1. Hill, Lance Edward. “The Deacons for ... - Freedom Archives

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank my dissertation advisor, Lawrence N. Powell, for his indispensable advice, perceptive criticism, and steadfast encouragement . Patrick Maney and Rosanne Adderley also offered valuable insights . Many others provided useful suggestions on research resources, including Clarence Mohr and Joe Caldwell . I am indebted to Gwendolyn Midlo Hall who generously allowed me to consult her research papers on the Deacons for Defense and Justice at the Am.istad Research Center, and arranged an intervie"~r with Deacon member Henry Austin. I also benefitted from the kind assistance ofthe staffs at the Special Collections division of the Tulane University Library, Amistad Research Center, and the Wisconsin State Historical Society . This dissertation would not have been possible had it not been for the members of the Deacons for Defense and Justice who shared with me their stories and wisdom . Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife, Eileen San Juan, who provided years of intellectual companionship and moral support, and lent her critical eye to reading this manuscript. This dissertation is dedicated to her.
Chapter One Beginnings Paul Farmer brought his pistol . The President of the White Citizens Council was standing in the middle of the street along with several o~her members of the Citizens Council as well as Ku Klux Klan members . It was the Autumn of 1966 in the small paper mill town of Bogalusa, Louisiana . Itoyan Bums, a black barber and civil rights leader, knew why the Klan was there . They were waiting for the doors to open at Bogalusa Junior High . The school had recently been integrated and white students had been harassing and brutalizing black students with impunity . "They were just stepping on them, and spitting on them and hitting them," recalls Burris, and the black students "wasn't doing anything back ." In the past Burris had counseled the black students to remain nonviolent . Now he advised a new approach . "I said anybody hit you, hit back . Anybody step on your feet, step back . Anybody spit on you, spit back."' The young black students heeded Bums' advice . Fights between black and white students erupted throughout the day at the school . Now Paul Farmer and his band 'Royan Burris, interview by author, 7 March 1989, Bogalusa, Louisiana, tape recording. The account ofthis incident is taken from Ibid . ; Louisiana Weekly, 24 September 1966 ; and Times-Picayune, 14 September 1966 . Tension was exacerbated at the school by a rumor that civil rights activist James Meredith had been invited to speak at the school . See Lester Sobel, ed ., Civil Rights 1960-66 (New York : Facts on File, 1976), p . 407 .
Page 1 and 2: THE DEACONS FOR DEFENSE AND JUSTICE
Page 3 and 4: © Copyright by Lance Edward Hill,
Page 5: 9 . With a Single Bullet . . . . .
Page 9 and 10: In the nineteenth century the pine
Page 11 and 12: Incorporated in 1903, the town was
Page 13 and 14: organization provided a respite fro
Page 15 and 16: interested in gaining personal favo
Page 17 and 18: conservative stance frequently made
Page 19 and 20: advocated direct action and militan
Page 21 and 22: during a demonstration . "When I he
Page 23 and 24: advantage of engaging a distant ene
Page 25 and 26: A graver danger was posed by Klan a
Page 27 and 28: welcomed children of all colors. He
Page 29 and 30: But like most black men in the Sout
Page 31 and 32: want people to get hurt ." Patterso
Page 33 and 34: enough fear that the conflict was m
Page 35 and 36: Chapter 2 The Art of Self-Defense A
Page 37 and 38: Peevy issued the squad an old polic
Page 39 and 40: the vote as key to transforming the
Page 41 and 42: that they had to turn around . He o
Page 43 and 44: If the harassment was intended to d
Page 45 and 46: Within a few hours of the restauran
Page 47 and 48: police, drove directly to Police Ch
Page 49 and 50: Within a few days, a determined gro
Page 51 and 52: Armed with the new defense goup and
Page 53 and 54: Chapter 3 The Justice and Defense C
Page 55 and 56: civil rights organizations . By the
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individualism . Creating a new orga
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the journey to Jonesboro . They wov
Page 61 and 62:
During the civil rights movement, t
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The role ofwomen in the new organiz
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1964 : "Justice and Defense Club ."
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and recommended that CORE organize
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schedules and equipment purchases .
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esisted integration by closing its
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dissembling, the informants became
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comprised approximately twenty memb
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ground . Bethany Baptist Church als
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against the movement had been a mai
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Deacons would "become a civic organ
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communities dependent on external r
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nationalism in New York comprised m
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Mention of weapons and armed self-d
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on the good will ofthe dominant gro
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Kirkpatrick's problem with his blac
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momentum to the rumor by discussing
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handful of books and rows ofempty s
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only as the "Citizens Highway Patro
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He had taken only a few steps when
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"I was scared as shit . It looked l
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possessing two concealed weapons .
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the boycott was the black community
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mayor demurred, claiming that there
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The Jonesboro community was not det
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considered having Louisiana Attorne
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hearts of black men and women ; sti
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Chapter 6 The Magic City In 1905 tw
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Great Southern also segregated jobs
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A futile nine-month strike lasted f
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The path to Bogalusa for the Jonesb
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of the city government, and that th
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1964, the Klan conducted its first
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Night riders silently cruised by Co
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Bogalusa Mayor Jesse Cutrer and Pol
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and his followers were not welcome
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Zellerbach realized the consequence
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testing of public accommodations .
