Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for - Aseanipm ...

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Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production

FIELD GUIDE OF 

DISCOVERY-BASED EXERCISES 

FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 

Compiled and edited by 

Damaso P. Callo, Jr., 

CEsar a. BaNIQUED, 

aUDY G. maaGaD, 

NoElITo C. VIlla, 

osCar T. ToBIa and 

KUlaFU a. sEBallos 

Published jointly by 

Cordillera Highland agricultural resources management-2 (CHarm-2) Project 

Philippine Council for agriculture, Forestry and Natural resources research 

and Developement (PCarrD) 

The Philippine National IPm Program (Da-KasaKalIKasaN) 

asEaN IPm Knowledge Network (asEaN IPm) 

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Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production 

Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for organic Vegetable Production. This field guide is based on the 

best practices and learning experiences of Farmer Field School (FFS) farmer-participants and facilitators in almost 

two decades of their local IPM program implementations. The exercises in this field guide were further enriched by 

participants in the Workshop on Designing Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management For 

Organic Vegetable Production and a Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for FFS 

of IPM on Organic Vegetable Farming held in April and June 2008, respectively. To further ensure aptness and 

practicability, its technical contents were reviewed and critiqued by members of a Technical Review Committee in 

February 2009. Many exercises were field-validated by participants in two season-long Training of Trainers (TOTs) 

in eight Practice FFSs for Highland and Lowland Organic Vegetable Production conducted in May-September and 

July-October 2008 in Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental, Philippines, respectively, and during a season-long Followup 

FFS on Organic Vegetable Production conducted in November 2008-March 2009 in Ilocos Sur, Philippines. 

Published jointly by 

Cordillera Highland agricultural resources management-2 (CHarm-2) Project 

Department of Agriculture Cordillera Administrative Region, Baguio City, Philippines 

Philippine Council for agriculture, Forestry and Natural resources research and Development (PCarrD) 

Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna; 

The Philippine National IPm Program (KasaKalIKasaN) 

Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines;and 

asEaN IPm Knowledge Network (asEaN IPm) 

National Agribusiness Corporation, PSE Building, Exchange Road 

Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Philippines 

Printed in the Republic of the Philippines 

First Printing, October 2011 

Compiled and edited by 

Damaso P. Callo, Jr., Cesar a. Baniqued, audy G. maagad, Noelito C. Villa, 

oscar T. Tobia, and Kulafu a. seballos 

Style editing by 

ofelia F. Domingo and Bethilda E. Umali 

Cover design and layout by 

romulo T. Yambao 

Philippine Copyright 2010 by ASEAN IPM 

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, 

electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, in whole 

or as an entire chapter or chapters, without permission in writing from ASEAN IPM. Paragraphs or sentences may, 

however, be quoted without permission as long as proper attribution is made. 

IsBN: 978-971-94101-2-6

Preface 

With the rising demand for organic vegetables and their promising competitive price in 

the local and international market, more farmers are now opting to produce organic 

vegetables. However, the lack of technological know-how and experiences hinders them 

from pursuing a successful organic farm. 

This publication offers useful guide in facilitating the learning process among farmers about organic 

vegetable production. It contains lessons and exercises on topics ranging from production to postharvest, 

to organic certification, and marketing. Its format caters to the needs and purposes of 

extension workers, trainers, and facilitators of farmer field schools, who are very instrumental in 

engaging farmers to discover, understand, evaluate, and decide for themselves the merit of applying 

or introducing technological interventions in their farm. The learning exercises in this book can be 

modified to suit local situations. 

Empowering farmers with the knowledge and experiences on organic vegetable production through 

appropriate information and communication strategies is a common objective among DA-CHARM-2, 

PCARRD, and KASAKALIKASAN, and ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network. A concrete output 

along this line is their joint publication of the Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic 

Vegetable Production. 

We hope that this practical guidebook will be adapted by target clients not only in the Philippines but 

in other Asia-Pacific countries, when and where appropriate. 

PaTrICIo s. FaYloN 

Executive Director, PCARRD 

JEsUs s. BINamIra 

Director, ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network & 

National Program Officer, KASAKALIKASAN 

marIlYN V. sTa. CaTalINa 

OIC-Regional Executive Director, DA-CARFU & 

Project Director, DA-CHARM-2 

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Acknowledgement 

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We are grateful to all organic vegetable farmers and facilitators of farmer field school 

(FFS), academicians, researchers, private practitioners, and other stakeholders in organic 

vegetable production for their commendable efforts in moving forward to achieve the 

ultimate goals of their local Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs through organic vegetable 

farming as enabling tools of people empowerment in the Philippines and other Asia-Pacific countries. 

The experiences they shared in various endeavors formed the basis of many FFS best practices and 

learning experiences compiled in this field guide. 

Our sincere gratitude also goes to the technical experts of KASAKALIKASAN and ASEAN IPM 

Knowledge Network headed by Dr. Jesus S. Binamira; PCARRD headed by Dr. Patricio S. Faylon; 

Food and Agriculture Organization Vegetable IPM Programme for Asia (FAO Vegetable IPM) 

headed by Mr. Jan Willem Ketelaar, PCARRD’s Agricultural Resources Management Research 

Division (ARMRD) headed by Mr. Rodolfo O. Ilao, and Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resources 

Management-2 (CHARM-2) Project headed by Dir. Marilyn V. Sta. Catalina and managed by Dr. 

Cameron P. Odsey, for their commendable support, without which this field guide may not have 

been completed. 

Likewise, incomparable recognitions are given to many technical experts and practitioners of 

organic vegetable farming from the University of the Philippines Los Baños’ College of Agriculture 

(UPLB-CA), Central Luzon State University (CLSU), Benguet State University (BSU), Organic 

Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP), Department of Agriculture’s Regional Field Unit 10 

(DA-RFU 10), Cordillera Administrative Region Field Unit (DA-CARFU), Bureau of Agriculture 

and Fisheries Products Standards (DA-BAFPS), and Bureau of Plant Industry Crop Protection 

Division (DA-BPI-CPD), and from Local Government Units (LGUs) of La Trinidad, Benguet; 

Malaybalay City, Bukidnon; Bayawan City, Negros Oriental; and Sinait, Ilocos Sur, as well as from 

the provinces of Cavite, Davao Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Negros Occidental for their comprehensive 

and novel contributions. 

Additionally, this manual may not have been published without the concurrence and financial 

assistance extended by DA-CHARM-2, PCARRD, and ASEAN IPM.

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

ACT Aerated Compost Tea 

ADB Asian Development Bank 

AESA Agro-ecosystem Analysis 

Ammophos Ammonium Phosphate 

Ammosul Ammonium Sulfate 

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 

ASEAN IPM ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network 

AT Agricultural Technologist (or Technician) 

ATI-NTC Agricultural Training Institute-National Training Center 

AVDF Alliance of Volunteers for Development Foundation 

AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center 

BCA Biological Control Agent 

BIOACT Paecilomyces lilacinus (soil fungus’ commercial preparation) 

BOT Bacterial Oozing Technique 

BPI-BNRDC BPI-Baguio National Research and Development Center 

Bt Bacillus thuringiensis (bacterium) 

BSF Baseline Survey Form 

BSU Benguet State University 

Ca Calcium 

CAR Cordillera Administrative Region 

CBDCP Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation Programme 

CHARM Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resources Management Project 

CIED Centro de Investigacion, Educacion y Desarollo 

CO2 Carbon Dioxide 

CP Calcium Phosphate 

CSF Contour Strip Farming 

CSP Certification Standards of the Philippines 

CST Corn Specialist Training 

CRA Cost and Return Analysis 

CT Compost Tea microbial solution (‘brew’) 

DA Department of Agriculture 

DA-BAFPS DA-Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Products Standards 

DA-BPI-CPD Bureau of Plant Industry Crop Protecion Division 

DA-CARFU DA-Cordillera Administrative Regional Field Unit 

DA-CECAP DA-Central Cordillera Agricultural Project 

DA-RFU 10 DA-Regional Field Unit 10 

DBM Diamondback Moth 

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Diadegma Diadegma semiclausum wasp 

ECM Evaporative Cooling Method 

EYCO Egg Yolk + Cooking Oil spray mixture 

FAA Fish Amino Acid 

FARM Farmer-centered Agricultural Resources Management Project 

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization 

FAO Vegetable IPM Food and Agriculture Organization Vegetable IPM Programme for Asia 

FCP Farmers’ Crop Protection 

FFJ Fermented Fruit Juice 

FFS Farmer Field School 

FPJ Fermented Plant Juice 

GLM Green Leaf Manuring 

GMF Green Muscardine Fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) 

GMO Genetically Modified Organisms 

GOP Government of the Philippines 

GR Gross Return 

HARRDEC Highland Agricultural Resources Research and Development Consortium 

HWT Hot Water Treatment 

ICM Integrated Crop Management 

IDM Integrated Disease Management 

IIBC International Institute for Biological Control 

IFAD International Funds for Agricultural Development 

IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements 

IMO Indigenous Micro-organisms 

IPM Integrated Pest Management 

IRM Integrated Rodent Management 

ISNM Integrated Soil Nutrient Management 

K Potassium 

KASAKALIKASAN Kasaganaan ng Sakahan at Kalikasan (National IPM Program) 

LGU Local Government Unit 

Limestone Calcium or Magnesium Carbonate 

MAD Man-Animal-Days 

MAO Municipal Agricultural Office (or Officer) 

MBF Microbial-based Fertilizers 

MD Man-Days 

Mg Magnesium 

MI Maturity Index 

MMD Man-Machine-Days 

MOCI Manual of Operation, Certification and Inspection

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

N Nitrogen 

NAFC National Agricultural and Fishery Council 

NCT Non-aerated Compost Tea 

NE Natural Enemies (e.g., predators, parasitoids, insect pathogens) 

NFB Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria belonging to genus Azospirillum, isolated from roots 

of ‘talahib’ [Saccharum spontaneum] grass 

NFE Non-formal Education 

NGO Non-government Organization 

NPO National Program Office (or Officer) 

NPRCRTC Northern Philippines Root Crop Research and Training Center 

NPV Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus 

NR Net Return 

OCCP Organic Certification Center of the Philippines 

OCIP Organic Certification and Inspection Program 

OFS Organic Foliar Sprays 

OPA Office of the Provincial Agriculturist 

OSF Organic Solid Fertilizers 

O2 Oxygen 

P Phosphorus 

PA Provincial Agriculturist 

PCARRD Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research 

and Development 

PEDIGREA Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia 

PGCPP Philippine-German Crop Protection Programme 

PGS Participatory Guarantee System 

pH Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in soil solution (log 1/[H]) 

Phil-Organic Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network 

PHM Post-Harvest Management 

PNOB Philippine National Organic Board 

PNOSCS Philippine National Organic Standards and Certification System 

POGI Philippine Organic Guarantee Incorporated 

PPB Participatory Plant Breeding 

PTD Participatory Technology Development 

Quicklime Calcium or Magnesium Oxide 

RCT Refresher Course for Trainers 

RKN Root-knot Nematode 

ROI Return on Investment 

RST Rice Specialist Training 

S Sulfur 

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SALT Sloping Agricultural Land Technology 

SEAMEO Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization 

SEARCA SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 

SEARICE Southeast Asia Regional Initiative for Community Empowerment 

Slaked Lime Calcium or Magnesium Hydroxide 

SlNPV Spodoptera litura NPV (common cutworm NPV) 

STK Soil Test Kit 

STT Sap Transmission Technique 

TLC Total Labor Cost 

TMC Total Material Cost 

TOS Training of Specialists 

TOT Training of Trainers 

Trichoderma Trichoderma sp. (e.g., pseudokoningii, parceramosum and harzianum species) 

TVD Tymo Virus Disease 

UPLB-CA University of the Philippines Los Baños’ College of Agriculture 

VAM Vesicular-arbuscular Mycorrhiza fungi belonging to genus Glomus (G. mosseae 

or G. fasciculatum) 

VST Vegetable Specialist Training 

WFT Water Floating Technique 

WHC Water Holding Capacity 

WHO World Health Organization 

WMF White Muscardine Fungus (Beauveria bassiana) 

YST Yellow Sticky Trap

Table of Contents 

Preface ................................................................................................................................... iii 

Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................iv 

Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................................v 

Section 1 

INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................1 

ABOUT THE FIELD GUIDE ....................................................................................................1 

WHAT IS A DISCOVERY-BASED EXERCISE? ....................................................................2 

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DISCOVERY-BASED EXERCISES! ...................................4 

FORMAT FOR EXERCISES ....................................................................................................4 

FFS CURRICULUM ON ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ....................................6 

Section 2 

GENERAL TOPICS FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS ....................................................................................8 

Exercise No. 2.01 

WHAT IS IN A BOX: NON-FORMAL EDUCATION VERSUS 

FORMAL EDUCATION .................................................................................................10 


GATHERING AND USING BASELINE DATA FOR IMPACT EVALUATION 

OF FARMER FIELD SCHOOL IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ............14 


FACILITATING PROBLEMS OF ABSENTEEISM IN FARMER FIELD 

SCHOOL FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .............................................21 


‘BALLOT BOX’ FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS ON ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION: DEVELOPING FUNCTIONAL QUESTIONNAIRES FOR 

PRE- AND POST-EVALUATIONS..................................................................................24 


AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS 

ON ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION: ESTABLISHING MINIMUM 

DATA FOR DECISION-MAKING ..................................................................................31 


FIELD LAYOUT AND AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS FORMAT FOR 

FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS ON ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION...............35 

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KEEPING RECORDS OF FARM ACTIVITIES: GUIDED DISCUSSIONS 

ON ‘WHY’ AND ‘WHAT’ TO RECORD FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................42 


COST AND RETURN ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................45 

Section 3 

LIVING SOIL, INTEGRATED SOIL NUTRIENT AND CROP MANAGEMENTS ...........................................49 

lIVING soIl aND INTEGraTED soIl NUTrIENT maNaGEmENT ...................50 


LIVING SOIL: A QUICK INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE FOR FARMER 

FIELD SCHOOL IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ....................................52 


BARANGAY SOIL MAPPING: DETERMINING SOIL TYPES AND THEIR 

FARM LOCATIONS AS A MANAGEMENT GUIDE FOR IMPROVING 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY ..................................................................56 


SOIL PROFILE ANALYSIS: A GUIDE IN UNDERSTANDING 

SOIL FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

FARMING .........................................................................................................................60 


SOIL SAMPLING AND SOIL TEST KIT ANALYSIS: PRACTICAL GUIDES 

IN UNDERSTANDING AVAILABLE SOIL NUTRIENTS FOR IMPROVING 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY ..................................................................64 


THE ‘FEEL METHOD’: CLASSIFYING SOIL TEXTURES AND 

STRUCTURES FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ..................................68 


SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY DETERMINATION: A SOIL 

MANAGEMENT GUIDE FOR IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY IN GROWING 

ORGANIC VEGETABLES...............................................................................................73 


COMPOSTING AS A SOIL AND WEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 

IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .................................................................77



EARTHWORMS: THEIR ROLE IN IMPROVING SOIL FERTILITY 

AND PRODUCTIVITY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE FARMING ...............................81 


VERMI-COMPOST AS AN ORGANIC SOLID FERTILIZER FOR 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ......................................................................85 


ORGANIC FOLIAR SPRAYS AS FOOD SUPPLEMENT FOR ORGANIC 

SOLID FERTILIZERS IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ..........................90 


MICROBIAL-BASED FERTILIZERS AS SUPPLEMENT FOR ORGANIC 

SOLID FERTILIZERS IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ..........................97 


GREEN LEAF MANURING AS A SOIL AND WEED MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ......................................... 101 


UNDERSTANDING ACTIVITIES OF SOIL ORGANISMS BENEFICIAL 

TO ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY .........................................................104 


MAINTAINING SOIL BIODIVERSITY AS A SOIL MANAGEMENT 

OPTION FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY ...............108 


CONTOUR PLANTING AS A SOIL CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR 

HIGHLAND ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .............................................. 111 


BENCH TERRACING AS A SOIL CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR 

HIGHLAND ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .............................................. 114 

INTEGraTED CroP maNaGEmENT ..........................................................................117 


VERNALIZATION OF RADISH SEEDS FOR ORGANIC SEED 

PRODUCTION PURPOSES .......................................................................................... 118 


STRATIFICATION OF SNAP BEAN AND GARDEN PEA SEEDS FOR 

BETTER ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ...................................................121 


HYDROIZATION OF TOMATO AND CARROT SEEDS FOR BETTER 

DROUGHT TOLERANCE OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ..............124 

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BREAKING DORMANCY OF POTATO SEED TUBERS AS A CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC POTATO 

PRODUCTIVITY ............................................................................................................127 


PRICKING-OFF TO HASTEN HARDENING OF ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN CELERY AND LETTUCE SEEDLINGS PRIOR TO 

TRANSPLANTING .......................................................................................................130 


VARIETAL ADAPTABILITY TO DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS AS A KEY 

FACTOR FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY 

IN THE HIGHLANDS ..................................................................................................133 


GROWING IN EAST-WEST ROW ORIENTATION AS A CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTIVITY ...........................................................................................................136 


PROPER TIMING OF PLANTING TO IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY AND 

PROFITABILITY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ................................139 


PROPER PLANTING DISTANCE AS A STRATEGY TO MAXIMIZE CROP 

PRODUCTIVITY OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES.............................. 141 


THINNING AS A CULTURAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN 

IMPROVING ORGANIC CARROT PRODUCTION ....................................................144 


TRELLISING FOR QUALITY PRODUCE IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

LEGUMES, TOMATO, AND CUCURBITS ................................................................. 147 


CROP SEQUENCING AS A CULTURAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 

FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY ................................150 


REJUVENATING ORGANICALLY-GROWN SNAP BEAN, CUCUMBER, 

AND BELL PEPPER BY PRUNING TO SUSTAIN PRODUCTIVITY ......................153 


CULTURAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN RELATION TO 

MORPHOLOGY AND GROWTH STAGES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

LEAFY VEGETABLES .................................................................................................156





HEAD- AND CURD-FORMING VEGETABLES ......................................................160 




SELF-POLLINATED VEGETABLES ..........................................................................164 




CROSS-POLLINATED VEGETABLES .......................................................................168 




ROOT, BULB, AND TUBER VEGETABLES ............................................................. 172 

Section 4 

INTEGRATED INSECT AND RODENT PESTS MANAGEMENT .................................................... 176 

mECHaNICal or PHYsICal CoNTrol oF INsECT PEsTs ...............................179 


BRUSHING OR SCRAPING AS CONTROL STRATEGY AGAINST SCALE 

INSECT PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES .................................180 


CULTIVATION AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR CROP RESIDUE- 

AND SOIL-INHABITING PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES ...............................................................................................................183 


HAND PICKING AS A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR BLACK 

AND COMMON CUTWORMS AT LOW TO MODERATE INFESTATION 

LEVELS ..........................................................................................................................186 


USING REPELLENT AND TRAP CROPS AS PEST MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .........................................189 


TRAPPING AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR SOIL-INHABITING 

PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ................................................192 

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USE OF YELLOW STICKY TRAPS AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 

FOR POTATO LEAF-MINERS .....................................................................................195 

CUlTUral CoNTrol oF INsECT PEsTs .................................................................201 


TIMING OF PLANTING AND HARVESTING AS A PEST MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ........................................202 


SANITATION PRACTICES FOR MANAGEMENT OF POD BORERS, 

LEAF-MINERS, AND LEAF-FOLDERS IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES ................................................................................................................205 

BIoloGICal CoNTrol oF INsECT PEsTs ..............................................................208 


‘PULLING THE GUTS’ TECHNIQUE: MEASURING DEGREE OF 

PARASITISM BY DIADEGMA ON DIAMONDBACK MOTH OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN CRUCIFERS ......................................................................209 


SPRAYING CHILI (HOT PEPPER) SOLUTION TO CONTROL WEBWORMS 

AT LOW TO MODERATE INFESTATION LEVELS IN ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN CRUCIFERS ....................................................................................................212 


FARM-LEVEL PRODUCTION AND USE OF NUCLEAR POLYHEDROSIS 

VIRUS (NPV) AGAINST COMMON CUTWORM OF ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN VEGETABLES ............................................................................................... 215 


VILLAGE-TYPE MASS-PRODUCTION AND USE OF TRICHOGRAMMA FOR 

MANAGING LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECT PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES ................................................................................................................221 


FARM-LEVEL PRODUCTION AND USE OF EARWIG AS PREDATOR OF 

INSECT PESTS IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES .................................227 


FIELD-COLLECTION AND USE OF GREEN AND WHITE MUSCARDINE 

FUNGI FOR LEPIDOPTEROUS PESTS MANAGEMENT IN ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN VEGETABLES ................................................................................................232



ENHANCING NATURAL ENEMY POPULATIONS BY USING BACILLUS 

THURINGIENSIS AGAINST LEPIDOPTEROUS PESTS OF ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN VEGETABLES ...............................................................................................237 

INTEGraTED roDENT maNaGEmENT ....................................................................240 


RODENT POPULATION DYNAMICS: A GROUP DYNAMICS EXERCISE 

AS WELL ........................................................................................................................241 


USING CAGE TRAPS AND SCARING MATERIALS AS 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AGAINST RATS IN ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION........................................................................................245 


COMMUNITY-BASED RODENT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR 

PROFITABLE ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ...........................................249 

Section 5 

INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT ...............................................................................254 

INTroDUCTorY ExErCIsEs oN DIsEasEs .............................................................255 


DISEASE TRIANGLE RELATIONSHIP: UNDERSTANDING SPREAD 

OF DISEASES IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ..................................256 


SIMULATION EXERCISE: UNDERSTANDING DISEASE TRANSPORT 

IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ............................................................260 


WATER FLOATING TECHNIQUE: DETERMINING THE PRESENCE 

OF GOLDEN CYST NEMATODES IN ORGANIC POTATO FIELDS ......................263 


BACTERIAL OOZING TECHNIQUE: IDENTIFYING BACTERIAL WILT 

DISEASE OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES 

IN FARMERS’ FIELDS .................................................................................................265 


SAP TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE: UNDERSTANDING HOW VIRUS 

DISEASES ARE TRANSMITTED IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE FIELDS ................268 

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mECHaNICal or PHYsICal aND CUlTUral CoNTrols 

oF DIsEasEs .......................................................................................................................271 


HOT WATER TREATMENT AS A CONTROL STRATEGY AGAINST 

SOIL-BORNE DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ...............272 


USING PROPER MEDIUM FOR SEEDBED PREPARATION TO CONTROL 



USING RAISED BEDS AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY AGAINST 

DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES .......................................278 


PROPER METHOD OF SOWING IN SEEDBED TO CONTROL 



MULCHING AS A MEANS OF DISEASE PREVENTION IN ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .......................................................................................284 


LEAF REMOVAL AND PROPER DISPOSAL AS A DISEASE MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY AGAINST LEAF DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES ................................................................................................................287 


UPROOTING AND PROPER DISPOSAL AS A MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY AGAINST TYMO VIRUS DISEASE OF ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN CHAYOTE .......................................................................................................290 


DEHAULMING AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY AGAINST LATE 

BLIGHT DISEASE OF POTATO ...................................................................................293 

BIoloGICal CoNTrol oF DIsEasEs .......................................................................296 


USE OF BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS IN MANAGING SOIL-BORNE 

DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES .........................................297 


BACTERIAL WILT MANAGEMENT IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES THROUGH BIO-FUMIGATION ...........................300



USING TRICHODERMA AS BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENT 

OF DAMPING-OFF PATHOGENS IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

TOMATOES ....................................................................................................................304 


PREPARATION AND USE OF EGG YOLK + COOKING OIL (EYCO) 

FOR MANAGEMENT OF POWDERY AND DOWNY MILDEWS IN 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ..................................................................307 


USING COMPOST TEA TO MANAGE DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN VEGETABLES ................................................................................................ 311 


USING RESISTANT VARIETIES AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 

AGAINST BEAN RUST DISEASE OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN LEGUME 

VEGETABLES ............................................................................................................... 316 

Section 6 

SIMULTANEOUS INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT .................................................. 319 


SOIL SOLARIZATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ...................................... 321 


HILLING-UP AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 



SURFACE IRRIGATION OR FLOODING AS AN INSECT PEST AND 

DISEASE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................330 


OVERHEAD IRRIGATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ...........333 


SANITATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 



PRUNING AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION .....................................338 

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MINIMIZING INSECT PEST AND DISEASE OCCURRENCE THROUGH 

CROP DIVERSIFICATION IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ..............341 


CROP ROTATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 


Section 7 

PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING, SEED PRODUCTION, HARVEST, AND 

POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT .........................................................................................347 

ParTICIPaTorY PlaNT BrEEDING aND sEED ProDUCTIoN 

PraCTICEs ..........................................................................................................................349 


VARIETY SELECTION AND SEED PRODUCTION BY FARMERS FOR 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN SELF-POLLINATED (LEGUMIMOUS AND 

SOLANACEOUS) VEGETABLE CROPS .................................................................... 351 


PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING BY FARMERS FOR ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN SELF-POLLINATED (STRING BEAN AND EGGPLANT) 

VEGETABLE CROPS ....................................................................................................355 


SEED SELECTION AND SEED PRODUCTION BY FARMERS FOR 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN CROSS-POLLINATED (CUCURBITS) 

VEGETABLE CROPS ...................................................................................................362 


PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING BY FARMERS FOR ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN CROSS-POLLINATED (CUCURBITS) VEGETABLE CROPS ..................366 

HarVEsT aND PosT-HarVEsT maNaGEmENT PraCTICEs ............................373 


DETERMINING RIGHT MATURITY IN HARVESTING ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN VEGETABLE CROPS FOR SEED PRODUCTION AND 

MARKETING PURPOSES ............................................................................................374 


DETERMINING MATURITY INDEX IN HARVESTING ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN SNAP BEANS AND GREEN PEAS FOR SEEDS ........................................377



PROPER HARVESTING AND SEED STORAGE FOR SUSTAINED 

AVAILABILITY OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLE VARIETIES 

AND BREEDING LINES ...............................................................................................380 


VILLAGE GENEBANK FOR SUSTAINED AVAILABILITY OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLE VARIETIES AND BREEDING 

LINES ..............................................................................................................................384 


POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PRIMARY PROCESSING OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES ..................................................................388 


MAINTAINING QUALITY OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLE 

CROPS FOR MARKETING...........................................................................................394 

Section 8 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCT CERTIFICATION PROCESS AND 

MARkETING STRATEGIES ................................................................................................398 

orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCT CErTIFICaTIoN ProCEss ..........................400 


UNDERSTANDING ORGANIC GUARANTEE SYSTEM 

FOR STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTS .....................................................................................................................402 


UNDERSTANDING SECOND PARTY CERTIFICATION PROCESS FOR 

FOR ORGANIZED GROUPS OF CONSUMER AND PRODUCER OF 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTS .........................................................................406 

marKETING oF orGaNICallYGrowN VEGETaBlE CroPs .........................410 


UNDERSTANDING MARKETING CHAIN FOR PROFITABLE GROWING 

OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS ........................................................................... 411 


PRICING AND PRICING ARRANGEMENT FOR PROFITABLE GROWING 

OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS ........................................................................... 415 

xix

xx 



UNDERSTANDING MARKET COMPETITION FOR PROFITABLE 

GROWING OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS ....................................................... 418 


MARKETING PROBLEM TREE ANALYSIS FOR PROFITABLE GROWING 

OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS ...........................................................................421 


PROPER USE OF MARKET INFORMATION FOR PROFITABLE GROWING 

OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS ...........................................................................425 

Glossary ...........................................................................................................428 

References ........................................................................................................... 451 

Annexes ...........................................................................................................459 

Annex A 

List of FFS Facilitators, Farmer-practitioners, and Technical Experts 

who Participated During the Workshop on Designing Farmer Field School 

Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management For Organic Vegetable Production 

held at PCARRD Headquarters, Los Baños, Laguna in 28-30 April 2008 ....................459 

Annex B 

List of Experienced IPM Facilitators and Specialists who Participated 

During the Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based 

Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable Farming conducted at 

PCARRD Headquarters, Los Baños, Laguna in 17-19 June 2008 ...............................462 

Annex C 

List of Participants, Facilitators and Resource Persons in the One-month 

Intensive Refresher Course for Trainers of Integrated Pest Management 

in Crucifers and Other Highland Vegetable Crops held at Bineng, La Trinidad, 

Benguet in 27 September to 17 October 1998 ................................................................464 

Annex D 

List of Technical Review Committee Members who reviewed and critiqued 

the final draft of Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic 

Vegetable Production held at Laguna, Philippines in 02 February 2009 ......................467 

Annex E 

List of Participants and Facilitators during a season-long Training of Trainers 

(TOT) for Highland Organic Vegetable Production who validated the Field Guide 

of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production at Dalwangan, 

Malaybalay City, Bukidnon, Philippines in 12 May-23 September 2008 .....................468


Annex F 

List of Participants and Facilitators during the season-long Training of Trainers 

(TOT) for Highland Organic Vegetable Production who validated the Field Guide 

of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production at El Salvador City, 

Misamis Oriental, Philippines in 14 July-26 October 2008 ...........................................470 

Annex G 

List of Farmer-participants in the Season-long Farmer Field School 

on Highland Organic Vegetable Production who validated the Field Guide of 

Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production conducted at 

Impasug-ong, Bukidnon, Philippines in 1 May-23 September 2008 ..............................472 

Annex H 

List of Farmer-participants in the Season-long Farmer Field School 

on Lowland Organic Vegetable Production who validated the Field Guide of 

Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production conducted at 

El Salvador, Bukidnon, Philippines in 1 May-23 September 2008 ...............................474 

Annex I 

List of Farmer-participants and Facilitators in the Season-long Follow-up 

Farmer Field School on Organic Vegetable Production who validated the 


conducted at Barangay Ricudo, Sinait, Ilocos Sur, Philippines in 

18 November 2008-10 March 2009 ................................................................................476 

xxi

xxii 


Section 1 

INTRODUCTION 

ABOUT THE FIELD GUIDE 

This Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Organic Vegetable Production is designed 

for use in farmer field schools (FFSs) for organic vegetable production. The exercises 

in this field guide were based from best practices and learning experiences shared by 

FFS facilitators and farmer-practitioners, as well as by technical experts (annex a) during the 

Workshop on Designing Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management For 

Organic Vegetable Production held in Laguna, Philippines in 28-30 April 2008. A number of these 

exercises were either updated versions or totally new ones enriched by experienced IPM facilitators 

and specialists (annex B) during the Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based 

Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable Farming conducted in Laguna, Philippines on 

17-19 June 2008. Appropriate exercises were likewise adapted from Field Guide of Discoverybased 

Exercises for Vegetable IPM [Volumes I 1 and II 2 ], which were based from experiences by 

FFS farmer-participants and IPM facilitators during the past one and a half decades of their local 

IPM program implementations. In a most recent volume, many applicable exercises integrated in 

this new field guide were shared by participants, facilitators, and resource persons (annex C) in 

a previous one-month intensive Refresher Course for Trainers of Integrated Pest Management in 

Crucifers and Other Highland Vegetable Crops held in Benguet, Philippines in 27 September to 17 

October 1998. 

To further ensure aptness and practicability of this field guide, a Technical Review Committee (annex D) 

was organized in 02 February 2009 at Laguna, Philippines to review and critique its technical contents. 

Likewise, many exercises in this field guide were field validated by participants in two (2) season-long TOTs 

(annexes E and F) in eight (8) Practice FFSs (annexes G and H) for Highland and Lowland Organic 

Vegetable Production conducted in 12 May-23 September 2008 and 14 July-26 October 2008 in Bukidnon 

and Misamis Oriental, Philippines, respectively, as well as in one (1) season-long Follow-up FFS (annex 

I) on Organic Vegetable Production conducted in 18 November 2008-10 March 2009 in Sinait, Ilocos Sur, 

Philippines. ` 

1 Philippine National IPM Program. 1997. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM (Volume I). National Agricultural and Fishery 

Council, Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. 1-1/6-40p. 

2 Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO Regional 

Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p. 

1

2 


This new field guide is a collection of discovery-based exercises that facilitators like us can use and 

adapt, when and where we judge them useful. We involved as many organic agriculture stakeholders 

as was possible in compiling and redesigning these field exercises. While these exercises belong to 

us, this field guide will achieve nothing until we start to put new ideas into action. The discoverybased 

exercises contained in this field guide are divided into eight wide-ranging sections, namely: (i) 

introductory; (ii) general; (iii) living soil, integrated soil nutrient and crop management; (iv) integrated 

insect and rodent pests management; (v) integrated diseases management; (vi) simultaneous insect 

pests and diseases management; (vii) participatory plant breeding, seed production, harvest, and postharvest 

management; and (viii) organic vegetable products certification and marketing strategies. 

With ownership comes responsibility. It is our responsibility to update and modify this field guide 

as new experiences and ideas come out of our own FFS activities in organic vegetable production. 

Some additions have to be made to these exercises, because we did not have enough time to fill all 

gaps and refine all steps. This means that we might need to revise and redesign what is written here 

as often as necessary, based on feedback and future experiences. 

WHAT IS A DISCOVERY-BASED EXERCISE? 

During our previous workshops we returned repeatedly to these questions, ‘What do we really 

mean by a discovery-based exercise?’ and ‘How can we make this exercise more discovery-based?’ 

There were no ultimate answers to these questions, but a number of patterns and ideas did 

emerge from our design sessions. These are described below. We hope that they give you 

some ideas of what we were aiming for: 

Go To The Field 

The field provides main learning material for FFS and other fields in barangay (village) provide us with 

an extra resource when needed. Any exercise that we design should have its roots in fields. This means 

that we need to go out to the fields and observe before we start any discussions or activities. 

what Is Happening In The Field Today? 

If activities are rooted in the field, they are also based on what is happening in the field at this time. 

We cannot generally discover something now if it either happened in the past, or will happen in the 

future. Therefore, activities described in this field guide are designed to be used in response to what 

is happening in the field NOW!

Section 1 • Introduction 

share our Experiences 

We must never forget that farmers may already have plenty of experiences on a particular topic. 

We need to listen to and learn about farmers’ experiences. We will gain new ideas and insights 

from local practices, as well as having a better idea of areas where farmers are lacking in technical 

information or understanding. 

what Do Farmers want and Need? 

The people who are discovering in FFS are primarily FARMERS! 

People remember 3 : 20% of what they HEar 

40% of what they sEE 

80% of what they DIsCoVEr For THEmsElVEs. 

Some of the things that FFS group discovers are also new to us. Nevertheless, ‘discovery-based’ 

exercises aim to help participants remember more of what they are learning. Therefore, we must 

choose exercises based on what FARMERS want and need to discover for themselves! 

Discover, Evaluate, and Understand! 

We do not want to start any exercise with the assumption that there will be a correct answer or 

outcome. If we do this, then we cannot expect participants to learn from what they have observed. 

Instead, they will just tell us what they think we want to hear, based on what we told them to say! 

An example: If we want to run a session on ‘Record Keeping,’ we cannot start the session by 

saying, ‘Record keeping is important, so what records do you think we should 

keep?’ Even if this seems participatory, it is not discovery-based, because we 

have started by instructing farmers that record keeping is important! Instead, 

we need to guide farmers to discover that record keeping may be useful for 

them. 

By discovering information ourselves and then evaluating if and how it could be useful, we can start 

to look more critically at what we observe or hear. 

3 Hope, A. and Timmel, S. 1994. Training for Transformation 1: A Handbook for Community Workers. Mambo Press, Gweru, Zimbabwe. pp99-120. 

3

4 


By thinking critically, we are not being NEGATIVE, we are actually being POSITIVE. We do not 

just think what people tell us to think anymore. We are starting to build skills in analyzing what we 

observe. We can then base our decisions on our own experiences and understanding. 

These skills of critical questioning, discovery, analysis, and evaluation are what farmers take away 

from FFS to use in tackling new problems on their own farms. 

Thus, building farmers’ DISCOVERY-BASED skills 

wITH farmers’ DECISION-MAKING skills 

is what makes IPm farmer field school SUSTAINABLE! 

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DISCOVERY-BASED EXERCISES! 

In consideration of the above, participants in recently concluded curriculum development 

workshops 4 - 5 , as in previously conducted IPM refresher course 6 , agreed on some general guidelines 

in conducting discovery-based exercises for FFS on organic vegetable production namely: (a) 

exercise should be preceded by a field activity (e.g., field walk, field observation, field visit, etc.); 

(b) procedure should enhance participatory, discovery-based, and experiential learning; (c) exercise 

should be designed to facilitate regular FFS activities, such as agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA), 

field studies, cultural management practices, and special topics; (d) exercise should encourage use 

of biological control and discourage use of pesticides; and (e) exercise should use appropriate nonformal 

education techniques (NFE) as learning tools. 

FORMAT FOR EXERCISES 

Each exercise in this field guide has been arranged in a standard format of sections and sub-sections. 

We hope that this will make it easier for you to find specific information that you want to use. The 

various exercises under each section or sub-section are further divided into sub-headings as listed 

below with a short description of content: 

4 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2008. Highlights of Outputs. Workshop on Designing Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management for Organic 

Vegetable Production held on 28-30 April 2008 at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development 

Council (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 

5 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2008. Highlights of Outputs. Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable 

Farming conducted in the Philippines on 17-19 June 2008 at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and 

Development Council (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 

6 Binamira, J.S. 1998. A Consultant’s Report: Refresher Course for Trainers of IPM in Crucifers and Other Highland Vegetable Crops. Cordillera Highland 

Agricultural Resources Management Project, Department of Agriculture, CAR Regional Field Unit, Baguio City, Philippines. pp1-30.


BaCKGroUND aND raTIoNalE 

This gives a short description of exercise, which we hope you can understand in an instant (e.g., 

when skimming through this field guide). 

when is this exercise most 

appropriate? 

ɶ Some guidelines as to 

what might be happening 

in the learning field, 

and what experience 

the FFS group needs to 

have before starting an 

exercise. 

materials 

How long will this exercise take? 

An estimate of how long is time between starting and 

finishing an exercise. In addition, how much time an 

exercise will take during FFS meetings and what extra time 

inputs are needed outside FFS meetings. 

learning objectives 

What we aim to discover from an exercise. 

What equipment, supplies, and materials you will need to collect or prepare in advance. 

methodology 

A list of non-formal education methods or approaches used to facilitate an exercise (e.g., field walks 

and observations, sharing of experiences, brainstorming, participatory discussions in small or big 

groups, role-playing, hands-on or simulation exercise, and others). 

steps 

1. A numbered list of steps that you will take to complete an exercise. 

some suggested questions for processing discussion 

❏ Every exercise needs a processing discussion to evaluate observations and results, and to draw 

out a common agreement on what has been discovered. This section gives some suggestions for 

questions and ideas that your group may like to explore during your processing. 

❏ If an exercise is based on a guided discussion, processing may already be included in the STEPS 

section. 

5

FFS CURRICULUM ON ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 

6 


The farmer field school (FFS) brings farmers together to carry out an intensive training on integrated 

production and pest management (IPPM) methods and issues over the life cycle of organically-grown 

vegetable crops. The FFS trains farmers to become experts in their own fields. The FFS training 

team (e.g., composed of facilitators) is assisted by agricultural technicians assigned in an organic 

vegetable area where the FFS is located 7 . The principles that guide an FFS learning process are: 

• The field is the primary learning resource. All learning activities take place in the field and are 

based on what is happening in the field. 

• Experience forms the basis for learning. The activities that take place in the field and their 

farms form the basis for discussions and analyses by farmers who arrive at concepts which they 

test and improve through further field activities. 

• Decision-making guides the learning process. Training focuses on analysis of agro-ecosystem 

of organically-grown vegetable crops. The combination of analytical methods, ecological 

principles, and basic IPPM methods helps farmers gain insights into the ecological interactions 

in vegetable field and provide them with greater confidence in making crop management 

decisions. 

• The training curriculum is based on local conditions of the FFS. The FFS curriculum and 

materials are based on their appropriateness, the local conditions, problems, and needs of 

farmers in organic vegetable production. 

• Training last the entire cropping season. Farmers acquire a firm understanding of relevant 

IPPM concepts for each growth stage of organically-grown vegetable crops as well as the 

factors that influence crop management decision-making at all stages of plant’s growth. 

An FFS for organically-grown vegetable crops consists of 25-30 farmers meeting for half day each 

week, in 12-14 weeks. The field school has at least 1,000 sq. meter ‘learning field’ containing a 

farmer-run comparative study of IPPM and other relevant field experiments. A typical profile of a 

farmer field school for organically-grown vegetable crops at any given day is 8 : 

7 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2008. Accomplishment Report: Season-long Training of Trainers (TOT) for Facilitators of Farmer Field Schools (FFS) on 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Corn-based Production System. Local Government Support Program to ARMM (LGSPA) of the 

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Davao City, Philippines. 94p. 

8 Bruan, A.R., G. Thiele, and M. Fernandez. 2000. Farmer Field Schools and Local Agricultural Research Committees: Complementary 

Platforms for Integrated Decision-Making in Sustainable Agriculture. Agricultural Extension Network Department for International 

Development (DFID), Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London, United Kingdom. 15p.


• Field observation: 07:00-08:00 am. Farmers form small groups, makes observations of the 

whole field, and then examine 5 staked plants per plot, recording agronomic data per plant, type 

and number of insects, and any other details. 

• Agro-ecosystem analysis: 08:00-09:00 am. Each group prepares drawing of their field 

observations including information on the condition of plants, pests and diseases; natural 

enemies of insect pests; weather, soil and water conditions. 

• Presentation and discussion: 09:00-10:00 am. Each group presents their drawings and 

discusses their observations and conclusions. The whole group reaches consensus about crop 

management practices that they will carry out during the coming week. 

• Break: 10:00-10:15 am. A short break allows participants and facilitators to refresh and 

invigorate themselves in preparation for the succeeding activities. 

• Group dynamics exercise: 10:15-10:30 am. This activity aims to stimulate attention and 

participation, as well as strengthen group communication and increase solidarity. 

• Special topics: 10:30-11:30 am. The facilitator guides the group in experiments, lessons, 

exercises, and discussions on special topics related to what is actually occurring in organic 

vegetable field. 

• Evaluation and planning: 11:30-12:00 nn. This activity allows the group to identify ‘what went 

well’ and ‘what needs improvement’ of the day’s activities and plans activities to be undertaken 

in the coming week. 

7

Section 2 

GENERAL TOPICS FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS 

8 


The discovery-based exercises under this section were compiled to help participants better 

understand and apply integrated pest management (IPM) principles through farmer field 

schools 9 . Compiled here are general and introductory topics based from experiences shared 

by farmer field school (FFS) facilitators in implementing local vegetable IPM programs since 

two previous field guide volumes were published in 1997 10 and 2002 11 , respectively. Included in 

this section are exercises tried and proven by our FFS facilitators to be effective in enhancing 

participants’ understanding of IPM concepts and principles, which are likewise relevant in organic 

vegetable production, such as: 

• What is in a box: Non-formal versus formal education. This exercise was designed to enhance 

participants’ understanding of concepts and principles of non-formal education. 

• Gathering and using baseline data. This exercise was designed as a run through of exercise on 

‘Ground-working’ and ‘Barangay Immersion’ for Farmer Field Schools. 

• Facilitating problems of absenteeism. This exercise was designed as follow-up exercise on 

‘Managing Farmer Field Schools’ and ‘How to Establish FFS Participatory Norms’. 

• ‘Ballot box’ for farmer field schools of organic vegetable production: Developing functional 

questionnaires for pre- and post-evaluation. This exercise is valuable for developing an 

evaluation instrument to assess pre- and post-training knowledge and skills gained by FFS 

participants in organic vegetable production. 

• Agro-ecosystem analysis for farmer field schools of organic vegetable production: Establishing 

minimum data for decision-making. This exercise is useful for developing a tool for making a 

crop management decision in organic vegetable production. 


Agricultural Resources Management Project, Department of Agriculture, CAR Regional Field Unit, Baguio City, Philippines. pp1-30. 

10 Philippine National IPM Program. 1997. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM. National Agricultural and Fishery Council, 

Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. pp2-1 to 2-124. 


Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp11-54.

Section 2 • General Topics for Farmer Field Schools 

• Field layout and agro-ecosystem analysis format for farmer field schools of organic vegetable 

production. This exercise is worthwhile for designing appropriate field lay-out of participatory 

technology development (PTD) studies in FFS learning field. 

• Keeping records of farm activities: guided discussions on ‘why’ and ‘what’ to record for 

organic vegetable production. This exercise was designed so that farmers will be aware of why 

they keep careful records of production and labor costs in learning field studies and in their 

own farms. 

• Cost and return analysis of organic vegetable production. This activity was designed as a 

follow-up of exercise on ‘Keeping Records of Farm Activities: Guided Discussions on Why and 

What to Record for Organic Vegetable Production’. 

9

Exercise No. 2.01 12 

WHAT IS IN A BOX: NON-FORMAL EDUCATION 

VERSUS FORMAL EDUCATION 


Non-formal education (NFE) methods and approaches, 

as knowledge management strategies, bring about sharing 

of knowledge and creation of new knowledge and in this 

process empowers participants. Activities focus on allowing 

participants to observe, discuss, interact, brainstorm as well 

as perform analysis, make decisions, and solve problems 13 . 

10 



appropriate? 

ɶ As a start-up activity 

in TOT and VST 

sessions, primarily to 

enhance participants’ 

understanding of concepts 

and principles of nonformal 

education (NFE) as 

they apply to farmer field 

school (FFS) in organic 

vegetable production. 

Essentially, NFE is a participatory educational process based on assumptions of adult learning. 

When adult learners decide to participate in any learning activity, they bring along a wealth of 

experience, knowledge, and skills. They are armed with their own beliefs, values, and convictions. 

They have their own perceptions, biases, and feelings. With such a background, an adult learner is 

richest resource in a learning process 14 . 

NFE methods and approaches encourage participants to see themselves as source of information and 

knowledge about a real world. When they are encouraged to work with knowledge they have from 

their own experience, they can develop strategies together to change their immediate situations. 

This learning experience takes place in several ways as described below 15 : 

• Existing popular knowledge is recognized and valued. Learning process starts with an 

assumption that participants already possess some knowledge. Participants do not start with a 

clean slate. In this approach, synthesis of popular knowledge with existing scientific knowledge 

strengthens learning experience of participants. 

• New knowledge is built on existing knowledge. In a learning process, a starting point for 

creating new knowledge is an existing knowledge that people have particularly authentic 

12 Adapted from Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO 

Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp13-16. 

13 Callo, Jr. D.P., W.R. Cuaterno, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 1999. Handbook of Non-Formal Education and Team Building Exercises for Integrated Pest 

Management. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp5-7. 

14 Ortigas, C.D. 1997. Training for Empowerment. Office of Research and Publication, Ateneo de Manila University, Loyola Heights, Quezon City. p13- 

26. 

15 Society for Participatory Research in Asia. 1987. Participatory Training for Adult Educators. Society for Participatory Research in Asia Publication, New 

Delhi, India. p7-9.


elements of it. As people begin to appreciate what they already know, they are more open to seek 

new information. This desire to seek new information and knowledge enhances learning process. 

• Participants learn to exercise control. A learning process puts emphasis on active participation 

of participants in generating their own knowledge. This encourages them to take responsibility 

for their own learning. It is this active posture which constitutes a powerful impetus for learning 

and for learners to exercise control over their learning. 

• Learning becomes a collective process. One of the elements of NFE is a promotion of collective 

responsibility for seeking new knowledge. As a result, participants learn to get together, 

collectively seeking and analyzing information. 

• Learning creates informed options. The very process of collectively analyzing a given situation 

throws up various alternatives. As part of a process of analysis, options are debated based 

on concrete information. As a result, participants are able to accept and reject options on 

an informed basis. This creates a sense of empowerment, which is based on confidence that 

information has been understood and interpreted. 

• Actions emerge out of this analysis. The very act of involvement in a process of analyzing a 

given reality creates a sense of ownership of that knowledge and willingness to transform that 

situation. Participants are then able to take concrete actions. 

