chemical Methods” (eds. D.S. Sparks, J.M.<br />

Bartels, and J.M. Bigham), Soil Science Society<br />

of America.<br />

Tan, K.H., Hajek, B.F., Barshad, I., 1986 – Thermal<br />

Analysis Techniques, p. 151-184. In: A.Klute<br />

(ed.) „Methods of soil analysis. Part I – Physical<br />

and mineralogical methods”, 2nd ed. SSSA<br />

Book Ser. No. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI.<br />

Whitting, L.D., Allardice, W.R., 1996 – X-ray<br />

diffraction techniques, p. 336-341. In: A.Klute<br />

(ed.), „Methods of soil analysis. Part I – Physical<br />

and mineralogical methods”, 2nd ed. SSSA<br />

Book Ser. No. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI.<br />

White, J.L., Roth, C.B., 1986 – Infrared spectrometry,<br />

p. 291-330. SSSA Book Series: 9 Methods of<br />

Soil Analysis. Part. 1 – Physical and<br />

Mineralogical Methods (second Edition; A.Klute,<br />

Ed.). Soil Science Society of America, Inc.,<br />

American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Madison,<br />

Wisconsin.<br />

Zou, M.-Y., Unbehauen, R., 1995 – A deconvolution<br />

method for spectroscopy. Meas. Sci. Technol.,<br />

6, p. 482.

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<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INCREASING SOIL STRUCTURE STABILIZATION WITH CARBOXYLIC<br />

POLYECTROLYTE<br />

Mihai CARA 1 , Irina COROI 1 , Gerard JITAREANU 1<br />

e-mail: caramihai2005@yahoo.com<br />

Abstract<br />

Plants growth and development, water and soil solution are highly connected to its physical properties. Application of<br />

synthetic polymers as soil conditioners improves soil physical properties which increase soil resistance against<br />

disruptive forces and erosion. The objective of this study was to establish the direct effect of carboxylic polyelectrolyte<br />

“Ponilit GT1” on soil structure and indirectly on some physical properties, bulk density, total porosity and penetration<br />

resistance. The researches have been conducted at the Didactical and Experimental Research Station Ezareni belonging<br />

to ’’Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ University of Agriculture Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, Romania. A randomized<br />

complete block design with three replications was used in the experiment. Carboxylic polyelectrolyte ”Ponilit GT1”<br />

was applied at 0.1% and 0.3% concentrations. Soil structure development was evaluated by comparing the structural<br />

parameters treated with those untreated with carboxylic polyelectrolyte. The result of this study shows increased values<br />

of studied parameters after application of carboxylic polyelectrolyte within sowing-emergence period and only 0-5 cm<br />

depth. Because the thickness of the soil treated with polymeric substances is small, the values of studied parameters in<br />

12-15 cm depth and 22-27 cm respectively, are not significantly different remaining within limits close to control.<br />

Key words: Polymers, structure, bulk density.<br />

Maintenance and improvement of soil<br />

fertility are imperative to meet the increasing<br />

demand for food in the word (Tumsavas et al.,<br />

2011). An agricultural soil with poor quality may<br />

not possess all of the attributes required for good<br />

agricultural production, or it may be prone to<br />

environmental degradation (Reynolds et al.,<br />

2007). Soil with good physical qualities has the<br />

ability to store and transmit water, air and<br />

nutrients in maximum productivity conditions and<br />

minimum environmental conditions (Topp et al.,<br />

1997). The growth and development of plants,<br />

hydric regime and soil solution are related to its<br />

physical properties (Hamza et al., 2005). The<br />

presence or absence of water stable aggregate on<br />

soil surface tends to an immediate effect on crust<br />

formation and on increasing hydric erosion of<br />

soils (Shouse et al., 1990). Soils shows at the<br />

surface an amounted percent of water stable<br />

aggregate, have a good resistance to hydric and<br />

aeolian erosion, comparative with the soil where<br />

the percent of unstable aggregate is sizable<br />

(Lehrsch et al., 2005). Soil structure undergoes<br />

change that leads to its degradation processes<br />

through structure, vulnerability to crust formation<br />

under the influence of direct and indirect rain, soil<br />

tillage and other factors (Canarache 1990; Yonts<br />

et al., 2001; Jitareanu et al., 2007).<br />

Synthetic polymers added to different soils<br />

to improve soils physical, chemical and biological<br />

properties, have been studied by many researchers<br />

(Kulman A., 1962; Mandel M., 1988; Chiţanu G.,<br />

2005; Jităreanu et al., 2006; Voicu P., 2008 ), and<br />

the use of these polymers is known in the last 60<br />

years by several works already accessible (Azzam<br />

R., 1980; DeBoodt M., 1990). Synthetic polymers<br />

added to soil as soil conditioners improve soil<br />

physical properties, are important for plant growth<br />

and increases soils resistance against disruptive<br />

forces and erosion (Öztaş T., 2002).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The field experiments were conducted in<br />

2006-2009 on a cambic chernozem soil, 6.8 pH,<br />

2.7% humus content and a medium level of<br />

fertilization. The texture of the surface soil (0-30<br />

cm) is clay-loamy with 40.3-41.8% clay content.<br />

The trial is a randomized block design with three<br />

replication, and two factors (AXB type). Plots<br />

covered an area of 18 m 2 . The experimental<br />

variants were:<br />

Factor A: tillage systems: a1– ploughed at 30 cm;<br />

a2– paraplow + vertical rotary harrow; a3-<br />

paraplow + horizontal rotary harrow; a4- chisel;<br />

a5– disk harrow and Factor B: macromolecular<br />

compound: b1-control variant b2 - soil treated with<br />

0.1% Ponilit GT1 a.i. ha -1 ; b3 - soil treated with<br />

0.3% Ponilit GT1 a.i. ha -1 .<br />

We studied the evolution of soil bulk density, total<br />

porosity, penetration resistance, and water<br />

stability of aggregates under the influence of<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

carboxylic polyelectrolyte Ponilit GT1 (27.7% a. i).<br />

Soil samples were collected from different depths<br />

after sowing, during the growing period and at<br />

harvest time.<br />

For determining water stability of<br />

aggregates from disturbed soil samples we used<br />

Kemper and Rosenau method (1986), a standard<br />

method according to Nimmo J.R. and Perkins K.S.<br />

(2002). We used a wet sieving apparatus<br />

(Eijkelkamp Equipment) that determines the<br />

percent of aggregates with water stability and<br />

those resistant to the dispersive action of sodium<br />

hydroxide in aqueous solution. Soil bulk density<br />

was determined with 5/5 cm and 100 cm 3 volume<br />

steel rings. The values were obtained by<br />

comparing absolute dry soil weight from the ring<br />

to its known volume. The penetration resistance of<br />

the soil was determined using a digital<br />

penetrologger (Eijkelkamp Equipment, Model<br />

0615-01 Eijkelkamp, Giesbeek, The Netherlands)<br />

which had a cone angle of 60 o and a base area of<br />

1 cm 2 . 25 parallel records were made in each plot<br />

an averaged for statistical analysis. The ANOVA<br />

procedure was used for statistical analysis of the<br />

results.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The aim of this study was to evaluate the<br />

effect of tillage systems and macromolecular<br />

156<br />

compound Ponilit GT1 on some soil physical<br />

properties from Ezareni-The Experimental Farm<br />

of Agricultural University of Iasi.<br />

In all treatments, soil bulk density<br />

decreased in 0-5 cm layer compared to the<br />

control, because the soil became loose after<br />

polymer application. The looser soil permits more<br />

rainfall infiltration, facilitates microorganism<br />

movement and allows exchanges of water, gases<br />

and heat in the soil (Wu S. et al 2010). The results<br />

are in Table 1. Analyzing soil bulk density in 0-5<br />

cm depth, this indicator had the lowest values<br />

(1.02-1.12 g cm -3 ) in variant treated with 0.3%<br />

Ponilit GT1. The values increased to 1.13 and<br />

1.16 g cm -3 respectively for 0.1% Ponilit GT1 and<br />

control variant. In 12-17 and 22-27 cm layer, we<br />

observed that the concentrations of polymeric<br />

substances Ponilit GT1 have no influence on bulk<br />

density values. No significant differences on 0-5,<br />

12-17 and 22-27 cm depth were detected between<br />

soil treated with 0.1 and 0.3% polymeric<br />

substance Ponilit GT1 and control variant. Total<br />

porosity an important indicator of soil conditions<br />

is reflecting soil settlement state. The Ponilit GT1<br />

treatments affected the total porosity values only<br />

in 0-5 cm layer and only on soil samples taken at<br />

sowing time.<br />

Table 1<br />

The influence of tillage system and polymeric substances on soil bulk density (g cm -3 ) at soybean crop<br />

mean values 2006-2009<br />

Tillage<br />

system<br />

Plough 30<br />

cm<br />

Paraplow+<br />

vertical<br />

harrow<br />

Paraplow+<br />

orizontal<br />

harrow<br />

Chisel<br />

Disk harrow<br />

Dose<br />

Sowing Growing period Harvest<br />

(%) 0-5 cm 12-17 cm 22-27 cm 0-5 cm 12-17 cm 22-27 cm 0-5 cm 12-17 cm 22-27 cm<br />

Control 1.11 1.22 1.31 1.22 1.33 1.38 1.27 1.39 1.42<br />

0.1% 1.07 1.22 1.31 1.22 1.33 1.38 1.27 1.39 1.43<br />

0.3% 1.07 1.21 1.31 1.22 1.33 1.38 1.27 1.40 1.43<br />

Control 1.09 1.29 1.45 1.20 1.38 1.49 1.25 1.43 1.49<br />

0.1% 1.07 1.29 1.46 1.19 1.37 1.49 1.25 1.42 1.49<br />

0.3% 1.05 1.29 1.45 1.19 1.37 1.49 1.25 1.42 1.49<br />

Control 1.06 1.30 1.45 1.20 1.39 1.49 1.26 1.43 1.50<br />

0.1% 1.04 1.30 1.45 1.20 1.40 1.48 1.26 1.43 1.49<br />

0.3% 1.02 1.29 1.45 1.20 1.40 1.48 1.27 1.43 1.50<br />

Control 1.08 1.24 1.42 1.19 1.32 1.49 1.25 1.40 1.51<br />

0.1% 1.06 1.24 1.42 1.19 1.32 1.49 1.25 1.40 1.52<br />

0.3% 1.05 1.25 1.42 1.19 1.33 1.49 1.25 1.40 1.51<br />

Control 1.16 1.40 1.47 1.25 1.45 1.51 1.31 1.48 1.54<br />

0.1% 1.13 1.40 1.47 1.26 1.45 1.51 1.32 1.48 1.54<br />

0.3% 1.12 1.40 1.47 1.25 1.45 1.51 1.32 1.48 1.55<br />

The total porosity values from 0-5 cm layer<br />

registered after sowing mean values between<br />

56.35-60.00% at control variant and higher values<br />

between 57.36-60.88% and 57.74-61.38% at<br />

variants treated with 0.1 and 0.3% polymeric<br />

substances respectively. The application of Ponilit<br />

GT1 to chernozem soil caused increases in total<br />

porosity; this may be due to micro structural<br />

development, which caused a high pore volume in<br />

this soil. On 12-17 and 22-27 cm depth no<br />

significant differences were detected. The<br />

penetration resistance varied only in 0-5 cm with<br />

the concentration applied. Penetration resistance<br />

decreased with concentration and only from<br />

sowing to emergence period. The smallest values<br />

were registered at 0.3% Ponilit GT1 variant.

Carboxylic polyelectrolyte Ponilit GT1<br />

improves aggregate stability in soil and prevents<br />

dispersion of organic and mineral particles.<br />

157<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Adding polymers changed the water stable<br />

aggregate content of the soil (Table 2).<br />

Table 2<br />

The influence of tillage system and polymeric substances on water stable<br />

aggregates at soybean crop mean values 2006-2009<br />

Tillage system Variant<br />

Plough 30 cm<br />

Paraplow+vertical<br />

harrow<br />

Paraplow+orizontal<br />

harrow<br />

Chisel<br />

Disk harrow<br />

The higher improvements compared to the<br />

control occurred in the 0.3% Ponilit GT1<br />

treatment. The values of water stable aggregate<br />

registered at 0.1% polymer a.i ha -1 are higher with<br />

17.5-19.3% compared with control variant and<br />

lower with 9.0-10.0% from 0.3 % polymer a.i ha -1<br />

variant. From the point of view of concentration,<br />

the higher mean values of water stable aggregates<br />

were registered at the doses of 0.3% polymer a.i<br />

ha -1 , with minimum values registered by disk<br />

harrow (69.1%), and maximum values for<br />

ploughed at 30 cm variant (74.65%) chisel<br />

(71.25%) and paraplow variant (70.35 – 70.70%).<br />

This may be due to soil particles that were<br />

aggregate and most of the aggregates were water<br />

stable. The statistical analysis of mean values of<br />

water stable aggregate, have shown that the<br />

indicator registered higher values between 19%<br />

and 29% for 0.1% and 0.3% concentration<br />

respectively compared to control variant (55.2%),<br />

the difference being significant. The results<br />

registered, confirm the beneficial effect of Ponilit<br />

GT1 on increasing hydric stability and improving<br />

soil structure quality.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The results of this study have shown<br />

beneficial effects of polymer Ponilit GT1 applied<br />

Water stable<br />

aggregate<br />

Statistical<br />

Significations<br />

Control 58.00 100.0 Mt.<br />

0.1% 69.00 119.0 xxx<br />

0.3% 74.50 128.4 xxx<br />

Control 55.00 100.0 Mt.<br />

0.1% 65.50 119.1 xxx<br />

0.3% 70.50 128.2 xxx<br />

Control 54.50 100.0 Mt.<br />

0.1% 65.00 119.0 xxx<br />

0.3% 71.00 130.3 xxx<br />

Control 54.90 100.0 Mt.<br />

0.1% 65.20 118.8 xxx<br />

0.3% 71.85 130.9 xxx<br />

Control 53.80 100.0 Mt.<br />

0.1% 63.20 117.5 xxx<br />

0.3% 69.10 128.4 xxx<br />

on soil surface through the modification of its<br />

physical properties. It contributed to reduction of<br />

soil bulk density and penetrability and increases<br />

the content of water stable aggregate and soil<br />

porosity. Consequently the improved structure<br />

increased the seedling emergence and soybean<br />

yields. 0.3% Ponilit GT1 variant had superior<br />

performance with respect to improvment of soil<br />

aggregate properties and performance of soybean<br />

crop compared with control variant. The values of<br />

soil bulk density in 0-5 cm depth decreased with<br />

increasing dose of Ponilit GT1 application, which<br />

caused a high pore volume in this soil as suported<br />

by total porosity values. Increase the rate of<br />

application the higher the water stable aggregate<br />

and strength of individual aggregates against<br />

crushing forces.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Azzam R. A. I., 1980 - Agricultural polymers.<br />

Polyacrylamide preparation, application and<br />

prospects in soil conditioning, commun. Soil sci.<br />

Plant analyses, 1-8, p. 67-83.<br />

Canarache A., 1990 - Fizica solurilor agricole, Editura<br />

Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Chiţanu G.C., 2002-2005 - Coordonator. Noi materiale<br />

multifuncţionale pe baza de copolimeri maleici<br />

pentru protecţia mediului şi bioaplicaţii, proiect<br />

Matnatech c.111, WWW.ICMPP.RO/~CHITA/.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

DeBoodt M.F., 1990 - Application of polymeric<br />

substances as physical soil conditioners. In soil<br />

colloids and their association in aggregates<br />

(M.F.De Boodt). Plenum press, New-York.<br />

Hamza M.A. Anderson W.K., 2005 - Soil compaction in<br />

cropping systems: A review of the nature, causes<br />

and possible solutions. Soil and Till. Res., vol. 82,<br />

issue, p. 121-145.<br />

Jităreanu G., Chiţanu G.C., Filipov F., Harabagiu V.,<br />

2006 - Improvement of some soi land horticultural<br />

substrata properties by using of maleic anhydride<br />

copolymers. Inter, Soil Till. Res. Organ. 17 th<br />

Triennial Conf. Kiel, Germany, p. 804-809. ISBN:<br />

3-9811134-0-3.<br />

Jităreanu G., Ailincăi C., Ailincăi Despina, Zbanţ<br />

Mioara, Răus L., Bălan Adriana, Cara M.S.,<br />

2007 - Evoluţia unor indici fizici şi agrochimici ai<br />

solului şi a producţiei sub influenţa fertilizării<br />

îndelungate. Workshop, Iaşi. Ed. “I.I.Brad”. ISBN<br />

978-973-7921-94-9.<br />

Kulman A., 1962 - Uber den Einfluss einiger<br />

dungungesvarianten des Feldversuchesv<br />

Ewinger Roggenwan (Halle-S) and die<br />

Bodenstruktur. Albrecht, Thaer. Arch., 6.<br />

Lehrsch G.A., Bjorneberg D.L., Sojka R.E., 2005 -<br />

Erosion: Irrigation-induced. In Encycl. of Soils in<br />

the Environ. Ed. D Hillel. Vol. 1, pp. 445-463.<br />

Elsevier Ltd., Oxford.<br />

Mandel M., 1988 - Polyelectrolytes in encycl. Polym.<br />

Sci. Eng., 2 nd edn., john wiley and sons, vol. 11,<br />

p. 739-829.<br />

Nimmo J.R., Perkins, K.S., 2002 – Aggregate stability<br />

and size distribution, in Methods of soil Analysis<br />

Part 4- Physical methods, Soil Science Society of<br />

America, Madison, WI, p. 317-328, ISBN<br />

0891188479.<br />

Öztaş T., Özbek A.K., Aksakal E.L., 2002 - Structural<br />

developments in soil treated with<br />

158<br />

Polyvinylalcohol. Int. Conf. on Sust. Soil Sci. Soc.<br />

of Turkey Int. Symp. 143-148, Anakkale.<br />

Reynolds W.D., Druly C.F., Yang X. M., Fox C.A., Tan<br />

C.S., Zhang T.Q., 2007 - Land management<br />

effects on the near-surface physical quality of<br />

clay loam soil. Soil Till. Research. 96: 316-330.<br />

Rusu T., Paullette Laura, Cacovean H., Turcu V.,<br />

2007 - Fizica, hidrofizica, chimia şi respiraţia<br />

solului. Met. de cerc. Ed. Risoprint, Cluj Nap,p.<br />

53-56. ISSN 978-973-751-512-4.<br />

Shouse P.J., Gerik T.J., Russell WB., Cassel D.K.,<br />

1990 - Spatial distribution of soil particle size and<br />

aggregate stability index in a clay soil. Soil. Sci.<br />

149 (6). 351-360.<br />

Topp G.C., Reynolds W.D., Cook F.J., Kirby J.M.,<br />

Carter M.R., 1997 - Physical attributes of soil<br />

quality. In:Gregorich, E.G., Carter,vol. 25.<br />

Elsevier, New York, pp. 21-58.<br />

Tumsavas Zeynal, Tumsavas Fatma, 2011 - The effect<br />

of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) application on runoff,<br />

soil loss and drainage water under simulated<br />

rainfall conditions. Journal of food agriculture and<br />

Environment Vol.9 (2):757-762.<br />

Voicu P., 2008 - Cercetări privind utilizarea polimerilor în<br />

Agricultură. Ed. Bren. Bucureşti, ISBN 978-648-<br />

814-6.<br />

Yonts C.D., Palm K.L., 2001 - Irrigation management.<br />

In Sugarbeet Production Guide. Ed. RG Wilson.<br />

Pp. 161-178. Univ. of Nebraska Coop. Ext. Bull.<br />

EC 01-156.<br />

Wu S.F., Wu P.T., Feng H., 2010 - Effect of the PPA on<br />

soil Physical properties and soil erosion under<br />

Artificial rainfall experiment in Loess Slope. 2 nd<br />

conference on environmental Science and<br />

information Application Technology, p. 48-51.<br />

***Soil Science Society of America, 1997 - Glossary of<br />

soil science terms. Soil Science Society of<br />

America, Madison, WI.

159<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EFFECT OF TILLAGE AND CULTIVAR ON OILSEED RAPE (BRASSICA<br />

NAPUS L.) YIELD IN THE NORTHERN AREA OF MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU<br />

Abstract<br />

Gheorghe CHIRIAC 1 , Lucian RAUS 1 , Gerard JITĂREANU 1<br />

e-mail: george.chiriac@uaiasi.ro<br />

A 2-year study was carried out on a cambic phaeozem (RSTS-2003) at ARDS Suceava to asses the effect of 3 tillage<br />

treatments (moldboard plough – MT, chisel – CT, disc-harrow – DT) and 50 rapeseed cultivars (41 hybrids and 9 openpollinated<br />

varieties from 10 seed companies) on yield for highlighting the most effective tillage treatments, and for<br />

selecting the most adapted and high yielding cultivars in the area. The effect of tillage was significant and the ranking of<br />

the treatments was MT>CT>DT in both years and in terms of the annual mean yield. The differences between<br />

treatments were significant (p≤ 0.05) in 11 out of 12 pairwise comparisons (Duncan test). The yield was almost 35%<br />

higher in the first year and the effect of cultivar within the same seed company varied on a yearly basis. In 2010/2011,<br />

there were more than one homogeneous yield subset (p≤ 0.05) in 8 out of 10 companies, showing a higher variability of<br />

data than in 2011/2012, when the variability of the data was diminished, and significant differences among cultivars<br />

existed only within 1 out of 10 companies. Further research is needed to estimate the combined effect of tillage and<br />

cultivar and its impact on yield and costs.<br />

Keywords: tillage, cultivar, yield<br />

The current world population exceeds 7,06<br />

billion and is projected to reach 8 billion by 2025,<br />

and the major challenge became achieving food<br />

security worldwide by enhancing food and fodder<br />

crop production. On the other hand, oil reserves<br />

will end in little more than 42 years if consumed at<br />

current rates (http://www.worldometers.info/) so it<br />

is necessary to use alternative energy sources,<br />

including biofuels, especially biodiesel made from<br />

vegetable oil. Rapeseed crop is the third most<br />

important source of vegetable oil (Beckman, 2005)<br />

used both in human nutrition and animal feeding,<br />

and for biofuel production. EU enacted the<br />

Directive on the promotion of the use of energy<br />

from renewable sources (RES-D), that specifies a<br />

50% reduction target of GHG emissions from<br />

biofuels of in comparison to fossil fuels for the<br />

transport sector by 2017 (Majer, 2011). Increased<br />

market demands for plant oils will result in the<br />

further rise of yield levels and a yet intensification<br />

of oilseed rape production (Tiedemann, 2011).<br />

On the other hand, the human induced<br />

degradation of natural resources, including soils<br />

represents a major concern for sustainability<br />

(Horn, 2009) and is imposing the adoption of<br />

conservation cropping systems (i.e. minimum,<br />

conservative or no-tillage) to mitigate its effects.<br />

Current expansion of oilseed rape<br />

production in Central and Eastern Europe with low<br />

rainfall and high seasonal temperature variation<br />

face up farmers with the emerging problem of<br />

selecting productive and resistant cultivars for<br />

adaptation to such climatic conditions, and the<br />

proper cropping system in terms of sustainability<br />

and productivity.<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iasi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The present experiment takes part from a<br />

research study that aims at optimising rapeseed<br />

cropping system for adaptation to biotic and abiotic<br />

stresses in 3 Agricultural Research and<br />

Development Stations from the central-northern<br />

area of Moldavian Plateau: Suceava, Secuieni and<br />

Podu-Iloaiei.<br />

It was carried out between 2010-2012 at<br />

Agricultural Research and Development Station<br />

Suceava, in the northern part of Moldavian Plateau<br />

(47 o 61.59’ N, 26 o 24.47’ E), on a cambic phaeozem<br />

(RSTS-2003) with 31.6% clay (0-20 cm soil layer),<br />

5.6-5.8 pH units and 3% humus content. Annual<br />

mean temperature in the area is 7.8 o C, and rainfall<br />

586.8 mm (Saicu, 2010).<br />

The trial was designed using a randomized<br />

complete block arrangement with three<br />

replications. Two experimental factors were<br />

considered: i) primary tillage with different

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

implements as treatments (moldboard plough,<br />

chisel and disc-harrow), and ii) rapeseed cultivar –<br />

41 hybrids and 9 open-pollinated varieties from the<br />

commercial offer of several seed companies.<br />

Besides tillage and cultivar choice, the cropping<br />

system was the same for all plots (tab. 1). Sowing<br />

automated weighing sensor system (GrainGage<br />

HM800, Junyper Systems) mounted on the<br />

combine.<br />

Statistical analysis was performed using<br />

IBM SPSS Statistics v.17.0. One-way ANOVA<br />

procedure was applied to test the effect of tillage<br />

and cultivar on yield for every year and for the<br />

entire period, and post-hoc multiple comparisons<br />

between treatments were made using Duncan test<br />

(p≤ 0.05).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Effect of tillage on rapeseed yield<br />

In rapeseed, as in all crops, the productivity<br />

of the same cultivar depends, among other factors,<br />

on region, year conditions and cropping system.<br />

Accordingly, yield can be improved by cultivar<br />

selection for specific growing conditions and by<br />

adjusting management practices such as tillage.<br />

Tillage affect the mechanical characteristics<br />

of the seedbed and thus crop emergence (Ozpinar<br />

and Cay, 2006) and its main objective is to<br />

160<br />

was performed using Plotseed XL (Wintersteiger)<br />

in 8 rows of 8 m in length and 25 cm inter-row<br />

spacing. In mid july all 450 plots were harvested<br />

using a small combine (Wintersteiger Classic) and<br />

yield per plot was assesed using an<br />

Table 1<br />

Cropping system in the field trial<br />

Link Materials Timing<br />

Fertilising<br />

scheme<br />

N16P36S54Ca44Mg4B0.3Zn0.2<br />

Seedbed preparation<br />

N60S30Ca14Mg6 Early spring<br />

Sowing 60 seeds m -2 for hybrids August 30 th<br />

70 seeds m -2 for open-pollinated varieties<br />

Herbicide Metazaclor 0.8 l ha<br />

spraying<br />

-1 for dicotyledonous weeds control After sowing but before seedling<br />

emergence<br />

Fenoxaprop-p-etil 75 g ha -1 for monocotyledonous 2-6 leaves of the weeds<br />

Insect control Tiacloprid 48 g ha -1 for flea beetles (Phyllotreta spp.),<br />

cabbage stem flea beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephala), sawfly<br />

(Athalia rosae) larvae, red turnip beetle (Entomoscelis<br />

adonidis), cabbage stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus napi);<br />

Over economic treshold<br />

Deltametrin 7,5 g ha -1 , cipermetrin 50 g l -1 + 500 g l -1 or<br />

clorpirifos(0,75 l ha -1 ) for pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus)<br />

In early flowering (B4-B6 CETIOM,<br />

59-61 BBCH)<br />

Disease control Tebuconazole 175 g ha -1 for Phoma In autumn, 4-6 leaves of rapeseed<br />

Azoxistrobin 150 g ha<br />

plants (F1 CETIOM, 14-16 BBCH)<br />

-1 + ciproconazole 60 g ha -1 for foliar<br />

disease complex<br />

Full flowering (F CETIOM, 65 BBCH)<br />

Harvesting Small combine for plots 8-15% seed moisture and no green<br />

siliquae<br />

produce an optimal soil state that should persist<br />

throughout crop vegetation with positive effect on<br />

yield.<br />

All tillage systems can be used in rapeseed<br />

crop (Axinte, 2006) with satisfactory output.<br />

Minimum tillage may result in crop yields which<br />

are equal or exceed those obtained after ploughing<br />

and small reductions may be tolerated if<br />

production costs are lower than with ploughing<br />

(Soane et al., 2012).<br />

In the last century, disadvantages of soil<br />

inversion have become more evident (Gruber et<br />

al., 2011) but, with few exceptions, less is known<br />

about the extent to which minimum and<br />

conservation tillage offers advantages and<br />

disadvantages under temperate climate from<br />

Central and Eastern Europe.<br />

As Rusu (2006) previously reported,<br />

rapeseed yield can be influenced by tillage. In the<br />

present study, yield was affected by primary<br />

tillage in both years (tab. 2). As expected, a<br />

positive yield response was observed in the<br />

conventional cropping system where moldboard<br />

Effect of tillage on rapeseed yield (kg ha -1 )* at ARDS Suceava<br />

Table 2<br />

Tillage treatment 2010/2011** 2011/2012 Mean/treatment<br />

Moldboard plough 4577.0 a 3390.6 a 3983.8 a<br />

Chisel 4505.2 a 2919.7 b 3712.5 b<br />

Disc harrow 4330.7 b 2432.4 c 3381.6 c<br />

Mean/year 4470.9 a 2914.2 b 3692.6<br />

* averaged over 50 cultivars, values followed by the same letter are not significantly different (p≤ 0.05); **different subsets<br />

per year, mean/treatment and mean/year analyzed separately

plough (MT) was used for primary tillage. Chisel<br />

tillage (CT) followed (mean annual difference<br />

6.8%) and disc-harrow (DT) use gave the lowest<br />

yield values, 15.1% lower than moldboard plough.<br />

In the first year of research, no significant<br />

difference (p≤ 0.05) was observed between MT<br />

and CT (71.8 kg ha -1 ) but the differences between<br />

MT and DT (246.3 kg ha -1 ), and CT and DT<br />

(174.5 kg ha -1 ) were significant.<br />

In 2011/2012, the effect of tillage treatment<br />

was more pronounced. Yield values belonged to<br />

different homogeneous subsets for p≤ 0.05. MT<br />

was 13.9% higher in comparison to CT and 28.3%<br />

in comparison to DT. CT was 16.7% higher than<br />

DT, all significant differences for p≤ 0.05.<br />

Mean yield per treatment (2010-2012)<br />

decreased from almost 4 t ha -1 in MT to 3,7 t ha -1<br />

in CT and to only 3.4 t ha -1 in DT. The effect of<br />

the year, considered random, was also obvious,<br />

with a difference of 1556.7 kg ha -1 between<br />

2010/2011 and 2011/2012.<br />

Effect of cultivar on rapeseed yield<br />

One of the most important options to obtain<br />

as much yield potential as possible (Farooq et al.,<br />

2011) in different climatic conditions and<br />

cropping systems is the selection of productive<br />

cultivars resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses.<br />

The plant breeders are investing more and<br />

more in hybrid rapeseed that is usually higher in<br />

grain and oil yield than open-pollinated varieties<br />

(Kraling et al., 2011) and have good vigour, but<br />

sometimes traditional open-pollinated varieties<br />

are better adapted to local conditions.<br />

Analysis of variance and post-hoc multiple<br />

comparisons performed on yield data showed that<br />

the effect of cultivar (tab. 3) was strongly<br />

infuenced by year, varietal differences within the<br />

same company being significant in most cases<br />

only in the first year. Higher yields (by 1556.7 kg<br />

ha -1 in average for all cultivars) and a higher data<br />

variability (range higher by 2194.1 kg ha -1 ) were<br />

observed in 2010/2011. For marketing reasons,<br />

only cultivars within the same seed company were<br />

compared. German DSV hybrids gave similar<br />

yields, within the same homogeneous subset (p≤<br />

0.05), with a mean per company of 4437.6 kg ha -1 .<br />

Two homogeneous subsets for the same p value<br />

were found for the second seed company: a<br />

superior one comprising two hybrids (Tripti CS -<br />

4651.2 kg ha -1 and Scelni CS - 4554.9 kg ha -1 ),<br />

and a significantly inferior one with Nodari CS<br />

(4206.2 kg ha -1 ) and Intense CS (4044.9 kg ha -1 )<br />

as representatives. Among cultivars produced by<br />

Dieckmann, Hycolor and Judie (OP) were the<br />

most performant in 2010/2011. The ranking of<br />

161<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

open-pollinated varieties produced by the<br />

romanian breeder ITC was Diana>Perla>Doina,<br />

Diana being significantly more productive<br />

(3901.8 kg ha -1 vs. 3562.3 kg ha -1 - Perla and<br />

3556.0 kg ha -1 - Doina). No significant difference<br />

(6.3 kg ha -1 ) was found between Perla and Doina.<br />

Among the five KWS hybrids, Brutus,<br />

Turan and Traviata gave more than 4.6 t ha -1 ,<br />

while Tassilo and Triangle were significantly<br />

inferior, yielding less than 4.4 t ha -1 . Monsanto<br />

participated in this study only with 3 hybrids of<br />

wich Extend was significantly better (4930.2 kg<br />

ha -1 ) than the others (Exagone and DK Example).<br />

The seven hybrids, most of them semidwarf, that<br />

Pioneer provided, showed a greater yield<br />

variability proven through five homogeneous<br />

subsets (p≤ 0.05), from „a” to „e” in the following<br />

decreasing order: a – PR46W30 (5004.8 kg ha -1 ),<br />

PR44W29 (4930.7 kg ha -1 ); ab – PR45D05<br />

(4846.4 kg ha -1 ), bc – PR46W21 (4718.9 kg ha -1 );<br />

c – PR45D03 (4633.7 kg ha -1 ), d – PR46W14<br />

(4333.5 kg ha -1 ), and e – PR44D06 (4151.3 kg ha -<br />

1 ). Saaten Union has made available 7 hybrids and<br />

3 good yielding open-pollinated varieties for the<br />

trial: Orkan, Noblesse and Bellevue. The best<br />

cultivar was Rohan (4584.3 kg ha -1 ), whose yield<br />

was significantly higher than that of Visby<br />

(4384.7 kg ha -1 ), Astrada (4271.7 kg ha -1 ),<br />

Bellevue (4199.4 kg ha -1 ) or Hercules (4120.8 kg<br />

ha -1 ). The Rustica hybrids (ES Hydromel, Olano,<br />

ES Betty and ES Alias) marketed by Sumiagro<br />

Romania proved homogeneity doubled by<br />

relatively high yielding capacity (around 4.5 t ha -1<br />

mean yield per 4 hybrids).<br />

In the second year, most of the cultivars<br />

showed no significant variability within the same<br />

company; the annual mean yield level was<br />

significantly lower by almost 35% (tab. 2),<br />

probably due to low rainfall in autumn when<br />

rapeseed plants were in the first growth stages,<br />

and to temperatures lower than -20 o C during the<br />

winter. As a response, cultivars behaved<br />

differently, another ranking being observed for the<br />

rapeseed cultivars of each company. For instance,<br />

the 10 cultivars of Saaten Union were divided in<br />

two homogeneous subsets instead of four: Vectra<br />

(3117.3 kg ha -1 ) and Astrada (2961.7 kg ha -1 )<br />

being in the first subset, and the open-pollinated<br />

variety Orkan (2330.9 kg ha -1 ) in the second,<br />

while the other 7 cultivars fell in both subsets.<br />

No significant differences (p≤ 0.05) were<br />

highlighted in terms of mean yield per cultivar,<br />

proving that the effect of cultivar was not<br />

consistant for the entire trial period.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Effect of cultivar on rapeseed yield (kg/ha -1 )* at ARDS Suceava<br />

162<br />

Table 3<br />

Company** Cultivar 2010/2011 Cultivar 2011/2012 Cultivar Mean<br />

Biocrop Compass 4528.5 Primus 3100.0 Primus 3757.3<br />

(DSV) WRH 352 4459.6 Hammer 2843.2 Compass 3653.8<br />

Dynastie 4417.7 Compass 2779.0 Hammer 3605.5<br />

Primus 4414.5 Dynastie 2655.6 Dynastie 3536.6<br />

Hammer 4367.8 WRH 352 2558.0 WRH 352 3508.8<br />

Caussade Tripti CS 4651.2 a Intense CS 2777.8 Tripti CS 3622.5<br />

Semences Scelni CS 4554.9 a Scelni CS 2672.8 Scelni CS 3613.9<br />

Romania Nodari CS 4206.2 b Nodari CS 2633.3 Nodari CS 3419.8<br />

Intense CS 4044.9 b Tripti CS 2593.8 Intense CS 3411.3<br />

SD – Seeds Judie(OP) 4947.6 a Hycolor 3144.4 Judie(OP) 4020.1<br />

(Dieckmann) Hycolor 4819.0 a Goldie(OP) 3143.2 Hycolor 3981.7<br />

Goldie(OP) 4313.7 ab Recordie 3112.3 Recordie 3793.0<br />

Recordie 4473.6 b Judie(OP) 3092.6 Goldie(OP) 3728.5<br />

Ecarlate(OP) 4134.9 c Ecarlate(OP) 3056.8 Ecarlate(OP) 3595.8<br />

Euralis ES Danube 4807.7 a ES Centurio 3237.0 ES Danube 3956.3<br />

Semences ES Neptune 4793.0 a ES Danube 3104.9 ES Neptune 3845.3<br />

ES Mercure 4541.8 ab ES Mercure 2961.7 ES Centurio 3797.0<br />

ES Centurio 4357.0 b ES Neptune 2897.5 ES Mercure 3751.8<br />

ITC Diana(OP) 3901.8 a Perla (OP) 2619.8 Diana(OP) 3214.5<br />

Perla (OP) 3562.3 b Diana(OP) 2527.2 Perla (OP) 3091.0<br />

Doina(OP) 3556.0 b Doina(OP) 2459.3 Doina(OP) 3007.6<br />

KWS Turan 4796.3 a Turan 3080.2 Turan 3938.3<br />

Seminte Traviata 4729.9 a Brutus 3076.5 Brutus 3843.9<br />

Brutus 4611.2 a Tassilo 3030.9 Traviata 3802.6<br />

Triangle 4347.4 b Traviata 2875.3 Triangle 3517.5<br />

Tassilo 4278.3 b Triangle 2687.7 Tassilo 3654.6<br />

Monsanto Extend 4930.2 a Exagone 2982.7 Extend 3937.3<br />

Romania DK Example 4602.7 b Extend 2944.4 Exagone 3738.0<br />

Exagone 4493.4 b DK Example 2737.0 DK Example 3669.8<br />

Pioneer PR46W30 5004.8 a PR44D06 3572.8 PR46W30 4178.9<br />

Hi-Bred PR44W29 4930.7 a PR46W30 3353.1 PR44W29 4102.4<br />

Romania PR45D05 4846.4 ab PR45D05 3300.0 PR45D05 4073.2<br />

PR46W21 4718.9 bc PR44W29 3274.1 PR46W21 3978.0<br />

PR45D03 4633.7 c PR45D03 3255.6 PR45D03 3944.6<br />

PR46W14 4333.5 d PR46W21 3237.0 PR44D06 3862.1<br />

PR44D06 4151.3 e PR46W14 2904.9 PR46W14 3619.2<br />

Saaten Rohan 4584.3 a Vectra 3117.3 a Vectra 3824.8<br />

Union Finesse 4551.9 ab Astrada 2961.7 a Rohan 3692.2<br />

Romania Orkan (OP) 4536.1 ab Finesse 2823.5 ab Finesse 3687.7<br />

Vectra 4532.4 ab Visby 2823.5 ab Merano 3660.7<br />

Merano 4515.3 ab Bellevue (OP) 2813.6 ab Astrada 3616.7<br />

Noblesse (OP) 4492.1 ab Merano 2806.2 ab Visby 3604.1<br />

Visby 4384.7 bc Rohan 2800.0 ab Noblesse (OP) 3561.5<br />

Astrada 4271.7 cd Hercules 2777.8 ab Bellevue (OP) 3506.5<br />

Bellevue (OP) 4199.4 d Noblesse (OP) 2630.9 ab Hercules 3449.3<br />

Hercules 4120.8 d Orkan (OP) 2330.9 b Orkan (OP) 3433.5<br />

Sumiagro ES Hydromel 4666.5 ES Betty 3135.8 ES Betty 3788.6<br />

Romania Olano 4568.2 Olano 2943.2 Olano 3755.7<br />

(Rustica) ES Betty 4441.4 ES Alias 2742.0 ES Hydromel 3695.0<br />

ES Alias 4420.1 ES Hydromel 2723.5 ES Alias 3581.1<br />

*averaged over 3 tillage treatments, values followed by the same letter are not significantly different (p≤ 0.05);<br />

**different subsets per company and year, mean analyzed separately; OP = open-pollinated variety

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The effect of tillage on rapeseed yield was<br />

significant in both years, and the best treatment in<br />

terms of productivity was MT. The differences<br />

(p≤ 0.05) between MT and CT were significant in<br />

1 of 2 years and for the entire period. MT and CT<br />

were significantly superior to DT in both years.<br />

The effect of cultivar on rapeseed yield was<br />

significant only in the first year of research, when<br />

the differences within the same company were<br />

Acknowledgements<br />

The financial support for this paper was possible through<br />

the research project „MOLECULAR GENETICS<br />

STUDIES ON WINTER OILSEED RAPE (BRASSICA<br />

NAPUS L.) ADAPTATION TO BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC<br />

STRESS CONDITIONS, AND OPTIMISING THE CROP<br />

TECHNOLOGY FOR EXTENDING THE CULTIVATION<br />

AREA” co-funded by the European Regional<br />

Development Fund (ERDF), project ID no. 714, 12687<br />

SMIS-CSNO code. The project beneficiary is University<br />

of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine „Ion<br />

Ionescu de la Brad” from Iasi.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Axinte M., Roman G.V., Borcean I., Muntean L.S.,<br />

2006 – Plant growing, 4 th edition, Ed. „Ion<br />

Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, ISBN (10) 973-7921-<br />

82-8; ISBN (13) 978-973-7921-82-6<br />

Beckman C., 2005 – Vegetable oils: Competition in a<br />

changing market, Biweekly Bulletin Agriculture<br />

and AgriFood Canada, no18, available online at<br />

http://www.agr.gc.ca/mad‐dam/e/bulletine/v18<br />

e/v18n11e.htm<br />

Farooq M., Flower K.C., Jabran K., Wahid A.,<br />

Siddique K.H.M., 2011 – Crop yield and weed<br />

management in rainfed conservation<br />

agriculture, Soil & Tillage Research, no. 117, p.<br />

172-183, ISSN 0167-1987<br />

Gruber Sabine, Mohring J., Claupein W., 2011 – On<br />

the way towards conservation tillage-soil<br />

moisture and mineral nitrogen in a long-term<br />

field experiment in Germany, Soil & Tillage<br />

Research no. 115-116, p. 80-87, ISSN 0167-<br />

1987<br />

Horn R., 2009 – Introduction to the special issue about<br />

soil management for sustainability, Soil &<br />

Tillage Research, no. 102, p. 165-167, ISSN<br />

0167-1987<br />

Kraling K., Pruvot J.-C., Juergen Koch R., Charne D.,<br />

2011 – Use Of A Green Revolution Gene In<br />

Winter Canola Hybrids, Proceedings of the 13 th<br />

International Rapeseed Congress, Prague,<br />

ISBN 978-87065-32-7<br />

Majer S., Katja Oemichen, Gawor M., 2011 – Possible<br />

approaches for optimising the GHG balance of<br />

biodiesel produced from rapeseed,<br />

Proceedings of the 13th International Rapeseed<br />

Congress, Prague, ISBN 978-87065-32-7<br />

Ozpinar S., Cay A., 2006 – Effect of different tillage<br />

systems on the quality and crop productivity of<br />

a clay–loam soil in semi-arid north-western<br />

163<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

statistically ensured (p≤ 0.05) in 8 out of 10 cases.<br />

In the second year, from the multiple comparisons<br />

test, different subsets resulted only in 1 of 10<br />

cases. No different subsets were found for the<br />

entire research period.<br />

Further study is necessary to estimate the<br />

cost efficiency of every tillage treatment and<br />

rapeseed cultivar option and the combined effect<br />

of these two factors (tillage x cultivar) on yield<br />

and costs.<br />

Turkey, Soil & Tillage Research no. 88, p. 95-<br />

106, ISSN 0167-1987<br />

Rusu T., 2006 – Rezultate experimentale privind cultura<br />

de rapita in Campia Transilvaniei si Lunca<br />

Somesului in Ghidul cultivatorului de rapita<br />

(coord. Halmajan H.V.), Ed. Agris, Bucuresti,<br />

ISBN 973-8115-37-X<br />

Saicu C., 2010 – Research regarding forage legume<br />

and grass crop species in Northern Moldavia<br />

conditions, An. INCDA Fundulea, vol. LXXVIII,<br />

no. 1, ISSN 2067–5631<br />

Soane B.D., Ball B.C., Arvidsson J., Basch G.,<br />

Moreno F., Roger-Estrade J., 2012 – No-till in<br />

northern, western and south-western Europe: A<br />

review of problems and opportunities for crop<br />

production and the environment, Soil & Tillage<br />

Research, no. 118, p. 66-87, ISSN 0167-1987<br />

Von Tiedemann A., Magdalena Siebold, Jessica<br />

Knuffer, Koopmann B., 2011 – Disease<br />

control in oilseed rape - future challenge trough<br />

high intensity production and climate change,<br />

Proceedings of the 13 th International Rapeseed<br />

Congress, Prague, ISBN 978-87065-32-7<br />

*** - http://www.worldometers.info/

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

164

Abstract<br />

165<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

DISSIPATION OF ACETOCHLOR AND RESIDUE ANALYSIS IN PLANTS<br />

AND SOIL UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS<br />

Irina COROI 1 , Mihai CARA 1 , Gerard JITAREANU 1<br />

e-mail: coroirina@yahoo.com<br />

The present study was undertaken to determine the persistence of acetochlor under real field conditions at maize crop.<br />

The chloroacetanilide herbicide acetochlor was applied as a pre-emergent spray on maize crop at 3 days after sowing in<br />

the experimental field in Didactical Station Ezăreni. The herbicide acetochlor was identified and quantified from soil<br />

and maize plants based on accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) followed by GC-MS analysis. Since the herbicide was<br />

applied to the soil surface, its dissipation and degradation will vary depending on the concentration, soil type, pH,<br />

organic matter and environmental conditions. Extraction of field soil samples taken from different depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-<br />

15 and 15-20 cm) at different times after herbicide application, showed that all applied doses moved deeper and<br />

increased dose (80%+RD) affected the persistence of acetochlor in the top layer increasing its half-life from 14 to 17<br />

days. Dissipation followed first order kinetics. The higher concentration of herbicide was found to be safe, as the<br />

residues of acetochlor were below maximum residue limits (MRL) at the end of maize crop season.<br />

Key words: acetochlor, herbicide, persistence<br />

The protection of the crops being cultivated<br />

is a priority for the improvement of agricultural<br />

productivity to sustain the growing population.<br />

There are a large number of pesticides currently in<br />

use, with a wide range of physic-chemical<br />

properties and belonging to a wide variety of<br />

chemical classes. Once incorporate in soil a<br />

pesticide enters a dynamic ecosystem in which it<br />

can move, degrade in situ move from the initial<br />

system to other systems or remain in place with its<br />

original structure intact or degraded to a greater or<br />

lesser degree for a variable length of time (Sheng<br />

et al., 2001; Kong et al., 2005). The pesticide<br />

acetochlor (2-chloro-N-ethoxymethyl-6ʹethylaceto-o-toluidide)<br />

is a selective herbicide used<br />

pre-emergence or preplant to control mainly annual<br />

grasses and broadleaf weeds. It has been shown<br />

that acetochlor could induce metamorphosis of<br />

ranid species and accelerated T-3-induced<br />

metamorphosis in amphibians (Crump et al., 2002;<br />

Li et al., 2009). Despite of its high ecological risk<br />

and wide application, there are little data available<br />

concerning acetochlor environmental fate and<br />

persistence under field conditions. Previous studies<br />

based on sorption and degradations experiments<br />

have shown that acetochlor presents a risk of soil<br />

contamination, especially in phaeozem (Chao et<br />

al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2006)<br />

whereas there is no report about its presence in<br />

1 Universitatea de Științe Agricole și Medicină Veterinară. Iași<br />

chernozem soil under Romanian temperate<br />

conditions. Therefore, a field experiment was<br />

undertaken to investigate the fate of acetochlor in<br />

soil and plants of maize fields. Gas<br />

chromatographic mass spectrometer was<br />

standardized for the quantitative determination of<br />

acetochlor from soil and plants, and on the residues<br />

level.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

An automated ASE 300 system with 34 mL<br />

stainless steel extraction cells was from Dionex,<br />

UK. The GC-MS equipment consisted of an Agilent<br />

7832 GC equipped with a mass spectrometer<br />

detector, an auto-sampler, a split-splitless injector<br />

and a HP-5, fused silica capillary column.<br />

Gas chromatographic conditions: The column oven<br />

temperature program was used as follows: initial<br />

temperature 50 o C, increased to 200 o C at a rate of<br />

30 o C/min, increased to 280 o C at 10 o C/min and<br />

held for 1 min, and then increased to 310 o C and<br />

held for 3 min. The injector temperature was set to<br />

250 o C in splitless mode (volume injected 1.00 µL)<br />

and MS temperature was 280 o C. The carrier<br />

helium (99.999%) with a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min<br />

was selected based on the instrument optimization<br />

results provided by the manufacturer’s<br />

identification of peak and compared with the<br />

retention time of the compound with the standard<br />

solution. Extraction procedure: Soil and plant

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

samples were solvent extracted using accelerated<br />

solvent extraction (ASE) following the<br />

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method<br />

3545 for the analysis of organic compounds in<br />

solid matrices. The dried samples were ground into<br />

powder and sieved through a 40 mesh sieve and<br />

then stored at room temperature before their<br />

analysis. A total of 10 g of each sample was mixed<br />

in a mortar with 3 g of Diatomaceous earth and the<br />

mixture was added directly to the extraction cell<br />

containing cellulose extraction filters. The<br />

extraction was performed under the optimized<br />

conditions: extraction solvent acetone-hexane (1:1,<br />

v/v); temperature: 140 o C; pressure: 1500 psi; heatup<br />

time: 5 min; flush volume: 60%; purge: N2 60 s;<br />

number of cycles: 1. Finally, elutes were<br />

evaporated in a rotary evaporator and dissolved in<br />

100 µL of n-hexane for the determination by GC-<br />

MS. Experimental layout: Field experiments on the<br />

persistence of acetochlor in soil and plants were<br />

conducted at the Agricultural Research Institute<br />

Ezareni, belonging to ’’Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’<br />

University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine<br />

Iasi, Romania using a split plot design. Maize<br />

(Pioneer PR38V91) was sown in field plots and the<br />

size of each plot was 18m x 7m. Phoenix (960 g L -1<br />

a.i. acetochlor) was applied at three different<br />

dosages, 2.2 L ha -1 (recommended dose), 3.1 L<br />

ha -1 (40%+recommended dose) and 3.96 L ha -1<br />

(80%+recommended dose) as a pre-emergent<br />

spray on maize crop at 3 days after sowing with<br />

the help of a knapsack sprayer. Soil samples for<br />

acetochlor persistence were randomly collected<br />

from 0-25 cm depth using a tube auger from 7-8<br />

spots in each plot. Approximately 500 g of soil was<br />

collected from each plot. The samples were<br />

collected at 5, 10, 15 and 30 day time intervals<br />

after the herbicide treatment and at the crop<br />

harvest time from all the treated plots. Plant<br />

samples from each plot were collected 30 days<br />

after application and at the crop harvest time.<br />

Samples were mixed thoroughly, air dried, ground<br />

and passed through a 2 mm sieve and stored in<br />

166<br />

sterile glass bottles in the dark at 4 o C until<br />

analysis.<br />

Residues from soil and plants were<br />

performed on three replicates for each treatment<br />

and the significance of the differences was<br />

determined by one-way analysis of variance<br />

(ANOVA) using the SPSS program.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Evaluation of recovery: The average<br />

recoveries of acetochlor from the soil are shown in<br />

Table 1. The recoveries of acetochlor from soil<br />

ranged from 80.9% to 96.04% with a relative<br />

standard deviation (RSD) less than 1.4%. The<br />

limits of detection and quantification were found to<br />

be 0.2 ng g -1 and 0.67 ng g -1 of dry soil,<br />

respectively. This data indicated that the extraction<br />

method is satisfactory for the analysis of residual<br />

acetochlor from soil.<br />

Persistence under field conditions: One application<br />

of acetochlor was giving residues to maize crop at<br />

all three rates of application.<br />

Residues were monitored up to 30 days after<br />

pplication and at harvest time.<br />

The concentrations of acetochlor (mg kg -1<br />

dry soil) in different soil layers as a function of<br />

time after herbicide application are shown in Fig 1.<br />

Figure 1 Soil residues after acetochlor treatments<br />

Table1<br />

Recoveries of acetochlor from spiked soil<br />

Fortification<br />

level (mg kg -1 )<br />

Mean recovery<br />

(%)<br />

Relative<br />

standard<br />

deviation (%)<br />

0.01 81.6 1.4<br />

0.5 94.1 0.4

For all three rates of application and sampling<br />

times, the highest amounts of acetochlor were<br />

found in the top 0-10 cm soil layer. It should also<br />

be noted that the concentrations on day 5, were<br />

0.243, 0.301 and 0.304 mg kg -1 in 0-5 cm depth at<br />

RD, 40%+RD and 80%+RD respectively.<br />

However the concentrations detected indicate less<br />

sorption strength at increasing concentration. As<br />

pointed out by sorption isotherms (laboratory<br />

experiments), the affinity of the acetochlor<br />

molecules and soil particles decreases with<br />

increases in acetochlor concentration. Several<br />

authors have reported L-type isotherms for<br />

acetochlor (Giles et al. 1974; Weber et al. 1989;<br />

Hiller et al. 2008). According to this and taking<br />

into account the physicochemical properties,<br />

acetochlor is more likely to be levigated<br />

particularly at high concentration. The residual<br />

acetochlor detected in depth of 5-10 cm were<br />

between 0.169-0.259 mg kg -1 but lower than those<br />

from the depth of 0-5 cm soil.<br />

Despite acetochlor accumulates within the 0-<br />

10 cm surface layer, the amounts of acetochlor<br />

present at deeper layers indicated that the herbicide<br />

moved deeper. At recommended dose (RD) the<br />

acetochlor residues were below calibration curves<br />

at the depth of 10-15 cm and not detectable at the<br />

depth 15-25 cm. While at 40% + recommended<br />

dose (40% + RD) herbicide residues reached up to<br />

20 cm after 30 days but no residues were after 25<br />

cm. However after 30 days of acetochlor<br />

application at 80% + recommended dose (80% +<br />

RD), leads to herbicide dispersion to lower depths.<br />

53.73% of the initially applied concentration was<br />

detected at 0-15 cm depth and traceable herbicide<br />

concentration also reached the depth 20-25 cm but<br />

no higher than 0.01 mg kg -1 .<br />

At the end of crop period only traceable<br />

concentrations were reached and were otherwise<br />

completely degraded. At the applied dose of<br />

80%+RD the residual acetochlor remaining at the<br />

harvest time were higher in surface soil 0-10 cm<br />

and was in order of 0.002 mg kg -1 . Similarly at RD<br />

and 40%+RD variants, concentrations persist but<br />

were mainly limited to 0.001 mg kg -1 at the end of<br />

crop period.<br />

Residues in maize: The acetochlor residues,<br />

measured 30 days after application on maize plant,<br />

was in the range 0.0029-0.0032 mg kg -1 and<br />

0.0047-0.0073 mg kg -1 for the lowest and highest<br />

dosage respectively. At harvest the active<br />

ingredient acetochlor was below calibration curves<br />

at recommended dose and 40% + recommended<br />

dose whereas at higher field rate was 0.0011 mg<br />

kg -1 . These relatively low residue levels for<br />

acetochlor could be related to conjugation with<br />

167<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

GSH and cysteine, which has been observed in<br />

some plants as a mechanism of resistance to the<br />

herbicidal activity of the compound.<br />

Degradation: Concerning the<br />

chloroacetanilide herbicide effect on soil microbial<br />

activity to its persistence in soil it was necessary to<br />

establish the degradation kinetics of this molecule.<br />

The dissipation patterns of acetochlor in<br />

chernozem soil are presented in Fig. 2. The<br />

degradation followed first order kinetics for all<br />

three doses. In soil, dissipation was quick during<br />

the first week and then slowed down from third<br />

week onwards. The dissipation rate was lowest at<br />

RD and 40%+RD and highest in 80%+RD. The<br />

half-lives of acetochlor were calculated as 13.86<br />

and 17.32 days respectively with r 2 values of 0.967<br />

and 0.978 respectively.<br />

Figure 2 Degradation curves of acetochlor in soil. All<br />

values represent mean±standard deviation of<br />

triplicate samples<br />

Our results are in agreement with the reports<br />

of Xiao et al. (2006), where it was reported that the<br />

degradation rates may be influenced by the initial<br />

concentrations, because in soil the degradation rate<br />

of acetochlor is faster at the lowest concentration<br />

(5 mg kg -1 ) that at highest (80 mg kg -1 ). Mills et al.<br />

(2001) reported that half-life of acetochlor in<br />

surface soils was 18 days, whilst in subsurface<br />

soils down to 4.6 mbs, range from 2 to 88 days.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The results obtained in this study indicated<br />

that that increased dose of acetochlor to soil<br />

exbibited a concentration dependent impact on the<br />

persistence of acetochlor. The persistence of<br />

acetochlor in soil was increased with increasing<br />

dose of acetochlor. No maximum residue limits<br />

(MRL) have been set in plants and other<br />

agricultural products.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Acetochlor Registration Agreement and<br />

Addendums. [Online]. USEPA document type:<br />

Supporting and Related Materials; document ID:<br />

EPA-HQ-OPP-2007-0725-0005, USEPA,<br />

Washington, DC (1994). Available:<br />

www.regulations.gov/fdmspublic/component/main<br />

?main=DocketDetail&d=EPA-HQ-OPP-2007-<br />

0725 [30 July 2010]<br />

Chao L, Zhou Q X, Chen S, Cui S, Wang M, 2007 -<br />

Single and joint stress of acetochlor and Pb on<br />

three agricultural crops in northeast China.<br />

Journal of environmental Sciences 19(6):719-<br />

724.<br />

Crump D, Werry K, Veldhoen N, Van Aggelen G,<br />

Helbing C, 2002 - Exposure to the herbicide<br />

acetochlor alters thyroid hormone dependent<br />

gene expression and methamorphosis in<br />

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Giles C.H., MacEwan TH, Nakhwa SN, and Smith D.<br />

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and its use in diagnosis of adsorption mechanism<br />

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3993.<br />

Hiller E., Krascsenits Z., Cernanky S., 2008-Sorption<br />

of acetochlor, atrazine, 2,4-D, chlorotoluron,<br />

MCPA and trifluralin in six soil from Slovakia.<br />

Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 80: 412-416.<br />

Kong K., Cheung K., Wong C., Wong M., 2005 – The<br />

residual dynamic of polycyclic aromatic<br />

hydrocarbons and organochlorine pesticide in<br />

fishponds of the Pearl River delta, South China.<br />

Water resources 39, 1831-1843.<br />

Li W, Zha J M, Li Z L, Yang L H, Wang Z L, 2009 -<br />

Effects of exposure to acetochlor on the<br />

expression of thyroid hormone related genes in<br />

larval and adult rare minnow (Gobioscypris<br />

rarus). Aquatic Toxicology, 94: 87-93.<br />

Mills MS, Hill IR, Newcombe AC, Simmoms ND,<br />

Vaughan PC, Verity AA, 2001 - Quantification of<br />

acetochlor degradation in the unsaturated zone<br />

using two novel in situ field techniques:<br />

168<br />

comparisons with laboratory generated data and<br />

implications for groundwater risk assessments.<br />

Pest Manac Sci 57:351-359.<br />

Nadin P., 2009 - The use of Plant Protection Products in<br />

the European Union, Data 1992-2003. European<br />

Comission, Luxembourg.<br />

Xiao H, Zhou Q X, Ma L Q, 2005. - Joint effects of<br />

acetochlor and urea on germinating<br />

characteristics of crops seeds. Science in China<br />

Series C-Life Sciences, 48(S1): 1-6.<br />

Zhou Q X, Zhang Q R, Liang J D, 2006 - Toxic effects<br />

of acetochlor and methamidophos on earthworms<br />

Eisenia fetida in Phaeozem, Northeast China.<br />

Journal of Environmental Scinces, 18(4): 741-<br />

745.<br />

Sheng G., Johnson C.T., Teppen B.J., Boyd S.A.,<br />

2001 – Potential contribution of smectite clays<br />

and organic matter to pesticide retention in soil.<br />

Journal oj Agricultural Food Chemistry 49, 2899-<br />

2907.<br />

Supradip Saha, Deashis Dutta, Rajib Karmakar, Deb<br />

Prasad Ray, 2012 - Structure toxicity relationship<br />

of chlororacetanilide herbicide: Relative impact<br />

on soil microorganisms. Environmental<br />

Toxicology and Pharmacology 34(2012) 307-314.<br />

Xiao N, Jing B., Ge F, Liu X, 2006 - The fate of<br />

herbicide acetochlor and its toxicity to Eisenia<br />

Fetida under laboratory conditions. Chemosphere<br />

62:1366-1373.<br />

Xiaoyin Sun, Qixing Zhou, Wenjie Ren, Xuhui Li,<br />

Liping Ren, 2011 - Spatial and temporal<br />

dsitribution of acetochlor in sediments and<br />

riparian soils of the Songhua River Basin in<br />

northeastern China. Journal of Environmental<br />

Sciences, 23(10):1684-1690.<br />

Weber J.B., Miller C.T., 1989 -Organic chemical<br />

movement over and through soil. In Sawhney<br />

B.L., Brown K., Reaction and Movement of<br />

Organic chemicals in soil. Special publication 22.<br />

Soil Science Society of America, Madison WI, pp.<br />

305-334.<br />

Tomlin CDS, 2009 - The Pesticide Manual, 15 th edition.<br />

British Crop Protection Council, Alton, Hants, UK.

169<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EFFECT OF CARBOHYDRATE SOURCE OVER THE ANDROGENESIS OF<br />

BRASSICA OLERACEA L. ANTHERS CULTIVATED IN VITRO<br />

Abstract<br />

Tina Oana CRISTEA 1 , Constantin LEONTE 2 , Maria PRISECARU 1 , Creola BREZEANU 1 ,<br />

Marian BREZEANU 1<br />

e-mail: tinaoana@yahoo.com<br />

Now-a-days plant tissue culture in vitro provides key opportunities for plant quality enhancement and subsequent<br />

economic sustainability. Haploid production of Brassica spp. through anther culture proved to be an important approach<br />

of tissue culture, during the last decades. Traditionally, plant breeders usually achieve homozygosity of the cross<br />

products by using the self-fertilization, a time consuming process. By anther culture, homozygous plant can be<br />

produced within a year as compared to the long inbreeding method, which might take 8-10 years. There are many<br />

factors that have been found to affect the ability of an anther to undergo successive changes in its developmental path in<br />

order to leave the gametophytic pathway and resort to a sporophytic mode of development. Among the factors that play<br />

a critical role in the orientation of morphogenetic reaction of anthers cultivated in vitro and ultimately in the<br />

regeneration of vitroplants at Brassica species the carbohydrate source and its concentration are considered to be of<br />

peculiar importance. The carbohydrates act as an energy source and as an osmotic regulator in the culture medium.<br />

Although sucrose or glucose represents the main sugars of choice in anther culture media, there are studies in which<br />

maltose turned out to be also a carbohydrate source suitable for androgenesis at different species. In the present study<br />

the four main types of carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose, fructose and maltose) and its concentrations were tested. The<br />

organogenic, embryogenic and calusogenic competences of Brassica anthers were highly influenced by the type of<br />

carbohydrate source added to NLN basic medium (Lichter, 1982) supplemented with BAP - 8.8 μM and 2.7 NAA μM.<br />

The results obtained in our study shows that sucrose proved to be the best for androgenic plant regeneration at Brassica<br />

oleracea with an optimal concentration of 0.09 M, followed by maltose and glucose, while fructose was less suitable for<br />

androgenesis sustainability.<br />

Key words: sucrose, glucose, maltose, cabbage, haploids<br />

Taking in consideration also the wild<br />

relatives, the genus Brassica is represented in<br />

vegetal regnum by almost 150 species. Among the<br />

cultivated species B. napus, B. rapa and B. juncea<br />

are utilized for oil production, while the varieties<br />

of B. oleracea are extensively cultivated as<br />

vegetables (cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel sprout,<br />

broccoli, kohlrabi).<br />

Plant biotechnology and within its<br />

application, anther culture in vitro is an important<br />

tool for breeding activity oriented toward the<br />

enhancement of qualitative and quantitative traits<br />

of these important vegetable plants. Due to all the<br />

climacteric and nutritional constrains that we are<br />

facing now-a-days, the efforts of the breeders are<br />

focused on the obtaining of new high-yielded,<br />

resistant genotypes, more specific hybrids that by<br />

expressing their heterosis should better respond to<br />

market and climacteric request. Moreover,<br />

homozygous seeds and plants are essentially ideal<br />

1 SCDA Bacău<br />

2 USAMV Iaşi<br />

materials for genetics, molecular biology,<br />

biotechnology, and also for plant breeding. They<br />

provide research and commercial genetic sources<br />

of which, within a variety, a largely identical<br />

genotype is guaranteed (Pechan, 2001). The<br />

obtaining of homozygous plants can be achieved<br />

through conventional selfing and backcrossing,<br />

which is a time-consuming process and production<br />

of haploids via ovule culture - gynogenesis,<br />

incongruous distant pollination such as the socalled<br />

"bulbosum" technique, pollination with<br />

irradiated pollen or pollination of irradiated pistils,<br />

anther and microspore culture – androgenesis<br />

(Cardoza, 2004). In general, microspore and pollen<br />

culture is one of the most frequently used methods<br />

to produce haploids in angiosperms. After<br />

spontaneous or induced doubling of chromosomes,<br />

fertile doubled haploid plants can be obtained.<br />

The cultivation of plant cell and tissues in<br />

vitro requires the inclusion in the culture medium

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

of a carbohydrate that is used as a source of<br />

energy, as a carbon substrate for different<br />

biosynthesis processes and as an osmoticum. The<br />

importance of sugars for in vitro cultured tissues is<br />

crucial due to the fact that their photosynthetic<br />

activity is significantly reduced during their life in<br />

these conditions. According to literature, sugars<br />

have important signaling functions through the<br />

entire life cycle influencing the plant development<br />

and gene expression. Due to all these<br />

characteristics the carbohydrates play a key role on<br />

the in vitro physiology, differentiation and growth<br />

of cells (Zimmerman, 1989).<br />

Moreover, the type of carbohydrate included<br />

in the cultivation medium and its concentration<br />

determine different patterns of morphogenesis,<br />

thus influencing the plants ability to regenerate in<br />

vitro callus, shoots or embryo (Tang, 2003).<br />

In Brassica crops, the studies regarding the<br />

influence of carbohydrate source over the ability of<br />

tissues to undergo different physiological and<br />

morphological changes that can lead to<br />

achievement of organogenetic and embryogenetic<br />

competences were mainly done on Brassica napus<br />

and Brassica rapa, regarded as model plant for<br />

these crops. Still the specie specific reaction must<br />

be addressed in order to be able to establish an<br />

efficient reproducible protocol for in vitro<br />

cultivation of Brassica oleracea anthers.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Plant material<br />

The experiments were performed in the<br />

Laboratory of Tissue Culture at Vegetable<br />

Research and Development Station Bacau during<br />

2011-2012. The donor plants of Brassica oleracea<br />

170<br />

L., breeding line TM51 were maintained in growth<br />

chambers at 16 h light and 8 h dark photoperiods,<br />

at 18±0.5 0 C and 60% relative humidity, with a<br />

proper regime of watering, fertilization and pest<br />

control. The flower buds were collected from<br />

racemes where one or two flowers had reached<br />

anthesis. Only the buds of 3.0 – 3.4 mm in length<br />

were utilized in experiments as at this size the<br />

anther’s microspores are at the late uninucleate<br />

stage of development (as previously determined<br />

using 1% aceto-carmine under microscope).<br />

Sterilization<br />

The sterilization of explants was<br />

accomplished by washing thoroughly under<br />

running tap water for 30 min and treatment with a<br />

surfactant, Tween 20 (10 drops per 100ml of<br />

sterilized distilled water). Later these explants were<br />

surface sterilized with 0.1% mercuric chloride (w/v)<br />

for 15 min and repeatedly washed using sterilized<br />

distilled water.<br />

Culture medium<br />

For the determination of carbohydrate<br />

influence over the organogenic, embryogenic and<br />

calusogenic competences of Brassica anthers, 12<br />

variants in three replicates were utilized. The basic<br />

culture medium utilized in our experimentations<br />

was NLN medium (Lichter, 1982) supplemented<br />

with BAP - 8.8 μM and 2.7 μM NAA. The pH was<br />

adjusted to 5.8, by adding few drops of NaOH 1N,<br />

prior to the addition of 8.0 g/l agar and autoclaved<br />

at 121°C (1.06 kg/cm 2 ) for 25 min.<br />

Culture technique<br />

Under aseptic conditions, anthers were<br />

removed from the sterilized buds using a fine<br />

Tweezers (fig. 1). The anthers were inoculated on<br />

sterile tubes with culture media containing different<br />

mineral composition formula – as illustrated in<br />

table 1.<br />

Table 1<br />

Experimental variants utilised for the determination of carbohydrate effect over the organogenic,<br />

embryogenic and calusogenic competences of Brassica anthers<br />

Variant Sucrose<br />

Glucose<br />

Fructose<br />

V1 0.06 M - - -<br />

V2 0.09 M - - -<br />

V3 0.12 M - - -<br />

V4 - 0.11 M - -<br />

V5 - 0.17 M - -<br />

V6 - 0.22 M - -<br />

V7 - - 0.11 M -<br />

V8 - - 0.17 M -<br />

V9 - - 0.22 M -<br />

Maltose<br />

V10 - - - 0.06 M<br />

V11 - - - 0.08 M<br />

V12 - - - 0.36 M

Figure 1 Excised anthers before inoculation<br />

The cultures were incubated at 33°C<br />

temperature for one week in complete dark, and<br />

then transferred in culture chambers with<br />

controlled light, humidity and temperature control<br />

at 25 0 C, a 16-h photoperiod, and 5000 lx light<br />

intensity. The transfer on new fresh media was<br />

accomplished every four weeks plate inside the<br />

laminar airflow cabinet. The culture vessels<br />

showing signs of contamination were discarded.<br />

Day to day observation was carried out to note the<br />

responses.<br />

Adventitious shoots obtained on each<br />

medium were separated from explants and<br />

cultured individually on new fresh media for the<br />

continuation of regeneration processes. Normal<br />

and healthy regenerated shoots (2.5–3 cm in<br />

length) with at least two expanded leaves were<br />

excised from explants and transferred to culture<br />

tubes containing NLN medium (Lichter, 1982)<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The results obtained confirm that the source<br />

of carbohydrate is one of the major supplements<br />

that support the development of anthers finalized<br />

either to callus formation, or shoot and embryo<br />

regeneration. Both the type of carbohydrate and the<br />

concentration gave high variation of tested<br />

parameters, observation that strengthen the idea<br />

that sugars have important signaling functions<br />

influencing the plant development and gene<br />

expression.<br />

In order to determine the best source of<br />

carbohydrates we utilized in our experiments four<br />

main types of carbohydrates: sucrose, maltose,<br />

glucose and fructose in different concentrations.<br />

The first visible changes in cultured anthers were a<br />

slight enlargement in size within the first week<br />

after inoculation. The main type of morphogenetic<br />

reaction was oriented toward the formation of<br />

callus, and here we had variations regarding its<br />

texture, color and subsequently its competence to<br />

171<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 2 White-greenish callus with<br />

regenerative competence<br />

supplemented with 2.7 μM NAA. The cultures were<br />

incubated in a growth chamber under the same<br />

conditions as described above. The rooted plants<br />

were acclimatized and planted in a potting mixture<br />

of sterilized sand + vermiculite (1:1 ratio) in plastic<br />

cups, hardened in a mist chamber (80% relative<br />

humidity) for 2 weeks before transfer to green<br />

house.<br />

During the development of experiments we<br />

emphasize over the number of anthers producing<br />

callus, embryoids and organogenic meristematic<br />

centers. The frequency of direct and indirect<br />

organogenesis and embryogenesis reaction and<br />

the frequency of reacted anthers were calculated<br />

in percentage to the in vitro initial explants.<br />

generate embryo and shoots. The formation of<br />

callus started mainly on the filament side of the<br />

anthers its further evolution being dependent on<br />

the experimental variant tested.<br />

Thus, on determine two forms of callus: one,<br />

with a more compact structure, white-greenish<br />

coloured, with isodiametric cells which allowed<br />

the regeneration of shoots and embryo (fig. 2) and<br />

a more laxed one, with a high rate of growth, but<br />

with no regeneration competence.<br />

Regarding the frequency of callus formation<br />

on the twelve variants tested in the present study,<br />

the results shows that sucrose promotes the<br />

proliferation of callus during the entire period of<br />

cultivation, supporting the initiation and<br />

development of regenerative structures (fig. 3),<br />

glucose at initial stages, followed by a stagnation<br />

of growth, without any beneficial effect over<br />

regeneration, while fructose is less appropriate for<br />

anther cultivation. Maltose is also a promoter of<br />

callus growth and regeneration, but still with lower

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

results than sucrose. The most efficient<br />

concentration of sucrose was 0.09M, the increase<br />

in quantity reflected in a decrease of callus<br />

formation percentage. The effect of sucrose on the<br />

172<br />

callus induction frequency might be due to its<br />

contribution to the osmotic potential of the<br />

medium rather than its utilization as a carbon<br />

source.<br />

30,00<br />

25,00<br />

20,00<br />

15,00<br />

10,00<br />

5,00<br />

0,00<br />

No. of shoots/explant<br />

Figure 3 The development of regenerative Figure 4 Graphical representation of evolution<br />

structures from callus tissue of shoot regeneration in correlation with type and<br />

concentration of carbohydrate source utilised in<br />

Linking the type of carbohydrates and its<br />

concentrations on concluded that the highest<br />

number of shoots per explant - 25.96±0.34 was<br />

obtained with 0.09M sucrose. With 0.06 M<br />

sucrose, shoot proliferation was slightly lower -<br />

24.11±0.41, while an increase of concentration to<br />

0.12M lead to a decrease of shoot regeneration<br />

frequency to 15.13±0.34. Adding glucose or<br />

fructose instead of sucrose resulted in a reduction<br />

in the regeneration efficiency of anthers. The<br />

lowest results were obtained on variant V9,<br />

characterized through a concentration of 0.22M<br />

fructose, where only 2.50±0.30 shoots per explant<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Both the type of carbohydrate and the<br />

concentration highly influence the callusogenic,<br />

organogenic and embryogenic competence of<br />

Brassica oleracea L. anthers cultivated in vitro.<br />

Among the four types of carbohydrates<br />

tested in the present study, sucrose promotes the<br />

proliferation of callus and shoots development<br />

during the entire period of cultivation, supporting<br />

the initiation and development of regenerative<br />

structures. The most efficient concentration of<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Pechan PM, Smykal P, 2001 - Androgenesis: Affecting<br />

the fate of the male gametophyte. Physiol. Plant,<br />

111, p. 1-8.<br />

Cardoza V, Stewart CNJR, 2004 - Brassica<br />

biotechnology: Progress in cellular and molecular<br />

biology. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Plant. 40: 542-<br />

551.<br />

Spomer, L. A.; Smith, M. A. L. 1996 - Direct<br />

measurement of water availability in gelled plant<br />

culture medium<br />

were obtained, comparing with 6.42±0.75<br />

shoots/explant obtained when the concentration of<br />

fructose was dropped down to 0.11M. One<br />

explanation of this decrease can be the inhibitory<br />

effect of high carbohydrate concentrations that<br />

may lead to less water potential of the medium,<br />

which inhibited the cell growth and development.<br />

The same results were obtained when<br />

maltose was used as carbohydrate source in culture<br />

medium. The number of shoots increased with<br />

concentration (fig. 4), until a certain level and on<br />

variant with 0.36M the shoot regeneration<br />

decreased.<br />

carbohydrate proved to be 0.09M, higher<br />

concentration leading to a decrease in the<br />

regenerative competence of anthers.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />

This work was cofinanced from the European Social<br />

Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-2013,<br />

project number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371<br />

,,Postdoctoral Schole in Agriculture and<br />

Veterinary Medicine area.<br />

tissue culture media. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol.–<br />

Plant 32, p. 210–215.<br />

Tang, G.X., W.J. Zhou, H.Z. Li., B.Z. Mao and Z.H. He.<br />

2003 - Medium, explant and genotype factors<br />

influencing shoot regeneration in Oilseed<br />

Brassica spp. Mao, J. Agronomy & Crop Science,<br />

189, p. 351-358.<br />

Zimmerman, T. W.; Cobb, B. G., 1989 - Vitrification and<br />

soluble carbohydrate levels in Petunia leaves as<br />

influenced by media, gelrite and sucrose<br />

concentration. Plant Cell Rep. 8:358–360.<br />

V1<br />

V2<br />

V3<br />

V4<br />

V5<br />

V6<br />

V7<br />

V8<br />

V9<br />

V10<br />

V11<br />

V12

Abstract<br />

173<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF AQUASORB ON MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL<br />

PROPERTIES ON CORN AND SOYBEANS YIELD, IN THE<br />

CONDITIONS OF IASI COUNTY<br />

Daniel Costel GALEȘ 1 , Lucian RĂUS 1 , Costică AILINCĂI 1 , Gerard JITĂREANU 1<br />

e-mail: galesdan@yahoo.com<br />

The experience was founded in 2010 in the Didactic Station of the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary<br />

Medicine "Ion Ionescu de la Brad" Iasi, Ezăreni farm. The research goal is to introduce a synthetic macromolecular<br />

compound in the technology crop. In this study we aimed to evaluate the influence of the hydrophilic polymer<br />

(Aquasorb) on some morpho-physiological properties and on corn and soybeans production, in the soil and climatic<br />

conditions of Iasi county. Our experience is polifactorial, resembling AxBxC type, being located by the randomized<br />

multilevel blocks method in three replications. The experimental factors are: the crop, the polymer dose and the<br />

administration time of the polymer. There were administered doses of 15 kg/ha Aquasorb on the variant V2 and 30<br />

kg/ha on variant V3, comparing them with the V1 control variant, on which we did not apply any treatment. The<br />

polymer was incorporated in spring 2010 on half of the experimental plot (5/10 m - 50 m 2 ) using disc harrow before<br />

sowing and in autumn 2010 and the other half of the experimental plot (5/10 m - 50 m 2 ), under the autumn plowing<br />

after harvesting the prior plants. We analyzed the influence Aquasorb on plant height, leaf chlorophyll content and the<br />

production of corn and soybean crops.<br />

Key words: Hydrogel, hydrophilic polymer, Aquasorb<br />

The study aims to introduce in the<br />

technology of culture the hydrophilic polymer<br />

Aquasorb in order to reduce the gap to the average<br />

productivity of the agricultural land in the EU.<br />

Dry periods alternating with periods when<br />

heavy rains fall often put agrotechnical problems<br />

such as water retention in the soil. One of the<br />

technical solutions suitable for solving these<br />

problems is to use hydrophilic polymers in<br />

agriculture. This solution is one of the ways to<br />

exploit water resources efficiently, especially<br />

where water consumption is significant<br />

quantitative and without alternative solutions for<br />

water saving the agricultural production could be<br />

jeopardized. The reason for which we test for<br />

alternative water saving is represented by the<br />

numerous studies showing that The Earth has a<br />

limited capacity to produce food, and this<br />

limitation in the near future will increased by the<br />

continuous reduction of water resources,<br />

especially agricultural ones, because farmers have<br />

to compete for water with urban residents and<br />

industry (Mark W. et al., 2002). Sharma J., 2004<br />

quoted by Gales D. C. et al., 2011, found that<br />

plants grown on soil treated with hydrogel had<br />

more water available for longer periods of time<br />

compared to control groups, which made<br />

irrigation frequency to be reduced.<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences end Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi<br />

Peterson D., 2009 showed that the<br />

hydrogels offer several environmental benefits.<br />

Thus, they reduce erosion, reducing sediment and<br />

nutrient losses and absorb nutrients to release<br />

them gradually, depending on plant requirements.<br />

Also they favors bacterial and mycorrhizal<br />

colonization of soil. The influence of hydrogels<br />

depends on soil structure, the concentration of<br />

salts and fertilizers, and the type of plant grown.<br />

Highly absorbent polymers with low binding<br />

tension between 2 to 4.2 pF, are of great use in<br />

agriculture, horticulture and forestry, especially in<br />

areas prone to dryness (Johnson M. S., 2006,<br />

quoted by Gales D. C. et. al., 2010). Many authors<br />

such as Ouchi S. et. al., 1990, Nus J. E., 1992,<br />

Smagin A. V. et. Sadovrikova N. B., 1995,<br />

Nadlear A. E. et. al., 1996, El-Hady O. A. et. al.,<br />

2001, 2002, 2003, showed that processes of<br />

germination, plant growth, nutrient acquisition<br />

and efficient use of water and fertilizers by plants,<br />

increased significantly by mixing sandy soil with<br />

hydrogels. The problem of optimal recovery of<br />

water, regardless of origin, is one of the major<br />

goals of scientific research, because water will<br />

become a "cornerstone" of sustainability and the<br />

future of mankind (Hera C., 2007 quoted by Gales<br />

D. C. et. al., 2011).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The experiment began in 2010 and took<br />

place in the Didactic Station of "Ion Ionescu de la<br />

Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and<br />

Veterinary Medicine, Ezăreni Farm (Moldavian<br />

Plain 47° 07'N latitude, 27° 30' E longitude). The<br />

experiment was located on a land with a slope of<br />

3-4%, on a cambic chernozem soil type, clay<br />

loam, with low acidic pH, medium supplied in N<br />

and P2O5 and well-stocked in K2O (tab. 1).<br />

Average yearly temperature is 9.6 °C and average<br />

annual rainfall of about 517.8 mm.<br />

Table 1<br />

Soil chemical properties<br />

Crop Depth<br />

pH<br />

Humus P AL K AL<br />

Nt %<br />

Corn<br />

Soybea<br />

n<br />

(cm)<br />

%<br />

mg/kg<br />

mg/kg<br />

0-10 6,32 2,88 0,11 34,00 174,0<br />

10-20 6,40 2,88 0,10 23,00 171,0<br />

20-30 6,51 2,76 0,09 19,00 166,0<br />

30-40 6,51 1,50 0,07 6,00 149,0<br />

Average<br />

6,44 2,51 0,09 20,50 165,0<br />

0-40 cm<br />

0-10 6,27 3,54 0,10 27,00 195,0<br />

10-20 6,29 2,94 0,11 27,00 192,0<br />

20-30 6,40 3,18 0,10 18,00 167,0<br />

30-40 6,72 2,70 0,08 8,00 155,0<br />

Average<br />

0-40 cm<br />

6,42 3,09 0,10 20,00 177,3<br />

The experience, located on an area of 2400<br />

m 2 is polifactorial, type AxBxC, and is located by<br />

the method of storied randomized blocks in three<br />

repetitions. The experimental factors are the plant,<br />

the polymer dose and the time of administration of<br />

the polymer. The analyzed plants are corn,<br />

respectively soybean and the polymer doses used<br />

are 15 kg/ha Aquasorb for the V2 version and 30<br />

kg/ha Aquasorb for the variant V3, which is<br />

compared with the control variant V1 considered<br />

witness, which did not receive any treatment. The<br />

dosing periods of the polymer are T1 (polymer<br />

embedded in spring 2010 on a half of the area of -<br />

50 m 2 - experimental plot using the harrow disc<br />

before sowing) and T2 (polymer embedded under<br />

the basic plowing in autumn 2010 on the other<br />

half of the experimental plot -50 m 2 -). The<br />

technology of culture was specific for the analysed<br />

crops, respectively corn and soybean. Fertilizers<br />

were administered at a dose of 60 kg/ha P2O5 +<br />

40 kg/ha N before seedbed preparation and 20<br />

kg/ha N in vegetation in first mechanical weeding<br />

for corn, while soybean culture received the entire<br />

amount of nitrogen before seedbed preparation.<br />

The seedbed was prepared on the day of sowing<br />

using the combiner and the seeding was<br />

performed with SPC4-FS + U650 for corn and<br />

with SPC6 +U650 for soybean culture. There<br />

were used hybrids from Pioneer, PR38A24 for<br />

corn and PR91M10 for soybean. The chlorophyll<br />

content of the leaves was determined using CCM<br />

200 Plus device (fig. 1). Measurements were<br />

made directly in the experimental field after crop<br />

rise, before and after flowering. Plant height was<br />

174<br />

determined using the roulette, after crop rising, in<br />

vegetation and before harvesting. The production<br />

was determined for each variant, being expressed<br />

in kg/ha at STAS moisture. Statistical processing<br />

of the experimental data was performed using the<br />

analysis of variance and F test.<br />

Figure 1 Chlorophyll Content Measurements<br />

(http://www.envcoglobal.com)<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Aquasorb is a copolymer of acrylamide and<br />

potassium acrylate which belongs to the<br />

hydrophilic polymers group (fig. 2). They can<br />

absorb a significant amount of water which can be<br />

released in stages to the plants according to their<br />

consumption (Gales D. C. et al. 2011).<br />

Figure 2 Structure Aquasorb<br />

From a climate perspective, the year under<br />

study is characterized by values of monthly<br />

average temperature and average relative<br />

humidity higher than normal for this area. Rainfall<br />

was distributed unevenly throughout the growing<br />

season with a peak in April and June and<br />

beginning with July the drought, was installed,<br />

with a peak in September (tab. 2). Corn and<br />

soybean plants capitalized very well the positive<br />

effect of Aquasorb mainly due to lack of rainfall<br />

since early august. In dry periods the plants from<br />

the treated variants suffered less compared to the<br />

plants on control variant which reached earlier the<br />

critical threshold. This has contributed<br />

significantly to the differences in the average<br />

plant height, chlorophyll content of leaves and the<br />

yield obtained from the cultures analyzed.<br />

The average height of plants<br />

The average height of the maize plants<br />

was positively influenced by the treatment with<br />

Aquasorb. Thus, in the variants treated with<br />

polymer there were obtained higher plants<br />

compared with untreated control variant. The<br />

differences statistically assured, were 3.7 cm in<br />

V2T1, 4.1 cm in V3T1, 5.2 cm at V2T2 and 5.3 cm<br />

at V3T2 compared with the control V1 (tab. 3).

Month<br />

Weather conditions in 2011<br />

Monthly average<br />

temperature (˚C)<br />

Multi-annual mean<br />

temperature (˚C)<br />

Monthly average<br />

relative humidity (%)<br />

Multi-annual mean<br />

humidity (%)<br />

Average monthly<br />

rainfall (mm)<br />

Table 2<br />

Multi-annual mean<br />

rainfall (mm)<br />

I -1,6 -3,6 93 81 13,6 28,9<br />

II -1,9 -1,9 80 79 4,0 27,4<br />

III 4,1 3,3 74 72 11,2 28,1<br />

IV 10,9 10,1 67 62 73,0 40,3<br />

V 17,1 16,1 69 62 41,0 52,5<br />

VI 20,9 19,1 72 63 88,2 75,1<br />

VII 23,0 21,3 76 62 49,8 69,2<br />

VIII 22,0 20,6 65 63 20,4 57,6<br />

IX 19,3 16,3 68 66 11,8 40,8<br />

X 9,7 10,1 78 73 30,8 34,4<br />

XI 3,2 4,1 84 78 0,0 34,6<br />

XII 2,9 -0,8 88 82 7,8 28,9<br />

Average 10,6 9,6 76,2 70,3 29,3 43,2<br />

Staţia meteo Agroexpert Miroslava<br />

In fig. 3 it can be seen that Aquasorb had a<br />

positive influence in all phases of corn growing,<br />

the biggest difference between the treated and<br />

control variants occurring at harvesting (about 8<br />

cm for T1 and 10 cm for T2). These differences at<br />

harvesting are due to Aquasorb cumulative effect<br />

throughout the growing season and to the lack of<br />

rainfall since early august. In soybean crop the<br />

Aquasorb effect is similar as in the corn crop,<br />

resulting in distinct significant differences in the<br />

variant V2T1 and very significant differences for<br />

175<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

V2T2, V3T1 and V3T2 variants compared with<br />

control variant V1 (tab. 3). The biggest differences<br />

between treated variants and the control witness<br />

were obtained at harvest (fig. 4), these differences<br />

being due to the cumulative effect of Aquasorb<br />

and the favorable climatic conditions at least<br />

starting from august.<br />

Leaf chlorophyll content<br />

The leaf chlorophyll content for the<br />

analyzed crops was significantly influenced by<br />

treatment with Aquasorb. Thus, the plants from<br />

the treated variants had more green leaves with a<br />

higher chlorophyll content compared to the plants<br />

on control variant. In the corn crop there were<br />

obtained statistically significant differences<br />

between treated and control versions regarding<br />

this indicator. Distinct significant differences<br />

were obtained for V2 and V3 treated variants<br />

during polymer T2 treatment and significant<br />

differences for V3T1 (tab. 4). Corn plants had<br />

greener leaves, so a higher content of chlorophyll<br />

in all phases of vegetation in which this parameter<br />

was examined (after emergence, before flowering<br />

and after flowering), this aspect being shown in<br />

fig. 5-B. Differences between treated and control<br />

variants remained relatively constant in all phases<br />

of growth, because the period of drought<br />

increased especially in the latter part of July, and<br />

until then the plants already capitalized the soil<br />

moisture reserves acquired in June when there<br />

was 88.2 mm of rainfall, approximately 13 mm<br />

above the annual average in the area.<br />

Table 3<br />

The average height of the corn and soybean plants<br />

(average values for vegetation types and phases -2011)<br />

Plant height for corn Plant height for soybean<br />

Variant<br />

cm<br />

%<br />

compared<br />

to control<br />

Differences<br />

(cm)<br />

Significance cm<br />

%<br />

compared<br />

to control<br />

Differences<br />

(cm)<br />

Significance<br />

V1 – Control 181,5 100,00 0,00 Mt 65,1 100,00 0,00 Mt<br />

V2 (15 kg/ha T1 185,2 102,04 3,70 XX 67,0 102,76 1,90 XX<br />

Aquasorb) T2 186,7 102,87 5,20 XXX 69,0 105,83 3,90 XXX<br />

V3 (30 kg/ha T1 185,6 102,26 4,10 XXX 68,2 104,60 3,10 XXX<br />

Aquasorb) T2 186,8 102,92 5,30 XXX 70,2 107,67 5,10 XXX<br />

LSD 5 % =<br />

LSD 1,0 % =<br />

LSD 0,1 % =<br />

T1 T2 T1 T2<br />

1,9 cm<br />

2,7 cm<br />

3,9 cm<br />

2,4 cm<br />

3,4 cm<br />

5,0 cm<br />

0,9 cm<br />

1,2 cm<br />

1,8 cm<br />

1,1 cm<br />

1,6 cm<br />

2,3 cm<br />

Figure 3 The influence of hydrophilic polymer Aquasorb and the administration period on the average height of corn<br />

plants (2011)

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 4 The influence of hydrophilic polymer Aquasorb and the administration period<br />

on the average height of soybean plants (2011)<br />

The chlorophyll content was analyzed<br />

differently for each floor of the plant, and this<br />

aspect is presented in fig. 5-A. It can be seen that<br />

corn capitalized better the positive influence of<br />

Aquasorb especially in the middle floor of the<br />

plant, where differences between treated and<br />

control variants are greater than in the upper third<br />

and lower third. In the bottom third differences<br />

are almost imperceptible (fig. 5-A). In the upper<br />

third of plants the differences between the variants<br />

treated and control variant are approximately 1.9<br />

CCI for polymer T1 administration period and 3.3<br />

CCI for T2 polymer administration period. In the<br />

median plant floor are recorded the biggest<br />

differences, of about 6 CCI both for polymer T1<br />

and T2 administration period. The differences are<br />

almost unnoticeable for the lower floor being of<br />

about 1 CCI for both polymers administration<br />

periods. In the soybean crop, Aquasorb has a<br />

positive influence on the leaves chlorophyll<br />

content, the influence being slightly stronger than<br />

for the corn. Thus, between treated and control<br />

variants there were obtained differences ranged<br />

from 1.8 CCI at V2T1 and V2T2 to 3.2 CCI at V3T2<br />

(tab. 4). The differences were statistically<br />

significant. In all phases of vegetation the leaf<br />

chlorophyll content differences for variants<br />

treated compared with untreated control variant<br />

remained relatively constant, with slight<br />

variations ranging between 0.9 CCI (T1) right<br />

after culture rise and 3.9 CCI (T2) in vegetation<br />

after flowering (fig. 6-B). Unlike corn, the<br />

soybean crop leaf chlorophyll content was<br />

influenced on each floor of the plant , the<br />

Aquasorb treatment being contributory for<br />

obtaining clear differences between V2 and V3<br />

treated variants compared with the witness V1 (fig.<br />

6-A).<br />

Obtained yields<br />

For corn crop, the treatment with Aquasorb<br />

hydrophilic polymer led to obtaining statistically<br />

significant yield differences between the variants<br />

treated with Aquasorb and the control untreated<br />

version. Thus, the differences from the control<br />

variant V1 were significant for V2T1 variant,<br />

176<br />

distinct significant for V3T1 variant and very<br />

significant for V2T2 and V3T2 variants with an<br />

yield growth between 285.0 kg/ha for V2T1 and<br />

573.6 kg/ha for V3T2 (tab. 5). Regarding the<br />

soybean crop, the yield was positively influenced<br />

by Aquasorb treatment, resulting in statistically<br />

significant differences in yield between the<br />

variants treated with polymer and the control<br />

version. Thus, for T1 polymer administration<br />

period, the yield growth was 69 kg/ha for V2<br />

variant and 100 kg/ha for V3 variant. For T2<br />

polymer administration period we achieved a<br />

production increase of 247 kg/ha in V2 variant and<br />

of 283 kg/ha in V3 variant compared to the control<br />

variant V1, in which we achieved a yield of 3356<br />

kg/ha (tab. 5). There was a period when the<br />

precipitation have missed (the second part of the<br />

vegetation season), which contributed to obtaining<br />

significant differences in terms of yield regarding<br />

the corn, respectively soybeans crops. These<br />

differences were statistically significant, justifying<br />

the use of Aquasorbi in agriculture since the costs<br />

of applying the polymer can be recovered even<br />

when extreme weather conditions are not met, and<br />

even more in a year when the rainfall can be well<br />

below the optimal requirements for plants, which<br />

would contribute to a much higher yield increases.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Aquasorb hydrophilic polymer treatment<br />

positively influenced the average plant height, the<br />

leaf chlorophyll content and the yield both for<br />

corn and soybean crops. Aquasorb has positive<br />

influences, especially by the applied dose and less<br />

by the administration period (T1 and T2), as its<br />

effectiveness in soil, which is about five years<br />

overlaps several cycles of yield and the arable<br />

layer, in which the polymer is incorporated along<br />

with basic works is overturned, crushed and<br />

mixed so that the administration period effect is<br />

especially noticeable in the first year of<br />

implementation, in the coming years being<br />

noticed the uniformity of the effect on soil<br />

horizon (0-30 cm in our case). Due to technical

and economical reasons, the dose of 15 kg/ha<br />

Aquasorb is considered to be optimal for both<br />

corn and soybean crops. Aquasorb hydrophilic<br />

polymer has prospects to be used with good<br />

177<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

results in agriculture, at least in corn and soybean<br />

crops, and possibly for other cultures.<br />

Table 4<br />

Leaf chlorophyll content in corn and soybean crop<br />

(average values per plant and vegetation phases -2011 -)<br />

Chlorophyll content for corn Chlorophyll content for soybean<br />

Variant<br />

CCI<br />

%<br />

compared<br />

to control<br />

Differences<br />

(CCI)<br />

Significance CCI<br />

%<br />

compared<br />

to control<br />

Differences<br />

(CCI)<br />

Significance<br />

V1 – Control 51,4 100,00 0,00 Mt 23,6 100,00 0,00 Mt<br />

V2 (15 kg/ha T1 53,0 103,11 1,60<br />

24,9 107,63 1,80 XXX<br />

Aquasorb) T2 54,3 105,64 2,90 XX 25,4 107,63 1,80 XXX<br />

V3 (30 kg/ha T1 54,1 105,25 2,70 X 25,7 108,90 2,10 XX<br />

Aquasorb) T2 55,1 107,20 3,70 XX 26,8 113,56 3,20 XXX<br />

LSD 5 % =<br />

LSD 1,0 % =<br />

LSD 0,1 % =<br />

T1 T2 T1 T2<br />

1,9 CCI<br />

2,7 CCI<br />

4,0 CCI<br />

1,9 CCI<br />

2,7 CCI<br />

4,0 CCI<br />

1,1 CCI<br />

1,5 CCI<br />

2,2 CCI<br />

0,8 CCI<br />

1,1 CCI<br />

1,7 CCI<br />

A – Leaf chlorophyll content assigned for each level of the plant (average values for different vegetation phases)<br />

B- The chlorophyll content of the leaves in different vegetation phases (average values per plant)<br />

Figure 5 The influence of hydrophilic polymer Aquasorb and the administration period on<br />

leaf chlorophyll content in corn plants (2011)<br />

A – Leaf chlorophyll content assigned for each level of the plant<br />

(average values for different vegetation phases)

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

B- The chlorophyll content of the leaves in different vegetation phases<br />

(average values per plant)<br />

Figure 6 The influence of hydrophilic polymer Aquasorb and the administration period on<br />

leaf chlorophyll content in soybean plants (2011)<br />

Table 5<br />

Influence of hydrophilic polymer Aquasorb and the administration period<br />

on corn and soybean yield (2011)<br />

Yield corn Yield soybean<br />

Variant<br />

Kg/ha<br />

%<br />

compared<br />

to control<br />

Differences<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

Significance Kg/ha<br />

%<br />

compared<br />

to control<br />

Differences<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

Significance<br />

V1 – Control 8615 100 0 Mt 3356 100 0 Mt<br />

V2 (15 T1 8900 103,3 285 X 3425 102,06 69<br />

kg/ha 8922 103,6 307 XXX 3603 107,36 247 XX<br />

Aquasorb) T2<br />

V3 (30 kg/ha T1 9083 105,4 468 XX 3456 102,98 100 X<br />

Aquasorb) T2 9188 106,7 573 XXX 3639 108,43 283 XXX<br />

LSD 5 % =<br />

LSD 1,0 % =<br />

LSD 0,1 % =<br />

T1 T2 T1 T2<br />

240,9 kg/ha<br />

342,5 kg/ha<br />

495,9 kg/ha<br />

REFERENCES<br />

58,8 kg/ha<br />

83,6 kg/ha<br />

121,0 kg/ha<br />

El-Hady O. A., Abd El-Hady B. M., Rizk N. A., El-<br />

Saify E. I., 2003 - The potentiality for improving<br />

plant–soil–water relations in sandy soils using<br />

some synthesized Am-Na (or K) ATEA<br />

hydrogels. Egypt J. Soil Sci., 43(4): 215-229.<br />

ISSN 0302-6701.<br />

El-Hady O. A., Safia M. Adam, Abdel-Kader A. A.,<br />

2002 - Sand-Compost - Hydrogel mix for low<br />

cost production of tomato seedlings. Egypt. J.<br />

Soil Sci., 42(4): 767-782. ISSN 0302-6701.<br />

El-Hady O. A., Abdel-Kader A. A., Nadia M. Badran,<br />

2001 - Forage yield, nutrient suptake and water<br />

and fertilizers use efficiency by ryegrass (lolium<br />

multiflorum, l.) grown on a sandy calcareous soil<br />

treated with acrylamide hydrogels or/and<br />

manures. J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 26(6):<br />

3465-3481. ISSN 1028-8880.<br />

Johnson M. S., 2006 - The effects of gel-forming<br />

polyacrylamides on moisture storage in sandy<br />

soils. Journal of the Science of Food and<br />

Agricukture, vol. 35 (11), 1196-1200. ISSN<br />

0022-5142<br />

178<br />

85,7 kg/ha<br />

121,9 kg/ha<br />

176,5 kg/ha<br />

134,9 kg/ha<br />

191,7 kg/ha<br />

277,6 kg/ha<br />

Mark W. Rosegrant, Ximing Cai, Sarah A. Cline,<br />

2002. Global Water Outlook to 2025 Averting an<br />

Impending Crisis,<br />

Nadler A., E. Peffect and B. D. Kay, 1996 - Effect of<br />

polyacrylamide application on the stability of dry<br />

and wet aggregates . Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 60:<br />

555-561. ISSN 0361-5995.<br />

Ouchi S., A. Nishikawa and E. Kamada, 1990-Soilimproving<br />

effects of as uper-water-absorbent<br />

polymer (part 2). Evaporation, leaching of salts<br />

and growth of vegetables. Jap. Jour. Soil Sci.<br />

Plant Nutrition, 61(6):606-613.<br />

Peterson D., 2009 - Hydrophilic polymer-Effects and<br />

Uses in the Landscape. Soviet Soil Science 13<br />

(14), 111-115. ISSN 0038-5832.<br />

Sharma J., 2004 - Establishment of perennials in<br />

hydrophilic polymer-amended soil. SNA Res.<br />

Conf., 42, 530-532.<br />

Smagin A .V. and N. B. Sadovnikova, 1995 - Impact<br />

of strongly swelling hydrogels on water- holding<br />

capacity of light- textured soils. Eurasian Soil<br />

Sci., 27(12): 26-34. ISSN 1064-2293.

179<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF LIGNOHUMAT ON SOME MORPHO-<br />

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND ON MAIZE AND SOYBEANS<br />

PRODUCTION, IN THE SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF IASI<br />

COUNTY<br />

Daniel Costel GALEȘ 1 , Costică AILINCĂI 1 , Gerard JITĂREANU 1<br />

e-mail : galesdan@yahoo.com<br />

Abstract<br />

The experience was founded in 2010 in the Didactic Station of the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary<br />

Medicine "Ion Ionescu de la Brad" Iasi, Ezăreni farm. The research goal is to introduce a synthetic macromolecular<br />

compound in the technology culture. This compound is also found under the trade name Lignohumat.<br />

Lignohumatul is a foliar fertilizer containing up to 90 % humic acid particles. Most of Lignohumat weight, about 20 %<br />

is represented by sodium and potassium, elements that rely on hydroxide cations used in the technologic process of<br />

humat production. The experience is bifactorial, type A x B and is placed after the block method on one line, in three<br />

repetitions. A factor is the plant (maize and soybeans), and factor B is the Lignohumat dose applied (V1 untreated,<br />

considered control, V2 seeds and vegetation treatments depending on the culture). In maize two treatments were applied<br />

(100 g Lignohumat/10 l water / t seeds + 60 g / ha in the 3-4 leaf stage, in the same time with herbicides), and in the<br />

soybean crop were four treatments applied (100 g Lignohumat/10 l water / t seeds + 60 g / ha / 300 liters water in twothree<br />

leaves stage, before flowering phase and after flowering). We analyzed the influence Lignohumat on plant height,<br />

leaf chlorophyll content and the production of maize and soybean crops.<br />

Key words: Humic substances, Lignohumat, chlorophyll content, maize, soybean<br />

By approaching this theme we seek to<br />

increase the land productivity through the<br />

development, testing and implementation of<br />

sustainable technologies for growing plants<br />

adapted to local climatic features using a foliar<br />

fertilizer with a high content of humic substances<br />

(Lignohumat).<br />

Also we follow to reduce the gap toward the<br />

average productivity of agricultural lands from the<br />

European Union.<br />

Humic substances are defined as a general<br />

category of organic substances present in the wild,<br />

biogenic, heterogeneous, characterized by a color<br />

from yellow to black, with a high molecular weight<br />

(Aiken G. R. et al. 1985, quoted Perminova I. V.,<br />

and Hatfield K., 2005).<br />

Humic substances present similarities in<br />

composition, structure and properties with natural<br />

humic substances from soil and compost<br />

(Eyheraguibel et al., 2008).<br />

Humic substances (humat), are widely used<br />

in agriculture. Regarding humic subtances the<br />

important part is their chemical properties of<br />

biopolymers such as: high capacity of cation and<br />

anion exchange, chelating ability, the ability to<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences end Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi<br />

improve the functions of plant protection, and also<br />

to increase and develop their ability to interact with<br />

yeast from soil, vitamins and other substances.<br />

In terms of composition of elements at the<br />

molecular level, of aromatization, the proportions<br />

of O/C and H/C and acidic functional groups<br />

(COOH and OH), Lignohumat has a high affinity<br />

to soil humic acids. The groups contained above<br />

are responsible for exchange capacity, chelating<br />

capacity and transport ability of chelated<br />

complexes by plants.<br />

Lignohumat is one of the few substances<br />

whose solubility approaches 100 %, making it<br />

suitable for use in drip irrigation systems.<br />

Lignohumat is achieved through the unique<br />

patented technology of accelerated humification of<br />

ligno-sulphonates. The process of converting<br />

lingo-sulphonates in humic products is made over<br />

1,5-2 hours in oxidizing atmosphere, the whole<br />

technological process being supervised by a<br />

special program (Oleg Gladkov, Rodion Poloskin,<br />

2010).<br />

The humic acids together with clay minerals<br />

are considered among the most important inorganic<br />

soil components that provide adsorption of metals

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

and other organic substances (Stevenson J. F.,<br />

1994; Tipping E., 2002; quoted by Stathi P.,<br />

Deligiannakis Y., 2010). Humic acids also have<br />

adsorption and cation exchange capacity higher<br />

than the clay minerals.<br />

Lignohumat applied at the foliar level leads<br />

to improved foliar nutrition of the plants, increases<br />

production, quality, capacity and energy for seed<br />

germination. In addition, it prevents stress<br />

generated by the treatment with pesticides, frost or<br />

drought effect on plants, improving growth, plant<br />

development and reducing the vegetation period.<br />

Eyheraguibel B., et al., 2008, showed that<br />

humic substances do not increase the percentage or<br />

rate of maize seed germination, but increase root<br />

elongation these effects being due to the increased<br />

consumption of water and minerals by plants thus<br />

treated.<br />

Mineralization of humic substances is<br />

stronger in soils with optimal moisture regime and<br />

well aerated, compared with compacted soils<br />

having high clay content (> 30-35%) (Rusu M., et<br />

al., 2005).<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The study began in 2010 in the Didactic<br />

Station of the University of Agricultural Sciences<br />

and Veterinary Medicine "Ion Ionescu de la Brad"<br />

Iasi, Ezăreni farm (Plain of Moldavia 47° 07' N<br />

latitude, 27° 30' E longitude). The experience was<br />

located on a land with a slope of 3-4 %, a cambic<br />

chernozem soil type, clay-loamy, slightly acid pH,<br />

medium stocked in N and P2O5 and well stocked in<br />

K2O (tab. 1).<br />

Table 1<br />

Soil chemical properties<br />

Crop Depth<br />

(cm)<br />

Maize<br />

Soybean<br />

pH<br />

Humus<br />

%<br />

Nt %<br />

P AL<br />

mg/kg<br />

K AL<br />

mg/kg<br />

0-10<br />

6,32 2,88 0,11 34,00 174,0<br />

10-20<br />

6,40 2,88 0,10 23,00 171,0<br />

20-30 6,51 2,76 0,09 19,00 166,0<br />

30-40<br />

6,51 1,50 0,07 6,00 149,0<br />

Average<br />

0-40 cm<br />

6,44 2,51 0,09 20,50 165,0<br />

0-10<br />

6,27 3,54 0,10 27,00 195,0<br />

10-20<br />

6,29 2,94 0,11 27,00 192,0<br />

Average<br />

0-40 cm<br />

20-30 6,40 3,18 0,10 18,00 167,0<br />

30-40 6,72 2,70 0,08 8,00 155,0<br />

6,42 3,09 0,10 20,00 177,3<br />

Average yearly temperature is 9,4 °C and<br />

average annual rainfall is about 517,8 mm.<br />

The experience is bifactorial, type AxB,<br />

being placed after the block method on one line, in<br />

three repetitions, occupying an area of 1200 m 2 .<br />

180<br />

The studied factors are the plant and the<br />

Lignohumat dose applied both to seeds and<br />

vegetation. Treatments were differently<br />

administered upon culture. In maize two treatments<br />

were applied (100 g Lignohumat/10 l water/t seeds<br />

+ 60 g / ha in the 3-4 leaf stage, in the same time<br />

with herbicides), and in the soybean crop four<br />

treatments were applied (100 g Lignohumat/10 l<br />

water /t seeds + 60 g/ha / 300 liters water in 2-3<br />

leaves stage, before flowering phase and after<br />

flowering).<br />

The technology of culture was specific to the<br />

analyzed crops, such maize and soybeans.<br />

Fertilizers were given at a dose of 60 kg/ha P2O5 +<br />

40 kg/ha, N before seedbed preparation and 20<br />

kg/ha N in vegetation mechanical weed take, for<br />

maize and the entire amount of nitrogen<br />

administered before seedbed preparation the<br />

soybean crop. The seedbed was prepared on the<br />

day of sowing, using combinatorial and sowing<br />

were performed by SPC4-FS + U650 for maize<br />

and by SPC6 + U650 for soybean crop. Hybrids<br />

from Pioneer company were used, PR38A24 for<br />

maize and PR91M10 for soybean.<br />

Leaf chlorophyll content was determined<br />

using the CCM device 200 plus (Chlorophyll<br />

Content Measurements) (fig. 1).<br />

Measurements were made directly after crop<br />

rising in the experimental field, before flowering<br />

and after flowering.<br />

Figure 1 Chlorophyll Content Measurements<br />

(http://www.envcoglobal.com)<br />

The plant’s height was determined after the<br />

crop rise before flowering, after flowering and<br />

before harvest, using the tape measure. The<br />

production was determined for each variant,<br />

expressed in kg/ha to STAS moisture. Statistical<br />

processing of experimental data was done using<br />

analysis of variance and F test.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Humic substances are the most widely<br />

distributed organic substances in nature. Linked<br />

carbon content in soil humic acids, peat and coal is<br />

almost four times bigger than the linked carbon<br />

from organic substances related to flora and fauna<br />

around the world.

Lignohumat is a high performance humic<br />

fertilizer containing chelated micronutrients with<br />

and without ballast, acting as a stimulant to plant<br />

growth and anti-stress agent. Also it contributes to<br />

the growth of crops, resistance to drought and<br />

frost, increasing germination rate in soil and<br />

mineral fertilizer use efficiency (increases the<br />

utilization rate of nitrogen and phosphorus), which<br />

allows a dose reduction of fertilizer application<br />

approximately 20-30%.<br />

From a climate perspective, the year under<br />

study is characterized by values of monthly<br />

average temperature and average relative humidity<br />

higher than normal for this area. Rainfall was<br />

distributed unevenly throughout the growing<br />

season (fig. 2), with a peak in April and June and<br />

beginning with July the drought, was installed,<br />

with a peak in September (tab. 2).<br />

Table 2<br />

Weather conditions in 2011<br />

Month<br />

Monthly average<br />

temperature (˚C)<br />

Multi-annual mean<br />

temperature (˚C)<br />

Monthly average<br />

relative humidity<br />

(%)<br />

Multi-annual mean<br />

humidity (%)<br />

Average monthly<br />

rainfall (mm)<br />

Multi-annual mean<br />

rainfall (mm)<br />

I -1,6 -3,6 93 81 13,6 28,9<br />

II -1,9 -1,9 80 79 4,0 27,4<br />

III 4,1 3,3 74 72 11,2 28,1<br />

IV 10,9 10,1 67 62 73,0 40,3<br />

V 17,1 16,1 69 62 41,0 52,5<br />

VI 20,9 19,1 72 63 88,2 75,1<br />

VII 23,0 21,3 76 62 49,8 69,2<br />

VIII 22,0 20,6 65 63 20,4 57,6<br />

IX 19,3 16,3 68 66 11,8 40,8<br />

X 9,7 10,1 78 73 30,8 34,4<br />

XI 3,2 4,1 84 78 0,0 34,6<br />

XII 2,9 -0,8 88 82 7,8 28,9<br />

Average 10,6 9,6 76,2 70,3 29,3 43,2<br />

Staţia meteo Agroexpert Miroslava<br />

Regarding the maize plant height we<br />

obtained statistically significant differences<br />

between V2 version on which there were applied<br />

Lignohumat treatments and V1 version, considered<br />

a witness, on which were not applied any<br />

treatments (tab. 3). Thus, we obtained significant<br />

distinct differences between V2 and V1 after plants<br />

rise, immediately after flowering and at harvest. In<br />

vegetation (before plants flowering), the<br />

differences were very significant. Very significant<br />

differences recorded before flowering are mainly<br />

due to the effect of treatment with Lignohumat<br />

conducted in phase of 3-4 leaves in maize.<br />

181<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 2 The rainfall unevenly distribution<br />

throughout the growing season (2011)<br />

In the soybean crop we obtained statistically<br />

significant differences between V2 and V1. The<br />

differences were highly significant after plant rise<br />

and harvest. In vegetation (before and after<br />

flowering), the differences were not statistically<br />

significant.<br />

The results regarding plant height in the<br />

analyzed crops showed a major influence of<br />

Lignohumat treatment on seed for both crops,<br />

maize, and soybeans respectively. Also, the<br />

positive effect of Lignohumat was seen in the<br />

entire growing season for soy culture, being the<br />

maximum at harvest.<br />

Regarding the production, this is influenced<br />

by Lignohumat treatments especially in the maize<br />

crop, in which we obtained significant differences<br />

between variants V2 (treated with Lignohumat) and<br />

V1 (version control, untreated) (tab. 4). In variant<br />

V2 we obtained a yield of 9143 kg/ha, with 218<br />

kg/ha more than in the control variant V1 (8924<br />

kg/ha) (fig. 3).<br />

In the soybean crop, the production<br />

differences were not statistically different between<br />

V2 and V1, with a difference of 54 kg/ha (tab. 5).<br />

We obtained from V1 3504 kg/ha and from V2 we<br />

obtained 3558 kg/ha (fig. 4).<br />

While determining the chlorophyll content<br />

of the leaves we observed that the effect of<br />

Lignohumat treatment was greatest after plant rise,<br />

when there were statistically significant differences<br />

between the treated variant V2 and the control<br />

version V1 (very significant for the maize crop and<br />

distinctly significant for soybean culture (tab. 6).<br />

During the growing and harvesting phases the<br />

differences were not statistically significant so that<br />

we can conclude that both maize and soybeans<br />

crops have used the Lignohumat treatment for the<br />

seeds at their best.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Table 3<br />

Variant<br />

The Lignohumat influence on plant height in maize<br />

and soybeans crops<br />

MAIZE SOYBEAN<br />

S. 29.05 V. 01.07 V. 30.07 H. 27.09 S. 29.05 V. 01.07 V. 31.07 H. 27.09<br />

45,5 201,0 239,7 235,3 12,5 46,0 78,3 100,7<br />

40,5 201,5 239,3 242,7 13,0 47,0 80,7 100,0<br />

V1<br />

44,0<br />

44,0<br />

199,5<br />

203,0<br />

250,0<br />

239,3<br />

241,0<br />

243,7<br />

15,0<br />

12,5<br />

46,5<br />

43,5<br />

81,7<br />

79,3<br />

100,7<br />

102,0<br />

42,0 197,0 239,3 250,0 14,0 45,0 80,3 100,3<br />

41,0 201,0 238,7 235,3 12,5 44,5 81,3 100,0<br />

Average 42,8 200,5 241,1 241,3 13,3 45,4 80,3 100,6<br />

STDEV 1,97 2,05 4,39 5,56 1,04 1,32 1,25 0,74<br />

46,0 206,5 249,3 249,3 15,0 45,5 82,3 109,0<br />

47,0 209,5 253,3 254,0 15,5 46,5 81,0 109,0<br />

V2<br />

47,5<br />

49,5<br />

208,0<br />

207,0<br />

252,3<br />

255,7<br />

259,3<br />

253,3<br />

17,0<br />

16,0<br />

49,5<br />

46,5<br />

80,7<br />

81,3<br />

108,7<br />

109,0<br />

47,5 207,0 248,7 254,3 17,5 49,5 83,7 108,0<br />

46,0 210,5 245,0 247,0 17,0 47,5 83,7 108,7<br />

Average 47,3 XX<br />

208,1 XXX<br />

250,7 XX<br />

252,9 XX<br />

16,3 XXX<br />

47,5 82,1 108,7 XXX<br />

STDEV 1,29 1,59 3,81 4,30 0,98 1,67 1,33 0,39<br />

LSD 5 % 2,3 2,5 5,3 4,9 1,0 2,2 2,0 0,7<br />

LSD 1 % 3,5 3,9 8,4 7,7 1,5 3,4 3,1 1,2<br />

LSD 0,1 % 6,0 6,6 14,3 13,0 2,6 5,8 5,3 2,0<br />

The Lignohumat influence on maize<br />

production Variant<br />

Production<br />

182<br />

% compared to<br />

control<br />

Differences Significance<br />

V1 Control (untreated) 8924 100,00 0,00 Mt<br />

V2 Lignohumat (100 g /10 l water / t seeds +<br />

60 g / ha in the 3-4 leaf stage)<br />

9143 102,45 218,50 XX<br />

LSD 5 % = 109 kg/ha LSD 1 % = 171 kg/ha LSD 0,1 % = 291 kg/ha<br />

The Lignohumat influence on soybean<br />

production Variant<br />

Figure 3 The Lignohumat influence on maize production<br />

Production<br />

% compared to<br />

control<br />

Differences Significance<br />

V1 Control (untreated) 3504 100,00 0,00 Mt<br />

V2 Lignohumat (100 g /10 l water / t seeds +<br />

60 g / ha / 300 liters water in 2-4 leaves stage,<br />

before flowering phase and after flowering)<br />

3558 101,56 54,60<br />

LSD 5 % = 64 kg/ha LSD 1 % = 101 kg/ha LSD 0,1 % = 171 kg/ha<br />

Table 4<br />

Table 5

183<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 4 The Lignohumat influence on soybean production<br />

Table 6<br />

The Lignohumat influence on chlorophyll content of leaves in<br />

maize and soybean crops<br />

Variant<br />

30.05<br />

MAIZE<br />

02.07 31.07 Average 30.05<br />

SOYBEAN<br />

02.07 31.07 Average<br />

42,5 52,1 59,1 51,2 16,8 25,3 36,6 26,2<br />

40,6 50,1 59,5 50,1 17,3 26,0 35,1 26,1<br />

V1<br />

40,4<br />

40,6<br />

53,7<br />

51,6<br />

53,0<br />

53,0<br />

49,0<br />

48,4<br />

16,2<br />

14,6<br />

26,1<br />

23,9<br />

34,5<br />

33,5<br />

25,6<br />

24,0<br />

42,5 51,6 64,5 52,9 15,2 26,0 31,0 24,1<br />

42,6 54,2 65,0 53,9 15,6 23,6 32,1 23,8<br />

Average 41,5 52,2 59,0 50,9 15,9 25,1 33,8 24,9<br />

STDEV 1,11 1,48 5,26 2,62 1,01 1,11 2,06 1,39<br />

43,8 54,9 53,7 50,8 18,3 27,0 34,6 26,6<br />

43,1 57,1 61,8 54,0 18,8 24,8 31,7 25,1<br />

V2<br />

43,6<br />

43,9<br />

59,1<br />

57,8<br />

60,4<br />

62,0<br />

54,4<br />

54,6<br />

16,7<br />

15,7<br />

24,9<br />

26,2<br />

35,7<br />

35,7<br />

25,8<br />

25,8<br />

44,2 56,1 61,6 53,9 17,1 24,7 37,0 26,2<br />

45,4 53,3 63,9 54,2 17,4 26,5 37,0 27,0<br />

Average 44,0 XXX<br />

56,4 X<br />

60,6 53,6 17,3 XX<br />

25,7 35,3 26,1<br />

STDEV 0,75 2,09 3,56 2,13 1,12 1,00 1,97 1,36<br />

LSD 5 % 0,9 3,0 6,0 2,9 0,5 2,1 3,9 1,6<br />

LSD 1 % 1,3 4,7 9,5 4,6 0,8 3,2 6,1 2,5<br />

LSD 0,1 % 2,3 8,1 16,1 7,8 1,4 5,5 10,4 4,3<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Regarding the chlorophyll content both<br />

cultures of leaves had a maximal benefit from the<br />

Lignohumat treatment for the seeds. Regarding the<br />

plant height and the production, the treatments<br />

with Lignohumat were better capitalized by the<br />

maize crop compared with soybean crop.<br />

Lignohumatul has the potential to be successfully<br />

utilized for the analyzed crops and possibly for<br />

other cultures.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Aiken, G. R., McKnight, D. M., and Wershaw, R. L.,<br />

1985 - Humic substances in soil, sediment and<br />

water, Wiley, New York.<br />

Eyheraguibel B., Silvestre J., Morard P., 2008 -<br />

Effects of humic substances derived from organic<br />

waste enhancement on the growth and mineral<br />

nutrition of maize. Bioresource Technology, 99,<br />

4206-4212, ISSN 0960-8524.<br />

Oleg Gladkov, Rodion Poloskin, 2010 - Efficiency and<br />

Application Prospects of Humatized Mineral<br />

Fertilizers, 15th Meeting of the International<br />

Humic Substances Society Tenerife - Canary<br />

Islands. June 27- July 2.<br />

Perminova Irina V., Hatfield Kirk, 2005 - Use of Humic<br />

Substances to Remediate Polluted<br />

Environments: From Theory to Practice. NATO<br />

Science Serie, IV Earth and Environments<br />

Sciences, Vol. 52, p. 3-36. ISBN 1-4020-3252-8.<br />

Rusu Mihai, Mărghitaş Marilena, Oroian Ioan,<br />

Mihăiescu Tania, Dumitraş Adelina, 2005 -<br />

Tratat de Agrochimie. Editura Ceres Bucureşti.<br />

ISBN 973-40-0727-0.<br />

Stathi P., Deligiannakis Y., 2010 - Humic acid-inspired<br />

hybrid materials as heavy metal absorbents.<br />

Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 351,<br />

239-247. ISSN 0021-9797.<br />

http://www.google.ro/search?hl=&q=Efficiency+and+App<br />

lication+Prospect+of+Humatized+Mineral+Fertiliz<br />

ers+&sourceid=navclientff&rlz=1B3GGLL_enRO361RO363&ie=<br />

UTF-8.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

184

Abstract<br />

185<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF MILKING PROCEDURES ON MILKING<br />

PERFORMANCES AND AND PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS<br />

Mugurel COLĂ 1 , Florica COLĂ 1 , Constantin GĂVAN 1<br />

e-mail: colamugurel@yahoo.com<br />

The effect of manual stimulation on milking performances and on milk production parameters have revealed that<br />

the average of milk production per milking was higher in animals with manual stimulation (12.3 kg) as compared to the<br />

average of milk production in animals without stimulation (12.0 kg). At the same time, time average per milking in<br />

animals with manual stimulation was 4,8 minutes, and in animals without stimulation was 5.3 minutes (extra 0.5<br />

minutes). The quality of composition was not affected by the two treatments. There were no significant differences<br />

between the averages of fat or protein percentages. The average number of somatic cells of animals milk with manual<br />

stimulation was 197.000 cells/ml, and in the animals without stimulation was 246.000 cells/ml of milk. We notice a<br />

surplus of 49.000 cells/ml in the animals without stimulation, the difference in this case being significant (p< 0.05). The<br />

higher number of somatic cells in the animals without stimulation is the result of the failure to remove the first jets of<br />

milk that comprise the largest amount of bacteria and somatic cells. As far as the milk flow is concerned, this is 2.56<br />

kg/minute (the average of milking 1 + milking 2) in stimulated animals and 2.26 kg/minute in animals without<br />

stimulation. The difference between the 2 averages was + 0,30 kg/minute, being distinctly significant ( p < 0.01).<br />

Key words: (Milking, Milk, Milking Routine, Somatic Cells)<br />

Modern systems of raising dairy cows have<br />

to combine profitability with the responsibility of<br />

respecting animal, human health, animal and<br />

environmental welfare.<br />

The purpose of this paper was to coordinate<br />

milk ejection with milking units attachment in<br />

order to get a high flow of milk and reduce the<br />

attachment time of milking units, as well as to<br />

determine the performance parameters of the<br />

milking room and milk production in order to<br />

implement a standard milking routine (Hoogeveen<br />

H., 2003).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Researches were performed within Simnic<br />

Agricultural Research and Development Centre on<br />

Holstein Friza cows. They are characterized by a<br />

production potential of 9500-10000 litres of milk /<br />

lactation with a fat percentage of 4,0 % and protein<br />

of 3,45 %.<br />

As far as the effect of manual stimulation on<br />

milking performances and on milk production<br />

parameters is concerned, 8 Holstein Friza cows<br />

were studied at Simnic Agricultural Research and<br />

Development Centre. The 8 cows were at 100-105<br />

days of lactation (3 cows), 110-112 days of<br />

lactation (3 cows) and 120-130 days of lactation (2<br />

cows). The selection criterion was that every<br />

1 Univ.din Craiova,Fac.de Agricultură și Horticultură<br />

animal had 4 operational quarters without any<br />

clinical signs of a disease.<br />

All the cows were during the 2 nd lactation<br />

and were distributed in 2 treatment groups in an<br />

ABA.BAB experimental design.<br />

The 2 treatments consisted in:<br />

- the first one: removing the first jets (2-3) of<br />

milk followed by the manual massage of the<br />

nipples and of the ventral part of the mammary<br />

gland for 30 seconds, after which the milking units<br />

were attached;<br />

- the second treatment did not remove the<br />

first jets and did not comprise a manual massage,<br />

it only attached milking devices.<br />

Experiments were performed in the 2x5<br />

Herringbone milking room, every experiment lasted<br />

for 6 days, the data being recorded both for the<br />

morning milking (milking 1) and for the evening<br />

milking (milking 2).<br />

We recorded milk production and the time of<br />

milking units attachment. Milking units uncoupling<br />

was made automatically with light signals.<br />

Samples were collected and analysed in the<br />

laboratory for the content of protein and fat. Tests<br />

were made with the Ekomilk device.<br />

Residual milk resulted in the 4 th day of<br />

observation by injecting 10 ml UI of oxytocin at the<br />

end of milking. 1 minute after milking units were<br />

attached again and residual milk was measured,

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

collecting samples for determining the percentage<br />

of fat and protein.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The effect of manual stimulation on<br />

milking performances and milk production<br />

parameters. The average of milk production per<br />

milking was higher in animals with manual<br />

stimulation (12.3 kg) as compared to the average<br />

of milk production in animals without stimulation<br />

(12.0 kg). The difference between these averages<br />

was + 0.3 kg, being insignificant (p > 0.05).<br />

The average of milk production in morning<br />

milking 1, in animals with manual stimulation is<br />

higher (14.3 kg) as compared with the average<br />

milk production of animals without stimulation<br />

(13.8 kg), noticing a difference of 0.5 kg being also<br />

insignificant (p > 0.05).<br />

The average of milk production in the 2 nd<br />

evening milking of stimulated animals was slightly<br />

higher as compared to the average of milk<br />

production of animals without stimulation (10.3 kg<br />

and 10.2 kg respectively), and in this case the<br />

difference was insignificant (table 1).<br />

As far as the average of the time of milking<br />

units attachment is concerned, the results were:<br />

- time average per milking in animals with<br />

manual stimulation was 4.8 minutes, and in<br />

animals without stimulation was 5,3 minutes (0,5<br />

minutes extra); this difference is strictly<br />

insignificant (p < 0.01);<br />

- time average per milking 1 was 5,1<br />

minutes in stimulated animals and 5,5 minutes in<br />

500<br />

0<br />

Stimulare manuală Fără stimulare<br />

186<br />

non-stimulated animals, 0.4 minutes extra. This<br />

difference was significant (p < 0.05).<br />

The average of time of milking units<br />

attachment in milking 2, in stimulated animals,<br />

was 4.6 minutes, and in animals without<br />

stimulation was 5.3 minutes (0.7 minutes extra).<br />

The difference between the two averages is<br />

significant (p < 0.05).<br />

The quality of composition was not affected<br />

by the two treatments.<br />

The average number of somatic cells of<br />

animals milk with manual stimulation was 197.000<br />

cells/ml, and in the animals without stimulation<br />

was 246.000 cells/ml of milk. We notice a surplus<br />

of 49.000 cells/ml in the animals without<br />

stimulation, the difference in this case being<br />

significant (p< 0.05). The higher number of<br />

somatic cells in the animals without stimulation is<br />

the result of the failure to remove the first jets of<br />

milk that comprise the largest amount of bacteria<br />

and somatic cells (chart 1).<br />

As far as the milk flow is concerned, this is<br />

2.36 kg/minute (the average of milking 1 + milking<br />

2) in stimulated animals and 2.26 kg/minute in<br />

animals without stimulation. The difference<br />

between the 2 averages was + 0.30 kg/minute,<br />

being distinctly significant ( p < 0.01).<br />

The average flow in milking 1 was 2.80<br />

kg/minute in stimulated animals and 2.50<br />

kg/minute in non-stimulated animals. The<br />

difference between the 2 averages was distinctly<br />

significant (p < 0.01).<br />

The average flow in milking 2 was 2.24<br />

kg/minute in stimulated animals and 1.92<br />

kg/minute in non-stimulated animals . In this case,<br />

the difference was significant (p < 0.01).<br />

-Average number of somatic cells x 1000-<br />

197 246<br />

Figure 1 Results of manual stimulation on milking performances

187<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 1<br />

The results of manual stimulation on milking performances, milk production, fat, protein and the number<br />

of somatic cells<br />

No. Specification Treatment Differences<br />

Manual Without ± Meaning<br />

stimulation stimulation<br />

±<br />

±<br />

Nr.<br />

crt.<br />

X<br />

1 Milk production per milking<br />

- milking 1 + milking 2 12.3 0.6 12.0 0.6 + 0.3 Insignificant p>0,05<br />

- milking 1 (morning) 14.3 0.6 13.8 0.6 + 0.5 Insignificant p>0,05<br />

- milking 2 (evening) 10.3 0.4 10.2 0.3 + 0.1 Insignificant p>0,05<br />

2 Time of milking units attachment (min)<br />

- milking 1 + milking 2 4.8 0.2 5.3 0.2 - 0.5 Significant p < 0,05<br />

- milking 1(morning) 5.1 0.2 5.5 0.3 - 0.4 Significant p < 0,05<br />

- milking 2 (evening) 4.6 0.3 5.3 0.4 - 0.7 Significant p < 0,05<br />

3 Average flow (kg/minute)<br />

- milking 1 + milking 2 2.36 0.1 2.26 0.1 + 0.30 p < 0,01<br />

- milking 1(morning) 2.80 0.2 2.50 0.2 + 0.30 p < 0,01<br />

- milking 2 (evening) 2.24 0.2 1.92 0.1 + 0.32 p < 0,05<br />

4 Average fat percentage - % (milking<br />

1+milking 2)<br />

4.15 0.2 4.12 0.2 + 0.03 Insignificant<br />

5 Average percentage of protein - % 3.34 0.1 3.33 0.1 + 0.01 Insignificant<br />

(milking 1+milking 2)<br />

6 Average number of somatic cells x<br />

1000<br />

(milking 1+ milking 2)<br />

0<br />

1<br />

2<br />

X<br />

197 15 246 14 + 49 Significant p < 0,05<br />

Table 2<br />

The influence of standard milking routine on some milking performances and on milk production<br />

parameters<br />

Specification The preparation average time of the mammary<br />

Group 1<br />

Group 2<br />

– 35 seconds -<br />

- 64 seconds -<br />

1 Observations 18 22<br />

2 Average time with attached milking units (minutes) 5.75 5.76<br />

3 Average milk flow (kg/minute) 2.05 2.05<br />

4 Milk average production per milking (kg) 11.81 11.82<br />

5 Fat percentage (%) 4.06 4.08<br />

6 Protein percentage (%) 3.42 3.43<br />

7 Residual milk (kg) 1.98 2.04<br />

8 Fat percentage of residual milk (%) 9.38 9.42<br />

9 Total milk + residual (kg) 12.79 13.86<br />

1 Residual milk of total milk (%) 15.48 14.72<br />

1<br />

1<br />

gland<br />

Total fat of milk + residual (kg) 0.664 0.674<br />

Residual fat of total fat (%) 27.86 28.48<br />

The influence of standard milking<br />

routine on milking performances and milk<br />

production parameters.<br />

By preparing the mammary gland before<br />

milking, the following aspects are taken into<br />

consideration: mammary gland hygienization,<br />

identification of abnormal milk and subclinical<br />

mammites; stimulation of milk ejection (Lollivier<br />

Vanessa, Guinard Flament J., Ollivier-Bousquet<br />

M., Marnet P.G., 2002)<br />

40 observations were made regarding the<br />

average times of mammary gland preparation.<br />

These times were divided in two groups<br />

depending on their duration: group 1 with a<br />

preparation time average of 35±7 seconds and<br />

group 2 with a preparation time average of 64±12<br />

seconds. 18 observations were made in group 1<br />

and 22 observations in group 2 (table 2). The<br />

average milk production per milking was 11.81 kg<br />

in group 1 of animals and 11.82 kg in group 2 of<br />

animals.<br />

Based on these productions of milk the<br />

average flow of milk was calculated as follows:<br />

we divided these average productions to the<br />

average time when the milking units were

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

attached. The average milk flow was 2.05 kg per<br />

minute in both groups of cows. Almost 15-25 %<br />

of the total milk secreted by the mammary gland<br />

is the residual milk also called complementary<br />

milk. The milk remained in the udder increases<br />

the risk of mammary infections, because residual<br />

milk is an excellent environment for<br />

microorganisms development.<br />

In the researches made in animals from the<br />

first group, residual milk was 15.48 % of the total<br />

milk produced by the mammary gland and 14.72<br />

% in the animals from the second group.<br />

The fat percentage of residual milk was<br />

9.38 % in the animals from the 1 st group and 9.42<br />

% in the animals from the second group.<br />

Researches revealed the fact that residual<br />

milk is in larger amount in animals with smaller<br />

milk production than in those with high<br />

productions.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The researches developed at Simnic<br />

Agricultural Research and Development Centre on<br />

Holstein Friza cows reveal the following<br />

conclusions:The functionality of efficient milking<br />

was provided by introducing the Heringbone 2 x 5<br />

milking system with 10 milking positions.<br />

Mammary stimulation of nipples and ventral<br />

pressure of the mammary gland before attaching<br />

milking units, for 30 seconds is enough to get the<br />

actual ejection of milk.Coordination of milk<br />

ejection with milking units attachment resulted in a<br />

high flow of milk and in the decrease of milking<br />

units attachment time. 4. Hygienization of nipples<br />

and of the ventral part of the mammary gland<br />

reduces the risk of infections between milking.By<br />

removing the first 3-4 jets of milk before attaching<br />

the milking units, the abnormal milk is practically<br />

eliminated, which does not have to reach the<br />

feedstock milk.The standard milking routine<br />

provides the same treatment for every cow, in every<br />

milking irrespective of the stage of lactation, the<br />

number of lactation or the person performing<br />

milking(Stelwagen K., 2001) The average time<br />

while milking units were attached was below 6<br />

minutes, being an optimal time, without<br />

implications on the integrity of the nipple channel.<br />

Extended milking is the cause of cones and<br />

infections of the nipple channels tissues. Correct<br />

application and maintenance of milking units in<br />

normal position are essential elements for the<br />

complete discharge of the mammary gland<br />

(Stelwagen K., Knight C.H, 2001). The effects of<br />

incomplete milking are the decrease of milk<br />

production and occurrence of mammary infections.<br />

A variable that affects the duration of milking is the<br />

188<br />

setting of the final point of the milk flow to which<br />

the milking units are detached. The flow of the<br />

milking plant at Simnic Agricultural Research and<br />

Development Centre is of 0,200 kg/minute.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Amos H.E., Kiser T., Loewentein M., 1985 – Influence<br />

of milking frequency on productive and<br />

reproductive efficiencies of dairy cows. J. Dairy<br />

Sci 68: 732-739.<br />

Armstrong D.V., 1999 – Milking frequency. Internetn<br />

communication:<br />

www.dairybiz.com/archive/nutrition-14htm.<br />

Hoogeveen H., 2003 – Sensors and management<br />

support in high-technology milking. Journal of<br />

Animal Science 81 (Supl. 3):1.<br />

Lollivier Vanessa, Guinard Flament J., Ollivier-<br />

Bousquet M., Marnet P.G., 2002 – Oxytocin<br />

and milk rimoval: two important sources of<br />

variation in milk production and milk quality<br />

during milking and betwin milkings.<br />

Reprod.Nutr.Dev. 42 173-186.<br />

Stelwagen K., 2001 – Effect of milking frequency on<br />

mammary functioning and shape of the<br />

lactation curve. J. Dairy Sci. Suppl 84 E 204 –<br />

E 211.<br />

Stelwagen K., Knight C.H, 2001. – Effect of unilateral<br />

once or twice daily milking of cows on milk<br />

yield and udder characteristics in early and<br />

late lactation. J. Dairy Res. 64; 487-494.

