1. David Kolb 2. Experiential learning theory (ELT)

1. David Kolb
Through philosophers in all over the word, David Kolb (born 1939) is one of the well-known.
David A. Kolb is Professor of Organizational Behavior in the Weathered School of
Management. He became one of the members of School in 1976. Kolb absorbed his
Bachelor from Knox College in 1961, his MA from Harvard in 1964 and his PhD from Harvard
in 1967. His work on experiential learning has wide fame, also known for his contributed
thought around organizational behavior. He has an interest in the nature of individual and
social change, experiential learning, career development and executive and professional
education (Kolb, 1984).
He had gotten his BA in psychology, philosophy and religion and his Ph.D. in Social
Psychology from Harvard University. He is best known for his research on experiential
learning and learning styles described in Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of
Learning and Development. Other books include, Conversational Learning: An Experiential
Approach to Knowledge Creation, Innovation in Professional Education: Steps on a Journey
from Teaching to Learning, and Organizational Behavior: An Experiential Approach. Also he
has written many journal articles and book chapters around experiential learning topic. He
took four honorary degrees recognizing his contributions to experiential learning in higher
education (Kolb, 1984).
2. Experiential learning theory (ELT)
Experiential learning can called as a cyclical process that capitalizes on the participants'
experiences for knowledge acquisition. This process engages setting goals, thinking,
planning, experimentation, accusation, supervision, and revision. By engaging in these
activities, learners construct meaning in a unique way to themselves, unifying the cognitive,
sentimental, and physical aspects of learning (Kolb, 1984).
There are two separate linked series in the cycle of ELT model for learning, as a central
principle of Kolb’s experiential learning theory: apprehension–comprehension (concrete
experience-abstract conceptualization) and intension–extension (reflective observation-
active experimentation). However, these logical facts must be combined according to
happen learning. Apprehension-comprehension make hard to understand the experience
understanding, while intension-extension contains the experience transformation. One
without the other is not an efficient method for acquiring knowledge (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb,
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2002). The ELT model illustrates why learners approach is in such different manners but
they develop in a healthy way. In fact, some individuals build larger proficiency in
competitive learning environment (Spence Laschinger, 1990).
The ELT model describes that during the learning process, learners must constantly select
which abilities to exploit in a given learning situation and determine learning abilities that
are on opposite ends of a continuum (Baker et al., 2002). Indeed, learners approach the
tasks of experience understanding and experience metamorphoses in various approaches. If
a learner is more relaxing during getting new information in a concrete manner and actively
experimenting during the attending of the experience, the learner must also beer some brief
conceptualization and reflective supervision due to complete the cycle.
The learner who takes experiments through manipulating models in learning process must
be able to conceive and constitute observations based on his/her experiences. This is at the
heart of the ELT model and Kolb's view of the adult learner. The learners begin with a
tangible experience, which then guide them to monitor and reflect on their experience. After
reflective observation, the learners provide brief concepts about what occurred, which will
serve as leads for future actions. With these leads the learners examine what they have
constructed for new experiences (Baker et al., 2002).
3. Learning styles
Kolb believes that there are different entities which affect in learning style. In his
experiential learning theory model (ELT), he has explained three parts of a person's
development and also has suggested that person’s tendency to determine the four different
learning styles due to development in stages. The development parts that Kolb clarified are
(Kolb, 1984):
1- Acquisition - birth to adolescence - development of basic abilities and 'cognitive
structures'
2- Specialization - schooling, early work and personal experiences of adulthood - the
development of a particular 'specialized learning style' shaped by 'social, educational,
and organizational socialization'
3- Integration - mid-career through to later life - expression of non-dominant learning
style in work and personal life.
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Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the
product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that we make, which Kolb
presented as lines of axis, each with 'conflicting' modes at either end (Baker et al., 2002):
Figure 1 – Kolb’s styles
Concrete Experience - CE (feeling) -----V-----Abstract Conceptualization - AC (thinking)
Active Experimentation - AE (doing) -----V----- Reflective Observation - RO (watching)
A typical presentation of Kolb's two connected series is that the east-west axis is called the
Processing series (how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the
Perception Series (our emotional response, or how we think or feel about it).