Thus, where possible, facilitators should create a learning situation where adults can discover 

answers and solutions for themselves. People remember things they have said themselves best, so 

facilitators should not speak too much. They need to give participants a chance to find solutions 

before adding important points a group has not mentioned. Likewise, it was mentioned earlier that 

people remember 20 percent of what they hear, 40 percent of what they see, and 80 percent of what 

they discover for themselves 16 . 

In this regard, this exercise was designed primarily to enhance participants’ understanding of 

concepts and principles of non-formal education (NFE) as they apply to farmer field school (FFS) 

in organic vegetable production. 


• At least 30 minutes for simulation game; and 

• At least 30 minutes for brainstorming and sharing of experiences. 

16 Hope, A. and Timmel, S. 1994. Training for Transformation 1: A Handbook for Community Workers. Mambo Press, Gweru, Zimbabwe. pp99-120. 

11


12 


• To differentiate non-formal education from formal education techniques; and 

• To further enhance participants’ understanding of concepts and principles of non-formal 

education (NFE) as they apply to farmer field school (FFS) in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Manila paper, marking pens, notebooks, and ball pens 

methodology 

• Simulation game, brainstorming, and sharing of experiences 

steps 

1. A facilitator fills a box with 10 different objects and asks each small group to choose three 

representatives from among themselves. 

2. A first set of representatives (one from each group) is asked to stand in front and beside a 

facilitator who then shakes the box for about two minutes while each representative listens. 

Representatives are then requested to take their seats, and then try to list down contents of 

above box based from what they heard while box was being shaken, without conferring with 

each other. 

3. A second set of representatives (one from each group) is again asked to stand in front and beside 

a facilitator who again shakes the box for about two minutes while each representative listens. 

Afterwards, each representative is asked to touch contents of box, one after another, without 

looking what is inside. Representatives then take their seats and try to come up with their own 

list of contents of box, without conferring with each other. 

4. A third set of representatives (one from each group) is again asked to stand in front and beside 

a facilitator who again shakes the box for about two minutes while each representative listens. 

Afterwards, each representative is asked to touch and see contents of box, one after another. 

Representatives then take their seats and try to come up with their own list of contents of box, 

without conferring with each other. 

5. Remaining participants are instructed to observe ongoing activities.


6. A facilitator will then request each set of representatives from each small group to read their 

lists before the big group. A facilitator compares lists made by each set of representatives and 

process the activity. 


❏ Which set of representatives listed more objects? Why? 

❏ What learning principles characterize each game as exemplified by each set of representatives? 

❏ Which learning principles can we adopt in a farmer field school? 

❏ What is non-formal education? How do you differentiate it from formal education? 

❏ Which form of education is more relevant for farmers? Why? 

13


GATHERING AND USING BASELINE DATA FOR IMPACT 

EVALUATION OF FARMER FIELD SCHOOL IN ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 


The local IPM training team, as a pre-farmer field school 

(FFS) activity, carries out task of ground-working. Groundworking 

determines actual needs in an area, which will 

ultimately be used as basis in developing local IPM programs 

on organic vegetable production. Thus, largely, success of a 

14 


local IPM program on organic vegetable production is directly related to quality of ground-working 

activities conducted. 

One very useful component activity of ground-working is gathering of baseline data from FFS 

farmers-participants. Baseline data are important for comparison with current data when 

stakeholders review and assess impact of local IPM programs on organic vegetable production 

to farmer-participants and their communities. The formulation of appropriate recommendations, 

which will form courses of actions or interventions, will depend on accurateness of baseline data 

gathered. 

Hence, usefulness of baseline data is contingent on accurate gathering of same data. Farmer field 

school (FFS) facilitators must regularly share their experiences in gathering and using baseline 

data to continuously evolve better FFS approaches relevant for organic vegetable production. This 

exercise was designed as a run through of exercises on ‘Ground-working’ and ‘Barangay Immersion’ 

for farmer field school (FFS) on organic vegetable production. 



appropriate? 

ɶ In TOT and VST sessions, 

or by local IPM team, on 

or before an FFS session 

on organic vegetable 

production; and 

ɶ After a barangay soil 

map has already been 

prepared. 

• One to two hours for field walks and farmers’ interviews one week before starting an FFS 

session; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for brainstorming session in processing area; and 

• Thirty minutes to an hour of additional farmers’ interviews on first week of an FFS session. 


Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp17-25.



• To make participants aware and understand importance of proper gathering and using baseline 

data for designing and evaluating local IPM programs on organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn innovative approaches and do hands-on of gathering and using baseline data for 

designing local IPM programs on organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Barangay spot or soil map indicating farm sites of prospective farmer field school (FFS) 

farmer-participants; 

• Farmer-validated baseline survey form for organic vegetable growing (see Form A) 18 ; and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, and marking pens). 

methodology 

• Field walks, farmers’ interviews, and brainstorming. 

steps 

1. Review farm sites of prospective FFS farmer-participants from a barangay spot or soil map 

earlier developed by TOT, and VST participants, or by IPM training team members; 

2. Divide participants in small groups and each group secure 25-30 copies of farmer-validated 

baseline survey forms for organic vegetable growing; 

3. Using a barangay spot or soil map, go to prospective FFS farmer-participants, explain objective 

of survey, interview as many farmers as possible, and fill up baseline survey forms (e.g., 

personal information, farm profile, farm management, and production data); 

4. Return to processing area and brainstorm in small groups on initial data gathered and methods 

used in data gathering. Present observations and experiences of small groups in a big group 

on following: 

5 Who and how many additional farmers to interview; 

5 Items to exclude, include, or clarify in succeeding surveys; 



15

5 Approaches and methods to use in gathering additional data; and 

5 How and when to use all baseline data gathered. 

16 


5. Complete baseline data gathering from at least 25-30 actual FFS farmer-participants on first 

week session; 

6. Synthesize and summarize output of small groups into one big group output. Draw up 

conclusions and recommendations from exercise. 

7. Use output of exercise on baseline data gathering in planning local IPM program on organic 

vegetable production in a community, such as: 

5 Crops and pest problems to be addressed; 

5 Number and schedule of FFS to be conducted; and 

5 Type and schedule of follow-up activities to sustain local IPM program on organic vegetable 

production. 

some suggested questions for the processing discussion 

❏ What is a baseline survey? What is a baseline survey form? 

❏ Why do we need to conduct baseline survey? Who are respondents of baseline surveys? What 

data do we need to gather in a baseline survey? 

❏ What method or approach is most appropriate for gathering baseline data in farmer field schools 

on organic vegetable production? 

❏ Can we use baseline data to plan present and future FFS activities on organic vegetable 

production? How? 

❏ When do we gather baseline data in farmer field schools? How often do we gather baseline data 

for local IPM program implementation on organic vegetable production?


FORM A 

KASAKALIKASAN BASELINE SURVEY FORM FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 

A. PERSONAL INFORMATION 

1. Name of Farmer: 

2. Address: 

3. Age: 4. Sex: [ ] Male [ ] Female 

5. Status: [ ] Single [ ] Married [ ] Widow/Widower 

6. Education: 

7. Name of Spouse: 

[ ] Elementary 

[ ] Others: 

[ ] High School [ ] College 

8. Tenural Status: [ ] Owner/Cultivator [ ] Leaseholder [ ] Tenant 

[ ] Others (please specify): 

9. No. of household members involved in farming: 

10. Membership in community organizations: 

Organization Position 

11. Last two trainings attended: 

Sponsored by: When 

B. FARM PROFILE 

1. Farm Area (ha): (a) major crop: (b) other crop: 

area: 

2. Soil Type: 

area: 

3. Irrigation: [ ] NIA [ ] Communal [ ] Pump [ ] Rain-fed 

[ ] Others (Specify): 

4. Sources of income other than vegetable farming: 

5. Source of Capital: 

a. Credit 

Production Loan (Pesos) 

Percent per annum 

Source 

b. Self-financed (Pesos) 

Dry Season Wet Season 

17

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. Vegetable Crop Combination (arranged from largest area planted): 

18 


DRY SEASON AREA (ha) WET SEASON AREA (ha) 

C. FARM MANAGEMENT 

1. Vegetable Crop Planted (Season ____________): 

CROPS AREA (HA.) VARIETY SEED CLASS RATE/HA COST/HA 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

2. Cost of Land Preparation and Weeding: 

LAND PREPARATION WEEDING 

CROPS 

PLOWING HARROWING FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

3. Seedbed Preparation, Planting and Fertilization: 

CROPS 

COST (INCLUDING LABOR) 

SEEDBED PLANTING QUANTITY 

ORGANIC FERTILIZER USE 

KIND/BRAND UNIT COST APPL’N COST 

1. 1. 1. 1a. 1a. 1a. 1. 

1b. 1b. 1b. 

1c. 1c. 1c. 

2. 2. 2. 2a. 2a. 2a. 2. 

2b. 2b. 2b. 

2c. 2c. 2c. 

3. 3. 3. 3a. 3a. 3a. 3. 

3b. 3b. 3b. 

3c. 3c. 3c. 

4. 4. 4. 4a. 4a. 4a. 4. 

4b 4b. 4b. 

4c. 4c. 4c. 

5. 5. 5. 5a. 5a. 5a. 5. 

5b. 5b. 5b. 

5c. 5c. 5c.


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Have you been using farm-produced organic fertilizers (e.g., animal manure, rice straw, compost, 

azolla, etc.) in your farm? [ ] Yes [ ] No If yes, since when? 

4. Biological Pesticide Use 

CROPS 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Insect Pathogen Botanical Insecticide Microbial for Diseases O T H E R S 

QTY KIND 

UNIT 

PRICE 

QTY KIND 

UNIT 

PRICE 

19 

QTY KIND 

UNIT 

PRICE 

QTY KIND 

How many times did you spray your crop with biological pesticides? What was the cost of application? 

CROPS 

Insect Pathogen Botanical Insecticide Microbial for Diseases O T H E R S 

NO. OF 

TIMES 

COST OF 

APPL’N 

NO. OF 

TIMES 

COST OF 

APPL’N 

NO. OF 

TIMES 

COST OF 

APPL’N 

NO. OF 

TIMES 

What was your basis for spraying? Please check. 

[ ] Farmer friend told me so [ ] Technicians/pesticide dealer told me so 

[ ] Following the calendar spraying [ ] Others (please specify) ______ 

What were the common pest problems you have encountered ? 

VEGETABLE CROPS PEST PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED 

UNIT 

PRICE 

COST OF 

APPL’N

20 


What insects/animals would you consider as friend or enemy of the farmer in his field ? 

FARMER’S FRIEND ENEMIES 

PRODUCTION (Season ________________): 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

CROPS 

COST (PESOS) YIELD PER HECTARE 

HARVESTING HAULING KILOGRAMS AMOUNT (P) 

Date Interviewed: Interviewer: 

BALLOT BOX SCORE: PRE-TEST POST-TEST



FACILITATING PROBLEMS OF ABSENTEEISM IN 

FARMER FIELD SCHOOL FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


In a recently concluded refresher course for trainers (RCT) 

of integrated pest management (IPM) in the Cordilleras 20 , 

some positive experiences and lessons learned were shared 

by participants in facilitating and managing farmer field 

schools (FFSs). The most notable observations shared are: (1) protocols conducted by facilitators 

to involve local government unit (LGU) officials, consult with farmers right at beginning, and 

continuously feedback activities enhance local IPM program sustainability; and (2) facilitators’ 

skills and perseverance contributed largely to FFS successes as farmer-participants try to replicate 

what facilitators practice. 

However, one of recurring problems experienced by facilitators in FFS implementation is still 

absenteeism. The most common reason mentioned for absenteeism was attendance in community 

occasions and meetings. A number of recommendations were offered by FFS facilitators to solve 

absenteeism, such as: (1) proper orientation about FFS activity must be done right at beginning; 

(2) facilitators should make weekly topics interesting; (3) absenting farmer-participants should be 

required to send advance notice of their absences and proxies should not be allowed for them; (4) 

absenting farmer-participants should be given importance by doing follow-up on them and avoiding 

overemphasis on processing of absenteeism; and (5) FFS farmer-participants should be facilitated to 

organize themselves so that they can apply peer pressure to absenting farmer-participants. 

The FFS facilitators can regularly share their learning experiences in solving problems of absenteeism 

among farmer-participants to further improve their individual facilitating skills and thus ensure 

sustained local FFS implementation on organic vegetable production. Thus, this forgoing exercise 

was designed as follow-up exercises on ‘Managing Farmer Field Schools’ and ‘How to Establish 

FFS Participatory Norms.’ 





21 


appropriate? 

ɶ In TOT and VST sessions, 

or by local IPM team, 

when absenteeism among 

farmer-participants of an 

on-going FFS on organic 

vegetable production is a 

problem.


22 


• One to two hours for field walks to follow-up absenting FFS farmer-participants anytime during 

an FFS session; 

• Thirty minutes for brainstorming session; and 

• Another one-two hour for field walks to follow-up absenting FFS farmer-participants in 

succeeding FFS session. 


• To make participants aware and understand importance of facilitating problems of absenteeism 

among farmer-participants of FFS to ensure sustained local IPM program implementation on 

organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn innovative approaches from other facilitators and do hands-on of facilitating problems 

of absenteeism among FFS farmer-participants. 

materials 

• Barangay spot or soil map showing farm sites of farmer-participants of an ongoing farmer field 

school (FFS) on organic vegetable production; and 


methodology 

• Field walks, farmers’ interviews, and brainstorming. 

steps 

1. Review farm sites of ongoing FFS farmer-participants from a barangay spot or soil map earlier 

developed by TOT and VST participants, or by IPM training team members; 

2. Divide big group in small groups and let each small group design their own strategy to facilitate 

absenteeism. Using a barangay spot or soil map as a guide, each small group goes to absentee 

FFS farmer-participants and implements designed strategy on how to: 

5 Show absentee farmer-participants that they are important in success of ongoing FFS on 

organic vegetable production; 

5 Make absentee farmer-participants share their own problems in organic vegetable production;


5 Convince absentee farmer-participants that regularly attending FFS will help them solve or 

better understand their problems in organic vegetable production; and 

5 Get assurance from absentee farmer-participants to continue attending succeeding FFS 

sessions on organic vegetable production. 

3. Return to processing area and brainstorm in small groups on initial experiences in using 

designed strategy to facilitate absenteeism. Present observations and experiences of small 

groups in a big group. 


conclusions and recommendations from exercise. 

5. Use output of exercise to facilitate problems of absenteeism among farmer-participants in 

succeeding FFS sessions on organic vegetable production. 

6. Repeat steps 3-5. 


❏ What were commonest causes of absenteeism among FFS farmer-participants? 

❏ What strategies did you employ to facilitate problems of absenteeism among FFS farmerparticipants? 

Which of the strategies employed worked best? 

❏ What pre-FFS activities should be undertaken by an IPM training team to ensure regular 

attendance of farmer participants in an FFS on organic vegetable production? 

❏ How can a facilitator ensure that topics are interesting in every FFS session? 

❏ Did follow up of absentee farmer-participants help solved problems of absenteeism in an ongoing 

FFS on organic vegetable production? 

❏ How did you show absentee farmer-participants that they are important in success of an ongoing 

FFS on organic vegetable production? 

❏ How did you make absentee farmer-participants share their own problems in organic vegetable 

production? How did you convince absentee farmer-participants that regularly attending FFS 

will help them solve or better understand their problems in organic vegetable production? 

❏ How did you get assurance from absentee farmer-participants to continue attending succeeding 

FFS sessions on organic vegetable production? 

23


‘BALLOT BOX’ FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS ON 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION: DEVELOPING 

FUNCTIONAL QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PRE- AND 

POST-EVALUATIONS 


24 



appropriate? 

ɶ In TOT and VST, 

before pre- and post- 

FFS evaluations of 

participants’ knowledge 

and skills in organic 


‘Ballot Box’ test is a field-based test administered to 

participants without using pen or pad papers. It uses 

specimens (e.g., materials, objects, plants or animals) in organic vegetable fields. Questions in a 

‘Ballot Box’ evaluation dealt mainly on knowledge and skills in identification of pest damages, 

disease symptoms, arthropod pests and their natural enemies, fertilizers and chemicals, as well as 

soil, irrigation, and environmental stresses in organic vegetable fields 22 . 

For each questions, there are three ‘ballot boxes’ representing possible correct answers to choose 

from and where participants put a replicate of their numbers corresponding to a correct answer. A 

question may refer to a plant indicated by a string attached to three specimens in an organic vegetable 

field as possible answers. In another instance, a question may refer to a specimen indicated by a 

string attached to three plants in an organic vegetable field as possible answers 23 . 

Past experiences showed that for a ‘Ballot Box’ test to be effective, questionnaires should be framed 

to focus on functions of organisms or specimens rather than on their technical definitions. This 

particular exercise was designed to develop functional ‘Ballot Box’ questionnaires for farmer field 

schools on organic vegetable production. This exercise is valuable for developing an evaluation 

instrument to assess pre- and post-training knowledge and skills gained by FFS participants in 

organic vegetable production. 






Council, Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon ci5ty, Philippines. pp2-23 to 2-26.



• At least 30 minutes for field walks and observations; 

• At least 30 minutes for brainstorming and participatory discussions for development of 

questionnaires in small groups; and 

• At least one hour for presentation and participatory discussions in big group. 


• To familiarize participants with commonest field problems of organic vegetable production; 

• To improve participants’ knowledge and skills in identifying field problems of organic vegetable 


• To improve participants’ skills in developing appropriate and functional ‘Ballot Box’ 

questionnaires for FFS evaluation of farmers’ knowledge and skills in organic vegetable 

production. 

materials 

• Fields of organically-grown vegetables at different stages near each other where commonest 

field problems can be observed; 

• Cartolina cardboard or folders; 

• Vials, rubber bands, marking pens, masking and scotch tapes, ball pens, threads or plastic 

straws, thumb tacks; 

• Bamboo sticks, glue, organic fertilizer samples (e.g., solid, extract, and microbial-based organic 

fertilizers); and 

• Actual, live or preserved specimens. 

methodology 

• Field walks and observations, brainstorming or participatory discussions 

steps 

1. Divide big group in five smaller groups, assign each small group to a specific group of vegetables, 

go to organic vegetable fields, as shown below: 

5 Legumes (e.g., cowpea and string beans) 

5 Solanaceous vegetables (e.g., eggplant, pepper, and tomato) 

25

5 Parsley (e.g., carrot and celery) 

5 Cucurbits (e.g., ampalaya, squash, and bottle gourd) 

26 


2. Conduct field walks to identify, observe, and record the commonest field problems of organicallygrown 

vegetables in learning and adjoining fields, such as: 

5 Pests and diseases 

5 Deficiencies and toxicities 

5 Environmental stresses and other physiological disorders 

3. Collect specimens of pests and their natural enemies, pest and disease damages, other 

abnormalities and physiological disorders of organically-grown vegetables. 

4. Go back to processing area or session hall to further observe and characterize collected specimens. 

5. With guidance from a facilitator, brainstorm in small groups to develop functional ‘Ballot 

Box’ questionnaires for identifying commonest field problems of organically-grown vegetables 

based on field activities conducted by: 

5 Focusing on functions of organisms or non-organisms in an ecosystem 

5 Avoiding questions requiring technical definition of specimens (e.g., organisms or 

non-organisms) 

6. Present output of small groups to big group and conduct participatory discussions to improve 

questionnaires developed for each small group of organically-grown vegetables. A sample 

shopping list of validated functional ‘ballot box’ questionnaires for pre- and post-evaluation of 

FFS on some important organically-grown vegetables (Note: Correct specimens are indicated 

by bold, underlined words.) are shown below 24 : 

Legumes (Cowpea and String Bean): 

5 Which is a sucking insect pest? (specimens: aphids, cutworm, semi-looper) 

5 This insect pest (specimen: pod borer) attacks this crop (cowpea or string bean) at what stage? 

(specimens of three crop stages: flowering stage, fruit setting stage, seedling stage) 

5 Which of this specimen is considered a legume pest? (specimens: hover fly, pod borer, 

ladybird beetle) 


Agricultural Resources Management Project, Department of Agriculture, CAR Regional Field Unit, Baguio City, Philippines. pp42-47.


5 What caused this damage (specimen: cowpea or string bean plant with leaf-miner damage)? 

(specimens: leaf miner, aphids, mites) 

5 What cause this damage (specimen: cowpea or string bean seeds damaged by seed weevils) 

(specimens: seed weevil, aphids, mites) 

5 Which of these specimens is infected by bean rust? (cowpea or string bean plants infected 

by: bean rust, fusarium wilt, anthracnose) 

5 Identify which of these specimens is infected by fusarium wilt? (cowpea or string bean 

plants infected by: damping-off, fusarium wilt, powdery mildew) 

5 Which of these specimens is infected by anthracnose? (cowpea or string bean plants 

infected by: bean rust, leaf spot, anthracnose) 

5 Which of these diseases leaf removal and proper disposal can control? (cowpea or string 

bean plant infected by: bacterial wilt, bean rust, virus) 

5 Wind can spread the causal organism of which of these diseases? (cowpea or string bean 

plant infected by: bean rust, bacterial wilt, virus) 

5 Which of these specimens is a solid organic fertilizer? (specimens: compost-tea, compost, 

microbial-based fertilizer) 

5 Which of these specimens is a microbial-based organic fertilizer? (specimens: Bio-N, 46- 

0-0, 0-17-0) 

5 Which of these soils is fertile? (specimens: black loamy soil, red clayey soil, sandy soil) 

5 Which of these specimens is a farmer’s friend? (specimens: spider, pod borer, aphids) 

5 Which of these specimens is a legume pest? (specimens: lady beetle, hover fly, mites) 

5 This (specimen: hover fly) is a natural enemy of which of these pests? (specimens: aphids, 

leaf miner, pod borer) 

5 Which of these specimens is a predator? (specimens: preying mantis, diamondback moth, 

Diadegma sp.) 

5 Identify which of these specimens is a natural enemy. (specimens: ladybird beetle, white 

fly, aphids) 

Solanaceous Vegetables (Eggplant, Pepper, and Tomato): 

5 Which of these specimen is a vector of this (specimen: virus infected eggplant, pepper, or 

tomato plant) disease? (specimens: aphids, semi-looper, cutworm) 

5 What caused this (specimen: pinhole damage on eggplant fruit) damage? (specimens: pod 

borer, fruit fly, leaf miner) 

5 What caused this (specimen: tomato leaf damaged by cutworm) damage? (specimens: 

cutworm, aphids, thrips) 

5 This hole (specimen: tomato fruit with a hole caused by fruit worm) indicates the presence 

of what pest? (specimens: pod borer, aphids, fruit worm) 

27

28 


5 Which of these specimens causes this (specimen: dried branches or twigs of eggplant) 

damage? (specimens: cutworm, twig borer, mole cricket) 

5 What disease does this pest (specimen: aphids) transmit? (specimens: bacteria, virus, 

fungus) 

5 Which of these diseases is not enhanced by humid weather conditions? (specimens: 

eggplant, pepper, or tomato plant infected with late blight, virus, damping off) 

5 Soil treatment and crop rotation can control which of these diseases? (specimens: eggplant, 

pepper, or tomato plant infected with blossom end rot, fusarium wilt, virus) 

5 Which of these diseases do bacteria cause? (specimens: tomato plant infected with 

bacterial wilt, tomato plant infected by fusarium wilt, tomato plant infected by mosaic) 

5 Which of these diseases does a fungus cause? (specimens: eggplant infected with bacterial 

wilt, tomato plant infected by fusarium wilt, tomato plant infected by mosaic) 

5 Which of these organic fertilizer materials enhance faster vegetative growth? (specimens: 

dried chicken dung, microbial-based organic fertilizer, fresh cow manure) 

5 Which of these soils is acidic? (specimens: red clayey soil, black loamy soil, sandy soil) 

5 Which of these materials improves soil texture? (specimens: compost, plain garden soil, 

commercial inorganic fertilizer) 

5 Which of these specimens is a predator of aphids? (specimens: ants, hover fly, thrips) 

5 What is most voracious stage of this (specimen: ladybird beetle) predator? (specimens: 

egg, larva, adult) 

5 Which of these animals is a farmer’s friend? (specimens: cutworm, frog, aphids) 

5 Which of these animals is a natural enemy of aphids? (specimens: whitefly adult, cutworm 

larva, syrphid fly larva) 

5 Which of these stages is best time to do weeding? (specimens of eggplant, pepper, or 

tomato plants at: flowering stage, seedling stage, vegetative stage) 

Parsley (Carrots and Celery): 

5 Which among these pests damaged this crop (specimen: carrot at vegetative stage damage 

by cutworm) at this stage? (specimens: aphids, cutworm, leaf miner) 

5 Which among these animals caused this (specimen: carrot modified root damaged by 

rodent) damage? (specimens: rodent, aphids, flies) 

5 Which of the following insects damage (celery plant damaged at basal portion by a mole 

cricket) the crop? (specimens: mole cricket, aphids, cutworm) 

5 Which among these animals is a farmer’s friend? (specimens: leafhopper nymph, cutworm 

larva, hover fly larva) 

5 Which of these insects is considered as beneficial? (specimens: ladybird beetle, semilooper 

larva, cutworm larva)


5 Which of these soils is suited for this (specimen: healthy carrot plant)) crop? (specimen: 

clayey, sandy, sandy loam) 

5 What stage of crop is best to conduct hand weeding? (specimens showing carrot plant at: 

three weeks after sowing, one month after sowing, two months after sowing) 

5 Which of these specimens is a foliar organic fertilizer? (specimens: Bio-N, fermented 

plant juice or FPJ, vermi-compost) 

5 Which among these materials corrects soil acidity? (specimens: lime, chalk (powdered), urea) 

5 Which of these soils is a clay loam? (specimens: clay, clay loam, sand) 

5 Which of these materials is an inorganic fertilizer? (specimens: ash, ammonium sulfate, 

chicken dung) 

5 Which of these diseased specimens does a fungus cause? (specimens of carrot plants 

showing symptoms of: powdery mildew, root-forking, stem cracking) 

5 Which of these specimens is a physiological disorder? (specimens of carrot plants showing 

symptoms of: powdery mildew, root-forking, soft rot) 

5 Which of these diseased specimens is caused by nematodes? (specimens of carrot plants 

showing symptoms of: root knot nematodes, root knot nematodes, stem cracking) 

5 Which of these disorders is caused by water stress and boron deficiency? (specimens 

showing symptoms of: soft rot, stem cracking, root-knot nematodes) 

5 This animal (specimen: preying mantis) is a predator of what insect pest? (specimens: flea 

beetles, mole cricket, aphids) 

5 Which of these parsley crops cannot be transplanted? (specimens: carrot, celery, parsley) 

5 In which of these soils will you normally have root-forking problem? (specimens: gravely 

soil, clay loam soil, sandy loam soils) 

5 Which of these specimens does not belong to parsley family? (specimens: carrot, celery, 

green onion) 

5 Which of these soils contains high organic matter? (specimens: clayey soil, clay loam soil, 

sandy soil) 

Cucurbits (Ampalaya, Squash and Bottle Gourd): 

5 Which of these pests caused this (specimen: ampalaya, squash, or bottle gourd plants with 

cut leaves) damage? (specimens: mites, leaf miner, cutworm) 

5 Which of these pests caused this (specimen: ampalaya, squash, or bottle gourd plant 

showing dried vines) damage? (specimens: vine borer, cutworm, caterpillar) 

5 Which of these is a major pest of bottle gourd at this stage (specimen: cucumber at early 

vegetative stage) of crop? (specimens: flea beetle, thrips, fruit worm) 

5 Which of these pests caused this (specimen: fruit fly damaged fruit of ampalaya, squash, or 

bottle gourd) damage? (specimens: caterpillar, flea beetle, fruit fly) 

29

30 


5 Which of these pests caused this (specimen: fruit worm damaged fruit of bottle gourd) 

damage? (specimens: caterpillar, flea beetle, fruit worm) 

5 Which of these animals is a friend of farmers? (specimens: cutworm, aphids, coccinilid beetle) 

5 Which of these pests can be controlled by overhead irrigation? (specimens: cutworm, 

aphids, semi-looper) 

5 Which of these disorders is aggravated by infertile soils? (specimens showing symptoms 

of: flower abscission in ampalaya, fruit rot in squash, virus-infected plant in ampalaya) 

5 This disease (specimen: bottle gourd plant with symptoms of a virus disease) is transmitted 

by which pest? (specimens: cutworm, aphids, rodent) 

5 Which of these pests flooding can control? (specimens: cutworm, aphids, semi-looper) 

5 Which of these disorders can be minimized by crop rotation? (specimens of bottle gourd 

showing symptoms of: flower abscission, damping off, nitrogen deficiency) 

5 Which of these specimens is a solid organic fertilizer? (specimens: compost, compost-tea, 

fermented fruit juice or FFJ) 

5 Which of this plant is suffering from lack of nitrogen? (specimens of ampalaya plants 

showing: general yellowing, curling of leaves, leaf spots) 

5 Which of these cucurbits is more resistant to virus diseases? (specimens: squash, ampalaya, 

bottle gourd) 

5 Which of these disorders is best controlled by uprooting and proper disposal? (specimens: 

virus infected squash plant, abscised flower of ampalaya, and aborted fruit of bottle gourd) 

5 Which of these cucurbits can be grown without trellis? (specimen seedlings of: native 

ampalaya, squash, and bottle gourd) 

5 Which of these bugs is a predator? (specimens: true bug, assassin bug, and green soldier bug) 

5 Which of these is a symptom of virus disease? (specimens: rosetting of ampalaya leaves, 

presence of powdery substance on squash leaves, and bottle gourd fruit damaged by fruit fly) 

5 Which of these materials contains high organic matter? (specimens: urea, solophos, and 

compost) 


❏ What are some of commonest field problems of organically-grown vegetables observed in 

learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ What problems are common to ampalaya, squash and bottle gourd vegetables? 

❏ What do we mean by functional questionnaires? Why do we need functional questionnaires 

for ‘Ballot Box’ evaluation? 

❏ What do we mean by technical definition of specimens? Why should we avoid questions 

requiring technical definitions of specimen in “Ballot Box’ evaluation? 

❏ What are some other considerations in developing effective ‘Ballot Box’ evaluation questionnaires?



AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS FOR FARMER 

FIELD SCHOOLS ON ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION: ESTABLISHING MINIMUM DATA FOR 

DECISION-MAkING 


Agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) is a way of assembling 

what participants are studying and placing into a process 

useful for decision-making based on many factors 26 . An AESA, therefore, must look into various 

elements of a crop ecosystem, how these elements, in one way or another, affect a crop and what 

are those elements that work interdependently or separately for a particular vegetable crop. This 

exercise, therefore, provides a holistic approach in monitoring an organically-grown vegetable in 

question. 

In previous volumes 27 - 28 , minimum data necessary for decision-making had been established in 

farmer field schools of crucifers and other vegetables that are not organically-grown. For this 

volume, minimum data necessary for decision-making in farmer field schools of organically-grown 

vegetables (e.g., legumes, solanaceous vegetables, parsley, and cucurbits) will have to be established 

as well. Thus, this activity will be undertaken to address this particular concern. 



• At least 30 minutes for brainstorming in small groups to determine minimum data necessary 

for decision-making in farmer field schools of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• At least one hour for presentation and participatory discussions in big group to fine-tune 

minimum data necessary for decision-making in farmer field schools of organically-grown 

vegetables. 





27 Philippine National IPM Program. 1997. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM. National Agricultural and Fishery Council, 

Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. pp2-1 to 2-124 

28 Callo, Jr., D.P., Teofilo, L.B. and Tauli, H.A. 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center 

for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp13-16. 

31 


appropriate? 

ɶ In TOT and VST, before 

conducting first AESA 

in FFS of where both a 

primary and secondary 

organic vegetables will be 

addressed in a seasonlong 

FFS activity.


32 


• To familiarize participants with commonest organically-grown vegetables in FFS learning and 

adjoining fields; 

• To improve participants’ knowledge and skills in identifying morphological characteristics at 

different growth stages of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To establish minimum data necessary for decision-making in farmer field schools of commonest 

organically-grown vegetables in FFS learning and adjoining fields. 

materials 

• Learning and adjoining fields of organically-grown vegetables near each other where 

morphological characteristics at different growth stages can be observed; 

• Manila paper, notebook, pencil, crayon, and ball pen; and 

• Actual or live plant or plant parts. 

methodology 

• Field walks and observations, brainstorming or participatory discussions 

steps 

1. Divide big group in four smaller groups, assign each small group to a specific group of 

organically-grown vegetables, go to organically-grown vegetable fields, as shown below: 

5 Legumes (e.g., cowpea and string bean) 

5 Solanaceous vegetables (e.g., eggplant, pepper, and tomato) 

5 Parsley (e.g., carrot and celery) 

5 Cucurbits (e.g., ampalaya, squash, and bottle gourd) 

2. Conduct field walks to identify, observe, and record morphological characteristics of commonest 

organically-grown vegetables in FFS learning and adjoining fields, such as: 

5 Adaptability to local conditions 

5 Morphological structures at various growth stages 

5 Resistance to pests and diseases 

5 Tolerance to deficiencies, toxicities, and other environmental stresses


3. Collect plants or plant parts at various growth stages showing morphological characteristics 

and reactions to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses of organically-grown vegetables 

4. Go back to processing area or session hall to further observe and characterize collected 

specimens 

5. With guidance from a facilitator, brainstorm in small groups to establish minimum data 

necessary for decision-making in farmer field schools of commonest organically-grown 

vegetables in FFS learning and adjoining fields, such as: 

5 For all organically-grown vegetable crops (e.g., general data needed) 

5 For specific organically-grown vegetable crops (e.g., additional data needed) 

6. Present output of small groups to the big group and conduct participatory discussions to finetune 

established minimum data necessary for decision-making in farmer field schools for each 

group of organically-grown vegetables. A sample of minimum data required for decisionmaking 

in agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) for farmer field schools (FFSs) on organicallygrown 

vegetables is shown below 29 : 

For All Crops (Legumes, Solanaceous, Parsley and Cucurbits): 

5 Insects, other pests, and their natural enemies (e.g., numbers on a weekly basis) 

5 Diseases and physiological disorders (e.g., percentage incidence of total area) 

5 Weather conditions (e.g., sunny, cloudy or rainy day) 

5 Background information (e.g., variety, sowing or planting date, seeding rate, soil type, 

planting distance, fertilizer rate, etc.) 

5 Agronomic data (e.g., plant height, number of leaves and total yield) 

5 General observations (e.g., water, weeds and cultural management practices) 

For Specific Crops (Additional Data): 

legumes (Cowpea and string Bean) 

• Number of leaves (e.g., until tendril initiation only) 

• Number of nodes (e.g., additional nodes every week) 

• Plant height (e.g., until tendril initiation only) 



33

34 


• Number of flowers or pods developed or aborted 

• Others (e.g., date of tendril initiation, flowering, pod setting, pod maturity, frequency 

of pod priming) 

solanaceous (Eggplant, Pepper, and Tomato) 

• Number of branches 

• Number of fruits 

• Number of flowers or fruits developed or aborted 

• Others (e.g., date to flower, fruit setting, fruit maturity, frequency of fruit priming) 

Parsley (Carrot and Celery) 

• Methods of sowing (e.g., celery and carrot), planting (e.g., celery and carrot), or 

pricking-off (e.g., celery) 

• Root elongation and development (e.g., quantitative and qualitative observations for 

carrot) 

Cucurbits (ampalaya, squash, and Bottle Gourd) 

• Number of leaves (e.g., until tendril initiation only) 

• Number of nodes (e.g., additional nodes every week) 

• Number of branches (e.g., additional branches every week) 

• Number of flowers or fruits developed or aborted 

• Others (e.g., date of tendril initiation, flowering, fruit setting, fruit maturity, frequency 

of fruit priming) 


❏ What are some of commonest organically-grown vegetables observed in FFS learning and 

adjoining fields? In what group do these vegetables belong? 

❏ Are there common morphological characteristics, which distinguish each group of organicallygrown 

vegetables? 

❏ What are the minimum data required for decision-making in agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) 

for farmer field schools (FFSs) on organically-grown vegetables?



FIELD LAYOUT AND AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS 

FORMAT FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS ON 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 


In previous vegetable integrated pest management (IPM) 

farmer field schools (FFSs) in the Cordilleras, field layout 

and agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) format considered 

only one crucifer crop. Such format had been modified in current FFSs, which now involve IPM 

studies of more than one type of vegetables in addition to crucifers. Depending upon elevation, types 

of crucifers planted may not vary but types of other vegetables grown may vary considerably. 

On the other hand, a field layout and AESA format for FFS of organically-grown vegetables FFSs 

where primary and secondary vegetables are simultaneously addressed will have to be developed as 

well. This activity will address this particular concern. 



• At least 30 minutes for brainstorming in small groups to design layout and reporting format for 

agro-ecosystem analysis of organically-grown vegetables in FFS learning field where primary 

and secondary vegetables will be simultaneously addressed; and 

• At least one hour for presentation and participatory discussions in big group to finalize layout 

design and reporting format for agro-ecosystem analysis of organically-grown vegetables in 

FFS learning field where primary and secondary vegetables will be simultaneously addressed. 


• To determine what type of primary and secondary organically-grown vegetables will be 

simultaneously addressed in high and low elevation FFS learning fields; 

• To design field layout for agro-ecosystem analysis of primary and secondary organically-grown 

vegetables in high and low elevation FFS learning fields; and 

• To develop reporting format for agro-ecosystem analysis of primary and secondary organicallygrown 

vegetables in high and low elevation FFS learning fields. 



35 


appropriate? 

ɶ In TOT and VST, before 

laying-out of FFS learning 

field where a primary and 

a secondary organicallygrown 

vegetables will be 

simultaneously addressed in 

a season-long FFS activity.

materials 

36 


• Learning field ready for planting of primary and secondary organically-grown vegetables in 

high and low elevation; 

• Manila paper, notebook, marking pens, and ball pen; and 

• Meter stick or tape, plastic twine, bamboo sticks, and labeling materials. 

methodology 

• Field walks and observations, brainstorming, or participatory discussions 

steps 

1. Divide big group in two small groups, assign each small group to a specific situation or option, 

as shown below: 

5 First option, where a group of farmers observes and compares two different organic 

vegetable growing practices (e.g., both Farmers’ Organic Vegetable Growing [OVG 1 ] and 

Improved Organic Vegetable Growing [OVG 2 ] practices) 

5 Second option, where a group of farmers observes only one distinct organic vegetable 

growing practice (e.g., either Farmers’ Organic Vegetable Growing [OVG 1 ] and Improved 

Organic Vegetable Growing [OVG 2 ] practice) 

2. Go to learning field, conduct field walks, observe and design field layout for agro-ecosystem 

analysis of different organic vegetable growing practices in high and low elevation, such as: 

5 Field layout for first and second options showing plots of first (e.g., primary crop) and 

second (e.g., secondary crop) major vegetable crops 

5 Agro-ecosystem analysis reporting format for first and second options showing general 

observations and recommendations 

3. Go back to processing area or session hall and with guidance from a facilitator, brainstorm 

in small groups to develop field layout and reporting format for agro-ecosystem analysis of 

different organic vegetable growing practices in high and low elevation FFS learning fields, 

such as: 

5 Field layout for first and second options showing plots of first (e.g., primary crop) and 

second (e.g., secondary crop) major vegetable crops


5 Agro-ecosystem analysis reporting format for first and second options showing general 

observations and recommendations 

4. Present output of small groups to big group and conduct participatory discussions to finalize 

field layout and reporting format for agro-ecosystem analysis of different organic vegetable 

growing practices in high and low elevation FFS learning fields. A sample field layout and agroecosystem 

analysis (AESA) format for FFSs on different organic vegetable growing practices 

is shown below 31 : 

5 Crops to be addressed. The FFS activities will cater to needs of farmers planting 

organically-grown vegetables in high and low elevations, as follows: 

• High Elevation. In high elevation, problems on organically-grown crucifers (e.g., 

cabbage, Chinese cabbage [wongbok], broccoli, cauliflower, and pechay) and other 

organically-grown vegetables belonging to solanaceous (e.g., pepper and tomato), 

parsley (e.g., carrots) and legume (e.g., snap bean and garden pea) families will be 

addressed in FFS. Farmer-participants will select their first two major organicallygrown 

vegetable crops for FFS field studies. 

• Low Elevation. In low elevation, problems on organically-grown crucifers (e.g., 

cabbage and pechay) and other organically-grown vegetables belonging to solanaceous 

(e.g., eggplant, pepper, and tomato), parsley (e.g., parsley and carrots), legume (e.g., 

cowpea and string bean), and cucurbit (e.g., ampalaya, squash and bottle gourd) 

families will be addressed in FFS. Similarly, farmer-participants will select their first 

two major organically-grown vegetable crops for FFS field studies. 

5 Area, field layout and group assignments. A minimum of 1,000-sqm area from a portion of 

a farmer-participant’s farm, representing average field condition of FFS community, should 

be selected. The area may be increased depending upon availability and willingness of 

farmer-participants. The farmer-participants, through an appropriate participatory process 

or sharing of experiences, should select two major organically-grown vegetable crops. The 

area will be divided into five plots and crops will be assigned in plots as follows: 

First Option 

5 The first major crop (Crop A) is usually assigned to three plots (Plots I, II, and III) while the 

second major crop (Crop B) is usually assigned to remaining plots (Plots IV and V). This 

arrangement may be changed depending upon needs or priorities of farmer-participants. 



37

38 


5 The plots (Plots I, II, III, IV and V) are further subdivided into sub-plots where farmers’ 

organic vegetable growing (OVG 1 sub-plot) and improved organic vegetable growing 

(OVG 2 sub-plot) practices are compared. 

5 The 25-30 farmer-participants are then divided into five small groups of 5-6 members 

and are assigned to conduct agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) in one of plots (e.g., Group 

I is assigned to Plot I, Group II to Plot II, Group III to Plot III, Group IV to Plot IV and 

Group V to Plot V). Plot assignment may be changed depending upon needs or priorities 

of farmer-participants. 

FIELD LAYOUT IN CONDUCTING AESA FOR FFS ON ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 

(FIRST OPTION) 

CROP A (PRIMARY) CROP B (SECONDARY) 

PLOT I PLOT II PLOT III PLOT IV PLOT V 

GROUP I GROUP II GROUP III GROUP IV GROUP V 

OVG 1 OVG 1 OVG 1 OVG 1 OVG 1 


Second Option 

5 The first major crop (Crop A) is usually assigned to three plots (Plots I, II, and III) while the 

second major crop (Crop B) is usually assigned to remaining plots (Plots IV and V). This 

arrangement may be changed depending upon needs or priorities of farmer-participants. 

5 Two of three Crop A plots are assigned as improved vegetable growing (OVG 2 ) plots (e.g., 

Plots I and III) and one is assigned as farmers’ organic vegetable growing (OVG 1 ) plot 

(e.g., Plot II) while one Crop B plots is assigned as improved vegetable growing (OVG 2 ) 

plot (e.g., Plots IV) and another one as farmers’ organic vegetable growing (OVG 1 ) plot 

(e.g., Plot V). The plot assignment may be changed depending upon needs or priorities of 

farmer-participants.


5 The 25-30 farmer-participants are then divided into five small groups of 5-6 members and 

are assigned to conduct agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) in one of the plots (e.g., Group I is 

assigned to Plot I, Group II to Plot II and Group III to Plot III of Crop A plots while Group 

IV is assigned to Plot IV and Group V to Plot V of Crop B plots). Plot assignment may be 

changed depending upon needs or priorities of farmer-participants. 

FIELD LAYOUT IN CONDUCTING AESA FOR FFS ON ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 

(SECOND OPTION) 

CROP A (PRIMARY) CROP B (SECONDARY) 

PLOT I PLOT II PLOT III PLOT IV PLOT V 

GROUP I GROUP II GROUP III GROUP IV GROUP V 


5 Format of presentation. The AESA presentation will depend on layout option selected 

above and minimum data required per organically-grown vegetable crop to be studied in 

FFS sites. This is described as follows: 

• First Option. In the first option, each group of farmer-participants conducts AESA 

in two sub-plots (e.g., OVG 1 and OVG 2 sub-plots). This means that two separate sets 

of observations will be gathered in each of sub-plots. This will give an opportunity 

for each group to directly compare farmer’s organic vegetable growing (OVG 1 ) with 

improved organic vegetable growing (OVG 2 ) treatments. However, this will require 

additional time for processing in small groups. The suggested reporting format is 

shown below in AESA Reporting Format for First Option. 

39

NATURAL 

ENEMIES 

OVG 1 

40 


AESA REPORTING FORMAT FOR FIRST OPTION 

Background Information Agronomic & Weather Data 

PESTS 

NATURAL 

ENEMIES 

OVG 2 

General Observations Recommendations 

• Second Option. In the second option, each group of farmer-participants conducts 

AESA only in either an OVG 1 or OVG 2 plot. This means that only one set of observation 

is required per group. Each group’s set of observation is compared with other groups’ 

set of observation. This option will require lesser time for processing in small groups 

but will not allow direct comparison of farmer’s organic vegetable growing (OVG 1 ) 

and improved organic vegetable growing (OVG 2 ) treatments per group. The suggested 

reporting format is shown in AESA Reporting Format for Second Option. 

PESTS


AESA REPORTING FORMAT FOR SECOND OPTION 

Background 

Information 

OVG 1 or OVG 2 

41 

Agronomic & 

Weather Data 

NATURAL ENEMIES PESTS 

General Observations Recommendations 


❏ What elevations will be addressed in FFS? What organically-grown vegetables (e.g., primary 

and secondary vegetables) will be addressed in those elevations? Why? 

❏ What options are available? What were some considerations in designing field layout for agroecosystem 

analysis of organically-grown vegetables in FFS learning fields for each option? 

❏ What were some considerations in designing agro-ecosystem analysis reporting format for 

organically-grown vegetables in FFS learning fields for each options? 

❏ Are there advantages and disadvantages in using each option?


kEEPING RECORDS OF FARM ACTIVITIES: GUIDED 

DISCUSSIONS ON ‘WHY’ AND ‘WHAT’ TO RECORD 

FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 


Record is a matter of history; it cannot predict a 

future. However, it can furnish valuable information 

about past performance in specific areas of farming 

operations that can be used together with other data 

in determining future operations. Keeping in mind 

elements of risk and uncertainty inherent in organic 

42 



appropriate? 

ɶ This exercise is most 

appropriate early in 

an FFS season, so that 

farmers will be aware 

of why they keep careful 

records of production and 

labor costs in learning 

field studies and in their 

own farms. 

vegetable production, this will at least systematize farm management. In general, record 

keeping is important because 33 : 

• It increases farmer’s efficiency by providing him a basis in deciding where to put his resources (e.g., 

whether it should be better to make compost instead of buying commercial organic fertilizer); 

• It can be used for planning and budgeting. Financial records answer how much, while physical 

records answer how many questions; 

• Profitability of various operations can be evaluated. By comparing costs and returns among 

different operations, a farmer will be able to know the comparative profitability of each 

enterprise in his farm; 

• It shows where a farmer’s money comes from (e.g., return) and where it goes (e.g., costs); 

• A farmer’s capacity to pay is best shown by his farm records. Financial records provide 

evidence that will show solvency or financial stability of his enterprise; and 

• Settling questions becomes easy if all transactions are well recorded, especially between 

landlords and tenants. 

32 Adapted from Callo, Jr. D.P., A.G. Castillo, and C.A. Baniqued (eds). 2001. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Corn Production. SEAMEO 

Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), College, Laguna, Philippines. pp94-96. 

33 PCARRD. 1975. The Philippines recommends for Vegetable Crops. 1975. Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development 

(PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp136-139. As cited in: Callo, Jr. D.P., A.G. Castillo, and C.A. Baniqued (eds). 2001. Field Guide of 

Discovery-based Exercises for Corn Production. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), College, 

Laguna, Philippines. pp94-96.