189<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

RESEARCHES REGARDING 2X5 HERRINGBONE MILKING ROOM IN DAIRY<br />

COWS<br />

Abstract<br />

Mugurel COLĂ 1 , Constantin GĂVAN 1 , Florica COLĂ 1<br />

e-mail: colamugurel@yahoo.com<br />

24 observations were made at various periods of time starting with December 10 th , 2010 and ending on March<br />

15 th , 2011.The 24 observations are 12 observations in milking 1 (milking from 5 00 -6 30 ) and 12 observations in milking 2<br />

(milking from 16 00 -17 30 ). The milked amount in every observation was between 82 and 88 cows. Animals with nonfunctional<br />

quarters of the mammary gland were excluded, as well as animals with exaggeratedly long times. The<br />

average access time of a series of 5 cows in milking sheds decreased from 6,8-7,0 minutes registered in the first 2<br />

observations to 2.5 minute in the last observation from March 15 th , 2011. The preparation time of a mammary gland<br />

decreased from 60 seconds, the main milker and the exchange milker gathering experience with the passing of time. If<br />

we consider a reform percentage of cows of se 33 %, the average of production losses to a pre-determined somatic cells<br />

is: (0.33 x production loss) + (0.07 x production loss of multiparous animals). A strict milking routine in which nipples<br />

cleaning and drying occur every 30 seconds, and milk units application at every 60 seconds from the beginning of<br />

stimulations causes an increase of milk production by 450 kg per lactation and results in a surplus of 320<br />

l/cow/lactation.<br />

Key words: milking shed; milking unit; mammary gland quarters; nipples, milk<br />

The hygienic and composition quality of<br />

milk is a major problem. Milk has to correspond<br />

from qualitative point of view since milking.<br />

Untreated raw milk is achieved in an environment<br />

with increased contamination risks and physical,<br />

chemical and microbiologic pollution (Amos H.E.,<br />

Kiser T., Loewentein M., 1985). Modern insurance<br />

and management systems of milk quality are the<br />

object of ISO 9000 standards. Total quality<br />

achievement in milk industry supposes first of all<br />

complete hygiene in all the stages specific to milk<br />

production.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The Holstein Friza breed within Simnic<br />

Agricultural Research and Development Centre<br />

comes from the import made from Denmark in<br />

1977. The potential for milk production is around<br />

10.000 litres per lactation, with a fat percentage of<br />

4.0 % and 3.45 % protein.<br />

In 2010, in December HERRINGBONE<br />

(Brăduleț) 2x5 was commissioned with 10 milking<br />

stations, therefore passing from milking in a jug to<br />

centralized milking. The purpose of this research<br />

was to observe the efficiency of the milking room 2<br />

x 5 Herringbone (10 milking stations) with cows<br />

1 Univ. Din Craiova, Fac.de Agricultură și Horticultură<br />

placement in an angle of 30 0 expressed in<br />

kilograms of milked milk per hour.<br />

The activities considered and timing: cows<br />

access in milking stands from the opening of the<br />

access gate to its closing (for 5 cows); nipples<br />

immersion in the pre-dip solution (timing in every<br />

cow); erasing and drying the skin of nipples and<br />

the ventral part of the udder (timing in every cow);<br />

milking units attachment and attachment duration<br />

(timing in every cow); checking complete milking<br />

and nipples immersion in post-dip solution (timing<br />

in every cow); animals removing from the milking<br />

stand (from the opening of the exit gate to its<br />

closing). Average times were calculated for every<br />

activity comprised in the milking procedure<br />

(Stelwagen K., 2001). Milked milk was measured<br />

after every series of milking. The influence of the<br />

preparation time of the mammary gland for milking<br />

on milk ejection was expressed by the average<br />

flows of milked milk. The efficiency of milking room<br />

was expressed in kilograms of milked milk per hour<br />

and per milking station.<br />

24 observations were made at various<br />

periods of time starting with December 10 th , 2010<br />

and ending on March 15 th , 2011.<br />

The 24 observations are 12 observations in<br />

milking 1 (milking from 5 00 -6 30 ) and 12<br />

observations in milking 2 (milking from 16 00 -17 30 ).<br />

The milked amount in every observation was<br />

between 82 and 88 cows. Animals with nonfunctional<br />

quarters of the mammary gland were

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

excluded, as well as animals with exaggeratedly<br />

long times.<br />

The results of every activity timing are<br />

presented in (table 1, chart 1).<br />

Cows’ access in the milking room was the<br />

activity for which long periods of time were<br />

recorded. Animals’ familiarization in the new<br />

milking conditions lasted for almost 3 months.<br />

190<br />

The average access time of a series of 5<br />

cows in milking sheds decreased from 6.8-7.0<br />

minutes registered in the first 2 observations to 2,5<br />

minute in the last observation from March 15 th ,<br />

2011.<br />

Average timing<br />

No. Specification Average time per milking<br />

Observation number<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12<br />

1 Cows access to the milking point (minutes/5 6.8 7.0 6.6 6.5 6.4 6.0 6.0 4.6 4.0 3.0 2.4 2.5<br />

cows)<br />

Table 1<br />

2 Removing 3-4 jets of the nipple (sec/cow) 20 20 20 20 18 18 16 16 14 12 10 10<br />

3 Pre-dip immersion (sec/cow) 20 20 20 20 18 16 14 14 12 12 10 10<br />

4 Nipples wiping and drying (sec/cow) 40 40 40 30 30 30 30 25 25 25 25 20<br />

5 Milking units attachment (min/cow) 20 20 20 20 20 18 18 16 14 12 10 20<br />

6 Average milking time (min/cow) 7.2 7.3 7.1 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.0 6.8 6.7 6.5<br />

7 Post-dip checking and immersion (sec/cow) 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 30 30 20 25 20<br />

8 Animals removing (sec/cow) 120 120 120 100 100 110 100 90 90 80 80 60<br />

9 Other activities in series (min/cow) 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5<br />

10 Total time of milking /series (minutes) 19.0 20.2 20.1 19.6 19.0 18.1 18.1 16.4 16.5 14.1 13.1 13.0<br />

11 Milked milk per series (kg) 101 107 114 110 117 111 117 115 118 109 111 108<br />

Observation<br />

number<br />

No. of<br />

cows<br />

The influence of stimulation time on milk ejection<br />

Preparation time<br />

(seconds)<br />

Average production of<br />

milk/milking<br />

(kg/cow)<br />

Average milking<br />

time (minutes)<br />

Table 2<br />

Average milk flow<br />

(kg/minute)<br />

1 82 100 10.1 7.2 1.40<br />

2 82 100 10.7 7.3 1.46<br />

3 84 100 11.4 7.1 1.60<br />

4 85 90 11.0 7.3 1.52<br />

5 86 86 11.7 7.2 1.62<br />

6 86 82 11.1 7.1 1.56<br />

7 88 73 11.7 7.2 1.62<br />

8 88 71 11.5 7.3 1.57<br />

9 86 65 11.8 7.0 1.68<br />

10 85 61 10.9 6.8 1.60<br />

11 86 61 11.1 6.7 1.65<br />

12 85 60 10.8 6.5 1.66<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The preparation time for 1-minute milking<br />

is enough for good ejection of milk for all animals<br />

irrespective of lactation stage. The integration of<br />

an automated milking units separation system<br />

avoids over-milking, and the lighting signal meant<br />

the end of the period of milking units connection<br />

(table 2). This time, from the connection of the<br />

milking unit to the lighting signal, will be defined<br />

as milking time. Milking time decreased from 7.2-<br />

7.3 minutes to 6.5 in the 12 th observation.<br />

The milk flow and milk production of the<br />

cow have significant impact on the milking room<br />

efficiency,(Stelwagen K., Knight C.H, 2001).<br />

Based on the data resulted from these<br />

observations and measurements, the efficiency of<br />

the2 x 5 Heringbone room was calculated in the<br />

12 observations expressed in kilograms of milk<br />

per milking station and per hour .<br />

While gaining experience and standardizing<br />

the milking routine after 3 months, the amount of<br />

50 kg milk per milking station and per hour was<br />

reached.<br />

A strict milking routine in which nipples<br />

cleaning and drying occur every 30 seconds, and<br />

milk units application at every 60 seconds from<br />

the beginning of stimulations causes an increase<br />

of milk production by 450 kg per lactation and<br />

results in a surplus of 320 l/cow/lactation.

300<br />

250<br />

200<br />

150<br />

100<br />

50<br />

0<br />

1.5 1.4<br />

120 120 1201.5<br />

1.5 1.7 2<br />

100<br />

100<br />

110<br />

1.5<br />

100 1.4 1.5<br />

90 90 1.6 1.5<br />

80 80<br />

1.5<br />

60<br />

50 50 50<br />

50<br />

40 40<br />

30 30 30<br />

7.2<br />

20<br />

7.3<br />

20<br />

7.1<br />

20 7.3<br />

20<br />

7.2<br />

20 7.1<br />

40 40 40<br />

18<br />

7.2<br />

20 25 20<br />

18 7.3<br />

16 14<br />

7 6.8<br />

30 30 30 30<br />

12 6.7 6.5<br />

10 20<br />

25 25 25 25 20<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The study developed at Simnic Agricultural<br />

Research and Development Centre reveals the<br />

following conclusions:<br />

The introduction of the Herringbone 2 x 5<br />

centralized milking system with 10 milking<br />

stations provided the functionality of an efficient<br />

milking.<br />

Filtration was made by using mechanic<br />

filtration during milking with once-only use<br />

filters.<br />

Mammary stimulation of nipples and<br />

ventral pressure of the mammary gland for 30<br />

seconds before attaching milking units is enough<br />

to get the efficient ejection of milk.<br />

Milk ejection coordination with the<br />

attachment of milking units resulted in a large<br />

flow of milk and the decrease of time while<br />

milking units were attached.<br />

Nipples and ventral part of the mammary<br />

gland hygienization reduces the risk of infections<br />

between milking.<br />

By removing the first 3-4 jets of milk<br />

before attaching the milking units, the abnormal<br />

milk is practically eliminated, which does not<br />

have to reach the feedstock milk.<br />

The standard milking routine provides the<br />

same treatment for every cow, in every cow,<br />

irrespective of the stage of lactation, the number<br />

of lactation or the person performing milking.<br />

The average time while milking units were<br />

attached was below 6 minutes, being an optimal<br />

time, without implications on the integrity of the<br />

nipple channel. Extended milking is the cause of<br />

cones and infections of the nipple channels tissue.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Amos H.E., Kiser T., Loewentein M., 1985 – Influence<br />

of milking frequency on productive and<br />

reproductive efficiencies of dairy cows. J. Dairy<br />

Sci 68: 732-739.<br />

Figure 1 Efficiency of the 2 x 5 herringbone miling room<br />

191<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Alte activități în serii<br />

(min/vacă)<br />

Evacuare animale<br />

(sec/vacă)<br />

Verificare și imersare postdip(sec/vacă)<br />

Timp mediu de<br />

muls(min/vacă)<br />

Atașarea unităților de<br />

muls(min/vacă)<br />

Ștergerea și uscarea<br />

mameloanelor(sec/vacă)<br />

Armstrong D.V., 1999 – Milking frequency. Internetn<br />

communication:<br />

www.dairybiz.com/archive/nutrition-14htm.<br />

Hoogeveen H., 2003 – Sensors and management<br />

support in high-technology milking. Journal of<br />

Animal Science 81 (Supl. 3):1.<br />

Lollivier Vanessa, Guinard Flament J., Ollivier-<br />

Bousquet M., Marnet P.G., 2002 – Oxytocin<br />

and milk rimoval: two important sources of<br />

variation in milk production and milk quality<br />

during milking and betwin milkings.<br />

Reprod.Nutr.Dev. 42 173-186.<br />

Stelwagen K., 2001 – Effect of milking frequency on<br />

mammary functioning and shape of the lactation<br />

curve. J. Dairy Sci. Suppl 84 E 204 – E 211.<br />

Stelwagen K., Knight C.H, 2001. – Effect of unilateral<br />

once or twice daily milking of cows on milk yield<br />

and udder characteristics in early and late<br />

lactation. J. Dairy Res. 64; 487-494.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

192

193<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS FROM THE<br />

WINTER SEASON ON BIOLOGICAL RESERVE OF LEPTINOTARSA<br />

DECEMLINEATA SAY. ADULTS, IN THE CENTER OF SUCEAVA PLATEAU<br />

Abstract<br />

Bogdan Cătălin ENEA 1 , Mihai TĂLMACIU 2 , Nela TĂLMACIU 2<br />

email: catalin_i75@yahoo.com<br />

Interdependence between the thermal regime of the soil and the depth at which there is the most significant hypothermia<br />

tolerance was put into evidence under 2006-2009. In 2006, after a more severe winter, the most numerous hibernating<br />

adults were recorded in the layer of 31-40 cm, while in other years at a depth of 26-30 cm. Below and above these<br />

depths hibernating adult population has diminished under the years 2007 to 2009. This is due to hypothermia in the<br />

superficial layers of the soil, and in the deepest (below 30-40 cm), adults debilitation, as a result of increased<br />

consumption of carbohydrates and fats during break time and high crossing thicker soil layer.<br />

Key words: heat treatment, mortality, adults hibernate, tolerance, hypothermia density<br />

Transition to hibernation stage is preceded by a<br />

period of active nutrition, during which the insect<br />

body accumulates considerable reserves of<br />

carbohydrates and fats which serve as an energy<br />

source during break period and in the spring during<br />

recovery periods too.<br />

The snow layer provides a favorable shelter for<br />

hibernation of most Colorado beetles adults, and<br />

during winter’s periods without snow and strong<br />

frosts, many of them perish because of frost.<br />

At low temperatures, below the lower threshold, the<br />

insects become progressively property and numb.<br />

Adults death at low temperatures is due, first of<br />

free water freezing from intercellular spaces (it<br />

formed ice crystals) and then when the temperature<br />

goes above a certain limit, the total water from the<br />

insect body have been freezing. Before reaching<br />

this limit, the insects proceed in anabiosis stage, of<br />

which insects can gradually return with the<br />

gradually rise of<br />

BIOLOGIC MATERIAL AND RESEARCH<br />

METHOD<br />

Under natural conditions for determining the<br />

hibernation depth and adult density, 15 surveys<br />

were performed at 0-90 cm soil depth, the insects<br />

were collected out of 5 in 5 cm on depth. We<br />

made the following studies:<br />

The determination of the hibernation<br />

depth;<br />

1 SCDA Suceava<br />

2 USAMV Iasi<br />

The mortality of the Colorado beetle during<br />

hibernation period;<br />

Density of hibernate adults in the natural<br />

conditions;<br />

The determination of the mortality during<br />

hibernation period and biological reserve of the<br />

adults were made using cages with 30 adults who<br />

were buried in the soil in autumn while the adults<br />

withdrew.<br />

RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS<br />

In all winters of 2005-2006, 2006-2007, 2007-2008<br />

and 2008-2009 there was only one cold period. If<br />

in the last two winters, the cold period was in the<br />

first decade of January, but in the winter of 2005-<br />

2006 the coldest period was in the third decade of<br />

January, and in the winter of 2006-2007 the lowest<br />

temperatures, both in air and in soil were recorded<br />

in the third decade of February.<br />

The coldest hibernation season was in 2006, when<br />

it showed the strongest frequency of decades with<br />

lower minimums average – 5 0 C and 10 0 C both in<br />

air and at ground. If we compare with years 2005 -<br />

2006, the cold season from years 2006 - 2007 can<br />

be considered the least cold, with one decade with<br />

average minimums below - 5 0 C. Winter seasons<br />

2007 - 2008 and 2008 -2009 fall between the two

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

extremes, respectively 2005 - 2006 and 2006 -<br />

2007.<br />

About the likely effects of thermal regime on adults<br />

hibernation proving that in all winters the soil was<br />

clearly protected by low temperatures, through<br />

presence of a thick snow layer 8-12 cm in temporal<br />

sequences with the lowest temperatures<br />

Some considerations concerning the biological<br />

reserve of the beetle adults in the soil<br />

Since between the percentage of adult mortality<br />

and average minimum amounts (negative)<br />

occurring during frost of the soil, resulted a<br />

significant dependence (r = 0.95 x ) which it could<br />

be admit that without data on the evolution of soil<br />

temperatures can be used the thermal regime of the<br />

soil surface. Amounts of negative thermal unit<br />

values ranged from - 369 o C during the winter<br />

season of 2006-2007 and -173 o C during winter<br />

season of 2005-2006.<br />

In these circumstances it is estimated that the<br />

mortality rate of hibernation adults (each 30<br />

individuals in every cage) was at least apparently<br />

dependent on the amount of rainfall recorded<br />

during the months from November to March, the<br />

statistical expression of this interrelationship<br />

Table 2<br />

194<br />

having the value of r = 0.96 x . Values of the two<br />

types of interrelations being very similar, although<br />

not express proportional relationships, however,<br />

suggests the importance of impact both climatic<br />

features on the viability hibernation adults.<br />

The information included in the table 1 reveals that<br />

the worst weather conditions, concerning the<br />

hibernation, was recorded in winter season of<br />

2005-2006 when adult mortality was 70% and the<br />

best tolerated conditions were recorded in winter<br />

season of 2006-2007 and 2007-2008, when<br />

mortality was significantly reduced with 28 and<br />

21%.<br />

The 15 surveys conducted at depths listed in table<br />

2 suggest that the adult’s number hibernated<br />

variation was due equally like intensity to both<br />

factors - year and depth. But in terms of frequency<br />

the depth of hibernated adults where they were<br />

positioned influenced in more "circumstances" the<br />

population density.<br />

Table 1<br />

The mortality rate during hibernation period<br />

The variation of the hibernated adult’s number at different depth during years 2006-2009<br />

The depth<br />

Years Differences because of years<br />

(cm/mp) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2007 2008 2009<br />

0 -10 0,07 0,20 0,13 0,13 0,13 0,06 0,06<br />

11 - 15 0,27 0,27 0,07 0,27 0,00 -0,20 o<br />

0,00<br />

16 - 20 0,07 0,13 0,20 0,27 0,06 0,13 0,20 x<br />

21 - 25 0,20 0,40 0,20 0,47 0,20 x<br />

0,00 0,27 xx<br />

26 - 30 0,53 0,80 0,47 0,72 0,27 xx<br />

-0,06 0,19<br />

31 – 40 0,93 0,40 0,33 0,33 -0,53 ooo<br />

-0,60 ooo<br />

40 - 50 0,26 0,26 0,07 0,20 0,00 -0,19 -0,06<br />

Differences because of depths<br />

11 - 15 0,20<br />

Dl 5% - 0,19<br />

Dl 1% - 0,26<br />

Dl 0,1% - 0,36<br />

x<br />

0,07 -0,06 0,14<br />

16 - 20<br />

21 - 25<br />

0,00<br />

0,13<br />

-0,07<br />

0,20<br />

0,07 0,14<br />

x<br />

0,07 0,34 xx<br />

26 - 30 0,46 xxx<br />

0,60 xxx<br />

0,34 xx<br />

0,59 xxx<br />

31 – 40 0,86 xxx<br />

0,20 x<br />

0,20 x<br />

0,20 x<br />

40 - 50 0,19 0,06 -0,06 0,07<br />

nr.adulţi/mp<br />

Figure 1 Graphic expression of the adult hibernation depth<br />

Years 2006 2007 2008 2009<br />

% mortality 70 42 49 59<br />

Differences St. -28 ooo<br />

-21 oo<br />

-11<br />

Dl 5% - 11% Dl 1% - 16% Dl 0,1% - 22%<br />

15<br />

14<br />

2006<br />

13<br />

12<br />

11<br />

2007<br />

2008<br />

10<br />

9<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

2009<br />

cm<br />

0--10 11 --15 16 -- 20 21 -- 25 26 -- 30 31 -- 40 40 -- 50<br />

-0,60 ooo

Interdependency between the soil thermal regime<br />

and the depth at which there is the most significant<br />

hypothermia tolerance is illustrated by the data<br />

given in table 2. Thus, in 2006 after a more severe<br />

winter, the most numerous hibernating adults were<br />

recorded in the layer of 31-40 cm, while in other<br />

years the hibernating adults were recorded at the<br />

depth of 26-30 cm (Fig. 1)<br />

Below and above these depths, hibernating adult<br />

population has diminished under winter conditions<br />

of the years 2007 and 2009. This is due to<br />

hypothermia phenomenon in the superficial layers of<br />

the soil, and in the deepest (below 30-40 cm),<br />

because of adults debilitation as a result of<br />

consumption increased of carbohydrates and fats<br />

during break and high crossing thicker soil layer.<br />

monocultură<br />

4 ani<br />

3 ani<br />

2 ani<br />

0.8<br />

1.2<br />

Since missing data on soil thermal regime in Table<br />

3 are listed values of air temperature, by which we<br />

can emphasize some aspects related to their<br />

influence on the emergence of hibernating adults<br />

Based on data for 25 years, hibernating adult<br />

emergence occurred between April 9 and May 5,<br />

the mean date is 25 April, that mean, after 55 days<br />

from date 01.03. As a result of global warming, the<br />

frequency of hibernating adults in the third decade<br />

of April almost doubled compared with decades<br />

eight and nine of the twentieth century.<br />

Great date of occurrence adults hibernate<br />

amplitude is shown both the variable coefficient<br />

(s%) which is very high (33-42%, Table 4) and<br />

very low value (-0.07 to 0.12, table 5) of the<br />

correlation coefficients between dates of adult<br />

hibernate emergence and days with average<br />

temperatures greater than 5° or 8°C reported to the<br />

first of March.<br />

Figure 2 Hibernate adults density in potato monoculture<br />

195<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

In Suceava County, the smallholders practice the<br />

potato monoculture, because of lack of areas. In a<br />

study made by the ARDS Suceava, in some<br />

experimental areas for determining of the load<br />

average adult /m 2 at a potato monoculture of 2, 3<br />

and 4 years (Fig. 2). Besides of agrophytotechnic,<br />

phitotopathologic and economic effects, if we refer<br />

only to the Colorado beetle resulted that after<br />

performing the 15 polls in 0-90 cm soil depth, the<br />

average load adults is 0.8 m adults in two years<br />

potato monoculture , increasing to 1.2 adults in the<br />

three-years monoculture and 1.6 adults /m 2 in fouryears<br />

monoculture. In a simple calculation we will<br />

have approximately 16,000 adults/ha (after Daniela<br />

Donescu et al. 2006), and a production losses of<br />

40% , and 20,000 adults / ha will causes a<br />

production losses of 50%.<br />

1.6<br />

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8<br />

adulţi/mp<br />

Between appearance "moments" of 2 - 3 days with<br />

5° and 8°C there was not significant temporal<br />

relationship, the correlation index being very low<br />

(0.405). Largely, it contributed the fact that in the<br />

interval between the average temperatures<br />

appearance of 5° or 8°C and emergence hibernate<br />

adults temporal sequences with temperatures<br />

below two mentioned levels occurred. Thus 23%<br />

of the 34 days had average temperatures below 5 o C<br />

and 48% of the 29 days were below 8°C. The<br />

correlation coefficients (0.658 xx and 0.655 xx )<br />

suggests that the mentioned frequencies were<br />

significantly prolonged cold days during the<br />

interval between occurrences of reference<br />

temperatures and hibernating adult emergence.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Duration dependence to hibernate adult emergence of both air thermal limits<br />

Specification Correlation coefficients (r)<br />

Mean temperatures ≥ 5 o C<br />

active<br />

effective<br />

-0,076<br />

0,120<br />

∑ mean temperatures ≥ 5 o C<br />

active 0,791 xxx<br />

effective 0,648 xx<br />

Mean temperatures ≥ 8 o C<br />

∑ Mean temperatures ≥ 8 o<br />

CONCLUZIONS<br />

1. Hibernate-adult mortality (Ah) is dependent on<br />

both the amount of negative temperatures (r =<br />

0.95 x) occurred during soil freezing and the<br />

amount of rainfall recorded during the months<br />

November to March (r = 0.96 x );<br />

2. The slight decrease of the adults biological<br />

reserve were recorded in the 30-40 cm layer in<br />

more severe winter (2005-2006), and at a depth<br />

of 25-30 cm in moderate winters (2006-2007 and<br />

2007-2008). Numerical decrease of hibernate<br />

adults above mentioned depth is due to a more<br />

pronounced hypothermia induction, and that<br />

found in these depths can be attributed to adult<br />

awareness as a result of increased carbohydrates<br />

and fats consumption during break time.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Donescu, Daniela, 2006 – Cartoful în România -<br />

Publicaţie de informare tehnică pentru cultivatorii<br />

de cartof - Vol. 16 Nr. 1, 2- 2006, pag. 59-67.<br />

Bale J. S., Masters G. J., Hodkinson I. D., 2002 -<br />

Herbivory in global climate change research:<br />

direct effects of rising temperatures on insect<br />

herbivores, Global Change Biology, vol. 8, p. 1–<br />

16.<br />

Hiiesaar K., Kuusik A., Jõudu J. et al. Laboratory<br />

experiments on cold acclimation in overwintering<br />

Colorado potato beetles, Leptinotarsa<br />

decemlineata (Say) // Norwegian Journal of<br />

Entomology. – 2001, vol. 48, p. 87–90.<br />

active 0,343<br />

effective 0,389<br />

active 0,699 xx<br />

effective 0,687 xx<br />

196<br />

Table 4<br />

3. Compared with charge of 0.8 hibernate<br />

adults/m 2 in two years potato monoculture<br />

their number has doubled (1.6/m 2 ) in four<br />

years potato monoculture.<br />

4. Based on information accumulated during 25<br />

years (1976-1995 and 2005-2009) average<br />

time hibernating adult emergence is 25 April.<br />

If the average error is taken into account - nine<br />

days - that probably hibernating adult<br />

emergence occurred between April 16 and<br />

May 4. Amplitude of its occurrence has been<br />

much broader i.e. 11.04-19.05

197<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

SOME ASPECTS CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL<br />

FACTORS ON COLORADO BEETLE BIOLOGY IN SUCEAVA CONDITIONS,<br />

IN THE RANGE COMPRISED BETWEEN ADULTS EMERGENCE AND PONTE<br />

FIRST COATING<br />

Mihai TĂLMACIU 1 , Bogdan Cătălin ENEA 2 , Nela TĂLMACIU 1<br />

email: catalin_i75@yahoo.com<br />

Abstract<br />

From all meteorological factors, first were studied effect of temperature and humidity, because these factors influence<br />

the breeding intensity and further development of the insect. An analysis of climatic fluctuations in Suceava, suggests<br />

that the winters in a certain extent have warmed, the precipitation quantities from the cold season and summer<br />

temperatures have increased considerably, which makes the insect development and biology to default other facets to<br />

years of occurrence in the Suceava.<br />

Taking into consideration the data recorded during 2006-2009, the average adult stage from hibernate adult emergence<br />

in G1, until to pontes depositing was on average 18 and 16 days. If in 2006-2008 duration of this phase do not differ<br />

significantly between the two appearances of adults, in 2009 duration of the same stage was eight days longer in the<br />

first phase compared to the second stage. This major difference can be attributed to the large number of days (ten) with<br />

low temperatures.<br />

Key words: rainfall regime, temperature, days with "unfavorable potential”<br />

Climatic conditions have a significant influence on<br />

the spreading, population dynamics, life cycle, the<br />

pressure of infestation and appearance of Colorado<br />

beetle in the potato crop. The climate change due<br />

to temperature increase could have a major impact<br />

on populations of harmful insects (Bale JS, et all,<br />

2002). It has a high affinity for higher temperatures<br />

for feeding, deposit eggs, shortening the incubation<br />

period reducing larval development (Hiiesaar K. et<br />

all., 2001, Semaškien R., Šmatas R., 2006).<br />

Low temperatures is the main obstacle to the<br />

spread and survival of this species (Hiiesaar K. et<br />

al., 2001)<br />

1 USAMV Iasi<br />

2 SCDA Suceava<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

This paper addresses a fundamental<br />

problem in the Colorado beetle namely the<br />

influence of meteorological factors on insect<br />

biology in the range of adult emergence and early<br />

depositing of the first pontes, in the context of<br />

climate change in the last years. We analyzed<br />

phases from hibernate adult emergence - deposit<br />

of first eggs (EI) and first generation adult<br />

emergence - deposit eggs (S II)<br />

The studies were conducted during the years<br />

2006 - 2009 in ARDS of Suceava in the laboratory<br />

of Plant Protection.<br />

From all meteorological factors, first it was studied<br />

effect of temperature and humidity, because these<br />

factors influence: emergence, breeding and<br />

development of the insects. These factors<br />

depending on the intensity of their manifestation<br />

contribute to the emergence and increase in very<br />

large limits of damages to potato crops.<br />

We pursued, under natural conditions, some<br />

aspects of biology and ecology of the pest,<br />

illustrating of the interdependencies between<br />

stages duration from Colorado beetle ontology<br />

and the main characteristics of thermal and<br />

precipitation regimes in Suceava.<br />

RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS<br />

Referring to first stage, in according with<br />

observations made, we can notice that the duration<br />

of them was 18 days and if the average of last<br />

three year was 20 days, 2008 was remarked by the<br />

longest period (12 days) from the hibernate adults<br />

occurrence until the first pontes emergence. Take<br />

into consideration the duration of hibernate adults<br />

“semilethargy” was shorter in 2006 compared to<br />

other years, shortening of the first stage with 6-12<br />

days, may be attributed to a higher female<br />

biological potential, which contributed to the<br />

passage earlier in the breeding stage (Fig. 1).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 1 The differences (in days ) between two stages<br />

Almost continuous air warming and reduced<br />

rainfall have been created favorable conditions for<br />

completing in 12 days of the first biological stage<br />

in 2006 (fig.2.a). The only one negative moment<br />

can be considered in the days 6-7 after lowering<br />

the average temperature until to 8.2°C associated<br />

a<br />

If in 2007 the first phase duration was 18<br />

days, in 2008 it reached 22 days (fig.3.a) High<br />

frequency of rainy days (13) and abundance of<br />

them (118 mm) emphasized enough effects of low<br />

temperature (average below 10 o C), whose<br />

frequency was 45%. It is necessary to mention that<br />

of the 13 days of rain, five of them had<br />

temperatures between 1.4 and 7 o C.<br />

In year 2009, as in 2006, the duration of the first<br />

biological stage was mainly driven by the thermal<br />

198<br />

with a rain of 3.6 mm, followed a day, the seventh,<br />

with a heavy wetting due to the 15mm of<br />

precipitation (Table 1). Given the set can be<br />

considered that in 2006 there were meteorological<br />

conditions acceptable for deposit eggs of Colorado<br />

potato beetle females.<br />

First stage in 2007 was characterized by less<br />

favorable weather conditions, particularly in terms<br />

of heat, i.e. lowering of the minimum<br />

temperatures below 5 o C (of which in two days they<br />

fell to -1.1°C) for 5 days (of which four successive<br />

days 3 to 6 V) (fig.2.b). It can not be neglected any<br />

impediments caused by four days of rain, which in<br />

three days, quantities ranged between 5.2 and 11.1<br />

mm.<br />

It is estimated that in the first stage in 2007<br />

there were at least four days, according to Table 1,<br />

where weather conditions were unfavorable for<br />

pontes, i.e.: days 3-5 when average temperatures<br />

were below 10 o C and lows temperatures (in air)<br />

were of 3.7-1.1°C and respectively, -0.5°C and the<br />

twelfth day (10 May) when the minimum<br />

temperature dropped to 4.5°C, and the amounts of<br />

precipitation were 9.0 mm the day before and 5.2<br />

mm in current day.<br />

Figure 2 Climatic conditions from the first stage, year 2006 (a) and 2007 (b)<br />

oC, mm<br />

20<br />

18<br />

16<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

nr. zile<br />

precipit . t .med.zil. t .min.zil.<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18<br />

b<br />

of the air (fig. 3. b). Comparing the second part of<br />

the graph of 2005 (beginning with ninth day), as in<br />

2006 (excluding precipitation from the seventh<br />

day), it can be assumed that there is an acceptable<br />

resemblance. So, that it would result the<br />

prolongation of the deposit eggs duration with<br />

eight days was due to the special nature of the<br />

thermal regime, illustrated by lowering the average<br />

temperature from 12 o C, to 8.5-9.5 O C, and lowering<br />

of the minimum temperatures

199<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 1<br />

Synthesis of meteorological characteristics of stage I and II (2006 – 2009)<br />

Observations<br />

Year<br />

2006<br />

Stage I<br />

2007 2008 2009 2006<br />

Stage II<br />

2007 2008 2009<br />

Stage duration (no. of the days) 12 18 22 20 13 18 19 12<br />

Nr. of the days with tmin bellow 5 o C 4 5 3 10 - - - -<br />

Nr. of the days with tmin below 15 o C - - - - 8 16 10 7<br />

from which: first 1/3 4 4 3 5 6 6 6 3<br />

second 1/3 - 1 - 3 - 4 4 2<br />

third 1/3 - - - 2 2 6 - 2<br />

The absolute minimum temperature 2,3 -1,1 1,4 -0,4 - - - -<br />

No. of the days with precipitations 3 4 13 3 4 6 10 5<br />

from which: with tmin bellow 8 o C 1 1 5 2 - - - -<br />

with tmin bellow 15 o C - - - - 4 3 4 4<br />

No. of the days with tmin below 10 o C - - - - - - - -<br />

No. of the days with tmin below 5 o C 3 3 4 5 - - - -<br />

No. of the days potentially<br />

unfavorable 1-2 4 8 5 - 3 6 1<br />

Current number of days with<br />

potentially negative influence 6-7 3-5, 12<br />

oC, mm<br />

30<br />

28<br />

26<br />

24<br />

22<br />

20<br />

18<br />

16<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

precipit. t.med.zil. t.min.zil.<br />

0<br />

nr.zile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22<br />

2-6,9,<br />

18,19<br />

4,5,7,<br />

8, 14<br />

-<br />

10,16,<br />

17<br />

a b<br />

Figure 3 The climatic conditions from stage I, years 2008 (a) and 2009 (b)<br />

from 7,5 O C to 4°C. The thermal regime of the<br />

first stage of 2009, even if is illustrated by an<br />

average temperature of 11,3°C (tab. 1), the second<br />

value after 2007, the days frequency of minimum<br />

temperature below 5 O C was the highest (50%)<br />

compared with years 2006 - 2008, when the<br />

frequency was 33%, 28% and 23% respectively.<br />

In the end it was appreciated the most unfavorable<br />

conditions have been registered for five days (in<br />

chronological order 4, 5, 7, 8 and 14). In year<br />

2009, as in 2006, the duration of the first biological<br />

stage was mainly driven by the thermal regime of<br />

the air (fig. 3. b). Comparing the second part of<br />

the graph of 2005 (beginning with ninth day), as in<br />

2006 (excluding precipitation from the seventh<br />

day), it can be assumed that there is an acceptable<br />

resemblance. So, that it would result the<br />

prolongation of the deposit eggs duration with<br />

eight days was due to the special nature of the<br />

oC, mm<br />

16<br />

15<br />

14<br />

13<br />

12<br />

11<br />

10<br />

7,11,<br />

16-19<br />

precipit. t.med.zil. t.min.zil.<br />

-1 0123456789<br />

1<br />

nr.zile<br />

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20<br />

thermal regime, illustrated by lowering the average<br />

temperature from 12 o C, to 8.5 to 9, 5 O C, and<br />

lowering of the minimum temperatures (in the first<br />

eight days), from 7,5 O C to 4°C. The thermal<br />

regime of the first stage of 2009, even if is<br />

illustrated by an average temperature of 11,3°C<br />

(tab. 1), the second value after 2007, the days<br />

frequency of minimum temperature below 5 O C<br />

was the highest (50%) compared with years 2006 -<br />

2008, when the frequency was 33%, 28% and 23%<br />

respectively. In the end it was appreciated the<br />

most unfavorable conditions have been registered<br />

for five days (in chronological order 4, 5, 7, 8 and<br />

14). The second stage, due to the adults’<br />

emergence of the first generation and start of the<br />

pontes stage, had some specific features (Figure. 4<br />

a, b). The average time was four days shorter than<br />

the first stage, although some values (18-19 days)<br />

were<br />

2

oC, mm<br />

oC, mm<br />

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

22<br />

20<br />

18<br />

16<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

nr.zile<br />

Although in 2007 and 2008 average<br />

temperatures and higher amounts of 0°C and 10°C<br />

did not differ significantly, the thermal regime of<br />

these years has some particularities, namely: the<br />

average temperatures low in the last three to five<br />

days with 5-7,5 o C in 2007 (from 22.5°C to 15°C)<br />

(fig.4.b),<br />

80<br />

75<br />

70<br />

65<br />

60<br />

55<br />

50<br />

45<br />

40<br />

35<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

nr. zile<br />

precipit.<br />

t.med.zil.<br />

t.min.zil.<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13<br />

recorded in the first stage I; durations of 12-13<br />

days were recorded during the years with the<br />

highest average temperature values namely,<br />

20,2 O C in 2009 and 19, 5 O C in 2006, when the<br />

minimum temperatures do not have dropped below<br />

12 o C. Thanks to these thermal parameters, (very<br />

favorable) did not fill the unfavorable influence on<br />

pontes stage, even in year 2009, where rainfall was<br />

plentiful enough (97 mm in five days with rain<br />

according to table 1).<br />

a<br />

a<br />

200<br />

oC, mm<br />

40<br />

35<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

precipit. t.med.zil. t.min.zil.<br />

0<br />

1<br />

nr. zile<br />

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18<br />

Figure 4 The climatic conditions from stage II , years 2006 (a) and 2007 (b)<br />

precipit . t .med.zil. t .min.zil.<br />

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19<br />

while in 2008 the average temperature was kept<br />

constant between 17 and 17.5°C, and in terms of<br />

minimum temperatures in 2007 (also, in the last<br />

three to five days dropped from 14.5 to 9.5°C,<br />

while in 2008 they remained within the limits of 15<br />

to 16.5°C (fig. 5.a)<br />

Figure 5 The climatic conditions from stage II , years 2008 (a) and 2009 (b)<br />

b<br />

These features of the thermal regime eased<br />

the negative influence of rainfall, so that the time<br />

of the second stages in years 2007 and 2008 were<br />

very similar: 18 and respectiv19 days. Particularly<br />

given the rainfall regime it can be considered that<br />

in 2007 there were three days with potentially<br />

unfavorable for ponte and in 2008 six days (Table<br />

1).<br />

b<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Analysis of meteorological conditions shows<br />

that during colder time (Phase I) was not<br />

determined practically significant by mean air<br />

temperature, while in warmer season (stage II) the<br />

average temperature significantly influenced<br />

(negatively) on the duration (r = -0.935 o ). Instead,

the amount of thermal units ("cumulated ")<br />

increased significantly with prolongation of fifth<br />

stages (r = 0.944 x - 0.966 xx) . Taking into<br />

consideration the sense and size of the correlation<br />

coefficients, it should be noted that the duration of<br />

one stage is not dependent only on averages of<br />

meteorological factors, but also by their dynamics<br />

(mode) and especially by interaction between<br />

them.<br />

Some meteorological factors, through their<br />

continues single or complex action, on Colorado<br />

potato beetle populations can cause changes that<br />

lead to delay or accelerate the development stages,<br />

to increase or decrease the numeric populations<br />

density, and ultimately, damages.<br />

An analysis of climatic fluctuations in<br />

Suceava, suggests that the winters have warmed in<br />

a certain extent, the precipitation quantities from<br />

the cold season has increased and summer<br />

temperatures have increased considerably, which<br />

makes the insect development and biology to<br />

default other facets to years of occurrence in the<br />

Suceava.<br />

Taking into consideration the data recorded<br />

during 2006-2009, the average adult stage from<br />

hibernate adult emergence in G1, until to pontes<br />

depositing was on average 18 and 16 days. If in<br />

2006-2008 duration of this phase do not differ<br />

significantly between the two appearances of<br />

adults, in 2009 duration of the same stage was<br />

eight days longer in the first phase compared to the<br />

second stage. This major difference can be<br />

attributed to the large number of days (ten) with<br />

low temperatures.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bale J. S., Masters G. J., Hodkinson I. D., 2002 -<br />

Herbivory in global climate change research:<br />

direct effects of rising temperatures on insect<br />

herbivores, Global Change Biology, vol. 8, p. 1–<br />

16.<br />

Hiiesaar K., Kuusik A., Jõudu J. et al. Laboratory<br />

experiments on cold acclimation in overwintering<br />

Colorado potato beetles, Leptinotarsa<br />

decemlineata (Say) // Norwegian Journal of<br />

Entomology. – 2001, vol. 48, p. 87–90 .<br />

Semaškien R., Šmatas R., 2006 - Bulvi kenkjai -<br />

Lauko augal ligos ir kenkjai, p. 157–165.<br />

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

202

Abstract<br />

203<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE STAGES OF REALIZATION OF THE GENERAL TECHNICAL<br />

CADASTRE ON THE LEVEL OF AN ADMINISTRATIVE<br />

TERRITORIAL UNIT<br />

Cristian HUŢANU 1 , Dan PĂDURE 2<br />

e-mail: hutanucrst@yahoo.com<br />

For obtaining the basic data of the Cadastral Informational System on the level of an administrative territorial unit it is<br />

necessary to run the steps and the technical operations of the General Technical Cadastre introduction. For this purpose,<br />

were analyzed the technical rules in force, regarding the introduction and execution of General Technical Cadastre and<br />

of the Informational Systems by fields activity. From the data of land registers, of General cadastre Informational<br />

System, centralized and processed selectively, may result maps and topographic cadastral plans specific to every<br />

domain of economic activity. The purposes of these systems consists in providing reliable data about terrains and<br />

buildings of all kinds and about their owners or possessors, for evaluate them, for more efficient capitalization, for a fair<br />

establishment of taxes etc. For exemplification was chosen the administrative territory of the City of Iasi, pursuing the<br />

dynamics of topographic cadastral works of General technical cadastre, for the period between the years 1990 and 2010.<br />

So, the cartographic database of the City of Iasi from the year 1989, was modified by establishing the new<br />

administrative limits with the neighboring territories, the expand of buildable area, the approval of the regional urban<br />

plans, the realization of a new cadastral sectorization, the execution of the field measurements for making new<br />

topographical cadastral plans or updating of the old one’s. At the same time, based on aero photography, with an<br />

aircraft equipped with a digital camera, was obtained the ortophotoplan of the city of Iasi, with a resolution equivalent<br />

to the scale 1:500. The update of cadastral data is required for accurate management, from economic and administrative<br />

point of view, of the Informational Systems by fields’ activity, on the level of each administrative territory. Only by the<br />

management of a Cadastral Informational System may be established the real potential of an area, for more efficient<br />

administration and exploitation, and could be made the analysis in time of the mode of using the resources, for to be<br />

able to talk about sustainable development and environmental protection.<br />

Key words: administrative territorial unit, general technical cadastre, cadastral sector, cadastral plot<br />

According to Law no. 7/1996, of cadastre<br />

and real estate advertising, republished as<br />

amended, the general cadastre is the uniform and<br />

mandatory technical, economic and legal system,<br />

that realize the identification, the registration, the<br />

representation on maps and cadastral plans of all<br />

terrains and also of the other real estates from the<br />

entire country territory, regardless of their<br />

destination and owner.<br />

The object of general cadastre consists in<br />

obtaining the data for the administrative territorial<br />

units ( communes, cities, municipalities), located<br />

within state territory, regardless of the category of<br />

use, of economic destination or the public or<br />

private domain, to which they belong and of their<br />

owners. Based on primary data of general cadastre,<br />

can be achieved geographic informational systems<br />

specific to areas of activity, each of them<br />

containing technical data and specific information,<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi<br />

2 Technical University „Gheorghe Asachi” of Iasi<br />

in accordance with technical standards of<br />

achievement and maintenance.<br />

The purpose of general cadastre is to provide<br />

updated information in real time, useful for: legal,<br />

fiscal and administrative institutions; statistical and<br />

management bodies of state; elaboration of<br />

territorial systematization, of establishment of land<br />

resources, of environmental protection etc.; the<br />

protection of state public and private domain;<br />

guaranteeing ownership; litigious conflict<br />

resolution and reduction; updating the maps and<br />

cadastral plans.<br />

Obtaining cadastral plans requires using<br />

some modern technologies, in the field faze, on the<br />

geometric elements measurement and also in the<br />

office faze (calculation), that will became the data<br />

base for a Cadastral Informational System.<br />

Only by clear and updated evidence can be<br />

answered to the questions generated by the three

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

sides (technical, economic and legal) of the general<br />

cadastre.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

For obtaining the basic data of the Cadastral<br />

Informational System on the level of an administrative<br />

territory, must be executed a series of works on the<br />

field, on the office and of editing of the final<br />

documents, by following the next stages and<br />

technical operations of introduction of general<br />

technical cadastre:<br />

- the preparation of the technical project of<br />

introduction works of general cadastre;<br />

- the designing, realization and determination<br />

of geospatial geodetic network as an integral network<br />

to the national system ;<br />

- the delimitation and marking with landmarks<br />

of the administrative territory boundaries, outside and<br />

inside of the city perimeters;<br />

- the drafting of the aero photography project<br />

for obtaining the ortophotoplan;<br />

- the thickening of the support geodetic<br />

network of the topographic liftings or of<br />

photogrammetric identification;<br />

- the photogrammetric images processing;<br />

- the cadastral zoning and sectorization;<br />

- the execution of field measurements<br />

necessary for the preparation of the new topographic<br />

cadastral plans or for updating of the old ones;<br />

- the execution of the necessary calculations<br />

for determining the coordinates of the support and<br />

topographic detail lifting networks;<br />

- the preparation of the original field papers<br />

and editing the basic topographic plans and digital<br />

topographic cadastral plans;<br />

- the identification on terrain, for each plot, of<br />

their owners and possessors;<br />

- the identification on terrain, for each plot, of<br />

the use categories and subcategories of the terrains;<br />

- the cadastral numbering and plans<br />

equipping with updated use categories symbols;<br />

- the calculation and compensation of areas<br />

by cadastral territories;<br />

- the preparation of areas summary by<br />

cadastral numbers and administrative territories;<br />

- the cadastral data publishing;<br />

- the preparation and editing of cadastral<br />

registers by automatic data processing means and<br />

printing devices of output data;<br />

- the cartographic editing of the topographic<br />

and cadastral plans, on basic scales;<br />

- the cartographic editing of the overall maps<br />

or cadastral plans of the administrative territory;<br />

- the control, acceptance and approval of the<br />

general cadastre introduction.<br />

For exemplification was chosen the<br />

administrative territory of the City of Iasi, pursuing the<br />

dynamics of topographic cadastral works of General<br />

technical cadastre, for the period between the years<br />

1990 and 2010. So, the cartographic database of the<br />

City of Iasi from the year 1989, was modified by<br />

establishing the new administrative limits with the<br />

neighboring territories, the expand of buildable area,<br />

the approval of the regional urban plans, the<br />

204<br />

realization of a new cadastral sectorization, the<br />

execution of the field measurements for making new<br />

topographical cadastral plans or updating of the old<br />

one’s (Huţanu Cr., Nistor Gh., 2010). At the same<br />

time, based on aero photography, with an aircraft<br />

equipped with a digital camera, was obtained the<br />

ortophotoplan of the city of Iasi, with a resolution<br />

equivalent to the scale 1:500.<br />

The updating of cadastral data it is required for<br />

a fair as possible management, from an<br />

administrative and economic point of view, of the<br />

Informational Systems by areas of activity, on the<br />

level of each administrative territory.<br />

Unfortunately, unlike the majority of the<br />

European Union member states, Romania does not<br />

features of a land fund general cadastre, containing<br />

essential data regarding the technical, economic and<br />

legal situation of the real estate from public and<br />

private domain, on the level of administrative territory<br />

(Dragomir P.I., Haret C., Moraru N., Neuner I.,<br />

Săvulescu C., 2000).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

According to cadastral registers of the Iasi<br />

City Hall, in 1989, the area of the inside of the City<br />

of Iasi was of 3679 hectares, then, the territory of<br />

the City of Iasi was modified, following the next<br />

stages (fig. 1):<br />

- in 2005, the total area of the City of Iasi<br />

was of 9366 hectares, following some<br />

modifications regarding the limit of inside and<br />

outside of the city;<br />

- in 2007, the inside of the City of Iasi has<br />

expended with 2382 hectares, by creating 18 th<br />

areas of expansion, noted with letters from A to S;<br />

- until 2010, the buildable area of the inside<br />

of the City of Iasi, has increased by another 248<br />

hectares, by the approval of 37 th zonal urban plans<br />

(ZUP);<br />

- in 2010, the area of expended inside of the<br />

City of Iasi reached at 6309 hectares, and the<br />

outside area at 3057 hectares, dispersed on 14 th<br />

areas.<br />

By the inclusion of the expended areas and<br />

of the ZUP in the old inside of the city, the<br />

occupation degree reached at 67.36% in 2010,<br />

compared to 39.28% in 1989 (Huţanu Cr., 2012).<br />

Following the completion of cadastral<br />

delimitation with the neighboring territories,<br />

materialized on the field in over 200 border points,<br />

are determined by 1970 Stereographic plane<br />

rectangular coordinates and by the cotes from the<br />

1975-Black Sea reference system .<br />

The geodetic network of the territory of the<br />

City of Iasi was determined by GPS technology<br />

and includes 84 main points, materialized on the<br />

field and determined by X, Y, Z coordinates<br />

(Sălceanu Gh., Nistor Gh., 2008).

The thickening of the geodetic network with<br />

approximately 5000 points, that should insure the<br />

necessary density for the execution of detail<br />

topographic cadastral measurements, was made by<br />

polygonal metric networks. Also, it is regarded to<br />

the implementation and completion of technical<br />

205<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

and specialty database, on the level of a plot. The<br />

territory of the City of Iasi fall into the<br />

cartographic representations, on 103 plan sheets, at<br />

the scale 1:2000 and on 347 plan sheets, at the<br />

scale 1:1000.<br />

Figure 1 The map of the areas of the inside and the outside of the City of Iasi<br />

In the present, Iasi City Hall has a digital<br />

cadastral plan, obtained by aero photography made<br />

in May, 19 th 2006 by an aircraft equipped with a<br />

Leica Geosystems digital camera. For obtaining an<br />

ortophotoplan, with a resolution equivalent to scale<br />

1:500, the flight was made at a height between<br />

1250 and 1300 m. The entire area of the City of<br />

Iasi, of approximately 10000 hectares, was covered<br />

by 9 bands, the flight direction being South-East-<br />

North-West. For accomplishing all the graphical<br />

requirements regarding the cadastral activity, the<br />

ortophotoplan has undergone the specific<br />

rectification process, to bring the X, Y plane<br />

coordinates in the 1970 Stereographic projection<br />

system, taking in account deformation parameters<br />

specific to the area, and the altimetrical coordinates<br />

(Z) in the 1975 Black Sea Reference System<br />

(Sălceanu Gh., 2009).<br />

The photogrammetric identification was<br />

designed taking in account the configuration of the<br />

9 flight bands, to make a uniform distribution of<br />

the 47 photogrammetric identification points on the<br />

whole area of flight necessary in the aero<br />

triangulation stage. For the photogrammetric<br />

identification points to be determined with an<br />

accuracy of ± (10-15 cm), were made polygonal<br />

metric roads starting from the points of the Main<br />

Network of the City of Iasi, with Leica<br />

Geosystems Total Station, and from the<br />

measurements compensation with Toposys<br />

software of TopGeocart Company, approved for<br />

this type of work.<br />

Aero triangulation was made with software<br />

from Leica Geosystems, because digital image data<br />

are automatically processed, depending on the<br />

connection and control points from the ground.<br />

The efficiency of the method of processing in<br />

block with auxiliary data consists in using an<br />

equipment of measuring the takeover station<br />

coordinates, such as GPS, and a navigation<br />

platform such as INS (Inertial Navigation<br />

Systems), providing data necessary in calculation<br />

of transformation parameters and aero<br />

triangulation compensation.<br />

Due to succession of cadastral delimitation,<br />

from 2005, with neighboring territories and to

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

changing of the inside limit of the City of Iasi, by<br />

expansion of the buildable area, it was required a<br />

new cadastral sectorization of the territory of the<br />

City of Iasi, made in 2007.<br />

For preparation of digital cadastral plan was<br />

used the software of digital stereo-restitution from<br />

Leica Geosystems, because the precision of<br />

graphical data is superior to the analogical stereorestitution.<br />

So, the planimetrical and altimetrical<br />

elements of the cadastral plan are given by point,<br />

linear and polygonal entities, represented in three<br />

dimensions. Also, are attached descriptive files that<br />

contain type of entity, perimeter, area, length and<br />

number of component vectors (defined by absolute<br />

rectangular coordinates X, Y, Z).<br />

The digital cadastral plan returned on scale<br />

1:500, in 1970 Stereographic Projection System,<br />

made by ortophotoplan vectorization, must contain<br />

all the elements necessary for cadastral works such<br />

as: the points of support and lifting geodetic<br />

network; the network of railways and roads;<br />

hydrographic network; identifying elements of<br />

administrative territorial units; the limits of<br />

administrative territories, of property bodies and<br />

constructions; use categories; buildings addresses<br />

from inside of the city etc.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The achievement of Cadastral and Real<br />

estate Informational System, on the level of<br />

206<br />

administrative territorial units of counties and of<br />

the entire country will be accompanied by works of<br />

maintenance and continuous updating, to avoid the<br />

expiration of information from specific databases.<br />

The database of Cadastral Informational<br />

System must become a viable and useful support in<br />

decision-making process for preventing the chaotic<br />

expansion of habitable zones, for rational use of<br />

agricultural land through the works of regional<br />

planning, identification of new land resources etc.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Dragomir P.I., Haret C., Moraru N., Neuner I.,<br />

Săvulescu C., 2000 – The topographic works in<br />

cadastre. Guide, Publishing Matrix Rom, Bucharest.<br />

Huţanu Cr., 2012 – Use of digital technologies in<br />

activities of realization and exploitation of the<br />

general and agricultural cadastre, The doctoral<br />

thesis, Technical University „Gh. Asachi” of Iasi.<br />

Huţanu Cr., Nistor Gh., 2010 – The current state of<br />

rehabilitation end modernization of geodetic and<br />

topographical networks, Scientific Works,<br />

Agronomics Series, The 53 volume, No. 1<br />

U.S.A.M.V. Iasi, p. 100-105.<br />

Sălceanu Gh., 2009 - Contributions to the achievement<br />

of Geographic Informational System for Urban<br />

Real Estate Cadastre of a city, The doctoral<br />

thesis, Technical University „Gh. Asachi” of Iasi.<br />

Sălceanu Gh., Nistor Gh., 2008 - Implementation of<br />

GIS technology in achieving the Urban Real<br />

Estate informational System of a city, RevCAD<br />

Cadastre Magazine, No.8, „1 Decembrie 1918”<br />

University of Alba Iulia, p. 25-34.

207<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

WATER BALANCE IN THE TILE DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE SOIL WITH<br />

EXCESSIVE MOISTURE FROM BAIA DEPRESSION–SUCEAVA PLATEAU<br />

Abstract<br />

Valeriu MOCA 1 , Daniel BUCUR 1<br />

e-mail: valmoca@uaiasi.ro<br />

The conservation and the sustainable use of the soil’s resources also includes the capacity to differently implement<br />

hydro ameliorative works depending of how the limitative factors of the soil’s fertility manifest themselves. The<br />

formation of water excess in the soil represents a complex process that is determined be a series of natural factors like<br />

alimentation, withholding, circulation and elimination of water in the soil – underlying rock complex. In the<br />

pedoclimatic conditions of the Suceava Plateau, the excessive humidity of the soil manifested itself periodically and/or<br />

permanently depending of the volume, the duration and the intensity of the rain fall. For optimizing the water regime<br />

from the soils affected by excessive humidity, more precisely, the agricultural soils from Suceava County, a series of<br />

measures have been taken over the years like draining systems and underground pipe drainage systems. The hydro<br />

ameliorative drainage systems based on opened channels and underground pipe drainage to which locally, was also<br />

added the embankment of the water courses covered a surface of almost 55 thousand ha. From the total area prepared<br />

for drainage – underground drainage, on almost 27 thousand ha systematic networks of underground pipe drainage have<br />

also been created. The experimental research performed for more than 30 years (1978 – 2010) in the conditions of the<br />

albic stagnic glossic luvosoil from Baia depression, were meant to contribute at the familiarization with the water<br />

balance from the soil prepared for drainage. The hydro technical scheme for organizing the underground drainage<br />

system based on ceramic pipes and plastic materials consisted in six experimental solutions that were executed in 1978<br />

on an area of 3.50 ha. After arranging the underground pipe drainage system the drained soil was moulded into wide<br />

ridged sections (variant A). All the variants for organizing the underground drainage (A, B, C, D, E, F), were deeply<br />

broken up for improving the permeability of the drained soil. The long term efficiency of the underground pipe draining<br />

system was analyzed under the hypothesis of a non permanent functioning rate. The accumulation and the elimination<br />

of the water excess from when the underground pipe drainage system was working was assessed relying on the average<br />

multiannual volume, caused by rain, its value being of 325 mm or 3250 m 3 ∙ ha -1 .<br />

Key words: water balance, underground pipe drainage, soils with excessive humidity.<br />

In order to eliminate the foul and/or<br />

permanent excess water from the agricultural<br />

fields, a series of measures like draining works<br />

with opened ditches and underground tile drainage<br />

systems have been implemented over the years.<br />

The hidroameliorative drainage systems must<br />

provide the best collection and elimination of the<br />

water excess from the soil profile. From the types<br />

of works that have been performed in various<br />

climatic areas of Romania, the most representative<br />

ones, are, among others: land shaping in slopes,<br />

land shaping in the bedding system with ridges and<br />

furrows, mole drainage consists of galleries of 8 to<br />

14 cm, deep loosening of soil profile at depth of 0.4<br />

to 0.8 m, tile drainage (Cazacu, E., et al., 1985).<br />

The tile drainage was dimensioned,<br />

considering the working hypothesis of nonpermanent<br />

or permanent working regime<br />

depending of the water balance in the soil (Haret,<br />

C., Stanciu, I., 1978).<br />

1 „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi<br />

The geographical distribution of the<br />

agricultural fields affected by excessive humidity<br />

in Suceava Plateau was generally characterized by<br />

their prevalence from East to West and from South<br />

to North, respectively.<br />

Among the areas where the water excess is<br />

widespread on the agricultural fields we can<br />

mention: Baia Depression, Fălticeni Plateau, the<br />

waterside and the terraces from Siret Valley and<br />

Moldova Valley; Dragomirna Plateau and<br />

Rădăuţi Depression (Moca, V., et al., 2008).<br />

The draining and drainage system from<br />

Suceava County are characterized by a relatively<br />

long evolution in time if compared to other areas.<br />

The oldest draining works associated to tile<br />

drainage were performed towards the end of the<br />

19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century<br />

in Rădăuţi Depression, by the Agricultural Society<br />

in Viena (Moca, V., et al., 2010).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The drainage and subsurface drainage works<br />

included several development stages, which took<br />

place, particularly between 1950 and 1990. In the<br />

first stages, from 1950 to 1975, were designed<br />

drainage systems and river regularization with<br />

dikes. In the second period that ranges between<br />

1976 and 1990, some older systems were improved<br />

and resized. Also, in some hydrographic basins<br />

were executed new works, which included the<br />

hydro-ameliorative systems with canal drainage<br />

and subsurface drainage. In Suceava County,<br />

surface drainage systems were set up on 55,100 ha,<br />

tile drainage networks on 26,300 ha and systems of<br />

embanking and protection against floods on 7,400<br />

ha between 1960 - 1990 to remove this excess<br />

moisture (Bucur, D., Moca, V., 2012). Surface<br />

drainage and pipe drainage works have contributed<br />

on the one hand, to reduce excess soil moisture and<br />

stagnogleice gleyic and secondly to increase<br />

production capacity of these soils. Drainage<br />

systems reduces the volume of drainage water<br />

leaving a field by 20-30% on average; however,<br />

outflow varies widely depending on soil type,<br />

rainfall, type of drainage system and management<br />

intensity (Ramoska et al., 2011). Drainage systems<br />

must cost-effectively manage flooding, control<br />

streambank erosion, and protect water quality<br />

(Lukianas et al., 2006). To do this, designers must<br />

integrate conventional flood control strategies for<br />

large, infrequent storms with three basic<br />

stormwater quality control strategies for small,<br />

frequent storms: infiltrate runoff into the soil,<br />

retain/detain runoff for later release, and convey<br />

runoff slowly through vegetation.<br />

Tile<br />

drainage<br />

variant<br />

208<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Water excess in soil is a complex process that<br />

is determined by some factors like water uptake,<br />

circulation and removal in the system soil-subjacent<br />

rock. For removing water excess from soil profile,<br />

drainage systems were planned for improving soil<br />

aeration regime and field cultivation.<br />

a. Soil genetic conditions<br />

The Baia Depression is located in the Sub-<br />

Carpathian Basin of the Moldova River, which is<br />

located in Suceava County, Romania. The total area<br />

of the Baia Depression is approximately 15,000 ha,<br />

5,000 ha of which have excess soil moisture owing to<br />

rainfall or groundwater capillary rise.<br />

Relief: high terrace plateau, slope of 2-5 %;<br />

Parental material: dusty clay stratifications, 10-15 m;<br />

Natural global drainage: weak to very weak;<br />

Soil-ground water: average depth of 0.20-0.50 m;<br />

Ground water: average depth of 9-10 m;<br />

Average annual temperature: 7.9oC;<br />

Average annual rainfall: 806 mm;<br />

Average annual potential evapotranspiration: 599 mm<br />

Average annual rainfall excess: 207 mm;<br />

Natural vegetation: association of Agrostis tenuis with<br />

sub-association of Deschampsia caespitosa, Juncus<br />

effuzus, Carex sp., etc;<br />

Soil unit: albic stagnic glossic Luvisol (SRTS-2003);<br />

albeluvisoil (World Reference Base for Soil<br />

Resources WRB-2006).<br />

b. Tile drainage experimental variants<br />

To optimize the air and water regime of soil in<br />

the area, an experimental field containing a tile<br />

drainage system designed to remove excess water<br />

was constructed in 1978. During the study period<br />

(1978-2010), six different tiles drainage systems were<br />

installed and the effect of the removal of excess<br />

moisture from the soil by these systems was<br />

evaluated (Table 1).<br />

Materials used for construction of the Baia drainage experimental site<br />

Spacing between<br />

drain lines /depth<br />

drain (m)<br />

A 20/1,0<br />

B 15/1,0<br />

C 12/1,0<br />

D 20/0,8<br />

E 15/0,8<br />

F 12/0,8<br />

Drain line<br />

number<br />

1<br />

2<br />

3<br />

4<br />

5<br />

6<br />

7<br />

8<br />

9<br />

10<br />

11<br />

12<br />

13<br />

14<br />

15<br />

16<br />

17<br />

18<br />

Pipe type and diameter<br />

(mm)<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 125<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Corrugated plastic Ø 65<br />

Smooth plastic Ø 63<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Corrugated plastic Ø 65<br />

Smooth plastic Ø 110<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Corrugated plastic Ø 65<br />

Smooth plastic Ø 63<br />

Tile Ø 70<br />

Type and thickness of complex<br />

drain + filter (cm)<br />

Ballast (20) + Flax stems (50)<br />

Ballast (70) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (20) + Green sods<br />

Flax strains (30)<br />

Ballast (12) + Flax stems (20)<br />

Ballast (15) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (12) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (12) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (15) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (20) + Flax stems (40)<br />

Ballast (60) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (20) + Green sods<br />

Flax strains (30)<br />

Ballast (12) + Flax stems (20)<br />

Ballast (15) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (12) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (12) + Green sods<br />

Ballast (15) + Green sods<br />

Table 1

Moreover, in variant A, the tile drainage was<br />

combined with the land forming in the bedding system<br />

with ridges and furrows. In this variant, furrows were<br />

constructed upon tile drains with spacing at 20 m. On<br />

the drainage variants (B, C, D, E, F) deep loosening<br />

was applied to improve soil permeability. Each<br />

drainage variant includes three drain lines. The length<br />

of each drain was 100 m and the slope of the drain<br />

lines was 0.2%. Hydrotechnical scheme of the Baia<br />

drainage experimental site was sized to optimize the<br />

basic design elements, used routinely in the design of<br />

tiles drainage systems.<br />

- Spacing between drain lines: 20 m (variants<br />

A and D), 15 m (variants B and E) and 12 m (variants<br />

C and F) were determined assuming a nonpermanent<br />

flow regime.<br />

- The depth of the tile drains: 1.0 m (A, B, C<br />

variants); 0.8 m (D, E, F variants) was sized taking<br />

into account the horizontal position of the hard<br />

permeable soil profile. If the soil is albic stagnic -<br />

glossic Luvosol, the Bt1W textural horizon is located<br />

at a depth of 0.9 to 1.0 m.<br />

- Pipe type and diameter that was used for the<br />

construction of all 18 drain lines included the following<br />

materials: tile drain (pipe are from ceramic) with inner<br />

diameter of 70 mm and 125 mm, smooth plastic drain<br />

with external diameter of 63 and 110 mm; corrugated<br />

plastic drains with linear waves and external diameter<br />

of 65 mm.<br />

- Filter material that was put on top and around<br />

the drainage tube consisted of the following: river<br />

ballast, and, for some certain drain lines, ballast with<br />

flax stems and green sods.<br />

Implementation of drainage tubes was<br />

performed using E.T.T. 202-A equipment, a mechanic<br />

system that performed: digging trenches with a width<br />

of 50 cm, variable depth of 0.8 – 1.5 m and laying tile<br />

drainage pipes and / or plastic.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Tile and/or plastic drainage of different sizes<br />

can ensure the elimination of excess water caused<br />

by rainfall, with stagnant nature on the land surface<br />

or accumulated as a layer on top of pedofreatic soil<br />

profile.<br />

a. Hidrometeorological balance<br />

In the local natural conditions of the Baia<br />

drainage experimental field, with land use as<br />

natural pasture, soil excess moisture caused by<br />

rainfalls was analyzed on the basis of the<br />

observations made on the following factors.<br />

Annual rainfall regime (P) was the main<br />

source of excess water from the ground, being<br />

based on the alternation between periods of intense<br />

rainfall and, respectively, dry periods may.<br />

- Average multi-annual rainfall throughout<br />

the period examined in the years 1978-2010<br />

recorded an annual average value of 806 mm (50%<br />

assurance).<br />

- In the hot season (V-X) the annual average<br />

year, rainfall was recorded 549 mm (68%), and in<br />

209<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

winter (XI-IV), 257 mm (32%).<br />

- Average and maximum monthly rainfall<br />

recorded multi-annual, usually, recorded the<br />

largest amounts of water in June and July and<br />

lowest in January-March.<br />

- Rainfall in periods of 1-5 consecutive days<br />

were characterized, throughout the study period, by<br />

the size and distribution on everyday, 2 days, 3<br />

days and 5 days, depending on the overall progress<br />

of the climatic conditions (Table 2).<br />

Annual evapotranspiration regime (ET),<br />

ranged between the limits of normal distribution of<br />

the wet weather conditions.<br />

- Average annual evapotranspiration regime<br />

throughout the period examined in the years 1978-<br />

2010 recorded an average of 599 mm per year<br />

which varied in size according to the general trend<br />

of climatic factors and the use of agricultural land.<br />

- Distribution of average annual<br />

evapotranspiration on the two growing seasons,<br />

differentiate significantly separately. In the warm<br />

season (V-X), which corresponded to wet land<br />

with vegetation period of crops, has developed a<br />

water consumption of 481 mm, which means 80%<br />

of annual average. In winter (XI-IV),<br />

evapotranspiration recorded in terms of annual<br />

average, water consumption of 118 mm (20%).<br />

- Average monthly evapotranspiration was<br />

characterized by maximum values during the<br />

months of summer season with a 90-142 mm<br />

consumption, small to medium in the months of<br />

spring - autumn, with a consumption of 1-76 mm.<br />

- Evapotranspiration and diurnal periods of<br />

up to 3-5 consecutive days, was typically, below<br />

the rainfalls in these intervals, which resulted in a<br />

surplus in the hydrometeorological water balance.<br />

Annual hydrometeorological regime<br />

balance ± ΔP = (P - Et) of the period under review<br />

(1978-2010) recorded a surplus of 207 mm water,<br />

characterized by the following features on the<br />

seasons, months and characteristic times of the<br />

year.<br />

- Distribution of the two growing seasons of<br />

the year differenced between 139 mm (67%), in<br />

the hot season of the year annual average and 68<br />

mm (33%) in winter.<br />

- Annual distribution of water surplus<br />

resulted from the hydrometeorological balance was<br />

characterized in terms of environment, positive in<br />

almost all months of the year.<br />

- The average values of the determined<br />

period were employed between 0-11 mm<br />

minimum quantities, made in July, September and<br />

October and 31-40 mm maximum on the other<br />

months of the year, except August.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Multiannual precipitation, average and maximum, monthly<br />

and on intervals of 1-5 consecutive days<br />

Monthly precipitation<br />

Month of the<br />

(mm)<br />

year<br />

average max.<br />

Rainfall in consecutive intervals of 1-5 days (mm)<br />

1 day 2 days 3 days 5 days<br />

average max. average max. average max. average max.<br />

I<br />

33 69.3 12 25.7 16 31.3 18 36.5 20 49.2<br />

II 34 80.2 11 18.9 14 23.2 16 30.0 18 33.5<br />

III 33 63.0 11 25.1 12 25.1 14 25.1 16 28.3<br />

IV 80 12.3 26 41.3 33 53.6 38 65.5 45 79.9<br />

V 97 199.1 32 95.1 43 95.1 46 97.5 50 97.5<br />

VI 133 193.2 49 72.0 65 96.5 78 140.8 89 153.8<br />

VII 133 236.5 40 89.1 51 100.7 54 109.6 62 137.0<br />

VIII 82 186.2 32 43.6 39 81.8 45 118.5 53 158.7<br />

IX 63 125.8 21 37.5 28 59.8 30 59.8 35 66.5<br />

X 41 127.5 16 39.5 21 73.4 21 75.8 24 98.2<br />

XI 41 105.1 18 38.5 23 59.4 24 61.4 26 62.2<br />

XII 36 103.8 12 25.6 16 39.9 17 41.0 20 43.7<br />

Annual 806 - 280 - 361 - 401 - 458 -<br />

b. Soil water balance<br />

Temporarily excess moisture with stagnant<br />

nature, caused by precipitation, is specific to farm<br />

land with small slopes and local unevenness in<br />

humid and subhumid climates with clayed soils<br />

hardly permeable.<br />

The water balance during periods of excess<br />

moisture has the following form:<br />

P - ET > S + I + Wmax , where:<br />

P - average annual rainfall;<br />

ET - average annual evapotranspiration;<br />

S - surface water drainage of land;<br />

I - the amount of water infiltrated in the soil<br />

profile, below the plant roots;<br />

Wmax - the maximum amount of water that can<br />

accumulate in the soil in the plants root zone.<br />

The water balance during periods of excess<br />

moisture has the following form: P-ET >S+I+ Wmax<br />

In practical terms, this formula in a<br />

simplified form of soil water balance equation is<br />

complete in terms of knowledge of natural factors<br />

causing excess moisture in the soil and established<br />

necessary drainage work. In this case, the excess<br />

water volume can be expressed by the relationship:<br />

Ve = P – ( Et + S + I + Wmax), (Figure 1).<br />

Agricultural land drainage fitting sizes, in<br />

general, for non-permanent or permanent regime,<br />

depending on soil water balance, respectively, of<br />

the elements considered for calculation of specific<br />

flow discharged through drains network.<br />

In the natural conditions of this wetland, the<br />

albic stagnic - glossic Luvosol, which is used as a<br />

natural pasture, presented the following<br />

morphological features in the horizon succession :<br />

A0 (0 - 5 cm) - strongly unreclaimed stratum; silt<br />

loam; very dark brown grey 10 YR 4/2 (wet) and<br />

light grey 10 YR 7/2 (dry); small polyhedral<br />

angular structure, moderately developed; very<br />

friable in wet state, quite hard in dry state; weakly<br />

plastic; weakly adherent; very frequent roots.<br />

210<br />

Table 2<br />

A0 (W) (5 - 18 cm) - silt loam; dark<br />

greyish brown 10YR 4/2 (wet) and light greyish<br />

brown 10YR 6/2 (dry); small polyhedral angular<br />

structure, moderately developed, friable in wet<br />

state and easily compacted when dry; weakly<br />

plastic; weakly adherent; frequent coarse and<br />

medium pores; thin and very thin frequent roots;<br />

clear contact with the horizon below.<br />

EaW (18 - 30 cm) - silt loam; light olive<br />

colour 7.5Y 6/2 with small yellowish brown spots<br />

10 YR 6/6 (wet) and white 7.5 Y 8/2 with<br />

yellowish brown mottles 10 YR 6/8 (dry); small<br />

polyhedral angular up to lamellar structure, weakly<br />

developed, friable in wet state and easily<br />

compacted when dry; weakly plastic; weakly<br />

adherent; frequent medium pores; rare very thin<br />

roots; diffuse irregular contact with the horizon<br />

below.<br />

E+BW (30 - 46 cm) - clayey loam;<br />

greenish gray 5GY 6/1 with small and medium<br />

frequent mottles, light yellowish brown 10 YR 6/4<br />

(dry) and white 7.5 Y 8/1 with brown yellowish<br />

spots 10 YR 6/6 (dry); medium polyhedral angular<br />

structure, moderately developed; clay films on the<br />

faces of structural aggregates; small and medium<br />

ferromanganese spots and concretions; tough when<br />

wet and compacted in dry state; plastic; adherent;<br />

frequent pores; diffuse irregular contact with the<br />

horizon below.<br />

Bt1W (46 - 97 cm) - loamy clay,<br />

greenish gray 5GY 6/1 with frequent large<br />

yellowish brown mottles 10 YR 5/6 (wet) and light<br />

gray 7.5 Y 7/1 with light yellowish brown 10 YR<br />

6/4 and brown-yellowish 10 YR 6/6 mottles (dry);<br />

large prismatic structure, moderately developed;<br />

coarse clay films on the faces of the structural<br />

aggregates; medium ferromanganese spots and<br />

concretions; hard in wet state and very compacted<br />

when dry; plastic; adherent (Figure 1).

0<br />

10<br />

20<br />

30<br />

40<br />

50<br />

60<br />

70<br />

80<br />

90<br />

0<br />

5<br />

18<br />

30<br />

46<br />

Ao<br />

Ao(W)<br />

EaW<br />

E+BW<br />

Bt 1W<br />

80<br />

N.F.S.<br />

S<br />

gravel<br />

drain 10<br />

ET<br />

211<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Wmax<br />

P<br />

Ve<br />

20m<br />

I I<br />

97<br />

100<br />

cm<br />

LEGEND: P – average annual rainfall; Wmax – the maximum amount of water<br />

ET - average annual evapotranspiration; than can accumulate in the soil;<br />

S – surface water drainage of land; Ve – the excess water volume;<br />

I – the amount of water infiltrated N.F.S. – pedophreatic water level.<br />

in the soil profile;<br />

ET<br />

gravel<br />

drain 11<br />

Figure 1 The water balance in the albic stagnic glossic Luvosoil, in the conditions<br />

of temporary foul water excess caused by precipitations<br />

c. The capture capacity of drain pipes<br />

The excess stagnant water from the surface<br />

of the field and/or as pedophreatic water in the<br />

upper part of the soil structure must be evacuated<br />

in a relatively optimal period of time.<br />

Before the descendent water current from<br />

the soil structure gets into the drain pipe it<br />

encounters a series of resistances that in general<br />

depend of the following natural factors and<br />

arrangement conditions:<br />

- the permeability of the soil arranged with pipe<br />

drainage works;<br />

- the permeability of the soil in the cross-sections<br />

of drain lines;<br />

- the type and thickness of complex drain + filter;<br />

- the pipe type and diameter;<br />

- the distribution and the surface of the joints /<br />

perforations that allow the water to enter into the<br />

drain pipes.<br />

According to van Someren (1964), the total<br />

energy losses in pipes (Δh) that are due to the<br />

resistances that appear when the water enters the<br />

drain pipe and that is measured at the middle of the<br />

distance between the drains, can be divided into<br />

the following three categories.<br />

- Horizontal energy losses (Δh0) that are to<br />

the resistances encountered by the water current at<br />

the passage through the soil, up to approximately<br />

1.0 m away from the drain pipe.<br />

- Radial energy losses (Δhr) that is due to<br />

the convergence of the water current lines, from<br />

the immediate area of the drain pipe.<br />

- Entrance energy losses (Δhi) that are<br />

determined by the resistances encountered by the<br />

water current when entering into the drain pipe.<br />

For the water current to enter into the drain<br />

pipe, the total energy losses (Δh) from the middle<br />

of the spacing between the drain lines must be<br />

higher than the sum of the partial energy losses:<br />

Δh > (Δh0 + Δhr + Δhi)<br />

The studies made on the total energy losses<br />

(Δh), under the conditions of a non-permanent<br />

regime were analyzed in the hypothesis of<br />

knowing the period of time (t days) in which the<br />

water level must be lowered from the maximum<br />

height (h0) to the minimum height (ht).<br />

0.80m<br />

S

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The effect of the total energy losses<br />

(Δh = h0 - ht) was followed in the piezometric pipe<br />

situated at the middle of the spacing between the<br />

drain pipes, with the distance between them of<br />

12 m and the medium depth of 0.8 m. At<br />

different periods of time (t), the total energy loss<br />

0.25m<br />

0.55m<br />

K =3.25m/day<br />

1<br />

K 2=0.20m/day<br />

gravel<br />

drain 16<br />

P P<br />

212<br />

was represented, in general, by the decrease of the<br />

excess water level at the maximum height of the<br />

depression curve of 60 - 70 cm, the best height of<br />

15 - 20 cm. At the same periods of time (t) the<br />

drained flows decreased from 9 - 10 l/minute to 0.1<br />

l/minute (Figure 2).<br />

ht 1(qt<br />

1)<br />

ht(qt)<br />

.<br />

.<br />

ho(qo)<br />

6m 6m<br />

12m<br />

Figure 2 Scheme of the drainage process with non-permanent regime,<br />

in the conditions of water excess, caused by precipitations<br />

- The factor of the draining intensity<br />

(a = 1/J)) was determined in the base of the<br />

measured levels in the piezometer from the middle<br />

of the spacing between the drain lines, at the<br />

beginning and the end of the draining’s functioning<br />

periods, with the help of the following relation:<br />

a<br />

1<br />

J<br />

2.<br />

3<br />

logh<br />

o<br />

t<br />

logh<br />

t<br />

days<br />

where: a - factor of the draining intensity (days -1 )<br />

ho - maximum height of the pedophreatic<br />

water level<br />

ht - minimum height of the pedophreatic<br />

water level<br />

t - period of time (days).<br />

Depending of the amount of rain that fell,<br />

that in periods of 3 - 5 consecutive days, registered<br />

values of up to 60 - 140 mm, there were<br />

differentiated as well the values of the intensity<br />

draining factors. So, depending of the total energy<br />

losses (Δh), after the previously mentioned rains,<br />

the values of the draining intensity were of 4 - 6<br />

days, during the hot season, and of 6 - 14 days,<br />

during the cold season (Table 3).<br />

Table 3<br />

1<br />

.<br />

gravel<br />

0.80m<br />

drain 17<br />

The draining intensity factor depending of the<br />

total energy loss<br />

The height of the<br />

depression curve<br />

Total<br />

Factor Coefficient<br />

Time at the middle of<br />

energy 1 1<br />

(t) the spacing<br />

a J<br />

losses<br />

between the<br />

J a<br />

drain pipes<br />

days h0 (mm) ht Δh days<br />

(mm) (mm)<br />

-1 -<br />

5 690 300 390 0.167 6.0<br />

7 660 200 460 0.171 5.8<br />

5 620 290 330 0.152 6.6<br />

4 620 270 350 0.208 4.8<br />

5 620 190 430 0.236 4.2<br />

11 520 240 280 0.070 14.3<br />

2 380 250 130 0.209 4.8<br />

4 320 200 120 0.117 8.5<br />

- The filtration coefficient (K) was<br />

characterized by a very good permeability, in the<br />

arable layer (3.25 m∙day -1 ), fact that assured the<br />

high degree of efficiency of the process of draining<br />

the excess water. In the case of the underlying<br />

horizon, the permeability was lower (0.2 m∙day -1 ),<br />

fact that determined the execution and the<br />

periodical renewal of the soil loosening process<br />

until the necessary depth of 70 - 80 cm (Figure 2).<br />

d. Drained water volumes

In periods of drainage operation with nonpermanent<br />

flow regime, rainfalls volume (P)<br />

exceeded the water consumption by<br />

evapotranspiration (Et), deep infiltration (I)<br />

and drain the land surface (S). In periods of<br />

excess water removal (ΔP), drained soil is working<br />

functionally as a reservoir, which records under the<br />

effect of heavy rains filling, respectively, depletion<br />

under the effect of drainage.<br />

213<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Depending on the size of specific drainage<br />

daily flow of the area served by the drainage lines<br />

(1, 2, 3, …, 18) and respectively, of the six<br />

experimental drainage variants (A, B, C, D, E, F),<br />

volumes of drained water were calculated,<br />

expressed in mm or m 3 ∙ha -1 (Figure 3).<br />

To calculate the volume of drained water<br />

areas were used areas of 0.60 ha (variants A and<br />

D), 0.45 ha (variants B and E), and 0.36 ha<br />

(variants C and F).<br />

Figure 3 Hydrotechnical scheme of the Baia drainage experimental site<br />

In the case of the soils with excessive rain<br />

water, the functioning system of the drain pipes is<br />

determined by the size and the aleatory distribution<br />

of the rain water quantity. In a series of successive<br />

periods of time water excess appears in the soil<br />

and/or on the surface of the soil, excess that must<br />

be evacuated through a drainage system.<br />

The evaluation of the water survey in the<br />

conditions of the existent 18 draining lines and<br />

respectively, of the six experimental drainage<br />

variants was analyzed taking into consideration the<br />

long time observations that were realized on the<br />

following factors:<br />

- the daily precipitations;<br />

- the average daily temperature of the air;<br />

- the real maximum daily evapotranspiration;<br />

- the daily water flow evacuated by drain pipes;<br />

- the water volumes evacuated by drainage.<br />

The annual dynamic of the climatic factors<br />

from the period 1978 - 2010 that was also<br />

presented in the previous paragraphs respected the<br />

characteristics of the areas from the wet climate<br />

area of Romania, area that includes the Baia<br />

Depression as well.<br />

The synthesis of the results obtained during<br />

the entire period of time when pipes drain<br />

experiments were made, can be characterized<br />

according to the annual and the seasonal dynamic<br />

of the climatic factors and the functional efficiency<br />

of the drainage system, as follows:<br />

- The multiannual precipitation regime - it<br />

was characterized by a medium quantity of 806<br />

mm, with an annual distribution between the<br />

maximum quantity of 968 mm (1981), with a 5 %<br />

assurance, and the minimum quantity of 455 mm<br />

(1986), with a 95% assurance.<br />

- The real maximum evapotranspiration,<br />

having a medium multiannual value of 599 mm<br />

situated between the limits of the normal<br />

distribution from the wet areas.<br />

- Effective water surplus that resulted from<br />

the equation of the water survey from the drained<br />

soil, from the periods of time the drainage system<br />

with pipes worked registered a medium<br />

multiannual value of 3250 m 3 ∙ha -1 (Table 4).<br />

- The medium volumes of drained water<br />

differentiated, in general, according to the<br />

dimensional elements and the nature of the<br />

construction materials used at the draining system.<br />

In the conditions of the equipping the 18<br />

draining lines, the maximum norm of drained<br />

water 2070 m 3 ∙ha -1 (64 % of the medium water<br />

excess) was reached at the drain 17/variant F. The<br />

minimum norm of 1110 m 3 ∙ha -1 was found at<br />

drain 12/variant D with the distance between the<br />

drains of 20 m and the medium depth of the pipes<br />

of 0.80 m.<br />

- The medium daily water flow was<br />

individualized between the maximum values of up<br />

to 3.5 mm m 3 ∙day -1 (17/ F) and the minimum<br />

values of 1.8 mm day -1 (12/D).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Variant and spacing<br />

between drain lines<br />

/depth drain (m)<br />

A<br />

20/1.0<br />

B<br />

15/1.0<br />

C<br />

12/1.0<br />

D<br />

20/0.8<br />

E<br />

15/0.8<br />

F<br />

12/0.8<br />

The regime of the volumes of drained water in the period 1978 - 2010<br />

Drain line<br />

number<br />

1<br />

2<br />

3<br />

Surface of the<br />

pipes joints /<br />

perforations<br />

(cm 2 ∙m -1 )<br />

10-15<br />

13-20<br />

10-15<br />

Mean water<br />

excess<br />

(m 3 ∙ha -1 )<br />

214<br />

3250<br />

Drained soil water balance<br />

Table 4<br />

Mean drained water Mean daily water<br />

flow (mm∙day -1 )<br />

m 3 ∙ha -1 %<br />

1830<br />

1610<br />

1390<br />

56<br />

50<br />

43<br />

Average - - 1610 50 2.7<br />

4<br />

5<br />

6<br />

10-15<br />

10-15<br />

10-15<br />

3250<br />

1370<br />

1460<br />

1440<br />

42<br />

45<br />

44<br />

Average - - 1423 44 2.4<br />

7<br />

8<br />

9<br />

15-30<br />

15-30<br />

10-15<br />

3250<br />

1870<br />

1850<br />

1770<br />

58<br />

57<br />

55<br />

Average - - 1830 57 3.0<br />

10<br />

11<br />

12<br />

15-30<br />

30-40<br />

10-15<br />

3250<br />

1260<br />

1360<br />

1110<br />

39<br />

42<br />

34<br />

Average - - 1243 38 2.1<br />

13<br />

14<br />

15<br />

10-15<br />

10-15<br />

10-15<br />

3250<br />

1800<br />

1840<br />

1790<br />

55<br />

57<br />

55<br />

Average - - 1810 56 3.0<br />

16<br />

17<br />

18<br />

15-30<br />

15-30<br />

10-15<br />

3250<br />

1900<br />

2070<br />

1750<br />

58<br />

64<br />

54<br />

Average - - 1907 59 3.2<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Effective water surplus that resulted from<br />

the equation of the water survey from the drained<br />

soil, from the periods of time the drainage system<br />

with pipes worked registered a medium<br />

multiannual value of 325 mm or 3250 m3∙ha-1.<br />

The growth of the drains depth from 0.8 to<br />

1.0 m and keeping the spacing between the drain<br />

lines to a constant level of 12 m contributed at the<br />

decrease of the functional efficiency of the<br />

drainage system, with an average of 11 %.<br />

The growth of the spacing between the<br />

drain lines from 12 to 20 m and keeping of the<br />

drains depth at 0.80 m determined a decrease of<br />

the functional efficiency, with 16%.<br />

The surface of the drain pipes<br />

joints/perforations determined the growth of the<br />

functional efficiency, with an average of 11 - 12%.<br />

The association of the pipe drainage system<br />

with the land shaping in the bedding system with<br />

ridges and furrows, with an average of 23%.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bucur, D., Moca, V., 2012 – Tile drainage on<br />

agricultural lands from North-East Romaniaexperimental<br />

variants and technical efficiency, In:<br />

Drainage systems, Javaid M.S. eds., InTech,<br />

211-240, ISBN 978-953-51-0243-4.<br />

3.0<br />

2.7<br />

2.3<br />

2.3<br />

2.4<br />

2.4<br />

3.1<br />

3.1<br />

2.9<br />

2.1<br />

2.3<br />

1.8<br />

3.0<br />

3.1<br />

3.0<br />

3.2<br />

3.5<br />

2.9<br />

Cazacu, E. şi colab., 1985 – Desecări, p. 44-54, Editura<br />

Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Florea, N., Munteanu, I., 2003 – Sistemul Român de<br />

Taxonomie a solurilor (SRTS-2003), p. 33-96,<br />

Editura Estfalia, ISBN 973-85841-7-5, Bucureşti.<br />

Haret, C., Stanciu, I., 1978 – Tehnica drenajului pe<br />

terenurile agricole, p. 69-112, Editura Ceres,<br />

Bucureşti.<br />

Lukianas, A., Vaikasas, S., Malisauskas, A., 2006.<br />

Water management tasks in the summer polders<br />

of the Nemunas Lowland, Irrigation and drainage,<br />

John Wiley et Sons, Ltd. volume 55 (2): 145-156.<br />

DOI: 10.1002/ird.230.<br />

Moca, V., Bucur, D., Radu, O., Huţanu, Cr., 2008 –<br />

Bonitarea şi evaluarea calitativă a solului din<br />

câmpul de drenaje agricole Baia-Suceava,<br />

regiunea de nord-est a României, <strong>Lucrări</strong><br />

Ştiinţifice, vol. 51(2), <strong>Seria</strong> <strong>Agronomie</strong>, p. 77-82,<br />

Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, ISSN 1454-<br />

7414.<br />

Moca, V., Bucur, D., Ilioi, D., Curaleţ, Adr., Huţanu,<br />

Cr., 2010 – Soil resources and hydroameliorative<br />

improvements in the agricultural<br />

area of Suceava county, <strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice, vol.<br />

53(3), <strong>Seria</strong> <strong>Agronomie</strong>, p. 75-82, <strong>Lucrări</strong>le celei<br />

de a XIX-a Conferinţe Naţionale pentru Ştiinţa<br />

Solului, Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi,<br />

ISSN 1454-7414.<br />

Ramoska, E., Bastiene, N., Saulys, V., 2011-<br />

Evaluation of controlled drainage efficiency in<br />

Lithuania, Irrigation and drainage, John Wiley et<br />

Sons, Ltd. volume 60 (2), pp. 196-206.<br />

Someren, C.L., van., 1964 - De toepassing van<br />

plastieken draineerbuizen in Nederland.<br />

Cultuurtechniok, 2 Jarg. 1-3. Rotterdam.

215<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Stiintifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

GENETIC CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME LOCAL MAIZE LANDRACES<br />

COMING FROM ROMANIA BY RAPD METHOD<br />

Marius MURARIU, Danela MURARIU, Constantin LEONTE, Dănuţ Petru SIMIONIUC<br />

e-mail: dmurariu@suceava.astral.ro<br />

Abstract<br />

The evaluation of morphological differences is a traditional method of evolutionary and pedigree relationship<br />

determination. It was particularly useful in maize, where phenotypic differences occur (e.g. color, kernel type and kernel<br />

size). However, only molecular markers provide information that is independent of environmental influences or a plant<br />

development phase. Therefore, techniques of DNA analysis have become more and more important. Methods based on<br />

polymerase chain reaction -PCR- are used widely in research. Ones of the most used methods are the RAPD (Randomly<br />

Amplified Polymorphic DNA) method<br />

Key words: : maize local landraces, cold test index, RAPD method<br />

Reconsidering of the evaluation work,<br />

documentation and use of maize genetic resources<br />

represented by old local landraces, no studied or<br />

inadequately studied, represents an actual<br />

necessity, at the national and international level.<br />

Not incidentally, the work report of the ECPGR<br />

Maize Working Group Meeting Rome, Italy (1996)<br />

has noted two major needs for collaboration on<br />

maize genetic resources:<br />

Identify of old local populations,<br />

valuables for their agronomic characters;<br />

Establish joint prebreeding programs.<br />

The maize local landraces are distinguished by a<br />

high capacity for adaptation and physiological<br />

characteristics specific to certain areas, as well as<br />

high yield capacity and the its quality attributes<br />

(Moşneagă and collab., 1957; Cristea, 2006;<br />

Căbulea and collab., 1975; Hallauer and Miranda,<br />

1981; Murariu and collab 1998, 2010).<br />

The Romanian maize local landraces are very<br />

different as the ecological conditions in our<br />

country under the influence of which were<br />

formed and over which were superimposed the<br />

effects of empirical selection made by<br />

thousands of growers, each in its own way.<br />

Although, the maize landraces are very<br />

heterogeneous, they are grouped into distinct<br />

races, each occupying a certain area (Cristea,<br />

2006).<br />

The fundamental aim of this research is the<br />

evaluation of genetic diversity of some Romanian<br />

maize landraces stored at the Suceava Genebank.<br />

It makes possible a quick examination of genetic<br />

material in a large number of samples at a<br />

relatively low cost. In a research conducted in the<br />

Agriculture Faculty of Iasi, the modified RAPD<br />

technique with a system of primers containing<br />

additional DNA sequences partly complementary<br />

to the semi-conservative sequences of intron –<br />

exon junctions proved to be very useful in a variety<br />

of plant species. These primers, known also as<br />

semi-random primers, were with success used by<br />

Weining and Langridge to target diverse regions<br />

of genome in cereals.<br />

This method is used especially for genetic diversity<br />

identification and philogenetic studies (Bagheri A.<br />

and all, 1995, Hoey B.K. and all, 1996, Iqbal N.J.<br />

and all, 1997, Samec and all, 1998, Tinker and all,<br />

1993).<br />

The objective of this research was to determine the<br />

genetic variability existing among maize landraces<br />

coming from Romania, very resistant to cold<br />

temperatures. We hoped to obtain information on<br />

the level of intervarietal divergence which is<br />

essential for plant breeders. The additional<br />

practical goal was to eliminate possible duplicates.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

Sixty one maize landraces taken to the preliminary<br />

analysis are maintained in the Suceava Genebank.<br />

The selected Maize landraces are very resistant to<br />

cold temperatures and coming from different area<br />

of Romania (table 1).<br />

All molecular analyses were carrying out in the<br />

Agriculture Faculty of Iasi, in frame of molecular<br />

markers laboratory.<br />

For genetic characterization of maize germplasm<br />

by RAPD method, first, was necessary extracting<br />

genomic DNA. Of each variant were taken leaves

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

216<br />

Table 1<br />

Local maize landraces coming from Romania, very resistant to cold temperatures, which were characterized<br />

from genetic point of view through RAPD method (USAMV, 2011)<br />

Accession<br />

number<br />

Accession name Origin<br />

RAPD primers used<br />

Table 2<br />

Nr crt. Primer Secvenţa (5’-3’)<br />

1. ROTH A15 TTC CGA ACC C<br />

2. ROTH A16 AGC CAG GCA A<br />

3. ROTH A17 GAC CGC TTG T<br />

4. ROTH B02 TGA TCC CTG G<br />

5. ROTH B08 GTC CAC ACT C<br />

6. ROTH B13 TTC CCC CGC T<br />

7. ROTH B14 TCC GCT CTG G<br />

8. ROTH B16 TTT GCC CGG A<br />

Accession<br />

number<br />

Accession name Origin<br />

SVGB-8012 METES 1 AB SVGB-8026 ZLATNA 4 AB<br />

SVGB-8022 ZLATNA AB SVGB-1790 PETROSANI 2 HD<br />

SVGB-9800 CIUNGANI HD SVGB-3599 MAGURA ILVEI 1 BN<br />

SVGB-9807 CERBAL 2 HD SVGB-1806 CN-21-84C CJ<br />

SVGB-845 B-173 SM SVGB-8043 RACOVITENI 3 BZ<br />

SVGB-7750 VLADESTI AG SVGB-9966 SANTMARTIN HG<br />

SVGB-5880 GLODENI 6 GJ SVGB-911 DUMBRAVA CJ<br />

SVGB-5483 POLOVRAGI 4 GJ SVGB-4813 CALAFAT 2 DJ<br />

SVGB-7900 PADES 2 GJ SVGB-7820 SARADIS 2 CJ<br />

SVGB-7282 PRUNDU BARGAULUI 13 {A} BN SVGB-1423 LUDESTI 2 HD<br />

SVGB-5219 STARCHIOJD 6 PH SVGB-3764 NEREJU 12 VN<br />

SVGB-3971 CARBUNESTI 480 GJ SVGB-1357 JITIA DE JOS 3 VN<br />

SVGB-3973 BALCESTI 1 CJ SVGB-3722 RODNA 10 BN<br />

SVGB-7811 BOLDUT 2 CJ SVGB-11575 CRISTINESTI BT<br />

SVGB-7745 DRAGHICI AG SVGB-5226 IZVOARELE 3 PH<br />

SVGB-5168 TEREGOVA 5 CS SVGB-7812 VALEA LUI CATI CJ<br />

SVGB-11231 POIANA TEIULUI 5 NT SVGB-7645 PONOARELE 6 MH<br />

SVGB-9591 SATU MARE B 139-84 HR SVGB-4005 PLENITA II DJ<br />

SVGB-1399 BALSA 9 HD SVGB-7624 BEZDEAD 1 DB<br />

SVGB-8865 BRUSTUROASA 10 BC SVGB-4023 ALMAJ 1 DJ<br />

SVGB-5874 RUNCU 3 GJ SVGB-9577 SATU MARE B 172-84 HR<br />

SVGB-981 B-159 SM SVGB-16145 DINTE CAL DE FRASINET CL<br />

SVGB-499 ILVA MICA 43 BN SVGB-9887 BAISOARA 5 CJ<br />

SVGB-595 CEAHLAU 154 NT SVGB-4019 TURNU SEVERIN 1 MH<br />

SVGB-7701 STOENESTI 3 VL SVGB-1015 CHICHIS CV<br />

SVGB-952 B-181 HR SVGB-1179 MIERCUREA MS<br />

SVGB-5557 PIETRARI VL SVGB-1244 ZOLTAN CV<br />

SVGB-9920 BLAJ CIUGUD AB SVGB-1640 GEOAGIU 28 HD<br />

SVGB-5172 TEREGOVA 6 CS SVGB-11584 GEORGE ENESCU 4 BT<br />

SVGB-7754 VALEA SILISTII AG SVGB-14153 JELNA 1 BN<br />

SVGB-9919 BLAJEL SB<br />

Fig.1. The obtained images with support of B13<br />

primers and analyzed with RFLP Scan 2.1, to those<br />

61 maize local landraces.

of young maize plants (14 days after emergence),<br />

which were placed in plastic tubes (Eppendorf<br />

tubes) and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen.<br />

The maize samples were kept in a freezer at-70 0 C.<br />

For DNA extraction CTAB method was used<br />

(hexadecyltrimethilammonium bromide) as<br />

amended by Doyle and Doyle in 1987. The steps<br />

were:<br />

plant material (100-200 mg) of each<br />

variant was grinded in liquid nitrogen in a<br />

mini tube (1.5 ml) and introduced again<br />

in liquid nitrogen<br />

at each mini tubes with prepared plant<br />

material were added 700 ml of extraction<br />

D & D* solution, after that, the mixture<br />

was incubated for 20-30 minutes at 650 0 C<br />

*D & D solution - containing 100 mm Tris-HCl (pH<br />

8.0), 20 mm EDTA (pH 8.0), 1.4 M NaCl, 2%<br />

CTAB, 1% Na2S2O5, H2O, all were autoclaved<br />

and then 0.2% mercaptoethanol was added.<br />

700 ml CIA* was added and stirred 5<br />

minutes;<br />

* CIA solution (24:1) contains 24 parts chloroform<br />

and one part isoamilalcool.<br />

It was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm (4 0C) for<br />

10 minutes;<br />

the liquid phase was extracted, was<br />

added 600μl CIA and stirred 5 minutes;<br />

it was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm (4 0C) for<br />

10 minutes;<br />

the liquid phase was transferred in new<br />

mini tubes adding 50 ml NH4OAc (10 M)<br />

and 60μl NaOaC (3M, pH 5.5) and was<br />

stirred gently;<br />

500μl 2-propanol was added and stirred<br />

gently;<br />

It was centrifuged at 4000 rpm, 4 minutes;<br />

the liquid was removed using a pipette;<br />

it added (for washing for 10 minutes) 70%<br />

ethanol solution 10mM NH4OAc;<br />

it was centrifuged at 4000 rpm, for 4<br />

minutes;<br />

the liquid was removed with a pipette;<br />

the mini tubes were dried (open) in a<br />

thermostat at 37°C until complete<br />

evaporation of alcohol;<br />

in each mini tube was added 100 ml TE<br />

solution, containing 10mM Tris-HCl (pH<br />

8.0), 1mM EDTA (pH 8.0);<br />

the mini tubes were kept in a freezer at –<br />

200 0 C.<br />

For establishing DNA concentration fluoro<br />

spectofotometer NanoDrop 2200 type, was<br />

performed. The appropriate dilutions for PCR<br />

mixture (5 ng / ml) were performed with TE<br />

solution.<br />

In order to determine the genetic diversity of 61<br />

maize landraces, 8 decameric RAPD primers<br />

(Table 2.) were selected, after making an initial<br />

screening with 20 primers. It was chose only those<br />

primers that generated polymorphic fragments.<br />

For PCR mixture in a volume of 20μl was<br />

performed, that were pipetted: 5 ngADN genomic,<br />

217<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Stiintifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

10 mm of dNTP, 25 mM MgCl2, 5pmol / ml<br />

decamer primer (ROTH), 0.1 units Taq DNA<br />

polymerase (Go Taq Polymerase - Promega) and<br />

10x buffer.<br />

Amplification with an Eppendorf termocicler was<br />

performed. The conditions in which amplification<br />

was performed were: initial denaturing for 3 min at<br />

95 0 C after which followed a number of 45 cycles of<br />

amplification, each amplification, having the<br />

following steps:<br />

Distortion: 1 min at 93 0 C;<br />

Primers attaching: 1 min at 34 0 C;<br />

Extension: 1 min at 72 0 C.<br />

The last phase was the final extension, 10 min at<br />

72 0 C.<br />

Electrophoresis separation of the amplification<br />

products was carried out in agarose gel with a<br />

concentration of 2%.<br />

The fragments visualizing by staining with ethidium<br />

bromide was achieved, at a concentration of 0.5<br />

ml/ml.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The genetic classification on related genetic groups<br />

was performed using similarity coefficient Lei, Ni<br />

and UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method<br />

arithmetic average). In order to determine the<br />

similarity of 61 maize populations was used RAPD<br />

(Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA), resulting<br />

in a total of 91 bands with sizes between 74 and<br />

1687 bp, of which 86 were polymorphic.<br />

The lowest number of amplified fragments was 6<br />

(A15) and the highest number was 17 (ROTH B13<br />

and B14). As shown in table 3, the polymorphic<br />

bands level, in the 8 primers used for RAPD<br />

analysis, ranged between 83% (ROTH A15) and<br />

100% (ROTH A16, A17 and B08).<br />

Table 3.<br />

Primer<br />

The amplified fragment numbers, polymorphic<br />

bands numbers and polymorphism percentage for<br />

each used primer to the RAPD analyses<br />

Număr<br />

fragmente<br />

amplificate<br />

Fragmente<br />

polimorfice<br />

Mărime<br />

fragmente<br />

(bp)<br />

Procent<br />

polimorfism<br />

(%)<br />

ROTH A15 6 5 373-972 83%<br />

ROTH A16 10 10 376-1058 100%<br />

ROTH A17 7 7 204-873 100%<br />

ROTH B02 10 9 253-964 90%<br />

ROTH B08 14 14 74-1281 100%<br />

ROTH B13 17 16 413-1678 90%<br />

ROTH B14 17 16 283-1397 94%<br />

ROTH B16 10 9 351-1207 90%<br />

With support of SPSS software program, it<br />

calculated genetic similarity between genotypes<br />

analyzed, resulting dendrogram in Figure 2. and

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

DNA bands frequency chart in Figure 3. In the first<br />

chart is noted that from point of similarity degree<br />

view, the samples were grouped into three clusters<br />

(C1-.. C3), and in the second graph (Fig. 3), we see<br />

that there are not duplicates in the 61 maize local<br />

populations analyzed; the matrix values are very<br />

close but not similar.<br />

CONCLUZIONS<br />

1. The sixty one maize local landraces, coming<br />

from Romania, very resistant to cold temperature<br />

from point genetic molecular of view, by RAPD<br />

method were analyzed, resulting a total of 91<br />

bands with sizes between 74 and 1687 bp, of which<br />

86 were polymorphic.<br />

2. There are not duplicates in those 61 analyzed<br />

maize local populations; the matrix values are very<br />

close but not similar.<br />

BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />

1. Bagheri A, Paull JG, Langridge P, Rathjen AJ,<br />

1995. Genetic distance detected with RAPD<br />

markers among selected Australian<br />

commercial varieties and boron-tolerant exotic<br />

germplasm of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Mol.<br />

Breeding 2:193-197;<br />

2. Căbulea I.şi colab 1975, Germoplasma locală de<br />

porumb din Transilvania şi utilizarea ei în<br />

lucrările de ameliorare. Probleme de Genetică<br />

teoretică şi aplicată, vol. VII, nr. 1 57-90;<br />

3. Cristea, M., 2006 - Monografia porumbului, Edit.<br />

ASAS Bucuresti;.<br />

218<br />

4. Hallauer A.R. şi Miranda J.B., 1981 Quantitative<br />

Genetics in Maize Breeding Iowa State<br />

University. Press Amer;<br />

5. Hoey BK, Crowe KR, Jones VM, Polans NO, 1996.<br />

A phylogenetic analysis of Pisum based on<br />

morphological characters, and allozyme and<br />

RAPD markers. Theor. Appl. Genet. 94: 860-<br />

864;<br />

6. Iqbal NJ, Saeed Aziz, Zafar Y, Malik KA, 1997.<br />

Genetic diversity evaluation of some elite<br />

cotton varieties by RAPD analysis. Theor. Appl.<br />

Genet. 94 :139-144;<br />

7. Moșneagă V., Velican, V., Priadcencu Al., 1957,<br />

Ameliorarea porumbului, Porumbul- Studiul<br />

monografic, Editura Academiei RPR;<br />

8. Murariu Danela, Cătălina Buzdugan, M. Murariu,<br />

(1998). The aspects concerning the precocity<br />

and the resistance to low temperatures to<br />

some maize landraces conserved in Suceava<br />

Genebank, Simpozionul Stiinţific de<br />

<strong>Agronomie</strong>, Iaşi 25-26 octombrie , 1998, vol.<br />

41, pag. 95-100<br />

9. Murariu Marius, Murariu Danela, Has Voichita,<br />

2010 Maize Local Landraces Used Like<br />

Prebreeding Material For Simultaneous<br />

Improvment Of Main Agronomic Trait, <strong>Lucrări</strong><br />

<strong>ştiinţifice</strong> - vol. 53, Nr. 2/2010, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

10. Samec P, Posvec Z, Stejskal J, Nasinec V, Griga<br />

M, 1998. Cultivar identification and<br />

relationships in Pisum sativum L. based on<br />

RAPD and isozymes. Biologica Plantarum 41:<br />

39-48;<br />

11. Tinker NA, Fortin MG, Mather DE, 1993. Random<br />

amplified polymorphic DNA and pedigree<br />

relationships in spring barley. Theor. Appl.<br />

Genet. 85: 976-984

219<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Stiintifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Fig. 2. Relationships among the investigated maize landraces using RAPD data<br />

(Jaccard distance, UPGMA clustering)<br />

C1<br />

C2<br />

C3

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Fig. 3. The DNA bands frequency to those 61 maize local landraces<br />

220

Abstract<br />

221<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE INFLUENCE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY OVER THE ROTOPĂNEŞTI-<br />

RĂDĂŞENI-FÂNTÂNA MARE DRAINAGE SYSTEM NETWORK<br />

Oprea RADU 1<br />

e-mail: opricaradu@yahoo.com<br />

The drainage-desiccation developments on the Moldova river meadows in Suceava county were built for the purpose of<br />

eliminating the excess water from both the terrain's surface and from its higher levels, origination from rainfall, ground<br />

water, from the surface flow and from the surrounding higher ground. After constructing the hydro-ameliorative<br />

improvements, special attention must be given to the operation method and to its behavior over time. By operating and<br />

using the draining network, mainly shores erosion and bottom of canal clogging occurs, that may be caused by both<br />

natural and human factors. Waste disposal, vegetal waste and various packaging materials thrown into the canal,<br />

generally beside bridges, speed the process of clogging and shuttering, causing, in upriver, the decommissioning of<br />

canals, the overflow of waters accumulated during heavy rain, the flooding of nearby areas, and the malfunction of the<br />

desiccating- drainage network. Also, the shore erosion and canal clogging is largely influenced by the lands serviced by<br />

the canal category of use. The shore erosion and the canal clogging is greater upon the areas used as pastures, due to a<br />

low degree of embankment grassing, to total lack of grassing on some sections, caused by irrational grazing and by the<br />

repeated and uncontrolled animal crossing. On arable surfaces, canals generally present well grassed embankments, fact<br />

that diminishes riverbanks erosion, yet in time, for lack of maintenance works, cause water flow slowdown and<br />

stagnation, the appearance of hydrophilic vegetation and shrubs, favoring silt sedimentation and clogging.<br />

Keywords: humidity in excess, canal clogging, geometric and hydraulic components of the drainage network.<br />

Among the main limiting factors of the<br />

agricultural production, which occur depending on<br />

the local pedoclimatic conditions, we could<br />

mention excessive humidity, floods, low<br />

permeability and soil compaction, erosion, sliding<br />

and others.<br />

For the proper excessive water removal after<br />

the construction of the drying-draining systems,<br />

special attention should be paid to their operation<br />

and behavior over time, also considering the new<br />

private land ownership conditions.<br />

MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ<br />

The excessive humidity, which occurs in the<br />

Moldova River basin and which is due to rain<br />

and/or ground water and to water system<br />

overflows, has manifested itself under various<br />

forms and at different intensities, on both horizontal<br />

and sloped land.<br />

The natural conditions of the Baia piedmont<br />

plain support the occurrence and maintenance of<br />

excessive underground and surface humidity. The<br />

Moldova River meadow and 1.5 km-wide slipshaped<br />

terraces, which are almost parallel with<br />

the Moldova River bed and which run north-west<br />

and south-east, with small 1-5 % slopes, with flat<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi<br />

areas and many small depressions, facilitate<br />

water stagnation.<br />

In the wet climate of the Moldova River<br />

basin, the heavy precipitations fallen over 1-5<br />

consecutive days and the low evapotranspiration<br />

rate make up the main excessive humidity cause<br />

in low permeability soils (Nitu T. şi colab., 1985).<br />

The precipitations fallen throughout the year<br />

exhibit an uneven distribution, with considerable<br />

amounts fallen in 24 hours or after long-lasting<br />

heavy rains, which cause surface overflows that<br />

carry along soil particles, thus enhancing bank<br />

erosion and hence clogging the channels (Radu<br />

O., 2009).<br />

For the exploitation of the productive<br />

capacity of the Moldova river banks and meadow<br />

terrains, a 8761 ha area of desiccation-drainage<br />

works was built between 1978 and 1980, 3059 ha<br />

out of which contained subterranean drainage<br />

systems.<br />

The actual drying channels network<br />

includes master collecting channels, secondary<br />

collecting channels, sector collecting channels<br />

and belt channels. The 1.5-2.0 m deep belt<br />

channels were located 20-50 m from the edge of<br />

the slopes, their role being to protect the drieddrained<br />

surface by catching the overflows from the<br />

higher neighboring areas.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The ring canal (CC1), from the Rotopăneşti-<br />

Rădăşeni-Fântâna Mare, Suceava county system,<br />

some 3000 m in length, collects waters from the<br />

North-East slope of a hill, on the side of<br />

Rotopăneşti, having a surface area of approx<br />

37.50 ha, used as pasture and 23.00 ha arable<br />

and meadowland (fig. 1).<br />

In order to determine the geometric and<br />

hydraulic parameters of the belt channel (CC1),<br />

high precision geometric leveling survey<br />

222<br />

measurements were conducted using the radiation<br />

and the traversing combined with radiation<br />

methods, these measurements enabled us to draft<br />

transverse and longitudinal profiles. The leveling<br />

survey data were gathered using an average<br />

precision Zeiss Ni-030 level and the surveying rod<br />

with centimeter marks, and the level differences<br />

were determined bases on two levels of the<br />

surveying instrument.

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Figure 1 Drying-drainage systems from Rotopăneşti-Rădăşeni-Fântâna Mare<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

For accommodating traffic over the<br />

desiccating-draining canals tubular plain concrete<br />

culverts were built, having a nominal diameter<br />

between 500 and 800 mm, as well as Bucov tubes<br />

culverts of greater diameter, of 1 m and 1.2 m<br />

respectively.<br />

Throughout the Rotopăneşti-Rădăşeni-<br />

Fântâna Mare desiccating-draining system, most<br />

culverts are operational, yet they are more or less<br />

clogged.<br />

The 1 m diameter culvert located 2100 m<br />

from the upstream end of the ring canal CC1<br />

presents a blocked section due to household<br />

residue deposits and of various nearby packaging<br />

materials, to neglected maintenance as well as to<br />

inappropriate use of the areas surrounding this<br />

section of the canal, having been used as pasture<br />

since 1992 (fig. 2).<br />

Figure 2 Clogged culvert showing vegetal and household residue within the canals<br />

Grazing throughout the section of the canal<br />

and throughout the times when the soil is saturated<br />

with water, repeated animal crossing through<br />

unequipped areas have caused an effect of shore<br />

erosion and canal clogging which lead to canal's<br />

geometric and hydraulic components alteration.<br />

The transversal profiles made every 25 m<br />

along the CC1 ring canal on a 100 m length<br />

upstream of the blocked culvert show a narrowing<br />

of the canal. The transversal section made 100 m<br />

upstream of the blocked culvert (fig. 3), highlights<br />

shore erosion and canal clogging, which led to<br />

light channel enlargement from 5.10 m (Radu O.,<br />

2012), to 6.46 m, also to the enlargement of the<br />

canal's bottom width from 0.60 m to 3.43 m and to<br />

the reduction in depth from 1.80 m to 0.86 m, and<br />

to a section narrowing from 5.13 m 2 la 3.54 m 2 .<br />

Figure 3 Transversal section through CC1 canal 100 m upstream from the blocked culvert

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Due to vegetal and household residue<br />

deposits as well as to silt depositing near the<br />

culvert, at the time when the latter was still<br />

operational, the flowing section measured beside<br />

the culvert in the upstream is lesser than that<br />

recorded at 100 m and it measures 2.84 m 2 (fig. 4).<br />

224<br />

The obstruction in the culvert's section also<br />

caused the longitudinal slope of the canal to<br />

change, as fig. 5 is showing. By analyzing fig. 5<br />

one notes different values in the canal longitudinal<br />

slope in different sections and the creation of<br />

counter-slopes from between 0.02% to 0.76%<br />

respectively.<br />

Figure 4 Transversal section through the CC1 canal, upstream, beside the blocked culvert<br />

Figure 5 Longitudinal section on the CC1 canal, upstream of the culvert<br />

Throughout the 100 m studied section of the<br />

canal, a 0.14% counter-slope is always present,<br />

which causes, during periods of heavy rain, as well<br />

as at the snow melt, the water to flow towards the<br />

upstream end of the CC1 canal, overflowing at<br />

approx 250 m upstream of the blocked culvert,<br />

where a pond was thus formed (fig. 6).<br />

Figure 6 Water overflowing the canal and the subsequently formed pond

Within the transversal profile made beside<br />

the culver and downstream (fig.7), the section flow<br />

of 3.75 m 2 is larger by approx 1 m 2 than the value<br />

recorded at the section upstream of the culvert. The<br />

narrowing in section flow at this point is due to<br />

vegetal and household depositing beside the<br />

culvert.<br />

225<br />

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The bottom of the canal elevation is lesser<br />

downstream by some 35 cm than that of the<br />

upstream bottom elevation, the downstream section<br />

of the canal not being altogether clogged.<br />

100 m downstream of the clogged culvert<br />

the section flow of 5.09 m 2 , decreasing<br />

downstream (fig. 8).<br />

Figure 7 Transversal section through the CC1 canal, downstream, nearby the clogged culvert<br />

Figure 8 Transversal section through the CC1 canal, downstream, 100 m from the clogged culvert<br />

Analyzing the longitudinal profile made on<br />

the 100 m section, upstream of the culvert (fig. 9),<br />

we notice that here as well a counter-slope has<br />

been formed, due to neglecting of mowing the<br />

grass, to the appearance of hydrophilic vegetation<br />

and of shrubs that hinder the water flow and favors<br />

silt sedimentation (fig. 10).<br />

Figure 9 Longitudinal section on the CC1 canal, upstream of the culvert

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

On the overall 100 m control section there's<br />

always a 0.21% longitudinal slope in place, fact<br />

that maintains the water flow and evacuation in the<br />

Şomuzel main collecting canal.<br />

Downstream of the blocked culvert, where<br />

the area serviced by this section of the canal is<br />

used as arable land and meadowland, the shore<br />

erosion and canal clogging is less pronounced, the<br />

canal's section flow being greater than the value<br />

recorded on the upstream section, which services<br />

pasture areas. If the mean section flow of the canal<br />

on the transversal sections made every 25 m<br />

upstream is 3.34 m 2 then on the 100 m downstream<br />

section it is greater by 1.15 m 2 measuring 4.49 m 2 .<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The shore erosion and the canal clogging on<br />

desiccated-drained areas is pronounced on surfaces<br />

used as pastures, due to the lesser degree of<br />

grassing on the embankments, yet inexistent on<br />

some sections, due to irrational grazing and the<br />

repeated and uncontrolled animal crossing.<br />

On arable areas of terrain the canals have<br />

well grassed embankments, fact that diminished<br />

the banks' erosion, yet over time, through lack of<br />

maintenance, cause the water flow to slow down<br />

and even stagnate, hydrophilic vegetation and<br />

shrubs to grow, favoring silt sedimentation and the<br />

occurrence of clogging.<br />

Canal clogging and the appearance of<br />

hydrophilic vegetation cause the longitudinal slope<br />

to alter, presenting different values along canals,<br />

oftentimes creating counter-slopes which cause the<br />

Figure 10 Hydrophilic vegetation and of shrubs on the canal<br />

226<br />

water to stagnate and the depositing of silt,<br />

heightening the average canal clogging rate and<br />

accelerating their decommissioning.<br />

The depositing of household residue, of<br />

vegetal residue, and of various packaging materials<br />

into the canals, generally nearby culverts<br />

accelerates the process of clogging and blocking.<br />

The blocking of the culverts' section flow<br />

contributes to speeding up the process of canal<br />

upstream clogging, to their decommissioning and<br />

to collected waters overflow during periods of<br />

heavy rainfall, to the flooding of nearby areas,<br />

having repercussions upon the normal functioning<br />

of the desiccating- draining network.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Nitu T. şi colab., 1985 – Influenţa lucrărilor de<br />

desecare-drenaj asupra apelor freatice şi<br />

suprafreatice din Câmpia piemontană Rădăşeni-<br />

Fântâna Mare-Baia, mijloc de creştere a<br />

producţiei agricole la hectar. Primul Simpozion<br />

de Îmbunătăţiri Funciare, Bucureşti.<br />

Radu O., 2009 – Consequences of the use of areas<br />

designed for dry-drainage works, in the<br />

Rotopăneşti-Rădăşeni-Fântâna Mare system,<br />

Suceava county, Lucr. șt., seria Agricultură,<br />

U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 52, Editura „Ion Ionescu de<br />

la Brad” Iaşi. ISSN 1454-7414.<br />

Radu O., 2012 - Consequences of the unreasonable<br />

grazing on the surfaces with draining works, of<br />

the drainage area of Moldova river, Suceava<br />

county. <strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice, seria Horticultură,<br />

U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 55, Editura „Ion Ionescu de<br />

la Brad” Iaşi. ISSN 1454-7376.

Abstract<br />

227<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER WITHIN THE SOIL AT THE BAIA,<br />

SUCEAVA COUNTY, EXPERIMENTAL AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE<br />

FIELD, 5 DAYS SUBSEQUENT TO THE INCIDENCE OF RAINFALL<br />

Oprea RADU 1 , Feodor FILIPOV 1<br />

e-mail: opricaradu@yahoo.com<br />

The exploitation of the production capacity of the agricultural fields and mainly of the arable areas was performed over<br />

the time by their improvement with drainage, banking-regulation, underground drainage, soil erosion control and other<br />

types of works. According to the data supplied by A.N.I.F., in Suceava County, there is a surface of 44,904 ha with<br />

drainage works, of which 27,455 ha with drain works. The results of the research carried out in the pedoclimatic<br />

conditions of the Moldova riverbed proved that within 5 days of circa 30 mm rainfall, in the case of absorbing drain<br />

lines spaced 15 m and 20 m apart, respectively, on an area of terrain not modeled in strips with ridges, the mean value<br />

of soil water content decrease from the median between the drains towards the drainage line. For the drains that service<br />

the area of terrain modeled in strips with ridges the lowest value was recorded on the drainage trench, whereas the<br />

highest value was measured 2 m from the drainage line due to the surface flow that occurs throughout torrential rain.<br />

Concerning the momentary soil water content, categorized by depth, in points situated 2 m from the drainage line and<br />

upon the median between drains, the highest value was recorded 40-50 cm deep, whereas for the drain located upon the<br />

area modeled in strips with ridges, the highest value was recorded 50 to 70 cm deep, due to the higher elevation of the<br />

terrain and to the contribution of rougher soil material resulted from modeling the terrain. Upon the drainage trench the<br />

soil water content increases with depth due to the water influx towards the drain's filter during the 34 years of operation.<br />

Keywords: humidity in excess, desiccating- draining system, modeling in strips with ridges, soil water content<br />

The soil quality is less or more affected by<br />

one or more restrictions and namely: drought,<br />

periodic humidity excess, erosion, landslides etc.<br />

Their harmful influences are reflected in the<br />

damaging the soil characteristics and functions, in<br />

their bio-productive capacity, respectively in<br />

affecting the agricultural product quality and food<br />

safety with consequences on human life quality.<br />

These restrictions are determined either by natural<br />

factors or by agricultural and industrial anthropic<br />

actions that can synergically act in a negative way.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Given the pedoclimatic conditions of the moist<br />

zone of the Suceava county, respectively, in the<br />

meadow and the river basin of the Moldova river, the<br />

area has been equipped with experimental shallow<br />

drainage field patches, as the major solution for<br />

fighting the temporary excess of moisture derived<br />

from rainfall, locally associated with various improving<br />

agro-pedoclimatic works.<br />

The hydrotechnic layout of the experimental<br />

drainage field of Baia stretches across 3.00 hectares<br />

divided in plots, in two repetitions of three versions<br />

each, in which the following issues were emphasized:<br />

the distance between the lines of drainage (12; 15;<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi<br />

and 20 meters), the average pipe laying depth (0.80<br />

and 1.00 meter), the nature and the diameter of<br />

drainage pipes, the nature and the thickness of<br />

filtering materials. To improve the process of<br />

eliminating the humidity in excess and for<br />

alleviating the agro-physical and agro-chemical<br />

features of glossy pseudogley riverbed luvisols, the<br />

following works were carried out throughout the<br />

period 1978 to 1992 (Moca V. and collaborators,<br />

2000):<br />

- shallow leveling of the drained surface for<br />

operational purposes;<br />

- the modeling of the terrain in strips with<br />

ridges at the subterranean drainage version "A" ;<br />

- aerating the soil down to the depth of 60 to<br />

70 cm, perpendicular to the 18 absorbing drainage<br />

lines;<br />

- agro-technical works of cultivating the<br />

drained terrains that had previously been natural<br />

pastures with humidity in excess;<br />

- applying calcareous amendments in a<br />

dosage of 10-12 tons/ha carrier limestone and reamending<br />

in 1989 using the same amendment, in<br />

a dosage of 7-8 tons/ha;<br />

-the basic organic fertilizing in quantities of<br />

40-50 tons/ha manure and re-fertilizing in the same<br />

dosage, in 1992;

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

- the annual chemical fertilizing according to<br />

the cultivated plants requirements.<br />

For determining the momentary soil water<br />

content, soil samples were removed, using a<br />

tubular probe, in 10 cm depth layers down to 80<br />

cm deep.<br />

The soil samples were taken 5 days<br />

subsequent to the occurrence of 30 mm rainfall,<br />

the control points being placed on the drainage<br />

trench, 2.00 m from it and upon the median<br />

between the absorbing drains.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

228<br />

By analyzing the momentary soil water<br />

content values categorized by depth, recorded 5<br />

days subsequent to the occurrence of 30 mm<br />

rainfall at the absorbing drains D5, D13, D14, D15<br />

spaced 15 m apart, we noticed that, at the control<br />

points located 2 m from the drainage trench and<br />

upon the median between drains, the value of the<br />

humidity increase, in general, from 10-20 cm deep<br />

down to 40-50 cm deep, decreasing afterwards<br />

relatively easily due to the less permeable layer<br />

(fig. 1, 2, 3, 4).<br />

Figure 1 The soil water content in relation to depth, measured on drain D5<br />

Figure 2 The soil water content in relation to depth, measured on drain D13<br />

The greater values recorded within the 0-10<br />

cm depth, as opposed to those recorded at 10-20<br />

cm deep, are due to water retention by the organic<br />

material present within the discontinuous celery<br />

layer, the drained surface having been used as<br />

pasture since 1992.<br />

If the highest soil water content was<br />

recorded within 48 hours of the start of rainfall at<br />

30-40 cm deep (Radu O. and collaborators 2012),<br />

after 5 days the highest value is recorded at greater<br />

depths (40-50 cm) due to the elimination of excess<br />

water and to water being absorbed by plants.<br />

At the control point situated upon the<br />

drainage trench the values decrease down to 20-30<br />

cm deep, subsequently increasing, in general, with<br />

depth, down to the filtering layer, due to water<br />

flowing towards the drain's filter created<br />

throughout the 34 years of operation. The greater<br />

values recorded down to 20 cm deep are due to the

eticulate system of plants' greater development upon the drainage trench.<br />

229<br />

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Figure 3 The soil water content in relation to depth, measured on drain D14<br />

Figure 4 The soil water content in relation to depth, measured on drain D15<br />

At the D3 absorbing drain, with a distance of<br />

20 m between drainage lines, the laying depth of 1<br />

m and with the serviced surface modeled in strips<br />

with ridges, at the control point situated 2 m from<br />

the drain line, the soil water content values<br />

increase according to depth down to 50-60 cm,<br />

afterwards decreasing slightly (fig. 5).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 5 The soil water content in relation to depth, measured on drain D3<br />

Halfway between drains (10 m), the values<br />

decrease down to 20-30 cm, increasing afterwards<br />

down to 60-70 cm. The lesser water content values<br />

within the soil's upper layer is ascribed to both the<br />

terrain's higher elevation and to the contribution of<br />

rougher material caused by modeling in strips with<br />

ridges.<br />

230<br />

In the case of absorbing drain D12, distanced<br />

at 20 m, yet with the surface of terrain not modeled<br />

in strips with ridges, the highest momentary soil<br />

water content in control points spaced 2 m and 10<br />

m, respectively, from the drain line, is recorded at<br />

40-50 cm deep, the same as in 15 m apart spaced<br />

drains (fig. 6).<br />

Figure 6 The soil water content in relation to depth, measured on drain D12<br />

The mean soil water content at control<br />

points, recorded 5 days subsequent to circa 30 mm<br />

rainfall, in the case of 15 m apart spaced drains, is<br />

least at the control point located on the drainage<br />

trench, and highest at the control point situated<br />

halfway between drains (fig. 7). The decreasing<br />

mean soil water content values, at halfway between<br />

drains towards the drainage trench, highlight the<br />

drain lines operability even after 34 years in<br />

operation.<br />

Figure 7 The mean content of water within the soil at control points, in the case of drains spaced 15.00 m apart<br />

At the absorbing drain D3, with 20 m<br />

distance between drain lines and modeled in strips<br />

with ridges, the lowest mean soil water content is<br />

also recorded on the drainage trench, yet the<br />

highest value was obtained at the control point<br />

located 2 m from the drain (fig.8). The mean soil<br />

water content halfway between drains (on the<br />

ridge), is lower than at 2 m from the drain line, due<br />

to water flow that occurs on the surface during<br />

heavy rain, the surface having been leveled and<br />

used as pasture, as well as to the contribution of<br />

rougher material caused by the modeling in strips<br />

with ridges, in which case the hydro-physical<br />

indicators values (withering coefficient, the field

water capacity) are lower that that of fine-textured<br />

material (high content in clay).<br />

By comparing the mean soil water content<br />

values recorded at the D12 (fig. 8), absorbing drain,<br />

distanced at 20 m and un-modeled, to those<br />

recorded at the D3 drain with the drainage lines<br />

spaced at the same distance, yet with the terrain<br />

modeled in strips with ridges, we notice that here<br />

as well the least value is recorded on the drainage<br />

231<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

trench, yet the highest value is still halfway<br />

between drains. Also, one notices a greater<br />

amplitude of values at the control point situated<br />

halfway between drains (at 10 m), the value<br />

recorded at the absorbing drain D3 modeled in<br />

strips with ridges is 2.61 units lower compared to<br />

the value obtained at drain D12, fact that highlights<br />

surface water flow occurrence.<br />

Figure 8 The mean content of water within the soil at control points, in the case of drains spaced 20.00 m apart<br />

By analyzing the mean soil water content<br />

values on the control section of the analyzed drains<br />

(fig. 9), one notices that that the highest values are<br />

recorded at the D12 absorbing drain, spaced at 20<br />

m, with a filtering layer made of 20 cm thick<br />

ballast and at the D13 drain spaced at 15 m, yet with<br />

a filtering layer initially made of flax strains alone,<br />

whose permeability got reduced by its<br />

transformation, in time, into organic matter. The<br />

least value was obtained at the D14 absorbing drain<br />

(28.18%) spaced at 15 m and having a filtering<br />

layer made of ballast and flax strains.<br />

Figure 9 The soil mean water content within the controlled section

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

By modeling the terrain in strips with ridges<br />

at the D3 absorbing drain, with drainage lines<br />

spaced 20 m apart, a better elimination of the<br />

excess water is achieved, due to the water flow that<br />

occurs towards the drain's filter and that of the<br />

surface water flow being directed towards the<br />

drainage line, by bettering the drain's interception<br />

of water flow during the first days and hours of<br />

evacuation.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Within 5 days of rainfall, at the control<br />

points spaced 2 m from the drainage line and<br />

halfway between drains, the highest momentary<br />

soil water content was recorded at a depth of 40-50<br />

cm. At the D3 absorbing drain with a distance<br />

between drains of 20 m and the surface of terrain<br />

modeled in strips with ridges, the highest value<br />

was obtained at the depth of 50-70 cm, due to the<br />

terrain's higher elevation and to the contribution of<br />

rougher material created by modeling in strips with<br />

ridges.<br />

In case of drains at 15.00 m and 20.00 m<br />

apart with the land surface unmodeled in strips<br />

with ridges, the values of the mean water contents<br />

in the soil 5 days after rainfall decrease from mid<br />

drain distance to the drain line.<br />

At D3 drain with the land surface modeled<br />

in strips with ridges, the least value of the mean<br />

water contents in the soil is recorded on the<br />

drainage trench and the highest value at 2.00 m<br />

from the drain line. The lesser value recorded<br />

halfway between drains (on the ridge), is due to<br />

surface water flowing towards the drainage line<br />

during heavy rain and to the contribution of<br />

rougher material (of lesser hydro-physical<br />

indicators values) created by modeling the terrain.<br />

232<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Moca, V., Bofu, C., Radu, O. 2000 – Influenţa de lungă<br />

durată a drenajului subteran şi a unor lucrări<br />

ameliorative asupra solului din câmpul de drenaje<br />

agricole Baia-Moldova. Publicaţiile S.N.R.S.S.,<br />

vol. 1, nr. 30 A, Editura Univ. „Al. Ioan Cuza” Iaşi,<br />

p. 90-110.<br />

Radu, O., 2009 – Consequences of the individual<br />

exploitation of farming lands designed with drydrainage<br />

works in the hydrographical basin of the<br />

Moldova river, Suceava county. Lucr. Şt.,<br />

Universitatea Craiova, Facultatea de Agricultură,<br />

Ediţia a v-a. ISSN 2066-950X.<br />

Radu, O., Filipov F., 2012 – Excess water removal of<br />

Baia agricultural drains experimental field,<br />

Suceava county, after 34 years of operation.<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice, seria Horticultură, U.Ş.A.M.V.<br />

Iaşi, vol. 55, Editura „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi.<br />

ISSN 1454-7376.