These learning styles are the combination of two lines of axis (continuums) each formed
between what Kolb calls 'dialectically related modes' of 'grasping experience' (doing or
watching), and 'transforming experience' (feeling or thinking):
The word 'dialectically' is not widely understood, and yet carries an essential meaning,
namely 'conflicting' (its ancient Greek root means 'debate'). Kolb meant by this that we
cannot do both at the same time, and to an extent our urge to want to do both creates
conflict, which can help to resolve through choice when compared with a new learning
situation. People internally decide whether they will do or watch, and at the same time they
decide whether they will think or feel.
Kolb’s learning styles can see on one matrix which separates four stages of learning styles
in terms of a two by two matrix. The diagram also highlights Kolb's terminology for the four
learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating (Baker et al.,
2002):
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Feeling
(Concrete Experience - CE)
thinking
(Abstract Conceptualization - AC)
Table 1 - Kolb’s learning styles - matrix
doing
(Active Experimentation - AE)
Thus, for example, a person with a dominant learning style of 'doing' rather than
'watching' the task, and 'feeling' rather than 'thinking' about the experience, will have a
learning style which combines and represents those processes, namely
an 'Accommodating' learning style, in Kolb's terminology.
Figure 2 – Kolb’s Learning Style – matrix view
watching
(Reflective Observation - RO)
accommodating (CE/AE) diverging (CE/RO)
converging (AC/AE) assimilating (AC/RO)
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Here four Kolb learning styles are explained briefly:
Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO)
People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather
information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend
to be strong in the arts. People with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen
with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They
prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve
problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations several different viewpoints. Kolb
called this style 'Diverging' because these people perform better in situations that require
ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming (Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001).
Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO)
People with this style attract to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical
value. In this learning style, people are important for productivity in information and science
careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures,
exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through (Kolb et al., 2001).
The Assimilating learning preference is applied for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and
concepts are more important than people. These people need good clear explanation rather
than practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and
organizing it a clear logical format. People with an Assimilating learning style are less focused
on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts (Kolb et al., 2001).
Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE)
People with a Converging learning style attract to technical tasks and problems than social
or interpersonal issues. A Converging learning style enables specialist and technology
abilities. People with a Converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and
to work with practical applications (Kolb et al., 2001).
People with a Converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to
find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with
people and interpersonal aspects. People with a Converging learning style are best at
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finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions
by finding solutions to questions and problems (Kolb et al., 2001).
Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE)
People with an Accommodating learning style tend to lean on others for information than
carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent and useful in roles requiring
action and initiative. People with an Accommodating learning style prefer to work in teams
to complete tasks. They set targets and actively work in the field trying different ways to
achieve an objective (Kolb et al., 2001).
The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition rather than logic.
These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential
approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis (Kolb et al., 2001).
4. Relationship between learning styles model and experiential
learning theory (ELT)
David Kolb’s learning styles are developed from Kurt Lewin’s four-stage model. Kolb has
been believed that to be truly impressive, learning needs to carry through all four stages in
the model. Every stage should apply a distinct set of learning strategies. In the context of
learning to be a leader, the strategies apply as follows (Kelly, 1997):
1- Experiencing what it is like to be a leader.
2- Reflecting on what you have experienced and observed.
3- Forming beliefs about what it means to lead well.
4- Testing the usefulness of these beliefs in new situations.
To enact and learn from each strategy, you need to draw on different abilities, including:
1- Being disciplined enough to execute ideas and turn good intentions into action.
2- Being open to reflecting on what you have experienced from a variety of
perspectives.
3- Using inductive reasoning to distil your reflections into mental models of what it
means to lead well.
4- Using intuition and deductive reasoning to identify situations in which you can
experiment with these ideas.
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These four abilities can be represented as two pairs of polar opposites:
Figure 3 - Kolb's Polar Dimensions of Learning
Having developed the model over many years prior, David Kolb published his learning styles
model in 1984. The model gave rise to related terms such as Kolb's experiential learning
theory (ELT), and Kolb's learning styles inventory (LSI). In his publications - notably his
1984 book 'Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development'
Kolb acknowledges the early work on experiential learning by others in the 1900's, including
Rogers, Jung, and Piaget. In turn, Kolb's learning styles model and experiential learning
theory are today acknowledged by academics, teachers, managers and trainers as truly
seminal works; fundamental concepts towards our understanding and explaining human
learning behavior, and towards helping others to learn (Kelly, 1997).
5. Applications
Nowadays, many applications of Experiential Learning Theory through educational systems
exist, especially on college campuses. These examples include field courses, study abroad,
and mentor-based internships. Additional examples of well-established experiential learning
applications include cooperative education, internships and service learning. There are also
numerous examples of computer-based interventions based on experience (Millenbah,
Henry Campa, & Winterstein, 2000).