The usual way to do this exercise in past FFSs was to start by asking farmers what records they 

think would be useful to keep. Although this is very participatory, it is not discovery-based because 

an exercise starts by assuming that record keeping is useful. 

In this exercise we will try to start with a question what profit farmers made last year. This will 

allow farmers to share what records they usually keep. The sharing discussion allows farmers to 

decide whether they might find it useful to keep more records than they currently do. Thus, this 

activity was designed to address such particular concern. 


• One to two hours of an FFS meeting 


• To build awareness among farmers on value of keeping records of production costs and market 

prices, especially when they are to be used as basis for calculating profit or loss; and 

• To agree on a list of inputs and costs to record in learning field for use in assessing and comparing 

profits from treatments of organic vegetable production studies. 

materials 

• Examples of records kept by farmer-participants (Note: Ask farmers to bring in any examples 

of records that they keep for their own organic vegetable fields) 

• Manila paper 

• Pens and masking or Scotch tapes 

methodology 

• Guided discussion and sharing of experiences 

steps 

1. Arrange participants in a circle for sharing. 

2. Start a discussion that explores how farmers estimate how much profit they make in their 

organic vegetable farming. Here are some suggested questions: 

43

44 


5 Who made a good profit last year or last season? 

5 How did you know that you made a profit? 

5 Do you keep any written records of your spending, earnings, and profits? What kind of 

records do you keep? 

5 How much money and time do you spend on organic vegetable production? 

5 How do you calculate what you spend (e.g., by counting PESOS or by counting sacks of 

solid organic fertilizers and packs of extract organic fertilizers)? 

5 How much did each of you get for your organic vegetable produce last year or last season? 

3. Guide a discussion to explore what profit might have been made if organic vegetable farmers 

had made different decisions about amount of inputs they used in their own organic vegetable 

fields. Here are some suggested questions: 

5 How many kilograms of each product and by-product of organically-grown vegetables did 

you have to sell to pay for organic fertilizers that you bought? 

5 What else could you have used that money for? 

4. Guide a discussion so that all needed information for recording can be explored to compare 

profits that are gained by farmers in their organic vegetable farming. 

5. Make a list of all information that the big group wants to record. 


❏ Note: There is no extra processing needed because this exercise is a guided participatory 

discussion.



COST AND RETURN ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Finding a market for organic vegetable produce is one of 

most important activities of an organic vegetable farmer. 

Always remember that no price should be considered fixed. 

A price is simply an offer or a suggestion to test prevailing 

market rate. If a buyer accept an offer, it is fine. If he or she 

rejects, price usually may be changed as quickly as possible. 

But one should see to it that there is a profit. Farmers should 

understand meaning and importance of pricing. A price 

offered to a buyer depends largely on quality of an organic 

vegetable product 35 . 

After farmers had successfully learned and understood what records would be useful to keep, a 

guided discussion and sharing on cost and return analysis of their organic vegetable production can 

be undertaken. Data obtained from an earlier exercise on ‘why’ and ‘what’ to record will be very 

useful for this next activity. A cost and return analysis can be a useful tool in project planning and 

in predicting how a business would operate under a set of assumptions 36 . 

In this exercise we will try to start with a question ‘What profit farmers will make now?’ This will 

allow them to share useful records they keep for this current season. This sharing discussion will 

allow farmers to find out whether they will now make profit or not. Thus, this activity was designed 

to address such particular concern. 


• One to two hours of an FFS meeting 



35 Tabinga, G.A. and A.O. Gagni. 1985. Corn Production in the Philippines. Department of Development Communication, University of the Philippines at 

Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp94-102. 

36 PCARRD. 2007. Profitability analysis: 1-ha organic tomato production. (Profitability Analysis No. 09/007). Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry 

and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 14p. 

45 


appropriate? 

ɶ This exercise is most 

appropriate toward the 

end of an FFS season; 

and 

ɶ When farmers want to 

learn and understand 

how records of their 

production and labor 

costs in learning field 

experiments and in their 

own fields can be used for 

cost and return analysis 

of their organic vegetable 

production.


46 


• To build awareness on value of cost and return analysis for understanding profit or loss in 

organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn and understand how records of production and labor costs can be used for cost and 

return analysis of organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Records kept by farmer-participants (Note: Ask farmers to bring in all current records that they 

keep for learning field and their own organic vegetable fields); 

• Manila paper; and 

• Pens and masking or Scotch tapes. 

methodology 

• Guided discussion and sharing of experiences 

steps 

1. Arrange participants in a circle for sharing. 

2. Start a discussion by asking some volunteer-farmers to share their records on production and labor 

costs of their own organic vegetable fields for this current season. Here are some records needed: 

5 Records of production 

5 Records of man and animal labor 

5 Records of equipment used in organic vegetable farming enterprise 

5 Costs and return 

3. Guide a discussion to obtain accurate figures of production and labor costs of volunteer-farmers’ 

own organic vegetable fields and those in learning field. Here are some suggested guides: 

5 Production records (e.g., indicate date, kind, amount and value of each product and byproduct 

of organically-grown vegetables) 

5 Labor records (e.g., labor used in enterprise including man, animal and implement hours for 

each farm operation plus all expenses for hired work animals, implements and all ‘bayanihan’ 

labor)


5 Cash receipts records (e.g., cash accounts of all receipts from organic vegetable enterprise 

indicating date items were received and their value) 

5 Cash return records (e.g., subtract from cash account all expenses incurred aside from 

labor such as seeds, organic fertilizers, biological control agents, etc.) 

5 Equipment records (e.g., equipment is not use for organic vegetable enterprise alone, hence, 

charge only a certain percentage of depreciation to organically-grown vegetable) 

4. Guide a discussion so that accurate figures of total expenses, expected yield (e.g., per hectare 

basis), gross income (e.g., based on current price per kg), and net income to compare profits 

that is gained from improved vegetable growing (OVG 2 ) and farmers’ organic vegetable (OVG 1 ) 

practice plots. 

5. Make a list of all information that the big group wants to record. 

6. Calculate costs and returns for organic vegetable enterprise and for the whole farm. The 

following is a procedure you may want to consider in analyzing costs and returns 37 : 

5 Labor and Power Costs. The amount of labor and power spent in each operation for every 

enterprise should be expressed in man-days (MD), man-animal days (MAD), or manmachine 

days (MMD). Calculate total power cost for each enterprise and then for the 

whole farm. This is calculated using formula below: 

TOTAL LABOR COST = Total labor (MD) x Wage rate + Total power (MAD/MD/MMD) x rate 

5 Material Input Cost. Total cost of all materials used in each enterprise (e.g. seeds, organic 

fertilizers, biological control agents, etc). This is calculated as: 

TOTAL MATERIAL COST = (Quantity of material 1 x Price of material 1) 

+ ... + (Quantity of material N x Price of Material N) 

5 Gross Return. The product type, production volume, and product price are important 

components in calculating gross returns. Calculate gross returns using this formula: 

37 Binamira, J.S. 2000. The Search for the National Filipino Corn Farmer Award (Draft Guidelines). National Agricultural and Fishery Council, Department 

of Agriculture, Diliman Quezon City, Philippines. pp7-9. 

47

48 


GROSS RETURNS = (Volume of product x Price of product) 

5 Net Return. Calculate net return of organic vegetable enterprise and for the whole farm, if 

applicable. This is computed as: 

NET RETURN = Gross Return - [Total Labor Cost + Material Costs] 

5 Return on Investment (ROI). This is a measure of return for every monetary unit in a 

farm. A higher ROI indicates a better economic performance of an enterprise. This ratio 

is calculated as: 

ROI = Net Income ÷ Total Costs 


❏ If you have a big profit, would you say then that you have been successful in your endeavor? 

❏ What would you do so that cost of production of your organic vegetable enterprise will give 

good returns? 

❏ How much do you have to sell your organic vegetable produce? How much profit can you get?

Section 3 

LIVING SOIL, INTEGRATED SOIL NUTRIENT AND CROP MANAGEMENTS 

Compiled in this section are best practices and learning experiences shared by FFS facilitators 

and farmer-practitioners, as well as by technical experts on topics related to: (a) living soil, 

integrated soil nutrient management or ISNM; and (b) integrated crop management or 

ICM that are relevant in organic vegetable production. Appropriate exercises were also adapted 

from Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM [Volumes I 38 and II 39 ]. The 

ISNM sub-section includes exercises that promote enhancement of a living soil through adoption 

of meaningful soil nutrient conservation and nutrient management practices in organic vegetable 

production. Likewise, this sub-section highlights several exercises on production and use of organic 

and microbial-based fertilizers. The ICM sub-section, on the other hand, includes a wide-range 

of exercises on topics related to cultural management practices in organic vegetable production. 

Moreover, this sub-section incorporates selected exercises on appropriate intercropping, crop 

rotation, and planting methods, among others. 


Council, Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. 1-1/6-40p. 



49

LIVING SOIL AND INTEGRATED SOIL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 

50 


The principle of ecology is a primary concern in organic agriculture. It states that production 

is based on ecological processes and recycling. Nourishment and well-being are achieved 

through ecology of specific production environment. For example, in case of crops, this is 

a living soil 40 . Hence, in an organic agriculture perspective, integrated soil nutrient management 

(ISNM) will require provision of environment-friendly soil nutrient management options for 

improvement of some important interrelated soil properties (e.g., physical, biological, and chemical), 

which will result to better crop productivity and higher farm income 41 . In organic vegetable 

production, organic matter is a vital component in maintaining a living soil because of its capacity 

to supply both macro- and micronutrients to plants. Also, it promotes favorable soil properties 

such as aggregation and good soil tilth for efficient aeration, root penetration, and increased water 

holding capacity. 

However, organic matter level in soils is difficult to maintain unless green manures or organic 

residues are applied continually every season. Some farm wastes such as rice straws and hulls, 

animal manures, weeds, which are abundant on-farm, can also be used in maintaining organic 

matter content of soil provided these are given appropriate treatments for composting. Microbialbased 

fertilizers can also be applied to seed, soil, or composting materials to increase the number of 

microorganisms and accelerate certain microbial processes. The desired microbial processes may 

improve nutrient availability by promoting nutrient forms that can easily be assimilated by plants 42 . 

Such microbial processes may include: (a) nitrogen conversion from air into forms usable by plants; 

(b) dissolution of phosphates by acid-secreting bacteria; or (c) breakdown of organic matter by 

bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes 43 . 

Thus, there are two very important physical properties of soils to be considered in this sub-section: soil 

texture and soil structure. Soil texture is concerned with the size of mineral particles. Specifically, 

it refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes in a given soil. No less important is 

soil structure, which is the arrangement of soil particles into groups or aggregates. Together, these 

properties help determine not only the nutrient-supplying ability of soil solids but also the supply 

40 IFOAM. 2006. Principles of Organic Agriculture. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). As cited in: Philippine Organic 

Agriculture Information Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/what. 

41 Settle, W. 1999. Living Soil: A Source Book for IPM Training. United Nations-Food and Agriculture Organization (UN-FAO) Programme for Community 

IPM IN Asia, Jl. Jati Padang, Pasar Minggu, Jakarta, Indonesia. pp5. 

42 PCARRD (ed.). 1999. The Philippines Recommends for Soil Fertility Management. Committee on Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization. 

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology, Los 

Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Philippine Recommends Series No. 92. pp78-95. 

43 PCARRD (ed.). 2006. The Philippines Recommends for Soil Fertility Management. Committee on Soil Fertility Management. Philippine Council 

for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), 

Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Philippines Recommends Series No. 36-C. pp68-90.

Section 3 • Living Soil, Integrated Soil Nutrient and Crop Managements 

of water and air so important to plant life. Soil conditions such as water movement, heat transfer, 

aeration, bulk density, and porosity are much influenced by structure. In spite of this, soil texture, 

unlike soil structure, is not changed easily by cultural management. In fact, the important physical 

changes imposed by the farmer in plowing, cultivating, draining, liming, and manuring his land are 

structural rather than textural 44 . 

This sub-section accumulates appropriate exercises that highlight best practices and experiences 

shared by FFS facilitators and farmer-practitioners about living soil. Among others, it also includes 

fitting exercises on soil nutrient management and ecologically-sound practices to maintain soil 

organic matter level through application of green manures, organic residues, and microbial-based 

fertilizers. 

44 Brady, N.C. 1985. The nature and properties of soils. 9 th Edition. Macmillan Publishing Co., 866 3 rd Ave., New York, New York, U.S.A. pp36-60. 

51


LIVING SOIL: A QUICk INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 

FOR FARMER FIELD SCHOOL IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 

BaCKGroUND aND raTIoNalE 46 

People are dependent on soils; and to a certain extent, good 

soils are dependent upon people and the use they make 

of them. Soils are natural bodies on which plants grow. 

Society enjoys and uses these plants because of their beauty 

and ability to supply fiber and food for humans and animals. 

Standards of living are often determined by quality of 

soils and kinds and quality of living things (e.g., plants and 

animals) grown on them. 

52 



appropriate? 

ɶ In FFS, TOT, and VST 

sessions, before land 

preparation as component 

of ‘Integrated Nutrient 

Management’ and ‘Soil 

Biodiversity’ topics; and 


learn from others some 

practical concepts and 

principles in improving 

soil fertility and 

productivity. 

Of six major factors affecting plant growth, only light is not supplied by soils. The soil supplies 

water, air, and mechanical support for plant roots as well as heat to enhance chemical reactions. It 

also supplies seventeen plant nutrients that are essential for plant growth. These nutrients are slowly 

released from unavailable forms in solid framework of minerals and organic matter to exchangeable 

cations associated with soil colloids and finally to readily available ions in soil solution. The ability 

of soils to provide these ions in a proper balance determines their primary value to humankind. 

Likewise, soils harbor varied and abundant population of living organisms from larger rodents 

through worms and insects to tiniest bacteria. As a result, the quality of living things in soils is 

sufficient to influence profoundly physical and chemical trend of soil changes. Virtually, all natural 

soil reactions are directly or indirectly biochemical in nature. 

Hence, to assure an early appreciation of a living soil among participants, this quick introductory 

exercise will simply list some basic characteristics that define living organisms, in contrast to nonliving 

things. This exercise will be a reference point for later discussion on nutritional and energy 

needs of plants while we talk about soil as a ‘living thing’. In FFSs, these experiences must be 

shared among farmers and facilitators to gain practical concepts and principles in improving soil 

fertility and productivity. This exercise was designed to achieve this particular objective. 

45 Adapted from Corado, M. 2008. Living Soil Exercises Developed for Farmer Field School. Reference material distributed during a Write-shop to 

Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable Farming conducted in the Philippines on 17-19 June 2008 

at the Headquarters, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, 

Philippines. 105p. 

46 Brady, N.C. 1985. The nature and properties of soils. 9 th Edition. Macmillan Publishing Co., 866 3 rd Ave., New York, New York, U.S.A. pp1-33.



• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of some basic characteristics that 

define living organisms, in contrast to non-living things in adjoining and learning fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and understand how some important characteristics of a living 

soil can be used in deciding appropriate cultural management practices to improve soil fertility 

and productivity; and 

• To learn from other farmers and facilitators some practical concepts and principles in improving 

soil fertility and productivity. 

materials 

• Soils in adjoining and learning fields used in ‘Soil Biodiversity’ exercise; 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, and marking pens); and 

• Other supplies (e.g., plastic bags, ruler, meter stick or steel tape, shovel, crowbars, magnifying 

lens, and bolo). 

methodology 

• Field walks, observations, and brainstorming 

steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe different 

soils in adjoining fields of learning field so that some basic characteristics that define living 

organisms, in contrast to non-living things could be observed. The following suggestions may 

be tried, thus: 

5 Group I to observe rolling forest soil (e.g., undisturbed forest trees are grown) 

5 Group II to observe rolling brush land soil (e.g., plants grow as tall as 1-2 meters) 

5 Group III to observe stiff grassland soil (e.g., plants grow less than 1 meter tall) 

5 Group IV to observe flat crop land soil (e.g., vegetable crops are grown) 

5 Group V to observe plain barren land soil (e.g., no crop or other plant is grown) 

53

54 


2. Each group marks a 1-m 2 quadrant of soil surface with the use of pegs and nylon twine to 

secure corners of quadrant and perform activities below: 

5 Pull out and ‘de-soil’ (e.g., ipagpag or shake to retain soil in roots) weeds inside quadrant. 

5 Collect soil litters and organisms (e.g., rove beetles, ants, millipede, earthworms, etc.) 

found in soil surface and place separately in plastic bags. 

5 Scrape soil within two inches depth of quadrant and place in separate plastic bag. 

5 Observe crop development, root depth, presence of soil organisms, etc. 

5 Observe possible indication of management practices, nutrients, fertility level, organic 

matter content, erosion hazards, etc. 

5 List down all pertinent observations. 

3. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups to design a suitable matrix to record 

observations and do the following activities: 

5 Facilitators motivate discussion by asking: ‘Is soil a living or a dead thing?’ 

5 Participants contribute to make a list of characteristics that uniquely define living organisms. 

5 Brainstorm on what characteristics of soils suggest that they are ‘alive’. 

4. Present output of small groups to big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow 

sharing of experiences among participants. Relate some basic characteristics of living soils to 

abundance of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil 

nutrient availability, and crop productivity. 


conclusions and recommendation from this exercise. 


❏ What are some basic characteristics that define living organisms, in contrast to non-living 

things? While a list may be long, facilitator must emphasize and include, if not list, the 

following: (a) feeding, (b) growth, (c) breathing [respiration], (d) reproduction, (e) elimination 

of wastes, and (f) death. 

❏ Which of these characteristics can be said to be true of soils? While soil itself is a composite 

of both living and non-living things, it nevertheless shares several characteristics of a living 

entity. Principally, a soil: (a) breathes, (b) needs to be fed, (c) creates waste products, and (d) in 

many respects, can ‘die’. 

❏ Do you know of any example in which soils have been damaged and degraded to the point of 

being ‘dead’?


❏ How many kg of insects, worms, bacteria and fungi do you think are in a typical hectare of soil 

(facilitator pose this question and offer matrix below, but without numbers): 

ORGANISMS kG/HA X 20 CM DEEP 

Insects 17 

Worms 600 

Bacteria 1,500 

Fungi 3,500 

Note: This study in central Europe shows just how ‘alive’ a soil really is. It measured 

amount of living organisms in a 1-ha of soil, down to 20 cm in depth. To date, most 

participants have seriously underestimated how much living material exists in soil 

(especially bacteria and fungi). Recall, however, that this study was done in temperate 

zone. Values will be different for tropics and depend greatly on amount of organic 

matter in soil. 

❏ Did you observe differences in kind and number of organisms and litters found in different 

soils? 

❏ Do you think there will be differences in performance (e.g., plant growth, development, and 

yield) of crops to be grown in different soils? 

❏ What factors do you think influenced the number and kind of organisms and litters found in 

different soils? 

❏ What do you think is the influence of some basic characteristics of a living soil on abundance 

of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil nutrient 

availability, and crop productivity? 

❏ What characteristics should we observe in a living soil that suggest abundance of soil organisms, 

soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil nutrient availability, and crop 

productivity? 

55


BARANGAY SOIL MAPPING: DETERMINING 

SOIL TYPES AND THEIR FARM LOCATIONS AS A 

MANAGEMENT GUIDE FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY 


For practical purposes, soil types can be determined by 

examining soil textures and soil structures. Physically, 

a mineral soil is a porous mixture of inorganic particles, 

decaying organic matter, and air and water. The larger 

mineral fragments usually are embedded in and coated 

over with colloidal and other fine materials. Where the 

larger mineral colloids are dominant, the soil has clayey 

characteristics; and all gradations between these extremes 

56 


are found in nature. Organic matter acts as binding agent between individual particles, thereby 

encouraging the formation of clumps or aggregates. 

The size of particles in mineral soil is not subject to ready change. Thus, a sandy soil remains 

sandy and a clayey soil remains clay. The proportion of each size group in a given soil (soil texture) 

cannot be altered and thus is considered a basic property of a soil. Soil structure on the other hand 

relates to the grouping or arrangement of soil particles. It is strictly a field term that describes the 

gross, overall combination or arrangement of the primary soil separates into secondary groupings 

called aggregates or peds. A profile may be dominated by a single type of aggregate. More often, 

several types are encountered in the different horizon. The dominant shape of peds or aggregates in 

a horizon determines their structural types. Soil structure grades, on the other hand, relates to the 

degree of inter-aggregate adhesion and to aggregate stability. Four grades are recognized 48 : 

• Structureless. Particles not arranged into peds or aggregates. If separates are not bound 

together (not coherent), as in a course sand, the term ‘single’ grain is used. If they are tightly 

bound (coherent), as in very compact subsoil or in a paddled surface soil, ‘massive’ is used; 

• Weak. Poorly formed peds or aggregates barely observable in place; 


appropriate? 

ɶ In FFS, TOT, and 

VST sessions, as 

component of topic 

on ‘Soil Conservation 

and Management’ or 

‘Barangay Soil Mapping’; 

and 


learn more improved soil 

management practices 

from other farmers by 

studying soil types of their 

individual farms. 

47 Adapted from Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, Volume II. 

SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp61-63. 



• Moderate. Well-formed and moderately durable peds that are not very distinct in undisturbed 

soil; and 

• Strong. Durable peds or aggregates that are quite evident in undisturbed soil and become 

separated when the soil is disturbed. 

The characteristics of any soil emerged from its parent material and from external conditions such 

as weather, slope, vegetation, and farming practices. Parent materials and external conditions 

are often location-specific and may differ within a short distance in a farming area of a same 

community 49 . In FFSs, a barangay soil map can be developed to indicate not only soil types, based 

on soil textures and structures, but also location of farmer’s individual farms. This information 

will be very useful in determining appropriate soil management strategies for each soil type by 

actual field examination and sharing of experiences among farmers. This particular exercise was 

designed to address this concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of different soil textural and 

structural classes of individual farmers in adjoining and learning fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour soil mapping and brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and understand the different soil-water management requirements 

for different soil textural and structural classes to improve crop productivity; 

• To learn how to do a barangay soil map showing different soil textural and structural classes 

of farmers’ individual farms; and 

• To learn from each other appropriate soil-water management practices for different soil 

textural and structural classes. 

materials 

• Individual farmer’s farm in adjoining and learning fields where different soil textural and 

structural classes can be observed visually; and 


49 FARM. 1998. Facilitator’s Manual: Farmer Field School on Integrated Soil Management. Farmer-centered Agricultural Resource Management (FARM) 

Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Office for Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. pp34-35. 

57

methodology 

• Field walks, hands-on, and brainstorming 

steps 

58 


1. Divide participants in small groups in accordance with the closeness of their farms. Briefly 

explain the objective of exercise and ask them to conduct field walks and observe soil textural 

and structural classes of their individual farms as follows: 

5 describe physical characteristics (e.g., soil textural and structural classes) of soil in their 

individual farms 

5 take note in a piece of paper description of physical characteristics of soils in their individual 

farms 

2. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups to integrate all observations in 

individual farms. 

3. Present output of small groups to the big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow 

sharing of experiences among participants on the characteristics of each identified soil textural 

and structural classes. Relate effects on crop growth and soil-water management practices. 

Perform the following activities: 

5 Draw a simple map of area on a Manila paper indicating roads, rivers, settlements, slopes 

(e.g., for mountain areas), etc. 

5 Mark farm location of individual farmers on map 

5 Identify soil textural and structural classes boundary on map 

5 Place each group’s soil texture and soil structure descriptions close to their site on map 




❏ What do we mean by barangay soil mapping? What is the importance of making a barangay 

soil map based on soil type (e.g., soil texture and soil structure)? 

❏ Were there differences observed in the soil characteristics of farmers’ individual farm? Were 

there differences in soil textures and soil structures?


❏ How did soil texture and soil structure relate to water retention, nutrient availability, and soil 

microbial activity? 

❏ How did soil type (soil textural and structural classes) and farm location influence selection of 

crops planted and the soil-water management practices employed? 

❏ Did farmers use different soil-water management practices because of different soil textural 

and structural classes as well as farm locations? Why? 

❏ Do you think there will be differences in crop performance (e.g., plant growth, development, 

and yield) among farms exhibiting different soil textural and structural classes? Why? 

❏ Did you learn any important soil-water management practices from other farmers related to 

differences in soil textural and structural classes? What are they? 

59


SOIL PROFILE ANALYSIS: A GUIDE IN UNDERSTANDING 

SOIL FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY IN ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE FARMING 


Examination of a vertical section of a soil in a field reveals 

presence of more or less distinct horizontal layers. Such 

a section is called a soil profile, and individual layers are 

regarded as soil horizons. Every well-developed, undisturbed 

soil has its own distinctive profile characteristics, which are 

used in soil classification and in judging soil fertility and 

productivity 51 . Soil fertility refers to inherent capacity of a 

soil to supply nutrients to plants in adequate amounts and in 

suitable proportions. Soil productivity, on other hand, is related 

to the soil’s ability to yield crops. It is a broader term since soil 

fertility is only one of the factors that determine magnitude of crop yields. 

60 



appropriate? 


VST sessions, before 

land preparation 

as component of 

‘Integrated Nutrient 



ɶ When farmers want 

to learn from others 

some innovative soil 


and do hands-on of soil 

profile analysis. 

The topsoil, being near surface, is a major zone of root development. It carries much of nutrients 

available to plants, and it supplies a large share of water used by crops. As a layer that is plowed 

and cultivated, it is subject to manipulation and management. Proper cultivation and incorporation 

of organic residues may modify its physical condition. It can be treated easily with organic solid 

fertilizers such as vermi-compost, and it can be drained. In short, its fertility and to a lesser degree, 

its productivity, may be raised, lowered, or satisfactorily stabilized at levels consistent with economic 

organic vegetable crop production. 

An analysis, therefore, of a soil profile is important in deciding appropriate cultural management 

practices that will enhance organic vegetable crop productivity. Farmers’ way of assessing soil 

profile had evolved through years of experience. In FFSs, these experiences must be shared among 

farmers and facilitators to gain new knowledge in improving soil fertility and productivity. This 

exercise was designed to achieve this particular objective. 






• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, and hands-on of soil profiles in 

adjoining and learning fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for brainstorming session in a processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and understand how soil profile analysis can be used in deciding 

appropriate cultural management practices to improve soil fertility and productivity; and 

• To learn innovative soil management practices from other farmers and do hands-on of soil 

profile analysis. 

materials 

• Soil profiles in adjoining and learning fields used in ‘Soil Biodiversity’ exercise; 




methodology 


steps 


soil profiles in adjoining fields of learning field so that different soil types could be described. 

The following suggestions may be tried, thus: 

5 Group I to observe rolling forest soil profile (e.g., undisturbed forest trees are grown) 

5 Group II to observe rolling brush land soil profile (e.g., plants grow as tall as 1-2 meters) 

5 Group III to observe stiff grassland soil profile (e.g., plants grow less than 1 meter tall) 

5 Group IV to observe flat crop land soil profile (e.g., vegetable crops are grown) 

5 Group V to observe plain barren land soil (e.g., no crop or other plant is grown) 

2. Each group marks a 1-m 2 quadrant of soil surface with the use of pegs and nylon twine to secure 

corners of quadrant and perform activities below: 

61

62 






5 Dig a pit one meter deep and one meter wide to show soil profile. 

5 Let participants determine layers in soil profile by describing color, texture, structure, 

presence of stones, parent materials, etc. 

5 Observe crop development, root depth, presence of soil organisms, etc. 

5 Observe possible indication of management practices, nutrients, fertility level, organic 

matter content, erosion hazards, etc. 

5 Take soil samples from different layers. 




5 Summarize all observations made in the soil profile. 

5 Draw and color soil profiles as observed or construct a mini-soil profile using soil samples 

collected from soil layers. 

5 List down all pertinent observations on soil and water management practices. 


sharing of experiences among participants. Relate soil profile characteristics to abundance 

of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil nutrient 

availability, and crop productivity. 




❏ What is a soil profile? Did you observe different soil layers in a soil profile? Did you see 

variations in color, texture, and structure in different soil layers? What did these variations 

suggest? 

❏ Did you observe differences in kind and number of organisms and litters found in different 

layers of a soil profile? 


yield) of crops to be grown in soils with varying soil profiles?



different soil layers of a soil profile? 

❏ What do you think is the influence of varying soil textures and structures of a soil layer or 

profile on abundance of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding 

capacity, soil nutrient availability, and crop productivity? 

❏ What characteristics should we observe in soil layer or profile to suggest abundance of soil 

organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil nutrient availability, 

and crop productivity? 

63


SOIL SAMPLING AND SOIL TEST kIT ANALYSIS: 

PRACTICAL GUIDES IN UNDERSTANDING AVAILABLE 

SOIL NUTRIENTS FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC 



One basic requirement for proper and efficient use of organic 

fertilizer is for farmers to be able to take and analyze soil 

samples taken from their newly plowed and harvested 

vegetable fields. Proper soil sampling from different points in 

their own fields requires simple skills that extension workers 

and farmers alike should possess. They must also know how 

to take care of their soil samples after collecting them for 

analysis later. In FFS, facilitators and farmers together can 

64 



appropriate? 



preparation as component 






innovative ways of 

assessing soil fertility and 

do hands-on of proper 

soil sampling and using 

STK for soil analysis. 

do an analysis. In cases where this kind of arrangement is not possible, then collected samples can 

be submitted to nearest provincial or regional soil laboratory for analysis. 

To determine soil fertility: (a) a farmer can collect soil samples from his field and submit it to 

a government soil laboratory for analysis, a process that usually takes time; (b) another method 

is to analyze plant tissues for presence of nutrients, requiring highly qualified persons to do an 

analysis; (c) still another method is to study crop yields over seasons; and (d) a quick method for soil 

analysis is using a soil test kit [STK], although this may not be available in most areas. If available, 

however, an analysis using STK is simple that even farmers can undertake by themselves even 

without assistance from a trained extension worker. 

Soil analysis by STK involves simple chemical analysis that measures amount of available soil 

nutrients in plants. Results are interpreted and used as basis in making a recommendation on 

the right kind and amount of organic fertilizers for a particular crop when grown in soil being 

tested. STK is handy and easy to use. It does not require sophisticated laboratory instruments 

and specialized training for users. Soil testing can be done right in vegetable fields and results are 

obtained within a few hours. It is, therefore, a useful tool for farmers and extension workers who, 

oftentimes, need immediate answer to question of what kind and amount of organic fertilizers to use 

for a crop to be organically-grown in a particular soil. 

52 Corado, M. 2008. Living Soil Exercises Developed for Farmer Field School. Reference material distributed during a Write-shop to Develop A Field 

Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable Farming conducted in the Philippines on 17-19 June 2008 at the Headquarters, 

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 105p.


In this exercise, participants will try to learn how to undertake proper soil sampling and to analyze 

soil using an STK. Proper soil sampling and analysis is important in deciding appropriate cultural 

management practices that will enhance organic crop productivity. Apart from soil analysis, 

through years of experience, farmers had developed their own way of assessing soil fertility. In 

FFSs, these experiences must be shared among farmers and facilitators to gain new knowledge in 

improving soil fertility and productivity in organic vegetable farming. This exercise was designed 

to achieve this particular objective. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, and hands-on of proper soil sampling 

and using STK for soil analysis in adjoining and learning fields; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand how soil fertility assessment and soil analysis 

can be used in deciding appropriate cultural management practices to improve soil fertility and 

productivity in organic vegetable farming; and 

• To learn innovative ways of assessing soil fertility and do hands-on of proper soil sampling and 

using STK for soil analysis. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields in adjoining and learning fields used in ‘Soil Biodiversity’ exercise; 




methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and assess soil 

fertility and do hands-on of proper soil sampling and using STK for soil analysis in adjoining 

fields of learning field. The following suggestions may be tried, thus: 

65

For Assessing Soil Fertility (Optional): 

66 


5 Group I to assess soil fertility of rolling forest (e.g., undisturbed forest trees are grown) 

5 Group II to assess soil fertility of rolling brush land (e.g., plants grow as tall as 1-2 meters) 

5 Group III to assess soil fertility of stiff grassland (e.g., plants grow less than 1 meter tall) 

5 Group IV to assess soil fertility of flat crop land (e.g., vegetable crops are grown) 

5 Group V to assess soil fertility of plain barren land (e.g., no crop or other plant is grown) 

For Proper Soil Sampling: 

5 Conduct participatory discussion to develop pointers on how soil samples will be taken 

from vegetable fields; 

5 Each small group takes samples in newly harvested plowed and newly harvested unplowed 

vegetable fields. Request each small group to do hands-on of proper soil sampling 

procedures agreed upon; and 

5 Let each small group collect soil samples in two (2) field sites: one sampling activity to be 

undertaken at learning field and another in a nearby adjoining vegetable field. 

Note: Soil sample taken from learning field should be kept by each small group for STK 

analysis. Results will be used later as basis for conducting their participatory 

technology development (PTD) studies. 

For Soil Test Kit (STK) Analysis: 

5 Conduct participatory discussion to level-off on objectives and procedures of this exercise; 

5 Distribute soil test kit to and request each small group to copy steps for analysis on a 

Manila paper; and 

5 Guide and assist each small group to do hands-on of STK analysis by carefully following 

steps indicated on Manila paper or directly from STK instruction leaflet; 

Note: Results of this exercise will be used in determining amount of organic solid, 

extract, and microbial-based fertilizers requirements for conducting their 

participatory technology development (PTD) studies. 



5 Summarize results of exercises; 

5 Analyze results and draw conclusions about soil fertility assessment, proper soil sampling 

procedures, and STK analysis; and


5 List down all pertinent observations on farmers’ innovative soil and nutrient management 

practices. 

3. Present output of small groups to big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing 

of experiences among participants. Relate soil fertility assessment and STK analysis results to 

abundance of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil 

nutrient availability, and crop productivity. 




❏ How many soil samples are required in a hectare of vegetable field? Did you see variations in 

color and textures in different soil layers? 

❏ Why is there a need for soil sampling? How often should a farmer subject his vegetable field 

to soil analysis? 

❏ What procedures are to be followed in taking soil samples from a vegetable field with different 

elevations? 

❏ What are the steps necessary before and after taking soil samples? 

❏ What are the different procedures in analyzing soils? What are their advantages and 

disadvantages? 

❏ Were the results of STK analyses conform to expectations of farmers? 

❏ Were there differences in results between different soil samples analyzed? 

❏ What are the limitations of using STK for soil analysis? 

67


THE ‘FEEL METHOD’: CLASSIFYING SOIL TEXTURES 

AND STRUCTURES FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


The common field method of classifying a soil is by its 

feel 54 . Much can be judged about texture and class of a soil 

merely by rubbing it between thumb and fingers than by any 

other superficial means. Usually, it is helpful to wet sample 

in order to estimate plasticity more accurately. The way a 

wet soil ‘slick out’ (e.g., develops a continuous ribbon when 

pressed between thumbs and fingers) gives a good idea of the 

68 



appropriate? 

ɶ In FFS, TOT and VST 

sessions, as component 


Management’ topic; and 



soil texture and structure 


for organic vegetable 

production. 

amount of clay present. The slicker a wet soil, the higher its clay content. Sand particles are gritty; 

silt has a floury or talcum powder-feel when dry and is only slightly plastic and sticky when wet. 

Silt and clay generally impart persistent cloddiness. However, soil textures are not subject to easy 

modification in farmers’ field. For most field crop production areas, soil texture is not changed by 

cultural management. We turn to a physical property of the soil that is subject to some change – the 

soil structure. 

Nevertheless, for some garden and organic vegetable crops with high economic value, large quantities 

of sand may be added to a fine-textured soil to improve its tillage properties. In greenhouses, mixtures 

of different soils and organic materials are commonly used and a textural class of mixtures may be 

varied. Thus, one factor to consider in raising healthy and vigorous organic vegetable crops is to 

understand soil texture and structure. Soils that are coarse or stony have low water holding capacity 

and organic matter content, while crumbly and friable soils are richer in organic matter, easier to 

work on, and more suited for growing organic vegetables. On the other hand, fine-textured soils, 

especially those without a stable granular structure, allow relatively slow gas and water movement 

despite the usually large volume of total pore space. Aeration, especially in subsoil, frequently is 

inadequate for satisfactory root development and desirable microbial activity. Therefore, the size 

of individual pore spaces rather than their combined volume is an important consideration. The 

loosening and granulating of fine-textured soils promotes aeration not so much by increasing total 

pores space as by raising the proportion of macro-spaces. 

53 Adapted from Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, Volume II. 

SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp68-71. 



Many organic vegetable farmers had accumulated vast experiences in dealing with different soil 

textures and structures. These experiences must be shared with others in FFSs to further improve 

current practices in managing soils with varying soil textures and structures. This exercise was 

designed to address this particular concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of soil texture and structure 

management practices for organic vegetables grown at adjoining fields of learning field; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for hands-on and brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and understand how proper soil texture and soil structure 

management can improve productivity and profitability in growing organic vegetables; and 

• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on of proper soil texture and structure management 

that will improve productivity and profitability in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable crops grown in soils of different soil textures and structures in adjoining 

fields of learning field; 

• Soils obtained in ‘Soil Biodiversity’ exercise, if conducted already; 


• Other supplies (e.g., empty one-litter capacity plastic bottles, cutter, alaskin (tulle), rubber 

bands, water, and weighing scale). 

methodology 


steps 


soil textures and structures in adjoining fields of learning field, as follows: 

5 Group I to visually observe soil texture and structure of forest soil (e.g., undisturbed forest 

trees are grown) 

69

70 


5 Group II to visually observe soil texture and structure of brush land (e.g., plants grow as 

tall as 1-2 meters) 

5 Group III to visually observe soil texture and structure of grassland (e.g., plants grow less 

than 1 meter tall) 

5 Group IV to visually observe soil texture and structure of crop land (e.g., organic vegetable 

crops are grown) 

5 Group V to visually observe soil texture and structure of barren land (e.g., no crop or other 

plant is grown) 

2. Each group should mark a 1-m 2 quadrant of soil surface with the use of pegs and nylon twine to 

secure corners of quadrant and perform the following activities: 


5 Remove soil litters and organisms (e.g., rove beetles, ants, millipede, earthworms, etc.) 

found in soil surface. 



3. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups to modify, improve, if necessary, or 

implement as the procedure suggested below to determine soil texture and structure: 

5 Get air-dried soil samples from respective quadrants, pulverize, and weigh 1-kg soil. 

5 Take soil sample sufficient to fit comfortably into palm. 

5 Remove foreign bodies (e.g., roots, seeds, insects, etc.) and soil materials greater than 2 

mm (e.g., gravel, etc,). 

5 Moisten sample uniformly, a little at a time; knead soil until it just begins to stick to fingers 

(e.g., so-called sticky point). 

5 Break down soil into its individual particles so that no aggregates remain; some soils need 

much working. 

5 Work soil in hand and squeeze soil between thumb and forefinger to determine if it is one 

of the following: 

• Sandy soil has nil to very little coherence. Alternatively, a rough ball can be formed, 

which breaks easily when squeezed lightly between thumb and fingers. Alternatively, a 

rough cylinder (about 5-cm long, 1.5-cm diameter) can be formed out of the soil but the 

cylinder is not smooth and cracks form and soil has a sandy feel, which predominates 

and is not very sticky.


• Loamy soil forms a smooth ball or cylinder that is coherent. Alternatively, ball or 

cylinder can be rolled into a thread (about 13-cm long, 0.6-cm diameter) and soil can 

be easily worked between thumb and forefinger. Meanwhile, the thread can be formed 

into ‘U’ or ring but cracks are formed. Alternatively, ‘I’ formed sticks on fingers with 

a silky-soapy feel that predominates but may sometimes also have a slightly sandy feel. 

• Clayey soil can be formed into a ball, which is smooth and plastic, and soil is stiff to 

work between thumb and forefinger. Alternatively, soil can be rolled into a ribbon, 

which forms a ring without cracking. Or soil takes on polish when moist and soil is 

very sticky when wet and has a silky-soapy feel that predominates but sometimes a 

few sand grains may also be felt. 

• Soil Structure Classes. The peds or aggregates are classified according to their size 

into soil structure classes as follows: (a) very fine or very thin; (b) fine or thin; (c) 

medium; (d) coarse or thick; and (e) very course or very thick. 


sharing of experiences among participants. Relate soil texture to water holding capacity, 

abundance of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil nutrient availability and crop 

productivity. 




❏ How will you differentiate soil texture from soil structure? 

❏ Which soil samples had sandy, loamy, and clayey soil texture? 

❏ Which soil texture exhibited higher water holding capacity? Which soil texture exhibited lower 

water holding capacity? 

❏ What physical, chemical, and biological soil characteristics were related to soil texture and soil 

structure? 

❏ Did you observe differences in the kind and number of organisms in soils exhibiting different 

textures and structures? 


yield) of crops to be grown in soils of different textures and structures? 

71

72 


❏ What do you think is the role of soil texture and soil structure on water holding capacity, 

abundance of soil organisms, soil organic matter content, soil nutrient availability, and crop 

productivity? 

❏ How do you change or improve soil textures and soil structures? Did you learn from other 

farmers their innovative practices for improving different soil textures and soil structures?



SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY DETERMINATION: 

A SOIL MANAGEMENT GUIDE FOR IMPROVING 

PRODUCTIVITY IN GROWING ORGANIC VEGETABLES 


Organic matter functions as a ‘granulator’ of mineral 

particles, being largely responsible for loose, easily managed 

condition of productive soils. Through its effect on physical 

condition of soils, organic matter also increases amount of 

water a soil can hold or water holding capacity and proportion 

of this water available for plant growth. Soils high in organic 

matter are darker and have greater water holding capacity 

than soils low in organic matter 56 . 

Two major concepts concerning soil water emphasize significance of this component of soil in 

relation to plant growth, namely: (1) water is held within soil spaces (pores) with varying degrees of 

attraction (tenacity) depending on amount of water present and size of pores; and (2) together with 

its dissolved nutrients (salts), soil water makes up soil solution, which is very important as a medium 

for supplying nutrients to growing plants. 

A clearly important characteristic of a soil is its ability to hold water. One problem with a coarse 

sandy soil is that water (and nutrients) is rapidly lost from soil. One important quality of soil organic 

matter is that it helps in water retention. To demonstrate this to farmers is a simple exercise that 

should help promote use of compost and mulch in organic vegetable production. In FFSs, relevant 

experiences on water holding capacities of different soils can be shared freely among farmers and 

facilitators to improve current soil management practices in organic vegetable production. This 

particular exercise was designed to address this concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of water holding capacities of soils 

in adjoining and learning fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on and brainstorming session in processing area. 




73 


appropriate? 


VST sessions, as 

component of topic on 

‘Soil Conservation and 

Management’ or ‘Soil 

Biodiversity’; and 


learn more improved soil 


from other farmers that 

will increase waterholding 

capacity of their 

soils.


74 


• To make participants aware of and understand the factors contributing to higher soil water 

holding capacity and its role in improving crop productivity; and 

• To learn the current best practices from other farmers that will increase soil water holding capacity. 

materials 

• Adjoining and learning fields where different soil water holding capacities can be observed 

visually; 

• Soils obtained in ‘Soil Biodiversity’ exercise; 


• Other supplies (e.g., three empty one-litter capacity plastic bottles, three clear plastic cups or 

glasses, cutter, alaskin (tulle), rubber bands, water, weighing scale). 

methodology 


steps 


soil water holding capacities (WHC) in adjoining and learning fields as follows: 

5 Groups I and II to visually observe WHC of poor and sandy soil (e.g., soil near river banks) 

5 Group III to visually observe WHC of local farm soil (e.g., soil from farm continuously 

applied with chemical fertilizers) 

5 Groups IV and V to visually observe WHC of soil rich in organic matter (e.g., soil from 

farm continuously applied with ordinary compost or vermi-compost) 

2. Each group should mark a 1-m 2 quadrant of soil surface with use of pegs and nylon twine to 

secure corners of quadrant and perform the activities below: 

5 Pull out and ‘de-soil’ (e.g., ipagpag or shake to retain soil in the roots) weeds inside quadrant. 

5 Remove soil litters and organisms (e.g., rove beetles, ants, millipede, earthworms, etc.) 

found in soil surface. 


5 List down all pertinent observations.


3. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups to modify, improve, if necessary, or 

implement as is the procedure suggested below 57 : 

5 Get air-dried soil samples from respective quadrants, pulverize, and weigh 300-600 g soil. 

5 Get three empty plastic bottles, cut bottom of each plastic bottle. 

5 Turn bottles upside-down and put loose-weave square of cloth into neck area of each plastic 

bottle from inside, or tie cloth over top of each plastic bottle with a rubber band or twine. 

5 Choose soils from three locations: (a) poor and sandy soil, (b) local farm soil, and (c) 

compost or soil rich in organic matter. 

5 Place a fixed amount of soil (e.g., somewhere between 300 to 600 g) of each type of soil in 

each inverted bottle 

5 Suspend inverted bottle above plastic cups (e.g., hanging by twine from pole). 

5 Take a plastic cup, fill it full with water, and then add it to soil in each bottle. 

Water Holding Capacity 

Sample A 

75 

A B C 

Samples 

5 Do some other activities and return when water has passed completely through all samples. If 

one of the bottles has absorbed all water, but none has passed through into cup, you will need to 

add water (e.g., same to each of all three samples to be able to compare results at the end). 

5 After all samples have drained completely, line up cups side-by-side and compare results. 




Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 105p.

76 



sharing of experiences among participants. Relate soil water holding capacity to abundance of 

soil organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil nutrient availability and crop productivity. 

5. Synthesize and summarize output of the small groups into one big group output. Draw up 



❏ What do we mean by soil water holding capacity? 

❏ Which soil sample drained faster? Which soil sample drained more water? 

❏ Which soil samples exhibited the highest water holding capacity? Which soil samples exhibited 

the lowest water holding capacity? 

❏ What physical, chemical, and biological soil characteristics were related to high water holding 

capacity? 

❏ Did you observe differences in the kind and number of organisms in soils exhibiting different 

water holding capacities? 


yield) of crops to be grown in soils of different water holding capacities? 

❏ What do you think is the role of soil water holding capacity on the abundance of soil organisms, 

soil organic matter content, soil nutrient availability, and crop productivity? 

❏ How do you maintain or increase soil water holding capacity?



COMPOSTING 59 AS A SOIL AND WEED MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 


Many farmers believe that weeds are a problem in organic 

vegetable production because they do not only compete 

with crops for nutrient uptake but also harbor some pests. 

This is also one reason why farmers, during land clearing 

and preparation, will either throw or burn weeds. Unknown 

to most of them are the many benefits that can be derived 

from weeds when they are used or managed properly. Using 

and managing weeds properly will ease burden on lack of 

fertilizers, improve soil structure, and encourage soil microbial activity, which will eventually lead 

to improved soil fertility and productivity. 

One way of doing this is by weed composting. Composting involves decomposition of organic 

materials to form small bits of organic matter called compost. The whole process is done by 

decomposers that use organic matter as source of energy for their growth and reproduction. Majority 

of decomposers are microorganisms. Macro-organisms such as earthworm, termite, and other 

insects also contribute in breaking down organic materials. Therefore, two requirements for process 

to occur are: (1) composting materials and (2) decomposers. Microorganisms prefer materials that 

are high in nitrogen (N), such as weeds and crop residues. Materials high in N are also easier to 

break down. The more decomposers present, the faster is the decomposition process. 

The soil-borne fungus Trichoderma harzianum is now locally available. If applied to compost 

materials, it can shorten composting process from four months to only 3-5 weeks. This microorganism 

is now mass-cultured and mass distributed to farmers. Such innovative strategies can be shared and 

enriched by farmers and facilitators in FFSs to improve current practices through participatory, 

discovery-based, and experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. 



59 Bautista, O.K. (ed.). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. 2 nd Edition, SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 

and University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp284-294. 

77 


appropriate? 



or immediately after 

weeding operations in 

learning field; and 


to learn from other 

farmers some innovative 

composting process for 

weeds and other crop 

residues.