233<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

NEW RESULTS FOR MAIZE CROPS CULTIVATED IN THE NO- TILLAGE<br />

SYSTEM AT THE "RAMIRA" AGRICULTURAL COMPANY FROM MÂRŞA,<br />

GIURGIU COUNTY<br />

Abstract<br />

N. ŞARPE 1 , I. IONIŢĂ 2 , ELENA EREMIA 2 , M. MASCHIO 3<br />

In Romania, maize is the main cultivated plan and maize crops are extremely important from an economic point of<br />

view. Research with the no-tillage system applied to maize crops were made in the Romanian Plain, Şarpe (1968, 1987,<br />

2000, 2008, 2009), in Banat, Motiu (2004) and in the Flood Plain of the Danube River, Şarpe (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008).<br />

The results obtained in Romania confirm the results of the research made in other countries: Philips and Young (1973),<br />

Roller (1999), Derpsch (2001). "Ramira " is the first agricultural company from Giurgiu County which in 2009<br />

cultivated maize in the no-tillage system on a 200 hectares area of land, the results obtained being quite remarkable. In<br />

the conventional system, under the weather conditions of the year 2009, the grain yield recorded from the maize crops<br />

amounted to 7,200 kg/ha, while in the no-tillage system a grain yield of 7,500 kg/ha was recorded - so the yields<br />

obtained in the technological systems were practically equal. However, there were small differences in terms of fuel<br />

consumption. For example, in the no-tillage system, a 78 litres/ha fuel consumption was recorded, while in the notillage<br />

system this amounted to only 25 litres/ha. Big differences were also recorded as regards the expenses in the<br />

conventional and no-tillage systems. In the conventional system, the expenses made for all the mechanical works<br />

performed from the sowing stage to the harvesting stage, these expenses amounted to RON 2,350.00 per hectare, while<br />

in the no-tillage system, they amounted to only RON 610,00 per hectare.<br />

Keywords: Ramira, conventional, no-tillage, Gaspardo, Regina model<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

The no-tillage system is the most COST-<br />

EFFICIENT farming system which, according to<br />

Derpsch (2001), is practiced on hundreds of<br />

millions of hectares in the USA, Brazil, Argentina,<br />

and even in Paraguay. In Romania, numerous<br />

research studies regarding application of the notillage<br />

system to maize crops were made at<br />

Fundulea, in the Romanian Plain by Şarpe (1968,<br />

1987, 2000, 2008, 2009), in Banat by Motiu (2004)<br />

and in the Flood Plain of the Danube River by<br />

Şarpe and Poienaru (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008,<br />

2009). The results obtained were quite remarkable,<br />

demonstrating the economic and practical<br />

efficiency of the no-tillage system. Based on this<br />

research, many agricultural companies from<br />

Romania are currently using the no-tillage system<br />

on large surfaces. Thus, for example, the S.C. 3<br />

Brazi Agricultural Company uses the no- tillage<br />

system applied to maize, barley, wheat and<br />

soybean crops on approximately 45,000 hectares.<br />

The no-tillage system presents some other<br />

economic advantages:<br />

reduces soil erosion - there are some 4<br />

million hectares of eroded soil in Romania;<br />

1 Academy of Agricultura land Forestry Sciences<br />

2 „Ramira” Agricultural Company, Giurgiu County<br />

3 Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timişoara<br />

diminshes the number of farming machines<br />

from 10 to only 3: sowing machine,<br />

herbicide-application equipment, and<br />

harvesting combine;<br />

reduces considerably the working time-and<br />

consequently labour productivity per hectare<br />

and per ton of product increases.<br />

the most important advantage of the notillage<br />

system is the diminution of the<br />

mechanical work related expenses and the<br />

considerable increase of the PROFIT<br />

recorded by cultivated hectare.<br />

The results obtained at the "Ramira"<br />

agricultural company shall be a good example and<br />

reference for all the similar companies from the<br />

county of Giurgiu as well as for the neighbouring<br />

counties.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The research activities referred to herein<br />

were carried out at the "Ramira" Agricultural<br />

Company from the Mârşa commune, Giurgiu<br />

County, situated on a brownish-reddish in different<br />

stages of podzolization, which contains 1.5-2.0%<br />

humus, 39% clay and has a 5.5 pH. The previous

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

crops on the respective plots of land. In spring<br />

2009, certain species of annual and perennial<br />

weeds were present in both plots of land, such as<br />

Cirsium arvense and Sonchus arvensis. For the<br />

chemical control of these species, 5 days before<br />

sowing a treatment with the Roundup herbicide<br />

was applied in doses of 4 litres/ha. The maize was<br />

sowed in the interval April llth-14th, 2009,<br />

operation performed by means of a six-row<br />

Gaspardo sowing machine, Regina model whereas<br />

in the classical system sowing was performed by<br />

means of a SPC 8 Romanian sowing machine. The<br />

weather conditions were moderately favourable, as<br />

ştartinf from October 2008 and until September<br />

234<br />

2009 the totally recorded rainfall amounted to 510<br />

litres/square metre.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

In Table 1 we present the data regarding the<br />

selectivity and efficacy of herbicides as well as the<br />

grain yield. Denumirile latineşti – italic.<br />

Referinţele pentru bibliografie se vor scrie între<br />

paranteze rotunde, iar referinţele pentru figuri şi<br />

tabele între paranteze rotunde, italic. Ex: (Ionescu<br />

A., Popescu D., 2002), (fig. 1 a, b; 2 c, d), (tab. 1,<br />

2, 3).<br />

Table 1<br />

Selectivity, efficacy and grain yield recorded for the Rebera Pioneer hybrid<br />

S.C. "Ramira", Mârşa, Giurgiu County 2009-2011<br />

Dominant weed species<br />

Cirsium arvense; Sonchus arvense; Sonchus venalis; Capsella bursa pastoris; Veronica hederifolia; Echinochloa crusgalli;<br />

Chenopodium album; Polygonum aviculare; Sonchus oleraceus; Xanthium strwnarium; Solatium nigrum<br />

Herbicides applied Doses Time of Selectivity Weed<br />

Yield<br />

(1/ha) appl. (EWRS grades) control(%) kg/ha %<br />

1. Unhoed -<br />

Classical system<br />

- 1.0 0.0 800 12<br />

2. Hoed 3 times (manually and<br />

mechanically)<br />

- -<br />

No-tillage system<br />

1.0 94.0 800 100<br />

3. Untreated - - 1.0 0.0 890 12<br />

4. Merlin Duo + Ceredin Super 3.5 preem 1.0 98.0 8500 104<br />

EWRS grades 1 = Without phytotoxic symptoms<br />

9 = Totally compromised maize plants<br />

LSD: 0%= 180 kg/ha; 1 % = 230 kg/ha; 0.1 % = 310 kg/ha<br />

Analyzing the data presented in Table 1, we<br />

shall notice that the Pioneer Rebera hybrid tolerated<br />

very well the Merlin Duo and Ceredin Super<br />

herbicides. As regards the weed control in the<br />

classical system in a separate 10 hectare-plot, by 3<br />

mechanical hoeing runs and 3 manual hoeing runs, a<br />

94% weed control level was achieved. In the notillage<br />

system, where the Merlin Duo herbicide was<br />

applied in doses of 3.5 1/ha after sowing, and the<br />

Ceredin Super in a dose of 1 1/ha in the vegetation<br />

stage, when the maize plants had 3-5 leaves, the<br />

level of weed control amounting to 98%.<br />

A grain yield of 8.200 kg/ha was recorded in<br />

the.-conventional system and respectively of 8.500<br />

kg/ha in the no-tillage system, so the grain yields<br />

recorded in the two systems were practically equal.<br />

As regards the un-hoed variant in the conventional<br />

system, the grain yield was very small, that is only<br />

800 kg/ha, and in the no-tillage system it was 890<br />

kg/ha. However, there were big differences in<br />

terms of fuel consumption, as it stands out from<br />

Table 2.<br />

Table 2<br />

Fuel consumption in litres/hectare "Ramira" Agricultural Company, Mârşa commune, Giurgiu County, 2009 -2011<br />

CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM Consump. NO-TILLAGE SYSTEM Mechanical works Consump.<br />

Mechanical and manual works (litres/ha)<br />

(litres/ha)<br />

1. Autumn ploughing + harrowing 30.0 1. - -<br />

2. Teramix 8.0 2. - -<br />

3. Combinator 7.0 3.- -<br />

4. Sowing by SPC-8 6.0 4. Sowed by Gaspardo, Regina 7.0<br />

5. I st mechanical hoeing 4.0 5. Appl. of herbicides before sprouting 1.5<br />

6. 1 nd manual hoeing - 6. - -<br />

7. 2 nd mechanical hoeing 4.0 7. Appl. of herbicides on vegetation 1.5<br />

8. 2 nd manual hoeing – 8.- -<br />

9. 3 rd mechanical hoeing 4.0 9.- -<br />

10. 3 rd manual hoeing _ 10.- -<br />

11. Harvesting by Claas combine 15.8 15.0<br />

TOTAL CONSUMPTION 78.0 TOTAL CONSUMPTION 25.0

As illustrated by the table above, the fuel<br />

consumption in the conventional system from the<br />

maize sowing to the maiaze harvesting stage<br />

amounted to 78 litres of Diesel fuel, while in the<br />

no-tillage system it was of only 25 litres per<br />

235<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

hectare. Big differences were also recorded as<br />

regards the expenses incurred with the mechanical<br />

works in the two systems, conventional and notillage,<br />

as illustrated by Table 3 below.<br />

Table 3<br />

Cost of maize cultivation mechanical and manual works "Ramira" Aaricucltural ComDanv. Marsa Commune.<br />

Giureiu Countv. 2009-2011<br />

CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM Mechanical Cost (RON/ha) NO-TILLAGE SYSTEM Mechanical works Cost<br />

and manual works<br />

(RON/ha)<br />

1. Autumn ploughing + harrowing 270 1.- -<br />

2. Teramix 90 2.- -<br />

3. Combinator 40 3. - -<br />

4. Sowing by SPC-8 60 4. Sowed by Gaspardo, Regina 70<br />

5.1 st mechanical hoeing 170 5. Appl. of herbicides before sprouting 120<br />

6. 1 st manual hoeing 360 6.- -<br />

7. 2 nd mechanical hoeing 170 7. Appl. of herbicides on vegetation 120<br />

8. 2 nd manual hoeing 360 8.- -<br />

9. 3 rd mechanical hoeing 170 9.- -<br />

10. 3 rd manual hoeing 360 10.- -<br />

11. Harvesting by Claas combine 300 300<br />

TOTAL RON 2,350 TOTAL RON 610<br />

According to the data presented in Table 3<br />

above, maize cultivation costs from the ploughing<br />

to the harvesting stage amounted to RON 2,350 in<br />

the conventional system and to only RON 610 in<br />

the no-tillage system.<br />

The most important results from a costefficiency<br />

perspective are the ones presented in<br />

Table 4, in which we analysed the profit of a<br />

hectare of maize cultivated in the conventional and<br />

respectively no-tillage system.<br />

Table 4<br />

Profit in ron-hectare of maize cultivation in the conventional and no-tillage systems "Ramira" Agricultural<br />

Company, Marsa Commune, Giurgiu County, 2009-2011<br />

Maize yield (kg/ha) Maize cost (RON/kg) Maize value (RON/ha) Cost of materials and<br />

mechanical works/1 ha<br />

PROFIT in RON for 1<br />

maize crop hectare<br />

CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM<br />

4,000 0.54 2,000 3,480 -1,480<br />

4,500 0.54 2,250 3,480 -1,230<br />

5,000 0.54 2,500 3,480 -980<br />

5,500 0.54 2,750 3,480 -730<br />

6,000 0.54 3,000 3,480 -480<br />

6,500 0.54 3,250 3,480 -230<br />

7,000 0.54 3,500 3,480 +20<br />

NO-TILLAGE SYSTEM<br />

4,000 0,54 2,000 1,610 + 390<br />

4,500 0,50 2,250 1,610 + 640<br />

5,000 0,54 2,500 1,610 + 870<br />

5,500 0,54 2,750 1,610 + 1,140<br />

6,000 0,54 3,000 1,610 + 1,390<br />

6,500 0,54 3,250 1,610 + 1,640<br />

7,000 0,54 3,500 1,610 1,830<br />

Note: The price of maize franco-warehouse is ranged between RON 0.495 and RON 0.595 per kg (an jwerage of RON<br />

0.545/kg). Agricultural Profit, issue No. 33 of September 2009<br />

Based on the relevant results obtained at the<br />

"Ramira" Agricultural Company we have<br />

elaborated the following Strategy for the control of<br />

annual and perennial weeds.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

This strategy is valid only for the farmers<br />

which use the no-tillage system and cultivate<br />

various types of maize hybrids. In spring, time will<br />

be allowed to annual and perennial weeds such as<br />

Cirsium arvense, Sonchus arvensis, Taraxacum<br />

officinale affinale and Convulvulus arvensis to<br />

spring in mass. The plot must be then treated by<br />

glyphosate-based herbicides such as Roundup,<br />

Cosmic, Dacglisat 50WL6, Dominator, Gallup,<br />

Glialua 36 CE, Glisocig 360, Glifotim, Elyfas,<br />

Glyphogan 480, Glyphostock Kawasate,<br />

Sanglypho and Rocco. All these herbicides contain<br />

360 g/1 glyphosate active substance.<br />

Glyphosate-based herbicides must be<br />

applied 1-7 days before the maize is sowed or

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

within 5 days after it has been sowed in a dose of<br />

4.5-6.0 litres per hectare. Application of<br />

glyphosate-based herbicide is strictly forbidden<br />

after the maize has sprung, because the crop will<br />

be "burnt" by these herbicides.<br />

One of the following herbicides shall be<br />

applied together (tankmix) with the glyphosatebased<br />

herbicides:<br />

Merlin Duo in a dose of 3-5 litres/ha<br />

Gardoprim Plus Gold 500 SC in a dose of 5-<br />

7 litres/ha<br />

Dual Gold 960 EC in a dose of 2-3 litres/ha<br />

Frontier Forte in a dose of 2-3 litres/ha<br />

Proponit 720 EC in a dose of 4-5 litres/ha<br />

After the maize has sprung, when plants<br />

have 3-5 or maximum 7 leaves and the annual and<br />

perennial weeds are 5-10 cm tall and even 15-20<br />

cm tall, the Ceredin j Super in a dose of 11/ha shall<br />

be applied - this herbicide being able to destroy<br />

over : 700 species of annual and perennial<br />

dicotyledonous weed species which infest maize<br />

crops from Romania and Europe.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

1. Derpsch R., 2001. Conservation tillage, no-tillage<br />

and related technologies. World Congress on<br />

Conservation Agriculture (pp. 161-170).<br />

2. Koller R., 1997. Optimieruhg von ssiver Ritungen<br />

fur die Directsaat von Getreide. International<br />

Symposium Soil Tillage Alternatives. University of<br />

Agricultural J Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,<br />

Cluj-Napoca (pp. 107-114).<br />

3. Philips S.N., Young H.M., 1973. No-tillage<br />

Farming. Publish Remain Associated Inc.,<br />

Milwakee, Visconsin (pp. 1-124).<br />

4. N. Şarpe, 1968. Cercetări privind cultura<br />

porumbului fără arătură. Revista "Ferma şi<br />

întreprinderea Agricolă de Stat", Bucureşti (pp. 5-<br />

7).<br />

5. Şarpe N., 1984. Perspectiva sistemului no-tillage<br />

pentru agricultura României şi strategiile de<br />

combatere chimică a buruienilor. National<br />

Symposium of Herbology, . Bucharest (pp. 123-<br />

144).<br />

6. Şarpe N., 1986. Cercetări privind cultivarea<br />

porumbului în sistem minimum şi zero- tillage şi<br />

unele modificări fizico-chimice ale cernoziomului<br />

cambic de la Fundulea după 18 ani de<br />

monocultură. In "Probleme de agro-fitotehnie<br />

236<br />

teoretică şi aplicativă", Voi. VIII (I), Fundulea (pp.<br />

31-50).<br />

7. Şarpe N., Monica Andru, D. Motiu, 2000. Efficacy<br />

of various herbicides when applied in no-tillage<br />

maize and spring barley in Romania. 52nd<br />

International Symposyum on Crop Protection,<br />

Med. Fac. Landth, Gent University, Belgium (pp.<br />

99-166).<br />

10. Şarpe N., 2004. Primele rezultate cu sistemul notillage<br />

la cultura porumbului în condiţiile din<br />

Lunca Dunării. Revista Agro-Tera nr. 1, Bucureşti<br />

(pp. 42-44).<br />

11. Şarpe N., Şt. Poienaru, 2004. Tehnologia<br />

culturilor agricole în sistemul minimum tillage, notillage<br />

şi strategiile de combatere chimică a<br />

buruienilor în condiţiile din România. Ed. Agro-<br />

Terra, Bucureşti (pp. 1-323).<br />

12. Şarpe N., 2004. Perspectiva sistemului no-tillage<br />

pentru agricultura României şi strategiile de<br />

combatere chimică a buruienilor. 14lh National<br />

Symposium of Herbology, Bucharest (pp. 123-<br />

144).<br />

13. Şarpe N., Şt. Poienaru, 2005. Experimental<br />

results with genetically modified soybean<br />

cultivated in the no-tillage system in the Danube<br />

Meadow - Romania. International Symposium,<br />

State Agricultural University, Chişinău (pp. 219-<br />

222).<br />

14. Poienaru Şt., N. Şarpe, M. Maschio, 2006.<br />

Economical efficiency of classical and no-tillage<br />

system at genetically modified soybean in the<br />

conditions of Romania. 58th International<br />

Symposium on Crop Protection, Biol. University<br />

Gent, Belgium (pp. 209-213).<br />

15. Şarpe N., 2007. No-tillage system for the crossbreed<br />

vineyard. Bulletin of University of<br />

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,<br />

Cluj-Napoca (pp. 44- 49).<br />

16. Şarpe N., 2008. Multiannual study of the notillage<br />

system applied to maize crops in the<br />

pedoclimatic conditions. Bulletin of University of<br />

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,<br />

Cluj-Napoca (pp. 44-49).<br />

17. Şarpe N., M. Maschio, Şt. Poienaru, 2008. New<br />

results regarding the no-tillage system applied to<br />

winter barley cultivated in the flood plain of the<br />

Danube river, Annals of the University of Craiova<br />

(pp. 511-515).<br />

18. Şarpe N., 2008. Patruzeci de ani de cercetare<br />

privind sistemul no-tillage la porumb, în condiţiile<br />

din România. Analele ICNA Fundulea, Vol.<br />

LXXVI.

Abstract<br />

237<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

TILLAGE EFFECTS ON SOIL STRUCTURE AND GRAIN YIELD OF MAIZE<br />

Denis ŢOPA 1 , Costică AILINCĂI 1 , Lucian RĂUS 1 , Mihai CARA 1 , Gerard JITĂREANU 1<br />

Email: topadennis@yahoo.com<br />

To conserve soil fertility and prevent erosion, soil management regimes based on reduced tillage are highly suited to<br />

integrated production systems. Tillage effects on soil properties are usually site specific and depend upon the interaction<br />

of soil and climatic conditions, with soil and crop management practices. Field experiment were carried out in 2010-<br />

2012 at The Experimental Farm of the Agricultural University of Iasi, in the NE of Romania (47 o 07’ N latitude,<br />

27 o 30’E longitude), on a cambic chernozem (SRTS-2003, or haplic chernozems WRB-SR, 1998), with a clay-loamy<br />

texture, 6.8 pH, 2.7% humus content and a medium level of fertilization. Long-term amount of precipitation at this site<br />

is 517.8 mm at an average air temperature of 9.4 o C. However, significant deviations from the long term average and<br />

temperature have been observed in recent years. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of tillage on soil<br />

structure and yield in the pedoclimatic conditions of the Moldavian Plain. The experimental soil tillage systems were as<br />

follows: V1 – disc harrow , V2 – paraplow, V3 – chisel plow + rotary harrow, V4 – plough at 20 cm and V5 – plough at<br />

30 cm (control variant). One of the main objectives for the soil tillage system was to create an optimal physicochemical<br />

state of the soil and to preserve this state over the whole vegetation period. Tillage systems significantly affected the<br />

maize yield. In Moldavian plain, in normally climatic conditions, the highest yield was recorded in the control<br />

treatment, plough at 30 cm and fertilized (9471 kg ha -1 ), followed by conservation tillage – chisel (9054 kg ha -1 ), but<br />

under water stress (2011-2012) we observed that the highest yields was at minimum tillage variants (chisel 3956 kg ha -<br />

1 , paraplow 3918 kg ha -1 ).<br />

Key words: conservative tillage, water stable aggregates, maize yield<br />

Agricultural tillage practices have changed<br />

in Romania over decades. Soil conservation tillage,<br />

which intend to leave residues on the soil surface<br />

and may include reduced till (using disks or chisel<br />

plough, for example) or no-till, has become a<br />

popular practice recently in Romania.<br />

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most widely<br />

grown cereal in the world. It is the third most<br />

important and highest industrial valued cereal in<br />

the world after wheat and rice.<br />

Tillage effects on soil properties are usually<br />

site specific and depend upon the interaction of soil<br />

and climatic conditions, with soil and crop<br />

management practices. Soil management regimes<br />

based on conservation tillage (no till and reduced<br />

tillage) are highly suited to integrated production<br />

systems in order to conserve soil fertility and<br />

prevent compaction and soil erosion. In the scope<br />

of the increasing concern for soil conservation,<br />

reduced tillage (RT) agriculture is growing more<br />

important in today’s agriculture in Europe.<br />

Soil compaction in agriculture and is of<br />

growing concern. In order to maintain soil<br />

functions on a sustainable basis, strategies against<br />

further compaction are necessary. The<br />

governments and administrations in several<br />

countries recently started to react on the problem<br />

of soil compaction.<br />

One of the most important negative<br />

consequences of modern agricultural production is<br />

probably the soil physical degradation resulting in<br />

erosion and soil compaction, which is attributed to<br />

deep and intensive tillage practices (Esteve et al.,<br />

2004; Bronick and Lal, 2005; Hamza and<br />

Anderson, 2005).<br />

Compaction causes deterioration of soil<br />

physical properties, evidenced by increasing the<br />

bulk density, penetration resistance, high specific<br />

resistance to soil tillage operations and reduced<br />

porosity, soil structure stability, with direct impact<br />

on yield, fuel consumption and production costs<br />

(Jităreanu G., 2005, Rusu T. et al., 2006, Dexter<br />

A.R. 2004, Botta et al., 2007, 2008).<br />

1 „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” - University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine IAŞI

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Field experiment were carried out since 2006,<br />

at The Experimental Farm of the Agricultural<br />

University of Iasi, in the NE of Romania (47 o 07’ N<br />

latitude, 27 o 30’E longitude), on a cambic chernozem<br />

(SRTS-2003, or haplic chernozems WRB-SR, 1998),<br />

with a clay-loamy texture, 6.8 pH, 2.7% humus<br />

content and a medium level of fertilization, at an<br />

altitude of 125 m above sea level. Long-term amount<br />

of precipitation at this site is 517.8 mm at an average<br />

air temperature of 9.4 o C. However, significant<br />

deviations from the long term average and<br />

temperature have been observed in recent years.<br />

In this paper, we investigate the effect of<br />

conventional and conservation tillage intensity on<br />

water stable aggregates and maize yield on 2011 and<br />

2012.<br />

The experimental soil tillage systems were as<br />

follows: V 1 – disc harrow , V 2 – paraplow, V 3 – chisel<br />

plow + rotary harrow, V 4 – plough at 20 cm and V 5 –<br />

plough at 30 cm (control variant).<br />

Treatments were arranged in a “split plot”<br />

design with three replicates. All subplots were<br />

separated by a 1-m buffer zone. Plots covered an<br />

area of 60 m 2 with a rotation of soybean - winter<br />

wheat – maize, with the current experiment in maize<br />

(Zea Mays). Pioneer PR38V91 (Pioneer Hi-Bred<br />

Seeds Romania) was planted at 60.000 seeds ha -1<br />

and 0.7 m row spacing using a SPC 6 vacuum<br />

planter. Appropriate herbicides were used to control<br />

weeds as needed, and no disease or insect pest<br />

controls were utilized<br />

The experimental maize plots were comprised<br />

of 2 rows, 10 m long, chosen from the middle and<br />

were harvested by a Wintersteiger Delta<br />

(Wintersteiger AG, Ried, Austria) combine, of 2 m<br />

work width. The yields and the quality characteristics<br />

of maize are reported at standardized moistures,<br />

15.5%.<br />

The grain yield components (1000 grain<br />

weight, test weight and seeds humidity) were<br />

determined by harvesting 30 plants, chosen<br />

randomly, from each plot.<br />

The soil aggregate stability was assessed in<br />

each plot through the measurements of the water<br />

stability of 1–2 mm diameter aggregates (WSA 1–2mm),<br />

since such aggregates are sensitive to short term<br />

management of soils (Kemper and Rosenau, 1986).<br />

Replicate 4 g samples of soil aggregates per subplot<br />

were moistened with deionised water by capillary<br />

action for 10 min. Water stability of aggregates was<br />

then measured using the wet sieving method<br />

described by Kemper and Rosenau (1986). The initial<br />

and final weights of aggregates were corrected for the<br />

weight of coarse particles using the formula: final<br />

weight = initial weight _ coarse particles weight.<br />

Coarse particles were fraction of soil contained in the<br />

last sieve of the manipulation. The WSA 1–2mm was<br />

calculated by weighting the mass of soil aggregates<br />

remaining after wet sieving and expressed as a<br />

percentage of the total mass of aggregates at the<br />

beginning of the experiment.<br />

The ANOVA procedure was used to evaluate<br />

the significance for the split plot design in three<br />

replicates. Treatment means were separated by the<br />

least significance difference (LSD) test and all<br />

238<br />

significant differences were reported at 5%, 1% and<br />

0.1% levels.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Cultivation can alter the physical, chemical,<br />

and biological properties of the soil, whereby plant<br />

growth, development, and yield are influenced.<br />

The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of<br />

tillage on water stable aggregates (WSA) and<br />

yield. Wet aggregate stability suggests how well a<br />

soil can resist raindrop impact and water erosion.<br />

Table 1<br />

The influence of “tillage systems x nutrients level”<br />

interaction on yield<br />

Treatment Grain yield (kg ha -1 )<br />

Tillage<br />

Fertilization<br />

level<br />

2011 2012<br />

Disc<br />

harrow<br />

Paraplow<br />

Chisel<br />

Plough<br />

20 cm<br />

Plough<br />

30 cm<br />

N80P80 6287 (ooo) 2580 ns<br />

N0P0 4955 (ooo) 2056 (oo)<br />

N80P80 8535 (ooo) 3918 (xxx)<br />

N0P0 5987 (ooo) 2578 ns<br />

N80P80 9054 (o) 3956 (xxx)<br />

N0P0 6322 (ooo) 2786 (xxx)<br />

N80P80 8387 (ooo) 2639 (x)<br />

N0P0 5544 (ooo) 1986 (ooo)<br />

N80P80 control 9471 2387<br />

N0P0 6587 (ooo) 1723 (ooo)<br />

DL5% = 322.4<br />

DL1% = 442.2<br />

DL0.1 = 601.9<br />

DL5% = 194.2<br />

DL1% = 266.3<br />

DL0.1 = 362.4<br />

Continuous ploughing at the same depth<br />

leads to the formation of a hard pan in the lower<br />

layers over a period of time (Aggarwal et al., 1995;<br />

Kukal and Aggarwal, 2003), which hinders the<br />

deeper penetration of roots into soil and a direct<br />

negative influence on yield.<br />

Climatic conditions and tillage systems,<br />

which influenced the grain yield, affected similarly<br />

the 1000-grain weight and test weight.<br />

In 2011, in normal climatic conditions, the<br />

highest yield was determined in control variant,<br />

plough at 30 cm and fertilized (9471 kg ha -1 ). The<br />

conservative variant chisel N80P80 recorded 9054<br />

kg ha -1 , representing 95.6% from the yield of the<br />

control treatment (table 1).<br />

Analyzing 2012, the yield of field crops is<br />

negatively affected of the lack of rainfall and<br />

extended droughts during the vegetation period but<br />

we can see how in these conditions the<br />

conservative tillage may influence positively the<br />

yield, proved to be in a very significant positive<br />

correlation, exception is the disc variant. The grain<br />

yields ranged on fertilized variants from 2580 kg<br />

ha -1 on disc to 3956 kg ha -1 on chisel.

As shown in Table 2, on unfertilized maize<br />

(N0P0), the mean values of 1000 grain weight<br />

ranged in 2011 between 294 g for the disc harrow<br />

treatment to a maximum of 325 g for the control<br />

(plowed at 30 cm). Tillage systems affected<br />

thousand kernels weight (g) very significantly on<br />

all variants accept chisel and paraplow on N80P80.<br />

Test weight (kg hl‾¹) was also significantly<br />

influenced by years and by tillage system (table 2).<br />

The highest average value of this trait was<br />

recorded in 2012 (73 kg hl‾¹), on chisel. Analyzing<br />

the values from 2012 we can see that only the<br />

paraplow N0P0 has a significant negative<br />

difference.<br />

The WSA is influenced by soil management<br />

practices such as zero-tillage, minimum tillage,<br />

conventional tillage, use of ploughs and harrows<br />

and cropping sequences.<br />

The mean values of WSA recorded during<br />

2010-2012, reveal positive statistically significant<br />

differences between chisel, paraplow variants and<br />

the control treatment (plough at 30 cm) (figure 1).<br />

The lowest water stability under<br />

conventional tillage compared to all treatments<br />

with less tillage intensity can be associated with<br />

239<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 2<br />

The influence of “tillage systems x nutrients level” interaction on 1000-grain weight and<br />

Test weight at maize crop<br />

Treatment 1000-grain weight (g) Test weight (kg hl -1 )<br />

Tillage Fertilization level 2011 2012 2011 2012<br />

Disc harrow<br />

Paraplow<br />

Chisel<br />

Plough 20 cm<br />

Plough 30 cm<br />

74.10%<br />

78.10%<br />

*<br />

N80P80 311 (ooo) 165 (ooo) 68 (ooo) 73 ns<br />

N0P0 294 (ooo) 153 (ooo) 64 (ooo) 70 ns<br />

N80P80 323 ns 173 ns 71 (ooo) 73 ns<br />

N0P0 303 (ooo) 153 (ooo) 69 (ooo) 68 (o)<br />

N80P80 323 ns 179 ns 72 (o) 73 ns<br />

N0P0 310 (ooo) 155 (ooo) 71 (ooo) 70 ns<br />

N80P80 319 (ooo) 173 ns 72 (o) 73 ns<br />

N0P0 308 (ooo) 153 (ooo) 70 (ooo) 70 ns<br />

N80P80 (control) 325 175 74 72<br />

N0P0 308 (ooo) 150 (ooo) 71 (ooo) 69 ns<br />

78.6%<br />

*<br />

74.30%<br />

DL5% = 2.3<br />

DL1% = 3.2<br />

DL0.1 = 4.4<br />

75.90%<br />

Disc harrow Paraplow Chisel Plough 20 cm Plough 30 cm<br />

(control)<br />

Figure 1 - The influence of tillage systems on WSA at<br />

harvesting on 0-30 cm – mean values 2010-2012<br />

DL5% = 4.1<br />

DL1% = 5.6<br />

DL0.1 = 7.6<br />

DL5% = 1.5<br />

DL1% = 2.1<br />

DL0.1 = 2.9<br />

loose particle-to-particle associations (Kemper et<br />

al., 1987)<br />

The higher percent of stable aggregates<br />

contribute to bigger inter-aggregate porosity at the<br />

surface of the soil and infiltration, preventing the<br />

onset of runoff (Rhoton et al., 2002).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Tillage systems have significant effect on<br />

the physical properties of soil and our results<br />

confirmed the hypothesis that reduced tillage<br />

would improve soil structure.<br />

Analyzing the result we observed that in<br />

drought conditions over 2011-2012 the yield is<br />

significant lower compared with 2010-2011 on all<br />

variants of tillage. Droughts caused a lack of<br />

balance between evapo-transpiration and soil water<br />

absorption, and this stress reduces the yield and its<br />

quality. Also has been observed that in 2011-2012,<br />

the RT, chisel and paraplow, had slightly higher<br />

yield compared with control treatment, plough at<br />

30 cm and N80P80.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

“This work was co financed from the European Social<br />

Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme<br />

Human Resource Development 2007-2013,<br />

project number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371<br />

“Postdoctoral School in Agriculture and<br />

Veterinary Medicine area”.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

DL5% = 3.5<br />

DL1% = 4.8<br />

DL0.1 = 6.6<br />

Aggarwal, G.C.. Sidhu, A.S., Sekhon, N.K., Sandhu,<br />

K.S.. Sur., H.S.. 1995. Puddling and N<br />

management effects on crop response in a rice–<br />

wheat cropping system. Soil Till. Res. 36. 129–<br />

139.<br />

Blake, G.R., Hartge. K.H., 1986. Bulk density In Klute A.<br />

(Ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Agronomy

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

second ed. American Society of Agronomy.<br />

Madison, WI. USA. pp. 363–375.<br />

Botta, G., Pozzolo, O., Bomben, M., Rosatto, H.,<br />

Rivero, D., Ressia, M., Tourn,M., Soza, E.,<br />

Vazquez, J., 2007. Traffic alternatives in harvest<br />

of soybean (Glycine max L.): effect on yields and<br />

soil under direct sowing system. Soil Till. Res. 96,<br />

145–154.<br />

Bronick, C.J., Lal, R., 2005. Soil structure and<br />

management: a review. Geoderma 124, 3–22<br />

Dexter A.R., 2004 – Soil physical quality: Part I. Theory,<br />

effects of soil texture, density, and organic matter<br />

and effects on root growth. Geoderma, vol. 120,<br />

issuse 3-4, pag. 201-214.<br />

Esteve, J.F., Imeson, A., Jarman, R., Barberis, R.,<br />

Rydell, B., Sanchez, V.C., Vandekerckhove, L.,<br />

2004. Pressures and drivers causing soil erosion.<br />

In: Van-Camp. L., Bujarrabal, B., Gentile, A.-R.,<br />

Jones, R.J.A., Montanarella, L., Olazabal, C.,<br />

Selvaradjou, S.-K. (Eds.), Reports of the<br />

Technical Working Groups Established under the<br />

Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection, EUR 21319<br />

EN/2, Office for Official Publications of the<br />

European Communities, Luxembourg, pp. 133–<br />

149.<br />

Hamza, M.A., Anderson, W.K., 2005. Soil compaction<br />

in cropping systems review of the nature, causes<br />

240<br />

and possible solutions. Soil Till. Res. 82, 121–<br />

148.<br />

Jităreanu G., Bucur D., 2005. Study on the possibilities<br />

of water and soil conservation on arable lands in<br />

the hilly area of the Moldavian Plain (North-<br />

Eastern of Romania), ISTRO International<br />

Conference, Mendel University of Agriculture and<br />

Forestry Brno, Czech Republic, 191 - 196, ISBN<br />

80-86908-01-1.<br />

Kemper W.D., Rosenau R.C., and Dexter A.R., 1987.<br />

Cohesion development in disrupted soils as<br />

affected by clay and organic matter content and<br />

temperature. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 51, 860-867.<br />

Kukal, S.S., Aggarwal, G.C., 2003. Puddling depth and<br />

intensity effects in rice–wheat system on a sandy<br />

loam soil. I. Development of subsurface<br />

compaction. Soil Till. Res. 72. 1–8.<br />

Rhoton F.E., Shipitalo M.J., and Lindbo D.L., 2002.<br />

Runoff and soil loss from midwestern and<br />

southeastern US silt loam soils as affected by<br />

tillage practice and soil organic matter content.<br />

Soil.Till.Res.,66,1-11.<br />

Rusu, T., P.Guş, Ileana Bogdan, I.Oroian, Laura<br />

Paulette, 2006, Influence of minimum tillage<br />

systems on physical and chemical properties of<br />

soil. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment,<br />

vol. 4(3-4/2006), p. 262-265, ISSN: 1459-0255.

241<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INFLUENCE OF AQUASORB AND DIFFERENT SOIL TILLAGE SYSTEMS<br />

ON SOIL MICROBIAL POPULATIONS IN FIELDS CULTIVATED WITH<br />

SOYBEAN (GLYCINE MAX MERR.)<br />

Abstract<br />

Eugen ULEA 1 , Florin Daniel LIPŞA 1 , Evelina Cristina MORARI 1 , Daniel GALEŞ 1 , Irina<br />

Paraschiva CHIRIAC 1<br />

e-mail: eulea@uaiasi.ro<br />

Aquasorb 3005 is a hydrophilic polymer (copolymer of acrylamide and potassium acrylate) that, when incorporated into<br />

a soil, improve water conservation through increasing of water retains capacity, reducing of infiltration rate and<br />

cumulative evaporation. This anionic polyacrylamide polymer works in absorbtion-release water cycles and has the<br />

property of absorbing up to 500 times their weight in distilled water. Researches were carried out on soybean (Glycine<br />

max Merr.) field trials located in the south region of Moldavian plain (Ezareni Farm), studying the effects of polymer<br />

quantity ha -1 , polymer administration moment and soil tillage systems on soil population. In this study we aimed to<br />

evaluate the influence of the hydrophilic polymer (Aquasorb) on existing microbial population in soil (Gram positive<br />

bacteria, Gram negative bacteria, micromycetes) establishing their participation ratio, the main fungus genres which<br />

activate in soil and their activity level for each variant. The results illustrate the influence of Aquasorb and soil tillage<br />

systems on the dinamic of microorganisms population, on the relationship between the main groups (bacteria and<br />

fungi), and on the micromycetes spectrum determined in each variant of our experiment.<br />

Key words: Aquasorb, soil population, soil tillage system, soybean (Glycine max Merr.)<br />

Aquasorb 3005 is a hydrophilic polymer<br />

(copolymer of acrylamide and potassium acrylate)<br />

that, when incorporated into a soil, improve water<br />

conservation through increasing of water retains<br />

capacity, reducing of infiltration rate and<br />

cumulative evaporation. This anionic<br />

polyacrylamide polymer works in absorbtionrelease<br />

water cycles and has the property of<br />

absorbing up to 500 times their weight in distilled<br />

water.<br />

Hydrophilic polymers are uded in<br />

agriculture from 1950. Anter and DeBoodt (1976)<br />

reported that polymers encouraged the uptake of<br />

nutrient elements by plants. Wallace and Wallace<br />

(1986) stated that the polymers improved the soil<br />

characteristics. The hydrogel provides a range of<br />

environmental benefits. Thus, decreases erosion,<br />

reducing sediment and nutrient losses and absorb<br />

the nutrients to gradually release them , depending<br />

on plant requirements. Hydrogel promotes soil<br />

colonization with bacteria and mycorrhiza. The<br />

influence of hydrogels depends on soil structure,<br />

the concentration of salts and fertilizers, and the<br />

type of plant cultivated (Peterson, 2009).<br />

Hayat and Rifat (2004) reported that in arid<br />

and semiarid areas, Aquasorb was effective in<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

increasing the water retention capacity, reducing<br />

the infiltration rate and cumulative evaporation and<br />

improving water conservation.<br />

In this study we aimed to evaluate the<br />

influence of the hydrophilic polymer (Aquasorb)<br />

on existing microbial population in soil (Gram<br />

positive bacteria, Gram negative bacteria,<br />

micromycetes) establishing their participation<br />

ratio, the main fungus genres which activate in soil<br />

and their activity level for each variant.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The trial was conducted with soybean (Glycine<br />

max Merr.) grown on a 2-3% slope field from the<br />

Ezăreni Farm, which belongs to the University of<br />

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi.<br />

Soil is a clayey loam cambic chernozem, weakly<br />

degraded, with pH comprised between 6.7 and 6.8,<br />

humus content 2.73- 2.93%, 51-55 ppm P 2O 5, 314-<br />

336 ppm K 2O and 184-187 ppm CaO. The area is<br />

characterized by mean annual temperatures of 9.6 o C,<br />

annual rainfall of 517.8 mm and air relative humidity<br />

of 69%. From the physical-geographical viewpoint,<br />

this territory is found in the Southern area of the<br />

Moldavian Plain, which is named the Lower Jijia Plain<br />

and the Bahlui Plain, being situated in the South-<br />

Western extremity of this natural zone.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Researches were carried out on soybean<br />

(Glycine max Merr.) field trials located in the south<br />

region of Moldavian plain (Ezareni Farm), studying<br />

the effects of polymer quantity ha -1 , polymer<br />

administration moment and soil tillage systems on soil<br />

population.<br />

A dose of 15 kg/ha Aquasorb in A2 and A4<br />

variants and 30 kg/ha Aquasorb in A3 and A5<br />

variants, which are compared with the control variant<br />

A1 were applied. The polymer was incorporated on a<br />

half of the experimental plot (5x10 m - 50 m 2 ) using<br />

rotary harrow before sowing (A2 and A3) and on the<br />

other half of the experimental plot with plough after<br />

plant harvest (A4 and A5).<br />

For determining the number of microorganisms<br />

per 1 g soil, we have used the culture method in Petri<br />

dishes. Soil samples were gathered in paper bags, by<br />

means of a metallic spatula and the used material<br />

was previously sterilized. Soil was sampled at 10 cm<br />

depth and then samples were processed by grinding<br />

and homogenization in a sterile mortar. Soil dilutions<br />

were prepared according to the method of successive<br />

dilutions and sowing was done in Petri dishes, by the<br />

incorporation in medium.<br />

For an easy identification of colonies, we have<br />

used different culture mediums, specific to each<br />

systematic group. Thus, for determining the total<br />

number of microorganisms, we have used the simple<br />

PDA (potato-dextrose-agar) medium, for determining<br />

the number of Gram-positive bacteria (G+), we have<br />

used the PDA with streptomycin (35 ppm) medium<br />

and for determining the number of micromycetes, we<br />

have used the PDA with rose bengal (33 ppm)<br />

medium (Constantinescu, 1974).<br />

Sowing was done by introducing an ml of<br />

dilution in each Petri dish with melted and cooled<br />

medium at 45°C. The sown dishes were incubated in<br />

a thermostat at 28°C. The number of bacterial<br />

colonies was determined at 24 hours and the fungus<br />

colonies at 5 days; counting was done by naked eye,<br />

using a marker. At high densities, the Wolfhügel plate<br />

was used (Larpent et al., 1990).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The populations of soil fungi and bacteria<br />

were affected by treatment with Aquasorb. The<br />

analysis of the total number of microorganisms in<br />

the sampling soils, before (the control soils) and<br />

after herbicide application, shown significant<br />

increases of soil biological activity in all variants<br />

were hydrogel was applied.<br />

Aquasorb applications show an increase of<br />

microbial population for both doses and soil tillage<br />

system.<br />

The greatest number of microorganisms/g<br />

soil was determined in case of sample taken from<br />

the application area with 15 kg/ha Aquasorb<br />

incorporated with plough (23.8 x 10 4 cells per one<br />

gram dry weight of soil). For other variants with<br />

Aquasorb the number of microorganism ranged<br />

from 8.6 x 10 4 (A2) to 16.1 x 10 4 (A5) cells per<br />

one gram dry weight of soil. In case of control soil<br />

242<br />

sample (A1) the biological activity was the lowest<br />

with only 7.6 x 10 4 cells per one gram dry weight<br />

of soil.<br />

Analyzing the ratio between the main groups<br />

of microorganisms found in the soil occupied by<br />

soybean, we found significant differences among<br />

all variants where Aquasorb was applied.<br />

The best represented microorganism group<br />

for all variants with exception of the control is that<br />

of Gram-positive bacteria (G+).<br />

In case of all variants were the hydrogel<br />

was applied, G+ bacteria represent between 48.1<br />

and 66.8% from total number of microorganism.<br />

Interesting was the observation that in the soil<br />

sample from the control plot the number of G-<br />

bacteria was bigger that number of G+ bacteria<br />

(53.1 vs. 36.1).<br />

This can be explained through the<br />

influence of Aquasorb polymers, which when<br />

incorporated into a soil, improve water<br />

conservation through increasing of water retains<br />

capacity and absorb the nutrients to gradually<br />

release them, depending on plant requirements.<br />

The numbers of micromycetes go lower as<br />

the control sample only in case of A4 (4.4%). The<br />

results show that ratios ranged from initially 10.8<br />

until 16.6% (Figure 1).<br />

Figure 1 Main groups of microorganisms/g soils for<br />

each experimented variant (%)<br />

The high rate of soil bacteria in all variants<br />

may be explained by their competition against<br />

microfungi as concerns some nutrients (Ulea et al.,<br />

2002; Wood, 1989).<br />

The investigations conducted on the<br />

frequency and spectrum of micromycetes genera<br />

shown different values depending of Aquasorbe<br />

rates and tillage systems.<br />

In case of control variant we noticed the<br />

following six fungus genera: Fusarium,<br />

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Alternaria<br />

and Mycelia sterilia. The best represented fungal<br />

genus was Fusarium with 33.3% (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Micromycetes genera isolated from soybean<br />

field for control variant<br />

For minimum tillage system (with rotary<br />

harrow - A2 and A3) the number of isolated fungus<br />

genera was equal and identical in case of both<br />

variants. Most isolated species belonging to eight<br />

micromycetes genera (Penicillium, Fusarium,<br />

Trichoderma, Alernaria, Mycelia sterilia,<br />

Verticillium, Aspergillus and Mucor).<br />

Among the determined micromycetes in all<br />

the studied variants, we pointed out Penicillium<br />

genus, which was isolated at a rate comprised<br />

between 24.6 and 50.0% of the total identified<br />

genera (Figure 3).<br />

Figure 3 Micromycetes genera isolated from soybean<br />

field where for minimum tillage system<br />

Also, in case of conventional system (with<br />

plough - A4 and A5) we noticed that the greatest<br />

number of isolated fungus genera was in case of<br />

variant when Aquasorbe was applied in dosage of<br />

30 kg/ha ( A5 - ten genera) followed by the variant<br />

with 15 kg/ha (A4 - eight genera). The best<br />

represented fungus genera were in all variants<br />

Penicillium (26.2-36.6%), Fusarium (31.0-35.2%),<br />

Aspergillus and Trichoderma. In very small ratios<br />

243<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

and only in case of A5 were present the following<br />

micromycetes genera: Sepedonicum and Mucor.<br />

Figure 4 Micromycetes genera isolated from soybean<br />

field where for conventional system<br />

The investigations conducted on the<br />

frequency of micromycetes genera have shown an<br />

increasing number in the presence of Aquasorbe.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Our observation on the total number of<br />

microorganisms/g in the sampling soils shown<br />

significant increases of soil biological activity in<br />

all variants were Aquasorbe was applied.<br />

Between the analyzed variants the highest<br />

microbial activity was recorded in the sampling<br />

soils collected from soybean (Glycine max Merr.)<br />

variant where 15 kg/ha Aquasorb were<br />

incorporated with plough (23.8 x 10 4 cells per one<br />

gram dry weight of soil - A4).<br />

The biological soil activity in other three<br />

trials (A2, A3 and A5) was lower compared to the<br />

A4 variant, but higher that in the control variant.<br />

In all the studied variants, from all the<br />

isolated micromycetes genera, Penicillium spp. has<br />

the highest frequency; it was followed by,<br />

Fusarium, Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Alternaria,<br />

Rhizopus, Verticillium and Mycelia sterilia.<br />

In very small ratios were isolated the<br />

following micromycetes genera: Sepedonicus and<br />

Mucor.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Anter, F. and M. De Boodt, 1976 - Preliminary results<br />

on the direct effect of conditioners on plant<br />

growth and nutrient uptake. Med. Fac.<br />

Landbouww Rijksuni Gent., 41: 287–92<br />

Constantinescu Ovidiu, 1974 - Metode şi tehnici în<br />

micologie (Methods and techniques in mycology),<br />

Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Eliade G., Ghinea L., Ştefanic G., 1975 - Microbiologia<br />

solului (Soil microbiology), Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

microbiological characteristics of high-producing<br />

pastoral soil, Biology and Fertility of Soils 6, p.<br />

328-335.<br />

Larpent J.P., Larpent-Gourgand M., 1990 - Mémento<br />

technique de Microbiologie, Lavoisier, Paris.<br />

Rifat Hayat and Safdar Ali, 2004. Water absorbtion by<br />

synthetic polimer (Aquasorb) and its effect on soil<br />

244<br />

properties and tomato yield. International Journal<br />

of Agriculture & Biology, 06-6-998-1002. ISSN<br />

1560-8530<br />

Sawicka A., Skrzypczak G., Blecharczyk A., 1996 –<br />

Influence of imazethapyr and linuron on soil<br />

microorganisms under legume crops.<br />

Proceedings of the Second International Weed<br />

Control Congress. Copenhagen, vol. 1: 361-365<br />

Ulea E., Ilisescu Isabela, Zaharia M., 2002 – Influenţa<br />

unor erbicide asupra echilibrului microbiologic din<br />

sol, Lucr. şt., seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 45,<br />

U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 90-96.<br />

Wallace, A. and G.A. Wallace, 1986 - Effects of very<br />

low rates of synthetic soil conditioners on soils.<br />

Soil Sci., 141: 324–327.<br />

Wallace, A., 1986 - A polyacrylamide (guar) as a soil<br />

conditioner. Soil Sci.,141: 371–373.

245<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INFLUENCE OF AQUASORB AND DIFFERENT SOIL TILLAGE SYSTEMS<br />

ON SOIL MICROORGANISMS IN FIELDS CULTIVATED WITH MAIZE<br />

Abstract<br />

Eugen ULEA 1 , Florin Daniel LIPŞA 1 , Evelina Cristina MORARI 1 , Daniel GALEŞ 1 , Mihaela<br />

Andreea BĂLĂU 1<br />

e-mail: eulea@uaiasi.ro<br />

Aquasorb, a hydrophilic polymer (a salt copolymer polyacrylamide), works in absorption-release water cycles and has<br />

the property to increase the water holding capacity of soils for several years. The trial was conducted with maize (Zea<br />

mays L.) grown on a 2-3% slope field from the Ezăreni Farm, which belongs to USAMV Iaşi, studying the effects of<br />

polymer quantity ha -1 , polymer administration moment and soil tillage systems on soil population. The objectives of this<br />

research were to isolate and quantify the existing microbial population in soil (Gram positive bacteria, Gram negative<br />

bacteria, micromycetes) establishing their participation ratio, the main fungus genres which activate in soil and their<br />

activity level for each variant. The results illustrate the influence of Aquasorb and soil tillage systems on the dinamic of<br />

microorganisms population, on the relationship between the main groups (bacteria and fungi), and on the micromycetes<br />

spectrum determined in each variant of our experiment.<br />

Key words: Aquasorb, soil population, soil tillage system, maize (Zea mays L.)<br />

Aquasorb, a hydrophilic polymer (a salt<br />

copolymer polyacrylamide), works in absorptionrelease<br />

water cycles and has the property to<br />

increase the water holding capacity of soils for<br />

several years. Aquasorb promotes soil colonization<br />

with bacteria and mycorrhiza, but influence of<br />

hydrogels depends on soil structure, the<br />

concentration of salts and fertilizers, and the type<br />

of plant cultivated (Eliade et al. 1975, Anter et al<br />

1976).<br />

In Romania, a major part from the 9.4<br />

million hectares of arable land (64% of agricultural<br />

area) are more or less affected by long droughts<br />

periods and in consecutive years.<br />

Water is quantitatively important for the<br />

agricultural production and for effective<br />

capitalization of water resources usage of<br />

hydrophilic polymers in agriculture is very<br />

important. Sharma (2004) reported that plants<br />

cultivated on soils treated with hydrogel have more<br />

water available and for a longer period of time, in<br />

comparacy with irrigated control groups.<br />

The objectives of this research were to<br />

isolate and quantify the existing microbial<br />

population in soil (Gram positive bacteria, Gram<br />

negative bacteria, micromycetes) establishing their<br />

participation ratio, the main fungus genres which<br />

activate in soil and their activity level for each<br />

variant.<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The trial was conducted with maize (Zea mays<br />

L.) grown on a 2-3% slope field from the Ezăreni<br />

Farm, which belongs to the University of Agricultural<br />

Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi. Soil is a<br />

clayey loam cambic chernozem, weakly degraded,<br />

with pH comprised between 6.7 and 6.8, humus<br />

content 2.73- 2.93%, 51-55 ppm P 2O 5, 314-336 ppm<br />

K 2O and 184-187 ppm CaO. The area is<br />

characterized by mean annual temperatures of 9.6 o C,<br />

annual rainfall of 517.8 mm and air relative humidity<br />

of 69%. From the physical-geographical viewpoint,<br />

this territory is found in the Southern area of the<br />

Moldavian Plain, which is named the Lower Jijia Plain<br />

and the Bahlui Plain, being situated in the South-<br />

Western extremity of this natural zone.<br />

Researches were carried out on maize (Zea<br />

mays L.) field trials located in the south region of<br />

Moldavian plain (Ezareni Farm), studying the effects<br />

of polymer quantity ha -1 , polymer administration<br />

moment and soil tillage systems on soil population.<br />

A dose of 15 kg/ha Aquasorb in A2 and A4<br />

variants and 30 kg/ha Aquasorb in A3 and A5<br />

variants, which are compared with the control variant<br />

A1 were applied. The polymer was incorporated on a<br />

half of the experimental plot (5x10 m - 50 m 2 ) using<br />

rotary harrow before sowing (A2 and A3) and on the<br />

other half of the experimental plot with plough after<br />

plant harvest (A4 and A5).<br />

The culture technology has been specific for<br />

mayze (PR38A24 hybrid). Fertilizers were given in a

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

dose of 60 kg/ha P 2O 5 + 40 kg/ha N before the<br />

seedbed preparation and 20 kg/ha N in vegetation at<br />

first mechanical take, for corn culture. The seedbed<br />

was prepared on the day of sowing, using the<br />

combinator and the sown was carried out with SPC4-<br />

FS + U650.<br />

For determining the number of microorganisms<br />

per 1 g soil, we have used the culture method in Petri<br />

dishes. Soil samples were gathered in paper bags, by<br />

means of a metallic spatula and the used material<br />

was previously sterilized. Soil was sampled at 10 cm<br />

depth and then samples were processed by grinding<br />

and homogenization in a sterile mortar. Soil dilutions<br />

were prepared according to the method of successive<br />

dilutions and sowing was done in Petri dishes, by the<br />

incorporation in medium.<br />

For an easy identification of colonies, we have<br />

used different culture mediums, specific to each<br />

systematic group. Thus, for determining the total<br />

number of microorganisms, we have used the simple<br />

PDA (potato-dextrose-agar) medium, for determining<br />

the number of Gram-positive bacteria (G+), we have<br />

used the PDA with streptomycin (35 ppm) medium<br />

and for determining the number of micromycetes, we<br />

have used the PDA with rose bengal (33 ppm)<br />

medium (Constantinescu, 1974).<br />

Sowing was done by introducing an ml of<br />

dilution in each Petri dish with melted and cooled<br />

medium at 45°C. The sown dishes were incubated in<br />

a thermostat at 28°C. The number of bacterial<br />

colonies was determined at 24 hours and the fungus<br />

colonies at 5 days; counting was done by naked eye,<br />

using a marker. At high densities, the Wolfhügel plate<br />

was used (Larpent et al., 1990).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The populations of soil fungi and bacteria<br />

were affected by treatment with Aquasorb. The<br />

analysis of the total number of microorganisms<br />

in the sampling soils, before (the control soils) and<br />

after herbicide application, shown significant<br />

increases of soil biological activity in<br />

all variants were hydrogel was applied.<br />

A close examination of the biological<br />

activity from rhizosphere of maize (Zea mays L.)<br />

after Aquasorb applications show an increase of<br />

microbial population for both doses and soil tillage<br />

system. Also, a great variability on soil<br />

microorganism activity and structure of microbial<br />

populations was observed.<br />

The greatest number of microorganisms/g<br />

soil was determined in case of sample taken from<br />

the application area with 15 kg/ha Aquasorb<br />

incorporated with rotary harrow (39.3 x 10 4 cells<br />

per one gram dry weight of soil). For other variants<br />

with Aquasorb the number of microorganism<br />

ranged from 24.3 x 10 4 (A4) to 36.4 x 10 4 (A3)<br />

cells per one gram dry weight of soil. In case of<br />

control soil sample (A1) the biological activity was<br />

246<br />

the lowest with only 16.8 x 10 4 cells per one gram<br />

dry weight of soil.<br />

This fact can be explained through the<br />

influence of Aquasorb polymers, which improve<br />

water conservation on soil and create better<br />

condition for soil populations.<br />

Analyzing the ratio between the main groups<br />

of microorganisms found in the soil occupied by<br />

maize, we found significant differences among all<br />

variants where Aquasorb was applied.<br />

The best represented microorganism group<br />

for all variants with exception of the control is that<br />

of Gram-positive bacteria (G+).<br />

In case of all variants were the hydrogel<br />

was applied, G+ bacteria represent between 70.0<br />

and 78.7% from total number of microorganism.<br />

G+ bacteria were also the best represented group of<br />

microorganism in case of control plot classical, but<br />

their percentage was only 57.3%.<br />

The selection was made on basis of<br />

biochemical proprieties of the radicular secretion<br />

via elimination of the genera that could not use<br />

them for their vital processes.<br />

The numbers of micromycetes go lower as<br />

the control sample in all variants with exception of<br />

A5 (4.3%). The results show that ratios ranged<br />

from initially 3.7 until 4.3% (Figure 1).<br />

Figure 1 Main groups of microorganisms/g soils for<br />

each experimented variant (%)<br />

The high rate of soil bacteria in all variants<br />

may be explained by their competition against<br />

microfungi as concerns some nutrients (Ulea et al.<br />

2002).<br />

The investigations conducted on the<br />

frequency and spectrum of micromycetes genera<br />

shown different values depending of Aquasorbe<br />

rates and tillage systems.<br />

In case of control variant (A1) the<br />

identification of micromycetes from the<br />

rhizosphere area of maize we noticed the following<br />

seven fungus genera: Aspergillus, Fusarium,<br />

Alternaria, Trichoderma, Penicillium,<br />

Cladosporium and Rhizopus. The ratio between

these groups is very different, with Aspergillus<br />

spp. as dominant genus with 36.0% (Figure 2).<br />

Figure 2 Micromycetes genera isolated from maize<br />

field for control variant<br />

In case of minimum tillage system (with<br />

rotary harrow - A2 and A3) the number of fungal<br />

genera ranged between 5 (A2) and 7 (A3). The best<br />

represented fungal genus was Aspergillus with<br />

aproximatively 45%. The other genera Fusarium,<br />

Penicillium, Trichoderma, Alternaria, Rhizopus<br />

and Cladosporium, cumulate together 55% from<br />

all fungi (Figure 3).<br />

Figure 3 Micromycetes genera isolated from maize<br />

field where for minimum tillage system<br />

Also, in case of conventional system (with<br />

plough - A4 and A5) we noticed that the greatest<br />

number of isolated fungus genera was in case of<br />

variant when Aquasorbe was applied in dosage of<br />

15 kg/ha ( A5 - eight genera) followed by the<br />

variant with 30 kg/ha (A4 - six genera). Among the<br />

determined micromycetes, we pointed out<br />

Aspergillus and Fusarium genera, which were<br />

isolated at rates comprised between 43.8-71.2%<br />

and 11.5-15.6%of the total identified genera. In<br />

247<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

small ratios and only in case of A5 were present<br />

the following micromycetes genera: Rhizopus and<br />

Mucor (Figure 4).<br />

Figure 4 Micromycetes genera isolated from maize<br />

field where for conventional system<br />

The investigations conducted on the<br />

frequency of micromycetes genera have shown an<br />

increasing number in the presence of Aquasorbe.<br />

Most isolated species in all variants belong<br />

to the following micromycetes genera: Aspergillus,<br />

Fusarium, Penicillium and Trichoderma.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Our observation on the total number of<br />

microorganisms/g in the sampling soils shown<br />

significant increases of soil biological activity in<br />

all variants were Aquasorbe was applied.<br />

Between the analyzed variants the highest<br />

microbial activity was recorded in the sampling<br />

soils collected from maize (Zea mays L.) variant<br />

where 15 kg/ha Aquasorb were incorporated with<br />

rotary harrow (39.3 x 10 4 cells per one gram dry<br />

weight of soil - A2).<br />

The biological soil activity in other three<br />

trials (A3, A4 and A5) was lower compared to the<br />

A2 variant, but higher that in the control variant.<br />

In all the studied variants, from all the<br />

isolated micromycetes genera, Aspergillus spp. has<br />

the highest frequency; it was followed by,<br />

Fusarium, Trichoderma, Alternaria, Penicillium<br />

Rhizopus,Cladosporium and Mucor.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Anter, F. and M. De Boodt, 1976 - Preliminary results<br />

on the direct effect of conditioners on plant<br />

growth and nutrient uptake. Med. Fac.<br />

Landbouww Rijksuni Gent., 41: 287–92.<br />

Constantinescu Ovidiu, 1974 - Metode şi tehnici în<br />

micologie (Methods and techniques in mycology),<br />

Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Eliade G., Ghinea L., Ştefanic G., 1975 - Microbiologia<br />

solului (Soil microbiology), Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

microbiological characteristics of high-producing<br />

pastoral soil, Biology and Fertility of Soils 6, p.<br />

328-335.<br />

Larpent J.P., Larpent-Gourgand M., 1990 - Mémento<br />

technique de Microbiologie, Lavoisier, Paris.<br />

Rifat Hayat and Safdar Ali, 2004. Water absorbtion by<br />

synthetic polimer (Aquasorb) and its effect on soil<br />

properties and tomato yield. International Journal<br />

248<br />

of Agriculture & Biology, 06-6-998-1002. ISSN<br />

1560-8530<br />

Sharma J., 2004. Establishment of perennials in<br />

hydrophilic polymer-amended soil. SNA Res.<br />

Conf., 42, 530-532.<br />

Sawicka A., Skrzypczak G., Blecharczyk A., 1996 –<br />

Influence of imazethapyr and linuron on soil<br />

microorganisms under legume crops.<br />

Proceedings of the Second International Weed<br />

Control Congress. Copenhagen, vol. 1: 361-365<br />

Ulea E., Ilisescu Isabela, Zaharia M., 2002 – Influenţa<br />

unor erbicide asupra echilibrului microbiologic din<br />

sol, Lucr. şt., seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 45,<br />

U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 90-96.<br />

Wallace, A. and G.A. Wallace, 1986 - Effects of very<br />

low rates of synthetic soil conditioners on soils.<br />

Soil Sci., 141: 324–327.<br />

Wallace, A., 1986 - A polyacrylamide (guar) as a soil<br />

conditioner. Soil Sci.,141: 371–373.

Abstract<br />

249<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INCIDENCE OF MAJOR GRAPEVINE FUNGAL DISEASES DURING 2012<br />

IN AMPELOGRAPHIC COLLECTION OF USAMV IAŞI<br />

Florin Daniel LIPŞA 1 , Eugen ULEA 1 , Nicoleta IRIMIA 1<br />

e-mail: flipsa@uaiasi.ro<br />

Downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola Berk. & Curt.), powdery mildew (Uncinula necator Schw.) and gray mould<br />

(Botrytis cinerea Pers.) are the most ubiquitously damaging disease of grapevines worldwide, reducing yield, vine<br />

growth and fruit quality. The mildew and powdery mildew attack all aerial parts of grapevine plants, while grape gray<br />

mould is frequently encountered on the mature berries, close to harvest. Incidence of the most important vineyard<br />

diseases was investigated in ampelographic collection belonging to Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine<br />

University (USAMV) from Iaşi (SE Romania) in 2012. Biological material was represented by different grapevine<br />

varieties, both table and wine grapes varieties. The field observations were correlated with yearly phenological and<br />

ecological elements witch lead to prognoses and control of main fungal pathogen. Depending on degree of attack<br />

recorded for each cultivar the resistance or sensibility of analyzed cultivars (by OIV 1983) was established. The grape<br />

varieties taken in study showed different reactions under the same environmental conditions, materialized by different<br />

attack degrees of grapevine mildew, powdery mildew and grape gray mould. The aim of this study was to determine the<br />

presence and distribution of the most important vineyard diseases across the ampelographic collection of USAMV Iaşi<br />

(SE Romania) in 2012.<br />

Key words: grapevine, fungal pathogens, ampelographic collection<br />

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the<br />

oldest and economically most important cultivated<br />

plants of the world. Vineyards are covering 7.2<br />

million hectares worldwide, and 52.2% from this<br />

area is in Europe (FAOSTAT, 2012). Grapevines<br />

are threatened by biotic (viruses, bacteria, fungi,<br />

phytoplasmas and insects) and abiotic stresses<br />

(drought, winter cold, etc.).<br />

Downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola Berk.<br />

& Curt.), powdery mildew (Uncinula necator<br />

Schw.) and gray mould (Botrytis cinerea Pers.) are<br />

the most ubiquitously damaging disease of<br />

grapevines worldwide, reducing yield, vine growth<br />

and fruit quality. The mildew and powdery mildew<br />

attack all aerial parts of grapevine plants, while<br />

grape gray mould is frequently encountered on the<br />

mature berries, close to harvest.<br />

Downy mildew symptoms appear as<br />

yellowish, oily lesions on leaf surface and causes<br />

leaf abscission, resulting in overall vigor reduction,<br />

winter injury or even death of susceptible vines<br />

(Wan et al., 2007). Symptoms of powdery mildew<br />

appear as irregular chlorosis of gray-white with<br />

white powder on the leaf surface, and as black net<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

lines with white powder on berry, stalk and tendril<br />

surface. Powdery mildew retards the development<br />

of berries and causes berry crack, resulting in loss<br />

of berry quality and grape production (Wan et al.,<br />

2007). Gray mould can attack berries, shoots and<br />

leaves. It causes pre- and postharvest decay of<br />

grapes during cold storage. It is the most<br />

economically important postharvest disease of<br />

table grapes (Cappellini et al., 1986). Fungal<br />

pathogens damage fruit and wine quality, so that<br />

phytochemicals are used commonly in vineyards to<br />

prevent and limit pathogen infections. The aim of<br />

this study was to determine the presence and<br />

distribution of the most important vineyard<br />

diseases across the ampelographic collection of<br />

USAMV Iaşi (SE Romania) in 2012.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Incidence of the most important vineyard<br />

diseases (powdery mildew, downy mildew and<br />

gray mold) was investigated in ampelographic<br />

collection (154 grapevine varieties) belonging to<br />

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine<br />

University (USAMV) from Iaşi (SE Romania) during

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

2012. Frequency (F%), intensity (I%) and attack<br />

level (GA%) for existing grapevine varieties were<br />

determined. In case of downy mildew and powdery<br />

mildew observations were pursued on both, leaves<br />

and grapes.Fungal diseases were scored<br />

repeatedly during growing seasons according to<br />

criteria of the “Office International de la Vigne et du<br />

Vin” (OIV, 1983). Susceptibility or resistance to P.<br />

viticola, U. necator and B. cinerea were evaluated<br />

separately on leaves (not for B. cinerea) and<br />

berries and classified according to the OIV Scale<br />

(1 = high sensitivity; 9 = high resistance).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Registered climatic conditions showed, that<br />

2012 can be characterized as a very dried year,<br />

with high temperature and very low precipitation<br />

quantities. Observations have showed that<br />

incidence of each pathogen was influenced by<br />

climatic conditions and their biological reserve.<br />

Following the occurrence and evolution of<br />

250<br />

pathogens, it is noted that in 2012 were present:<br />

downy mildew – Plasmopara viticola, powdery<br />

mildew – Uncinula necator and grape gray mould<br />

– Botrytis cinerea. Also, the presence of Grapevine<br />

fanleaf virus and Flavescence dorée phytoplasma<br />

was confirmed by serological method ELISA<br />

(Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay).<br />

In figure 1 the fungal pathogen Plasmopara<br />

viticola because of climatic condition registered<br />

lower frequency values in 2012 on table and wine<br />

grape varieties at leaves level. Varieties Afuz Ali,<br />

Agostenga, Cetăţuia and Princess showed<br />

appropriate values, with a frequency above 20%.<br />

In 2012 all other grape varieties from<br />

ampelographic collection showed no downy<br />

mildew symptoms om leaves. From wine varieties<br />

Riesling italian and Blauerzweigelt were the most<br />

affected cultivars. Riesling italian detached from<br />

others varieties and registered 19% attack level in<br />

2012.<br />

Figure 1 Incidence of downy mildew on leaves from table and wine grape varieties in 2012.<br />

Regarding the attack frequency on berries,<br />

table grape genotypes showed different frequency<br />

values, with maximum degree of attack 37% in<br />

case of Ceauş genotype (Figure 2). In wine<br />

varieties situation of fungal presence was almost<br />

the same. Blauerzweigelt, Armaş, and Riesling<br />

Italian showed the higher values of pathogen<br />

attack.<br />

Figure 2 Incidence of downy mildew on berries from table and wine grape varieties in 2012.<br />

In 2012 fungal pathogen Uncinula necator<br />

on leaves and berries was observed with higher<br />

frequency on both, table and wine grapes varieties<br />

(Figure 3). These high frequency values can be<br />

explained with climatic data: high temperature and<br />

low precipitation quantities. In 2012 incidence of<br />

powdery mildew with values above 50% were<br />

registered in case of Cetăţuia, Chasselas roz<br />

Napoca, Silvania, Timpuriu de Cluj and<br />

Transilvania from table and wine grapes varieties

251<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 3 Incidence of powdery mildew on leaves from table and wine grape varieties in 2012.<br />

Berries attack on table grape varieties as<br />

Cetăţuia, Napoca, Silvania and Transilvania<br />

recorded frequency values exceeding 60% in 2012<br />

and will be registered as very sensitive on this<br />

fungal pathogen. In 2012 all other grape varieties<br />

from ampelographic collection showed no<br />

powdery mildew symptoms. In case of wine<br />

varieties Fetească regală recorded the highest<br />

attack values (Figure 4).<br />

Figure 4 Incidence of powdery mildew on berries from table and wine grape varieties in 2012.<br />

Figure 5 present the frequency of fungal<br />

pathogen Botritys cinerea on grapevine berries, in<br />

2012. Chasselas doreé, Perlă de Csaba and Cinsaut<br />

varieties recorded higher frequency values in 2012.<br />

Regarding wine varieties the most sensitive<br />

cultivars are Galbenă de Odobeşti, Fetească regală,<br />

Chardonnay and Armaş.<br />

Figure 5 Incidence of gray mould on berries from table and wine grape varieties in 2012.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Obtained results have showed that<br />

incidence of each pathogen was influenced by<br />

climatic conditions and their biological reserve.<br />

Plasmopara viticola registered lower<br />

frequency values in 2012 compared to other years<br />

on table and wine grape varieties at leaves level.<br />

Sensitive varieties were Afuz Ali, Agostenga,<br />

Cetăţuia and Princess, with expression 4 and 5<br />

according to the OIV code 455. Regarding the<br />

attack frequency on berries, table grape genotypes<br />

with very low resistance were Ceauş and Princess<br />

with expression 2 according to OIV code 456.<br />

Uncinula necator attack on bunches<br />

showed very low resistance for both type of<br />

varieties, with expression 2 according to the OIV<br />

code 456 on Cetăţuia, Napoca, Silvania and<br />

Transilvania.<br />

In case of fungal pathogen Botritys cinerea<br />

the most sensitive cultivars are Perlă de Csaba and<br />

Chasselas doreé.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This work was cofinanced from the European Social<br />

Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-2013,<br />

project number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371<br />

,,Postdoctoral Schole in Agriculture and<br />

Veterinary Medicine area”.<br />

252<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bulletin de l’oiv, 1983. Descriptor list for grapevine<br />

varieties. OIV Paris, pp 135.<br />

Cappellini, R.A., Ceponis, M.J., Lightner, G.W., 1986.<br />

Disorders in table grape shipments to the New<br />

York market, 1972-1984. Plant Dis. 70, 1075–<br />

1079.<br />

Hewitt, W.B., Pearson, R.C. 1988. Downy mildew. In:<br />

Compendium of grape diseases. R. C. Pearson<br />

and A. C. Goheen, Eds. American<br />

Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN. pp 11-<br />

13.<br />

Staudt, G. 1997. Evaluation of resistance to grapevine<br />

powdery mildew (Uncinula necator (Schw.) Burr.,<br />

anamorph Oidium tuckeri Berk.) in genotypes of<br />

Vitis species. Vitis 36, 151-154.<br />

Wan, Y.Z., Schwaninger, H., He, P.C., Wang, Y.J.<br />

2007. Comparison of resistance to powdery<br />

mildew and downy mildew in Chinese wild<br />

grapes. Vitis 46, 132-136.

Abstract<br />

253<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EFFECT OF LIGNOHUMATE (HUMIC FERTILIZER)<br />

ON SOIL MICROORGANISMS<br />

Florin Daniel LIPŞA 1 , Eugen ULEA 1 , Evelina Cristina MORARI 1 , Daniel GALEŞ 1 ,<br />

Iulian Constantin ARSENE 1<br />

e-mail: flipsa@uaiasi.ro<br />

Lignohumate is a humic fertilizer obtained through oxidation/hydrolytic destruction of lignin-containing raw materials<br />

as brown coal and peat. This compound contains both macro- and microelements, and can be applied in combination<br />

with other fertilizers or plant protection products as growth stimulant agent. The objectives of these trials were to<br />

evaluate the influence of Lignohumate on soil microorganism activity (Gram positive bacteria, Gram negative bacteria<br />

and micromycetes) and structure of microbial populations in case of two species: maize (Zea mays L.) and soybean<br />

(Glycine max Merr.). In addition to the basic fertilization on maize, Lignohumate was applied in two steps: as treatment<br />

of seed (100 g t -1 ) and in combination with herbicide (60 g ha -1 ) at 3-4 leaf stage. In case of soybean, seeds were treated<br />

with 100 g t -1 Lignohumate and second treatment was applied before flowering time (60 g ha -1 ). The obtained results<br />

show that Lignohumate concentration stimulates growth and development of microfungi and bacteria in case of maize<br />

(Zea mays L.) with 54.8% and 39.0%, respectively. In case of soybean (Glycine max Merr.) the procentual growth was<br />

146.0% for microfungi and 25.4% for bacteria.<br />

Key words: Lignohumate, structure of microbial populations, soybean, maize<br />

Lignohumate is a humic fertilizer obtained<br />

through oxidation/hydrolytic destruction of lignincontaining<br />

raw materials as brown coal and peat.<br />

This compound contains both macro- and<br />

microelements (sodium, potassium, calcium,<br />

sulphur, silicon, magnesium, iron, copper,<br />

manganese), and can be applied in combination<br />

with other fertilizers or plant protection products as<br />

growth stimulant agent.<br />

Lignohumate applied at the foliar level leads<br />

to improved foliar nutrition of the plants, increases<br />

production, quality, capacity and energy for seed<br />

germination. In addition, it prevents stress<br />

generated by the treatment with pesticides, frost or<br />

drought effect on plants, improving growth, plant<br />

development and reducing the vegetation period.<br />

Tugarinov et al. demonstrated that<br />

Lignohumate promotes growth and development of<br />

numerous groups of bacteria, such as<br />

Pseudomonas, Agrobacterium, Flavobacterium,<br />

Bacillus and Arthrobacter. In minor concentrations<br />

stimulates, particularly nitrogen-fixing bacteria.<br />

Highly-concentrated Lignohumate may inhibit<br />

growth of some bacteria species and act as a<br />

preserving agent.<br />

The objectives of these trials were to<br />

evaluate the influence of Lignohumate on soil<br />

microorganism activity (Gram positive bacteria,<br />

Gram negative bacteria and micromycetes) and<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

structure of microbial populations in case of two<br />

species: maize (Zea mays L.) and soybean (Glycine<br />

max Merr.).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The trial was conducted with soybean<br />

(Glycine max Merr.) and maize (Zea mays L.)<br />

grown on a 2-3% slope field from the Ezăreni<br />

Farm, which belongs to the University of<br />

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,<br />

Iaşi. Soil is a clayey loam cambic chernozem,<br />

weakly degraded, with pH comprised between 6.7<br />

and 6.8, humus content 2.73- 2.93%, 51-55 ppm<br />

P2O5, 314-336 ppm K2O and 184-187 ppm CaO.<br />

The area is characterized by mean annual<br />

temperatures of 9.6 o C, annual rainfall of 517.8 mm<br />

and air relative humidity of 69%. From the<br />

physical-geographical viewpoint, this territory is<br />

found in the Southern area of the Moldavian Plain,<br />

which is named the Lower Jijia Plain and the<br />

Bahlui Plain, being situated in the South-Western<br />

extremity of this natural zone.<br />

To assess the effect on soil microflora in<br />

case of maize (Zea mays L.) and soybean (Glycine<br />

max Merr.), Lignohumate was applied in addition to<br />

the basic fertilization. In case of maize, was<br />

applied in two steps: as treatment of seed (100 g t -<br />

1 ) and in combination with herbicide (60 g ha -1 ) at<br />

3-4 leaf stage (V2P). In case of soybean (V2S),<br />

seeds were treated with 100 g t -1 Lignohumate and

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

second treatment was applied before flowering<br />

time (60 g ha -1 ). Non-treated plots were<br />

used as a blank (V1P, V1S).<br />

Soil sample were collected for each<br />

cultivated species four weeks after second<br />

treatment. For determining the number of<br />

microorganisms per 1 g soil, we have used the<br />

culture method in Petri dishes. Soil samples were<br />

gathered in paper bags, by means of a metallic<br />

spatula and the used material was previously<br />

sterilized. Soil was sampled at 10 cm depth and<br />

then samples were processed by grinding and<br />

homogenization in a sterile mortar. Soil dilutions<br />

were prepared according to the method of<br />

successive dilutions and sowing was done in Petri<br />

dishes, by the incorporation in medium.<br />

For an easy identification of colonies, we<br />

have used different culture mediums, specific to<br />

each systematic group. Thus, for determining the<br />

total number of microorganisms, we have used the<br />

simple PDA (potato-dextrose-agar) medium, for<br />

determining the number of Gram-positive bacteria<br />

(G+), we have used the PDA with streptomycin (35<br />

ppm) medium and for determining the number of<br />

micromycetes, we have used the PDA with rose<br />

bengal (33 ppm) medium (Constantinescu, 1974).<br />

Sowing was done by introducing an ml of<br />

dilution in each Petri dish with melted and cooled<br />

medium at 45°C. The sown dishes were incubated<br />

in a thermostat at 28°C. The number of bacterial<br />

colonies was determined at 24 hours and the<br />

fungus colonies at 5 days; counting was done by<br />

naked eye, using a marker. At high densities, the<br />

Wolfhügel plate was used (Larpent et al., 1990).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The analysis of soil microflora in collected<br />

soil samples shown significant increases of soil<br />

biological activity in both variants were<br />

Lignohumate was applied.<br />

A close examination of the biological<br />

activity from rhizosphere of maize (Zea mays L.)<br />

and soybean (Glycine max Merr.) show a great<br />

variability on soil microorganism activity and<br />

structure of microbial populations.<br />

It should be noticed that the structure of<br />

microbial populations was different; thus, fungi<br />

from soybean treated with Lignohumate (V2S)<br />

represent 5.9% and overcome the untreated area<br />

(3.1%). Among bacteria, the G - species overcome<br />

the G + species with 76.4% to 17.7% in case of V2S<br />

and with 75.0% to 21.9% in case of V1S.<br />

In maize (Zea mays L.) cultivated soils with<br />

Lignohumate (V2P), the number of G - bacteria<br />

increased from 64.9 to 75.7%, because of their<br />

ability to metabolize the herbicide and his major<br />

metabolites. The number of G + bacteria decreased<br />

from 31.8 to 20.6%. Micromycetes were present in<br />

range from 3.4 to 3.7% (Figure 1).<br />

254<br />

Figure 1 Main groups of microorganisms/g soils for<br />

each experimented variant (%)<br />

The results interpretation about the<br />

biological activity on soybean (Glycine max Merr.)<br />

rhizosphere soils show that the microbial activity is<br />

more intense than of maize (Zea mays L.), and<br />

even when compared to the blanck, represented by<br />

non-treated soil specimen.<br />

In case of soybean, the greatest number of<br />

microorganisms/g soil was determined in case of<br />

sample taken from the application area with<br />

Lignohumate (V2S) in compare to the blank<br />

variant (V1S). In case of variant with Lignohumate<br />

the number of microorganisms were 52.5 x 10 4<br />

cells per one gram dry weight of soil in compares<br />

to 40.7 x 10 4 determined on blank soil sample. The<br />

same aspect appears in the case of fungi where the<br />

biological activity was three times bigger than the<br />

control sample.<br />

The total number of microorganisms<br />

determined in maize rhizosphere ranged from<br />

31.3 x 10 4 (blank soil sample - V1P) to 43.6 x 10 4<br />

cells per one gram dry weight of soil (area treated<br />

with Lignohumate - V2P).<br />

As noted in our experiment, and many other<br />

studies (Atlas et al., Lewis et al. 1978, Ulea et al.<br />

2002), soil microorganisms generally react to<br />

xenobiotic substances by increasing their biomass<br />

and activity, although inhibitory effects have also<br />

been noted (Sawicka et al. 1996, Schuster et al.<br />

1990).<br />

We noticed that the number of isolated<br />

fungus genera in the all observed variants were not<br />

identical. The isolated species belonging to ten<br />

micromycetes genera: Aspergillus, Fusarium<br />

Penicillium, Trichoderma, Rhizopus, Humicola<br />

Cladosporium, Alternaria, Acremonium, and<br />

Nigrospora. Among the determined micromycetes<br />

in all the studied variants, we pointed out<br />

Aspergillus genus, which was isolated at a rate<br />

comprised between 22.0 and 61.8% of the total<br />

identified genera.<br />

The identification of fungi genera which<br />

activates in the rhizosphere area of soybean shows

a relative small number of genera before<br />

Lignohumate application: Aspergillus, Fusarium<br />

Penicillium, Trichoderma, Rhizopus and<br />

Alternaria. After application of the humic fertilizer<br />

the number o genera increased with two:<br />

Cladosporium and Nigrospora.<br />

However, the ratio between these groups is<br />

very different, with Aspergillus, Fusarium and<br />

Penicillium as dominant genera in both cases (V1S<br />

and V2S) with approximatively 84.0% from all<br />

fungi (Figure 2).<br />

Figure 2 Micromycetes genera isolated from soybean<br />

field for each variant (V1S and V2S).<br />

At maize treated with Lignohumate (Zea<br />

mays L.) the synthesis of results shows a fungal<br />

activity less intense than that of soybean, but<br />

greater than that of the control soil sample. Thus,<br />

the total number of fungi determined in the<br />

rhizosphere area was 1.6 x 10 4 cells per one gram<br />

dry weight of soil compared with 1.0 x 10 4 cells<br />

per one gram dry weight of soil founded in case of<br />

control sample.<br />

The greatest number of fungal genera (eight)<br />

was determined in case of sample taken from the<br />

application area without Lignohumate (V1P). For<br />

the other variant (V2P) the number of fungi genera<br />

was almost equal (seven), but some lower in<br />

compare to the first variant (Figure 3).<br />

The ratio between the variants with or<br />

without humic fertilizer is more equilibrated<br />

compared to soybean, with an advantage for<br />

Aspergillus spp. (47.7 vs. 38.1%) followed by the<br />

255<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

genera Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma,<br />

Rhizopus and Alternaria (Figure 3).<br />

Figure 3 Micromycetes genera isolated from maize<br />

field for each variant (V1P and V2P).<br />

The identification of fungi genera which<br />

activates in the rhizosphere area of maize without<br />

Lignohmate treatment shows a different spectrum<br />

of genera compares with the treated variant. In<br />

very small ratios were present the following<br />

micromycetes genera: Acremonium and Humicola<br />

(both 0.5%).<br />

In generally, the investigations conducted on<br />

the frequency of micromycetes genera have shown<br />

an increasing number in the presence of<br />

Lignohumate.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Our observation on the total number of<br />

microorganisms/g in the sampling soils shown<br />

significant increases of soil biological activity in<br />

all variants were Lignohumate was applied.<br />

Between the analyzed variants the highest<br />

microbial activity was recorded in the sampling<br />

soils collected from soybean (Glycine max Merr.)<br />

variant were the humic fertilizer was applied<br />

(V2S).<br />

The biological soil activity in other three<br />

trials (V1P, V2P and V1S) was lower compared to<br />

the V2S variant.<br />

In all the studied variants, from all the<br />

isolated micromycetes genera, Aspergillus spp. has<br />

the highest frequency; it was followed by,

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Alternaria,<br />

Rhizopus and Nigrospora.<br />

In very small ratios and only in the<br />

rhizosphere area of maize without Lignohmate<br />

treatments (V1P) were isolated the following<br />

micromycetes genera: Acremonium and Humicola.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Atlas R. M., Pramer D., Bartha R., 1978 - Assessment<br />

of pesticide effects on non-target soil<br />

microorganisms, Soil Biol. Biochem. 10, p. 231-<br />

239.<br />

Lewis J. A., Papavizas G.C, Hora T.S., 1978 - Effect of<br />

some herbicides on soil microflora. Soil Biol.<br />

Biochem. 10, 137-143.<br />

Constantinescu Ovidiu, 1974 - Metode şi tehnici în<br />

micologie (Methods and techniques in mycology),<br />

Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

256<br />

Eliade G., Ghinea L., Ştefanic G., 1975 - Microbiologia<br />

solului (Soil microbiology), Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

microbiological characteristics of high-producing<br />

pastoral soil, Biology and Fertility of Soils 6, p.<br />

328-335.<br />

Larpent J.P., Larpent-Gourgand M., 1990 - Mémento<br />

technique de Microbiologie, Lavoisier, Paris.<br />

Schuster E., Schroder D., 1990 - Side-effects of<br />

sequentially-applied pesticides on non-target soil<br />

microorganisms: field experiments. Soil Biol.<br />

Biochem. 22, p. 367-371.<br />

Tugarinov L. V. et al., 2009 - available<br />

from:www.amagro.com/content/file/Doklad_tug_c<br />

z. pdf.<br />

Sawicka A., Skrzypczak G., Blecharczyk A., 1996 –<br />

Influence of imazethapyr and linuron on soil<br />

microorganisms under legume crops.<br />

Proceedings of the Second International Weed<br />

Control Congress. Copenhagen, vol. 1: 361-365<br />

Ulea E., Ilisescu Isabela, Zaharia M., 2002 – Influenţa<br />

unor erbicide asupra echilibrului microbiologic din<br />

sol, Lucr. şt., seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, vol. 45,<br />

U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 90-96.

257<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

COMPOSITIONAL ASPECTS OF QUALITY WINES PRODUCED IN AVEREŞTI<br />

VINE GROWING CENTRE OF HUŞI VINEYARD, HARVEST OF 2011<br />

Abstract<br />

Gheorghe ODĂGERIU 1 , Cătălin-Ioan ZAMFIR 2 , Claudiu CREŢU 3 , Valeriu COTEA 2<br />

E-mail: odageriu@yahoo.com<br />

The purpose of this paper is to present data on the composition characteristics of quality white wines can be obtained<br />

from vine varieties commonly planted in Avereşti vine growing centre of Huşi vineyard in the new climate conditions<br />

in recent years due to global warming, that increase the amount of useful temperatures during the growing season and in<br />

the maturation of the grapes. In order to obtain wines were used Zghihară, Feteascǎ regală, Aligoté and Fetească albă<br />

grape varieties. Experiments were performed on 10 white wines produced in industrial conditions in the plant of S.C.<br />

Vinicola Avereşti 2000 S.A. Huşi. During the ripening of the grapes of 2011 weather conditions were favourable for<br />

sugars accumulations, which are sufficient to obtain quality dry, semidry and sweet white wines with designation of<br />

origin. The paper presents data of the pH value of wines based on the total acidity dependent to the tartaric, malic, citric<br />

acid, volatile acids and content of potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium cations. In all analyzed wines is<br />

observed, in general, a low pH, these showing values between 3.070 and 3.222 in dry wines, and between 3.122 and<br />

3.261 for those with residual sugar. Low values in the tartaric acid content (between 1.52 and 1.77 g/L), potassium<br />

cations (between 368 and 426 mg/L) and calcium (between 48 and 58 mg/L) at all analyzed wines, can be explained too<br />

by tartaric deposits resulting from their retention period during the 2011-2012 winter when temperatures were very low<br />

compared to the same periods in previous years. Nonreducing extract values (between 18.26 and 21.07 g/L), in<br />

correlation with alcohol concentration values (between 11.01 and 12.05 % vol.), allowed the classification of all<br />

reviewed wines in the high quality white wines category with controlled denomination of origin (DOC).<br />

Key words: wine colour, white wines, climatic conditions, composition characteristics, quality.<br />

The quality wines, which are distinguished<br />

by their accomplishments originality, to be printed<br />

on the place of production, the variety or grade of<br />

the grape varieties, of the mode of culture and of<br />

the technology used in making wine used, can be<br />

placed in category of quality wines with a<br />

controlled designation of origin - DOC (*** ,<br />

2002). In accordance with the legislation in force<br />

they must be an actual alcoholic strength of not<br />

less than 11 % in volume and come from grapes<br />

with content by sugars of not less than 187 g/L.<br />

The purpose of this work is to present data<br />

relating to the compositional characteristics of<br />

some quality white wines that may be obtained<br />

from the vine varieties grown frequently in the<br />

Avereşti wine center from the Huşi vineyard area,<br />

in the new climate conditions from the last few<br />

years as a result of global warming, that of<br />

increasing the amount of useful temperatures both<br />

during the growing season and the maturation of<br />

the grapes.<br />

1 Research Centre for Oenology – Iaşi Branch of Romanian Academy<br />

2 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi<br />

3 S.C. “Vinicola Avereşti 2000” S.A. Huşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

White wines made in this study were<br />

produced in industrial conditions in the mill of<br />

winery the S.C. "Vinicola Avereşti 2000" S.A. Huşi,<br />

using Zghihară de Huşi, Fetească regală, Aligoté<br />

and Fetească albă grape varieties, from the<br />

harvest of 2011, coming from wine growing center<br />

Avereşti (realm Fundătura, Arsura, Pâneşti) (Cotea<br />

et al. , 2000). Grapes to the 10 quality white wines<br />

(of which, 4 dry, 3 semi-dry and 3 semi-sweet)<br />

were harvested during the period 24 September to<br />

10 October 2011, at technological maturity when<br />

the compositional characteristics (sugar, acidity)<br />

were within the limits best practices, and plant<br />

health was very good. They have been crushed, by<br />

variety, and musts has been the subject intended<br />

for purification by decantation. Analyzes of the<br />

compositional characteristics (sugars, total acidity,<br />

pH, free and total sulfur dioxide) of musts were<br />

made in the winery laboratory.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Dry white wines have been obtained from<br />

specific technology for obtaining the quality white<br />

wines. Thus, fermentation mixture must-wine has<br />

been performed in stainless steel tanks with a<br />

capacity of 100 hL at a temperature of 14-18 °C.<br />

Initially, in the must has been added the sourdough<br />

of unsparkling lees, originating from the<br />

Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, at a dose of<br />

15 g/hL. Stoping alcoholic fermentation of wines<br />

obtained have been through adding by sulfur<br />

dioxide, keep them at a temperature of 10 ± 1 °C<br />

and associated treatments with bentonite and<br />

gelatin. Thus, of course, to wines obtained from the<br />

studied varieties have been used doses of 60 ÷100<br />

mg/L of sulfur dioxide, 0.7÷1.0 g/L bentonite and<br />

2÷4 g/hL gelatin. Pulling wine in winter it has been<br />

in the period 5÷10 January 2012 after which, in<br />

next period of 60 days, the wines have been<br />

maintained during winter months in cold<br />

temperatures that has been around the value of<br />

0±2 °C. Clarification of wines has been done by<br />

natural sedimentation of suspensions, for a period<br />

of 4 months.<br />

Semidry and semisweet wines were<br />

obtained through technology for obtaining the<br />

quality white wines with rest of sugars. Thus,<br />

fermentation mixture must-wine has been<br />

performed in stainless steel tanks with a capacity<br />

of 50 hL, at a temperature of 14 – 18 °C. Stoping<br />

alcoholic fermentation of wines obtained have<br />

been through adding by sulfur dioxide, keep them<br />

at a temperature of 10±1 °C and associated<br />

treatments with bentonite and gelatin. Thus, of<br />

course, to wines obtained from the studied<br />

varieties have been used doses of 120 ÷160 mg/L<br />

of sulfur dioxide, 0.7÷1.0 g/L bentonite and 2÷6<br />

g/hL gelatin. After 24 hours, the wines have been<br />

centrifuged and pulled her to tanks of storage,<br />

where they have been maintained for five months.<br />

Pulling wine in winter it has been in 2 February<br />

2012 after which, in next period of 30 days, the<br />

wines have been subjected of stabilisation<br />

treatment (refrigeration, demetalisation) and<br />

admixture of sorbic acid with in a view to bottling.<br />

258<br />

In the period 15÷30 march, samples of<br />

wines have been subjected to physico-chemical<br />

analyzes and organoleptic assessment. Analyzes<br />

of the compositional characteristics of the wine<br />

(density, alcoholic strength, total and volatile<br />

acidity, pH, tartaric, malic and citric acids, free and<br />

total sulfur dioxide, total phenolic compounds,<br />

potassium, calcium and sodium cations, ash,<br />

glycerol, reducing sugars, total dry extract) were<br />

made in the Oenology Laboratory of U.Ş.A.M.V.<br />

Iaşi, using the methods indicated in the state and<br />

international standards (*** , 1997; *** , 2005) or in<br />

the literature (Cotea et al., 2009; Ribereau-Gayon<br />

et al., 1972; Sauciuc, 1984; Ţârdea, 2007; Würdig<br />

et al., 1989).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The main features of the composition of<br />

grapes (use for producing white wines dry) to<br />

harvest are presented in table 1 (tab. 1). Grapes<br />

were harvested at technological maturity, in the<br />

period 1÷ October 10, when the status of their<br />

plant has been very good.<br />

Thus, the content in sugar of the grapes was<br />

following values: 193 g/L to Zghihară grape<br />

variety on 10 October; 197 g/L to Fetească regală<br />

variety on 5 October; 202 g/L to Aligoté variety on<br />

1 October; 207 g/L to Fetească albă variety on 9<br />

October.<br />

Titratable acidity expressed in g/L C4H6O6<br />

has had on the same dates the values: 9.28 to<br />

variety Zghihară; 9.08 to variety Fetească regală;<br />

8.65 to variety Aligoté; 8.47 to variety Fetească<br />

albă. Mass of 100 grain had values between 161g<br />

to variety Fetească albă and 221g to variety<br />

Zghihară, pH values were of 3,112 from Zghihară<br />

grape variety, 3,194 from Fetească regală grape<br />

variety, 3,252 from Aligoté grape variety and<br />

3,294 to Fetească albă grape variety.<br />

Table 1<br />

The main features of the composition of grapes (used to obtain<br />

dry white wines) at harvest<br />

Features<br />

Grape variety<br />

No.<br />

of<br />

composition<br />

Zghihară<br />

Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Aligoté<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

1 Data analysis 10 oct. 5 oct. 1 oct. 9 oct.<br />

2 Weight of 100 grains 221 188 166 161<br />

3 Total sugars (g/L) 193 197 202 207<br />

4 Titratable acidity (g/L C4H6O6) 9.28 9.08 8.65 8.47<br />

5 Real acidity (pH) 3.112 3.194 3.252 3.294<br />

6 Production<br />

kg/vine<br />

tons/ha<br />

2.56<br />

8.4<br />

2.91<br />

9.6<br />

2.26<br />

7.5<br />

2.42<br />

8.0

259<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 2<br />

The main features of the composition of grapes (used to obtain<br />

semidry white wine) at harvest<br />

Features<br />

Grape variety<br />

No.<br />

of<br />

composition<br />

Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Aligoté<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

1 Data analysis 7 oct. 3 oct. 8 oct.<br />

2 Weight of 100 grains 184 163 159<br />

3 Total sugars (g/L) 201 206 211<br />

4 Titratable acidity (g/L C4H6O6) 8.84 8.55 8.37<br />

5 Real acidity (pH) 3.184 3.273 3.288<br />

6 Production<br />

kg/vine<br />

tons/ha<br />

2.26<br />

7.5<br />

2.18<br />

7.2<br />

2.36<br />

7.8<br />

Table 3<br />

The main features of the composition of grapes (used to obtain<br />

semisweet white wine) at harvest<br />

No. Features<br />

Grape variety<br />

of<br />

composition<br />

Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Aligoté<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

1 Data analysis 9 oct. 5 oct. 12 oct.<br />

2 Weight of 100 grains 182 160 157<br />

3 Total sugars (g/L) 203 207 220<br />

4 Titratable acidity (g/L C4H6O6) 8.65 8.44 8.28<br />

5 Real acidity (pH) 3.204 3.264 3.305<br />

6 Production<br />

kg/vine<br />

tons/ha<br />

2.77<br />

9.1<br />

2.15<br />

7.1<br />

2.21<br />

7.3<br />

As regards the production of grapes, in<br />

tonnes/hectare (kg/hub), it took following values:<br />

8.4 (2.56 ) to variety Zghihară; 9.6 (2.91 ) at<br />

variety Fetească regală; 7.5 (2.26 ) to variety<br />

Aligoté; 8.0 (2.42 ) to variety Fetească white.<br />

The composition of grapes (use for<br />

obtaining semidry white wines) at harvest are<br />

presented in table 2 (tab. 2). Grapes were harvested<br />

at technological maturity, in the period 3÷8<br />

October, when the status of their plant has been<br />

very good. At harvest, the content in sugar of<br />

grapes was following values: 201 g/L variety<br />

Fetească regală on 7 October; 206 g/L variety<br />

Aligoté on 3 October; 211 g/L at Fetească albă<br />

variety from the date of 8 October. Titratable<br />

acidity expressed in g/L C4H6O6 has had on the<br />

same dates the values: 8.84 variety Fetească regală;<br />

8.55 variety Aligoté; 8.37 variety Fetească albă.<br />

Mass of 100 grain had values between 159 g to<br />

variety Fetească albă and 184 variety Fetească<br />

regală. pH values were of 3,184 from the variety of<br />

Fetească regală, 3,273 from the variety of Aligoté<br />

and of 3,288 from the variety Fetească albă.<br />

Production of grapes, in tonnes/hectare<br />

(kg/hub), picking up the following values: 7.5<br />

(2.26) at Fetească regală variety; 7.2 (2.18) at<br />

Aligoté variety; 7.8 (2.36) to Fetească albă variety.<br />

The composition of grapes (use for<br />

obtaining semisweet white wines) at harvest, are<br />

presented in table 3 (tab. 3). Grapes were harvested<br />

at technological maturity, in the period 5÷12<br />

October, when the status of their plant has been<br />

very good. At harvest, the content in sugar of<br />

grapes was following values: 203 g/L variety<br />

Fetească regală on 9 October; 207 g/L variety<br />

Aligoté on 5 October; 220 g/L at Fetească albă<br />

variety from the date of 12 October. Titratable<br />

acidity expressed in g/L C4H6O6 has had on the<br />

same dates the values: 8.65 variety Fetească regală;<br />

8.44 variety Aligoté; 8.28 variety Fetească albă.<br />

Mass of 100 grain had values between 157 g to<br />

variety Fetească albă and 182 variety Fetească<br />

regală. pH values were of 3,204 from the variety of<br />

Fetească regală, 3,264 from the variety of Aligoté<br />

and of 3,305 from the variety Fetească albă.<br />

Production of grapes, in tonnes/hectare (kg/hub),<br />

picking up the following values: 9.1 (2.77) at<br />

Fetească regală variety; 7.1 (2.15) at Aligoté<br />

variety; 7.3 (2.21)to Fetească albă variety.<br />

The main features of composition of white<br />

wines (dry, semidry, semisweet) are shown in the<br />

tables 4, 5 and 6 (tab. 4, 5, 6). Thus, wines<br />

produced from the harvest of 2011, have been<br />

following features of composition: the alcoholic<br />

strength had the value of 11.20 % vol. to Zghihară,<br />

values of (11.48, 11.25, 11.01) % vol. of the three<br />

wines (dry, semidry and semisweet) of Fetească<br />

regală, values of (11.75, 11.50, 11.05) % vol. of<br />

the three wines (dry, semidry and semisweet) of<br />

Aligoté, respectively (12.05, 11.75, 11.25) % vol.<br />

of the three wines (dry, semidry and semisweet) of<br />

Fetească albă; total acidity, expressed in g/L<br />

C4H6O6, had the value of 7.03 at Zghihară, values<br />

of 6.84, 6.98 and 6.77 of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry and semisweet) Fetească regală, values of<br />

6.74, 6.86 and 6.81 of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Aligoté, respectively 6.93,<br />

6.84 and 6.67 of the three wines (dry, semidry,

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

semisweet) of Fetească albă; volatile acidity,<br />

expressed in g/L C2H4O2 had values between<br />

0.28÷0.42 at dry wines, between 0.32÷0.41 at<br />

semidry wines and between 0.35÷0.53 at<br />

semisweet wines; real acidity (pH) had the value of<br />

3.070 at Zghihară, values of 3.151, 3.122 and<br />

3.152 of the three wines (dry, semidry, semisweet)<br />

of Fetească regală, values of 3.183, 3.203 and<br />

3.242 of the three wines (dry, semidry and<br />

semisweet) of Aligoté, respectively 3.222, 3.242<br />

and 3.261 of the three wines (dry, semidry,<br />

semisweet) of Fetească albă; tartaric acid, in g/L, it<br />

was 1.52 at Zghihară, 1.65, 1.55 and 1.56 of the<br />

three wines (dry, semidry, semisweet) of Fetească<br />

regală, 1.70, 1.66 and 1.68 of the three wines (dry,<br />

260<br />

semidry and semisweet) of Aligoté, respectively<br />

1.66, 1.77 and 1.74 of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Fetească albă; the content<br />

of malic acid, in g/L, was much greater than that of<br />

tartaric acid, having values of 3.70 to Zghihară,<br />

3.22, 3.47 and 2.98 of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Fetească regală, 3.13, 3.22<br />

and 3.11 of the three wines (dry, semidry and<br />

semisweet) of Aligoté, respectively 3.40, 2.98 and<br />

2.89 of the three wines (dry, semidry, semisweet)<br />

of Fetească albă; citric acid expressed in g/L had<br />

values between 0.10÷0.14 to dry wines, between<br />

0.11÷0.16 to semidry wines and between<br />

0.13÷0.17 to semisweet wines;<br />

Table 4<br />

The main features of the composition of dry white wine<br />

No.<br />

Composition<br />

characteristics<br />

Zghihară<br />

Grape variety<br />

Fetească<br />

Aligoté<br />

regală<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

1 Density (ρ) la 20 °C, g/cm 3 0.9914 0.9911 0.9915 0.9912<br />

2 Alcohol (% vol.) 11.20 11.48 11.75 12.05<br />

3 Total acidity (g/L C4H6O6) 7.03 6.84 6.74 6.93<br />

4 Volatile acidity (g/L C2H4O2) 0.28 0.42 0.36 0.30<br />

5 Real acidity (pH) 3.070 3.151 3.183 3.222<br />

6 Tartaric acid (g/L) 1.52 1.65 1.70 1.66<br />

7 Malic acid (g/L) 3.70 3.22 3.13 3.40<br />

8 Citric acid (g/L) 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.12<br />

9 Potassium (mg/L) 410 398 408 412<br />

10 Calcium (mg/L) 53 54 54 52<br />

11 Sodium (mg/L) 23 24 24 22<br />

12 Ash (g/L) 1.72 1.78 1.88 1.93<br />

13 Conductivity (Χ), mS 2.52 2.65 2.87 3.00<br />

14 Free sulfur dioxide (mg/L) 33.70 32.29 33.82 27.42<br />

15 Total sulfur dioxide (mg/L) 108.71 96.27 106.32 92.31<br />

16 Total phenolic compounds (g/L) 0.22 0.23 0.27 0.33<br />

17 Glycerol (g/L) 6.45 6.61 6.77 6.94<br />

18 Total dry extract (g/L) 20.90 21.10 22.90 22.90<br />

19 Reducing sugars (g/L) 2.32 1.97 2.57 2.01<br />

20 Non-reducing extract (g/L) 18.58 19.13 20.33 20.89<br />

21 Quality class DOC DOC DOC DOC<br />

22 Organoleptic assessment very good good very good very good<br />

Table 5<br />

The main features of the composition of semidry white wine<br />

Grape variety<br />

No. Composition characteristics Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Aligoté<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

1 Density (ρ) la 20 °C, g/cm 3 0.9944 0.9951 0.9952<br />

2 Alcohol (% vol.) 11.25 11.50 11.75<br />

3 Total acidity (g/L C4H6O6) 6.98 6.86 6.84<br />

4 Volatile acidity (g/L C2H4O2) 0.33 0.32 0.41<br />

5 Real acidity (pH) 3.122 3.203 3.242<br />

6 Tartaric acid (g/L) 1.55 1.66 1.77<br />

7 Malic acid (g/L) 3.47 3.22 2.98<br />

8 Citric acid (g/L) 0.11 0.13 0.16<br />

9 Potassium (mg/L) 408 376 426<br />

10 Calcium (mg/L) 54 48 58<br />

11 Sodium (mg/L) 24 18 28<br />

12 Ash (g/L) 1.74 1.91 1.95<br />

13 Conductivity (Χ), mS 2.60 2.95 3.06<br />

14 Free sulfur dioxide (mg/L) 42.95 39.70 35.64<br />

15 Total sulfur dioxide (mg/L) 134.21 128.05 121.25<br />

16 Total phenolic compounds (g/L) 0.24 0.28 0.35

261<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

17 Glycerol (g/L) 6.48 6.63 6.77<br />

18 Total dry extract (g/L) 28.90 31.50 32.60<br />

19 Reducing sugars (g/L) 10.07 10.90 11.53<br />

20 Non-reducing extract (g/L) 18.83 20.60 21.07<br />

21 Quality class DOC DOC DOC<br />

22 Organoleptic assessment good very good very good<br />

the potassium (the most important cation from<br />

wine) had low values in comparison with the data<br />

of the literature (Cotea et al., 2009, Creţu et al.,<br />

2002) of 410 mg/L at Zghihară wine, values of<br />

398, 408 and 410 mg/L of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Fetească regală, values of<br />

408, 376 and 380 mg/L of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry and semisweet) of Aligoté, respectively<br />

412, 426 and 368 mg/L of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Fetească albă; calcium<br />

expressed in mg/L, was also small values between<br />

52÷54 to dry wines, between 48÷58 to semidry<br />

wines and between 48÷52 to semisweet wines;<br />

sodium expressed in mg/L, it has average values<br />

between 22÷24 at dry wines, between 18÷24 to<br />

semidry wines and between 18÷32 to semisweet<br />

wines; the ash content expressed in g/L, had values<br />

of 1.72 to Zghihară, of 1.78, 1.74 and 1.68 of the<br />

three wines (dry, semidry, semisweet) of Fetească<br />

regală, of 1.88, 1.91 and 1.71 of the three wines<br />

(dry, semidry and semisweet) of Aligoté,<br />

respectively 1.93, 1.95 and 1.85 of the three wines<br />

(dry, semidry, semisweet) of Fetească albă;<br />

conductivity values ( χ ) are in accordance with the<br />

cation and ash content, having values between<br />

2.52÷3.00 mS at dry wines, between 2.60÷3.06 mS<br />

at semidry wines and between 2.70÷3.25 at<br />

semisweet wines; sulfur dioxide has had normal<br />

values, lower than permissible limit of 50.0 mg/L<br />

free SO2, respectively lower than 200.0 mg/L total<br />

SO2; the total phenolic compounds content,<br />

expressed in g/L has average values, between<br />

0.22÷0.33 at dry wines, between 0.24÷0.35 at<br />

semidry wines and between 0.27÷0.38 at<br />

semisweet wines; the glycerol content, expressed<br />

in g/L has average values, between 6.45÷6.94 at<br />

dry wines, between 6.48÷6.77 at semidry wines<br />

and between 6.56÷7.02 at semisweet wines; the<br />

reducing sugars content (in g/L) has normal values<br />

between 1.97÷2.57 at dry wines, between<br />

10.07÷11.53 at semidry wines and between<br />

15.84÷28.25 at semisweet wines is within the<br />

limits laid down by the legislation (***,1997;<br />

***,2002); the unreducing extract in g/L, has had<br />

value of 18.58 to Zghihară wine, values of 19.13,<br />

18.83 and 18.26 g/L of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Fetească regală, values of<br />

20.33, 20.60 and 18.49 g/L of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry and semisweet) of Aligoté, respectively<br />

20.89, 21.07 and 20.05 g/L of the three wines (dry,<br />

semidry, semisweet) of Fetească albă.<br />

Table 6<br />

The main features of the composition of semisweet white wines<br />

Grape variety<br />

No. Composition characteristics Fetească<br />

regală<br />

Aligoté<br />

Fetească<br />

albă<br />

1 Density (ρ) la 20 °C, g/cm 3 0.9967 0.9979 1.0022<br />

2 Alcohol (% vol.) 11.01 11.05 11.25<br />

3 Total acidity (g/L C4H6O6) 6.77 6.81 6.67<br />

4 Volatile acidity (g/L C2H4O2) 0.53 0.35 0.44<br />

5 Real acidity (pH) 3.152 3.242 3.261<br />

6 Tartaric acid (g/L) 1.56 1.68 1.74<br />

7 Malic acid (g/L) 2.98 3.11 2.89<br />

8 Citric acid (g/L) 0.13 0.15 0.17<br />

9 Potassium (mg/L) 410 380 368<br />

10 Calcium (mg/L) 52 50 48<br />

11 Sodium (mg/L) 32 30 18<br />

12 Ash (g/L) 1.68 1.71 1.85<br />

13 Conductivity (Χ), mS 2.70 3.02 3.25<br />

14 Free sulfur dioxide (mg/L) 25.59 42.52 36.86<br />

15 Total sulfur dioxide (mg/L) 115.16 109.03 123.69<br />

16 Total phenolic compounds (g/L) 0.27 0.30 0.38<br />

17 Glycerol (g/L) 6.56 6.73 7.02<br />

18 Total dry extract (g/L) 34.10 37.50 48.30<br />

19 Reducing sugars (g/L) 15.84 19.01 28.25<br />

20 Non-reducing extract (g/L) 18.26 18.49 20.05<br />

21 Quality class DOC DOC DOC<br />

22 Organoleptic assessment good very good very good

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

In correlation with these features of the<br />

composition, specific mass (ρ) at 20 °C, (g/cm 3 )<br />

has had normal range values at analyzed wines,<br />

between 0.9911÷0.9915 at dry wines, between<br />

0.9944÷0.9952 at semidry wines and between<br />

0.9967÷1.0022 at semisweet wines.<br />

The values of unreducing extract, in<br />

conjunction with alcoholic concentration values,<br />

allowed framing all this 10 white wines in the<br />

quality wines category with a controlled<br />

designation of origin (DOC).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Fare being raised of the temperatures during<br />

the vine growing season period, due to global<br />

warming, was favorable build-up of sugars, so they<br />

earned the quality white wines with a registered<br />

designation of origin.<br />

Lower values in relation to the content in<br />

tartaric acid (between 1.52 and 1.77 g/L), in the<br />

potassium cation (between 368 and 426 mg/L) and<br />

calcium (between 48 and 58 mg/L) in all wines<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cotea, V. D., Barbu, N., Grigorescu, C. C., Cotea,<br />

V.V., 2000 - Podgoriile şi vinurile României, Ed.<br />

Academiei Române, Bucureşti.<br />

Cotea, V. D., Zănoagă, C. V., Cotea, V. V., 2009 -<br />

Tratat de oenochimie, vol. I, Editura Academiei<br />

Române, Bucureşti.<br />

Creţu, Cl., Odǎgeriu, G., Cogǎlniceanu, C., Cotea, V.<br />

V., Ambrosǎ, F., 2002 - Aspecte privind<br />

compoziţia unor vinuri de calitate superioarǎ cu<br />

zaharuri remanente obţinute în podgoria Huşi,<br />

Lucr. şt., seria Horticulturǎ, vol. 45, U.Ş.A.M.V.<br />

Iaşi, p. 227-232.<br />

Ribereau-Gayon, J., Peynaud, E., Sudraud, P.,<br />

Ribereau-Gayon, P., 1972 - Traité d'oenologie.<br />

Sciences et techniques du vin, tome 1. Analyse<br />

et controle des vins, Dunod-Paris, France.<br />

Sauciuc, J., 1984 - Metodǎ fluorimetricǎ pentru<br />

determinarea acidului malic din vin sau din must,<br />

Cercet. agron. în Moldova, Iaşi, vol. 1 (65).<br />

Ţârdea C., 2007 - Chimia şi analiza vinurilor. Editura<br />

“Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi.<br />

Würdig, G., Woller, R., 1989 - Chemie des wines,<br />

Germany, Ed. Ulmer.<br />

***, 1997 - Colecţie de standarde pentru industria vinului<br />

şi bǎuturilor alcoolice. Ministerul Industriei<br />

Alimentare, Bucureşti.<br />

***, 2002 - Legea Viei şi Vinului nr. 244 în sistemul<br />

organizǎrii comune a pieţei vitivinicole, Monitorul<br />

Oficial al României, Bucureşti, anul XIV - nr. 333,<br />

luni 20 mai.<br />

***, 2005 - Recueil des methodes internationales<br />

d’analyse des vins et des mouts, Edition<br />

Officielle, Office International de la Vigne et du<br />

Vin, Paris, juin.<br />

262<br />

That, in the last 3-5 years climatic<br />

conditions have changed favorably (in the direction<br />

of growth temperatures for the period of the<br />

growing season) for vines, they have been in the<br />

year 2011 can be obtained wines with rest of<br />

reducing sugars in the Avereşti wine center from<br />

Huşi vineyard, too.<br />

Organoleptic assessment of the wines<br />

reviewed has shown good value of them, being<br />

assigned grades of "good" to three wines and the<br />

"very good" to the other seven wines.<br />

reviewed, can be explained and by tartaric deposits<br />

resulting from the 2011-2012 storage period of<br />

their during winter when temperatures were very<br />

low, as compared to the same period of time of the<br />

previous years.<br />

The values of unreducing extract (between<br />

18.26 and 21.07 g/L), in conjunction with alcoholic<br />

concentration values (between 11.01 and 12.05 %<br />

vol.), have allowed framing all wines reviewed in<br />

the quality white wines category with a controlled<br />

designation of origin (DOC).

Abstract<br />

263<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

CONSUMER PREFERENCES FOR DIFFERENT HONEY VARIETIES IN<br />

THE NORTH WEST REGION OF ROMANIA<br />

Cristina Bianca POCOL 1<br />

Email: pocolcristinabianca@yahoo.com<br />

The objectives of the study on the perceptions of different honey varieties produced in Transylvania originate in the<br />

assumption that in the region under study there is a great diversity of honey varieties, but there are not significantly<br />

promoted so that they are known and purchased by consumers. The research was conducted using the sociological<br />

survey and a number of 1449 questionnaires was applied, both in urban and rural areas. The results show that the most<br />

popular honey among consumers in the North West Region is the acacia honey, followed by polyfloral honey and<br />

linden honey. The least purchased varieties (and hence less consumed) are honeydew and calluna vulgaris honey. A<br />

deeper analysis of the most purchased types of honey leads to the following conclusion: honey is bought by persons<br />

with higher education or by those with high occupational status, and also by the median age category (26-50 years old).<br />

The quantitative results of the study were completed by a sensory analysis based on the use of the certain varieties of<br />

honey (acacia, linden, sunflower, honeydew and mountain flowers). The results show that the more rare varieties<br />

(honeydew and mountain flowers) are actually very pleasant for consumers, but are little known.<br />

Key words: consumer, types of honey, preferences<br />

In the world context, the European Union is<br />

an important honey producer as its production in<br />

2008 reached 201.80 thousand tonnes in volume.<br />

The main varieties of honey produced in the EU<br />

are polyfloral honey, alongside other varieties of<br />

monofloral honey, especially acacia honey, as this<br />

tree is spread in all Europe (CBI Market<br />

Information Database, 2011). Other types of wellknown<br />

honey varieties include linden blossom,<br />

lavender, rosemary, thyme, sunflower and forest<br />

honey. Spain is the leading EU honey producer<br />

and owns about 15% of the total production in<br />

2008, followed by Hungary, Romania, Germany,<br />

France, Greece, Poland, Italy and Bulgaria. Due to<br />

the unfavourable climatic conditions and also to<br />

the collapse of the bee colonies, during the 2005-<br />

2009 period, the production of honey decreased in<br />

several European countries, such as Germany,<br />

Austria and Portugal. At the opposite pole, there<br />

are countries as Romania, Hungary and Poland<br />

that face an increase of honey production for the<br />

The National Beekeeping Program. .<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj Napoca<br />

long term (CBI Market Information Database,<br />

2011). The EU production of honey satisfies the<br />

demand for roughly 60%, the rest of 40% being<br />

imported from countries outside the EU: China,<br />

Argentina and Mexico. In terms of consumption,<br />

for the year 2008, Germany owed a percentage of<br />

24% out of the total apparent consumption in the<br />

EU, followed by France, England and Spain. The<br />

leaders in honey consumption are: Greece, with<br />

1.62 kg/capita, Austria with 1.19 kg, Slovenia<br />

with 1.17 kg and Germany with 1.16 kg (Eurostat,<br />

2010). Romania is one of the main honey<br />

producers in the EU with a number of 1 275 000<br />

bee families in 2010, that is about 9.15% of the<br />

total number of the existing bee families in the EU<br />

(www.madr.ro). During the 2005-2010 period, we<br />

witnessed a spectacular evolution of the number<br />

of bee families (fig. 1) mainly relying on the<br />

support policies, active through The National<br />

Program for Rural Development, and also through

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 1 The evolution of bee families number during 2005-2010<br />

Source: own processing after data provided by Statistical Yearbook, 2011<br />

Regarding per capita honey consumption in<br />

Romania, this is approximately 0.37 kg, a low<br />

consumption level compared to the EU average of<br />

0.63 kg (Eurostat 2010). Specialty studies show<br />

that honey consumer preferences are connected to<br />

the features of local production (CBI Market<br />

Information Database, 2011). Consumers prefer to<br />

buy honey with a familiar aspect and taste.<br />

Generally, at EU level, consumers prefer light<br />

colour honey, transparent, liquid and with a faint<br />

flavour (CBI Market Information Database, 2011).<br />

American researchers confirm the fact that in the<br />

context of increasing the request for natural<br />

products, honey gains more and more momentum<br />

(Schuster, R., 2011). A study conducted in<br />

Australia in 2009 shows the importance of taste in<br />

the decision of buying several types of honey<br />

(Peter J. Batt and Aijun Liu, 2012). Multiculturality<br />

determines the usage of several criteria<br />

in the buying decision in the case of Australia:<br />

country of origin, brand, reputation, colour and the<br />

health benefits. Studies conducted in Hungary<br />

show that the people who consume honey regularly<br />

know the acacia honey and polyfloral one. Except<br />

for residence, the other socio-demographic<br />

characteristics don`t influence the knowledge of<br />

honey types (Árváné Ványi G. et all, 2011). In<br />

Romania, studies regarding honey consumption at<br />

national level were conducted in 2007 and their<br />

results showed that the main features honey is<br />

appreciated for are the quality of natural food and<br />

the medical benefits (Pocol C., L. Al. Mărghitaş,<br />

2010).<br />

Based on the research mentioned, the<br />

purpose of the present study is to investigate<br />

264<br />

consumer preferences for different types of honey<br />

in the North West Region of Romania and also the<br />

influence of the socio- demographic variables on<br />

these preferences.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The research methods employed to study the<br />

perception of consumers regarding the types of<br />

honey produced in Transylvania were both<br />

quantitative and qualitative. As a method of<br />

quantitative research, the sociologic investigation was<br />

used. The research region covered six counties of the<br />

North West Region: Cluj, Bihor, Satu Mare,<br />

Maramures, Bistriţa Năsăud and Sălaj. The volume of<br />

the sample was 1449 respondents, 70% from the<br />

urban environment, and 30% from the rural one. The<br />

research sample was a random probabilistic one, in<br />

accordance to the six counties of the North West<br />

Region, the size of the cities and the level of socio<br />

economic development for rural areas. The margin of<br />

error for the sample was of +/-2.6%. The<br />

questionaries were applied during March-April 2012.<br />

The questions were structured into several<br />

categories, depending on the objectives of the study,<br />

as follows: questions regarding the perceptions<br />

associated to honey and other bee products,<br />

questions regarding consumer features and<br />

consumption habits, alongside socio-demographic<br />

questions. The data collected were processed with<br />

the help of the SPSS Programme. In order to show<br />

thorough results, the quantitative methods were<br />

complemented by a qualitative research. As<br />

such,during the 2-5 May 2012 period, in the location<br />

of the Culinary Theatre – part of the programme<br />

entitled Slow Food on Campus 2011-2012, that<br />

occurred during the Agraria Fair, tastings of five types<br />

of honey produced in Transylvania, were conducted,<br />

namely for: acacia, linden, sun flower, mountain<br />

flowers and honeydew honey. The visitors of the fair<br />

analysed five samples of honey and answered the<br />

questions regarding colour, consistence, smell and<br />

taste of honey. The answers were ranked a scale<br />

from 1 to 5, from „I like best” to „I do not like”. It is<br />

important to mention that the results of the sensory<br />

analysis are based on the opinions of a limited<br />

number of consumers, the date couldn`t be<br />

considered representative from the statistic point of

view for the entire population under study (Region of<br />

North West). The results of the qualitative research<br />

were used only to elaborate some orientative<br />

hypothesis, offering varied motivations, significance,<br />

and opinions regarding the types of honey taken into<br />

study.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Quantitative study:<br />

Two of the answers regarding the<br />

perceptions on honey that respondents agree or do<br />

not agree with, are: „All types of honey sold in<br />

Romania are identical in terms of quality” and „All<br />

types of honey sold in Romania are highly<br />

qualitative”(fig. 2).<br />

Figure 2 Answers regarding the perception on the<br />

quality of honey types produced in Romania<br />

As seen in figure 2, at the level of the<br />

population investigated, there is a relatively<br />

homogenous optional structure regarding the<br />

quality of honey. As such, only 8% of the<br />

respondents agree that all honey types sold in<br />

Romania have an identical quality and only 9%<br />

agree that all types of honey sold in Romania are<br />

highly qualitative. Most of respondents (75%,<br />

respectively 74%), don`t agree with these<br />

affirmations. The difference up to 100% represents<br />

the non-answer rate.<br />

Another question of the questionnaire<br />

referred to the purchase of the following types of<br />

honey: acacia, linden, sun flower, calluna vulgaris,<br />

mountain flowers, honeydew honey and polyfloral<br />

honey. The answers to this question highlight the<br />

fact that the most popular honey is the acacia one,<br />

bought at least once by 80% of the respondents (of<br />

which about 2/3in the last 12 months), followed by<br />

polyfloral honey, bought at least once by 70% of<br />

the subjects (of which 2/3 in the last 12 months)<br />

and linden honey, bought at least once by 54% of<br />

the respondents (of which half in the last 12<br />

months).<br />

The least bought (and therefore, consumed)<br />

types of honey are honeydew honey, bought at<br />

least once by 16% of the subjects investigated (of<br />

which about half in the last year) and calluna<br />

265<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

vulgaris honey, bought at least once by 8%, of<br />

which at least half in the last year (fig. 3).<br />

Figure 3 Percentage of the respondents who bought<br />

at least once other types of honey<br />

Comparing the purchase of several types of<br />

honey with the socio-demographic features, the<br />

following can be asserted: those who buy honey<br />

have a higher education status or a higher<br />

occupational status, as well as the average age<br />

category, which is 26-50 years old (tab. 1).<br />

Comparing the results of the present study to<br />

the ones of the Hungarian researchers (Árváné<br />

Ványi G. et all, 2011), many similar situations can<br />

be observed regarding the highest purchased types<br />

of honey (acacia and polyfloral honey).<br />

Regarding the influence of the sociodemographic<br />

features on the preferences for<br />

different types of honey, there are differences<br />

between the two studies: if in the case of the<br />

Hungarian consumers, the residence influences the<br />

knowledge on honey, in the case of Romanian<br />

consumers the higher education and position have<br />

the highest influence (tab.1).<br />

Qualitative study:<br />

Unlike the quantitative study results<br />

showing that the most bought types of honey are<br />

the acacia ones, followed by polyfloral one and<br />

linden one, the sensory analysis highlighted other<br />

preferences. The consumers showed they were<br />

impressed by the types of honey tasted, the most<br />

appreciated being also the least known– that is<br />

mountain flowers honey and honeydew honey.<br />

This fact highlights once again the fact that honey<br />

produced in Transylvania should be promoted<br />

more for the consumers, the non-consumption of<br />

several varieties of honey being due to the lack of a<br />

promoting strategy for bee products.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

In Romania, there are many varieties of<br />

honey, but the majority of consumers buy only<br />

several varieties: acacia, polyfloral and linden<br />

honey. Callunna vulgaris and mountain honey are<br />

sold abroad, especially in Germany, where these<br />

varieties are highly appreciated. One other reason<br />

why several varieties (mountain flowers,<br />

honeydew) are not consumed by the consumers in<br />

the North West Region of Romania is based on<br />

the lack of information due to the lack of<br />

promoting strategies on the Romanian market.<br />

The majority of those who didn`t buy honey in the<br />

last year (83%), declared that this has<br />

autochthonous origin, only 6% bought honey from<br />

other countries. The educational level and<br />

occupation are the main characteristics that<br />

influence the honey consumption behavior.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

USAMV Grant entitled “Study of perceptions and<br />

consumer behavior of honey and other bee<br />

products in order to improve the management<br />

and marketing strategies in the beekeeping<br />

sector, to influence the public policies in the field<br />

and to increase honey consumption in the North<br />

West Region of Romania, Contract no.<br />

1215/08/06.02.2012.<br />

Correlation between the highest purchased varieties of honey and<br />

socio-demographic features of the subjects<br />

266<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Table 1<br />

Acacia honey Polyfloral honey Linden honey<br />

12 ever 12 ever 12 ever<br />

months<br />

months<br />

months<br />

Sex Male 49% 76% 39% 66% 26% 54%<br />

Female 56% 82% 51% 73% 31% 55%<br />

Age Maximum 25 years 48% 72% 44% 64% 25% 50%<br />

26-50 years 58% 85% 49% 75% 31% 59%<br />

Over 50 years 56% 88% 46% 74% 32% 57%<br />

Educational Maximum10 classes 49% 78% 43% 63% 26% 47%<br />

level<br />

High school, college 51% 78% 44% 69% 26% 53%<br />

Higher education 57% 82% 50% 74% 33% 61%<br />

Occupational Inactive (retired) 51% 81% 45% 66% 33% 55%<br />

status Non Active (unemployed, daily<br />

worker)<br />

56% 82% 47% 71% 28% 54%<br />

Student 45% 67% 45% 62% 27% 50%<br />

Employed 54% 83% 45% 72% 27% 55%<br />

Manager, free lancer 66% 85% 52% 76% 43% 67%<br />

Nationality Romanian 54% 80% 46% 71% 28% 55%<br />

Hungarian 43% 81% 41% 65% 24% 51%<br />

Other nationality 52% 73% 42% 50% 43% 53%<br />

Place of Rural 53% 83% 49% 73% 28% 56%<br />

residence Urban under 50.000 inhabitants 54% 77% 40% 64% 29% 54%<br />

Urban over 50.000 inhabitants 52% 79% 46% 70% 28% 54%<br />

ÁrvánéVányi G., Z. Csapó, L. Kárpáti, 2011 -<br />

Evaluation of Consumers' Honey Purchase<br />

Habits in Hungary, Journal of Food Products<br />

Marketing, Vol. 17, Issue 2-3: 227-240.<br />

Peter J. Batt, Aijun Liu, 2012 - Consumer behaviour<br />

towards honey products in Western Australia,<br />

British Food Journal, Vol. 114 Issue: 2: 285 –<br />

297.<br />

Pocol C. B., L. Al. Mărghitaş, 2010 - National and<br />

International trends regarding production and<br />

consumption of honey, AcademicPres Publisher,<br />

ClujNapoca, Romania: 51-54.<br />

Schuster R., 2011 - Sweet Situation: Demand for<br />

Honey Grows, Grand Forks Herald.<br />

***CBI Market Information Database, 2011 – Trends<br />

and segments for honey, www.cbi.eu<br />

***CBI Market Information Database, 2011 –<br />

Promising EU export markets for honey,<br />

www.cbi.eu<br />

***Eurostat Databases 2010<br />

***Romanian Beekeeping Sector, 2010, www.madr.ro<br />

*** National Institute of Statistics,Statistical Yearbook,<br />

2011

Abstract<br />

267<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

NITROGEN CONTENT IN PLANT TISSUE AND VISUAL QUALITY<br />

ASSESSMENT OF THREE TURFGRASS MIXTURES INFLUENCED BY<br />

DIFFERENTIATED FERTILIZATION<br />

Constantin Iulian POPOVICI 1 , Vasile VINTU 1 , Costel SAMUIL 1 , Mihai STAVARACHE 1 ,<br />

Ciprian CIOBANU 1<br />

e-mail: iulian_vici@yahoo.com<br />

Lawns are established with perennial grass species and varieties mixed in different proportions, to create various types<br />

of turfgrass mixtures that meet certain requirements of utilisation or can adapt to specific climatic conditions such as<br />

excessive drought or strong shading. In our study were analyzed the nitrogen content in plant tissue and visual quality<br />

of three different turf mixtures under the influence of differentiated fertilization and the pedoclimatic conditions in the<br />

NE region of Romania. The first mixture (M1) was composed of Festuca arundinacea 80% + Lolium perenne 10% +<br />

Poa pratensis 10%. The second mixture (M2) consisted of three varieties of Lolium perenne mixed in equal<br />

proportions. The third mixture (M3) was composed of Festuca rubra 60% + Lolium perenne 20% + Festuca ovina<br />

duriusculla 10% + Poa pratensis 10%. Three types of fertilizers were applied: ammonium nitrate, a complex fertilizer<br />

with nitrogen and phosphorus and a commercial lawn fertilizer with macro and micronutrients. The experimental design<br />

was a split plot design with three replicates. Mixtures reacted positively to all three types of fertilizers. The highest<br />

nitrogen content was registered at the mixture M2 (2.33% nitrogen in DM). Considering the fertilizer used, the highest<br />

nitrogen content was determined at the fertilization with ammonium nitrate (2.32% nitrogen in DM) and the lowest<br />

concentration was registered at the control plot where fertilization was not applied (2.09% nitrogen in DM). Statistical<br />

interpretation of the data was done by analyzes of variance and limit differences.<br />

Key words: nitrogen content in plant tissue; turfgrass quality; turfgrass mixtures<br />

Using a single grass species for the<br />

establishment of a lawn will produce a very<br />

uniform and aesthetic green cover but the<br />

possibility of this lawn to persist under years of<br />

natural or artificial stress is limited. Each<br />

individual species has qualities but also limitations<br />

(Kellner, 1974). The latest changes in global<br />

climate have set a new perspective in terms of<br />

water conservation so that turf management must<br />

shift from an intensive management towards an<br />

extensive one (Morris, 2006; Waltz and Carrow,<br />

2008; Githinji, 2009). The species selection for turf<br />

mixtures should consider drought resistant species<br />

that can produce a good quality lawn in conditions<br />

of limited irrigation (Aronson, 1987; DaCosta,<br />

2006; Richardson et al., 2008). Testing the species<br />

performances under non irrigated conditions and<br />

especially testing new combinations of species for<br />

the creation of improved turf mixtures is very<br />

important. Macronutrients are represented by those<br />

elements consumed in large quantities by perennial<br />

grasses and are found in big concentrations in plant<br />

tissue. These macroelements are absorbed in plants<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi<br />

through the root system: nitrogen, phosphorus,<br />

potassium, calcium, magnezium and sulfur or can<br />

be taken from the atmosphere: carbon, oxygen.<br />

Nitrogen is the element with the highest mobility<br />

in soils, it takes many forms both in the air and<br />

soil. It is directly involved in the synthesis of<br />

clorophyll, aminoacids, proteins, enzymes,<br />

vitamins and indirectly in the synthesis of other<br />

important compounds which are vital for the life of<br />

green plants. The excessive concentration of<br />

nitrogen in soils can prevent the growth of the root<br />

system (Christians N., 2004).<br />

Nitrogen, along magnezium is also found in<br />

the central structure of clorophyll and in the<br />

structure of proteins that are spread in all green<br />

parts of grasses. This is why nitrogen plays a<br />

primary role in the growth of grasses, leaves<br />

growth, shoot growth, rhyzomes growth and also<br />

in the retaining of green color of turf (Dunn J. H.,<br />

Diesburg K., 2004).<br />

The aim of this study is to identify which is<br />

the best adapted turfgrass mixture in the<br />

pedoclimatic conditions of NE Romania under

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

non irrigated management and to determine the<br />

influence of differentiated fertilization on turfgrass<br />

quality and nitrogen concentrations in plant tissue.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The biological material consisted in three<br />

mixtures of cool season perennial grasses. The<br />

first mixture (M1) was composed by Festuca<br />

arundinacea 80% + Lolium perenne 10% + Poa<br />

pratensis10%. The second mixture (M2) consisted<br />

of three varieties of Lolium perenne mixed in equal<br />

proportions.<br />

The third mixture (M3) was composed of<br />

Festuca rubra 60% + Lolium perenne 20% +<br />

Festuca ovina duriusculla 10% + Poa pratensis<br />

10%.<br />

Three types of fertilizers were applied:<br />

ammonium nitrate, a complex fertilizer with<br />

nitrogen and phosphorus and a commercial lawn<br />

fertilizer with macro and micronutrients. All three<br />

fertilizers were applied at a nitrogen rate of 75 kg<br />

ha -1 . The experimental design was a split plot<br />

design with three replicates. The surface of a plot<br />

was 8 square meters (2m x 4m), and the sub-plot<br />

surface was 2 square meters (1m x 2m). The<br />

Turfgrass mixture overall quality (1-worst; 9-best) in 2011.<br />

268<br />

evaluation of quality was done using a visual rating<br />

scale recommended by NTEP (National Turfgrass<br />

Evaluation Program, USA). Ratings are given on a<br />

scale of 1-9, where 9 represents the best quality<br />

and the perfectly green lawn, and 1 represents the<br />

worst quality. Field sampling of green tissue was<br />

done in the year 2011, samples were dried and<br />

grinded into powder and nitrogen content was<br />

determined using Kjeldahl method. The data were<br />

interpreted statistically by analysis of variance and<br />

limit differences.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The mean annual temperature in the area is<br />

9.6 o C and the annual rainfall is 518 mm, with<br />

drought occuring in September.The mixture M2<br />

recorded the best quality in June and July being<br />

noted with 7.6 and 7.2, but it recorded a drop in<br />

quality in August and September due to water<br />

stress. M1 mixture had a lower quality in the first<br />

two months but maintained a relatively constant<br />

overall quality throughout the season. M3 mixture<br />

had the poorest quality in all four months.<br />

Turfgrass<br />

mixture<br />

June July August September<br />

M1 6.8 NS<br />

6.1 NS<br />

5.9 NS<br />

5.3*<br />

M2 7.6* 7.2 NS<br />

5.8 NS<br />

5.1*<br />

M3 5.3 0<br />

5.8 NS<br />

3.9 0<br />

3.1 0<br />

Control (field average) 6.6 C<br />

6.4 C<br />

5.2 C<br />

4.5 C<br />

LSD 0.05 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.2<br />

* Positive significance; 0 Negative significance; NS Not significant; C Control.<br />

Turf quality has increased significantly with<br />

all three types of fertilizers. The best result was<br />

obtained at the fertilization complex with macro<br />

and micronutrients (tab. 2). The fertilizers used<br />

had a major influence in increasing the quality of<br />

turf mixtures especially in the first two months of<br />

summer when grasses are most active and the<br />

climatic conditions with favorable growing<br />

temperatures and sufficient rain create good<br />

Table 1.<br />

conditions for nutrient absorption. As we can<br />

observe, the differences between fertilized plots<br />

and the control plot (without fertilization) are<br />

smaller at the end of the vegetation period of<br />

grasses which is the late September. The cooling<br />

weather and the drought stress during the summer<br />

have an influence over grasses by diminishing their<br />

capacity to sustain photosynthesis and the root<br />

activity is decreased.<br />

Table 2.<br />

The influence of fertilization on overall turfgrass quality in 2011.<br />

Fertilization June July August September<br />

Control (N0 P0 K0) 5.3 C<br />

5.6 C<br />

5.0 C<br />

4.0 C<br />

N75 6.7* 6.6* 5.1 NS<br />

N75 P45 7.0* 6.5* 5.1 NS<br />

4.7*<br />

N75 P45 K72 + Ca18 Mg15 S14 + ME (Fe, Zn, B, Mn, Mo) 7.2* 6.6* 5.5 NS<br />

4.9*<br />

LSD 0.05 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5<br />

* Positive significance; 0 Negative significance; NS Not significant; C Control; ME microelements.<br />

The best density was observed in mixture<br />

M2 rated with 7.8 followed by mixture M3 rated<br />

with 6.7, but the differences were not significant<br />

(NS). The highest percent of ground cover was<br />

observed at the mixture M2 of 91% and the lowest<br />

4.3 NS<br />

at the mixture M3 being only 70% (tab. 3). Turf<br />

density increased in the first two months, in June<br />

and July and decreased in august and September<br />

due to warm weather and water stress. As the<br />

grasses reach the top temperature threshold for

active growth the capacity to sustain<br />

photosynthesis and to create excess carbohydrates<br />

269<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

necessary for shoot development is highly reduce.<br />

Turfgrass mixture density (1-lowest; 9-highest) and ground cover (%) in the summer of 2011.<br />

Turfgrass<br />

mixture<br />

Density Ground cover %<br />

M1 6.5 NS<br />

87 NS<br />

M2 7.8 NS<br />

91 NS<br />

M3 6.7 NS<br />

70 0<br />

Control (field average) 7.0 C<br />

83 C<br />

LSD 0.05 0.8 10<br />

* Positive significance; 0 Negative significance; NS Not significant; C Control<br />

Turfgrass density increased significantly<br />

from 5.9 to 7.6 when we used a complex fertilizer<br />

with macro and micronutrients. The ground cover<br />

Table 3<br />

increased from 73% to 88% at the fertilization<br />

with N75P45 (table 4, fig.1, fig. 2).<br />

Table 4.<br />

The influence of fertilization on turfgrass density (1-lowest; 9-highest) and ground cover (%) in 2011.<br />

Fertilization Density Ground cover %<br />

Control (N0 P0 K0) 5.9 C<br />

73 C<br />

N75 7.1* 84*<br />

N75 P45 7.3* 88*<br />

N75 P45 K72 + Ca18 Mg15 S14 + ME (Fe, Zn, B, Mn, Mo) 7.6* 85*<br />

LSD 0.05 0.6 4<br />

* Positive significance; 0 Negative significance; NS Not significant; C Control.<br />

Fig. 1 Turfgrass density<br />

The highest average content in nitrogen was<br />

observed at the mixture M2 (2.34% nitrogen in<br />

DM) and the lowest content was registered at the<br />

mixture M1 (based on the species Festuca<br />

arundinacea) with an average concentration of<br />

2.04% nitrogen in DM. Considering the influence<br />

of different fertilizers applied, we observed that<br />

Fig. 2 Trufgrass ground cover<br />

the highest nitrogen content was reached using<br />

ammonium nitrate (2.32% nitrogen in DM) and the<br />

lowest concentration (2.09% nitrogen in DM) was<br />

determined at the control plot (without<br />

fertilization). In average the concentration of<br />

nitrogen (% in DM) ranged from 2.09% to 2.32%<br />

(tab. 5, fig. 3).<br />

The influence of fertilization and turfgrass mixture on nitrogen content (%) DM<br />

Table 5<br />

Turfgrass<br />

Control (N0 P0 N75 N75 P45 N75 P45 K72 + Ca18 Mg15 S14 + ME (Fe,<br />

mixture<br />

K0)<br />

Zn, B, Mn, Mo)<br />

M1 1.80 2.26 1.99 2.13<br />

M2 2.23 2.48 2.28 2.34<br />

M3 2.25 2.23 2.29 2.32<br />

Average 2.09 2.32 2.18 2.26

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The highest concentration of nitrogen in<br />

turfgrass plant tissue was achieved using<br />

ammonium nitrate as fertilizer.<br />

The mixture based on the species Lolium<br />

perenne had the highest concetration of nitrogen in<br />

leaves compared with mixtures based on the<br />

species Festuca rubra and Festuca arundinacea.<br />

The best quality was recorded at M2<br />

mixture, consisting of three varieties of Lolium<br />

perenne, in terms of overall quality.<br />

The second best turfgrass mixture was the<br />

M1 mixture that recorded significant differences in<br />

September.<br />

The mixture with a high content of Festuca<br />

rubra had a poor quality and negative significant<br />

differences in June, August and September.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This work was cofinanced from the European Social<br />

Fund through Sectorial Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-2013,<br />

project number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371<br />

„Postdoctoral School in Agriculture and<br />

Veterinary Medicine Area”.<br />

Fig. 3 Nitrogen concentration in mixture M1<br />

270<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Aronson L. J., A. J. Gold, R. J. Hull., 1987 - Cool-<br />

Season Turfgrass Responses to Drought Stress.<br />

Crop Sci. 27: 1261-1266.<br />

Christians N., 2004 -. Fundamentals of Turfgrass<br />

Management. John Wiley and Sons Inc. ISBN 0-<br />

471-45478-8.<br />

DaCosta, Michelle, Bingru Huang., 2006 - Minimum<br />

Water Requirements for Creeping, Colonial, and<br />

Velvet Bentgrasses under Fairway Conditions.<br />

Crop Sci 46:81-89.<br />

Dunn, J., K. Diesburg, 2004 -. Turf management in the<br />

Transition Zone. John Wiley and Sons Inc. ISBN<br />

0-471-47609-9.<br />

Githinji L.J.M., Dane J.H., Walker R.H. 2009 - Wateruse<br />

patterns of tall fescue and hybrid bluegrass<br />

cultivars subjected to ET-based irrigation<br />

scheduling, Irrigation Science Volume: 27<br />

Issue: 5 Pages: 377-391.<br />

Kellner E.,1974 - Gazonul. Editura Ceres Bucureşti.<br />

Morris K. N., 2006 - The National Turfgrass Research<br />

Initiative. USGA Turfgrass and Environmental<br />

Research Online 5(10): 1-10.<br />

Richardson M. D., Douglas E. Karcher, Kenneth<br />

Hignight, Debra Rush., 2008 - Drought<br />

Tolerance and Rooting Capacity of Kentucky<br />

Bluegrass Cultivars, Crop Sci. 48:2429–2436.<br />

Waltz F.C., Carrow R.N., 2008 - Applied turfgrass<br />

water-use efficiency/conservation: Agronomic<br />

practices and building cooperation between<br />

industry trade associations and regulatory<br />

authorities. Proceedings Of The International<br />

Conference On Turfgrass Science And<br />

Management For Sports Fields Acta Horticulturae<br />

Issue: 783 Pages: 239-245.