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Understanding one's preferred learning style has two benefits. It helps us understand our
areas of weakness, giving us the opportunity to work on becoming more proficient in the
other modes or it helps us realize our strengths, which might be useful in certain social
situations, such as deciding on a career.
In an ESL institution, use of the inventory has two benefits for learners. It helps them
understand their learning styles, and thus "make transitions to higher levels of personal and
cognitive functioning." It also allows teachers to cover materials in a way that best fits the
diversity of the classroom. It must be added, however, that the Learning Style Inventory
was never intended to be used as a tool to segregate students with different learning styles
(Henke, 1996).
The Theory of Experiential Learning can also be integrated in one's way of teaching. For
example, after introducing a new grammar or difficult point, the instructor might give the
students a minute or two of silence to reflect and then another minute or two to discuss.
The Learning Style Inventory serves as a reminder that the internal processes of learning
need just as much care as the external.
Simulations and gaming within instruction also involve direct experience and thus are valid
examples of experiential learning. Within game interactions, there are often several cycles
presented to the participant. These cycles generally consist of participation by the user,
decision making, and a period of analysis. This process coincides greatly with the
Experiential Learning Cycle outlined above. In addition, it has been found that simulations
which shorten the debriefing period at the end of the game session can diminish their own
effectiveness. This means that games which do not allow for appropriate reflection are not
as effective as if proper reflection occurs. Thus, it is apparent that the reflective observation
and abstract conceptualization portions of simulations and games are vital to learning,
which has also been established by the Experiential Learning Theory (Ulrich, 1997).
Yet another application of experiential learning is in the field of e-learning. Specifically,
there has been an effort to utilize this model to increase the effectiveness of Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) e-learning courses. It was found that many of these
courses did not allow for concrete experience and active experimentation due to the fact
that the learning processes were based on more traditional learning methods and not
capitalizing on the self-directed nature of the learners (Friedman, Watts, Croston, & Durkin,
2002). However, with the use of different technologies such as multimedia resources, web-
based discussions, online planners, and creative tasks, e-learning courses could be
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improved in a manner that would strengthen the entire experiential learning cycle for the
learner (Frank, Reich, & Humphreys, 2003).
6. Weaknesses of ELT
Since Kolb created the Experiential Learning Theory and the accompanying learning model,
his work has been met with various criticisms about its worth and effectiveness. One of the
criticisms of this model is that the concrete experience part of the learning cycle is not
appropriately explained in the theory and remains largely unexplored. Another common
criticism of the theory that exposes a weakness is that the idea of immediate and concrete
experience is problematic and unrealistic (Miettinen, 2000).
Other criticisms of the ELT are that the concepts outlined by Kolb are too ill-defined and
open to various interpretations and that the ideas he presents are an eclectic blend of ideas
from various theorists that do not fit logically together. Another, perhaps more biting
criticism of Kolb's work is that his ELT model is only an attempt to explain the societal
benefit of his Learning Styles Inventory and thus may actually be a well derived marketing
ploy. Also, it is believed that the phases in the ELT learning model remain separate and do
not connect to each other in any manner (Miettinen, 2000).
However, the most tangible weaknesses of the ELT and the ELT learning model are the vast
differences between it and the ideas established by John Dewey, whose beliefs are largely
attributed to the establishment of the ELT. Dewey believed that non-reflective experience
borne out of habit was the dominant form of experience and that reflective experience only
occurred when there were contradictions of the habitual experience. But, in a glaring
weakness of the ELT, Kolb does not adequately discuss the role of non-reflective experience
in the process of learning (Miettinen, 2000).
In addition, Dewey believed that observations of reality and nature were the starting point
of knowledge acquisition. Kolb, however, believes that the experience is the starting point of
knowledge acquisition and disregards the observations concerning the subjective reality of
the learner, another blatant weakness. A final weakness in the ELT that was noticed is its
lack of discussion concerning the social aspect of experience. The ELT learning model
focused on the learning process for a single learner and failed to mention how the individual
fit into a social group during this process and what role this group may play. Also, there was
no discussion on how a social group may gain knowledge through a common experience
(Miettinen, 2000).