78 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, interaction with farmers and hands-on 

in learning field; and 

• Thirty minutes for brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants about the role of composting as a 

soil and weed management strategy in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn from others and do hands-on of proper composting of weeds and other crop residues. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, and crayons); 

• Organic vegetable crops that are newly weeded or ready for weeding operations in learning and 

adjoining fields; and 

• Other supplies (e.g., weeds, animal manure, Trichoderma harzianum fungus, black polyethylene 

sheets, bamboo poles, banana trunks, shovel or spading fork, top soil, tape measure, bolo, or 

scythe) 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe weeding 

and post-weeding practices of organic vegetables in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of 

cultural practices employed. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations 

related to: 

5 Kind of crops planted and crop stand; 

5 Prevalent weeds, pests, and diseases; and 

5 Weeding and post-weeding practices, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area; brainstorm in small groups and present output to big group. 

Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and


facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in composting of weeds and other 

crop residues. 

3. Develop an improved procedure of composting as a soil and weed management strategy in 


4. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of composting of weeds and other crop residues in 

learning field every after weeding operation by improving the procedure below: 

5 After weeding operation, collect at least 100 kg composting materials (e.g., weeds, and 

other crop residues); 

5 Soak collected composting materials in water overnight; 

5 Dig a pit with an area of 2 m x 2 m and a depth of one foot to pile composting materials; 

5 Place banana trunks as walling to hold composting materials; 

5 Pile composting materials into pit to a height of about one foot; 

5 Spread uniformly a thin coating of Trichoderma harzianum fungus (optional) over 

composting materials; 

5 Spread also uniformly one-foot thick animal manure over composting materials; 

5 Cover pile with one-inch topsoil; 

5 Repeat procedure until at least five layers are formed; 

5 Cover compost pile with black polyethylene sheet; 

5 Insert a bamboo pole (e.g., joints have been bored at side of pole) into pile to serve as 

ventilation vent; or after two weeks, mix thoroughly compost pile then cover again with 

black polyethylene sheet; 

5 Compost process is complete in one (with Trichoderma) to four (without Trichoderma) 

months (e.g., 100 kg composted weeds and other crop residues is equivalent to one sack 

pure organic fertilizer); and 

5 Take note of all relevant observations and experiences during this activity. 




❏ Did you observe different weeding and post weeding practices on farms planted to organic 

vegetables and other plants in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers preparing composts in their fields? Did they use weeds and other crop 

residues as compost materials? 

79

80 


❏ Did you observe farmers using other compost materials? What are these compost materials? 

❏ Is composting effective as a soil and weed management strategy in organic vegetable production? 

When is the best time to do composting as a soil and weed management strategy in organic 

vegetable production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative composting procedure used by farmers as a soil and weed 

management strategy in organic vegetable production? What benefits did farmers gain from 

composting weeds and other crop residues? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement composting as a soil and 

weed management strategy in organic vegetable production?



EARTHWORMS: THEIR ROLE IN IMPROVING SOIL 

FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

FARMING 


One essential component of a living soil is earthworm. 

Earthworms are important in many ways, especially in upper 

15-25 cm of soil surface. The amount of soil these creatures 

pass through their bodies annually may amount to as much as 

10 t/ha of dry earth, a startling figure. During this process, 

not only organic matter that serves earthworms as food, but 

also mineral constituents is subjected to digestive enzymes 

and to a grinding action within the animal. Earthworm casts 

on a cultivated field may weigh as much as 18,000 kg/ha. 

Compared to soil itself, casts are definitely higher in bacteria 

and organic matter, total and nitrate nitrogen, exchangeable calcium and magnesium, available 

phosphorus and potassium, pH and percentage base saturation, and cation exchange capacity. The 

rank growth of grass around earthworm casts suggests an increase availability of plant nutrients 

therein. Earthworms are noted for their favorable effect on soil productivity 61 . 

The ordinary earthworms are, probably, most important soil macro-organism and most helpful living 

things in soil system. They digest organic matter and help create humus. They fertilize soil with 

their droppings. The tunnels or burrows created as earthworms move soil particles help to loosen and 

condition soil. When earthworms tunnel deeply into soil, they bring subsoil closer to soil surface, and 

mix it with topsoil that has organic matter. As earthworms mix soil and create burrows, they create 

channels in soil, providing passages for air or water to get next to roots deep in ground. Earthworms 

are farmers’ friends. The more earthworms there are in the soil, the more fertile the soil is. 

In this exercise, participants will try to study earthworm’s important role in improving quality of 

soil. In this regard, practical and worthwhile experiences can be shared and enriched by farmers 

and facilitators in FFSs to improve current soil and organic fertilizer management practices through 

participatory, discovery-based, and experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. 



Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 105p. 


81 


appropriate? 


sessions, as follow-up 

or integral part of topic 

on ‘Integrated Soil and 

Nutrient Management’; 

and 


learn from facilitators 

and other farmers some 

earthworm’s important 

role in improving soil 

fertility and productivity 

for organic vegetable 

farming.


82 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, interaction with farmers on possible 

earthworm habitats in vegetable area (e.g., dry and shaded, moist and shaded, moist grassy area, 

or uncultivated moist area); 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on in learning field for setting up of study; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for brainstorming session in processing area; and 

• This exercise will require 2-3 weeks for making observations. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on some important role of 

earthworms in improving soil fertility and productivity for organic vegetable farming; and 

• To learn from others and set-up studies to learn some important role of earthworms in 

improving soil fertility and productivity for organic vegetable farming. 

materials 

• Office and field supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons); 

• Shovel or spading fork, dark cloth, string or rubber band, bean seeds; 

• Soils from where earthworms are found in learning and adjoining fields; 

• Clay, sand, loam, plant debris (e.g. leaves, cut up stems), water; and 

• Earthworms (2-3 pieces), soil from where earthworms are found. 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe presence 

of earthworms in vegetable area of learning and adjoining fields. Interview other farmers and 

list down all observations. Guide small groups to do following: 

5 Dig earthworms from around vegetable area of learning and adjoining fields; 

5 Make some very small holes on the sides of bottles near top for ventilation and slight larger 

ones at bottom for drainage;


5 Fill each container with layers of clay, sand, loam, and plant debris in that order. The top 

layer should be soil from where earthworms were found. See picture below: 

One of two containers 

83 

thick cloth 

string 

tiny air holes 

plant debris 

found loam 

sand 

soil taken from where worms are 

clay 

strips of old newspaper 

drainage holes 

5 Add enough water to moisten plant debris; 

5 Put earthworms into one of containers. Label this container ‘with earthworms’; 

5 Cover container with a cloth and secure with a string or rubber band; 

5 Cover sides of containers with dark cloth. Make sure contents of both containers are 

always kept slightly moist; 

5 Observe what changes will take place in containers over two weeks; 

5 After two weeks, plant two seeds in each container of soil. Keep soil moist until seeds 

sprout, and then water seedlings as necessary. 

5 Observe differences in growth of seedlings in two containers. 

2. Go back to processing area; brainstorm in small groups and present output to big group. Conduct 

participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 

Motivate farmers to share their observations and experiences in studying some important role 

of earthworms in improving soil fertility and productivity for organic vegetable farming. 


conclusions and recommendation from this exercise.


84 


❏ Did you observe changes in soil layers of containers? 

❏ What evidences did you see to indicate earthworms at work? 

❏ From your observations, how do you think earthworms help improve quality of soil? 

❏ Is there a relationship between soil profile and rooting ability of plants? 

❏ Based on your observations, do you think adding earthworms to garden would help plants 

grow? Why or why not? 

❏ How did you feel while preparing and observing the exercise? Was it difficult to prepare and 

observe? 

❏ What cultural management options can you use to complement role of earthworms in improving 

soil fertility and productivity in organic vegetable farming?



VERMI-COMPOST AS AN ORGANIC SOLID FERTILIZER 

FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION 


Organic fertilizer, a product of biological decomposition or 

processing of organic materials from animal and/or plants, 

can supply one or more essential nutrient elements for plant 

growth and development. In organic farming, it is considered 

as the only natural, complete, and chief source of plant 

nutrients. It contains high organic matter, which is not present 

in any synthetic chemical fertilizer. Organic matter is the 

main source of carbon and energy for soil microorganisms, 

responsible for transforming ‘life in soil’ 62 . One effective 

way of decomposing organic materials is through vermicomposting. 

It involves use of earthworms for composting 

organic materials. Earthworms ingest all kinds of organic material equal to their body weight per 

day. In the Philippines, popularly used earthworms for composting are Lumbricus rubellos and 

Perionyx excavator. 

In vermi-compost production, substrates or organic materials used for composting should be indigenous 

and readily available on-farm. However, to attain a good harvest of vermi-compost, there are plants 

and animal manures that are rich in carbon-nitrogen ratio essentially needed for rapid decomposition. 

Local nitrogenous sources include manure, kakawate, acacia, and ipil-ipil leaves, mungbean, peanuts, 

soybeans, and camote vines, and azolla. On the other hand, common sources of carbon are dried 

leaves, grasses, vegetables, cornstalks, rice straw, paper, sawdust, and cardboard. A varied mixture 

of substances produce good quality compost, rich in macro- and micronutrients. Substrate (feed) 

combination of coco dust/sawdust (75%) and ipil-ipil/kakawate leaves (25%) is best for earthworm 

production. The production ranged from 1,540-4,514 earthworms depending on number and age of 

earthworms stocked and amount of feed 63 . Earthworm case is harvested in 4-6 weeks. About 60% of 

bedding material is converted into vermi-compost 64 . Vermicast or worm casting is the material that 

passes through digestive track of earthworm (worm manure). 

62 De la Cruz, N.E. 2008 Organic Fertilizer and Other Farm Inputs Production, Module 4. Reference material distributed during a Workshop on Designing 

Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management For Organic Vegetable Production held on 28-30 April 2008 at the Headquarters, 

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 1p. 

63 Guerero, R. 2006. Vermi-composting. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/ 

technologies. 

64 PCARRD. 2006. The Philippine Recommends for Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization, Series No. 92, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, 

and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp58-59. 

85 


appropriate? 





Nutrient Management’; 

and 



and other farmers 

some innovative ways 

of producing organic 

fertilizers through vermicomposting 

for organic 

vegetable production.

86 


The benefits, which can be derived from vermi-composting include: (a) improving soil texture, 

porosity, and water holding capacity, (b) enhancing soil microbial activity and nutrient supply for 

better plant growth, (c) providing plant growth regulators, and (d) suppressing soil-borne pests and 

diseases. 65 One important innovation in vermi-composting is the formulation of vermi-tea as a 

foliar fertilizer. It is prepared by brewing a kilogram of vermi-compost in 30 L of water with ½ 

kg of crude sugar for 24 hours. Continuous aeration and agitation is required to maintain aerobic 

condition and extraction of microorganisms. 

These practical and worthwhile innovations can be shared and enriched by farmers and facilitators 

in FFSs to improve current soil and organic fertilizer management practices through participatory, 

discovery-based, and experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, interaction with farmers on possible 

earthworm habitats in vegetable area (e.g., dry and shaded, moist and shaded, moist grassy area, 

or uncultivated moist area); 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on in learning field for construction of vermi-compost pit, 

collection of waste materials, segregation, shredding or chopping, and thermophilic composting; 

and 


• This exercise will require one month and two weeks from the preparation of vermin pit and 

collection of waste material to harvesting of compost. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on some practical and innovative 

ways of producing organic fertilizers through vermi-composting for organic vegetable 


• To learn from others and do actual production and use of vermi-compost as organic fertilizer 

for organic vegetable production. 

65 Villegas, L.G. 2000. Vermi-culture and Vermi-compost Technology. National Crop Research and Development Center, Bureau of Plant Industry, Los 

Baños, Laguna. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/technologies.


materials 

• Office and field supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons, 

shovel or spading fork, bamboo poles, plastic sheets, wood, and feedstuff sacks); 

• Organic vegetable fields ready to be applied and vegetable crops already applied with vermicompost 

in learning and adjoining fields; 

• 1.0 kg earthworm (e.g., 200 g/group); and 

• Organic materials (e.g., manures, grasses, kakawate leaves, and others). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe presence 

of vermi-casts in vegetable area in learning and adjoining fields. Interview other farmers and 

list down all observations related to: 

5 Dry, shaded, and cultivated vegetable areas; 

5 Moist, shaded, and cultivated vegetable areas; 

5 Moist, grassy, and cultivated vegetable area; 

5 Moist and uncultivated field; and 

5 Dry and uncultivated field. 



Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in producing and using vermi-compost as 

organic fertilizer in organic vegetable production. 

3. Develop an improved procedure of producing and using vermi-compost as organic fertilizer in 


4. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of producing and using vermi-compost as organic 

fertilizer by improving the procedure below 66 : 

66 PCARRD. 2006. The Philippine Recommends for Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization, Series No. 92, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, 

and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp58-59. 

87

Producing Vermi-compost: 

88 


5 Dig a series of pits, about 3m x 4m x 1m deep, with sloping sides. To provide drainage for 

earthworms, lay bamboo poles at bottom of pit and cover with a layer of wood strips; 

5 Line pit with a lining material (e.g., feedstuff sacks to keep earthworms from going into 

surrounding soil); 

5 Fill pit with available organic materials (e.g., crop residues, animal manures, and others). 

Cover lightly with soil and keep moist for about a week; 

5 Water a spot in pile then transfer earthworms from breeding boxes to said spot. They will 

quickly burrow into damp soil; 

5 Leave pit for about two months but keep pile always moist; and 

5 Remove about 2/3 of vermi-compost and earthworms from pit but leave enough worms for 

continuation of composting. Refill pit with fresh organic materials. 

Using Vermi-compost as organic Fertilizer: 

5 Divide big group into 5 small groups and assign each group to field test vermi-compost as 

organic fertilizer in organic vegetable production; 

5 Each small group will have sample plots at border of learning field to test the efficacy of 

vermi-compost as their side study; 

5 Sample plot will be divided equally into two sub-plots; first sub-plot will be treated with 

vermi-compost material, while another sub-plot will be treated with a popular compost 

material; 

5 Each group will apply vermi-compost and a popular compost material as basal (e.g., before 

or during transplanting); 

5 Each group will collect weekly data on; (a) plant height, (b) vigor, and (c) color of leaves; 

5 Presentation of observations and data gathered will be done on monthly; and 

5 Small and big group participatory discussion and interactions will follow thereafter. 




❏ Did you observe different crops planted and crop stand using vermi-compost as organic 

fertilizer for organic vegetable growing in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers producing and using vermi-compost as organic fertilizer in their 

vegetable fields?


❏ Did you observe farmers using other organic fertilizer materials? What are these organic 

fertilizer materials? 

❏ Is use of vermi-compost as organic fertilizer effective as a soil and nutrient management 

strategy in organic vegetable production? When is best time to use vermi-compost as organic 

fertilizer in organic vegetable production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative procedures in vermi-compost production and application used 

by farmers as soil and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable production? What 

benefits did farmers derive in using vermi-compost as organic fertilizer in organic vegetable 

production? 

❏ How did you feel while preparing and using vermi-compost? Was it difficult to produce and use 

vermi-compost as organic fertilizer in organic vegetable production? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement using vermi-compost as a 

soil and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable production? 

89


ORGANIC FOLIAR SPRAYS AS FOOD SUPPLEMENT FOR 

ORGANIC SOLID FERTILIZERS IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Organic solid fertilizers such as compost, vermi-cast, and 

others that are usually used in organic vegetable production 

contain low plant nutrients and its solubility is low. If not 

applied in large volume or quantities, such properties pose 

problem in supplying right amounts of plant nutrients at 

different growth stages of crops. To be more effective, soil 

application of organic solid fertilizers can be supplemented 

by foliar sprays of animal and plant juice extracts as rich 

sources of plant nutrients. In organic vegetable farming, 

these can be derived from different sources such as fruits, 

90 



appropriate? 





Nutrient Management’ 




innovative organic foliar 

sprays as plant nutrient 

supplement for organic 

solid fertilizers 

young buds and foliage, materials derived from snails and marine fishes, and bones from grasseating 

animals, as follows: 

• Fermented plant juice (FPJ) is made from plant leaves such as thinned crop plants like axillary’s 

buds and young fruits and whatever grasses 67 . With crude sugar, plant juice is extracted and 

is fermented; liquid is applied to soil, plant leaves, and animal bedding to fortify microbial 

activities 68 . It enhances plant growth for greener leaves resulting to faster photosynthesis. 

• Fermented fruit juice (FFJ) is produced in the same way as FPJ. It uses ripen sweet fruits such 

as strawberry, fig, mulberry, mango, papaya, or banana. FFJ contains enzymes rich in potash 

for fruit sweetener. 

• Fish amino acid (FAA) is made from fish trash such as bone, head, guts, and skin. With crude 

sugar, juice of fish trash is extracted and is fermented. It is a nitrogen-fixing extract. 

• Calcium phosphate (CP) can be derived from bones of animals and it promotes fruit setting. 

67 Tinoyan, E.L. 2006. Preparation and Utilization of Organic Foliar Sprays as Supplement for Organic Solid Fertilizers. Paper presented during the 1 st 

Cordillera Organic Congress 13-14 January 2006. Benguet State University (BSU), La Trinidad, Benguet. 

68 Phil-Organic. 2006. Organic Farming. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network (Phil-Organic). http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/ 

phil-organic/standards.


• Indigenous microorganisms (IMO) enhance growth and productivity of crops. These include 

known soil microbes such as mycorrhiza and Rhizobium, biological nitrogen-fixers, which fix 

and convert air nitrogen to nutrient forms readily available to plants and can substitute 30-50% 

of plants’ nitrogen requirements. These microorganisms are now mass-cultured and massdistributed 

to farmers. 

Such doable innovative strategies can be shared and enriched by farmers and facilitators in FFSs to 

improve current soil and organic fertilizer management practices through participatory, discoverybased, 

and experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. 


• One to two hours for field walks, observations, interaction with farmers and hands-on in learning 

field 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for brainstorming session in processing area 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on some innovative organic foliar 

sprays as plant nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

• To learn from others and do actual preparation and use of these organic foliar sprays as plant 

nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, and crayons) 

• Organic vegetable crops applied with organic solid fertilizers that are ready for supplemental 

organic foliar spraying in learning and adjoining fields 

• Other supplies (e.g., knapsack sprayer, table spoon, shovel or spading fork, tape measure, bolo, 

or scythe) and the following: 

For Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ) 69 

a. banana trunk 

b. crude sugar 

c. earthen jar 

d. stainless knife 

69 Tinoyan, E.L. 2006. Preparation and Utilization of Organic Foliar Sprays as Supplement for Organic Solid Fertilizers. Paper presented during the 1 st 

Cordillera Organic Congress 13-14 January 2006. Benguet State University (BSU), La Trinidad, Benguet. 

91

For Fermented Fruit Juice (FFJ) 

a. 1.0 kg peeled ripe papaya 

b. 1.0 kg crude sugar 

c. earthen jar 

d. knife 

e. Manila paper 

For Fish Amino Acid (FAA) 

a. plastic container with cover 

b. 1.0 kg fish (full fish for animal, fish entrails for plants) or snails 

c. 1.0 kg crude sugar 

d. spatula for mixing 

For Calcium Phosphate (CP) 

a. animal bones from grass-eating animals 

b. coconut vinegar without color 

c. plastic container with cover 

For Indigenous Microorganism (IMO) 

a. wood box or clay jar 

b. 1.0 kg rice 

c. Manila paper and string 

d. wooden spatula 

e. clay or earthen jar 

f. 1.0 kg crude sugar 

methodology 


steps 

92 


1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe fertilizer 

management practices by farmers for their organically-grown vegetables in learning and


adjoining fields. Take note of other cultural practices employed. Interview other farmers, if 

necessary. List down all observations related to: 


5 Kinds of organic fertilizers (e.g., organic foliar sprays, organic solid fertilizers, and others) used; 

5 Time (e.g., days after planting) and rate (e.g., kg/bags per ha) of organic fertilizers used; 

5 Methods (e.g., broadcasted, side-dressed, foliar sprayed) of application and placement (e.g., 

soil incorporated, top-dressed) of organic fertilizers; 

5 Other cultural management practices; and 

5 Prevalent weeds, pests, and diseases. 



Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in preparing and using organic foliar sprays as 

plant nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

3. Develop an improved procedure of preparing and using organic foliar sprays as plant nutrient 

supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

4. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of preparing and using organic foliar sprays as plant 

nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers by improving the procedure below: 

Preparation of organic Foliar sprays: 

For Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ) 70 

5 Cut a trunk of Cardaba (saba) banana variety or collect plant tops (e.g., camote, 

kangkong, or alugbati tops) in early morning or late afternoon; 

5 Chop banana trunk to at least 1-2 inches cut crosswise; 

5 Place in earthen jar directly to save the following juice; 

5 Mix 1 kg crude sugar to every 2 kg chopped banana trunk; 

5 At the mouth of jar, put a stone that could get inside to press chopped materials; 

5 On the next day, remove stone and cover jar with clean Manila paper and tie with 

string. Put jar in a cool and shaded place. Fermentation takes place in 7 days; 

5 Strain concoction. Mix 2 tbsp of FPJ concoction for every liter of water. Spray on 

leaves of plants and soil. This will serve as food for indigenous microorganisms 

(IMO). It is also good for human consumption as energy drink (e.g., dosage according 

to user’s taste). 

70 Tinoyan, E.L. 2006. Preparation and utilization of organic foliar sprays as supplement for organic solid fertilizers. Paper presented during the 1 st Cordillera 

Organic Congress 13-14 January 2006. Benguet State University (BSU), La Trinidad, Benguet. 

93

For Fermented Fruit Juice (FFJ) 

94 


5 Remove seeds and chop ripe fruits (e.g., papaya, mango, avocado, or banana [latundan 

variety] can be used); 

5 Put chopped fruits in an earthen jar and mix with crude sugar; 

5 Cover with Manila paper and tie with string. Place in a cool and shaded place, and let 

stand for 7 days; 

5 Strain concoction. Mix 2 tbsp of FFJ concoction for every liter of water. Spray 

on leaves of plants and soil at nearly fruiting of crops. This will serve as food for 

indigenous microorganisms (IMO). It is also good for human consumption as energy 

drink (e.g., dosage according to user’s taste). 

For Fish Amino Acid (FAA) 

5 Mix 1 kg of choice material (see materials needed for FAA) with 1 kg crude sugar in 

a container and cover; 

5 Place in a cool and shaded area; 

5 Extract juice after 10 days of fermentation; and 

5 Mix 2 tbsp of FAA extract for every liter of water. Sprinkle on plants, soil, or compost. 

For Calcium Phosphate (CP) 

5 Boil 2 kg of animal bones to separate meat and fat then air dry; 

5 Boil until black and crush; 

5 When cool, place in a plastic container with 20 L of coconut vinegar and cover for 30 

days; and 

5 Strain. Mix 2 tbsp of CP extract for every liter of water. Sprinkle on plants, soil, or 

compost. 

For Indigenous Microorganism (IMO) 

Collection of beneficial microorganism: 

5 Cook rice same as we cook our food; 

5 While hot, transfer rice in a wooden box or clay pot using wooden spatula; 

5 Cool down and cover; 

5 Place jar containing rice in forest where there is ‘white hypae’. Protect from rain and 

rodents; and


5 Collect container after 2-3 days when presence of white molds can be seen on rice. 

Culturing indigenous microorganisms (IMO): 

5 Transfer rice with ?kg crude sugar; 

5 Cover with paper and tie with string; 

5 Put jar in a cool and shaded place; and 

5 Collect and stain mud-like juice after 7 days. 

How to use the Concoction: 

5 Mix 2 tbsp of juice to 1 L of water; 

5 Spray on soils and plants; 

5 Can be mixed with other biological plant extracts; 

5 Mix with compost as activator; and 

5 Apply to feeds for livestock. 

Using organic Foliar sprays for organic Vegetable Production: 

5 Divide the big group into 5 small groups and assign each group to conduct field test on the 

efficacy of the organic foliar spray; 

5 Each group will have sample plots at border of learning field to test organic foliar spray as 

their side studies; 

5 Sample plot will be divided equally into two sub-plots; first sub-plot will be treated only 

with compost material, while the other sub-plot will be treated with compost material plus 

the assigned organic foliar sprays; 

5 Spraying of organic foliar extracts will be done weekly starting one week after transplanting; 


5 Presentation of observations and data gathered will be done monthly; and 

5 Small and big group participatory discussion and interaction will follow thereafter. 




❏ Did you observe different crops planted and crop stands for different organic solid and foliar 

fertilizers used by farmers in learning and adjoining fields? 

95

96 


❏ Did you observe farmers preparing their own organic solid and foliar fertilizers? Did they use 

organic foliar sprays to supplement organic solid fertilizers in their vegetable fields? 



❏ Is the use of organic foliar sprays to supplement organic solid fertilizers effective as a soil and 

nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable production? When is the best time to use 

organic foliar sprays as supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative organic foliar spray and organic solid fertilizer application 

methods used by farmers as soil and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable 

production? What benefits did farmers derive from using organic foliar sprays as organic solid 

fertilizer supplement in organic vegetable production? 

❏ How did you feel while preparing and using organic foliar extract? Was it difficult to prepare 

and use as supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement the using of organic solid 

and foliar fertilizers as a soil and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable production?



MICROBIAL-BASED FERTILIZERS AS SUPPLEMENT 

FOR ORGANIC SOLID FERTILIZERS IN ORGANIC 



Microbial-based fertilizers are preparation of live cells 

of microorganism strains. Some of these microbes could 

fix air nitrogen, render phosphate soluble, or degrade 

cellulose. Others would infect root systems to assist plant 

roots in absorbing more water and nutrients and increasing 

plant resistance against root pathogens. Microbialbased 

fertilizers are also called microbial inoculants or 

biofertilizers. 71 These biofertilizers, which can supplement 

organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production, 

may consist of: (a) spores, infected roots, and propagules of beneficial vesicular-arbuscular 

mycorrhiza [VAM] fungi belonging to genus Glomus [G. mosseae or G. fasciculatum]; or (b) 

powdered inoculants of nitrogen-fixing bacteria [NFB] belonging to genus Azospirillum, isolated 

from roots of ‘talahib’ [Saccharum spontaneum] grass. 

Microbial-based fertilizers consisting of VAM fungi are cheap and easy to use since a kilogram of 

these microbial inoculants can fertilize 200-400 plants. The application is done only once throughout 

entire life of a plant. These biofertilizers can be stored for 6 months in room temperature and one 

year at 4 ºC. They can replace 60-85 % of plant’s chemical fertilizer requirement thus; farmers can 

have substantial savings and more income. They can also increase resistance and tolerance of plants 

to drought, heavy metals, and prevent root pathogen infections, by secreting growth-promoting 

substances to improve soil texture and soil aggregation. 

On the other hand, a microbial-based fertilizer consisting of nitrogen-fixing bacterium (NFB) of 

genus Azospirillum has capability to convert atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 ) into a form usable by plants. 

As microbial inoculants, it enhances root development, growth, and yields of rice, corn, and a number 

of vegetable crops such as tomato, eggplant, okra, lettuce, and ampalaya. It also maintains soil 

natural properties and fertility as well as keeps plant healthy and green even during droughts and pest 

infestations. It can restore 30-50 % of total nitrogen requirement of plants. 72 

71 PCARRD. 2006. Philippine Recommends for Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization, Series No. 92, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, 

and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp78. 

72 PCARRD. 2007. Appropriate Use of Bio-fertilizers and Bio-pesticides for Small-scale Farmers in Asian and Pacific Region. Philippine Council for 

Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines pp105. 

97 


appropriate? 





Nutrient Management’; and 




innovative microbial-based 

fertilizers as plant nutrient 

supplement for organic 

solid fertilizers.

98 


These microbial-based fertilizers are already produced by some local government units (LGUs) and 

non-government organizations (NGOs) to address dramatic increase in cost of inorganic fertilizers. 

They are usually prepared in powder (Bio-N 73 ), tablet (Mycogroe 74 ), or finely-chopped (MRI 75 and 

Mykovam 76 ) forms, which could be used either as seed coating, or dilute solution for root dipping or 

drenching in already established young plants. 

Such economically and ecologically sound strategies can be shared and enriched by farmers and 

facilitators in FFSs to improve current soil and organic fertilizer management practices through 

participatory, discovery-based, and experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. 


• One to two hours for field walks, observations, interaction with farmers and hands-on in 




• To create awareness and understanding among participants on some innovative microbialbased 

fertilizers as plant nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable 


• To learn from others and do hands-on exercise on the use of these microbial-based fertilizers as 

plant nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

materials 


• Organic vegetable crops or fields that are ready for application of microbial-based fertilizers to 

supplement organic solid fertilizers in learning and adjoining fields; 

• Other supplies (e.g., knapsack sprayer, table spoon, shovel or spading fork, tape measure, bolo, 

or scythe); and 

• Microbial-based fertilizers (Mykovam, Mycogroe, MRI, and Bio-N). 

73 Garcia, M.U. 2006. Bio-N. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network (Phil-Organic). http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/ 

technologies. 

74 Dela Cruz, R.E., Aggangan, N.S., and Lorilla, E.B. 2006. Mycogroe. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network (Phil-Organic). 

http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/technologies. 

75 Brown, M.B. 2006. Mycorrhizal Root Inoculants. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network (Phil-Organic). http//www.pcarrd.dost. 

gov.ph/phil-organic/technologies. 

76 Dela Cruz, R.E. 2006. Mycogroe. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network (Phil-Organic). http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/philorganic/technologies.


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe organicallygrown 

vegetables from seeds inoculated or seedling dipped or drenched with microbial-based 

fertilizers in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of other cultural practices employed. 

Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to: 


5 Kinds of microbial-based (e.g., Mykovam, Mycogroe, MRI, and Bio-N) and other (e.g., 

organic foliar sprays, organic solid fertilizers, and others) organic fertilizers used; 

5 Time (e.g., days after planting) and rate (e.g., L/kg/bags per ha) of organic fertilizers used; 

5 Methods (e.g., dipping, drenching, broadcasting, side-dressing, foliar spraying) of application 

and placement (e.g., seed-inoculated, root-dipped or drenched, soil-incorporated, topdressed, 

sprayed) of organic fertilizers; and 

5 Other cultural management practices. 



Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in using microbial-based fertilizers as plant 

nutrient supplement for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

3. Develop an improved procedure of using microbial-based fertilizers as plant nutrient supplement 

for organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production. 

4. Facilitate each farmer in using microbial-based fertilizers as plant nutrient supplement for 

organic solid fertilizers by improving the procedure below: 

5 Divide big group into 5 small groups and assign each group to conduct field test on efficacy 

of microbial-based fertilizers; 

5 Each group will have sample plots at border of learning field to test microbial-based 

fertilizers as their side studies; 

5 Sample plot will be divided equally into two sub-plots; first sub-plot will be treated only 

with compost material, while the other sub-plot will be treated with compost material plus 

the assigned microbial-based fertilizers; 

99

100 


5 Seed inoculation of microbial-based fertilizers will be done a day before seed sowing in 

seedbed or in main field. Root dipping or drenching of microbial-based fertilizers will be 

done a few hour before transplanting in main field; 


5 Presentation of observations and data gathered will be done monthly; and 





❏ Did you observe different crops planted and crop stands for different organic solid and microbialbased 

fertilizers used by farmers in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers preparing their own organic solid and microbial-based fertilizers? Did 

they use microbial-based fertilizers to supplement organic solid fertilizers in their vegetable 

fields? 



❏ Is use of microbial-based fertilizers to supplement organic solid fertilizers effective as a soil 

and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable production? When is the best time to 

use microbial-based fertilizers as supplement to organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable 

production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative microbial-based and organic solid fertilizer application methods 

used by farmers as soil and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable production? 

What benefits did farmers derive from using microbial-based fertilizers as organic solid 

fertilizer supplement in organic vegetable production? 

❏ How did you feel while using microbial-based fertilizers? Was it difficult to use microbialbased 

fertilizers as supplement to organic solid fertilizers in organic vegetable production? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement using organic solid and 

microbial-based fertilizers as a soil and nutrient management strategy in organic vegetable 

production?



GREEN LEAF MANURING AS A SOIL AND WEED 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


If source of organic matter comes from plants grown 

at site where it is needed and then plowed under before 

flowering and allowed to decompose, the practice is called 

green manuring. If plant to be incorporated is not grown 

at site where it is needed, the practice is called green leaf 

manuring. Examples of the latter are wild sunflower and 

‘kakawate’ (Gliricidia sepium) 78 leaves cut from plants or indigenous azolla (Azolla pinnata) 79 

collected and brought to field for incorporation. 

The more common practice in the Cordilleras is green leaf manuring. However, except for source of 

green manure, processes of green manuring and green leaf manuring are the same. Ideal green leaf 

manure is fast-growing, produces large amounts of organic matter even on poor soils, contain high 

amount of nitrogen (N), is easily decomposed, disease-resistant, and has an extensive root system. All 

fast-growing weeds when incorporated before flowering at land preparation and hilling-up operations 

may also be classified as green manures. Weeds gathered on side of terraces such as wild sunflowers 

when incorporated in vegetable fields are also classified as green leaf manures. 

The practice of green leaf manuring is a strategy to manage weeds and soils. Many organic vegetable 

farmers had innovative green leaf manuring practices. These innovations can be shared to others in 

FFSs to continuously improve their existing best practices, through participatory, discovery-based, 

and experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, interaction with farmers, and handson 





78 Bautista, O.K. (ed.). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. 2 nd Edition, SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 


79 Callo, Jr. D.P. 1989. Azolla adaptability and utilization on farmers’ fields. In Azolla: Its Culture, Management and Utilization in the Philippines. National 

Azolla Action Program (NAAP), University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp109-128. 

101 


appropriate? 



preparation, weeding or 

hilling-up operations in 


ɶ When farmers want to learn 

from other farmers some 

innovative practices in 

green leaf manuring using 

weeds and other crops.


102 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the role of green leaf manuring 

as a weed and soil management strategy in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn from others and do hands-on of proper green leaf manuring using weeds and other 

crops. 

materials 


• Vegetable fields land preparation, weeding, and hilling-up operations in learning and adjoining 

fields; and 

• Other supplies (e.g., green leaf manures composed of weeds and other crops, shovel or spading 

fork, top soil, tape measure, bolo, or scythe). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe weeding 

and post-weeding practices of organic vegetables in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of 


related to: 


5 Prevalent weeds, plants on the side of terraces, and hedgerows grown; and 

5 Weeding and post-weeding practices, etc. 



Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in green leaf manuring using weeds and other 

crops. 

3. Develop an improved procedure of green leaf manuring as a soil and weed management strategy 

in organic vegetable production.


4. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of green leaf manuring using weeds and other crops in 

learning field during land preparation, weeding, and hilling-up operations by improving the 

procedure below: 

5 Before land preparation, weeding or hilling-up operations in learning field, collect all 

possible green leaf manure materials (e.g., weeds and other crops) from other fields; 

5 Cut or remove all weeds before land preparation or hilling-up operations in learning field; 

5 Gather other weeds and trim hedges or plants growing on the sides of terraces and bring 

from adjoining to learning field; 

5 Incorporate in the soil all weeds gathered, plants and hedges trimmed during land 

preparation or hilling-up operations; 





❏ Did you observe different weeding and post-weeding practices on organic vegetables and other 

plants in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers green leaf manuring in their fields? Did they use weeds and other 

crops for green leaf manuring? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using other green leaf manuring materials? What are these green leaf 

manuring materials? 

❏ Is green leaf manuring effective as a soil and weed management strategy in organic vegetable 

production? When is the best time to do green leaf manuring as a soil and weed management 

strategy in organic vegetable production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative green leaf manuring procedures used by farmers as a soil and 

weed management strategy in organic vegetable production? What benefits did farmers derive 

from green leaf manuring weeds and other crops? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement green leaf manuring as a 

soil and weed management strategy in organic vegetable production? 

103


UNDERSTANDING ACTIVITIES OF SOIL ORGANISMS 

BENEFICIAL TO ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY 


In their influence on crop production, soil fauna and flora are 

indispensable. Of their many beneficial effects on organic 

vegetable productivity, only a few most important can be 

emphasized here, as follows 80 : 

104 



appropriate? 



of the topic on 

‘Ecosystem’ 


understand activities of 

soil flora and fauna that 

are beneficial to organic 

vegetable productivity 

• Organic matter decomposition. Perhaps one most 

significant contribution of soil fauna and flora to organic 

vegetable productivity is that of organic matter decomposition. By this process, plant residues 

are broken down, thereby preventing an unwanted accumulation. Furthermore, nutrients held 

in organic combinations within these residues are released for use by plants. Nitrogen is a 

prime example. At the same time, stability of soil aggregates is enhanced not only by slimy 

intermediate products of decay, but by more resistant portion, humus. 

• Inorganic mineral transformation. The appearance in soil of ammonium compounds and 

nitrates is a result of long series of biochemical transfer beginning with proteins and related 

compounds. These successive changes are of vital importance to organically-grown vegetables 

since plants absorb most of their nitrogen in ammonium and nitrate forms. Similarly, 

production of sulfates is roughly analogous to biological simplification of nitrogen. Here again, 

a complicated chain of enzymatic activities culminates in a simple soluble product, in this case 

sulfate, the only important form used by organically-grown vegetables. 

Other biologically instigated inorganic changes that may be helpful to organically-grown 

vegetables are those relating to mineral elements such as iron and manganese. In well-drained 

soils, these elements are oxidized by autotrophic organisms to their higher valent states, in 

which forms their solubilities are very low at intermediate pH values. This keeps greater 

portion of iron and manganese, even under fairly acid conditions, in insoluble and non-toxic 

forms. If such oxidation did not occur, plant growth would be jeopardized because of toxic 

quantities of these elements in solution. 

80 Brady, N.C. 1985. The nature and properties of soils. 9 th Edition. Macmillan Publishing Company, 866 3 rd Avenue, New York, New York, USA. Pp250- 

251.


• Nitrogen fixation. The fixation of elemental nitrogen into compounds usable by plants is one 

of most important microbial processes in soils. Nitrogen gas, so plentiful in atmospheric air, 

cannot be used directly by organically-grown vegetables. It must be in combined form before 

it can satisfy their nutritional needs. 

Blue green algae and certain actinomycetes are significant nitrogen fixing organisms. But 

worldwide, bacteria are probably most important group in capture of gaseous nitrogen. The 

nodule organisms, especially those of legume, and free-fixing bacteria of several kinds are 

most noted for their ability to fix nitrogen. The legume bacteria, as they are often called, use 

carbohydrates of their hosts as an energy source, fix nitrogen, and pass part of it onto infected 

host. The nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria acquire their energy from soil organic matter, fix free 

nitrogen, and make it a part of their own tissue. When they die and decay, part of this nitrogen 

is available to organically-grown vegetable crops. 

It is obvious that organisms of soil must have energy and nutrients if they are to function efficiently. 

In obtaining them, they break down organic matter, aid in production of humus, and leave behind 

compounds that are useful to organically-grown vegetable crops. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of soil organisms’ (e.g., soil flora 

and fauna) beneficial activities in different soil ecosystem at learning and adjoining fields 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session in processing area 


• To make participants aware of and understand soil organisms’ (e.g., soil flora and fauna) 

activities that are beneficial to organic vegetable productivity. 

• To learn from other farmers some innovative cultural management practices that will enhance soil 

organisms’ (e.g., soil flora and fauna) activities that are beneficial to organic vegetable productivity. 

materials 

• Learning and adjoining fields where (soil organisms’ (e.g., soil flora and fauna) beneficial 

activities at different soil ecosystem can be observed 

• Field supplies (e.g., meter stick, pegs, nylon twine, plastic bags, weighing scale, magnifying 

lens, bolo, and spade) 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, and marking pens) 

105

methodology 

• Field walks and brainstorming 

steps 

106 


1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe soil 

organisms’ (e.g., soil flora and fauna) beneficial activities in different soil ecosystem at learning 

and adjoining fields as follows: 

5 Group I to observe forest soil (e.g., undisturbed forest trees are grown) 

5 Group II to observe brush land (e.g., plants grow as tall as 1-2 meters) 

5 Group III to observe grassland (e.g., plants grow less than 1 meter tall) 

5 Group IV to observe crop land (e.g., organic vegetable crops are grown) 

5 Group V to observe barren land (e.g., no crop or other plant is grown) 

2. Each group marks a 1-m 2 quadrant of soil surface with the use of pegs and nylon twine to secure 

corners of quadrant and perform the activities below: 

5 Pull out and ‘de-soil’ (e.g., ipagpag or shake to retain soil in roots) weeds inside the quadrant. 

5 Collect soil litters and organisms (e.g., soil flora and fauna) found in soil surface and place 

separately in plastic bags. 

5 Scrape soil within two inches depth of quadrant 

5 Collect soil litters and organisms (e.g., soil flora and fauna) found in soil and place in 

separate plastic bag. 




4. For soil organisms, spread soil collected from quadrant in a Manila paper, count number of organisms 

and add to initial collections made. The abundance of minute soil flora (e.g., algae, moss) and fauna 

(e.g., mites, collembolans) can be described quantitatively, namely: too many (e.g., numbers more 

than 100); many (e.g., numbers from 50-100); or few (e.g., numbers less than 50). 

5. For soil litters, spread, segregate, and weigh separately all dried or decaying grasses and leaves, 

branches and twigs, dead insects and other animals, etc. The presence of mycelia bodies or foul 

odor on decaying plant and animal debris should be noted also to indicate probable presence of 

fungi and bacteria in soil.


6. List down all pertinent observations. 


sharing of experiences among participants. Relate abundance of soil organisms (e.g., soil flora 

and fauna) to their beneficial activities (e.g., organic matter decomposition, inorganic mineral 

transformation, and nitrogen fixation) in organic vegetable production; and 




❏ What do we mean by soil flora and fauna? 

❏ Did you observe beneficial activities of various soil flora and fauna at different soil ecosystems 

in learning and adjoining fields? 


yield) of organically-grown vegetables in soil ecosystems where beneficial activities of soil flora 

and fauna were observed? Why? 

❏ What factors do you think influenced beneficial activities of soil flora and fauna in different 

soil ecosystems? 

❏ What do you think is the relationship between abundance of soil organisms (e.g., soil flora 

and fauna) and their beneficial activities (e.g., organic matter decomposition, inorganic mineral 

transformation, and nitrogen fixation) in organic vegetable productivity? 

❏ How do we maintain or enhance abundance of beneficial soil organisms (e.g., soil flora and 

fauna)? 

107


MAINTAINING SOIL BIODIVERSITY AS A SOIL 

MANAGEMENT OPTION FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC 



The soil harbors varied population of living organisms. Both 

animals and plants are abundant in soils. Moreover, most 

organisms vary so much both in number and in amount as 

to make precise statements impossible. This condition is 

known as soil biodiversity. In any case, the quantity of living 

organism including plant roots is sufficient to influence 

profoundly physical and chemical trend in soil changes. 

108 


Activities of soil organism range from largely physical disintegration of plant residues by insects 

and earthworms to eventual complete decomposition of these residues by smaller organisms such 

as bacteria and fungi. Accompanying these decaying processes is the release of several nutrient 

elements, including nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, from these decomposed organic matters. By 

contrast, conditions in nature are such that organisms need these elements for their growth and a 

reversal occurs (e.g., elements are converted again into organic forms not available to higher plants). 

Thus, soil biodiversity is important so that the above process, known as biocycling, can proceed in 

a faster pace. Through this process, residues and wastes are incorporated into soils, disintegrated 

and decomposed, and pertinent product of organic matters are then taken up by plants to stimulate 

further biomass production and thus, improve crop productivity 82 . In FFSs, farmers and facilitators 

can learn from each other many appropriate cultural practices that will enhance soil biodiversity 

through participatory, discovery-based and experiential approaches, hence this exercise. 



appropriate? 


sessions, as component of 

the topic on ‘Ecosystem’; 

and 


learn more about the 

role of soil organisms 

in further sustaining 

productivity in growing 

organic vegetables. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of soil biodiversity for different soil 

ecosystem in adjoining fields of learning field; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session in processing area. 



82 Brady, N.C. 1985. The nature and properties of soils. 9 th Edition. Macmillan Publishing Company, 866 3 rd Avenue, New York, New York, USA. pp1- 

33.



• To make participants aware of and understand the contribution of soil biodiversity in improving 

productivity in organic vegetable growing; and 

• To learn from other farmers some innovative cultural management practices that will enhance 

soil biodiversity to further sustain productivity in growing organic vegetables. 

materials 

• Adjoining fields of learning field where different soil ecosystem can be observed; 

• Field supplies (e.g., meter stick, pegs, nylon twine, plastic bags, weighing scale, magnifying 

lens, bolo, and spade); and 


methodology 


steps 


soil ecosystem in adjoining fields of learning field as follows: 

5 Group I to observe forest soil (e.g., undisturbed forest trees are grown) 

5 Group II to observe brush land (e.g., plants grow as tall as 1-2 meters) 

5 Group III to observe grassland (e.g., plants grow less than 1 meter tall) 

5 Group IV to observe crop land (e.g., organic vegetable crops are grown) 

5 Group V to observe barren land (e.g., no crop or other plant is grown) 

2. Each group marks a one-sqm quadrant of soil surface with the use of pegs and nylon twine to 

secure corners of quadrant and perform the activities below: 

5 Pull out and ‘de-soil’ (e.g., ipagpag or shake to retain soil in roots) weeds inside the 

quadrant. 





109

110 



observations and do following activities: 

5 For soil organisms, spread soil collected from quadrant in a Manila paper, count number of 

organisms and add to initial collections made. The abundance of minute organisms, such 

as mites, can be described quantitatively, namely: too many (e.g., numbers more than 100); 

many (e.g., numbers from 50-100); or few (e.g., numbers less than 50). 

5 For soil litters, spread, segregate, and weigh separately all dried or decaying grasses and 

leaves, branches and twigs, dead insects and other animals, etc. The presence of mycelia 

bodies or foul odor on decaying plant and animal debris should be noted also to indicate 

probable presence of fungi and bacteria in soil. 



sharing of experiences among participants. Relate soil biodiversity to abundance of soil 

organisms, soil organic matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil nutrient availability, 

and crop productivity. 




❏ What do we mean by soil biodiversity? 

❏ Did you observe differences in the kind and number of organisms and litters found in different 

soil ecosystem? 

❏ Do you think there will be differences in the performance (e.g., plant growth, development, and 

yield) of crops to be grown in different soil ecosystem observed? Why? 


different soil ecosystem? 

❏ What do you think is the role of soil biodiversity on abundance of soil organisms, soil organic 

matter content, and soil water holding capacity, soil nutrient availability, and crop productivity? 

❏ How do we maintain or enhance soil biodiversity?



CONTOUR PLANTING AS A SOIL CONSERVATION 

STRATEGY FOR HIGHLAND ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


When land is cultivated up and down a slope, furrows act as 

fabricated channels or rills. Each time it rains, water runs 

down furrows and enlarges them, becoming gullies, if not 

checked. The solution is to plow across slope following 

contour lines rather than up and down, a method called 

contour farming or contour planting. Contours are areas 

around a field having same elevation. 

In contour planting, a row of plants is planted on a contour and the next rows of plants on the next 

contour. Each furrow in contour serves as a small dam to check flows of water; eventually water 

seeps into the ground. If one to four contours of cultivated crops are followed by either a row (also 

called strip) of a perennial crop that will not shade vegetable crops, such practice is called contour 

strip farming. If hedges are used along contour lines, such hedges are more aptly called contour 

hedgerows and such cropping system is known as alley cropping system or sloping agricultural 

land technology (SALT) 84 . The strips slow and spread water movement, thus reducing likelihood 

of serious erosion in cultivated areas. The SALT is gaining wide acceptance among small vegetable 

farmers in sloping areas. The rows or strips are closer in steeper slopes and wider in moderate 

slopes. 