271<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE EFFICIENCY OF FORAGE CROPS AND EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS<br />

ON FODDER PRODUCTION UNDER SUCEAVA PLATEAU CONDITIONS<br />

Abstract<br />

Constantin SĂICU<br />

e-mail: saicuconstantin@yahoo.com<br />

In the last years, in the Suceava Plateau, the climatic conditions occurred elevated temperature during summer and<br />

rainfall values were close to normal, forage crops were achieved annual production exceeding d.s. and n.u. , the highest<br />

values occurring in corn silage and fodder beet followed by forage turnip. The perennial crops, the highest yields were<br />

recorded at mix of alfalfa+ orchard grass, followed by simple cultivation of perennial legumes and perennial grasses in<br />

pure culture. The effect of fertilizers on annual crops was higher in fodder beet, followed by forage turnip and finally<br />

followed by corn. The maximum effect was obtained at perennial grasses, followed by perennial mixtures, and finally<br />

followed by perennial legumes in pure culture.<br />

Key words: perennial grasses, perennial legumes, dry substances<br />

Ensuring of the feed is an essential condition<br />

for livestock development in both large farms, but<br />

also small household system. To achieve this goal it<br />

is necessary to use a variety of annual and perennial<br />

forage plants adapted to the crop conditions from<br />

that area and to the appropriate technologies in<br />

order to use at maximum of the environmental<br />

conditions (Moga et al., 1983, Săicu C., 2010). The<br />

most important piece of technology in feed<br />

production is the utilization of mineral and organic<br />

fertilizers and especially those with nitrogen, which<br />

enhance the quality and quantity of feed (Moga et<br />

al., 1996, Varga, 1993). For superior capitalization<br />

of soil and climate conditions, but also to ensure<br />

feeding for the whole year, it is necessary to<br />

cultivate both annual and perennial plants that<br />

produce a diverse range of feed on good quality<br />

which is used for different animals races and for<br />

different age groups of them.<br />

In order to produce sufficient quantities of<br />

feed it is necessary to use large amounts of<br />

nitrogen, and for nitrogen reducing it is necessary to<br />

use mixtures of perennial grasses and legumes<br />

(Moga et al., 1983, Săicu, 2011)<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The researches were conducted at ARDS<br />

of Suceava during period 2008-2010, on cambic<br />

faeoziom soil with a clay content of 31.6%,<br />

slightly acidic, with pH 5.6 to 5.8, containing<br />

3.0% humus, medium supplied in phosphor and<br />

potassium.<br />

The bifactorial experiments were as follows:<br />

a) Experiment with annual forage plants:<br />

Factor A-crop factor: a1 = corn silage, a2 =<br />

forage beet, a3 = forage turnip;<br />

Factor B - nitrogen fertilizer doses: b1=N0 ; b2=<br />

N60; b3= N 120; b4= N180<br />

b) Experiment with perennial forage plants<br />

Factor A – crop: a1= orchard grass; a2=<br />

timothy; a3= alfalfa; a4= red clover; a5= 50% orchard<br />

grass + 50% alfalfa; a6= 50% timothy + 50% red<br />

clover<br />

Factor B - nitrogen fertilizer doses: b1=N0 ; b2=<br />

N60; b3= N 120; b4= N180<br />

Interpretation of experimental data after<br />

method variance was made. The climatic conditions<br />

of the experimental period (2008-2010) are shown<br />

in table 1, which attend the average temperature of<br />

the research period was 9.0°C, with 1.2°C higher<br />

than the multiannual average. The warmest year<br />

was 2008, with an annual average temperature of<br />

9.4°C. The hottest months were those during<br />

vegetation period. Rainfall had high values of 887.0<br />

mm in 2008, 649.1 mm in 2009 and 877.6 mm in<br />

2010, the average of the research period was 221.1<br />

mm greater than the multiannual average. Most<br />

precipitation occurred in summer, especially in May<br />

(108.8 mm), June (163.8 mm) and July (178.1 mm).<br />

We can say that in analyzed period (2008-<br />

2010) it was very favorable climatic conditions for<br />

forage plants development.<br />

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION<br />

In the experiment of annual forage plants (corn<br />

silage, forage beet and forage turnip) nitrogen<br />

fertilizer doses: N0,N60,N120 and N180 which have<br />

been applied and yields of green mass and roots<br />

which were obtained are presented in table 2.<br />

Soybean is one of the protein and oil<br />

essential sources for human and livestock feed.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Soybean plants due to their good capacity of<br />

nitrogen fixation improve soil fertility and reduce<br />

doses of industrial fertilizers.<br />

According to literature data this species is<br />

very susceptible to drought and low phosphates in<br />

soil (Wang X et al., 2010). However, most of the<br />

soils in Republic of Moldova as well as at global<br />

scale are characterized by low level of phosphorus<br />

availability (Andries S., 2007). A large portion of<br />

soluble inorganic phosphate applied to soil as<br />

chemical fertilizer is rapidly immobilized soon<br />

after application and becomes unavailable to plants<br />

(Yadav K., Dadarwal H., 1997). Likewise, reserves<br />

of rock- phosphorus are finite with an estimated<br />

depletion of sources expected to occur within the<br />

next 50–60 years (Vance C et al., 2003). It must be<br />

emphasized that the higher cost of phosphoric<br />

fertilizer became a limiting factor for crop<br />

production. Several plant growth-promoting<br />

rhizobacteria (PGPR) have shown potential to<br />

enhance phosphorus solublization and nutrition of<br />

crops (Adesemoye A., Kloepper J., 2009, Krey T<br />

et al., 2011). The application of rhizobacteria in<br />

soybean biotechnology could have a promising<br />

benefit for plant nutrition, partially overcome P<br />

deficiency. Thus, in the context of increasing<br />

international concern for food and environmental<br />

quality, the use of PGPR for reducing chemical<br />

inputs in agriculture is a potentially important<br />

issue.<br />

PGPR have been applied to various crops to<br />

enhance growth, seed emergence and crop yield,<br />

and some have been commercialized (Dey R et al.,<br />

2004). Rhizosphere bacteria can affect plant<br />

growth through different mechanisms such as<br />

nitrogen fixation, production of plant growth<br />

regulators (Vessey K., 2003) and increasing plant<br />

water and nutrient uptake (Dey R et al., 2004,<br />

Rodrigues H., Fraga R., 1999). The ability of<br />

Pseudomonas strains to increase solubility of<br />

phosphate sources and non-absorbent organic<br />

phosphate emphasizes the need of using them to<br />

increase the absorbing of nutrients, especially<br />

phosphorus, in terms of nutrient shortages (De<br />

Freitas J et al., 1997).<br />

The objective of the research was to<br />

investigate under greenhouse conditions the<br />

influence of P and bacteria azotobacter<br />

chroococcum and pseudomonas fluorescence on<br />

the nitrogen, total and inorganic phosphorus<br />

contents in soybean under suboptimal moisture<br />

regime of soil.<br />

Thus, at the corn silage, at the unfertilized<br />

version, 53,080 kg/ha was obtained, and by applying<br />

of nitrogen, the larger increases up to 43% were<br />

obtained. At forage beet the increases were greater<br />

272<br />

up to 127% and at forage turnip the maximum<br />

increase was up to 79% when was applied N180.<br />

The average of factor A shows that physical<br />

yield achieved in the three species was 66,330 kg/ha<br />

of corn silage, 79,430 kg/ha of forage beet and<br />

69,260 kg/ha of forage turnip.<br />

The average of factor B shows us progressive<br />

increases of the physic yields with 31% at N60, with<br />

56% at N120 and 95% at N180.<br />

The dry matter production on three annual<br />

crops with different applied nitrogen doses are<br />

shown in table 3, where by applying of progressive<br />

nitrogen doses, progressive increases of dry matter<br />

were made. Thus, the maximum yield increase in<br />

comparison with unfertilized variant was 35% at<br />

corn silage, 133% at forage beet and 86% at forage<br />

turnip (table 3).<br />

On the whole, the average of factor A,<br />

shows that the highest yield of dry matter was<br />

made on corn silage (15,675 kg / ha) followed by<br />

forage beet (11,048 kg / ha) and then forage turnip<br />

(8758 kg / ha). Factor B shows that nitrogen<br />

fertilizers determined increases statistically assured<br />

at all fertilized doses.<br />

In the experiment with perennial forage<br />

crops, the yield of green mass (Table 4) ranged<br />

from 31,307 to 66,137 kg/ha for orchard grass,<br />

19950 – 44573 for timothy and 68867-78583 kg/ha<br />

for alfalfa, 48047-52100 kg/ha for red clover,<br />

70650-78630 kg/ha in the mixture between alfalfa<br />

and orchard grass and 48583-54693 kg/ha on<br />

mixture of red clover and timothy. Production<br />

increases due to nitrogen fertilizers are high at<br />

orchard grass and timothy and smaller at alfalfa, red<br />

clover and simple mixture between perennial<br />

legumes and grasses.<br />

The average factor A indicates green mass<br />

production of 33.3 t/ha for timothy, 48.7 t/ha for<br />

orchard grass, 50.7 t/ha for red clover, 73.0 t/ha for<br />

alfalfa and 74.3 t/ha for mixture of alfalfa and<br />

orchard grass.<br />

The average B factor shows that nitrogen<br />

fertilizer provided the green mass increases,<br />

statistically assured.<br />

Dry matter production function by fertilizer doses<br />

presented in the table 5, shows large production<br />

increases, up to 100% for perennial grasses and<br />

smaller increases for mixtures of perennial legumes<br />

and grasses. The average factor A shows that the<br />

lowest dry matter production was recorded for red<br />

clover and the highest dry matter yields were made<br />

for orchard grass (11956 kg / ha), alfalfa (12266<br />

kg / ha) and for mixture of orchard grass and alfalfa<br />

(15400 kg / ha).

273<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 1<br />

Climatic conditions during research period 2008 - 2010<br />

Specification I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Average<br />

or total<br />

Monthly average temepratures 0 C<br />

2008 -3,1 3,3 4,9 9,6 13,7 18,3 19,2 20,0 13,0 9,7 3,8 0,6 9,4<br />

2009 -2,6 -1,2 2,3 10,8 14,7 17,7 20,4 18,9 15,7 8,7 5,5 -2,3 9,1<br />

2010 -7,0 -3,5 2,6 9,4 15,1 17,9 21,1 21,4 13,6 5,9 8,0 -3,8 8,4<br />

Average<br />

2008-2010<br />

-4,2 -0,5 3,3 9,9 14,5 18,0 20,2 20,1 14,1 8,1 5,8 -1,8 9,0<br />

Multiannual average -4,1 -2,3 +1,2 +8,0 13,7 16,9 18,4 18,3 14,2 8,4 2,4 -1,9 7,8<br />

Standard deviation ± -0,1 -2,4 +2,1 +1,9 +0,8 +1,1 +1,8 +1,8 -0,1 -0,3 +3,4 -0,1 +1,2<br />

Precipitation -mm<br />

2008 5,7 23,9 15,9 135,2 91,5 99,2 301,6 72,3 60,4 43,4 8,0 29,9 887,0<br />

2009 45,3 19,0 29,2 8,4 82,2 154,9 120,8 30,8 40,2 62,6 18,6 37,1 649,1<br />

2010 31,4 35,2 28,6 32,0 152,7 237,4 112,0 72,2 63,5 43,1 38,0 31,5 877,6<br />

Average<br />

2008-2010<br />

27,5 26,0 24,6 58,5 108,8 163,8 178,1 58,4 54,7 49,7 21,5 32,8 807,9<br />

Multiannual average 24,2 25,6 36,2 48,2 80,2 93,6 88,6 62,8 40,8 29,5 30,6 26,5 586,8<br />

Standard deviation ± +3,3 +0,4 -11,6 +11,3 +28,6 +70,2 +89,5 -4,4 +13,9 +20,2 -9,1 +6,3 +221,1<br />

DL 5%<br />

8960<br />

Average of the factor A<br />

DL 5% 9810<br />

Average of the factor B<br />

Yields of green mass obtained at the annual fodder plants<br />

Variant<br />

2008<br />

Yield g.m (kg/ha)<br />

2009 2010<br />

Average<br />

yield (kg/ha)<br />

Difference<br />

Kg/ha %<br />

Significance<br />

a1b1 49600 50550 59090 53080 - 100<br />

a1b2 61850 70420 67290 66520 13440 125 xx<br />

a1b3 69330 72050 68740 70040 16960 132 xxx<br />

a1b4 73800 77560 75680 75680 22600 143 xxx<br />

a2b1 45500 53200 46860 48520 -4560 91<br />

a2b2 58120 64060 66220 62800 9720 118 x<br />

a2b3 84130 88650 85070 85950 32870 162 xxx<br />

a2b4 118800 125500 117050 120450 67370 227 xxx<br />

a3b1 40300 49180 47020 45500 -7580 86<br />

a3b2 63300 61280 63820 62800 9720 118 x<br />

a3b3 70120 75140 75360 73540 20460 138 xxx<br />

a3b4 90850 96520 85180 95200 42120 179 xxx<br />

a1 63645 67645 67700 66330 - 100<br />

a2 76637 82852 78800 79430 13100 120 xx<br />

a3 66142 70530 67845 69260 2932 104<br />

b1 45133 50977 50990 49033 - 100<br />

b2 61090 65253 65777 64040 15007 131 x<br />

b3 74527 78613 76390 76510 27477 156 xxx<br />

b4 94483 99860 92637 95660 46627 195 xxx<br />

DL 5% 12130<br />

Table 2

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The dry substances yield obtained at the annual forage plants<br />

Variant<br />

2008<br />

Yield d.s.(kg/ha)<br />

2009 2010<br />

Average Yield<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

Diference<br />

Kg/ha %<br />

Signific.<br />

a1b1 12053 12284 14359 12899 - 100<br />

a1b2 15030 16760 16015 15935 3036 123 xxx<br />

a1b3 16292 16932 16153 16459 3560 128 xxx<br />

a1b4 16974 17839 17406 17406 4507 135 xxx<br />

a2b1 6598 7714 6795 7036 -5863 55 000<br />

a2b2 8253 9096 9403 8917 -3982 69 000<br />

a2b3 11610 12233 11740 11861 -1038 92<br />

a2b4 16150 17068 15919 16379 3480 127 xx<br />

a3b1 5400 6590 6301 6097 -6802 47 000<br />

a3b2 8229 7966 8297 8164 -4735 63 000<br />

a3b3 8975 9618 9646 9413 -3486 73 000<br />

a3b4 11356 12065 10647 11356 -1543 88 0<br />

DL 5% 1480<br />

Average of the factor A<br />

a1 15087 15954 15983 15675<br />

a2 10653 11528 10964 11048 -4627 70 000<br />

a3 8490 9060 8723 8758 -6917 56 000<br />

DL 5% 1760<br />

Average of the factor A<br />

b1 8017 8863 9152 8677 - 100<br />

b2 10504 11274 11238 11005 2328 127 xxx<br />

b3 12292 12928 12513 12578 3901 145 xxx<br />

b4 14827 15657 14657 15047 6370 173 xxx<br />

DL 5% 1655<br />

The dry substances yield obtained at perennial forage plants<br />

Variant<br />

The yield d.s. (kg/ha)<br />

2008 2009 2010<br />

Average yield<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

Difference<br />

Kg/ha %<br />

Signification<br />

a1b1 30150 30420 33350 31307 - 100<br />

a1b2 41650 39850 38450 39983 8676 128 xxx<br />

a1b3 59860 55150 57560 57523 26216 184 xxx<br />

a1b4 68350 70040 60130 66173 34866 211 xxx<br />

a2b1 20160 18650 21040 19950 -11357 64 000<br />

a2b2 31050 30250 29880 30393 -914 97<br />

a2b3 38880 40120 36550 38517 7210 123 xxx<br />

a2b4 45500 43160 45060 44573 13266 142 xxx<br />

a3b1 69850 71500 65250 68867 37560 220 xxx<br />

a3b2 71550 73840 66200 70530 39223 225 xxx<br />

a3b3 75840 77220 69520 74193 42886 237 xxx<br />

a3b4 80120 79810 75820 78583 47276 251 xxx<br />

a4b1 51250 49850 43040 48047 16840 153 xxx<br />

a4b2 54150 53200 45120 50823 19516 162 xxx<br />

a4b3 55200 56190 44020 51803 20496 165 xxx<br />

a4b4 53420 58780 44100 52100 20793 166 xxx<br />

a5b1 70420 72030 69500 70650 39343 226 xxx<br />

a5b2 72530 73300 72030 72620 41313 232 xxx<br />

a5b3 74150 76150 75540 75280 43973 240 xxx<br />

a5b4 79020 79150 77720 78630 47323 251 xxx<br />

a6b1 49830 48120 47800 48583 17276 155 xxx<br />

ab2 51060 49220 49320 49867 18560 159 xxx<br />

a5b3 53940 52760 50960 52553 21246 168 xxx<br />

a5b4 55400 55800 52880 54693 23386 175 xxx<br />

DL 5% 2974<br />

Average of the factor A<br />

274<br />

-<br />

100<br />

Table 3<br />

Table 4

275<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

a1 50003 48865 47372 48747 - 100<br />

a2 33898 33045 33132 33358 15389 68 000<br />

a3 74340 75592 69198 73043 24296 150 xxx<br />

a4 53505 54505 44070 50693 1946 104<br />

a5 74030 75158 73698 74295 25548 152 xxx<br />

a6 52558 51475 50240 51424 2677 105<br />

DL 5% 4875<br />

Average of the factor B<br />

b1 48610 48428 46663 47900 - 100<br />

b2 53665 53277 50167 52370 4470 109 x<br />

b3 59645 59598 55692 58312 10412 122 xxx<br />

b4 63635 64457 59285 62459 14559 130 xxx<br />

DL 5% 4260<br />

The dry substances yield obtained at some perennial forageplants<br />

Variant<br />

2008<br />

Yield d.s (kg/ha)<br />

2009 2010<br />

Average yield<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

Difference<br />

Kg/ha %<br />

Signific.<br />

a1b1 7839 7909 8671 8140 - 100<br />

a1b2 10621 10162 9805 10196 2056 125 xxx<br />

a1b3 14366 13236 13814 13805 5665 170 xxx<br />

a1b4 16199 16599 14251 15683 7543 193 xxx<br />

a2b1 4919 4551 5134 4868 -3272 60 000<br />

a2b2 7297 7109 7122 7176 -964 88<br />

a2b3 8554 8826 8041 8474 334 104<br />

a2b4 9874 9366 9778 9673 1533 119 xx<br />

a3b1 12433 12727 11614 12258 4118 151 xxx<br />

a3b2 12164 12553 11254 11990 3850 147 xxx<br />

a3b3 12514 12741 11471 12242 4102 150 xxx<br />

a3b4 12819 12770 12131 12573 4433 154 xxx<br />

a4b1 7483 7278 6284 7015 -1125 86 0<br />

a4b2 7581 7448 6317 7115 -1025 87 0<br />

a4b3 7452 7586 5943 6994 -1146 86 0<br />

a4b4 6945 7641 5733 6773 -1367 83 00<br />

a5b1 15140 15486 14943 15190 7050 187 xxx<br />

a5b2 15231 15393 15126 15250 7110 187 xxx<br />

a5b3 15201 15611 15485 15433 7293 189 xxx<br />

a5b4 15804 15830 15544 15726 7586 193 xxx<br />

a6b1 9866 9528 9464 9619 1479 118 xx<br />

a6b2 9957 9598 9617 9724 1584 119 xx<br />

a6b3 10249 10249 9682 10060 1920 124 xxx<br />

a6b4 10249 10323 9783 10118 1978 124 xxx<br />

DL 5% 1368<br />

Average of the factor A<br />

a1 12256 11977 11635 11956 - 100<br />

a2 7661 7463 7519 7548 -4408 63 000<br />

a3 12483 12698 11617 12266 310 102<br />

a4 7365 7488 6069 6974 -4982 58 000<br />

a5 15344 15580 15275 15400 3444 129 xxx<br />

a6 10080 9924 9637 9880 -2076 83 0<br />

DL 5% 1580<br />

Average of the factor B<br />

b1 9613 9580 9352 9515 - 100<br />

b2 10475 10377 9874 10242 727 108<br />

b3 11389 11375 10740 11168 1653 117 xx<br />

b4 11892 12088 11203 11728 2213 123 xxx<br />

Dl 5% 1380 1380<br />

Table 5

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Annual forage plants: corn silage, forage<br />

beet and forage turnip produced large quantities<br />

of fresh mass, such as: 79 t/ha of forage beet, 69<br />

t/ha of forage turnip and 66 t/ha of corn silage.<br />

2. Average production increases when it<br />

used different nitrogen fertilizer doses were: 31%<br />

N60, 56% and 95% at N180 and N120<br />

3. Dry matter production was: 15.6 t/ha for<br />

corn silage, 11.0 t/ha for forage beet and 8.7 t/ha<br />

for forage turnip<br />

4. In the climatic conditions of Suceava<br />

Plateau the highest yields of dry matter in the<br />

mixture of alfalfa and orchard grass and for<br />

alfalfa in pure culture have obtained, and the<br />

lowest yields for perennial grasses were achieved<br />

5. The biggest increases through utilization<br />

of nitrogen fertilizers were obtained at pure<br />

cultures of perennial grasses and in the case of<br />

perennial legumes in pure culture and mixtures<br />

the increases were small, which leads to the<br />

conclusion of the utilization of higher nitrogen<br />

doses in the first case and small doses in the<br />

second case<br />

276<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Moga I., Varga P., Kellner E., Burlacu Gh., Paulian<br />

Fl., Ulinici A., Sipoş Gh.,1983 - Plante furajere<br />

perene, Ed.Academiei RSR Bucureşti ;<br />

Moga I., Schitea Maria., Mateiaş M.C.,1996, Plantente<br />

furajere,Editura Ceres, Bucureşti<<br />

Săicu C. Cercetări privind cultura unor specii de<br />

leguminoase şi graminee furajere în condiţiile din<br />

Nordul Moldovei, 2010, Analele INCDA Fundulea<br />

,vol. XXXVIII,nr 1;<br />

Săicu C. Posibilităţi de reducere a îngrăşămintelor cu<br />

azot prin utilizarea unor amestecuri de graminee<br />

cu leguminoase perene în condiţiile din nordul<br />

Moldovei, 2011, <strong>Lucrări</strong> <strong>ştiinţifice</strong>, vol 54, seria<br />

<strong>Agronomie</strong>,USAMV Iaşi;<br />

Varga P.1993 - Producerea furajelor, Editura Ceres,<br />

Bucureşti

277<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

OPTIMIZING THE CONTENT OF ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS IN EDIBLE FLOURS<br />

OBTAINED FROM CEREALS AND LEGUMINOUS GREEN<br />

Abstract<br />

Steluta Radu 1<br />

e-mail: r_stela_222@yahoo.com<br />

Aminoacids have an essential role in the fuction of the human metabolism. The most important saturated aminoacids,<br />

which are the main component of the proteins. There are 18 aminoacids designated as essential which can not be<br />

synthesized in the human organism. This is why they should be asured via noutrishment.The amino acids essential are :<br />

valine, leucine, isoleucine, phynilalanine, threonine, lysine, tryptofan, methionine, for the adults, and in the case of the<br />

childre we can added the glutamine and histidine. Amino acids are synthetized only bz the vegetable, specially from the<br />

grains. The level of amino acids are recommended by FAO and the assimilation of them are very important for the<br />

organism. In this study we watching by compare the level of amino acids from the flours obtaining from the wheat, rye,<br />

corn, barley, buck-wheat, rice, soya beans, lentil, peas. The level of nutrients of the food products generates the quality<br />

of them and the essential method for the resolving of the consumer’s. The quality of food products is a means used for<br />

a certain purpose, according to which a company or an economic agent exists on the market and it can remain<br />

competitive continuously although it develops in a changing environment. The study welcome of the actual tendency by<br />

the supplementing of the processing food.<br />

Key words: essential amino acids, nutrition, food safety<br />

1 USAMV Iasi<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Foods may contribute to maintaining the<br />

health on a long term basis, in ways not recognized<br />

until now, which means a new dimension of<br />

appreciation of how food can positively influence<br />

the health and welfare of the people, beyond<br />

providing the nutrients needed. Research results<br />

have shown that consumers are beginning to attach<br />

greater importance to healthy eating. Most<br />

consumers have considered it very important to<br />

permit health claims for functional foods by<br />

authorized agencies (74.29%), the need for<br />

scientific support of health benefits (64.94%) and<br />

their communication to the public (89.35%).<br />

(Mihaela Constandache, Elena Condrea 2010).<br />

A growing number of consumers perceive<br />

the ability to control their health by improving<br />

their present health and/or hedging against aging<br />

and future disease. These consumers create a<br />

demand for food products with enhanced<br />

characteristics and associated health benefits. In<br />

one study, 93% of consumers believed certain<br />

foods have health benefits that may reduce the risk<br />

of disease or other health concerns. In addition,<br />

85% expressed interest in learning more about the<br />

health benefits offered by functional foods.(***<br />

International Food Issues & Resources,<br />

2007).World market growth in the natural health<br />

products, nutraceutical and functional food<br />

industry is being driven by demographic, economic<br />

and social trends. The key factors driving this<br />

growth in demand, as well as and changes in the<br />

supply chain, include: aging populations,<br />

particularly the large baby boom generation;<br />

increasing interest in healthy living; increasing<br />

affluence and education among world populations;<br />

increasing understanding of the link between<br />

nutrition and health; emphasis on preventative<br />

measures to control health care costs;increased<br />

acceptance and utilization of alternative<br />

treatments;rising acceptance among doctors,<br />

pharmacists and other health professionals;<br />

expanding body of scientific and clinical research<br />

to validate effectiveness and safety; expanding<br />

press coverage of such research;increased<br />

marketing and advertising activities by suppliers;<br />

evolving public policy and regulatory<br />

environments (*** Potential Benefits of functional<br />

foods and Nutraceuticals to the Agri-Food Industry<br />

in Canada). Although functional foods are intended<br />

to modify physiological functions within the body<br />

in a positive way, their mode of action is to restore,<br />

reinforce or maintain normal body processes in<br />

ways consistent with normal physiology. They<br />

may restore or enhance body functions within<br />

normal ranges in order to optimise health and wellbeing<br />

or they may reduce factors known to be<br />

associated with the risk of contracting<br />

diseases(Howlet,J.,Functionalfoods2008).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Functional food science is still at an early<br />

stage in its development. As knowledge about the<br />

functional effects of foods increases and the<br />

functionality of particular foods and food<br />

components is more extensively recognised,<br />

technology will have a continuing role to play in<br />

making those foods and food components more<br />

widely available and accessible. Basic education in<br />

nutrition will also have a continuing role to play in<br />

ensuring that the benefits of functional foods are<br />

understood by all stakeholders in order to ensure<br />

that the benefits are enjoyed to the full.(Mihaela<br />

Constandache, Elena Condrea 2010).<br />

Amino acids are organic substances with<br />

essential role in the function of the human<br />

metabolism . This is why they should be ensured<br />

via nourishment. For the adults the essential amino<br />

acids are: valine, leucine, isoleucine,<br />

phenylalanine, threonine, lysine, tryptophan,<br />

methionine. In the case of the children we can add<br />

glutamine and histidine. Amino acids are<br />

synthesized only by plants due to the synthesizing<br />

of the plants by synthesizing the atmospheric or<br />

mineral nitrogen, and the animals are obtaining it<br />

from the plants. The level of amino acids are<br />

recommended by FAO and the assimilation of<br />

them are very important for the organism. In this<br />

study are watching by compare the level of amino<br />

acids from the bakery products enriched with<br />

insulated of peas and soy. One of the most efficient<br />

ways to increase the biological value of the bread<br />

proteins is representing by the use of raw material<br />

rich in essential nutrients, which together with the<br />

contribution to the aspect of their content rich in<br />

essential amino acids, can fortify the bread with<br />

phosphorus and calcium, isolated peas, deshidrated<br />

isolated soy.(Byrne C., Maher M.J., Hennerty, M.)<br />

The quantitative contribution of the protein<br />

insulated from peas upon the protein value of the<br />

bread. One of the highest grow up of the bread<br />

protein content, explained by the considerable<br />

content in proteins of the exogenous protein<br />

source, was obtained due to the intensification of<br />

the wheat flower with insulated peas. The bread<br />

protein content has grown together with the<br />

increase of the protein insulated from peas<br />

percentage used for the intensification.<br />

The highest values of the indications of<br />

essential amino acids EAA – Index were registered<br />

at the products intensified with isolated peas,<br />

followed by those fortified with soy degreased<br />

flour and protein insulated from peas.(Texeira<br />

S.,Potter S.M)<br />

Very important are the values registered by<br />

the products fortified with soy degreased flour,<br />

(Mihaela, Constandache, 2010) which despite a<br />

278<br />

smaller content of protein from the protein source,<br />

can be compared with those generated by the peas<br />

protein isolation, which explains the fact that the<br />

soy degreased flour ensures an optimal balance of<br />

the essential amino acids.<br />

Research carried out towards the<br />

determination of levels of essential amino acids<br />

and un-essential for vegetable raw materials, which<br />

have been grown in ecological conditions.<br />

Experimental determinations shows that the use of<br />

raw materials such as: rice, barley, maize, peas,<br />

lentils, wheat and rye, have recorded the maximum<br />

value from lentils 24.8-25,8% of proteins which<br />

has 39.95% essential amino acids, to soyabeans<br />

34.9% proteins which has 36,82% essential amino<br />

acids; the average values of rye flour whole 10.7%<br />

protein, essential amino acids, 32,28% to 11.6%<br />

values of buckwheat protein and essential amino<br />

acids, 32,99% and the minimum values of maize<br />

flour 9,1% protein, 35% essential amino acids.<br />

Comparative analysis of free amino acids in flours<br />

studied with the level of amino acids<br />

recommended by FAO provided that the richest<br />

flours in essential amino acids are: flour of soy<br />

beans, flour of lentils, and peas flour.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The determination of content of amino acids<br />

used Kjeldahl method, Biuret method for hzstidine,<br />

serina, threonina and cromatographic method in<br />

high pressure liquid phase by molecular exclusionis-HPLC.<br />

Separation of amino acids was made on<br />

the basis of the molecular weight, using<br />

chromatography, molecular masses of phases<br />

separated estimation using standard and<br />

quantitative determination of protein based on the<br />

area of the peaks and the amount of protein in the<br />

protein solution determined by Kjeldahl<br />

micromethod. So for the experimental device used<br />

is-HPLC (Waters, model LC module 1 plus) consist<br />

of the column, TSK G 4000 SW, column guard<br />

(precolumn), TSK 3000, 1000 SW, sofware<br />

detector ABI Lab-PC II.<br />

The reagents were used: extraction solution<br />

of phosphate buffer, 0,1 n, sociu PH 6.9,<br />

containing ground 2% SDS, sodium dodecyl<br />

sulphate eluţie buffer-buffer solution, 0 71n sodium<br />

phosphate, containing 0.1% SDS; standard protein<br />

reagents for the determination of proteins by the<br />

Kjeldahl method.<br />

The apparent molecular weight of proteins<br />

separated, it is estimated by using standard<br />

proteins, which are introduced and they are eluted<br />

in the column and under the same conditions as<br />

the sample to be analyzed. The analysis is done<br />

using the sofware Chromatograms.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Studies on the flours obtained from cereals<br />

and legumes grown under organic conditions at<br />

Iezareni Iasi county result the following aspects :<br />

Figure1-Essential amino acids dynamics – valina,<br />

isoleucine and lysine in cereal<br />

Soy flour recorded the largest values in<br />

Leucine -2670 mg and lysine - 1 900 mg,<br />

isoleucine-1850 mg, followed by flour lentil flour<br />

and peas. Leucine present average values edible<br />

flours of wheat-850 mg, peas - 1170 mg,<br />

buckwheat-1160- mg. The lowest values were<br />

edible flours: rye-480 mg, barley– 680 mg and rice<br />

-730 mg. (fig.2).<br />

Figure 2 -Essential amino acids dynamics, threonine,<br />

leucine, tryptophan, methionine, phenylalanine to Edible<br />

flours<br />

The maximum value register phenilalanine<br />

- 1610 mg at the soya beans flour. While the<br />

present average values obtained from the Edible<br />

flours: lentils1150 mg, peas –-400 mg. The lowest<br />

values are recorded as edible flours: wheat-500 m<br />

279<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

g, rye -490 mg, corn flour-410 mg, , buckwheat-<br />

400 mg, barley-550mg, rice--580 mg. The<br />

threonine amino acid register higer values for soya<br />

beans flour-1390 mg, average values of lentils,<br />

edible flours 990 mg, peas-960 mg. The lowest<br />

values are recorded as Edible flours: wheat270 mg,<br />

rye-250 mg, corn flour-220 mg, buckwheat -320<br />

mg, , barley-350 mg and rice – 410 mg. The<br />

tryptophan register values for soybeans flour-410<br />

mg, average values of lentils. (figure 1). The<br />

lowest values are recorded as Edible flours: wheat-<br />

100 mg, rye- -100, corn flour, buckwheat-130<br />

mg/160 mg, barley, rice – 220 mg to 150 mg. In<br />

the case of methyonine register values for<br />

soybeans flour-560 mg. The lowest values are<br />

recorded as Edible flours: wheat, rye-100 mg, corn<br />

flour-160 mg, buckwhea– 130 mg t, barley -140<br />

mg, rice – 220 mg. (figure 2)<br />

Glutamic acid has the largest soyabeans<br />

flour 6050 mg, being followed by those of peas-<br />

3615 mg, and the flour of buckwheat-3400 mg.<br />

average values can be observed in the wheat flour,<br />

3080 mg- lentils-2890 mg, rice flour-2370 mg. In<br />

the case of other amino acids prolina, serina,<br />

tyrosina and cysteine note minimum for all. Edible<br />

flours except soy meal at which the values are of<br />

1860 mg. (figure 3).<br />

The asparagic acid, glycine, arginine and<br />

Histidine maximum values recorded for soya flour<br />

between 980-820 mg, average values for edible<br />

flours of lentils between 700-2370 mg, peas – 700<br />

mg.<br />

Other minimum values between flour has<br />

230-400 mg/100 g of flour. (fig.4). In the diagram<br />

you can see that the level of essential amino acids<br />

is lower than the level of un essential, so they have<br />

a higher weight than those essential. So in the case<br />

of essential amino acids share lentils is the largest<br />

42,011%.(fig.5)<br />

Figure 3 -Dynamics of unessential amino acids

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 4 – Dynamics of alanine amino acids arginine,<br />

hystidine, asparagic acid and Glycine<br />

Figure 5 – Dynamics of essential amino acids and un<br />

essential<br />

Weighted average values to be observed in<br />

rezults: edible flours 35,310% buckwheat,<br />

36,608% rice, 36,874% at soy beans. The lowest<br />

note to wheat flour 30,294% and flour barley<br />

28,166%. The amino acids unessential largest<br />

share a meal of barley 71,834%, being followed by<br />

Edible flours of wheat 69,706%, rye, buckwheat<br />

67,341% 64,690% 62,069% of maize flour, edible<br />

flours of soybean and rice with a weight of around<br />

63%.The smallest proportion were edible flours of<br />

peas 60,448%. Incidentally, it appears that the<br />

content of essential amino acids is inversely<br />

proportional to the content of amino acid<br />

unessentially which can be synthetizated by the<br />

human body. By comparing the total content of<br />

essential amino acids, which are not sintetizati by<br />

the body the weights for each type of amino acid in<br />

flour samples taken in the study. Thus, it sought to<br />

analyse the weights with FAO standard values.<br />

Essential amino acids by comparison with<br />

the values recommended by FAO showed that: the<br />

280<br />

flour is recommended for isoleucina content<br />

covered, leucine, tryptophan, cover draws by<br />

100%. Other amino acids occupying a weight<br />

between 47,646% lysine and 87,352 phenilalanina.<br />

In the case of rye flour shall be recorded<br />

against the standard for valine and tryptophane,<br />

isoleucine, leucine, phenilalanina, threonine and<br />

lisyne presents important values. Lowest value of a<br />

metionine area.<br />

Flours and meals of corn will be<br />

standardized to values above the threshold, valine<br />

108,75 isoleucine 135,94, leucine 219,78%. lysina,<br />

metionine and threonine is situated between<br />

49,261-53,05, while phenilalanina and tryptophan<br />

have values of 70,734 and 79,576.<br />

Barley-meal to be constant values below the<br />

standardizate of the FAO, with the maximum for<br />

leucine and phenilalanin. Overcoming the<br />

buckwheat is observed, isoleucine standard for<br />

valina, leucine and tryptophan.<br />

Flour of rice will be over the maximum<br />

values for standard values, isoleucine, leucine,<br />

valine and other amino acids do not cover the<br />

standardized values. At the soyabeans flour 5 of<br />

the 8 essential amino acids have been higher than<br />

the standardized values. These are: leucine,<br />

isoleucine, valine, lysine and threonine. Lentil<br />

flour and peas flour are a similar situation as in the<br />

case of soybeans flours, with 5 essential amino<br />

acids with values that exceed the standard values.<br />

The first three amino acids that share the meal with<br />

soyabeans, and the other two are the tryptophan<br />

and threonine.<br />

The statistics evaluation by selected<br />

PEARSON correlation coefficients of note with the<br />

superior values for all kinds of flours and meals<br />

which have been obtained from cereals and<br />

leguminous. Superior coefficients were registered<br />

at phenilalanine, tryptophan, threonine. The other<br />

coefficients presents positive values, which means<br />

that their presence in the various types of flour and<br />

recommend we study these types of flour for<br />

optimization of human nutrition and food safety of<br />

the population. It is to be noticed that the<br />

amplitude of essential aminoacids (variation) is<br />

higher when the grain is around the interval of 98-<br />

125%.(Hill A.B.)These aspects indicate a linear<br />

correlation with lack of intensity between the<br />

series of experimental data (aminoacids contents –<br />

the content of protein FAO mg/g proteins). In this<br />

direction, the cubic function was<br />

2 3<br />

used, y b0<br />

b1<br />

x b2<br />

x b3<br />

x , which, for the<br />

field of studied definition, follows closely the<br />

studied phenomenon.

Essential<br />

aminoacids/ variaty<br />

of flours<br />

Wheat<br />

flour<br />

Percentage of essential amino acids in flours taken in study<br />

Rye<br />

flour<br />

Corn<br />

flour<br />

Barley<br />

flour<br />

Buckwheat<br />

flour<br />

281<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Rice<br />

flour<br />

Soya<br />

beans<br />

flour<br />

Lentil<br />

flour<br />

Peas<br />

flour<br />

Table 1<br />

The content of<br />

protein FAO mg/g<br />

protein<br />

Valine 40,881 59,249 54,377 38,501 53,01 53,836 60,827 69,937 52,481 50<br />

Izoleucine 45,073 37,572 54,377 33,435 44,924 52,49 52,678 51,967 63,454 40<br />

Leucin 89,099 69,364 153,85 68,896 105,12 98,25 77,707 92,278 78,721 70<br />

Lysine 26,205 40,462 27,851 28,369 26,954 39,031 60,827 77,222 79,198 55<br />

Metionine 26,205 14,451 17,241 14,184 19,766 20,188 16,298 14,085 11,927 35<br />

Threonine 28,302 31,792 21,22 30,395 36,837 34,993 40,454 48,082 44,37 40<br />

Tryptophan 10,482 14,451 7,9576 9,1185 15,274 12,113 13,097 10,685 12,405 10<br />

Phenilalanine 52,411 59,249 42,44 58,764 51,213 55,182 46,857 55,852 52,958 60<br />

Essential aminoacids 30,294 32,659 37,931 28,166 35,31 36,608 36,874 42,011 39,552 39,71<br />

Table 2<br />

Essential<br />

The proportion of cover of protein content FAO, %<br />

Buck- Soya<br />

aminoacids/ The content of protein Wheat Rye Corn Barley wheat Rice beans Lentil Peas<br />

variaty of flours FAO mg/g protein flour flour flour flour flour flour flour flour flour<br />

Valine 50 81,761 118,5 108,75 77,001 106,02 107,67 121,65 139,87 104,96<br />

Izoleucine 40 112,68 93,931 135,94 83,587 112,31 131,22 131,69 129,92 158,64<br />

Leucin 70 127,28 99,092 219,78 98,422 150,17 140,36 111,01 131,83 112,46<br />

Lysine 55 47,646 73,568 50,639 51,58 49,008 70,965 110,59 140,4 144<br />

Metionine 35 74,873 41,288 49,261 40,527 56,475 57,681 46,566 40,241 34,079<br />

Threonine 40 70,755 70,755 53,05 75,988 92,093 87,483 101,14 120,2 110,93<br />

Tryptophane 10 104,82 144,51 79,576 11,854 152,74 121,13 130,97 106,85 124,05<br />

Phenilalanine 60 87,352 98,748 70,734 97,94 85,355 91,969 78,095 93,087 88,263<br />

Table 3<br />

PEARSON function about the coefficients of correlation<br />

Wheat<br />

Barley Buckwhe<br />

Soya beans Lentil Peas<br />

flour Rye flour Corn flour flour at flour Rice flour flour flour flour<br />

Valine 0,814 0,881 0,710 0,883 0,770 0,850 0,865 0,886 0,816<br />

Izoleucine 0,817 0,907 0,709 0,883 0,766 0,848 0,872 0,891 0,816<br />

Leucine 0,834 0,910 0,720 0,885 0,773 0,870 0,904 0,898 0,864<br />

Lysin 0,839 0,864 0,822 0,824 0,758 0,918 0,855 0,843 0,806<br />

Metyonine 0,975 0,866 0,871 0,905 0,913 0,939 0,854 0,843 0,818<br />

Threonine 0,977 0,960 0,899 0,963 0,999 0,997 0,973 0,970 0,979<br />

Tryptophan 0,990 0,977 0,957 0,971 0,999 1,000 0,992 0,994 0,996<br />

Phenylalanine 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000<br />

Coefficients of regressive cubic function<br />

y <br />

2 3<br />

b0<br />

b1<br />

x b2<br />

x b3<br />

x (fractions)<br />

r2 Sig f b0 b1 b2 b3<br />

Wheat flour 1 0.011 3.30 0.25 -0.0016 b 10<br />

Rye flour 0.998 0.045 8.38 0.55 -0.0022<br />

Corn flour 0.999 0.035 3.61 0.05 -0.0002<br />

Barley flour 0.985 0.122 3.41 0.30 -0.0024<br />

Buckwheat flour 0.999 0.032 6.21 1.03 -0.065<br />

Rice flour 0.984 0.121 3.40 0.29 -0.0023<br />

Soya beans flour 0.999 0.035 3.61 0.05 -0.0002<br />

Lentil flour 0.999 0.035 3.61 0.05 -0.0002<br />

Peas flour 0.999 0.035 3.61 0.05 -0.0002<br />

b<br />

b<br />

b<br />

b<br />

b<br />

b<br />

b<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

3<br />

10<br />

10<br />

10<br />

10<br />

10<br />

10<br />

10<br />

4<br />

4<br />

4<br />

4<br />

4<br />

4<br />

4<br />

4<br />

b <br />

10<br />

4<br />

Table 4

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

In the present work essential amino acids<br />

are compared the weights to the needs of FAO<br />

recommended standard at the level of the human<br />

body and have been determined to be consumed<br />

edible flours, in terms of food safety, with a high<br />

content of essential amino acids, as follows:<br />

1. Lysina, isoleucine, valine presents<br />

maximum and all soyabeans flour and average<br />

values for edible flours of lentils, peas, and minine<br />

limits for edible flours: wheat, rye, barley,<br />

buckwheat, peas and rice.<br />

2. Phenilalanina flour have the maximum<br />

value from register, while average values are<br />

obtained from the edible flours: lentils and peas.<br />

3. Dynamics of amino acids that can be<br />

synthetizated by body human shows us that:<br />

glutamic acid has the largest, soy flour, being<br />

followed by the peas flour and flour of buckwheat.<br />

Average values can be observed from the flour of<br />

wheat, lentils, rice flours. Asparagic acid, glycine,<br />

arginine and hystidine maximum values recorded<br />

for soyabeans flour, average values for edible<br />

flours of lentils and peas.<br />

4. In the diagram you can see that the level<br />

of essential amino acids is lower than the level of<br />

unessential amino acids, so they have a higher<br />

weight than those essential. Thus, the most<br />

important essential amino acids for are soyabeans<br />

flour, peas and lentils that in.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

The researches have made at the SC Compan SA Iasi<br />

and at the University of Agricultural Sciences and<br />

Medicine Veterinary” Ion Ionescu de la Brad” from Iasi<br />

county.<br />

282<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Banu, C., 2000, Treaty of food engineering-vol. 1.<br />

Dunărea de Jos University of Galaţi<br />

Byrne C., Maher M.J., Hennerty, M. J., 2001, Reducing<br />

the nitrogen content of protected lettuce crops..<br />

Irish Journal of Agricultural & Food Research,<br />

23(12): 177-182.<br />

Bulgaru V. and Dupouy E., 2008. Extraction de<br />

l’amidon du sorghum oryzoidum. In: Actes du<br />

cinquième colloque franco-roumain de chimie<br />

appliquée, Editions Alma Mater Bacau.<br />

Hill A.B., 1971, Statistical evidence and inference. In<br />

Principles of Medical Statistics 9 th ed, Oxford<br />

University Press, New York, pp. 309-323;<br />

Howlet, J., 2008, Functional foods: From science to<br />

health and claims, International Life Science<br />

Institute, Brussels.<br />

Nestel P.J., Yamashita T., Sasahara T., Pmeroy S.,<br />

Dart A., Komesaroff P., Owen A., Abbey M.,<br />

1997, Soy isoflavones improve systemic arterial<br />

compliance but not plasma lipids in menopausal<br />

and perimenopausal woman, Arterioscler. Tromb.<br />

Vasc. Biol., 17, 3392-3398.<br />

Texeira S., Potter S.M., Weigel R., Hannum S.,<br />

Erdman J.W.Jr., Hasler C.M.,2000, Effects of<br />

feeding 4 levels of soy protein for 3 or 6 weeks on<br />

blood lipids and apolipoproteins in moderately<br />

hypercholesterolemic men, Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,<br />

71(5), 1077-1084, PMID:10799368<br />

Mihaela, Constandache, 2009,-Health benefits of soy<br />

proteins analysis and their influence on the<br />

quality of fortified bread, Ovidius University from<br />

Constanta;<br />

Mihaela, Constandache, Elena Condrea, 2010,<br />

Functional foods – an opportunity to provide<br />

health status.<br />

*** International Food Issues & Resources, 2007-<br />

2009 IFIC Foundation Media Guide on Food<br />

Safety and Nutrition, Washington, DC, USA.<br />

http://www.ific.org/nutrition/functional/index.cfm.<br />

Accesed 13 April 2009.<br />

*** Potential Benefits of functional foods and<br />

Nutraceuticals to the Agri-Food Industry in<br />

Canada, 2002, Final Report on Behalf of<br />

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Scott Wolfe<br />

Management Inc.

Abstract<br />

283<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR FROM MOLDOVA AREA TOWARDS<br />

ORGANIC FOOD<br />

Vasile STOLERU 1 , Neculai MUNTEANU 1 , Andy-Felix JITAREANU 1<br />

E-mail: vstoleru@uaiasi.ro<br />

This study tried to get knowledge of consumer behavior from Moldova area, towards organic food products. It was<br />

performed on sample of 225 respondents and the data obtained from the survey were analyzed by SPSS version 20<br />

program by chi-square test and correlation analysis. As a research method to quantitatively study used a questionnaire<br />

applied to their face to face by interviewers. The instrument used was a questionnaire consisting of 14 questions,<br />

including four sections: filter questions, consumer behavior, perception differences between organic and conventional<br />

foods (common) and demographic characteristics. The main points of purchase organic products are: domestic market,<br />

supermarket and health food stores. Of the following points of sale where the respondents consider that they can buy<br />

ECO food is 29.70% of domestic market responses, 24.90% of responses supermarket and health food store 21.40%.<br />

Based on the statistical analysis performed shows that 45.13% of respondents consume organic products several times a<br />

week. Regarding the recognition criteria of food ECO, 42.21% of the responses indicate label 33.17% believe organic<br />

products appearance and smell of 23.62% using the element of differentiation between organic and conventional<br />

products.<br />

Key words: behavior, consumer, organic food<br />

At the end of 2011, around the world had<br />

been more than 37 million certified organic<br />

hectares (IFOAM, 2012, Fibl, 2012).The largest<br />

grow of agricultural land was in Europe, where the<br />

area increased by 0.8 million hectares and is now<br />

at 10 million hectares (+ 9% compared with 2009),<br />

Fibl, 2012.<br />

According to official data from the Ministry<br />

of Agriculture and Rural Development of Romania<br />

since 2011, has seen a noticeable increase of<br />

agricultural areas in organic system operated in<br />

Romania growth who is not accompanied by an<br />

explosion in consumption of organic products in<br />

our country. At the end of 2011, the area covered<br />

in organic system was 567,996.68 ha compared<br />

with 2006, the certified organic area was 135,799.0<br />

ha, thus registering an increase of 4.18 times<br />

compared to 2006 and by 13% compared to 2010.<br />

One major change of the new regulation<br />

concerns the labelling of organic food: The new<br />

regulation stipulates the introduction of a new<br />

mandatory EU logo for organic food (EC, 2007).<br />

In the Central Eastern Europe, the high<br />

growth rates of the organic markets are in Poland,<br />

the Czech Republic and Romania (BioFach, 2012).<br />

Romania exported over 150,000 tons of organic<br />

1 University of Agriculture Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi<br />

goods to the value of 150 million euros in 2012.<br />

Sales are to grow by another 20% in 2012, than in<br />

2010 (BioFach, 2012, MADR, 2012).<br />

In the analysis of consumer behavior should<br />

consider the following characteristics: who believe<br />

consumers (perception), what feel consumers<br />

(impression) and what they do (behavior) and what<br />

factors influences (environment); consumers are<br />

very different each other (Florescu, 2003;<br />

Munteanu, 2008); consumers acting emotionally<br />

rather than rationally and act differently in<br />

different time points, consumer behavior can be<br />

influenced, it can learn and can change and<br />

behavior attitudes (Stan, 2005) consumer behavior<br />

is dynamic, consumer behavior determines<br />

exchanges between participants marketing process<br />

(Bogers, 2004).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Aim of the study which was the basis this<br />

survey had in mind the analysis of current trends<br />

and needs on the organic products market in<br />

Romania and Republic of Moldova and especially<br />

about behavior towards these products<br />

Research. The study was carried out on a<br />

sample of 225 individuals structured according to<br />

main criteria of demographics. As research

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

methods used to study quantitative questionnaire<br />

applied through face to face by interviewers<br />

(Buiga, 2003). The instrument used was a<br />

questionnaire consisting of 14 questions and<br />

contacts including 4 sections: filter questions,<br />

consumer behavior, perceived differences between<br />

food and food ECO usual extent that the difference<br />

284<br />

between the notions of ECO, BIO, natural and<br />

organic product (Oppenheim, 1997; Green, 2005).<br />

We used quantitative survey questionnaire applied<br />

through face to face by interviewers during<br />

15.12.2011 – 15.01.2012 (table 1).<br />

Stages of research for the organic products study<br />

Research stage Research period<br />

Draft questionnaire design 01 – 10 December 2011<br />

Pretest draft questionnaire 10-13 December 2011<br />

Training operators and multiplication questionnaires 14 December 2011<br />

Data collection in Romania 15 December 2011 – 15 January 2012<br />

Data collection in Moldova 15 December 2011 – 15 January 2012<br />

Creating the database 15 – 17 January 2012<br />

Data analysis 17 – 25 January 2012<br />

Drafting the report 25 - 27 January 2012<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS<br />

Sample structure. Of the 225 respondents,<br />

71.56% are from Iasi, 12.44% of Pascani, 11.11%<br />

in Moldova, and 4.98% from Targu Frumos. All<br />

respondents are resident in urban areas.<br />

In terms of gender, the sample consists of<br />

52.50% women and 47.50% men, which<br />

approaches the natural population structure in the<br />

area. Respondents have been selected in the age<br />

range 20-50 years, 24.50% part of segment 20-29<br />

years, 36% of segment 30-39 years and 40-49<br />

years 39.50% of the segment is considered as<br />

being active population of area, and the most of<br />

them the number of family members is greater than<br />

3, and every family has at least one child.<br />

In terms of the education level of 63.27% of<br />

people follow university studies or are graduate<br />

0.29<br />

0.15 0.29 0.29<br />

12.09<br />

13.42<br />

8.85<br />

17.55<br />

Regarding to the questioned sample<br />

structure according to frequency of consumption,<br />

21.68<br />

14.6<br />

10.77<br />

Fig. 1 Criteria for choosing organic products<br />

Table 1<br />

studies, 25.66% follow high school and postsecondary<br />

and 9.73% have graduated from a<br />

vocational school or grades 9-10, knowing that Iasi<br />

is a college town and many graduates find a job in<br />

the county. Structure analysis according to<br />

monthly net income indicates that 26.91% came<br />

under 600 lei, 30.94% have income levels 601-<br />

1200 lei, 17.49% between 1201-1800 lei and<br />

14.66% over 1800 lei, which is similar to the<br />

regionally structure.<br />

Structure of organic food consumption.<br />

The data presented in fig. 1 indicates that<br />

aspect of the products was referred as important<br />

criteria in 21.68% of responses, 17.55% in the<br />

price, taste in 14.60%, 13.42% preservatives<br />

content and producer in 12.09%.<br />

Aspect<br />

Smell<br />

Taste<br />

Price<br />

Preservative content<br />

Producer<br />

Country of origin<br />

Content of sugars/lipids<br />

Nutrients<br />

Quality<br />

Shelf<br />

we can say that 33.63% of respondents use<br />

certified organic products occasionally and 45.13%

more than once a week (28.32% 3-4 times a week<br />

and 16.81% daily). The most ECO food consumed<br />

(fig. 2) are fruits and vegetables (29.43% of the<br />

products), beverages and milk (23.77% of<br />

responses), basic products (sugar, flour, etc. - 20%<br />

23.77<br />

6.98<br />

10.38<br />

1.7 0.75<br />

Regarding to frequency which consumers<br />

verify the authenticity of organic products,<br />

regardless of income and professional category can<br />

say that 24.89% of respondents said they check<br />

20<br />

29.43<br />

285<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

of responses) biscuits and cereals (10.38% of<br />

responses), responses that are similar to those in<br />

the international literature (Bogers, 2004; Radman,<br />

2005).<br />

5.09<br />

Basic products<br />

Pasta, sauces<br />

Fruits and vegetables<br />

Biscuits, cereals<br />

Sweets<br />

Drinks, milk<br />

Cheese<br />

Eggs<br />

Fig. 2 Categories of organic products consumed<br />

13.33<br />

4.89 6.67<br />

35.11<br />

15.11<br />

ECO food they buy are very frequently or always,<br />

35.11% sometimes check and only 11.56% seldom<br />

or never.<br />

9.78<br />

15.11<br />

Fig. 3 – Frecventa verificarii logo-ului produselor alimentare ecologice<br />

In recognition criteria regarding organic<br />

products, 42.21% of responses on identification<br />

elements label indicating ECO products, 33.17%<br />

aspect of the products and 23.62% smell data<br />

Allways<br />

Very often<br />

Often<br />

Sometimes<br />

Rare<br />

Very rare<br />

Never<br />

which is confirmed by the international literature,<br />

the percentage of those who use label as a criterion<br />

for recognition is over 50% (Stolz, 2011).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

42.21<br />

0.5 0.5<br />

Of the following points of sale where the<br />

respondents consider that they can buy ECO food<br />

is 29.70% of domestic market responses, 24.90%<br />

of responses supermarket and 21.40% natural<br />

shops.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

In the terms of consumption frequency of<br />

organic products, 45.13% of respondents consume<br />

ECO more than once a week. The most types of<br />

ECO food consumed are fruits and vegetables,<br />

beverages, dairy and basic products.<br />

Approximately a quarter of respondents always<br />

check if products purchased are ECO. About 70%<br />

of people use the label as part of verification. The<br />

main points of purchase ECO products are:<br />

domestic market, supermarket and natural stores.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This work was co-financed from the European<br />

Social Fund through Sectorial Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project<br />

number POSDRU / I 89 / 1.5 / S62371, Postdoctoral<br />

School in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

BioFach, 2012 - East European organic markets<br />

booming. World Organic Trade Fair. Press<br />

release.<br />

Bogers R. P., Brug J., Van Assema P. & Dagnelie P.<br />

C., 2004 - Explaining fruit and vegetable<br />

consumption: the theory of planned behavior<br />

and misconception of personal intake levels.<br />

Appetite, 42, 157-166.<br />

23.62<br />

33.17<br />

286<br />

Smell<br />

Aspect<br />

Label<br />

Fig. 4 – Criteria for recognition of organic products<br />

Worms presence<br />

Recomandation<br />

Buiga A., Parpucea I., Dragos C., Todea A. & Lazar<br />

D., 2003 - Statistica I. Presa Universitara<br />

Clujeana.<br />

E. C., 2007 - Council Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 of<br />

28 June 2007 on organic production and<br />

labelling of organic products and repealing.<br />

Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91.<br />

Fibl, 2012 - Organic Agriculture Worldwide : Market<br />

Growing, Agricultural Land Remains Steady.<br />

Press release.<br />

.<br />

Florescu C., Mâlcomete P. & Pop N. Al., 2003 -<br />

Marketing: dicţionar explicativ, Editura<br />

Economică, Bucureşti, pg. 154-166.<br />

Green J. & Browne J., 2005 - Principles of social<br />

research. Understanding public health. Open<br />

University Press.<br />

MADR, 2012 - Dinamica operatorilor si a suprafetelor in<br />

agricultura ecologica. .<br />

Munteanu C. et. al., 2008 - Marketing: principii,<br />

practici, orizonturi. Editia a 2-a. Sedcom Libris,<br />

Iaşi, pg. 94.<br />

Oppenheim A. N., 1997 - Questionnaire Design,<br />

Interviewing and Attitude Measurement, New<br />

Edition. Printer Publishers Ltd., London.<br />

Radman M., 2005 - Consumer consumption and<br />

perception of organic products in Croatia. British<br />

Food Journal, 107 (4), 263-273.<br />

Stan N., Stoleru V., Munteanu N., Stan T., 2005 - The<br />

study of the attitude and preferences for organic<br />

vegetables depending on the education level of<br />

the respondents. Lucr. șt., seria Horticultură<br />

Vol. 48 pp. 93-98.<br />

Stolz H., Stolze M., Hamm U., Janssen M. & Ruto E.,<br />

2011 - Consumer attitudes towards organic<br />

versus conventional food with specific quality<br />

attributes. NJAS – Wageningen Journal of Life<br />

Sciences, 58, 67-72.

Abstract.<br />

287<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

COMPARATIVE BEHAVIOUR FOR A NEW ASSORTMENT<br />

OF DWARF FRENCH BEANS IN IAȘI AREA<br />

Sorin BÂRCĂ 1 , Nistor STAN 2 , Vasile STOLERU 2 , Neculai MUNTEANU 2 , Teodor STAN 2<br />

E-mail: itcsmsiasi@yahoo.com<br />

In the present paper are presents eight new bean garden varieties, under production conditions from Moldova<br />

Agricultural Society from Tiganasi, Iasi, from official catalog of seed varieties of the EU, in order to promote their<br />

crops. In 2012, have been made observations and biometric measurements agro-productively main features: early and<br />

total production of pods, production dinamic and seed production per hectare etc. The best results for early production<br />

(due on 11/06/2012) have been obtained by cultivars: Maxidor (5958.38 kg/ha), Saxa (5910.45 kg/ha), Scylla (5811.02<br />

kg/ha) and Cassandra (5766.33 kg/ha). Total production distinguished themselves cultivars: Scylla (13136.94 kg/ha),<br />

Minidor (12977.64 kg/ha) and Slenderette (11920.95 kg/ha).<br />

Keywords: assortment, dwarf french bean, comparative crop<br />

While promoting sustainable vegetable<br />

growing, variety is perhaps the most important<br />

biological factor of production, which is directly<br />

related to ecological plasticity and consumer<br />

preference (Ruști G., Munteanu N., 2008). At the<br />

same time, cultivation is an element of expression<br />

biodiversity crops, under a permanent change in<br />

the range of cultivation (Dumitrescu M. et al,<br />

1977; Dumitrescu M. et al, 1998). Present study<br />

submit a new assortment of dwarf garden bean of<br />

eight varieties of high production, which are<br />

included in the official catalog of varieties of the<br />

EU. Romanian varieties registered in the official<br />

catalog to provide the European Commission (DG<br />

SANCO) for inclusion in EU Common Catalogues,<br />

which can be marketed throughout the EU. These<br />

varieties are submitted for registration in the List<br />

of Varieties Eligible for Seed Certification,<br />

published by the Organization for Economic<br />

Cooperation and Development (OECD).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The research have been made at the<br />

Moldova Agricultural Association from Tiganasi,<br />

Iasi County, in 2012. The biological material used<br />

in the experience was represented by an<br />

assortment of eight garden dwarf bean cultivation:<br />

Jutta, Scylla, Maxidor, Saxa, Minidor, Slenderette,<br />

Bergold și Cassandra (Catalogul oficial, 2012,<br />

Popescu V., Atanasiu N., 2000, Ruști G., 2007,).<br />

1 Regional Inspectorate for Seeds and Propagating Material Quality Iasi<br />

2 2 University of Agriculture Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi<br />

The experience placed in an experimental<br />

stationary after autumn cereals. Soil preparation<br />

works were performed in accordance with<br />

appropriate technology conventional crops (Voican<br />

V., Lăcătușu V., 1998). The sowing was done on<br />

23.04.2012, using own seed obtained in 2011 from<br />

previous experiences. Crop establishment was<br />

done with the SUP 15 to 37.5 cm distance between<br />

rows and 5-6 cm between plants in the row at a<br />

depth of 3 cm, resulting in a density of 420,000 to<br />

500,000 (Chaux Ch., Foury Cl., 1996, Fouillox G.,<br />

Bannerot H., 1992, Munteanu N. et al, 2003). The<br />

amount of seed used to establish a crop of<br />

thousand seed weight (MMB) varied between 89-<br />

170 kg / ha. During 2012 were carried out<br />

observations and biometric measurements to<br />

ensure the achievement of a general<br />

characterization of assortment (Stoleru V. et al,<br />

2010). Have also been analyzed early production<br />

(assessed on June18), the total at the end of the<br />

growing season (from July 2). Production data<br />

were processed by specific methods (Jitareanu G.,<br />

1994).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS<br />

A brief characterization of agrobiological set<br />

is presented in Table 1. In the assortment studied<br />

can be say that varieties precocity varied from<br />

extra-early (Bergold) at early (Maxidor, Saxa and<br />

Cassandra) and semi-early (Jutta, Scylla, Minidor<br />

and Slenderette), which determined enlargement

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Table 1<br />

Assortment characterization of dwarf bean in comparative crop<br />

Production<br />

Plant Pod characteristics Seed<br />

Variety Precocity potential<br />

(t/ha)<br />

height<br />

(cm)<br />

type resistance z<br />

form<br />

lenght<br />

(cm)<br />

diameter<br />

(mm)<br />

colour<br />

weight<br />

(g/plant)<br />

color MMB y (g)<br />

Jutta<br />

semiearly<br />

10-12 40-45<br />

erect shrub<br />

with four<br />

branches<br />

CL round 9-10 7-8 green 18-23 white 280-290<br />

Scylla<br />

semiearly<br />

11-14 45-50<br />

erect shrub<br />

with four<br />

branches<br />

BCMV,<br />

CL<br />

round 10-11 8-9 green 22-26 white 265-270<br />

Maxidor early 9-11 35-40<br />

erect shrub<br />

with four<br />

branches<br />

XCPh,<br />

CL<br />

round 10-11 8-9 yellow 17,5-20 white 254-268<br />

Saxa early 9-10,5 40-45<br />

erect shrub<br />

with four<br />

branches<br />

BCMV,<br />

XCPh<br />

cylindrical 9-10 6-7 green 16,5-21,5 light<br />

brown<br />

390-410<br />

Minidor<br />

semiearly<br />

12-14 45-50<br />

erect shrub<br />

with four-five<br />

branches<br />

BCMV round 8-9 7-8 yellow 21-24 white 254-270<br />

Slenderette<br />

semiearly<br />

10-12 40-45<br />

erect shrub<br />

with five<br />

branches<br />

XCPh,<br />

CL<br />

round<br />

slightly<br />

flatt<br />

10-11 8-9 green 20-24 white 280-290<br />

Bergold<br />

veryearly<br />

7-9 35-40<br />

erect shrub<br />

with five<br />

branches<br />

erect shrub<br />

CL cylindrical 8-9 7-8 green 13-16 white 200-215<br />

Cassandra early 8-11 40-45 with five<br />

branches<br />

BCMV cylindrical 10-11 7-8 green 15,5-18 white 240-260<br />

Z<br />

BCMV – Bean common mosaic viru, XCPh - Xanthomonas campestris pv. Phaseoli, CL - Colletotrichum lindemuthianum<br />

y Thousand seed weight (MMB)<br />

288

conveyer for garden bean crop in Moldova area<br />

but also ensure a concentration of production in a<br />

very short period to promote mechanized<br />

harvesting work. Regarding for each cultivar<br />

yields can say that it falls within biological<br />

variety, but under application of appropriate<br />

technologies, including ensuring the rule of three<br />

time irrigation of 300 m³/ha. Thus, production<br />

potential varies widely from 7.9 t/ha (Bergold) to<br />

12-14 t/ha (Minidor, Scylla).<br />

Regarding biological characteristics of the<br />

species have been observed: plant height (cm),<br />

how branching and its habitus and biological<br />

resistance to specific pathogens (common mosaic<br />

virus, bean common burning). Plant height ranged<br />

from during the year very low limits between 35-<br />

40 cm (Maxidor, Bergold) and 45-50 cm (Scylla,<br />

Minidor). Dwarf bean plants studied in the<br />

experiment generally presented as a shrub with<br />

erect four to five offshoots, and good resistance to<br />

common mosaic virus (Scylla, Saxa, Minidor and<br />

Cassandra), common burning (Maxidor, Saxa,<br />

Slenderrete) and colletotrichum beans (Jutta,<br />

Scylla, Maxidor, Slenderette, Bergold). In<br />

connection with pod form at technological<br />

maturity or consumption it can be said that it<br />

ranges from slightly flattened round (Slenderette)<br />

to round (Jutta, Scylla, Maxidor, Minidor) or<br />

almost cylindrical (Saxa, Bergold or Cassandra).<br />

At the mature pod color consumption can afrim<br />

that two cultivation have yellow pods (Maxidor,<br />

Minidor) and six are green (Jutta, Scylla, Saxa,<br />

289<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Slenderette, Bergold and Cassandra). Regarding<br />

this pod length ranges from 8-9 cm (Minidor,<br />

Bergold) to 10.11 cm (Scylla, Maxidor,<br />

Slenderette and Cassandra). The production per<br />

plant varies quite widely depending on the<br />

biological value of each variety between 13-16 g /<br />

plant (Bergold) to 22-26 g / plant (Scylla).<br />

Regarding to seed color at physiological maturity<br />

can be seen that all the varieties studied white<br />

seeds except Saxa cultivar that has brown seeds.<br />

Seeds weight is an indicator of variability is quite<br />

large depending on the cultivar but has direct<br />

influence on seed quantity per hectare. Thus,<br />

MMB varied from 200-215 g (Bergold) at 390-<br />

410 g (Saxa).<br />

In 2012, early production from dwarf<br />

garden beans determined at 11.06 obtained on<br />

conventional system ranged from 1354.08 kg / ha<br />

for Bergold variety to 2615.81 kg / ha for Maxidor<br />

cultivar. The different of the yield than average<br />

experience in this case (509.67 kg / ha) is<br />

considered positive, very significant. Distinct<br />

positive significant differences and significant<br />

(Table 2) were also obtained for varieties Saxa<br />

(386.19 kg / ha) and Cassandra cultivar (239.00<br />

kg / ha). Bergold Variety achieved the lowest<br />

production of pods (1354.08 kg / ha), the<br />

difference of the average experience (-752.06 kg /<br />

ha) is very significant negative. Negative<br />

differences compared to the average experience<br />

cultivars have obtained Slenderette (-271.39 kg /<br />

ha) and Minidor (-130.30 kg / ha).<br />

Table 2<br />

The early yield of dwarf garden bean and significant defferences than control<br />

No. Variant Yield (t/ha)<br />

% than<br />

control<br />

Differences to<br />

control (kg/ha)<br />

1 Jutta 2087,92 99,13 -18,22<br />

Significance<br />

2 Scylla 2143,22 101,76 37,08<br />

3 Maxidor 2615,81 124,20 509,67 ***<br />

4 Saxa 2492,33 118,34 386,19 **<br />

5 Minidor 1975,84 93,81 -130,3<br />

6 Slenderette 1834,75 87,11 -271,39 o<br />

7 Bergold 1354,08 64,29 -752,06 ooo<br />

8 Cassandra 2345,14 111,35 239 *<br />

9 Control (experience average) 2106,14 0 0<br />

DL 5% = 168,49 kg/ha;<br />

DL 1% = 315,92 kg/ha;<br />

DL 0,1% = 505,47 kg/ha.<br />

Jutta, Scylla, and Minidor cultivars<br />

achieved similar early yield to average of<br />

experience and production increases obtained are<br />

considered insignificant. Total production of pods<br />

obtained from the experience is presented in Table<br />

3. This, varied in very wide limits, given the<br />

cultural and ecological plasticity cultivars. Total<br />

production ranged from 7090.66 kg / ha Bergold<br />

to 13136.94 kg / ha cultivar Scylla, while the<br />

average experience had value 10439.02 kg / ha.<br />

Very significant positive differences compared<br />

with the experience average was obtained by<br />

Scylla variety (2697.92 kg / ha) and Minidor<br />

(2538.62 kg/ha). Significant positive differences<br />

have been made of Slenderette variety, with the<br />

difference of the average of 1481.93 kg/ha.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Negative differences compared to the experience<br />

average production have been obtained for<br />

290<br />

varieties Bergold (-3348.36 kg / ha), Cassandra (-<br />

1587.25 kg / ha) and Saxa (-1401.40 kg / ha).<br />

Table 3<br />

The total yield of dwarf garden bean and significant defferences than control<br />

No. Variant Yield (t/ha)<br />

% than<br />

control<br />

Differences to<br />

control (kg/ha)<br />

Significance<br />

1 Jutta 10715,58 102,65 276,56<br />

2 Scylla 13136,94 125,84 2697,92 ***<br />

3 Maxidor 9781,02 93,70 -658<br />

4 Saxa 9037,62 86,58 -1401,4 o<br />

5 Minidor 12977,64 124,32 2538,62 ***<br />

6 Slenderette 11920,95 114,20 1481,93 *<br />

7 Bergold 7090,66 67,92 -3348,36 ooo<br />

8 Cassandra 8851,77 84,80 -1587,25 oo<br />

9<br />

Control (experience<br />

average)<br />

10439,02 0 0<br />

DL 5% = 835,12 kg/ha;<br />

DL 1% = 1565,85 kg/ha;<br />

DL 0,1% = 2505,36 kg/ha.<br />

Analyzing the dynamics of production of<br />

pods per time harvesting and cumulative data for<br />

each period observed that there is a concentrated<br />

harvest period, which should be an advantage for<br />

mechanical harvesting of beans in the garden.<br />

The data presented in Table 4 it is observed<br />

that the highest early yields habe been achieved<br />

by early and very-early varieties. Thus, the first<br />

harvest (11.06), the highest yields have been<br />

achieved by: Maxidor (2615.81 kg / ha), Saxa<br />

(2492.33 kg / ha) and Cassandra (2345.14 kg /<br />

ha). At the second harvest (18.06), the highest<br />

yields were achieved by cultivars: Scylla (3667.8<br />

kg / ha), Minidor (3642.19 kg / ha) and<br />

Slenderette (3542.18 kg / ha). The data presented<br />

in Table 5 it is observed that all cultivars have<br />

made production around 3000 kg / ha, but the total<br />

production reported the highest percentage in this<br />

time of harvest was conducted by variety Bergold<br />

(38.9%) and Cassandra (38.6%).<br />

Regarding cumulative production until<br />

18.06 on it is seen that the highest yields were<br />

achieved in the case Maxidor (5958.38 kg/ha) and<br />

Saxony variants (5910.45 kg/ha). At the third<br />

harvest (25.06), the highest yields were achieved<br />

by cultivars: Scylla (4715.33 kg / ha), Minidor<br />

(4013.28 kg / ha) and Slenderette (3942.31 kg /<br />

ha). Compared to the total highest percentage in<br />

this time of harvest was conducted by variety<br />

Scylla (35.9%) and Slenderette (33.1%).<br />

Regarding to the cumulative production up to date<br />

25.06 observed that the highest yields have been<br />

achieved in the case of Scylla (10526.35 kg / ha)<br />

and Minidor variants (9631.31 kg / ha). At the last<br />

harvest (2.07), the highest yields were achieved<br />

by cultivars: Minidor (3346.33 kg / ha), Jutta<br />

(2915.47 kg / ha), and Scylla (2610.59 kg / ha).<br />

Compared to the total highest percentage in<br />

this time of harvest was conducted by Jutta variety<br />

(27.2%) and Minidor (25.8%).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. The sssortment studied behaves growing<br />

according to precocity cultivars from very-early<br />

(Bergold) at early (Maxidor, Saxa and Cassandra)<br />

and medium-early (Jutta, Scylla, Minidor and<br />

Slenderette), which makes conveyor extension for<br />

garden bean cultivation.<br />

2. Two of the studied varieties are yellow<br />

pod and the others are green and pod shape in<br />

cross section is round, very slightly flattened<br />

round or cylindrical.<br />

3. At physiological maturity, seed color is<br />

white in all varieties except Saxa cultivar that has<br />

light brown seeds.<br />

Dynamics of pods production per harvest in 2012 (kg/ha)<br />

No. Variant<br />

11.06<br />

Harvesting time<br />

18.06 25.06 2.07<br />

Total yield<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

1 Jutta 2087,92 2956,73 2755,46 2915,47 10715,58<br />

2 Scylla 2143,22 3667,8 4715,33 2610,59 13136,94<br />

3 Maxidor 2615,81 3342,57 2007,98 1814,66 9781,02<br />

4 Saxa 2492,33 3418,12 2107,48 1019,69 9037,62<br />

5 Minidor 1975,84 3642,19 4013,28 3346,33 12977,64<br />

6 Slenderette 1834,75 3542,18 3942,31 2601,71 11920,95<br />

7 Bergold 1354,08 2758,51 2015,63 962,44 7090,66<br />

8 Cassandra 2345,14 3421,19 2245,84 839,6 8851,77<br />

Table 4.

No. Variant<br />

Dynamics of cumulative pods production in 2012 (kg/ha)<br />

291<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Harvesting time Total yield<br />

(kg/ha)<br />

11.06 18.06 25.06 2.07<br />

1 Jutta 2087,92 5044,65 7800,11 10715,58 10715,58<br />

2 Scylla 2143,22 5811,02 10526,35 13136,94 13136,94<br />

3 Maxidor 2615,81 5958,38 7966,36 9781,02 9781,02<br />

4 Saxa 2492,33 5910,45 8017,93 9037,62 9037,62<br />

5 Minidor 1975,84 5618,03 9631,31 12977,64 12977,64<br />

6 Slenderette 1834,75 5376,93 9319,24 11920,95 11920,95<br />

7 Bergold 1354,08 4112,59 6128,22 7090,66 7090,66<br />

8 Cassandra 2345,14 5766,33 8012,17 8851,77 8851,77<br />

4. Thousand seed weight varied from 200-<br />

215 g (Bergold) to 390-410 g (Saxa).<br />

5. The pods production per plant ranged<br />

quite widely depending on the biological value of<br />

each variety between 13-16 g/plant (Bergold) up<br />

to 22-26 g/plant (Scylla).<br />

6. Early production determined at 11.06<br />

ranged from 1354,08 kg/ha at Bergold cultivar to<br />

2615,81 kg/ha at Maxidor variety.<br />

7. Total yield varied from 7090,66 kg/ha at<br />

Bergold up 13136,94 kg/ha at Scylla cultivar.<br />

8. Cumulative production of pods by<br />

harvesting time, reveals that there is a<br />

concentration of the harvest yield, which should<br />

be an advantage for mechanical harvesting of<br />

garden beans, especially in Saxa and Bergold<br />

cultivars.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Chaux Ch., Foury Cl., 1996 – Productions legumiers.<br />

Editura Agriculture D’aujourd’hui.<br />

Ciofu, Ruxandra, Stan, N., Popescu, V., Chilom,<br />

Pelaghia, Apahidean, S., Horgoș, A., Berar,<br />

V., Lauer, K. F., and Atanasiu, N. 2004 –<br />

Tratat de legumicultură. Editura Ceres,<br />

Bucuresti, p. 865-873.<br />

Dumitrescu, M., Scurtu, I., Stoian, L., Glăman, Gh.,<br />

Costache, M., Diţu, D., Roman, Tr., Lăcătuş,<br />

V., Rădoi, V., Vlad, C. and Zăgrean, V., 1998<br />

– Producerea legumelor. Editura Artprint.<br />

Bucureşti, p. 535-560.<br />

Dumitrescu, M. şi colab., 1977 – Tehnologia<br />

producerii seminţelor şi a materialului săditor la<br />

plantele legumicole. Editura Ceres., București<br />

Fouillox, G., Bannerot, H., 1992 – Le Haricot<br />

Amelioration des Especes vegetables cultivees.<br />

Editura INRA.<br />

Munteanu, N., Stan, N., and Stan, T., 2003 –<br />

Legumicultură, vol.III, Editura „Ion Ionescu de la<br />

Brad”, Iaşi.<br />

Olaru, C., 1982 – Fasolea. Editura Scrisul românesc,<br />

Craiova.<br />

Poasca, C., 1986 – Contribuţii la îmbunătăţirea<br />

tehnologiei de producere a seminţelor de fasole<br />

de grădină. Analele I.C.L.F. Vidra, vol. VIII.<br />

Table 5<br />

Popescu, V., Atanasiu, N., 2000 – Legumicultura, Vol.<br />

2, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Stoleru, V., Munteanu, N., Miron Mihaela, 2010 -<br />

Comparative behavior for a new tomato<br />

assortment for polytunnel, in organic system at<br />

S.D.E. Iasi. Lucr. șt. seria Horticultură, vol. 53<br />

(1), U.Ș.A.M.V. Iași<br />

Ruști Grigore, 2007 - Cercetări privind îmbunătăţirea<br />

tehnologiei de cultură a fasolei de grădină<br />

urcătoare (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. communis<br />

L.)”. Teză de doctorat. U.Ț.A.M.V. Iași.<br />

Ruști, G., Munteanu, N., 2008 – Cultura fasolei de<br />

grădină. Editura „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi.<br />

Voican V., Lăcătuş V. 1998 – Cultura protejată a<br />

legumelor în sere şi solarii, Editura Ceres,<br />

Bucureşti.<br />

*Catalogul comun al soiurilor de legume,2012 -<br />

Jurnalul Oficial al Uniunii Europene, 2012 -<br />

http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=<br />

OJ:C:2012:015A:0001:0033:RO:PDF

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

292

293<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INFLUENCE OF CARBON SOURCES ON THE ACTIVITY OF BIOCHEMICAL<br />

INDICATORS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SAPROPHYTIC FUNGUS RHIZOPUS<br />

NIGRICANS<br />

Abstract<br />

Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ 1 , Mihaela CRISTICA 1 , Elena CIORNEA 1 , Elena TUTU 1 ,<br />

Alexandru MANOLIU 2<br />

Email: tamara.barbaneagra@yahoo.com<br />

Reactive oxygen species are derived from molecular oxygen used in respiration and they are capable of damaging<br />

cellular components, including proteins, lipids and DNA. Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between<br />

production of reactive oxygen species and the ability of biological system to detoxify reactive intermediates or to repair<br />

the inflicted damages. The purpose of this paper is the determination of the antioxidant potential in saprophytic fungus<br />

Rhizopus nigricans. It was determined the influence of carbon sources, represented by grinded cereal caryopses, and<br />

their concentration from culture medium on the fungus capacity to synthesize antioxidant enzymes like catalase and<br />

peroxidase. Enzymatic assays were performed at three time intervals: 5, 10 and 15 days, using both fungus mycelium<br />

and culture liquid. After analyzing the results we can point out a correlation between the nature and concentration of<br />

carbon source, the age of fungal culture and the production of oxidoreductases. In the first time period catalase and<br />

peroxidase production is maintained at low levels, but with depletion of nutrients and accumulation of toxic metabolic<br />

byproducts a significant increase takes place in the second time period. The last time period corresponds with the<br />

entering in decline phase of culture and with drastic decrease in production of both enzymes.<br />

Key words: catalase, peroxidase, oxidative stress, Rhizopus nigricans, cereal caryopses.<br />

The saprophytic fungus Rhizopus<br />

nigricans is an obligate aerob that is frequently<br />

found in decaying organic matter rich in complex<br />

carbohydrates. This organism has the ability to<br />

thrive in such environments because of simple<br />

growth requirements and the capacity to produce<br />

various hydrolytic enzymes (Skory C.D., et al.,<br />

2009). Because it is an agent of decay, it produces<br />

significant damages during storage and<br />

transportation of perishable fruits and vegetables.<br />

It produces food rotting and may elaborate<br />

mycotoxins (Dan V., 1999, quoted by Tanase C.,<br />

Șesan T.E., 2006). This fungus belongs to storage<br />

mycobiota and may affect cereal grains stored<br />

under improper temperature and humidity<br />

conditions.<br />

The major effects of storage fungi on<br />

cereal grains consist in decrease of germinative<br />

faculty, discoloration, warming and rotting, loss of<br />

dry matter, production of mycotoxins and<br />

nutritional changes. Depending on severity,<br />

infestation with fungi may affect quality and can<br />

completely destroy their usefulness (Meronuck,<br />

R.A., 1987). Testing the sensitivity of filamentous<br />

1 „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi<br />

2 Institut of Biological Research, Iaşi<br />

fungi in vitro is becoming more important because<br />

of the frequency and diversity of infection caused<br />

by them (Meletiadis J., et al., 2001).<br />

It is known that oxygen can have toxic<br />

effects on microorganism that grow aerobically,<br />

especially because of the threat arising from the<br />

formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Bai<br />

Z., et al., 2003). All aerobic organisms use<br />

molecular oxygen for respiration or nutrients<br />

oxidation to efficiently obtain energy, molecular<br />

oxygen being reduced to water by accepting four<br />

electrons. During the reduction of molecular<br />

oxygen several reactive oxygen species are<br />

formed, by accepting one, two or three electrons in<br />

order to form superoxide anion radical (O2 - ),<br />

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl radical<br />

(OH). These reactive oxygen species attack almost<br />

all cellular components and occasionally causes<br />

lethal cell lesions (Inoue Y., et al., 1999).<br />

Reactive oxygen species represent a<br />

variety of molecules and free radicals (chemical<br />

species with one unpaired electron) derived from<br />

molecular oxygen. Molecular oxygen in the ground<br />

state is a bi-radical, which contains two unpaired

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

electrons on the outside (also known as triplet<br />

state). Because the two electrons have the same<br />

spin, oxygen can react with only one electron at a<br />

time and therefore it is not very reactive. On the<br />

other hand, if one of two unpaired electrons is<br />

excited and changes its spin (also known as singlet<br />

oxygen), it becomes a powerful oxidant because<br />

the two electrons with opposing spins can quickly<br />

react with other electrons (Turrens J.F., 2003).<br />

Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance<br />

between the production of reactive oxygen species<br />

and the ability of the biological system to detoxify<br />

reactive intermediates or repair the inflicted<br />

damages.<br />

Hydrogen peroxide is an inevitable<br />

byproduct of all living organisms that rely on<br />

respiration for energy production, the<br />

mithocondrion being the main place of its<br />

production (Qiang Li, et al., 2008). The hydrogen<br />

peroxide cytotoxicity is given by its ability to<br />

cause damage to macromolecules, being compared<br />

with other reactive oxygen species is less toxic, but<br />

is able to diffuse into other compartments from his<br />

place of production (Branco M.R., et al., 2004).<br />

H2O2 can oxidize Fe-S centers or cysteines in<br />

certain proteins or can react with transition metals<br />

and produce hydroxyl radical that is able to oxidize<br />

any cell molecule, causing DNA damage, protein<br />

inactivation and fragmentation and lipid<br />

peroxidation (Aguirre J., et al., 2006).<br />

Because reactive oxygen species are<br />

common in aerobic organisms, these have<br />

enzymatic and non-enzymatic systems for<br />

protection (Yu B.P., 1994). All forms of life<br />

maintain a reducing environment within their cells.<br />

This reducing environment is accomplished by<br />

enzymes that maintain the reduced state trough a<br />

constant supply of metabolic energy. Disorders of<br />

the normal redox state can cause toxic effects by<br />

producing peroxides and free radicals that damage<br />

cellular components, including proteins, lipids and<br />

DNA.<br />

Cells contain a number of mechanisms that<br />

maintain low ROS levels, that collectively<br />

constitute the antioxidant response. For defense<br />

against reactive oxygen species, cells contain<br />

antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase,<br />

catalase, peoxidase (Izawa S., et al., 1996). Nonenzymatic,<br />

defensive systems include vitamins E<br />

and C and antioxidants with low molecular weight<br />

(Fridivich I., 1995, Abrashev R.I, 2008), pigments<br />

(carotenoids, melanin, etc.), phenolic compounds<br />

and proline (Belozerskaya T. A., Gessler N.N.,<br />

2007). Hydrogen peroxide is enzymatically<br />

catabolised in aerobic organisms by catalase and<br />

peroxidase, enzymes that act synergistically to<br />

protect cells from high concentration of H2O2.<br />

294<br />

Both enzymes belongs to hemoprotein class,<br />

catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) performs hydrogen peroxide<br />

degradation with release of molecular oxygen<br />

(Kurakov A.V., et al., 2001), and peroxidase (EC<br />

1.11.1.7) catalyzes the dehydrogenation of many<br />

organic compounds as: phenols, aromatic amines,<br />

hydroquinone, especially benzidine derivates.<br />

Detoxification of hydrogen peroxide is<br />

fundamental aspect of cellular antioxidant response<br />

in which catalase and peroxidase play a major role<br />

(Kuwasaki L, Aguire J., 2001).<br />

The objective of this study is to monitor in<br />

time the evolution of biochemical indicators of<br />

oxidative stress: catalase and peroxidase in<br />

Rhizopus nigricans under the influence of various<br />

carbon sources represented by grinded cariopses<br />

from three cereal species: wheat, corn and barley.<br />

Studies regarding the influence of exogenous<br />

factors on the enzymatic activity were performed<br />

in the Microbiology Department of Biological<br />

Research Institute, among which we mention:<br />

Manoliu Al., et al., 2005, 2006, 2010.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The species we chose to conduct our<br />

study was Rhizopus nigricans, fungus isolated<br />

from germinated cereal caryopses. We used three<br />

species: wheat, corn and barley. Wheat and corn<br />

grains were taken from the storage place of the<br />

Enterprise of Cereal Products from Chişinău,<br />

Republic of Moldova, and the barley grains were<br />

taken from a private household in Greblești village,<br />

from the Strășeni aria, Republic of Moldova. Pure<br />

culture was maintained on solid medium PDA<br />

(potato, dextrose,agar).<br />

To determine the dynamic of catalase and<br />

peroxidase was used Leonian liquid medium with<br />

following composition: K2HPO4 1,25 g, MgSO4.<br />

7H2O 0,625 g, peptone 1 g, glucose 20 g, distilled<br />

water 1000 ml (Constantinescu O., 1974). The<br />

composition of culture medium was modified by<br />

replacing the carbon source – glucose, with<br />

different amounts of grinded cereal caryopses,<br />

resulting in the final 3 medium variants: V1=10 g/l,<br />

V2=20 g/l,V3=30 g/l, plus a control version in which<br />

the composition of medium remained unmodified.<br />

Medium was distributed in amounts of 100 ml in<br />

Erlenmeyer flasks. In each flask were inoculated<br />

slices of 8 mm in diameter from a 5 days old<br />

culture of Rhizopus nigricans. The flasks were<br />

incubated in thermostat set at 28 ˚ C.<br />

Enzyme assay was made at three time<br />

intervals: 5, 10 and 15 days, using both mycelium<br />

and culture liquid. The determination of catalase<br />

activity was performed using Sinha method<br />

(Artenie Vl., et al., 2008) and the determination of<br />

peroxidase was made on the basis of orthodianisidine<br />

method (Cojocaru D.C., 2009). The<br />

activity of both enzymes was reported to the

amount of soluble proteins determined by Bradford<br />

method (Artenie Vl., et al., 2008).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The three cereal species used as carbon<br />

source: wheat, corn and barley falls in the category<br />

of the main cereals cultivated on large areas of the<br />

globe, cereal grains representing basic food for<br />

almost entire population of the world. Complex<br />

composition of cereal caryopses: starch, dextrins,<br />

simple glucides, proteins (prolamins, glutelins,<br />

albumins and globulins), lipids, cellulose, minerals<br />

- K, Ca, Fe, P, Mg, Se, Na, Cu, Mb, Mn, and B<br />

vitamin complex (B1, B2, B5, B6), vitamins PP, E,<br />

K, H, and lower amounts of vitamin A, amino<br />

acids (lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine,<br />

valine, histidine, leucine etc.) (Cordain, L., 1999;<br />

Starodub, V., 2008), influences the enzymatic<br />

activity of the fungus because some essential<br />

nutrients that participate together with enzymes in<br />

antioxidant processes (Halliwell B. and Gutteridge<br />

J.M.C., 2007, Sarikurkcu C. et al., 2010).<br />

Phytonutrients such as beta carotene and vitamins<br />

(especially E and C) are well known for their<br />

protective effects against ROS and presence of<br />

some metals, particularly iron and copper ions can<br />

cause hydroxyl radical formation by interaction of<br />

superoxide radical with hydrogen peroxide (Wu<br />

D., Cederbaum A.I, 2003), metals can also act as<br />

cofactors for many enzymatic reactions and may<br />

function as structural components in protein<br />

(Somerville G.A., and Proctor R.A., 2009).<br />

295<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

The results on catalase activity in the<br />

mycelium of fungus Rhizopus nigricans, grown on<br />

media with various concentrations of caryopses<br />

from three cereal species: wheat, corn and barley,<br />

are illustrated in Figure 1. In the first time period<br />

in all experimental variants values are maintained<br />

at low levels, but in terms of carbon source nature<br />

in the medium variants with grinded wheat<br />

caryopses enzymatic activity is slightly higher.<br />

There are no sizable differences between work<br />

versions, except the variants supplemented with<br />

wheat, where catalase activity increases inversely<br />

with the concentration of grinded wheat caryopses<br />

contained in the culture medium. Maximum value<br />

was recorded in variant V1 wheat – 353.624<br />

UC/mg protein, and the minimum value was<br />

recorded in version V2 barley – 3.174 UC/mg<br />

protein.<br />

In the second period enzymatic activity has<br />

significantly increased, the highest values being<br />

maintained in variants with wheat caryopses<br />

(values ranging between 477.816 CU/mg protein<br />

and 636.61 UC/mg protein). As in the first studied<br />

period there are no significant differences between<br />

versions with the same type of grinded caryopses.<br />

At 15 days after inoculation, along with<br />

the ageing of culture, values slightly decreases in<br />

variants with wheat, but still remaining the highest<br />

compared with other two cereal species (V1 –<br />

418.209 UC/mg protein, V2 – 300.008 UC/mg<br />

protein, V3 – 313.815 UC/mg protein). In medium<br />

versions with barley and corn enzymatic activity is<br />

slightly increased compared to activity recorded in<br />

the second period.<br />

Figure 1 The influence of carbon sources on catalase activity in mycelium of fungus Rhizopus nigricans<br />

After the interpretation of data, in culture<br />

liquid of fungus, it was observed that catalase<br />

activity tended to zero or even could not be<br />

detected in most experimental variants (Fig. 2),<br />

except variants V1 (30.495 UC/mg protein), V2<br />

(0.169 UC/mg protein) with maize in the first<br />

period, and V1 wheat (20.357 UC/mg protein), V2<br />

corn (0,375 UC/mg protein) at 15 days after<br />

inoculation, where recorded values were relatively<br />

small, close to zero. This suggests that for the<br />

fungus Rhizopus nigricans grown on different<br />

carbohydrates sources, catalase biosynthesis occurs<br />

at intracellular level, its excretion in liquid culture<br />

is achieved mainly due to cell lysis caused by<br />

reactive oxygen species attack or toxic metabolic<br />

compounds for fungal cell accumulated in the<br />

extracellular space or due activation of cell<br />

apotosis followed by cell lysis and death with<br />

periplasmatic release of enzyme and other cellular<br />

constituents.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 2 The influence of carbon sources on catalase activity in culture liquid of fungus Rhizopus nigricans<br />

Peroxidase activity assayed at three time<br />

intervals in mycelium of fungus Rhizopus<br />

nigricans is depicted in Figure 3. At 5 days after<br />

inoculation recorded values in all variants are<br />

rather low, the maximum being recorded in version<br />

V2 wheat (0.1498 UC/mg protein) and the<br />

minimum value in version V1 barley (0.0046<br />

UC/mg protein). There is no certain correlation<br />

between the amount of cereal caryopses contained<br />

in medium and the peroxidase activity, except<br />

barley samples, where peroxidase activity<br />

increases with the increase of grinded caryopses<br />

amount, and except corn samples where enzymatic<br />

activity increases inversely with the amount of<br />

grinded caryopses from culture medium.<br />

Depending on the nutrient substrate, the highest<br />

values are recorded for work versions with wheat<br />

caryopses (V1 – 0.1404 UP/mg protein, V2 -<br />

0.1498 UP/mg protein, V3 – 0.1187 UP/mg<br />

protein).<br />

296<br />

In the second study period, along with the<br />

culture ageing, nutritional resources depletion and<br />

accumulation of secondary toxic compounds in the<br />

culture medium, recorded values are slightly<br />

elevated, the highest values being maintained also<br />

in samples that contain wheat caryopses. There are<br />

no significant differences between work versions<br />

with the same nutrient background, the maximum<br />

being recorded in version V1 wheat (0.154 UP/mg<br />

protein), and the minimum in version V1 barley<br />

(0.0101 UP/mg protein).<br />

At 15 days after inoculation occurs a<br />

drastic decrease in peroxidase activity in all<br />

medium variants, regardless of carbon source.<br />

Maximum value was obtained for variant V3<br />

wheat (0.0995 UP/mg protein), and the minimum<br />

value was recorded at version V3 barley (0.0068<br />

UP/mg protein).<br />

Figure 3 The influence of carbon sources on peroxidase activity in mycelium of fungus Rhizopus<br />

nigricans<br />

Starting from premise that fungi are able to<br />

excrete various synthesized substances, with<br />

different roles, in the external environment,<br />

including enzymes, we have resort to enzyme<br />

assay in liquid culture, obtained values being<br />

plotted in Figure 4. Similarly as in mycelium,<br />

recorded values from culture liquid of the fungus<br />

are maintained at low levels in all three periods of<br />

study, leading to conclusion of mostly endocellular<br />

biosynthesis of the enzyme, likewise catalase.<br />

Highest values are recorded in variants<br />

supplemented with wheat, and lowest in those with<br />

corn. In first time interval values obtained from<br />

working options underscores the influence of<br />

grinded caryopses concentration on peroxidase<br />

activity, metabolizing of this substrate is correlated<br />

with the release of reactive oxygen species. In<br />

medium versions with wheat caryopses (V1 –<br />

0.1367 UP/mg protein, V2 – 0.1113 UP/mg<br />

protein, V3 – 0.0868 UP/mg protein) and corn<br />

caryopses (V1 – 0.01 UP/mg protein, V2 – 0.0105<br />

UP/mg protein, V3 – 00132 UP/mg protein)

enzyme activity increases inversely with the<br />

concentration of substrate used by fungus for<br />

growth and development, and for work versions<br />

with barley caryopses it increases with amount of<br />

barley caryopses which supplemented culture<br />

medium (V1 – 0.0166 UP/mg protein, V2 – 0.0093<br />

UP/mg protein, V3 – 0.0079 UP/mg protein).<br />

In the second period under study this<br />

correlation between enzyme activity and<br />

297<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

concentration of carbon source is maintained in<br />

variants supplemented with wheat and barley<br />

caryopses, while after 15 days of incubation takes<br />

place a decrease in peroxidase activity in all<br />

variants regardless of carbon source used, except<br />

variant V1 with wheat, where peroxidase activity<br />

still has a high amplitude (0.10729 UC/mg<br />

protein).<br />

Figure 4 The influence of carbon sources on peroxidase activity in mycelium of fungus Rhizopus<br />

nigricans<br />

The high catalase and peroxidase activity<br />

in wheat samples might explain due the diversity<br />

of chemical composition of carbon sources used.<br />

For example, wheat grains contain copper and iron,<br />

and free ions of this metals could interact with<br />

H2O2 (Fenton reaction) to form a highly reactive<br />

radical OH (Sigler K., et al., 1999), in addition<br />

wheat caryopses are poor in vitamin A, and the<br />

lack of vitamin A can lead to increased production<br />

of reactive oxygen species (Haw-Jyn Chiu, et al.,<br />

2008). Instead corn grains are rich in phenolic<br />

compounds, contain carotenoid pigments<br />

(zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, carotene, lutein) and<br />

vitamin E that are part of non-enzymatic defense<br />

equipment, and may act together with catalase and<br />

peroxidase to counteract oxidative stress<br />

(Kähkönen M.P., 1999; Huda-Faujan N., et al.,<br />

2009; Wong J.C., et al., 2004; Rocheford T.R.,<br />

2002). Barley grains also contain considerable<br />

amounts of phenolic compounds.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

● The nature of nutrient substrate strongly<br />

influenced enzyme activity, thus the highest values<br />

of catalase and peroxidase activity were recorded<br />

in medium variants supplemented with wheat<br />

grains, and the lowest values were observed in<br />

medium variants containing grinded barley grains.<br />

● Nutrient substrate concentration which<br />

supplemented medium variants did not<br />

significantly influenced the catalase and<br />

peroxidase activity, not being recorded significant<br />

differences between variants.<br />

● Catalase biosynthesis is endocellular and not<br />

extracellular at Rhizopus nigricans, because in<br />

culture liquid of the fungus catalase activity tended<br />

to zero or could not be detected in most<br />

experimental variants.<br />

● Oxidative stress enzyme (catalase and<br />

peroxidase), regardless of carbon source used, had<br />

the highest activity in the second study period - at<br />

10 days after inoculation, along with culture ageing<br />

and accumulation of metabolic secondary<br />

compounds, in the first time period values were<br />

maintained at low levels, and in last time period a<br />

decrease in both enzymes activity has been noted.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

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containing phenolic compounds, J Agr Food<br />

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Kurakov A.V., Kupletskaya M.B., Skrynnikova E.V,<br />

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specia Chaetomium globosum cultivată pe medii<br />

cu deşeuri din industria alimentară, Simpozionul<br />

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Manoliu, Al., Oprică, L. Olteanu, Z., Neacşu, I.,<br />

Artenie, V., Creangă, D.E., Rusu, I., Bodal I.,<br />

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stress, and free radical damage, Alcohol<br />

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299<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INFLUENCE OF CARBON SOURCES ON SOME DEHYDROGENASES<br />

INVOLVED IN ENERGY METABOLISM OF RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS SPECIES<br />

Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ 1 , Mihaela CRISTICA 1 , Elena CIORNEA 1 , Elena TUTU 1 , Alexandru<br />

MANOLIU 2<br />

Abstract<br />

Email: tamara.barbaneagra@yahoo.com<br />

Fungi obtain energy and nutrients from organic matter degradation, using sugars for growth, which can range from<br />

simple hexoses up to complex polysaccharides. Cereals provide a rich source of nutrients for microbial growth and are<br />

at risk of infestation by fungi during storage. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of carbon<br />

sources represented by grinded grains from three cereal species: wheat, corn and barley; on the activity of Krebs cycle<br />

dehydrogenases and on glucose dehydrogenase in saprophytic fungus Rhizopus nigricans. Enzymatic assays were<br />

performed in intervals of 5, 10 and 15 days from fungus mycelium, using Sîsoev method, modified by Artenie. The<br />

obtained results pointed out that dehydrogenases involved in Krebs cycle and in pentose phosphate pathway are<br />

influenced both by the amount and nature of carbon source and by the fungal culture age. Thus, in the first time interval<br />

values are maintained at moderate levels, in the second period enzymatic activity increases significantly and in the last<br />

time interval, along with nutritional resources depletion, enzymatic activity is extremely low in most experimental<br />

variants<br />

Key words: Rhizopus nigricans, cereal caryopses, dehydrogenases.<br />

Fungi are non-photosynthetic and<br />

widespread microorganisms, that play a vital role<br />

in the biodegradation of organic matter. They<br />

obtain energy and many of the nutrients to supply<br />

biosynthetic pathways trough the degradation of<br />

plant and other matter. Their role in the<br />

environment is recycling (Hanson J.R., 2009).<br />

Sugars are widely used for fungal growth, they can<br />

range from simple hexoses as glucose to<br />

polysaccharides as starch, cellulose and aromatic<br />

hydrocarbons, including lignin (Kavanagh K.,<br />

2005). Cereals are the most efficient source in<br />

human food, in terms of both energy supply and<br />

nutrition. Grains contain carbohydrates, protein,<br />

lipids, fiber, minerals and vitamins, in particularly<br />

D, E, and the B group, and have a near-neutral pH.<br />

Storage fungi invades cereal grains after harvest,<br />

causing loss of quality, weight, germinability and<br />

nutrient value (ICMSF, 2005). All living<br />

organisms require energy, which is ensured by cell<br />

respiration - a catabolic process that releases<br />

energy, usually in the form of ATP. It is vital that<br />

chemical reaction involved in cellular respiration<br />

takes place in a fast rate and optimal condition,<br />

enzymes playing an essential role in this process.<br />

Citric acid cycle is present in all aerobic organisms<br />

and represent a part of the metabolic pathways<br />

1 „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi<br />

2 Institut of Biological Research, Iaşi<br />

involved in converting carbohydrates, fats and<br />

protein into carbon dioxide and water to generate<br />

useful energy. The enzymes that are operating in<br />

tricarboxylic acid cycle are located in the<br />

mithocondrial matrix, except succinat<br />

dehydrogenase which is part of a protein complex<br />

belonging to internal mitochondrial membrane<br />

(Hederestedt L., Rutberg L., 1981; Hajjawi O.S.,<br />

2011). Mitochondria are refined and partly<br />

autonomous organelles that meet most cell energy<br />

requirements through oxidative metabolism. In<br />

most eukaryotes mitochondrial respiratory chain<br />

consist of a series of complex proteins that fulfil<br />

oxidative phosphorylation which leads in the end<br />

to ATP production, and fungi contain highly<br />

branched electron transporting respiratory chains<br />

(Videira A., Duarte M., 2002; Melo A.M., et al.,<br />

2004; Carneiro P., et al., 2012). Glucose<br />

dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of β-Dglucose<br />

to β-D-glucono-1,5-lactone, while<br />

reducing cofactor NADPH to NADP + or, to a<br />

lesser extent NAD + to NADH (Weckbecker A.,<br />

Hummel W., 2005).Tricarboxylic acid cycle and<br />

pentose phosphate pathway are essential for<br />

providing anabolic precursors (Rodrigues F., et al.,<br />

2006).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

This study aimed to investigate the<br />

influence of carbon sources represented by grinded<br />

grains from three cereal species: wheat, maize and<br />

barley, on the Krebs cycle dehydrogenase and<br />

glucose-dehydrogenase activity in fungus Rhizopus<br />

nigricans.<br />

Cereal caryopses are not only a source of<br />

carbon through starch, cellulose, dextrin contained,<br />

but also a nitrogen source trough amino acids, a<br />

rich source of vitamins, pigments and minerals.<br />

The complexity of nutritional substrate strongly<br />

influences respiratory chain, thus some metals<br />

present in the cereal grains composition may<br />

inhibit or stimulate certain enzymes of the Krebs<br />

cycle. For example, zinc inhibit certain key<br />

enzymes of the Krebs cycle and disturb ATP<br />

production (Dinely K.E., et al., 2003; Strydom C.,<br />

et al., 2006; Lemire J., et al., 2008), and iron has a<br />

positive effect on succinate dehydrogenase and<br />

isocitrate dehydrogenase activity and, also iron<br />

exposure increases NADH formation and therefore<br />

increases mitochondrialo oxygen consumption and<br />

formation of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation<br />

(Oexle H., et al., 1999). Vitamins also have an<br />

important role in energy metabolism. Thiamine<br />

(vitamin B1) functions as co-enzyme in the<br />

metabolism of carbohydrates, and when is not<br />

enough thiamine takes place an overall decrease in<br />

carbohydrate metabolism that could have serious<br />

consequences. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) enters into<br />

the structure of some dehydrogenases as FMN and<br />

FAD, contributing to redox reactions in metabolic<br />

pathways and in energy production through<br />

respiration. Nicotinamide is another form of niacin<br />

(vitamin B3) and exists within the redox active coenzymes,<br />

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide<br />

(NAD + ) and its phosphorylated form (NADP)<br />

(McCormick D.B., 1994, 1996).<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The study was conducted on saprophytic<br />

species Rhizopus nigricans. The fungus was<br />

isolated from germinated cereal caryopses. To<br />

isolate the fungus were used caryopses from three<br />

cereal species: wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize<br />

(Zea mays) and barley (Hordeum vulgare),<br />

Rhizopus nigricans being found in all three cereal<br />

types, representing the predominant species from<br />

culture plates. Wheat and corn grains came from<br />

the storage place of the Enterprise of Cereal<br />

Products from Chişinău, Republic of Moldova, and<br />

the barley grains came from a private household in<br />

Greblești village, from the Strășeni aria, Republic<br />

of Moldova. Pure culture was obtained after<br />

several cycles of growth on solid PDA medium<br />

(potato-dextrose-agar). Rhizopus nigricans species<br />

identification was based on morphological<br />

300<br />

characteristics of mycelium from culture plates and<br />

on microscopic preparations. To conduct the<br />

experiments Leonian liquid medium was used (<br />

K2HPO4 1,25 g, MgSO4. 7H2O 0,625 g, peptone 1<br />

g, glucose 20 g, distilled water 1000 ml)<br />

(Constantinescu O., 1974), from whose<br />

composition carbon source – glucose was replaced<br />

with grinded cereal caryopses. We obtained 4<br />

medium variants: V1 – 10 g/l, V2 – 20 g/l, V3 – 30<br />

g/l and a control variant in which the culture<br />

medium remained unchanged. Enzyme activity<br />

was assayed in intervals of 5, 10 and 15 days from<br />

fungus inoculation. The determination of Krebs<br />

cycle dehydrogenases and clucose<br />

dehydrogenase activity was performed through<br />

Sîsoev method, modified by Artenie, the five<br />

enzymes activity being reported to the quantity of<br />

soluble proteins determined trough Bradford<br />

method (Artenie Vl., et al., 2008).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS<br />

Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) is the<br />

branching point for carbon flux trough the Krebs<br />

cycle to produce energy and CO2 and trough<br />

glyoxylate bypass to produce cellular constituents.<br />

IDH phosphorylation by kinase-phosphatase<br />

controls the division of isocitrate between the<br />

Krebs cycle and glyoxylate bypass (LaPort D.C.,<br />

Koshland D.E., 1982; LaPorte D.C., Chung T.,<br />

1985; Klumpp D.J., et al., 1988; Ikeda T.P., et al.,<br />

1999). IDH catalyzes the oxidative decarboxilation<br />

of isocitrate to form α ketoglutarate, contributing<br />

to the synthesis of glutamate and other amino acids<br />

(Haselbeck R., McAlister-Henn L., 1993). In some<br />

cultures of microorganism, where were used<br />

different carbon sources, IDH levels depended on<br />

the growth phases of culture, with increased<br />

activity during exponential and early stationary<br />

phases, but after carbon source depletion decreases<br />

almost to zero. After nutrient substrate exhaustion<br />

IDH is not inactivated or degraded, but remains at<br />

low levels and in state of alert in order to facilitate<br />

recovery when nutrition conditions become again<br />

favorable (Roy S.O., et al., 1999).<br />

Isocitrate dehydrogenase activity assayed<br />

in saprophytic fungus Rhizopus nigricans, grown<br />

on media with different carbon sources, is<br />

illustrated in Figure 1. At 15 days after inoculation<br />

enzymatic activity recorded moderate values in<br />

medium variants with wheat caryopses (V1-<br />

0.5864 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein, V2 –<br />

0.4239 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein, V3 –<br />

0.412 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein), the<br />

obtained values being very close between them.<br />

The values found in medium variants<br />

supplemented with corn and barley caryopses are<br />

slightly higher. IDH activity reached maximum in<br />

V2 version with corn, and the minimum value in

variant V3 with wheat (0,413 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein).<br />

In the second study period the IDH activity<br />

increased significantly in samples supplemented<br />

with wheat and barley caryopses, but decreased in<br />

those with corn. There is a correlation between<br />

nutrient background concentration and enzyme<br />

activity, thus in variants with grinded wheat<br />

caryopses enzyme activity increases with the<br />

concentration of carbon source (V1 – 0.8629 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 0.9666 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 – 1.165 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein), and in those with<br />

corn (V1 – 4.2227 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein; V2 – 3.1305 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein; V3 – 3.1205 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein) and barley (V1 – 0.8883 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass protein; V2 – 0.5342 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 0.35 µg formazan/g<br />

301<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

biomass/mg proteină) caryopses increases<br />

inversely with the carbohydrate amount.<br />

At 15 days from inoculation IDH activity<br />

increases significantly in variants with corn<br />

caryopses (V1 – 6.0655 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 5.491 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 7.2687 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein), but decreases drastically in<br />

those with wheat grains (V1 – 0.0103 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 0.0362 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 – 0.0652 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein), registred values<br />

being very close to zero. At samples with barley<br />

caryopses was observed a slight increase in<br />

enzyme activity (V1 – 1.1046 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 1.0133 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 0.8401 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein).<br />

Figure 1 The influence of carbon sources on isocitrate Figure 2 The influence of carbon sources on α-<br />

dehydrogenase activity in Rhizopus nigricans ketoglutarate dehydrogenase activity in Rhizopus<br />

α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (EC<br />

1.2.4.2.) functions in the Krebs cycle as a<br />

anzymatic complex of three subunits: oxoglutarate<br />

dehydrogenase (E1), hihydropoyl<br />

succinyltransferase (E2), dihydropoyl<br />

dehydrogenase (E3), that is responsible for<br />

converting α ketuglutarate to succinil CoA and<br />

production of NADP, providing electrons directly<br />

to respiratory chain. This enzyme is sensitive to<br />

reactive oxygen species and its inhibition could be<br />

critical. In addition α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase<br />

is not only a target for ROS, but is able to generate<br />

reactive oxygen species during its catalytic activity<br />

(Tretter L., Adam-Vizi V., 2004; Tretter L., Adam-<br />

Vizi V., 2005). Monitoring in time of αketoglutarate<br />

dehydrogenase activity is plotted in<br />

Figure 2. In the first time period from inoculation<br />

(5 days) recorded values remain in the moderate<br />

range, except medium variant with barley<br />

caryopses (V1 – 2.1129 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 3,0615 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 1,7347 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein). There is no definite<br />

correlation between the concentration of carbon<br />

sources and the evolution of enzyme activity.<br />

At 10 days after inoculation of media αketoglutarate<br />

dehydrogenase activity decreases<br />

drastically in barley samples (V1 – 0.8988 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 0.9778 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 – 0,9299 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein), increases slightly<br />

in the wheat samples ( V1 – 1.3019 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 1.2084 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 1.3322 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein), and nearly doubles in corn<br />

variants ( V1 – 4.7361 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein; V2 – 3.7394 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein; V3 – 4.3641 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein). In the last time period of experiment αketoglutarate<br />

dehydrogenase values increases<br />

significantly in corn variants (V1 – 8.4439 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 5.9232 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 – 4.837 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein) and decreases in<br />

those with wheat (values ranging between 0.4512<br />

and 0.6687 mg formasan / g biomass / mg protein)<br />

and barley (V1 – 1.1682 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 0,8345 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 0,5658 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH, E.C. 1.3.99.1) is<br />

the only tricarboxilic acid cycle enzyme that is<br />

linked to mitochondrial membrane and therefore it<br />

may participate in respiration beside the function<br />

that performs in the Krebs cycle (Ruiz-Herrera J.,<br />

Garcia L.G., 1972). SDH is a flavoprotein that<br />

catalyzes the succinate oxidation to fumarate and<br />

transfers the reduced resulting equivalent directly<br />

to respiratory chain. Changes in growth conditions<br />

can affect the respiratory activity and Krebs cycle<br />

development.<br />

SDH activity assayed in mycelium of<br />

saprophytic species Rhizopus nigricans is<br />

graphically presented in Figure 3. In the first study<br />

period SDH activity recorded modest values in all<br />

experimental variants regardless of the carbon<br />

source nature and amount. Maximum activity was<br />

found in variant V3 with barley (2.2082 formazan<br />

mg/g biomass/mg protein), and the minimum value<br />

in variant V1 supplemented with wheat (0.6559 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein).<br />

At 10 days of incubation in wheat samples (V1<br />

– 1.2302 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 –<br />

1.3531 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 –<br />

302<br />

1.2401 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein) and<br />

corn samples (V1 – 3.0462 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 2.4528 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 2.8 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein) enzymatic activity increases<br />

slightly, but in those with barley decreases<br />

drastically (V1 – 0.7283 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 0.6246 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 0.9147 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein). There is no major differences<br />

between versions wit different concentrations of<br />

the same nutrient substrate.<br />

In the last time period after inoculation takes<br />

place a significant increase in SDH activity in corn<br />

variants (values ranging between 5.426 and<br />

10.1738 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein), while<br />

in wheat variants activity strongly decreases,<br />

recorded values being close to zero. In medium<br />

variants with barley recorded values are slightly<br />

higher than those recorded in the second period,<br />

except variant V3 (0.3696 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein) where the enzyme activity<br />

strongly decreases.<br />

Figure 3 The influence of carbon sources on succinate dehydrogenase activity in Rhizopus nigricans<br />

Malate dehydrogenase (MDH, EC 1.1.1.37) is<br />

a key enzyme that plays an important metabolic<br />

role in aerobic pathway for producing energy and<br />

in malate/aspartate shuttle. The enzyme catalyzes<br />

in tricarboxilic acid cycle the NAD/NADH<br />

dependent conversion of malate and oxaloacetate<br />

(Tayeh M.A., Madigan, M.T., 1988; Labrou N.E.,<br />

Clonis Y.D., 1997; Minark P., et al., 2002). In<br />

some bacterial culture, where were used different<br />

carbon sources MDH activity was influenced by<br />

nutrient substrate used for growth, its<br />

concentration and growth phases of culture, so<br />

MDH was synthesized during all growth phases,<br />

highest levels being recorded during exponential<br />

ant stationary growth phases (Mendoza P., et al.,<br />

2009). Evolution of MDH activity measured at<br />

three time intervals in Rhizopus nigricans<br />

mycelium is represented in Figure 4. In first time<br />

interval MDH activity is maintained at low levels<br />

in all work variants that contain grinded cereal<br />

caryopses. Highest values were obtained from<br />

medium samples with corn caryopses (V1 – 3.5667<br />

µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 3.0548<br />

µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 – 3.0284<br />

µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein), and the<br />

lowest in those with wheat grains (values ranging<br />

between 0.9322 and 1.1492 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein). No significant differences<br />

were noted between work variant regardless<br />

nutrient substrate amount.<br />

In the following interval chosen for study (10<br />

days) MDH activity increases slightly in variants<br />

supplemented with corn and wheat caryopses, but<br />

decreases in those with barley. This time we can<br />

point out a correlation between concentration of<br />

grinded caryopses and evolution of MDH activity,<br />

thus in corn samples enzyme activity increases<br />

with the concentration of carbon source (V1 –<br />

4.3797 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 –<br />

3.1039 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 –<br />

3.0269 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein), and in<br />

those with wheat increases inversely with

concentration of grinded caryopses (V1 – 1.1021<br />

µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 1.2948;<br />

V3 – 1.6047 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein).<br />

In the last time period (15 days) takes place a<br />

significant increase in MDH activity in corn<br />

The activity of glucose dehydrogenase<br />

(GDH) is depicted in Figure 5. In the first study<br />

period enzymatic activity recorded moderate<br />

values in medium variants supplemented with<br />

wheat caryopses (V1 – 0.7596 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V2 – 0.929 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein; V3 – 1.228 µg formazan/g<br />

biomass/mg protein) and corn caryopses (V1 –<br />

0.606 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 –<br />

0.597 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 –<br />

0.4649 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein), but in<br />

those with barley recorded values are quite high<br />

compared with the rest of medium variants (V1 –<br />

4.1793 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 –<br />

7.302 µg formazan/g biomas/mg protein; V3 –<br />

1.5263 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein).<br />

In the second time period enzyme activity<br />

drastically decreases in samples with barley (V1 –<br />

0.8681 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 –<br />

0.8827 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 –<br />

Figure 4 The influence of carbon sources on malate<br />

dehydrogenase activity in Rhizopus nigricans<br />

303<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

samples (values ranging between 7.2684 and<br />

10.527 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein). It is<br />

preserved the same correlation between enzyme<br />

activity and concentration of wheat caryopses<br />

observed in the previous period.<br />

1.0242 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein),<br />

decreases slightly in those with wheat (V1 –<br />

0.9048 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 –<br />

0.7944 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V3 –<br />

0.7725 µg formazan/g biomass/mg protein), and<br />

increases in those with corn (V1 – 2.6257 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; V2 – 1.6089 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein; 1,6774 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein).<br />

In the third period under study, there is a<br />

significant increase in enzyme activity in variants<br />

with corn caryopses, but in those with wheat and<br />

barley it decreases slightly. Maximum of GDH<br />

activity was obtained in version V1 supplemented<br />

with grinded corn caryopses (8.3792 µg<br />

formazan/g biomass/mg protein), and the minimum<br />

in medium variant V1 supplemented with wheat<br />

grains (0.4451 µg formazan/g biomass/mg<br />

protein).<br />

Figure 5 The influence of carbon sources on glucose dehydrogenase activity in Rhizopus nigricans<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

● The nature of nutrient substrate had a strong<br />

impact on Krebs cycle and pentose phosphate<br />

cycle enzymes activity, so the highest values were<br />

recorded in medium variants supplemented with<br />

grinded corn caryopses, and the lowest values were<br />

recorded in those with wheat grains.<br />

● The age of fungal culture also had a decisive<br />

influence on the enzymatic activity, thus most of<br />

enzymes had an extremely low activity, close to<br />

zero, in last time interval, except for medium<br />

versions supplemented with grinded corn<br />

caryopses, where at 15 days from fungus<br />

inoculation, all studied enzyme recorded very high<br />

values.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

● The amount of carbon source did not<br />

significantly influence the activity of<br />

dehydrogenases involved in energy metabolism in<br />

Rhizopus nigricans, not being recorded notable<br />

differences in the experimental variants.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Carneiro P., Duarte, M., Videira, A., - Distruption of<br />

alternative NAD(P)H dehydrogenases leads to<br />

decreased mitochondrial ROS in Neurospora<br />

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409.<br />

Cojocaru, D.C., 2009 – Enzimologie practică. Editura<br />

Tehnopress, p. 141-143.<br />

Constantinescu, O., 1974 - Metode şi tehnici în<br />

micologie, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, p. 105-106.<br />

Dinely, K.E., Votyakova, T.V., Reynolds, I.J., 2003 –<br />

Zinc inhibition of cellular enrgy production:<br />

implication for mitochondria and<br />

neurodegeneration, J. Neurochem., 84: 563-570.<br />

Hajjawi, O.S., 2011 – Succinate dehydrogenase:<br />

assembly, regulation and role in human desease,<br />

European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 51<br />

No. 1, pp. 133-142.<br />

Hanson, J.R., 2009 – The chemistry of fungi, Royal<br />

Society of Chemestry, Cambridge, UK, pp 2-3.<br />

Haselbeck, R., McAlister-Henn, L., 1993 – Function<br />

and expresion of yeast mitochondrial NAD- and<br />

NADP-specific izocitrat dehydrogenases, The<br />

Journal of Biological Chemestry, Vol. 268, p.<br />

12116-12122.<br />

Hederstedt, L., Rutberg, L., 1981 – Succinate<br />

dehydrogenase – a comparative review, Microbiol<br />

Rev., 45(4): 542-555.<br />

Ikeda, T.P., Houtz, E., LaPorte, D.C., 1992 – Isocitrate<br />

dehydrogenase kinase/phosphatase:<br />

identification of mutations which selectively inhibit<br />

phosphatase activity, Journal of Bacteriology, p.<br />

1414-1416.<br />

International Commission on Microbiological<br />

Specifications for Food (ICMSF), 2005 –<br />

Microbial Ecology of Food Commodities,<br />

Microorganism in Foods 6, Second edition,<br />

Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York,<br />

pp 392-396.<br />

Kavanagh, K., 2005 - Fungi: biology and applications,<br />

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, p. 22-24.<br />

Klumpp, D.J., Plank, D.W., Bodwin, L.J., Stueland,<br />

C.S., Chung, T., LaPorte, D.C., 1988 –<br />

Nucleotide sequence of aceK, the gene<br />

enconding isocitrate dehydrogenase<br />

kinase/phosphatase, J. Bacteriol., 170: 2763 –<br />

2769.<br />

Labrou, N.E., & Clonis, Y.D., 1997 - L-Malate<br />

dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas stutzeri:<br />

purification and characterization, Arch Biochem<br />

Biophys, 337: 103-114.<br />

LaPorte, D.C., Chung, T., 1985 – A single gene codes<br />

fos the kinase and phosphatase which regulate<br />

isocitrat dehydrogenase, J.Biol. Chem., 260:<br />

15291-15297.<br />

LaPorte, D.C., Koshland, D.E., 1983 – Phosforilation of<br />

isocitrate dehydrogenase as a demonstration of<br />

enhanced sensitivity in covalent regulation,<br />

Nature, 305: 286-290.<br />

Lemire, J., Mailloux, R., Appanna, V.D., 2008 – Zinc<br />

toxicity alters mitochondrial metabolism and leads<br />

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to decreased ATP production in hepatocytes, J.<br />

Appl. Toxicol., 28: 175-182.<br />

McCormick, D.B., 1996 – Co-enzymes, Biochemistry<br />

of, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology and<br />

Molecular Medicine, Ed. Meyers R.A., Vol. 1, p.<br />

396-406.<br />

McCormick, D.B., 1997 – Co-enzymes, Biochemistry,<br />

Encyclopedia of Human Biology 2nd edition,<br />

Academic Press, San Diego, p. 847-864.<br />

Melo, A.M., Bandeiras, T.M., Teixeira, M., 2004 – New<br />

insights into type II NAD(P)H: quinine<br />

oxidoreductases, Microbiol. Biol. Rev. 68: 603-<br />

616.<br />

Mendoza, P., Servin-Gonzales, L., Flores, M.E., 2009<br />

– Malate dehydrogenase of Saccharopolyspora<br />

erytraea CA340: purification and effect of carbon<br />

source on its synthesis, Rev Latinoam Microbiol,<br />

51: 18-22.<br />

Minarik, P., Tomaskova, N., Kollarova, M., Antalik,<br />

M., 2002 – Malate dehidrogenase – Structure and<br />

function, Gen. Physiol. Biophys., 21: 257 – 265.<br />

Oexle, H., Gnaiger, E., Weiss, G., 1999 – Irondependent<br />

changes in cellular energy metabolis:<br />

influence on citric acid cycle and oxidative<br />

phosphorylation, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1413:<br />

99-107.<br />

Rodrigues, F., Ludovico, P., Leao, C., 2006 - Sugar<br />

metabolism in yeasts: an overview of aerobic and<br />

anaerobic glucose catabolism, Biodiversity and<br />

ecophysiology of yeasts, Springer-Verlag Berlin<br />

Heidelberg, pp 101-105.<br />

Roy, S.O., Packard, T.T., Berdalet, E., St-Amand, L.,<br />

1999 – Impact of acetate, pyruvate, and<br />

physiological state on respiration and respiratory<br />

quotiens in Pseudomonas Nautica, Aquat Microb<br />

Ecol, 17: 105-110.<br />

Ruiz-Herrera, J., Garcia, L.G., 1978 – Regulation of<br />

succinate dehydrogenase in Escherichia coli,<br />

Journal of General Microbiology, 72: 29-35.<br />

Strydom, C., Robinson, C., Pretorius, E., Whitcutt,<br />

J.M., Marx, J., Bornman, M.S., 2006 – The<br />

effect of selected metals on the central metabolic<br />

pathways in biology: A review, Water SA, Vol. 32,<br />

No. 4, pp. 543-554.<br />

Tayeh, M.A., Madigan, M.T., 1988 – Malate<br />

dehydrogenases in phototrophic purple bacteria –<br />

Thermal stability, amino acid composition and<br />

immunological properties, Biochem. J., 252: 595-<br />

600.<br />

Tretter, L., Adam-Vizi, V., 2004 – Generation of<br />

reactive oxygen species in the reaction catalyzed<br />

by α-ketoglutarat dehydrogenase, The Journal of<br />

Neuroscience, 24: 7771-7778.<br />

Tretter, L., Adam-Vizi, V., 2005 – Alpha-ketoglutarate<br />

dehydrogenase: a target and generator of<br />

oxidativ stress, Phil. Trans. R. B, 360: 2335-2345.<br />

Videira, A., Duarte, M., 2002 – From NADH to<br />

ubiquinone in Neurospora Mitochondria, Biochim.<br />

Biophys. Acta 1555: 187-191.<br />

Weckbecker, A., Hummel, W., 2005 – Glucose<br />

dehydrogenase for the regeneration of NADPH<br />

and NADH, Microbial enzymes and<br />

biotransformations, Methods in Biothehnology,<br />

Vol. 17, 225-238.<br />

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Over-expression of glucose dehydrogenase<br />

improves cell growth and riboflavin production in<br />

Bacillus subtilis, Biotehnol Lett, 28: 1667- 1672.

Abstract<br />

305<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

RESULTS ON SPECIFIC HARMFUL ENTOMOFAUNA FROM RAPESEED<br />

CROPS IN THE CENTRAL MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU CONDITIONS<br />

Alexandra – Andreea BUBURUZ 1 , Elena TROTUȘ 2 , Mihai TĂLMACIU 1<br />

E-mail: alexandra_andreea_83@yahoo.com<br />

The rape is a plant originating from the Mediterranean basin, which due to its rich oil seeds, used in food and<br />

illuminated, was widespread during the Middle Ages in the Central and Nordic European countries. Result of the<br />

breeding researches, the rape currently occupies a very important place in the world economy as a source of vegetables<br />

oils used in food and especially in industry by creating alternative energy solutions. The agronomic importance of rape<br />

is undeniable, it is considered one of the most productive crops, one of the best preceding plant for the most demanding<br />

culture and a good neighbor of wedge with crops attacked by the same disease. During the period 2010 - 2012, in the<br />

ARDS Secuieni conditions, was pursued the identification of harmful entomo-fauna from winter rape crops of Central<br />

Moldovian Plateau. The harmful entomo-fauna collected during 2010 - 2012, in rape crops in the Agricultural Research<br />

- Development Station Secuieni territory was composed of 15 species which for entire period totaled 4046<br />

specimens/sqm, of the following orders: Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Heteroptera and Lepidoptera. The Coleoptera order<br />

had the highest number of species and the highest number of collected specimens. From Coleoptera order, the<br />

Meligethes aeneus had the largest share (62.90%). The collected species were integrated into the five classes of<br />

dominance (D1 - subrecedent species, D2 - recedent species, D3 - subdominant species, D4 - dominant species and D5 -<br />

eudominant species); the highest rate from the total of collected species, 62.90%, was registered to the D5 class -<br />

eudominant species.<br />

Key words: winter rape, pests, dominance, percentage.<br />

The rapeseed currently occupies an<br />

important role in the global economy as a source of<br />

vegetable oils used in food industry and especially<br />

in the industry by creating some alternative energy<br />

solutions. (Elena Trotus, 2001; Talmaciu Nela,<br />

2009). Reflecting on the many pests of rape<br />

culture, it is necessary to mention the importance<br />

of the attacks that lead to the failure of the<br />

productive potential of the varieties and hybrids<br />

grown or even compromise the harvest, in extreme<br />

situations of risk related to the insect abundance.<br />

(Elena Trotus, 2003; Elena Trotus, 2009). The<br />

knowledge of insect pests is of special practical<br />

interest, because the moment of attack is difficult<br />

to see due to their small size, sometimes milimeter,<br />

of the species and their phytophagous stages, as<br />

well as their specific parasite attack hidden inside<br />

or between plant tissues, in soil or sometimes<br />

diminished by vegetative growth and phenological<br />

development of plants.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The researches were conducted at the<br />

Agricultural Research – Development Station<br />

Secuieni – Neamt, on winter rapeseed crop, and<br />

consisted of the collection:<br />

In recent years, the constant attention<br />

given to study the dynamics of pest attack in<br />

conjunction with the evolution of zonal agri –<br />

environmental factors complex, has led to the<br />

observation of impact produced by climate changes<br />

on rapeseed crop entomocenoses. The global<br />

warming, the installation of very hot, drought and<br />

heat periods, in spring – summer months, were<br />

particularly strong ecological factors which led to<br />

changes in species composition, favoring the<br />

development of narrow – spectrum populations of<br />

problem species that became dominant, dangerous<br />

by increasing or even by the numerical bursts<br />

through local invasion and powerful attacks.<br />

In this paper we present information<br />

regarding the identification of specific harmful<br />

entomofauna from rapeseed crops in the<br />

conditions of Central Moldovian Plateau.<br />

- Barber traps type;<br />

- Yellow bowl trap type;<br />

- Glue traps;<br />

- Trap light;

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

- Collections with the entomological net from<br />

plants rosette stage until the seed<br />

formation in silicve, from 10 to 10 days;<br />

- Ground surveys, of 25/25/25 cm size and<br />

soil entomofauna collection.<br />

The collections and measurements were made<br />

from the stem elongation phenophase until the end<br />

of seed ripening phenophase, from 2010 to 2012.<br />

The collected entomofauna was determined<br />

in laboratory at the binocular loupe and selecte<br />

don species and orders then was calculated the<br />

density/sqm of identified species throughout the<br />

growing season. The dates obtained allowed to<br />

establish the collected species dominance and<br />

their inclusion in the 5 classes of dominance.<br />

The species dominance was calculated using<br />

the formula:<br />

DA = NA X 100<br />

N1<br />

NA = total number of individuals of A species;<br />

N1 = total number of individuals of all collected<br />

species.<br />

The dominance classes include species<br />

whose rate of spread is within the following values:<br />

D1 – subrecedent species – rate of spread<br />

P10,1%.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The observations and measurements made<br />

on the collected fauna from winter rapeseed crops<br />

in A.R.D.S. Secuieni territory, showed that the<br />

harmful entomofauna consisted of 15 species<br />

which totale don average over the entire period of<br />

observations (2010 – 2012) a total of 4046<br />

specimens/sqm. (table 1).<br />

The average density of the pest during the<br />

phenophases of strains elongation – buds –<br />

flowering – silicve formation – silicve maturation<br />

ranged from 4 specimens/sqm and 2439<br />

specimens/sqm. (table 1).<br />

Analyzing the collected harmful species,<br />

regarding their dominance, it was found that they<br />

were classified in the five classes of dominance, as<br />

follows:<br />

- 5 species belong to the D1 class –<br />

subrecedent species, the percentage of<br />

spread of each species was less than 1.1%;<br />

- 3 species were classified in D2 class –<br />

recedent species, where the rate of spread<br />

of species was less than 2.0%;<br />

- 3 species belong to the D3 class –<br />

subdominant species whose rate of spread<br />

was less than 5.0%;<br />

306<br />

- 3 species were classified in D4 class –<br />

dominant species, with a prevalence rate<br />

between 5.1 – 10.0%;<br />

- 1 species belong to D5 class – eudominant<br />

species, whose prevalence percentage was<br />

higher of 10.1% (table 2).<br />

Calculating the share of harmful entomofauna<br />

on dominance classes it was found out that from<br />

the total collected entomofauna, 3.04% belong to<br />

the D1 class (sporadic spreading), 4.92% in D2<br />

class (low spread), 11.35% belong to the D3 class<br />

(middle spread), 20.41% in D4 class and 60.28%<br />

to D5 class (eudominant species) (fig. 1).<br />

Grouping the harmful entomofauna from<br />

rapeseed crop on orders showed that the collected<br />

species fall into the following orders: Coleoptera,<br />

Hymenoptera, Heteroptera and Lepidoptera.<br />

To find the percentage of the orders that attack<br />

the rapeseed crop was calculated the orders<br />

percentage according to the number of species.<br />

Thus, it was found that the Coleoptera order held<br />

the maximum share of 95.85%, followed by<br />

Lepidoptera with 1.58%, Hymenoptera with 1.33%<br />

and Heteroptera with 1.24% (fig.2).<br />

In the rapeseed crops the Coleoptera order was<br />

represented by 10 species (Meligethes aeneus,<br />

Phyllotreta atra, Phyllotreta nemorum, Phyllotreta<br />

nigripes, Psylliodes chrysocephala,<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus napi, Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis,<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus pleurostigma, Baris chlorizans,<br />

Epicometis hirta) and totaled for the entire<br />

experimental period 3878 specimens/sqm. The<br />

largest share of 62.90% was held by Meligethes<br />

aeneus species, followed by the species Phyllotreta<br />

atra with 7.94%, Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis with<br />

6.78% and Epicometis hirta with 6.58%. the<br />

remaining species (Phyllotreta nemorum,<br />

Phyllotreta nigripes,Psylliodes chrysocephala,<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus napi, Ceuthorrhynchus<br />

pleurostigma, Baris chlorizans) had a low<br />

spreading with weight between 0.23% and 4.41%.<br />

(fig. 3).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The harmful entomofauna collected from<br />

rapeseed crop in A.R.D.S. Secuieni territory<br />

included 15 species and totale don average<br />

throught the growing season 4046 specimens/sqm.<br />

The collected species were classified into the<br />

five classes of dominance: D1 – subrecedent<br />

species, D2 – recedent species, D3 – subdominant<br />

species, D4 – dominant species, D5 – eudominant<br />

species.<br />

Of all the collected species 60.28% were<br />

classified in D5 class, 20.41% in D4 class, 11.35%

in D3 class, 4.92% in D2 class and 3.04% in D1<br />

class.<br />

In A.R.D.S. Secuieni conditions the attack<br />

from the rapeseed crops is determined mainly by<br />

species belonging to the Coleoptera order.<br />

Within the Coleoptera order, the Meligethes<br />

aeneus species recorded a maximum weight of<br />

62.90%, and Ceuthorrhynchus pleurostigma<br />

species recorded the lowest percentage of 0.23%.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Trotus Elena, 2001 – The main pests of rapeseed oil<br />

crops and their control, Plant health, no. 2, pp. 21<br />

– 23;<br />

Trotuş Elena, Trif V., Mateiaş C., 2001 – „Research<br />

regarding the rape crop protection against the<br />

specific pest attack, Romanian Agricultural<br />

Research (R.A.R), no. 16, pp. 51;<br />

Harmful entomofauna from winter rapeseed crops<br />

307<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Trotuş Elena, 2003 – Researches regarding the<br />

knowledge and control of the specific pests from<br />

rapeseed crops, in Central Moldova conditions,<br />

Scientific symposium 23 – 24 oct. Of USAMV<br />

Iaşi, România;<br />

Trotuş Elena, 2003 – Let us know in due time the<br />

danger posed by rapeseed crop pests on the<br />

production, InfoAmsem, no. 1, pp. 4 - 6;<br />

Trotuş Elena, 2007 – The evolution of harmful<br />

entomofauna from rapeseed crops in Central<br />

Moldova, 45 years of scientific activity at<br />

A.R.D.S. Secuieni – Anniversary volume, Ed. Ion<br />

Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi;<br />

Trotuş Elena, Popov C., Râşnoveanu Luxiţa, Stoica<br />

Valerain, Naie Margareta, Mureşan Felicia,<br />

2009 – Management of rapeseed crops against<br />

pest attack – Pres. At Annual Session of INCDA<br />

Fundulea, 14.05.2009, Bucureşti;<br />

Tălmaciu Nela, Tălmaciu M. şi Herea Monica, 2009 –<br />

Observations regarding the entomofauna<br />

biodiversity from some rapeseed crops. Research<br />

Journal of Agriculture Science, 41 (1).<br />

No. crt. Species<br />

Order<br />

2010-2012<br />

Total specimens<br />

2010 - 2011 2011 - 2012<br />

Total<br />

1. Meligethes aeneus Coleoptera 1754 685 2439<br />

2. Phyllotreta atra Coleoptera 62 246 308<br />

3. Phyllotreta nemorum Coleoptera 8 112 120<br />

4. Athalia rosae Hymenoptera 37 17 54<br />

5. Psylliodes chrysocephala Coleoptera 23 53 76<br />

6. Ceuthorrhynchus napi Coleoptera 39 132 171<br />

7. Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis Coleoptera 88 175 263<br />

8. Baris chlorizans Coleoptera 42 126 168<br />

9. Epicometis hirta Coleoptera 73 182 255<br />

10. Eurydema ornatum Heteroptera 3 1 4<br />

11. Lygus pratensis Heteroptera 44 2 46<br />

12. Mamestra brassicae Lepidoptera 27 5 32<br />

13. Phyllotreta nigripes Coleoptera 0 69 69<br />

14. Ceuthorrhynchus pleurostigma Coleoptera 0 9 9<br />

15. Agrotis segetum Lepidoptera 14 18 32<br />

TOTAL 2214 1832 4046<br />

No.<br />

crt.<br />

D1 – subrecedent<br />

species < 1,1%<br />

The dominance of pests collected in rapeseed crop sat A.R.D.S. Secuieni<br />

2010 - 2012<br />

D2 – recedent species<br />

1,2% - 2,0%<br />

D3 –subdominant<br />

species 2,1% -<br />

5,0%<br />

1. Eurydema ornatum Athalia rosae Baris chlorizans<br />

2. Mamestra brassicae Phyllotreta nigripes<br />

3.<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus<br />

pleurostigma<br />

4. Lygus pratensis<br />

5. Agrotis segetum<br />

Psylliodes<br />

chrysocephala<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus<br />

napi<br />

Phyllotreta<br />

nemorum<br />

D4 – dominant<br />

species 5,1% - 10%<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus<br />

assimilis<br />

Epicometis hirta<br />

Phyllotreta atra<br />

Table 1<br />

Table 2<br />

D5 –eudominant<br />

species<br />

> 10%<br />

Meligethes<br />

aeneus<br />

Total 5 species 3 species 3 species 3 species 1 species

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

D1 - sp.subrecedente D2 - sp. recedente<br />

D3 - sp. subdominante D4 - sp. dominante<br />

D5 - sp.eudominante<br />

60,28%<br />

3,04%<br />

4,92%<br />

11,35%<br />

20,41%<br />

308<br />

Coleoptera Hymenoptera Heteroptera Lepidoptera<br />

95,85%<br />

1,58%<br />

1,24%<br />

1,33%<br />

Figure 1 The share of pests on dominance classes Figure 2 The share of bordes based on rapeseed<br />

crop species<br />

1,96%<br />

6,78%<br />

4,41%<br />

3,09%<br />

4,33%<br />

6,58%<br />

1,78%<br />

7,94%<br />

Meligethes aeneus<br />

Phyllotreta atra<br />

Phyllotreta nemorum<br />

Psylliodes chrysocephala<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus napi<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis<br />

Baris chlorizans<br />

Epicometis hirta<br />

Phyllotreta nigripes<br />

Ceuthorrhynchus pleurostigma<br />

0,23%<br />

62,90%<br />

Figure 3 The shape of species in Coleoptera order from rapeseed crops

309<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF THE GENUS<br />

Monarda L. IN VASLUI COUNTY, TO INTRODUCE THEM IN<br />

CULTIVATION AS MEDICINAL, AROMATIC AND DECORATIVE PLANTS<br />

Abstract<br />

Ana-Maria CIURUȘNIUC¹, Teodor ROBU 1<br />

e-mail: ciurusniucanamaria@yahoo.com<br />

Genus Monarda L. comprises about 30 species of annual and perennial medicinal, aromatic and ornamental plants,<br />

belonging to family Lamiaceae. The gender is originating in the USA, Canada and Mexico and is grown in Europe,<br />

Asia. The best known species are: Monarda didyma L., M. fistulosa L., M.citriodora Cerv. ex Lag, M. punctata L., M.<br />

pectinata L, M. clinopodia L., etc.. This paper aims monarda behavior of three species, M. didyma L., M. citriodora<br />

Cerv. ex Lag. and M. fistulosa L. in the climatic conditions in Vaslui county, to introduce their culture. The experience<br />

has been established both by direct seeding in the experimental field and the seedling, being made biometric<br />

measurements and observations to plant. The importance of this study is to determine which of the three species of the<br />

genus Monarda L. is most suitable to be cultivated in the climatic conditions of Vaslui county, identifying medicinal<br />

qualities, aromatic and ornamental.<br />

Key words: M. didyma L., M. fistulosa L., M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag.<br />

Genus Monarda L., belonging to the<br />

botanical family Lamiaceae, includes popular plant<br />

also known as bergamot, mint decorative, Indian<br />

mint, bee balm, Oswego tea.<br />

The genus name is in honor and memory<br />

of Nicolas Monardes Bautista, a known Spanish<br />

doctor from the sixth century. The genus species,<br />

originating from the North American continent,<br />

have been used for medicinally and aromatically<br />

purposes since the seventeenth century by<br />

numerous Indian tribes to treat respiratory,<br />

digestive, skin, with effects febrifuge, diaphoretic,<br />

antirheumatic, carminative, sedative, tonic with<br />

antibacterial, anticoagulant, antiseptic properties<br />

(JA Duke, 2007).<br />

Like many other plant species belonging to<br />

the Lamiaceae family genus Monarda L. are used<br />

for ornamental purposes, suitable for the<br />

establishment of perennial gardens, parks, mixed<br />

borders, lawns fittings. Found spontaneously in<br />

their natural environment, plants are considered<br />

ideal for meadows and roadside beautification<br />

mixed with other wild plants, due to chromatic<br />

variety of flowers.<br />

In the specialized literature genus<br />

Monarda L. number varies from 12 (Guşuleac M.,<br />

1961 ) to 30 species (Selaru Elena, 2007),<br />

beingdescribed as perennial and annual herbaceous<br />

plants.<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iași<br />

Many authors place the genus Monarda L. in<br />

Lamiaceae family, Nepetoidae subfamily, tribe<br />

Mentheae, subtribul Menthinae (RydingO., 2009,<br />

Moon HK et al., 2009).<br />

Genus Monarda L. species are plants<br />

resistant to unfavorable conditions (Selaru Elena,<br />

2007 ), preferring open spaces.<br />

Plants are heliofile genre, requiring high light<br />

intensity, long day conditions causing flower<br />

development, but can be cultivated and halfshade<br />

(Teuscher E. et al., 2005).<br />

Average monthly temperatures in Vaslui optimal<br />

sowing period (April-June) is 12 to 16 º C, being<br />

favorable to seed germination and the growth of<br />

the plant Monarda L., requiring temperatures of<br />

21-23 ° C to flowering.<br />

Plants prefer clayey-sandy soils, porous,<br />

moist, rich in nutrients and humus with a pH of 5.5<br />

to 7. Genus are grown on a soil with moderate<br />

moisture (Ardelean A., Mohan G., 2011) watering<br />

too often causing root rot.<br />

Genus Monarda L. species are plants<br />

resistant to unfavorable conditions, which prefer<br />

loose soil. Grown in full sun or half shade.<br />

Multiplication is achieved by seed and by dividing<br />

the parent plant. Sowing is in spring, in April-May,<br />

springing taking place within 1-4 weeks at<br />

temperatures of 16-18 °C and dividing bush in<br />

early spring (Selaru Elena, 2007).