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7. Strengths of ELT
With all of the criticisms of the Experiential Learning Theory, it may be too easy to overlook
its merits in the field of adult education. Each adult has his/her own unique set of
experiences and set of learning abilities that he/she feels comfortable utilizing. Kolb's theory
accounts for this fact and shows how the learner can utilize his/her experiences and learning
strengths in the process of constructing knowledge. Kolb also did a good job of integrating
the two dialectical entities into the model to create a complete learning cycle in which the
entire learning process can be traced. In addition, Kolb did a great job of showing how the
learner can be effective utilizing his/her learning strengths, while at the same time using
skills that are underdeveloped to complete the learning cycle (Miettinen, 2000).
However, due to the weaknesses of the ELT model as created by Kolb, it is necessary to
construct another model, which includes Kolb's beliefs and at the same time confronts the
weaknesses that have been found. Below is a representation of a model that could be used
for this purpose. The idea behind this model was to include the observations of the learners'
own subjective reality as a starting point for experience. Then, a disruptive experience
occurs, which challenges the habitual patterns of the learner. Once the experience has been
encountered learners enter a stage of emotion inventory in which they become cognizant of
their emotions in reaction to the experience. These emotions then play a role in the next
step, which is a stage of reflective observation similar to that outlined by Kolb in his model
(Miettinen, 2000).
After this stage, learners enter a stage of conceptualization and hypothesis formation in
which they attempt to piece the information gathered thus far concerning the experience
into logical chunks. Once this occurs, learners address the experience in some manner. This
may include active experimentation to test a hypothesis. Or, it may also include higher
order planning which requires even more in-depth examination of the experience. This stage
can lead to two different types of experiences, expected and disruptive, both of which lead
to repetition of the learning cycle. The expected experiences include those which can be
predicted by the concepts and hypothesis that were established in the learning cycle.
Disruptive experiences, on the other hand, include those that conflict with the concepts that
were formulated in the experiential process. It is also readily evident in the model that the
experiential learning cycle can occur individually or within a social group (Miettinen, 2000).
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8. Limitations of Kolb's Theory and Inventory
Not all writers agree with Kolb's theory. Rogers, for example points out that "learning
includes goals, purposes, intentions, choice and decision-making, and it is not at all clear
where these elements fit into the learning cycle." Habermas has also proposed that there
are at least three kinds of learning and that we have different learning styles for each
(Miettinen, 2000).
As for the Inventory, Kolb, himself, points out its greatest limitation. The results are based
solely on the way learners rate themselves. It does not rate learning style preferences
through standards or behavior, as some other personal style inventories do, and it only
gives relative strengths within the individual learner, not in relation to others. In my own
case, I found the results dubious. The wording in the questions seemed vague and the
results did not jive with my own view of my preferred learning style (Miettinen, 2000).
Nonetheless, Kolb's contributions cannot be underestimated. Whatever their limitations, by
presenting a model of experience in a scientific form, he has helped move educational
thought from the locus of the instructor back to the learner. As many of the major
contributors to the field have pointed out, experience has once again become a viable topic
of discussion (Miettinen, 2000).
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9. References
Baker, A. C., Jensen, P. J., & Kolb, D. A. (2002). Conversational learning: An experiential
approach to knowledge creation: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Frank, M., Reich, N., & Humphreys, K. (2003). Respecting the human needs of students in
the development of e-learning. Computers & Education, 40(1), 57-70.
Friedman, A., Watts, D., Croston, J., & Durkin, C. (2002). Evaluating online CPD using
educational criteria derived from the experiential learning cycle. British journal of
educational technology, 33(4), 367-378.
Henke, H. (1996). Learning theory: Applying Kolb’s learning style inventory with computer
based training. A Project paper for A Course on Learning Theory.
Kelly, C. (1997). David Kolb, the theory of experiential learning and ESL. The Internet TESL
Journal, 3(9), 1-5.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development (Vol. 1): Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2001). Experiential learning theory: Previous
research and new directions. Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles,
1, 227-247.
Miettinen, R. (2000). The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of
reflective thought and action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19(1), 54-
72.
Millenbah, K. F., Henry Campa, I., & Winterstein, S. R. (2000). Models for infusing
experiential learning into the curriculum.
Spence Laschinger, H. K. (1990). Review of experiential learning theory research in the
nursing profession. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15(8), 985-993.
Ulrich, M. (1997). Links Between Experiential Learning and Simulation & Gaming. Retrieved
from http://www.ucs.ch/service/download/docs/articleexplearning.pdf.
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