When growing organic vegetable crops, the planting one permanent crop out of four would help 

greatly in conserving soil. In planting several kinds of organic vegetable crops, plant tall crops 

at lower strips and shorter ones at higher strips. Farmers in the Cordilleras are continuously 

adapting more innovative contour farming practices, which when shared with others in FFSs will 

further improve existing best practices. This exercise was so designed to enhance such sharing of 

experiences. 



84 Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. 2 nd Edition, SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 


111 


appropriate? 



preparation and layingout 



learn from other farmers 

some innovative contour 

farming practices for 

organic vegetable 

production in sloping 

areas.


112 






• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the role of contour farming as a 

soil conservation strategy for organic vegetable production in sloping areas; and 

• To learn from others and do hands-on of proper contour farming practices for organic vegetable 

production in sloping areas. 

materials 


• Other materials (e.g., marking, leveling and staking materials, grab hoe, shovel or spading fork, 

tape measure, bolo or scythe); and 

• Sloping organic vegetable fields ready for land preparation in learning and adjoining fields. 

methodology 


steps 


contour farming practices for organic vegetables grown in sloping areas. Take note of cultural 

management practices employed. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to the following: 

5 Kind of crops (e.g., vegetable and perennial crops) planted and crop stand; 

5 Row orientation of crops grown in relation to topography; and 

5 Cultural management practices employed, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area; brainstorm in small groups and present output to the big group. 

Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and 

facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in contour farming practices for 

organic vegetables grown in sloping areas.


3. Develop an improved procedure of contour farming for organic vegetable production in sloping 

areas. 

4. Facilitate each small group to do contour farming for organic vegetables grown in sloping areas 

of learning field during land preparation and laying-out by improving the procedure below: 

5 Prepare land properly and incorporate all weeds and crop residues into the soil; 

5 Determine which areas have the same elevation in contour planting using a leveling triangle; 

5 Determine and layout rows or strips in learning field starting from highest elevation; 

5 Determine which rows or strips will be planted with organic vegetable and hedgerow crops; 

5 Prepare rows or strips to be planted with organic vegetable and hedgerow crops; 

5 Plant rows or strips with organic vegetables and hedgerow crops; and 



conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. 


❏ Did you observe farmers practicing contour farming for organic vegetables grown in slopes? 

❏ Did you observe different contour farming practices for different crops grown in slopes? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using different hedgerow crops grown for contour farming? What are 

these hedgerow crops? 

❏ Is contour farming an effective soil conservation strategy for organic vegetable production in 

sloping areas? What contour farming practice is best for a particular topography for organic 

vegetable production in sloping areas? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative contour farming practices used by farmers as a soil conservation 

strategy in organic vegetable production? What benefits did farmers derive from practicing 

contour farming for organic vegetable production in sloping areas? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement contour farming as a soil 

conservation strategy for organic vegetable production in sloping areas? 

113


BENCH TERRACING AS A SOIL CONSERVATION 

STRATEGY FOR HIGHLAND ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Terracing is the most effective erosion control measure 

practiced in the Cordilleras. If properly designed and 

constructed, terraces can reduce soil losses to about oneeight 

of what it would be with no erosion control measure. 

Land that is moderately sloping and subject to moderate 

or severe erosion would require use of terraces such as 

114 


those in Ifugao and Mountain Province. Forming a series of banks breaks down a long slope. 

Drainage ditch at base of each bank conduct water around slopes. Such areas may have slopes of 20 

% or more. Of the different types of terracing that can be done, bench terracing is the most intensive 

form and is applicable to small organic vegetable areas. 

Bench terracing consists of creating a series of level strips running across slope. Viewed from a 

distance, it looks like a stairway. Each terrace is separated by an almost vertical retaining wall of 

earth, rock, or concrete protected by vegetation. Bench terraces are sometimes provided with silt 

pits or soil traps, which are actually short canals, constructed after every few rows of vegetable 

crops to slow down the flow of water and catch soil washed downhill. Soil that accumulates in pit is 

regularly removed and thrown up to form a dike, especially before the rainy season 86 . 

Farmers in highlands are continuously adapting more innovative bench terracing practices for long 

sloping areas, which when shared with others in FFSs will further improve existing best practices. 

This exercise was so designed to enhance such sharing of experiences. 



appropriate? 



preparation and laying-out 



from other farmers some 

innovative bench terracing 

practices for organic 

vegetable production in long 

sloping areas. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers in 

adjoining fields of learning field; 

• Thirty minutes for brainstorming session in processing area; and 

• As needed for hands-on in farmers’ own fields. 




and University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp310-312.



• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the role of bench terracing as a 

soil conservation strategy for organic vegetable production in long sloping areas; and 

• To learn from others and do proper bench terracing practices for organic vegetable production 

in long sloping areas. 

materials 


• Other materials (e.g., marking, leveling and staking materials, grab hoe, shovel or spading fork, 

tape measure, bolo, or scythe); and 

• Long sloping organic vegetable fields ready for land preparation in learning and adjoining fields. 

methodology 


steps 


bench terracing practices for vegetables grown in long sloping areas. Take note of cultural 

management practices employed. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related with the following: 

5 Kind of crops planted and crop stand in bench terraces; 

5 Kind of vegetation established in vertical retaining walls; and 

5 Cultural management practices employed, etc. 



facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in bench terracing for organic 

vegetables grown in long sloping areas. 

3. Develop an improved procedure of bench terracing for organic vegetable production in long 

sloping areas. 



115

116 


5. Facilitate each farmer to do bench terracing for organic vegetables grown in long sloping areas 

in their individual field during land preparation by improving the procedure below: 

5 Determine which areas in their field will require bench terracing (e.g., long sloping areas); 

5 Determine and mark minimum vertical intervals between terraces wide enough to be 

cultivated once bench terrace is constructed; 

5 Dug out upper portion to fill up lower portion of slope, making sure area to be dug out 

equals area to be filled; 

5 Prepare bench terrace sloped from front to back so that surplus water drains slowly along 

the back of each terrace, which is back of next wall; 

5 Construct a side drain in such a way that surface water will run off to other drain at the 

end of each terrace; 

5 Construct silt pits or soil traps at desired intervals to catch soil washed downhill during 

heavy rainfall; 

5 Encourage grasses and dense vegetation to grow on front edge and retaining wall of a 

terrace; and 



❏ Did you observe farmers practicing bench terracing for organic vegetables grown in long slopes? 

❏ Did you observe different bench terracing practices for different crops grown in long slopes? 

❏ Did you observe farmers maintaining different grasses and vegetation on vertical retaining 

walls of bench terraces? What are these grasses and vegetation? What materials are vertical 

retaining walls made of? 

❏ Is bench terracing an effective soil conservation strategy for organic vegetable production 

in long sloping areas? What bench terracing practice is best for a particular topography for 

organic vegetable production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative bench terracing practices used by farmers as a soil conservation 

strategy in organic vegetable production? What benefits did farmers derive from practicing 

bench terracing in sloping areas for organic vegetable production? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement bench terracing as a soil 

conservation strategy in sloping areas for organic vegetable production?


INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT 87 

Integrated Crop Management (ICM) is a crop cultivation approach in which a balance between 

ecological and economic aspects of farm management is continuously sought to ensure 

sustainability of the enterprise. With this principle of balance, the diversity of management 

among farms must be given particular attention. Integration of farmer’s indigenous practices with 

other compatible organic farming technologies allows a farmer to develop appropriate management 

schemes applicable under his or her specific farm conditions. 

ICM employs farmers’ capacity to integrate technologies and adapt strategies. This is the only way 

that will ensure successful, farm-specific development of cultivation practices, hence improvement 

of farm management and output. One ICM element that farmers are perhaps not fully aware of, or 

using, is the principle of establishing an ecological and economic balance, requiring some additional 

problem-solving and decision-making skills. 

To implement ICM options relevant to organic vegetable farming, farmers should be given the 

opportunity to gain more experience and improve their existing knowledge through observations, 

experimentation, and analysis directly in the field. This sub-section is designed to provide such 

opportunities. 

87 Fliert, E. van de and Bruan A.R. 2000. Farmer Field School for Integrated Crop Management of Sweet Potato: Field Guides and Technical Manual. 

Yogyakarta, Indonesia. pp III-1 to III-2. 

117


VERNALIZATION OF RADISH SEEDS FOR ORGANIC 

SEED PRODUCTION PURPOSES 


Vernalization is a process by which seeds are subjected to 

cold temperature treatment before germination to trigger 

late flowering. Some vegetable seeds (e.g., cabbage, carrots, 

celery, onion, and radish) need vernalization either to 

de-activate inhibitory substances or activate stimulating 

hormones necessary for their flowering. Cabbage will flower 

if plants that have formed heads are exposed to a temperature 

of 4.4 °C for 6-8 weeks. Celery will form seeds stalk if 

exposed to a mean temperature of 4.4 °C to 10 °C for 10 days or longer 89 . 

118 


In the Cordilleras, farmers usually vernalize their radish seeds if they intend to use them for seed 

production. Some farmers had tried different vernalization techniques to suit their location specific 

conditions. If these learning experiences are shared among farmers in FFSs, then in this process, 

their current techniques can still be further improved. This particular exercise was designed to 

realize this objective. 


• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of fields planted to 

vernalized radish seeds; and 




appropriate? 


sessions, before sowing 

radish seeds in learning 

field 


to learn improved 

vernalization techniques 

for radish seeds from 

other farmers 

• To make participants aware of and understand that some organic vegetable seeds need 

vernalization if they will be used for seed production; and 

• To learn and do improved techniques shared by farmers in vernalizing radish seeds for seed 

production. 






materials 

• Organic vegetable fields planted to vernalized and non-vernalized radish seeds; 

• Field supplies (e.g., radish seeds, filter papers, and plastic boxes); 

• Refrigerator (e.g., temperature of 5 °C can be maintained regularly); and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers or blackboard and chalks, notebooks, staplers, crayons, ball 

pens, and marking pens). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks, interview farmers, and 

observe organic vegetable fields planted to either vernalized or non-vernalized radish seeds. 

List down all observations and experiences shared by farmers interviewed. 

2. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups on how to improve standard procedure 

provided below: 

5 Line bottom of plastic boxes with filter papers; 

5 Broadcast thinly radish seeds on filter papers; 

5 Moisten filter papers and seeds; 

5 Keep seeds in boxes at room temperature until radicles break off seed coat; 

5 Place pre-germinated seeds in a refrigerator section where temperature can be maintained 

at 5 °C for 14 days; and 

5 Sow vernalized seeds in seedbeds prepared with 30 x 30 cm spacing. 

3. Present output of small groups to big group. Conduct participatory discussion and sharing of 

experiences among participants and facilitators. 



some suggested question for processing discussion 

❏ What do we mean by vernalization? 

119

120 


❏ Did you observe radish planted in farmers’ field whose seeds were vernalized? How were they 

compared with radish whose seeds were not vernalized? 

❏ Why do we need to vernalize radish seeds if intended for seed production? 

❏ Do you know of a better vernalization technique for radish seeds? How will you do it? 

❏ What other organic vegetable seeds need vernalization? How are they vernalized? 

❏ What changes in appearance of seeds did you observe after vernalization? 

❏ Were there differences in plant growth and development between vernalized and non-vernalized 

seeds? 

❏ Were there differences in yields between vernalized and non-vernalized seeds?



STRATIFICATION OF SNAP BEAN AND GARDEN 

PEA SEEDS FOR BETTER ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Stratification is placement of seeds between layers of moist 

sand, soil, or sawdust at high and low temperatures so that 

action of water and high and low temperature will soften 

seed coat 91 . For some vegetable seeds, stratification can 

be accomplished by filing and rearranging seeds packed 

in plastic bags in the vegetable section of a refrigerator for 

a pre-determined period. This practice was reported to 

increase seed viability as well as yield in snap beans and garden peas. 

In FFSs, very few farmers had shared their experiences about stratification despite known benefits 

that can be derived from this practice. This exercise was designed to allow farmers and facilitators 

to share their more innovative experiences in stratification as a strategy to improve productivity in 

organic snap beans and garden peas production. 


• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of fields planted to stratified 

and non-stratified organic snap bean and garden pea seeds; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand some organic vegetable seeds that can be 

stratified to improve their productivity; and 

• To learn and do improved techniques shared by farmers and facilitators in stratifying organic 

snap bean and garden pea seeds. 





121 


appropriate? 



snap bean or garden pea 

seeds in learning field; 

and 


to learn improved 

stratification techniques 

for snap bean and garden 

pea seeds from other 

farmers and facilitators

materials 

122 


• Organic vegetable fields planted to stratified and non-stratified snap beans and garden pea seeds; 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, and marking pens); 

• Field supplies (e.g., snap bean and garden pea seeds, rubber bands, and plastic bags); and 

• Refrigerator (e.g., temperature may vary from time to time). 

methodology 


steps 


observe organic vegetable fields planted to either vernalized or non-vernalized radish seeds. 




5 Place seeds in undamaged plastic bags and carefully tie bags with rubber bands; 

5 Place bags of seeds in vegetable section of a refrigerator for 45-60 days; 

5 When field is ready for planting, bring out stratified seeds from refrigerator and plant; and 

5 Follow all required cultural management practices for growing snap beans or garden peas. 


sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 




❏ What do we mean by stratification? 

❏ Did you observe organic snap beans and garden peas planted in farmers’ field whose seeds 

were stratified? How were they compared with snap beans or garden peas whose seeds were 

not stratified? 

❏ Why do we need to stratify organic snap bean or garden pea seeds?


❏ From farmers interviewed, did you learn better stratification technique for snap bean and green 

pea seeds? How did they do it? 

❏ What other organic vegetable seeds need stratification? How are they stratified? 

❏ What changes in appearance of seeds did you observe after stratification? 

❏ Were there differences in plant growth and development between stratified and non-stratified 

seeds? 

❏ Were there differences in yields between stratified and non-stratified seeds? 

123


HYDROIZATION OF TOMATO AND CARROT 

SEEDS FOR BETTER DROUGHT TOLERANCE OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


124 


Hardening could either be done before sowing (presowing 

hardening or hydroization) or a week or two before 

transplanting (seedling hardening). Pre-sowing hardening 

or hydroization consists of soaking seeds in water for 1 –to 

48 hours depending on seeds, and then air-drying to their 

original moisture content before sowing. This is generally 

practiced for vegetable seeds. For tomato and carrot, this usually takes 24 to 48 hours 93 . 

Hydroization is a good cultural practice, where drought is foreseen, as it is expected to induce 

drought resistance. Researchers reported that hydroization can increase yield by about 25 percent 

in tomato and carrot 94 . As in stratification, very few farmers in FFSs had shared their experiences 

about hydroization despite known benefits that can be derived from this practice. This exercise was 

designed to allow farmers and facilitators to share their more innovative experiences in hydroization 

as a strategy to improve drought tolerance of organically-grown tomato and carrot. 


• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of fields planted to hydroized 

and non-hydroized tomato and carrot seeds; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on and brainstorming session in the processing area. 



appropriate? 



tomato or carrot seeds in 



learn improved pre-sowing 

hardening or hydroization 

techniques for tomato and 

carrot seeds from other 

farmers and facilitators. 

• To make participants aware of and understand the hardening of some vegetable seeds by 

hydroization to improve their drought tolerance; and 

• To learn and do improved techniques shared by farmers and facilitators in hydroization of 

tomato and carrot seeds. 





94 Kudan, S.L. 1998. As cited in: Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, 

Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p.


materials 

• Organic vegetable fields planted to hydroized and non-hydroized tomato or carrot seeds; 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens and marking pens); and 

• Field supplies (e.g., tomato or carrot seeds, clean water, plastic boxes and plates). 

methodology 


steps 


observe organic vegetable fields planted to hydroized and non-hydroized tomato or carrot seeds. 




5 Weigh seeds and add water equivalent to 75 % of seed weight; 

5 Stir properly until all seeds are wet; 

5 Keep wet seeds at room temperature for 24 hours; 

5 Dry wet seeds under diffuse light for three days or until they return to their original 

moisture content; and 

5 Repeat procedure once or twice before sowing seeds. 






❏ What do we mean by pre-sowing hardening or hydroization? 

❏ Did you observe tomato and carrot planted in farmers’ field whose seeds were hydroized? How 

were they compared with tomato or carrot whose seeds were not hydroized? 

❏ Why do we need to harden tomato or carrot seeds by hydroization? 

125

126 


❏ From farmers interviewed, did you learn of a better hydroization technique for tomato and 

carrot seeds? How did they do it? 

❏ What other vegetable seeds need hydroization? How are they hydroized? 

❏ What changes in appearance of seeds did you observe after hydroization? 

❏ Were there differences in plant growth and development between hydroized and non-hydroized 

seeds? 

❏ Were there differences in yields between hydroized and non-hydroized seeds?



BREAkING DORMANCY OF POTATO SEED TUBERS 

AS A CULTURAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR 

IMPROVING ORGANIC POTATO PRODUCTIVITY 


The scarcity of quality potato seed pieces in Benguet and 

Mountain Province limits farmers’ ability to expand potato 

production in their respective areas. In addition, diseasefree 

potato seed pieces cannot be guaranteed if these 

intended-planting materials would come from unregistered 

farmer-seed growers. To ensure that a relatively high 

quality planting materials is immediately available, farmers 

may use disease-free seed pieces from his latest harvest. In this case, breaking potato seed tuber 

dormancy will be necessary to meet the requirements for succeeding planting operations. 

The most practical technique used by farmers to break seed tuber dormancy is with the use of 

calcium carbide, a procedure that allows rapid potato eye emergence 96 . Farmers have their own 

innovations to ensure rapid production of quality seed tubers. In FFSs, these experiences must 

be shared among farmers to improve their current best practices in breaking potato seed tuber 

dormancy. This particular exercise is intended for this purpose. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of potato crops two weeks before 

harvesting in learning and adjoining fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on and brainstorming session. 


• To make participants aware of and understand the process of breaking seed tuber dormancy in 

potato; and 

• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on of innovative practices of breaking potato seed 

tuber dormancy. 




Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p. 

127 


appropriate? 


sessions, before harvesting 

potato and when there 

is scarcity of planting 

materials for succeeding 

planting operations; and 


learn innovative practices 

of breaking seed tuber 

dormancy from other 

farmers.

materials 

128 


• Fields planted to potato crops to be harvested two weeks later in learning and adjoining fields; 


• Other supplies (e.g., calcium carbide, cartoons, newsprint, plastic bags, and ramie sacks). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe potato 

crops two weeks before harvesting in learning and adjoining fields. Observe and choose 

relatively healthy potato crops. Take a few representative sample plants and tubers. List down 

all observations related to pest and disease incidence, crop stand, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area, cut tubers, and assess plant and tuber health. Determine if tubers 

can be used as source of seed materials. Brainstorm in small groups and present output to the 

big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants 

and facilitators. Decide on a better procedure of breaking seed tuber dormancy. 



4. Two weeks before harvest, determine if there is scarcity of seed materials for next planting 

operations. If seed materials will be scarce, do hands-on at harvest time by improving the 

procedure below: 

5 Prepare appropriate containers (e.g., cartons, plastic bags, and ramie sacks) and other 

materials (e.g., newsprint, and calcium carbide); 

5 Select healthy potato seed pieces from farmers’ early harvest or from sample seed tubers 

in learning field; 

5 Spread plastic bags wide enough to accommodate seed pieces inside carton; 

5 Place ramie sacks over plastic bags and keep moist as necessary; 

5 Wrap at least 50-g calcium carbide in newsprint and place at the bottom of carton; 

5 Place potato seed pieces on top of wrapped calcium carbide until carton is full; and 

5 Cover for 14-21 days, keeping ramie sacks moist until potato eyes emerge from seed tubers.



❏ What do you mean by potato seed tuber dormancy? What causes potato seed tuber dormancy? 

❏ How do we break potato seed tuber dormancy? Did you find farmers breaking potato seed 

tuber dormancy? 

❏ Did you learn more innovative practices from farmers in breaking seed tuber dormancy? How 

was it done? 

❏ When is breaking seed tuber dormancy most practical? 

❏ What seed tuber characteristics do we consider if we are to break its dormancy? How do we 

select tubers for seed purposes in farmers’ field? 

129


PRICkING-OFF TO HASTEN HARDENING OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN CELERY AND LETTUCE 

SEEDLINGS PRIOR TO TRANSPLANTING 


If root disturbance cannot be avoided, such as when seeds 

are sown in seedbeds or seed boxes, it becomes necessary 

to prepare them for adverse environmental conditions 

in farmers’ field and minimize transplanting shock. 

Transplanting shock refers to a temporary setback in growth 

after transplanting. Such preparation hardens them and this 

process is called hardening. It involves a checking of growth. 

130 


Hardening results in making protoplasm less hydrated, thus, plants can resist longer periods of low 

water absorption. 

If seedlings were closely spaced initially, transferring some of them to new containers or spacing 

them wider would facilitate growth. Transplanting to give seedlings greater space in which to grow 

before transplanting in farmers’ field is called pricking-off 98 . Pricking-off is an old practice by 

farmers in the Cordilleras, particularly for celery and lettuce seedlings. 

Through the years, some farmers had made innovations, which led to better hardening process, 

resulting in better crop productivity. These experiences must be shared with other farmers in 

FFSs to continuously evolve better practices, which will further improve productivity, hence, this 

exercise. 



appropriate? 


sessions, at seedling stage 

of celery and lettuce in 

seedbed of learning field; 

and 


learn improved prickingoff 

practices from other 

farmers for hardening 

of celery and lettuce 

seedlings. 

• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of celery and lettuce 

seedbeds where pricking-off were practiced in adjoining fields of learning field; 

• Thirty minutes hands-on for pricking-off of celery and lettuce seedlings from seedbed; and 

• One hour brainstorming session in processing area after one month. 







• To make participants aware of and understand the hardening of some vegetable seedlings by 

pricking-off to improve their tolerance to adverse environment; and 

• To learn and do hands-on of improved pricking-off techniques shared by farmers for celery and 

lettuce seedlings. 

materials 

• Seedbeds of celery and lettuce seedlings ready for hardening by pricking-off; 


• Field materials (e.g., cleaning tools, digging tools, compost). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks, interview farmers, 

and observe vegetable seedlings hardened by pricking-off. List down all observations and 

experiences shared by farmers who were interviewed. 

2. Go back to the processing area. Brainstorm in small groups on how to improve standard 

procedure provided below: 

5 Grow celery or lettuce seedlings to about 2 to 3 inches tall; 

5 Select a suitable area near seedbed for pricking-off of seedlings; 

5 Clean and cultivate area properly; 

5 Apply and incorporate compost or any organic matter to soil and level; 

5 Uproot seedlings from seedbed and sort them according to sizes; 

5 Prick-off seedlings at a distance of 7 to 8 cm between plants; and 

5 Transplant seedlings in main field after one month. 



4. Synthesize and summarize the output of the small groups into one big group output. Draw up 

conclusions and recommendations from the exercise. 

131


132 


❏ What do we mean by seedling hardening by pricking-off? 

❏ Did you observe transplanted celery and lettuce seedlings in farmer’s fields that were hardened 

by pricking-off? How were they compared with transplanted celery or lettuce seedlings that 

were not hardened by pricking-off? 

❏ Why do we need to harden celery and lettuce seedlings before transplanting in main field? 

❏ From farmers interviewed, did you learn of a better pricking-off technique for celery and lettuce 

seedlings? How did they do it? 

❏ What other vegetable seedlings need hardening by pricking-off? How are they done? 

❏ What changes in appearance of celery and lettuce seedlings did you observe one, two, three, 

and four weeks after pricking-off? 

❏ Were there differences in plant growth and development between pricked-off and not prickedoff 

celery and lettuce seedlings? 

❏ Were there differences in yields between pricked-off and not pricked-off celery and lettuce 

seedlings?



VARIETAL ADAPTABILITY TO DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS 

AS A kEY FACTOR FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY IN THE HIGHLANDS 


Yield potential is usually a reflection of plant’s ability to use 

and adapt to its environment in terms of its morphology, 

anatomy, or biochemical nature. In the Cordilleras, vegetable 

crops, to be more productive, must adapt to unfavorable 

environmental conditions, which include presence of 

harmful insects and diseases, water logging, drought, too high or too low temperature, too much or 

too little light or nutrients. 

Varietal adaptability of crops in highlands differs relative to elevations mainly because of temperature 

as well as pest and disease prevalence. At high elevation, potato and cabbage are predominant crops 

because of their tolerance to relatively cooler temperatures. Whereas, snap bean, green pea and 

cucumber can tolerate slightly warmer temperature and are more adapted in middle elevation. The 

beneficial parasitoid Diadegma sp. and harmful microorganism cyst nematode are more adapted to 

cooler temperature. Hence, diamondback moth (DBM) is easier checked in high elevation, where its 

parasitoid Diadegma sp. adapts very well, than at middle elevation. Similarly, cyst nematode does 

not thrive well at warmer temperature and is never a problem of potato grown in middle elevation 100 . 

Every vegetable farmer knows which crop is most adaptable to his specific environment. His 

experiences, when shared with others in FFSs, will allow them to acquire additional knowledge and 

understanding to improve their current practices, which may result to better crop productivity. This 

exercise was designed to address this concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of organic vegetable crops most 

adapted in adjoining vegetable fields of learning field; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session in the processing area. 





133 


appropriate? 


sessions, before planting 

vegetable crops in 



learn more of varietal 

adaptability of organic 

vegetable crops in their 

area from other farmers.


134 


• To make participants understand how adaptability of their organic vegetable crops to different 

elevation can improve productivity and profitability; and 

• To learn from other farmers the adaptability of different organic vegetable crops to their local 

environment. 

materials 

• Fields planted to organic vegetable crops that are most adapted to prevailing conditions in 

adjoining vegetable fields of learning field; and 


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe as many 

organic vegetable crops planted in adjoining fields of learning field. Interview other farmers, if 

necessary. List down all observations related to pest and disease occurrence, kind of popular 

and introduced crops planted, crop adaptability, crop stand, etc. 



facilitators. List down important observations shared by farmers, as follows: 

5 Organic vegetable crop species or varieties most adapted to their local environment; 

5 Organic vegetable crop species or varieties less adapted to their local environments; 

5 Introduced organic vegetable crop species or varieties from higher or lower elevations most 

adapted to their local environments; and 

5 Introduced organic vegetable crop species or varieties from higher or lower elevations less 

adapted to their local environments. 


conclusions and recommendations from this exercise.



❏ Did you observe differences in adaptability among organic crop species and varieties planted in 

farmers’ fields? Did you observe crops introduced from different elevations that were adapted 

in farmers’ fields? 

❏ What pests and diseases were prevalent on organic crop species and varieties observed in 

farmers’ fields? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers their experiences on adaptability of other crop species and 

varieties planted in an area? Which of the crop species and varieties they tried were more 

adapted to their area? Why? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers some crop species and varieties that were adapted to all 

elevations? What were these crops? Why did these crops have wider range of adaptability? 

❏ What good characteristics were observed among organic crop species and varieties adaptable 

to a locality? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement crop adaptability in improving 

productivity and profitability? 

135


GROWING IN EAST-WEST ROW ORIENTATION 

AS A CULTURAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR 

IMPROVING ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTIVITY 


Organic vegetable growing in east-west row orientation 

refers to sowing, planting or transplanting of vegetables 

in east-west row direction or in relation to rising-setting 

direction of sun. This cultural management practice 

enhances efficient use of sunlight by organic vegetable crop 

by reducing shading effects among plants leading to decrease 

in photosynthetic rate and to favorable environmental 

conditions for pest and disease development. Research 

results indicate that this practice can increase productivity 

of some organic vegetables grown in highlands. However, 

136 


many farmers in the Cordilleras are still unaware of the benefits that can be derived from such 

practice. 

On the other hand, a few innovative farmers had tried and benefited from this practice in benched 

terraced farms and in relatively flat terrain of valley floors. In FFSs, farmers need to share with other 

farmers their best experiences in using different row orientations to further sustain productivity in 

growing organic vegetables. There is also a need to learn alternative approaches and understand 

non-adoption by farmers of this practice in some sloping areas. The foregoing exercise was designed 

as an attempt to address this particular concern. 



appropriate? 



deciding on plot and row 

orientations of organic 

vegetables to be grown in 



learn best experiences 

from other farmers 

in using different row 

orientations to further 

sustain productivity 

in growing organic 

vegetables. 

• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of different row orientations 

practiced for growing organic vegetables in adjoining fields of learning field; and 






• To make participants understand that proper row orientation in growing organic vegetables 

contributes to better crop productivity; and 

• To learn from other farmers their best experiences in using different row orientations to further 

sustain productivity in growing organic vegetables. 

materials 

• Adjoining fields of learning field grown to any organic vegetable where different row orientations 

were practiced; and 


methodology 


steps 


observe organic vegetables grown in different row orientations. List down all observations and 

experiences shared by farmers who were interviewed. 

2. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups on what is the best row orientation to 

use. Present output of small groups to the big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow 

sharing of experiences among participants. Agree on the best row orientation to be followed. 

3. Do actual use of best row orientation for growing organic vegetables in learning field as agreed 

upon by the big group. 




❏ What do we mean by growing organic vegetables in east-west row orientation? Did you observe 

different row orientations for different organic vegetables grown in farmers’ field? 

137

138 


❏ Were there differences in crop performance (e.g., plant growth, development, and yield) 

between organic vegetables grown in east-west row direction and organic vegetables grown 

using different row orientations? 

❏ Is the use of east-west orientation applicable in growing all vegetables? 

❏ Did you learn better row orientation used for growing different organic vegetables from 

farmers interviewed? How did they do it?



PROPER TIMING OF PLANTING TO IMPROVE 

PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY IN ORGANIC 



Many farmers in the Cordilleras learned the best time to 

plant their organic vegetable crops by experience. In proper 

timing of planting, farmers usually consider pest and disease 

occurrence, weather condition, crop adaptability, and market 

demands in an area. Some farmers, particularly when 

dealing with introduced crops, may not know the best time 

to plant such crops to attain better productivity and profitability. 

Through field walks, observations, and brainstorming sessions in FFSs, farmers can share their 

best practices on proper timing of planting, in growing organic vegetable crops in their respective 

areas. This approach will allow comparison of best learning experiences among farmers and in this 

process further improve their individual best practices. Thus, this exercise was designed to address 

this specific concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of organic vegetable crops planted 

at different time during same cropping season; and 



• To make participants understand how proper timing of planting their organic vegetable crops 

can improve productivity and profitability; and 

• To learn the best practices on timing of planting organic vegetable crops from other farmers. 

102 Adapted from Callo, Jr., D.P., Teofilo, L.B. and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO 


139 


appropriate? 



organic vegetable crops 



learn more of the proper 

timing of planting organic 

vegetable crops in their 

area from other farmers.

materials 

140 


• Fields planted to organic vegetable crops at different planting time; and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens and marking pens). 

methodology 


steps 


organic vegetable crops planted in fields at different time during the same cropping season. 

Interview other farmers and collect specimens, if necessary. List down all observations related 

to pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, weed growth, quality of 

products, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area, brainstorm in small groups and present output to big group. Conduct 



conclusions and recommendation from the exercise. 


• Did you observe different crops planted at different time during the same cropping season? 

What are your observations on crops planted? 

• What pests and diseases are prevalent on crops planted at different time during the same 

cropping season? 

• When is the best time during cropping season to plant different kind of crops? Why? 

• Did planting at proper time during the same cropping season improve productivity and 

profitability? Can we reduce pest and disease occurrence by proper timing of planting? How? 

Why? 

• What other cultural management practices can you suggest that will complement proper timing 

of planting to improve productivity and profitability in organic vegetable production?



PROPER PLANTING DISTANCE AS A STRATEGY TO 

MAXIMIZE CROP PRODUCTIVITY OF ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN VEGETABLES 


One important cultural management practice in growing 

organic vegetables is the use of proper planting distance. 

Some of the benefits derived from using this practice are 

optimized seeding rate, minimized pest (including weed) 

and disease incidence, and maximized crop productivity. 

Through years of experience in farming, farmers had 

adapted the most appropriate planting distance for various 

crops in their localities. 

In FFSs, these best practices can be shared and learned among farmers through field walks and 

brainstorming. These learning experiences can further be enhanced by role-playing, hence this 

exercise. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of different sowing, planting, and 

transplanting distances in adjoining organic vegetable farms of learning field; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand the role of proper planting distance in maximizing 

crop productivity in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn the best experiences from other farmers on proper planting distance in growing organic 

vegetables. 



141 


appropriate? 



in seedbed and before 

planting or transplanting 



learn the best experiences 

from other farmers on 

proper planting distance 

in growing organic 

vegetables.

materials 

142 


• Seedbeds and fields sown, planted or transplanted with organic vegetable crops at varying 

planting distance; and 


methodology 

• Field walks, role-playing, and brainstorming. 

steps 


seedbeds and adjoining farms sown, planted or transplanted with organic vegetable crops at 

varying planting distance. List down all observations related to planting distance, seeding rate, 

percentage germination, pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area and do a role-play. Divide big group in two small groups. Make 

sure there are equal numbers of participants in each group. Excess group members will act as 

observers. Each group will form a column as follows: 

5 Group A participants will have wider distances between them (e.g., participants should not 

be touching other persons when their arms are raised sideward); 

5 Group B participants will have closer distances between them (e.g., participants should be 

touching other persons when their arms are raised sideward); and 

5 Let participants in each group turn twice (e.g., clockwise and counter-clockwise) with their 

arms extending sideward and record all experiences. Relate all experiences to the topic. 

3. Brainstorm in small groups and present output to the big group. Conduct participatory 

discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 




❏ Did you observe different sowing, planting, and transplanting distances used in organic 

vegetable seedbeds and fields?


❏ Did you observe differences in seeding rates, percentage germination, plant vigor, crop stand, 

pest and disease occurrence, etc. in organic vegetable seedbeds and main fields, which used 

different sowing, planting, and transplanting distances? 

❏ What benefits will you get when you use proper planting distances? 

❏ What were the proper sowing, planting, and transplanting distances used for various organic 

vegetable crops? 

❏ What are the negative effects of too close and too wide sowing, planting, or transplanting 

distances in growing organic vegetables? 

❏ Will proper sowing, planting, or transplanting distances in growing organic vegetables reduce 

pest and diseases occurrence? Why? 

❏ What other cultural management practices will complement proper sowing, planting, or 

transplanting distances in growing organic vegetables to improve productivity. 

143


THINNING AS A CULTURAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 

IN IMPROVING ORGANIC CARROT PRODUCTION 


Carrot (Daucus carota) is among the top high-valued crops 

that grow well in high elevations, ranging from 1,200-7,400 

m above sea level. In the Cordilleras, carrot is directly 

seeded in beds either by furrow or drill method. In some 

areas, carrot seeds are broadcast in newly harrowed fields. 

Optimum yield is achieved when crop is planted in sandy 

loam soils where appropriate cultural management practices 

are followed throughout its growing period. 

144 



appropriate? 


sessions, during weeding 

operations at early 

seedling stages of carrots 



learn improved thinning 


farmers for carrot 

seedlings. 

One popular cultural management practice employed in organic growing of carrot is thinning. 105 

Thinning out of undesirable plant ease out overcrowding of seedlings, which allows better penetration 

of sunlight, permits proper aeration or more rapid drying of dew or rain on foliage after a downpour, 

and minimizes nutrient competition. For better results, thinning operation is done in two to three 

stages depending on sowing density. In carrots, proper timing and methods are as important as 

frequency of thinning operations. The decision of whether to do one-time or staggered thinning 

operations is often dictated by seedling density and crop stand. Improper thinning often results to 

poor quality carrot roots due to forking and cracking, significant yield loss, and consequently lowers 

profit. 

Through years of experiences, some farmers had made innovations, which led to better thinning 

practices, resulting in better crop productivity. These experiences must be shared with other farmers 

in FFSs to continuously develop better practices, which will further improve productivity, hence, 

this exercise. 







• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of thinning practices of carrot 

seedlings in learning and adjoining fields; 

• Thirty minutes hands-on for thinning of carrot seedlings in learning field; and 

• One hour brainstorming session in processing area after two to three thinning operations. 


• To make farmers aware of and understand the need for proper thinning in carrot seedlings to 

improve their productivity; and 

• To learn and do improved thinning techniques or practices shared by farmers for carrot seedlings. 

materials 

• Carrot seedlings ready for thinning and weeding operations in learning and adjoining fields; 


• Field materials (e.g., cleaning or digging tools, bolo, or scythe). 

methodology 


steps 


observe thinning operations conducted on carrot seedlings in adjoining fields of learning field. 

List down all observations and experiences shared by farmers who were interviewed, as follows: 

5 Seeding rates used; 

5 Age of carrot seedlings every thinning and weeding operations; 

5 Number of thinning and weeding operations normally conducted; 

5 Size, weight, and quality of carrot roots harvested; and 

5 Incidence of forking, cracking, and other maladies. 


below: 

145

146 


5 Grow carrot seedlings to about 2-3 inches tall; 

5 Based on crop stand, decide on when and how many thinning and weeding operations will 

be conducted; 

5 Conduct simultaneous thinning and weeding operations; 

5 Repeat thinning and weeding operations as earlier decided on; 

5 Dispose thinned diseased seedlings properly or incorporate thinned uninfected seedlings 

into the soil; and 







❏ What do we mean by thinning in organic vegetable production? What are the reasons for 

thinning of vegetable seedlings? 

❏ Did you observe transplanted carrot seedlings in organic vegetable fields? If there were any, 

how were they compared with direct seeded carrot seedlings? 

❏ Why do we need to do thinning of carrot seedlings in the main field? How many thinning and 

weeding operations are needed for carrot seedlings? When are they conducted? Why are they 

conducted at those times? 

❏ Did you learn some better thinning techniques or practices for carrot seedlings from farmers 

interviewed? How did they do it? 

❏ What other vegetable seedlings need thinning operations? How are they done? Why are they 

done? 

❏ Were there differences in plant growth (e.g., size and weight of roots) and development (e.g., 

forking and cracking incidences) between thinned and not thinned carrot seedlings? 

❏ Were there differences in yields (e.g., marketable and unmarketable roots) between thinned and 

not thinned carrot seedlings?



TRELLISING 107 FOR QUALITY PRODUCE IN 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN LEGUMES, TOMATO, AND 

CUCURBITS 


Trellising is an important cultural management practice of 

organic vegetable farmers in the Cordilleras. Such practice 

improves quality of products and avoids rotting of fruits 

associated with soil-borne pathogens. Several types of 

trellises are used. Stalks of rono (talahib) are used as poles 

for cucurbits and legumes. The usual trellis for vegetable 

gardens and small farms is an arbor or overhead type, locally called bangsal (balag), where a 

platform is constructed out of interwoven bamboo or hog wire. 

A fence-type trellis is also used in small and large organic vegetable farms, made of crisscrossing 

stalks or constructed with posts at each end of a row with horizontally strung wires, resembling a 

fence. In plastic sheds, indeterminate tomato (that which bear fruits on leaf axis) is trained on string 

trellises, where strings are hanged from wires in ceiling. 

On the other hand, determinate tomato (that which bears fruit at end of branches) is trained on a 

T-trellis with two wires strung horizontally to produce high quality fruits and to avoid rotting of 

fruits in contact with soil. For better results, farmers often modify these types of trellises. In FFSs, 

these experiences can be shared and learned by other farmers through field walks and brainstorming 

session, hence this exercise. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations in organic vegetable fields with 

different types of trellises; and 






147 


appropriate? 


sessions, when organic 


learning field is ready for 

trellising; and 


learn better trellising 

techniques from other 

farmers.


148 


• To make participants aware of and understand how proper trellising techniques can improve 

quality of organic vegetable products; and 

• To learn better trellising techniques from other farmers to further improve quality of organic 

vegetable products. 

materials 

• Fields planted to organic vegetable crops using different types of trellises; and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens and marking pens). 

methodology 


steps 


trellised and non-trellised organic vegetable crops in fields. Take note of types of trellises and 

techniques in trellising. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations 

related to pest and disease occurrence, distance of planting, types of trellises, techniques used, 

crop stand, weed growth, quality of products, etc. 






❏ What types of trellises did you observe in the field? When were different types of trellises 

used? Were there different types of trellises used per crop? Why? 

❏ Did you observe differences in crop performance with different types of trellises? Did trellised 

crops perform better than non-trellised crops? 

❏ Did trellising improve quality of vegetables grown? How?


❏ Did trellising control or reduce disease incidence? What particular diseases were controlled or 

reduced with trellising? 

❏ When is the best time to install trellis in legumes, tomato, and cucurbits? What type of trellis 

was most appropriate for legumes, tomato, and cucurbits? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement use of trellises to improve quality 

of organically-grown legumes, tomato, and cucurbits? 

149


CROP SEQUENCING AS A CULTURAL MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY FOR IMPROVING ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTIVITY 


Crop sequencing refers to proper arrangement of crops 

planted in succession to maximize production. It is important 

to use a cropping sequence that will conserve or improve 

nutritional status of soil, add organic matter, improve soil 

structure, protect land from erosion and, ultimately, give high 

yield. A good cropping sequence also make more efficient 

use of environment, considering that space, light, moisture, 

and nutrients are available most of the time. An alternate 

planting of leguminous and non-leguminous vegetables is an 

example of a good cropping sequence 109 . 

150 



appropriate? 


VST sessions, during 

discussion on cultural 

management practices as 

a component of Integrated 

Pest Management 

in organic vegetable 




their best crop sequencing 

schemes for improving 

organic vegetable 

productivity. 

If leguminous organic vegetables are not used in a cropping sequence, larger nitrogenous fertilizers 

(usually in large amount) will be needed to maintain soil productivity. The current practice of mono 

cropping by farmers, not only in the Cordilleras, may result in higher yields, but higher inputs are 

also needed for crop protection, irrigation, and fertilization, among others. It also concentrates risk 

of loss or price fluctuation on one crop. For small farmer, taking such a risk may not be appropriate, 

especially when organic vegetable farming is his sole source of income. 

It is interesting to note that many farmers, through the years, had designed more appropriate crop 

sequencing scheme that better suit their prevailing local conditions. These experiences must be 

shared among farmers in FFSs, so that their current best practices can be further improved, hence 




109 Balaki, E.T. 1998. As cited in: Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, 




• Thirty minutes for field walks and observations of different crop sequencing schemes in 

adjoining organic vegetable fields of learning field; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand how crop sequencing can be used as a cultural 

management strategy to improve organic vegetable productivity; and 

• To enhance farmers’ learning experiences of proper crop sequencing to improve organic 

vegetable productivity. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields where different crop sequencing schemes can be observed; and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers or blackboard and chalks, notebooks, ball pens, and marking 

pens). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe as 

many possible crop sequencing schemes in adjoining farms of learning field. List down all 

observations related to crop sequencing schemes, degree of pest and disease infestation, kind of 

crops planted, crop productivity, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups and present output to big group. Each 

group should share knowledge on possible effects and reactions of crops on different factors 

contributing to development or occurrence of pest and diseases, crop productivity, etc. 

3. Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 



151


152 


❏ What is crop sequencing? How do you differentiate crop succession from crop sequencing? 

❏ Did you observe different crop sequencing scheme in farmers’ field? What were these cropsequencing 

schemes commonly practiced by farmers? 

❏ What was the best crop-sequencing scheme practiced by farmers? Why? What were the 

important characteristics of a good crop-sequencing scheme? 

❏ Do you think crop sequencing will solve pest and disease problems in your area? Will crop 

sequencing result to better crop productivity? How? 

❏ What benefits can you derive from proper crop sequencing? 

❏ What other cultural practices can complement crop sequencing to improve organic vegetable 

productivity?



REJUVENATING ORGANICALLY-GROWN SNAP BEAN, 

CUCUMBER, AND BELL PEPPER BY PRUNING TO 

SUSTAIN PRODUCTIVITY 


The productivity of plants declines after some time. In 

some organic vegetable crops that have grown old, pruning 

is necessary to make them as productive as before. Pruning 

of shoots always results in lessened photosynthetic area 

and, therefore, lesser food manufactured. However, 

since roots are undisturbed at the time of pruning, more 

nutrients and water are available to remaining shoots and, 

soon afterwards, vegetative growth increases. If shoot 

pruning is extensive, an explosion of vegetative growth frequently occurs. This is a basis of pruning 

to rejuvenate plants 111 . 

Some farmers producing organic snap bean, cucumber, and bell pepper claimed that life span of 

their crops decreased nowadays. This enabled them to harvest or prime marketable fruits or pods 

for six to seven times only per cropping season. For snap beans, farmers before can have as many 

as 12 priming or harvesting of pods per cropping season. Many farmers in the Cordilleras had 

reported that priming or harvesting of marketable pods could be increased by at least five times after 

rejuvenation of snap beans. 

In FFSs, these notable experiences must be shared among farmers to further improve their existing 

best practices in rejuvenation to improve organic vegetable productivity. This exercise was designed 

to attain this particular objective. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of organically-grown snap bean, 

cucumber, and bell pepper ready for rejuvenation in adjoining and learning fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for hands-on in learning field and brainstorming session in 

processing area. 





153 


appropriate? 


sessions, after a significantly 

reduced number of snap 

bean pods or cucumber and 

bell pepper fruits are primed 

or harvested in learning 

field; and 


better ways to rejuvenate 

snap bean, cucumber, and 

bell pepper from others.


154 


• To make participants aware of and understand how rejuvenation of organically-grown snap 

bean, cucumber, and bell pepper can improve productivity and profitability; and 

• To learn better experiences from other farmers and do actual proper rejuvenation practices for 

organically-grown snap beans, cucumbers, and bell peppers. 

materials 

• Organically-grown snap beans, cucumbers, or bell peppers ready for rejuvenation in adjoining 

and learning fields; 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, masking tape, and marking pens); and 

• Other supplies (e.g., Japanese hoe, pruning shear, trowel, and fertilizers). 

methodology 


steps 


snap beans, cucumbers, and bell peppers ready for rejuvenation in adjoining and learning 

fields. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to rejuvenation 

practices, time of harvesting, crops rejuvenated, crop stand, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups and present output to the big group. 


facilitators. 

3. Conduct hands-on of rejuvenating organically-grown snap bean, cucumber, or bell pepper 

when the need arises in learning field. Determine if there is a need to improve the procedure 

suggested below: 

5 Remove at least 70-80 % old, matured and yellowing leaves, leaving about 20 percent 

green, healthy leaves in upper portion of plants; 

5 Re-cultivate soils, allowing minimum disturbance of plant’s lateral roots; 

5 Apply organic fertilizer (e.g., compost or microbial-based fertilizers) between rows, not 

very close to plant’s base to cause burning of plant parts;


5 Hill-up soils near plant’s base to cover organic fertilizer; 

5 Observe and gather pertinent data every week until last pod or fruit priming or harvesting 

is conducted; and 

5 Take note of all pertinent learning experiences from this exercise. 




❏ Did you observe farmers rejuvenating their vegetable crops in the fields? What vegetable crops 

do farmers commonly rejuvenate? 

❏ Why do farmers rejuvenate their vegetable crops? When do they normally rejuvenate their 


❏ Did productivity improve after rejuvenating their organic vegetable crops? 

❏ How many pod or fruit priming or harvesting did farmers undertake after rejuvenating their 

organic vegetable crops? 

❏ Did farmers observe reduced pest and disease occurrence of their rejuvenated organic vegetable 

crops? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers their best experiences on rejuvenating their organicallygrown 

snap beans, cucumbers, and bell peppers? How did they do it? 

❏ In your hands-on exercise, what did you observe on organically-grown snap beans, cucumbers, 

and bell peppers after one, two, three, four weeks, and so on after rejuvenation? 

❏ What benefit can you derive from rejuvenating your organic vegetable crops? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement proper rejuvenation of organic 

vegetable crops to improve productivity and profitability? 