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Special attention should be paid to<br />

combating pathogens and pests, using the<br />

agrotechnical measures, hygiene, cultural and<br />

chemical control measures when necessary. In<br />

cultures of Monarda L. are common powdery<br />

mildew (Erysiphe monardae) and rust (Puccinia<br />

menthae) (fig. 1) being used to control, fungicide<br />

Tops in M 70 (70% thiophanate methyl).<br />

a b<br />

Figure 1 M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag.<br />

a- Plant lice b- Powdery mildew<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

Experience has been placed in plots<br />

subdivided in three repetitions. Experimental<br />

factors were placed in bifactorial experience.<br />

Culture was established in spring 2011, in Vaslui<br />

county, the seeds and seedlings produced in the<br />

greenhouse Floriculture discipline of the University<br />

of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine<br />

Iași, on chernozem soil of the steppe grasslands.<br />

The sowing was done in May and plant springing<br />

took place in about three weeks. Seedbed was<br />

planted in the same month, with a height of 14 cm,<br />

the distance of 50 cm between plants in the row<br />

and 50 cm between rows. The total area of the<br />

experience measured 230 sqm, of which the<br />

cultivated area of 180 sqm and area parcel 10<br />

sqm. Each variant consisted of two rows of plants<br />

obtained by seeding and two rows of plants<br />

established by seedling. The average temperature<br />

and rainfall recorded were within normal limits.<br />

The biological material used in establishing<br />

the experimental field is represented by three<br />

species of the genus Monarda L., M. didyma L., M.<br />

fistulosa L. and M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag.<br />

Monarda citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. Is an<br />

annual species, with heightsof 25-90 cm, welldeveloped<br />

root system, swivel type, branched (fig.<br />

2) stems are branched, squared, pubescent. The<br />

leaves are opposite, petiolate, lanceolate or<br />

oblong-lanceolate, pubescent, with serrate edges,<br />

with a strong lemon scent.<br />

Flowers pink-purple, are grouped in whorls<br />

2-7 capitulum formed terminals, accompanied by<br />

colorful bracts, tubular calyx, 5 lobes, two lipped<br />

corolla, tube long, glabrous narrow interior, straight<br />

or slightly curved upper lip, lower short, the three<br />

lobes, (Guşuleac M., 1961). The fruits are glossy<br />

ovoid nukas the plant is cultivated for its<br />

ornamental qualities, aromatic and medicinal.<br />

310<br />

Figure 2 M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag.<br />

Monarda didyma L. is a perennial species<br />

with flowering period from July to October (fig. 3).<br />

The strain is about 100-130 cm tall, branched from<br />

the base, forming a shrub of upright shoots,<br />

squared. The leaves are ovate-lanceolate,<br />

petiolate, thin, pale green, 7-15 cm long.<br />

The flowers are two lipped, red, arranged in 1-3<br />

whorls capitulum formed terminals, accompanied<br />

by colorful bracts linear-sharp. Corolla is straight to<br />

slightly curved, stamens exserte. Calyx is finished<br />

with five teeth about the length of the tube<br />

diameter.<br />

This species is used medicinally, and has<br />

diuretic, antifebrile, carminative, expectorant,<br />

rubefaciante, incentives, antiseptic, aromatic<br />

properties but also ornamental (H. Kalamouni C.,<br />

2010).<br />

Leaves are used to prepare a tea to treat<br />

digestive disorders, or can be added and used to<br />

season salads. Decorative plants are used in<br />

parks, gardens, lawns fittings.<br />

Figure 3 M. didyma L.<br />

Monarda fistulosa L. is a perennial<br />

species, with the appearance of shrub 35-120 cm<br />

high (fig. 4). The stem is simple, erect, pubescent,<br />

reddish at the top. The leaves are strongly<br />

flavored, are large, ovate-lanceolate, petiolate,<br />

dental, 3-10 cm long. The flowers are lilac-purple<br />

color, grouped in terminal whorls, the calyx is<br />

tubular, 15-nerve finished with five teeth, the<br />

corolla is two lipped, 2-3 cm long, pubescent<br />

(Elizabeth McClintock, C. Epling, 1942). Like other<br />

species, M. fistulosa L. is grown for medical<br />

purposes, aromatic and ornamental.<br />

Figure 4 M. fistulosa L.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

In Tables 1, 2 and 3 are presented data on<br />

sowing date, sunrise, planting date, flowering date,<br />

plant height and flowering both at the beginning<br />

and the full flowering of the three species studied.<br />

In experimental year 2011 the perennial species M.<br />

didyma L. and M. fistulosa L. have not reached the<br />

stage of flowering, flowering date observations on<br />

the average height of plants at full flowering<br />

annual species being made only on M. citriodora<br />

Cerv. ex Lag. In terms of plant height before<br />

blooming, it appears that the May average values<br />

were recorded in cultures established by seedling<br />

plants in all three species.<br />

Comparing the establishment of the culture<br />

of the three species shows the following:<br />

• the options established by seedling,<br />

average height before blooming perennial species<br />

M. didyma L. and M. fistulosa L., presented the<br />

value of 70.4 cm and 31.5 cm respectively, while<br />

the annual species M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag.<br />

average height of plants before flowering was 38.7<br />

cm.<br />

• the options set by seeds, plants of M.<br />

didyma L. measured an average value of height<br />

before flowering, 53.6 cm, those of M. fistulosa L.<br />

of 28.64 cm, and the species of M. citriodora Cerv.<br />

ex Lag. measured on average 27.2 cm.<br />

Table 1<br />

Biometric measurements on Monarda didyma L.<br />

species, grown in the county of Vaslui<br />

Characters Seeds Seedling<br />

Seeding date in field/ 14.05. 2011 17.03. 2011<br />

seedling shelter<br />

Emerging date in field/ 25. 05. 2011 22. 03. 2011<br />

seedling shelter<br />

Planting date on field - 20. 05<br />

Emerging duration on<br />

12 6<br />

field/seedling shelter – no.<br />

days<br />

Height before blooming – 53.6 70.4<br />

cm<br />

Table 2<br />

Biometric measurements on Monarda fistulosa L.<br />

species, grown in the county of Vaslui<br />

Characters Seeds Seedling<br />

Seeding date in field/<br />

Seedling shelter<br />

14. 05. 2011 17. 03. 2011<br />

Emerging date in field/<br />

seedling shelter<br />

25. 05. 2011 22. 03. 2011<br />

Planting date on field - 7.06. 2011<br />

Emerging duration on<br />

field/ seedling shelter –<br />

no. days<br />

12 6<br />

Height before blooming –<br />

cm<br />

28.64 31.5<br />

311<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55(2)/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Regarding the duration to emerge,<br />

established by seedling variants included 5 days<br />

for annual species M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. and<br />

six days for the perennial M. didyma L. and M.<br />

fistulosa L. The variants created by. seeds sown<br />

directly in the field needed a greater number of<br />

days to emerge. Thus, the species M. didyma L.<br />

and M. fistulosa L. Took 12 days to emerge, and<br />

the species M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. 10 days.<br />

Table 3<br />

Biometric measurements on Monarda citriodora<br />

Cerv. ex Lag. Species, grown in the county of Vaslui<br />

Characters Seeds Seedling<br />

Seeding date in field/<br />

Seedling shelter<br />

14. 05. 2011 17.03. 2011<br />

Emerging date in field/<br />

seedling shelter<br />

23. 05. 2011 21.03.2011<br />

Planting date on field - 20.05. 2011<br />

Emerging duration on<br />

field/seedling shelter – no.<br />

days<br />

10 5<br />

Height before blooming –<br />

cm<br />

27.2 38.7<br />

Date of blooming 15.08.2011 6.06.2011<br />

Height at full flowering–<br />

cm<br />

41.8 61.71<br />

Variants of M. didyma L. established by<br />

seedlings have the average height 16.8 cm higher<br />

than those established by seeds, those of M.<br />

fistulosa L. to 2.86 cm and variants of M.<br />

citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. Are established by<br />

seedlings 11.5 cm higher than those established by<br />

seed, before flowering.<br />

On the average height of plants at full<br />

flowering, all the species M. citriodora Cerv. ex<br />

Lag., there is a difference of 19.91 cm of variants<br />

created by seedling and established by seed.<br />

Plants of M. citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. of<br />

variants created by seedling bloomed to 18 days<br />

after planting, seed planting with an average height<br />

of 14 cm, while the variants established by seed<br />

plants have flowered three months after sowing in<br />

the field.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Climatic conditions favor the cultivation of<br />

Vaslui county three species of the genus Monarda<br />

L, both through direct seeding field and using<br />

seedlings.<br />

All three species studied, the observations<br />

and measurements performed have shown a high<br />

degree of versatility in terms of Vaslui county, can<br />

be successfully promoted in Moldavia, and more,<br />

that plants can be used both as plants medicinal<br />

and aromatic plants as well as decorative.<br />

Although moisture was sufficient, the<br />

variants established by seed, where the atmosphere

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

was not controlled, their springing was more<br />

difficult.<br />

On small areas of land recommended by<br />

seedling establishment culture, and not by seeds,<br />

because they have very small size, greater duration<br />

of emergence, slow growth etc.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Ardelean A., Mohan Gh., 2011-Enciclopedia plantelor<br />

decorative, vol. II Parcuri și grădini, Edit. All.<br />

Duke J.A., 2007-Farmacia verde, Edit. All.<br />

El Kalamouni C., 2010 - Caracterisation chimiques et<br />

biologiques d’extraits de plantes aromatiques<br />

outbliees de Midi-Pyrenees, Univ. De Toulouse.<br />

Guşuleac M., 1961-Gen Monarda L. în Săvulescu Tr.,<br />

(Edit.), Flora R.P.R., vol. VIII, p. 273-274.<br />

Figure 5 Aspects of the experimental field<br />

312<br />

McClintock Elizabeth, Epling C., 1942-A rewiew of the<br />

genus Monarda (Labiatae), Univ. of California<br />

Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, p. 147-194.<br />

Moon Hye-Kyoung, Suk-Pyo Hong, Smets Erik,<br />

Huysmans Suzy, 2009-Phylogenetic significance<br />

of leaf micromorphology and anatomy in tribe<br />

Mentheae (Nepetoideae: Lamiaceae), Botanical<br />

Journal of the Linnean Society, 160, p 211-231.<br />

Ryding O., 2009-Pericarp structure of Monarda<br />

(Lamiaceae), Botanische Jahrbucher, vol. 127,<br />

nr. 4, p. 453-458.<br />

Şelaru Elena, 2007-Cultura florilor de grădină, Edit.<br />

Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Teuscher E., Anton R., Lobstein Annelise, 2005-<br />

Plantes aromatiques-Epices, aromates,<br />

condiments et huille essentielles, Edit. Tec &<br />

Doc.

313<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol.55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS INFLUENCE DURING<br />

THE IN VITRO MULTIPLICATION PHASE OF SOME SPECIES AND CULTIVARS<br />

OF THE ACER GENUS<br />

Abstract<br />

Manuela Elena CONCIOIU 1 , Mihaela Ileana OPREA 1<br />

e-mail: manuela.concioiu@hotmail.com<br />

The purpose of the research was to study the behaviour of several Acer cultivars: Acer palmatum 'Dissectum<br />

Atropurpureum' and Acer platanoides 'Crimson King', 'Drummondii' and 'Globosum', during the first subculture of the<br />

in vitro multiplication phase. There were used explants from the initiation phase and passed on the multiplication<br />

nutrient media. The tested nutrient media were MS, DKW and WPM and had a different content of growth hormones.<br />

In order to determine the multiplication rate, the influence of zeatin and thidiazuron was tested in concentration of 1.5<br />

mg/l, on a constant level of indole-butyric acid (0.5 mg/l). In the growing chamber there was a constant temperature and<br />

a photoperiod of 14 hours, at a luminosity of 2500 lucs. The multiplication rate (microshoots/explant) for the four<br />

genotypes was determined from the observations and registered data.<br />

Key words: Acer palmatum 'Dissectum Atropurpureum', Acer platanoides 'Crimson King', Acer platanoides<br />

'Drummondii', Acer platanoides 'Globosum', multiplication rate<br />

The ornamental varieties, 'Crimson King',<br />

'Drummondii' and 'Globosum', belong to the<br />

species Acer platanoides, being easily to<br />

propagate by seeds, but mostly by grafting and<br />

cuttings. Acer palmatum 'Dissectum<br />

Atropurpureum' - the Japanese maple – is a base<br />

branched shrub or with short crook trunk. The<br />

shoots are hairless and red. The flowers, situated<br />

in small corymbs, appear once with the leaves<br />

(Posedaru E.A., 2005). The species itself is grown<br />

from seed. Only a few strong-growing cultivars<br />

are commercially propagated from cuttings. Plants<br />

of the dissected and variegated cultivars on their<br />

own roots almost always fail to grow into good<br />

plants (Gelderen, Oterdoom, 1994). Due to low<br />

bud-forming capacity, propagation by grafting and<br />

cuttings are difficult to perform, so the<br />

micropropagation technique is widely used now<br />

took an impressive turn, being used on large scale<br />

at international level to obtain propagation<br />

material.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The viable microshoots obtained at the end<br />

of the initiation phase (fig. 1) were transferred for<br />

the multiplication phase on specific nutrient media<br />

for: induction and acceleration of proliferation of<br />

axilary budding or multiple axilary shoot (each<br />

shoot is a potential plant) and shoot elongation<br />

(Badea M.E., Săndulescu D., 2001). For the<br />

1 U.S.A.M.V. Bucharest<br />

ultiplication phase, were established three<br />

variants of nutrient media (tab. 1). Observations<br />

regarding the multiplication rate were noted during<br />

the first subculture, with a medium length of 35<br />

days. For nutrient media preparation were used<br />

stock solutions of 10x macroelements, 10x<br />

microelements and 100x vitamins.<br />

Phytohormones were prepared as 10 -2 and 10 -6<br />

diluted solutions. Ferrous sulphate and Na2EDTA<br />

were added as NaFeEDTA, in concentration of 32<br />

mg/l. Were used conic culture vessels (Ø=100mm<br />

and h=100mm) for the first subculture, each with<br />

25ml medium/vessel.<br />

The work methodology respected the<br />

standard protocol regarding aseptic conditions<br />

transfer under laminar air flow hood. After<br />

explants inoculation on nutrient media, the<br />

vessels were incubated in the growth chamber.<br />

The acclimatized premises have adjustable<br />

photoperiodism. Illumination was done with white<br />

light fluorescent tubes, with an intensity of 2500<br />

lucsi and the photoperiod was set at 14 hours<br />

light/24 hours. In order to study maple in vitro<br />

multiplication capacity was organized a bifactorial<br />

experience, having as variable factors genotype<br />

and nutrient medium composition, and as<br />

constant factor – photoperiod.<br />

The experience is a 4×3 bifactorial, with a<br />

total of 12 variants (V.1-V.12), in 3 repetitions (R1,<br />

R2, R3), each with cu 2 culture vessels /<br />

repetition. In each culture vessel were assigned 3<br />

microshoots from the initiation phase. The study<br />

totalized a number of 216 inoculated explants<br />

(tab. 2).<br />

Variable factors:

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

A. Genotype:<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

A.1 – Acer palmatum 'Dissectum Atropurpureum';<br />

A.2 – Acer platanoides 'Crimson King';<br />

The recorded data are expressed in ratio of<br />

A.3 – Acer platanoides 'Drummondii';<br />

multiplication (microshoots/explant) for the first<br />

A.4 – Acer platanoides 'Globosum'.<br />

subculture in the multiplication phase. During the<br />

B. Culture medium:<br />

multiplication phase, growth and axilary shoot are<br />

B.1 – MS medium;<br />

B.2 – DKW medium;<br />

influenced by the composition of the nutritend<br />

B.3 – WPM medium.<br />

medium and genotype. The notes and recorded<br />

data emphasized that on a constant level of the<br />

photoperiod at 14 hours and the same indolebutyric<br />

acid concentration as growth regulator,<br />

nutrient media, MS, DKW and WPM respectivly,<br />

and genotype had a great influence.<br />

Table 1<br />

Composition of nutrient media tested for in vitro multiplication phase<br />

Composition (mg/l)<br />

314<br />

Variants of nutrient media<br />

B1 B2 B3<br />

Macroelements MS DKW WPM<br />

Microelements MS DKW WPM<br />

Vitamins MS DKW MS<br />

Indole-butyric acid (mg/l) 0.5 0.5 0.5<br />

Zeatin (mg/l) - 1.5 1.5<br />

Thidiazuron (mg/l) 1.5 - -<br />

NaFeEDTA (mg/l) 32 32 32<br />

Dextrose (g/l) 40 40 40<br />

Agar (g/l) 7.5 7.5 7.5<br />

Figure 1 Acer explants at the end of in vitro initiation phase: Acer plamatum 'Dissectum Atropurpureum' (A),<br />

Acer platanoides 'Globosum' (B), Acer platanoides 'Crimson King' (C), Acer platanoides 'Drummondii' (D)<br />

(original)<br />

From the interaction of nutrient medium<br />

with genotype (AxB) it shows that in the first<br />

subculture of the multiplication phase, the<br />

genotypes A.1, A.2 and A.3, respectivly Acer<br />

palmatum 'Dissectum Atropurpureum', Acer<br />

platanoides 'Crimson King' (fig. 4) and Acer<br />

platanoides 'Drummondii', had the highest<br />

multiplication rate (fig. 2).

Looking at the culture media, the B.3<br />

graduation (V3, V6, B9 and V12 variants) had the<br />

highest multiplication rate (fig. 3), with 3<br />

microshoots/explant, thus WPM culture medium<br />

was recommended for multiplication phase. The<br />

lowest performance had MS culture<br />

medium, with 1 microshoot/explant, for A.1 and<br />

A.2 genotypes.<br />

Figure 2 Multiplication rate for subculture 1,<br />

depending on culture medium for different<br />

genotypes<br />

Figure 3 Multiplication rate for subculture 1,<br />

depending on genotype for different culture media<br />

Figure 4 Acer platanoides 'Crimson King',<br />

micromultiplication aspects: microshoots at the<br />

end of initiation phase (up);microshoots<br />

individualisation and shortning (down) (original)<br />

315<br />

Constant factor: photoperiod<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol.55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 2<br />

Experimental variants for multiplication phase<br />

Variable factors<br />

Variant A: Nutrient<br />

medium<br />

B: Photoperiod<br />

V.1 A.1 B.1<br />

V.2 A.1 B.2<br />

V.3 A.1 B.3<br />

V.4 A.2 B.1<br />

V.5 A.2 B.2<br />

V.6 A.2 B.3<br />

V.7 A.3 B.1<br />

V.8 A.3 B.2<br />

V.9 A.3 B.3<br />

V.10 A.4 B.1<br />

V.11 A.4 B.2<br />

V.12 A.4 B.3<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The results regarding the multiplication<br />

phase of Acer palmatum 'Dissectum<br />

Atropurpureum' and Acer platanoides 'Crimson<br />

King', Acer platanoides 'Drummondii' and Acer<br />

platanoides 'Globosum', Kanzan” varieties led to<br />

the following conclusions:<br />

- for the first subculture of the multiplication<br />

phase, the genotypes Acer palmatum 'Dissectum<br />

Atropurpureum', Acer platanoides 'Crimson King'<br />

and 'Drummondii' had the best in vitro behavior;<br />

- regarding the nutrient medium, the highest rates<br />

of multiplication (3 microshoots/explant) were<br />

achieved using DKW and WPM media.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Badea M.E., Săndulescu D., (2001).<br />

Biotehnologii vegetale. Fundaţia Biotech,<br />

Bucuresti, Bucuresti<br />

Gelderen D.M. van, de Jong P.C., Oterdoom<br />

H.J., (1994). Maples of the world, Timber<br />

Press Inc., Portland, Oregon<br />

Posedaru E.A. (2005). Plante ornamentale<br />

recomandate pentru amenajarea spaţiilor<br />

verzi din România, Arboricultură<br />

ornamentală, Editura Universităţii din<br />

Piteşti, Pitesti, pag. 81-86

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

316

317<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INFLUENCE OF SOME AMINOACIDS ON THE ACTIVITY OF<br />

CELLULOLYTIC AND XYLANOLYTIC ENZYMES IN THE FUNGUS<br />

TRICHODERMA REESEI QM-9414<br />

Mihaela CRISTICA 1 , Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ 1 , Elena CIORNEA 1 , Alexandru MANOLIU<br />

Abstract<br />

e-mail: cristica_mihaela@yahoo.fr<br />

Cellulases and hemicellulases are hydrolytic enzymes involved in the conversion of lignocellulose to glucose.<br />

Filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei is one of the most known and efficient producers of cellulases and<br />

hemicellulases. These enzymes have a huge potential application in the bioconversion of agricultural wastes and<br />

production of valuable products that can be used later in different areas. Lignocellulose-degrading enzymes are<br />

induced by the presence in the cultivation medium of carbon sources such as cellulose, as well as other culture<br />

parameters such as pH, concentration of the inoculation material, nitrogen source used, etc.<br />

In this context, this study aims to investigate how different amino acids influence the activity of cellulases and<br />

hemicellulases in the fungus Trichoderma reesei. Therefore T. reesei QM-9414 was grown on medium in which<br />

the carbon source was replaced with 30 g / l wheat straw and nitrogen source with a 1 g / l various amino acids:<br />

alanine, glutamic acid, methionine, valine, asparagine, histidine and serine. Total cellulase activity, endoglucanase<br />

activity, ß-glucosidase and b-xylanase were assayed. The results demonstrate that these enzymes are stimulated by<br />

the presence in the culture medium of asparagine and glutamic acid and inhibited by the presence of methionine.<br />

Key words: Trichoderma reesei, cellulase, xylanase, wheat straws<br />

Degradation of lignocellulosic materials is a<br />

process which requires the concerted action of<br />

various enzymes, acting in a sinergetic manner.<br />

Sugars produced through this process can be used<br />

as raw materials in a number of biotechnological<br />

processes, for instance to obtain ethanol, lactic acid<br />

and hydrogen (Lawford, Rousseau, 2003; Hawary<br />

și colab., 2003; Taguchi și colab., 1996).<br />

Lignocellulosic materials are very cheap and<br />

easy available as wastes from different industries<br />

and agriculture. Lignocellulose is a rich mixture of<br />

carbohydrate polymers (cellulose and<br />

hemicellulose), lignin, proteins and other<br />

compounds that are found in small amounts (Lee,<br />

1997). Trichoderma reesei (syn. Hypocrea<br />

jecorina), is a filamentous fungus known for its<br />

ability to secrete large amount of polysaccharide<br />

hydrolizing enzymes (Kubicek et al., 1993).<br />

The cellulase complex in Trichoderma<br />

reesei QM-9414 consists mainly of three enzymes:<br />

endo-β-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4), cellobiohydrolase<br />

(exoglucanase, EC 3.2.1.91) and β-glucosidase<br />

(cellobiase, EC 3.2.1.21). Endoglucanases (EGs)<br />

randomly cut within the cellulose chains,<br />

cellobiohydrolases (CBHS) liberate cellobiose<br />

1 Faculty of Biology, Al. I. Cuza University, Iaşi<br />

2 Institute of Biological Research, Iaşi<br />

from the ends of cellulose chains and βglucosidases<br />

release glucose from the soluble<br />

oligomeric breakdown products.<br />

Also, Trichoderma reesei can produce two<br />

endo-1,4-β-xylanases (EC 3.2.1.8), known as<br />

XYNI and XYNII (Törrönen et al., 1992), both<br />

responsable for degrading xylan, one of the most<br />

abundant hemicellulose in plants cell walls.<br />

Culture conditions affect significantly the<br />

production of cellulases and hemicellulases. One<br />

of the factor that plays an important role in enzyme<br />

production is the carbon source (Kubicek, Penttilä,<br />

1998). Another factor influencing enzyme activity<br />

is the the nitrogen source of the culture medium.<br />

Wheat straws are a cheap carbon source that<br />

can be used for cellulase and xylanase synthesis.<br />

This byproduct is produced in large quantities in<br />

Romania. Chemical composition of wheat straw<br />

was analyzed by various authors (Antogiovanni,<br />

Sargentini, 1991, Graham, Amman, 1984).<br />

Wheat straws are made up of cellulose (35-<br />

45%), hemicellulose (10-30%) and lignin (8-15%;<br />

Saha, Cota, 2006). In this context, our study wants<br />

to investigate the influence of different amino<br />

acids on the activity of cellulase and xylanase from

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Trichoderma reesei QM-9414, the fungus was<br />

grown on medium in which carbon source is<br />

represented by wheat straw.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Microorganisms. Trichoderma reesei QM-<br />

9414 and was acquired by the Institute of Biological<br />

Research, Iaşi from the Institute Scientifique de la<br />

Santé Publique, Belgium.<br />

Culture medium. To determine enzyme<br />

activity, the fungus was grown in a liquid medium,<br />

distributed in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks, each of these<br />

containing 100 ml of a modified Mandels medium:<br />

(Ferreira et al., 2009), with the following composition:<br />

2.0 g/L KH 2PO 4; 1.4 g/L (NH 4) 2SO 4; 0.0027 g/L<br />

FeSO 4.7H 2O; 0.0016 g/l MnSO 4.H 2O; 0.0014 g/l<br />

ZnSO 4.H 2O; 0.0037 g/L CoCl 2.6H 2O; 0.6 g/L MgS0 4.7<br />

H 2O; 0.4 g/l CaCl 2.2H 2O; 0.75 g/l peptone; 2.0 ml/L<br />

Tween 80; 0.3 g/L urea, 30g/l glucose. In this<br />

medium, the carbon source-glucose was replaced<br />

with by 30 g/l of wheat straws (straws were previously<br />

grinded in an electric grinder to a size less then<br />

1mm), and the nitrogen- (NH 4) 2SO 4, urea and peptone<br />

was replaced with a quantity of 1g/l of the following<br />

amino acids: alanine, glutamic acid, methionine,<br />

valine, asparagine, histidine and serine. Also, a<br />

control was made without any nitrogen source.<br />

Before being inoculated in the liquid medium,<br />

the fungus was grown on a similar solid medium.<br />

Solid cultures were maintained at 28°C for 7 days.<br />

Liquid medium was inoculated with 8 mm in diameter<br />

discs from the solid medium and incubated at 28°C<br />

for 12 days.<br />

During this period, 3 ml of culture liquid were<br />

withdrawn every three days and used as a source of<br />

enzyme. The experiments were carried out in<br />

triplicate and mean values were calculated<br />

The filter paper activity, cellobiase and<br />

endoglucanase activity was measured by the method<br />

develloped by Ghose (1987). For filter paper assay, a<br />

mixture of 50 mg of Whatman No. 1 filter paper, 1 ml<br />

of 0.05 M citrat buffer and 0.5 ml of appropriately<br />

diluted enzyme solution were incubated for 60 min at<br />

50°C. One unit of filter paper activity was defined as<br />

the amount of enzyme that forms 1 μmol glucose per<br />

minute under the assay conditions.<br />

Endoglucanase (Carboxymethyl cellulase,<br />

CMCase) was determined by measuring reducing<br />

sugars released in 30 minutes from a mixture of 0,2<br />

ml of diluted enzyme and 1 ml of solution of 1.0 %<br />

CMC (dissolved in 0,05 M citrate buffer pH 4.8),<br />

incubated at 50°C.<br />

The β-glucosidase activity was assayed in a<br />

reaction mixture containing 1 ml of 0,1 % cellobiose<br />

solution (prepared in 0,05 M citrate buffer, pH 4.8)<br />

and 0,2 diluted enzyme solution, incubated at 50° for<br />

30 minutes. An enzyme unit is defined as the amount<br />

of enzyme that forms 1 μmol of glucose per minute<br />

from celobiose.<br />

Endo-1, 4-ß-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) activity was<br />

assayed according to Bailey et al. (1992) using 1%<br />

beechwood xylan as substrate for enzyme reaction.<br />

318<br />

The reaction mixture contained 1 ml of 1%<br />

beechwood xylan (Sigma), dissolved in 0.05 mM<br />

citrate buffer and 0, 2 ml of enzyme solution. Blanks<br />

were also made. The reaction mixture was incubated<br />

at 50°C for 10 min. Both samples and blanks were<br />

incubated at 50°C for 10 minutes.<br />

The total amount of reducing sugars released<br />

from xylan was estimated according to Miller (1959),<br />

using D-xylose as a standard.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCOSSIONS<br />

A dynamic profile of cellulase and xylanase<br />

activity of the fungus Trichoderma reesei QM-<br />

9414 was developed and for this purpose enzyme<br />

activity was recorded at different intervals, namely<br />

at 3, 6, 9 and 12 days after inoculation. We<br />

analyzed the effect of the following amino acids:<br />

alanine, glutamic acid, methionine, valine,<br />

asparagine, histidine and serine on the activity of<br />

endo and exoglucanazei, ß-glucosidase and endoß-xylanase.<br />

Figure 1 shows graphically the<br />

endoglucanase activity of Trichoderma reesei QM-<br />

9414, cultivated on medium with wheat straws.<br />

Some of the amino acids increased endoglucanase<br />

activity: glutamic acid (15.816 IU/ml) and<br />

asparagine (15.024 IU/ml). The activity was also<br />

influenced by alanine (8.216 IU/ml), histidine<br />

(8.068 IU/ml) and serine (7.296 IU/ml).<br />

Endoglucanase activity was low in the<br />

medium without a nitrogen source (3.017 IU/ml).<br />

Low activity was recorded when methionine was<br />

used as a nitrogen source (3.41 IU/ml). The<br />

dynamic of the activity during the twelve days<br />

cultivation period reflects an increase in<br />

endoglucanase activity in all the media used,<br />

reaching a miximum at 9 days, especially when<br />

glutamic acid, asparagine, serine and histidine is<br />

used as the nitrogen source.<br />

Figure 2 illustrates the total cellulase activity<br />

recorded in Trichoderma reesei QM-9414. Enzyme<br />

activity was stimulated by the presence in the<br />

culture medium of glutamic acid and asparagine,<br />

activity values reaching 0.329 IU/ml and 0.264<br />

IU/ml. Culture media with alanine, valine and<br />

histidine showed similar values of 0.184 IU/ml,<br />

0.182 IU/ml and 0.167 IU/ml.<br />

The lowest values were recorded on medium<br />

with methionine (0.063 IU/ml). The graph shows<br />

an increase of total cellulase activity in the early<br />

days, followed by a slight decrease and a<br />

maximum in the last interval. This statement is<br />

valid for media with glutamic acid, valine,<br />

asparagine, histidine and methionine.

IU/ml<br />

IU/ml<br />

IU/ml<br />

0,45<br />

0,4<br />

0,35<br />

0,3<br />

0,25<br />

0,2<br />

0,15<br />

0,1<br />

0,05<br />

20<br />

18<br />

16<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

0<br />

2<br />

1,8<br />

1,6<br />

1,4<br />

1,2<br />

1<br />

0,8<br />

0,6<br />

0,4<br />

0,2<br />

0<br />

319<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

3 days 6 days 9 days 12 days<br />

Alanine Glutamic acid Methionine Valine Asparagine Histidine Serine Control<br />

Figure 1 Endoglucanase activity in fungus Trichoderma reesei QM-9414<br />

3 days 6 days 9 days 12 days<br />

Alanine Glutamic acid Methionine Valine Asparagine Histidine Serine Control<br />

Figure 2 FPase activity of Trichoderma reesei QM-9414<br />

3 days 6 days 9 days 12 days<br />

Alanine Glutamic acid Methionine Valine Asparagine Histidine Serine Control<br />

The influence of amino acids on ßglucosidase<br />

activity in Trichoderma reesei QM-<br />

9414 is depicted in figure 3. Enzyme activity was<br />

stimulated by the presence in the medium of<br />

histidine and glutamic acid, both reached values<br />

of 1.668 IU/ml and 1.541 IU/ml. Enzyme activity<br />

was also high in medium with methionine (1.506<br />

IU/ml) and alanine (1.251 IU/ml).<br />

Figure 3 ß-glucosidase activity in the fungus Trichoderma reesei QM-9414<br />

As it results from the graph, ß-glucosidase<br />

activity was stimulated by nearly all amino acids,<br />

and it had a high activity in the control sample<br />

(1.178 IU/ml). Looking at the dynamic of this<br />

enzyme, we see an increase in the first period of<br />

cultivation, a slight decrease in the next period,<br />

followed by a considerable increase at 9 days. At<br />

12 days the values almost doubled compared to<br />

the previous records.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

IU/ml<br />

100<br />

90<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

Alanine Glutamic acid Methionine Valine Asparagine Histidine Serine Control<br />

Figure 4 illustrates ß-xylanase activity.<br />

Enzyme activity was stimulated by the use as<br />

nitrogen source of glutamic acid (85.598 IU/ml)<br />

and asparagine (58.456 IU/ml). Similar values<br />

were recorded in media with alanine (48.211<br />

IU/ml), serine (39.262 IU / ml) and valine (40.629<br />

IU/ml). The lowest values were recorded in<br />

medium with methionine (15.697 IU/ml) and in<br />

control sample (15.915 IU/ml).<br />

The graph shows that ß-xylanase activity<br />

fluctuated during the 12 days of cultivation. In<br />

media with glutamic acid, serine and asparagine,<br />

enzyme activity peaked at 6 days after<br />

inoculation. ß-xylanase activity increased in the<br />

first period in the cultivation medium with alanine<br />

and serine. The activity decreased progressively<br />

until the fourth period.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The addition in the culture medium of<br />

glutamic acid and asparagine has a stimulating<br />

effect on cellulase and ß-xylanase activity of the<br />

filamentous fungi Trichoderma reesei QM-9414.<br />

In contrast, the presence of methionine in<br />

the culture medium causes a decrease in enzyme<br />

activity. Low activity was also recorded in the<br />

control sample.<br />

The low values in endoglucanase activity,<br />

ß-xylanase and exoglucanase of the control<br />

sample may indicate the need for the presence in<br />

the culture medium of at least one nitrogen<br />

source.<br />

Enzyme activity varied during the 12 days<br />

of cultivation, depending on the amino acid<br />

present in the culture medium.<br />

ACKWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This work was supported by the the European Social<br />

Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of<br />

the Managing Authority for the Sectoral<br />

Operational Programme for Human Resources<br />

Development 2007-2013 [grant<br />

POSDRU/107/1.5/S/78342<br />

Figure 4. ß-xylanase activity of Trichoderma reesei QM-9414<br />

320<br />

3 days 6 days 9 days 12 days<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Antongiovanni, M., Sargentini, C., 1991- Variability in<br />

chemical composition of straw, Opt. Meditterr.,<br />

Ser. Semin., Num. 16, 49-53.<br />

Bailey, M.J., Baily, P., Poutanen, R., 1992 –<br />

Interlaboratory testing of methods fro assay of<br />

xylanase activity. J. Biotechnol., 23: 257-270<br />

El-Hawary, F.I., Mostafa, Y.S., Laszlo, E., 2003 –<br />

Cellulase production and conversion of rice<br />

straws to lactic acid by simultaneous<br />

saccharification and fermentation, Acta Aliment.<br />

Hung., 30:281-95.<br />

Fereirra, S.M.P, Duarte A.P, Queiroz, J.A,<br />

Domingues, F.C., 2009 – Influence of buffer<br />

system on Trichoderma reesei RUT C-30<br />

morphology and cellulase production. Electronic<br />

Journal of Biotechnology. 12(3):1-9<br />

Graham, H., and P. Aman, 1984 –A comparison<br />

between degradation of in vitro and in sacco of<br />

constituents of untreated and ammonia treated<br />

barley straw. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 10:199.<br />

Ghose, T.K., 1987 – Measurement of cellulase activity.<br />

Pure and Appl. Chem., 59: 257-268<br />

Kubicek, C.P., Messner, R., Gruber, F., Mach, R.L.,<br />

Kubicek-Pranz, E.M., 1993 – The Trichoderma<br />

cellulase regulatory puzzle: from the interior life<br />

of a secretory fungus, Enzyme Microb. Technol.,<br />

15(2):90-99.<br />

Kubicek, C.P., Penttila, 1998 – Trichoderma and<br />

Gliocladium, Enzymes, biological control and<br />

commercial applications, vol. 2, Bristol, p. 49-67.<br />

Lawford, H.G., Rousseau, J.D., 2003 – Cellulosic fuel<br />

ethanol-alternative fermentation process designs<br />

with wild-type and recombinant Zymomonas<br />

mobilis, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 105:457-69.<br />

Lee, J., 1997 – Biological conversion of lignocellulosic<br />

biomass to ethanol, J. Biotechnol., 56 (1): 1-24<br />

Miller, G.L., 1959 – Use of dinitrosalicilyc acid reagent<br />

for determination of reducing sugars, Ann.<br />

Chem., 31: 426-428.<br />

Saha, M., Cotta, A., 2006 - Ethanol Production from<br />

Alkaline peroxide pretreated enzymaticallz<br />

saccharified wheat straw, Biotechnol. Prog., 22,<br />

449-453.<br />

Taguchi, F., Yamada, K., TakiSaito, T., Hara, K.,<br />

1996 – Continuous hydrogen production by<br />

Clostridium sp. strain no 2 from cellulose<br />

hydrosalysate in an aqueous two-phase system,<br />

J. Ferm. Bioeng., 82:80-3.

321<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

INFLUENCE OF PH ON ß-XYLANASE ACTIVITY IN THE FILAMENTOUS<br />

FUNGI TRICHODERMA REESEI, TRICHODERMA VIRIDE AND<br />

PHANEROCHAETE CHRYSOSPORIUM<br />

Mihaela CRISTICA 1 , Tamara BARBĂNEAGRĂ 1 , Elena CIORNEA 1 , Alexandru MANOLIU 2<br />

Abstract<br />

Email: cristica_mihaela@yahoo.fr<br />

Xylanases are industrially important enzymes. They are produced by a wide range of fungi, particularly filamentous fungi,<br />

such as Trichoderma reesei, Trichoderma viride and Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Xylanases are enzymes that catalyze the<br />

hydrolysis of 1, 4-ß-D-xylosidic bonds in xylan, resulting xylose, a primary carbon source in cellular metabolism.<br />

Cellulose and xylan are two polysaccharides that induce effectively the synthesis of xylanolytic enzymes produced by the<br />

fungi mentioned above. Xylan is found in high quantities in the cell wall of annual plants. One of the main parameters<br />

influencing the activity of xylanases is the hydrogen ion concentration, pH of these enzymes fluctuating from one species to<br />

another.<br />

To assess the impact pH has on xylanase activity, especially on ß-xylanase, filamentous fungi Trichoderma reesei,<br />

Trichoderma viride and Phanerochaete chrysosporium were grown at different levels of pH, on a modified Mandels medium,<br />

were the main carbon source consists of byproducts from local agricultural practices (wheat straws and corn stalks). A<br />

dynamic profile of the activity was mapped, during a ten day period. The results indicated that ß-xylanase activity is<br />

influenced by both the hydrogen ions concentration and the nature of the carbon source.<br />

Key words: Trichoderma reesei, Trichoderma viride, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, ß-xylanase<br />

Xylan is one of the the most abundant<br />

polysaccharide in nature. It is found in high<br />

amounts in hardwood from angiosperms, the<br />

softwood from gymnosperms and the cell wall of<br />

annual plants (Singh et al., 2003).<br />

Due to structural complexity, xylan<br />

degradation requires the combined action of<br />

several hydrolyic enzymes (Biely, 1985). These<br />

enzymes, also known as xylanases, act in a<br />

synergistic manner, depolymerazing xylan<br />

molecules into xylose units that are used by<br />

microorganisms as s primary source of carbon.<br />

Two groups of xylanases act together to<br />

cleave the xylan backbone: endo-ß-xylanases,<br />

enzymes that hydrolyze xylan and xylooligosaccharides<br />

and ß-D-xylosides, involved in<br />

the hydrolysis of xylo-oligosaccharides to Dxylose.<br />

Xylanases are produced mainly by bacteria<br />

and fungi (Gilbert, Hazlewood, 1999; Sunna,<br />

Antranikian, 1997). However, some freshwater<br />

mollusks are know for their ability to synthesize<br />

these enzymes (Yamura et al., 1997). Xylanases<br />

are required for many applications ranging from<br />

prebleaching of kraft pulp to minimize the<br />

1 Faculty of Biology, Al.I.Cuza University, Iaşi<br />

2 Institute of Biological Research, Iaşi<br />

application of strong chemicals in the subsequent<br />

treatment stages of kraft pulp; improve feed<br />

digestibility (Kuhad, Singh, 1993); increase the<br />

clarification process of fruit juices (Biely, 1985).<br />

Lately, the potential applications of<br />

xylanases in the bioconversion of lignocellulosic<br />

material and agro-wastes to fermentative products<br />

was taken under consideration (Subramaniyan,<br />

Prema, 2002). The use of regenerable low cost<br />

substrates for the production of industrial enzymes<br />

can reduce production costs. Wheat straws and<br />

corn stalks are some of the most abundant<br />

agricultural wastes.<br />

Filamentous fungi are powerful producers of<br />

xylanases. Their use has several advantages,<br />

namely: are non-pathogenic, are able to produce<br />

high levels of extra cellular enzymes and can be<br />

grown easily.<br />

Trichoderma reesei, Trichoderma viride and<br />

Phanerochaete chrysosporium are three of the<br />

most intensively used filamentous fungi in the<br />

production of xylanases.<br />

The metabolic activity and enzyme<br />

productivity of these fungi is influenced by<br />

environmental conditions such as pH, cultivation

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

period and temperature, concentration and the<br />

nature of the substrate used (Haltrich et al., 1996;<br />

Fadel, 2000; Lenartovics et al., 2003).<br />

Therefore, this study aims to investigate the<br />

manner, in which, β-xylanase activity is influenced<br />

by the initial pH of the culture medium and the<br />

nature of the carbon source.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

Microorganisms. Trichoderma reesei and<br />

Phanerochaaete chrysosporium were acquired by<br />

the Institute of Biological Research, Iaşi from the<br />

Institute Scientifique de la Santé Publique,<br />

Belgium. Trichoderma viride was isolated in our<br />

laboratory. The stock cultures were maintained on<br />

potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants.<br />

Culture medium. To determine β-xylanase<br />

activity, the fungi were grown on a liquid medium,<br />

distributed in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks, each of<br />

these containing 100 ml of a modified Mandels<br />

medium: (Ferreira et al., 2009), with the following<br />

composition: 2.0 g/L KH2PO4; 1.4 g/L (NH4)2SO4;<br />

0.0027 g/L FeSO4.7H2O; 0.0016 g/L MnSO4.H2O;<br />

0.0014 g/L ZnSO4.H2O; 0.0037 g/L CoCl2.6H2O;<br />

0.6 g/L MgS04.7 H2O; 0.4 g/L CaCl2.2H2O; 0.75 g/L<br />

peptone; 2.0 ml/L Tween 80; 0.3 g/L urea; the<br />

carbon source-glucose was replaced with by 30<br />

g/L wheat straws and corn stalks. Prior to<br />

inoculation, the fungi were grown on a similar solid<br />

medium. Solid cultures were maintained at 28°C<br />

for 7 days. Liquid medium was inoculated with 8<br />

mm in diameter discs from the solid medium and<br />

incubated at 28°C for 10 days.<br />

During this period, 2 ml of culture liquid were<br />

withdrawn every two days, and used as enzyme<br />

solution. The experiments were carried out in<br />

triplicate and mean values were calculated.<br />

Enzyme assay. Endo-1, 4-ß-xylanase (EC<br />

3.2.1.8) activity was assayed according to Bailey et<br />

al. (1992) using 1% beechwood xylan as substrate<br />

for enzyme reaction.<br />

The reaction mixture contained 1 ml of 1%<br />

beechwood xylan (Sigma), dissolved in 0.05 mM<br />

citrate buffer and 0, 2 ml of enzyme solution.<br />

Blanks were also made. The reaction mixture was<br />

incubated at 50°C for 10 min. Both samples and<br />

blanks were incubated at 50°C for 10 minutes.<br />

Then, the reaction was stopped by adding<br />

dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS).<br />

The total amount of reducing sugars<br />

released from xylan was estimated according to<br />

Miller (1959). A standard curve of 1% D-xylose<br />

was used as reference. One unit of xylanase<br />

activity (IU) was defined as the amount of enzyme<br />

that liberated 1 μmol reducing sugar (xylose) from<br />

the substrate solution per minute.<br />

322<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Carbon source is one of the nutritional<br />

parameters essential for the biosynthesis of<br />

xylanases. Xylan in its pure form efficiently<br />

induces the synthesis of these enzymes. However,<br />

xylan is an expensive substrate, therefore, the use<br />

of cheap and abundant lignocellulosic materials as<br />

carbon source is an effective alternative. Two<br />

carbon sources were compared in this study, wheat<br />

straw and corn straws in a final concentration of 30<br />

g / L.<br />

The fungi Trichoderma reesei and<br />

Phanerochaete chrysosporium showed a ßxylanase<br />

activity higher when grown on medium<br />

with wheat straw, recording values of 25.679<br />

IU/ml and 21.976 IU/ml. In contrast, Trichoderma<br />

viride showed higher activity when the carbon<br />

source used was corn (94.007 IU/ml).<br />

Another parameter that significantly<br />

influences xylanase biosynthesis is the initial pH<br />

value of culture medium. The results indicate a<br />

variation in activity both by the initial<br />

concentration of H + ions and the carbon source<br />

used.<br />

In fig. 1 and 2 is plotted ß-xylanase activity<br />

in the fungus Trichoderma reesei grown on<br />

medium with wheat and corn. The highest value<br />

was recorded at pH 5 (25.679 IU/ml) for wheat and<br />

at pH for corn (21.669 IU/ml).<br />

Results indicate a variation in enzyme<br />

activity correlated with incubation period of the<br />

culture. The highest values of ß-xylanase activity<br />

in the fungus Trichoderma reesei were obtained at<br />

10 days after inoculation, for all three pH studied,<br />

regardless of the carbon source used.<br />

Enzyme activity was low during the first 3<br />

days in Trichoderma reesei, 6 days following<br />

inoculation an increase in activity was recorded,<br />

followed by a slight decline, eventually reaching a<br />

maximum value.<br />

The lowest results were reported at pH 6 in<br />

both the wheat and corn medium (0.338 IU/ml;<br />

1.94 IU/ml).<br />

H + ion concentration is an important<br />

parameter in the synthesis of enzymes by<br />

Trichoderma reesei xylanases (Denison, 2000).<br />

Some studies show that Trichoderma reesei RUT<br />

C-30 has a high enzymatic activity at pH equal to<br />

7, but the best mycelial growth at a lower pH,<br />

equal to 4 (Xiong, 2004).<br />

Cultivation of the fungus Trichoderma<br />

reesei on a medium in which the nitrogen source is<br />

represented by ammonium salt induces a decrease<br />

in pH, while the use of urea causes an increase in<br />

pH (Xiong, 2004).

IU/ml<br />

IU/ml<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

5<br />

0<br />

pH4 pH5 pH6<br />

323<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days 10 days<br />

time<br />

Figure 1 ß-xylanase activity - Trichoderma reesei (carbon source-wheat straws)<br />

pH4 pH5 pH6<br />

2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days 10 days<br />

time<br />

Figure 2 ß-xylanase activity - Trichoderma reesei (carbon source-corn stalks)<br />

The pH of the culture medium was recorded<br />

at the end of the assay.<br />

Initial<br />

pH<br />

Fig. 3, and 4, depicts β-xylanase activity of<br />

the fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The<br />

enzyme reached high values when P.<br />

chrysosporium was grown on wheat medium,<br />

reaching a maximum of 21.976 IU/ml.<br />

ß-xylanase activity was higher at pH value<br />

of 6 in both the corn and wheat medium.<br />

Cultivation medium, in which the initial<br />

Final pH of the cultivatiom medium<br />

The results indicate a change of the initial<br />

pH of the culture for all three fungi (tab. 1).<br />

Trichoderma reesei Phanerochaete chrysosporium Trichoderma viride<br />

wheat corn wheat corn wheat corn<br />

pH4 6.68 5.65 5.44 5.48 6.57 5.79<br />

pH5 7.13 6.68 5.81 5.24 6.89 6.63<br />

pH6 7.23 7.23 5.68 5.24 6.85 6.85<br />

Table 1<br />

concentration of hydrogen ions was 4, exhibited a<br />

low enzyme activity of 0.548 IU / ml (wheat), and<br />

0.183 IU / ml (corn).<br />

Phanerochaete chrysosporium recorded an<br />

increase in ß-xylanase activty on the sixth day of<br />

cultivation, a decline in the next period, followed<br />

by an increase and a maximum at 10 days.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

IU/ml<br />

IU/ml<br />

18<br />

16<br />

14<br />

12<br />

10<br />

8<br />

6<br />

4<br />

2<br />

0<br />

30<br />

25<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0<br />

IU/ml<br />

pH4 pH5 pH6<br />

pH4 pH5 pH6<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days 10 days<br />

0<br />

2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days 10 days<br />

pH4 pH5 pH6<br />

time<br />

Figure 3 ß-xylanase activity - Phanerochaete chrysosporium (carbon source-wheat straws)<br />

2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days 10 days<br />

time<br />

324<br />

time<br />

Figure 4 ß-xylanase activity - Phanerochaete chrysosporium (carbon source-corn stalks)<br />

The ß-xylanase activity of Trichoderma<br />

viride is depicted in fig. 5 and 6. The highest<br />

activity was recorded on the corn medium (94.007<br />

IU/ml).<br />

Enzymatic activity was influenced by the<br />

initial concentration in H + ions: on corn stalks<br />

medium the optimum pH was 6, while on wheat<br />

straws was 4.<br />

The evolution of ß-xylanase during the 10<br />

days cultivation period was as follows: on wheat<br />

medium, at pH 4 the activity was low in the first<br />

days, but by the sixth day it reached a peak,<br />

followed by a slight fall and a new peak in the<br />

tenth day. At pH 5, ß-xylanase recorded an<br />

increase in activity at 6 days, followed by a<br />

decrease.<br />

At pH 6 the activity was at its highest in the<br />

last day of cultivation. On corn medium the<br />

activity increased in the first six days, slightly<br />

decreased by day 8 and increased again reaching<br />

its highest at ten days.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The xylanase activity of Trichoderma<br />

reesei is the result of the combined action of four<br />

xylanases (I, II, III and IV), enzymes that have<br />

different optimal pH, for xylanases I and II the pH<br />

ranges between 4 and 6.5 (Tenkanen et al., 1992;<br />

Xu et al., 1998) and for xylanase IV between 3,5-<br />

4 (Clarkson şi colab., 2001).<br />

Figure 5 ß-xylanase activity - Trichoderma viride (carbon source-wheat straws)

IU/ml<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

pH4 pH5 pH6<br />

325<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

2 days 4 days 6 days 8 days 10 days<br />

Figure 6 ß-xylanase activity - Trichoderma viride (carbon source-corn stalks)<br />

Phanerochaete chrysosporium produces<br />

three xylanases (I, II and III), with high activities<br />

around a pH of 4-5.5 (Dobozi et al., 1992).<br />

The results recorded in this study indicate<br />

the profound influence of initial culture medium<br />

pH on ß-xylanase activity, the studied fungi<br />

displayed various activities, each organisms<br />

having different optimal pH values.<br />

Another factor influencing xylanase<br />

activity of these three fungi is the carbon source.<br />

ß-xylanase activity was higher when<br />

Trichoderma reesei and Phanerochaete<br />

chrysosporium were grown on medium with<br />

wheat straws, while the enzyme activity in<br />

Trichoderma viride is stimulated by medium with<br />

corn.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

This work was supported by the the European Social<br />

Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the<br />

Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational<br />

Programme for Human Resources Development<br />

2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/107/1.5/S/78342]<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bailey, M.J., Baily, P., Poutanen, R., 1992 –<br />

Interlaboratory testing of methods fro assay of<br />

xylanase activity. J. Biotechnol., 23: 257-270<br />

Biely, P., 1985 – Microbial xylanolytic system, Trends<br />

Biotechnol., 3: 286-290.<br />

Clarkson, K., Siika-aho, M., Tenkanen, M., Bower,<br />

B.S., Penttilä, M.E., Saloheimo, M.L.A.,<br />

Dobozi, 2001 – Trichoderma reesei xylanase,<br />

Patent WO 0149859.<br />

Denison, S.H., 2000 – pH Regulation of gene<br />

expression in fungi, Fung. Gen. Biol, 29: 61-71.<br />

Dobozi, M.S., Szakács G., Bruschi C.V., 1992 –<br />

Xylanase activity of Phanerochaete<br />

chrysosporium, Appl Environ Microbiol., 58(11):<br />

3466-3471.<br />

Fereirra, S.M.P, Duarte A.P, Queiroz, J.A,<br />

Domingues, F.C., 2009 – Influence of buffer<br />

system on Trichoderma reesei RUT C-30<br />

morphology and cellulase production. Electronic<br />

Journal of Biotechnology. 12(3):1-9<br />

time<br />

Gilbert, H.J., Hazlewood., G.P., 1999 – Bacterial<br />

cellulases and xylanase, J. Gen. Microbiol., 139:<br />

187-194.<br />

Kuhad, R.C., Singh., A., 1993 – Lignocellulosic<br />

biotechnology: Current and future prospects,<br />

Crit. Rev. Biotechnol., 13: 151-172<br />

Miller, G.L., 1959 – Use of dinitrosalicilyc acid reagent<br />

for determination of reducing sugars, Ann.<br />

Chem., 31: 426-428.<br />

Subramaniyan, S., Prema, P., 2002 – Biotechnology of<br />

microbial xylanases: Enzymology, molecular<br />

biology, and application, Crit. Rev. Biotechnol.,<br />

22: 33-64.<br />

Singh, S., Madlala, A.M., Prior, B.A., 2003 –<br />

Thermomyces lanuginosus: properties of strains<br />

and their hemicellulases, FEMS Microbiol. Rev.,<br />

765: 259-264.<br />

Sunna, A., Antranikian, G., 1997– Xylanolytic<br />

enzymes from fungi and bacteria, Crit. Rev.<br />

Biotechnol., 17: 39-67.<br />

Tenkanen, M., Puls, J., Poutanen, K., 1992 – Two<br />

major xylanases of Trichoderma reesei, Enzyme<br />

Microb. Technol, 14: 566-574.<br />

Xiong, H., Weymarn, N., Leisola, M., Turunen, O.,<br />

2004 – Influence of pH on the production of<br />

xylanases by Trichoderma reesei Rut C-30,<br />

Process Biochemistry, 39 (6): 729-733.<br />

Yamura, I., Koga, T., Matsumoto, T., 1997 –<br />

Purification and some properties of endo-1,4-ßxylanase<br />

fron a fresh water mollusk Pomacea<br />

insularus, Bioscience Biotechnology<br />

Biochemistry, 61: 615-620.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

326

Abstract<br />

327<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

RURAL-URBAN RELATIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE<br />

DEVELOPMENT. CASE STUDY: CUEJDIU VALLEY BASIN,<br />

NEAMT COUNTY<br />

Ana-Andreea GHIURCĂ 1 , Andrea LĂMĂŞANU 1 , Florin-Constantin MIHAI 1<br />

e-mail: anaandreeaghiurca@yahoo.com<br />

Rural and urban development in sustainable context is a complex process that requires an improvement of the existing<br />

situation and a removing of the dysfunctions. Over time, the rural area was not addressed as much as urban area, rural<br />

analysis is often fragmentary explained and incomplete argued. The system of values owned by rural area is<br />

overshadowed by an economic, social and cultural subordination to the city. The connection that is established is a<br />

support for the systems analysis of settlements and is the consequence of the functional differentiation between cities<br />

and villages, evidenced by the natural, social and economic aspects representative for each system. Our research<br />

highlights the relationship, to the social, economic and cultural level, between the municipality of Piatra Neamţ and<br />

Gârcina commune, situated in proximity. The dependence of rural areas to the city is evident due to the very small<br />

distance between them, the existing phenomena causing significant changes in both sides. The population is an<br />

important indicator of sustainable development, the demographic relationship between urban and rural area consisting<br />

intake of labor resources and sources of supply organic food. The demographic, economic, administrative, educational,<br />

cultural and sanitary relations will be highlighted based on statistical data, through graphs and maps, their interpretation<br />

referring in the same time to the situation of county level. The partnership established between rural and urban areas<br />

lead to the development of urban system and a rural preservation, so new concepts of sustainable development is<br />

essential in the exploitation of local resources.<br />

Key words: rural development, rural space, urban development, rural-urban relations<br />

Introduction. Rural and urban development<br />

requires a balance between human capital,<br />

economic progress and natural resources.<br />

Sustainable development can be achieved at any<br />

level, provided that each component of the system<br />

to have the same importance in maintaining a<br />

balance between the need to develop and its<br />

possibilities. Sustainable development is a process<br />

of local importance, which involves the<br />

accumulation of wealth and the increase in the<br />

standard of living in a small space, where the<br />

natural resources and entrepreneurship plays a<br />

determinative role (Ungureanu I., 2003).<br />

According to the Brundtland report in 1987,<br />

the city, by definition, is not sustainable, in<br />

comparison with the village that has a sustainable<br />

nature (Bran F. M., Rădulescu G.C., 2011).<br />

The rural-urban metabolism generates<br />

relations of interdependence between villages and<br />

towns, resulting in the formation of a “variety of<br />

societies, from deep rural to deep urban” (Miftode<br />

V., 1978).<br />

1 Universitatea „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Material and method. This research focuses<br />

on the relationship between rural and urban areas<br />

that have a remarkable significance in the analysis<br />

of human settlements, a complex system, in which<br />

the population plays the most important role.<br />

Demographic, economic, administrative and<br />

cultural relations represent the functional<br />

differentiation effect between urban and rural, and<br />

their intensity is directly proportional to the distance<br />

between the two types of settlements (Istrate,<br />

2008).<br />

The proposed study area is represented by<br />

the Cuejdiu Valley basin, located in the central part<br />

of Neamţ County, in the territory of the commune<br />

Gârcina (formed by Gârcina, Cuiejdi and Almaş<br />

villages) and the Piatra Neamţ city. It has an area<br />

of approximately 100 km 2 , Cuejdiul River being a<br />

tributary of the Bistriţa River, with a total length of<br />

24 km.<br />

The distance between the village Gârcina<br />

and the city of Piatra Neamţ is very small, 12 km,<br />

which demonstrates the existence of close<br />

relations with the neighboring urban area.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Statistical data used in this study for the<br />

municipality and village level were provided by the<br />

Neamţ County Statistics Department. There were<br />

accomplished representative graphic and<br />

cartographic materials for the period 1990-2010,<br />

their analyze emphasizing the relationship<br />

between village and city.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Results and discussions. The assessment of the<br />

relationship between the rural and urban space lies<br />

in particular in the conservation and development<br />

of values specific to each area. Both rural and<br />

urban development are key issues for sustainable<br />

development, which highlight that the limits<br />

between villages and towns should be dimmed by<br />

focusing on opportunities in rural areas, to provide<br />

additional facilities in the rural-urban partnership<br />

(Esparcia J., 2005).<br />

Garcina commune is considered part of the<br />

suburban areas of Piatra Neamţ. Relations intensity<br />

established between the urban and the rural area is<br />

reflected in the "centrifugal forces" (those from the<br />

city) and "centripetal forces" (those from the<br />

country side to the city), Gârcina commune having<br />

role of "buffer zone" (Cocean P., 2007).<br />

The surrounding area is subject of<br />

"phenomena of attraction and diffusion", leading<br />

to a "specific mix of urban and rural areas", which<br />

328<br />

records continuous transformation. (Man T.,<br />

Mateoc-Sârb N., 2007). Thus, some of the rural<br />

area population has jobs , study or carries out<br />

activities of commerce and supply in the urban<br />

space.<br />

From a demographic perspective, addressing<br />

the relationship between urban and rural areas can<br />

be achieved by highlighting the mean annual rate<br />

of increase for each area separately. This analysis<br />

presents the dynamics of population during several<br />

periods (1992-2002, and 2002-2010), calculated as<br />

a geometric mean of annual rate of increase (Vert<br />

C., 1995).<br />

For the period 1992-2002, the mean annual<br />

rate of increase calculated for Piatra Neamţ is<br />

negative (-1.6%), indicating that the city recorded<br />

a loss of population due to changes in the<br />

economic sector. As regards rural area, the mean<br />

annual rate of increase is positive (0.36%), which<br />

demonstrates the tendency of concentration of<br />

population around the urban area. From 2002 to<br />

2010 is a different situation, in that the city<br />

recorded positive values (0.27%), but much lower<br />

compared to the Gârcina commune (1.04%). The<br />

mean annual rate of increase values are represented<br />

in the period 1990-2010 every two years, the urban<br />

area recording negative values on almost all range<br />

(fig. 1).<br />

Figure 1 The mean annual rate of increase in Piatra Neamţ and Gârcina (1990-2010)<br />

Another key to highlight the rural-urban<br />

relations is reflected by the migratory movement of<br />

population. Gârcina commune is one of the most<br />

active locality in terms of the daily flows of<br />

migrants (Gârcina village is directly located in<br />

suburban area due to the short distance to the city<br />

and villages Cuiejdi and Almaş are part of an<br />

moderate suburban area, being less accessible).<br />

The quality of transport infrastructure has<br />

a very important role in the degree of rural<br />

accessibility, depending on wich one can<br />

distinguish socio-demographic and socio-<br />

economic structures (Muntele et al, 2010).<br />

The peripheral urbanization process<br />

influenced the urban and the rural areas, first<br />

through the rural exodus (migration of rural<br />

population to urban areas due to industrialization)<br />

before 1989 and then a reverse migration after<br />

1990, due to the decrease in the standard of living<br />

in the urban area.<br />

The phenomenon of migration was<br />

highlighted before 1990 by the commuter<br />

population of the village, which had the highest<br />

share compared to other nearby rural areas<br />

(29.52%), the persons employed in agriculture and<br />

students were not included in this value. Current<br />

period differs from the point of view of migration

of the previous, rural is favored and considered<br />

more attractive than urban. Negative values of the<br />

balance of migration in the city of Piatra Neamţ (-<br />

0.68% in 1992 -2002 and 8.15% in 2002-2010) is<br />

due to the tendency of suburbanisation. Gârcina<br />

commune has positive values of net migration in<br />

329<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

both periods (8.29%, 11.78%), demonstrating the<br />

displacement of urban population in the rural area.<br />

Plotting the net migration rate for the period 1990-<br />

2010 shows that negative values are charcacteristic<br />

to urban area (fig. 2).<br />

Figure 2 Net migration in Piatra Neamţ and Gârcina (1990-2010)<br />

The reduction of commuting for work<br />

during the period 1990-2002 is balanced by<br />

movements with private cars, but also the means of<br />

transportation between the city and commune, and<br />

vice versa, for different reasons: economic,<br />

commercial, legal, financial, health care, jobs.<br />

Movements of the weekend for rest and recreation<br />

are highlighted by people who either possesses a<br />

holiday villa or second home is in rural areas.<br />

Another form of commuting is done by<br />

students who study in the urban area, a situation<br />

evidenced by the amount of the value of school<br />

enrollment (calculated for primary studies<br />

according to the total number of students enrolled<br />

in primary and secondary education, aged between<br />

7 and 14 years in 2002), which is 101.3% in Piatra<br />

Neamţ and 87.9% in Gârcina commune.<br />

From the economic point of view, the<br />

interaction between the commune and the<br />

municipality is enhanced by the presence of<br />

economic activities, which allowed the expanding<br />

area of influence of the city. Thus, the<br />

development of industry before 1990 (especially<br />

industrial platform Săvineşti-Roznov) has led to<br />

the practice of commuting workforce from rural<br />

areas, movement that intensified even more the<br />

relationship with the rural space through the<br />

exchange of goods, people, information, benefits<br />

for both sides. With the industrial decline and the<br />

low number of commuters began to appear small<br />

companies engaged with activities like services,<br />

tourism, commerce, etc.<br />

In 1992 and 2002, is felt a substantial<br />

reduction in the active population generating a<br />

tendency of reduction of the labor force, illustrated<br />

by increasing the proportion of unemployed<br />

persons, both at the city level and at the commune<br />

(fig. 3). Gârcina commune, immediately after<br />

1990, had close interaction with the urban area,<br />

meaning the development of companies with<br />

specific activities like wood industry, food industry<br />

etc. The advantages of extending of these<br />

companies are: the existence of labor force and low<br />

taxes compared to urban areas, but also in the<br />

supply of quality products. Piatra Neamţ is a big<br />

consumer of agro-food products; supply is carried<br />

out mainly from the nearby rural areas.<br />

Financial support resulting from these<br />

activities contribute to the social and economic<br />

life, embodied by the large number of homes built<br />

with elements similar to the urban style, villa type.<br />

Their building creates a transition zone between<br />

the urban space and traditional rural dwellings<br />

which are of two categories: residential villas,<br />

whose owners are business people or persons<br />

residing in town and working in both rural and<br />

urban area and holiday villas, whose owners are<br />

part of the "privileged class" who have a home in<br />

the city and one in the commune (Letos D., 2011).<br />

This orientation towards the rural<br />

neighboring had caused changes in the utility<br />

system from the area, generating conversions in<br />

terms of living standards, the gaps of the city being<br />

slightly attenuated.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 3 Active population in Piatra Neamţ and Gârcina (1992 and 2002)<br />

The force of attraction of the city over the<br />

rural area is characterized by demographic,<br />

economic and cultural aspects, favoring mutual<br />

transfer of labor, resources, information, values,<br />

etc. The post-communist period has led to<br />

changing demographic behaviour, thus trend of<br />

demographic indicators had severe effects on the<br />

socio-economic structure. Interconnection between<br />

villages and towns can generate the necessary<br />

conditions for urban and rural sustainable<br />

development, the essential premise in raising of<br />

living standards of population.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Conclusions. Depending on the historical,<br />

political and socio-economic stages that have<br />

developed over time the relations between Piatra<br />

Neamţ city and Gârcina commune presents a<br />

chronological a spatial evolution, where the<br />

characteristic flows have changed. Industrialization<br />

period favored commuting, which decrease in the<br />

stage of economic restructuring, development of<br />

small enterprises being predominant. This<br />

phenomenon leads to the development of economic<br />

activities in rural areas and bring a revenue source<br />

for the residents, but also supply resources for the<br />

city.<br />

Construction of new housing in rural areas<br />

show the level of development of the area, while<br />

facilitating the movements of urban-rural, with<br />

different purposes.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This work was supported by the European Social<br />

Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the<br />

Managing Authority for the Sectorial Operational<br />

Program for Human Resources Development<br />

2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/107/1.5/S/78342].<br />

330<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bran, F., Manea, Ghe., Rădulescu, C.V., 2011 -<br />

Supravieţuirea - paradigma unui viitor durabil,<br />

Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 172.<br />

Cocean, P., 2007 - Amenajarea teritoriilor periurbane.<br />

Studiu de caz: zona periurbană Bistriţa, Editura<br />

Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca.<br />

Esparcia, J., Buciega, A., 2005 - New rural –urban<br />

relationships in Europe: a comparative analysis.<br />

Experiences from the Netherlands, Spain,<br />

Hungary, Finland and France, Local<br />

Development Research Institute, University of<br />

Valencia, Spain, p. 1-12.<br />

Istrate, M., 2008 - Relaţiile urban-rural în Moldova în<br />

perioada contemporană, Editura Universitaţii<br />

„Al.I.Cuza”, Iaşi, p. 9-14.<br />

Letos, D., 2011 - Modele de dezvoltare durabilă pentru<br />

municipiul Piatra Neamţ, teză de doctorat,<br />

Universitatea „Al.I.Cuza”, Iaşi, p. 222 – 229.<br />

Man, T.E., Mateoc-Sârb, N. (2007) - Dezvoltarea rurală<br />

şi regională durabilă a satului românesc, Editura<br />

Politehnica, Timişoara, p. 25 – 26.<br />

Miftode, V., (1978) - Migraţiile şi dezvoltarea urbană,<br />

Editura Junimea, Iaşi, p. 16<br />

Muntele, I., Groza, O., Ţurcănaşu, G., Rusu, Al.,<br />

Tudora, D., 2010 - Calitatea infrastructurii de<br />

transport ca premisă a diferenţierii spaţiilor rurale<br />

din Moldova, Editura Universitaţii „Al.I.Cuza”, Iaşi,<br />

p. 9.<br />

Ungureanu, I., Muntele, I., Dragu, V., Gheorghiţă, C.,<br />

2003 - Geografia mediului. Omul şi natura la<br />

început de mileniu, Institutul European Iaşi, p.<br />

107.<br />

Vert, C., 1995 - Analiza geodemografică –manual<br />

practic, Universitatea de Vest din Timişoara,<br />

Facutatea de Chimie-Biologie-Geografie, catedra<br />

de Geografie, p. 17.

Abstract<br />

331<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE ANTROPOGENIC INFLUENCE ON CUEJDIU RIVER<br />

WATER QUALITY<br />

Ana-Andreea GHIURCĂ 1 , Andreea LĂMĂŞANU 1 , Florin-Constantin MIHAI 1<br />

Email: anaandreeaghiurca@yahoo.com<br />

Water pollution is caused in rural areas, especially by uncontrolled waste deposits located in river bed and in urban<br />

areas is discharged, irregular, untreated sewage. The Cuejdiu River is a tributary of the Bitriţa River in the left side,<br />

with a total length of 24 km. Evaluation of water quality of the Cuejdiu River was achieved by processing the results<br />

obtained from tests analyzed for 30 samples, taken on March 17, 2012, between the mouth of the River Bestriţa and up<br />

to the exit of the village Cuiejdi. Analysis of water samples were performed in the laboratory of the Department of<br />

Geography, at the Faculty of Geography and Geology and were taken into account several parameters such as<br />

conductivity, pH, total acidity, nitrates, chlorine. The values obtained were cartographically represented to highlight<br />

differences between the sector that cross of the rural area and the sector located on urban area. Water Management<br />

System Neamţ realizes assessments of ecological and chemical status of the river Cuejdiu only in urban areas,<br />

classifying water quality in relation to general indicators. Thus, data obtained over a period of 10 years, from 2000 to<br />

2010, and performing through charts, helped us to observe the time evolution of water quality in the area. The impact of<br />

human activities is evident in both urban and rural areas. In urban area the connections made by citizens, particularly<br />

those who live on the ground blocks, to the rainwater system, instead of sewerage systems, lead to the degradation of<br />

water quality. As regards the rural area, the situation is just as difficult, meaning that the waste discharged into the<br />

riverbed changes the chemical composition of water.<br />

Key words: water quality, water pollution, anthropogenic influence.<br />

Introduction. Human society has a<br />

significant role in the water cycle, influencing<br />

through activities in terms quantitatively by<br />

"consumption and redistribution" and qualitatively<br />

by changes in the physical, chemical and biological<br />

characteristics. Degradation of water quality is a<br />

negative consequence of human activities related<br />

to agriculture, the irrational use of pesticides,<br />

chemical or organic fertilizers etc. Water<br />

eutrophication pollute aquatic ecosystems from<br />

downstream areas which are not subject to<br />

treatment (Ungureanu I., 2003).<br />

Imbalances formed on water chemistry<br />

change have serious consequences on the natural<br />

environment and population. Water pollution by<br />

human communities is responsible with the<br />

emergence of infectious diseases in urban areas<br />

(Cotigă C., 2007), uncontrolled storage waste in<br />

the river bed is the most representative form of<br />

damage to water quality.<br />

Discharge of pollutants into water through<br />

sewage pipes, endanger the important resource of<br />

social and economic development, pollution was<br />

considered a sustainable and measurable<br />

phenomenon (Pohoaţă I., 2003).<br />

1 „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” , University of Iaşi<br />

The right of future generations to quality<br />

resources involves protecting them by means of<br />

effective management, to maintain a stable balance<br />

between the consumption and the quantity<br />

available. Application of the concept of sustainable<br />

development is essential in this situation because it<br />

supports economic use of resources for the future.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Material and method. This study aims to<br />

analyze the human impact on water quality, with<br />

examples in basin Cuejdiu, located in the central<br />

part of Neamţ county . This basin has a total<br />

length of 24 km, a mean width of 0.5 m and a<br />

mean deep of 0.16 m and includes the<br />

administrative units Piatra Neamţ and Gârcina<br />

commune. Cuejdiu River in the territory of the city<br />

Piatra Neamţ is arranged because of the past<br />

floods that produced substantial damage.<br />

Water quality assessment is based on an<br />

analysis of 30 samples of water, taken on March<br />

17, 2012, at an interval of 100-400 m, from the<br />

mouth of the Cuejdiu River in the Bistriţa River and<br />

up to the exit of the village of Cuiedji, Gârcina<br />

commune To these are added the data collected

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

from the Neamt Water Management System, which<br />

carrying out analysis at a distance of 0.2 miles<br />

from the river mouth, monitoring the ecological<br />

status of water. These analyzes performed over a<br />

range of 10 years (2000-2010) places the water in<br />

the third grade of quality. Sample number 2<br />

overlaps with that analysed by the authorized<br />

institution, so we made a temporal evolution of<br />

parameters through representative graphics.<br />

The 30 evaluated samples were analyzed in<br />

the laboratory of the Department of Geography of<br />

the Faculty of Geography and Geology, consider<br />

the following indicators: temperature, pH,<br />

conductivity, total acidity, nitrates, chlorides. Based<br />

on the results we noted the negative impact of the<br />

population activities (storage, waste disposal in the<br />

river bed, the discharge of waste waters) on water<br />

quality from rural and urban area.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Results and discussions. The use of water<br />

resources requires compliance with the quality<br />

conditions, which must be consistent with the<br />

degree of use of water. Both urban and rural<br />

332<br />

produce various sources of pollution of water<br />

quality, making it unfit for use.<br />

Maintaining water quality is an effort that<br />

ensures public health and economic productivity<br />

growth (Soroceanu V., 2000).<br />

The degree of the environmental factors<br />

degradation is correlated with the ecological<br />

education degree of the rural population. Often,<br />

education is not the only cause that contributes to<br />

environmental pollution; the economic situation<br />

and the disinterest of local authorities for<br />

environmental issues are in most cases responsible<br />

for the existing reality on the field. In this research<br />

we highlighted some negative environmental<br />

practices, carried out by population of rural areas<br />

(Ghiurcă A., 2012).<br />

Statistical processing of data from Neamt<br />

Water Management System showed that in urban<br />

areas, water is heavily polluted, even if the<br />

authorities propose solutions to resolve this.<br />

Analysis of chlorine is the only that places the<br />

quality of the Cuejdiu River in third grade. Its<br />

value ranges from 2000 to 2012, last year recorded<br />

a lower value compared to other years (fig.1).<br />

Figure 1 Variation of chlorine in the period 2000-2012 (sample 2)<br />

Another parameter that it changes<br />

significantly is the nitrates present in water, which<br />

have higher values, for example in 2012 is register<br />

the highest value (fig.2).<br />

Analysis of the results from the evaluation<br />

of the 30 samples highlight concrete the degree of<br />

pollution in the urban area compared to the rural<br />

area. Samples 1-15 provides information about<br />

water quality in the city area, the other being<br />

representative for the village (sample 1 is taken<br />

from the confluence with the River Bistriţa). A<br />

series of indicators that give details on salinity are<br />

conductivity and chlorides. Analysis of these two<br />

parameters shows that urban areas are heavily<br />

polluted, the reason being the discharge of<br />

untreated water from nearby buildings, where they<br />

made illegal connections to the rainwater systems<br />

in place of sewerage (fig.3).<br />

Evaluation of oxygen regime is represented<br />

by the analysis of chemical oxygen demand (COD-<br />

Mn), which determines "the amount of oxygen<br />

supplied to a chemical oxidant to decompose<br />

biodegradable organic matter in the water" (Szőcs<br />

A., 2010).<br />

From the correlation of COD-Mn with<br />

nitrates it can see that in the urban area pollution is<br />

caused both by high levels of nitrates as high levels<br />

of chemical oxygen demand. However, the level of<br />

nitrates in rural area is higher than in urban area,<br />

values decrease with removal of habitable area.<br />

COD-Mn indicator recorded values much higher<br />

in rural area than in urban area due to the presence<br />

of non-biodegradable substances (fig.4).

333<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 2 Variation of nitrates, COD-Mn, pH in the period 2000-2012 (sample 2)<br />

Figure 3 Variation of conductivity and chlorine in Cuejdiu basin<br />

Figure 4 Variation of chemical oxygen demand and nitrate in the Cuejdiu basin<br />

The acidity of water natural sources indicate<br />

sewage water pollution. In the urban area the total<br />

acidity values ae higher than rural areas, the most<br />

representative value being the 15 sample (fig. 5).<br />

Water pH values ranging between 6.93 to<br />

8.56, which induces a character from acid to<br />

alkaline water, and the temperature, showing<br />

values from 15.4 0 C to 18.9 0 C, the data beeing<br />

collected in March (fig. 6). Disruption of chemical<br />

composition is the result of population activities<br />

from urban areas, one example being the location<br />

of small cement plant "ECOTRANS" just in close<br />

proximity, the resulting substances (from washing<br />

machines) get directly into the river (fig. 7). The<br />

proof of these issues is given by analyzing the<br />

sample number 15, where the values are increased<br />

for all considered indicators.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 5 Variation of total acidity in the Cuejdiu basin<br />

Figure 6 Variation of temperature and pH in the Cuejdiu basin<br />

Figure 7 Cuejdiu River pollution influenced by “ECOTRANS” cement plant<br />

In rural areas, population has a low<br />

education level which is reflected in activities of<br />

inappropriate storage and forest waste.<br />

This is emphasized by the fact that local<br />

authorities don’t exercise enforcement action<br />

environmental projects to improve the situation on<br />

the ground. Thus, water quality is significantly<br />

334<br />

altered, without anyone to be concerned about this<br />

(fig. 8).<br />

Water quality can be improved if people<br />

would be involved in activities associated with<br />

protecting the water and if it considered its opinion<br />

on issues facing the area.

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The improper activities practiced in<br />

proximity to water resource change its quality,<br />

with consequences on living standards. Samples<br />

analyzed highlight this aspect, Cuejdiu river water<br />

quality being classified into class III due to<br />

chlorides indicator, which has very high values on<br />

the entire analyzed area.<br />

Vulnerability to anthropogenic actions is a<br />

determining factor in maintaining the ecological<br />

balance of aquatic ecosystems. Educating residents<br />

and their direct involvement in environmental<br />

activities is the most important thing about causing<br />

pollution problems.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

Articolul prezintă rezultatele cercetării susţinută financiar<br />

din fonduri social europene gestionate de<br />

Autoritatea de Management pentru Programul<br />

Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor<br />

Umane [grant POSDRU/107/1.5/S/78342].<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Costică, C., 2007 - Ecologie şi protecţia mediului,<br />

Editura Sitech, Craiova, p. 281<br />

Ghiurcă, A.A., 2012 - Environmental education in rural<br />

areas - a real support for sustainable<br />

development, volumul Simpozionului Ştiinłific<br />

Internaţional “Horticultura – ştiinţă, calitate,<br />

diversitate şi armonie”, 24-26 mai 2012,<br />

Facultatea de Horticultură, Iaşi, in press, p. 2,<br />

Pohoaţă, I., 2003 - Filosofia economică şi politica<br />

dezvoltării durabile, Editura Economică,<br />

Bucureşti, p. 28<br />

Figure 8 Cuejdiu river pollution in rural area<br />

335<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Soroceanu, V., 2000 - Creşterea economică şi mediul<br />

natural, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, p. 220<br />

Szőcs, A., 2010 - Caracterizarea regimului de oxigen al<br />

apei râurilor din bazinul superior şi mMijlociu al<br />

Mureşului, Conferinţa Aerul şi Apa – Componente<br />

ale mediului, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Catedra<br />

de Geografie Fizică şi Tehnică, p.396<br />

Ungureanu, I., 2003 – Geografia mediului, Editura<br />

Editura Ministerul Educaţiei şi Cercetării,<br />

Bucureşti, p. 106-111.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

336

Abstract<br />

337<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EVALUATION OF THE GERMINATIVE ENERGY OF MEDICAVO SATIVA<br />

SPECIES CULTIVATED ON SALTY SOILS<br />

Mihaela SENCOVICI 1 , Gabriela BUSUIOC 1<br />

e-mail: mihaelasencovici@gmail.com<br />

The present paper is an attempt to approach the problems related to the possibility to plant the Medicago sativa species<br />

on soils polluted with salty solution, in the context of the intensification and extension of the actual preoccupations<br />

concerning the relation between man and his environment. In order to study the influence of the salty solution on the<br />

herbaceous species Medicago sativa, soil samples have been collected from the Târgovişte Plain – the point Priseaca,<br />

from an uncultivated area (a lawn). We need to mention that the collected soil was not polluted with salty solution.<br />

The salty solution concentrations for irrigating were: 1%, 10%, 20%. During the first experiment, the soil used as<br />

substrate was treated with salty solution from the moment when the seeds were sawn. The seeds germinated, obviously<br />

in different proportions depending on the concentration of the salty solution used for irrigation, yet they did not manage<br />

to resist in time. During the second experiment, the samples sawn were watered with potable water for 21 days, after<br />

which we irrigated a salty solution with 10% concentration. All the samples were affected by the pollution produced<br />

through the watering with salty solutions. The soil used in the third experiment was leachated every three days for two<br />

weeks, after which the seeds were sawn. Seven days from sawing, 1% of the seeds had germinated.<br />

Key words: germinative energy, Medicavo sativa, salty soil.<br />

The area covered by salty soils in Romania<br />

is totals 484835 ha, representing 2% of the total<br />

area of the country, 3% of its agricultural area and<br />

5% of its arable area (Ţopa E., 1954).<br />

The location of the salty soils in Romania is<br />

correlated to the arid areas, where the following<br />

determining factors can be found: highly<br />

mineralized underground water, situated at small<br />

depths (1-2m) (Ivan Doina, 1983) ; the existence<br />

of a flat or depressionary-accumulative relief and<br />

microrelief with an insufficient drainage; the<br />

existence of a phenomenon of evaporationtranspiration<br />

more significant than the<br />

precipitations; the existence of a sum of soluble<br />

salts (rock, underground water, other<br />

allochthonous sources) (Şerbănescu I., 1965).<br />

The rational use of the land in general, for<br />

different human activities, and especially of the<br />

soil, to assure food, in agreement to the demands<br />

of sustainable development and environmental<br />

protection is a require.<br />

To the category of salty and alkaline soils<br />

belong all the soils whose content of easily watersoluble<br />

salts is much higher than the limit admitted<br />

by spontaneous or cultivated species (Muică,<br />

Cristina, Sencovici, Mihaela, Dumitraşcu, C.,<br />

2004). Known in literature as halomorphic and<br />

1 Valahia University, Târgovişte<br />

hydrohalomorphic soils, and in the agricultural<br />

practice as salts, salty soils, saline soils, they<br />

support a lawn vegetation, being weakly<br />

productive and yielding a poor hay production<br />

(Muică, Cristina, Geacu S., Mihaela Sencovici,<br />

2006), (Coste I. şi colab., 1993). The alkaline<br />

reaction is much more difficult to bear by<br />

cultivated vegetation (Doltu M.I, Sanda V.,<br />

Popescu A., 1979). A certain tolerance to alkalinity<br />

is manifested by: sunflower, sugar beet, Sudan<br />

grass, sorghum etc. (Şerbănescu I., 1963)<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The research was carried out during the<br />

period of March-June 2011. In order to study the<br />

influence of the salty solution on certain<br />

herbaceous species, we collected soil samples<br />

from the Plain of Târgovişte – the point Priseaca,<br />

from an uncultivated land (lawn) on March 2, 2011.<br />

We need to mention that the collected soil was not<br />

polluted with salty solution.<br />

For this experiment we used one<br />

herbaceous species, namely alfalfa (Medicago<br />

sativa). It is a perennial plant, with a stem going up<br />

to 30-70 cm high, with branches and rich foliage. It<br />

flourishes from May to October. Due to its<br />

importance as fodder, it is considered the “queen”

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

of fodder plants; it gives large quantities of fodder,<br />

of high quality: rich in protein, calcium, other<br />

nutrients; high resistance to drought, freezing<br />

temperatures; high longevity: it can be collected<br />

several times a year; it can be used in different<br />

ways: fresh, dried, alfalfa flour, alfalfa grains, silo,<br />

semi-silo; it represents one of the main<br />

components of the plant mixes (containing grasses<br />

and leguminous plants) used to create temporary<br />

lawns(Grigore St. şi colab., 1965).<br />

Alfalfa is part of the family of leguminous<br />

plants, having longevity of 7-10 years; it has a tap<br />

root, branched, erect sprouts; species: Luxin,<br />

Luteti, Gloria, Triumf, Adonis, Europe. Climate and<br />

soil demands: alfalfa is resistant to drought, but<br />

sensitive to high ground temperatures; it assures a<br />

large production only in the areas with<br />

precipitations > 500 mm annually. It cannot bear<br />

the excess of humidity; it can bear low<br />

temperatures, even as low as –25 O C, when the soil<br />

is not covered by snow; the best results are<br />

obtained on calcium-rich and humus-rich soils<br />

(deep, permeable, well aired soils, with a neutral to<br />

weakly acidic reaction). Rotation: good precursors:<br />

cereals, winter fodder and annual fodder cultures;<br />

it should not be cultivated after itself except after a<br />

4-6 year period, to avoid the appearance of the<br />

“soil fatigue” phenomenon, caused by the macro<br />

and micro-elements depletion of the soil; cultures<br />

that can follow it: alfalfa can very well precede<br />

most cultivated plants.The laboratory analyses<br />

were carried out in the Applied Biology laboratory<br />

of the Faculty of Environmental Engineering and<br />

Biotechnologies. The weighing of the plain soil<br />

samples was carried out using a precision KERN<br />

572 electronic balance with two digits. This type of<br />

balance is meant for gravimetric measurements for<br />

large quantities of samples of up to 600.00 g. The<br />

drying of the plain soil samples to remove their<br />

humidity was realized using a Binder drying system<br />

at a 60 o C temperature, for several hours. This<br />

drying system was especially designed for<br />

research and is applied for an optimal functioning<br />

of the apparatus in the context of the satisfaction of<br />

the demands pertaining to the approach of the<br />

tests, in order for the results to be valid. The pH<br />

determination was realized with a 3110 WTW pHmeter,<br />

this apparatus being meant for the<br />

measurement of the pH of different liquids<br />

obtained through the processing of environmental<br />

samples, and of environmental solids which,<br />

however, need to be prepared beforehand in a<br />

special way by mixing them with bi-distilled, deionized<br />

water in certain proportions, according to<br />

the standardized work instructions.<br />

The pH determination finds out the hydrogen<br />

content, which is measured as the logarithm of the<br />

opposite of this value and can have values<br />

between 0 and 14. Out of the soil sample, using<br />

the randomization method, we extracted 2 samples<br />

for which the pH was determinate. The pH<br />

measurement represents the most efficient and<br />

easiest to apply method for the determination of<br />

338<br />

the soil’s pH. The finely ground soil is put into a<br />

Berzelius glass (150-200ml) over which one adds a<br />

quantity of 50 ml KCl, 0.1N, Tt=0.0056g/ml,<br />

F=1.0000. It is agitated for 15 minutes using a<br />

magnetic agitator, and then it is left to rest for an<br />

hour at room temperature to clarify. Then the pH is<br />

read using the pH- meter, after the previous<br />

calibration of the equipment.<br />

We organized a number of three<br />

experiments.<br />

Experiment I<br />

The experiment began by going out in the<br />

field to collect the soil samples from the point<br />

Priseaca. We weighed two soil samples of 143.6 g<br />

each. The two soil samples were then dried for a<br />

week at 60 0 C and after that we determined the<br />

soil’s humidity and pH. After having dried them, we<br />

weighed the two samples again and we noticed<br />

that the water loss recorded was 21.7g for the first<br />

sample and 21.8g for the second. So, calculating<br />

an average for the two samples, we obtained a<br />

loss of 21.75g after the drying of the soil.<br />

As far as the pH determination is concerned,<br />

it is known that the water in the soil, full of different<br />

mineral and organic substances, under the form of<br />

colloidal, molecular and ionic dispersion,<br />

constitutes what is known as “soil solution” or<br />

“must (unfermented wine) of the soil”. This soil<br />

solution plays a special role in the development of<br />

the plants, as it constitutes the direct source<br />

providing them with nutrients. Among the ions<br />

encountered in solution (Ca, Mg, K, H, Cl, SO, CO,<br />

COH, OH ions), an important role goes to the H +<br />

cation (the hydrogen ion) and to the OH anion.<br />

When, in the soil solution, the hydrogen ions are<br />

predominant compared to the OH - ions, the<br />

solution is considered acid. This situation is<br />

frequently encountered in the alpine regions, on<br />

siliceous rocks (grit stones, mica-schists, quartzite,<br />

and granite). On the contrary, when in the soil<br />

solution the hydrogen ions are exceeded by the<br />

OH – ions, the solution is alkaline (basic). Such<br />

situations are encountered in some steppe soils<br />

and in the soils made up of calcareous rocks. If in<br />

the soil solution the H + and OH – ions represent<br />

equal quantities, the solution is considered neutral.<br />

The soil’s fertility is influenced by the soil solution’s<br />

acid, neutral or alkaline character. That is why it is<br />

necessary to apply a practical criterion when<br />

appreciating the concentration of the hydrogen<br />

ions, namely the soil’s pH. We determined the pH<br />

of the two samples under analysis, obtaining<br />

values of 6.93 and 6.96. We calculated the<br />

average of the samples and obtained a pH of 6.94.<br />

The soil samples used for the experiment were<br />

very well homogenized beforehand. The<br />

specialized literature mentions that the pH values<br />

under 7 (excess of hydrogen ions compared to the<br />

OH - ions) represents the acid domain, the acidity<br />

being higher as the numbers indicating the pH<br />

decrease. A soil with a pH under 6 is considered<br />

strongly acid. The pH values over 7 (excess of OH -<br />

ions compared to hydrogen ions) represents the

alkaline (basic) domain, the alkalinity growing as<br />

the number indicating the pH increases. A soil with<br />

a pH over 8 is considered strongly alkaline. When<br />

the soil solution has values around pH = 7, the soil<br />

is considered neutral. So, the pH of the soil sample<br />

under analysis – namely 6.94 – indicates that this<br />

soil belongs to the category of the neutral soils.<br />

By determining the soils’ pH, one can draw a<br />

series of practical conclusions related to their use<br />

in cultures. In a multiple plastic recipient, the soil<br />

was arranged as follows: we constituted three<br />

Photo 1. The preparation of the cultivation vases for<br />

sawing and the preparation of the salty solutions<br />

Photo 2. Appearance of the cotyledons with the plants<br />

in experiment I<br />

Photo 3. The phenophase of the formation of the true leaves<br />

339<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

witness samples and three experimental samples<br />

for the species Medicago sativa. (photo 1). The<br />

witness soil was irrigated with potable water. The<br />

soil used as experimental sample was treated with<br />

a solution made up of distilled water and salt in<br />

different concentrations. The first of the samples<br />

was treated with a salty solution whose<br />

concentration was 1%, the sample number 2 was<br />

treated with a 10% salty solution, and the third<br />

experimental sample was treated with a 20% salty<br />

solution.<br />

Photo 4, 5. Aspects of the Medicago sativa plants after the administration of the 10% salty solution

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The experimental samples and the witness<br />

samples were sawn using 100 seeds for each of<br />

them. So, we planted 300 seeds on the witness<br />

samples and 300 seeds on the experimental<br />

samples (namely 100 seeds on the sample<br />

watered with 1% salty solution, 100 seeds on the<br />

sample watered with 10% salty solution and 100<br />

seeds on the sample watered with 20% salty<br />

solution).<br />

Herbaceous species<br />

Alfalfa<br />

Herbaceous<br />

species<br />

340<br />

The experimental conditions were<br />

maintained at the same environmental parameters<br />

during the entire experimental period, namely a<br />

temperature of 21-23 0 C, breaking up the soil every<br />

two days to homogenize it, and irrigation using the<br />

same water quantity. Every two days, we looked at<br />

the evolution of the species sawn and we put down<br />

what we observed in the annexed tables.<br />

Situation of the seeds’ germination 3 and 7 days after sawing – average of the results<br />

Table 1<br />

Germinated seeds<br />

after 3 days after 7 days<br />

Witness sample Experimental samples: Witness sample Experimental sample:<br />

I II III<br />

I II III<br />

I II III 1%NaCl<br />

10%<br />

NaCl<br />

20%<br />

NaCl<br />

I II III<br />

1%<br />

NaCl<br />

10%<br />

NaCl<br />

43s 40s 46s 8s 2s 0s 60s 55s 65s 10s 3s 0<br />

Germinative energy and germinative capacity – average of the results<br />

Germinative energy Germinative capability<br />

after 7 days after 14 days<br />

20%<br />

NaCl<br />

Table 2<br />

Witness sample Experimental sample Witness sample Experimental sample<br />

M1 M2 M3 1% NaCl<br />

10%<br />

NaCl<br />

20%<br />

NaCl<br />

M1 M2 M3<br />

1%<br />

NaCl<br />

10%<br />

NaCl<br />

20%<br />

NaCl<br />

Alfalfa 60% 55% 65% 10% 3% 0% 97% 95% 96% 25% 10% 0<br />

Table 3<br />

Germinated seeds until day 14 for the Medicago sativa species<br />

day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 14<br />

witness I 43 50 60 76 85 90 97<br />

1%solution 8 8 10 20 23 25 25<br />

witness II 40 43 55 87 90 92 95<br />

10%solution 2 2 3 7 9 10 10<br />

witness III 46 55 65 88 90 95 96<br />

20%solution 0 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

day 14<br />

day 13<br />

day 11<br />

day 9<br />

day 7<br />

day 5<br />

day 3<br />

0 20 40 60 80 100<br />

20%solution<br />

w itness III<br />

10%solution<br />

w itness II<br />

1%solution<br />

w itness I<br />

Figure 1. Germinated seeds until day 14 th for Medicago sativa species

Experiment II<br />

For this experiment, we used the same<br />

plain soil as for the experiment 1 and the same<br />

number of seeds. The samples were watered with<br />

tap water for 21 days (86% of them germinated),<br />

after which we administered a 10% salty solution.<br />

Experiment III<br />

The third experiment began on May 5,<br />

2011. The soil from the previous experiment was<br />

irrigated every two days of a week, after which we<br />

sawed 100 seeds of the Medicago sativa species<br />

in each vase. The cultivated vases were irrigated<br />

using drinking water.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

For the first experiment, one can notice in<br />

table no. 1 that three days after sawing, on the<br />

witness samples with alfalfa 129 germinated seeds<br />

were recorded (out of 300, namely 43% ), while<br />

on the experimental samples with alfalfa we could<br />

count only 8 sprouted seeds (out of 100 seeds<br />

sawn and treated with 1% salty solution), 2 seeds<br />

(out of 100 seeds sawn and treated with 10% salty<br />

solution) and in the experimental sample irrigated<br />

with a 20% salty solution, no seed germinated out<br />

of the 100 seeds sown. Seven days after sawing,<br />

the situation recorded was as follows:<br />

- 180 seeds germinated on the witness<br />

sample (namely 60 % of the number of seeds<br />

sawn);<br />

- 10 seeds sprouted on the experimental<br />

sample watered with 1% salty solution (sawn with<br />

100 seeds);<br />

- 3 seeds sprouted on the experimental<br />

sample watered with 10% salty solution and no<br />

seed germinated on the experimental sample<br />

watered with 20% salty solution. Following this<br />

analysis, one can calculate: the germinative<br />

energy, indicating the speed of the start of the<br />

germination process and the germinative<br />

capability, indicating the number of seeds able to<br />

germinate in a lot (Busuioc Gabriela, Frăsin<br />

Loredana, Necula Cezarina, 2002) (Tab.2). In the<br />

second experiment, all the Medicago sativa<br />

plants, although quite vigorous, got dry after the<br />

administration of the 10% salty solution (foto. 4,<br />

5). In the third experiment, we noticed that three<br />

days after sawing, just one alfalfa seed had<br />

germinated, and seven days after that, the<br />

situation remained unchanged. On May 12,<br />

namely seven days after sawing, in the cultivation<br />

vases was added a solution made up of water and<br />

nitrogen whose concentration was 1%. The<br />

subsequent observations showed that the nitrogen<br />

solution did not help the alfalfa seeds to<br />

germinate.<br />

341<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

By the end of the three experiments made in<br />

the Applied Biology Laboratory of the Faculty of<br />

Environmental Engineering and Biotechnologies,<br />

we reached the following conclusions:<br />

In the experimental sample where the 1%<br />

salty solution was administered, the seeds<br />

germinated and the plants developed after that.<br />

In the experimental samples irrigated with a<br />

10% salty solution, the plants did not manage to<br />

resist, although 10% of the alfalfa seeds<br />

germinated. The fact that they did not resist was<br />

caused by the phytotoxicity induced by the NaCl2.<br />

In the second experiment, we noticed that<br />

the plants were affected by the pollution triggered<br />

by the watering with the 10% salty solution.<br />

The third experiment showed that the<br />

alfalfa did not manage to grow on a soil irrigated<br />

with a 10% salty solution (after the soil had been<br />

irrigated for a week and then treated with a<br />

solution made up of water and 1% nitrogen, seven<br />

days after sawing).<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Busuioc Gabriela, Frăsin Loredana, Necula<br />

Cezarina, 2002 - The germinative features of<br />

tropical spinach’s seeds, Studii şi Cercetări,<br />

seria a-VII-A, Timişoara, p.171-175<br />

Coste I. şi colab., 1993 - Vegetaţia mezoxerofilă de pe<br />

solurile sărăturate din sud-vestul României<br />

(Banat) St. şi cerc. Biol., Biol. veget. 45, 2<br />

Doltu M.I, Sanda V., Popescu A., 1979 - Vegetaţia<br />

solurilor saline şi alcaline din România, Stud. şi<br />

com.Şt. NatMuz.Brukenthal Sibiu, 23<br />

Grigore St. şi colab., 1965 - Cercetări geobotanice<br />

asupra speciilor de trifoi de pe sărăturile din<br />

vestul R.S.R. Lucr. Şt. Inst. Agron., Timişoara,<br />

seria Agric. 8.<br />

Ivan Doina, 1983 - Vegetaţia halofilă, în Geografia<br />

României, vol. I Geografie fizică, Edit.<br />

Academiei<br />

Muică, Cristina, Sencovici, Mihaela, Dumitraşcu, C.,<br />

2004 - Biogeografie – îndrumător pentru lucrări<br />

de laborator şi practică de teren, Editura<br />

Transversal, Târgovişte<br />

Muică, Cristina, Geacu S., Mihaela Sencovici, 2006 -<br />

Biogeografie generală. Editura Transversal,<br />

Bucureşti<br />

Şerbănescu I., 1963 - Ameliorarea pajiştilor de pe<br />

terenurile sărăturoase din Câmpia Română prin<br />

specii spontane din cuprinsul lor, Comit. Geol.<br />

Inst. Geol. Studii Tehnice şi Econ. seria C Ped.<br />

Studii Pedol. 2, 209-237<br />

Şerbănescu I., 1965 - Asociaţiile halofile din Câmpia<br />

Română Comit. Geol. Studii Tehnice şi<br />

Econ.seria C Studii Pedol.15, 1-149<br />

Ţopa E., 1954 - Vegetaţia terenurilor sărate din RPR,<br />

Natura vol. 6,1.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

342

Abstract<br />

343<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

RESEARCH REGARDING THE USE OF STRAW AS FERTILIZER<br />

ON ERODED SOILS<br />

Andrei SIURIS 1<br />

e-mail: ipaps_dimo@mtc.md<br />

Straw originating from cereal plants served as object of study. The straw was studied as a fertilizer during a field<br />

experience on moderately eroded ordinary chernozem in the Southern region of the Republic of Moldova in order to<br />

elaborate some rational processes for its use. The application of straw had a mobilizing impact on the nitrogen and the<br />

phosphorus found in the soil. It favoured the provision of the cultivated plants with nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.<br />

The apparent density and the coefficient of water use in the soil have been reduced and the plant productivity has<br />

increased. The organic matter contained in the straw constitutes 820 kg/t and possesses an energetic potential of 4.4.<br />

Gig calories/t. In the Republic of Moldova, the straw is the only re-generable resource which possesses the highest<br />

potential to break up, to structure and to increase the soil capacity for water and air. Each ton of straw, applied as<br />

fertilizer, favours the completion of humus reserve in the soil by about 150 kg and that of nitrogen by 8 kg.<br />

Key words: straw, fertilizer, eroded soil, ordinary chernozem<br />

Erosion is the main factor of soil cover<br />

degradation and pollution of water resources in<br />

the Republic of Moldova. In the period of 40<br />

years, the surface of eroded soils increased by<br />

284,000 ha (594,000 ha in 1965 and 878,000 ha at<br />

present, increasing annually by 7,100 ha<br />

[Krupenikov I., 2004]). Most affected by erosion<br />

are the chernozems, occupying 788,207 ha (91 %)<br />

of eroded land surface. The annual damage caused<br />

by erosion is estimated at 2.5 billion lei or 200<br />

million U.S. dollars.<br />

In the past 20 years, the amount of<br />

organic fertilizers decreased by 60 times and<br />

constitutes 0.8 t/ha; the surface of alfalfa<br />

decreased by 4-5 times, the vegetal wastes are set<br />

fire to on large surfaces. Therefore, the soil humus<br />

balance is negative – minus 0.7 t/ha, while erosion<br />

losses constitute –minus 1.1 t/ha. According to<br />

recent estimates, 2.4 million tons of humus are<br />

annually lost from the agricultural lands. The<br />

forecast calculations show that if the current<br />

situation is maintained, the content of humus in<br />

Moldova’s soils will decrease to the critical level<br />

of 2.5- 2.8 %.<br />

An important source of eroded soil<br />

fertility recovery is straw surpluses. The present<br />

paper attempts to highlight these possibilities.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

1 Institutul de Pedologie, Agrochimie şi Protecţie a Solului “Nicolae Dimo”<br />

In 1996, in order to test the use of straw<br />

as fertilizer, a long term experience was founded<br />

in the Experimental Station of Pedology and Soil<br />

Erosion of “Nicolae Dimo” Institute of Pedology,<br />

Agrochemistry and Soil Protection in the village<br />

Lebedenco, Cahul district on a slope with an<br />

inclination of 5-6˚ degrees to the Northeast. The<br />

experience was based on moderately eroded<br />

ordinary chernozem possessing a loam-clay<br />

texture, whose content of humus was 2.07 -2.54<br />

%, mobile phosphorus 1.54 – 1.93 mg/100 g of<br />

soil, exchangeable potassium 15.3 – 16.8 mg/100<br />

g of soil and a slight alkaline reaction (pH 7.5-<br />

7.8). The surface rocks are composed from loess<br />

with alternation. The size of the plots is of 6 m x<br />

40 m (120 m 2 ) in the form of rectangles situated in<br />

one line across the slope. The long sides of the<br />

plots are oriented along the slope. The experience<br />

scheme includes the following variants: 1. The<br />

control plot (without fertilizers); 2. N60P60<br />

(variant); 3. Variant + straw, 4 t/ha once in 4<br />

years. Each variant is placed in three repetitions.<br />

Before the foundation of the experience, initial<br />

samples of soil tests were collected from each<br />

plot. At incorporation, the straw was chopped by<br />

PON-5 chopper and was evenly spread on the plot<br />

to mineralize its organic matter which is low in<br />

nitrogen. 10 kg/ha of nitrogen was added to every<br />

ton of straw. The fertilized soil was disked and in<br />

late autumn it was ploughed. Oat straw was

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

incorporated into the soil in the autumn of 1996,<br />

wheat straw in 2000 and barley straw in 2004.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The straw, secondary production of crop<br />

harvest is annually gathered in huge amounts (1.6<br />

344<br />

million tons). The chemical composition of straw<br />

depends on the species of the crop, the conditions<br />

and methods of cultivation and the harvesting<br />

time. As plant residues, the straw contains all<br />

nutritive elements in approximately the amount<br />

the plants need (Table 1).<br />

Straw chemical composition related to natural humidity mass, %<br />

Analysed component<br />

autumn wheat<br />

straw specification<br />

autumn barley oats<br />

organic matter 81 81 79<br />

N 0.50 0.50 0.65<br />

P2O5 0.20 0.20 0.35<br />

K2O 0.90 1.00 1.60<br />

Ca 0.28 0.33 0.38<br />

Mg 0.11 0.09 0.12<br />

S 0.04 0.15 0.17<br />

ash 4.86 4.49 6.45<br />

C:N 80 80 60<br />

Compared with other organic fertilizers,<br />

the straw contains a more valuable and deficient<br />

organic matter for soil fertilization such as<br />

cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin which serves<br />

as energy for soil microorganisms.<br />

In the last decades, however, a more<br />

pronounced indifference to straw is remarked,<br />

which is manifested by burning it directly in the<br />

field after grain harvest. This significantly<br />

damages both the soil and the atmosphere. It<br />

seriously affects the soil biota by destroying a lot<br />

of microorganisms which maintain the dynamic<br />

balance of synthesis processes and mineralization<br />

of the organic matter – the main condition for<br />

maintaining life on our planet. Direct use of straw<br />

as organic fertilizer exactly matches the basic<br />

principle of agriculture which consists in<br />

transforming the sun kinetic energy into potential<br />

energy of organic matter. This helps maintain a<br />

balanced flow of energy and matter in nature.<br />

The only drawback of straw as fertilizer is<br />

its extremely low nitrogen content (0.50 – 0.65 %)<br />

and hence the high carbon: nitrogen ratio (60 –<br />

80:1). This circumstance requires completing the<br />

straw with nitrogen (8 – 10 kg N/t of straw) at<br />

Table 1<br />

incorporation. The recommended amount of<br />

nitrogen fertilizer may be calculated according to<br />

the formulae (Popov P., 1987):<br />

, where<br />

D – dose of nitrogen fertilizer, etc. kg/ha;<br />

K – C:N ratio in straw, %;<br />

N – nitrogen content in straw, %;<br />

25 – optimum C:N ratio;<br />

C – amount of straw incorporated into soil per 1<br />

ha, t.<br />

For example, at the incorporation of 4<br />

tons of wheat straw, we will need 44 kg of active<br />

substance nitrogen:<br />

The fertilizing impact of straw is beyond<br />

doubt. The results of numerous experiments<br />

carried out by different researchers unequivocally<br />

demonstrated that straw has a beneficial influence,<br />

practically all the indicators determine the soil<br />

fertility (Emcev V., 1980; Popov P., Novicov<br />

M., 1987; Scripnik V., 2004; Lixandru Gh., 2006;<br />

Siuris A., 2008; Rusu A., 2009).<br />

Table 2<br />

Modification of humus content in 0-20 cm of moderately eroded ordinary chernozem as result of using straw<br />

Experiment variant<br />

Humus content,<br />

% of soil mass<br />

Total humus increase<br />

in 10 years<br />

annual humus<br />

1996 2006 % t/ha % t/ha<br />

1. Unfertilized control variant 2.07 2.11 0.04 1.0 0.004 0.1<br />

2. N60P60 (variant) 2.28 2.41 0.13 3.1 0.01 0.2<br />

3. variant + straw, 4 t/ha once<br />

in 4 years<br />

2.08 2.34 0.24 6.4 0.03 0.7<br />

DL 05 0.05 0.07 0.08 2.43 0.006 0.09<br />

.

Our research has shown that fertilization<br />

with 4 t/ha once in 4 years contributed to the<br />

improvement of supply of moderately eroded<br />

ordinary chernozem with humus, mobile<br />

phosphorus and exchangeable potassium (Table 2,<br />

3). In the tenth year of action, the humus content<br />

345<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

in the variant fertilized with straw increased by<br />

0.24 % compared with the control variant. The<br />

increase of mobile phosphorus, compared with the<br />

initial one, increased in the tenth year of action by<br />

1.64 mg/100 g of soil. The value of exchangeable<br />

potassium was increased by 3.8 mg/100 g of soil.<br />

Table 3<br />

Modification of phosphorus and potassium available in the 0-20 cm layer of moderately eroded ordinary<br />

chernozem at the use of straw<br />

P2O5 mg/100 g soil K2O mg/100 g soil<br />

Variant<br />

1996,initial 2006,<br />

increase<br />

1996, initial 2006,<br />

increase<br />

content<br />

content<br />

content<br />

content<br />

1. Control 1.89 2.04 0.15 16.7 16.8 0.1<br />

2. N60P60 (variant) 1.80 2.65 0.85 17.1 17.3 0.2<br />

3. Variant +straw, 4 t/ha once in 4<br />

years<br />

1.78 3.42 1.64 16.5 20.3 3.8<br />

DL 05 0.94 2.14<br />

The application of 4 t of straw per ha has<br />

reduced the rough fractions (< 10 mm) by 26.6 %,<br />

thus simultaneously increasing the structural<br />

formations with a diameter under 0.25 mm by<br />

11.2 % (Table 4).<br />

Table 4<br />

Structural state of moderately eroded ordinary chernozem at the application of straw in the ploughed layer<br />

Variant<br />

1.Unfertilized control<br />

2. N60P60 (variant)<br />

3. Variant +straw, 4 t/ha once in 4<br />

years<br />

Statistics mean (x±s), 2006<br />

Contents of structural elements (%) with the diameter<br />

(mm)<br />

> 10 < 0.25 > 10-0.25 >10 + < 0.25<br />

Quality of<br />

structure<br />

(dry<br />

sieving)<br />

Hydrostability<br />

(humid<br />

sieving)<br />

average low<br />

average low<br />

good low<br />

Numerator – total aggregate content (dry sieving), Denominator – hydro-stable aggregate content (humid<br />

sieving)<br />

Fertilization with straw of moderately<br />

eroded ordinary chernozem contributed to the<br />

formation of structural elements with agronomic<br />

value. Thus, if the sum of fractions between 10 –<br />

0.25 mm constitutes 47 % in the control variant,<br />

in the variant fertilized with straw it increased by<br />

about 16 %.<br />

Both the content of fine clay and of<br />

natural clay remains constant in all variants (Table<br />

5).<br />

Table 5<br />

Impact of straw on the physical indicators of moderately eroded ordinary chernozem in the ploughed layer.<br />

Variant<br />

Unfertilized<br />

control<br />

Straw, 4 t/ha once<br />

in 4 years+N60P60<br />

Statistical parameters mean (x±s), 2006<br />

Fractions, %<br />

Density,<br />

g/cm 3<br />

Apparent<br />

density, g/cm 3<br />

< 0.001 mm < 0.01 mm<br />

Porosity,<br />

%<br />

Resistance to<br />

penetration,<br />

kg F/cm 2<br />

25.9±3.5 45.9±1.7 2.66±0.02 1.26±0.04 52.6±2.8 23.4±1.1<br />

26.3±3.7 45.4±1.6 2.64±0.01 1.22±0.05 53.8±1.5 16.1±1.3

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

The dusty clay-loam texture may be<br />

appreciated as favourable, since it provides normal<br />

conditions for plant growth. The loam-clay soils<br />

with physical humidity maturity are easy to treat.<br />

The low hydro-stability of structural aggregates<br />

formed at soil treatment, poor resistance to<br />

secondary compaction and the high danger of<br />

erosion may be considered as negative factors. The<br />

application of straw on moderately eroded ordinary<br />

chernozem leads to the decrease of density and of<br />

soil apparent density. These modifications had an<br />

Variant<br />

1. Unfertilized<br />

control<br />

2. N60P60<br />

(variant)<br />

3. Variant<br />

+straw, 4 t/ha<br />

once in 4 years<br />

346<br />

impact on the increase of the gap space up to 55 %,<br />

which relates the soil to the “high” class. The<br />

resistance to penetration decreased by about 7.3 kg<br />

F/cm 2 or by 31 % compared to the control variant.<br />

As a result of optimizing the agrochemical and<br />

agro-physical indicators of moderately eroded<br />

ordinary chernozem through the application of<br />

straw, the productivity of field crops increased<br />

(Table 6). The application of straw once in 4 years<br />

led to obtaining an increase in the yield of 46.9<br />

g/ha in the period of 9 years.<br />

Table 6<br />

The impact of straw on field crop productivity on moderately eroded ordinary chernosem, g/ha<br />

Yield on the control variant and the increase on fertilized variants<br />

1997,<br />

autumn<br />

barley<br />

1998,<br />

corn<br />

seeds<br />

1999,<br />

oats+<br />

peas<br />

2000,<br />

autumn<br />

wheat<br />

2001,<br />

corn<br />

seeds<br />

2002,<br />

autumn<br />

barley<br />

2003,<br />

corn<br />

seeds<br />

2004,<br />

sun<br />

flower<br />

2005,<br />

autumn<br />

wheat<br />

Total<br />

in 9<br />

years,<br />

grain<br />

units<br />

29.6 33.3 56.6 12.4 31.7 14.3 34.2 12.7 14.3 198.7<br />

6.6 7.3 8.3 1.3 5.5 2.4 5.2 1.2 2.1 33.7<br />

6.4 11.0 24.0 2.4 5.2 2.7 7.3 3.1 3.1 46.9<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. The application of 4 t/ha straw once in 4<br />

years on moderately eroded ordinary<br />

chernozem led to the increase of humus<br />

and mobile forms of phosphorus and<br />

potassium contents. In the course of 10<br />

years, the quantity of humus increased by<br />

0.24 %, of the mobile phosphorus and<br />

exchangeable potassium by 1.64 and 4.0<br />

mg/100 g of soil respectively.<br />

2. The fertilization with straw of the<br />

moderately eroded ordinary chernozem<br />

reduced the clod structural fractions ( >10<br />

mm) by 26.6%, simultaneously increasing<br />

the structural formations by 11.2 %. The<br />

soil mechanical properties were improved.<br />

The penetration resistance decreased by 31<br />

%.<br />

3. As a result of straw application on<br />

moderately eroded ordinary chernozem in<br />

the course of 9 years, a yield increase of<br />

46.9 h/ha of grain units or by 24 % higher<br />

compared to the control variant was<br />

registered. It was established that straw<br />

should be applied on eroded soils in the<br />

dose of 4 t/ha once in 4 years.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Emcev, V.T., Nică, L.K., 1980 – Vlianie solomî na<br />

microbiologhiceschie proţesî v pocve pri eio<br />

ispolizovanie v cacestve organicescogo<br />

udobrenia, (Impact of straw on the<br />

microbiological processes in soil when used as organic<br />

fertilizer) Moskva: Nauca, p. 71-99.<br />

Grigorov, A.N., Lesnoi, N.N., 2004 –<br />

Agroăcologhiceschie priiomî ispolizovania<br />

organiceschih ostatcov. Agroăcologhicescaia<br />

optimizaţia zemledelia (Agricultural procedures<br />

of using organic wastes. Agricultural optimization of soil).<br />

Kursk, p. 265-267.<br />

Lixandru,, Gh., 2006 – Sisteme integrate de fertilizare<br />

în agricultură (Integral systems of fertilization in<br />

agriculture) – Iaşi: Pim, p. 188-204.<br />

Rusu,Al.,2009- Valorificarea surplusurilor de<br />

paie.(Use of straw surpluses) ChIşinău: Pontos,<br />

40 p.<br />

Siuris, A., 2008 – Fertility regeneration posibilites of<br />

soils afected by erosion. Lucr. şt. seria<br />

Horticultură, Vol. 51, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, p. 979-<br />

984.<br />

Skripnik, V. A., 2004 – Agroăcologhicescaia<br />

ăffectivnosti mulcirovania pocivî pri<br />

vozdelovanii saharnoi sveclî na cernoziome<br />

tipicinom (Agrological effectiveness of soil<br />

treatment in growing sugar beet on ordinary chernozem)<br />

Kursk, p. 239-243.<br />

Popov, P.D., Novicov, M.N., 1987 – Rasciot balansa<br />

solomî v hoziaistve (Calculation of straw<br />

balance in agriculture) . Vladimir, p. 8-9.<br />

Krupenikov, I., 2004 – Consecinţele biosfero-ecologice<br />

ale proceselor erozionale. Evaluarea fertilităţii<br />

solurilor erodate. (Biosphere-ecological<br />

consequences of erosion processes. Evaluation of<br />

eroded soil fertility) În: Eroziunea solului. Chişinău:<br />

Pontos, p. 72-97.

347<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

DESING ELEMENTS OF USED MATERIALS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF FORCED<br />

VEGETABLES CULTURES<br />

Abstract<br />

Elena Ancuta TULBURE 1 , Neculai MUNTEANU 1 , Lidia AVADANEI 2 ,<br />

Doina CONSTANTINESCU 2 , Costel SAMUIL 1<br />

e-mail: ancuta_tulbure@yahoo.com<br />

This paper emphasizes the design elements of materials with greenhouse effect used in vegetables systems for forced<br />

and protected cultures. For the analysis and interpretation of material – vegetation factors – plant relationship we<br />

described a conceptual model of optimization of a complex functioning system.<br />

Key words: forced cultures, polymeric foils, textile material, system;<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

Vegetable cultures in protected areas represent a<br />

production area with a high degree of intensity and<br />

production possibilities much higher than field<br />

vegetables crops. From the history of cultures in<br />

lay out spaces we have (Munteanu N.s.a.-2008):<br />

The vegetable system of forced cultures which<br />

take place in special construction like<br />

greenhouses, heated solaria, hotbeds where the<br />

vegetation factors are controlled and handled<br />

permanently, and vegetables are obtained all<br />

year;<br />

The vegetable system of protected cultures<br />

which takes place in more simple constructions<br />

like solaria, glass houses, low shelters made of<br />

plastic materials where the plants have<br />

partially improved mycroclimate conditions.<br />

The temperature can increase in the interval 2-<br />

10 0 C, because of greenhouse effect. This<br />

system protects cultures from cold drafts and is<br />

used to obtain crops out of season;<br />

The vegetable system of sheltered cultures<br />

ensures a mycroclimate through simple means,<br />

this being used as wind shelters (natural<br />

sheltered spaces) or cold (covers and<br />

individual shelters).<br />

The selection of construction materials to ensure a<br />

mycroclimate with controlled parameters<br />

represents one of the most important problems in<br />

achieving durable and economic systems of forced<br />

cultures.<br />

1 Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi;<br />

2 SC ICEFS COM Savinesti, Neamt ;<br />

POSSIBLE DEVICES REGARDING THE<br />

DEVELOPMENT OF GREENHOUSE<br />

EFFECT USING POLYMERIC FOILS<br />

The spectre of visible range contains radiations<br />

with wave lengths between 480-700nm. Due to the<br />

climate and environment changes with<br />

consequences on the consistency of the ozone<br />

layer, the quantity of ultraviolet radiations is<br />

larger. As the electromagnetic waves specific to<br />

the visible range and UV pass through a<br />

transparent material (glass or hydrocarbon<br />

polymers), the radiations change their frequency in<br />

that they diminish the frequency and increase the<br />

wave length. Practically, the UV and visible<br />

radiations become infrared radiations having a<br />

higher thermal effect proportionally with the wave<br />

length.<br />

According to the transparency characteristics<br />

of the materials used to obtain the greenhouse<br />

effect we know that glasses with a content of iron<br />

higher than 0.3% completely obstruct the passing<br />

of UV radiations through normal glasses resulting<br />

in a decreased greenhouse effect.<br />

It is extremely interesting the idea of using or<br />

synthetising of a polymer with a controlled<br />

greenhouse effect from the structure of the<br />

polymer. The implied aspects are extremely<br />

complex if we take into account that the using of a<br />

polymer with greenhouse effect must practically<br />

have a high resistance to UV action so that it will<br />

not be damaged by their presence. The UV<br />

radiation with a wave length of 300-450 nm is

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

absorbed by the plants' pigments and have a major<br />

role in all physiological processes. That's why<br />

these materials must achieve a correlation between<br />

the high resistance to UV and the good<br />

transparency capacity in visible range.<br />

The transparent polymers in visible range<br />

are those with hydrocarbon structure, for instance<br />

polyethilenes and polypropylenes. The absorbtion<br />

of UV radiations is explained by the presence in<br />

the polymer of some photoinitiation groups, for<br />

instance carbonyl groups, and the degradation<br />

process can be atributed to free radicals produced<br />

by photo-decomposition of these groups. The free<br />

radicals continue to react with oxygen resulting<br />

peroxy radicals which propagates the<br />

decomposition through a self-oxidation<br />

mechanism.<br />

We add antioxidation stabilizers and light<br />

stabilizer to delay the thermal oxidation and<br />

prolongate the duration of using the olefinic<br />

polymers products. The selection of stabilizers<br />

must correspond to the decomposition mechanisms<br />

of the products.<br />

THE TEXTILE MATERIALS USED FOR<br />

THE VEGETABLE SYSTEMS OF<br />

PROTECTED CULTURES AND FOR<br />

THE SOIL PROTECTION<br />

The textile materials have been used for a long<br />

time in agriculture, in order to control the<br />

luminosity, weeds and insects, to extend the<br />

growth season of plants and to recover the soils<br />

damaged by erosion. From the raw materials class,<br />

the agrotextiles are made of both synthetic and<br />

natural yarns, for instance: polyester,<br />

polypropylene, jute and fleece. As obtaining<br />

technologies, the textile materials can be: knitted,<br />

wove and non-wove and are classified from a<br />

functional point of view into:<br />

a) materials used to extend the growth season<br />

of plants which ensure a microclimate with<br />

controlled parameters of temperature and<br />

humidity;<br />

b) materials used to control the surface erosion<br />

of soil;<br />

a) The textile materials which ensure certain<br />

microclimate parameters are designed according to<br />

the specific requirements of plants i.e. temperature,<br />

light intensity, solar radiation and humidity. We<br />

know that the temperature and solar radiation play<br />

an important part in the life of plants acting<br />

frequently on photosynthesis, so that raw materials<br />

used for the obtaining of materials have an<br />

increased stability to UV radiations. UV. UV<br />

absorbers incorporated into the fibres are<br />

derivatives of o-hydroxy phenyl hydrazines, o-<br />

348<br />

hydroxy phenyl triazines. Organic products like<br />

hydro benzophenone and benzotriazole are used<br />

for coating processes in order to achieve<br />

protection against UV rays.<br />

Also, selecting certain wave lengths, the solar<br />

radiation contributes to the general exchange of<br />

heat, to radiation and caloric balance, complex<br />

phenomena in which take part temperature and<br />

humidity, evaporation and condensation water and<br />

has an important role for the physiological process<br />

of plants. According to the specific of plants,<br />

certain indicators must be established for the<br />

textile materials: the air flow which passes through<br />

the material q(m 3<br />

/min), light intensity I0.<br />

The knowledge of optical transparency and of<br />

rays tranmission percent in different areas of the<br />

spectre are of great importance for the<br />

photosynthesis process. The air permeability<br />

allows the evaluation of air flow which passes<br />

through material balancing this way the<br />

temperature and humidity from microclimate, this<br />

being directly influenced by the specific mass and<br />

consistency of the material. The porosity of<br />

materials can be independently evaluated as an<br />

indicator for making the structures of materials, but<br />

can also include the influence of other factors:<br />

humidity, air permeability, vapour permeability.<br />

b) Although there are many textile<br />

structures for geotechnical applications, these must<br />

interact with the soil or the surrounding<br />

geotechnical environment considered as a<br />

complete system.<br />

From the structure of the system, we<br />

understand that the role of the textile materials in<br />

the anti-erosion actions is expressed in the<br />

following main functions: filtration, separation,<br />

armament. In relation to attributed functions, the<br />

geosynthetical materials used to recover the soil<br />

must answer to certain mechanic and hydraulic<br />

characteristics: the resistance and elongation to<br />

pulling at maximum capacity, creep from pulling,<br />

creep from compression, resistance to abrasion,<br />

filtration characteristic opening, perpendicular<br />

permeability on the plane. The geotechnical<br />

applications from vegetal fibers as flax or jute can<br />

be used due to their superior technical properties<br />

(resistance to elongation and high elasticity<br />

module). The advantages of using natural<br />

geotextiles: are good for the environment<br />

(biodegradable), can have a superior resistance to<br />

chemical fibers, low cost.<br />

The using of geosynthetical materials for<br />

soil consolidation works represent a special area<br />

of geotechnical engineering. In relation to the<br />

geosynthetical materials' functions in the<br />

development of appliances, these must accomplish

certain mechanical, physical and hydraulically<br />

properties.<br />

THE PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL MODEL<br />

REGARDING THE OPTIMISATION OF THE<br />

RELATION TEXTILE MATERIAL –<br />

MICROCLIMATE – GROWTH PROCESS<br />

OF PLANTS<br />

The model of a system allows the<br />

characterization of the whole process and the<br />

analysis of experimental data by ensuring of<br />

numeric values to the important variables of the<br />

process. By modeling we understand the study<br />

method based on the usage of models. Most of the<br />

researches in the technical field use this method.<br />

The modeling represents the actual elaboration<br />

activity of the model of the source system, the<br />

specific activities for this purpose are:<br />

techniques and procedures of identification;<br />

simulation techniques;<br />

complementary techniques and procedures;<br />

According to the material character, models can<br />

be:<br />

abstract: theoretical, mathematical;<br />

material: physical, replica;<br />

The clasic stages for the modelling are:<br />

1. The building of the base model:<br />

- the preliminary analysis of the modelling<br />

system, to emphasize the relevant parameters<br />

and functional relations between them;<br />

- the establishment of the model's structure;<br />

- the establishment of the values of defining<br />

model's parameters;<br />

2. The analysis of the model through simulation;<br />

3. The comparison of analysis results with the<br />

behaviour data of source system in equivalent<br />

conditions;<br />

4. The adjusting of the model, which means the<br />

contiguity of the behaviour to the source<br />

system;<br />

In mathematics, studied as area of numeric<br />

analysis, the interpolation is a building method of<br />

new data in the interval of a known data set. In the<br />

engineering researches, it is often known a set of<br />

points, obtained directly through experiments or<br />

sampling techniques, and they try to build a<br />

function (aproximation curve) which passes as<br />

close as possible to these points. The interpolation<br />

represents a special case of aproximation curve, in<br />

which the function must pass right through the<br />

given points.<br />

Another closely related aspect to interpolation<br />

is the approximation of a complicated function<br />

with a simple function, easier to use in<br />

mathematical calculations. Let's suppose that we<br />

know the function, but it is too complex to evaluate<br />

349<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

it efficiently. In this case, we could choose a<br />

known set of data from this function, creating a<br />

search table so we can interpolate them to build a<br />

simpler function. Of course, then when we use the<br />

simple function for the calculus of new values, we<br />

usually don't get the same results as when we use<br />

the initial function. But, with an attentive analysis<br />

on the problem area and the method of<br />

interpolation, the advantage of simplicity can<br />

compensate the approximation error. There are<br />

known lots of interpolation techniques, which can<br />

be particularized or combined for different<br />

problems which need to be solved. In the selection<br />

of a method in this area of possibilities, we must<br />

answer to the following questions: How much data<br />

is needed for interpolation? What is the class of<br />

derivability of the interpolation agent? The most<br />

simple interpolation method is that with constant<br />

values on portions.<br />

For the development of proposed conceptual<br />

model, which represents a complex of elements or<br />

functional units which have relations and<br />

accomplish a function, we must analyse the<br />

relations between: the technological and functional<br />

indicators of the material – the variables of<br />

microclimate – the growth and development<br />

process of the plant. The total of relations between<br />

the said elements represent the structure of the<br />

system. (fig. 1)<br />

The plant has the information regarding<br />

the optimal temperature (TOP 0 C) needed in its<br />

growth and development process. The external<br />

disturbance (TM1 0 C, UM1%) represented by an<br />

external source of heat and humidity, before is<br />

perceived by the plant, passes through the filter<br />

(system). The differences of temperature between<br />

the microclimate temperature (TM2 0 C+ TS 0 C) and<br />

the optimal one (TOP 0 C) represents the system<br />

error ( ). The base condition for adjusting in the<br />

functional parameters of the system is given by the<br />

error size which must be equal to 0.<br />

Fig.1 The conceptual system for the optimisation of<br />

the relation material – vegetation factors – plant

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The design parameters of materials with<br />

greenhouse effect, the variations of microclimate<br />

parameters and the understanding of the physical<br />

processes which lead to a natural ventilation can<br />

not be totally modelled.<br />

The materials used in special constructions,<br />

such as greenhouses, heated solaria, hotbeds must<br />

be easy to exploit, economic, durable and to<br />

respond to an increased photoselectivity.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This work was cofinanced from the European<br />

Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme<br />

Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project<br />

number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 ,,Postdoctoral<br />

Schoole in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area”<br />

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Abstract<br />

351<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

A PEDO-TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR PREDICTING THE PHYSICAL<br />

QUALITY OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS<br />

Olga VIZITIU 1 , Irina CALCIU 1 , Cătălin SIMOTA 1 , Ioana PĂNOIU 1 , Alexandrina MANEA 1<br />

e-mail: olga_gate@yahoo.com<br />

Pedo-transfer functions are mathematical equations that use basic features describing the soil (e.g. particle size<br />

distribution, bulk density, organic matter content) in order to predict other properties the values of which are not<br />

otherwise available. To predict the physical quality of agricultural soils a pedo-transfer function that uses basic soil<br />

properties (e.g. particle size distribution, dry bulk density, organic matter content) was produced. Evaluation of the soil<br />

physical quality was done by using the S index values. S is a measure of soil structure which controls many of the<br />

physical properties of soils. S index was calculated after using the Arya-Paris model in order to obtain the parameters<br />

from van Genuchten equation that describe the water retention properties of soils. Data analysis from 1923 soil horizons<br />

showed that the S index can be predicted by a single equation from basic soil features, such as clay contents and dry<br />

bulk density values that were taken as independent data variables. A statistically significant multiple linear regression<br />

equation was found and proposed as pedo-transfer function for prediction of the soil physical quality index, S (r 2 = 0.41;<br />

p < 0.0001). Pedo-transfer functions are useful solutions for investigation of different aspects of the physical quality of<br />

agricultural soils that do not have readily-available measured data.<br />

Key words: (pedo-transfer function, S index, soil water retention curve)<br />

A pedo-transfer function (PTF) is a function<br />

that uses basic features describing the soil (e.g.<br />

particle size distribution, bulk density and water<br />

content) in order to predict other properties the<br />

values of which are not otherwise available. Pedotransfer<br />

functions were defined by Grunwald et al.<br />

(2001) as mathematical equations that describe the<br />

relationship between the input and the output of a<br />

system in terms of the transfer characteristics.<br />

Pedo-transfer functions are widely used for<br />

estimating soil hydraulic properties (Hodnett and<br />

Tomasella, 2002; Minasny et al., 1999; Minasny<br />

and McBratney, 2000; Rajkai et al., 1996; Wagner<br />

et al., 2001; Wösten et al., 1995, 1999). The paper<br />

by Wagner et al. (2001) reviews eight well-known<br />

pedo-transfer functions used for evaluation of soil<br />

hydraulic conductivity (saturated and unsaturated)<br />

from routinely available soil data. The statistical<br />

analysis of the pedo-transfer functions used in the<br />

above review recommended that the model of<br />

Wösten (1997) as the best for prediction of the<br />

unsaturated hydraulic conductivity because it<br />

requires an input of measured saturated hydraulic<br />

conductivity.<br />

Although the water retention characteristic is<br />

of great importance in present-day agricultural,<br />

ecological, and environmental soil research, it is<br />

not a readily-available soil property (Cornelis et<br />

al., 2001). The main reason is that its measurement<br />

is time consuming and therefore rather costly, so<br />

there is a continued interest in the establishment of<br />

pedo-transfer functions. Therefore, models have<br />

been developed to predict the water retention<br />

characteristics from more easily measurable and<br />

more readily-available soil properties, such as<br />

particle size distribution, organic matter content<br />

and dry bulk density (Arya and Paris, 1981;<br />

Cornelis et al., 2001).<br />

In the literature various scientists (e.g.<br />

Minasny et al., 1999) presented a comparison<br />

between different approaches to the development<br />

of PTFs for soil water retention properties. For<br />

instance, Minasny et al. (1999) divided the PTFs<br />

into three groups: i) point estimation – certain<br />

points from the soil water retention curve can be<br />

estimated (e.g. field capacity, permanent wilting<br />

point); ii) parametric estimation – the relationship<br />

between volumetric soil water content θ and<br />

pressure head h is described by closed-form<br />

equation; and iii) physico-empirical models – soil<br />

water retention curve is derived from physical<br />

attributes. Also, Minasny et al. (1999) stated that<br />

three different methods were used to fit the PTFs<br />

for soil water retention curve, namely: multiple<br />

linear regression, extended nonlinear regression<br />

and artificial neural network.<br />

1 National Research and Development Institute for Soil Science, Agrochemistry and Environment - ICPA, Bucharest

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

On the other hand, the concept of soil<br />

physical quality is not a new concept. Early<br />

scientific interest has pointed out the importance of<br />

soil physical environment for plant growth and for<br />

chemical and biological soil conditions.<br />

It was introduced recently an index for the<br />

overall soil physical quality evaluation (Dexter,<br />

2004), S, which was obtained from the soil water<br />

retention curve measurements and is defined as the<br />

slope of the water retention curve at its inflection<br />

point. S can be determined either directly from the<br />

soil water retention curve or indirectly can be fitted<br />

into a mathematical function and the slope at the<br />

inflection point can be calculated from the<br />

estimates of the parameters of the used function. In<br />

the present study the parameters of the van<br />

Genuchten (1980) equation were used.<br />

The main goal of the work presented in this<br />

paper was to produce a pedo-transfer function for<br />

predicting the physical quality of romanian<br />

agricultural soils as quantified by the S index.<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

Particle size distribution, organic matter<br />

content, dry bulk density data used in the present<br />

study were obtained by authors from the ICPA soil<br />

database (Monitoring the Quality Status of<br />

Romanian Soils). Data from 22 out of 41 counties<br />

were used, which means that 1923 soil horizons<br />

were analyzed in the present study. Because of the<br />

very large number of the primary results for soil<br />

properties we shall not present them in the present<br />

paper.<br />

The soil physical quality index, S, is a<br />

measure of soil structure which controls many of<br />

the physical properties of soils, and it was<br />

calculated using the Arya-Paris (1981) model that<br />

estimates the parameters from van Genuchten<br />

(1980) equation. This model is based on the<br />

analogy between the soil water retention curve and<br />

the cumulative curve of distribution by size of soil<br />

particles, and it was applied to evaluate pairs of θ<br />

(soil water content) - ψ (matric potential). The<br />

methodology by which the Arya-Paris model was<br />

applied in order to obtain the estimated parameters<br />

from van Genuchten equation in briefly is<br />

presented in the following paragraphs.<br />

Arya-Paris model divides the cumulative<br />

distribution curve by size of soil particles in n<br />

fractions as defined by the average particle radius.<br />

Capillaries volume and their associated radius is<br />

calculated for each fraction using the equation:<br />

Vi = (Wi / ρp) · e i = 1 … n (1)<br />

where Vi is the volume of capillaries (per<br />

unit mass of sample) associated to the particles<br />

from class i, Wi is the mass of particles from class i<br />

352<br />

relative to the total mass of the sample, p the<br />

particle density and e is the pore index.<br />

Volumetric water content is obtained by<br />

progressive accumulation of the volume of<br />

capillaries and their division to soil bulk density<br />

(assumed equal for all fractions):<br />

<br />

j iV<br />

j<br />

i<br />

i = 1, 2, ... , n (2)<br />

j1Vb where i is the water content (as volume<br />

base) represented by the volume of capillaries for<br />

which the upper limit of capillary radius<br />

corresponds to the upper limit associated to the i<br />

class of pores, Vb is the volume of soil sample<br />

(=1/b, where b is the bulk density of the<br />

undisturbed soil sample).<br />

Assuming that the solid mass of soil from<br />

domain of i particles is composed from spherical<br />

particles of the same size, the relationship between<br />

the radius of capillaries associated with this class<br />

of particles and the particle size is:<br />

1 <br />

4eni r i Ri<br />

(3)<br />

6<br />

where ri is the radius of capillaries, and Ri is the<br />

mean size of particles.<br />

The radius of capillaries is converted to<br />

matric potential by using the Jurin law:<br />

2<br />

i (4)<br />

gr<br />

w<br />

i<br />

where i is the capillary water pressure, is<br />

the superficial tension, w is the water density and<br />

g is gravitational acceleration.<br />

The parameter introduced by Arya and<br />

Paris is an effective way to assess the length of<br />

capillaries in natural soils using as a measure<br />

spherical particles associated with the class in<br />

which was divided the solid fraction of soil. In the<br />

original version of the model the parameter value<br />

was 1.38 for all soils tested.<br />

In a further approach, Tyler and Wheatcraft<br />

(1989, 1990, 1992) associated the parameter<br />

with the fractal dimension of pore space, based on<br />

observation that the capillary length increases with<br />

decreasing of the size of associated solid soil<br />

particles. It was considered that the parameter is<br />

influenced by fractal like mechanisms associated to<br />

the water retention in soil at low levels of water<br />

content.<br />

In this way it can be considered as the value<br />

of fractal dimension of soil the parameter value<br />

calculated by equalizing the water content<br />

determined by the Arya-Paris model corresponding<br />

to 15 bar matric potential with the experimentally<br />

measured value (Mitscherlich hygroscopicity<br />

coefficient).