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tests . "Everybody was feeling good
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Bob and Jackie Hicks sat down for d
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calls to CORE contacts around the c
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Chapter 7 The Bogalusa Chapter The
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alert authorities and the media to
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talk . The FBI agent opened the caf
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hour protection for CORE-no doubt t
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and economic inequality . Their leg
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subsequent investigation revealed t
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Both Governor McKeithen and Mayor C
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On the morning of the 21st, Charlie
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Kirkpatrick and Thomas plunged into
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155 I leaders . Thomas even offered
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pursuers . The men hastily discusse
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Chapter 8 The Spring Campaign Bogal
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twenty-one entries dating back to 1
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nevertheless an articulate and disa
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even when I got ready to get offhe
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the Viola Liuzzo murder, President
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and to conduct "interviews" to disc
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Klansmen ordered Shepherd to leave
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On March 28 the Voters League organ
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The northern students plunged into
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Millers . "Filthy rich . He, a big
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sign on the coffins read, "Here lie
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for equal economic opportunity in p
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Tension hung over Bogalusa like an
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Cutrer emerged from City Hall to ad
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Klan robes--one of them wearing a l
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at another Voters League rally, off
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Bogalusa . Humphrey contacted CORE'
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Orleans attorney with ties to CORE,
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the park. The group kicked and beat
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Chapter 9 With a Single Bullet The
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Though the day had been a setback f
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$25,000 reward for the killers, but
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the evening ofJune 28 Fletcher Ande
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organization : Austin was only twen
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Bogalusa jail to mislead the white
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Governor McKeithen was not as enthu
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struggle with nonviolence and to cl
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only days after the Crowe shooting,
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providing financial support that wa
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cease unlawful arrests, threats of
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indignant editorial in defense of S
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threatened confiscation. It was a p
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Simultaneous to withdrawing his sta
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On July 16 the Justice Department b
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Shelton told some four-hundred Klan
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prosecuted : "Mr. Doar, You have In
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lacktopping streets and installing
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opportunity to project an image . I
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The Times article marked Earnest Th
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new areas, they could no longer be
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The paper also highlighted Kirkpatr
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ecause law enforcement refused to p
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say they have grenades and machine
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and Alabama. "These groups are all
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In part, the shift was a consequenc
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supported and was "well on their wa
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unaggressive and martially inferior
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South learned about the Deacons thr
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Deacons are unarmed and are totally
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average white man doesn't . I've ne
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however," noted Ebony, "the Deacons
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The media also lost interest in the
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From 1964 to 1966, the Deacons deve
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Kirkpatrick also took the lead in o
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of the insurgent WPUCFM. The planne
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munitions plant, economically indep
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evival courthouse in the center of
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principal at Mayfield High School .
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More meaningful was the change in b
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"Nearly everyone seemed to be paral
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same day CORE met with twenty-four
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their example ofovercoming fear, ha
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and a pistol in the glove compartrn
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dynamite bomb exploded underneath t
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But I'll send them to hell with the
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Reverend Avery Alexander, a legenda
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experience with the Deacons with un
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enough high-speed chases with the K
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MFDP's invitation to the Deacons re
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Chapter 12 Mississippi and Beyond A
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Young, a member of the Natchez Deac
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consciousness among Natchez blacks
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seeing snipers firing from rooftops
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chorus : "We're going to kill for f
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The group set about build'mg an o r
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young blacks attempted to attack a
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Within seconds the Deacons converge
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Typically, most Deacons chapters re
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dropped out of high school in ninth
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want to come to the point to have t
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targeted stores . `'There was a lit
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Equipment, and cars that are radio
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The end ofthe boycott brought an en
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would, in turn, pressure municipal
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Early in the boycott Evers recruite
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In addition to patrolling, their du
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President ofthe Woodville Chapter a
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traveled the twenty miles to neighb
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Mississippi from 1965 to 1966 . Rec
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demonstration on August 14, 1965 at
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The Deacons' organizing efforts in
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duties . Sims normally collected ch
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their willingness to challenge the
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leader who had descended on Bogalus
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In the fall of 1965 an unidentified
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Hicks and Sims returned for a secon
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speaking event before a group of 15
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Robert F . Williams was an icon for
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Officially, SNCC did not discourage
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had little luck in moving them towa
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RAM quickly established themselves
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with RAM's director, Don Freeman .
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Philadelphia was the next organizin
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Discussions about forming ACT began
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A . Rayner and Nahaz Rogers from Ch
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several Southern cities . Hobson la
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Chapter 14 Foundering in the North
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kind of people." Reverend Lynward S
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Government, "the man," had anointed
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not the lack of skills . But inequa
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was joined by Ray McCoy, a wealthy
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and ordered Comelius to "cease and
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preposterous claim that he was summ
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immediately protested Thomas' prese
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unless I have assurances I will not
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everyone agreed with McI{.issick .
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The Meredith March ended without in
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told the Cubans that he wanted to v
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two weeks in China, Thomas departed
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meals in a luxurious setting, compl
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allot . It was an obvious attempt t
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movement . But Lucy Montgomery was
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anticipating more problems in Missi
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There were reports of Deacon organi
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Chapter 15 A Long Time The Deacons'
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in the year Bogalusa students had m
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emaining adult leader on the scene,
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"blaming, Warning, Warning," read o
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efore the court. Christmas told the
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that the Klan had been behind most
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Deprived of the ability to mobilize
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Newspapers on hand when the graves
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Thomas Bennett, of Bogalusa, confes
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provoked a near-hysterical response
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The League organized a second march
Page 435 and 436:
The last leg of the march tested th
Page 437 and 438:
out in Baton Rouge's black neighbor
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Papers and Archival Collections : W
Page 441 and 442:
Fen:on, Charles . Interview by auth
Page 443 and 444:
Woods, Moses, Sr. Interview by auth
Page 445 and 446:
Williams, Robert F . Negroes With G
Page 447:
Biography Lance E. Hill was born De
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1. Hill, Lance Edward. “The Deacons for ... - Freedom Archives

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