155


CULTURAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN RELATION 

TO MORPHOLOGY AND GROWTH STAGES OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN LEAFY VEGETABLES 


Organic vegetable crops grown mainly for their leaves are 

classified as leafy vegetables 113 . Some examples of leafy 

vegetables are pechay, mustard, lettuce, green onion, leek, 

and celery. The most important product of a home garden, 

for instance, is leafy vegetable. In a home garden, leafy 

vegetables are easy to grow organically and do not need 

much attention or labor, yet they give highest rate of edible 

products. In highlands, leafy vegetables are organicallygrown 

commercially by farmers. Commercial growing of 

organic leafy vegetables requires intensive labor and capital 

investments. 

156 


Thus, appropriate and location-specific cultural management practices employed at different 

growth stages of crops are necessary for more productive and profitable venture. Innovative 

cultural management practices that are more adapted to various stages of organically-grown leafy 

vegetables in their localities had evolved in the Cordilleras through farmers’ years of experiences. 

These unique experiences can be regularly shared among farmers in FFSsto further improve current 

practices. The foregoing exercise was designed to address this particular concern. 



appropriate? 


VST sessions, when 

participants decided to 

organically-grow leafy 

vegetables in learning 

field or leafy vegetables 

are organically-grown in 



learn innovative cultural 

management practices in 

relation to growth stages 

of organically-grown 

leafy vegetables from 

other farmers. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of appropriate cultural management 

practices in relation to growth stages of organically-grown leafy vegetables in learning and 





113 Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 




• To make participants aware of and understand appropriate cultural management practices in 

relation to growth stages of organically-grown leafy vegetables and how these can improve 

productivity and profitability; and 

• To learn innovative cultural management practices in relation to growth stages of organicallygrown 

leafy vegetables from other farmers. 

materials 

• Leafy vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields; and 


methodology 


steps 


stages of leafy vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields. Interview other 

farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to: 

5 Kinds, varieties, or cultivars of leafy vegetables planted; 

5 Different growth stages of leafy vegetables planted; and 

5 Cultural management practices employed at different growth stages. 


3. Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and 

facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best cultural management practices employed in 

relation to morphology and growth stages of different leafy vegetables organically-grown in 

their own farm, like: 

5 Pre-planting operations (e.g., land preparation, seedbed preparation, seedbed treatment, 

sowing, care of seedling, roguing of diseased plants, cultural control of pests, pricking 

off, raised bed preparation, furrowing, organic and microbial-based fertilizer application, 

pulling of seedlings, monitoring, etc.); 

157

158 


5 Planting or transplanting operations (e.g., direct seeding or transplanting, mulching, 

irrigation, etc.); 

5 Recovery and early vegetative stages (e.g., replanting, roguing of diseased plants, leaf 

removal of infected leaves, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic 

and microbial-based fertilizers, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Active vegetative stage (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of infected leaves, 

cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and microbial-based 

fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Late vegetative stage (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of infected leaves, 


fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); and 

5 Harvest and post-harvest stages (e.g., harvesting, sorting, grading, packaging, etc.). 


conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. Design appropriate matrix, as shown 

below: 

SPECIES, VARIETY 

OR CULTIVAR 

PECHAY, 

MUSTARD, 

LETTUCE, 

GREEN ONION, 

LEEk, 

AND 

CELERY 

GROWTH STAGE 

Pre-planting 

Planting or 

transplanting 

Recovery and early 

vegetative 

Active vegetative 

Late vegetative 

Harvest and postharvest 

DESCRIPTION 

OF DISTINCT 

MORPHOLOGY 

CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

PURPOSE OF 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE



❏ Did you observe different kinds, varieties, or cultivars of leafy vegetables organically-grown in 

adjoining fields of learning field? 

❏ What kinds, varieties, or cultivars of leafy vegetables did farmers commonly grow organically? 

Why did farmers prefer these kinds, varieties, or cultivars of leafy vegetables to others? 

❏ What cultural management practices did farmers employ for different kinds, varieties, or 

cultivars of organically-grown leafy vegetable at different growth stages? Why did farmers 

employ these cultural management practices? 

❏ Did you observe distinct changes in morphological structures of different kinds, varieties, or 

cultivars of organically-grown leafy vegetables at different growth stages? What are these 

distinct changes in morphological structures? 

❏ Did farmers use this knowledge in morphological structures as basis for employing different 

cultural management practices? How? 

❏ Did you learn innovative cultural management practices from other farmers at different growth 

stages of organically-grown leafy vegetables? What are these innovative cultural management 

practices? 

159




ORGANICALLY-GROWN HEAD- AND CURD-FORMING 

VEGETABLES 


Head- and curd-forming vegetables are organically-grown 

for their terminal buds or flowers technically known as heads 

or curds, respectively. Some of these vegetables are Chinese 

cabbage, head cabbage, head lettuce, cauliflower, and broccoli. 

Actually, an edible part of a cabbage is an exaggerated terminal 

bud termed as head. This is also true of heading type of lettuce 

called head lettuce. Some vegetable crops that are organicallygrown 

for their curds are cauliflower and broccoli. The curds 

are floral initials and not fully developed flowers, which are 

fibrous and tougher 115 . 

160 


Unlike leafy vegetables that are usually organically-grown in home gardens, head- and curdforming 

vegetables are high-valued crops normally grown by farmers in commercial scale. Just like 

any commercially grown organic vegetables, appropriate and location-specific cultural management 

practices employed at different growth stages of crops are necessary for more productive and 

profitable undertaking. 

Innovative cultural management practices that are more adapted to various stages of organically 

growing head- and curd-forming vegetables in their localities had evolved in the Cordilleras through 

farmers’ years of experiences. These unique experiences can be regularly shared among farmers 

in FFSs to further improve current practices. The foregoing exercise was designed to achieve this 

particular objective. 



appropriate? 


sessions, when participants 

decided to organically grow 

head- and curd-forming 


field or these vegetables 







of head- and curd-forming 

organic vegetables from 



practices in relation to growth stages of head- and curd-forming organic vegetables in learning 

and adjoining fields; and 








• To make participants aware of and understand how appropriate cultural management practices 

in relation to growth stages of head- and curd-forming organic vegetables can improve 


• To learn innovative cultural management practices in relation to growth stages of head- and 

curd-forming organic vegetables from other farmers. 

materials 

• Head- and curd-forming vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields; and 


methodology 


steps 


stages of head- and curd-forming vegetables organically grown in learning and adjoining fields. 


5 Kinds, varieties, or cultivars of head- and curd-forming vegetables planted; 

5 Different growth stages of head- and curd-forming vegetables planted; and 





relation to morphology and growth stages of head- and curd-forming organic vegetables in their 

own farm, as follows: 

5 Pre-planting operations (e.g., land preparation, seedbed preparation, seedbed treatment, 

sowing, care of seedling, roguing of diseased plants, cultural control of pests, land 

preparation, raised bed preparation, furrowing, organic and microbial-based fertilizer 

application, pulling of seedlings, monitoring, etc.); 

161

162 


5 Planting or transplanting operations (e.g., transplanting, mulching, irrigation, etc.); 







5 Late vegetative stage (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of infected leaves, 



5 Head- or curd-forming stage (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of infected 

leaves, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and microbialbased 

fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); and 



conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. Design appropriate matrix as shown 

below: 


OR CULTIVAR 

HEAD CABBAGE, 

HEAD LETTUCE, 

CAULIFLOWER, 

AND 

BROCCOLI 

GROWTH STAGE 

Pre-planting 

Planting or 

transplanting 


vegetative 



Head- and curdforming 


DESCRIPTION 

OF DISTINCT 

MORPHOLOGY 

CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

PURPOSE OF 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE



❏ Did you observe different kinds, varieties, or cultivars of head- and curd-forming vegetables 

organically-grown in adjoining fields of learning field? 

❏ What kinds, varieties, or cultivars of head- and curd-forming organic vegetables did farmers 

commonly grow? Why did farmers prefer these kinds, varieties, or cultivars of head- and curdforming 

vegetables to others? 


cultivars of head- and curd-forming organic vegetable at different growth stages? Why did 

farmers employ these cultural management practices? 


cultivars of head- and curd-forming organic vegetables at different growth stages? What are 

these distinct changes in morphological structures? 




stages of head- and curd-forming organic vegetables? What are these innovative cultural 

management practices? 

163




ORGANICALLY-GROWN SELF-POLLINATED VEGETABLES 


Organically-grown self-pollinating vegetables are vegetables 

wherein pod or fruit setting results from union of female 

(ovule) and male (pollen) reproductive cells of same plant, 

variety, or cultivar. The most common self-pollinated 

vegetables are those belonging to legumes and solanaceous 

crops. Populations of self-pollinated plants usually consist 

of mixture of many closely related homozygous lines, 

which, although they exist side by side, remain more or less 

independent of one another in reproduction. Individual plants 

are likely to be homozygotes. Within these species, a goal of 

most breeding programs is to produce a pure line 117 . 

164 



appropriate? 




organically-grow selfpollinating 

vegetables 

(e.g., snap bean, garden 

pea, tomato, bell pepper, 

and eggplant) in learning 








of self-pollinating organic 

vegetables from other 

farmers. 

Some examples of legume vegetables are snap bean and 

garden pea while those of solanaceous vegetables are tomato, 

bell pepper, and eggplant. Just like leafy vegetables, some self-pollinated vegetables such as eggplant 

and tomato are usually grown organically in home gardens to effectively use land and family labor. 

However, several self-pollinated vegetables such as snap beans and green pea are considered highvalued 

crops and are normally grown by farmers in commercial scale. 

In commercial growing of organic vegetables, appropriate and location-specific cultural management 

practices must be employed at different growth stages of crops to ensure more productive and profitable 

undertakings. Innovative cultural management practices that are more adapted to various stages of 

organically-grown self-pollinated vegetables had evolved in the Cordilleras through farmers’ years 

of experiences. These unique experiences can be regularly shared among farmers in FFSs to further 

improve current practices. The foregoing exercise was designed to achieve this particular objective. 








practices in relation to growth stages of self-pollinated organic vegetables (e.g., snap bean, 

garden pea, tomato, bell pepper, and eggplant) in learning and adjoining fields; and 




in relation to growth stages of self-pollinated organic vegetables can improve productivity and 

profitability; and 

• To learn innovative cultural management practices in relation to growth stages of self-pollinated 

organic vegetables from other farmers. 

materials 

• Self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., snap bean, garden pea, tomato, bell pepper, and eggplant) 

organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields; and 


methodology 


steps 


stages of self-pollinated vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields. 


5 Kinds, varieties, or cultivars of self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., snap bean, garden pea, 

tomato, bell pepper, and eggplant) planted; 

5 Different growth stages of self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., snap bean, garden pea, tomato, 

bell pepper, and eggplant) planted; and 



165

166 




relation to morphology and growth stages of different self-pollinated organic vegetables (e.g., 

snap bean, garden pea, tomato, bell pepper, and eggplant) in their own farm, as follows: 

5 Pre-planting operations (e.g., stratification, hydroization, land preparation, seedbed 

preparation, seedbed treatment, sowing, care of seedling, roguing of diseased plants, 

cultural control of pests, land preparation, raised bed preparation, furrowing, organic and 

microbial-based fertilizer application, pulling of seedlings, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Planting or transplanting operations (e.g., transplanting, mulching, irrigation, etc.); 




5 Active vegetative stage (e.g., staking, trellising, roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal 

of infected leaves, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and 

microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Late vegetative stage (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of infected leaves, twigs 

or vines, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and microbialbased 


5 Bud formation and flowering stages (e.g., hand pollination, roguing of diseased plants, leaf 

removal of infected leaves, twigs, vines or flowers, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, 

side dressing of organic and microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, 

etc.); 

5 Pod or fruit setting and development stages (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal 

of infected leaves, twigs or vines, thinning of undesirable pods and fruits, cultural control 

of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, 

irrigation, monitoring, etc.); and 

5 Harvest and post-harvest stages (e.g., 1 st to n th pod or fruit priming or harvesting, sorting, 

grading, packaging, etc.). 


conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. Design appropriate matrix as shown in 

the succeeding page.


SPECIES, 

VARIETY OR 

CULTIVAR 

SNAP BEAN, 

GARDEN PEA, 

TOMATO, 

BELL PEPPER, 

AND 

EGGPLANT 

GROWTH STAGE 

Pre-planting 

Planting or 

transplanting 


vegetative 



Bud and flower 

initiation 

Pod or fruit setting and 

development 


DESCRIPTION 

OF DISTINCT 

MORPHOLOGY 


167 

CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

PURPOSE OF 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

❏ What do we mean by self-pollinating vegetables? Did you observe different kinds, varieties, 

or cultivars of self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., snap bean, garden pea, tomato, bell pepper, and 

eggplant) organically-grown in adjoining fields of learning field? 

❏ What kinds, varieties, or cultivars of self-pollinated organic vegetables did farmers commonly 

grow? Why did farmers prefer these vegetables to others? 

❏ Which kinds, varieties, or cultivars of self-pollinated organic vegetables initiated buds and 

flowered first? How many pod or fruit priming or harvesting did farmer conduct? 

❏ What cultural management practices did farmers employ different kinds, varieties, or cultivars 

of self-pollinated organic vegetable at different growth stages? Why did farmers employ these 

cultural management practices? 

❏ Do we need insect pollinators for self-pollinated vegetables? Do we need to hand-pollinate 

self-pollinated vegetables? Why? Why not? 

❏ Did you observe distinct changes in morphological structures of different kinds, varieties, 

or cultivars of self-pollinated organic vegetables at different growth stages? What are these 





stages of self-pollinated organic vegetables (e.g., snap bean, garden pea, tomato, bell pepper, 

and eggplant)? What are these innovative cultural management practices?




ORGANICALLY-GROWN CROSS-POLLINATED 

VEGETABLES 


Organically-grown cross-pollinated vegetables are 

vegetables wherein pod or fruit setting results from union 

of female (ovule) and male (pollen) reproductive cells of two 

different plants, varieties, or cultivars. The most common 

cross-pollinated vegetables are those belonging to cucurbits. 

All plants in populations of cross-pollinated species are 

highly heterozygous and enforced inbreeding (continuous 

self-pollination) results in deterioration of their vigor and 

other adverse effects. Heterozygosity is an essential feature 

of commercial varieties of these species and it must be either 

maintained during a breeding program or restored as a final 

step of a program 119 . 

168 



appropriate? 




organically-grow crosspollinating 

vegetables 

(e.g., chayote, cucumber, 

and zucchini) in learning 


are grown in adjoining 

fields; and 





of cross-pollinating 

organic vegetables from 


Some examples of cucurbits are chayote, cucumber, and zucchini. Unlike some self-pollinating 

vegetables that are organically-grown in home gardens, cross-pollinated vegetables (including 

chayote) are considered high-valued crops and are normally grown by organic farmers in 

commercial scale. Just like any commercially grown vegetables, appropriate and location-specific 

cultural management practices must be employed at different growth stages of crops to ensure more 

productive and profitable ventures. 

Innovative cultural management practices that are more adapted to various stages of organicallygrowing 

cross-pollinated vegetables had evolved in the Cordilleras through farmers’ years of 

experiences. These unique experiences can be regularly shared among farmers in FFSs to further 

improve current practices. The foregoing exercise was designed to achieve this particular objective 

through participatory, discovery-based and experiential learning approaches. 








practices in relation to growth stages of cross-pollinated organic vegetables in learning and 





in relation to growth stages of cross-pollinated organic vegetables can improve productivity and 


• To learn innovative cultural management practices in relation to growth stages of crosspollinated 

organic vegetables from other farmers. 

materials 

• Cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., chayote, cucumber and zucchini) organically-grown in 

learning and adjoining fields; and 


methodology 


steps 


stages of cross-pollinated vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields. 


5 Kinds, varieties, or cultivars of cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., chayote, cucumber, and 

zucchini) planted; 

5 Different growth stages of cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., chayote, cucumber, and 

zucchini) planted; and 



169

170 




relation to morphology and growth stages of different cross-pollinated organic vegetables (e.g., 

chayote, cucumber, and zucchini) in their own farm, as follows: 

5 Pre-planting operations (e.g., stratification, hydroization, land preparation, seedbed 

preparation, seedbed treatment, sowing, care of seedling, roguing of diseased plants, 

cultural control of pests, land preparation, raised bed preparation, furrowing, organic and 

microbial-based fertilizer application, pulling of seedlings, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Planting operations (e.g., transplanting, mulching, irrigation, etc.); 




5 Active vegetative stage (e.g., staking, trellising, roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal 


microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Late vegetative and tendril initiation stages (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal 

of infected leaves or vines, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic 

and microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Bud formation and flowering stages (e.g., hand pollination, enhancing population of insect 

pollinators, roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of infected leaves and flowers, cultural 

control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and microbial-based fertilizers, 

hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 

5 Fruit setting and development stages (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal of 

infected leaves or vines, thinning of undesirable fruits, fruit bagging, cultural control of 

pests, spot weeding, side dressing of organic and microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, 

irrigation, monitoring, etc.); and 

5 Harvest and post-harvest stages (e.g., 1 st to n th fruit priming or harvesting, sorting, grading, 

packaging, etc.). 


conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. Design appropriate matrix as shown in 

the succeeding page.



OR CULTIVAR 

CHAYOTE, 

CUCUMBER, AND 

ZUCCHINI 

GROWTH STAGE 

Pre-planting 

Planting 


vegetative 



Bud and flower 

initiation 

Fruit setting and 

development 


DESCRIPTION 

OF DISTINCT 

MORPHOLOGY 


171 

CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

PURPOSE OF 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

❏ What do we mean by cross-pollinated vegetables? Did you observe different kinds, varieties, or 

cultivars of cross-pollinated organic vegetables (e.g., chayote, cucumber and zucchini) grown in 

adjoining fields of learning field? 

❏ What kinds, varieties, or cultivars of cross-pollinated organic vegetables did farmers commonly 

grow? Why did farmers prefer these vegetables to others? 

❏ Which kinds, varieties, or cultivars of cross-pollinated organic vegetables initiated buds and 

flowered first? How many fruit priming or harvesting did farmer conduct? 


cultivars of cross-pollinated organic vegetable at different growth stages? Why did farmers 

employ these cultural management practices? 

❏ Do we need insect pollinators for cross-pollinated vegetables? Do we need to hand-pollinate 

cross-pollinated vegetables? Why? Why not? 


cultivars of cross-pollinated organic vegetables at different growth stages? What are these 





stages of cross-pollinated organic vegetables? What are these innovative cultural management 

practices?




ORGANICALLY-GROWN ROOT, BULB, AND TUBER 

VEGETABLES 


Root, bulb, and tuber vegetables are organically-grown for 

their swollen underground edible stems or roots. Some of 

these vegetables are carrots, potato, radish, and bulb onions. 

These vegetables are shallow rooted crops with depth of 

rooting ranging from 90 to 100 cm. The attainments of their 

maximum vegetative and reproductive development depend 

largely on the kind of soil preparation and soil moisture 

condition 121 . 

172 


Unlike other organic vegetables that are grown for their 

leaves, curds, pods, or fruits, such that cultural management practices are largely concentrated on 

aboveground parts, root, bulb, and tuber vegetables need more special attention on their underground 

parts. Just like any high-valued crops normally grown by organic farmers in commercial scale, 

appropriate and location-specific cultural management practices must be employed at different 

growth stages of crops for more productive and profitable production. 

Innovative cultural management practices that are more adapted to various stages of organicallygrowing 

root, bulb, and tuber vegetables had evolved in the Cordilleras through farmers’ years of 

experience. These unique experiences can be regularly shared among farmers in FFSs to further 

improve current practices. The foregoing exercise was designed to achieve this particular objective. 



appropriate? 


sessions, when participants 

decided to organicallygrow 

root, bulb, and tuber 

vegetables in learning field 

or these vegetables are 

grown in adjoining fields; 

and 





of organically-grown root, 

bulb, and tuber vegetables 

from other farmers. 


practices in relation to growth stages of organically-grown root, bulb, and tuber vegetables in 

learning and adjoining fields; and 









in relation to growth stages of organically-grown root, tuber, and tuber vegetables can improve 


• To learn innovative cultural management practices in relation to growth stages of organicallygrown 

root, tuber, and tuber vegetables from other farmers. 

materials 

• Root and tuber vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields; and 


methodology 


steps 


stages of root and tuber vegetables organically-grown in learning and adjoining fields. Interview 

other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to: 

5 Kinds, varieties, or cultivars of root, bulb, and tuber vegetables planted; 

5 Different growth stages of root, bulb, and tuber vegetables planted; and 




facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best cultural management practices employed 

in relation to morphology and growth stages of different root, bulb, and tuber vegetables 

organically-grown in their own farm, as follows: 

5 Pre-planting operations (e.g., land and raised bed preparation, seed tuber selection and 

dormancy breaking, vernalization, seedbed preparation and treatment, sowing, care 

of seedling, roguing of diseased plants, cultural control of pests, furrowing and holing, 

organic and microbial-based fertilizer application, pulling of seedlings, monitoring, etc.); 

173

174 


5 Planting or transplanting operations (e.g., direct seeding, transplanting, mulching, 

irrigation, etc.); 

5 Recovery and early vegetative stages (e.g., thinning, replanting, roguing of diseased plants, 

leaf removal of infected leaves, cultural control of pests, spot weeding, side dressing of 

organic and microbial-based fertilizers, irrigation, monitoring, etc.); 




5 Early root, bulb and tuber development stages (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf removal 


microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, etc.) 

5 Maximum root, bulb and tuber development stages (e.g., roguing of diseased plants, leaf 


and microbial-based fertilizers, hilling up, irrigation, monitoring, dehaulming, etc.); and 



conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. Design appropriate matrix as shown 

below: 

SPECIES, 

VARIETY OR 

CULTIVAR 

CARROT, 

POTATO, 

RADISH, 

AND BULB 

ONION 

GROWTH STAGE 

Pre-planting 

Planting or 

transplanting 


vegetative 


Early root, bulb, and 

tuber development 

Maximum root and 

tuber development 


DESCRIPTION 

OF DISTINCT 

MORPHOLOGY 

CULTURAL 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE 

PURPOSE OF 

MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICE



❏ Did you observe different kinds, varieties, or cultivars of root, bulb, and tuber vegetables 

organically-grown in adjoining fields of learning field? Section 4 

❏ What kinds, varieties, or cultivars of root, bulb, and tuber vegetables did organic farmers 

commonly grow? Why did farmers prefer these root, bulb, and tuber vegetables to others? 

❏ Which kinds, varieties, or cultivars of root, bulb, and tuber vegetables developed enlarged root, 

bulb, and tuber first? How long did it take for enlarged root, bulb, and tuber to fully develop? 


cultivars of organically-grown root, bulb, and tuber vegetable at different growth stages? Why 

did farmers employ these cultural management practices? 

❏ Is hilling up necessary in root, bulb, and tuber vegetable production? When did farmers conduct 

hilling up? Why? 

❏ Did you observe distinct changes in morphological structures of different kinds, varieties, 

or cultivars of organically-grown root, bulb, and tuber vegetables at different growth stages? 

What are these distinct changes in morphological structures? 




stages of organically-grown root, bulb, and tuber vegetables? What are these innovative cultural 

management practices? 

175

176 


Section 4 

INTEGRATED INSECT AND RODENT PESTS MANAGEMENT 122 

The management of insect and other (e.g., vertebrate) pests in organic agriculture viewpoint 

is comparable to integrated pest management (IPM) in many aspects. Both employ an 

intelligent manipulation of insect pest population using a combination of possible techniques 

in consideration of natural regulatory factors to reduce economic damage and avoid unwanted side 

effects. However, one may decide in IPM to use pesticide if it is warranted as a control option. In 

contrast, crops in organic agriculture are protected by carrying out appropriate management options, 

which exclude use of synthetic pesticides and genetically modified organisms (GMO). Thus, this 

section consists of exercises on organic farming, which relies chiefly on: mechanical or physical 

(e.g., use of yellow or sticky traps, handpicking, mechanical cultivation); cultural (e.g., crop rotation, 

careful farm design to achieve desired biodiversity and integration); and biological control (e.g., use 

of parasitoids, predators, insect pathogens) options. Again, appropriate exercises from Field Guide 

of Discovery Exercises for Vegetable IPM (Volume II) 123 were adapted in this section. 

In a previously concluded intensive one-month Refresher Course for Trainers of IPM in Crucifers 

and Other Highland Vegetables 124 , the participants agreed that design of discovery-based exercises 

on insects and other pests and natural enemies must start with field walks, observations, and 

collection of live specimens (including plants exhibiting damages) in vegetable fields. Sorting and 

identification of collected insects, other pests and their natural enemies by participants will then 

be conducted in small groups. Eventually, validation of output in big group with assistance of 

technical experts would follow and the participants, together with technical experts, will summarize 

the activity by classifying collected specimens as follows 125 : 

122 Javier, P.A. 2008. Management of Insect Pests in Organic Vegetable Production. Power Point Presentation during the Workshop On Designing Farmer 

Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management for Organic Vegetable Production held at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and 

Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines on 28-30 April 2008. 

Slides 1-31. 





125 Medina, J.R. 1998. As cited in: Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, 

Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p

Section 4 • Integrated Insect and Rodent Pests Management 

• Destructive insects. A group of insects that feeds on vegetable crops specifically on roots, 

leaves, stems, flowers and/or fruits. The feeding of these insects damages crop, which lowers 

yield or quality of produce. Destructive insects are grouped based on the kind of feeding they 

inflict on vegetable crops: 

5 Sucking insects. These insects are normally represented by plant bugs, which have piercingsucking 

mouthparts. As sap feeders, majority of these insects have toxin in their saliva, 

which when injected into plant produces curling, necrosis and drying of tissues, resulting 

sometimes in death of shoots and branches. Some insects like leafhoppers, aphids, and 

thrips transmit virus diseases in cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables. 

5 Chewing insects. These are insects whose destructive stages have mandibulate or chewing 

mouthparts. They feed mostly on leaves, flowers, and fruits. During severe infestation, 

insects may defoliate whole plants. Other damages are folding of leaves, pinholes, and 

huge holes and feeding on undersurface of leaves. On flowers and fruits, scraped surface 

is a sign of damage done by insects. Some common examples are caterpillars of DBM, 

cutworm, leaf-folder, and squash beetle. 

5 Borer insects. The immature stages of these insects bore or tunnel on fruit or stem of plant. 

In severe infestation, many fruits drop prematurely. Stems heavily affected dry up leading 

to death of crop. A few examples are shoot borer, pod borer, melon fruit fly, and fruit worm. 

5 Miner insects. Immature stages of insects puncture and mine on leaves down to petiole and 

stem. On leaves, damage is characterized by transparent mine extending over surface. Heavily 

infested leaves may dry up but remain attached to plant. Seriously, infested plants are stunted 

and produce injuries on flowers and fruits. Some examples are sweet pea miner and bean fly. 

5 Root feeders. Immature stages and some adults of insects feed on living roots or base of 

plants, causing stunted growth or death of plants. Yellowing of leaves or plants in patches 

is the first indication of damage by these insects. Some result in complete cutting of aerial 

portions from roots. A few examples are crickets, mole cricket, and grubs. 

• Beneficial Insects. Refer to insect groups that give benefit to farmers in terms of insect pest 

reduction and improvement of yield or quality of product. 

5 Biological control agents. This refers to any living organism used in reducing pest 

population in vegetable farms. The employment of sound agricultural practices will help 

conserve and encourage reproduction of naturally occurring enemies of vegetable pests. 

The kind of living organism identified can be one of following: 

177

178 


• Predators. A group of organisms that is free-living throughout their entire life cycle. Each 

predator consumes many pests, called preys, in its lifetime. It is generally bigger than 

its prey. In vegetable areas, spiders, predatory bugs, ants, earwigs, dragonflies, and some 

ladybird beetles are organisms identified eating both larval and adult stages of insect pests. 

• Parasitoids. These are insects, mostly wasps and flies that lay eggs on eggs or larvae 

of insect pests of vegetables. Upon hatching, parasitoid larvae feed on hosts, either 

internally or externally and kill hosts slowly during their development. Adult parasitoids 

feed mostly on flowers. Some examples are Diadegma sp., Cotesia sp., Diadromus sp., 

and Trichogramma sp. 

5 Pathogens. These are parasitic microorganisms used to control insect pests of vegetables. 

Some insect pathogens infecting various insect pests are viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Both 

viruses and bacteria infect their host when eaten. Fungal pathogens can infect their hosts by 

penetrating directly through surfaces of host’s body. A few examples are nucleo-polyhedrosis 

virus (NPV), Nomurea sp., Beauverea sp., and Cordecyps sp. 

Pollinators. These insects pollinate flowers of some vegetable crops like cucumber, chayote, 

snap bean, green pea, bell pepper, and tomato. Wild bees and honeybees are most predominant 

pollinators of vegetables. 

Rodents, on the other hand, are one of the most consistent and serious pests of agricultural crops. 

The main problem in rodent management is that it must be undertaken through community-based 

actions, but organizing communities is not an easy task. Thus, a sub-section, will guide us to 

study rodent biology, baiting and rodent burrow digging, but mostly, we will learn activities that are 

helpful in organizing communities for more effective rodent management 126 . 

126 Sumangil, J.P. 1990. Control of ricefield rats in the Philippines. In Quick, G.R. (ed). 1990. Rodents and Rice. Report and Proceedings of an Expert Panel 

Meeting on Rice Rodent Control held on 10-14 September 1990 at international Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp35-48.


MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 

Highlighted in this sub-section are exercises depicting several best practices and experiences 

by FFS farmers in performing simple and practical mechanical or physical control options. 

These include handpicking (e.g., if dealing with few plants or pests), bagging (e.g., using 

indigenous bagging materials to control fruit flies), using trap crops (e.g., pigeon pea to trap 

earworm and Indian mustard to trap DBM), light traps (e.g., UV lights to trap a wide range of insect 

pests), yellow sticky traps (e.g., trapping aphids and leaf miners), and sex pheromones (e.g., for pest 

monitoring and regulating insect pest populations). 

179


BRUSHING OR SCRAPING AS CONTROL STRATEGY 

AGAINST SCALE INSECT PESTS OF ORGANICALLY- 



Scale insects, as exemplified by California red scale, coconut 

scale, Florida scale and others, are sucking insect pests. 

The females are generally oval, circular, or elongated and 

grayish black with average size of about 2.0 mm while males 

are smaller. A female gives birth to young called crawlers 

during their productive life span of two to four months. 

Total developmental period is about one month with several 

generations a year. Scale insects suck plant sap mainly on 

nether surface of leaves, which consequently turn yellow or 

dry up. There are natural enemies like Aphytis which cause 

60-80% parasitization of both male and female scale insects. 

180 



appropriate? 


sessions, when there is 

a relatively moderate 

scale insect infestation 

on organically-grown 


field; and 


to learn when is it 

more practical to use 

brushing or scraping 

as a control strategy 

against scale insect pests 


vegetables. 

Likewise, larvae and adults of minute and black coccinellid beetle are quite active and efficient in 

checking scale insect population in the field. 

Some farmers in the Cordilleras practice brushing or scraping as a control strategy against scale 

insect pests of organically-grown vegetables. Brushing or scraping is particularly helpful as a 

control measure in smaller farms where scale insect population is relatively low and when there are 

localized pest infestation in organic vegetable fields 128 . The practice minimizes production cost, as 

farmers are able to avoid indiscriminate use of pesticides. Likewise, this strategy favors increase in 

population of pests’ natural enemies and reduces human health and environmental hazards as well. 

Many enterprising farmers initially spray scale insects with chili-detergent solution to weaken pests 

for easier brushing or scraping. Other innovative practices can be shared among farmers in FFSs 

and allow them to further improve their current best practices. The foregoing exercise was designed 

to ensure such learning process to happen. 



128 Cardona, Jr. E.V. 1998. As cited in: Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable 

IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p.



• Thirty minutes field walks, observations, hands-on, and interaction with farmers; and 

• Thirty minutes brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and understand brushing and scraping as practical control 

strategies against moderate scale insect infestation of organically-grown; and 

• To learn and do actual brushing and scraping of scale insects when moderate infestation is 

observed in learning field. 

materials 


• Organically-grown vegetable crops grown in learning and adjoining fields showing moderate 

scale insect infestation; and 

• Other supplies (e.g., medium soft brush, spatula or knife, and plastic jars). 

methodology 


steps 


vegetable crops showing moderate scale insect infestation in learning and adjoining 

fields. Take note of feeding characteristics of pests. Interview other farmers, if necessary. 

List down all observations related to pest occurrence, crops or weeds infested, degree and 

characteristic damage, etc. 

2. Facilitate each farmer to do actual brushing or scraping of scale insects when moderate 

infestation is observed on organically-grown vegetables in learning field, as follows: 

5 Look for localized areas where scale insects are concentrated; 

5 Take note of characteristic damage, plant part damaged, relative density, etc.; 

5 If possible, estimate degree of pest infestation per plot; 

5 Perform brushing or scraping of scale insects making sure that crop is not injured; and 


181

182 




Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in controlling scale insect pests at moderate 

infestation levels. 




❏ Which areas in the plots were most concentrated with scale insect pests? 

❏ Which organically-grown vegetable crop was more and less infested by scale insects? What 

were the most distinguishing characteristics of scale insect damage? Which parts of plant were 

damaged by scale insects? 

❏ How much time did you spend in brushing or scraping scale insects? Do you think it is a 

practical approach? 

❏ Do farmers consider scale insects destructive pests of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ Did you observe farmers who practiced brushing or scraping to control scale insects? Did 

farmers practice other innovative strategies? What are these strategies? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can you use to complement brushing or scraping 

of scale insect pests at moderate and high infestation levels in organically-grown vegetables?



CULTIVATION AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR 

CROP RESIDUE- AND SOIL-INHABITING PESTS OF 



Cultivation to control weeds is a normal farming practice, but 

it also destroys insect pests pupating in soil and exposes them 

to predation. Cultivation affects a variety of insect pests that 

have at least part of their development in soil. This includes 

cutworms, white grubs, and grasshoppers. Effectiveness of 

cultivation often depends upon soil types and local conditions. 

General application is also limited because the operations 

that reduce numbers of one pest may benefit other pests. 

Crop rotation and cultivation are most widely used cultural 

practices for pest control, although some organic vegetable 

farmers do not always recognize these benefits 130 . 

In the case of cutworm, larvae stay below soil surface at daytime, and become very active at night. 

They inflict damage by cutting base of seedlings, as well as eating leaves of older plants. Total 

larval period ranges from 20-46 days, and pupae stay several inches below soil surface from 1-8 

weeks. The larvae are most abundant in moist areas; thus, thorough cultivation is one of the most 

practical approaches to minimize cutworm infestation. 

Many insect pests remain in seeds, stalks, or other crop residues after harvest. For example, removal 

or incorporation of these residues into soil by cultivation is essential in controlling eggplant twig 

and fruit borer as well as cucurbit vine borer. In the Cordilleras, many cultivation practices that 

effectively manage soil-inhabiting pests continuously evolve. In FFSs, these unique experiences 

must be shared among farmers to continuously adapt better cultivation practices to manage crop 

residue- and soil-inhabiting pests. This exercise was designed to achieve this objective. 





183 


appropriate? 


sessions, when infestation 

of crop residue- and 

soil-inhabiting pests are 

observed on organicallygrown 




learn proper cultivation 


farmers to manage 

crop residue- and 

soil-inhabiting pests 


vegetables.


184 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of organically-grown vegetable 

crops showing infestation of crop residue- and soil-inhabiting pests in learning and adjoining 

fields; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand the contribution of proper cultivation in 

managing crop residue- and soil-inhabiting pests of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn some cultivation practices from other farmers that resulted to better management of 

crop residue- and soil-inhabiting pests of organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops showing infestation of crop residue- and soil-inhabiting 

pests in learning and adjoining fields; and 


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe cultivation 

practices that resulted to better management of crop residue- and soil-inhabiting pests of 

organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining fields. Interview other farmers and 

collect specimens, if necessary. List down all observations related to: 



5 Quality of products, etc. 



facilitators.


3. List down important observations shared by farmers, such as: 

5 Reasons for choice of crop species, cultivars, or varieties planted; 

5 Unique cultivation practices employed for crops planted; and 

5 Specific crop residue- and soil-inhabiting pest problems managed by specific cultivation 

practices. 




❏ Did you observe different crop species, cultivars, or varieties planted in farmers’ fields? What 

was farmers’ reason for choice of crops planted? 

❏ What crop residue- and soil-inhabiting pests and diseases were prevalent on crops planted? 

What cultivation practices were employed by organic farmers to help manage these pests? 

❏ Did you learn some unique cultivation practices from other organic farmers to help manage 

crop residue- and soil-inhabiting vegetable pests? 

❏ When is the best time during cropping season to plant different crop species, cultivars, or 

varieties? Why? 

❏ Did proper cultivation improve productivity and profitability? Can we really reduce crop 

residue- and soil-inhabiting pest and disease occurrence by proper cultivation? How? Why? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement proper cultivation to control crop 

residue- and soil-inhabiting pests in organic vegetable production? 

185


HAND PICkING AS A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR BLACk 

AND COMMON CUTWORMS AT LOW TO MODERATE 

INFESTATION LEVELS 


Hand picking of pests is probably one of the earliest methods 

of control and still a profitable method of pest removal in 

some organically-grown vegetables. Hand picking could be 

employed to regulate pest infestation when detected at low 

population density. The black and common cutworms, for 

example, can be effectively controlled by hand picking at 

relatively low to moderate infestation levels 132 . 

186 


In cabbage, when Diadegma parasitoid had effectively 

reduced population of DBM (e.g., high degree of larval parasitism), hand picking at low to moderate 

cutworm infestation will avoid indiscriminate insecticide application, thereby conserving Diadegma 

population. Similarly, land preparation and hilling up operations in parsley and legumes expose 

cutworm pupae; hence, hand picking could be a practical control strategy for cutworms. Hand 

picking and using trap materials can complement each other for better control of black and common 

cutworms in organically-grown vegetables, especially at moderate infestation. 

Some unique practices, employed by farmers, had evolved in the Cordilleras to supplement hand 

picking as a control strategy against cutworms. These experiences must be shared with others 

in FFSs to further improve their current control strategies against cutworms. This exercise was 




appropriate? 



relatively low to moderate 

cutworm infestation 



field; and 


learn when it is more 

practical to use hand 

picking in controlling 

cutworms in organicallygrown 

vegetables. 


• Thirty minutes brainstorming session in the processing area. 







• To create awareness and understanding among farmers that hand picking can be a practical 

control strategy against relatively low to moderate cutworm infestation; and 

• To learn and do actual hand picking of cutworms when relatively low to moderate infestation 

are observed in learning field. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons, Manila papers); and 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops grown in learning and adjoining fields showing relatively 

low to moderate cutworm infestation. 

methodology 


steps 


vegetable crops showing low to moderate cutworm infestation in learning and adjoining 

fields. Take note of feeding characteristics of pests. Interview other farmers, if necessary. 


characteristic damage, etc. 

2. Facilitate each farmer to do actual hand picking of cutworms when relatively low to moderate 

infestation are observed on organically-grown vegetables in learning field, as follows: 

5 Look for localized areas where cutworms are concentrated; 

5 Take note of characteristic damage, plant part damaged, relative density, larval instar, size 

of pest, etc.; 


5 Perform direct hand picking of cutworms at relatively low infestation levels; 

5 Use trap materials to complement handpicking of cutworms at moderate infestation levels; 

and 

5 Take note of all relevant observations and experiences during the activity. 


187

188 



facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in controlling cutworms at 

relatively low to moderate infestation levels. 




❏ Which areas in plots were mostly concentrated with cutworms? 

❏ Which organic vegetable crop was more and less infested by cutworms? What were the most 

distinguishing characteristics of cutworm damage? Which parts of plant did cutworm damage? 

❏ Do farmers consider cutworms destructive pests of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ How much time did you spend in hand picking cutworms? Do you think it is a practical 

approach? 

❏ Did you observe farmers who practiced hand picking to control cutworms? Did farmers practice 

other innovative strategies to control cutworms? What are these strategies? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can you use to complement hand picking of 

cutworms at relatively low to moderate infestation levels?



USING REPELLENT AND TRAP CROPS AS PEST 


PRODUCTION 


The use of repellent and trap crops, when properly 

implemented as a cultural management strategy can 

effectively reduce pest populations in organic vegetables 

without resorting to pesticide application. A popular 

repellent crop in highlands is marigold, which is used 

against DBM. Trap crops, on the other hand, may include 

susceptible crops (e.g., marigold) or alternate hosts (e.g., 

Galinzoga parviflora and Bidens pilosa) of destructive pests 

(e.g., root knot nematodes) that are strategically planted in 

field to evade attacks by altering their food preference and 

migration from main vegetable crop to trap crop 134 . 

Chinese cabbage (locally known as wongkok) seems to be preferred by flea beetles and this could be 

used as a trap crop of this pest. For cutworm caterpillars, a simple and effective trap crop is use of 

large senescing cabbage leaves, which are placed on the ground around plants in late afternoon. The 

caterpillars seek refuge under these leaves where they can be easily collected when the sun rises the 

following day. The leaves are also effective in trapping garden snails and slugs. 

Many farmers in the Cordilleras had their own innovations in using repellent and trap crops. These 

experiences can be effectively shared and learned among farmers in FFSs through field walks, 

observations, and brainstorming. These learning experiences can be enhanced further by roleplaying, 

hence this exercise. 


• Thirty minutes for field walks, observations, and collection of suspected repellent, trap, and 

main vegetable crops in learning and adjoining fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour role-playing and brainstorming session in processing area. 





189 


appropriate? 










learn the best practices 


the use of repellent and 

trap crops as a pest 

management strategy 


production.


190 


• To make participants aware of and understand the role of repellent and trap crops for pest 

management in their own organic vegetable farms; and 

• To enhance farmers’ learning experiences by role-playing how repellent and trap crops work as 

a management strategy for vegetable pests. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields where pest infestation or non-infestation can be observed on possible 

trap or repellent crops; and 

• Other office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, and marking pens). 

methodology 

• Field walks, role-playing, and brainstorming 

steps 


possible repellent and trap crops in adjoining farms of learning field. Interview other farmers, 

if necessary. List down all observations related to degree of pest infestation, kinds of repellent, 

trap or main crops planted, crop stand, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area and prepare for a role-play. A facilitator explains mechanics of play 

to the big group and assigns two groups to different repellent or trap crops, one group to a main 

crop and two groups to different pests as shown below: 

5 Group 1 to repellent-trap crops A (Marigold); 

5 Group 2 to trap crops B (Galinzoga parviflora); 

5 Group 3 to main crops C (Carrot); 

5 Group 4 to pests A (half the group as root knot nematodes; half as diamondback moths); 

5 Group 5 to pests B (cutworms) 

3. Each small group selects volunteers, discusses, and prepares for their roles. The role-play is 

then conducted by the big group to depict the following scenes: 

5 The pests shall migrate and pass by different repellent or trap crops;


5 Half of pests A (root knot nematodes) shall be attracted to repellent-trap crops A while 

another half (diamondback moths) shall shy away and die; 

5 On the other hand, pests B shall be attracted to trap crops B; 

5 One or two of pests A and B shall not notice trap crops A and B and shall land instead on 

main crops C; 

5 These few pests shall survive on main crops C but shall be weak and sluggish; 

5 Most pests shall be strong, active, and cling to trap crops A and B; and 

5 Main crops C shall exhibit minimal damage while trap crops A and B shall be totally 

destroyed. 

4. Brainstorm in a big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow sharing of experiences 

among participants and facilitators. Relate lessons learned in field walks to those learned in 

role-play. 

5. Synthesize and summarize output in brainstorming session into one big group output. Draw up 



❏ Did you observe any weeds or crops in field, which can be used as repellent or trap crops? 

❏ Did you observe varying degrees of pest damage among crops? 

❏ What pests did these repellent or trap crop repelled or trapped? 

❏ What is the economic importance of repellent and trap crops? 

❏ Can we effectively manage pests by using repellent or trap crops? How? 

❏ How do we layout repellent or trap crops in the field? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers some innovations in using repellent or trap crops as a 

management strategy for organic vegetable pests? 

❏ In this role-play, what were portrayed as characteristics of a good repellent or trap crop? 

❏ What other cultural practices can complement the use of repellent or trap crops to manage 

organic vegetable pests? 

191


TRAPPING AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR 

SOIL-INHABITING PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES 


Attracting insects to a trap has been a successful concept 

for insect control. The trap may contain non-pesticide 

baits such as sex attractant or an attractive food source for 

insect pest. In some cases, traps also serve as mating and 

egg laying (oviposition) sites 136 . Farmers in the Cordilleras 

commonly use trap materials to collect some soil-inhabiting 

pests of organic vegetables. For cutworm caterpillar, a 

simple and effective method is using traps in form of light 

192 


slabs of wood, plywood boards, or even large leaves which are placed on ground around plants in 

late afternoon. Cutworms seek refuge under these slabs where they can be easily collected when 

sun rises the following day. These materials are also effective in trapping garden snails and slugs. 

Many innovative organic vegetable farmers had tried other trap materials that are more readily 

available in their areas. In FFSs, these experiences must be shared among farmers to improve their 

current best practices in using trap materials. To enhance the learning process, this participatory, 

experiential, and discovery-based exercise was designed. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for hands-on and brainstorming session. 



appropriate? 


sessions, when there are 

early infestation signs of 

soil-inhabiting pests in 




their innovative practices 

in using trap materials 

for soil-inhabiting pests 


vegetables. 

• To make participants aware of and understand the role of trap materials in management of soilinhabiting 

pests of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn from other farmers their innovative practices in using different trap materials for 

management of soil-inhabiting pests of organically-grown vegetables. 




IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p.


materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, hand lenses, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons); 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops in learning and adjoining fields showing early infestation 

of soil-inhabiting pests; and 

• Different trap materials (e.g., large senescing cabbage leaves, light slabs of wood, plywood 

boards, etc.). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe as many organic 

vegetable crops with early infestation of cutworms, slugs, and snails in farmers’ fields. Take note of 

feeding characteristics of pests. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations 

related to pest occurrence, crops or weeds infested, degree and characteristic of damage, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area, brainstorm in small groups, and present output to the big group. 


facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in controlling soil-inhabiting pests 

using different trap materials. 



4. Facilitate farmers to do hands-on to compare effectiveness of trap materials as early as first 

infestation of soil-inhabiting pests is observed, as follows: 

5 Install suitable trap materials (e.g., large senescing cabbage leaves, light slabs of wood, 

plywood boards, etc.) at a distance of one meter in rows within plots in the afternoon; 

5 Gather installed trap materials and collect trapped pests (may be reared also for insect zoo) 

in succeeding morning; 

5 Record pest numbers and species collected in each trap material and feed collected pests 

to chickens; and 

5 Repeat process daily until necessary; determine best trap materials and common pests 

usually trapped. 

193


194 


❏ What were the most common soil-inhabiting pests of organically-grown vegetables you 

observed in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using trap materials for soil-inhabiting pests of organically-grown 

vegetables in their fields? What were the most common trap materials used for these soilinhabiting 

pests? Why? 

❏ Did you observe any differences in effectiveness among different trap materials used for soilinhabiting 

pests of organically-grown vegetables? What soil-inhabiting pests of organicallygrown 

vegetables were attracted to different trap materials used? 

❏ Were there differences in crop stand and severity of pest damage between organic vegetable 

fields, which used and did not use trap materials for soil-inhabiting organic vegetable pests? 

❏ What other innovative practices in the use of trap materials did you learn from other farmers? 

❏ Which trap materials will you use if soil-inhabiting organic vegetable pests attack your own 

farm? Why? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can you use to complement trap materials to manage 

soil-inhabiting pests of organically-grown vegetables?



USE OF YELLOW STICkY TRAPS AS A MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY FOR POTATO LEAF-MINERS 


The potato leafminer, Liriomyza huedobrensis, has only 

recently invaded Southeast Asia. The first leafminer 

infestation in potato was reported in Indonesia in 1994. 