Arya-Paris model with the α values<br />

calculated by the previous method was applied to<br />

evaluate pairs of θ (soil water content) - ψ (matric<br />

potential).<br />

It was then used the van Genuchten equation<br />

for estimation of the soil water retention curve in<br />

the analyzed soils:<br />

<br />

<br />

n m<br />

res<br />

sat res 1 h <br />

(5)<br />

with the Mualem (1976) restriction, m = 1 –<br />

1/n, and where the variables have their usual<br />

meanings (θ is the water content at the suction h,<br />

θsat is the water content at saturation, θres is the<br />

residual water content, α is adjustable scaling<br />

factor, n, m are adjustable shape factors).<br />

The van Genuchten equation was later used<br />

to assess the index S for soil physical quality<br />

(Dexter, 2004):<br />

1 <br />

2<br />

<br />

2n<br />

1<br />

n<br />

S n<br />

sat <br />

res <br />

<br />

(6)<br />

n 1<br />

<br />

where the various terms are as defined in<br />

equation (5).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Pedo-transfer functions are mathematical<br />

equations that use basic features describing the soil<br />

(e.g. particle size distribution, bulk density, organic<br />

matter content) in order to predict other properties<br />

the values of which are not otherwise available.<br />

Pedo-transfer functions are useful solutions<br />

when scientists investigate different aspects of the<br />

physical quality of soils and do not have readilyavailable<br />

measured data. Having this aspect in<br />

mind, we attempted to find a direct relationship<br />

between the S index and some basic physical<br />

characteristics which are usually measured in most<br />

soil physics laboratories.<br />

Study of soil physical quality, like S index,<br />

play an important role in the overall assessment of<br />

agricultural soils. However, its measurement may<br />

be for some laboratories difficult and expensive.<br />

Pedotransfer functions provide an easy alternative<br />

by estimating this parameter from more readilyavailable<br />

soil data.<br />

Therefore, the use of Arya-Paris model,<br />

based on particle size distribution data, for<br />

estimation of soil water retention curve represents<br />

a better alternative. Particle size distribution data<br />

characterizes reasonably well the spatial variability<br />

of the soil water retention curve. In addition,<br />

calculations of particle size distribution<br />

measurements are much easier and their<br />

determination is less time-consuming as compared<br />

with soil water retention measurements.<br />

353<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

The van Genuchten parameters obtained<br />

after the Arya-Paris model was applied, were used<br />

to calculate the values of S index by using the<br />

equation (6). After this operation was completed,<br />

the next step of our investigations was to produce a<br />

pedo-transfer function for estimation of soil<br />

physical quality index, S. For this clay contents<br />

and dry bulk density values were taken as<br />

independent data variables. Also the random<br />

numbers method was chosen to divide the<br />

measured data into two sets. One set of data was<br />

used to produce the PTF multiple linear regression<br />

equation, the second set of data was used to test<br />

and evaluate the PTF equation. In this way, an<br />

independent data set for testing the PTF equation<br />

was used. This was possible because we analyzed<br />

1923 soil horizons, which gave us enough S values<br />

that were later divided into two data sets. A set of<br />

500 values randomly selected for S were used to<br />

produce the PTF, while the remaining set of 1423<br />

values was later used to evaluate the PTF.<br />

The multiple linear regression equation<br />

found and proposed that it can be used as a pedotransfer<br />

function for prediction of the soil physical<br />

quality, S, is as follows:<br />

log(Spredict.)= –0.634–0.339log(clay)+0.962log(1/ρ)<br />

(±0.022) (±0.013) (±0.041)<br />

r 2 = 0.41; p < 0.0001<br />

Although the correlation coefficient is not<br />

high (r 2 =0.41), the regression equation proposed as<br />

pedo-transfer function is statistically significant<br />

(p

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

log (Spredicted)<br />

-1.8<br />

-1.6<br />

-1.4<br />

-1.2<br />

-1.0<br />

-0.8<br />

-0.6<br />

-0.6<br />

-0.8<br />

-1<br />

-1.2<br />

log (S calculated)<br />

Figure 1 Plots of predicted versus calculated<br />

log (S) values. The black squares represent the<br />

predicted log (S) values with the PTF function from<br />

above equation. The 1:1 black line represents the<br />

calculated log (S) values with Arya-Paris model and<br />

van Genuchten equation.<br />

Since the soil physical quality index, S, is a<br />

measure that enables different soils and the effects<br />

of different management practices to be compared<br />

directly (Dexter, 2004, Vizitiu et al., 2010),<br />

prediction of S using pedotransfer functions is an<br />

important aspect studied in this investigation.<br />

Nevertheless, it must be emphasized that S is only<br />

one method of quantifying soil physical quality,<br />

and is only one of the several factors that need to<br />

be addressed when evaluating agricultural soils.<br />

-1.4<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Soil physical quality index, S, may be easily<br />

predicted from basic soil properties, such as clay<br />

contents and dry bulk denstity values. It was found<br />

that there is a significant correlation between these<br />

properties and S index.<br />

A pedo-transfer function was developed for<br />

prediction of the soil physical quality index, S.<br />

Pedo-transfer functions are useful solutions for<br />

investigation of different aspects of the physical<br />

quality of agricultural soils that do not have<br />

readily-available measured data.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Arya, L.M. and Paris, J.F., 1981. A physico-empirical<br />

model to predict the soil moisture characteristic<br />

from particle size distribution and bulk density<br />

data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 45: p. 1023-1030.<br />

Cornelis, W.M., Ronsyn, J., Van Meirvenne, M.,<br />

Hartmann, R., 2001. Evaluation of pedotransfer<br />

functions for predicting the soil moisture retention<br />

curve. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 65: p. 638-648.<br />

Dexter, A. R., 2004. Soil physical quality: Part I. Theory,<br />

effects of soil texture, density and organic matter,<br />

and effects on root growth. Geoderma, vol. 120:<br />

p. 201-214.<br />

Grunwald, S., Rooney, D.J., McSweeney, K. and<br />

Lowery, B., 2001. Development of pedotransfer<br />

-1.6<br />

-1.8<br />

354<br />

functions for a profile cone penetrometer.<br />

Geoderma, vol. 100: p. 25-47.<br />

Hodnett, M.G. and Tomasella, J., 2002. Marked<br />

differences between van Genuchten soil waterretention<br />

parameters for temperate and tropical<br />

soils: a new water-retention pedo-transfer<br />

functions developed for tropical soils. Geoderma,<br />

vol. 108: p. 155-180.<br />

Minasny, B. and McBratney, A.B., 2000. Evaluation<br />

and development of hydraulic conductivity<br />

pedotransfer functions for Australian soil. Aust. J.<br />

Soil Res. , vol. 38: p. 905-926.<br />

Minasny, B., McBratney, A.B. and Bristow, K.L.,<br />

1999. Comparison of different approaches to the<br />

development of pedotransfer functions for waterretention<br />

curves. Geoderma, vol. 93: p. 225-253.<br />

Mualem, Y., 1976. A new model for predicting the<br />

hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous<br />

media. Water Resources Res. , vol. 12: p. 513-<br />

522.<br />

Rajkai, K., Kabos, S., van Genuchten, M.Th. and<br />

Jansson, P.E., 1996. Estimation of waterretention<br />

characteristics from the bulk density and<br />

particle-size distribution of Swedish soils. Soil<br />

Sci. , vol. 161: p. 832-845.<br />

Tyler, S. and Wheatcraft, S. (1989). Application of<br />

fractal mathematics to soil water retention<br />

estimation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 53, p. 987-<br />

996.<br />

Tyler, S. and Wheatcraft, S. (1990). Fractal processes<br />

in soil water retention. Water Resources<br />

Research, vol. 26(5): p. 1047-1054.<br />

Tyler, S. and Wheatcraft, S. (1992). Fractal aspects of<br />

soil porosity. p.53-63. In M. Th. van Genuchten et<br />

al. (eds.) Proc. Int. Worksh. on Indirect Methods<br />

of Estimating the Hydraulic Properties of<br />

Unsaturated Soils. Univ. of California, Riverside.<br />

11-13 Oct. 1989. U.S. Salinity Lab. And Dep. Soil<br />

and Envir. Sci., Riverside, CA.<br />

van Genuchten, M. Th., 1980. A closed-form<br />

expression for predicting the hydraulic<br />

conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc.<br />

Am. J. , vol. 44: p. 892-898.<br />

Vizitiu, Olga, Czyż, Ewa and Dexter, A.R., 2010. Soil<br />

physical quality – theory and applications for<br />

arable soils. Ed. SITECH, Craiova, ISBN: 978-<br />

606-11-0844-2.<br />

Wagner, B., Tarnawski, V.R., Hennings, V., Müller, U.,<br />

Wessolek, G. and Plagge, R., 2001. Evaluation<br />

of pedo-transfer functions for unsaturated soil<br />

hydraulic conductivity using an independent data<br />

set. Geoderma, vol. 102: p. 275-297.<br />

Wösten, J.H.M., 1997. Pedotransfer functions to<br />

evaluate soil quality. In: E.G. Gregorich and M.R.<br />

Carter (Eds.), Soil Quality for Crop Production<br />

and Ecosystem Health. Developments in Soil<br />

Science, vol. 25, Elsevier, p. 221-245.<br />

Wösten, J.H.M., Finke, P.A. and Jansen, M.J.W.,<br />

1995. Comparison of class and continuous<br />

pedotransfer functions to generate soil hydraulic<br />

characteristics. Geoderma, vol. 66: p. 227-237.<br />

Wösten, J.H.M., Lilly, A., Nemes, A. and Le Bas, C.,<br />

1999. Development and use of a database of<br />

hydraulic properties of European soils.<br />

Geoderma, vol. 90: p. 169-185.

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<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

ASPECTS CONCERNING THE PREDICTING POSSIBILITY OF ROSE WINES<br />

CHROMATIC PARAMETERS ON THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF MUSTS<br />

Cătălin-Ioan ZAMFIR 1 , Gheorghe ODĂGERIU 1 , Valeriu V. COTEA 1<br />

e-mail: czamfir@uaiasi.ro<br />

Abstract<br />

Wine color standardization is a difficult but important problem can be solved by proper quantification of important<br />

issues, from the conditions of cultivation of vines and ending with way of selling the wine. In this study we have<br />

applied multiple regression analysis to achieve mathematical models to assess the CIE Lab parameters - 76 of wines<br />

based on chromatic parameters, total phenolic content and anthocyanins of musts, which are well known and easy to<br />

calculate. All these variables were measured at 13 rosé wines obtained by prefermentative maceration technology of<br />

two red grape varieties Băbească neagră şi Fetească neagră. We obtained two mathematical models for predicting the<br />

CIE Lab - 76 parameters that have small standard errors, first using only the L, a, b, C, H° parameters as independent<br />

variables, and the second using the total phenolic and anthocyanin content values determined by spectrophotometry.<br />

These models can be useful in wineries, especially in moments during winemaking, specifically to achieve rosé and red<br />

wines to determine the optimal timing of closing of the grape prefermentative maceration or maceration-fermentation<br />

process, resulting less technology interventions and ensure wines colour constancy from year to year.<br />

Key words: absorption spectra; chromatic parameters; rose wines; wine colour.<br />

Anthocyans are pigments of red, blue and<br />

purple colours, mainly occurring in cellular<br />

vacuoles of grape skin. Anthocyans are important<br />

compounds for characterization of red grape<br />

varieties; they are chemical markers in<br />

distinguishing varietal red wines (Zamfir C.I. et al,<br />

2008). It is known that the mutual relations of<br />

anthocyans (the anthocyans profile) belongs to the<br />

vine variety, even though their absolute content in<br />

ripe grapes varies a lot and depends on factors that<br />

concern the climatic factors, such as intensity of<br />

light and temperature (Odăgeriu Gh. et al, 2008).<br />

Although the wine anthocyans composition is<br />

firstly determined by the genetic factor of the grape<br />

sort, the vinification parameters also have an<br />

important impact. It was shown that the maceration<br />

parameters have a significant influence on<br />

extraction of anthocyans from grape skins (Zamfir<br />

C.I. et al, 2009). The conditions of maceration,<br />

fermentation and maturation of wine influence the<br />

anthocyans composition, which is very significant,<br />

because the total concentration and composition of<br />

total phenolic compounds and anthocyans<br />

determine the colour of roze and red wines (Cotea<br />

V.V. et al, 2007).<br />

Fetească neagră and Băbească neagră are<br />

Romanian local red varieties of Vitis silvestris,<br />

which acquires his superior quality in the Iaşi<br />

vineyard where wines with a protected geographic<br />

1 USAMV Iasi<br />

origin are produced. These grape varieties are very<br />

important for production of high-quality roze and<br />

red wines.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The experiments were done during<br />

September 2011 – March 2012, at the Oenology<br />

Laboratory of the University of Agricultural Studies<br />

and Veterinary Medicine “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”<br />

Iasi.<br />

We used Băbească neagră and Fetească<br />

neagră grapes, harvested on September 29, 2011<br />

from Iaşi vineyard, wine center Bucium. Was<br />

harvested about 1200 kg of grapes. Harvesting<br />

was performed manually in plastic crates of 18 kg<br />

capacity, ensuring intact transport of grapes in the<br />

wine center. After conducting qualitative and<br />

quantitative reception of the grapes, they were<br />

destemming without crushing, then the whole marc<br />

was divided, resulting eight experimental variants<br />

from Băbească neagră grape variety and five<br />

experimental variants from Fetească neagră grape<br />

variety, same as all quantitative and qualitative<br />

both.<br />

Variant 1: Băbească neagră rose 0 hour. At<br />

this variant, the gravity drain must was extracted<br />

immediately without pressing the marc. After that,<br />

the must was transferred into classic glass vessels<br />

of 50L, to complete its alcoholic fermentation, were<br />

added fermentation activators Nutristart about 30<br />

g/hL and selected yeasts Saccharomyces

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

cerevisiae X16 from Laffort ® about 25 g/hL,<br />

activated as prescribed by the manufacturer<br />

protocols.<br />

Variants 2-8: Băbească neagră rose 3 ½<br />

hours, 7 hours, 10 ½ hours, 14 hours, 17 ½ hours,<br />

21 hours and 24 ½ hours. These variants were<br />

executed properly prefermentative maceration<br />

process in the periods listed above, then the<br />

gravity drain must being subjected wine<br />

technological procedures to those applied to<br />

variant 1.<br />

Variant 9: Fetească neagră rose 0 hour. At<br />

this option must was obtained by pressing whole<br />

mass of marc immediately after obtaining it, in<br />

order to highlight the possible effect of pressing<br />

process to the rose wines colour, compared with<br />

variants made without pressing from Băbească<br />

neagră grape variety. After that, the must was<br />

transferred into classic glass vessels of 50L, to<br />

complete its alcoholic fermentation, were added<br />

fermentation activators Nutristart about 30 g/hL<br />

and selected yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae<br />

X16 from Laffort ® about 25 g/hL, activated as<br />

prescribed by the manufacturer protocols.<br />

Variants 10 to 13: Fetească neagră rose ½<br />

hour, 1 hour, 1 ½ hours and 2 hours. These<br />

variants were executed properly prefermentative<br />

maceration process in the periods listed above,<br />

then the pressing must being subjected wine<br />

technological procedures to those applied to<br />

variant 1.<br />

Every marc variant was stirred vigorously for<br />

five minutes every hour throughout the<br />

prefermentativ process. After alcoholic<br />

fermentation the wine was drawn from the storage,<br />

were properly conditioned and bottled in glass<br />

recipients of 0.75L.<br />

Five samples were taken of each must and<br />

wine, which have been subsequently analysed<br />

from the point of view of total anthocyanins content<br />

(ANTH.), total phenolic compounds content<br />

(T.P.C.) and chromatic parameters (L, a, b, C, H°).<br />

Chromatic parameters of the analysed must<br />

and wine samples were calculated according to<br />

CIE Lab 76 method, taking into consideration the<br />

registered absorption spectrum for each variant<br />

studied (Odăgeriu Gh. et al., 2008; Zamfir C.I. et<br />

al., 2008; Zamfir C.I., 2009). A Specord S200<br />

spectrometer and calculator were used. An<br />

automated registration and classification of<br />

absorption spectrums was copied in a file. To<br />

minimize analysis errors when determining<br />

absorbencies, specific vials were used, with an<br />

optical characteristic of 1.0 cm. The spectres were<br />

processed with a soft realised within the research<br />

group, for obtaining the chromatic parameters (L,<br />

a, b, C, H°), colour intensity (I) and hue (N).<br />

The colour differences were also calculated<br />

with the ΔE 2000 formula.<br />

356<br />

It was considered that, for values of ΔE<br />

smaller that the unity, the colours of two wines are<br />

seen as identical, or otherwise said, they cannot<br />

be sensorial differentiated.<br />

Statistical analysis was performed using<br />

Statgraphics Centurion XVI ® software. In this study<br />

we have applied multiple regression analysis to<br />

achieve mathematical models to assess the CIE<br />

Lab parameters - 76 of wines based on chromatic<br />

parameters, total phenolic content and<br />

anthocyanins of musts, which are well known and<br />

easy to calculate. The Multiple Regression<br />

procedure is designed to construct a statistical<br />

model describing the impact of a two or more<br />

quantitative factors X on a dependent variable Y.<br />

The procedure includes an option to perform a<br />

stepwise regression, in which a subset of the X<br />

variables is selected. The fitted model may be<br />

used to make predictions, including confidence<br />

limits and/or prediction limits.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

The mean concentrations of total phenolic<br />

compounds and anthocyanins analyzed at musts<br />

and wines obtained shows an upward trend due to<br />

various prefermentative maceration period used in<br />

obtaining experimental variants (tab. 1). As can be<br />

seen from these tables, appreciable differences<br />

between the values of total phenolic content and<br />

anthocyanin compounds in musts from wine<br />

produced, values downwards (tab. 1).<br />

Regarding their chromatic parameters values<br />

are listed in the following tables and parameters<br />

obtained from the two multiple regression tests and<br />

computerized simulation of colour on their musts<br />

and wines (tab. 2, 3, 4, 5).<br />

In the case of the first test of multiple<br />

regression that took into account only the<br />

chromatic parameters of musts (LMUSTS, aMUSTS,<br />

bMUSTS, CMUSTS, H°MUSTS) were generated following<br />

mathematical models:<br />

L’WINE = -42.9473 + 0.154586*LMUSTS +<br />

6.25866*aMUSTS + 0.709856*bMUSTS -<br />

5.29799*CMUSTS + 3.09732*H°MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0,0000 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 97.23% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 97.23% of the<br />

variability in L’WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 95.24%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 1.78. This value can be used to<br />

construct prediction limits for new observations.

a’WINE = 302.754 + 0.147657*LMUSTS -<br />

14.6501*aMUSTS + 1.01791*bMUSTS +<br />

11.6375*CMUSTS - 8.46051*H°MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0011 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 91.78% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 91.78% of the<br />

variability in a’WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 85.91%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 3.88.<br />

b’WINE = -38.7997 - 0.241112*LMUSTS +<br />

0.412665*aMUSTS - 2.20821*bMUSTS +<br />

0.630434*CMUSTS + 1.91495*H°MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0008 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 92.53% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 92.63% of the<br />

variability in b’WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 87.36%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 0.92.<br />

C’WINE = 225.266 + 0.00133472*LMUSTS -<br />

14.2365*aMUSTS - 2.33115*bMUSTS +<br />

13.0808*CMUSTS - 5.90998*H°MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0019 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 90.36% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 90.36% of the<br />

variability in C’WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 83.48%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 3.56.<br />

H°’WINE = -396.862 - 0.857994*LMUSTS +<br />

12.6249*aMUSTS - 10.1256*bMUSTS - 6.02412*CMUSTS<br />

+ 14.5476*H°MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0007 from ANOVA<br />

table is less than 0.05, there is a statistically<br />

significant relationship between the variables at the<br />

95.0% confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 92.97% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 92.97% of the<br />

variability in H°’WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 87.95%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 6.14.<br />

Generated parameters under these<br />

mathematical models, calculating color differences<br />

between them and the actual values and the wine<br />

color computer simulation are shown in Tables 2<br />

and 4 (tab. 2, 4).<br />

357<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

It can be seen that for these first<br />

mathematical models, the estimates for Băbească<br />

neagră variety wines have won 3 of 8 values less<br />

than unity when calculating color differences ΔE<br />

2000 formula, which means that the estimated<br />

parameters can give senzorial identical wines to<br />

those in reality obtained.<br />

The estimates made for Fetească neagră<br />

variety wines have won 2 of the 5 values lower<br />

than unity when calculating color differences ΔE<br />

2000 formula, the other three being slightly larger<br />

than unity.<br />

In the second situation in which was taken account<br />

of seven independent variables (LMUSTS, aMUSTS,<br />

bMUSTS, CMUSTS, H°MUSTS, T.P.C.MUSTS, ANTH.MUSTS)<br />

were generated following mathematical models:<br />

L”WINE = -10.0052 + 0.0707419*LMUSTS +<br />

3.58468*aMUSTS - 1.11932*bMUSTS - 2.13823*CMUSTS<br />

+ 2.52438*H°MUSTS - 0.0023052*T.P.C.MUSTS -<br />

0.061813*ANTH.MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0008 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 97.78% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 97.78% of the<br />

variability in L”WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 94.67%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 1.89.<br />

a”WINE = 222.429 - 0.115124*LMUSTS - 6.75594*<br />

aMUSTS + 2.83362* bMUSTS + 3.58989* CMUSTS -<br />

5.13238* H°MUSTS - 0.0735046* T.P.C.MUSTS +<br />

0.115393* ANTH.MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0047 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 95.32% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 95.32% of the<br />

variability in a”WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statisticis 88.77%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 3.46.<br />

b”WINE = -58.932 - 0.066982* LMUSTS + 1.68545*<br />

aMUSTS - 0.394774* bMUSTS - 1.2104* CMUSTS +<br />

1.75717* H°MUSTS + 0.0222205* T.P.C.MUSTS +<br />

0.0470683* ANTH.MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0016 from ANOVA<br />

is less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 97.04% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 97.04% of the<br />

variability in b”WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 92.90%. The standard error of the

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 0.69.<br />

C”WINE = 145.952 - 0.218312* LMUSTS - 6.55886*<br />

aMUSTS - 0.312852* bMUSTS + 5.16362* CMUSTS -<br />

2.78834* H°MUSTS - 0.0658346* T.P.C.MUSTS +<br />

0.116953* ANTH.MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0061 from ANOVA is<br />

less than 0.05, there is a statistically significant<br />

relationship between the variables at the 95.0%<br />

confidence level.<br />

The R-Squared statistic = 94.80% indicates<br />

that the model as fitted explains 94.80% of the<br />

variability in C”WINE. The adjusted R-squared<br />

statistic is 87.52%. The standard error of the<br />

estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 3.09.<br />

H°”WINE = -336.334 - 0.1234* LMUSTS + 5.09838*<br />

aMUSTS - 8.45674* bMUSTS + 0.434033* CMUSTS +<br />

9.82196* H°MUSTS + 0.14626* T.P.C.MUSTS -<br />

0.0463808* ANTH.MUSTS<br />

Since the P-value = 0.0044 from ANOVA<br />

table is less than 0.05, there is a statistically<br />

significant relationship between the variables at the<br />

358<br />

95.0% confidence level. The R-Squared statistic =<br />

95.45% indicates that the model as fitted explains<br />

95.45% of the variability in H°”WINE. The adjusted<br />

R-squared statistic is 89.086%. The standard error<br />

of the estimate shows the standard deviation of the<br />

residuals to be 5.85.<br />

Generated parameters under these<br />

mathematical models, calculating color differences<br />

between them and the actual values and the wine<br />

color computer simulation are shown in Tables 3<br />

and 5 (tab. 3, 5).<br />

It can be seen that in these last mathematical<br />

models, the estimates for Băbească neagră variety<br />

wines have won 5 of 8 values less than unity when<br />

calculating color differences ΔE 2000 formula,<br />

which means that the estimated parameters can<br />

give senzorial identical wines to those in reality<br />

obtained. The estimates made for Fetească neagră<br />

variety wines have won 3 of the 5 values lower<br />

than unity when calculating color differences ΔE<br />

2000 formula, the other two being slightly larger<br />

than unity.<br />

Table 1<br />

The mean values of total phenolic compounds and anthocyanins content at the must and wines studied from<br />

No. Samples<br />

Băbească neagră (B.N.) and Fetească neagră (F.N.) grape varieties<br />

AVERAGE AVERAGE Δ ANTH.<br />

AVERAGE T.P.C. AVERAGE T.P.C. ±<br />

Δ T.P.C. MUST- ANTH. ± ANTH. ± MUST-<br />

± STDEVP MUST STDEVP WINE<br />

WINE (mg/L) STDEVP MUST STDEVP WINE WINE<br />

(mg/L)<br />

(mg/L)<br />

(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)<br />

1 Sample B.N. V1 144.43 ± 0.83 122.59 ± 2.24 21.84 23.14 ± 0.43 8.66 ± 0.20 14.48<br />

2 Sample B.N. V2 157.40 ± 1.05 143.05 ± 0.75 14.35 52.85 ± 0.33 34.33 ± 0.56 18.52<br />

3 Sample B.N. V3 160.95 ± 0.93 158.28 ± 0.57 2.67 92.37 ± 0.20 55.35 ± 1.14 37.02<br />

4 Sample B.N. V4 261.85 ± 4.68 211.04 ± 1.18 50.81 124.34 ± 0.65 66.84 ± 3.63 57.51<br />

5 Sample B.N. V5 296.93 ± 1.49 224.55 ± 1.01 72.39 157.22 ± 0.35 79.64 ± 3.24 77.58<br />

6 Sample B.N. V6 328.20 ± 2.29 236.04 ± 1.84 92.16 179.75 ± 0.66 100.95 ± 5.16 78.80<br />

7 Sample B.N. V7 337.52 ± 2.22 247.55 ± 0.42 89.97 187.75 ± 1.07 117.65 ± 4.91 70.10<br />

8 Sample B.N. V8 345.33 ± 2.28 258.73 ± 0.43 86.60 212.90 ± 0.76 127.57 ± 1.62 85.32<br />

9 Sample F.N. V9 175.83 ± 1.48 97.91 ± 0.58 77.92 20.07 ± 0.03 0.20 ± 0.09 19.86<br />

10 Sample F.N. V10 198.94 ± 1.41 133.07 ± 0.77 65.87 33.64 ± 0.77 6.50 ± 0.10 27.15<br />

11 Sample F.N. V11 228.15 ± 2.12 165.69 ± 0.78 62.46 42.77 ± 0.44 18.21 ± 0.16 24.55<br />

12 Sample F.N. V12 256.11 ± 2.22 176.57 ± 1.11 79.53 65.59 ± 0.24 26.27 ± 0.45 39.33<br />

13 Sample F.N. V13 278.77 ± 2.51 180.60 ± 1.12 98.17 83.08 ± 0.32 27.82 ± 0.72 55.26<br />

Table 2<br />

The mean values of chromatic parameters of the analysed must and wine samples from Băbească neagră grape<br />

varieties calculated according to CIE Lab 76 method and chromatic parameters values estimated from the L, a,<br />

b, C, H° values of musts using first mathematical model obtained by applying multiple regression<br />

No. Sample L a b C H°<br />

Intensity Tint Comput. colour simulation<br />

ΔE V – V ' est.<br />

1 Must B.N. V1 71.69 24.50 20.70 32.08 40.19 1.32 1.08<br />

2 Must B.N. V2 38.78 33.60 29.91 44.98 41.67 3.61 1.13<br />

3 Must B.N. V3 30.04 36.53 26.86 45.34 36.32 4.41 0.99<br />

4 Must B.N. V4 24.29 38.30 26.00 46.29 34.17 5.17 0.89<br />

5 Must B.N. V5 16.79 35.10 22.77 41.83 32.97 6.25 0.89<br />

6 Must B.N. V6 13.40 33.86 19.29 38.97 29.67 6.91 0.84<br />

7 Must B.N. V7 13.26 34.62 19.23 39.60 29.05 6.94 0.84<br />

8 Must B.N. V8 11.71 34.08 17.85 38.47 27.65 7.40 0.84

9 Roze Wine B.N. V1 90.71 8.41 5.41 10.00 32.72 0.36 0.99<br />

10 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V1' 90.73 8.69 5.50 10.32 32.84 ΔE V1-V1' est. 0.26<br />

11 Roze Wine B.N. V2 84.81 18.78 7.45 20.2 21.65 0.59 0.85<br />

12 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V2' 85.32 17.59 7.83 19.38 26.49 ΔE V2-V2' est. 0.95<br />

13 Roze Wine B.N. V3 81.49 23.58 7.2 24.66 16.99 0.72 0.79<br />

14 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V3' 81.68 19.69 7.87 21.05 21.90 ΔE V3-V3' est. 2.38<br />

15 Roze Wine B.N. V4 79.39 19.24 9.98 21.67 27.42 0.84 1.02<br />

16 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V4' 79.55 21.33 8.35 23.01 20.79 ΔE V4-V4' est. 1.95<br />

17 Roze Wine B.N. V5 74.98 25.38 10.7 27.55 22.85 1.03 0.94<br />

18 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V5' 75.95 22.13 10.87 24.93 28.93 ΔE V5-V5' est. 1.95<br />

19 Roze Wine B.N. V6 73.11 27.09 10.74 29.15 21.63 1.11 0.93<br />

20 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V6' 70.18 30.80 10.73 32.67 20.67 ΔE V6-V6' est. 2.83<br />

21 Roze Wine B.N. V7 67.03 37.13 10.01 38.46 15.09 1.40 0.79<br />

22 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V7' 69.59 32.19 10.42 33.93 18.16 ΔE V7-V7' est. 2.93<br />

23 Roze Wine B.N. V8 66.65 35.29 10.65 36.87 16.79 1.41 0.83<br />

24 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V8' 66.64 37.18 10.22 38.33 13.04 ΔE V8-V8' est. 0.87<br />

359<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 3<br />

The mean values of chromatic parameters of the analysed wine samples from Băbească neagră grape varieties<br />

calculated according to CIE Lab 76 method and chromatic parameters values estimated from the L, a, b, C, H°,<br />

Anthocyanins and Total Phenolic Compounds values of musts using second mathematical model obtained by<br />

applying multiple regression<br />

No. Sample L a b C H°<br />

Intensity Tint<br />

ΔE V – V " est.<br />

Comput. colour<br />

simulation<br />

1 Roze Wine B.N. V1 90.71 8.41 5.41 10.00 32.72 0.36 0.99<br />

2 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V1" 90.84 8.22 5.49 9.88 33.42 ΔE V1-V1" est. 0.23<br />

3 Roze Wine B.N. V2 84.81 18.78 7.45 20.2 21.65 0.59 0.85<br />

4 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V2" 85.09 17.84 8.06 19.65 26.67 ΔE V2-V2" est. 0.85<br />

5 Roze Wine B.N. V3 81.49 23.58 7.2 24.66 16.99 0.72 0.79<br />

6 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V3" 81.67 23.45 6.89 24.44 14.78 ΔE V3-V3" est. 0.24<br />

7 Roze Wine B.N. V4 79.39 19.24 9.98 21.67 27.42 0.84 1.02<br />

8 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V4" 78.89 20.46 9.41 22.36 24.30 ΔE V4-V4" est. 1.02<br />

9 Roze Wine B.N. V5 74.98 25.38 10.7 27.55 22.85 1.03 0.94<br />

10 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V5" 74.89 25.18 11.41 27.89 26.13 ΔE V5-V5" est. 0.53<br />

11 Roze Wine B.N. V6 73.11 27.09 10.74 29.15 21.63 1.11 0.93<br />

12 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V6" 70.44 31.02 10.34 32.81 19.51 ΔE V6-V6" est. 2.80<br />

13 Roze Wine B.N. V7 67.03 37.13 10.01 38.46 15.09 1.40 0.79<br />

14 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V7" 69.78 31.43 10.39 33.20 19.09 ΔE V7-V7" est. 3.26<br />

15 Roze Wine B.N. V8 66.65 35.29 10.65 36.87 16.79 1.41 0.83<br />

16 Est. Roze Wine B.N. V8" 66.58 36.82 10.39 38.02 13.90 ΔE V8-V8" est. 0.68<br />

Table 4<br />

The mean values of chromatic parameters of the analysed must and wine samples from Fetească neagră grape<br />

varieties calculated according to CIE Lab 76 method and chromatic parameters values estimated from the L, a,<br />

b, C, H° values of musts using first mathematical model obtained by applying multiple regression<br />

No. Sample L a b C H°<br />

Intensity Tint Comput.<br />

colour<br />

ΔE V – V ' est. simulation<br />

1 Must F.N. V9 49.65 23.76 31.23 39.24 52.73 2.76 1.33<br />

2 Must F.N. V10 42.51 28.27 29.93 41.18 46.63 3.29 1.21<br />

3 Must F.N. V11 31.65 30.76 28.92 41.88 42.99 4.19 1.14<br />

4 Must F.N. V12 26.11 32.46 28.13 42.95 40.91 4.89 1.08<br />

5 Must F.N. V13 18.47 38.06 26.24 45.99 34.22 5.49 1.07<br />

6 Roze Wine F.N. V9 91.01 4.41 15.45 16.2 73.78 0.45 1.25<br />

7 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V9' 91.04 4.28 15.79 15.90 75.05 ΔE V9-V9' est. 0.29

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

8 Roze Wine F.N. V10 89.16 7.81 12.35 13.76 56.76 0.49 1.76<br />

9 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V10' 88.12 9.92 11.78 16.03 50.88 ΔE V10-V10' est. 2.42<br />

10 Roze Wine F.N. V11 85.75 10.14 11.98 15.08 49.19 0.63 1.35<br />

11 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V11' 86.23 9.98 11.11 13.80 44.47 ΔE V11-V11' est. 0.67<br />

12 Roze Wine F.N. V12 82.5 14.91 11.14 18.11 36.08 0.78 1.12<br />

13 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V12' 83.37 13.42 11.61 17.67 42.15 ΔE V12-V12' est. 1.47<br />

14 Roze Wine F.N. V13 80.9 15.39 8.03 16.9 27.13 0.80 1.27<br />

15 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V13' 79.09 20.26 9.02 21.58 22.85 ΔE V13-V13' est. 3.36<br />

Table 5<br />

The mean values of chromatic parameters of the analysed wine samples from Fetească neagră grape varieties<br />

calculated according to CIE Lab 76 method and chromatic parameters values estimated from the L, a, b, C, H°,<br />

Anthocyanins and Total Phenolic Compounds values of musts using second mathematical model obtained by<br />

applying multiple regression<br />

No. Sample L a b C H°<br />

360<br />

Intensity Tint Comput.<br />

ΔE V – V ' est.<br />

1 Roze Wine F.N. V9 91.01 4.41 15.45 16.2 73.78 0.45 1.25<br />

2 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V9'' 91.29 4.29 15.48 15.85 74.34 ΔE V9-V9'' est. 0.23<br />

3 Roze Wine F.N. V10 89.16 7.81 12.35 13.76 56.76 0.49 1.76<br />

4 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V10'' 87.99 9.07 12.17 15.28 52.87 ΔE V10-V10'' est. 1.54<br />

5 Roze Wine F.N. V11 85.75 10.14 11.98 15.08 49.19 0.63 1.35<br />

6 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V11'' 85.91 10.84 11.29 14.64 43.74 ΔE V11-V11'' est. 0.97<br />

7 Roze Wine F.N. V12 82.5 14.91 11.14 18.11 36.08 0.78 1.12<br />

8 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V12'' 83.51 12.79 11.60 17.08 42.96 ΔE V12-V12'' est. 1.97<br />

9 Roze Wine F.N. V13 80.9 15.39 8.03 16.9 27.13 0.8 1.27<br />

10 Est. Roze Wine F.N. V13'' 80.64 16.08 8.19 17.48 26.48 ΔE V13-V13'' est. 0.52<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

“This work was co financed from the European<br />

Social Fund through Sectoral Operational<br />

Programme Human Resource Development 2007-<br />

2013, project number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371<br />

“Postdoctoral School in Agriculture and Veterinary<br />

Medicine area”.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Regarding the evolution of phenolic<br />

compounds and anthocyanins content from the<br />

application of the two types of prefermentative<br />

maceration process, can say that the variant that<br />

was performed marc pressed gives wines with a<br />

higher content in phenolic compounds compared to<br />

other technologies.<br />

Of the two models tested proved that the<br />

latter is more rigorous, giving chromatic parameter<br />

values close to those rosé wines obtained from the<br />

study.<br />

From the above it can be said that these<br />

mathematical models can be used successfully in<br />

industrial oenological practice because the industry<br />

currently relies solely on available human resource<br />

experience and too little on adequate technology<br />

and knowledge that could allow the development<br />

colour<br />

simulation<br />

of rose wines steadily to maintain their quality in<br />

terms of colour.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cotea V.V., Liliana Rotaru, Nechita B., Mustea M.,<br />

Zamfir C.I., 2007 - A model of traceability<br />

system in the viticultural sector of Romania for<br />

improving food safety. XXXth OIV World<br />

Congress, Budapest, 10–16 June, Section 1.3.:<br />

Viticulture.<br />

Odăgeriu G., Niculaua M., Cotea V.V., Zamfir C.I.,<br />

Nechita B., 2008 - The variation of anthocyans<br />

profile specific to some red wines. XXXI th OIV<br />

World Congress, Verona, 15–20 June, Section P<br />

II.C 100: Oenology - Methods of analysis.<br />

Zamfir C.I., Cotea V.V., Colibaba Cintia, Niculaua M.,<br />

Chiriţă Otilia, 2008 - Study of anthocyans of<br />

Fetească neagră wines obtained by different<br />

maceration treatments. XXXI th OIV World<br />

Congress, Verona, 15–20 June, Section P II.A<br />

031: Oenology - Oenological techniques for the<br />

reinforcement of territorial and wine variety<br />

identity.<br />

Zamfir C.I., Odăgeriu G., Cotea V.V., Niculaua M.,<br />

Colibaba Cintia, Georgescu O., 2009 - Aspects<br />

Concerning the use of Chromatic Characteristics<br />

in the Differentiation and Classification of Red<br />

Wines from Local Grape Varieties. Bulletin<br />

USAMV, nr. 66 (1-2)/2009, Print ISSN 1843-<br />

5254; Electronic ISSN 1843-5394.

Abstract<br />

361<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

SCARCITY OF THE HOUSING STOCK OF THE INTER-WAR ROMANIAN<br />

VILLAGE<br />

Emilian MERCE 1 , Aurel CHIRAN 2 , Tudor SĂLĂGEAN 3<br />

e-mail: emerce@usamvcluj.ro<br />

In Romania, the archaic village was and it is ontological evoked, if not for its exclusive existence form then certainly<br />

for its admiring and preferred form. A fundamental reality that was verified in time and space has been forgotten:<br />

“many peasants, a lot of scarcity”. Committing such a mistake, Romanians ended up glorifying and venerating the<br />

bareness that the providence requites. The Romanians did not have the possibility, and consequently neither the<br />

vocation of modernizing the social structures. In 1901, the United Kingdom had only 9% of labor force in agriculture,<br />

while in Romania it is still deplored the depopulation of the villages after the Second World War, in a primitive<br />

structure with 80% peasants. At the beginning of the XVIth century, Thomas Morus said about the United Kingdom<br />

that it is the country “where the sheep eats people”. It was the time when the depopulation of the English village has<br />

occurred, with the specific shocks of any modernization, but which has transformed the United Kingdom in the first<br />

world industrialized power. The reality is that the most important modernization of the housing stock of the Romanian<br />

village took place during the communist period. Today, more than 70% of the living fund in the Romanian villages was<br />

allocated during the period of 1948-1989. However, it is not the case of the villages inhabited by Swabians and Saxons,<br />

some of the villages inhabited by Hungarians and some of the villages inhabited by Romanians, which are located in<br />

Marginimea Sibiului, from Tara Fagarasului and North Bucovina.<br />

Key words: Romanian village, housing stock, communist period, post-revolutionary period<br />

In Romania, the archaic village was and it is<br />

ontological evoked, if not for its exclusive<br />

existence form then certainly for its admiring and<br />

preferred form. A fundamental reality that was<br />

verified in time and space has been forgotten:<br />

“many peasants, a lot of scarcity” (Merce, 2011,<br />

p.32). Committing such a mistake, Romanians<br />

ended up glorifying and venerating the bareness<br />

that the providence requites: “It (the village) has<br />

been preserved untouched in the autonomy of<br />

scarce and its mythology over decades when it<br />

could become the safe base of an authentic<br />

Romanian history” (Blaga, 1937).<br />

The nostalgic projection of the Romanian<br />

village, which is in fact a primitive and scarce<br />

village, has produced a propagandistic and<br />

opportunist behavior with serious consequences on<br />

the modernization strategies adopted in Romania,<br />

inclusively among intellectuals. The Romanians<br />

did not have the possibility, and consequently<br />

neither the vocation of modernizing the social<br />

structures. In 1901, the United Kingdom had only<br />

9% of labor force in agriculture, while in Romania<br />

it is still deplored the depopulation of the villages<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania<br />

2 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, Romania<br />

3 The Ethnographical Museum of Transylvania, Cluj-Napoca, Romania<br />

after the Second World War, in a primitive<br />

structure with 80% peasants: “the abasement of not<br />

valuing the faith and the ancestors’ traditions<br />

during the communist period that led the selfisolation<br />

of the Romanian peasants and its<br />

transformation to an industrial worker” (PFP<br />

Daniel, 2011). At the beginning of the XVIth<br />

century, Thomas Morus said about the United<br />

Kingdom that it is the country “where the sheep<br />

eats people” (Ricardo, 2007). It was the time when<br />

the depopulation of the English village has<br />

occurred, with the specific shocks of any<br />

modernization, but which has transformed the<br />

United Kingdom in the first world industrialized<br />

power.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The scientific reality can be revealed only<br />

through a process of evaluating the concrete<br />

realities of the Romanian village along the history.<br />

Its indubitable ally is represented by numbers,<br />

which allow an objective scientific procedure to be<br />

followed. In this sense, the sources of information

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

are generous; the Agrarian Register of any town<br />

hall owns accurate information about the owners of<br />

the establishments and about the year of allocating<br />

them for use. Data about the housing stock were<br />

collected on a sample of 12 villages located in<br />

several geographic areas throughout the country,<br />

in total 3243 households.<br />

The index method is the main method of<br />

investigation and data analysis. The evolution of<br />

the housing stock of the Romanian village was<br />

researched on three distinct periods of time: the<br />

inter-war period (1919-1947), the communist<br />

period (1948-1989) and the post-revolutionary<br />

period (starting the year of 1990).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The statistical analysis of the data for the<br />

above mentioned periods of time, prove in an<br />

unquestionable manner that some statements about<br />

the degradation of the Romanian village during the<br />

communist period are overemphasized and have a<br />

propagandistic character. It is true that the<br />

Romanian village is still missing the basic living<br />

facilities that assure a civilized level of living;<br />

No. Village<br />

1.<br />

2.<br />

3.<br />

4.<br />

5.<br />

6.<br />

7.<br />

8.<br />

9.<br />

10.<br />

11.<br />

12.<br />

362<br />

however this handicap has deep historic roots. At<br />

the beginning of the communist regime, the<br />

peasants’ ownerships from the Romanian villages<br />

did not have even a backyard lavatory.<br />

Field researches conducted on the sample of<br />

12 villages from different areas of the country,<br />

representing 3243 establishments, based on the<br />

Agrarian Register from the town halls, lead to<br />

results that confirm the modernization of the<br />

housing stock of the Romanian villages during the<br />

communist period (Table 1).<br />

The reality is that the most important<br />

modernization of the housing stock of the<br />

Romanian village took place during the communist<br />

period. Today, more than 70% of the living fund in<br />

the Romanian villages was allocated during the<br />

period of 1948-1989. However, it is not the case of<br />

the villages inhabited by Swabians and Saxons,<br />

some of the villages inhabited by Hungarians and<br />

some of the villages inhabited by Romanians,<br />

which are located in Marginimea Sibiului, from<br />

Tara Fagarasului and North Bucovina.<br />

Evolution and structure of the housing stock of the Romanian village<br />

Period of allocating the establishment<br />

Before<br />

1947 a<br />

No. of establishments Percentage (%)<br />

1948-<br />

1989 b<br />

After<br />

1990 c<br />

Total<br />

Before<br />

1947<br />

1948-<br />

1989<br />

After<br />

1990<br />

Table 1<br />

Ghighişeni (Bihor) 16 255 44 315 5.08 80.95 13.97 100.00<br />

Valea de Jos (Bihor) 5 133 20 158 3.16 84.18 12.66 100.00<br />

Sârbeşti (Bihor) 12 111 1 124 9.68 89.52 0.81 100.00<br />

Lunca (Bihor) 17 295 32 344 4.94 85.76 9.30 100.00<br />

Cămăraşu (Cluj) 37 340 118 495 7.47 68.69 23.84 100.00<br />

Cătina (Cluj) 40 229 12 281 14.23 81.49 4.27 100.00<br />

Sâmboleni (Cluj) 25 186 46 257 9.73 72.37 17.90 100.00<br />

Mastacani (Iaşi) 11 91 16 118 9.32 77.12 13.56 100.00<br />

Hiliţa (Iaşi) 52 63 35 150 34.67 42.00 23.33 100.00<br />

Pustoaia (Botoşani) 30 162 65 257 11.67 63.04 25.29 100.00<br />

Bilca (Suceava) 112 164 55 331 33.84 49.55 16.62 100.00<br />

Cuza Vodă (Galaţi) 64 282 67 413 15.50 68.28 16.22 100.00<br />

T O T A L 421 2284 511 3243 12.98 70.43 15.76 100.00<br />

Source: Agrarian Register provided by the town halls<br />

a Inter-war period, b Communist period, c Post-revolutionary period<br />

The numbers are convincing. In general, for<br />

the whole selected sample of villages, from<br />

different geographic regions of the country, it can<br />

be noticed the fact that the housing stock is only<br />

about 13% during the inter-war period. The<br />

housing stock has been improved in the communist<br />

period, under functional aspect as well, owning<br />

70%, and about 16% after the revolution.<br />

The differences among the areas<br />

demonstrate that the Moldavia region has<br />

registered a higher percentage of the housing stock<br />

Total<br />

starting the inter-war period and continuing with<br />

the communist period when many constructions<br />

were done, and after the revolution when the<br />

number of housing constructions increased<br />

significantly. The economic boom from the<br />

communist period was less significant in the<br />

Moldavia region, region that is economically less<br />

developed, with less employees comparing with<br />

other regions, which have determined a less<br />

spectacular rhythm of the housing stock. After the<br />

revolution, Moldavia is the region with the

strongest phenomena of migration of people to<br />

West Europe and as a result, a part of the revenues<br />

was invested in new housing constructions.<br />

However, on long term, from a social point of<br />

view, such a solution leads to a loss, if not<br />

destructive, as regard to the education and<br />

development of new generations in the<br />

autochthonous economy, for the demographic<br />

future of the country.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The analysis of the situation of the<br />

Romanian village has still strong propagandistic<br />

connotations, especially, based on the unilateral<br />

analysis of the communist period.<br />

The war within the country has caused<br />

serious damages to the Romanian village as well.<br />

However, the village overcame the communist<br />

period and flourished economically, the damage<br />

being confirmed in the post-revolutionary period,<br />

through the attitude of the pleiad of naive,<br />

propagandistic and opportunistic people that act in<br />

the leading organism.<br />

It is necessary to have the lucidity and the<br />

courage to talk about the future of the country in<br />

tight concordance with the century-old<br />

characteristics of the economic and social history,<br />

to end the Romanian-Romanian war, to preserve<br />

the few economic achievements of Romania during<br />

several historical periods. Glorifying some of the<br />

historical periods and blaming other in integrum,<br />

both attitudes were lacking the realism and have<br />

prepared the terrain of mistakes during the<br />

transition period.<br />

During the transition period, the economic<br />

development and the social harmonization<br />

strategies of the country got trapped in some<br />

axioms and slogans full of false perceptions about<br />

363<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

the inter-war Romania and about the economic<br />

history of the country and of the world in general.<br />

The propagandistic actions about the future of the<br />

Romanian village during the communist period,<br />

fact confirmed by the data provided in this study<br />

represent a typical example, however not the only<br />

one, of manipulation with consequences that<br />

nowadays are more and more evident.<br />

The striking contrast between the slogans<br />

regarding the destruction of the Romanian village<br />

during the communist period and the concrete<br />

realities from the field, prove that the globalization<br />

manipulates. The spiritual status, particularly of<br />

intellectuals, is affected by censoring the<br />

consensus, in the sense that no one dares to provide<br />

an objective analysis of the development of the<br />

Romanian economy during the communist period.<br />

Moreover, it is not popular if a speech does not<br />

start with a diatribe about communism, even if the<br />

subject is not related to such an analysis.<br />

It is the time to look confident into the<br />

mirror, even if it is not a pleasant view, and to<br />

understand that an economy, a country may not be<br />

built of tales, myths and with insincere slogans.<br />

The reality of the database provided in this study,<br />

eloquently proves the situation of the Romanian<br />

village and the evolution of the housing stock<br />

during the last years of the 90’s. Implicitly, it leads<br />

also to the harmfulness created by the slogans,<br />

which have induced the false perception of<br />

destroying the Romanian village during the<br />

communist period.<br />

A series of images provided by the<br />

Ethnographical Museum of Transylvania from<br />

Cluj-Napoca (MET), Romania expressing the<br />

difficult situation of the Romanian village is<br />

brought in the attention of the reader with the aim<br />

to reveal the truth of the history (Figure 1-6).<br />

Figure 1. Hungarian shed, Cluj, 1926<br />

Source: MET

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 3. Alleyway, Poieniţa Voinii, Hunedoara, 1927,<br />

Denis Galloway<br />

Source: MET<br />

Figure 4. Peasant’s courtyard, Poieniţa Voinii,<br />

Hunedoara, 1926 (?), Denis Galloway<br />

Source: MET<br />

REFERENCES<br />

BLAGA, L., 1937 – Elogiul Satului Romanesc, Discurs<br />

de primire în Academia Română, 5 iunie 1937.<br />

MERCE, E., 2011 – Tranziţia la români; Editura<br />

Academiei Române; p. 32.<br />

Figure 2. Alleyway in winter, Meria, Hunedoara, 1926,<br />

Source: MET<br />

364<br />

Figure 5. House with birch tree, Lunca Cernii de Jos,<br />

Hunedoara, 1928, Denis Galloway<br />

Source: MET<br />

Figure 6. Village in winter, Lunca Cernii, Hunedoara,<br />

1931<br />

Source: MET<br />

Preafericitului Părinte DANIEL, 2011 - Cuvântul<br />

inaugural rostit cu ocazia primirii titlului academic<br />

de Doctor Honoris Causa din partea Universităţii<br />

Babeş Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, miercuri, 7<br />

decembrie 2011.<br />

RICARDO, D. 2007 - Economistul genial; Editura<br />

Risoprint.

Abstract<br />

365<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

IMPLICATIONS OF TRAININGS’ PARTICIPATION ON THE<br />

ENTREPRENEURSHIP<br />

Felix H. ARION 1 , Iulia C. MUREȘAN 1 , Camelia I. ALEXA 1 , Anamaria E. VÂTCĂ 1<br />

e-mail: felixarion@usamvcluj.ro<br />

The social and economic realities require effort and flexibility form entrepreneurs and managers. To deal with the new<br />

request of the labor and the challenges for starting up a business more and more are those that participate to professional<br />

training programs. This paper presents the results of a research that was done in 4 counties of Romania. The objective<br />

of the research was to determine the effects of trainings regarding entrepreneurship. The research method was the<br />

survey based on questionnaire. The results revealed the fact that the participants appreciated positively the benefits of<br />

trainings.<br />

Key words: perspectives, involvement, trainees<br />

The concept of entrepreneurship can not be<br />

separated from the science of management,<br />

especially since the implementation of practical,<br />

day-by-day, duties of entrepreneur is rigorous<br />

related to management functions. Equally,<br />

however, it is necessary to distinguish between a<br />

manager, a leader and an entrepreneur.<br />

Thus, if the manager is a person who<br />

occupies a position which gives, by its nature,<br />

hierarchical attributes to draw compulsory tasks to<br />

his subordinates (Merce, Merce and Arion, 2000),<br />

the leader is the person which has the ability to<br />

influence others to perform tasks they were<br />

assigned (Montana and Charnov, 2000). But to<br />

bring into question the very existence of the<br />

manager, there must exist that person which<br />

accepts the risk of becoming an entrepreneur, the<br />

one who organizes and runs a business (Gibson at<br />

all., 2001).<br />

Addressing the concept of entrepreneurship<br />

is difficult, given the complexity of not only its<br />

definition, but rather the extent of its coverage. It is<br />

included into the category of the entrepreneur both<br />

that person who invests huge amount of money to<br />

create an international business with thousands of<br />

employees, and the person who creates a small<br />

business, where he is the only employee. Previous<br />

researches were conducted in order to determinate<br />

the needs of the entrepreneurs and competence<br />

needed to be successful in business (Jusoh et. al.<br />

2011; Hatten 1995)<br />

1 USAMV, Cluj-Napoca<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

The subject of investigation consisted in<br />

conducting a study of impact of training courses in<br />

field of entrepreneurship on a specific target group<br />

in a selected geographic area (composed of<br />

employees, entrepreneurs, people who want to<br />

start an independent business and management of<br />

enterprises – especially SMEs and micro<br />

enterprises, residents of the 16 urban areas with<br />

more than 50,000 inhabitants of the Arges County,<br />

Bistrita-Nasaud County, Mures County and<br />

Suceava County). The research involved, also, a<br />

documented educational and socio-economic<br />

analysis regarding the efficiency of training courses<br />

on the changes in entrepreneurship and initiatives.<br />

In order to run the research, there were followed a<br />

number of secondary objectives, which, combined,<br />

provide the necessary results for the final<br />

interpretation of study conclusions:<br />

- Identification of the opportunities for<br />

development of SMEs in the productive and<br />

services sectors in the concerned geographical<br />

area;<br />

- Identification of training needs of the target<br />

group, in particular the current level of<br />

entrepreneurial skills and knowledge and the<br />

opportunities and ways of development of SMEs,<br />

micro businesses, individuals authorized to<br />

economic activities and individual and family<br />

enterprises by increasing entrepreneurial spirit and<br />

culture;<br />

- Identification of business opportunities in<br />

the 18 cities covered;

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

- Identification and involvement of potential<br />

beneficiaries of vocational courses in<br />

entrepreneurship;<br />

- Identification of opportunities for<br />

development and adaptation of training programs,<br />

advice and assistance for specific needs of the<br />

target group and the introduction of innovative<br />

activities by creating and implementing courses<br />

through e-learning platforms. The questionnaire<br />

has been selected as being the main tool for<br />

research, taking into consideration the benefits of<br />

its use (obtaining information that enables<br />

responses encryption for subsequent analysis, its<br />

relative ease of implementation etc.). The<br />

questions included into the questionnaire were<br />

prepared based on research objectives so that<br />

collected information can be the basis for the<br />

conclusions of the research discussions.<br />

Since the begining of designing the<br />

questionnaire, it was considered that its application<br />

will be made in a telephone survey by the own<br />

operators. That fact allowed the formulation of<br />

complex questions, but, through operators, they<br />

could be, in each case, adapted for the level of<br />

understanding of any respondent, knowing the<br />

relative heterogeneity of interviewees, where the<br />

language used could cause confusion and<br />

incorrect subjective interpretation. In this way,<br />

words, expressions and phrases could be<br />

understood in the same way by all interlocutors,<br />

regardless of gender or age, of their cultural level,<br />

of training or other factors which might negative<br />

interfere on the communication process.<br />

Another consideration in the formulation of<br />

questions was that they seek the answers and / or<br />

information previously known by the respondents,<br />

but also to determine honest answers, avoiding<br />

negations and double negations, to be objective<br />

and not least to awaken interest of respondents.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Of the 194 questionnaires (which<br />

represented the sample of the total target area of<br />

1608 persons, sample that was created using the<br />

random sample with continuous variable for an<br />

error limit of 2% and a probability of guarantee the<br />

results of 95%), in the area consists of 16 sites,<br />

which have been validated at the end of the survey,<br />

135 respondents were women and 59 were<br />

completed based on responses of men. According<br />

to the purpose of the research, in the sample were<br />

included young persons (the youngest being 16<br />

years old) – based on the fact that they are at the<br />

beginning of their professional development, but<br />

older people, too, in order to determine the multicriteria<br />

analysis by age. The first aspect that can be<br />

highlighted, is the fact that, overall, respondents do<br />

not differ in age by gender, although in the cases<br />

counties of Arges and Suceava there can be noticed<br />

these differences. It can be noticed that there are<br />

366<br />

large differences between the four counties where<br />

the field research was conducted, whilst Arges<br />

County as the maximum age is the lowest (60<br />

years), while in Suceava County it was observed<br />

that the older man exceeds 15 years the maximum<br />

age of women that responded.<br />

Since the optimal age for a management<br />

position is between 35 and 55 years (Merce et all.,<br />

2010), it is estimated that the average age of the<br />

sample (36 years and 4 months) is appropriate for a<br />

maximum impact of courses addressed to those<br />

who, now, after their completion, can occupy<br />

management positions in existing or newly created<br />

firms. In each of the 4 analyzed counties, the<br />

average age is very similar to the overall;<br />

differences are relatively small, with an additional<br />

30 months in Arges County. For all the counties,<br />

counties it can be said that the average age of the<br />

respondents is below the limits of the optimum<br />

age, above mentioned, for the persons involved in<br />

management activities. More than half of<br />

respondents are currently employed and almost<br />

14% are entrepreneurs, and other 11.3% have<br />

management positions. Also, more than 1 in 5<br />

respondents are into categories other than the<br />

above, in particular: unemployed, student, student,<br />

volunteer, self-employed, maternity leave, day<br />

laborer, retired, unemployed, looking for a job.<br />

County-level data analysis revealed no<br />

major differences between the four counties<br />

studied, though they may notice. Thus, in Arges<br />

County it was recorded the largest percentage of<br />

people involved in entrepreneurship, in contrast to<br />

Nasaud County which has the lowest value in<br />

terms of entrepreneurship, but also the highest<br />

percentage of respondents included into the<br />

“Another category” of profession. But it is easy to<br />

see that most respondents are belongs to the<br />

category of “employees”. For achieving the<br />

objective of the research, it was important to<br />

determine the future prospects of the respondents<br />

in terms of jobs, especially in terms of required<br />

information for professional qualifications. The<br />

fact that over 84% of respondents want to change<br />

their employment status is a sign of dissatisfaction<br />

of people regarding their current jobs, but a<br />

proportion 98.45% of respondents said they prefer<br />

not to change the company profile but to improve<br />

their current workplace or jobs with a better paid<br />

one. In Arges County was observed the highest<br />

degree of satisfaction of respondents with current<br />

professional status (34%), over 10 times higher<br />

than in Mures county where it was registered the<br />

highest level of dissatisfaction. But the desire to<br />

engage in entrepreneurship, by leaving the "safety<br />

zone" is not a defining attribute of the social<br />

environment in Romania, because, although it was

observed a complaining of actual professional<br />

status trend, it is not proved the desire to involve<br />

themselves in creating new businesses. Only 1 in 4<br />

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<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

respondents would risk, although over 37% of total<br />

take into account any possible situation in the<br />

future.<br />

Table 1<br />

Position of respondents inside the company<br />

Region Position Number of answers (nr.) Share in total (%)<br />

General<br />

Mureş County<br />

Bistriţa-Năsăud County<br />

Suceava County<br />

Argeş County<br />

Entrepreneur 27 13.9<br />

Employee 105 54.1<br />

Manager 22 11.3<br />

Another category 40 20.6<br />

Total 194 100.0<br />

Entrepreneur 9 14.5<br />

Employee 31 50.0<br />

Manager 7 11.3<br />

Another category 15 24.2<br />

Total 62 100.0<br />

Entrepreneur 4 12.5<br />

Employee 15 46.9<br />

Manager 4 12.5<br />

Another category 9 28.1<br />

Total 32 100.0<br />

Entrepreneur 4 9.8<br />

Employee 22 53.7<br />

Manager 5 12.2<br />

Another category 10 24.4<br />

Total 41 100.0<br />

Entrepreneur 10 16.9<br />

Employee 37 62.7<br />

Manager 6 10.2<br />

Another category 6 10.2<br />

Total 59 100.0<br />

The trend of non-involvement is even more<br />

visible if analizing the desire to occupy a leading<br />

position, because only a percentage of under 14%<br />

said yes, although here it can be seen the<br />

differences between the analyzed counties, so<br />

almost 42% of the respondents from Mures County<br />

intend to take a management position, while the<br />

share is over 17 times lower in Arges County. A<br />

possible reason for these differences being that the<br />

economic environment is more active in Mures<br />

County, while the human resource of Arges<br />

County experiences a deeper involvement in large<br />

companies. And this is compounded by the fact<br />

that only 1.55% (even 0% in Mures County) would<br />

like to change their company profile.<br />

It was noted that about two thirds of<br />

respondents (121 of them) have previously<br />

participated in one or more training and<br />

qualifications courses. In each of the analyzed<br />

counties, more than half of respondents had<br />

previously participated to courses, especially in<br />

Suceava County, where about one in four trainees,<br />

have previously participated to other previous<br />

trainings. On the other hand, in Arges County<br />

about one in two are at the first experience of such<br />

training. The explanations are varied, from the fact<br />

that in Arges County the effects of economic crisis<br />

was more reduced because of the development of<br />

the car manufacturing industry so the people's<br />

willingness for changing their jobs is lower, while<br />

in Suceava County the recession and economic<br />

crisis of recent years had the strongest effects on<br />

population. To complete the overall image it was<br />

analyzed the perception of the respondents on the<br />

possible benefits that they obtained from the<br />

training. As a first observation, it can be seen that,<br />

overall, respondents had a rather moderate attitude<br />

on the benefits of participation in courses, the only<br />

aspect that was seen as an immediate consequence<br />

of almost half of the participants is that<br />

respondents felt that courses attendance make them<br />

more confident. In fact, over 90% of respondents<br />

agreed (totally or partially) with this statement.<br />

But the statements referring to immediate<br />

benefits, tangible: increased revenues and the<br />

intention to start a business are less optimistic<br />

since there was only one quarter of participants<br />

who had a favorable opinion, while more than one<br />

third said they are in total disagreement with these<br />

statements. This can be explained by the fact that<br />

the benefits of participation in the courses are<br />

visible on a longer time than the one that passed<br />

from the completion of the course. It is also<br />

interesting that the largest percentages of variants<br />

"partially agree" are for statements that are related<br />

to the direct effects of training on the operating<br />

company (increasing workplace productivity and<br />

enhancing customer satisfaction), which leads to<br />

the conclusion that a person is training in

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

entrepreneurship, mainly for his personal benefit and less for company’s one.<br />

Future perspective of respondents<br />

Table 2<br />

Region Reason<br />

No. of respondents<br />

YES NO NA<br />

% of respondents<br />

YES NO NA<br />

Maintaining the status 31 163 0 15.98 84.02 0.00<br />

Starting a Business 52 142 0 26.80 73.20 0.00<br />

General Any situation is possible 72 122 0 37.11 62.89 0.00<br />

Promoting to management 27 167 0 13.92 86.08 0.00<br />

Changing the profile 3 191 0 1.55 98.45 0.00<br />

Maintaining the status 6 188 1 3.09 96.91 0.52<br />

Mureş<br />

County<br />

Starting a Business<br />

Any situation is possible<br />

Promoting to management<br />

11<br />

13<br />

26<br />

51<br />

49<br />

36<br />

0<br />

0<br />

0<br />

17.74<br />

20.97<br />

41.94<br />

82.26<br />

79.03<br />

58.06<br />

0.00<br />

0.00<br />

0.00<br />

Changing the profile 0 62 0 0.00 100.00 0.00<br />

Maintaining the status 8 54 0 12.90 87.10 0.00<br />

Bistriţa- Starting a Business 3 59 0 4.84 95.16 0.00<br />

Năsăud Any situation is possible 5 27 0 15.63 84.38 0.00<br />

County Promoting to management 7 25 0 21.88 78.13 0.00<br />

Changing the profile 15 17 0 46.88 53.13 0.00<br />

Maintaining the status 4 28 0 12.50 87.50 0.00<br />

Suceava<br />

County<br />

Starting a Business<br />

Any situation is possible<br />

Promoting to management<br />

1<br />

0<br />

5<br />

31<br />

32<br />

36<br />

0<br />

1<br />

0<br />

3.13<br />

0.00<br />

12.20<br />

96.88<br />

100.00<br />

87.80<br />

0.00<br />

3.13<br />

0.00<br />

Changing the profile 15 26 0 36.59 63.41 0.00<br />

Argeş<br />

County<br />

Maintaining the status 14 27 0 34.15 65.85 0.00<br />

Starting a Business 6 35 0 14.63 85.37 0.00<br />

Any situation is possible 0 41 0 0.00 100.00 0.00<br />

Promoting to management 1 40 0 2.44 97.56 0.00<br />

Changing the profile 10 49 0 16.95 83.05 0.00<br />

Note: NA = non-answer<br />

Table 3<br />

Overall perception of the respondents on course benefits<br />

Advantages<br />

Total agree<br />

(%)<br />

Agree<br />

(%)<br />

partial<br />

agree (%)<br />

partial total disagree<br />

Average<br />

disagree (%) (%)<br />

Standard<br />

Error<br />

NA<br />

It increased my revenue 9.80 11.30 25.80 17.00 35.10 3.57 1.336 1.00<br />

It helped to start a<br />

business<br />

12.90 11.30 21.60 18.00 34.5 3.51 1.406 1.50<br />

I was determined to start a<br />

business<br />

25.80 17.50 21.10 13.90 21.10 2.87 1.490 1.50<br />

I have increased my<br />

chances to find a better job<br />

19.10 13.40 21.60 18.10 26.80 3.2 1.463 1.00<br />

I have increased<br />

confidence in myself<br />

47.40 28.90 16.00 5.20 2.60 1.87 1.029 0.00<br />

It helped to increase<br />

productivity at work<br />

23.20 22.70 21.10 14.40 17.00 2.79 1.406 1.50<br />

It helped to increase the<br />

customer satisfaction<br />

22.20 26.80 21.10 9.30 20.10 2.78 1.423 0.50<br />

It helped to reduce errors<br />

in current activity<br />

34.50 32.00 15.50 6.70 10.80 2.27 1.299 0.50<br />

As has been previously determined, the<br />

desire to assume risk through a business is not<br />

specific to analyzed target group, over 60% not<br />

being interested to become an investor. However,<br />

the positive response rate of one third of the<br />

beneficiaries is a positive sign indicating the<br />

increasing trend of this intention. Since, in the<br />

same areas studied, intention to engage in<br />

entrepreneurship in 2010 was only 20% -<br />

according to the diagnostic study of the project – it<br />

can be noticed the positive benefit of training<br />

courses in entrepreneurship beneficiaries.<br />

368<br />

Of course, it was considered necessary to<br />

deepen the analysis on intention to engage in<br />

entrepreneurship by studying the causes that<br />

prevent beneficiaries to join actively in the<br />

economic environment. The analysis was<br />

performed both overall, and for each of the four<br />

counties included into the area where the study was<br />

conducted. The main reasons, as they emerge from<br />

analysis of data, are related to the economic,<br />

administrative and political environment itself (too<br />

costly, highly level of bureaucracy and so on) and<br />

not to the lack of necessary knowledge (mentioned<br />

as the main reason by only 20% of respondents.

Reasons of non-involvement in entrepreneurship<br />

369<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 4<br />

Region Causes<br />

Nr. of respondents<br />

YES NO NA<br />

% of respondents<br />

YES NO NA<br />

It is too expensive 29 21 25 38.67 28.00 33.33<br />

General<br />

Imply a lot of bureaucracy<br />

I do not have enough knowledge<br />

24<br />

15<br />

30<br />

33<br />

21<br />

27<br />

32.00<br />

20.00<br />

40.00<br />

44.00<br />

28.00<br />

36.00<br />

I do not like to risk 14 34 27 18.67 45.33 36.00<br />

It is too expensive 9 7 9 36.00 28.00 36.00<br />

Mureş<br />

County<br />

Imply a lot of bureaucracy<br />

I do not have enough knowledge<br />

I do not like to risk<br />

12<br />

5<br />

4<br />

6<br />

10<br />

11<br />

5<br />

8<br />

8<br />

48.00<br />

20.00<br />

16.00<br />

24.00<br />

40.00<br />

44.00<br />

20.00<br />

32.00<br />

32.00<br />

Other causes I already run a business uncertainty old age<br />

It is too expensive 4 5 2 36.36 45.45 18.18<br />

Bistriţa- Imply a lot of bureaucracy 2 8 1 18.18 72.73 9.09<br />

Năsăud I do not have enough knowledge 4 6 1 36.36 54.55 9.09<br />

County I do not like to risk 4 5 2 36.36 45.45 18.18<br />

Other causes economic background lack of time<br />

It is too expensive 0 5 12 0.00 29.41 70.59<br />

Suceava<br />

County<br />

Imply a lot of bureaucracy<br />

I do not have enough knowledge<br />

I do not like to risk<br />

2<br />

0<br />

1<br />

5<br />

5<br />

4<br />

10<br />

12<br />

12<br />

11.76<br />

0.00<br />

5.88<br />

29.41<br />

29.41<br />

23.53<br />

58.82<br />

70.59<br />

70.59<br />

Other causes I already run a business; I do not care about; I do not need<br />

It is too expensive 16 4 4 66.67 16.67 16.67<br />

Argeş<br />

County<br />

Imply a lot of bureaucracy<br />

I do not have enough knowledge<br />

I do not like to risk<br />

8<br />

6<br />

5<br />

11<br />

12<br />

14<br />

5<br />

6<br />

5<br />

33.33<br />

25.00<br />

20.83<br />

45.83<br />

50.00<br />

58.33<br />

20.83<br />

25.00<br />

20.83<br />

Other causes lack of interest lack of time<br />

Note: NA = non-answer<br />

This situation is endemic for national<br />

businesses system, that one suffering from lack of<br />

flexibility and from excessive bureaucracy and tax<br />

system. The results are confirmed for each of the<br />

counties, although there are some specificity<br />

marks.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The vast majority of the target group works<br />

or had worked in SMEs, especially microenterprises,<br />

and has less experience in large<br />

companies. Consequently, they tend to assimilate<br />

the company with the person that owns the<br />

business, since the degree of decentralization of<br />

decision-making indirectly decreases with the<br />

number of employees. In this regard, they do not<br />

properly distinguish between the general objectives<br />

of the company and the entrepreneur's or<br />

manager’s personal goals. In conclusion, there is<br />

necessary to develop curriculum courses toward<br />

clarifying these issues. It was noted the relatively<br />

high level of dissatisfaction regarding the current<br />

job and the desire to improve it but, in general,<br />

only by changing the actual job with another one in<br />

a similar company and the lack of interest of<br />

involving in management or entrepreneurship.<br />

Taking calculated risks is an important aspect that<br />

the target is not fully aware of, which shows the<br />

necessity of their training in the field of risk<br />

management, by providing and explaining<br />

the economic and human specific tools useful in<br />

the development of entrepreneurship.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This study was supported by Fundația pentru<br />

Promovarea Agriculturii și Economiei Regionale, Reghin<br />

FEAR, contract no. 135/04.04.2012 „Impact of the<br />

impact of implementation of the Project<br />

POSDRU/92/3.1/S/61872 „Entrepreneurship, from Idea<br />

to Success”.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Gibson, J.D., Ursy, R.H., Hass, L.W., Moore, Lies,<br />

R.T., Moore, G.E., 2001 - Agribusiness:<br />

Management, Marketing, Human Resources<br />

Development, Communication and Technology,<br />

Interstate Publishing, Inc., Danville, Illinois, USA<br />

Hatten, T. & Ruhland, 1995 - Student attitudes toward<br />

entrepreneurship as affected by participation in<br />

an SBI program. Journal of Education for<br />

Business, 7(4), 224-227.18<br />

Jusoh, R., Ziyane, B., Asimirm, S., Kadir Suhaida<br />

Abd., 2011 - Entrepreneur Training Needs<br />

Analysis: Implications On The Entrepreneurial<br />

Skills Needed For Successful Entrepreneurs,<br />

International Business & Economics Research<br />

Journal, 10(1), 143-148<br />

Merce, E., Merce, C.C., Arion, H.F., 2000 -<br />

Management general şi agricol, Editura<br />

AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca, România<br />

Montana, P.J., Charvon, B.H., 2000 - Management 3rd<br />

Edition, Barron’s Educational Series, New York<br />

USA

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

370

371<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

BUSINESS RISK DIAGNOSIS IN<br />

SC COSM-FAN CARMANGERIE SINNICOARA CLUJ<br />

Lucica ARMANCA 1<br />

e-mail: lucicaagro2000@yahoo.com<br />

Abstract. Causes leading to one or another type of business risks follow in and converge leading to the payment<br />

inability of the company. The first wrong step starts from excessive costs diminishing the added value and generating an<br />

insufficient profitability. Low profitability negatively influences the self-financing ability, which becomes insufficient<br />

as compared to the investment performed. All of these influence cash flow that, being insufficient, leads to the company<br />

getting loans. The loans incur financial costs that add to the already existing ones and at the same time affect the entity<br />

solvability – the financial condition of business survival. Putting a diagnosis to the economic risk by means of financial<br />

leverage or the financial lever effect, where the lower the financial leverage value, the lower the operation risk. Putting<br />

a diagnosis to the economic risk by means of financial leverage as an effect stabilizes only the influence of indebtedness<br />

over rate of return on self-owned capital, and the influence on the net outcome of changing by one percent the operating<br />

result affected by financial costs, respectively. The SWOT analysis and rating analysis applied to partial diagnosis as a<br />

consequence of repeated market dysfunctionalities encountered by the economic agent allow a quantity and quality<br />

approach of the analyzed aspects.<br />

Key words: financial leverage, financial profitability, bankruptcy.<br />

Generally speaking, risk is the possibility<br />

that an event might occur that may jeopardize the<br />

activity of the company. For our assessed<br />

economic agent, risk represents its incapacity to<br />

adapt along time and at the lowest cost to<br />

environmental changes. Risk expresses the<br />

volatility of the economic result under the<br />

operating conditions. Putting a diagnosis to the risk<br />

of the economic unit implies to assess and put a<br />

diagnosis to the following risks: the economic or<br />

operating risk, the financial risk and the<br />

bankruptcy risk.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The means and instruments used are<br />

according to the assessment direction. In order to<br />

asses the financial balance and bankruptcy risks<br />

the analysis of balance sheet ad financial flow<br />

scheme is mandatory by the method of rates and<br />

treasury relations. The study of financial<br />

performance requires the analysis of Result<br />

Account by: rate method, the evolution of the<br />

activity amount effect on the result, as well as by<br />

increasing management balances. For final results<br />

the Swot analysis together with the rating analysis<br />

are applied.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca<br />

1. Operating risk can be assesses by using:<br />

- breakeven as the point where the turnover<br />

covers operating costs, limited within fixed<br />

and variable costs, calculated in unit values<br />

for the entire economic unit.<br />

- “position indicator” (according to<br />

Miculescu M., 2003), an indicator assessing<br />

the economic risks associated with the<br />

company.<br />

Table 1<br />

Indicators of development risk<br />

Indicators (thousand lei) Financial year<br />

2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Turnover 12200 18170 24303 24052<br />

Variable Costs (VC) 11567 16899 22593 22322<br />

Fixed Costs (FE) 289 905 969 1083<br />

Operating Results (OR) 344 366 741 647<br />

Variable Contribution<br />

Margin<br />

633 1271 1710 1729<br />

Relative Cost Margin 0.051 0.069 0.070 0.071<br />

Critical Turnover (CT) 5569 12943 13774 15059<br />

Operating<br />

1.84 3.47 2.30 2.67<br />

(commissioning) Leverage<br />

Absolute Position Indicator 6631 5227 10530 8993<br />

Relative Position Indicator 1.19 0.40 0.76 0.60<br />

Source: author’s drafts<br />

-The critical turnover corresponding to the point of<br />

balance grows by the year.<br />

- variable cost margin points out a part that stays as<br />

a part of the turnover after variable costs have been

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

covered, in order to cover fixed costs and generate<br />

a certain measure of operating outcome.<br />

-the relative margin on variable costs is of only<br />

5.18% in 2008 because of high variable costs,<br />

however this margin is powerful enough to cover<br />

fixed costs of 2.36% of the turnover.<br />

- variable costs are higher every year, the same as<br />

fixed costs, except for the last year, when rates are<br />

slightly going down, and the financial and<br />

economic outcome as well.<br />

-the operating leverage reaches its highest rate in<br />

2009, namely a 3.47 elasticity coefficient, when<br />

fixed costs are larger and the economic risk is<br />

higher because of low flexibility to market<br />

variation. During the second part of the interval<br />

fixed costs are higher but slightly remote from<br />

variable costs margin, and the closer they get to<br />

this margin the risk might occur that the result got<br />

close to zero.<br />

The rate of fixed costs getting closer to the<br />

variable costs margin rate amplifies the operating<br />

or economic risks.<br />

-low rates of position indicator in terms of both<br />

absolute values and relative value point out a<br />

greater risk, especially in 2009, and the larger rates<br />

obtained during the rest of the years present a<br />

lower economic risk, which means a poor<br />

flexibility of the entity to company requirements.<br />

-the highest volatility to operating conditions is<br />

recorded in 2009, however the company is situated<br />

in a comfortable position as position indicator<br />

exceeds the breakeven by 20% in each of the<br />

assessed periods. This rating is based on statistical<br />

studies (Cişmaşu, I.D., 2003, Risk – Element in<br />

decision substantiating, Economic Publishing<br />

House, Bucharest, p.80 – according to Verniment,<br />

P., 1988, Finance d' entreprise, Analyse et gestion,<br />

Editions Dalloz, Paris, p.212.).<br />

Table 2<br />

Breakeven<br />

Economic Risk Diagnosis<br />

Interpretation Swot<br />

/causes Diagnosis<br />

Net Turnover Low Strong<br />

exceeds breakeven economic Forces/<br />

by more than 20% risk<br />

Source: author’s drafts<br />

Maintain<br />

Score<br />

2. The financial risk of the entity considers the<br />

fluctuation of results under the incidence of<br />

financial structure of the company.<br />

There are two ways of approaching the financial<br />

risk: global profitability or “critical” point taking<br />

in account financial expenses (costs with bank<br />

interest), that can be considered fixed costs. The<br />

second approach is the indicator of net turnover<br />

rate as compared to overall profitability.<br />

The model of analysis involved is the “financial<br />

leverage” or the “financial lever effect”. It is the<br />

4<br />

372<br />

most adapted model as it simplifies the real<br />

situation of the company in order to establish the<br />

degree of indebtedness as follows:<br />

- For the calculation of financial<br />

-<br />

profitability only the operating activity is<br />

considered and<br />

Only financial expenses influence the net<br />

result.<br />

In the event the economic profitability rate<br />

exceeds the average interest rate, the financial<br />

leverage effect is a positive one; therefore the<br />

payment of its own capital is done at a rate<br />

superior to the payment of debts.<br />

The positive difference between economic<br />

profitability and average interest rate allows<br />

indebtedness to increase financial profitability rate.<br />

Where the economic profitability rate is lower than<br />

average interest rate, the financial leverage effect is<br />

negative therefore the risk incurred by the business<br />

owners resides in the payment of debt exceeding<br />

the payment of self-owned capitals.<br />

Similarly to operating risk, a dynamic<br />

assessment of financial risk can be obtained by the<br />

financial leverage coefficient reflecting the<br />

percentage by which the net result modifies as<br />

compared to a 1% change in operating results as<br />

influenced by financial costs.<br />

Financial risk occurs when the correspondent of a<br />

1% decrease in operating results is more than 1%<br />

of the net outcome.<br />

Table 3<br />

Impact of Financial Leverage upon Risk<br />

Indicator Financial Year<br />

2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Financial Profitability 8.24 1.52 29.17 20.96<br />

Economic Profitability 2.83 3.17 6.02 5.51<br />

Average Interest Rate 2.26 3.35 2.73 1.99<br />

Indebtedness 9.51 8.98 7.02 4.39<br />

Effect of Financial<br />

Leverage<br />

5.41 -1.65 23.15 15.45<br />

Operating Result<br />

(thousand lei)<br />

344 366 741 647<br />

Net Result (thousand lei) 95 18 447 456<br />

Coefficient of Financial<br />

Leverage<br />

Source: author’s drafts<br />

- -12.88 23.81 -0.14<br />

-indebtedness implies a positive financial leverage<br />

effect as economic profitability exceeds the<br />

average interest rate, therefore the financial<br />

profitability rate is superior to the economic<br />

profitability rate.<br />

-for financial year 2009, under the influence of<br />

economic profitability below the average interest<br />

rate, the effect of financial leverage rate is<br />

negative, of -1.65, the same with the difference<br />

between financial profitability and economic<br />

profitability. This situation is generated, on the one<br />

hand, by an inefficient use of assets and, on the

other hand, by the debt increase, resulting in<br />

interest rate growth.<br />

Financial risks are noticed to worsen in the<br />

periods between 2008-2009 and 2010-2011.<br />

During the last mentioned period, a 1% decrease of<br />

operating results equals a 0.14 in the net results.<br />

Table 4<br />

Financial<br />

Indicator<br />

Leverage<br />

Effect<br />

Rate of<br />

Economic<br />

Profit<br />

Financial risk diagnosis<br />

Interpretation/<br />

causes<br />

Low financial risk:<br />

Average rate of 4.15%<br />

exceeds the average interest<br />

rate of 2.53%. The situation<br />

is favorable to the owners,<br />

and financial profitability is<br />

increasing as compared to<br />

the rate of indebtedness. The<br />

company may still get<br />

credits.<br />

Source: author’s drafts<br />

Swot<br />

Analysis<br />

Strong<br />

situation/<br />

Improve<br />

ment<br />

Score<br />

4.5<br />

3. Bankruptcy risk of the entity treated as a<br />

“method of foreseeing bankruptcy risk”, the<br />

method of scores (Berheci. M., 2010, Capitalizing<br />

Financial Reports, CECCAR Publishing House,<br />

Bucharest, p.493; according to Cohen. E., 2004,<br />

Analyse financiere 5 e edition, Economica, Paris,<br />

p.481)<br />

The method of rates is based statistical techniques<br />

and rate analysis. The score method gathers<br />

companies on profitable units or companies with<br />

different levels of financial difficulties.<br />

To the analyzed study three assessment models of<br />

bankruptcy risk apply, data as displayed below.<br />

Table 5<br />

Assessing bankruptcy risk<br />

Indicator Financial year<br />

2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Score function - E.<br />

Altman model<br />

0.53 1.14 2.20 2.26<br />

Score function -<br />

Conan & Holder<br />

model<br />

0.02 0.02 0.13 0.12<br />

Score function –<br />

Central models of<br />

France Balance<br />

Sheets<br />

2.206 1.821 1.075 1.196<br />

Source: author’s drafts<br />

E. Altman model: the first assessed period situates<br />

the company under undoubted risk of bankruptcy,<br />

and the second assessed calendar period shows the<br />

company facing financial difficulties.<br />

The Conan& Holder model: from 2008-2009,<br />

the company’s risk of bankruptcy is of 65%-<br />

90%, and during the last period the situation<br />

improves, the risk of bankruptcy being 10%-<br />

30%.<br />

373<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

The model of Balance Sheet Central<br />

Scheme of French Banks situates the<br />

bankruptcy risk of the company at 30.4%<br />

during the following three years, for financial<br />

years 2008 and 2009. For the next assessed<br />

periods, bankruptcy risk is as low as 3.2%.<br />

Table 6<br />

A synthesis of risk diagnosis<br />

Indicators Swot diagnosis Score Importance<br />

Economic<br />

Risk<br />

Diagnosis<br />

financial risk<br />

Strong position<br />

- same<br />

Weight<br />

Aggregated<br />

Score<br />

4 P1=30% 1.20<br />

Strong position 4.5 P2=70% 3.15<br />

Diagnosis improvement<br />

Economic Financial profitability 100% 4.35<br />

and Financial determined includes (4-4.5)<br />

Risk<br />

Diagnosis<br />

total entity debts<br />

Source: author’s drafts<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

- The point of equilibrium is not a static concept;<br />

there is no absolute critical point, there is a<br />

breakeven with a certain calculation horizon.<br />

-Entities holding high fixed costs face a higher<br />

degree of risk, as flexibility to market variations<br />

are very low.<br />

-Knowing the elasticity coefficient is necessary for<br />

the company management to make decisions as of:<br />

determining turnover rate, cutting down variable<br />

cost rate or the selling price rate to obtain a certain<br />

profit.<br />

-The financial leverage model is a useful tool that<br />

enables the optimization of company’s financial<br />

structure.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Berheci.M., 2010 - Capitalizing Financial Reports,<br />

CECCAR Publishing House, Bucharest, p.493.<br />

Cişmaşu, I.D., 2003 - Risk – An Element in Decision<br />

Substantiating, Economic Publishing House,<br />

Bucharest, p.80<br />

Cohen.E., 2004, - Analyse financiere 5 e edition,<br />

Economica, Paris, p.481.<br />

Miculescu M., 2003 - Financial Diagnosis, Economic<br />

Publishing House, Bucharest, p.321.<br />

Verniment, P., 1988 - Finance d' entreprise, Analyse et<br />

gestion, Editions Dalloz, Paris, p.212.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

374

Abstract<br />

ASPECTS OF RURAL FINANCE<br />

Dan DONOSĂ 1 , Raluca Elena DONOSĂ 1<br />

e-mail: donosad@yahoo.com<br />

375<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55(2)/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

The main objective of microcrediting in rural areas is to alleviate rural poverty in order to finance the farm and<br />

investments in non farm activities, the raise of the rural incomes, raise of the economic activity efficiency in rural areas.<br />

All these are leading to rural economic growth and raising the rural employment by bussineses sustained with<br />

investment capital b the financial sector whose presence is becoming more pregnant. Another problem is the lack of<br />

finance on long term and the lack of the financing capacity of the microfinance institutions. The authorities must to<br />

develop an efficient system of warrant receipts, to sthrenght the outreach, the efficency and sustenability of the non<br />

financial institutions and helping the small entrepreneurs and smll frmers in loan application and business plans. There is<br />

neccessary the strenghting of the financial institution capabilities to serve the mall clients, the expanding of the network<br />

in remote rural areas, financing in order to rise the rural sustainable activities, but also the growth of the efficiency and<br />

the atractiviness for foreign investors for new opportunities for all the financial institutions, and to assure the finance for<br />

economic activities on long term in competitive terms.<br />

Key words: finance, credit, rural, employment<br />

Several studies and an analysis of the rural<br />

financial sector conducted by Romanian<br />

authorities ascertained the poor performance of<br />

rural financial markets.<br />

In the absence of sufficient investment capital,<br />

the Romanian rural economy had experienced<br />

difficulties in adjusting to the major policy reforms<br />

that had been taking place continuously since 1990.<br />

The rapid changes in macro-economic environment,<br />

including the exchange rate crisis in 1997 and the<br />

strong currency devaluation, forced rural households<br />

and businesses to adjust to the new circumstances<br />

and, at the same time, left them without adequate<br />

sources of financing and limited access to<br />

investment loans necessary to meet new market<br />

conditions. In fact, at that time only 20 percent of the<br />

households and rural enterprises used loans to finance<br />

their consumption, working capital and/or<br />

investments.<br />

The highly bipolar farm structure in<br />

Romania drags down the country’s agricultural<br />

performance. Some 40% of the agricultural land is<br />

concentrated into a few large and competitive<br />

farms. An equal share is spread among a large<br />

number of (semi-) subsistence holdings. Totaling<br />

90% of the farms, these smaller units face<br />

considerable market failures, including a nonfunctioning<br />

land market, limited rural finance,<br />

scarce advisory services, and marketing of farm<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, Romania<br />

products at prohibitive costs for their size. In<br />

particular, these holdings’ access to rural finance<br />

remains difficult in large part because of the risks<br />

and high transaction costs perceived by<br />

commercial banks, a weak collateral base, and<br />

embryonic micro-finance institutions. A middle<br />

segment, of 5 to 50 hectare farms, is yet to be<br />

developed.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

As in many other transition economies, small<br />

private lenders operating in rural credit markets<br />

were the ones who lost the most during the<br />

transition period by not being able to keep up with<br />

the reforms and changes in the economic<br />

environment. Also, due to their limited resources<br />

and only local outreach, private lenders were not in<br />

a position to successfully compete with a<br />

government run Banca Agricola and its subsidized<br />

interest, and, at the same time, the state-controlled<br />

banking sector was neither able to meet the<br />

demand for long-term rural credit, having the<br />

average maturity of the sector’s liabilities well<br />

below six months, nor in the possession of the<br />

technology to serve micro and Small & Medium<br />

Size Enterprise (SME) clients.<br />

In addition, two sector issues were likely to<br />

emerge that needed to be addressed at the time.<br />

The first was the reduction of the bank branches<br />

network as a result of the expected privatization or

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

divestiture of state banks, which in year 2000<br />

owned around 87% of all bank branches. The<br />

second issue was the absence of an appropriate<br />

regulatory and supervisory framework for over<br />

1,400 independent mutual financial intermediaries,<br />

a majority of which were operating in rural areas.<br />

Studies conducted by Romanian authorities<br />

and World Bank revealed that rural financial<br />

markets had a poor performance on low supply of<br />

credit and unattractive conditions, a negative<br />

impact of the lack of credit on investment behavior<br />

and inefficient allocation of credit to enterprises<br />

with low or negative value-added.<br />

There were identified a few objectives in<br />

order to surpass all these setbacks, such as the<br />

acceleration of the economic transformation in the<br />

rural economy by raising the capital investments in<br />

the sector, strengthening the role of private sector<br />

rural economy. The second objective can be<br />

fulfilled by improved financial access from rural<br />

household with entrepreneurial activities, improved<br />

financial access of the private enterprises,<br />

strengthening the presence of the private financial<br />

intermediaries, easing access to EU funds,<br />

alleviating rural poorness by farm financing and by<br />

outside farm investments for poor segments of the<br />

rural people with no credit access.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Access to finance in rural areas still remains<br />

a problem to be solved, regarding investment<br />

capital especially primary agriculture, and remains<br />

difficult to be obtained from the banking sector.<br />

Concerning the private financial institutions there’s<br />

a lack of both capacity and long term funding to<br />

meet the financial needs of the population. In order<br />

to create new opportunities for all the financial<br />

institutions and to assure long term financing in<br />

competitive terms it must be strength the ability of<br />

these financial institutions to serve micro clients<br />

and to extend the network into more and remote<br />

rural areas as well as to assure the creditworthiness<br />

and attractiveness to all the foreign investors.<br />

These problems are including risk matters (for<br />

example raising the collateral used such as<br />

warrants or improving the accessibility and the<br />

efficiency of the weather related insurance,<br />

acceptance of land title as collateral), technology<br />

(developing new and improved borrowing tools<br />

appropriated for agriculture), and strengthening of<br />

non-banking financial institutions (such as<br />

microfinance institutions and credit cooperatives).<br />

Some projects developed by international<br />

financial institutions aimed to strength the nonbanking<br />

financial institutions and to reinforce the<br />

microfinance institutions in Romania, while this<br />

industry is at its beginnings. In 2006, the National<br />

Bank of Romania took over the supervision of the<br />

non-banking financial institutions providing a legal<br />

376<br />

framework for existing microfinance providers to<br />

transform into non-banking financial institutions,<br />

which put MFIs in a better position to attract both<br />

local and foreign investors ready to provide them<br />

with long term debt and equity funding.<br />

Another important element that positively<br />

influenced the impact of the programs conducted<br />

in the country in this field was the implementation<br />

of the National Rural development program, which<br />

allowed Romania to access EU funds of nearly<br />

EUR8 billion by 2013. The measures included in<br />

the National Rural Development Program are<br />

aimed at increasing the competitiveness of the<br />

agricultural sector, improving the rural<br />

environment, and improving the quality of life and<br />

diversification of the rural economy.<br />

The National Rural Development Program<br />

will thus further pursue the deployed rural finance<br />

projects objective of accelerating the economic<br />

transformation of the rural economy. The<br />

implementation of the National Rural<br />

Development Program requires significant<br />

counterpart funds, which will be secured mainly<br />

from commercial bank loans.<br />

The crumbling of agricultural lands makes<br />

agriculture in most of the rural households, to be a<br />

subsistence activity and not a profit generating<br />

activity. Approximately 21% of the households are<br />

oriented towards trading the agricultural products<br />

obtained. Nonetheless, the agricultural activities<br />

represent a source of income for only 12% of the<br />

households.<br />

The main sources of cash incomes continue<br />

to be represented by pensions, salaries and social<br />

benefits.<br />

The non-agricultural activities carried out by<br />

households provide them with an average monthly<br />

income almost 6 times higher than the one obtained<br />

from agriculture, yet only about 4-5% from the<br />

households in the villages carry out such activities.<br />

The small businesses of rural households<br />

have a much reduced influence on the occupation<br />

of labor force outside the household, both the<br />

agricultural and the nonagricultural ones being<br />

based on the labor force provided by the household<br />

members. The access on the labor force market is<br />

relatively reduced, only approximately one quarter<br />

of the population is hired, mainly in nonagricultural<br />

fields and having occupations of ”blue<br />

collars”. Moreover, the regular disparities in the<br />

access on the labor market register very high<br />

levels: approximately 65% from the occupied labor<br />

force is represented by men, while 85% from the<br />

non-remunerated workers are women.<br />

The development of non-agricultural<br />

entrepreneurship could be a solution both for the<br />

degree of occupation of labor force and implicitly

of household incomes, as well as it regards the<br />

formalization of economic relations in the rural<br />

environment. As the majority of non-agricultural<br />

entrepreneurs have started their business based on<br />

their own financial resources or on informal loans,<br />

the availability of individuals to start a business<br />

referring to formal credit instruments is relatively<br />

reduced, and the funding programs aimed at the<br />

creation of income generating activities in the<br />

rural environment should put a special<br />

emphasis on consulting services for potential<br />

entrepreneurs.<br />

Because of a relatively high competition<br />

on local markets as main sales markets, so the<br />

enterprises are obtaining low profit rates, the<br />

investment potential and development of these<br />

rural enterprises is quite low and they are<br />

experiencing high credit access constraints.<br />

The researchers are registering that the firms<br />

applying for credit are those with higher turnovers<br />

and those that are activating in the field of<br />

agriculture and construction, indicating a limited<br />

access to financial markets for small companies.<br />

The rural companies are facing with the lack<br />

of collateral mainly when they are applying for a<br />

credit so the banks are rejecting their requests. And<br />

a small number of the company that are fulfilling<br />

the banks conditions would need, in fact, a larger<br />

amount of credit.<br />

At the rural household level, the microcredit<br />

activity resulted in a little diversification of<br />

economic activity due to an insufficient level of<br />

financing For a highly diversification, rural<br />

household claimed a greater amount of money<br />

necessary for starting investments.<br />

Nevertheless, most beneficiaries with an<br />

income generating activity have manifested<br />

their interest in starting either a<br />

complementary agricultural activity, or a nonagricultural<br />

activity to support them in case of<br />

agricultural losses.<br />

Because the profit from economic<br />

activity was reinvested, there were made no<br />

savings. Saving considerable amounts of<br />

money is regarded as a desideratum, however,<br />

taken into account that most households are in<br />

course of development, reinvesting the profit<br />

is the only viable strategy at present. In certain<br />

cases, the economic activities performed bring<br />

losses at the household level, due to certain<br />

external factors.<br />

In certain amounts of money are available at<br />

the right moment this fact determined a<br />

decrease in production expenses. Thus, in<br />

377<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55(2)/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

agriculture, due to the advance payment of<br />

agricultural works, the debtors have been able<br />

to avoid the payment of interest related to the<br />

works carried out with credit money or to<br />

avoid any non-profitable contracts. However,<br />

one may not talk about negotiation due to the<br />

inflexibility and poor development of the<br />

agricultural market. The economy of rural<br />

households, mostly agricultural, continues to<br />

be based on informal relations and practices.<br />

Most acquisitions are made in the absence of<br />

justifying documents, and the participation of<br />

agricultural entrepreneurs to the fiscal system<br />

by paying taxes and fees is reduced.<br />

The government should take into<br />

considerration the risk-mitigation issue such as<br />

weather conditions in order to develop the insuring<br />

system to continue to build an efficient system of<br />

warrant receipts. Another direction of priority is<br />

the outreach strenghthening, the effciency nd the<br />

sustenbility of the non banking financial<br />

institutions such as microfinance institutions,<br />

microcredit cooperatives and savings houses. Thus,<br />

is intended to concentrate on institutional capacity<br />

and new efficent techniques developing.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The development of non-agricultural<br />

entrepreneurship could be a solution both for the<br />

degree of occupation of labor force and implicitly<br />

of household incomes, as well as it regards the<br />

formalization of economic relations in the rural<br />

environment. As the majority of non-agricultural<br />

entrepreneurs have started their business based on<br />

their own financial resources or on informal loans,<br />

the availability of individuals to start a business<br />

referring to formal credit instruments is relatively<br />

reduced, and the funding programs aimed at the<br />

development of income generating activities in the<br />

rural environment should put a special emphasis on<br />

consulting services for potential entrepreneurs.<br />

The access and participation of households<br />

from the rural environment on the financial market<br />

is limited.<br />

Being based mainly on the local markets as<br />

sales markets and facing a relatively high<br />

competition with effects of decrease of the profit<br />

rate, the potential of investments and of company<br />

development in the rural environment is relatively<br />

low.<br />

The constraints related to the access to credit<br />

are very high, a small number of the rural<br />

enterprises apply to bank credits, and from them<br />

more are rejected by banks (especially due to the<br />

lack of collaterals) and a small number of those

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

that succeed in obtaining a credit would need in<br />

fact a larger credit.<br />

The data also reveals the fact that companies<br />

applying for credits are especially those with high<br />

turnovers and those acting in the field of<br />

agriculture and constructions, indicating a limited<br />

access on the financial market for small<br />

companies.<br />

The studies also reveals the fact that<br />

companies applying for credits are especially those<br />

with high turnovers and those acting in the field of<br />

agriculture and constructions, indicating a limited<br />

access on the financial market for small<br />

companies.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Barr, M. S., Kumar, A., Litan R., 2007 - Building<br />

Inclusive Financial Systems: A Framework for<br />

Financial Access. Washington, DC: Brookings<br />

Institution Press.<br />

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Maria Soledad Martinez<br />

Peria, 2007 - “Reaching Out: Access to and Use<br />

378<br />

of Banking Services across Countries.” Journal of<br />

Financial Economics 85(1): 234–66.<br />

Claessens, S. 2005 - “Access to Financial Services: A<br />

Review of the Issues and Public Policy<br />

Objectives.” Policy Research Working Paper<br />

3589. World Bank, Washington, DC.<br />

Demirgüç-Kunt, A, Beck T., Honohan, P., 2008 -<br />

Finance for All? Policies and Pitfalls in Expanding<br />

Access. Washington, DC: World Bank.<br />

European Commission. 2008 - “Financial Services<br />

Provision and Prevention of Financial Exclusion.”<br />

European Commission, Directorate General for<br />

Employment, Social Affairs and Equal<br />

Opportunities Inclusion, Social Policy Aspects of<br />

Migration, Streamlining of Social Policies,<br />

Brussels.<br />

Ross, L., Loayza, N., Beck T., 1999 - “Financial<br />

Intermediation and Growth: Causality and<br />

Causes.” Policy Research Working Paper 2059.<br />

Washington, DC: World Bank.<br />

World Bank, 2008 – Romania rural finance project,<br />

World Bank, Washington DC.<br />

World Bank, 2009 – Financial access. Measuring<br />

access to financial services around the world.<br />

World Bank, Washington DC.

Abstract<br />

379<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL RATIONS<br />

AT S.A. AGROMAX DELENI<br />

Gabriela IGNAT 1 , Carmen Olguta BREZULEANU 1 ,<br />

Andrei PRIGOREANU<br />

e-mail: gabriela@uaiasi.ro<br />

Financial statements is the starting point in achieving economic and financial analysis of the performance of an<br />

enterprise because it provides financial data on which calculate and interpret indicators such as liquidity, solvency,<br />

profitability, risk of bankruptcy and many other indicators. Management companies has always need attentions direct on<br />

what happens outside a store, and intergrate this date, as well as a production information. All short and long term<br />

decisions for enterprise management requires information on the outside and the inner workings. It is known that social<br />

life take place on multiple levels, through different types of activities, that make up the so-called organismes with<br />

specific shapes of organization and structure of human society and that it is accompanied by various exchanges of<br />

information both between people and between that and the enviroment surroundings. The objectives pursued by<br />

performing works are: research objective reality, knowleadge and interpretation; the established the streagths and<br />

weakneasses of financial management in order to sustain a new maintenance and development strategies in competitive<br />

enviroment; meansuring return on capital appreciation agriculture society on financial equilibrium conditions to assess<br />

the economic and financial independence; an analysis of past management on achieving financial balance, the<br />

profitability, solvency and liquidity; performance assessment by considering some aspects of the agricultural society<br />

activity closely with global and partial results; measures to improve recovery and performance to agriculture society.<br />

Key words: performance, administration, patrimony, annual financial statements.<br />

The benefits and costs of company refer a<br />

large aria of economic and financiar fenomen by<br />

using and consum the production factory the<br />

nature, the work and the capital and that to<br />

perform, to recuperate the using resourse. So the<br />

activiti to be performance in a company are resoure<br />

consumer and results producting and the<br />

accountancy by the mode of organisation and<br />

gestioning mode offer an exact image of the<br />

company resource and results and each of us<br />

should count of that becouse it`s impotant to<br />

organisation and gestionar fair a buessnes which<br />

obtain the high resoults that we want and a corect<br />

gestionate of buesness is a mode by using practics<br />

from accountancy domain.<br />

From FABS the costs are or output or increase<br />

of activ, grounds of arrears of his, an combination<br />

of two of categories operations survine in a<br />

exercices period and generate by delivery of goods,<br />

service prestation or other activities which decurg<br />

from normal or principal exploatation.<br />

1 Universitatea de Științe Agricole și Medicină Veterinară, Iași<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Research methods used in this paper are<br />

bibliographic study, observation and comparative<br />

analysis. The case study was conducted at the<br />

agricultural society Agromax Deleni, where<br />

analysed key financial performance indicators<br />

showing agricultural society.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Based on the annual financial statements<br />

were analysed key performance indicators. The<br />

financial statements are published as basic<br />

accounting, with the objective of providing<br />

information about the financial position,<br />

performance and cash flows enterprise useful to a<br />

wide range of users in making economic decisions.<br />

The entire period analyzed (Figure 1)<br />

agricultural society has a good degree of<br />

autonomy, above the minimum acceptable<br />

value. However indicator registered a<br />

fluctuating trend due to the slower growth rate<br />

of permanent resources to the current ones.<br />

Reduction of indicatorin in 2010 with 25,15 %

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

compares to 2009 reflects an increase in the<br />

share of resources in financial cyclial<br />

company. Last year over 68 % finance their<br />

agricultural society in activity of permanent<br />

capital, an increase of 28,65 % over the<br />

previous year.<br />

%<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

Rate financial stability<br />

65.25<br />

40.1<br />

68.75<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

Figure 1<br />

In the first year agricultural society is able<br />

to cover more than the total dent due entirely<br />

equity. Equity was 86,11 % higher than barrowed<br />

and raised, this situtation is not so mentally and in<br />

the years 2010 and 2011 the agriculture society can<br />

not cover its debts swowing a reduction of equity<br />

capital with 33,33 % in 2010 and with 62,28 % in<br />

2011, as a matter of fact: equity decreased<br />

confirming back of profitability for business;<br />

increase in debt with higher rates due to increased<br />

short-term debt (Table1).<br />

Nr. Specification UM<br />

Table1<br />

Period of analysis<br />

crt.<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

1 Equity Lei 126993 165847 261493<br />

2 Equity growth<br />

rate<br />

- - 1,3 2,05<br />

3 Total debt Lei 68234 248734 693088<br />

4 Growth rate of<br />

debt<br />

- - 3,64 10,15<br />

5 Financial<br />

autonomy index<br />

% 186,11 66,67 37,72<br />

6 The minimum<br />

acceptable<br />

% 50 50 50<br />

Agricultural society does not have a very<br />

good global financial autonomy for the entire<br />

period analysed, except for the base year of the<br />

analysis, because it shows un upward trend due to<br />

back of bank liabilities. Experts in the field<br />

estimate that in order to ensure financial autonomy<br />

the capital must represent at least half of the<br />

permanent. At the agricultural society, in the first<br />

two years of analysis autonomy rate is very high<br />

close 100 %, and in the last year of analysis<br />

financial autonomy is ensure term because is less<br />

that 50 % ( Figure 3). Financial autonomy is<br />

paramount for a enterprise because it gives the<br />

possibility to decide in complet freedom and also<br />

to find and acquire new loans. From this point (<br />

Figure 4) of view the agricultural society is in a<br />

favorable situation only in the first years of<br />

380<br />

analysis, namely in 2009 and 2010, when the index<br />

value is below the maximum level and in the last<br />

year of analysis than the maximum permissible<br />

value of the indicator recorded, increases from year<br />

to year.<br />

%<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

%<br />

%<br />

0<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

Global financiar autonomy<br />

65<br />

40<br />

27<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

99.67<br />

Figure 2<br />

The termen financiar<br />

autonomy<br />

99.75<br />

39.84<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

34.95<br />

Figure 3<br />

Total borrowing rate<br />

59.99<br />

72.6<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

Figure 4<br />

This situation occure due to the change in<br />

debt faster that modifying liabilities, due to<br />

encreased credit flows; growth of operations in the<br />

three years analyzed from 368333 lei in 2009 to<br />

607843 lei in 2010 and 647858 lei in 2011 was due<br />

to increased operating income compared<br />

tooperating expenses, operating results, consistent<br />

with other financiar indicators confirm general<br />

trend of growth of agricultural society, having a<br />

real value greater than the 65 % for 2010 and 76 %<br />

in 2011 compared to 2009. This significant<br />

increase is a good thing because it exppresses an<br />

increase of profitability in opearting activities and<br />

consequently the performance of this activity,<br />

increased current result was mainly due to<br />

increased operating income in the three years

analyzed, accounting net income recorded a year<br />

increase in three years , so in 2009 the 5921 lei,<br />

9963 lei in 2010 and 36986 lei in 2011. This<br />

increase is due primarily to increased business<br />

volume turnover of agricultural society.<br />

Throughout the period analyzed the activity of<br />

current resources funding was quite swing (without<br />

exceed the maxim level), but recorded a reduction<br />

to the first year and last year of analysis, due to<br />

generally declining faster that the pace from the<br />

constant current resources (Figure 5). he principal<br />

reason for this decline in the year 2009 and 2011 is<br />

the reduction in short-terms of bank loans,<br />

agricultural society funds its operations in 2009 in<br />

percentage by 5 % from cyclic source, in 2010<br />

approximately 30 % and in 2011 to 18 %.<br />

%<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

Current funding level<br />

5.11<br />

29.45<br />

17.84<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

Figure 5<br />

In a market economy a company can not<br />

survive and develop only to the extent that it<br />

proves that it is able to respond to market society<br />

in a sustaniable manner, as measured by correct<br />

idendification of customer requirements, ensuring<br />

prompt an offer of products and services.<br />

Analyzing agricultural society we observed that the<br />

reform in agriculture, micro or macro level, shows<br />

besides fundamental change of ownership, and<br />

change functions radical production and exchange<br />

relations of distribution of profit. The return of<br />

Romanian agriculture in the network market<br />

economy relations, relations of competition, where<br />

the criterion is only effective and quality, requires<br />

a new type of management that the methods and<br />

techniques used to meet the requirement of<br />

different types of agricultural holdings.<br />

These studies conclude that although the<br />

agriculture scocisty has nearly two decades<br />

agriculture has failed to be performance, for witch<br />

i recommend the following: increasing acreage to<br />

increase profit; increase productivity by puchasing<br />

new equipment; providing a large amount of<br />

agricultural work to third patries, activity based<br />

incomes are obtained with relatively low costs;<br />

increasing areas of activity and/ or the introduction<br />

of new fields by hiring new people and increasing<br />

fleet; association with other companies and<br />

attracting new investors. Even if the agriculture<br />

381<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

society has not improved agricultural performance<br />

at the regional level remains a balancing factor in<br />

terms of revenue growth and support local farmers<br />

and producers in this area.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Modern world becomes increasingly a<br />

reality inconceivable without concern for<br />

performance, achievement and success. These<br />

elements have became motivation, almost<br />

obsessive, of any company that tries to join the<br />

market economy demands and global competition.<br />

Any business activity is focused on getting<br />

products, works and services, raison d’etre<br />

consisted in obtaining a desired profitability.<br />

Analyzing the time evolution of the agriculture<br />

society emergead favorable and unfavorable<br />

aspects:<br />

Favorable aspects: profit share in turnover<br />

is increasing, resulting thus a favorable situation;<br />

overall solvecy is higher that one ( > 100% ) so<br />

they can cover agricultural society payable from<br />

current assets it holds and using part of the<br />

permanent capital to fund its operation; partial<br />

solvability is very good in the last two years of<br />

analysis, and also results an optimal solvency for<br />

agricultural society.<br />

Unfavorable aspects: cuurrent liabilities to<br />

total assets register values higher procentage;<br />

working capital is less than the need of working<br />

capital resulting in negative net cash in 2010 and<br />

2011; agricultural society turned to large long<br />

terms loans in 2011, which led to higher financial<br />

expenses, hence highly leveraged; return of equity<br />

is lower that the interest rate, so doesn’t secure the<br />

payment of interest on loans; immediate liquidity<br />

is reduced, agricultural society unable to honor its<br />

obligations in the short term from existing<br />

availability.<br />

Finally we can say that the performance of a<br />

company is done by purchasing production<br />

resources with the lowest cost followed by<br />

maximizing the results and effectiveness of yhe<br />

activity.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cojoc Doina, Ignat Gabriela, 2009. Accounting and<br />

economical –financiar. Practical lucar. Editura<br />

”Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iași.<br />

Cojoc Doina, Ignat Gabriela, Iațco C., 2008.<br />

Accounting for engineers. Editura Pim, IașiIgnat<br />

Gabriela, Cojoc Doina, 2008. Balance sheet and<br />

economic success. Editura Pim, Iași.Ristea M.,<br />

Corina - Graziella Dumitru, Cristina Ioanaș, Alina<br />

Irimescu, 2009. Accounting companies. vol. I, II.<br />

Editura Universitară, București.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

382

Abstract<br />

383<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

STUDY OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING BASED OF FINANCIAL<br />

INDICATORS AT SC CREȚU COMPANY SRL, HÎRLĂU<br />

Gabriela IGNAT 1 , Carmen Olguta BREZULEANU 1 ,<br />

Carmen COSTULEANU, Ioan PRIGOREANU<br />

e-mail: gabriela@uaiasi.ro<br />

Analysis of expenditure and income and the economic result of the company should occupy an important place in the<br />

interal management, becouse that depends the capacity of using the factors of production and the mode that interfer<br />

between the company and market, providing strong financial and economic performance to assure an high level<br />

economic and financiar performance, to provide an mode of explore costs and income, from another perspective must<br />

ansure the eficiencity of diferent costs so that generete income by using a corect management and the company obtain<br />

an high benefits, profit and plus value. Organization and economic activity must be necesary, in terms of real needs of<br />

society and eficient, profitability ensuring a profit to expenses of profit through income. From this point of view is<br />

necesary to obtain and record the sources of profit, in this case the company should achieve strict evidentcy of costs and<br />

income, whitch are one of the most important sector out of business. This objective is conditions on a thorough<br />

knowledge of the real situation of unit from in light of external manifestation by using an specifics indicators at the high<br />

level and been able to identify the components which are influience the indicators level and to know the primary couses<br />

which are actions of them. This study is intended to be a financial an economic analysis of costs, revenues and financial<br />

results that involve any economic activity, emphasizing the mode that reflects the couses that positively or negatively<br />

influenced their evolution and the necesary measures which are contribution of redusing the productions costs, to<br />

improve the quality of products and to increasing the profitability and eficienticy of business activity.<br />

Key words:acconting information, performance, policy making,diagnosis profitability<br />

Business expenses and income reflects a wide<br />

range of financial and economic phenomena such<br />

as using and consum the production factory:<br />

nature, labor and capital and so that is neccesary<br />

to perform, to recuperate the using resourse.<br />

To perform in any activities in special the<br />

activities of company that are resoure consumer<br />

and results producting and like accountancy, by the<br />

mode of organisation and management provide an<br />

accurate picture of company resources and results;<br />

so that anyone should be count of that becouse it`s<br />

impotant that the management and buessnes<br />

organisation in the company be stategic<br />

implemented, so we obtain the high resoults that<br />

we want and a corect management buesness is a<br />

mode by using practics from accountancy domain.<br />

According FABS 'expenses are either outputs or<br />

decreases in assets or increases its debt or a<br />

combination of the two types of operations that<br />

occurred during the year and generated the supply<br />

of goods, services or other activities arising from<br />

normal operation".<br />

1 Universitatea de Științe Agricole și Medicină Veterinară, Iași<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Research methods used in this paper are<br />

bibliographic study, observation and comparative<br />

analysis. The case study was conducted at SC<br />

Crețu Company SRL, Hîrlău where ar been<br />

analyzed the indices of asset management, debt<br />

and profitability indicators.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Assets indices are called as management<br />

activity indices. Efficiency of a company is<br />

measured by this indicators who stand on base of<br />

the currents assets transform proces of circulant<br />

active at the long circuit which begans whith the<br />

numerar used for stoc achisitions and it`s end<br />

whith retorn of him in the company after seeling<br />

the products and services.<br />

In the analysis of these are recorded the<br />

following aspects:<br />

- the stocks rotate at 1,36 times in the last<br />

year compared to 5,06 times in 2010 and 15,61<br />

times in 2009, so that we see a slight inefficiency

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

in the use of stocks existing , the main effect of this<br />

is the immobilization of money, and we see that in<br />

2009 the company get an extra sales of 0,17 lei, so<br />

the asset rotation speed increases from time to time<br />

which means an increasing of liquidity, an<br />

improving asset structure of the company. Table 1<br />

Analysis of asset management indices<br />

Indicator 2009 2010 2011<br />

Turnover 5318724 3987154 2919530<br />

Stocks 340736 787818 2144075<br />

Total fixet assets 4530176 4746246 5009913<br />

Total current assets 1591337 1529872 2876312<br />

Total assets 6121513 6276118 7886225<br />

No. stock rotation 15,61 5,06 1,36<br />

No. turns of fixed<br />

assets<br />

1,17 0,84 0,58<br />

No. total current 3,34 2,61 1,02<br />

assets<br />

No. total assets<br />

rotation<br />

0,87 0,64 0,37<br />

Figure 1 The evolution of trade margin<br />

The commercial margin recorded an<br />

upward trend in the last year of analysis, increasing<br />

the value of 123540 lei in 2010 to 338039 lei in<br />

2011, this increase is cause by increase revenue<br />

from the sale of goods in a faster pace than<br />

spending goods. Based on figure 1 we can see that<br />

margin trading is a great development from 47,90<br />

% in 2010 to 125,01 % in 2011, virtually the<br />

increase to 77,11 % in 2011 compared to 2010 was<br />

due to lower of year to yearbased of sales goods<br />

and cost of gonds but in total production. In<br />

financial terms this addition growth signifies an<br />

improvement in comercial activity of the company.<br />

Figure 2 The evolution of value added<br />

Using data from figure 2 it`s shows that the<br />

value added declined in period 2009 – 2011 to<br />

12,28 % in 2010 and 9,13 % in 2011 compared to<br />

2009<br />

384<br />

This situation was due by the fluctuations<br />

of materials costs and consumption from third<br />

parties and influence of exercise and production<br />

change by trade margin.<br />

After analyzing the dinamics of<br />

production we could seen that she varies from year<br />

to year, as compared to 2009 production recorded<br />

an growth in 2010 of 51,05 % and to 48,56 % in<br />

2011 due the mainly lower production in 2010 for<br />

48,95 % to 51,05 % in 2011.<br />

In terms the production stored it recorded<br />

the largest fluctuation of 185,34 % in 2010<br />

compared to 2009 and 96,10 % in 2011 compared<br />

to 2009, in this case the company recorded the<br />

highest value of stocks in 2010, and in terms of<br />

production sold recorded the highest value in 2009<br />

and the other two years has a reduction of about 50<br />

% compared to production from 2009.<br />

Figure 3 The evolution of total production<br />

Total production olso registered a decline<br />

from year to year due the fluctuations of<br />

production sold in 2009 and the variation in output<br />

stored in 2010 so the recorded an growth of 64.51<br />

% in 2010 compared to 2009 and 53.33 % in 2011<br />

compared to 2009. Accouting to the analysis of<br />

debt ration, in the table we can see that the<br />

company has a share of less than on debt ration in<br />

the tree years analyzed, whith means that the<br />

company has a higher self- financing capacity, has<br />

a great control over it`s creditors and that she has a<br />

high flexibility. In terms of solvency situation of<br />

the company that is excelentar both: the general<br />

solvency an in specially the financial solvency<br />

with good value and relative improvement trends<br />

cantime, so we can say that the company is not in<br />

any danger in terms of inability to pay.<br />

In terms of equity of debt ratio is observed<br />

that the company has a ration of 7,77 in 2009 an<br />

2,01 in 2010 and an 2,71 in 2011, basically the best<br />

proportion of this is registered in 2009 because the<br />

equity has the lowest value in this year.<br />

After analyzed the coverage of interests<br />

note of company we can tell that she support<br />

interests in the expense of operating profit<br />

recorded a high of 1.01 in 2010 and 1.07 in 2011<br />

and so get and extra result as critical value of<br />

degree interest coverage is 1.

Table 2<br />

Debt management indices<br />

Indicator Anii<br />

2009 2010 2011<br />

Debt index 0,89 0,67 0,73<br />

Degree of short term debt 0,44 0,26 0,32<br />

Degree of long term debt 0,44 0,40 0,41<br />

Patrimonial solvency 0,11 0,33 0,27<br />

Debt to equity ratio 7,77 2,01 2,71<br />

Coverage of interest 0,98 1,01 1,07<br />

Average cost of debt 0,07 0,14 0,10<br />

Figure 4 Share degree of short and long term debt<br />

Net profit margin was an increasing trend<br />

during the analyzed period from 0,11 % in 2009 to<br />

0,25 % in 2010 and the 1,27 % in 2011. In the<br />

analyzed period the rate of net profit margin has<br />

increassed to 14 % in 2010 and with 116 % in<br />

2011 whith is attributed to redirection in the gross<br />

operating surplus greater extend than reducing<br />

turnover.<br />

Figure 5 The evolution of made profit rate<br />

Gross margins indicator is on an upward<br />

trend during the analyzed period recorded a level<br />

of 12.79 % in 2010 which means that a 100 lei<br />

turnover of 12 lei incument firm as gross result and<br />

in 2011 a level of 15 % an increase of 6 % over the<br />

previons year. Level is lower than the<br />

recommended level of 15 %..<br />

Figure 6 Share of commercial and brut margin<br />

385<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

During the analyzes economic profitability<br />

rate she recorded in 2011 a significant increase of<br />

276.47 % compared to 2009 this reflecting an<br />

increase in total asser releasing capacity gross<br />

profit.<br />

Figure 7 Share and return on total assets<br />

Raising economic return of between 2009<br />

– 2011 at a lever of 0.17 % in 2009 reaching a<br />

level of 0.22 % in 2010, thess year due to increased<br />

net income from the 5921 lei in 2009 than 9963<br />

2010 and 36986 % in 2011.<br />

The company recorded the highest share of<br />

total production by the sold production so in the<br />

tree years analyzed dominate the sold production.<br />

Procentage immobilized register 89.98 % of total<br />

manufactorig production in year 2009, 71.21 % in<br />

2010 and 81.94 % in 2011 and 10.02 % production<br />

records stored in 2009, 28.79 % in 2010 and 18.06<br />

% in 2011. These fluctuations of production sold<br />

are stored in total manufacturing production is due<br />

because of different recording production sold on<br />

the highest value recorded respectively in 2009 and<br />

when stored production is the highest value in year<br />

2010.<br />

Figure 8 The production structure evolution<br />

The added value recorder in 2010 a<br />

decrease from 12.29 % which is due because of<br />

decreased production whith 35.49 % and the<br />

decrease of intermediate consumption by 48.64 %.<br />

In 2011 value added registered an upward trend<br />

compared to 2010 increasing from 1272863 lei to<br />

1318685 lei, an increase value in the relative sizes<br />

of 3.60 % increase due the increasing trade margin<br />

of 160.95 %. Accordin to the variation in absolute<br />

value added fell by – 178336 lei in 2010 compared<br />

to 2009 but realized an increase of 45822 lei in<br />

2011 compared to 2009. This growth was driven<br />

by fluctuations that had the intermediate<br />

consumption, the trade margin and the total

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

productions. Intermediate consumption decreases<br />

in 2010 compared to 2009 to 48.64 % and 64.96 %<br />

in 2011, the company recorded a few practical<br />

production process costs from year to year.<br />

Commercial margin are influences the<br />

value added because of his decreases from 52.09 %<br />

in 2010 with a slight increase in 2011 about 10 %<br />

reach 41.55 % compared to 2009. In terms of total<br />

output this register declines from year to year. In<br />

other words each year the company reduced<br />

production and decreasing production, decreases<br />

that influencing the factors namely commercial<br />

margin but olso the intermediate consumption and<br />

entire result of this reduction is reflected on the<br />

value added. Throughout the analyzed period EBE<br />

register a downward trend which reflects a<br />

decrease in funding capacity operation.<br />

Downward trend is due of decreased both<br />

value added and personal expenses. A rate lower<br />

wage growth in value added growth and the<br />

existence of a high fiscal presure led to a decrease<br />

of 27213 lei in 2010 compared to 2009 and with<br />

44913 lei in 2011 in front of the base year.<br />

Figure 9 The eccedent brut of exploatation evolution<br />

Analyzed during the operation result<br />

register an upward trend, so in 2010 the result of<br />

explotation increased to 368333 lei at 607843 lei<br />

an increase in the relative size of 65,03 % and in<br />

2011 result on operation grow from 607843 lei to<br />

the value of 647858 lei an increase on the relative<br />

size of 6.58 %. Is seen that the result of the<br />

operation registed a significant increase in 2010<br />

and 2011. This growth is driven both by increses<br />

production and efficiency goods exercise activity,<br />

but the increase in operating revenue growth faster<br />

than operating cost have resulted in the company<br />

an favorable effect.<br />

Lower gross operating surplus in 2009 –<br />

2011 at 764442 lei in 2009, and 737229 lei registed<br />

in 2010 reaching at 719529 lei in 2011 this was<br />

due because the decrease in value added and<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Financiar and economic analysis performed<br />

based on 2009 – 2011 data provided by the<br />

company highlighed a number of positive and<br />

negative aspects of company such :<br />

386<br />

personnel costs and other taxes.<br />

Figure 10 The evolution of company results<br />

EBE representing cash flow capacity and<br />

is released from operations recorded in the tree<br />

years analyzed a decrease in growth rate because<br />

the due of lower income items from the nature of<br />

the expenditure and decreased efficiency.<br />

Downward trend of this indicator is negative<br />

because it is provide a reduction potential<br />

investment cash flow from operations and low<br />

remuneration of invested capital, all under a high<br />

inflation rate and a general economic instability.<br />

Value added registered a decrease in the<br />

tree years analyzed because that she looks reducing<br />

the extra wealth created by business operating<br />

company. The operation result represents a loss in<br />

both periods increased. So given that EBE,<br />

operating expenses and decrease this value<br />

adjustment asssets canceles the beneficial effect<br />

exerted on the result of the increase in other<br />

operating income.<br />

Operating income increased in the tree years<br />

analyzed from 368333 lei in 2009 to 607843 lei in<br />

2010 and 647858 lei in year 2011 was because the<br />

increased operating income compared to operating<br />

expenses. Operating result cousistent with other<br />

financial indicators confirm the general trend of<br />

growth of the company, the real value registed<br />

higher of 65 % in 2010 and 76 % in 2011<br />

compared to 2009. This significant increase is a<br />

positive think for the company such as expressing<br />

increased profitability in operating activities and<br />

consequently the performance of this activity.<br />

Current income in the tree years analyzed<br />

the net result of the exercise show a grew in the<br />

tree years so in 2009 we have 5921 lei and in 2010<br />

9963 lei and in 2011 to 36986 lei. This increase is<br />

due by primarity increased volume of buesiness<br />

activity by turnover.<br />

market leader in manufactoring bakery<br />

products owning a share of about 60 %;<br />

total production recorded a downward<br />

trend due to lower consumption;

turnover fell by 25 % in 2010 and 45.11<br />

% in 2011 compared to 2009 the<br />

reduction of the production process and<br />

thus decrease production sold;<br />

return growing in all fields of buesiness;<br />

gross profit up from 2009 to 2011<br />

reaching over 470 % over the year;<br />

increassing economic rate of return was<br />

influenced by increasing the number of<br />

revolutions of the total assets of 3.58 %<br />

and 4.62 % commercial rate of return ;<br />

financiar return after recording in 2010 an<br />

decreased with 43.53 %, decrease due the<br />

increased equity, in 2011 this indicator<br />

grew with 104.71 % net income growth<br />

for the year due to growth in capital<br />

growth faster then own ;<br />

trade margin rate recorded in the 2011 an<br />

increased with 127.95 % compared to<br />

2009, gross increase due the increasing<br />

explootation result in higher rates of<br />

growth than total assets ;<br />

gross margin rate was an increasing trend<br />

throughout the growing analyzed by<br />

98.91 % in 2010 and 204.20 % in 2011<br />

compared to 2009 increases due the<br />

increased gross resuluts in a higher rate of<br />

explotation incresed ;<br />

rate of return or profit rate expenses<br />

recorded in the year 2011 a significat<br />

increase of 1030 % compared to 2009 due<br />

the increasing net income growth for the<br />

year.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bătrâncea I., 2001. Financial analysis based on<br />

balance. Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj –<br />

Napoca.<br />

Bătrâncea I., Trenca I., Bejenaru A., Borlea N., 2007.<br />

Performance analysis and banking risk. Editura<br />

Risoprint, Cluj – Napoca.<br />

Cojoc Doina, Ignat Gabriela, Iațco C., 2008.<br />

Accounting for engineers. Editura Pim, Iași<br />

Ignat Gabriela, Cojoc Doina, 2008. Balance sheet and<br />

economic success. Editura Pim, Iași.<br />

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<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55/2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

388

Abstract<br />

389<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

SATELLITE ACCOUNTS RECOMMENDED BY EUROPEAN UNION<br />

Carmen Luiza COSTULEANU 1 , Gabriela IGNAT 1<br />

e-mail: ccostuleanu@yahoo.com<br />

Satellite accounts provide the ability to make links between non-monetary statistics and the standard national accounts.<br />

The first type involves a rearrangement of central classifications and the possible introduction of complementary<br />

elements. Such satellite accounts largely cover specific accounts data fields, such as expenditure on education, health<br />

care, tourism and environmental protection and might be considered as an extension of key sectors. They may involve<br />

some differences from the central system, such as an alternative treatment of ancillary activities, but does not change in<br />

a fundamental way the basic concepts of System of National Accounts (SNA). The second type of analysis through<br />

satellite accounts is mainly based on concepts that are alternatives to those of the SNA. Often, several alternative<br />

concepts can be used simultaneously. The second type of satellite accounts analysis may involve, similar to the first<br />

type, changes in classifications, but this type mainly focuses on alternative concepts. Using these alternative concepts<br />

may give rise to partial complementary units, whose purpose is to supplement the central system. We conceptually<br />

analyzed all described international and European satellite accounts, highlighting their characteristics and degree of<br />

implementation. For Romania, the introduction of satellite accounts is far away of being realised.<br />

Key words: satellite accounts, European Union, Romania<br />

For some specific needs in terms of data, the<br />

best solution is to have separate satellite accounts.<br />

An important feature of satellite accounts is that<br />

they keep, in principle, all basic concepts and<br />

classifications of the standard framework. Only if<br />

the specific purpose of satellite accounts requires<br />

an amendment, are there introduced changes in the<br />

basic concepts. In such cases, the satellite account<br />

should also include a table showing the links<br />

between the major aggregates of the account and<br />

the aggregates from the standard account. Thus,<br />

the standard framework holds its role as a<br />

framework of reference and at the same time there<br />

will be fulfilled several specific needs.<br />

(Costuleanu, 2010).<br />

The 1993 System of National Accounts<br />

(SNA) incorporated the concept of satellite<br />

accounts, a major step in the direction of<br />

flexibility. Moving forward, satellite accounts are<br />

expected to continue to provide a useful way of<br />

working towards solutions that give the appropriate<br />

level of confidence in challenging measures, such<br />

as those for environmental accounting issues.<br />

Using satellite accounts as a means of expanding<br />

the relevance of the national accounts, but without<br />

affecting the comparability of the central<br />

framework used for economic policymaking, has<br />

become an accepted means of developing and<br />

testing new data sources and methods. Further, the<br />

1 The University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

2008 SNA has introduced the item of<br />

“supplementary” items and tables. The term<br />

“supplementary” is used when the SNA recognizes<br />

that items may be of limited relevance in some<br />

countries or that while of analytical interest, a table<br />

cannot be prepared to the same standard of<br />

accuracy as the main set of accounts. (*, 2009).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Our research on satellite accounts of the<br />

SNA is a fundamental and conceptual one.<br />

Although a conceptual framework is not always<br />

necessary, no serious fundamental economic<br />

research should be developed without such a<br />

framework. It is an integral part of understanding<br />

and problem analysis/research theme (Evensen,<br />

2012).<br />

The fundamental aim of the research was<br />

represented by the current state and prospects of<br />

implementation of satellite accounts of international<br />

system of national accounts in European Union<br />

(EU) and Romania to meet certain specific needs<br />

of data, in accordance with the requirements of<br />

SNA 2008 and in particular with those of EU.<br />

European System of Accounts<br />

conceptualization (ESA 2010, possibly subject to<br />

approval in 2012, with the introduction of national<br />

accounting practice of EU member states in 2014)<br />

is consistent with that of SNA 2008. In ESA 2010<br />

concepts were also included those of capitalization

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

of health, environment, education, research and<br />

development. These concepts will be introduced<br />

into the basic ones when they’ll include a high level<br />

of reliability and comparability of data between<br />

Member States. Until then, data will be presented<br />

in tables of satellite accounts. Therefore, ESA<br />

2010 is paying a particular importance to the<br />

conceptualization and development of satellite<br />

accounts, integrated and functional ones, as an<br />

assessment means of flexible monetary accounting<br />

data from national accounts system in relation to<br />

non-monetary data.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Satellite accounts can meet specific data<br />

needs by providing more detail, by rearranging<br />

concepts from the central framework or by<br />

providing supplementary information, such as nonmonetary<br />

flows and stocks. They may deviate from<br />

the central concepts. Changing the concepts can<br />

improve the link with economic theoretic concepts<br />

such as welfare or transactions costs,<br />

administrative concepts such as taxable income or<br />

profits in the business accounts, and policy<br />

concepts such as strategic industries, the<br />

knowledge economy and business investments<br />

used in national or European economic policy. In<br />

such cases, the satellite system will contain a table<br />

showing the link between its major aggregates and<br />

those in the central framework. (**, 2010).<br />

A further and more extensive form of<br />

flexibility is that of a satellite account. As its name<br />

indicates, it is linked to, but distinct from, the<br />

central system. Many satellite accounts are<br />

possible but, though each is consistent with the<br />

central system, they may not always be consistent<br />

with each other. (*, 2009).<br />

Broadly speaking, there are two types of<br />

satellite accounts. One type involves some<br />

rearrangement of central classifications and the<br />

possible introduction of complementary elements.<br />

Such satellite accounts mostly cover accounts<br />

specific to given fields such as education, tourism<br />

and environmental protection expenditures and<br />

may be seen as an extension of the key sector<br />

accounts just referred to. They may involve some<br />

differences from the central system, such as an<br />

alternative treatment of ancillary activities, but<br />

they do not change the underlying concepts of the<br />

SNA in a fundamental way. The main reason for<br />

developing such a satellite account is that to<br />

encompass all the detail for all sectors of interest<br />

as part of the standard system would simply<br />

overburden it and possibly distract attention from<br />

the main features of the accounts as a whole. (*,<br />

2009).<br />

390<br />

Many elements shown in a satellite account<br />

are invisible in the central accounts. Either they are<br />

explicitly estimated in the making of the central<br />

accounts, but they are merged for presentation in<br />

more aggregated figures, or they are only implicit<br />

components of transactions which are estimated<br />

globally. (*, 2009).<br />

The second type of satellite analysis is<br />

mainly based on concepts that are alternatives to<br />

those of the SNA. These include a different<br />

production boundary, an enlarged concept of<br />

consumption or capital formation, an extension of<br />

the scope of assets, and so on. Often a number of<br />

alternative concepts may be used at the same time.<br />

This second type of analysis may involve, like the<br />

first, changes in classifications, but in the second<br />

type the main emphasis is on the alternative<br />

concepts. Using those alternative concepts may<br />

give rise to partial complementary aggregates, the<br />

purpose of which is to supplement the central<br />

system. (*, 2009).<br />

The emphasis on the flexibility of the SNA<br />

extends to allowing complete flexibility about how<br />

many and what sort of satellite or other extended<br />

accounts may be developed. Satellite accounts,<br />

especially of the second sort, allow<br />

experimentation with new concepts and<br />

methodologies, with a much wider degree of<br />

freedom than is possible within the central system.<br />

When a number of countries develop similar<br />

satellites, exchanging experience can lead to<br />

beneficial refinements and the establishment of<br />

international guidelines in a particular topic and<br />

ultimately the possibility of changes in the central<br />

system itself. (*, 2009).<br />

The wide range of satellite accounts<br />

illustrates that the national accounts serve as a<br />

frame of reference for a variety of statistics. They<br />

also illustrate the merits and limitations of the<br />

central framework. By applying the concepts,<br />

classifications and presentations such as the supply<br />

and use tables of the central framework to a wide<br />

range of topics, the flexibility and relevance of the<br />

satellite accounts approach for these topics is<br />

demonstrated. At the same time, additions,<br />

rearrangements and conceptual modifications<br />

illustrate the limitations of the central framework<br />

for the study of these topics. For example, the<br />

environmental accounts extend the central<br />

framework to take account of environmental<br />

externalities and the household production<br />

accounts extend the production boundary to<br />

include unpaid household services. In this way,<br />

they demonstrate that the central framework’s<br />

concepts of product, income and consumption are<br />

not complete measures of welfare. (**, 2010).

The boundary between satellite accounts and<br />

a straightforward elaboration of the SNA or even<br />

with other systems is not clear cut. The links to<br />

balance of payments and the international accounts<br />

as presented in BPM6, government finance<br />

statistics as in GFSM2001 or MFSM could all be<br />

seen as a form of satellite account. The treatment<br />

of NPIs and the informal sector are clearly satellite<br />

accounts. Even the new pension table of SNA 2008<br />

could be seen as a form of satellite account, even<br />

though its compilation is part of the central<br />

guidelines of the SNA. (*, 2009).<br />

For the tourism satellite account and the<br />

environmental satellite account the international<br />

manuals are now in their second version. The<br />

health satellite account is still in a preliminary<br />

version but under active revision. The fourth area<br />

covers unpaid household production activities.<br />

This has been an area of interest for very many<br />

years but the difficulties in determining how to<br />

measure unpaid activities has so far been a<br />

stumbling block in reaching international<br />

agreement on how to proceed. (*, 2009).<br />

Other satellite accounts have been developed<br />

or are under development. Some, such as a satellite<br />

investigating productivity across a number of<br />

countries reported in Productivity in the European<br />

Union: A Comparative Industry Approach (EU<br />

KLEMS Project, 2003), have been conducted to<br />

date as a research exercise. Others, such as<br />

accounts for water and forests, have been<br />

developed as elaborations of the main<br />

environmental satellite account SEEA to the point<br />

where international guidelines on these are now<br />

accepted. Further satellite accounts for agricultural<br />

products would be useful for a number of<br />

developing countries. Here and elsewhere, as there<br />

is agreement on how to compile a new form of<br />

satellite account, new international guidelines can<br />

be developed. International guidelines on satellite<br />

accounts themselves may be subject to revision<br />

and may eventually move towards an accepted<br />

international standard as is planned for the SEEA.<br />

(*, 2009).<br />

The following satellite accounts are<br />

recommended to be elaborated by EU: a)<br />

agricultural accounts; b) environmental accounts;<br />

c) health accounts; d) household production<br />

accounts; e) labour accounts and SAMs; f)<br />

productivity and growth accounts; g) R&D<br />

accounts; h) social protection accounts; i) tourism<br />

satellite accounts. (**, 2010).<br />

Designing and compiling a satellite account<br />

consists of four steps: a) define the purposes, uses<br />

and requirements; b) select what is relevant from<br />

the national accounts; c) select relevant<br />

supplementary information, e.g. from various<br />

391<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

specific statistics or administrative data sources; d)<br />

combine both sets of concepts and figures into one<br />

set of tables and accounts. (**, 2010).<br />

Designing and compiling satellite accounts<br />

for the first time often reveals unexpected results<br />

during the four steps. As a consequence, drawing<br />

up satellite accounts is work-in-progress. Only<br />

after experience of compiling and using the<br />

satellite and making modifications where<br />

necessary, can an experimental set of tables be<br />

transformed into a mature statistical product. In<br />

designing and compiling a satellite account,<br />

applying the concepts of the central framework for<br />

a purpose often reveals features. From the point of<br />

view of the purpose, these can be helpful as well as<br />

unexpected limitations. For example, in designing<br />

and compiling a Research and Development<br />

account for the first time, problems such as the<br />

overlap with R&D on software and health care, or<br />

the role of multinationals in importing and<br />

exporting R&D, may be revealed. Selecting<br />

relevant information from other sources than the<br />

national accounts such as other official statistics or<br />

administrative data sources, will generate similar<br />

problems in terms of concepts and figures: the<br />

concepts officially used may reveal unexpected<br />

flaws in terms of the specific purpose of the<br />

satellite, the actual concepts used may differ from<br />

the official concepts and the reliability, detail,<br />

timing and frequency may pose problems. All<br />

these problems should be tackled, either through<br />

making additional estimates to overcome the<br />

difference in concepts, by classifying flows in nonmonetary<br />

terms by industry or sector, or by<br />

adjusting the concepts used in the satellite account.<br />

Transforming a consistent satellite account into a<br />

product for data users may involve additional<br />

steps. An overview table with key indicators for a<br />

number of years may be introduced. These key<br />

indicators could focus on describing the size,<br />

components and developments of the specific issue<br />

involved, or may show the links to the national<br />

economy and its major components. Extra detail or<br />

classifications relevant for political and analytical<br />

purposes may be added. Detail with little value<br />

added or compiled at relatively high costs may be<br />

dropped. Efforts could also focus on reducing the<br />

complexity of the tables, increase simplicity and<br />

transparency for data users and include standard<br />

bookkeeping decompositions in a separate table.<br />

(**, 2010).<br />

On the other hand, "The 2008-2010 multiannual<br />

national statistics program", developed by<br />

the National Institute of Statistics of Romania<br />

provides in the chapter of the satellite accounts<br />

only: environmental satellite accounts, natural

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

resource accounting and health satellite accounts<br />

(***, 2008).<br />

In terms of environmental satellite accounts,<br />

INS program includes: the current implementation<br />

of satellite accounts of expenditure for<br />

environmental protection, development of<br />

methodology and data collection for National<br />

Accounting Matrix with Environmental Accounts -<br />

NAMEA; the development of methodology and<br />

data collection for “environmental industries”<br />

accounts. The satellite accounts of natural<br />

resources refer to actions for 2008 (exploration of<br />

administrative and statistical data sources for the<br />

calculation of environmental accounts;<br />

development of data collection on material flows<br />

and providing standard tables to Eurostat;<br />

development of the methodology and building of<br />

the indicators: resource productivity and material<br />

intensity of their use) but also for 2009<br />

(development of methodology and data collection<br />

for the accounts of natural resources - coal, oil,<br />

natural gas; development of methodology and data<br />

collection for water flow accounts). Furthermore,<br />

the program also includes actions on health<br />

satellite accounts for 2008 (implementation of data<br />

collection on health expenditure, harmonized with<br />

OECD methodology and with the most recent<br />

methodological recommendations of Eurostat),<br />

yearly (for the collection of health expenditure of<br />

the three areas: funding sources, health functions<br />

and services, health service providers; an<br />

additional field is the collection of expenditure on<br />

health human resources in the standardized<br />

format), for 2009 (review the national<br />

methodology of the System of Health Accounts,<br />

following the preparation and publication of the<br />

second edition of the OECD-EUROSTAT-WHO<br />

methodology) and for 2010 (dissemination of<br />

statistics on health expenditure). (***, 2008)<br />

As stated in 2009, Romania is in an initial<br />

stage of Tourism satellite account (TSA)<br />

compilation having some parts of a feasibility<br />

study (2005 and 2008) already prepared and also<br />

an unofficial pilot TSA version carried out in 2004.<br />

Now the target is to improve the statistical basis in<br />

order to have a detailed data necessary for TSA<br />

compilation. In 2005 INCDT carry out one part of<br />

a TSA feasibility study referring only to the<br />

392<br />

description and diagnosis of System of tourism<br />

statistics in Romania as well as some proposals to<br />

improve the existing tourism statistics. This study<br />

received contribution from INS and BNR (National<br />

Bank of Romania). The second part of the TSA<br />

feasibility study was completed in December 2008<br />

by INCDT and it deals with some short general<br />

guidelines referring to the implementation<br />

alternatives, necessary activities, institutional<br />

construction and resources required. A full-fledged<br />

TSA on the other hand is not officially envisaged<br />

which originates from missing data and staff as<br />

well as a wanting background or affiliation to a<br />

national statistical program respectively. The<br />

preliminary pilot version was not financed by EU<br />

grant. (****, 2009).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The satellite accounts may sharpen the<br />

focused elements.<br />

In contrast to the EU, for Romania the<br />

implementation of satellite accounts is a far away<br />

dream for many of the recommended ones.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Costuleanu, C.L., 2010 - The Challenge of Satellite<br />

National Accounts for Romania, Metalurgia<br />

International, vol. XV, special issue no. 10, p. 30-<br />

34.<br />

Evensen C., 2012 - Research and Methodology<br />

Lectures. Available at: http://manoa.hawaii.<br />

edu/ctahr/aheed/Carl/.15/08/2012.<br />

*, 2009 - European Commission, FMI, OCDE, UN and<br />

BM, 2008. A System of National Accounts 2008,<br />

New York. Available at: http://unstats.un.org/<br />

unsd/nationalaccount/sna2008.asp<br />

**, 2010 – Regulation of the European Parliament and of<br />

the Council on the European System of National<br />

and Regional Accounts in the European Union.<br />

Bruxelles, 20.12.2010, COM(2010) 774 final.<br />

Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/<br />

***, 2008 - Institutul Naţional de Statistică. Programul<br />

statistic naţional multianual 2008-2010. Available<br />

at: http://www.insse.ro/cms/rw/resource/pma<br />

****, 2009 - Eurostat-European Commission. Tourism<br />

Satellite Accounts in the European Union Volume<br />

1: Report on the implementation of TSA in 27 EU<br />

Member States. Luxembourg: Office for Official<br />

Publications of the European Communities.<br />

Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/

Abstract<br />

393<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

GIARDIASIS: CONTROVERSY SUBJECT AND PREVENTION<br />

REQUIREMENTS<br />

Carmen Cătălina IOAN 1 , Cornelia URSU 2<br />

Email: carmenia_ro@yahoo.com<br />

Giardiasis is one of the most common diseases caused by parasites in Romania with a growing prevalence. It is<br />

estimated that over 20% of the population is infested with Giardia Lamblia. It is an infection caused by Giardia lamblia<br />

(Giardia intestinalis or Giardia duodenalis). This is a microscopic organism which attaches to the intestinal mucosa, it<br />

multiplies and prevents the absorption of nutrients from food. The parasite is mainly found in contaminated water,<br />

toilets, human and animal faeces, dirt from fruit and vegetables, kindergartens, nurseries etc. It is the most common<br />

parasite in the world and one of the major causes of diarrhoea and malabsorption; children are most commonly affected,<br />

while adults are rarely affected. Some studies have shown that in time it is possible to develop immunity to Giardia,<br />

that is why adults are much less affected by this parasite. Medical controversies regarding diagnosis and treatment of<br />

this disease are largely due to the fact that symptomatology is not perfectly specific. Giardiasis may cause or maintain<br />

allergic conditions of the skin, eyes and upper and lower respiratory tract, and the ENT symptoms produced by this<br />

disease create issues of differential diagnosis. The survey we conducted at the Military Emergency Hospital Iasi in<br />

2007-2009 on 2015 patients showed that this disease is commonly met in the age group 41-60 years, that dog owners<br />

are more prone to carry the parasite and that coprologic tests are very important.<br />

Key words: giardiasis, clinical manifestations, survey, coprologic exam, prevention<br />

The etiologic agent of giardiasis is a<br />

pathogen protozoan belonging to the class<br />

Flagellata, called Giardia lamblia, Giardia<br />

enterica or Lamblia intestinalis. Modes of<br />

transmission to humans can be digestive (via dirty<br />

hands) or food- or water-borne. The incubation<br />

period is variable, it starts slowly, slightly<br />

progressive (Gherman I. 1993), (Hill D.R., Nash<br />

TE., 2009).<br />

In many cases, Giardia infection has no<br />

acute, obvious symptoms and thus it can be<br />

unnoticed in the first phase. Clinical manifestations<br />

are characterized by digestive symptoms that may<br />

be accompanied by neurosis and allergic<br />

phenomena (Grinţescu-Mică A., 1982), (Huston<br />

C.D., 2006). Medical studies have shown that this<br />

etiologic agent has been found in 9-11% cases of<br />

patients with chronic diarrhoea (Bolin T.D., Davis<br />

A.E., Duncombe V.M., 1982), (Gunasekaran T.S.,<br />

Hassall E., 1992), in 64 -66% of patients diagnosed<br />

with arthritis (LeBlanc C.M., Birdi N., 1999),<br />

(Letts M., Davidson D., Lalonde F., 1998), in 62 -<br />

80% of patients with chronic urticaria (Spaulding<br />

H.S. Jr., 1990), (Clyne C.A., Eliopoulos G.M.,<br />

1989), (Chirilă M., Panaitescu D., Capraru T.,<br />

1981), and in 20-30% of those diagnosed with<br />

1 „Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi, Romania<br />

2 “Apollonia” University, Iaşi<br />

conjunctivitis or uveitis (Pettoello Mantovani M.,<br />

Giardino I., Magli A., di Martino L., Guandalini S.,<br />

1990), (Corsi A., Nucci C., Knafelz D., Bulgarini<br />

D., Di Iorio L., Polito A., De Risi F., Ardenti<br />

Morini F., Paone F.M., 1998).<br />

It is important to know, however, that<br />

chronic infection with Giardia may be the reason<br />

why a child is anaemic, has no appetite, is irritable,<br />

has allergies, lacks in energy, has sleeping<br />

disorders, does not gain weight, etc. Giardiasis<br />

may cause or maintain allergies of the skin, eyes<br />

and upper and lower respiratory airways.<br />

There are also ENT symptoms, like nasal,<br />

pharyngeal and laryngeal manifestations,<br />

characterised as catarrh forms of inflammation at<br />

this level, which respond slowly or remain<br />

rebellious to treatment (Ungureanu M., Ursu C.,<br />

Podoleanu L., 2005). Thus, in the objective clinical<br />

examination, the results of anterior rhinoscopy<br />

show sometimes pale or slightly purplish<br />

congested nasal mucosa, covered in variable<br />

amounts of mucous secretion, which rarely are<br />

muco-purulent.<br />

Because of the clinical appearance it may<br />

easily be mistaken for allergic rhinitis or<br />

vasomotor rhinitis which are clinically

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

characterized by three symptoms- nasal congestion<br />

with anosmia, aqueous rhinorrhea, and sneezing,<br />

and serologically they are characterised by positive<br />

allergy tests in the first case, while in the second<br />

case allergy tests are negative.<br />

Pharynx tests show a moderate degree of<br />

hyperaemia, possibly hypertrophy of lymphoid<br />

formations in the posterior wall of the oropharynx,<br />

the presence of increased quantities of mucous<br />

secretions and sometimes exaggerated pharyngeal<br />

reflex.<br />

Differential diagnosis with chronic catarrhal<br />

pharyngitis is the more so difficult, as patients<br />

have almost identical complaints: dry or itchy<br />

throat, burning sensation, sensation of a migrating,<br />

irritating foreign body, which is not related to<br />

swallowing.<br />

Patients who complain of temporary<br />

hoarseness of the voice, accompanied by dry<br />

cough, irritation, tingling of the larynx show at the<br />

laryngeal examination mild congestion of the vocal<br />

folds with unimpaired mobility or mild swelling in<br />

Reinke’s space, manifestations and symptoms<br />

which are encountered in catarrhal chronic<br />

laryngitis as well.<br />

Some inflammatory conditions with clinical<br />

aspects of bronchitis or asthma attacks can be<br />

found in lower airways of the larynx.<br />

Giardiasis can be diagnosed by identifying<br />

cysts in coprologic tests prepared with Lugol<br />

solution (70% of the tests are efficient), identifying<br />

vegetative forms in bile sediments obtained by<br />

duodenal tubage or immunofluorescence tests,<br />

ELISA, which achieve 90% efficiency. More<br />

modern and safer is to determine the presence of<br />

the Giardia antigen in stool.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The retrospective study has been conducted<br />

on a group of 2015 patients and has been<br />

structured on gender and age groups, as shown in<br />

table 1. In order to detect Giardia cysts, stool<br />

samples have been examined by using Lugol<br />

solution, which makes the cysts to appear brown in<br />

colour. The Lugol solution shows internal structure<br />

details that can fall into three categories:<br />

- large cysts (12 μm), light brown, obvious<br />

double contour, flagella clusters and nuclei<br />

are difficult to distinguish, these are well<br />

hydrated, recently formed cysts;<br />

- medium cysts (10 μm), dark brown,<br />

double contour is more difficult to<br />

distinguish, these cysts are more dehydrated<br />

than the first ones; interior anatomy of the<br />

cyst is clearer;<br />

- small cysts (less than 10 μm), double<br />

contour cannot be seen, the content is<br />

394<br />

homogeneous, no details; these are not<br />

viable cysts.<br />

The results of the examination with regard to<br />

the degree of infestation have been recorded as<br />

follows:<br />

- reduced infestation: 2-5 cysts/field;<br />

- medium infestation: 6-20 cysts/field;<br />

- massive infestation: over 20 cysts/field.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Depending on the degree of infestation<br />

within the group of patients, we have obtained a<br />

distribution by gender in table 2 and by age in<br />

fig. 1.<br />

The study we have conducted has shown a<br />

total number of 499 negative results, representing<br />

24.76% of all those investigated. The absence of<br />

Giardiasis in these cases has been determined after<br />

four scatology tests have been carried out within a<br />

period of approximately 21 days and they were all<br />

negative. We proceeded in this manner because<br />

Giardiasis tests may be negative because of the<br />

phenomenon of trophozoite insularism, which is<br />

discontinuous. During this phenomenon the cysts<br />

are eliminated in the stool. When it stops,<br />

coprologic tests are negative for 7-10 days, but this<br />

period can extend up to 30 days. The largest<br />

number of positive results has been recorded in the<br />

age group 41-60 years, 806 cases, i.e. 53.19%.<br />

Within the same age group there have been<br />

registered 492 cases of medium infestation (a<br />

majority of 78,1%). These results can be explained<br />

through the fact that 540 subjects (67%) had a dog.<br />

In dogs, Giardiasis is likely to occur at any age,<br />

race and gender and it is transmissible to humans.<br />

It is transmitted via fecal-oral route (fur licking,<br />

coprophagia, puddle water drinking) with possible<br />

re-infection and self-infection (Chandler E.A.,<br />

1994). Some dogs, as they age, develop adaptive<br />

immunity, which can be temporarily lowered due<br />

to immunological disorders with immunosuppression<br />

(stress, corticosteroids) (Coman P.,<br />

Podoleanu L., Gaşpar C., 2003). The organism<br />

cannot be sterilized irrespective of the drug (so<br />

that, invariably, some dogs which have been<br />

treated, remain carriers), and decontamination of<br />

surfaces (e.g. gardens) is impossible to be fully<br />

performed, veterinarians recommend repeating<br />

treatments periodically. For dog owners it is<br />

necessary to respect a series of measures that limit<br />

re-infection: disinfecting floors and feeding bowls,<br />

monitoring access to contaminated or unknown<br />

water sources, deterring coprophagia, undergoing<br />

coprologic tests and prophylactic treatment of<br />

newly purchased animals.<br />

Giardia is transmitted directly from the sick<br />

to the healthy person and via dirty hands,

contaminated objects, water, etc. Therefore, some<br />

rules are necessary:<br />

- it is essential to wash the hands and it<br />

should be mandatory especially for children, each<br />

time they eat, each time they play with animals,<br />

after they use the toilet;<br />

- wash every fruit and vegetable thoroughly<br />

before eating it;<br />

- avoid using water from wells, especially in<br />

the countryside, when preparing milk for the<br />

Structure of the sample according to gender and age<br />

395<br />

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children if the source is not microbiologically<br />

verified;<br />

- pay attention to pets (including dogs, cats,<br />

fish) that may be Giardia carriers;<br />

- if adults are carriers of Giardia in the<br />

house they should be treated, even if they do not<br />

have symptoms, because they can transmit the<br />

parasites to children. It is mandatory to treat the<br />

entire family, not only the child, even though the<br />

adults do not present symptoms.<br />

Gender<br />

Age group<br />

children 18-20 21-40 41-60 >61 TOTAL<br />

Female 18 136 227 363 163 907<br />

Male 23 166 276 443 200 1108<br />

TOTAL 41 302 503 806 363 2015<br />

Structure of the sample according to gender and degree of infestation<br />

Gender<br />

Degree of infestation<br />

negative reduced medium massive TOTAL<br />

Female 225 125 443 114 907<br />

Male 274 153 541 140 1108<br />

TOTAL 499 278 984 254 2015<br />

Figure 1 Structure of the sample according to the degree of infestation and age group<br />

Table 1<br />

Table 2

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Giardia is a very common parasite, present<br />

worldwide; its clinical presentation is unspecific, it<br />

creates confusion and it requires the identification<br />

of the etiological agent, in order to establish a<br />

diagnosis and the necessary treatment.<br />

2. The dog is a source of infection and a main<br />

source of water and environment pollution requires<br />

the implementation of preventive measures.<br />

3. Negative tests do not rule out this infection and<br />

it is necessary to carry out multiple coprologic<br />

examinations because they are decisive when<br />

establishing the treatment.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bolin, T.D., Davis, A.E., Duncombe, V.M., 1982 A<br />

prospective study of persistent diarrhoea, Aust<br />

N.Z. J. Med., Vol. 12, No. 1, pag. 22-6.<br />

Chandler, E.A., 1994 Canine Medicine and<br />

Therapeutics, Blackwell Scientific Publications,<br />

Oxford.<br />

Chirilă, M., Panaitescu, D., Capraru, T., 1981<br />

Frequency of Giardia lamblia in certain allergic<br />

syndromes. Med. Interne. Vol. 19, No. 4, pag.<br />

367-372.<br />

Clyne, C.A., Eliopoulos, G.M., 1989 Fever and<br />

urticaria in acute giardiasis. Arch. Intern. Med.<br />

Vol.149, No.4, pag. 939-940.<br />

Coman, P., Podoleanu, L., Gaşpar, C., 2003 Etologie<br />

şi etopatologie, Ed. Tehnopress, Iaşi.<br />

Corsi, A., Nucci, C., Knafelz, D., Bulgarini, D., Di<br />

Iorio, L., Polito, A., De Risi, F., Ardenti Morini,<br />

F., Paone, F.M., 1998 Ocular changes<br />

associated with Giardia lamblia infection in<br />

396<br />

children. Br. J. Ophthalmol., Vol. 82, No. 1, pag.<br />

59-62.<br />

Gherman, I. 1993 Compendiu de parazitologie clinică,<br />

Ed. ALL, Bucureşti.<br />

Grinţescu-Mică, A., 1982 Mică enciclopedie de<br />

zoonoze, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.<br />

Gunasekaran, T.S., Hassall, E., 1992 Giardiasis<br />

mimicking inflammatory bowel disease, J.<br />

Pediatr., Vol.120, No.3, pag. 424-426.<br />

Hill, D.R., Nash, TE., 2009 Giardia lamblia. In:<br />

Mandell, G.L., Bennett, J.E., Dolin, R, eds.<br />

Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases.<br />

7th ed., chap 280, Elsevier Churchill Livingstone<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

Huston, C.D., 2006 Intestinal protozoa. In: Feldman,<br />

M., Friedman, L.S., Sleisenger, M.H., eds.<br />

Sleisenger & Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver<br />

Disease., 8th ed., chap 106, Saunders Elsevier,<br />

Philadelphia, Pa.<br />

LeBlanc, C.M., Birdi, N., 1999 Giardia lamblia<br />

associated arthritis in a 19-month-old child. J.<br />

Rheumatol. Vol.26, No.9, pag. 2066-2067.<br />

Letts, M., Davidson, D., Lalonde, F., 1998 Synovitis<br />

secondary to giardiasis in children. Am. J.<br />

Orthop., Vol. 27, No 6, pag. 451-454.<br />

Pettoello Mantovani, M., Giardino, I., Magli, A., di<br />

Martino, L., Guandalini, S., 1990 Intestinal<br />

giardiasis associated with ophthalmologic<br />

changes. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. Vol. 11,<br />

No.2, pag.196-200.<br />

Spaulding, H.S. Jr., 1990 Pruritus without urticaria in<br />

acute giardiasis. Ann. Allergy., Vol. 65, No. 2,<br />

pag.161.<br />

Ungureanu, M., Ursu, C., Podoleanu, L., 2005<br />

Manifestări O.R.L. în giardioză, Rev. Medicină<br />

Militară, Vol. CVIII, No. 1, pag. 7-10.

Abstract<br />

397<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

ORGANIC AGRICULTURE OF ROMANIA AS COMPARED WITH OTHER<br />

COUNTRIES OF EUROPEAN UNION<br />

Mădălina IORDACHE 1 , Valentina ANDRIUCA 2 , Iacob BORZA 1 , Ioan GAICA 1 ,<br />

Daniela GÎRLA 2<br />

e-mail: mada_iordache@yahoo.com<br />

The paper presents a case study aiming to highlight the present state of the organic agriculture in Romania as compared<br />

with other European countries with the goal to warn about its level, much under other countries taken in study. Several<br />

indicators have been considered: certified organic crop areas, certified organic crop productions and yields from fully<br />

converted areas, certified organic livestock, certified production of organic animal products, number of certified<br />

registered operators processing and importing products issued from organic farming. The results of study showed that<br />

for all studied indicators Romania reported data with lower values as compared with the other analyzed European states,<br />

and for most of items our country has no data to report. This study distinguishes on the one hand the low representation<br />

of organic agriculture in Romania as component of sustainable agriculture, and on the other hand demonstrates the lack<br />

or the inefficacy of instruments of the specialized institution of the Romanian state to collect and centralize data<br />

referring to several items which characterize the level of organic agriculture in Romania.<br />

Key words: organic, agriculture, livestock, operators, certified<br />

According to Directorate General for<br />

Agriculture and Rural Development of the form of<br />

agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop<br />

rotation, green manure, compost and biological<br />

European Commission, organic farming is the pest<br />

control. Also, the International Federation of<br />

Organic Agriculture Movements defines organic<br />

agriculture as „a production system that sustains<br />

the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies<br />

on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles<br />

adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of<br />

inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture<br />

combines tradition, innovation and science to<br />

benefit the shared environment and promote fair<br />

relationships and a good quality of life for all<br />

involved...”. In the last years, it was observed an<br />

increasing interest of population for organic food<br />

products as a concern of their health state, so that<br />

the food market was changed toward a higher<br />

orientation to organic foods (Botezatu et al., 2002).<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

Study has been conducted using the official<br />

statistics of the European Union (EU) between<br />

years 2002 – 2011, excepting the number of<br />

certified registered organic operators with statistics<br />

only until 2010, data which are available on<br />

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/<br />

statistics/search_database, last update July 2012.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural<br />

Development of Romania recognizes the role of<br />

the ecological agriculture and reveals its position<br />

regarding this role by the following statement on<br />

website: „the role of the ecological agriculture<br />

system is to produce cleaner foods, more<br />

appropriate to human metabolism, in full<br />

correlation with environmental conservation and<br />

development. One of the main purposes of the<br />

ecological agriculture is to produce fresh and<br />

authentic agricultural and food products, by<br />

environmental friendly processes”. In addition, the<br />

followings are enunciated „the ecological<br />

agriculture is a dynamic sector in Romania, which<br />

reached an ascendant evolution in the last years,<br />

both in vegetal and animal production sectors”.<br />

Even so, studying the statistics of EU in this<br />

field, we observe that Romania is much behind<br />

other EU countries and, moreover, for several<br />

years the exact situation is unknown, it was not<br />

reported, because data referring to organic<br />

agriculture of Romania either were not centralized,<br />

either have not been reported (tables 1-6).<br />

Referring to the certified organic crop areas,<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Banat, Timişoara, România<br />

2 Agrarian State University of Moldova, Chişinău, Republic of Moldova

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Romania did not report statistics for years 2002-<br />

2005, but as compared with other states our<br />

country is not the last in Europe in this field,<br />

Certified organic crop areas (hectares)<br />

398<br />

although its land potential is greater than other<br />

European states (table 1).<br />

COUNTRY/TIME 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

European Union (27) 0 0 0 0 0 3,997,440 4,487,798 3,761,884 0 0<br />

European Union (25) 0 0 0 0 0 3,904,464 4,411,965 3,678,022 0 0<br />

European Union (15) 0 0 0 0 0 3,166,499 3,449,259 2,997,829 0 0<br />

Belgium 24,820 16,176 19,853 19,764 21,754 23,842 27,376 29,778 30,410 0<br />

Bulgaria 0 0 0 0 2,728 8,387 4,236 4,955 12,691 8,902<br />

Czech Republic 0 195,216 208,000 226,209 216,319 224,373 232,939 267,483 296,379 0<br />

Denmark 148,279 149,106 149,219 132,283 133,048 0 139,021 139,539 145,638 0<br />

Estonia 0 0 0 36,487 44,878 55,445 71,848 76,200 82,391 101,906<br />

Ireland 0 0 24,568 23,533 0 0 0 37,662 0 0<br />

Greece 65,555 192,190 202,799 206,205 182,848 174,724 266,745 293,644 292,584 0<br />

Spain 314,640 374,001 430,900 470,832 605,296 640,536 691,196 605,366 1,084,589 0<br />

France 342,406 406,338 468,476 0 499,589 497,314 502,234 525,638 571,815 0<br />

Italy 746,511 751,860 708,043 731,537 801,350 903,254 812,139 735,327 821,921 0<br />

Cyprus 0 0 111 230 665 1,398 0 1,890 0 0<br />

Latvia 0 0 12,142 20,691 51,213 62,321 141,524 141,070 140,946 0<br />

Lithuania 0 0 18,395 13,905 30,498 56,542 89,890 106,060 103,225 99,410<br />

Luxembourg 1,019 2,130 2,741 0 0 2,721 0 3,245 0 0<br />

Hungary 54,264 70,514 75,834 84,765 92,167 98,243 108,578 110,916 97,584 101,801<br />

Malta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 16 0<br />

Netherlands 38,340 40,681 46,137 46,877 47,045 45,463 46,895 47,450 43,659 0<br />

Poland 0 0 37,724 38,609 47,570 135,815 178,670 222,022 309,219 375,086<br />

Portugal 35,364 54,480 75,143 110,370 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Romania 0 0 0 0 65,111 84,590 71,597 83,862 82,981 96,606<br />

Slovenia 0 0 14,354 15,985 20,151 23,560 26,125 25,816 25,056 27,448<br />

Slovakia 0 35,302 25,590 27,247 40,085 80,268 113,132 111,466 112,314 0<br />

Finland 135,434 142,054 148,183 135,223 130,940 133,543 134,820 143,033 142,012 0<br />

Sweden 186,695 207,328 206,631 200,638 201,298 234,429 246,628 303,298 329,319 0<br />

United Kingdom 536,866 629,482 635,495 527,836 489,108 510,673 582,205 607,940 651,930 605,582<br />

Norway 25,255 30,883 34,957 36,510 38,881 40,096 40,376 43,986 47,027 50,167<br />

Although certified organic crop areas exist<br />

in our country, an issue arises: the problem of<br />

certified organic production and yields from fully<br />

converted areas. In this field, Romania did not<br />

report statistics so that it appears with “not<br />

available data” in the European Union statistics,<br />

Table 1<br />

excepting the year of 2006 (table 2). The question<br />

is what was the reason why our responsible<br />

authorities did not centralize these data: the lack of<br />

these data, the low implication in this subject, or<br />

which other?<br />

Certified organic production and yields from fully converted areas (tonnes)<br />

COUNTRY/TIME 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Bulgaria 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20,073<br />

Czech Republic 44,731 0 1,038,464 1,508,228 1,610,426 558,951 643,585 798,277 0<br />

Spain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,689,934 0<br />

Latvia 0 0 79,807 114,896 369,834 0 69,257 344,780 0<br />

Lithuania 0 0 0 0 0 0 239,916 97,468 210,399<br />

Hungary 0 0 0 0 179,522 186,341 154,480 134,843 100,118<br />

Malta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 0<br />

Poland 0 0 0 0 0 0 440,199 709,457 1,026,931<br />

Romania 0 0 0 603,725 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Slovenia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10,348<br />

Slovakia 0 0 87,702 111,415 751,777 0 274,670 351,774 0<br />

Finland 0 0 0 0 0 0 516,297 0 0<br />

United Kingdom 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 699,638 0<br />

Romania has not reported data concerning<br />

the certified organic livestock between years 2002-<br />

2005, and analyzing the values reported for the rest<br />

of years it can be observed also a low value related<br />

to the great agricultural and animal breeding<br />

Table 2<br />

potential of our country (table 3). Concerning the<br />

certified production of organic animal products,<br />

the situation is even more controversial, because<br />

Romania has not statistics reported for years 2003-<br />

2010, and only for year 2011 has been reported a

value of 4 tonnes of total meat, which makes the analyze difficult (table 4).<br />

Certified organic livestock (number)<br />

399<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

COUNTRY/TIME 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Belgium 20,732 29,677 32,190 30,116 33,422 37,897 43,026 53,338 64,171 0<br />

Bulgaria 0 0 0 0 329 395 470 272 364 976<br />

Czech Republic 0 0 100,304 67,956 115,192 137,382 151,723 136,026 151,814 0<br />

Denmark 144,977 133,279 125,200 122,760 132,147 0 141,896 170,155 164,523 0<br />

Estonia 0 0 0 9,289 13,312 13,774 16,131 21,074 19,126 22,498<br />

Ireland 0 0 0 21,950 24,450 29,000 33,200 32,700 0 0<br />

Greece 7,760 14,219 14,776 22,900 22,292 25,104 20,254 28,618 23,109 0<br />

Spain 0 0 53,295 56,701 81,471 85,598 101,248 128,004 143,039 0<br />

Italy 164,536 189,806 215,022 222,516 222,725 244,156 216,476 185,513 207,015 0<br />

Latvia 0 0 10,037 21,439 55,319 50,530 41,153 53,867 45,697 0<br />

Lithuania 0 0 6,616 3,843 15,997 19,964 22,665 21,927 23,076 0<br />

Luxembourg 952 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,252 0 0<br />

Hungary 8,661 7,926 8,747 0 0 17,174 17,746 25,089 32,445 24,650<br />

Netherlands 36,373 36,669 34,841 36,269 36,799 40,129 44,117 59,000 62,000 49,410<br />

Austria 0 0 331,441 333,826 338,593 342,055 352,781 373,720 0 0<br />

Poland 0 0 0 31,556 54,811 33,436 44,030 51,391 40,301 40,457<br />

Portugal 8,202 18,329 54,351 62,218 0 0 69,097 0 0 0<br />

Romania 0 0 0 0 11,365 6,985 7,567 8,145 5,358 6,894<br />

Slovenia 0 0 13,098 14,539 14,464 17,488 18,174 18,238 20,623 22,915<br />

Slovakia 0 8,786 12,761 20,133 28,922 28,922 30,433 33,486 43,668 0<br />

Finland 17,134 18,227 18,029 19,048 22,409 25,512 28,574 32,354 35,879 0<br />

Sweden 0 92,304 91,515 0 95,936 110,000 141,825 194,063 221,035 0<br />

United Kingdom 91,310 216,779 200,959 214,276 244,752 250,376 319,587 331,156 350,183 334,759<br />

Norway 0 0 18,649 18,533 18,881 20,311 21,192 23,863 27,042 28,441<br />

Switzerland 145,012 152,583 155,953 160,333 160,950 159,630 156,773 150,905 148,282 0<br />

Table 4<br />

Certified production of organic animal products (tonnes of total meat)<br />

COUNTRY/TIME 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Czech Republic 0 0 724 6,715 4,830 5,894 7,266 7,176 0<br />

Estonia 0 0 0 0 1,067 1,158 987 1,217 1,546<br />

Ireland 0 0 0 1,375 1,565 1,740 0 0 0<br />

Greece 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,346 0 0<br />

Spain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25,039 0<br />

Latvia 0 0 552 1,383 1,758 5,343 2,767 2,407 0<br />

Lithuania 0 0 0 0 0 0 9,009 773 0<br />

Poland 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,459 2,894 227<br />

Romania 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4<br />

Slovenia 0 1,272 5,432 0 1,161 1,040 153 68 134<br />

Slovakia 16 6 0 6 12 0 0 443 0<br />

Norway 0 0 0 0 0 1,809 0 2,283 2,283<br />

In tables 5 and 6 are listed the number of<br />

certified registered operators processing and<br />

importing products issued from organic farming<br />

and the number of certified registered organic<br />

operators corresponding to Romania, with low<br />

values.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Admission of the necessity of health food by<br />

Romanians is reflected in promoting the<br />

ecological products, this sector becoming very<br />

attractive for investors, especially because the<br />

European Commission supports up to 50% of the<br />

amount provided by the information and<br />

promotion programmes proposed by the<br />

professional and inter-professional organisations,<br />

which participate with minimum 20% of the real<br />

cost of actions, the co-funding being assured by the<br />

state budget according to stipulations stated by the<br />

Regulation (CE) no. 3/2008 of the Council<br />

regarding the actions of information and promotion<br />

of the agricultural products on the internal market<br />

and in the third countries, and by the Regulation<br />

(CE) no. 501/2008 of the Commission for<br />

establishment of the application norms of the<br />

Regulation (CE) no. 3/2008.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

Publishing of this paper has been financially supported<br />

by the following Romanian research grants<br />

UEFISCDI: PN II-RU-PD, contract no. 109/<br />

02.08.2010, and type PN II CAPACITATI modul<br />

III, contract no. 432/16.06.2010.<br />

Table 3

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Bonny, S., 2006 – Organic farming in Europe: situation<br />

and prospects, INRA Grignon, Notre Europe, p.<br />

1-28.<br />

Botezatu, L., Holluby, Z., Laustsen, B., Müller, B.,<br />

2002 – Organic farming in the EU, University of<br />

Aarhus, Center of Environmental Studies,<br />

Denmark, p. 1-114.<br />

400<br />

***Report from the commission to the european<br />

parliament and the council on the application of<br />

Council Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 on organic<br />

production and labelling of organic products,<br />

Brussels, 2012.<br />

***http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/sta<br />

tistics/search_database.<br />

***www.organic-farming.europa.eu.<br />

***www.fao.org.<br />

Table 5<br />

Number of certified registered operators processing and importing products issued from organic farming<br />

COUNTRY/TIME 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

Belgium 0 64 53 62 0 43 0 57 0 0<br />

Bulgaria 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0<br />

Czech Republic 0 26 10 15 28 20 72 63 65 0<br />

Denmark 0 0 0 66 51 0 53 131 128 0<br />

Estonia 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 6<br />

Ireland 0 0 0 0 0 36 33 22 0 0<br />

Greece 18 32 35 0 40 60 72 96 56 0<br />

Spain 60 104 143 152 125 244 220 223 255 0<br />

France 225 226 263 0 387 0 391 0 575 0<br />

Italy 0 141 197 266 296 285 308 383 320 0<br />

Latvia 0 0 2 2 2 3 3 6 5 0<br />

Lithuania 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 2 3 0<br />

Luxembourg 3 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Hungary 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 19 19<br />

Netherlands 50 54 113 100 95 96 138 151 151 210<br />

Austria 0 0 0 318 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Poland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 11 16<br />

Portugal 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Romania 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 2<br />

Slovenia 0 0 976 4 7 6 10 8 11 18<br />

Slovakia 0 0 0 2 2 1 5 5 3 0<br />

Finland 0 0 0 0 1 41 33 53 51 0<br />

Sweden 0 0 0 0 35 61 71 128 64 0<br />

United Kingdom 0 0 0 461 525 455 650 542 464 450<br />

Norway 57 59 68 67 96 101 107 129 88 88<br />

Number of certified registered organic operators<br />

COUNTRY/TIME 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />

European Union (15 countries) 0 156,631 0 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Belgium 1,498 1,310 1,210 1,282 1,481 1,558 1,662 0 0<br />

Bulgaria 0 0 0 0 214 339 311 0 0<br />

Czech Republic 0 1,095 1,123 1,234 1,167 1,693 2,228 0 0<br />

Denmark 4,611 4,285 3,875 3,757 3,584 3,563 3,792 0 0<br />

Germany (including former GDR from 1991) 19,244 20,367 20,909 22,032 23,978 26,820 29,244 0 0<br />

Estonia 0 0 0 1,026 1,190 1,244 1,292 0 0<br />

Ireland 1,010 878 946 1,066 1,208 1,334 1,410 0 0<br />

Greece 6,299 6,642 9,885 16,399 24,654 24,729 24,860 0 0<br />

Spain 17,751 18,505 17,688 16,790 18,318 20,031 23,253 27,627 27,627<br />

France 16,670 16,327 16,082 16,566 0 18,561 20,877 25,203 25,203<br />

Italy 55,902 48,353 41,357 49,469 51,065 50,267 49,654 0 0<br />

Latvia 0 556 1,050 2,883 4,105 4,120 4,218 0 0<br />

Lithuania 0 718 1,202 1,817 2,358 2,861 2,812 0 0<br />

Luxembourg 84 89 104 110 0 119 0 0 0<br />

Hungary 0 1,495 1,898 0 0 2,020 1,994 0 0<br />

Malta 0 0 1 7 11 0 0 0 0<br />

Netherlands 2,388 2,299 2,216 2,234 2,316 2,417 2,616 0 0<br />

Austria 0 20,527 21,235 21,455 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Poland 0 0 0 0 0 0 15,040 0 0<br />

Portugal 1,145 1,226 1,461 1,660 0 0 0 0 0<br />

Romania 0 0 0 0 3,409 3,273 2,901 0 0<br />

Slovenia 0 1,434 1,615 1,758 1,992 2,063 2,142 0 0<br />

Slovakia 93 100 127 210 298 338 418 0 0<br />

Finland 5,586 5,471 5,324 4,646 4,443 4,402 4,343 0 0<br />

Sweden 4,456 4,294 5,406 3,456 6,230 3,358 4,686 0 0<br />

United Kingdom 5,929 5,954 5,947 6,356 6,889 7,631 7,896 0 0<br />

Norway 2,599 2,747 2,875 2,825 2,796 3,082 3,359 0 0<br />

Table 6

Abstract<br />

401<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

PECULIARITIES OF TEACHING ENGLISH IN UNIVERSITIES WITH<br />

AGRONOMIC PROFILE. A CASE STUDY<br />

Roxana MIHALACHE 1<br />

Email: roxxanac@yahoo.com<br />

In a changing world, the needs of those who learn English also evolve. In the last decades, the English courses for<br />

specific groups of learners have become highly important. English for special purposes found its way after the II World<br />

War. As for Romania, even if there was a certain interest in this field, it was taken to the next level only after 1990, when<br />

there appeared the economic and technological background for the development of this type of English. The scientific<br />

paper presents methods used for teaching the technical vocabulary to the first year students of the faculty of agriculture,<br />

the specialization of Technology of Processing Agricultural Products. The technical texts that are studied during the first<br />

year are those related to different types of cereals, such as wheat, maize, oats, barley, rice and millet. There is also a unit<br />

that deals with the history of food processing and types of preserving foodstuffs. The vocabulary awareness has in view<br />

various types of exercises, such as: true or false exercises and answering questions synonyms and antonyms, matching<br />

words, word-building types of exercises, find the mistakes in a given text, translation of technical texts both from<br />

Romanian into English and from English into Romanian. Typical mistakes have been found and we propose ways of<br />

correcting them. We noticed that during the students’ performance the most frequent mistakes were those related to<br />

pronunciation. When learning the new vocabulary, the students confused words, trying to use the more common one;<br />

moreover, they misspelled and misused words.<br />

Key words: English for Specific Purposes, communicative competences, vocabulary awareness<br />

The knowledge of English has become a<br />

necessity for modern man, representing an<br />

informal means of communication and hence our<br />

integration into society. For higher education<br />

students, who study at a university with agronomic<br />

profile, learning English has some peculiarities due<br />

to the variety of specialized knowledge they need<br />

to possess. This involves some specific methods of<br />

teaching and learning. This paper aims to present<br />

the specificity of teaching /learning English by the<br />

students studying at an agronomic faculty. We<br />

conducted a survey of first year students, their<br />

level of language and their method of learning.<br />

1 USAMV Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The survey is based on curricula and<br />

analytical programs on the status and content of<br />

the English language for the specializations within<br />

the University of Agricultural Sciences and<br />

Veterinary Medicine of Iasi. We also used<br />

questionnaires that revealed the level of English<br />

learning in pre-university period, the teaching<br />

methods and techniques agreed by the 1 st year<br />

students when acquiring English.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

1. Features of agronomic universities<br />

The agronomic universities differ from other<br />

universities by several features:<br />

a wide variety of fields and specializations.<br />

At UASVM Iasi there are four domains<br />

(agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry and<br />

veterinary medicine), each with several<br />

specializations. An exception is the veterinary<br />

field, where there is only one specialization.<br />

b. The content of the curriculum has wideranging<br />

subjects. The students are offered<br />

information and skills in multiple areas: biology,<br />

biochemistry, anatomy, mechanization,<br />

technology, economics, etc.<br />

c. The existence of large differences<br />

regarding the level of specialized knowledge and<br />

awareness of English vocabulary. 1 st year students<br />

come from different high schools, where the<br />

concern for learning English vary greatly, making<br />

it difficult to harmonize the acquisition and<br />

improvement of English.<br />

2. Proficiency in English of the 1 st year<br />

students<br />

Analyzing the initial tests handed in to the<br />

1 st year students we can state that, even if they

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

studied English both during secondary school and<br />

during high school, the majority (60-70%) do not<br />

master the basic grammatical structures and<br />

vocabulary. The differentiation criteria are varied:<br />

the knowledge they possess, the power of<br />

assimilation, motivation, interest in research in<br />

general and English in particular, temperament,<br />

imagination, effort, socio-cultural environment etc.<br />

We thus conclude that all these factors create<br />

distinct individuals who are equal in number to the<br />

students in a group. All mentioned above lead us to<br />

the idea that for teachers of English the most<br />

important factor should be the students: their<br />

needs, reasons for wanting to learn, the special<br />

skills or their lack, their method of learning.<br />

3. Teacher's role in teaching<br />

In the situation in which the students from<br />

one class have different levels of English, we can<br />

say that the teacher's role is more important than<br />

any method or material. The teacher must turn the<br />

written symbols (material) into speech, to make all<br />

these words, idioms, phrases from texts play a<br />

useful role in a real or imagined situation. To do<br />

so, he must use all his talent, all his energies and<br />

abilities. One of the tasks of the teacher in<br />

preparing lessons is to establish clear learning<br />

objectives, appropriate to the content of teaching,<br />

students' knowledge level, their interests, behavior<br />

and what they need to know until the end of the<br />

course. In the so-called task -based learning, the<br />

teacher should:<br />

• change the way of planning the seminar<br />

• become familiar with the ideas and<br />

principles of task-based learning and to apply them<br />

when using techniques of planning and learning<br />

• increase the efficiency of learning by<br />

taking into account the theories about learning how<br />

to learn<br />

• focus on student when teaching<br />

• encourage the development of student<br />

responsibility and independent learning techniques<br />

• stimulate student motivation<br />

• use active participatory methods<br />

• improve learning in groups of students<br />

• use materials in a creative way.<br />

The person who teaches English for specific<br />

purposes (ESP) must be aware of how the teaching<br />

skills of English as a second language (ESL) can<br />

be adapted to teaching English for specific<br />

purposes. Moreover, they will have to work with<br />

specialists to design appropriate courses to clarify<br />

some issues regarding the scientific vocabulary or<br />

content.<br />

4. The student - active subject in learning<br />

This principle consists in considering the<br />

student the subject of his own personality<br />

development and process of assimilation of the<br />

402<br />

training provided. Starting from the ones already<br />

mentioned, it is important that, during the act of<br />

teaching, the teacher should encourage the student<br />

participation in his own training. From this<br />

perspective, learning is an unceasing process of<br />

structuring and restructuring of what has<br />

previously been learnt, the internal dynamics of the<br />

personality being both a result and a condition for<br />

the active participation of the student.<br />

The intellectual component of personality of<br />

the students include informative-formative and<br />

instrumental-acting aspects. It is therefore very<br />

important to know and see how students learn, how<br />

they process information and how they integrate it<br />

into a larger system. The intellectual work requires<br />

specific instrumental-acting techniques that are<br />

absolutely necessary for high efficiency.<br />

Familiarizing the students with such technical<br />

means to teach them how to learn. This goal<br />

requires a new vision through which the students<br />

develop their own intellectual work techniques that<br />

enable his gradual detachment from the external<br />

guidance and the increasing engagement in the<br />

self-education process. Teach students how to<br />

learn means to form skills, abilities and intellectual<br />

work techniques that ensure higher efficiency in<br />

education. Acquiring the techniques of intellectual<br />

work requires the need to process information by<br />

the learner, the total commitment of his personality<br />

and thus the student forms his own learning<br />

techniques. The teaching / learning these<br />

techniques also means practicing. Any technical<br />

content is associated with a learning technique and<br />

any learning technique is related to its content. The<br />

conclusion that emerges from this is that education<br />

is also done by the student as the subject that<br />

actively takes part in the learning process.<br />

5. Teaching - learning techniques of the<br />

English language<br />

The meaning of the word "method" comes<br />

from Greek and means way to (odos = path; meta =<br />

to). The teaching method refers to a techniques of<br />

acquiring knowledge that is proposed by the<br />

teacher that turns into a way of student learning<br />

which leads to long-lasting education. The<br />

literature presents traditional methods of teaching<br />

and learning foreign languages: translation method,<br />

audio-lingual method and modern methods and<br />

different techniques and methods of their<br />

application. The experience of working with<br />

students has shown that they generally prefer the<br />

modern methods due to their effectiveness in<br />

developing communication, and of course we take<br />

this matter into consideration when designing<br />

courses. We believe, however, that the eclectic<br />

approach as Chaslain (1988) calls it is best because<br />

it combines the elements of traditional and modern

methods. Such an approach has many advantages.<br />

It is more flexible and can be easily adapted to a<br />

wide variety of teaching-learning situations.<br />

At the same time, the teacher will be less<br />

inclined to fix on one method and be more open to<br />

the use of new techniques and approaches. The<br />

learners of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)<br />

have already focused their education to a specific<br />

area and consider foreign language acquisition as<br />

an important element for being successful in their<br />

career. They will constantly have to enrich their<br />

vocabulary and develop the skills needed for oral<br />

and written communication. We will present by<br />

examples the difficulties encountered at the second<br />

year students of Technology of processing<br />

agricultural products in the assimilation of the<br />

specialized vocabulary and the methods and<br />

techniques used to help them learn how to learn.<br />

The teaching of the vocabulary is made in context<br />

and learnt through exercises that include<br />

synonyms, antonyms, suffixes, prefixes, idioms,<br />

word families, verbal expressions, homonyms,<br />

dictionary use, development projects, etc. The socalled<br />

"international words" can be easily<br />

understood and learned by students. But the<br />

vocabulary specific to the processing of<br />

agricultural products includes many words of<br />

German origin, which makes assimilation more<br />

difficult: vernalization, starch, bran, tassel, kiln<br />

etc. To facilitate their learning, the chosen text is<br />

followed by different types of exercises: true-false,<br />

questions that include these words and their<br />

meaning in the text, matching words with their<br />

definitions, exercises of translation from Romanian<br />

to English and vice versa. The students also have<br />

difficulties when coming across similar words<br />

either in pronunciation or in writing. For example,<br />

when treating the subject cereals, the most<br />

common mistake is confusing the words wheat<br />

[wi: t] and wet [wet] both in pronunciation and in<br />

writing. Another typical mistake is the<br />

pronunciation of words to droop [dru: p] and to<br />

drop [drop]. The word legume, the plural of<br />

legumen, which means plante leguminoase that is<br />

often, translated legume by the students. The<br />

student awareness is important as the easiest way<br />

to correct this mistake is to start from Romanian<br />

word legumă and to find the English version,<br />

vegetable. Thus, if we put those words next to each<br />

other in exercises we can eliminate this confusion.<br />

Other specific terms such as rancid, to seal,<br />

slaughter, to cure (meaning to preserve), dormant,<br />

to ripen, livestock, kernel etc. can be easily<br />

assimilated if practiced in exercises using their<br />

antonyms and synonyms. Putting words in places<br />

where they occur (technique of places) is also an<br />

effective method. Thus, the various types of cheese<br />

403<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

are presented in images of dairy processing<br />

facilities, pastry products in images of bakeries,<br />

vegetables in the vegetable garden or market etc.<br />

Developing projects on subjects of their own<br />

specialization will require students to consult<br />

dictionaries, use specific vocabulary both in<br />

writing and in speech when they presented their<br />

projects in front of their colleagues. With the help<br />

of the teachers and by learning how to learn, the<br />

students will acquire the English language as they<br />

work with materials they find interesting and<br />

relevant as they can use them in their work or<br />

further studies.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Learning English in universities with<br />

agronomic profile has a number of features<br />

determined by the variety of the vocabulary,<br />

different number of hours for the specializations<br />

and different degree of assimilation of English<br />

during high school studies.<br />

2. The investigations conducted on the first<br />

year students show that over 65% of them present<br />

little information on the acquisition of English<br />

vocabulary and structures.<br />

3. Of the methods we tested in order to<br />

motivate them to thoroughly learn the English<br />

language, we found out that the students agree the<br />

eclectic method.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Basturkmen, H., 2006 – Ideas and Options in English<br />

for Specific Purposes,<br />

Dudley-Evans, T., M.J. St. John, 1998 – Developments<br />

in ESP: a Multi-Disciplinary Approach, Cambridge<br />

University Press, Cambridge.<br />

Fiorito, L., 2005 – Teaching English for Specific<br />

Purposes, www.usingenglish.com<br />

Hutchinson, T., A. Waters, 2006 – English for Specific<br />

Purposes: a Learning-Centered Approach,<br />

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.<br />

Kouilova, M., 1979 – Teaching English for Specific<br />

Purposes, from British Medical Journal, 2, BMJ<br />

Publishing Group Ldt., London.<br />

Leviţchi, L., 1974 – Dicţionar englez-român, Editura<br />

Academiei Române, Bucureşti<br />

Mihalache, R., 2010 – English for 1 st Year Students in<br />

Technology of Processing Agricultural Products,<br />

Editura Tehnopress, Iaşi.<br />

Oprescu, M., 2008 – Metode tradiţionale şi moderne<br />

folosite în predarea limbii engleze, în Revista de<br />

Cercetare în Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei<br />

Sykes, J.B., 1976 – The Concise Oxford Dictionary,<br />

Oxford University Press, Oxford<br />

*** 2006 – Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced<br />

learners, Macmillan Publishers, Oxford.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

404

Abstract<br />

405<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE ENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING<br />

PERCEPTION<br />

Iulia C. MUREȘAN 1 , Felix H. ARION 1 , Camelia I. ALEXA 1 , Marioara ILEA 1<br />

e-mail: iulia.muresan@usamvcluj.ro<br />

This paper presents the results of a research conducted in four counties of Romania regarding the real situation of the<br />

entrepreneurship. The population investigated is represented by the participants to training programs organized by<br />

FAER. The random sample method was used to establish the size of the sample. The data were analyzed by using the<br />

Chi-Square test. The results revealed the fact that the gender of the respondents and the monthly income influence their<br />

perception regarding the quality, content, utility of the curricula on these courses on one hand, and the perception of the<br />

professionalism of the lectures on the other hand. Having all these information future efforts need to be done in order to<br />

adapt the content and the teaching methods to the target group in order to improve the quality of the delivered service<br />

Key words: quality, courses, participants<br />

When a person decides to become an<br />

entrepreneur, the decision depends on the capacity<br />

of fulfill of four specific variables (Saphero, 1982):<br />

the situation, psychological, sociological and<br />

economic variables. In order to validate the<br />

variable of the situation it is necessary to exist a<br />

break in the dynamic forces (whether internal or<br />

external) (Merce et al., 2010) that keep a person in<br />

so-called "comfort zone". If people, in general, by<br />

their nature, will act to limit the possible risks and<br />

do not want leave the "comfort zone", there are,<br />

too, those people who believes that the<br />

achievement of their potential it can be reached<br />

only by overcoming the limitations imposed by<br />

fear of failure and by materializing the desire of<br />

success (Adams, 2001). The items that can cause<br />

an equilibrium disrupts for a person and, thus,<br />

drive towards finding a new form of stability -<br />

including entrepreneurship are either negative<br />

(transfer to another job, another city,<br />

unemployment etc.) or positive (encouragement<br />

from customers, friends, etc.). In this view,<br />

entrepreneurship can be considered (Toboşaru et.<br />

al., 2010; Maurer, 2001) as the discovery of new<br />

opportunities and ideas outside of the area a person<br />

usually control.<br />

The second variable that determines the<br />

transformation of a person into an entrepreneur, the<br />

psychological variables, assumes the person's<br />

human nature, temperament and personality that<br />

manifests itself, ultimately, though the desire to<br />

action.<br />

1 USAMV, Cluj-Napoca<br />

Even the very simply overcome of comfort<br />

zone often induce the feel of success, even if<br />

economic outcomes of the business are not as good<br />

as they were planned to be (Hardy, 1994).<br />

According to a study of the European Union<br />

(13, 2010), men and the young people are more<br />

prone to entrepreneurial attitudes than women and<br />

the elderly.<br />

Sociological variable takes into<br />

consideration, primarily but not exclusively, the<br />

direct social environment of the person, evidenced<br />

by the response and considerations that the<br />

involvement into entrepreneurship can generate<br />

from friends, family, neighbors and society,<br />

motivated, generally, by the social culture. The key<br />

cultural elements that influences the potential<br />

entrepreneurs include language (verbal and<br />

nonverbal), values and attitudes, habits and<br />

traditions, material culture, aesthetics and<br />

education level (Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996). The<br />

European Commission studies (13, 2010) indicates<br />

that persons which grown up on an entrepreneurial<br />

environment within the family and which lives in<br />

urban areas are more interested in becoming<br />

entrepreneurs.<br />

Finally, the economic variable is a variable<br />

that should be considered not only as a possibility<br />

to obtain the required inputs - the resources for<br />

investment, regardless of their nature: financial,<br />

material, information, legislative, and especially<br />

human, as experts currently consider that on the<br />

current business environment the strategic resource

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

is the human capital, replacing the financial capital<br />

(Porumb, 2001) - but also in terms of their<br />

opportunity cost (Key, Edwards and Duffy, 2004).<br />

European Commission Eurobarometer (36, 2010)<br />

shows that for 24% of Europeans, the main reasons<br />

they are not involved into entrepreneurship is the<br />

lack of financial funds.<br />

The determination of the factors which<br />

influence the willingness to participate to training<br />

courses (Van Vianen et. al., 2011) can help<br />

providers to improve the quality of their services<br />

by adapting the curricula to the realities of the<br />

economic, social and political environment and<br />

improving the effectiveness of the work<br />

productivity at the end (Garavan et. al., 2008).<br />

Also they can find out which are the main straights<br />

and weaknesses of the lectures on the other hand,<br />

from the participants points of view.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHODS<br />

In order to achieve the research objectives,<br />

it was established that the studied target group to<br />

be formed by the participants to training courses in<br />

in field of entrepreneurship in four Romanian’s<br />

counties: Mures, Suceava, Arges and Nasaud. The<br />

sample of the target group was created using the<br />

random sample with continuous variable for an<br />

error limit of 2% and a probability of guarantee the<br />

results of 95%, based on information provided by<br />

the Fundația pentru Promovarea Agriculturii și<br />

Economiei Regionale, Reghin.<br />

The limit error in absolute value was<br />

computed based on the formula (Merce şi Merce,<br />

2010):<br />

R x~ X max 2 79<br />

1.<br />

58 (1)<br />

x~<br />

100 100<br />

Where ~ x is the error limit in absolute<br />

value, x ~ R is the error limit in relative value, while<br />

X max is the maximum value of characteristic age.<br />

Volume of the sample (n) was computed<br />

based on the average age of the target group,<br />

determined on a previous research as being 35.74<br />

years old:<br />

where<br />

k<br />

( x<br />

j<br />

2 j 1<br />

x k<br />

j 1<br />

2<br />

x)<br />

N<br />

N<br />

j<br />

j<br />

130.<br />

39<br />

(2)<br />

2<br />

x is dispersion, and X is the<br />

average age of the target group.<br />

To determine how respondents perceive the<br />

impact and the utility of entrepreneurship training<br />

courses they attended, there were used to<br />

behavior factual questions that allowed achieving<br />

information on specific training programs,<br />

information related to the involvement in<br />

entrepreneurship activities etc. There were used,<br />

406<br />

as well, questions about opinion and attitudes,<br />

which allowed the measurement of the direction<br />

and the intensity of attitudes to courses attended,<br />

their utility, their running conditions, their<br />

organizational conditions, the quality and<br />

usefulness of the didactic and materials provided .<br />

As analytical method of research it was<br />

chosen Hi-square criterion<br />

The volume of the sample it was computed<br />

based on the following formula (Merce, Merce and<br />

Dumitraş, 2010):<br />

n<br />

2<br />

x<br />

2 2<br />

k * x<br />

2<br />

k *<br />

N<br />

2<br />

x<br />

2<br />

( 1.<br />

96)<br />

* 130.<br />

39<br />

2<br />

2 ( 1.<br />

96)<br />

* 130.<br />

39<br />

( 1.<br />

58)<br />

1608<br />

178.<br />

39<br />

persons<br />

178 persons<br />

(3)<br />

where n is the volume of the sample and k is<br />

the probability of guarantee.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The estimation of the utility of<br />

entrepreneurship courses, whose impact is<br />

analyzed, reveals that participants do not consider<br />

all the courses as having the same utility.<br />

Thus, the most useful course (considered to<br />

be "very useful" for almost 3 of 4 respondents) is<br />

considered the one about of the project on a small<br />

investment, but also one that provides information<br />

on how to analyze financial performance of SMEs<br />

(80% of respondents expected it to be useful and<br />

very helpful). The reasons are diverse, including<br />

the fact that the ones that previously participated in<br />

other entrepreneurship courses considered to be<br />

most useful to attend complementary courses.<br />

To complete the overall image on perception<br />

on quality of the professional training courses, it<br />

was used the Hi-square test. There have been<br />

issued hypothesis that between the gender of the<br />

respondents and the appropriate quality elements<br />

there is no relation. Null hypothesis was accepted<br />

for the allegations: "The quality of information<br />

provided" and "Availability of training courses".<br />

Testing the relation between gender of the<br />

respondents and “The clarity of the process of<br />

transmission of information” it was noted that<br />

calculated Hi-square (14.58) is higher than the<br />

theoretical Hi-square (13.27) for a probability<br />

guarantee of 99% and 4 degrees of freedom. Null<br />

hypothesis is rejected, between the two variables<br />

there is a strong relation. It can be appreciated the<br />

fact that, based on Pearson's coefficient, between<br />

the two variables there is a low intensity relation,<br />

the women appreciating more favorably the clarity<br />

and transmission of information (tab. 1).<br />

Another hypothesis was issued: "Gender<br />

does not influence the perception of utility of<br />

provided information". After testing the hypothesis<br />

with Hi-square test, the null hypothesis was<br />

rejected. Calculated Hi-square value (14.12) is

higher than the theoretical value (13.27) for a<br />

probability guarantee of 99% and 4 degrees of<br />

freedom. Between the two variables there is a<br />

distinct significant relation of reduced intensity. As<br />

407<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

described above, women perceive the information<br />

provided as being more useful than the men does.<br />

Table 1<br />

Coefficients for testing the relation between the gender of respondents and “The clarity of the process of<br />

transmission of information”<br />

Significance level<br />

CHITEST (Sig value) 0.0056<br />

Degree of freedom 4.0000<br />

CHIINV (Chi theoretical)<br />

CHIINV (Chi compute) 14.58<br />

Pearson Chi-Square 0.264<br />

Regarding the relation between gender of<br />

respondents and the schedule of courses, it was<br />

found that between the two variables there is a<br />

very intense relation, Hi-square calculated value<br />

(19.87) is higher than the theoretical Hi-square for<br />

probability of error of 0.01% and 4 degrees of<br />

freedom. Pearson's coefficient of 0.305 indicates a<br />

relation of average intensity between the two<br />

variables. This can be explained by the fact that the<br />

share of men who are entrepreneurs or managers is<br />

36.20% inside of the sample, while the share of<br />

women is just 19.20%. Thus for men, the time<br />

represent a more limited resource, being involved<br />

in various activities during a working day.<br />

There was issued the null hypothesized that<br />

gender of the respondents does not influence the<br />

perception of quality and preparation activities of<br />

the courses. The calculations proved that<br />

calculated Hi-squared value (18.52) is higher than<br />

the theoretical Hi-square (18.46) for a probability<br />

of error of 0.01% and 4 degrees of freedom, so the<br />

null hypothesis is rejected, between the two there<br />

is a very significant relation. Pearson's coefficient<br />

of 0.295 suggests the existence of a relation of low<br />

intensity between the two variables. As in previous<br />

cases, women evaluated more positively the<br />

training courses. This may be explained by the fact<br />

that, of the total women from the sample, only<br />

59.20% have university degree, while in case of<br />

the men the share is of 72.50%. The share of<br />

women who have previously participated in<br />

training courses is 36.80%, while that share of men<br />

who participated in training courses is 39.10%.<br />

The null hypothesis: "Gender does not<br />

influence the level of appreciation of quantity / of<br />

provided information” is rejected. Theoretical Hi-<br />

value (9.49) for a probability guarantee of 99% and<br />

4 degrees of freedom is lower than the calculated<br />

Hi-square (11.42), so between the two variables<br />

exist a significant relation of low intensity, the<br />

Pearson's coefficient value being 0.238. This<br />

phenomenon can be explained by the profile of<br />

respondents by gender related to the education<br />

0.05 0.01 0.001<br />

**<br />

9.48 13.27 18.46<br />

level and the previous participation in training<br />

courses.<br />

Analyzing the relation between the income<br />

and the perception of courses quality, it has been<br />

found that income levels influence the respondents'<br />

perception of "quality of information provided."<br />

Calculated Hi-square value (27.51) for a<br />

probability of error of 5% and 16 degrees of<br />

freedom is higher than the theoretical Hi-square<br />

(26.29), so the null hypothesis is rejected, between<br />

the two variables there is a significant relation. As<br />

the income of respondents increases, the<br />

perception of quality of provided information<br />

decreases. This phenomenon can be explained by<br />

the fact that additional financial resources offers to<br />

the respondents the opportunity to participate and<br />

to access the different categories of information to<br />

ensure a higher degree of training.<br />

The null hypothesis was rejected, too, for the<br />

following cases: "The income does not affect the<br />

quality and preparation of activities" and "Income<br />

does not affect the accessibility of training<br />

courses". In the second case it was found that<br />

lower income people appreciate more favorably the<br />

accessibility, this can be attributed to the large<br />

number of human resource development training<br />

programs carried out in recent years, which is<br />

mainly addressed to vulnerable groups. As income<br />

increases, the appreciation of quality and<br />

preparation activities is more favorable. In fact, the<br />

organization of the courses was one of the most<br />

positive aspects mentioned by the participants of<br />

the training courses.<br />

Regarding the influence of profession of<br />

respondents on perceptions of quality of training<br />

courses though with eight statements, the null<br />

hypothesis was rejected for three statements.<br />

For the first statement, there was issued the<br />

hypothesis: "The profession of respondents does<br />

not influence the perception of quality of provided<br />

information", and theoretical Hi-squared value<br />

(21.02) for a probability guarantee of 95% and 12<br />

degrees of freedom is lower than the calculated

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

value (24.95), so the null hypothesis is rejected,<br />

between the two variables there is a significant<br />

relation. Pearson's coefficient (0.338) shows a<br />

moderate relation between the two variables. So,<br />

the higher are the financial resources involved in<br />

the business and the deeper are involved as the<br />

respondents in organization management, the<br />

lower is the level of perception of quality of<br />

provided information is lower. This is a result of<br />

the fact that the courses are adapted to a medium<br />

level, for being widely accessible.<br />

Null hypothesis "The profession of<br />

respondents does not influence the perceptions of<br />

schedule of courses" was not accepted. Calculated<br />

Hi-square value (21.80) is lower than the<br />

theoretical Hi-square value (21.02) for a<br />

probability guarantee of 95% and 12 degrees of<br />

freedom. Between the two variables there is a<br />

significant relationship of moderate intensity, the<br />

Pearson's coefficient value being (0.318).<br />

Between the profession and the quantity /<br />

content of provided information there is a<br />

distinctly significant relation. Calculated Hi-square<br />

value (32.16) is higher than the theoretical Hisquare<br />

value (26.21) for a probability guarantee of<br />

99% and 12 degrees of freedom. In this case, too,<br />

those who appreciated the amount and the content<br />

at a lower quality level are the managers, followed<br />

by entrepreneurs. Regarding the influence of<br />

educational level on estimating the quality level in<br />

terms of the eight statements, it was found that<br />

there is no relation between them.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

As results of the research, it was found that<br />

it is necessary to adapt the tools for education and<br />

training of people in entrepreneurship, because the<br />

perception on this field raised area is very<br />

different, both in terms of willingness to engage, as<br />

well as the considerations on their utility.<br />

Socio-educational profile of the studied<br />

areas require the creation of various professional<br />

training courses, designed, on one hand of<br />

potential high school graduated beneficiaries, and<br />

on the other hand, those who have already<br />

completed university education, since the easiest<br />

access to higher education has generated in recent<br />

years a large number of university graduates who<br />

validated themselves only partially on the labor<br />

market. Duration, level and teaching supports for<br />

the two types of courses should be adapted to the<br />

understanding and knowledge level of target group<br />

to maximize their impact.<br />

408<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

This study was supported by Fundația<br />

pentru Promovarea Agriculturii și Economiei<br />

Regionale, Reghin FEAR, contract no.<br />

135/04.04.2012 „Impact of the impact of<br />

implementation of the Project<br />

POSDRU/92/3.1/S/61872 „Entrepreneurship, from<br />

Idea to Success”.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Adams, B., 2001 - The Everything Time Management<br />

Book. How to get it all done and still have time<br />

for you!, Adams Media Corporation, Avon,<br />

Massachusetts, USA<br />

Garavan, T. N., Walton, J., Cross, C., and Carbery, R.<br />

2008 - Mapping the Context and Practice of<br />

Training, Development and HRD in European<br />

Call Centres, Journal of European Industrial<br />

Training, 32, 612-728<br />

Hardy, Cynthia, 1994 - Managing Strategic Action.<br />

Mobilizing Change. Concepts, Reading and<br />

Cases, Sage Publication, London, UK<br />

Key, R. D., W. M. Edwards, Patricia A. Duffy, 2004 -<br />

Farm Management 5th Edition, The McGraw-<br />

Hill, New York, USA<br />

Maurer, T.J., 2001 - Career-relevant Learning and<br />

Development, Worker Age, and Beliefs about<br />

Self-efficacy for Development, Journal of<br />

Management, 27, 123-140<br />

Merce, E., Ileana Andreica, F. H. Arion, Cristina<br />

Pocol, Dumitraş Diana, 2010 - Managementul<br />

şi gestiunea unităţilor economice cu profil<br />

agricol, Editura Digital Data Cluj, Cluj-Napoca,<br />

România<br />

Merce, E., C. C. Merce, Diana Dumitraş, 2010 -<br />

Prelucrarea statistică a datelor, Editura<br />

AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca, România<br />

Porumb, Elena, 2001 - Managementul Resurselor<br />

Umane, Ed. Fundaţiei pentru Studii Europene,<br />

Cluj-Napoca, România<br />

Shapero A., 1982 - Social Dimensions of<br />

Entrepreneurship, in The Encyclopedia of<br />

Entrepreneurship, eds. Calvin A. Kent, Donald<br />

L. Sexton, and Karl H. Vesper, Prentice Hall,<br />

New Jersey, pag. 72–90<br />

Toboşaru, Irina, Ileana Modreanu, M. Piti, 2010 -<br />

Incubatoarele de afaceri -oportunitate de<br />

dezvoltare a start-up-urilor din România,<br />

Fundaţia Post-Privatizare,<br />

http://www.postprivatizare.ro/romana/wpcontent/uploads/2010/11/Studiu-incubatoarefinal1.pdf,<br />

accesat 04/12/2010<br />

Van Vianen, A.E.M., Dalhoeven, B.A.G.W., and De<br />

Pater, I.E. 2011 - Aging and Training and<br />

Development Willingness: Employee and<br />

Supervisor Mindset, Journal of Organizational<br />

Behavior, 32, 226-247<br />

Zeithaml A. Valerie, Mary Jo. Bitner, 1996 - Services<br />

Marketing, The McGraw-Hill, Inc., Singapore,<br />

UK<br />

*** - 2008, Newsletter 4/09, Banca Comercială Română,<br />

http://www.bcr.ro/sPortal /download?documentPath<br />

=bcr_ro_0785_ACTIVE%2FDownloads%2FEUOFFICE<br />

%2FEU_Office_BCR_Newsletter_4_2009__romana.pdf,<br />

accesat 04/12/2

Abstract<br />

SEMIOTIC INTERDEPENDENCE<br />

BETWEEN TEXT AND VISUAL IMAGE<br />

Olga PÂNZARU<br />

Email: opanzaru@yahoo.com<br />

409<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Studies of communication and meaning evolve from Semiotics, a multidisciplinary science which adopts a<br />

philosophical approach that seeks to interpret messages in terms of their signs and patterns of symbolism. We live in a<br />

world of signs and we have no way of understanding anything except through signs and codes into which they are<br />

organized. A sign can be a word, a sound, a visual image etc. In other words, signs can mean anything we agree that<br />

they mean, and they can mean different things to different living organisms. At the same time, non-verbal signs can<br />

produce many complex symbols and hold multiple meanings. The study of Semiotics originated in a literary or<br />

linguistic context and has been expanding in a number of directions since the beginning of the 20th century. The<br />

essential breakthrough of Semiotics is to take linguistics as a model and apply linguistic concepts to other non-linguistic<br />

fields or "phenomena-texts" (for example a visual image) and not to language itself. The broadening concept of text and<br />

discourse encourages additional research into how visual communication operates to create meaning. The aim of our<br />

paper is to emphasize the semiotic interdependence between text and visual image, the analysis being focused on textual<br />

versus visual communication. Though visual images are quite different from linguistic texts, they are not wholly<br />

different, and many semioticians have sought parallels between the two media. Like texts, most visual images are<br />

composed of parts arranged in a certain way to signify and communicate. Usually, a visual image addresses us directly<br />

with its emotions and meaningfulness, while a word (text) works via intellect. Without visual images, an idea may be<br />

lost in a sea of words, while without words, an image may be lost to ambiguity. So, we may conclude that the<br />

combination of text and visual image has a higher communicative power that neither textual or visual communication<br />

singularly possesses.<br />

Key words: Semiotics, communication, meaning, text, visual image<br />

Semiotics is the study of signs and<br />

semioticians are particularly concerned with the<br />

theme of representation. Studying Semiotics can<br />

assist us to become more aware of the mediating<br />

role of signs and of the roles played by ourselves<br />

and others in constructing social reality. It can<br />

make us less likely to take reality for granted as<br />

something which is wholly independent of human<br />

interpretation. Exploring semiotic perspectives, we<br />

may come to realize that information or meaning is<br />

not ”contained” in the world or in books,<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Human communication has existed for about<br />

30000 years. In the beginning of recorded history,<br />

the vast majority of what was communicated was<br />

not text based. Textual communication has been<br />

with us in one form or another for only 3700 years.<br />

Usually, people think using pictures. Seeing comes<br />

before words: the child looks and recognizes<br />

before he/she can speak. Studies show that the<br />

old saying ”seeing is believing” is mostly true. The<br />

interdependence between text and visual image<br />

computers or audio-visual media. Meaning is not<br />

transmited to us, we actually create it according to<br />

a complex interplay of codes or conventions of<br />

which we are normally unaware.Becoming aware<br />

of such codes is both inherently fascinating and<br />

intellectually empowering.Through experience and<br />

experimentation, we continually increase our<br />

understanding of the visual world and how we are<br />

influenced by it.<br />

has been differently approached during the time.<br />

From Aristotle who considered poetry and painting<br />

as arts based on imitation, passing through<br />

Horace’s ut pictura poesis or thematic<br />

resemblance in the Renaissance or Classicism,<br />

literature (text) and visual image (visual arts) have<br />

been perceived as ”sister arts”. With the invention<br />

of tools like Gutenberg’s movable type printing<br />

press in 1450, text took central stage. Graphics<br />

(visual images) were too costly to include. As<br />

printing costs dropped graphics soon resurfaced<br />

and their frequency was rising, so culture itself<br />

moved from textual to visual literacy. The research

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

of Gunther Kress (professor of English and<br />

Education at the School of Education, University of<br />

London) confirms this change over. (Reading<br />

Images:The Grammar of Visual Design, 1996). As<br />

an example, Kress compares science texbooks<br />

from1936 and 1988 showing that textbooks have<br />

progressed from a majority of texts to a majority of<br />

graphics (visual images). The change isn’t limited<br />

to textbooks and newspapers. Signs, maps,<br />

instructions, icons, packaging sell products, warn<br />

of possible hazards, and give visual direction when<br />

words alone are not sufficient. More and more<br />

professions that rely heavily on communication and<br />

persuasion are embracing visuals as a tool of<br />

choice. Of course, we know that what we see can<br />

be manipulated but the point is that images<br />

(visuals) are persuasive. In our times images have<br />

become tools used to elicit specific and planned<br />

emotional reactions in the people who see them.<br />

Visuals are not only excellent communicators but<br />

also quickly affect us psychologically and<br />

physiollogically. What we see has a profound effect<br />

on what we do, how we feel, and who we are.<br />

According to scientists, psychologists, great<br />

thinkers and researchers from around the world<br />

talking with pictures (visual images) is one of the<br />

fastest ways to communicate with and motivate<br />

people. Visual images are more communicative<br />

and memorable and are digested 60000 times<br />

faster than text. More importantly, pictures instantly<br />

evoke an emotional response, which is proven to<br />

significantly influence all decision making. Studies<br />

have shown that visuals increase our power to<br />

persuade by 43%. In his essay, Rhetoric of the<br />

Image, published in 1964, Roland Barthes<br />

attempts to "submit” the image to a spectral<br />

analysis of the messages it may contain" by<br />

turning to the advertising image, an image which,<br />

he argues, draws from "signs [that] are full, formed<br />

with a view to the optimum reading", and which<br />

therefore is more "frank" and explicit in the<br />

information it conveys. Barthes wishes to use this<br />

clarity to move toward a clearer conception of how<br />

the image (and its linguistic attendants) produces<br />

signification. He turns to a particular advertising<br />

image, one in which a mesh grocery bag lies on<br />

the table; its contents: beautiful, fresh vegetables<br />

and a box of pasta displaying a brand name. This<br />

image is designed to incite us to buy the pasta and<br />

it attempts to do this by signifying on several levels<br />

information that will provoke desire. Rhetoric of the<br />

Image focuses on commercials since they contain<br />

a highly condensed image that aims for maximum<br />

efficiency in transferring its message. Commercials<br />

have to get their message across in 30 seconds<br />

and they therefore employ highly charged and<br />

intensive images in order to convince us to buy this<br />

or that product. Therefore, for Barthes,<br />

commercials are a very convenient medium in<br />

which to explore the way ideologies are reflected in<br />

visual images. Commercials have to be able to<br />

speak in a conventional language, use<br />

conventional terminology and transmit its message<br />

410<br />

very fast, and therefore they provide access to<br />

conventional ideologies of their time. Barthes<br />

proceeds by breaking the system of signification<br />

into three parts, that of the linguistic message, the<br />

coded iconic message, and the noncoded iconic<br />

message. The linguistic message--the Italian name<br />

that appears on the package of pasta--itself<br />

operates on two levels: denotational, or pointing<br />

directly to the name of the company, and<br />

connotational, by signifying what Barthes refers to<br />

as "Italianicity." The coded iconic message is the<br />

totality of all of the messages that are connoted by<br />

the image itself: those of freshness, of plenty, of<br />

Italianicity (in the yellow, green, and red of the<br />

tomato and peppers), and of a certain still-life<br />

aesthetics. The noncoded iconic message is<br />

simply the literal "what it is" of the photograph, the<br />

vegetables and sack and pasta that we "see" when<br />

we look at the image. After articulating the three<br />

levels of signification, Barthes pursues another<br />

question: "What are the functions of the linguistic<br />

message with regard to the (twofold) iconic<br />

message?" and he comes up with two such<br />

functions: anchorage and relay. With anchorage,<br />

"the text directs the reader through the signifieds of<br />

the image...remote-control[ing] him towards a<br />

meaning chosen in advance". In a system of relay,<br />

"text...and image stand in a complementary<br />

relationship...and the unity of the message is<br />

realized at [the] level of the story. In addition to<br />

these modes of analysis, Barthes argues that<br />

attention must be paid to the composition of an<br />

image as a signifying complex and to the<br />

naturalizing role played in photography, where the<br />

exact replication of reality "naturalizes the symbolic<br />

message...innocent[ing] the semantic artifice of<br />

connotation".<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

What Barthes is essentially trying to do in<br />

Rhetoric of the Image is to examine and understand<br />

the messages that images contain, and the extent to<br />

which they take part in creating an ideological<br />

worldview. That is to say, Barthes is asking how<br />

ideologically charged are images and transmit an<br />

educational message to society. In his essay<br />

Barthes works along the lines of two theoretical<br />

distinctions: connotation and denotation, and the<br />

internal relations of the sign between the signifier<br />

and the signified. The signified, according to<br />

Barthes, has two levels of meaning: the<br />

denotational and the connotational. The<br />

denotation is the dictionary meaning of the<br />

sign/word and it detonates something in the real<br />

world. The connotation is the interpretative<br />

association that comes with the sign and is<br />

something which is culturally and context<br />

dependant. For Barthes connotation is a higher<br />

level of interpretation, and he assumes that being a

part of the same culture involves having similar<br />

connotations to certain signs.The rhetoric, the<br />

repetition of images in commercials, is determined<br />

according to Barthes by the sum of meanings<br />

yielded by the signs which compose the code and<br />

are in the image with ideology tying them together<br />

into a coherent utterance. In conclusion, in<br />

Rhetoric of the Image Roland Barthes is arguing<br />

that "natural" reality is not essentially encrypted or<br />

encoded but rather that it is its reproduction is a<br />

visual image that codes it and enforces cultural<br />

meaning upon it. Visual mediums are perceived as<br />

portraying reality while in fact they are<br />

constructing it. Language, when it is written, as<br />

opposed to when it is spoken, is realised as a<br />

physical and graphic substance in a given space. In<br />

this sense, language can be trated as a visual<br />

entuty. Thus when one looks at an advertisement<br />

which consists of both visual images and verbal<br />

captions, both elements (regardless of the type of<br />

medium: visual or verbal) come into the viewer’s<br />

eye as a visual entity, as a block of visual material<br />

and a block of language as text. The visual,<br />

whether as image or as a block of language has<br />

semantic impact on that initial level: the viewer<br />

goes on to read the visual and recognise the<br />

linguistic meaning of the verbal captions. At the<br />

next level of analysis, the visual and the verbal are<br />

each treated in terms of their own ”semantics” the<br />

semantics of the visual as image and semantics of<br />

the verbal as linguistic message. Visual<br />

communication is more ubiquitous than ever<br />

before. Visual images may do what texts alone<br />

cannot do.They quickly affect us both cognitively<br />

and emotionally. As mentioned before, visual<br />

communication contains image aspects. The<br />

interpretation of images is subjective and to<br />

understand the depth of meaning, or multiple<br />

meanings, communicated in an image requires<br />

analysis. As Paul Martin Lester has pointed out, in<br />

Visual Communication: Images with Messages,<br />

(2002), visual images may be analysed from six<br />

major perspectives: personal, historical, technical,<br />

ethical, cultural, semiotical. Personal perpective is<br />

when a viewer has an opinion about an image<br />

based on his or her personal thoughts. This might<br />

be sometimes in conflict with cultural values.<br />

Historical perspective reffers to the quality of the<br />

image which through the times has been changed,<br />

because of the use of different (new) media. When<br />

speaking about technical perspective we mean that<br />

the view of an image is influenced by the use of<br />

lights, position and the presentation of the image.<br />

From ethical perspective, the maker of the image,<br />

the viewer and the image itself must be responsible<br />

morally and ethically to the image. As far as the<br />

cultural perspective is concerned, symbolization is<br />

411<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

an important definition for this perspective.<br />

Cultural perspective involves identity of symbols<br />

and can also be seen as the semiotic<br />

perspective.Visual texts or images are an important<br />

area of analysis for semioticians and particularly<br />

for scholars working with intensive forms such as<br />

advertising and television because images are a<br />

central part of our mass communication.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Within semiotics there is a debate between<br />

the amount to which the meaning of visual images<br />

can be shared and understood in themselves, or if<br />

their meaning is instead based on some prior<br />

verbal knowledge. As we have seen, in his essav<br />

Rhetoric of the Image, Roland Barthes argues that<br />

images, and their symbolic meanings, are always<br />

contingent upon verbal text. Barthes claims that in<br />

order to reach the shared meaning, verbal text must<br />

enforce the visual with evidence. While Barthes<br />

says that the image can come first, without the text,<br />

the visual alone is too ambiguous. Kress and Theo<br />

van Leeuwen oppose Barthes opinion of semiotics<br />

in their book Reading Images.(1996). They do not<br />

believe that text is unimportant but simply that<br />

visual images can accomplish the same message<br />

and meaning that text can, but perhaps in a<br />

different way. Surrounded with symbols, images<br />

and various signs, human being has always strived<br />

to signify them and utilized for communication.<br />

The meaning comes out of an interaction between<br />

message and its reader (audience). While handling<br />

a text, one must consider not only its components<br />

but also the relation between those components.<br />

All the impressions it has created and the<br />

techniques used for creating such impressions as<br />

well.When the images urge us to react, we are<br />

aware of its effect upon us, which is resulted from<br />

myths, ideologies, and connotations embedded in<br />

the images. Only through a sophisticated analysis,<br />

the hidden meaning may be discovered.Visual<br />

semiotics deconstructs the communicative visuals<br />

in its attempt to attain the meaning. Most signs<br />

operate on several levels –iconic as well as<br />

symbolic and/or indexical, which suggests that<br />

visual semiotic analysis may be addressing a<br />

hierarchy of meaning in addition to categories and<br />

components of meaning. What is commonly called<br />

a message is in fact a text whose content is a<br />

multilevelled discourse. Visuals expedite and<br />

increase our level of communication. They<br />

increase comprehension, recollection and retention.<br />

Visual clues help us decode texts and attract<br />

attention to information or direct attention<br />

increasing the likelihood that the audience will<br />

remember. Visual images enhance or affect

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

emotions and attitudes. They engage our<br />

imagination and heighten our creative thinking by<br />

stimulating other areas of our brain (which in turn<br />

leads to a more profound and accurate<br />

understanding of the presented material). It is no<br />

secret that emotions influence decision-making.<br />

Visual images help create „brand identity”. At rhe<br />

same time visuals paint the picture of who the<br />

adviser is, what they stand for, and how the<br />

audience may benefit. Visual images sell because<br />

of their ability to influence. Words and how they're<br />

gathered on a page have a visual aspect of their<br />

own, but they may also interact with nondiscursive<br />

images such as drawings, paintings,<br />

photographs, or moving pictures. Most<br />

advertisements, for instance, use some<br />

combination of text and visuals to promote a<br />

product for service. While visual rhetoric is not<br />

entirely new, the subject of visual rhetoric is<br />

412<br />

becoming increasingly important, especially since<br />

we are constantly inundated with images and also<br />

since images can serve as rhetorical proofs.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Barthes, R., 1977 – Rhetoric of the Image: Image<br />

Music,Text , Ed. and trans. Stephen Heath, New<br />

York: Hill and Wang.<br />

Joly, M., 1998 – Introducere in analiza imaginii,<br />

Bucuresti, Ed. All.<br />

Kress, Gunther, Theo van Leeuwen. 1996 – Reading<br />

Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, London,<br />

Routledge.<br />

Lester Paul Martin, 2002 – Visual Communication :<br />

Images with Masages, Wadsworth Publishing co.<br />

Inc, 3rd revised ed.<br />

Lohisse, J., 2002 – Comunicarea. De la transmiterea<br />

mecanica la interactiune. Iasi, Ed. Polirom.

Abstract<br />

413<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

„ORGANIC BALKANET” PORTAL – AN INNOVATIVE METHOD OF ON-<br />

LINE TRAINING FOR ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN BALKANS REGION<br />

Maria TOADER, Gheorghe Valentin ROMAN<br />

Universitaty of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest<br />

Email: mirelatoadervali@yahoo.com<br />

The paper presents the activities, aims and objectives of “Organic.Balkanet” – a Leonardo da Vinci Project. The overall<br />

aim of “Organic.Balkanet” project is to facilitate the transfer of innovative training practices and e-learning content to<br />

vocational education of young and unemployed agricultural professionals, as well as to agricultural professionals. This<br />

project focuses to develop the skills and competences of VET (Vocational Educational Training) and guidance<br />

professionals, including their continuous professional development and their languages learning on topics related to<br />

Organic Agriculture (OA) in the Balkans area. The project deploy a multilingual online environment<br />

(http://ob.moleportal.eu) that will facilitate end-users’ online search, retrieval, access and use of digital training objects<br />

in the online learning repository.<br />

Key words: e-learning, innovative training, organic agriculture, Balkans region<br />

Conventional agriculture production has<br />

been applied through heavy reliance on nonrenewable<br />

resources (mechanization, fertilizers,<br />

pesticides etc.) resulting in numerous agricultural<br />

burdens such as soil degradation, water run-off,<br />

pollution, reduced biodiversity and landscape<br />

image, escalating production costs. Public<br />

awareness of the irreversible damage done to the<br />

environment has led to calls for a more responsible<br />

attitude towards our natural heritage. In addition,<br />

consumers' fears, triggered by food scares and<br />

technological developments such as genetic<br />

modification and food irradiation, have been<br />

translated into serious concern about food safety,<br />

ever-increasing demands for quality assurance and<br />

for more information about production methods.<br />

Against this background, Organic Agriculture<br />

(OA) has come to the fore as an agricultural<br />

approach that can not only produce safer products<br />

but is environmentally sound too: it combines<br />

traditional conservation-minded farming methods<br />

with modern farming technologies and relay more<br />

on in-farm inputs instead of external inputs<br />

excluding completely synthetic pesticides and<br />

fertilizers. However, organic farming is still<br />

hampered by lack of clarity: both consumers and<br />

the agricultural professionals are not always sure<br />

what OA is, what are its benefits, which products<br />

are covered by OA, and which restrictions OA<br />

implies. This is the reason why the European<br />

Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming (2004)<br />

has identified the need for actions supporting the<br />

training and education of all stakeholders related to<br />

OA, covering aspects related to production,<br />

processing and marketing of OA products and their<br />

benefits, and targeting OA products as the<br />

preferred option for both producers and consumers.<br />

The European Commission, through its<br />

strategic Action Plan and a number of funded<br />

initiatives of the 6th FP has aimed at promotion<br />

and further understanding of OA concepts and<br />

methods, and at the cultivation of a consumer<br />

culture that will facilitate the development of the<br />

OA products market. In addition, large<br />

international organisations such as the United<br />

Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organisation<br />

(FAO) and the International Federation of Organic<br />

Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), as well as nonprofit<br />

associations such as the Soil Association in<br />

UK (http://www.soilassociation.org), drive their<br />

own awareness and education initiatives for the<br />

promotion of OA methods and practices around the<br />

world. Furthermore, agricultural universities<br />

around the world have included OA-related and<br />

Agroecology courses in their educational<br />

programs, aiming to prepare agricultural<br />

professionals so that they can appropriately support<br />

and guide farmers through the selection and<br />

adoption of OA methods.<br />

Recent European and national initiatives<br />

have increased the production of relevant elearning<br />

content in a digital format. Such initiatives<br />

have various goals and are implemented in<br />

different socio-cultural and linguistic contexts. For<br />

instance, they may aim at promoting OA and<br />

educating producers/farmers and consumers about

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

its benefits, or at training agricultural professionals<br />

on the theory, methods and practices of OA.<br />

Characteristic examples include the content<br />

developed in the context of the eContent project<br />

BIOAGRO and eContentplus project<br />

ORGANIC.EDUNET or the classroom resources<br />

for primary and secondary education that the Soil<br />

Association has published online<br />

(http://www.soilassociation.org).<br />

On the other hand, these constitute<br />

dispersed resources that are individually listed in<br />

separate sites, and their exploitation in actual<br />

training scenarios in European, national, regional,<br />

local and/or sectoral training systems and practices<br />

remains to be seen.<br />

Existing e-learning content could be<br />

appropriately adapted, transferred and validated in<br />

order to support lifelong learning of agricultural<br />

professionals on OA and sustainable and<br />

environmental friendly management of resources.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

„Organic.Balkanet” is an EU project funded<br />

under the Leonardo da Vinci Programme that it will<br />

help to transfer training methods content that is<br />

currently used in the context of secondary and<br />

higher education mainly for agronomists (e.g.<br />

graduate education of students in agricultural<br />

universities, post-graduate training of young<br />

agronomists) to (a) support vocational training<br />

needs of agronomists that require focused<br />

vocational training on OA topics and (b) support<br />

lifelong learning needs of farmers that want to<br />

acquire new skills and cultivate new products.<br />

The consortium includes partners that have diverse<br />

backgrounds and expertises, so that they deal<br />

successfully with the complexities of the proposed<br />

project: University of Agronomic Sciences and<br />

Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest – Faculty of<br />

Agriculture (Romania) coordinator, Universidad de<br />

Alcalá (Spain), Greek Research & Technology<br />

Network (Greece), University of Maribor - Faculty<br />

of Agriculture (Slovenia), Rousse University “Angel<br />

Kanchev” (Bulgaria), Association for Organic<br />

Agriculture Northeast Slovenia (Slovenia), Biomold<br />

Association (Romania).<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The access to information technology is vital for<br />

the harmonious development of each country in the<br />

region, and for the region as a whole. The common<br />

element of the approaches to the various areas of<br />

development is represented by the new<br />

technologies, more exactly by a more active<br />

presence of the Internet in the rural area.<br />

Information Technology allows widely access to<br />

information and knowledge for all citizens. A large<br />

414<br />

use of information technology in all activities of<br />

human existence marks a new stage of human<br />

civilization, called "Information Society".<br />

Information Society means changes in all domains:<br />

in administration (e-government), in business<br />

(electronic commerce), in education (long-distance<br />

education), in culture (multimedia centers and<br />

virtual libraries) and in the manner of working<br />

(long-distance work). All these transformations are<br />

the product of the large use of the Internet. The<br />

Internet influences the way we live, the way we do<br />

business, the manner of working, the way we study<br />

and communicate, and even the way we spend our<br />

spare time. The technological support of this new<br />

society is done by the convergence of three sectors:<br />

Information technology, communications and econtent<br />

development.<br />

Currently, there is an increasing<br />

production of OA-related information in an<br />

electronic format. This content aims to support the<br />

goals of each initiative, either through promoting<br />

OA and educating producers/farmers and<br />

consumers about its benefits, or through the<br />

education of agricultural experts about the theory,<br />

methods and practices of OA. On the other hand,<br />

these constitute dispersed resources that are<br />

individually listed in separate sites, and with no<br />

clear plan for their educational exploitation.<br />

The overall aim of “Organic.Balkanet”<br />

project is to facilitate the transfer of innovative<br />

training practices and e-learning content to<br />

vocational education of young and unemployed<br />

agricultural professionals, as well as to agricultural<br />

professionals.<br />

The need for initiatives that is focus on the<br />

education of all OA stakeholders has been<br />

identified on an EU level. The issues that<br />

“Organic.Balkanet” addresses need a Europeanlevel<br />

and not a regional approach. The<br />

collaboration of partners among countries with (i)<br />

different experience in applying OA methods and<br />

(ii) different expertise on the topics of the OA<br />

training curriculum, illustrates the benefits from<br />

this transnational approach that aims to transfer<br />

knowledge and experience among partners.<br />

Furthermore, the organisation of the valorisation<br />

activities (European Workshop and network of<br />

affiliated partners) targets to the effective<br />

generalisation of the results to other organisations<br />

and countries as well. The option of allowing<br />

candidate advisors to specialize the generic<br />

“Organic.Balkanet” training curriculum according<br />

to the particular needs of the farmers in their<br />

regions shows that linguistic and cultural<br />

preferences was be also considered.<br />

Also, “Organic.Balkanet” categorizes and<br />

publishes in an online learning repository the

transferred content from previous initiatives in the<br />

form of digital training objects.<br />

The main objectives of this project are: to<br />

deploy a multilingual online environment<br />

(http//:ob.moleportal.eu) that facilitated end-users’<br />

online search, retrieval, access and use of digital<br />

training objects in the online learning repository; to<br />

design a number of training scenarios that<br />

introduce the use of the transferred e-learning<br />

content to support training of agricultural<br />

professionals in the participating user<br />

organizations; to carry out a set of focused pilot<br />

trials to validate the proposed training scenarios<br />

and the transferred e-learning content; to promote<br />

the cooperation of stakeholders in this particular<br />

content area and support the sustainability of<br />

project results.<br />

Figure 1 A screenshot of Organic.Balkanet portal<br />

Several outcomes of the Organic.Balkanet project<br />

are expected to retain their educational usefulness<br />

and value, supporting vocational training programs<br />

for agricultural professionals around Europe in the<br />

years to follow:<br />

• The high-quality training resources on how to<br />

apply OA methods and practices;<br />

• The Organic.Balkanet training program (as a<br />

whole, or some of its components such as the<br />

targeted competences, the curriculum topics, or the<br />

training session) for young and unemployed<br />

agricultural professionals;<br />

• Overall, about fifteen trained experts will remain<br />

in the participating countries and regions, and<br />

continue training farmers on OA methods and<br />

practices, marketing efforts, and access to<br />

certification processes.<br />

In the second year of the project has been<br />

organized by partners a pilot training seminar of<br />

one week with the selection of about fifteen<br />

415<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

candidate advisors from three different countries<br />

(i.e. Slovenia, Bulgaria and Romania) using the<br />

above results. Also, the pilot Organic.Balkanet<br />

advisors offered an appropriately developed<br />

training session for farmers in their regions a series<br />

of at least three validation seminars (one in each<br />

user country).<br />

The various languages in which project results<br />

provide, making them more accessible, usable and<br />

exploitable in the different countries and cultures<br />

covered by the project, are English, Romanian<br />

Bulgarian, and Slovenian.<br />

Figure 2 A screenshot of Organic.Balkanet Courses<br />

for e-learning program<br />

The following solutions have been adopted<br />

by Organic.Balkanet in order to respect<br />

multicultural/multilingual aspects of the OA<br />

content, making it thus more accessible, usable and<br />

exploitable in the different countries and cultures<br />

covered by the project:<br />

• Content that already exists in several languages<br />

populates the learning repositories of the project.<br />

More specifically, the repositories include content<br />

contributed by the participating content producers’<br />

four languages (i.e. English, Romanian, Bulgarian<br />

and Slovenian).<br />

• To support the creation and population of<br />

learning repositories by content producers in their<br />

own language, the software suite of tools for<br />

repositories has been also provided in four<br />

different language versions.<br />

• To offer to end-users a multilingual environment<br />

for searching, retrieving and accessing content<br />

from the learning repositories, the<br />

Organic.Balkanet Web portal has been developed<br />

in the four main languages of the project’s<br />

educational institutions.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Figure 3 A screenshot of Organic.Balkanet Course<br />

Module in Romanian<br />

• To support the description of the content with<br />

appropriate metadata; the metadata schema<br />

developed by the project has been produced in the<br />

four different languages identified above. Thus, it<br />

is possible to develop metadata records describing<br />

the content resources in any of these four<br />

languages.<br />

Figure 4 A screenshot of metadata description of<br />

Organic.Balkanet Course Module<br />

• The educational scenarios to be studied and<br />

proposed focused both on the national<br />

particularities of the educational systems in pilot<br />

user organisations, as well as on educational<br />

programs that are offered on a cross-border level.<br />

In this way, the cases of different national<br />

educational systems has been considered and in<br />

addition, cross-cultural cases has been also studied.<br />

416<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The access to information technology is<br />

vital for the harmonious development of each<br />

country in the region, and for the region as a<br />

whole.<br />

Currently, there is an increasing<br />

production of OA-related information in an<br />

electronic format.<br />

This content aims to support the goals of<br />

each initiative, either through promoting OA and<br />

educating producers/farmers and consumers about<br />

its benefits, or through the education of agricultural<br />

experts about the theory, methods and practices of<br />

OA.<br />

This project focused to develop the skills<br />

and competences of Vocational Educational<br />

Training (VET) and guidance professionals,<br />

including their continuous professional<br />

development and their learning of languages on<br />

topics related to Organic Agriculture (OA) in the<br />

Balkan area.<br />

The project deployed a multilingual online<br />

environment ((http://ob.moleportal.eu)) that<br />

facilitate end-users’ online search, retrieval, access<br />

and use of digital training objects in the online<br />

learning repository.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

The research was supported by the EU LLP Leonardo<br />

da Vinci program, Contract „Organic.Balkanet -<br />

Developing the skills of Organic Agriculture Trainers for<br />

the Balkans”, 2009-1-RO1-LEO05-03584 LLP-LdV-TOI-<br />

2009-RO-008.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Roman, Gh.V., Toader, M., Atanasov A., Krizman N.,<br />

2011 - Training needs analysis of organic<br />

agriculture operators in Balkans, Proceeding<br />

European Federation for Information Technology<br />

in Agriculture, Food and the Enviroment/World<br />

Congress on Computers in Agriculture/ISBN:978-<br />

80-904830-0-2, pp. 685-691.<br />

Toader, M., Roman, Gh.V., Palavistinis, N., 2010 –<br />

Organic.Balkanet project – a support for<br />

innovative training practices and e-learning<br />

content about organic agriculture, Vol. LIII<br />

Agronomy, ISSN 1222-5339, pp. 358-364.<br />

***http://ec.europe.eu/education/lifelong-learningprogramme<br />

***www.http://ob.moleportal.eu<br />

***www.organic-balkanet.eu<br />

***www.soliassociation.org

Abstract<br />

417<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE IMPACT OF COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY ON FARMERS<br />

INCOME IN ROMANIA<br />

George UNGUREANU 1 , Aurel CHIRAN 1 , Stejărel BREZULEANU 1 , Elena GÎNDU 1 ,<br />

Eduard BOGHIŢĂ 1<br />

e-mail: ungurgeo@yahoo.com<br />

The paper proposes is to analyze the current situation and prospects of the Romanian agricultural and rural economy<br />

and to recommend actions to reduce potential risks of fully integration of Romanian agricultural economy in the rural<br />

economy of the European Union. This paper tries to provide an updated the agricultural diagnosis and rural<br />

development in Romania and assess the global implications on the rural economy diversification and create new jobs.<br />

The subject includes theoretical addressing agricultural management system and characteristics of the studied<br />

phenomena, directed and coordinated contemporary management. Recent research shows that changes in agriculture<br />

and rural development are reflected in the economic downturn, the occurrence of demographic problems (increased<br />

distances between work and home, low rural population), changes in social structure, refocusing on value systems,<br />

pressures arising ecosystems, destruction of cultural heritage areas, and reducing income disparity, changing habitat<br />

preferences (second homes in the village). Integrating agriculture into the market economy, technical and economic<br />

modernization is done with great difficulty due to various reasons: lack of capital and a well organized credit system,<br />

inadequate material resources, dependence on upstream prices due to high input sites industrial and agricultural nature,<br />

but also downstream, and following the disruption of agricultural contracting system.<br />

Key words: CAP, income, farmers, prospects, economy, agriculture<br />

Agriculture is one of the key sectors of the<br />

Romanian economy. Agriculture and forestry<br />

contribution to GDP was consistently significant.<br />

Active population employed in the sector has<br />

shown a tendency to increase in number, especially<br />

due to redundancy in restructured industries, the<br />

share in total active population representing 40.6%<br />

in 2010 compared to 27.5% in 1989. Agricultural<br />

employment acted as a buffer against the effects of<br />

socio-economic transition by absorbing manpower<br />

released by urban industries. Of the total area of<br />

14,856,845 ha farm at the end of 2000; arable land<br />

is now 63.2%, pastures and hayfields 33.3%, the<br />

rest being occupied by vineyards and orchards.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

In the research has used to traditional<br />

research methods and techniques: analysis of<br />

scientific literature, statistical data analysis,<br />

database use, surveys, polls, measurement<br />

techniques used in marketing research (semantic<br />

differential, Likert's scale, correlation method<br />

ranks, and so on). Data processing methods were<br />

used for statistical analysis and graphics.<br />

Information base of the paper consists of<br />

statistical data of the specialized agencies in the<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, Romania<br />

country and abroad like: National Institute of<br />

Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural<br />

Development, and specialized institutions in<br />

Romania (Institute of Agricultural Economics,<br />

Institute of Agricultural Economics Romanian<br />

Academy) and European Commission Directorate<br />

for Agriculture. Research was most frequently used<br />

methods following groups: systemic, statistics,<br />

graphics, and dynamic.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Area covered by forests has 6,669,933<br />

hectares, representing 27.7% of the total area of the<br />

country. The private sector is the main owner of<br />

agricultural land in service on 31-12-2000 with<br />

8098.3 thousand hectares of arable land from<br />

9379,74 hectares, 210200 hectares of vineyard in<br />

total from 271700 ha, 174600 ha of fruit trees from<br />

total of 254900 ha and 4303.2 thousand ha<br />

pastures and hay from total of 4925.9 thousand<br />

hectares. Private farms are organized as follows:<br />

10 900 agricultural holdings in an area of 2.475<br />

million ha, with an average of 227.1 ha and<br />

4170300 households, an area of 10.311 million ha,<br />

with an average of 2, 47 ha each.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Crop structure and size classes of farms<br />

418<br />

Table 1<br />

The crops Arable land (ha)<br />

under 0,1 0,1-0,3 0,3-0,5<br />

Class size (ha)<br />

0,5-1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10-20<br />

Cereals for grain 5195147 599 25051 52682 243161 598973 1363224 732486 279443<br />

Wheat 2035056 100 2934,3 9873,6 49251 157563 417235 243219 89844<br />

Durum wheat 2181,66 - - 4,26 0,24 108,82 138,53 123,71 60,15<br />

Rye 14199,3 5,3 154,39 41,19 346,06 1414,7 5059,6 3888 944,35<br />

Barley 164904 0,5 41,26 288,49 1257 6175,5 29018 25694 11846<br />

Barley 210021 - 82,22 229,23 1264,9 5676,9 24368,3 26399 18440<br />

Oat 201401 0 83,86 331,34 2745,6 16107 71,065,69 50683 24818<br />

Corn 2526295 482 21716 41800 187786 410612 810766 375920 129440<br />

Sorghum 1491,87 10 15,46 22,88 43,8 48,04 90,26 58,75 69,71<br />

Rice 8537,38 - - - 0,4 - 13,61 6,45 8,22<br />

Other cereal<br />

grains<br />

31059,7 0,6 22,77 90,48 466,43 1272,6 5468,68 6493,8 3971,3<br />

Source: National Institute of Statistics (INSSE. 2010)<br />

These dimensions refer to family farms, but<br />

their formation and organization takes time and<br />

especially financial support to become dominant<br />

and economically viable. The wide variety of types<br />

of farms will remain in the future, especially due to<br />

new CAP guidelines for the development of<br />

multifunctional agriculture and economic<br />

modernization in rural areas, based on the<br />

expansion of SMEs. Private agriculture is by far<br />

the most important economic sector in rural areas<br />

because 20% of the rural population is made up of<br />

farmers and 16-18% of the population belongs<br />

households headed farmer. Other households who<br />

owned land, such as those conducted by employees<br />

or retirees, they almost always labour in farm<br />

farming as a second occupation. For these<br />

populations, agriculture plays an important role as<br />

a source of food security, as demonstrated by the<br />

high proportion of self-consumption in total food<br />

consumption.<br />

Table 2<br />

Consumption from own resources in rural areas in 2010<br />

Specification<br />

% of total consumption in<br />

households<br />

% of food consumption in households<br />

Households: Poor Non poor Total Poor Non poor Total<br />

Employee 43,2 35,9 37,5 56,3 60,6 59,5<br />

Private ns 31,3 31,9 ns 55,2 55,8<br />

Self-employed in non-agricultural activities 46,3 36,9 40,1 56,0 62,2 59,6<br />

Farmer 60,8 50,3 53,9 73,2 79,3 76,8<br />

Unemployed 53,2 42,9 47,3 64,9 69,9 67,4<br />

Pensioner 49,7 45,8 46,2 62,7 71,0 69,8<br />

TOTAL<br />

Source: own estimates based on MARD 2010<br />

50,7 43,0 44,6 63,4 68,8 67,5<br />

In table 2, is show the percentage of<br />

consumption from own sources in total<br />

consumption of rural households - both of those<br />

who have land and those who do not have - is<br />

between 55% and 80%. Consumption from own<br />

sources is important in total household<br />

consumption, which has value between 30% and<br />

60%. In addition, agriculture provides protection<br />

against extreme poverty for the part of the rural<br />

population receiving salary or pension income and<br />

reduces poverty of other groups such as farmers,<br />

self-employed in non-agricultural activities or<br />

unemployed. Direct payments are the main tool to<br />

support farmers and the agricultural budget<br />

funding source community and the national<br />

budget. The amount of direct payments allocated<br />

by the EU in the period 2007-2010 was about<br />

967.9 million of EUR in amounts, representing<br />

24.15% of the total community support including<br />

financial support intended for products or sectors<br />

which are established quota or ceiling surfaces<br />

national reference. This financial support does not<br />

require co-financing from the national budget, but<br />

involves Relevant Implementation costs, but costs<br />

were evaluated and assessed. According to<br />

regulations under this scheme, direct payments per<br />

hectare are calculated by dividing the national<br />

funds for direct payments to eligible agricultural<br />

area. SAPS application is necessary for a period of<br />

time, to ensure the restructuring of farms and<br />

develop their relations with the market. The single<br />

payment scheme involves a high degree of<br />

development and stabilization of production and<br />

diversification in benefit of Romanian agriculture.<br />

Romanian agriculture benefit, as the other<br />

Member States, and other forms of support, was<br />

including semi-subsistence reorganisation,<br />

community support from structural funds for<br />

investment in agricultural holdings and other<br />

economic activities in rural areas. These benefits

multiply the effects of support granted per hectare<br />

and per animal. Direct payments to farmers may be<br />

supplemented by additional payments Romania to<br />

the national budget (mechanism "top up") by 30%<br />

419<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

over the level provided by the Community. But<br />

these amounts can be allocated without being put<br />

temporarily (2011).<br />

Allocation schedule amounts for direct payments for budget of Romania, during 2007-2016<br />

Table 3<br />

Specification 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016<br />

% of direct payments funds<br />

increase<br />

25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100<br />

% Growth in national budget 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 10 0<br />

Total annual payments (%) 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 100 100 100<br />

Source: Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1290/2005 on the financing of the CAP expenditure menus,<br />

Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1698/2005 on support for rural development from the European Agricultural<br />

Find Rural Development and the National Strategic Plan 2007-2013, prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture,<br />

June 2006<br />

Direct payments (both in the plant and<br />

animal) are allocated without being conditioned by<br />

production within national base area negotiated<br />

with the European Union and the number of<br />

animals in national funds negotiated.<br />

In 2006 in Romania has introduced a similar<br />

mechanism, but they fixed payment criteria, taking<br />

account of poor crops (sugar beet, textile plants,<br />

soybean and so on).<br />

The success of such a mechanism depends<br />

on the level of payments, which is currently low<br />

and will not increase significantly in the first years<br />

after accession no. Romania decided that the<br />

payments to be paid from an eligible hectare above<br />

provided that a plot of this surface is at least 0.30<br />

ha planted with a single crop. National base area<br />

and production of reference (average yields per ha)<br />

were negotiated by each country and the Treaty of<br />

Accession in the allocation of support from the<br />

Community budget. Were also set national funds<br />

for payments that would benefit each Member<br />

State meets the conditions agreed.<br />

Table 4<br />

National base areas and reference yields<br />

negotiated of Member States<br />

Specification<br />

Area of base<br />

(ha)<br />

Reference<br />

yields (t / ha)<br />

Bulgaria 2.625.258 2,90<br />

Czech Republic 2.253.598 4,20<br />

Estonia 362.827 2,40<br />

Cyprus 79.004 2,30<br />

Letonia 443.580 2,50<br />

Lituania 1.146.633 2,70<br />

Hungaria 3.487.792 4,73<br />

Malta 4.565 2.02<br />

Polonia 9.454.671 3,00<br />

Romania 7.012.666 2,65<br />

Slovenia 125.171 5,27<br />

Slovakia 1.003.453 4,06<br />

Source: Treaty of Accession of Bulgaria and Romania<br />

to the EU. Publishing the Official Gazette, 2005<br />

As shown in table 4, in the allocation of<br />

support from the Community budget, the<br />

Accession Treaty was established as the national<br />

base area to 7,012,666 ha and production of<br />

reference of 2.65 t / ha. Romania's reference yield<br />

is low due to the drought affected crops in the<br />

years considered, especially as reduced agricultural<br />

performance. National base area and production of<br />

reference (average yields per hectare for the period<br />

2000-2002) was negotiated by our country and laid<br />

down in the Accession Treaty in the allocation of<br />

support from the Community budget.<br />

Were also set national funds for payments<br />

that could benefit Romania as member state, if the<br />

conditions it is due. Thus, the Accession Treaty<br />

and EU regulations, Romania with a base area of<br />

7012666 ha negotiated in arable crops and<br />

reference average production estimated at 2.65<br />

tons per hectare, the annual total production of<br />

approx. 18.5 million tonnes and a level of direct<br />

payment of 63 € / t, obtained by negotiation, the<br />

funds of 1,171 million euros (full amount in<br />

2016). Under these conditions, direct payment per<br />

hectare from the EU would be 42 Euro in 2007 and<br />

167 Euro in 2016 (excluding livestock).<br />

Direct payments to eligible Romania from<br />

the EU budget increase from 440 million in 2007<br />

(25% of the negotiated) to 1766 million in 2016<br />

(full amount), if appropriate commitments. If we<br />

consider the utilized agricultural area is arable land<br />

base includes negotiated (7012666 hectares) and 2<br />

million hectares of pasture permanent shows an<br />

eligible area of approx. 9 million hectares. UAA<br />

registered in the farm was on 12 May 2017, of<br />

8925802 hectares. In this case, the estimation of<br />

support coming from the EU budget and national<br />

budget allocations for vegetable and livestock<br />

sector relative to UAA, as follows (tab.6).<br />

Payments per hectare are estimates and may<br />

change depending on completion Registry farms.<br />

SAPS application is appropriate, for a period of<br />

time, to ensure the restructuring of farms and<br />

develop their relations with the market. Switch to<br />

the single payment scheme involves a high degree<br />

of development and stabilization of production and<br />

diversification to benefit Romanian agriculture.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Years<br />

Bulgaria<br />

Maximum funds for direct payments allocated new EU Member States -Million<br />

Czech<br />

Republic<br />

Estonia<br />

Cyprus<br />

Leetonia<br />

Lithuania<br />

2005 - 228,8 32,4 8,9 33,9 92,0 350,8 0,67 724.6 - 35,8 97,9<br />

420<br />

Hungaria<br />

Malta<br />

Polonies<br />

Romania<br />

Slovenia<br />

Table 5<br />

2006 - 266,7 27,3 12,5 39,6 107,3 420,2 0,83 881,7 - 41,9 115,4<br />

2007 200,3 343,6 40,4 16,3 55,6 146,9 508,3 1,6 1140,9 440,0 56,1 146,6<br />

2008 240,4 429,2 50,5 20,4 69,5 183,6 634,9 2,05 1425,9 527,9 70,1 183,2<br />

2009 281,0 514,9 60,5 24,5 83,4 220,3 761,6 2,46 1711.0 618,1 84,1 219,7<br />

2010 321.2 600,5 70,6 28,6 97,3 237,0 888,2 2,87 1996,1 706,4 98,1 256,2<br />

2011 401,4 686,2 80,7 32,7 111,2 293,7 1014,9 3,28 2281,1 883,0 112,1 292,8<br />

2012 481,7 771,8 90,0 35,8 1125,1 330,4 1141,5 3,60 2566,2 1059,6 126,1 329,3<br />

2013 562,0 857,5 100,9 40,9 139,0 367,1 1268,2 4,10 2851,3 1236,2 140,2 365,9<br />

2014 642,3 857,5 100,9 40,9 139,0 367,1 1268,2 4,10 2851,3 1412,8 140,2 365,9<br />

2015 722,6 857,5 100,9 40,9 139,0 367,1 1268,2 4,10 2851,3 1589,4 140,2 365,9<br />

Next years 802,9 857,5 100,9 40,9 139,0 367,1 1268,2 4.10 2851,3 1766,0 140,2 365,9<br />

Source: Data processed from the Treaty of Accession of Bulgaria and Romania to the EU. Official publishing<br />

it Romania, 2007<br />

Table 6<br />

Community support direct estimation of additional amounts of Romania's budget for the period 2007-2016<br />

Specification 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 …2016<br />

Annual percentage of funds allocated by the EU. - (%) 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0 50,0 100,0<br />

Direct payments under negotiation results ((million of euro) 440 527,9 618,2 706,4 883 1766<br />

Maximum support from the national budget (%) 30,0 30,0 30,0 30,0 30,0 -<br />

(million of euro) 529,8 529,8 529,8 529,8 529,8 -<br />

Total amount of euro from Community budget and the national<br />

budget -% annually<br />

55,0 60,0 65,0 70,0 80,0 100,0<br />

(million of euro) 969,8 1957,7 1147,8 1236,2 1412,8<br />

Amounts calculated annually per hectare eligible for direct<br />

98 108 118 128 133 200<br />

payments to:<br />

- Community support € / ha 48 58 68 78 83 -<br />

- National support € / ha 50 50 50 50 50 -<br />

Romanian agriculture benefits as the other<br />

Member States and other support, including semisubsistence<br />

restructuring, community support from<br />

structural funds for investment in agricultural<br />

holdings and other economic activities in rural<br />

areas, substantial support for rural development<br />

and environmental protection and so on. These<br />

benefits multiply the effects of support granted per<br />

hectare and per animal. EU and national support is<br />

only part of the income, certain expenses incurred<br />

claim amounts. On the other hand, support from<br />

the national budget depends on the availability of<br />

existing and priorities for arable crops and<br />

livestock. To upgrade, you will need to obtain farm<br />

income from livestock and other activities and get<br />

a size that would allow it to obtain income that can<br />

perform annual production costs and take part in<br />

financing investment projects.<br />

Only in 2016, direct support came entirely<br />

from the EU could reach 200 euro / hectare. Until<br />

then, prices and market developments are difficult<br />

to predict. For Member States whose reference<br />

productions negotiated are higher than 2.65 t / ha,<br />

as in Romania, the benefits resulting from<br />

Community support is much higher. For example,<br />

Hungary has a reference output 4.73 t / ha,<br />

Slovenia by 5.27 t / ha, Czech Republic 4.20 t / ha,<br />

compared to Romania negotiated outcome. As a<br />

result, direct payment per hectare average yield<br />

increases with the reference. Up to a possible<br />

review of the results of the negotiations in force,<br />

Romanian farmers can increase their income as<br />

Umar organic production development, business<br />

diversification and especially following amounts<br />

from the funds of rural development, economic and<br />

social cohesion, and environmental protection.<br />

SAPS application is appropriate, for a period of<br />

time to ensure farms reorganisation, training and<br />

development viable networks commercial sector<br />

with market farmers. Switch to the single payment<br />

scheme involves a high degree of development and<br />

stabilization holdings to benefit Romanian<br />

agriculture.<br />

Livestock eligible for direct payments will<br />

be distributed on the farm, taking into account the<br />

applicable Community and national criteria. Have<br />

Slovakia

access to direct payments between farmers who<br />

enrol in the Registry farms meet the eligibility<br />

421<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

criteria and make their application for Community<br />

support.<br />

Table 7<br />

Regional and National funds, the animal direct payments from the EU budget and the amounts projected for<br />

Animal Species and Categories<br />

the year 2016 for Romania<br />

National funds<br />

(head)<br />

Direct payments<br />

(€ / head)<br />

Amounts from the<br />

Community budget<br />

(thousand euros)<br />

Beef cattle (regional funds) 452.000 210 98920<br />

Suckler cows 150.000 200 30.000<br />

Adult bovine animals for slaughter (regional funds) 1.148.000 80 91.840<br />

Calves for slaughter (regional funds) 85.000 50 4250<br />

total cattle 222.000<br />

Sheep of which: 5.880.000<br />

-mountain 1.764.000 28 49.392<br />

-the plain- 4.116.000 21 86.436<br />

-goats 400.000 16,8 6.720<br />

Total sheep and goats 93.156<br />

grand total 315.156<br />

Source: Accession Treaty of Romania and Bulgaria, Ed Official Gazette, 2005, the Ministry of Agriculture<br />

and Rural Development<br />

Farmers may benefit from community<br />

support and national support (which is allocated<br />

according to the rules) within the regional ceiling<br />

and national funds. Failure to meet the conditions<br />

and obligations set amounts due is reduced.<br />

Switching to direct area payments<br />

mechanism and single farm payment will be made,<br />

depending on the readiness of agriculture to total<br />

decoupling of support from production, after three<br />

years of accession or earlier. Although Romania<br />

has assumed full application of the Acquis<br />

Communitary, with some periods of transition can<br />

occur provisions of its risk of failure of objective<br />

and subjective reasons. These risks must be<br />

avoided to fully benefit from the support set by<br />

increasing the professional capacity of the<br />

administration and training of farmers.<br />

Although the implications of CAP<br />

implementation in Romanian agriculture<br />

organization of the market need to comply with the<br />

Acquis Communitary. This advantage results from<br />

variable forms of support both financially and<br />

logistically, as well as market discipline.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The paper is a comprehensive new approach<br />

to agricultural structures in the specific context of<br />

agricultural production, which motivates the<br />

development of efficient farms to increase the<br />

quantity and quality of production. Agrarian<br />

structures that participate or have an active role in<br />

economic growth may restrict or interfere with the<br />

input structures, analyzes focusing in this direction.<br />

Following the results obtained the following<br />

conclusions can be drawn:<br />

Fact that Romania joined the European Union<br />

will continue to lead to lower revenues Romanian<br />

farmers. Decrease their farm income depends on<br />

the situation. Thus, where practical farm<br />

technologies in resource consumption is important<br />

shock of EU accession will be important (30%<br />

decrease in net income / hectare obtained);<br />

Unique bonuses per hectare leads to decoupled<br />

income support to farmers. Ability to recover<br />

income losses vary by state farm. For those farms<br />

that are not very influenced by new market<br />

conditions even expect an increase in net farm<br />

income;<br />

Farm crop rotation will be confused by joining<br />

the single market. The phenomenon of specialized<br />

farms into more efficient production. For<br />

productions that in the new market is expected to<br />

become inefficient implementation of technology<br />

changes;<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Otiman John Peacock, 1997 - Rural Development in<br />

Romania, Agroprint Publishing House, Timisoara.<br />

Simion, E. (general coordinator), 2002 - The priorities<br />

of agricultural policies on rural household,<br />

Romanian Academy, Department of Economics,<br />

Law and Sociology.<br />

Ungureanu, G., Mateoc Nicoleta, 2009 - Regional<br />

development. Publisher TipoMoldova. Iasi.<br />

Ungureanu, G., 2009 - Management. Alfa Publishing.<br />

Iasi. In 2009.<br />

Vedinas, T., 2001 - Introduction to Sociology Rural,<br />

Polirom, Science 2001.<br />

Vincze Maria, 2010 - Agricultural policies in the world -<br />

theory and reality; Publishing Cluj University<br />

Press, Cluj-Napoca 2010.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

422

Abstract<br />

423<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

OPTIMIZATION OF MAIZE TECHNLOGY USING PRODUCTION<br />

FUNCTION METHOD<br />

George UNGUREANU 1 , Mihai STANCIU 1 , Cecilia POP 1 , Olguta BREZULEANU 1 , Gabriela<br />

IGNAT 1 , Radu MORARU 1<br />

e-mail: ungurgeo@yahoo.com<br />

An optimization model for yield and fertilizer efficiency was established by many years and sites experimentation of N,<br />

P and K fertilizer combination for maize production on many soils. Improving the technical and economic results at the<br />

level of any crops represents an objective necessity and can be achieved, in good conditions, through a continuous<br />

process of optimization and re-optimization of the main economic activities. We have committed to present a few<br />

aspects connected to the optimization of sour cherry tree culture technology in this paper, using different kind of<br />

production factors. The research subject is necessary in order to find out the problems raised by the culture of the sour<br />

cherry tree and their solving using production functions method. The production functions show the dependency of the<br />

acquired crops in relation to the level of use of different production factors. When the farm possesses sufficient<br />

quantities of paper fertilizers, the problem which rises is the establishment of the doses corresponding to the maximum<br />

technical and the economic optimum. This can be realized by differentiating the doses of fertilizers, the combination<br />

reports, as well as the kind and type of the fertilizer. It is very important to mention the methods and calculation<br />

techniques when making on optimization study, because it gives the possibility to estimate the level in which a studied<br />

phenomenon is comprised and analysed.<br />

Key words: factors, production, optimization, technology<br />

The optimization process of different<br />

fertilizer combinations, of natural ones, as well<br />

chemical, can be realized with the help of<br />

production functions. The production functions<br />

materialize the dependence of the productions<br />

obtained compared to the level of different<br />

production resources utilization. The production<br />

functions can be used only if this dependence is<br />

continuous. The main mathematical method<br />

through which the analysis studies are detailed,<br />

foreseeing on optimization, and the real form is<br />

replaced by its model, is the mathematicaleconomic<br />

shaping which offers, for the studied<br />

matter, a mathematical and economic optimum.<br />

In the structure optimization different kind<br />

of crop types, the most used methods are: the<br />

method of multiple alternatives, the Planning<br />

method, the geometrical method, the lineal<br />

programming method which is the most complex<br />

because it allows the choice of the most efficient<br />

one from all solutions and alternatives, being given<br />

the natural and economic conditions.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The optimization of production technology<br />

using production functions method. As a method of<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, Romania<br />

fertilizers use optimization, is utilized the lineal<br />

programming as a distinct process or as a part of<br />

optimizing, the resources used at soar cherry tree<br />

technology, and the economic-mathematical model<br />

built starts from the most simple form and gets to<br />

one of the most complex forms.<br />

The methodology of fertilizers use economic<br />

optimization is based on covering more stages and<br />

allows to be taken into account the influence of all<br />

factors and the interaction between them, the<br />

solutions obtained comprising elements which<br />

characterize the farm on the whole, as well as<br />

elements which characterize its component parts.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The production function is the mathematical<br />

expression established between the result of<br />

production and the quantity of resources<br />

consumed; it appears as:<br />

y = f (x1, x2, x3 ... xn) where y represents the<br />

production obtained (dependent varying terms) and<br />

x1, the resources consumed (independent varying<br />

terms). Compared to the mathematical function<br />

where to every element corresponds a certain well<br />

established value, in agriculture appears the<br />

situation that for each unity of earmarked factor<br />

correspond more values (effects) in time and space.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

This is owed to the fact that between the relation<br />

cause-effect comes the fruit tree, as a living<br />

organism meant to be influenced by the causing<br />

factors as well as by other factor which cannot be<br />

entirely controlled. The increase of production<br />

takes place up to a certain moment after which<br />

appears the decrease of the varying productivity<br />

factor. Each quantity of supplementary added<br />

means a decreasing quantity of produce on the total<br />

production per hectare.<br />

The increase of fertilizers quantities<br />

productivity appears only when the curve is<br />

increasing and new quantities are necessary.<br />

The relation between the quantity of<br />

chemical fertilizers use and the production<br />

obtained per hectares can be represented as a<br />

function:<br />

y = f(x), where<br />

în care:<br />

x = value of independent varying term;<br />

y = value of dependent varying term.<br />

This function is also called monofactorial<br />

function which expresses the dependence of<br />

production results compared to a single factor of<br />

production. The dependence of the production<br />

results near to a certain factor of production can<br />

have a lineal form if it’s expressed as:<br />

y (x) = a + bx, where:<br />

424<br />

a = value of function for x = 0 or the point<br />

where the y axis crosses the straight line;<br />

b = the tangent of the angle formed by the<br />

straight line and the x axis.<br />

In order to establish the allotment of<br />

chemical and organic fertilizers doses which<br />

ensure the maximum profit achievement<br />

(economic optimum), the function of production<br />

must be transformed from physical expression to<br />

value expression.<br />

Y (Rol/ha) = y (q/ha) x Py (Rol/q) and<br />

equalize the marginal profit expressed as value<br />

with the costs of fertilizers.<br />

In order to better understand the calculation<br />

method it is necessary to know the possibilities of<br />

replacing the fertilizers, in what proportion<br />

fertilizers could be combined in order to minimize<br />

the costs of production and what quantity of each<br />

fertilizer should be used for different species. The<br />

rational replacement starts from establishing the<br />

marginal rate of substitution and the optimum<br />

combination of fertilizers is based on minimization<br />

of costs of production in order to obtain the same<br />

production volume.<br />

The conditions of optimum combination<br />

impose that the marginal rate of substitution to<br />

be equal to the reverse report of costs.<br />

Table 1<br />

Calculation of the necessary elements to determine the coefficients<br />

Manure<br />

- Doses -<br />

Chemical fertilizers - media productions of maize (kg / ha)<br />

0 2 4 6<br />

0 0 2,1 4,2 6,3<br />

0 4,8 6,1 7,0 7,8<br />

2 6,1 6,8 7,9 8,1<br />

8,5 7,2 8,0 8,6 8,5<br />

8,4 7,6 8,2 8,3 8,4<br />

8 7,8 8,0 8,1 7,5<br />

10 7,1 7,9 6,2 6,0<br />

Quantities of manure and chemical doses are<br />

expressed. A dose of manure is 5 tons of manure<br />

per hectare, and a dose of fertilizer is 125 kg active<br />

substance per hectare, consisting of 25 kg to N, 50<br />

kg S.A. P and 50 kg S.A. K. maize production in<br />

tonnes per hectare. To calculate expected yields<br />

depending on the doses of fertilizers were<br />

calculated coefficient values a11 = 0.663047, a12<br />

= 0.068058, a21 = 0.47125, a22 = -0.04375 and<br />

y aixi a0 = 5,713437.<br />

a 0<br />

n<br />

In order to obtain maximum yields, using<br />

optimal doses of chemical fertilizers and manure<br />

are necessary following calculations:<br />

A. Calculations to determine maximum<br />

physical production:<br />

B.<br />

x<br />

1<br />

x<br />

2<br />

2(<br />

0.<br />

663047<br />

2(<br />

0.<br />

068058<br />

0,<br />

47125<br />

)<br />

0.<br />

04375<br />

)<br />

4,871191 ~ 4.88<br />

5,385714 ~ 5.39<br />

In terms of using natural and chemical<br />

fertilizers for maize, it appears that the same level<br />

of production can be achieved by combining<br />

different amounts of the two fertilizers. Curves on<br />

which all combinations of fertilizers that ensure the<br />

same level of production or izocuant of<br />

izoproduction called.<br />

The maximum allocation x 1 factor to<br />

determine the maximum yield is 4.88 doses, and<br />

the dose factor x 2 is 5.39.<br />

Allocating manure doses of 4.88, ie 24.4<br />

tons of manure per hectare production can be<br />

obtained as follows:<br />

yx1 = a0 + a11 x 1 + a12 x 1 2<br />

yx1 = 5,713437 + (0,663047*4,88) +<br />

(-0.068058*4,88)= 8,616983 ~ 8.62<br />

yx1 = 8.62 t/ha

To allocate chemical fertilizers in amount of<br />

5.39, ie 673.75 kg to per hectare, one can obtain<br />

the following output::<br />

y x 2 = a0 + a21 x 2 + a22 x 2 2<br />

y x 2 = 5,713437 + 0.47125* 5,39 +<br />

(-0,04375 * 5,39 2 ) = 6,362<br />

y x 2 = 6,98 t/ha<br />

Each of the factors taken separately to obtain<br />

maximum yields of 8.62 and 6.98 respectively t If<br />

you use more of factor x1 or x2, production will<br />

decrease. If the maximum amounts of resource are<br />

introduced x1 and x2 in the basic equation, one can<br />

determine the final maximum yield that can be<br />

achieved by the use of two factors:<br />

yMax = a0 + a11 x 1 + a12 x 1 2 + a21 x 2 + a22 x 2 2<br />

yM = 5,713437 + 0,663047 * 4.88 +<br />

(0.068058*4.88 2 ) +(0,047125*5.39) + (-0.04375 *<br />

5.39 2 )<br />

yMax = 9.55 t/ha<br />

C. Establish maximum economic<br />

production<br />

In order to establish optimum economic<br />

production is necessary to know the prices of<br />

resources and output obtained.<br />

Thus, prices were considered, the following<br />

average values: for manure 10 Rol / ton, for<br />

fertilizers, differentiated by content active<br />

substance ;N-1.0 Rol; P-1,1 Rol; K –1,1 Rol.<br />

maize production 9000 Rol/kg.<br />

P x 1 = 10 Rol/dose; P x 2 = 11 Rol/dose; Py<br />

= 360 Rol/tonă.<br />

x<br />

1<br />

P.<br />

1<br />

Py<br />

2.<br />

a<br />

a<br />

12<br />

11<br />

10<br />

360<br />

2.(<br />

0,<br />

663047<br />

0.<br />

068058<br />

)<br />

4,769 ~ 4.77<br />

doses<br />

P.<br />

2 11<br />

0.<br />

47125<br />

Py<br />

x<br />

360<br />

2<br />

4,338 ~ 4.34 doses<br />

2.<br />

a22<br />

2.(<br />

0.<br />

04375 )<br />

The maximum allocation x1 factor to achieve<br />

maximum economic production doses of 4.77 and<br />

4.34 is the factor x2 doses.<br />

4.77 allocating doses of manure manure ie<br />

23.85 t per hectare can be achieved optimum<br />

production following:<br />

y x 1 = a0 + a11 x 1 + a12 x 1 2<br />

y x 1 = (5,713437 + 0,663047*4,77) +<br />

(-0,0680158 *4,77 2 ) = 8,55 t/ha<br />

4.34 allocating fertilizer doses, ie 542 kg<br />

s.a./ ha, one can obtain the following optimal<br />

production:<br />

y x 2 = a0 + a21 x 2 + a22 x 2 2<br />

y x 2 = 5,713437 + 0.47125*4,34 +<br />

(-0,04375*4,34 2 ) = 6,93 t/ha<br />

With each factor separately can get a<br />

production of 8.55 t / ha and 6.93 / ha. If you use<br />

more or less of one of the factors, production will<br />

decrease. Resource allocation after the peak is not<br />

425<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

justified from any point of view, because costs and<br />

increase agricultural production begins to decrease<br />

at a rate proportional to the increase in resource<br />

allocation.<br />

Economic optimum production that can be<br />

obtained by using both factors is:<br />

YM = a0 + a11 x 1 + a12 x 1 2 + a21 x 2 + a22 x 2 2<br />

YM =5,713437 + 0,663047*4,77 + (0,068058 *<br />

4,17 2 ) + 0,47125*4,34 + (-0,04375 * 4,34 2 ) =<br />

11,28 t/ha<br />

Optimal maximum economic production is<br />

natural lower maximum yield 1.73 t / ha.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The optimization process of different<br />

combinations of fertilizers use, of natural ones as<br />

well as chemical, can be realized through the<br />

production functions. The production functions<br />

materialize the dependence of obtained<br />

productions near the level of different production<br />

resources use. Analysing the influence of fertilizers<br />

quantities on the variation of total progress of total<br />

production it can be noticed that in the first part of<br />

the curve, the production progress records slow<br />

increasing rate (between 0-40 kg s.a) so that these<br />

progress to suddenly increase (between 40-80 kg<br />

s.a) up to a point (2.7 tonnes/ha), point when the<br />

production progress reaches a maximum level.<br />

Any supplementary factor allotment determines a<br />

constant decrease of production progress.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cătoiu, I., 1982 - Câteva consideraţii privind evaluarea<br />

modelelor multifactoriale de previziune. Revista<br />

“Teorie şi practică economică”, Bucureşti.<br />

Gheorghiu, Al. şi colab., 1992 - Analiza activităţii<br />

economice a întreprinderii, Editura Didactică şi<br />

Pedagogică, Bucureşti.<br />

Howitt, R.E, 2005 - Agricultural and Environmental<br />

Policy Models: Calibration, Estimation and<br />

Optimization, www.agecon.ucdavis.edu:16080.<br />

Ungureanu, G., Ciurea, I., Chiran, A., Gîndu, Elena,<br />

Brezuleanu, S., Brezuleanu, Carmen-Olguța,<br />

2011 - Effects of cap on the performances of<br />

agricultural exploitations from romania after<br />

integration. The7th International Conference on<br />

Management of Technological Changes,<br />

September 1st –3rd , 2011, Alexandroupolis,<br />

Greece. Indexed in the “ISI Web of Knowledge”<br />

ISI Proceedings Database. http:// www.<br />

isiwebofknowledge.com/ (6 pag.). ISI.<br />

Vasilescu, N., Ciurea, I., Chiran, A., Filip, C., 1985 -<br />

Optimizarea structurii de producţie în unităţile<br />

pomicole constituite prin asociere, <strong>Lucrări</strong><br />

<strong>ştiinţifice</strong>, seria A, vol.29 , Institutul Agronomic<br />

Iaşi.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

426

Abstract<br />

427<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EVOULUTION OF THE TOURIST ACCOMMODATION ACTIVITY IN<br />

AGROTOURIST GUESTHOUSES DURING 2005-2011 IN THE NEAMŢ<br />

COUNTY - ROMANIA<br />

Nicolae-Gabriel URSUIANU 1 , Manea DRĂGHICI 1<br />

Email: gabriel.ursuianu@yahoo.com<br />

This paper considers the analysis and development of tourist accommodation activity among agrotourist guesthouses in<br />

Neamţ County in the period 2005-2011. There were taken into account and analyzed, indicators such as number of<br />

tourist arrivals in agrotourist guesthouses of all tourist accommodation structures, the number of arrivals of residents<br />

and nonresidents in agrotourist guesthouses of total number of tourist reception and overnight stays in rural tourism<br />

guesthouses of all structures of tourist accommodation. From the analysis, there shows that during 2005-2011 the<br />

highest rate registered by tourist arrivals in agrotourist guesthouses was 2011 where from a total of 133,229 arrivals of<br />

tourists in accommodation in the county agrotourist guesthouses had a total of 45,361 (34.05%), number of nights spent<br />

in agrotourist guesthouses from the total of accommodation in the Neamţ County in 2005 to 2011 period also peaked in<br />

2011 with a total of 71,893 (26.21%) of a total of 274,318 with an average annual increase of 21.27%. It analyzes the<br />

ways of implementing the local plan for sustainable development of Neamţ County for 2007-2013.<br />

Key words: agrotourism, agrotourist guesthouses, average annual growth rate, Neamţ County<br />

Neamt County is located in the north-eastern<br />

part of Romania and is a part of the North-Eastern<br />

development region of the country with a total land<br />

area of 5.896 sq km (representing 2.47% of total<br />

country land) and having a rich and imposing<br />

tourist potential represented by the variety of the<br />

landscape, originality of ethnographic and folk<br />

elements, spas and also developing agrotourism in<br />

this land in the last years.<br />

Regarding development of agrotourism<br />

there is seen an increase of the accommodation<br />

structures we can see increase of accommodation<br />

structures, as well as in the number of tourists in<br />

the agrotourist guesthouses in the Neamţ County.<br />

In this regard, this paper reviews the development<br />

of agrotourism in the county of Neamt, in order to<br />

highlight the growing number of tourist<br />

accommodation structures, the number of tourists<br />

stay and the number of nights spent during 2001-<br />

2006.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The following indicators were used: the<br />

number of tourists arrivals in agrotourist<br />

guesthouses of all tourist accommodation<br />

structures, the number of arrivals of residents and<br />

nonresidents in agrotourist guesthouses in the<br />

1 Universitaty of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest<br />

number of arrivals of all tourist accommodation<br />

structures and not least the number of nights spent<br />

in agrotourist guesthouses from total of tourist<br />

reception with functions of tourists accommodation.<br />

It was calculated the average annual increase<br />

formula r n 1 ( p1/<br />

p0)<br />

1 where: ∏p1/po<br />

growth indicators are intertwined, and n is the<br />

number of years of the analyzed.<br />

The analyzed period was 2005-2011 and the data<br />

were collected from tourist Neamt County Breviary<br />

- 2011 Edition statistically processed and<br />

interpreted on ways to implement sustainable local<br />

development plan for 2007-2013 Neamt County.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

In the analyzed period 2005-2011 on tourist<br />

arrivals in agroturisitce guesthouses of all tourist<br />

accommodation structures in the entire county can<br />

see an increase in reaching their highest value in<br />

2011 that 45,361 arrivals from a total of 133,229<br />

with an average growth of 21.31% (Table 1). Such<br />

in Fig. 1 can see dynamic tourist arrivals in the<br />

total agrotouristic guesthouses in total of<br />

accommodation in the county for the period 2005-<br />

2011.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Number of agrotouristic tourists arrivals in the total of tourist reception with functions of tourist<br />

accommodation in the Neamţ County în 2005-2011<br />

Name<br />

Total in Neamţ<br />

UM 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 20 1 Rate (%)<br />

County No 117.344 140.761 156.665 160.049 148.84 130.971 133.229 1,82<br />

Of which:<br />

agrotourist<br />

No 11.731 18.473 24.455 32.829 40.463 37.31 45.361 2 ,31<br />

guesth uses % 10.00 13.12 15.61 20.51 27.19 28.49 34.05 19,12<br />

*) Source: Tourism Breviary of Neamţ County 2011 – data were processed<br />

180000<br />

160000<br />

140000<br />

120000<br />

100000<br />

80000<br />

60000<br />

40000<br />

20000<br />

0<br />

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />

428<br />

total number at<br />

Neamt County level<br />

(tourists arrivals)<br />

of which agrotourist<br />

guesthouses<br />

Table 1<br />

Figure 1: Dynamic tourist arrivals in the total agrotouristic of tourist reception with functions of tourist<br />

accommodation in the Neamt County during 2005-2011<br />

Another indicator is the number of arrivals<br />

discussed agrotouristic residents in the total of<br />

tourist reception with functions of tourist<br />

accommodation in the county. For the period under<br />

review shows that the number of arrivals of<br />

residents with the highest value occurred in 2011<br />

where a total of 116,911 arrivals were 43,867<br />

residents in agrotourist guesthouses (table 2).<br />

Calculating the average rate of growth this year<br />

was 58.40% at the county level and 21.92% among<br />

agrotourist guesthouses. Dynamic arrivals<br />

agrotouristic residents in the total of tourist<br />

reception with functions of tourist accommodation<br />

in the Neamt County during 2005-2011 is shown in<br />

Figure 2.<br />

Table 2<br />

The number of residents arrivals in agrotourist guesthouses of all of tourist reception with functions of tourist<br />

accommodation in the Neamţ County in 2005-2011<br />

Name<br />

Total in Neamţ<br />

UM 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Rate (%)<br />

County No 93.503 119.913 129.392 137.015 132.017 117.741 116.911 58,40<br />

Of which:<br />

agrotourist<br />

No 10.954 17.537 23.427 31.699 39.463 36.278 43.867 21,92<br />

guesthouses % 11.72 14.62 18.11 23.14 29.89 30.81 37.52 18,08<br />

*) Source: Tourism Breviary of Neamţ County 2011 – data were processed<br />

160000<br />

140000<br />

120000<br />

100000<br />

80000<br />

60000<br />

40000<br />

20000<br />

0<br />

2005<br />

2006<br />

2007<br />

2008<br />

2009<br />

2010<br />

2011<br />

at level of Neamt<br />

County (total resident<br />

arrivals)<br />

of which agrotourist<br />

guesthouses<br />

Figure 2: Dynamic of residents arrivals in agrotourist guesthouses in the total of tourist reception with<br />

functions of tourist accommodation in the Neamt County during 2005-2011<br />

Arrivals of residents is the third indicator that was<br />

calculated for the average annual growth rate. With<br />

an average annual increase of 9.78% in arrivals<br />

guesthouses residents have the highest value in

2011 reaching number 1494 from a total of 16,318<br />

in the county (Table 3). Figure 3 also is the<br />

dynamic arrivals among residents in the total<br />

429<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

agrotouristic of accommodation for the period<br />

2005-2011.<br />

Table 3<br />

The number of nonresidents arrivals in agrotourist guesthouses of all structures of tourist reception with<br />

functions of tourist accommodation in the Neamt county during 2005-2011<br />

Name<br />

Total in Neamţ<br />

UM 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Rate (%)<br />

County No 23.841 20848 27273 23.034 16.823 13.23 16.318 -5,28<br />

Of which:<br />

agrotourist<br />

guesthouses<br />

No 777.0 936 1028 1.13 1 1.032 1.494 9,78<br />

% 3.26 4.49 3.77 4.91 5.94 7.80 9.16 15,90<br />

*) Source: Tourism Breviary of Neamţ County 2011 – data were processed<br />

30000<br />

25000<br />

20000<br />

15000<br />

10000<br />

5000<br />

0<br />

2005<br />

2006<br />

2007<br />

2008<br />

2009<br />

2010<br />

2011<br />

at the level of Neamt<br />

County (total<br />

nonresident arrivals)<br />

of which agrotourist<br />

guesthouses<br />

Figure 3: Dynamic of non-residents arrivals in agrotourist guesthouses in the total of tourist reception<br />

with functions of tourist accommodation in the Neamt County during 2005-2011<br />

The last indicator is discussed agrotouristic number<br />

of overnight stays in the county of the total of<br />

tourist reception with functions of tourists<br />

accommodation. 2011 is one that has the highest<br />

number of overnight stays in the period under<br />

review with a value of 71 893 guesthouses among<br />

the total 274,318 units of accommodation. The<br />

average annual growth reached for agrotourist<br />

guesthouses worth while 21.27% at the county<br />

level slightly exceeded the threshold 0 (Table 4). Is<br />

the dynamic number of overnight stays for the<br />

2005-2011 period analyzed in all accommodation<br />

structures in the county and the agrotouristic in<br />

Fig. 4.<br />

Table 4<br />

Number of nights spent in guesthouses total of tourist reception with functions of tourist accommodation in<br />

the Neamt county during 2005-2011<br />

Name<br />

Total in Neamţ<br />

UM 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Rate (%)<br />

County No 265.938 306.735 336.978 346.036 320.542 274.767 274.318 0,44<br />

Of which:<br />

agrotourist No 18.635 28.348 38.209 52.442 65.844 63.231 71.893 21,27<br />

guesthouses % 7.01 9.24 11.34 15.16 20.54 23.01 26.21 20,73<br />

*) Source: Tourism Breviary of Neamţ County 2011 – data were processed<br />

400000<br />

350000<br />

300000<br />

250000<br />

200000<br />

150000<br />

100000<br />

50000<br />

0<br />

2005<br />

2006<br />

2007<br />

2008<br />

2009<br />

2010<br />

2011<br />

at the level of Neamt<br />

County (total overnights)<br />

of which agrotourist<br />

guesthouses<br />

Figure 4: The dynamics of overnight stays in rural tourism guesthouses of all structures of tourist<br />

reception with functions of tourist accommodation in the Neamt County during 2005-2011

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. In the Neamt County can be observed<br />

during 2005-2011 an increase in tourist arrivals the<br />

highest value being reached in 2011 that 133,229<br />

of which 45 361 arrivals among agrotourist<br />

guesthouses the average growth rate of 21.31%.<br />

2. Of the arrivals of residents at the county<br />

level the highest value was recorded in 2011 where<br />

a total of 116,911 arrivals were 43,867 residents in<br />

agrotourist guesthouses.<br />

3. For non-residents arrivals who have<br />

reached maximum values in 2011 to 16,318 in the<br />

county in which 1494 was calculated among<br />

agrotouristic average annual growth rate of<br />

guesthouses which reached 9.78%.<br />

4. Number of overnight stays in rural<br />

tourism guesthouses of all tourist accommodation<br />

structures in the county has reached high levels in<br />

2011 where there were guesthouses values among<br />

the 71,893 of the total number reaching 274,318<br />

nights accommodation. Average annual rate of<br />

increase for pensions reached a value of 21.27%<br />

agro while at the county level this amounts to<br />

0.44%.<br />

430<br />

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />

The present paper is finances through the<br />

POSDRU/107/1.5/S/76888 program.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Ceapoiu N., 1968 - Metode statistice aplicate in<br />

experientele agricole si statistice, Ed.Agro-<br />

Silvica, Bucuresti 1968<br />

Dan Ghinea, 2002 - Enciclopedia geografică a<br />

României, Editura Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, p.<br />

868-874.<br />

xxx – Consiliul judeţean Neamţ, Planul local de<br />

dezvoltare durabilă, 2008<br />

xxx – Breviarul turistic al Judeţului Neamţ – ediţia 2011.