Farmers there said that they had not seen the pest before, 

although it was probably there for several years earlier. It is 

likely that it came in from cut flowers or other ornamental 

foliage that is frequently moving into that country. 

Interestingly, this pest has fairly recently been found in 

several other countries (e.g., Sri Lanka, Israel, Madagascar, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand), 

and is spreading all over areas where it was not found before. Other vegetable crops are attacked 

but damage is usually not severe 138 . In the Philippines, the Department of Agriculture’s Cordillera 

Administrative Regional Field Unit reported a major infestation of leafminers in potatoes in 

Buguias, Benguet. A validation conducted with field facilitators in September 1999 indicated that 

leafminers were not a major pest, but it seems that in this municipality, the build-up of this pest is 

reaching alarming proportions 139 . 

Several yellow traps (e.g., made of different materials and shades of yellow colors) were seen 

installed in many infested areas. Substantial numbers of adult leafminer catches were also observed 

on these trap materials, with more catches on brighter yellow shades. Interaction with farmers 

showed that, so far, only yellow traps worked among non-pesticide control strategies introduced in 

those infested areas. 

It is also interesting to note a number of innovations shared on the use of yellow traps during 

interactions with farmers. For instance, some claimed that better result was obtained when each plant 

was installed with yellow soft drink straw dipped in grease oil. Others confirmed the effectiveness 

of using yellow flaglets with grease oil to sweep adults as we have observed in some fields, which 

they said complemented these installed yellow traps. 



138 Shepard, B.M., Carner, G.R., Barrion, A.T., Ooi, P.A.C, and van den Berg, H. 1999. Insects and Their Natural Enemies Associated with Vegetables and 

Soybean in Southeast Asia. Quality Printing Company, Orangeburn, South Carolina, U.S.A. pp57. 

139 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2000. Travel report of leaf-miner infestation in Buguias, Benguet from 05-08 January 2000. ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network Center, 

SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp2-5. 

195 


appropriate? 



early infestation signs 

of potato leaf-miners in 





in using yellow sticky trap 

materials against potato 

leaf-miners.

196 


Many innovative organic vegetable farmers had tried other yellow trap materials that are more 

readily available in their areas. In FFSs, these experiences must be shared among farmers to 

improve their current best practices in using yellow trap materials. To enhance learning process, 

this participatory, experiential, and discovery-based exercise was designed. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for hands-on and brainstorming session. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants about the role of yellow sticky trap 

materials in the management of potato leaf-miners; and 

• To learn from other farmers their innovative practices in using different yellow sticky trap 

materials for management of potato leaf miners. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, hand lenses, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons); 

• Organically-grown potato crops in learning and adjoining fields showing early infestation of 

potato leaf miners; and 

• Different yellow sticky trap materials (e.g., made of different materials and shades of yellow colors). 

methodology 


steps 


organically-grown potato crops with early infestation of potato leafminers in farmers’ fields. 

Take note of feeding characteristics of leafminers. Interview other farmers, if necessary. 


characteristic of damage, etc. For instance, in a recent field observations and interactions with 

officials and farmers in Buguias, Benguet, several important concerns were noted, such as 140 : 

140 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2000. Travel report of leafminer infestation in Buguias, Benguet from 05-08 January 2000. ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network Center, 

SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp2-5.


5 Majority of areas visited was planted to potato at varying growth stages (e.g., early, 

mid-vegetative and later stages). Other vegetable crops (e.g., carrot, Chinese cabbage or 

wongbok, cabbage, sweet and garden peas) were also planted. The effect of leafminer was 

observed to be less serious, as exhibited by punctured but still appearing as green leaves, 

at earlier stages and becoming more serious, as exhibited by drying of leaves or dying of 

whole potato plants, at later stages. Heavily infested potato plant debris, alternate host 

crops, and weeds are left undisturbed in all areas visited; 

5 Interactions with farmers and extension workers suggested practice of continuous planting 

of potato in those areas, without any fallow period, year in and year out. Likewise, they 

indicated that this leafminer problem was first observed in Sitios Magmagaling, Lusong 

and Salingao, Barangay Buyakawan, Buguias, Benguet and later in Sitios Mudayan and 

Loo Proper, Barangay Loo, Buguias, Benguet. Farmers also said they observed that other 

vegetable crops are also infested by leafminers. They said some crops were, however, more 

susceptible (e.g., wongbok, celery and peas) than others (e.g., carrots and cabbage); 

5 Extensive and indiscriminate spraying of pesticides were practiced throughout those areas 

as evidenced by farmers spraying at the time of field visit and by the smell of pesticides 

everywhere in areas planted to potato; 

5 Interaction with farmers and extension workers indicated that many farmers have increased 

their frequency of spraying against leafminer from every four days to every other day. 

Likewise, they said some farmers have again cocktailed or mixed several pesticides as 

spray materials against leafminer. However, farmers themselves confirmed that such 

practice did not help contain this problem. In fact, they observed that leafminers were 

unaffected by most of pesticides they have tried. There were also reports from them that 

some farmers had started to use cyanide and formalin again but these did not help contain 

this problem as well; 

5 Several yellow sticky traps (e.g., made of different materials and shades of yellow colors) 

were seen installed in many infested areas. Substantial number of adult leafminer catches 

were also observed on these trap materials, with more catches on brighter yellow shades ; 

and 

5 Interaction with farmers showed that among several non-pesticide control strategies 

introduced in those areas, so far, only these yellow sticky traps worked. It was also interesting 

to note many innovations shared on the use of yellow sticky traps during interaction with 

197

198 


farmers. For instance, some claimed that better result was obtained when each plant was 

installed with yellow soft drink straw dipped in grease oil. Others confirmed effectiveness 

of using yellow flaglets with grease oil to sweep adults as we have observed in potato field, 

which they said complemented these installed yellow traps. 

2. Go back to processing area, brainstorm in small groups, and present output to the big group. 


facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in controlling potato leafminers 

using different yellow sticky trap materials. 


conclusions and recommendation from this exercise. For example, based on field observations 

and interactions with officials and farmers in Buguias, Benguet, the following conclusions and 

recommendations were made 141 : 

5 The leafminer infesting potato in Barangays of Buyakawan and Loo, Buguias, Benguet 

is probably Liriomyza huedobrensis (Diptera: Agromyzidae) which was also reported 

infesting potato in other Southeast Asian countries (e.g., Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand). 

5 Based on progressing appearance and severity of symptoms observed in the field, it appears 

that an adult leafminer (smaller than a rice whorl maggot adult) will choose a younger 

potato plant for oviposition. Thus, newly hatched larvae will be too small to see with naked 

eyes at earlier crop stage and a progressing severity of damage will be more visible together 

with larger larvae as the crop grows older. 

5 The indiscriminate use of pesticides had apparently resulted in the development of 

pesticide resistance by this pest as shown by the absence of dead leafminers in the field 

after pesticides spraying were conducted. It likewise resulted to elimination of natural 

enemies, particularly predators and parasites, as shown by their absence in the field. 

5 The practice of continuous and asynchronous planting of potato as well as planting of 

alternate host crops, such as Chinese cabbage and celery, by farmers provided year-round 

host and uninterrupted reproduction for leafminer. This is aggravated by the improper 

disposal of infested potato plant debris as well as alternate host crops and weeds. 

5 While the use of yellow sticky traps is more effective than spraying pesticides and is well 

accepted as a non-pesticide control strategy against leafminer, its sustainability hinged on 

141 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2000. Travel report of leafminer infestation in Buguias, Benguet from 05-08 January 2000. ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network Center, 

SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp2-5.


how fast we can facilitate FFS farmer-graduates and facilitators to establish participatory 

technology development (PTD) activities to get answers on the following questions: (1) 

What size and number of yellow traps are required per unit area? (2) Where and when do 

we install the yellow traps in potato fields? (3) What shades of yellow and materials do 

we use for yellow sticky traps? (4) What complementary activities do we need for yellow 

sticky traps to be more effective? 

5 There is a need to drastically bring down existing leafminer population in these infested 

areas to sustain effectiveness of yellow sticky traps. This will require a moratorium 

in planting potato and other alternate host crops, like Chinese cabbage and celery, and 

planting instead of less preferred or non-host crops, such as cabbage and carrots, in these 

areas for at least two months to break the life cycle of leaf miner. Appropriate sanitation 

practices (e.g., proper disposal of infested potato plant debris, alternate host crops and 

weeds) should also be employed to bring down further leafminer population in those areas. 

The Sangguniang Bayan of Buguias or Sanguniang Barangays of Buyakawan and Loo can 

pass a municipal or barangay resolution to this effect. 

5 In succeeding seasons, once leafminer population is already low, synchronous planting of 

potato can be done together with early installation of yellow sticky traps in those areas to: 

(1) maintain pest population at low level, (2) discourage use of pesticides, and (3) encourage 

build-up of natural enemy populations. Follow-up planting of non-host crops should also 

be done to break life cycle of this pest before planting potato again in these same areas. 

These strategies can be well articulated in FFS follow-up and local multi-media awareness 

campaign activities in leafminer infested and adjoining areas. 

5 In coordination with LGUs, through the Office of Provincial Agriculturist (OPA) of 

Benguet and Municipal Agricultural Office (MAO) of Buguias, Benguet, the government 

technical staff should design, plan, and implement a crash FFS follow-up activities in all 

infested areas as soon as possible. 

4. Facilitate farmers to do hands-on exercises to compare the effectiveness of yellow sticky trap 

materials as early as first infestation of leafminers is observed, as follows: 

5 Install suitable yellow sticky trap materials (e.g., made of different materials and shades 

of yellow colors) in early morning or late afternoon at varying distances and locations in 

rows within plots; 

5 Gather installed yellow sticky trap materials (e.g., at varying heights) and collect trapped 

potato leafminers in succeeding morning or afternoon; 

199

200 


5 Record pest numbers and species collected in each trap material; and 

5 Repeat process daily until necessary; determine best yellow sticky trap materials and 

common pests usually trapped. 


❏ What were the most common leafminer species you observed in learning and adjoining organic 

potato fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using yellow sticky trap materials for potato leafminers in their fields? 

What was the most common yellow sticky trap materials used for these pests? Why? 

❏ Did you observe any differences in effectiveness among different yellow sticky trap materials 

used against potato leafminers? What leafminer species were attracted to different yellow 

sticky trap materials used? 

❏ Were there differences in crop stand and severity of pest damage between organic potato fields, 

which used and did not use yellow sticky trap materials installed at varying heights against 

leafminers? 

❏ What other innovative practices in using yellow sticky trap materials did you learn from other 

farmers? 

❏ Which yellow sticky trap materials will you use if potato leafminers attack your own farm? 

Why? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can you use to complement yellow sticky trap 

materials to manage potato leafminers?


CULTURAL CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 

Comprising this sub-section are few exercises that depict some best practices and experiences 

shared by FFS farmers in undertaking appropriate farm operations that are unfavorable to 

insect pest population build-up but favors crop production. These consist of thorough land 

preparation, synchronized planting, sanitation, inter- or multiple-cropping, crop rotation, selective 

weeding, or rice straw mulching. 

201


TIMING OF PLANTING AND HARVESTING AS A PEST 


PRODUCTION 


Seasonal abundance of pests affects performance and yield of 

organic vegetable crops. Likewise, the degree of infestation 

may be high or low depending on cropping season. Pest 

occurs also almost throughout the year, depending on 

availability of host plants. Hence, proper timing of planting 

and harvesting is one practical strategy to manage organic 

vegetable pests. Pest attack can be avoided or minimized by 

202 


altering planting dates to avoid time when insect pests are laying eggs (e.g., ovipositing), or to allow 

crop to be beyond susceptible stage when attack begins. 

Similarly, harvest dates can be altered (e.g., early harvesting may be employed) to reduce attack by 

late season pests. For instance, early planting of crucifers for dry season cropping (e.g., September- 

October) will reduce infestation of DBM. The shift to young carrot or ‘baby carrot’ production as 

market demand permits will allow early harvesting of carrots and consequently reduce occurrence 

of forking and cracking maladies. Prompt harvesting of potato will avoid potato tuber moth 

infestation. 

Through many years of experience, some enterprising farmers in the Cordilleras had determined 

proper timing of planting and harvesting their organically-grown vegetable crops to evade severe 

pest infestation. These notable experiences must be shared among farmers in FFSs to improve their 

current pest management strategies. This particular exercise was designed to address this concern. 



appropriate? 



organic vegetable crops 



learn proper timing of 

planting and harvesting 

organically-grown 

vegetable crops from 

other farmers to evade 

pest infestation. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of organically-grown vegetable 

crops planted and harvested at different time during same cropping season; and 






• To make participants aware of and understand how proper timing of planting and harvesting 

their organically-grown vegetable crops can contribute to better pest management; and 

• To learn from other farmers their best practices on timing of planting and harvesting organicallygrown 

vegetable crops to evade severe pest infestation. 

materials 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops at different planting and harvesting time in adjoining fields 

of learning field; and 


methodology 


steps 


organically-grown vegetable crops planted and harvested at different times during same 

cropping season. Interview other farmers and collect specimens, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to: 




2. Go back to processing area, brainstorm in small groups and present output to the big group. 


facilitators. List down important observations shared by farmers, such as: 

5 Reason for choice of crops planted early during cropping season and specific pest problem 

managed; 

5 Reason for choice of crops harvested early during cropping season and specific pest 

problem managed; 

5 Reason for choice of crops planted later during cropping season and specific pest problem 

managed; and 

203

204 


5 Reason for choice of crops harvested later during cropping season and specific pest 

problem managed. 




❏ Did you observe different crops planted and harvested at different time during same cropping 

season? 

❏ What pests and diseases were prevalent on crops planted and harvested at different time during 

same cropping season? 

❏ What pests and diseases were managed by planting and harvesting organically-grown vegetable 

crops at different time during same cropping season? 

❏ When is the best time during cropping season to plant and harvest different crop species, 

cultivars, and varieties? Why? 

❏ Did planting and harvesting at proper time during same cropping season improve productivity 

and profitability? Can we really reduce pest and disease occurrence by proper timing of planting 

and harvesting? How? Why? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement proper timing of planting and 

harvesting to control pests in organic vegetable production?



SANITATION PRACTICES FOR MANAGEMENT OF 

POD BORERS, LEAF-MINERS, AND LEAF-FOLDERS IN 



One of the most practical approaches to pest management 

is good cultural control, specifically sanitation. Sanitation 

is aimed at reducing exposure of crops to pest infestation. 

For some organic vegetable pests, such as pod borers, leaf 

miners, and leaf folders, a primary objective of sanitation 

is prevention of pest build-up and not total destruction of 

existing or damaging pest populations 144 . Proper disposal 

of crop residues, which may serve as breeding places for 

pests, is a good way of preventing build-up of these pests. 

Elimination of crop residues after harvest destroys pests and 

prevents carry-over to next crop. 

There are several sanitation practices commonly employed to control pod borers, leafminers, and 

leaf folders in organic vegetable production. These are: (1) roguing of host weeds and plants at 

earlier stages of growth; (2) removal of infested leaves and fruits at later growth stages; (3) proper 

disposal of rogued plants, removed leaves or fruits and other crop residues by burying, burning, etc.; 

and (4) plowing under of infested crop residues immediately after harvest 145 . 

Many farmers in the Cordilleras had adapted better sanitation practices to control pod borers, 

leafminers, and leaf folders in organically-grown vegetables through time. These practices, when 

shared with others in FFSs, will result in much improved sanitation practices. The foregoing 

exercise was designed primarily to address this concern. 




IPM, Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p. 



205 


appropriate? 



infestation of pod borers, 

leafminers, and leaf 

folders on organicallygrown 

vegetables in 



to learn innovative 

sanitation practices 

from others to control 

pod borers, leafminers, 

and leaf folders of 


vegetables.


206 






• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the role of sanitation to control 

pod borers, leafminers, and leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn from others and do hands-on of proper sanitation to control pod borers, leafminers and 

leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 


• Organically-grown vegetable crops showing infestation of pod borers, leafminers, and leaf 

folders in learning and adjoining fields; and 

• Other supplies (e.g., pruning shear, knife, or scythe). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe sanitation 

practices to control pod borers, leafminers, and leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables 

in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of cultural practices employed. Interview other 







facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in sanitation practices to control 

pod borers, leafminers, and leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables.


3. Develop an improved procedure of sanitation as a management strategy against pod borers, 

leafminers, and leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables. 

4. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of sanitation practices to control pod borers, leafminers, 

and leaf folders on organically-grown vegetables and other plants observed in learning field at 

all growth stages by improving the procedure below: 

5 Determine if there are infestation of pod borers, leafminers, and leaf folders on vegetables 

and other plants; 

5 Rogue host weeds or plants at earlier stages of growth; 

5 Remove infested leaves and fruits at later growth stages; 

5 Dispose properly rogued plants, removed leaves or fruits and other crop residues by 

burying, burning, etc.; 

5 Plow under infested crop residues immediately after harvest; and 





❏ Did you observe infestation of pod borers, leafminers, and leaf folders on organically-grown 

vegetables and other plants in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe any farmer practicing sanitation to control pod borers, leafminers, and leaf 

folders on organically-grown vegetables and other plants in farmers’ field? 

❏ What other pests can be effectively controlled by sanitation practices? Is sanitation applicable 

as a control strategy for all pests of organically-grown vegetables? When is the best time to do 

sanitation? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative sanitation practices by farmers as a control strategy for pod 

borers, leafminers, and leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement sanitation as a control 

strategy for pod borers, leafminers, and leaf folders of organically-grown vegetables? 

207

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 

208 


This sub-section considers the best practices and experiences shared by FFS farmers and 

other organic agriculture practitioners on the use of living organisms to suppress insect pest 

populations, which can be integrated with other compatible control methods. Biological 

control involves use of parasitoids (e.g., Trichogramma, Diadegma, Trathala, and Cotasia), predators 

(e.g., earwigs, ladybird beetles, flower bugs), and insect pathogens (e.g., bacteria, fungi, viruses, 

protozoa’s) to reduce insect pest populations. A unique feature of this sub-section is integration 

of exercises on farm- or village-level production and use of several biological control agents for 

insect pest management, such as Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), insect pathogens Metarhizium 

anisopliae or green muscardine fungus (GMF) and Beauveria bassiana or white muscardine fungus 

(WMF), Trichogramma parasitoid, and predator earwig (Euborellia annulata).



‘PULLING THE GUTS’ TECHNIQUE: MEASURING 

DEGREE OF PARASITISM BY DIADEGMA ON 

DIAMONDBACk MOTH OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

CRUCIFERS 


The standard approach in managing diamondback moth 

(DBM) population is the use of biological control with 

parasitoid Diadegma. Augmentation release of parasitoid 

early at onset of dry season is usually practiced so that future 

DBM populations are effectively held in check. In some 

areas, augmentation releases may not be necessary where parasitoid is already well established. 

The establishment of Diadegma can be determined by knowing the degree of DBM parasitism in 

a field. Insect parasitism is a process of how an insect parasitoid kills a host as it completes its life 

cycle. An effective method of monitoring DBM larval parasitism by Diadegma in farmers’ field is 

by pulling the guts technique 147 . ‘Pulling the guts’ will also show farmers how a DBM larva is killed 

by Diadegma parasitoid present inside it. Simply hold a DBM larva on both ends between thumb 

and index finger and slowly pull until gut or bituka breaks to show a developing larva of Diadegma 

inside. 

In FFSs, this practical tool will improve farmers’ decision-making skills and will help them analyze 

and find out if there is a need to release or augment Diadegma in organic vegetable fields. 






147 IIBC. 1996. Integrated Pest Management for Highland Vegetables, Volume 4: Training Guide for Participatory Action Towards discovery Learning. 

International Institute for Biological Control, BPI Compound, Baguio City, Philippines. pp63-64. 

209 


appropriate? 



early infestation of DBM 

in learning and adjoining 

crucifer fields; and 


learn a practical tool of 

determining degree of 

DBM larval parasitism by 

Diadegma in their field.


210 


• To make participants aware of and understand the role of Diadegma parasitoid in managing 

population of DBM in organically-grown crucifers; and 

• To learn and do hands-on of ‘pulling the guts’ technique in determining degree of DBM larval 

parasitism by Diadegma in farmers’ field. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, and crayons); 

• Other supplies (e.g., hand lenses, soft brush for collecting specimens, plastic jars, syringe, vials, 

and denatured alcohol); and 

• Organically-grown crucifers in learning and adjoining field showing early infestation of third 

and fourth instars DBM larvae. 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks, observe organicallygrown 

crucifer crops showing early infestation of DBM in learning and adjoining fields. Take 

note of feeding characteristics of pest. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to pest occurrence, degree of parasitism and characteristic of pest damage, 

etc. 

2. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of ‘pulling the guts’ (limit to one larva per farmer or 25- 

30 larvae per FFS to avoid too much destructive sampling) to determine degree of DBM larval 

parasitism by Diadegma in learning and adjoining crucifer fields, as follows: 

5 Collect and record number of third and fourth instars DBM larvae collected; 

5 Take one larva, hold on both ends between thumb and index finger, slowly pull, and 

carefully observe Diadegma larva coming out a gut or bituka of DBM larva with aid of a 

magnifying lens; 

5 Count and record number of DBM larvae with Diadegma larval parasitoid inside; 

5 Count and record number of DBM larvae without Diadegma larval parasitoid inside; and 

5 Determine % parasitism following the formula below:


total number of parasitized larvae 

% parasitism = total number of collected DBM x 100 

larvae subjected to pulling the guts 



facilitators. 


conclusions and recommendation from exercise. 


❏ Did you observe DBM infestation on organically-grown crucifers in farmers’ field? 

❏ Can you differentiate Diadegma parasitized and non-parasitized DBM larvae? What were the 

differences between these two? 

❏ Did you try pulling the guts to estimate percentage DBM larval parasitism by Diadegma? Is it 

a practical technique for farmers? 

❏ Why is this exercise called pulling the guts? 

❏ Can you detect a parasitized DBM larva without pulling the guts? How? 

❏ Did you see adult Diadegma parasitoids in farmers’ field? How did they survive in field? 

❏ Did you see adult Diadegma parasitoids actually parasitizing DBM larvae? 

❏ What farmers’ practices do you think can be destructive to Diadegma parasitoids? 

❏ What cultural practices do you think can enhance or conserve population of Diadegma 

parasitoids in farmers’ field? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can complement the use of Diadegma parasitoids to 

manage DBM population in farmers’ field? 

211


SPRAYING CHILI (HOT PEPPER) SOLUTION TO 

CONTROL WEBWORMS AT LOW TO MODERATE 

INFESTATION LEVELS IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

CRUCIFERS 


Some indigenous plants that are safe to humans are now 

being exploited for their insecticidal properties. For example, 

extract from marigold has been found effective against DBM 

of organically-grown crucifers. In the Cordilleras, farmers 

are using chili or hot pepper solution to control webworms 

at low to moderate infestation levels in organically-grown 

cabbage. The use of chili may be supplemented by handpicking 

to be more effective. Some farmers claim that 

212 


adding detergent as a sticker improves effectiveness of chili solution in controlling moderate to 

severe webworm infestation. 

Considering that webworm infestation can start as early as seedling stage and may continue almost 

up to maturity of organically-grown cabbage, using safe and effective indigenous materials like chili 

to control the pest will surely avoid indiscriminate use of insecticide, reduce production cost, and 

improve profitability. Many farmers had unique experiences in using chili as a control strategy in 

combination with other techniques that gave more outstanding results. These experiences must be 

shared among farmers in FFSs to further improve current control strategies against webworms in 

organic cabbage production. 



appropriate? 


sessions, when there is a 

relatively low to moderate 

webworm infestation 


crucifers in learning field; 

and 


learn when is it more 

practical to spray chili 

solution to control 

webworm of organicallygrown 

crucifers. 







• To make participants aware of and understand that spraying with chili can be a practical control 

method against relatively low to moderate webworm infestation in organically-grown crucifers; 

and 

• To learn and do hands-on of spraying chili solution against webworms when relatively low to 

moderate infestation in organically-grown crucifers is observed in learning field. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons, Manila papers); 

• Other supplies (e.g., chili or hot peppers, measuring cup, sprayer, detergent, and water); and 

• Organically-grown crucifers in learning and adjoining fields showing relatively low to moderate 

webworm infestation. 

methodology 


steps 


crucifers showing low to moderate webworm infestation in learning and adjoining fields. 

Take note of feeding characteristics of pests. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down 

all observations related to pest occurrence, crops or weeds infested, degree and characteristic 

of damage, etc. 

2. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of spraying chili against webworms when relatively low to 

moderate infestation are observed on organically-grown crucifers in learning field, as follows: 

5 Look for localized areas where webworms are concentrated; 

5 Take note of characteristic damage, plant part damaged, relative density, etc.; 


5 Prepare chili solution by pounding and diluting 20 ripe chili fruits per liter of water. Add 

one spoonful of detergent (e.g., Perla soap) per litter of chili solution; 

5 Perform localized spraying of chili solution at relatively low to moderate webworm 

infestation levels; 

213

214 


5 Practice handpicking to complement spraying of chili solution at moderate webworm 

infestation levels, and 




facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in controlling webworm at 

relatively low to moderate infestation levels. 




❏ Which areas in plots were mostly concentrated with webworms? 

❏ Which organically-grown crucifer vegetable was more and less infested by webworms? What 

are the distinguishing characteristics of webworm damage? Which parts of plant did webworm 

damage? 

❏ How much time did you spend in spraying webworms with chili solution? Do you think it is a 

practical approach? 

❏ Did you observe farmers who sprayed chili solution against webworms? Did farmers practice 

other innovative methods to control webworms? What are these methods? 

❏ Do farmers consider webworm as a destructive pest of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can you use to complement spraying chili solution 

to control webworms at relatively low to moderate infestation levels?



FARM-LEVEL PRODUCTION AND USE OF NUCLEAR 

POLYHEDROSIS VIRUS (NPV) AGAINST COMMON 

CUTWORM OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


One of the insect pests that can readily reduce yield of 

many organically-grown vegetable crops is common 

cutworm, Spodoptera litura Fabricius. Common cutworm 

was previously considered a minor or an occasional insect 

pest. However, it is beginning to be a perennial problem 

in many crops. In addition, it feeds on a wide variety of 

plants, having been reported on at least 120 crop species. 

Aside from tomato, other crops like eggplant, potato, sweet 

and hot peppers, okra, cabbage, pechay, cauliflower, radish, 

gabi, peanut, and other legumes are among its primary hosts, 

which are widely cultivated in the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries. In most crops, 

damage results from extensive feeding of larvae on leaves causing stripping of vegetable plants. 

Many natural enemies of cutworm have been reported. About 10 parasitoids belonging to three 

genera, namely, Trichogramma, Chelonus, and Telonomus parasitize the eggs. On the other 

hand, 58 species of parasitoids belonging to different families of Hymenoptera like Braconidae, 

Ichneumonidae, Eulophidae, Chalcidae, Scelionidae, Encyrtidae; one family of Diptera (Tachinidae) 

had been reported as larval-pupal parasitoid. Several groups of microorganisms also cause mortality 

of common cutworms. These are protozoans, fungi, nematodes, and viruses, which include nuclear 

polyhedrosis viruses or NPVs. 

NPVs are highly host specific obligate parasites of insects that multiply in all internal organs and 

tissues, killing host insects. The route of infection is through ingestion. The host larvae acquire 

NPV virus when they feed on contaminated leaves and other plant parts. NPVs, however, do not 

cause diseases in mammals, birds, fishes, and non-target insects. The virus is spread by wind, 

splashes of rain, and by contaminated insects or fecal materials of insects that feed on juices of 

infected cadavers. 

149 Adapted from Navasero, M.V. and M.M. Navasero. 2005. Farm-level production and utilization of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of the common cutworm, 

Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Noctuidae, Lepidoptera) for tomato production. Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest 

Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held in Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines on July 2005. 10p. 

215 


appropriate? 



a relatively moderate to 

serious common cutworm 

infestation on organicallygrown 

vegetables in 

learning and adjoining 

fields; and 


learn the appropriate 

time to mass-produce 

NPV to control common 

cutworms of organicallygrown 

vegetables.

216 


The common cutworm NPV, technically referred to as Spodoptera litura NPV or SlNPV, is one of 

biological control agents that can be integrated with other control tactics in developing an organic 

vegetable production program. SlNPV has long been known locally as a biological control agent, 

but studies have been limited to laboratory and small-scale field evaluations. There had been efforts 

by some researchers to develop formulated products for commercialization. However, in countries 

like Cambodia, and Indonesia for instance, farmers are using only crude preparations/extracts and 

their respective governments provide these. 

In the Philippines, use of SlNPV is beginning to be appreciated by farmers because it can be massproduced 

at farm-level. Its efficacy may result in 100% mortality, if infection sets before last larval 

instars. These experiences must be shared among FFS farmers and facilitators to further improve 

current approaches in enhancing biological control of insect pests in organic vegetable growing. 

This exercise was designed to attain such particular objective. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour of field walks, observations, interaction with farmers; 

• One to two hours hands-on on mass-production and use of NPV to control common cutworms; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session in processing area; and 

• Thirty minutes weekly follow-ups on progress of NPV infection on common cutworms in 

organically-grown vegetable fields. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants that spraying NPV can effectively 

control common cutworm and enhance biological control of insect pests in organically-grown 

vegetables; and 

• To learn and do hands-on exercises on innovative approaches of how NPV can be used to 

effectively control common cutworm and enhance biological control of insect pests in 

organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., taro, sweet potato, or mulberry plants, Petri dish, 10% sugar solution, 

insect cage, plastic cups, measuring cup, sprayer, knife or scissors, and water); and 

• Organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining fields showing relatively moderate to 

serious infestation of common cutworms and NPV-infected common cutworm larvae.


methodology 


steps 


vegetable crops showing relatively moderate to serious common cutworm infestation 

and NPV-infected common cutworm larvae in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of 

presence and number of healthy and NPV-infected common cutworm larvae, other insect pests, 

and natural enemies. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related 

to pest and natural enemy activity and occurrence, crops infested, degree, and characteristic 

damage, among others. 

2. Facilitate each group to collect NPV-infected common cutworm larvae and to do actual massproduction, 

and spraying of prepared NPV solution against common cutworm larvae when 

relatively moderate to serious infestation and NPV-infected common cutworm larvae are 

observed on organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining fields. Below are some 

pointers on how to detect and collect NPV-infected common cutworm larvae from organicallygrown 

vegetables: 

5 Healthy larvae feed at night and conceal themselves in soil during daytime. Infected larvae 

feed less, become sluggish and remain on leaf surface exposed to sunlight. The larvae 

weakens, stops feeding, and finally dies. The tissues of larval host become digested, body 

bursts or milky-white or brown body contents ooze out. 

5 Dead but firm NPV-infected larvae are collected into a receptacle. Leaves with ruptured 

cadavers are cut using a pair of scissors. Later, these are washed-off with water and mixed 

with intact ones before storing in a freezer. It is necessary to know the number of collected 

larvae for proper dilution of NPV suspension. 

5 Field-collected NPV-infected cutworm larvae are placed in plastic containers with cap and 

stored inside a freezer to prolong shelf life and its infectivity. Infected larvae disintegrate so 

it is not possible to count desired number for mixing or preparing spray solution. 

5 In order to offset this problem, the following may be done: If there are 100 larvae, for 

instance, in a container, add water to fill container to one-fourth of a liter. The suspension 

will give an equivalent of one larva per milliliter of solution or 4 larvae per tablespoon (10 

mL per tablespoon).; 

5 The virus suspension is sprayed on leaves of vegetable crops just like ordinary foliar 

insecticide. Ten to 15 infected larvae per 16 liters of water (one tank load) are needed. 

217

218 


5 For best results, spraying should be done in afternoon so that virus can be acquired by larvae, 

which feed at night. About 20-30 tank loads, depending on growth stage of crop, are applied 

per hectare. Spraying is repeated after two to three weeks depending on density of larvae. 

5 Starting from five days after spraying, moribund and dead cutworm larvae can be seen on leaf 

surfaces or hanging from underside of leaves. Infected larvae can be collected and placed 

in a clean container. This can be used for next spraying or kept in a freezer for future use. 


3. Go back to processing area every week for three consecutive weeks thereafter; brainstorm 

in small groups and present output to big group. Conduct participatory discussion to allow 

sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their 

experiences in using NPV to control common cutworms at relatively moderate to serious 

infestation levels. Relate shared experiences to effect of NPV on natural enemy populations. 

4. After three weeks, synthesize and summarize output of small groups into one big group output. 

Draw up conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. If farmers’ cooperatives or 

organizations wish to mass-produce cutworm-NPV at farm-level for use of their members, they 

may adapt the following procedure: 

a. mass-rearing of Cutworm (Spodoptera litura) 

5 Collect just enough leaves of taro, sweet potato, castor or mulberry plants. 

5 Place cutworm egg-mass on a leaf secured in a plastic cup with water. 

5 Replace food as often as necessary by cutting leaf with cutworm larvae, putting them 

on another fresh leaf, and adding water on plastic cup. 

5 When leaf feeding of cutworm larvae (e.g., full grown) ceases, transfer them in plastic 

container filled with moistened sand as medium. 

5 After 7 days, collect cutworm pupae in the moistened sand. 

5 Place pupae in plastic container and finally inside an insect cage. 

5 Place Petri dish with 10% sugar solution inside insect cage as food for emerging 

cutworm moths. 

5 Place also fresh taro, sweet potato, or mulberry leaves inside insect cage as egg 

deposition sites for female cutworm moths. 

5 Collect cutworm egg-masses and repeat mass-rearing procedure. 

B. mass-production of NPV (Nuclear polyhedrosis virus) 

(a) Identification, Collection, and Preservation of NPV-infected Cutworm Larvae


5 Collect NPV-infected cutworm larvae, characterized by their lesser leaf feeding 

and inactivity, body softness and paleness, and non-sensitiveness to daytime heat 

exposure. 

5 Place collected intact dead larvae directly in a suitable plastic container. Leaves with 

disintegrating dead larvae are collected and washed-off with water into container. 

5 Record numbers of collected NPV-infected larvae in each container for proper 

mixing ratio in NPV solution preparation. 

5 Preserve NPV-infected larvae in plastic containers with cover inside a freezer, 

if they will not be used immediately after collection. The infested larva can be 

prepared as NPV solution before storage by dissolving 100 infested larvae in ¼ liter 

of water. There will be approximately 4 infested larvae in a spoonful (10 mL) of 

NPV solution. 

(b) Mass-production of NPV-infected Cutworm Larvae 

5 Select healthy third instars mass-reared cutworm larvae (larvae that molted three 

times since they hatched from eggs). 

5 Feed healthy cutworm larvae with taro, sweet potato, castor or mulberry leaves 

soak in prepared NPV solution. 

5 After two days, place NPV-infected larvae in fresh and untreated taro, sweet 

potato, or mulberry leaves. 

5 After another two days, place each NPV-infected larva in a plastic cup with fresh 

and untreated taro, sweet potato, or mulberry leaves. 

5 Collect NPV-infected larvae with apparent disease symptoms, place them in 

plastic cups with cover, and store them in a freezer. 

5 Collect dead larvae everyday and record number of NPV-infected larvae in each 

container. 

(c) Application of NPV Spray Solution Against Cutworm Larvae 

5 In a 16-liter sprayer, put an equivalent of 10-15 NPV-infected larvae. Depending 

on crop stage, 20-30 tank-load of water with NPV spray solution per hectare will 

be needed. 

5 Like conventional insecticides, spray NPV solution on crops that are infested by 

cutworm larvae, in late afternoon. Since cutworm is nocturnal, spraying late in the 

afternoon will ensure effectiveness of NPV spray solution against the pest. 

5 Repeat spraying of NPV solution after 2 weeks if cutworm larvae infestation is 

slight to moderate. 

219

(d) Collection and Use of NPV-infected Cutworm Larvae 

220 


5 Collect NPV-infected cutworm larvae 5-7 days after spraying NPV solution, when 

you will start to see less active or dead cutworm larvae on sprayed crops. 

5 Use collected NPV-infected cutworm larvae to prepare new NPV solution or store 

them in freezer for future use. 


❏ Which areas in plots were most concentrated with healthy and NPV-infected common cutworm 

larvae? 

❏ Which organically-grown vegetable crop was more and less infested by common cutworm 

larvae? What were the most distinguishing characteristics of common cutworm larval damage? 

Which parts of plant did common cutworm larval damage? 

❏ What were the appearance of NPV-infected common cutworm larvae? Which parts of plant 

did NPV-infected common cutworm larvae was observed? 

❏ Did you find farm-level mass production and use of common cutworm NPV easy? Do you think 

farm-level mass production and use of common cutworm NPV practical in organic vegetable 

production? 

❏ Did you observe farmers spraying farm-level produced NPV and chemical insecticides to 

control common cutworm infestation? Did you observe differences in presence, number, and 

activity of pests and natural enemies in organic vegetable crops sprayed with NPV and chemical 

insecticides? 

❏ Did you observe farmers who sprayed farm-level mass-produced NPV alone to control common 

cutworm larvae? Did farmers practice other innovative strategies to control common cutworm 

infestation? What are these strategies? 

❏ Do farmers consider common cutworms destructive to organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ What other cultural management methods can you use to complement spraying of farm-level 

mass-produced NPV to control common cutworm larvae and enhance biological control of 

insect pests even at relatively moderate to serious infestation levels?



VILLAGE-TYPE MASS-PRODUCTION AND USE OF 

TRICHOGRAMMA FOR MANAGING LEPIDOPTEROUS 

INSECT PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


Trichogramma are very small parasitic wasps (0.1 to 0.5 mm 

long), which attack eggs of lepidopterous insect pests. T. 

evanescens Westwood was proven to be effective against 

corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) while T. chilonis 

Ishii against tomato fruit worm, Helicoverpa armigera 

Hubner. These species are also effective against eggs of 

corn earworm and semi-looper, tomato fruit worm, cotton 

bollworm, sugarcane borers, eggplant shoot and fruit borer, 

cacao pod borer, soybean leaf folder and other lepidopterous insect pests. These are mass-produced 

in laboratory on eggs of rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica Stn., a storage pest which in turn is 

being mass-produced in rice bran-rice germ mixture (4:1). Trichogramma cards are packed in 

plastic sheet and released into fields against target lepidopterous insect pests. 

Despite effectiveness of Trichogramma, pest population remains high due to lack of synchronization 

in field releases of Trichogramma and population peak of pest. There are times when a farmer is 

in desperate need of Trichogramma but parasitoid is unavailable. If done properly, field releases of 

Trichogramma is economical, environment-friendly and can be established in agro-ecosystem. The 

field releases of T. evanescens against corn borer and tomato fruit worm at a rate of about 50-70 

Trichogramma cards per hectare (2 releases) costs only about PhP800 (US$20). This is much cheaper 

than 3 sprayings with synthetic insecticides that costs about PhP2,200 (US$55). 


in FFSs to improve pest management practices through participatory, discovery-based, and 

experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. While use of Trichogramma as a biological 

control agent against lepidopterous insect pests is an essential topic in any regular season-long 

FFS session, village-type Trichogramma mass-production is more applicable and sustainable when 

introduced as a follow-up activity of regular FFS farmer-graduates. 

150 Guevara, R.C. and D.P. Callo, Jr. 2005. Village-type Trichogramma mass-production and utilization livelihood project: Bayawan City’s Local Government 

Unit (LGU) experience. Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects 

held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 22p. 

151 Gonzales, P.G., E.P. Cadapan, and P.A. Javier. 2005. Utilization of Trichogramma parasitoids in the Philippines. Paper presented during a Workshop on 

Integrated Production and Pest Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 16p. 

221 


appropriate? 


sessions, as follow-up or 

integral part of topic on 

‘Biological Control of 

Insect Pests’; and 


learn some innovative 

ways of village-type 

mass-production and 

use of Trichogramma to 

manage lepidopterous 

pests of organicallygrown 

vegetables.


222 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations (e.g., presence of egg masses, larvae, 

adults, damage symptoms, and other signs of presence), and interaction with farmers on 

occurrence and severity of lepidopterous pest infestation on organically-grown vegetables in 

learning and adjoining field; 

• One to two hours hands-on (e.g., 1 st 2 weeks before planting) on collection of Trichogramma 

and Corcyra initial stocks and preparation of mass-rearing equipment; 

• One to two hours weekly hands-on on actual mass-production of Corcyra eggs (e.g., 1 st 4 weeks 

after planting) and Trichogramma pupae (e.g., 4 th week after planting); and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour weekly brainstorming session in processing area. 

• This exercise will require one month and two weeks from collection of Trichogramma and 

Corcyra initial stocks and preparation of mass-rearing equipment. 


• To make participants aware of and understand the innovative practices for village-type massproduction 

and use of Trichogramma to manage lepidopterous pests of organically-grown 


• To learn and do village-type mass-production and use of Trichogramma to manage lepidopterous 

pests of organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 

Mass-rearing of Corcyra cephalonica Host: 

• Rearing box 

• Pre-emergence cage 

• Emergence cage rack 

• Moth collection box 

• Egg laying box 

• Plastic cups 

• Strainer 

• Petri dish 

• Feather duster 

• Corn bran rearing media 

• Mask 

• Paint brush


Mass-rearing of Trichogramma sp. Parasitoid: 

• Corcyra eggs 

• Initial stock of Trichogramma sp 

• Oslo paper 

• Gum Arabic glue 

• Scissors 

• Fine strainer 

• Small paint brush 

• Parasitization container (cellophane 4 x 12) 

• Rubber band 

• Cutter 

• Masking tapes 

• Marking pen 

• Plastic tray 

• Plastic tray holder 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks, observe, and interact 

with farmers on occurrence and severity of lepidopterous pest infestation on organicallygrown 

vegetables in learning and adjoining field. Interview other farmers and list down all 


5 presence of egg masses, larvae, adults of lepidopterous pests; 

5 damage symptoms, and other signs of presence of lepidopterous pests; 

5 severity of infestation of lepidopterous pests; 

5 control methods employed against lepidopterous pests; and 

5 occurrence of other pests and diseases on organically grown vegetables. 



Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in using non-chemical methods or approaches 

to manage lepidopterous pest infestation in organic vegetable production. 

223

224 


3. Develop or improve current procedure of village-type mass-production and use of Trichogramma 

to manage lepidopterous pest infestation in organic vegetable production. 

4. Facilitate each farmer to do actual village-type mass-production and use of Trichogramma to 

manage lepidopterous pest infestation in organic vegetable production 152 : 

a. mass-rearing of Corcyra cephalonica Host: 

5 Collect Corcyra cephalonica moth in any existing rice or corn mills; 

5 Place them in egg laying box to produce desired quantity of eggs for rearing; 

5 Filter or screen collected eggs; 

5 Infest 0.10 g of Corcyra egg in 50 g newly milled corn or rice bran in plastic cups with 

cover to prevent entry of feed competitors; 

5 Incubate culture at room temperature for 10 days; 

5 After 10 days of incubation, mix culture in 1.0 kg corn or rice bran feed media in 

rearing plastic box; 

5 Place them inside pre-emergence cage or room; 

5 Transfer rearing plastic boxes in emergence cage rack 25 days after incubation; 

5 Collect emerged moth every morning by knocking off cover of rearing plastic box on 

top of moth collecting funnel; 

5 Place moths in laying boxes; 

5 Collect eggs laid by moths by brushing eggs that sticks in screen on laying boxes; 

5 Clean collected eggs by filtering through a fine strainer to remove scales and other 

impurities; 

5 Use 5% of Corcyra eggs for re-incubation or infestation and 95% of eggs for 

Trichogramma parasitization; 

5 Dispose corn or rice bran feed media after 20 days of moth collection; and 


B. mass-rearing of Trichogramma sp. Parasitoid: 

5 Prepare paste using gum Arabic powder and water in 1:1 ratio; 

5 Cut drawing/Oslo paper into 4 stubs; 

5 Bore 16 holes on the side using puncher; each hole to correspond to 1 strip 

5 Apply a thin layer of gum Arabic paste in Oslo paper; 

5 Distribute thinly and uniformly Corcyra eggs over glued areas using a strainer; the 

strainer will ensure even distribution of eggs; 

152 Guevara, R.C. and D.P. Callo, Jr. 2005. Village-type Trichogramma mass-production and utilization livelihood project: Bayawan City’s Local Government 

Unit (LGU) experience. Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects 

held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 22p.


5 Label Oslo paper with time and date of parasitization; 

5 Let egg strips dry for several minutes then expose them to emerging Trichogramma sp 

inside cellophane parastization container; one strip Trichogramma sp egg parasitoid is 

enough to parasitize 2 fresh egg strips or 1:2 ratio; 

5 Blow air inside cellophane and close it tightly with a rubber band; 

5 Place it inside plastic trays with holder for free ants and other insects; Corcyra eggs 

should be parasitized on third or fourth day; eggs turn black upon parasitization 


C. storing and stocking: 

5 Store collected Corcyra eggs up to 10 days in refrigerator at 10 o C; and 

5 On 6 th day of parasitization, store parasitized Corcyra eggs or Trichogramma sp 

parasitoids up to 14 days at 10 o C. 

Using Trichogramma sp. as Egg Parasitoid: 

Inundative release, which is the colonization of large number of natural enemies to inflict 

prompt mortality on pest population, is implemented. This is done because parasitoid 

releases are usually alternated with chemical insecticides, which seriously affect parasitoid 

survival. 

stage of Parasitoid, Time, and Frequency of Field releases: 

Trichogramma sp. can be released in vegetable field as pupae (about to emerge) or as 

emerging adults. Pupae are released late in afternoon while adults should be released 

early in the morning. In case of tomato, release of Trichogramma sp may be started during 

appearance of first flower buds or 35 days after emergence (DAE) or when field surveys 

show high number of lepidopterous eggs. This is done at least once a week until 75 days 

after planting (DAP), depending on severity of infestation. The first and second releases 

should be closer with 3 days interval. Succeeding releases can be done on a weekly basis. 

manner and site of Parasite release: 

Trichogramma sp. in strip is released by inserting it in cut leaf petiole in upper portion of 

canopy of plant. The release stations should be situated at least 5-10 m from border of crop 

field. The inner release stations should be spaced 15 to 20 m in between. 

225

ate of release: 

226 


Rate of release ranges from 60,000 to 100,000 parasitoids per release per hectare of crop 

field. With a rate of 100,000 parasitoids, there should be 50 Trichogramma strips with 

approximately 2,000 parasitoids per strip. 




❏ Did you observe different organically-grown vegetable crops infested with lepidopterous pests 


❏ Did you observe different lepidopterous pest species infesting organically-grown vegetable 

crops in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ What control methods were employed by farmers against different lepidopterous pest species 

infesting their organically-grown vegetable crops? 

❏ Did you observe farmers producing and using biological control agents to manage lepidopterous 

pests in their vegetable fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using Trichogramma as biological control agent to manage 

lepidopterous pests in their vegetable fields? 

❏ Is use of Trichogramma as biological control agent effective in reducing population of 

lepidopterous pests in organic vegetable production? 

❏ How, how much, and when is the best time to release Trichogramma in organic vegetable 

production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative procedures in village-based biological control agent massproduction 

and application used by farmers in organic vegetable production? What benefits 

did farmers derive from using biological control agents as pest management strategy in organic 


❏ How did you feel while mass-producing and using Trichogramma? Was it difficult to massproduce 

and use Trichogramma as biological control agent in organic vegetable production? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement using Trichogramma as 

biological control agent in organic vegetable production?



FARM-LEVEL PRODUCTION AND USE OF EARWIG 

AS PREDATOR OF INSECT PESTS IN ORGANICALLY- 



Predators are organisms that feed on pests. Generally, they 

are bigger than their prey (pest), which they actively seek and 

capture. Some examples of predators are earwigs, flower 

bugs (Orius), and ladybird (coccinellid) beetles. 