431<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

COMPOUNDS CAPTURED IN CO2 TAMAIOASA ROMANEASCA WINE<br />

FERMENTATION<br />

Abstract<br />

Lucia Cintia COLIBABA 1 , Valeriu V. COTEA 2 , Marius NICULAUA 3 , Bogdan NECHITA 2 ,<br />

Stefan TUDOSE-SANDU-VILLE 2 , Gabriel LACUREANU 2<br />

e-mail: cintia.colibaba@gmail.com<br />

The volatile aromas that are lost during the must's fermentation into wine represent a department that is not very much<br />

analysed. The capturing and analysing of the volatile compounds that are trapped in the CO2 flow during gas<br />

exhaustion of the fermentation stage are the main objectives of the present study. The Tamaioasa romaneasca grapes,<br />

harvest of 2011, were processed according to the aromatic wine technology During fermentation, the volatile<br />

aromatic compounds were captured using SPE cartridges attached to the airlocks of the fermentation vessels. After the<br />

fermentation ended, the extracts were obtained by washing the bed of the SPE cartridges with 2 mL diclormethane.<br />

Gas-chromatography coupled with mass-spectrometry was used to identify the captured compounds. The processing<br />

technologies influenced the number and quantity of the captured compounds. Esters (isobutyl acetate) and alcohols, as<br />

well as aldehydes and terpenes are found in the exhaust air of the fermentation process. The identified compounds are<br />

found in trace quantities.<br />

Key words: (min. 3 – max. 5): Tamaioasa romaneasca, aroma compounds, exhaust CO2<br />

The aroma compounds are the ones that<br />

give wine its “genius”, specificity and<br />

individuality. More or less pronounced aromas are<br />

the base of each wine’s personality. The aromas<br />

evolve during the grape maturation, becoming,<br />

from an organoleptic (qualitative) point of view,<br />

„personal” for each wine and ecosystem.<br />

The sensoric character of wine is<br />

influenced by the grape variety, the maturity<br />

degree of the grapes at harvest, the yeast activity,<br />

pre-fermentative technologies and aging<br />

techniques.<br />

In specific literature, more than 800 aroma<br />

compounds are attributed to wine, among which<br />

are alcohols, aldehides, ketones, esters, acids and<br />

terpenes.<br />

The most important stage of the wine<br />

production is the fermentation, the “birth” of the<br />

wine. At this time, the second class of aroma<br />

compounds is formed, after the varietal aromas and<br />

before the aging specific sensorics.<br />

During fermentation, a large volume of<br />

CO2 gas is produced, about 260 mL/g glucose.<br />

This equates to over 50 times the volume of the<br />

juice fermented. Carried off with CO2 are various<br />

volatile compounds (Jackson, 2000).<br />

Ethanol loss is estimated to be about 1-<br />

1.5% of that produced (Williams and Boulton,<br />

1983), but can vary with sugar use and<br />

temperature. Higher alcohols and terpenes are lost<br />

to about the same degree. (aprox. 1%).<br />

In contrast, significant losses of both ethyl<br />

and acetate esters can occur. Depending on the<br />

grape variety and especially the fermentation<br />

temperature, up to about 25% of these aromatically<br />

important compounds may be lost (Miller et al.<br />

1987). This escape could diminish greatly the<br />

fruity characteristics of wine.<br />

This study aims at analysing the volatile<br />

aroma compounds that are lost during the<br />

fermentation stage, by flowing out together with<br />

the exhaust of carbon dioxide (Nasrawi et al.,<br />

1990; Muller et.al., 1993), from Tamaioasa<br />

romaneasca, one of the most well-known aromatic<br />

grape varieties of Romania. These will be<br />

harvested by use of SPE (solid phase extraction)<br />

cartridges with an ability to retain volatile<br />

compounds.<br />

1 Technical University „Gh. Asachi” Iasi, Romania<br />

2 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania<br />

3 Oenological Research Center, Iasi Branch of the Romanian Academy, Romania

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Tamaioasa romaneasca grapes were used,<br />

harvested from Cotnari vineyard in 2011. The grapes<br />

were processed according to the specific literature<br />

(Cotea et al., 1986) for aromatic wine technologies.<br />

After desteming and crushing, the marc was<br />

macerated for 12 hours; for a better extraction of the<br />

aroma compounds commercial pectolytical enzymes<br />

(Zymoclaire M®, Sodinal) were added. Pressing of<br />

the must was done with a hydraulic press. Selected<br />

yeasts (Fermactive Muscat®, Sodinal) were added.<br />

The must was transferred into glass vessels for<br />

fermentation.<br />

The capturing of the volatile compounds (fig.1) that<br />

are lost during fermentation was done as follows:<br />

SPE (solid phase extraction) cartridges were<br />

conditioned (6 mL diclormethane, 6 mL ethanol and 6<br />

mL ethanol solution (14%) were passed through the<br />

C18 bed) and fixed to the fermentation airlocks so<br />

that the exhaust CO2 flow, together with the volatile<br />

compounds passed through them. The volatile<br />

substances were „trapped” in the SPE device for<br />

further analysis.<br />

Figure 1 Capturing of exhaust CO2 and compounds<br />

in Tamaioasa romaneasca fermentation process<br />

After the fermentation process ended, the<br />

attached SPEs were disconnected and analysed.<br />

The volatile compounds were obtained by washing<br />

the SPE bed with 2 mL diclormethane.<br />

Figure 2 Extracting compounds from the exhaust<br />

CO2 in Tamaioasa romaneasca fermentation process<br />

432<br />

The obtained extract was injected into a<br />

Shimadzu GC coupled with a QP2010 Plus massspectrometer.<br />

Figure 3 Identification of compounds from the<br />

exhaust CO2 in Tamaioasa romanesca fermentation<br />

process<br />

1000 μL extract are injected into a Supelco<br />

SLB 5 ms GC column, 15 m length, column oven<br />

temperature 30 o C, injection temperature 250 o C, in<br />

splitless mode, initial temperature 30 o C for 1<br />

minute, then if grows at a rate of 8 o C until 240 o C<br />

where it stays for 2.75 minutes. The carrier gas<br />

was Helium, column flow 0.75 mL/min, ion source<br />

temperature 250 o C, interface temperature 250 o C,<br />

detector voltage 0.9 kV.<br />

The aroma compounds were determined by<br />

means of the NIST 08, Wiley 08 and SZTERP<br />

spectrum library. The program lasts for 30 minutes.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Part of obtained chromatogram after<br />

analysing the volatile compounds found in the<br />

exhaust CO2 flow of fermenting Tămâioasă<br />

românească grapes is reproduced here (fig. 4)<br />

Figure 4 Chromatogram (part) of exhaust CO2 flow of<br />

Tamaioasa romaneasca fermentation<br />

The compounds indentified in the CO2<br />

exhaust flow are in very small quantities and very<br />

volatile, with small masses, being able to get “lost”<br />

during the fermentation process.

The identified compounds are from major<br />

chemical classes specific to wine: terpenes,<br />

alcohols, esters, as well as aldehydes and ketones<br />

(Table 1). The compounds are characterised by<br />

their area.<br />

Table 1<br />

Compounds identified in exhaust CO2 flow<br />

No. Retention<br />

time<br />

Area Identified compound<br />

1 0.853<br />

ALCOHOLS<br />

2644912 Ethanol<br />

2 1.409 5960398 Isobutyl alcohol<br />

3 2.115 83905 2-Pentanol<br />

4 2.490 28722055 1-Butanol, 3-methyl<br />

5 2.777<br />

TERPENES<br />

91743 Ledene<br />

6 9.122 68539<br />

ESTERS<br />

Linalool<br />

7 1.304 6977678 Ethyl Acetate<br />

8 2.998 382659 Isobutyl acetate<br />

9 3.407 821344<br />

Butanoic acid, ethyl<br />

ester<br />

10 4.694 11708 Vinyl butyrate<br />

11 4.763 14828018 Isoamyl acetate<br />

12 7.160 7998043<br />

Hexanoic acid, ethyl<br />

ester<br />

13 7.430 1850434 1-Hexyl acetate<br />

14 10.918 4790696 Octanoic acid, ethyl<br />

15 11.177 29498 Octyl acetate<br />

16 11.869 8932 Isopentyl hexanoate<br />

17 13.133 34742 Methyl tridecanoate<br />

ALDEHYDES<br />

18 1.637 410101 Butanal, 3-methyl-<br />

19 2.353 97231<br />

KETONES<br />

1,1-Diethoxyethane<br />

20 1.921 60830 Methyl propyl ketone<br />

Among the terpenes, linalool and lebdene<br />

were identified in the exhaust CO2 of the<br />

fermenting Tămâioasă românească must.<br />

Linalool is a component of many essential<br />

oils, including orange, lavender, rose, rosewood,<br />

and coriander. It is a naturally occurring terpene<br />

alcohol chemical found in many flowers and spice<br />

plants with many commercial applications, the<br />

majority of which are based on its pleasant scent<br />

(floral, with a touch of spiciness).<br />

Ledene is the main constituent of<br />

labdanum oil. Rockrose Cistus ladaniferus has an<br />

odoriferous resin called labdanum. It has a warm,<br />

sweet-resinous, woody-ambery odour. It is one of<br />

perfumery's classic ingredients. The volatile ledene<br />

was also correlated to the increase in the spoilage<br />

bacteria population in foods. It has not has not<br />

been reported by others in wine until now.<br />

Molecular weight is 204.356 g/mol,<br />

boiling temperature is 263.9°C at 760 mmHg.<br />

433<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Figure 5 Molecular strucutre of ledene<br />

From the volatile alcohols class, 2nitroethanol,<br />

ethanol, isobutyl alcohol, 2-pentanol<br />

and 1-butanol, 3-methyl- were identified. All of the<br />

mentioned alcohols have a strong solvent smell,<br />

except 3-methyl-1-butanol that is a main ingredient<br />

in the production of banana oil, an ester found in<br />

nature and also produced as a flavouring substance<br />

in industry.<br />

The identified esters are ethyl acetate,<br />

isobutyl acetate, butanoic acid, ethyl ester, vinyl<br />

butyrate, isoamyl acetate, hexanoic acid ethyl<br />

ester, 1-hexyl acetate, octanoic acid, ethyl ester,<br />

octyl acetate, isopentyl hexanoate and methyl<br />

tridecanoate.<br />

The esters of fatty acids (ethyl hexanoate,<br />

ethyl octanoate) have specific aromas, those of old<br />

cheese and barnyard.<br />

Isoamyl acetate smells nice, of bananas<br />

and melon, is characteristic of cool-fermented<br />

whites.<br />

Ethyl acetate is ubiquitous in fresh, young<br />

white wines made from grapes that are not too ripe,<br />

though not necessarily unripe and has the aroma of<br />

green apples.<br />

Butanal, 3-methyl- or isovaleraldehyde is a<br />

ketone with a fruity, fatty, animal, almond odour,<br />

that could also make an important contribution to<br />

the herbaceous notes.<br />

Acetal (1,1-diethoxyethane) is a volatile<br />

compound found in wine and produced during<br />

fermentation. It is responsible for a biscuity or<br />

cookie like aromas.<br />

Methyl propyl ketone has a specific odour,<br />

being one of the recognized compounds that form<br />

the aroma bouquet (Ján Farkaš, 1988).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

During fermentation of grape must, an<br />

important number of aroma compounds, from<br />

almost all chemical classes specific to wine aroma,<br />

are lost in the exhaust CO2 flow.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

A SPE trap has succeeded in capturing<br />

aroma compounds from the exhaust CO2 flow of<br />

fermenting must.<br />

Further research will analyse the possibility<br />

of separating the identified compounds and their<br />

reuse as aroma additives in certain food and<br />

cosmetic industries.<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

The publishing of this study was made possible with the<br />

help of the post-doctoral research grant PN-II-<br />

RU-PD-2011-3-0198, nr. 34/20.10.2011. The<br />

author would also like to thank Cotnari vineyard<br />

for the raw material offered.<br />

434<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cotea, V.D., Sauciuc, J.,1988, Tratat de oenologie, vol.<br />

2, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.<br />

Ján Farkaš, 1988, Technology and Biochemistry of<br />

Wine, Volume 2, CRC Press, ISBN: 2881240704,<br />

Czech Republic<br />

Ron S. Jackson, 2000, Wine Science: Principles,<br />

Practice, Perception, second edition, 2000,<br />

Academic Press, California, USA.<br />

Miller, G.C., Amon, J.M., Simpson, R.F., 1987, Loss of<br />

aroma compounds in carbon dioxide effluent<br />

during white wine fermentation, Food Technology<br />

Australia 39, 246-249, 253.<br />

Muller C.J., V.L. Wahlstrom and K.C. Fugelsang.<br />

1993, Capture and use of volatile flavor<br />

constituents emitted during wine fermentatation.<br />

In Beer and Wine Production. American Chemical<br />

Society. Washington, D.C.<br />

Nasrawi, C.W., Wahlstrom, V.L., Fugelsang, K.C.,<br />

Muller C.J., 1990, Capture and utilization of<br />

emission control volatiles, Presented at Grape<br />

Day. California State Univ. Fresno, Nov. 3rd.<br />

CATI Publication #901102.<br />

Williams, A.A. and Boulton, R.B., 1983, Modeling and<br />

prediction of evaporative ethanol loss during<br />

fermentation, Am.J.Enol.Vitic 34, 234 – 242.<br />

***www.wine-pages.com/guests/tom/taste2.htm<br />

***www.wikipedia.org

435<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

COMPUNDS TRAPPED IN THE CO2 FLOW OF BUSUIOACĂ DE BOHOTIN<br />

ALCHOOLIC FERMENTATION<br />

Gabriel Florin LĂCUREANU 1 , Valeriu V. COTEA 1 , Cintia COLIBABA 1 , Marius NICULAUA 1<br />

Abstract<br />

e-mail: gabilacureanu@gmail.com<br />

The volatile aromas that are lost during the must's fermentation into wine represent a department that is not very much<br />

analysed. The capturing and analysing of the volatile compounds that are trapped in the CO2 flow during gas<br />

exhaustion of the fermentation stage are the main objective of the present study.The Busuioaca de Bohotin grapes,<br />

harvest of 2011, were processed according to the aromatic wine technology. During fermentation, the volatile aroma<br />

compounds were captured using SPE cartridges attached to the airlocks of the fermentation vessels. After the<br />

fermentation ended, the extracts were obtained by washing the bed of the SPE cartridges with 2 mL diclormethane.<br />

Gas-chromatography coupled with mass-spectrometry was used to identify the captured compounds.<br />

Key words: Busuioacă de Bohotin, aroma compounds, exhaust CO2<br />

Wine organic volatile compounds are<br />

probably the most researched and analysed by<br />

winetasters and scientists alike. They are<br />

responsible for the bouquet and flavour of the<br />

wine, being the base of that wine’s<br />

individuality and specificity. Busuioaca de<br />

Bohotin is one of the oldest aromatic Romanian<br />

varieties, with flavourful wines, usually sweet,<br />

with nuances of „melted rose, honeysuckle and<br />

pears”. The responsible chemical compounds for<br />

these sensorial characteristics are still not very<br />

well determined. Wine’s birth starts with the<br />

alcoholic fermentation, meaning the conversion<br />

of sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide.<br />

During this stage, the majority of the aroma<br />

compounds are also formed, contributing to the<br />

final flavour of the wine. Wine’s aroma is<br />

influenced by the grape variety used, the<br />

maturity degree of the grapes at harvest, yeasts’<br />

activity, prefermentative techniques applied and<br />

of course, last but not least, the technology used<br />

for maturation and aging of wine.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Busuioacă de Bohotin grapes were<br />

harvested from Pietroasa vineyards in Dealu Mare,<br />

in 2011. The grapes were processed according to<br />

the methods listed in the specific literature (Cotea<br />

et. al., 1986) for aromatic wine production. After<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi<br />

A part of the varietal aroma compounds<br />

as well as some of the fermentation aroma<br />

compounds are lost during the fermentation<br />

phase, being lost together with the evacuated<br />

carbon dioxide. It is a scientific acknowledged<br />

fact that a part of the aroma compounds are lost<br />

(Nechita, 2010), being trapped in the CO2 flow.<br />

The monitoring of the volatile compounds<br />

formed during certain processes in food products<br />

is a difficult and time-consuming procedure. A<br />

certain material is needed for trapping the<br />

volatile compounds that tend to flow out, as well<br />

as a specific analysis method for trace quantities.<br />

This study aims at analysing the volatile<br />

aroma compounds lost during alcoholic<br />

fermentation (Nasrawi, CW, Wahlstrom, VL,<br />

Fugelsang, KC, Miller CG, 1990; Muller CJ,<br />

Wahlstrom VL and Fugelsang KC, 1993). The<br />

compounds will be trapped by use of Solid Phase<br />

Extraction Lichrolut cartridges with a good<br />

capacity of retaining volatile aroma compounds.<br />

destemming and crushing, a 24 hours maceration<br />

was applied, for a better extraction into the must of<br />

the varietal aroma compounds. Commercial<br />

pectolytical enzymes were used for improvement<br />

of aroma profile (Zymoclaire M ®). Pressing was<br />

achieved by using a hydraulic press, commercial<br />

selected yeasts were then added for controlled<br />

fermentation (Fermactive Muscat ®). the obtained

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

must was öeft for fermentation in 25 L glass<br />

vessels.<br />

Trapping of volatile compounds lost during<br />

the fermentation process within the CO2 flow was<br />

done thus: the SPE cartrdiges were first<br />

conditioned with (6 mL diclormethane, 6 mL<br />

ethanol and 6 mL ethanol solution (14%) were<br />

passed through the C18 bed) and fixed to the<br />

fermentation airlocks so that the exhaust CO2 flow,<br />

together with the volatile compounds passed<br />

through them. The volatile substances were<br />

„trapped” in the SPE device for further analysis.<br />

Figure 1 Traping aroma compounds within the CO2<br />

evacuated during Busuioacă de Bohotin must<br />

fermentation<br />

After the fermentation process ended, the<br />

attached SPEs were disconnected and analysed.<br />

The volatile compounds were obtained by washing<br />

the SPE bed with 2 mL diclormethane.The<br />

obtained extract was injected into a Shimadzu GC<br />

coupled with a QP2010 Plus mass- spectrometer.<br />

1000 μL extract are injected into a Supelco<br />

SLB 5 ms GC column, 15 m length, column oven<br />

temperature 30 oC, injection temperature 250 oC,<br />

in splitless mode, initial temperature 30 oC for 1<br />

minute, then if grows at a rate of 8 oC until 240 oC<br />

where it stays for 2.75 minutes. The carrier gas<br />

was Helium, column flow 0.75 mL/min, ion source<br />

temperature 250 oC, interface temperature 250<br />

oC, detector voltage 0.9 kV. The aroma<br />

compounds were determined by means of the<br />

NIST 08, Wiley 08 and SZTERP spectrum library.<br />

The program lasts for 30 minutes.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

The volatile compounds perception is<br />

important for the wine taster as a high amount of<br />

the pleasure is determined by the wine’s flavour<br />

and bouquet. The wine industry is aware that the<br />

percentage of wine consumption depends on its<br />

sensorial properties and that even a tiny change in<br />

flavour can differentiate wines in superior or<br />

inferior quality classes and higher or lower prices.<br />

Busuioacă de Bohotin wine is one of the most<br />

appreciated Romanian wines, therefore, it was<br />

considered necessary to to determine specific<br />

aroma volatile compounds from the fermentation<br />

gasses. The chromatogram below was obtained as<br />

a result of the analysis of the identified volatile<br />

436<br />

compounds from processing the fermentation<br />

exhaust gas captured in SPE cartridges during<br />

Busuioacă de Bohotin must fermentation and their<br />

extraction with dicloromethane.<br />

Figure 2 Chromatogram of volatile compounds<br />

identified in the CO2 flow of Busuioacă de Bohotin<br />

must fermentation<br />

There are thee types of aroma compounds,<br />

according to their origin, that can be identified in<br />

wines: primary aromas, compounds that are found<br />

in the grapes and remain in the must and later<br />

wine, during the wine-making process, secondary<br />

aromas, generated through fermentation , through<br />

the action of yeasts and bacteria, composing, from<br />

a qualitative and quantitative point of view, the<br />

highest percentage of volatile compounds, and<br />

thirdly, the tertiary aromas, formed during<br />

maturation and aging of wine, in wooden barrels or<br />

in glass bottles.<br />

The volatile compounds identified during<br />

the first phase of the wine-making process of<br />

Busuioaca de Bohotin are part of compounds<br />

specific to wine: alcohols, terpenes, esters. These<br />

compounds were identified and characterised<br />

according to their peak. The identified compounds<br />

were grouped in chemical classes. In the class of<br />

esters with fruits and spices odours the following<br />

esters were grouped: ethyl acetate, isobutyl acetate,<br />

octyl acetate, acetic acid, heptyl ester and ethyl<br />

hexanoate.<br />

Although acetic acid is known to be able to<br />

produce spoilage in wine in high concentrations, its<br />

esters that are o product of its degradation, can<br />

impart pleasant aromatic notes to the wine<br />

sensorics. Therefore, ethyl acetate, one from the<br />

above mentioned esters, is a sub product of ethanol<br />

dehydrogenation. It is the most common ester<br />

found in wine, being a result of acetic acid's<br />

degradation. its aroma is more powerful in young<br />

wines and contributes to their fruity aroma. An<br />

exaggerated quantity of ethyl acetate is considered<br />

a wine fault. Isobutyl acetate is a result of the<br />

esterification of isobutanol and acetic acid. It is<br />

one of the esters found in wine in high<br />

concentrations. It has a floral, fruity aroma in small<br />

concentrations. It is naturally found in pears,<br />

rasberry and other plants (www.winepages.com/guests/tom/taste2.htm).<br />

At higher<br />

concentrations, the smell can become unpleasant.

Table 1<br />

Volatile compounds identified in CO2 exhaust flow<br />

No Retentio<br />

n time<br />

Esters<br />

Area<br />

Identified<br />

compound<br />

Aroma<br />

1 1.303 6323831 Ethyl Acetate fruits<br />

flowers,<br />

2 2.997 518969 Isobutyl alcohol pears<br />

pineappl<br />

3 3.406 1404318 Ethyl butirate e<br />

pears,<br />

4 5.523 72359 Isobutyl acetate bananas<br />

5 5.696 138023 Methyl caproate floral<br />

6 7.162 12206749 ethyl hexanoate fruits<br />

7 7.430 3507581 1-Hexyl acetate aromatic<br />

Acetic acid, woody<br />

8 9.352 238459 heptyl ester<br />

pineappl<br />

e,<br />

9 9.573 78324 Methyl octanoate apples<br />

10 10.920 6901811 Ethyl octanoate oranges<br />

11 11.178 53417 Octyl acetate oranges<br />

Alcohols<br />

1 1.418 3738858 Isobutyl alcohol<br />

solventlike<br />

1-Butanol, 3banana 2 2.471 22169067 methyl<br />

Terpenes<br />

1 13.571<br />

rose,<br />

58258 Citronellyl acetate citrsy<br />

Ethyl butirate or ethyl butanoate is an ester<br />

with a fruity aroma, similar to that of pineapple.<br />

Isoamyl acetate or isopentil acetate is an organic<br />

compound, an ester fromed from the reaction of<br />

isoamilic alcohol and acetic acid. It has a powerful<br />

aroma, similar to that of the chewing gum “Juicy<br />

Fruit”, usually described as nuances of banana and<br />

pears (www.winepages.com/guests/tom/taste2.htm).<br />

The term<br />

“banana oil” describes the odour of pure isoamyl<br />

acetate.<br />

Ethyl hexanoate is a product of hexanoic<br />

acid, fatty acid with an umpleasant aroma of old<br />

mouldy cheese and barnyard animals. However,<br />

the ester has a pleasant fruity smell, of apple peel.<br />

Methyl octanoate is an ester with characteristic<br />

fruity sensorial properties of green citrus fruits.<br />

Ethyl octanoate or ethyl caprilate has a sensorial<br />

profile reminiscent of blackcurrants, that, in higher<br />

concentrations, forms the main aroma of Pinot noir<br />

wine. Hexyl acetate has a fruity sensorial impact,<br />

being naturally found in fruits. Heptyl acetate is<br />

the ester fromed from the reaction of 1-heptanol<br />

and acetic acid. It has a fruity smell, with nuances<br />

of wood and rum. The taste is floral, slightly spicy,<br />

with a fatty and soapy texture. Isobutylic alcohol is<br />

part of the organic alcohols' class with a specific<br />

solvent smell, used in the industry as solvents.<br />

3 methyl-1-butanol (known as isopentilic<br />

alcohol or isoamilic alcohol) is one of amylic<br />

437<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

alcohol's isomers. This is the main ingredient in the<br />

production of banana oil and is used as a spice in<br />

the food industry as well. Only one compound<br />

from the terpenes class was identified: citronelyl<br />

acetate with a floral, fruity small, of rose-like<br />

odour and of lemon grass. It is used in the<br />

pharmaceutical industry for its soothing effect.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

During the alcoholic fermentation of must, a<br />

part of the volatile aroma compounds are lost, by<br />

flying out within the evacuated CO2 flow. The<br />

following compounds were identified: esters (the<br />

majority), alcohols and terpenes, subtracting thus<br />

from the sensorial profile of the wine. The present<br />

study brings its value to the department of volatile<br />

compounds identification, especially compounds<br />

that are lost during the alcoholic fermentation,<br />

from the point of view of trapping and analysis<br />

method. In future articles, a quantitative approach<br />

will be the main focus, in order to evaluate what<br />

percentage of the total aromatic compounds are<br />

lost during fermentation<br />

ACKNOWLEGMENTS<br />

The publishing of this article was made possible due to<br />

the Oenology team at USAMV Iasi. The author<br />

wishes to thank the “Basilescu winery” firm for<br />

providing the grapes for the experiment.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Cotea, V.D., Sauciuc, J.,1988, Oenology treatise.<br />

Miller, G.C., Amon, J.M., Simpson, R.F., 1987, Loss of<br />

aroma compounds in carbon dioxide effluent<br />

during white wine fermentation, Food Technology<br />

Australia 39, 246-249, 253.<br />

Muller C.J., V.L. Wahlstrom and K.C. Fugelsang.<br />

1993, Capture and use of volatile flavor<br />

constituents emitted during wine fermentatation.<br />

In Beer and Wine Production. American Chemical<br />

Society. Washington, D.C.<br />

Nasrawi, C.W., Wahlstrom, V.L., Fugelsang, K.C.,<br />

Muller C.J., 1990, Capture and utilization of<br />

emission control volatiles, Presented at Grape<br />

Day. California State Univ. Fresno, Nov. 3rd.<br />

CATI Publication #901102.<br />

Nechita B., 2010, "Contribuţii la studiul compuşilor<br />

volatili din strugurii şi vinurile obţinute în podgoria<br />

Cotnari", Teză de doctorat, USAMV Iaşi.<br />

Ron S. Jackson, 2000, Wine Science: Principles,<br />

Practice, Perception, second edition, 2000,<br />

3Academic Press, California, USA.<br />

Williams, A.A. and Boulton, R.B., 1983, Modeling and<br />

prediction of evaporative ethanol loss during<br />

fermentation, Am.J.Enol.Vitic 34, 234 – 242.<br />

***www.wine-pages.com/guests/tom/taste2.htm<br />

***www.wikipedia.org

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

438

439<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

EVALUATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHENOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF<br />

THE SPECIES CUCURBITA PEPO L. IN IASI<br />

Abstract<br />

Delia MUNTEAN 1 , Neculai MUNTEANU 1 , Ana-Maria CIURUŞNIUC 1<br />

Email: mundelia@yahoo.com<br />

The research was based on morphological and physiological characterization of a range of eight hybrids of<br />

ornamental cabbage, as forms of cabbage leaves (Brassica oleracea var. Acephala DC). The research was conducted<br />

in 2011 in the experimental field of the Department of Vegetable, within USAMV to farm "Vasile Adamache". The<br />

aim of the research was to promote forms of ornamental cabbage studied to enrich knowledge of these varieties and<br />

their exploitation in landscape architecture. The results obtained showed the influence of hybrids and B factor<br />

(month) on plant height, influence of hybrids and B factor (month) to the number of leaves and vegetative mass<br />

dynamics of the species studied. Phenological observations reveal characteristics of each hybrid in the study,<br />

on the number of days for each phenophase. Plants showed a morphology that falls in botanical<br />

description of the species, allowing their proper development.<br />

Key words: Brassica oleracea var. acephala, physiology, morphology.<br />

Ornamental value at the zucchini plant is<br />

given by habitus, shape, size and color of the fruit.<br />

Fruit shape has several forms: globular, flattened,<br />

elliptical, discoid, cordiform or pyriform, turkish<br />

turban or bent neck.<br />

Zucchini is imposing in landscape through<br />

habit, size, shape and color of the fruit. This<br />

important aspect to be taken into consideration for<br />

selection, placement and grouping them in a<br />

whole landscape effects are added additional<br />

decorative flowers and leaves.<br />

In housing lots, ornamental zucchini can<br />

be grown usually in a separate sector, apart from<br />

ornamental garden, among the flowers, shrubs,<br />

trees, or directly on the lawn etc. It also can be<br />

used in interior decorations where you can easily<br />

impose color, size and shape of the fruit (Dascălu<br />

Doina Mira, 2006).<br />

As the importance of food zucchini is<br />

consumed to technical maturity being used alone<br />

or mixed with other vegetables to preparing dishes<br />

with or without meat (super, stuffed zucchini,<br />

soufflés, squash dishes, fried zucchini, puddings<br />

etc.) and conserve industry, for making pots and<br />

pickled vegetables. Fruits are used in early stages<br />

of development, until physiological maturity (Stan<br />

and Munteanu, 2001).<br />

The strongest therapeutic effects have<br />

their seeds. It helps to eliminate intestinal<br />

parasites, unclogs blood vessels, regulates<br />

cholesterol and stimulates kidney activity. It also<br />

slows the aging process and helps the body in the<br />

regeneration process. It has a laxative action and<br />

is useful in dyspepsia and constipation, due to the<br />

rich in magnesium and potassium. It is indicated<br />

in hormonal disorders, menopausal disorders and<br />

intestinal worms. It can have sedative properties<br />

and is useful for insomnia. For external use, the<br />

pumpkin is a good remedy for burns,<br />

inflammations and abscesses.<br />

(http://www.farmaciata.ro/?option=com_k2&view<br />

=item&id=121&Itemid=13).<br />

MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />

The research was conducted in the<br />

experimental field of discipline of the farm<br />

gardening horticulture at the University of<br />

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine<br />

"Ion Ionescu de la Brad", Iasi, 2011. The<br />

biological material consisted of seeds purchased<br />

from the collection of knowledge from Iasi City.<br />

The study was to evaluate the<br />

morphological and phonological of an assortment<br />

of new ornamental squash F1 hybrids, in a<br />

comparative culture, organized in nests. Culture<br />

was established by direct sowing in the field on 15<br />

May in all nine hybrids; place the nest in three

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

repetitions. The distance between rows was 120-<br />

140cm and 75-80 cm between plants at a time.<br />

Plant harvesting fresh vegetative mass<br />

was effectuated gradually at the beginning of<br />

October.<br />

The experimental data were processed by<br />

statistical and mathematical methods.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />

Ornamental squash species in the first<br />

year, presented the following phenology (tab.1):<br />

Variety<br />

440<br />

- Emergence in greenhouse conditions occurred<br />

after 4-7 days from sowing;<br />

- The first true leaves appeared after 7-10 days<br />

after emergence;<br />

- Appearance of the first fruits took place after<br />

20-30 days after emergence;<br />

- Plants to harvest maturation have occurred<br />

after 123-153 days (Lima A.R. and colab., 2000).<br />

Results of phenological characterization of ornamental zucchini<br />

Nr. of days to<br />

emergence No. of days until<br />

In the field<br />

the first true leaf<br />

No. of days<br />

until the<br />

appearance of<br />

fruit<br />

No. of days to<br />

harvest<br />

Verrucosa 4 7 20 123<br />

Festival 5 10 26 140<br />

Bicolor-Pear 7 9 26 125<br />

Dinosaur Egg 7 9 30 130<br />

Styriaca 6 8 30 145<br />

Daisy 5 9 28 153<br />

Warzen Orange 5 7 25 128<br />

Small Warted 5 7 28 153<br />

Custard Marrow 6 8 27 145<br />

Name of factor<br />

Influence on the mass vegetative hybrids<br />

Veg. mass.<br />

(g)<br />

% from<br />

witness<br />

Differences<br />

(cm)<br />

Meaning<br />

Verrucosa 12.67 100.0 Martor<br />

Festival 13.45 106.13 0.78 -<br />

Bicolor-Pear 53.00 418.33 40.33 *<br />

Dinosaur Egg 20.24 159.74 7.57 -<br />

Styriaca 29.52 232.99 16.85 -<br />

Daisy 27.27 215.23 14.60 -<br />

Warzen Orange 15.41 121.66 2.74 -<br />

Small Warted 25.28 199.55 12.61 -<br />

Custard Marrow 25.68 202.71 13.01 -<br />

LD 5% : 38 LD1% : 52.4 LD0.1% : 72.1<br />

*LD=limited differences<br />

Vegetative mass dynamic grown from<br />

12.67 g to 25.68 g. Pear Bicolor hybrid had a<br />

difference of 40.33 g witness being significant.<br />

Table 1<br />

Table 2<br />

Although Custard Marrow hybrid<br />

achieved an increase of 102.71% was not<br />

statistically assured (tab.2).<br />

Table 3<br />

Influence of B factor (month) on vegetative mass<br />

Name of factor<br />

Veg. mass.<br />

(g)<br />

% from<br />

witness<br />

Differences<br />

(cm)<br />

May 2.96 27.17 -7.94 -<br />

June 6.15 56.38 -4.75 -<br />

July 10.90 100.0 Martor -<br />

August 17.33 159.01 6.43 -<br />

September 25.59 234.75 14.69 **<br />

October 35.98 330.06 25.08 ***<br />

LD 5% : 11.7 LD1% : 15.5 LD0.1% : 20<br />

Meaning

*LD= limited differences<br />

B factor (month) resulted an increase in<br />

vegetative mass of 2.96 g 35.98 g from May to<br />

October. In August and September it saw a<br />

10<br />

9<br />

8<br />

7<br />

6<br />

5<br />

4<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

Verrucosa<br />

8.1 7.9<br />

Festival<br />

Bicolor-Pear<br />

6.9<br />

Dinosaur Egg<br />

6.7 7.1<br />

Styriaca<br />

441<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

growth of 59.01%, but this was not statistically<br />

assured, respective 134.75%, difference from the<br />

control being significant (tab.3).<br />

Daisy<br />

8.4<br />

Warzen Orange<br />

6.2 6.7<br />

Custard Marrow<br />

Small Warted<br />

9<br />

October<br />

Fig.1. Results on the dynamics of the fruit diameter species of ornamental squash<br />

From the comparative analysis of nine<br />

hybrids of ornamental squash, it is observed that<br />

the developed hybrid Warted Small largest fruit<br />

diameter of 9 cm. Because of the climatic<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

63.7<br />

27 17.8 29<br />

12<br />

Noiembrie<br />

26.9<br />

conditions in 2011 and of the hybrids, fruit<br />

diameter ranged from 6.2cm at Warzen Orange<br />

hybrid to 9cm at Small Warted hybrid (fig.1).<br />

53.2<br />

40.7<br />

25.1<br />

Verrucosa<br />

Festival<br />

Bicolor-Pear<br />

Dinosaur Egg<br />

Styriaca<br />

Daisy<br />

Warzen Orange<br />

Custard Marrow<br />

Small Warted<br />

Fig.2. Results on the dynamics of male flowers on pumpkin ornamental species<br />

From figure 2 it can see that hybrid<br />

Verrucosa achieved the highest number of male<br />

flowers, 63.7, followed by hybrids Warzen<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

26.3<br />

5.8 3.5 5.9 2.7 2.7<br />

November<br />

Orange and Custard Marrow, 53.2, respective<br />

40.7 of male flowers. The fewer of male flowers<br />

were made at Styriaca hybrid, respective 12.<br />

Verrucosa<br />

Festival<br />

Bicolor-Pear<br />

Dinosaur Egg<br />

Styriaca<br />

Daisy<br />

Warzen Orange<br />

Custard Marrow<br />

Small Warted<br />

Fig.3. Results on the dynamics of the number of female flowers of pumpkin ornamental species<br />

As you can see at the male flowers,<br />

hybrid Verrucosa has the highest number of<br />

17.3<br />

15.1<br />

4.2<br />

female flowers respectively 26.3, followed by<br />

Warzen Orange and Custard Marrow hybrids with

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

a number of female flowers of 17.3 and 15.1.<br />

Styriaca hybrids and Daisy have made the same<br />

number of female flowers, of 2.7. The difference<br />

between these two hybrids and Verrucosa was<br />

major, respectively 23.6 (fig.3).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Plants showed a morphology that falls<br />

in botanical description of the species, allowing<br />

their proper development.<br />

2. Phenological observations reveal<br />

characteristics of each hybrid in the study, on the<br />

number of days for each phenophase.<br />

3. Vegetative mass dynamic grown from<br />

12.67 g to 25.68 g. B factor (month) resulted in an<br />

increase in vegetative mass of 2.96 g in May to<br />

35.98 g in October.<br />

4. From the comparative analysis of nine<br />

hybrids of ornamental squash, it is observed that<br />

the developed hybrid Small Warted largest fruit<br />

diameter of 9 cm.<br />

5. In terms of the number of male and<br />

female flowers, Verrucosa achieved the highest<br />

number of male flowers, 63.7, respectively 26.3 of<br />

female flowers.<br />

442<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Dascălu Doina Mira (2006) - Peisagistica : o posibilă<br />

terapie pentru problemele mileniului al III-lea,<br />

Edit. Societăţii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez",<br />

Iaşi;<br />

Esquinas-Alcazar, J.T. (1983) – Genetic resources of<br />

Cucurbitaceae, IBPGR Secretariat, p.56-71;<br />

Lima , A.R., Crepaldi , I.C., J.R.F. de Santana, 2000 -<br />

Characterization of Local Varieties of Cucumis<br />

melo, p.41-45;<br />

Stan, N., Munteanu, N., 2001 – Legumicultură<br />

specială, vol.II, Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”,<br />

Iaşi, p.233-234;<br />

.http://www.farmaciata.ro/?option=com_k2&view=item&i<br />

d=121&Itemid=13

443<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

RESEARCH ON MAIN MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL<br />

CHARACTERS OF THE SPECIES BRASSICA OLERACEA VAR. ACEPHALA<br />

IN IAŞI<br />

Abstract<br />

Delia MUNTEAN 1 , Neculai MUNTEANU 1 , Iuliana ANDRIEŞ 1<br />

e-mail: mundelia@yahoo.com<br />

The research was based on morphological and physiological characterization of a range of eight hybrids of ornamental<br />

cabbage, as forms of cabbage leaves (Brassica oleracea var. Acephala DC). The research was conducted in 2011 in the<br />

experimental field of the Department of Vegetable, within USAMV to farm "Vasile Adamache". The aim of the<br />

research was to promote forms of ornamental cabbage studied to enrich knowledge of these varieties and their<br />

exploitation in landscape architecture. The results obtained showed the influence of hybrids and B factor (month) on<br />

plant height, influence of hybrids and B factor (month) to the number of leaves and vegetative mass dynamics of the<br />

species studied. Analysis of hybrids and B factor (month) on plant height and number of leaves showed a progressive<br />

increase in the values recorded by them. Number of leaves ranged from 10.48 to 26.33 Crane Pink hybrid to Red<br />

Peacock hybrid. Regarding the vegetative mass is noted that the Glamour Red hybrid achieves highest vegetative mass<br />

of 800.6 g and hybrid lowest mass Crane Pink vegetative, respectively 591.6.<br />

Key words: Brassica oleracea var. acephala, physiology, morphology, biological development.<br />

The value of ornamental kale (Brassica<br />

oleracea var. Acephala) is given mainly by the<br />

shape, appearance and color of leaves in the<br />

rosette and partially stripped.<br />

Ornamental cabbage can assert in<br />

landscape architecture in rabats, flats, mosaics,<br />

arabesques, borders and pots but in various forms:<br />

oval leaf lirate, corrugated or obovate, spherical,<br />

round leaf, lirate or embossed and round-flattened<br />

with leaf corrugated.<br />

Regarding the importance of food,<br />

cabbage leaf is grown for its leaves that are made<br />

simple green salad or assorted salads cooked -<br />

used as a garnish, soups, sautéing or smoothies.<br />

Food value is given by high dry matter content,<br />

higher green cabbages, like Brussels sprouts.<br />

Green leaf culinary gives an attractive appearance.<br />

The origin of this variety is found in several<br />

branches threaded wild cabbage ((Brassica<br />

oleracea var. silvestris). (Stan şi Munteanu,<br />

2001).<br />

Wild cabbage cultivation was done very<br />

early in the history of human civilization and the<br />

plant is often considered one of the oldest of all<br />

vegetable species used historical evidence<br />

suggesting that people began cultivating green<br />

leaves four millennia ago in the Middle East. The<br />

ancient Greeks were familiar with cabbage; in<br />

fact, it is considered that they used it to induce<br />

lactation in pregnant women.<br />

In the following centuries, the Romans<br />

produced a cabbage based in treatment to<br />

eliminate the toxic effects of alcohol, since<br />

cabbage can prevent and reduce the impact of<br />

alcohol use disorder followed in large quantities.<br />

(Beceanu, 1991).<br />

Cabbage is also important because of its<br />

therapeutic properties, which reported in literature<br />

since ancient times, being advised to treat<br />

wounds, stomach ulcers, with favorable effect on<br />

digestion.<br />

This study aims to highlight some<br />

elements on the morphology and physiology of a<br />

variety of ornamental cabbage in its effective use<br />

in landscaping.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The research was conducted in 2011 in the<br />

experimental field of the Department of Vegetable,<br />

within USAMV to farm "Vasile Adamache".<br />

The material used in this experiment<br />

consisted of biological material of eight<br />

ornamental cabbage hybrids, and other so called<br />

technical and biotechnical materials.<br />

The biological material consisted of seeds<br />

and seedlings, seeds purchased from Nicky's<br />

Nursery Ltd., England.<br />

For morphological and physiological<br />

characterization were used ornamental cabbage<br />

seedlings of eight hybrids included in the study:<br />

Red Peacock White Peacock Queen Coral, Coral<br />

Prince, bicolor Crane, Crane Pink, Red Crane,<br />

and Glamour Red.<br />

The culture was established by seedlings<br />

produced in greenhouses in cellular trays.<br />

444<br />

Seedling was produced in a peat substrate,<br />

manure and earth. At planting, the seedlings were<br />

aged 45-50 days. Sowing was done on 15 March<br />

and planting seedlings in the field was carried out<br />

on 10 May in all eight hybrids, place-plots, in three<br />

repetitions.<br />

The distance between plants in the row was<br />

75-80 cm and 50 cm between plants at a time.<br />

Morphological and physiological<br />

characterization was carried out as an average of<br />

six months of observation, based on the following<br />

measurements: plant height, number of leaves<br />

and vegetative mass.<br />

Plant harvesting fresh vegetative mass was<br />

effectuated at the beginning of November.<br />

The experimental data were processed by<br />

statistical methods and summarizes the tables.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

In 2011, ornamental cabbage hybrids have<br />

significantly influenced plant height and number<br />

of leaves.<br />

Hybrids influence on plant height<br />

Name of factor<br />

Plant Height<br />

(cm)<br />

% compared<br />

to the witness<br />

Differences<br />

(cm)<br />

Meaning<br />

Glamour Red F1 39.17 100.00 Witness -<br />

Red Peacock F1 40.66 103.80 1.49 ***<br />

White Peacock F1 43.34 110.65 4.17 ***<br />

Crane Red F1 49.13 125.41 9.96 ***<br />

Crane Pink F1 50.14 127.99 10.97 ***<br />

Crane Bicolor F1 49.51 126.40 10.34 ***<br />

Coral Queen F1 46.47 118.65 7.30 ***<br />

Coral Prince F1 29.27 74.73 -9.90 ooo<br />

LD 5% : 0.3<br />

LD 1% : 0.4<br />

LD 0.1% : 0.5<br />

*LD= limited diferrences<br />

Ornamental cabbage hybrids included in the<br />

study were positively influenced plant height.<br />

Of the eight hybrids, six achieved very<br />

significant differences from the control and Coral<br />

Table 1<br />

Prince made a hybrid plant height less than 9.9<br />

cm, the difference is very significantly negative<br />

(tab.1).<br />

B factor influence (month) on plant height<br />

Name of factor Plant Height<br />

% compared<br />

to the witness<br />

Differences Meaning<br />

June 16.01 36.61 -27.73 000<br />

July 23.51 53.76 -20.23 000<br />

August 34.13 78.02 -9.62 000<br />

September 43.74 100.00 Witness -<br />

October 65.49 149.72 21.75 ***<br />

November 89.53 204.68 45.79 ***<br />

LD 5% : 0.3<br />

LD 1% : 0.4<br />

*LD= limited differences<br />

LD 0.1% : 0.5<br />

Ornamental cabbage forms have its all<br />

vegetative organs in September. Species of<br />

ornamental cabbage height increased from 16.01<br />

Table 2<br />

cm in June to 89.53 cm in November, when it<br />

reached physiological maturity.

In June, July and August, plants have<br />

achieved very significant differences compared to<br />

control negative, between -9.62 cm and -27.73<br />

Name of factor<br />

Glamour Red F1<br />

Red Peacock F1<br />

445<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

cm, and October and November have made gains<br />

of 49.72% and 104.68% differences are highly<br />

significant (tab.2).<br />

Table 3<br />

Hybrids influence on the number of leaves<br />

Number of<br />

leaves<br />

% compared<br />

to the witness<br />

Differences Meaning<br />

22.30 100.00 0.00 -<br />

26.33 118.09 4.03 ***<br />

White Peacock F1 20.12 90.21 -2.18 000<br />

Crane Red F1 10.98 49.25 -11.32 000<br />

Crane Pink F1 10.48 47.01 -11.82 000<br />

Crane Bicolor F1 11.88 53.29 -10.42 000<br />

Coral Queen F1 16.90 75.78 -5.40 000<br />

Coral Prince F1 17.75 79.60 -4.55 000<br />

LD 5% : 0.3 LD 1% : 0.4 LD 0.1% : 0.6 *LD= limited differences<br />

Red Peacock hybrid achieved a maximum<br />

number of leaves 26.33, with 4.03 more than the<br />

control group (Glamour Red x 22.30), the<br />

difference being very significant. Other varieties<br />

have made very significant differences from the<br />

control minus (tab.3).<br />

Table 4<br />

B factor influence (month) on the number of leaves<br />

Name of factor<br />

Number of<br />

leaves<br />

% compared<br />

to the witness<br />

Differences Meaning<br />

June 8.01 48.30 -8.58 ooo<br />

July 10.78 64.95 -5.82 ooo<br />

August 13.69 82.50 -2.90 ooo<br />

September 16.59 100.00 0.00 -<br />

Octomber 22.50 135.62 5.91 ***<br />

November 31.00 186.86 14.41 ***<br />

LD5% : 0.2 LD1% : 0.3 DL0.1% : 0.4 *LD= limited differences<br />

900<br />

800<br />

700<br />

600<br />

500<br />

400<br />

300<br />

200<br />

100<br />

0<br />

Glamour Red<br />

800.6 775 788.8<br />

Red Peacock<br />

White Peacock<br />

Crane Red<br />

596.3 591.6<br />

Crane Pink<br />

Crane Bicolor<br />

632.5<br />

Coral Queen<br />

751.7 753.8<br />

Coral Prince November<br />

Figure 1 Results on the dynamics of vegetative mass of ornamental kale<br />

Number of leaves ranged from 8.01 in June<br />

to 31.00 in November. In October and November<br />

the number of leaves was higher compared to the<br />

control with 5.91, respectively 14.41, which is<br />

very significant (tab.4).<br />

From the comparative analysis of the eight<br />

ornamental cabbage hybrids, it appears that Red<br />

Glamour hybrid achieves highest vegetative mass<br />

of 800.6 g. Climatic conditions in 2011 and the<br />

hybrids, vegetative mass ranged from 591.6 g to<br />

800.6 g Crane Pink to the Glamour Red (fig.1).<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

1. Analysis of hybrids and B factor (month)<br />

on plant height and number of leaves showed a

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

progressive increase in the values recorded by<br />

them.<br />

2. Following the results we can say that<br />

ornamental cabbage hybrids included in the study<br />

were positively influenced plant height. Number<br />

of leaves ranged from 10.48 to 26.33 Crane Pink<br />

hybrid to Red Peacock hybrid.<br />

3. Regarding the vegetative mass is noted<br />

that the Glamour Red hybrid achieves highest<br />

vegetative mass of 800.6 g and hybrid lowest<br />

mass Crane Pink vegetative, respectively 591.6.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Carmen-Maria Stoleru, Stan, N., Stan, C., 2008 –<br />

Caracterizare morfologică, fizică şi chimică a<br />

solului din solari, după cinci ani de fertilizare<br />

organică la Spătărăşti (judeţul Suceava), <strong>Lucrări</strong><br />

Ştiinţifice, vol.51, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>, p.661-666;<br />

Beceanu D., 1991 – Varza pentru frunze – Origine,<br />

promovare în cultură şi istoricul cultivării, <strong>Lucrări</strong><br />

Ştiinţifice, vol.33, seria Horticultură, p.16-20;<br />

Hiroshi, Y., Mohamed, M.H., Katsuei, T., 1994 –<br />

Morphology, fertility and cross-compatibility of<br />

somatic hybrids between Brassica oleracea L.<br />

and B. campestis L., Scientia Horticulturae, Vol.<br />

58, Issue 4, p283 - 288<br />

Stan N., Munteanu N., 2001 – Legumicultură specială,<br />

vol.II. Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi;<br />

446<br />

***http://www.taifasuri.ro/taifasuri/farmacie-verde/612varza-vindec-aproape-orice-fel-de-ran.html

Abstract<br />

447<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN BEBA VECHE, TIMIŞ COUNTY<br />

Adalbert OKROS 1 , Simona NIŢĂ 1 , Casiana MIHUŢ 1 , Lucian NIŢĂ 1 , Anişoara DUMA<br />

COPCEA 1 , Marius BOLDEA 1<br />

Email: adalbertokros@yahoo.com<br />

Beba Veche is a locality in Timiş County. Its coordinates in what latitude is concerned are 46° 7' 60 north, 20° 19' east.<br />

It lies 81 m above sea level. It is the most western locality in Romania, situated at the border with Serbia and Hungary.<br />

The archaeological discoveries made here attest the millenary existence of the locality.<br />

The agricultural land of the commune is composed of the following: arable 7.767 ha, pastures 976 ha, hay land<br />

3 ha, vineyard 16 ha and orchard 30 ha. As for the fertility classes, for the "arable" land the situation is the following:<br />

1st class 804 ha (9.3%), 2nd class 2193 ha (25.5%), 3rd class 2755 ha (31.9%), 4th class 2777 ha (32.2%) and 5th class<br />

98 ha (1.1%). The limiting factors that influence land quality in this area are represented by the phenomenon of severe<br />

salinization (salinization on 6.3% and alkalisation on 34.5% of the surface), low humus content (0.82%), clayish texture<br />

(moderate 48.3% and low 11.20%) and soil settlement (severe 17.61% and moderate 42.13%). Because of the nature<br />

and intensity of the factors that limit and/or restrict agricultural yield, improvement of the productive capacity of soils<br />

will be oriented towards promoting and generalizing systems of sustainable agriculture. This type of agriculture<br />

promoted will be competitive, profitable, ecological and it will involve minimal land works, soil improvement crops,<br />

pest control, based on various individual initiatives or international or governmental programs of technical assistance.<br />

Key words: Beba Veche, agricultural systems, fertility, production, agricultural lands<br />

Agricultural yield has manifested very<br />

diverse specific dynamics, both sectorially (vegetal<br />

and animal sectors), and regionally, in relation to<br />

the diversity of suitability conditions: agricultural<br />

conditions, soil and weather. The degree to which<br />

production factors are used also plays an important<br />

part in this matter.<br />

Vegetal yield has had a faster growth<br />

rhythm, since it requires smaller material and<br />

financial efforts, under the conditions of a lack of<br />

capital market and advantageous credits. That is<br />

why it is advisable to develop the associative and<br />

co-operative system for increasing the<br />

agriculturists' power of negotiation.<br />

During the last decade, the numbers of<br />

animals have been severely reduced, and further<br />

reduction that would bring them under the current<br />

level, which is the technological minimum, may<br />

lead to a compromised gene pool in animal<br />

husbandry.<br />

The average productions obtained in animal<br />

husbandry are far from the genetic and<br />

technological progress happening in western<br />

Europe. By comparison, Romanian average<br />

productivities are inferior to the ones in other EU<br />

countries.<br />

1 USAMVB TIMISOARA<br />

The increase of agriculture as an occupation<br />

among the active adult population (9.3 percent)<br />

and in gross added value (4.9 percent) gives<br />

Romanian economic transition the feature of<br />

tentative re-agrarization, with unfavourable<br />

implications on the trend of social productivity of<br />

work. Agricultural lands cover 1872 thousand<br />

hectares in Timiș county. Arable land covers 1089<br />

thousand hectares of the total agricultural land,<br />

viticulture plantations and orchards 335 thousand<br />

hectares, grape vine plantations 8.2 thousand<br />

hectares, and natural grasslands 750 thousand<br />

hectares.<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

For writing this paper, we used data<br />

provided by MADR and INSSE, as well as data<br />

supplied by Beba Veche Town Hall, and<br />

measurements and observations in the field.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

Beba Veche is a locality in Timiş County,<br />

with the latitudinal coordinates 46° 7' 60 north, 20°<br />

19' east. It lies 81 m above sea level. It is the most<br />

western locality in Romania, situated at the border

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

with Serbia and Hungary. The archaeological<br />

discoveries made here attest the millenary<br />

existence of the locality.<br />

The agricultural land of the commune is<br />

composed of the following: arable 7.767 ha,<br />

pastures 976 ha, hay land 3 ha, vineyard 16 ha and<br />

orchard 30 ha.<br />

In terms of quality (fertility) classes, for the<br />

"arable" land the situation is the following: Ist<br />

class 804 ha (9.3%), IInd class 2193 ha (25.5%),<br />

IIIrd class 2755 ha (31.9%), IVth class 2777 ha<br />

(32.2%) and Vth class 98 ha (1.1%).<br />

The limiting factors that influence land<br />

quality in this area are represented by the<br />

phenomenon of severe salinization on 6.3% and<br />

alkalisation on 34.5% of the surface, low humus<br />

content (0.82%), clayish texture (moderate 48.3%<br />

and low 11.20%) and soil settlement (severe<br />

17.61% and moderate 42.13%).<br />

Due to the nature and intensity of the factors<br />

that limit and/or restrict agricultural yield,<br />

improvement of the productive capacity of soils<br />

will be oriented towards promoting and<br />

generalizing systems of sustainable agriculture.<br />

This type of agriculture promoted her will be<br />

competitive, profitable, ecological and it will<br />

involve minimal land works, soil improvement<br />

crops, pest control, based on various individual<br />

initiatives or international or governmental<br />

programs of technical assistance.<br />

Table 4.1 presents the situation of<br />

agricultural lands of commune Beba Veche in<br />

2011. The table shows clearly that the arable lands<br />

cover 7793 hectares while agricultural lands cover<br />

8818 ha in total. Pastures cover 976 ha, hay lands 3<br />

ha, grapevine is grown on 16 ha and fruit trees on<br />

30 ha. Thus, we can say that the agricultural lands<br />

of commune Beba Veche covers the entire range of<br />

agricultural uses. These areas can fluctuate with<br />

time due to requirements for certain species rather<br />

than others or simply due to agriculturists' wish.<br />

(Table 1, fig. 1). The structure of soils in the arable<br />

lands belonging to the commune is the following:<br />

Chernozems: 44%.<br />

2. Gleyic soils and solonchack: 3%<br />

3. Vertisols: 37%<br />

4. Alluvial soils: 6%<br />

5. Associations of vertisols, chernosems and<br />

saline soils: 10% (fig. 2).<br />

Crop structure<br />

As one can see in Table 2, the structure of<br />

crops is very varied, covering a wide range of<br />

crops. Thus, in 2010 straw cereals covered 3560<br />

448<br />

ha. The predominant crop was maize in three<br />

consecutive years: in 2010, maize was sown on<br />

2550 ha, in 2011 on 2400 ha (150 ha more than in<br />

the previous year) and in 2012 it covered 2725 ha,<br />

325 ha more than in 2011 and 225 ha more than in<br />

2010.<br />

The second crop, in terms of percentage of<br />

the land covered, is wheat, with 2920 ha in 2010,<br />

3112 ha in 2011 (an increase of 192 ha) and 2770<br />

ha in 2012, which meant a decrease of 342 ha.<br />

Sunflower was sown on 952 ha in 2010,<br />

875 ha in 2011 and 1127 ha in 2012. Rape covered<br />

350 ha in 2010 and 280 ha in 2011. In 2012,<br />

because of unfavourable weather conditions (frost),<br />

rape crop was totally compromised, and so the area<br />

previously covered by rape was used in spring for<br />

sowing sunflower and maize. The surface covered<br />

by triticale increased from one year to another;<br />

thus, in 2010 it was made up of 100 ha, in 2011<br />

150 ha and in 2012, it covered 135 ha.<br />

Soy is cultivated on a relative constant area,<br />

with small fluctuations from one year to another:<br />

2010 - 200 ha, 2011 – 220 ha and in 2012 – 250<br />

ha.<br />

As for vegetables, they covered a wider area<br />

every year, from 80 ha in 2010 to 85 ha in 2011<br />

and 100 ha in 2012.<br />

These are the main source of income for the<br />

inhabitants of Beba Veche.<br />

Fodder plants are found on an area of 75 ha.<br />

(Table 2).<br />

In what the technological park of Beba<br />

Veche is concerned, we can say that it is varied,<br />

covering all requirements for obtaining good crops<br />

(from the point of view of both quality and<br />

quantity), because the large number of machines<br />

and equipments allow us to perform the works at<br />

the optimum moment.<br />

The technological park is made up of the<br />

following machines and equipments:<br />

Tractors from 45 to 65 HP - 12 items;<br />

Tractors from 65 HP - 65 items;<br />

Ploughs - 92 items;<br />

Sowing machines - 49 items;<br />

Harrows - 197 items,<br />

Sowing machines for straw cereals and<br />

weeders - 80 items;<br />

Seedling planting machines - 2 items;<br />

Herbicide machines - 25 items;<br />

Self-propelled combines for straw cereals<br />

and weeders - 25 items;<br />

Trailers - 68 items;

Situation of agricultural lands in commune Beba Veche 2011<br />

Use Surface (ha)<br />

Arable<br />

7793<br />

Pastures<br />

976<br />

Hay lands<br />

3<br />

Vineyards<br />

16<br />

Orchards<br />

30<br />

Total agricultural lands: 8818<br />

Forests, bushes<br />

4<br />

Waters, ponds<br />

216<br />

Non-productive<br />

14<br />

Roads, railroads<br />

164<br />

Constructions<br />

189<br />

Total non-agricultural lands: 587<br />

Total general 9405<br />

449<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Fig. 4.1. Situation of agricultural lands in commune Beba Veche 2011<br />

Fig.2. Percentages taken up by soils out of the total<br />

Table 1<br />

Table 2.<br />

Crop structure in 2010, 2011 and 2012<br />

(data provided by the Agricultural chamber of commune Beba Veche)<br />

Year Wheat Barley Two- Maize<br />

row barley<br />

Sunflower Soy Rape Triticale Vegetables Alfalfa Total<br />

2010 2920 540 2550 952 200 350 100 80 75 7767<br />

2011 3112 570 2400 875 220 280 150 85 75 7767<br />

2012 2770 585 2725 1127 250 -- 135 100 75 7767<br />

(data provided by Beba Veche Town Hall, 2012)

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The arable land in Beba Veche is suitable<br />

for agricultural crops, enabling people to cultivate<br />

a wide range of crop plants. Nevertheless, limited<br />

specialized knowledge, difficulties in capitalizing<br />

agricultural products and especially limited<br />

economic power of the locals caused wheat, maize<br />

and sunflower to be the main crops cultivated in<br />

the area. Smaller areas are cultivated with potatoes,<br />

vegetables and sugar cane. The sugar cane crop<br />

was dropped because the locals did could not<br />

capitalize it.<br />

During our research, we discovered that<br />

individual households have small numbers of<br />

animals for which part of the vegetal production is<br />

used.<br />

The main problem in capitalizing the<br />

agricultural yield is the lack of an organized<br />

system of distribution. There are no organized<br />

channels of distribution for the main agricultural<br />

products, and thus we cannot talk about vertical<br />

integration in these channels. As for supplying<br />

seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, there is<br />

not an organized market either; some private<br />

entrepreneurs perform these activities, via the<br />

trading firms they own.<br />

The Ministry of Agriculture is involved in<br />

helping agriculturists, through various<br />

programmes, such as payments per hectare and<br />

crops through APIA (Agency for payments and<br />

interventions in agriculture), which directs<br />

annually 130 Euro/ha for this purpose, and various<br />

measures, such as Measure 112 - Installation of<br />

young farmers - which offers 40.000 Euro, nonrefundable,<br />

to young people under 40 who become<br />

farm managers for the first time.<br />

The only real way of developing<br />

agriculture in this area is to get a good price when<br />

Fig. 2. Crop structure in 2010, 2011 and 2012<br />

450<br />

selling cereals and to reinvest the profit in modern<br />

technologies, able to bring higher productivity for<br />

a small cost, or micro-enterprises supplying<br />

primary processing of agricultural products, adding<br />

value to the production obtained in the field.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

BORCEAN I., TABĂRĂ V., DAVID G., BORCEAN<br />

EUGENIA, ŢĂRĂU D., BORCEAN A., 1996 -<br />

Zonarea, cultivarea şi protecţia plantelor de câmp<br />

în Banat, Ed. Mirton, Timişoara;<br />

IANOŞ G., 1997 - Condiţiile naturale din judeţul Timiş, A<br />

XVII-A Conferinţă a SNRSS, Ghidul excursiilor,<br />

Timişoara;<br />

BORCEAN L, PÎRŞAN P., BORCEAN A., - Fitotehnie,<br />

Partea I Cereale şi leguminoasele cultivate pentru<br />

boabe. Curs.USAMVB Timişoara<br />

POSEA G., 1995 – Câmpia de Vest a României (C.<br />

Banato-Crişană), Ed. Fundaţiei „România Mare”,<br />

Bucureşti;<br />

PUŞCĂ I., 2002 - Câmpia Banatului, Fundaţia Naţională<br />

„Satul românesc”, Bucureşti;<br />

TONCEA I., ALECU I.N., Ingineria sistemelor agricole,<br />

Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1999.<br />

ŢĂRĂU D., LUCA M., 2002 - Panoptic al comunelor<br />

bănăţene din perspectivă pedologică, Ed.<br />

Marineasa, Timişoara;<br />

ŢĂRĂU D., ROGOBETE G., BORZA I., 1997 - Solurile,<br />

A XVII-A Conferinţă a SNRSS, Ghidul excursiilor,<br />

Timişoara;<br />

xxx, 1966 – Atlasul Climatologic, I.M.H., Bucureşti;<br />

xxx, 1976 – Atlasul României, Ed. Academiei, Bucureşti;<br />

xxx. Date furnizate de Primăria Beba Veche;<br />

xxx. Date furnizate de staţia meteo Timisoara;<br />

xxx. Anuarul statistic al României;<br />

http://ro.wikipendia.org.<br />

http://www.apmtm.ro/timis.htm;<br />

http://www.timisoreni.ro/info/date_geografice/Timisoara_<br />

Clima.html;<br />

http://www.lumeasatului.ro/1016--agricultura-romanieipana-in-2013.html

Abstract<br />

451<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

PRESENTATION OF THE HYDRIC AND CHEMICAL INDICES OF THE<br />

MAIN TYPES OF SOIL IN RECAS VITICULTURE CENTRE, TIMIS<br />

COUNTY<br />

Adalbert OKROS 1 , Casiana MIHUT 1 , Lucian NITĂ 1 , Anisoara DUMA COPCEA 1 , Marius<br />

Boldea 1<br />

adalbertokros@yahoo.com<br />

In order to reach the aim of this paper, we established the following objectives that we researched in the field and in the<br />

laboratory: identification of the soils and of soil units and land units morphological, physical and chemical<br />

characterization of the main types of soil (for this we opened soil profiles in the characteristic areas of the space under<br />

research, from which we took samples), We made use of several research methods that are specific for pedology: soil<br />

mapping, morphological description, expeditive field determinations, laboratory analyses, processing the data referring<br />

to soils, etc. Thus, we identified nine genetic types of soil in the perimeter under research, after direct observations<br />

made recently in the field and processed in the laboratory. The analyses and other determinations were performed in the<br />

laboratories of The Office for Soil and Agrochemical Studies Timişoara, and those of Banat University of Agricultural<br />

Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timişoara, in compliance with national norms and standards, approved by The<br />

Romanian Standards Association (A.S.R.O.). The types of soil we found in the area under research are the following:<br />

Stagnic preluvisol, slightly stagnogleized; Vertic reddish preluvisol, slightly gleized in-depth; Vertic reddish preluvisol<br />

with in-depth stagnogleization; Stagnic vertic preluvisol; Stagnic vertic preluvisol, slightly stagnogleized; Stagnic vertic<br />

preluvisol with slight stagnogleization; Stagnic vertic preluvisol strongly stagnogleized.<br />

Key words: soil, hydric and chemical indices, pH, analyses, land, viticulture centre<br />

Soil, a means of production and object of<br />

human work, is defined in the reference literature<br />

through a wide range of physical characteristics<br />

and socio-economic features, different from any<br />

other means of production because of some unique<br />

elements it possesses:<br />

land is a creation, and it represents a product of<br />

human intervention only to a small extent;<br />

in the process of production, land is not<br />

“consumed“ if it is used in a rational way, but<br />

on the contrary, its quality can be improved;<br />

it is limited in space and cannot be multiplied.<br />

The production capacity of lands is extremely<br />

varied, which determines great differences in the<br />

productivity of agricultural producers. As a matter<br />

of fact, the choice of the "right" place or making<br />

sure that a certain place is suitable for certain uses<br />

and crops was the first concern of agriculturists<br />

(after the stage of itinerant agriculture), and this<br />

skill was acquired intuitively and was transmitted<br />

from generation to generation.<br />

1 USAMVB Timișoara<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

The aim of the present paper is to obtain a<br />

database of agrochemical and pedological<br />

information regarding the soil in Recas viticulture<br />

centre, regarding its morphological, physical and<br />

mechanical, hydro-physical and chemical<br />

characteristics, for the purpose of assessing their<br />

quality from the point of view of their productivity.<br />

We also wanted to gather data regarding the<br />

nature and intensity of the limiting factors and<br />

possible degradation phenomena, which would lay<br />

the technical and scientific foundations for<br />

choosing the most appropriate technological<br />

measures, specific for each portion of land which is<br />

distinct in terms of ecology.<br />

The profiles were placed in representative<br />

areas of the space under research, so that we<br />

could describe the most representative types and<br />

subtypes of soil. For every profile, the samples<br />

were taken from pedogenetic horizons, both in<br />

natural (not modified) setting, and in modified<br />

setting.<br />

In order to describe certain physical and<br />

hydrophysical characteristics, we sampled soil in<br />

natural setting in metallic cylinders of known<br />

volume, with the soil humidity at the time, in

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

cardboard boxes (made specially for this); then we<br />

could perform the micro-morphological<br />

characterisation.<br />

In order to make the physical, chemical<br />

and partially biological characterisation, we took<br />

samples in the modified setting. The samples were<br />

placed in bags, on every genetic horizon. We also<br />

took agrochemical samples (from the toiled layer)<br />

in order to determine certain specific chemical<br />

indices. The study of the ecopedological conditions<br />

and the morphological description of the soil were<br />

performed in conformity with "Sistemul Român de<br />

taxonomie a solurilor" ("The Romanian Soil<br />

Classification System") (1980), completed and/or<br />

modified by "Metodologia elaborării studiilor<br />

452<br />

pedologice" ("The Methodology of Performing<br />

Pedological Studies" - vol. I, II, III), issued by The<br />

Research Institute for Soil Science and<br />

Agrochemistry from Bucharest in 1987.<br />

The analyses and other determinations<br />

were performed in laboratories pertaining to the<br />

Office for Soil Science and Agrochemistry from<br />

Timişoara, and to Banat University of Agricultural<br />

Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timişoara.<br />

They were performed in compliance with national<br />

norms and standards, approved by A.S.R.O. (The<br />

Romanian Standards Association). Thus, the<br />

following analyses were performed (Table 1):<br />

Types of analysis<br />

Type of analysis Method<br />

granulometric analysis (%) Kacinscki method<br />

apparent density (D.A.g/cm 3 ) method of metallic cylinders<br />

density (D.g/cm 3 ) pycnometer method<br />

higroscopicity (CH%) Mittscherlich method<br />

pH (in H2O) potentiometric titration<br />

carbonates (CaCo3 %) Scheibler method<br />

humus (%) Walkley-Blanck method<br />

available (mobile) phosphorus ppm Egnér Riehm-Domingo method<br />

available (mobile) potassium ppm Egnér Riehm-Domingo method<br />

exchange bases (S.B. me /100 g soil) Kappen-Chiriţă method<br />

exchangeable hydrogen (S.H.,me/100 g sol) percolation in N/K acetate<br />

cap. of cationic exchange (T.,me/100 g sol) Bower method<br />

exchangeable Na and K (me/100 g sol) Schőllenberger-Cernescu method<br />

exchangeable Ca and Mg (me/100 g sol) Schőllenberger-Cernescu method<br />

base cations (Ca ++ ,Mg ++ ,Na + ,K + ) Schőllenberger-Dreibellis-Cernescu<br />

method<br />

Anions (CO3 -- ,HCO3 - SO4 -- ,Cl - ) electric conductibility method<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

This part presents the analysis and graphical<br />

interpretation of the analytical data obtained after<br />

sampling the soil in Recas viticulture centre and<br />

their physical and chemical analysis, in accordance<br />

with the methods described under "Material and<br />

method". Thus, we obtained the following data<br />

regarding vertic reddish preluvisol with in-depth<br />

stagnogleization (Table 2): the values of the<br />

withering coefficient increase together with depth,<br />

from 12.58% Ap horizon to 14.61% in Bty<br />

horizon, being high. The values of the field<br />

capacity increase from 23.44% Ap horizon, to<br />

23.80% in Bty horizon, being medium.<br />

Total water capacity presents values ranging<br />

from 42.68% in Ap horizon and 23.52% in Bty<br />

horizon. (fig. 1.). pH values become higher as the<br />

depth is bigger, from 5.96 in Ah horizon, to 7.81 in<br />

Ck horizon. These values indicate that the soil<br />

presents reactions from slightly acid to slightly<br />

alkaline (fig. 2). The sum of exchangeable bases<br />

has values between 16.03 me/100g soil in Ap<br />

horizon and 24.62 me/100 g soil in Cy horizon,<br />

Table 1<br />

thus being medium. The sum of hydrogen presents<br />

decreasing values, from 6.70 me/100 g soil in Ap<br />

horizon to 3.37 me/g soil in Cy horizon, being very<br />

small in Cy horizon and big in Ap horizon.<br />

The values of the total capacity for cationic<br />

exchange increase from 22.73 me/100 g soil in Ap<br />

horizon to 27.99 me/100 g soil in Cy horizon, thus<br />

we consider the characteristic as being medium.<br />

The base saturation degree has values that<br />

increase from 70.52 % in Ap horizon to 87.95 % in<br />

Cy horizon. From this point if view, we can state<br />

that the soil is mesobasic at the surface and eubasic<br />

in-depth (fig.3). The vertic reddish preluvisol,<br />

slightly gleized in-depth has the following values,<br />

as seen in Table 2. The values of the withering<br />

coefficient grow from 8.59% to 15.52 % , from<br />

medium in Ad horizon to large in Btyw2 horizon.<br />

The values of the field capacity are from 22.73% to<br />

23.97%, so we consider field capacity is being<br />

medium. Total capacity has values which decrease<br />

from 47.43% in Ad horizon to 26.49% in Btyw2<br />

horizon, thus being very high at the surface and<br />

medium in-depth. Useful water capacity presents<br />

values between 14.14% and 8.45%, it being large

in Ad horizon and small in Btyw2 horizon (fig. 4).<br />

pH values increase from 6.12 in Ad horizon to 7.88<br />

in Ck horizon. These values enable us to state that<br />

soil reaction is slightly acid in Ad horizon and<br />

slightly alkaline in Ck horizon. (fig. 5). Humus<br />

percentage decreases from 3.9 in Ad horizon to<br />

1.44 in Btyw2 horizon, being medium at he surface<br />

and small in-depth. Alkali sum presents values<br />

between 19.1 me/100g soil in AB horizon and<br />

23.81 me/100 g soil in Btyw3 horizon, it being<br />

medium. Hydrogen sum presents values that get<br />

smaller, from 5.83 me/100g soil in Ad horizon, it<br />

being medium here, to 3.42 me/100g soil in Btyw3<br />

horizon, it being small here. The values of the total<br />

capacity of cationic exchange increase from 24.36<br />

me / 100g soil in AB horizon, it being medium<br />

here, to 27.69 me/100g soil in Btyw2 horizon.<br />

Alkali saturation degree presents values that<br />

increase from 77.53% in Ad horizon to 87.44% in<br />

Btyw3 horizon, thus the soil is eubasic (fig. 6).<br />

Table 3 presents hydrophysical and chemical<br />

characteristics of stagnic preluvisol, slightly<br />

stagnogleized. The withering coefficient has values<br />

that range from 11.5% in Ahw2 horizon to 14.61 in<br />

Abw3 horizon, being medium and high. Field<br />

capacity has values between 23.25% in Ahw2<br />

453<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

horizon and 23.8 in ABw3 horizon, being medium.<br />

Total capacity presents values that decrease as we<br />

go deeper into the soil, from 31.43% in Ap horizon<br />

to 23.12% in Btw3 horizon, being high at the<br />

surface and low in-depth (fig. 7). Ph has values<br />

between 5.96 in Ap horizon and 7.62 in CK<br />

horizon, soil reaction being moderately acid at the<br />

surface and slightly alkaline in-depth (fig. 8).<br />

Humus content gets smaller as the depth is bigger,<br />

from 3.57% in Ap horizon to 1.48 % in Aow3<br />

horizon, being moderate at the surface and small<br />

in-depth. Alkali sum values increase with the<br />

depth, from 18.08 me/100g soil in Ap horizon to<br />

25.74 me/100g soil in BCw2 horizon, being<br />

medium. Exchangeable hydrogen has values that<br />

range from 5.58 me/100g soil in Ahw2 horizon and<br />

2.76 me/100g soil in BCw2 horizon, being medium<br />

at the surface and very small in-depth. Total<br />

capacity of cationic exchange has values that<br />

increase together with the depth from 23.55<br />

me/199 g soil in Ap horizon to 28.93 me/100g soil<br />

in Btw2 horizon, being medium. The values of<br />

alkali saturation degree increase as we go deeper<br />

into the soil, from 76.62% in Ahw2 horizon to<br />

90.31 in BCw2 horizon, the soil being eubasic (fig.<br />

9).<br />

Table 2.<br />

Hydro-physical and chemical properties of vertic-reddish preluvisol with in-depth stagnogleization<br />

Horizon Ap Ah AB (X) Bty BCy Cy Ck<br />

Depth (cm) 0-12 -27 +45 -75 -100 -140 -165<br />

settlement degree (GT %) -0.75 25.62 30.20 30.51<br />

Hygroscopicity index (CH %) 8.39 8.37 9.41 9.74<br />

Wither index (CO %) 12.58 12.55 14.12 14.61<br />

Field capacity (CC %) 23.44 23.43 23.72 23.80<br />

Total capacity (CT %) 42.68 24.71 23.52 23.52<br />

Useful water capacity (CU %) 10.86 10.88 9.60 9.19<br />

Maximum yield capacity (CCDmax %) 19.24 1.28 -0.20 -0.20<br />

pH in (H2O) 6.11 5.96 6.18 6.27 6.63 6.70 7.81<br />

Carbonates (CaCO3%) 7.00<br />

Humus (%) 3.48 2.51 1.38 0.60<br />

Nitrogen index (IN) 2.45 1.89 1.13 0.49<br />

Humus supply (t/ha) 150.31<br />

mobile P (ppm) 31.6 25.2<br />

recalculated mobile P (ppm) 31.56 25.2<br />

mobile K (ppm) 140 103<br />

Exchange base (SB) me/100 g sol 16.03 17.26 22.58 21.15 23.81 24.62<br />

Exchangeable hydrogen (SH me) 6.70 5.67 4.96 4.50 4.04 3.37<br />

Total capacity of cationic exchange T me/100 g soil 22.73 22.93 27.54 25.65 27.85 27.99<br />

Alkali saturation degree (V%) 70.52 75.27 81.98 82.45 85.49 87.95

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Fig. 1. Graphic representation of the hydro-physical indices<br />

Fig. 2. Graphic representation of the pH Fig. 3. Graphic representation of the degree of<br />

base saturation<br />

Hydro-physical and chemical properties of slightly stagnogleized stagnic-vertic preluvisol<br />

Horizon Ad AB Btw2 Btyw3 BCw2 Ck<br />

Depth (cm) 0-8 -40 -755 -105 -135 -155<br />

Hygroscopicity coefficient (CH %) 5.73 9.44 10.35<br />

Wither coefficient (CO %) 8.59 14.16 15.52<br />

Field capacity (CC %) 22.73 23.72 23.97<br />

Total capacity (CT %) 47.43 27.32 26.49<br />

Useful water capacity (CU %) 14.14 9.56 8.45<br />

maximum yield capacity (CCDmax 24.70 3.60 2.52<br />

%)<br />

pH in (H2O) 6.12 6.03 6.27 6.36 7.00 7.88<br />

CaCO 3 (%) 23.33<br />

Humus (%) 3.90 2.82 1.44<br />

Nitrogen index (IN) 3.02 2.21 1.18<br />

humus supply (t/ha) 184.78<br />

mobile P (ppm) 150 108<br />

recalculated mobile P (ppm) 14.97 10.8<br />

mobile K (ppm) 180 143<br />

Exchange base (SB) me/100 g soil 20.12 19.10 22.78 23.81<br />

Exchangeable hydrogen (SH me) 5.83 5.26 4.91 3.42<br />

Total capacity of cationic exchange<br />

T me/100 g soil<br />

25.95 24.36 27.69 27.23<br />

Alkali saturation degree (V%) 77.53 78.40 82.26 87.44<br />

454<br />

Table 2.

455<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Fig. 4. Graphic representation of the hydro-physical indices<br />

Fig. 5. Graphic representation of the pH Fig. 6. Graphic representation of the base saturation<br />

degree<br />

Hydro-physical and chemical properties of slightly stagnogleized stagnic preluvisol<br />

Table 3.<br />

Horizon Ap Ahw2 A0 w2 AB w3 Btw3 Bt(y)w2 BCw2 Ck<br />

Depth (cm) 0-22 -35 -53 -68 -88 -123 -150 -200<br />

Higroscopicity coefficient (CH %) 7.99 7.67 9.16 9.74 9,46<br />

Wither coefficient (CO %) 11.99 11.50 13.74 14.61 14,19<br />

Field capacity (CC %) 23.33 23.25 23.65 23.80 23,73<br />

Total capacity (CT %) 31.43 27.45 25.12 25.41 23,12<br />

Useful water capacity (CU %) 11.34 11.75 9.91 9.19 9,54<br />

Maximum yield capacity (CCDmax %) 8.10 4.20 1.47 1.61 -0,61<br />

Hydraulic conductivity (K mm/hour) 1.80 1.0 0.5 0.48 0,40<br />

pH in (H2O) 5.96 6.11 6.33 6.51 6,58 6.56 6.75 7.62<br />

CaCO 3 (%) 1.10<br />

Humus (%) 3.57 2.50 1.48<br />

Nitrogen index (IN) 3.07 1.91 1.22<br />

C:N 2.36 1.46 1.00<br />

Humus supply (t/ha) 193.79<br />

mobile P (ppm) 26.8 36.4<br />

recalculated mobile P (ppm) 26.8 36.4<br />

mobile K (ppm) 143 110<br />

Exchange base (SB) me/100 g sol 18.08 18.29 21.49 24.04 24,46 25.53 25.74<br />

Exchangeable hydrogen (SH me) 5.47 5.58 4.62 4.62 3,82 3.40 2.76<br />

Total capacity of cationic exchange T<br />

me/100 g soil<br />

23.55 23.87 26.11 28.66 28.28 28.93 28.50<br />

Alkali saturation degree (V%) 76.77 76.62 82.30 83.87 86.49 88.24 90.31

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Fig. 7. Graphic representation of the hydro-physical indices<br />

Fig. 8. Graphic representation of the pH Fig. 9. Graphic representation of the base saturation<br />

degree<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Recaş viticulture centre is situated in the<br />

south-west of Romania, in a moderate temperatecontinental<br />

climate, with shorter and milder<br />

winders; it is frequently under the influence of<br />

cyclones and hot-air masses coming from the<br />

Mediterranean sea and the Adriatic sea. Of the<br />

morphological, chemical, physical and hydrophysical<br />

characteristics that have a direct influence<br />

on the composition and growth environment of<br />

plants, and which have a determining role in other<br />

soil characteristics, the following play a greater<br />

part: gleyzation, salination, alkalization, CaCO3<br />

content, soil reaction, humus supply, texture,<br />

porosity, useful edaphic volume and permeability.<br />

These features are more stable in time and easier to<br />

determine, even with the equipments that the<br />

specialized institutions currently have.<br />

Resulting from soil water regime,<br />

predominantly phreatic, gleization is useful for<br />

separating the soil varieties and some subtypes,<br />

while at the same time causing different<br />

favorabilities for certain cultivated plants.<br />

Hygroscopicity index vacillates between<br />

6.61 – 9.49 %, and the wither index presents high<br />

values, between 9.2% and 14.23%.<br />

456<br />

Field capacity for water in Ao horizon is<br />

medium, with values between 22.7% and 23.74%<br />

and with a clear tendency to increase in Bt horizon.<br />

Useful water capacity presents the same<br />

dynamics per soil profile, with values from 13.5%<br />

to 11.95% in Ao horizon and lower in Btz,<br />

reaching 9.59%. Humus content in cultivated<br />

preluvisols is medium, with values ranging from<br />

3.3% to 2.46% and with a supply of 171 t/ha for 0-<br />

40 cm deep. Under forests, the humus supply is<br />

bigger. Soil reaction in Ao horizon is slightly cid,<br />

with pH values of 6.3 – 6.7. Total capacity of<br />

cationic exchange (T) is higher than 21 m.e/100 g<br />

soil, and the alkali saturation degree (V%) varies<br />

from 62% to 88%.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

1. Blaga Gh., Rusu I., Udrescu S., Vasile D.,<br />

Pedologie, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. R.<br />

A., Bucureşti, 1996<br />

2. Niţă L. D., Pedologie, Ed. Eurobit Timişoara 2004,<br />

3. Ştefan V., Ecopedologie, Ed. Marineasa Timişoara,<br />

2000,<br />

4. Țărău D., Cartarea și bonitarea solurilor și evaluarea<br />

terenurilor, Ed. Eurobit timișoara 2006,<br />

5. *** Metodologia elaborării studiilor pedologice, vol.<br />

I,II,III, Bucureşti, 1987,<br />

6. *** Sistemul român de clasificare a solurilor, I.C.P.A.<br />

Bucureşti, 1980.

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STUDIES CONCERNING THE MAIN CHARACTERlSTICS OF CALENDULA<br />

SEEDS APPERTAINING TO DIFFERENT LOCAL POPULATIONS FROM THE<br />

WESTERN OF COUNTRY<br />

Abstract<br />

Cristina ZEPA CORADINI 1 , Valeriu TABĂRĂ 1 , Roxana ZEPA BEJAN 1 ,<br />

Doru PETANEC 1 , Lavinia MICU 1<br />

Email: cristina.coradini@yahoo.com<br />

The purpose of that study was to identify the differences existent among the main characteristics of marigolds seeds (the<br />

length, the width, the thickness, MMB) that appertained to 12 local populations from four districts of the western<br />

country (Arad, Caras-Severin, Hunedoara, Timis). After the investigations realized on seed-tree material collected<br />

from Zaradeni, Alunis, Covasint, Berzovia, Ghertenis, Ocna de Fier, Geoagiu, Ostrov, Rachitova, Fibis, Birda and Alios<br />

it could observe that existed differences among all the morphological characteristics of those. Local populations<br />

with the biggest value of seeds length were Birda (19.33 mm) and Fibis (17.44 mm) from Timis district, also Alunis<br />

(17.62 mm) and Covasint (17.98 mm) from Arad district. About the seeds length of Calendula the local populations of<br />

Geoagiu (13.16 mm) and Ostrov (13.89 mm) were registered with superior differences, statistically assured face to the<br />

local populations of Rachitova (13.34 mm) and Zadareni (15.36 mm). Concerning the seeds thickness, that had limits<br />

between 1.75 mm (local population of Fibis-Timis district) and 2.85 mm (local population of Ostrov-Hunedoara<br />

district). After MMB making it observed that oscillated between 8.33 g in case of local population Birda (Timis district)<br />

and 16.66 g to local population Covasint (Arad district). No one of the main seeds characteristics registered significant<br />

differences among local populations taken in study. Thanks to multiple usages of Calendula plants, the study of main<br />

seeds characteristics was absolutely necessary thanks to the importance that it had on the production.Accordingly, we<br />

concluded the fact that to all five characteristics of seeds taken in study had registered differences regarding the 12 local<br />

populations from the western of country.<br />

Key words: marigolds, seeds, morphological differences, biometrical determinations, local populations<br />

The medical plants produced fewer and<br />

more reduced secondary effects than the synthesis<br />

medicaments. That category of plants could exploit<br />

the surfaces less productive, could assure great<br />

capitals to the growers, could constitute<br />

ornamental crops or melliferous, and the crop of<br />

medical plants could constitute an important<br />

material of export. They could be extended in big<br />

culture, in scholar lands, in parks and gardens,<br />

combining the beautiful with practical (Muntean<br />

and colab., 2007).<br />

The medical plants market was in<br />

continuous development in the world, the naturist<br />

treatments being more and more searched. The<br />

inquiry was so bigger, that, for the moment, it<br />

wasn’t cotes for the plants export towards the UE<br />

countries, that imported from China 80% from the<br />

medical plants used. They would anytime prefer to<br />

import from the member countries, an additional<br />

chance for Romania. Now, we crop around 20<br />

species of plants, the rest of them being cropped<br />

from the spontaneous flora, developed over 80% in<br />

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Banat Timisoara<br />

the forests. The specialists sustained that it need a<br />

guard of medical plants, which protected the areas<br />

where they developed. Some countries such<br />

Hungary, Moldavia Republic or Croatia now<br />

export more than Romania, country with tradition<br />

in that domain. At the same time with the climatic<br />

modifications we could acclimatize also others<br />

plants, as in the neighbor countries had developed<br />

(www.marketwatch.ro, quaoted by Vaida S.,<br />

2012).<br />

The original plant from the Mediterranean<br />

region, Calendula officinalis growed up on<br />

uncultivated areas, on the roads and railroad<br />

margins, but also was cultivated as ornamental<br />

plant. In medical purpose it used only the variety<br />

characterized through double flowers of yelloworange<br />

color. As spread, the plant met from the<br />

plain to mountainous region and blew from May to<br />

September.<br />

The achenes Calendula formed seeds with<br />

an accentuated polymorphism, with a variability<br />

more or less varied, in function of the species and

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

genotype of the perspective species (Shishin N.B.,<br />

1962; Acosta and collab., 2001, quoted by Baciu<br />

A., 2011). In general, seeds from the interior of<br />

achenes were small, with circular shape, the length<br />

of 2,0-10,0 mm, the width of 1.5-2.0 mm, the<br />

weight of 2.5-4.0 mg, and the color of seed at the<br />

MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

Regarding the investigations realization of<br />

differences establishment existent among the<br />

main characteristics of marigolds seeds had<br />

collected seed-tree material from 12 local<br />

populations from the western of the country<br />

458<br />

maturity was very varied from cream to grizzle<br />

sad. The exterior seeds were bigger, a little curved,<br />

with the length of 10.00-18.0 mm, the width of<br />

2.0-6.0 mm and the weight of 4.0-28.0 mg<br />

(Ismagilov P.P. and Carja D.A., 2000; Gonceariuc<br />

M., 2001 quoted by Baciu A., 2011).<br />

such as: Zadareni, Alunis, Covasint, Berzovia,<br />

Ghertenis, Ocna de Fier, Geoagiu, Ostrov,<br />

Rachitova, Fibis, Birda and Alios, from Arad,<br />

Caras-Severin, Hunedoara and Timis districts.<br />

(fig.1).<br />

Figure 1 Calendula seeds collected from the western of the country<br />

After collecting the seed-tree material it was<br />

introduced in labeled envelopes and transported in<br />

the laboratory of phytotechny to analyze from the<br />

point of view of the main biometrical<br />

determinations. The characters considered that<br />

Biometrical measures were made with the<br />

ruler, and MMB was calculated for the every local<br />

population in part through scaling at the balance<br />

KERN-EG, with precision of 0.01. The biometrical<br />

coefficients calculated in conformity with the<br />

professional literature, applying the known<br />

formulas (Botez and collab., 1995) and respecting<br />

the following stages: the arithmetic mean, standard<br />

deviation, variance.<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

In making investigations on differences<br />

existent among the main characteristics of<br />

could illustrate the morphological differences<br />

existent among local populations taken in study<br />

were the following: the length, the width, the weight<br />

and thickness of the seeds. (fig.2).<br />

Figure 2 The seeds scaling of Calendula and the results notation<br />

Calendula officinalis L., the analyzed samples<br />

were collected from the western of country. After<br />

those studies it observed that the seeds length<br />

presented different values, inside of local<br />

populations taken in study. (tab. 1.). The seeds<br />

with the biggest length registered to local<br />

populations of Birda (19.33 mm), Covasint (17.98<br />

mm) and Alunis (17.62 mm). The smallest length<br />

observed the seeds from the local populations<br />

Berzovia (10.25 mm), Ocna de Fier (12.00 mm)<br />

and Ghertenis (12.60 mm) from Caras- Severin<br />

district.

459<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

Table 1<br />

Biometrical determinations to different local populations of Calendula from the western of country<br />

No. crt. District<br />

Local<br />

populations<br />

Seeds length (mm) Seeds width (mm)<br />

Seeds thickness<br />

(mm)<br />

MMB (g)<br />

1.<br />

Zadareni 15.36 1.20 2.53 11.66<br />

2. Arad Alunis 17.62 1.45 2.20 10.00<br />

3. Covasint 17.98 2.42 2.80 16.66<br />

4.<br />

Berzovia 10.25 1.77 2.63 13.33<br />

5. Caras-Severin Ghertenis 12.60 1.24 2.42 10.33<br />

6. Ocna de Fier 12.00 1.55 2.11 11.33<br />

7.<br />

Geoagiu 13.16 2.80 1.80 12.33<br />

8. Hunedoara Ostrov 13.89 2.52 2.85 16.33<br />

9. Rachitova 13.34 1.19 2.00 8.66<br />

10.<br />

Fibis 17.44 1.53 1.75 10.00<br />

11. Timis Birda 19.33 1.91 1.90 8.33<br />

12. Alios 16.04 1.71 2.15 9.33<br />

The seeds width oscillated between 1.19 mm<br />

(local populations of Rachitova) and 2.80 mm<br />

(local populations of Geoagiu), both from<br />

Hunedoara district. The biggest values of seeds<br />

thickness registered to local populations of Ostrov-<br />

Hunedoara district (2.85 mm) and Covasint- Arad<br />

district (2.80 mm), with superior differences,<br />

statistically assured face to the local populations of<br />

Fibis-Timis district (1.75 mm) and Geoagiu-<br />

Hunedoara district (1.80 mm). (fig. 3.).<br />

Figure 3 The main characteristics of Calendula seeds collected from the western of the country<br />

Seeds weight presented a huge variation<br />

inside of local populations taken in study, with<br />

limits between 8.33 g to local populations of Birda<br />

collected from Timis district and 16.66 g to local<br />

populations of Covasint- Arad district.<br />

CONCLUSIONS<br />

The seeds with the biggest length<br />

registered to local populations from Arad and<br />

Timis district, and the smallest to the ones<br />

collected in Caras-Severin district.<br />

Local populations to which registered the<br />

biggest width were Geoagiu and Ostrov from<br />

Hunedoara district with 2.80 mm, respective 2.52<br />

mm, those presenting superior differences,<br />

statistically assured face to the local populations of<br />

Rachitova and Zaradeni, where registered 1.19<br />

mm, respective 1.20 mm.<br />

Regarding the seeds thickness the smallest<br />

values observed to local populations of Fibis,<br />

Geoagiu and Birda, and the biggest values to local<br />

populations of Ostrov, Covasint and Zaradeni. The<br />

seeds with the smallest weight registered to local<br />

populations of Rachitova from Hunedoara and<br />

Birda from Timis district. The biggest values of the<br />

seeds weight had registered to local populations of<br />

Covasint an Ostrov. Accordingly, we concluded<br />

the fact that to all five characteristics of seeds<br />

taken in study had registered differences regarding<br />

the 12 local populations from the western of<br />

country.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

This work was published during the project<br />

“Postdoctoral School of Agriculture and Veterinary<br />

Medicine", Posdru/89/1.5/S/62371, co-financed by the<br />

European Social Fund through the Sectorial Operational<br />

Programme for the Human Resources Development<br />

2007-2013.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Acosta de la Luz, Rodriguez L., Ferradas C., Sanchez<br />

E., 2001 - Instructivo tecnico de Calendula<br />

officinalis, Revista Cubana Plantas Medicinales,<br />

Vol.6, 1, 23-27.<br />

Baciu Adriana Daniela, 2011 - Cercetări privind<br />

îmbogăţirea fondului genetic la Calendula, Teză<br />

de Doctorat, Cluj-Napoca, pg. 16-37.<br />

Botez, C., Marin E., Tămaş E., 1995 - Genetică, Tipo<br />

Agronomia, Cluj-Napoca.<br />

Gonceariuc, M., 2001 - Variabilitatea caracterelor<br />

morfologice ale antodiilor la Calendula officinalis<br />

L., <strong>Seria</strong> B, Analele <strong>ştiinţifice</strong> ale Centrului de<br />

Resurse genetice vegetale din Moldova, Vol. 1.,<br />

65-71.<br />

Muntean, L.S, Tămaş, M., Muntean, S., Muntean, L.,<br />

Duda, M.M., Vârban, D.I., Florian, S., 2007 -<br />

Tratat de plante medicinale cultivate şi spontane,<br />

Ed. Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 928 p.<br />

460<br />

Ismagilov, P.P., Carja D.A, 2000 - Calendula officinalis<br />

L., Ufa BSAU, 220-263, 102 c.<br />

Shishin, N.B., 1962 - Atlas of Medicinal Plants of the<br />

USSR, Moscow: Medical Literature, 701.<br />

Vaida Simona Carmen, 2012 - Cercetări privind<br />

biologia, tehnologia de cultivare şi valorificarea<br />

speciilor Calendula officinalis L. și Cynara<br />

scolymus L., Teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca,<br />

Abstract, pg. 7.<br />

http://www.mirabilys-magazin.ro/fitoterapie/galbenelelecalendula-officinalis<br />

www.marketwatch.ro

Abstract<br />

461<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

CURRENT COORDINATES REGARDING THE FINANCING MANAGEMENT OF<br />

AGRICULTURAL FIRMS LISTED IN THE BUCHAREST STOCK EXCHANGE<br />

Mihaela Brînduşa TUDOSE 1 , Flavian CLIPA 1<br />

e-mail: flaclipa@yahoo.com<br />

The main objective of this study is to analyse the evolution of the financing process of firms with farming and/or raising<br />

livestock activities. Secondly, the paper analyses the evolution of indebtedness and measures its impact on the<br />

performance of selected sample firms. The motivation underlying this research is connected with the fact that, on a<br />

theoretical level, as well as on an empirical one, there are several debates regarding firm financing management, but<br />

very few are centred on agricultural businesses. The most important conclusions deriving from our research are: the<br />

agricultural sector makes a modest contribution to the Romanian economy; the majority of firms in this sector depend<br />

on debt financing (which is not only rigid, but also costly); their economic performance is low (making this sector<br />

become unattractive for investors). The paper argues that debt financing is not stable, nor sustainable. This is because,<br />

although it offers a series of advantages, debt financing causes financial fragility, unlike investing the company's own<br />

capital. Furthermore, in a business environment where estimated income is uncertain, even though indebtedness level is<br />

fairly low, paying off debt can cause serious problems; any type of economy which is based on uncontrolled<br />

indebtedness will collapse eventually. Finally, we believe that firms should adopt a more prudent financing policy, able<br />

to sustain a moderate, but more stable and sustainable growth. However, we believe, for companies in the field of<br />

activity investigated, that some measure of support (by specific policies) are required, which would ensure revival of<br />

Romanian agriculture. Finally, the paper presents research limitations and new directions for further research.<br />

Key words: financial structure, indebtedness, performance, financial vulnerability<br />

The current Romanian financial and<br />

economic reality is a difficult one, marked not only<br />

by the prolonged world crisis, but also by other<br />

aspects which deal with the way the firm financing<br />

management was elaborated and implemented. The<br />

difficulties that firms in general, and agricultural<br />

firms in particular are currently facing, have led to<br />

major economic changes. These aspects affect the<br />

development and evolution of the local capital<br />

market as well.<br />

The main objective of this research is the<br />

analysis of the way the financial structure of firms<br />

listed in the Romanian Stock Exchange has<br />

evolved, the selection criterion being firms'<br />

activities. The operational objectives are<br />

subordinated to the main target and refer to:<br />

presenting the theoretical approaches regarding<br />

firm financing, identifying the evolution of<br />

indebtedness of sample firms, measuring the<br />

impact of indebtedness on their economic<br />

performance and identifying financing alternatives.<br />

The first studies of firm financing date<br />

back in the late '50s, when the idea of a neutral<br />

financial structure was launched. Between the '60s-<br />

'70s, research focused on the analysis of<br />

1 Universitatea „Gh. Zane”, Iaşi<br />

advantages and costs deriving from indebtedness;<br />

the aim was to study the way in which enterprises<br />

manage to balance the bankruptcy costs with the<br />

financial benefits derived from taking on debt;<br />

these works were grouped under the generic<br />

headline of “static trade-off theory”, whose<br />

underlying claim is that firms set a target debt ratio<br />

which they attempt to reach. In the mid-1970s,<br />

research turned to agency costs, focusing on two<br />

categories of conflicts of interest: between<br />

managers and shareholders, on the one hand, and<br />

between creditors and shareholders, on the other.<br />

In the first half of the 1980s, the emphasis was<br />

mainly placed on information asymmetries among<br />

investors and firms, which defined the pecking<br />

order theory. In the latter half of the 1980s,<br />

financial theories explain the structure of firm<br />

financing in relation to the factors linked to<br />

industrial strategy and corporate organisation.<br />

Studies carried out during the 1990s were marked<br />

by the focus on the disjunctive-hypothetical<br />

reasoning, researchers seeking to provide<br />

arguments in favour of or against the two theories<br />

proposed, i.e. trade-off theory and pecking order<br />

theory, respectively. The idea proposed 10 years

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

ago, arguing that “there is no universal theory of<br />

the debt-equity choice, and no reason to expect<br />

one” (Myers, 2001), reoriented research to the<br />

level of empirical analyses.<br />

RESEARCH MATERIAL AND METHOD<br />

In order to study the evolution of capital<br />

structure, i.e. the dynamics of indebtedness and its<br />

impact on firms' profitability, we considered a<br />

sample of 31 firms. The selection criterion was<br />

their CAEN code (the national statistical<br />

Section Division Category<br />

011 Cultivation of<br />

temporary plants<br />

Classification of Sample Firms<br />

No. of<br />

firms<br />

8<br />

462<br />

classification of economic activities in Romania);<br />

therefore, in Section A. Agriculture, silviculture<br />

and fishing, Agriculture Division are listed 31<br />

firms, grouped in 4 categories and 6 profiles<br />

(rendered in table 1).<br />

The financial information regarding the 31<br />

firms were collected from the Ministry of Finance's<br />

portal, section Economic agents and public<br />

institutions – identification data, financial<br />

information, financial statements<br />

(http://www.mfinante.ro/pjuridice.html). The<br />

analysed period was of three years (2008-2010).<br />

Tabel 1<br />

Profile<br />

Grains (excluding rice), legumes, oil seed<br />

crops<br />

A:<br />

Agriculture,<br />

silviculture,<br />

fishing<br />

Agriculture<br />

013 Plant breeding<br />

014 Livestock raising<br />

2<br />

9<br />

-<br />

Swine raising<br />

Poultry raising<br />

2<br />

3<br />

6<br />

016 Agricultural auxiliary Auxiliary activities for raising crops 11<br />

activities and activities<br />

after the harvest<br />

12<br />

Seed preparation 1<br />

No. of firms. 31 - 31 - 31<br />

The indicators used in the evaluation of<br />

firms' financial structure and the impact of their<br />

indebtedness on economic performance are:<br />

financial structure (FS):<br />

Ec Td<br />

FS 100 100 , where:<br />

Ec<br />

Td<br />

Ec<br />

Td<br />

Td – total debts;<br />

Ec – equity capital;<br />

degree of indebtedness:<br />

Td<br />

Di 100 ;<br />

Ec Td<br />

net profit (Np);<br />

return of equity capital:<br />

Np<br />

Re c 100 .<br />

Ec<br />

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS<br />

1. Judgements regarding the sample size<br />

in relation to the total number of companies<br />

listed in the Bucharest Stock Exchange<br />

On May 31 st 2012, the Bucharest Stock<br />

Exchange listed 1256 firms, out of which 106 were<br />

quoted on the BVB section, 1130 on RASDAQ<br />

and 20 on ATS. All the 31 sample firms are listed<br />

on the same section (RASDAQ), out of a total of<br />

1130 firms; this means that only 2.57% of the<br />

companies quoted on this section have core<br />

activities based on raising crops and livestock. The<br />

present situation underlines that this sector of<br />

No. of<br />

firms<br />

activity is poorly represented at the national<br />

economy level. Once a country famous for its<br />

agricultural sector, Romania has become incapable<br />

of exploiting its own agricultural resources.<br />

2. Judgements regarding financial<br />

structure<br />

Firms have access to two types of financial<br />

resources: equity capital and debt capital. In<br />

connection with their access to these two types of<br />

financing, we emphasize the following: an<br />

enterprise can finance itself 100% out of equity<br />

capital, but cannot survive being financed 100%<br />

out of debt capital. Financial structure is defined<br />

by the way the two resources are combined. Every<br />

enterprise has to be concerned with keeping its<br />

financial authority, in order to preserve its<br />

investors' trust (shareholders and creditors).<br />

Accessing different sources of financing depends<br />

on a series of factors, grouped as follows (Rajan &<br />

Zingales, 1995): a) firm-specific determining<br />

factors; b) industry-specific determining factors);<br />

c) country-specific determining factors. Although<br />

generally admitted that firm-specific factors have<br />

the highest influence on capital structure, there is a<br />

disagreement regarding the factors which<br />

significantly affect the capital structure of a given<br />

firm (Ilyas, 2008). However, we believe the<br />

determining factors affecting Romanian firms are:<br />

the physical size and value of a company, the<br />

degree of financial market development, the<br />

8

legislative framework, the duration of production<br />

process, the importance of controlling<br />

shareholders, the economic sector in which they<br />

operate etc. (Tudose, 2006).<br />

According to the selected financial<br />

information, all the 31 sample firms used debt<br />

capital during the three years mentioned above (the<br />

average level of indebtedness being 46% in 2008,<br />

47% in 2009 and 46% in 2010).<br />

Admitting that the maximum level of<br />

indebtedness represents twice as much as equity<br />

capital, we can assume that the maximum level of<br />

indebtedness of a firm is 66.6% (the difference of<br />

33.3% being represented by equity capital).<br />

According to their level of indebtedness, the<br />

sample firms are ranked as follows:<br />

Tabel 2<br />

Level of<br />

indebtedness<br />

Evolution of debt<br />

Firms<br />

2008 2009 2010<br />

nr. % nr. % nr. %<br />

0-10% 4 13 5 16 6 19<br />

10%-20% 3 10 2 6 2 6<br />

20%-30% 0 0 2 6 2 6<br />

30-40% 5 16 1 3 3 10<br />

40%-50% 2 6 2 6 4 13<br />

50%-60% 4 13 6 19 2 6<br />

60-66% 7 23 5 17 4 14<br />

peste 66% 6 19 8 27 8 26<br />

Total 31 100 31 100 31 100<br />

The data reveal the fact that generally,<br />

during these three years, 18 out of 31 companies<br />

opted for a prudent debt policy (having a<br />

maximum debt level of 60%), while the remaining<br />

13 attempted to reach or even surpass the<br />

maximum level of debt; the highest positions in the<br />

top of over-indebted firms are occupied by<br />

Agromec Iermata Neagra, Avicola S.A. Braşov,<br />

Comcereal S.A. Vaslui, G.K. Farmproiect S.A.<br />

Griviţa and Pajisti S.A. Predeal; at the opposite<br />

pole, minimising their debt, we can find firms such<br />

as Agromec S.A. Grabat, Agromec S.A. Potlogi<br />

and Servagromec S.A. Cluj.<br />

Due to the fact that one important factor<br />

which conditions a firm's access to credits is its<br />

dimension, we will further analyse this new<br />

coordinate using the average number of employees<br />

as a classifying criterion.<br />

Tabel 3<br />

Classification of firms according to their number of<br />

No. of<br />

employees<br />

employees<br />

Firms<br />

2008 2009 2010<br />

nr. % nr. % nr. %<br />

maximum<br />

9 14 45 16 52 16 52<br />

10 – 49 4 13 2 6 3 10<br />

50 – 249 6 19 6 19 6 19<br />

Over 250 7 23 7 23 6 19<br />

Total 31 100 31 100 31 100<br />

463<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

According to our research we can state that<br />

during the analysed period, half of the sample<br />

firms fall into the category of micro-enterprises;<br />

the other half is dominated by large companies<br />

(accounting for 23% in the years 2008-2009, and<br />

19% in 2010); the latter are succeeded by medium<br />

enterprises (accounting for 19% in all three years)<br />

and small enterprises (accounting for 13% in 2008,<br />

6% in 2009 and 10% in 2010). Among the<br />

companies that fall into the large companies<br />

category are Avicola S.A. Buzău (with an average<br />

of 740 employees), Nutricom S.A. Olteniţa (with<br />

an average of 499 employees), Avicola S.A.<br />

Crevedia (with an average of 462 employees),<br />

Avicola S.A. Slobozia (with an average of 468<br />

employees), Avicola S.A. Braşov (with an average<br />

of 485 employees), Comcereal S.A. Vaslui (with<br />

an average of 430 employees).<br />

Tabel 4<br />

Evolution of indebtedness level within firm<br />

categories<br />

Category<br />

2008<br />

Average debt ratio<br />

2009 2010 media<br />

micro 42,47% 43,13% 35,75% 40,45%<br />

small 27,87% 30,21% 26,91% 28,33%<br />

medium 39,33% 46,73% 57,26% 47,77%<br />

large 59,42% 61,34% 57,68% 59,48%<br />

The information found in the table suggests<br />

that micro and small enterprises adopted a more<br />

prudent debt policy (registering an average level of<br />

indebtedness of 40.45% and 28.33% respectively),<br />

while medium and large-sized enterprises opted for<br />

a higher debt (47.77% and 59.48% respectively).<br />

With the exception of medium enterprises (which<br />

show a consistent increase in indebtedness during<br />

the analysed period), the other categories show a<br />

decrease in indebtedness towards the end of the<br />

analysed time-line.<br />

3. Judgements regarding the impact of<br />

indebtedness over financial performance<br />

Financing decisions have broad implications<br />

for the outcome policy and can even affect the very<br />

health of the company. The concept of<br />

performance is a controversial issue in finance due<br />

largely to its multidimensional meanings<br />

(Prahalathan & Ranjani, 2011). Performance<br />

measures are either financial or organizational<br />

(these measures are linked together). Classic<br />

indicators used in financial analysis to measure<br />

performance were return on investment,<br />

indebtedness, capital efficiency, liquidity, cash<br />

flow, inventory turnover, receivables turnover.<br />

Besides these, there are also the so-called modern<br />

indicators of value creation (Vernimmen, 2009),<br />

such as net income or earnings per share, the

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

operating result or gross operating surplus, return<br />

on asset (ROA) and return on equity (ROE),<br />

economic added value, cash flow return on<br />

investment, net present value, etc.<br />

To achieve the third operational objective (to<br />

quantify the impact of debt on financial<br />

performance) we will use two modern indicators<br />

(accounting indicators): net profit and return on<br />

equity.<br />

An overview of financial performance (as<br />

absolute values) of firms in the sample gives a not<br />

very pleasant image: in the first two years one third<br />

of firms reported losses, and in the third year the<br />

number of firms which reported losses rose almost<br />

to half; the situation is as follows:<br />

Tabel 5<br />

Classification of firms based on profit or loss<br />

Category<br />

2008<br />

No. of firms<br />

2009 2010<br />

- with profit 21 20 16<br />

- with losses 10 11 15<br />

Total no. of firms 31 31 31<br />

Performance analysis in terms of company<br />

size allowed us to obtain the following data:<br />

Tabel 6<br />

Classification of companies according to two<br />

criteria: company size and profit or loss<br />

Firms with profit (+) / loss (–)<br />

Categories 2008 2009 2010<br />

+ – + – + –<br />

Micro 8 6 8 8 6 10<br />

Small 3 1 2 0 1 2<br />

Medium 5 1 3 3 4 2<br />

Large 6 1 7 0 5 1<br />

Total/category 22 9 20 11 16 15<br />

Total 31 31 31<br />

In the micro-enterprises category,<br />

throughout the period analysed, enterprises which<br />

reported losses prevail; in the other types of<br />

companies, firms which have made profits are<br />

predominant (the situation being more favourable<br />

as firms grow in size).<br />

To assess performance in terms of return<br />

on equity we will only report to firms which made<br />

profits. Thus, the average return on equity is<br />

19.33% in 2008, 12.37% in 2009 and 6.15% in<br />

2010. The drop in performance of the analysed<br />

performance indicator can be attributed, primarily,<br />

to the specific social and economic context of the<br />

analysed period (marked by financial and<br />

economic crisis). The analysis in terms of company<br />

size allowed us to obtain the following<br />

information:<br />

Tabel 7<br />

The average return on equity according to<br />

categories of firms<br />

The average return on equity<br />

Categories<br />

2008 2009 2010 3 ani<br />

Micro 39,16% 24,19% 8,12% 23,82%<br />

464<br />

Small 16,06% 5,17% 0,46% 7,23%<br />

Medium 2,22% 3,25% 0,99% 2,16%<br />

Large 6,71% 4,85% 8,80% 6,79%<br />

Average 19,33 12,37 6,15 -<br />

With two exceptions, the average return on<br />

equity (analysed on categories of firms for each<br />

year of analysis) shows a downward trend.<br />

Looking at the period, it appears that microenterprises<br />

have an acceptable level of return on<br />

equity, while the other group of companies has low<br />

profitability levels (the lowest being recorded by<br />

medium enterprises - 2.16%).<br />

The top ranking based on the level of return<br />

on equity is: Agromec Tractorul Cuza Vodă S.A.<br />

(in microenterprises); in 2008, Horticola S.A.<br />

Bucureşti and A.T.C. - Agro Total Construct S.A.<br />

Ghimbav in 2009 (in the small enterprises<br />

category); Suinprod S.A. Cernica (in the medium<br />

enterprises category); Avicola S.A. Braşov in 2008<br />

and Nutricom S.A. Olteniţa between 2009 and<br />

2010 (in the large enterprises category).<br />

4. Identifying financing alternatives<br />

Since debt financing is neither stable nor<br />

sustainable through the crisis, over-indebted<br />

companies have become insolvent causing severe<br />

damage to the global economy. Thus, due to higher<br />

vulnerability and fragility, companies must be<br />

more concerned with their level of indebtedness.<br />

The idea that we want to emphasize is that the<br />

current economic system needs a more prudent<br />

funding to sustain a more stable and sustainable<br />

growth rate. Thus, previous coordinates that<br />

optimise the financial structure of firms (to ensure<br />

maximum value) must be redefined in favour of<br />

ensuring financial sustainability. The old challenge<br />

(the debt ratio in the overall firm-financing<br />

process) is abandoned, making way for a new<br />

challenge: financial fragility and vulnerability to<br />

crises. This is because a more conservative<br />

financing can support growth, it is true, more<br />

moderate, but stable and sustainable.<br />

Furthermore, we believe that the financial<br />

indicator-based assessment of firm performance<br />

needs to be supplemented by an evaluation based<br />

on non-financial indicators that express the quality<br />

of management, corporate culture, the<br />

effectiveness of executive management<br />

remuneration policies, quality of communication<br />

with shareholders etc. Currently, there is a<br />

tendency for performance evaluation based on<br />

value creation, but subordinated to the goal of<br />

sustainable development.

CONCLUSIONS<br />

Issues on how firms finance their operations,<br />

remain present and acute. This is because, in the<br />

context of changes that have marked social and<br />

economic life, we witness a depreciation of<br />

financial indicators, not only in agricultural<br />

companies, but also in the global economy. This<br />

background research on company financing has<br />

shifted towards studying the impact of debt<br />

financing on the financial vulnerability and<br />

fragility to crises.<br />

Our research delivers the value dimension of<br />

the difficulties facing the agricultural enterprises in<br />

Romania (in particular those which are based on<br />

farming and raising livestock). Synthesizing the<br />

investigated aspects, the situation is characterized<br />

by:<br />

the agricultural sector has a modest<br />

contribution to the Romanian economy –<br />

out of the total of 1256 companies listed<br />

on the Bucharest Stock Exchange, only 31<br />

are based on farming and animal<br />

husbandry (all being quoted in the<br />

RASDAQ section); considering the size of<br />

firms in terms of number of employees, we<br />

showed that half of the sample firms fall<br />

within the micro-enterprises category, the<br />

other half of the sample firms being<br />

dominated by large companies (with<br />

shares of 23% in 2008 and 2009 and 19%<br />

in 2010); the latter are succeeded by<br />

medium enterprises (with the same ratio of<br />

19% in all years considered) and small<br />

enterprises (accounting for 13% in 2008,<br />

6% in 2009 and 10% in 2010);<br />

firms in this sector are mostly dependent<br />

on debt financing (which is not only rigid,<br />

but also expensive) - the average debt is<br />

46% in 2008, 47% in 2009 and 46% in<br />

2010; analysing the indebtedness in<br />

connection with firm size, we showed that<br />

medium and large companies are most<br />

dependent on debt;<br />

the performance of these firms is low,<br />

making the sector seem unattractive to<br />

465<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong><br />

potential investors; this finding emerged<br />

from analysing two categories of<br />

indicators: net profit and return on equity.<br />

In light of these considerations, we believe<br />

that a potential state support (not only through the<br />

existent subsidies, but also through direct<br />

investment) could revive the Romanian agriculture<br />

in order to reach at least the standards we met 20<br />

years ago.<br />

Assessments on the evolution of analized<br />

sector of activity was done by extrapolating the<br />

results of research on companies listed on<br />

Bucharest Stock Exchange (a limitation of the<br />

research). Our future core priority is the<br />

enlargement of the sample, by introducing in the<br />

research also the unlisted companies.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />

This work was supported by the project<br />

“Post-Doctoral Studies in Economics: training<br />

program for elite researchers – SPODE” co-funded<br />

from the European Social Fund through the<br />

Development of Human Resources Operational<br />

Programme 2007-2013, contract no.<br />

POSDRU/89/1.5/S/61755.<br />

REFERENCES<br />

Ilyas, J., 2008 - The Determinants of Capital Structure,<br />

Journal of Managerial Science, vol. II no. 2, July-<br />

December, 2008, pp. 279-307<br />

Prahalathan, B., Ranjani, R. P., 2011 - The Impact of<br />

Capital Structure-Choice on Firm Performance:<br />

Empirical Investigation of Listed Companies in<br />

Colombo Stock Exchange, Srilanka, International<br />

Journal of Research in Commerce &<br />

Management, 2(4), pp. 12-16.<br />

Tudose, M. B., 2006 – The management of enterprise<br />

capital. Optimisation of financial structure,<br />

Economic Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 264<br />

Vernimmen, P., 2009 - Finance d’entreprises, 7 e edition,<br />

Dalloz Publishing House, Paris, pp. 681-695<br />

Rajan, R., Zingales, L., 1995 - What do we know about<br />

capital structure? Some evidence from<br />

international data, Journal of Finance, 50, pp.<br />

1421–1460.

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Firms<br />

(RASDAQ section)<br />

A.T.C. - AGRO TOTAL<br />

CONSTRUCT S.A.<br />

GHIMBAV<br />

Annex 1<br />

Information regarding sample firms<br />

Total debts (in thousands Equity capital Profit/Net loss ( in Average no. of<br />

of lei)<br />

(in thousands of lei) thousands of lei) employees<br />

2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010<br />

1861 2266 2022 1635 1782 1749 30 168 8 23 23 21<br />

ABO MIX S.A. ZALĂU 57456 56822 33255 45243 48039 48075 1349 2955 36 129 102 104<br />

AGROMEC BUCOV 136 63 75 131 247 307 -13 117 59 8 8 8<br />

AGROMEC IERMATA<br />

NEAGRĂ<br />

357 507 663 241 188 90 52 50 3 4 5 5<br />

AGROMEC LĂCENI 139 111 118 90 76 90 1 38 -11 1 1 1<br />

AGROMEC S.A.<br />

187 207 283 127 148 170 -180 -220 -77 4 3 3<br />

CASTELU<br />

AGROMEC S.A. DIOSIG 43 14 19 403 431 347 30 28 -72 5 5 5<br />

AGROMEC S.A. GRABAT 6 10 8 210 199 188 -4 -11 -11 3 3 2<br />

AGROMEC S.A. GRUNI 3 29 34 1 66 57 -1 -11 -9 1 1 1<br />

AGROMEC S.A.<br />

POTLOGI<br />

6 3 1 198 163 159 -50 -36 -8 1 1 1<br />

AGROMEC S.A.<br />

VOINEŞTI<br />

52 68 71 72 55 23 -43 -16 -1 2 2 1<br />

AGROMEC TRACTORUL<br />

CUZA VODĂ S.A.<br />

376 141 343 728 882 1126 466 196 244 5 6 6<br />

AGROPRODSTAR S.A.<br />

702 783 322 367 306 691 54 44 1 2 1 1<br />

BUCUREŞTI<br />

AVICOLA IAŞI S.A. 53082 58716 70947 29463 29463 29535 267 80 -18126 299 272 131<br />

AVICOLA S.A. BRAŞOV 61936 69121 57657 24541 24828 24880 2773 316 570 475 486 494<br />

AVICOLA S.A.<br />

28294 24532 5573 47112 52252 60095 273 1161 362 228 218 184<br />

BUCUREŞTI<br />

AVICOLA S.A. BUFTEA 10492 3814 3897 16834 15063 13199 -2420 -3842 -1810 147 82 26<br />

AVICOLA S.A. BUZĂU 51410 46070 46364 58850 62246 60255 -3761 3467 -1998 827 697 694<br />

AVICOLA S.A. CREVEDIA 64761 140612 137032 116273 116624 113451 116 441 221 490 490 405<br />

AVICOLA S.A. SLOBOZIA 16237 12245 10524 15563 18336 20670 501 1676 2348 493 482 430<br />

COMCEREAL S.A.<br />

BOTOŞANI<br />

15680 14969 13590 5009 5057 5197 47 -49 139 164 167 168<br />

COMCEREAL S.A.<br />

SLOBOZIA<br />

1236 13474 1501 7063 6789 6650 4531 -29 -283 7 7 7<br />

COMCEREAL S.A.<br />

VASLUI<br />

155450 211119 238731 43612 41509 36932 7865 1092 5875 532 312 446<br />

G.K. FARMPROIECT S.A.<br />

GRIVIŢA<br />

1938 2091 1884 285 914 917 74 -462 12 10 9 8<br />

HORTICOLA S.A.<br />

BUCUREŞTI<br />

771 1105 1010 30054 23783 22441 13786 216 -1179 33 29 27<br />

NUTRICOM S.A.<br />

112852 138538 125886 51931 63873 74453 -3095 9365 10601 506 515 475<br />

OLTENIŢA<br />

PAJIŞTI S.A. CIORANI 706 1087 820 408 702 888 -172 -104 -161 11 5 4<br />

PAJIŞTI S.A. PREDEAL 18 2822 2778 28 243 254 32 52 11 1 1 1<br />

SEMROM OLTENIA S.A.<br />

CRAIOVA<br />

18531 17479 13375 446904 38298 2605 25 -9730 -11218 182 168 129<br />

SERVAGROMEC S.A.<br />

57 47 39 414 473 386 2 24 -29 14 8 8<br />

CLUJ<br />

SUINPROD S.A.<br />

CERNICA<br />

57392 87779 85890 37014 41420 41245 2447 572 253 116 104 81<br />

466

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi<br />

Consilier editorial: Vasile VÎNTU<br />

Tehnoredactori: Mihai STAVARACHE, Elena POPOVICI<br />

Corector: Costel SAMUIL<br />

Bun de tipar: 12.12.2012<br />

Apărut: decembrie 2012. Format 210x297<br />

Editura: ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi<br />

Aleea M. Sadoveanu nr. 3, 700490<br />

Tel. 0232-218300; fax 0232-260650<br />

E-mail: editura@uiasi.ro<br />

ISSN: 1454-7414<br />

PRINTED IN ROMANIA<br />

Tipar Digital realizat la Tipografia PIM<br />

Şoseaua Ştefan cel Mare nr. 11<br />

Iaşi – 700498<br />

Tel./fax: 0232-212740<br />

e-mail: editurapim@pimcopy.ro<br />

www.pimcopy.ro

Editorial Consultant: Vasile VÎNTU<br />

Technical Editors: Mihai STAVARACHE, Elena POPOVICI<br />

Reader: Costel SAMUIL<br />

Imprimatur: 12.12.2012<br />

Published: Dcember 2012. Format 210x297<br />

Publishing House: “Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi<br />

ISSN: 1454-7414<br />

PRINTED IN ROMANIA<br />

Aleea M. Sadoveanu nr. 3, 700490<br />

Tel. 0232-218300; fax 0232-260650<br />

E-mail: editura@uiasi.ro<br />

PIM Digital Printing Press<br />

Şoseaua Ştefan cel Mare nr. 11<br />

Iaşi – 700498<br />

Tel./fax: 0232-212740<br />

e-mail: editurapim@pimcopy.ro<br />

www.pimcopy.ro<br />

<strong>Lucrări</strong> Ştiinţifice – vol. 55 (2) /2012, seria <strong>Agronomie</strong>

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