Earwigs, belonging to Order Dermaptera, are general 

predators of eggs, larvae, and pupae of Lepidopterans, 

Coleopterans, and Dipterans as well as leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insects. They 

are nocturnal (more active at night) and prefer slightly moist 

conditions as their habitat. They are easily recognized by their elongated, flattened body and mobile 

abdomen, which extend into a pair of forceps. The earwig species, Euborellia annulata (Fabricius), 

is shiny-black in color and generally wingless, has a 7-segmented antennae with its 3 rd and 4 th from 

apex pale, and prefers to stay in soil during daytime but crawls on plants at nighttime. 

As a biological control agent against insect pests, the biology of Euborellia is already well studied. 

It develops from an egg to an adult in about 35 days, lays 6 egg batches with 40 eggs per batch or 

a total of 240 eggs. Its egg hatches in 6-8 days and undergoes five nymphal instars. The survival 

rate from eggs to adults is about 90 % and an adult lives for approximately 74 days. The predator 

can establish well with a 1:6 male-female ratio under laboratory conditions. During field dispersal, 

Euborellia can travel within a radius of about 6 meters from release point. 



experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. While use of Euborellia as a general predator 

of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, 

and many soft-bodied insects is an essential topic in any regular season-long FFS session, farmlevel 

Euborellia mass-production is more applicable and sustainable when introduced as a follow-up 

activity of regular FFS farmer-graduates. 

153 Javier, P.A. 2005. Farm-level utilization of predators: Earwigs and Orius. Power point presentation during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest 

Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 17 slides. 

227 


appropriate? 








ways of farm-level 

mass-production and 

use of Euborellia as 

a general predator of 

numerous insect pests 


vegetables.


228 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations (e.g., presence of egg masses, larvae, 

adults, damage symptoms, and other signs of presence), and interaction with farmers on 

occurrence and severity of numerous insect pests including leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, 

and many soft-bodied insects infestation on organically-grown vegetables in learning and 

adjoining field; 

• One to two hours hands-on (e.g., 1 st 2 weeks before planting) on collection of Euborellia 

annulata, as initial stocks, and preparation of mass-rearing equipment; 

• One to two hours weekly hands-on on actual mass-production of Euborellia annulata (e.g., 1 st 

4 weeks after planting); 

• Thirty minutes to one hour weekly brainstorming session in processing area; and 

• This exercise will require one month and two weeks from collection of Euborellia annulata 

initial stocks and preparation of mass-rearing equipment. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on innovative farm-level massproduction 

and use of Euborellia annulata as a general predator of eggs, larvae, and pupae 

of numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied 

insect pests of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn and do farm-level mass-production and use of Euborellia annulata as a general predator 

of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, 

and many soft-bodied insect pests of organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 

• Corn cobs 

• Dog food or fish meal 

• Initial stock of Euborellia annulata 

• Scissors 

• Soil 

• Sand 

• Strainer 

• Small paint brush 

• Rubber band 

• Cutter 

• Manila paper


• Masking tapes 

• Marking pen and pen 

• Plastic tray 

• Plastic tray holder 

methodology 


steps 


with farmers on occurrence and severity of of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect pests 

as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests on organicallygrown 

vegetables in learning and adjoining field. Interview other farmers and list down all 


5 presence of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests; 

5 damage symptoms, and other signs, presence of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect 

pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests; 

5 severity of infestation of larvae, and adults of numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests; 

5 control methods employed against numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests; and 

5 occurrence of other pests and diseases on organically-grown vegetables. 




to manage numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many softbodied 

insect pests in organic vegetable production. 

3. Develop or improve current procedure of farm-level mass-production and use of Euborellia 

annulata as a general predator of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect pests as well 

as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests of organically-grown 

vegetables. 

229

230 


4. Facilitate each farmer to do farm-level mass-production and use of Euborellia annulata as a 

general predator of eggs, larvae, and pupae of numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests of organically-grown vegetables 154 : 

a. Collection and rearing of Founder Population: 

5 Collect initial earwig population; 

a) dissect corn stalks heavily infested with ACB 

b) pile of decomposing corn cobs 

c) request from NCPC 

5 Place about 2.5 kg of soil-sand mixture (3:1 by volume) inside an acrylic pan with net 

or screen cover (14.5 cm by 8.5 cm); 

5 Moisten mixture to about 27–30% moisture content; 

5 Release adults (12 females and 4 males); 

5 Feed insect weekly with about 10-15 g fish meal; 

5 Adults will lay about 6 egg batches and these offspring will develop into adults in 

about 35 days. 

B. mass-rearing of Earwig (Euborellia annulata): 

5 Sterilize soil-sand mixture (3:1 by volume) 

5 Place 2.5 kg of 3:1 soil-sand mixture each in 10 plastic rearing trays 

5 Adjust soil moisture to 27 to 30%; 

5 Introduce adult earwigs (36 females and 12 males); 

5 Feed earwigs weekly with 15-20 g fish meal and every 7days thereafter; 

5 About 4,000 earwigs of different ages can be produced per rearing tray within two 

months; and 

5 Cost of rearing earwigs is P0.04 per individual. 

C. Using Earwig (Euborellia annulata) as Biological Control agent: 

5 At 20 and 27 days after planting (DAP) or days after transplanting (DAT), release 

20,000 earwigs per hectare per release; 

5 Use straw as organic mulch to provide cozy shelter for earwigs at daytime; and 

5 If target pests are predominantly lepidopterans and exceedingly high, supplement with 

release of Trichogramma to be more effective. 

154 Javier, P.A. 2005. Farm-level utilization of predators: Earwigs and Orius. Power point presentation during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest 

Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 17 slides.





❏ Did you observe different organically-grown vegetable crops infested with numerous insect 

pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests in learning 

and adjoining fields? 

❏ What control methods were employed by farmers against numerous insect pests as well as 

leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests infesting their organicallygrown 


❏ Did you observe farmers producing and using biological control agents to manage numerous 

insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insect pests in 

their vegetable fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using earwig (Euborellia annulata) as biological control agent to 

manage numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many softbodied 

insect pests in their vegetable fields? 

❏ Is the use of earwig (Euborellia annulata) as biological control agent effective in managing 

numerous insect pests as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied 

insect pests in organic vegetable production? 

❏ How, how much, and when is the best time to apply earwig (Euborellia annulata) as biological 

control agent in organic vegetable production? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative procedures in village-based biological control agent massproduction 

and application used by farmers in organic vegetable production? What benefits 

did farmers derive from using biological control agents as pest management strategy in organic 


❏ How did you feel while mass-producing and using earwig (Euborellia annulata)? Was it difficult 

to mass-produce and use earwig (Euborellia annulata) as biological control agent in organic 


❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement using earwig (Euborellia 

annulata) as biological control agent in organic vegetable production? 

231


FIELD-COLLECTION AND USE OF GREEN AND WHITE 

MUSCARDINE FUNGI FOR LEPIDOPTEROUS PESTS 

MANAGEMENT IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


Naturally occurring predators, parasitoids, and insect pathogens 

attack eggs, larvae, nymphs, and adults of lepidopterous 

insect pests of organically-grown vegetables. Among insect 

pathogens, the most common are green (Metarhizium anisopliae 

[Metchnikoff] Sorokin) or GMF and white (Beauveria bassiana 

[Balsamo] Vuillemin) or WMF muscardine fungi. Among 

others, they are known to attack larvae of many lepidopterous 

pests of organically-grown vegetables. These insect pathogens 

are described below 156 : 

Green muscardine fungus or GMF is a naturally-occurring 

insect pathogen that attacks more than 200 insects. The fungus 

has cylindrical conidiogenous cells. Inside these cells are 

232 



appropriate? 








ways of using green 

(Metarhizium anisopliae) 

or GMF and white 

(Beauveria bassiana) 

or WMF muscardine 

fungi as biological 

control agents against 

lepidopterous pests 


vegetables. 

powdery masses of dark green to yellow-green columns of conidia that arise from white mycelium. 

The conidia are > 9 µm long and are cylindrical with a slight central narrowing. They form very 

long and laterally adherent chains. The spores are shaded green. GMF spores land on host’s body 

and high humidity favors its growth. During its development, fungus consumes its host’s contents. 

When host dies, fungus emerges as a white growth and then turns dark green with age. The spores 

are spread by wind or water to new hosts. 

White muscardine fungus or WMF is a naturally-occurring insect pathogen commonly used for 

insect pest control worldwide. The fungus forms white powdery conidial masses that are globose 

to broadly ellipsoid. They measure 2.5-3.5 µm. They are produced on sympodial conidiogenous 

cells present on hyphae arising from mycelium mat. These cells are globose to flask-shaped, 2-3 x 

2-4 µm with dented zigzag-shaped rachis that reaches up to 20 µm. During development, fungus 

uses soft tissues and body fluids of host. The growth of WMF requires conditions of prolonged high 

moisture for airborne and waterborne spores to germinate. When ready to produce chalky-white 

spores, fungus grows out of host’s body. 



156 IRRI. 2008. Insect Pathogens. As cited in: http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/beneficials.


The GMF and WMF can be easily mass-produced on rice or corn seeds, brewery wastes, and grass 

cuttings and cultured in plastic bags, glass containers, or similar vessels. They can be produced 

in powder form (pure spores), solution, or granular form when mixed with sand. Infected larvae 

produce spores that infect second pest generation. These fungi can be easily conserved in vegetable 

fields by not using chemical pesticides, particularly fungicides, which will normally kill them. 

These fungi can also be introduced to augment existing natural enemies in areas where they are not 

present 157 . 



experiential learning approaches, hence this exercise. While the use of GMF and WMF as biological 

control agents against numerous lepidopterous pests is an essential topic in any regular season-long 

FFS session, farm-level mass-production of these fungi is more applicable and sustainable when 

introduced as a follow-up activity of regular FFS farmer-graduates. 


• One hour for field walks, observations (e.g., presence of egg masses, larvae, adults, damage 

symptoms, and other signs of presence), and interaction with farmers on occurrence and 

severity of lepidopterous pests infestation on organically-grown vegetables in learning and 

adjoining field; 

• Thirty minutes hands-on exercise on collection of GMF and WMF as initial stocks for 

field-rearing; 

• One hour actual field-rearing of GMF and WMF; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour weekly brainstorming session in processing area; and 

• This exercise will require at least two consecutive weeks from collection of GMF and WMF 

initial stocks and final observation of fungi infection on lepidopterous pest larvae. 


• To make participants aware of and understand innovative field-production and use of GMF and 

WMF as biological control agents against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown vegetables; 

and 

• To learn and do field-collection, production, and use of GMF and WMF as biological control 

agents against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown vegetables. 

157 PGCPP. 1987. Pocket Reference Manual on Integrated Pest Management for Corn. Philippine-German Crop Protection Programme (PGCPP), Bureau of 

Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Malate, Manila, Philippines. pp89. 

233

materials 

234 



• Other supplies (e.g., hand sprayer, water, bottles with cap, wide-mouth transparent jars, and 

Petri dishes); and 

• Organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining fields showing relatively moderate to serious 

infestation of lepidopterous pests and GMF- and/or WMF-infected lepidopterous pest larvae. 

methodology 


steps 


with farmers on occurrence of eggs, larvae, and pupae as well as severity of lepidopterous pest 

infestation on organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining field. Interview other 

farmers and list down all observations related to: 

5 presence of eggs, larvae, and pupae as well as of GMF- and/or WMF-infected lepidopterous 

pest larvae; 

5 damage symptoms, and other signs of lepidopterous pest infestation; 

5 severity of lepidopterous pest infestation; 

5 control methods employed against lepidopterous pests; and 

5 occurrence of other pests and diseases on organically-grown vegetables. 




to manage lepidopterous pests in organic vegetable production. 

3. Develop or improve current procedure of field-production and use of GMF and WMF as 

biological control agents against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown vegetables. 

4. Facilitate each farmer to do field-production and use of GMF and WMF as biological control 

agents against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown vegetables 158 : 

158 Callo, Jr. D.P., A.G. Castillo, and C.A. Baniqued (eds). 2001. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Corn Production. SEAMEO Regional Center 

for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), College, Laguna, Philippines. pp298-300.


5 Collect GMF- and/or WMF-infected and healthy lepidopterous pest larvae in learning and 

adjoining fields of organically-grown vegetables; 

5 Place GMF- and/or WMF-infected and healthy lepidopterous pest larvae in a bottle with 

cap; Add enough water and shake vigorously until water has whitish tint; 

5 Pour suspension into a hand sprayer using a sieve to separate solids; 

5 Set up Petri dishes with healthy lepidopterous pest larvae. Spray suspension on healthy 

lepidopterous pest larvae in Petri dishes to multiply GMF and WMF; 

5 Incubate for 1-2 days under room temperature. Observe for fungal growth. If exposed 

lepidopterous pest larvae are totally colonized by fungus, repeat 3 rd and 4 th steps of 

procedure; 

5 If enough GMF and WMF are produced, try spraying suspension on lepidopterous pest 

infested learning or adjoining fields; 

5 Observe daily for at least one week. Present observation and conduct participatory discussion. 




❏ Did you observe different organically-grown vegetable crops infested with lepidopterous pests 


❏ What control methods were employed by farmers against lepidopterous pests infesting their 

organically-grown vegetable crops? 

❏ What signs and symptoms were exhibited by lepidopterous pest larvae infected with GMF and 

WMF? Characterize. 

❏ How long did it take GMF and/or WMF to kill host lepidopterous pest larvae? Which instars 

was mostly affected by GMF and/or WMF? 

❏ What was the effect of GMF and/or WMF on non-lepidopterous pests? 

❏ Did you observe farmers producing and using biological control agents to manage lepidopterous 

pests in their vegetable fields? 

❏ Did you observe farmers using GMF and/or WMF as biological control agents against 

lepidopterous pests in their vegetable fields? 

❏ Is the use of green (Metarhizium anisopliae) or GMF and white (Beauveria bassiana) or 

WMF muscardine fungi as biological control agents effective against lepidopterous pests of 

organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ How, how much, and when is the best time to apply GMF and WMF as biological control agents 

against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown vegetables? 

235

236 


❏ Did you observe any innovative procedures in mass-production and application by farmers of 

GMF and WMF as biological control agents against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown 

vegetables? What benefits did farmers derive from using biological control as pest management 


❏ How did you feel while mass-producing and using GMF and WMF? Was it difficult to massproduce 

and use GMF and WMF as biological control agents against lepidopterous pests of 


❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement using GMF and WMF as 

biological control agents against lepidopterous pests of organically-grown vegetables?



ENHANCING NATURAL ENEMY POPULATIONS BY 

USING BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS AGAINST 

LEPIDOPTEROUS PESTS OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES 


Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt is already widely used in 

the control of lepidopterous larvae in organically-grown 

vegetables in the Philippines. As a microbial insecticide 160 , 

Bt protein is usually used in formulations containing spores 

and crystalline inclusions that are released upon metabolism 

of Bt during its growth. B. thuringiensis is a gram-positive 

bacterium naturally occurring in soil. It kills larvae by 

disrupting the digestive system leading to slow growth and 

ultimately death. When dose is high, sudden death can usually occur. Bt-based pesticides are 

marketed under various trade names. Because of its specificity, it is being used as a complementary 

control strategy to Diadegma parasitoid against diamondback moth (DBM) and other lepidopterous 

larvae. 

In the Cordilleras, Diadegma is used as an egg parasitoid. In cases where eggs escaped and 

developed into larvae, Bt is used as a follow-up treatment to specifically kill pest larvae but not 

Diadegma. Bt has been found very effective against intended pests but not harmful to their natural 

enemies. Despite these positive features, use of Bt-based pesticides also has their own limitation. 

They are expensive. It requires several applications as sunlight breaks down toxin and rain removes 

active ingredient from plant. 

However, many organic vegetable farmers, through years of experience, had evolved some practical 

approaches for effectively using Bt to control pests and enhancing natural enemy populations as well. 

These experiences must be shared among farmers in FFSs to further improve current approaches in 

enhancing natural enemy populations. This exercise was designed to attain this particular objective. 



160 IIBC. 1990. Manual on Biological Control and Biological Methods for Insect Pests in the Tropics. FAO/IRRI/IIBC Training Course on Biological Control 

in Rice-based Cropping Systems, International Institute of Biological Control, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp2.3/1-3.2/4 (Part 1), pp1.3/2-1.3/10 (Part 2) 

and pp2.6/1-2.6/8 (Part 3). 

237 


appropriate? 



a relatively moderate to 

serious lepidopterous pest 

infestation on organicallygrown 

vegetables in 



learn the appropriate 

time to spray Bt to control 

lepidopterous pests 


vegetables.


238 


• Thirty minutes field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers; and 



• To create awareness and understanding among participants that spraying Bt can effectively 

control lepidopterous pests and enhance natural enemy populations in organically-grown 


• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on of innovative approaches on how Bt can effectively 

control lepidopterous pests and enhance natural enemy populations in organically-grown 

vegetables. 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., locally available Bt biological pesticide, measuring cup, sprayer, detergent, 

and water); and 

• Organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining fields showing relatively moderate to 

serious infestation of lepidopterous pests. 

methodology 


steps 


vegetable crops showing relatively moderate to serious lepidopterous pest infestation 

sprayed with Bt and chemical pesticides in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of presence 

and number of pests and natural enemies. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to pest and natural enemy activity and occurrence, crops infested, degree, 

and characteristic damage, etc. 

2. Facilitate each to do hands-on of spraying Bt against lepidopterous pests when relatively 

moderate to serious infestation are observed on organically-grown vegetables in learning field, 

as follows:


5 Look for localized areas where lepidopterous pests are concentrated; 

5 Take note of characteristic damage, plant part damaged, relative density of pests, etc.; 


5 Take note of presence, number, and activity of natural enemies before spraying; compare 

to plots to be sprayed with chemical insecticides; 

5 Perform localized spraying of Bt solution (e.g., recommended dosage and application 

method) on infested vegetable areas of learning field; 

5 Take note again of presence, number and activity of natural enemies after spraying; 

compare to plots sprayed with chemical insecticides; and 




Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in using Bt to control lepidopterous pests at 

relatively moderate to serious infestation levels. Relate shared experiences to effect of Bt on 

natural enemy populations. 




❏ Which areas in plots were most concentrated with lepidopterous pests? 

❏ Which organically-grown vegetable crop was more and less infested by lepidopterous pests? 

What were the most distinguishing characteristics of lepidopterous pest damage? Which parts 

of plant did lepidopterous pests damage? 

❏ Did you observe farmers spraying Bt and chemical insecticides to control lepidopterous pests? 

Did you observe differences in the presence, number, and activity of pests and natural enemies 

in organic vegetable crops sprayed with Bt and chemical insecticides? 

❏ Did you observe farmers who sprayed Bt alone to control lepidopterous pests? Did farmers 

practice other innovative strategies to control lepidopterous pests? What are these strategies? 

❏ Do farmers consider lepidopterous pests destructive to organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ What other cultural management strategies can you use to complement spraying Bt to control 

lepidopterous pests and enhance natural enemy populations even at relatively moderate to 

serious infestation levels? 

239

INTEGRATED RODENT MANAGEMENT 

240 


Rodents (e.g., Rattus argentiventer and Rattus rattus mindanensis) are nocturnal animals, 

which can devastate many agricultural crops. Evident signs of their presence are gnawing, 

nibbling, cut stems, and presence of runways and burrows in crop fields. Rodents readily 

multiply in areas where food is abundant. Reproductivity of rodents is not constant but varies 

significantly, indicating that factors other than food and climate influence rodent reproduction 161 . 

Rodents differ from insect pests, making its management different. First, rodents can stay in one 

area even though there is no crop. This means that we can use damage caused in one season to initiate 

controls for the next season. The other difference is method of management. Rodent management 

must be organized over a wide area to be very effective. Rodent drives, baiting, digging, and any 

other management method or approach is most effective if done as a community-based action. 

Many communities mistakenly believe that success of a rodent management campaign program is 

determined by how many rodents have been killed. The large number of rodents killed is not the key 

to success; the opposite is true. More rodents killed really means a lot more rodents are out in the 

fields ready to feed on agricultural crops. The number of dead rodents is not very important. The 

number of rodents that are alive and eating crop is more important. 


Meeting on Rice Rodent Control held on 10-14 September 1990 at International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp35-48.



RODENT POPULATION DYNAMICS: A GROUP 

DYNAMICS EXERCISE AS WELL 


A female rat specimen can be dissected to determine 

incidence of pregnancy. This process can be used to 

predict probable rodent population outbreaks even before 

establishment of a vegetable crop. Scientists have provided 

procedures for estimating annual productivity at pregnancy 

and lactation of rodents (e.g., Rattus argentiventer and 

Rattus rattus mindanensis) by employing these equations 163 : 

• Incidence of pregnancy multiplied against mean litter size at gestation period (18 days) gives a 

good estimate of a rodent’s potential productivity; and 

• Incidence of lactation multiplied against average litter size at late weaning period (21 days) 

gives an estimate of annual productivity of rodents. 

However, rodents are known to regulate their own number in the presence of extreme numerical 

abundance or increased competition for food and space resulting in population stress. Evidences 

involving active self-regulation include delayed rate of maturity, obesity in mature females, absence 

of sexually precocious young, reduce litter sizes, and severe drop in pregnancy and lactation. Selfregulation 

as a function of survival may provide a reverse mechanism for depleted population, 

including those resulting from reduction control programs, to recover their number to a level of their 

carrying capacity 164 . 

Nevertheless, rodent populations increase very rapidly because they, very often, have many 

offspring. In FFS, a simulation exercise can be undertaken to visualize simple population growth 

for one year. This activity was designed to understand rodent population dynamics. 



163 Davis, D.E. 1953. Characteristics of rat populations. Quar. Rev. Biol. 28(4): pp373-401. 


Meeting on Rice Rodent Control held on 10-14 September 1990 at International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp35-48. 

241 


appropriate? 


sessions, immediately 

after crop establishment 



learn and understand 

rodent population 

dynamics in their organic 

vegetable fields.


242 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers; and 



• To create awareness and understanding among participants on how rodent population increases 

in their organic vegetable fields; and 

• To learn from other farmers how population dynamics information were used to design 

management strategies against rodents in their organic vegetable fields as it relates to principles 

that: 

a) It does not matter how many rodents were killed, it only matters how many rodents remain 

alive in vegetable fields; and 

b) Continuous rodent management is important to keep rodent population always at low level. 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., at least 2,050 mungbean seeds [or any similar materials]) per group; and 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops in learning and adjoining field showing early infestation 

signs of rats. 

methodology 

• Field walks, simulation, and brainstorming 

steps 


organic vegetable crops with early infestation signs of rats in learning and adjoining fields. Take 

note of the signs of gnawing, nibbling, cut seedlings, and damaged plant parts (e.g., flowers, 

pods, fruits, roots, tubers, etc.) and presence of runways and burrows in field. Interview other 

farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to the following: 

5 Crops grown and crop stand; 

5 Signs of rat damages on plants and plant parts;


5 Presence of runways, burrows, footprints, and feces; and 

5 Management strategies employed by farmers, if any. 



facilitators. Motivate farmers to share how they can use population dynamics information to 

design management strategies against rodents in their organic vegetable fields. 



5. Facilitate farmers to do simulation exercises on estimating rodent population growth over a 

period of one year in their own vegetable fields by improving the procedure given below: 

5 On a Manila paper, draw 12 lines to divide into 13 sections; 

5 On first section, place two seeds; one seed to represent a female rodent and another to 

represent a male rodent; 

5 Move to 1 st month. Add six seeds for six offsprings from an original pair of rodents, three 

rodents are females and three rodents are males; 

5 Move to 4 th month. Add six seeds for six offsprings from an original female, then add 18 

seeds for three females in the 1 st month (e.g., three females x six offsprings each). Half of 

seeds represent female rodents; 

5 Move to 7 th month. Add six seeds for six offsprings from an original female, then add 18 

seeds in 1 st month (e.g., three females x six offsprings each). Add 72 (e.g., 12 females with 

6 offsprings each) for offsprings from females in 4 th month, half of the seeds represent 

female rodents; 

5 Continue this process for the 10 th and 13 th months; and 

5 Write on a Manila paper the total numbers of rodents for each month, and a cumulative 

total from month to month. 


❏ How many rodents are produced in one year (e.g., one section is three months)? 

❏ If half of the rodents are killed on the 7 th month, how many rodents will be produced by end of 

12 th month? 

❏ If there are 10 million female rodents in the first month, how many rodents will be produced on 

the 13 th month? If you organized a rodent management campaign and killed these many rodents, 

243

244 


will you be very excited and call your campaign a success? How many rodents are remaining 

in a vegetable field? Do you think a rodent management campaign was still a success? How 

many rodents will be in a vegetable field considering reproduction? (Note that reproduction 

is even greater after many rodents are killed because of less competition for food and space.) 

❏ What is the meaning of the saying ‘it does not matter how many rodents were killed, it only 

matters how many are left in a vegetable field to reproduce’? 

❏ Many farmers say that if you kill rodents, they will bring their rat friends and completely 

destroy a vegetable field. Can you explain why vegetable fields are destroyed after one rodent 

management campaign (e.g., remember that reproduction is faster when population is low)? 

❏ Why is it important to begin killing rodents at an early stage of an organically-grown vegetable 

crop? Why is it important to keep killing rodents all season-long? What would be rodent 

population after 6 months if only one female from each group of six offsprings survived? 

(Totals by cycle will look something like this: 1 st month = 6; 4 th month = 24; 7 th month = 96; 10 th 

month = 384; 13 th month = 1,536 or cumulative total is 2,046.)



USING CAGE TRAPS AND SCARING MATERIALS 

AS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AGAINST RATS IN 



Rats are among the most serious pests of organically-grown 

vegetables in highlands and lowlands. Signs of gnawing, 

nibbling, cut seedlings, and damaged plant parts (e.g., 

flowers, pods, fruits, roots tubers, etc.) and presence of 

runways and burrows in field suggest their occupancy. Rats 

are nocturnal animals, which can cause heavy damage on 

organic vegetables and other crops at nighttime. Rats readily 

multiply in areas where food is abundant. Under field conditions, rats can live for one year or longer. 

A female rat can reproduce up to four times a year with an average of six offspring per litter. 

Often, success of a rat campaign is determined by how many rats are killed. This is not true. A 

high number of dead rats means that there are more rats out in the field ready to feed on vegetable 

crops. This also means that the number of dead rats is not as important as the number of live 

rats eating organically-grown vegetable crops in the field. Therefore, for rat management to be 

effective, farmers must learn how to identify the presence of rats, understand rat burrow structures 

and runways, and suggest practical rat management strategies. 

More practical and effective management strategies against rats by some enterprising farmers had 

evolved in the Cordilleras. For example, using cage traps and scaring materials are reported effective 

and now common in Mountain Province. Similar effective strategies can be more regularly shared 

among farmers in FFSs and, in the process, improved approaches may evolve. This exercise was 

designed to achieve this purpose. 






245 


appropriate? 



early infestation signs of 

rats in the learning field; 

and 




in using traps and scaring 

materials against rats in 

organic vegetable fields.


246 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the role of cage traps and scaring 

materials as management strategies against rats in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn from other farmers their innovative practices in using different traps and scaring 

materials as management strategies against rats in organic vegetable production. 

materials 


• Organically-grown vegetable crops in learning and adjoining field showing early signs of rat 

infestation; and 

• Different trap and scaring materials (e.g., cage traps, used cassette tapes, used plastic bags or 

cellophane, wire, etc.). 

methodology 


steps 


organic vegetable crops with early infestation signs of rats in learning and adjoining fields. Take 

note of the signs of gnawing, nibbling, cut seedlings, and damaged plant parts (e.g., flowers, 




5 Signs of rat damages on plants and plant parts; 



2. Go back to the processing area; brainstorm in small groups and present output to the big group. 


facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in using different traps and 

scaring materials against rats.




5. Facilitate farmers to install cage traps and scaring materials when early infestation signs of rats 

are observed in learning field by improving procedures given below: 

Option 1 (Using Cage Traps) 

5 Acquire or fabricate and install at least five cage traps with appropriate baits in strategic 

places (e.g., runways and burrows) of learning field before nighttime; 

5 Inspect and gather cage traps with rat catches in the succeeding morning; 

5 Record and dispose rat catches promptly; 

5 Reinstall cage traps in the same area before nighttime; 

5 Gather and reinstall cage traps without rat catch near reinstalled cage traps with previous 

rat catches. If possible, estimate percent rat damage; 

5 Repeat process daily until necessary; and 


Option 2 (Using Scaring Materials) 

5 Install scaring materials (e.g., used cassette tapes, used plastic bags or cellophane, etc.) at a 

distance of one-meter in rows within plots; 

5 Inspect and record presence of runways, burrows, footprints, and feces in the succeeding 

morning; 

5 Inspect and also record signs of rat damages on plants and plant parts in the succeeding 

morning. If possible, estimate percent rat damage; 

5 Repeat process daily until necessary; 

5 If different scaring materials were used, determine best scaring materials; and 



❏ Did you observe farmers using cage traps against rats in their fields? Did you observe farmers 

using scaring materials against rats in their fields? 

❏ What traps and scaring materials against rats were commonly used by farmers? 

❏ Did you observe any differences in effectiveness among different traps and scaring materials 

used against rats? When is it practical to use cage traps against rats? When are scaring materials 

more practical to use against rats? 

247

248 


❏ What stages of organically-grown crops are most susceptible to rats? Were there differences in 

crop stand and severity of rat damage between organic vegetable fields, which used and did not 

use traps and scaring materials against rats? 

❏ What other innovations did you learn from other farmers in using different traps and scaring 

materials against rats? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can you use to complement cage trapping and using 

scaring materials as management strategies against rats in organic vegetable production?



COMMUNITY-BASED RODENT MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGIES FOR PROFITABLE ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Rodents concentrate in adjoining grass and other covers 

following cultivation. Rapid movements into crop field 

are enhanced with more plant and weed cover, more so in 

presence of greening corn or leafy and fruit vegetables. 

Enhanced reproduction also occurs under these conditions 167 . 

As previously discussed, effective rodent management 

requires a community-based effort. Past experiences 

indicate that many cultural management practices can 

be incorporated in a community-based management approach 168 to effectively regulate rodent 

population in vegetable fields, such as: 

Physical methods: 

• Blanket system is probably the most popular removal process. It involves driving rodents into 

a central grass trap where they are eventually killed. It offers a direct estimate of animal 

population given a required sample size. Removal process is comparatively fast and effective 

particularly when used selectively in preferred harborages or against probable bait-shy 

population. Community-based actions, which employ men, work animals, and tractor-drawn 

cultivators are necessary. 

• Burrow excavation or digging is preferred over the use of fumigants, flames, or water to 

dislodge occupants. However, this method may result to a high rate of escape and more often is 

not cost-effective due to difference in percent occupancy. 

• Others, such as use of traps, deep trenches, barriers, and other auxiliary methods may also be 

used as a matter of choice. 



167 PGCPP. 1987. Pocket Reference Manual on Integrated Pest Management in Corn. Philippine-German Crop Protection Programme (PGCPP), Bureau of 

Plant Industry (BPI), manila, Philippines. pp60-63. 


Meeting on Rice Rodent Control held on 10-14 September 1990 at International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp35-48. 

249 


appropriate? 



of ‘Rodent Population 

Dynamics: A Group 

Dynamics Exercise As 

Well’ topic; and 


to learn innovative 

community-based 

integrated rodent 

management (IRM) 

options for their organic 

vegetable growing.

Biological Methods: 

250 


• Predation. Grass owls, black-winged kites, and leopard cats are considered as primary rodent 

predators. Most other wild cats, including feral forms, are secondary rat feeders along with 

monitor, lizards, and snakes. 

• Habitat manipulation. A practical approach to pest management would be to modify habitat to 

make it unsuitable for occupancy. 

Integrated Rodent Management: 

A community-based integrated rodent management (IRM) approach is the most effective and 

efficient way to deal with rodent problems. This approach may include a combination of the 

following: 

• A rat damage assessment procedure for pest monitoring, whose index can be transformed to 

crop loss estimate; 

• A large body of reduction control procedures and management strategies involving physical and 

biological means; 

• A body of organized farmers and extension workers from local government units (LGUs) and 

non-government organizations (NGOs); and 

• A body of legislations, instructions, and related administrative set-ups responsible for 

organization and implementation of rodent management at various levels of undertakings (e.g., 

national down to village levels). 

However, for everyone to be effective, they must also learn to identify presence of rodents and 

their runways, understand rodent burrow structures, and suggest practical management strategies. 

Sharing of experiences among participants is very important in understanding rodent occurrences 

in different areas. In this exercise, these shared experiences will be critically analyzed and used in 

coming up with community-based rodent management options or strategies. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, observations, interaction with farmers, and hands-on to 

identify presence of rats and prepare, construct, and install rat traps and baiting stations;


• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session to design rodent management strategies; 

• Ten to fifteen minutes follow-up activities every week to refine rodent management strategies 

designed earlier; and 

• Another hour to assess effectiveness of developed rodent management strategies towards end 

of season and developing a community-based integrated rodent management approach based 

on a season-long experience. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the value of a community-based 

rodent management undertaking for profitable organic vegetable farming; 

• To learn how to identify presence of rats and to prepare, construct, and install rat traps and 

baiting stations; and 

• To learn how to design, refine, and assess innovative community-based management approaches 

for organic vegetable farming. 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., bamboo, bolo, handsaw, plastic pail, spade, sacks, bait materials); and 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops in learning and adjoining field showing early signs of rat 

infestation. 

methodology 


steps 


organic vegetable crops with early infestation signs of rats in learning and adjoining fields. 

Take note of signs of gnawing, nibbling, cut seedlings, and damaged plant parts (e.g., flowers, 




5 Signs of rat damages on plants and plant parts; 



251

252 




facilitators. Motivate farmers to share experiences on how to identify presence of rats and 

prepare, construct, and install rat traps and baiting stations as well as employ rodent management 

strategies in their organic vegetable fields. 



5. Facilitate farmers to identify presence of rats and prepare, construct, and install rat traps and 

baiting stations as well as employ rodent management strategies in their learning and adjoining 

fields by improving the procedure below: 

5 Each small group should prepare rodent baits, construct two rodent baiting stations and 

install them in strategic areas in learning and adjoining fields; 

5 Each small group should do following hands-on around learning and adjoining fields: 

a) identifying presence of rats by their runways, live burrows, and others; 

b) dig live rodent burrows to understand their structures; and 

c) experience catching live rodents from burrows. 

5 Return to session hall and process activity. Provide guide questions based on field 

observations and interactions with farmers, which each small group should answer and 

report to big group for critiquing; 

5 Conduct a participatory discussion in a big group to design appropriate rodent management 

options; 

5 Elicit community participation and implement designed rodent management options in 

learning and adjoining vegetable fields; 

5 Regularly assess, modify, or refine designed management options for current cropping 

season; and 

5 Redesign a more innovative community-based rodent management strategy based on a 

season-long experience for implementation by farmers in their community in succeeding 

cropping seasons. 


❏ As reported by agricultural technologists, Bayawan City of Negros Oriental has a rodent 

damage index which ranges from 5 to 17 % last cropping season. Draw up your management


plan to protect the next cropping from ravages of rodents. What can be done instead of using 

acute poison? 

❏ Presently, another city, Tagum City of Davao Norte, has a rodent outbreak. A neighboring 

municipality, Compostela, has a damage index which ranges from 0.1 to 1.2 %. What are your 

indicators that there is an impending outbreak in the municipality? What are your suggestions 

to protect vegetable crops in the said municipality? 

❏ Other provinces, Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental, have an endemic rodent problem. What are 

your suggestions to contain such a problem or lessen rodent population build-up? 

❏ There is a confusion on the identification of rodents in Bayawan City. Some said they are Rattus 

rattus mindanensis and Rattus exulans. Others said that R. norvegicus and Rattus argentiventer 

ravaged their organically-grown vegetable crops. Due to this confusion, a Regional Executive 

Director ordered a group to identify these species. How will they identify those rodent species 

by their physical appearance? 

❏ Based on field observations, draw up and explain your rodent management strategy for your 

respective FFS, TOT, and VST learning fields. Include appropriate cultural management 

practices shared by farmers in your locality. 

❏ What stages of organically-grown vegetable crops are most susceptible to rodent damage? Why 

is this so? 

253

Section 5 

INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT 

254 


A 

plant disease is defined as any physiological disturbance brought about by a pathogen or 

environmental factor that prevents normal development of a plant resulting to changes in 

its appearance and reduction of its economic value. Plant diseases are caused either by 

infectious or biotic factors, or non-infectious or abiotic factors. Plant diseases that are caused by 

infectious or biotic factors usually occur when: (a) pathogen is highly virulent, in high inoculums 

density, or not in equilibrium with antagonists; (b) environment is relatively more favorable to 

pathogen than to host plant and/or antagonists; and (c) host plant is genetically homogenous, highly 

susceptible, and continuously or extensively grown. 

Plant disease management in organic vegetable production consists mainly of integrating various 

mechanical or physical (e.g., heat treatment, flooding, rouging of diseased plants or pruning 

of infected plant parts), cultural (e.g., crop rotation, trellising) as well as biological (e.g., use of 

microbial antagonists, use of resistant varieties, bio-fumigation) control methods 169 . Thus, this 

section includes exercises dealing on these control methods. In addition to exercises crafted by 

IPM facilitators and specialists during the Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based 

Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable Farming conducted in 17-19 June 2008, this section 

adapted a number of applicable exercises from Field Guide of Discovery Exercises for Vegetable 

IPM (Volume II) 170 . 

169 Bayot, R.G. 2008. Diseases Management in Organic Vegetable Production. Power Point Presentation during the Workshop On Designing Farmer Field 

School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management for Organic vegetable Production held at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural 

Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines on 28-30 April 2008. Slides 

1-31. 


Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p.

Section 5 • Integrated Disease Management 

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES ON DISEASES 

In a previous refresher course 171 mentioned earlier, field walks, observations and collection of 

diseases and physiological disorders of crucifers (e.g., cabbage and cauliflower), parsley (e.g., 

carrot and celery), legumes (e.g., snap bean and garden pea), cucurbits (e.g., cucumber, chayote, 

and zucchini), and solanaceous vegetables (e.g., potato, tomato and bell pepper) were similarly agreed 

upon by participants as initial step in field diagnosis of vegetable diseases. This will be followed by 

sorting and identification of collected specimens by participants in small groups and validation with 

technical experts in a big group session. Again, participants together with technical experts should 

summarize outputs of said session by coming up with a list of most distinguishing characteristics for 

field identification of vegetable diseases 172 and physiological disorders 173 as follows: 

• Virus Diseases. The general symptoms are: (a) leaf discoloration, (b) stunting, (c) leaf rolling 

or twisting, and (d) vein clearing; 

• Bacterial Diseases. The most common symptoms are: (a) maceration or disintegration of 

tissues, (b) ‘water-soaked’ appearance, and (c) ‘foul’ odor; 

• Fungal Diseases. The general symptoms are presence of: (a) ‘cottony-like’ and (b) ‘dry’ 

appearances (e.g., leaf spots) of infected plant parts; 

• Nematodes (or the ‘unseen enemy’). The general symptoms are: (a) gall formation in root 

system, (b) root necrosis (e.g., branching), and (c) gall formation within root system (in contrast 

to nodules which are formed outside root system); and 

• Physiological Disorders. The usual symptoms are malformations caused by: (a) non-infectious 

organisms, (b) nutrient deficiencies or toxicities, and (c) chemical injuries or toxic residues. 



172 Milagrosa, S.P. 1998. As cited in: Callo, Jr., D.P., L.B. Teofilo, and H.A. Tauli (eds). 2002. Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, 




255


DISEASE TRIANGLE RELATIONSHIP: UNDERSTANDING 

SPREAD OF DISEASES IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES 


Disease is a function of host, pathogen, and environment; 

all are components of a disease triangle. Disease triangle is 

based on an equivalence theorem, which states that effect of 

environment, pathogen, and host can each be translated into 

256 


terms of epidemic rate parameter. A result is that changes in anyone of disease triangle components 

(e.g., from a more to less susceptible host, from a favorable to an unfavorable environment, or 

from a more aggressive to a less aggressive pathogen) all have an equivalent effect on an epidemic. 

Therefore, it is not surprising that disease management is centered on this equivalence theorem and 

that much disease predictive systems are based on one or more components of a disease triangle 175 . 

For participants to effectively manage common diseases of organically-grown vegetables, they must 

develop a conceptual definition of a disease. The concept of a disease and factors associated with 

their occurrence are important tools in developing management strategies for diseases. As a way 

of synthesizing results of a disease triangle exercise, role-playing may be conducted. This method 

will allow facilitators to gauge how deep participants’ understanding is of initial participatory 

discussions on plant diseases topics. Similarly, this activity will provide participants an opportunity 

to clear some gray areas or misconceptions about aforesaid equivalence theorem. 

In farmer field schools (FFSs), this activity is aimed at developing farmers’ basic knowledge on 

diseases and their occurrences as affected by components of a disease triangle. This exercise was 

developed to serve this purpose. 

How long will the exercise take? 


appropriate? 

ɶ During FFS, TOT, and 

VST sessions as starting 

activity of an ‘Integrated 

Disease Management’ 

topic; and 


to learn how organic 

vegetable diseases 

develop. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour field walk observation and simulation exercise; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session. 


Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), College, Laguna, Philippines. pp360-362. pp380-383. 

175 Johnson, K.B. 1987. The role of predictive system in disease management. In: Teng, P.S. (ed). 1987. Crop Loss Assessment and Pest Management. The 

American Phytopathological Society, Minnesota, U.S.A. pp176-190.



• To develop a conceptual definition of a plant disease by individually sharing ideas and 

experiences among participants and facilitators; 

• To create awareness and appreciation among participants on interrelations of environment, 

pathogen, and host in development of vegetable diseases; and 

• To improve farmers’ decision-making skills through better understanding of disease triangle 

equivalence theorem. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields with standing crops that are infected with diseases; 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila paper, masking tape, stapler, crayon, marking pens, record book, 

pen, and chalks); and 

• Others (e.g., plastic bags and plant disease samples). 

methodology 


steps 

For Field Walks and Brainstorming Exercises: 

1. Start exercise by conducting field walks and observations in organic vegetable fields with 

standing crops that are infected with diseases. Ask participants to undertake following: 

5 Each small group collects diseased organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining 

fields; 

5 Note down crop stand and factors in surroundings that may have favored occurrence of 

diseases in learning and adjoining fields; 

5 List down all observations related to spread of diseases among plants within a field and 

between vegetable fields; and 

5 Return to session hall or shade and process observations in small groups. 

2. Formulate and distribute discussion guide questions for each small group to answer based on 

their field observations; 

257

258 


3. Each small group presents and discusses answers to guide questions in big group; 

4. Facilitators integrate and summarize outputs. 

5. Ask participants to go to a barren field and request for one volunteer to broadcast any available 

powder material evenly on soil surface of a barren field. Ask other participants to observe 

how powder material is distributed in a barren field. Let all participants walk over an area and 

observe what happened to applied powder material as they walk around. 

6. Parallel simulation exercise with disease transport mechanisms in organic vegetable field 

observed with standing crops that are infected with diseases, such as: 

5 Bacteria get around by water; 

5 Fungi get around by wind; 

5 Viruses get around by insects; and 

5 Nematodes get around by dirt. 

7. Process activity by brainstorming and participatory sharing of experiences among participants 

and facilitators; and 

8. Summarize and synthesize all learning experiences shared. Draw up conclusions and 

recommendations from this exercise. 

For Role-playing: 

9. Get eight volunteers to do a role-play: 

5 Prepare labels for every role of volunteers; 

5 Do role-play showing possible effects and reactions of different actors in disease 

development; and 

5 Process observations in small groups and present to big group. 


and facilitators; and 


recommendations from this exercise.



❏ What is a plant disease? Give examples of specific diseases of organically-grown vegetables. 

❏ Are signs and symptoms of plant diseases the same? Defend your answer by giving examples. 

❏ Can a disease occur if there are susceptible hosts, aggressive pathogens and unfavorable 

environment? 

❏ Is man a factor in severity or development of a disease? Support your answer. 

❏ Can you consider physiological disorder a disease? Explain. 

❏ What factors enhance development of a plant disease? Why? 

❏ Can a disease occur in absence of any one of these factors? Explain. 

❏ How do climatic factors affect disease development? 

259


SIMULATION EXERCISE: UNDERSTANDING DISEASE 

TRANSPORT IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


Plant pathogens are very minute disease-causing 

microorganisms that reduce the aesthetic value, quality, 

and yield of infected organic vegetable crops. Unlike insect 

pests, which normally moves using their appendages (e.g., 

wings, legs, etc.), microorganisms are transported mainly 

through mechanical means from one place to another. 

Thus, disease transport can be accomplished by any of the 

260 


following means: (a) carried from source by wind or water, (b) transported from source by clinging 

to anything it came in contact with, or (c) transferred by man and animals directly from source to 

another point either intentionally or accidentally. 

Clearly, diseases do not just occur. They consist of a sequence of various stages during the course 

of their development, a succession of events or modifications, one usually leading to another. These 

living and non-living things play an important role in the dissemination of diseases. However, these 

agents have their own way of transporting a disease 177 . 

In farmer field schools (FFSs), farmers can better understand mechanisms of disease transport 

through field walks, observations, simulation exercise and participatory sharing of experiences 

among them and facilitators. This exercise was developed to serve this purpose. 

How long will the exercise take? 


appropriate? 

ɶ During FFS, TOT, 

and VST sessions as 

component of ‘Integrated 

Disease Management’ 

topic; and 


to learn how organic 

vegetable diseases are 

transported from one 

place to another. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour field walk observation and simulation exercise; and 




177 IIBC. 1996. Integrated Pest Management for Highland Vegetables, Volume 4: Training Guide for Participatory Action Towards Discovery Learning. 

International Institute for Biological Control, BPI Compound, Baguio City, Philippines. pp113.



• To create awareness and appreciation among participants of different disease transport 

mechanisms in organic vegetable fields; and 

• To improve farmers’ decision-making skills through better understanding of these different 

disease transport mechanisms. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields with standing crops that are infected with diseases; 

• Flour, rice bran, lime or any non-toxic white powder substance that is cheap and locally 

available; and 

• Barren field (e.g., probably dry and not so weedy). 

methodology 

• Field walks, simulation exercise, and brainstorming 

steps 

1. Start exercise by conducting field walks and observations in organic vegetable fields with 

standing crops that are infected with diseases. List down all observations related to spread of 

diseases among plants within a field and between vegetable fields. 

2. Ask participants to go to a barren field and request for one volunteer to broadcast any available 

powder material evenly on soil surface of a barren field. Ask other participants to observe 

how powder material is distributed in a barren field. Let all participants walk over an area and 

observe what happened to applied powder material as they walk around. 

3. Parallel simulation exercise with disease transport mechanisms in organic vegetable field 

observed with standing crops that are infected with diseases, such as: 

5 Bacteria get around by water; 

5 Fungi get around by wind; 

5 Viruses get around by insects; and 

5 Nematodes get around by dirt. 


and facilitators. 

261

262 



recommendations from this exercise. 


❏ What part of your body was contaminated with white powder material when you walked over a 

field? How did the white powder material contaminate your body? 

❏ Did the white powder material applied in a field move to other areas? How? 

❏ Did the white powder material that contaminated your body move to other bodies or areas as 

you walked in a field? How? 

❏ Were there still white powder materials left in your body after leaving a field? Where did the 

white powder material go? How? 

❏ Do you think vegetable diseases can be transported in the same way? What made you think so? 

❏ Can farm tools transport vegetable diseases to other areas? Do you know of other means by 

which vegetable diseases can be transported to other places? 

❏ Can we manage vegetable diseases by knowing how they are transported to other places? How? 

❏ What practical cultural management practices can you suggest that will avoid transport of 

vegetable diseases from one place to another?



WATER FLOATING TECHNIQUE: DETERMINING 

THE PRESENCE OF GOLDEN CYST NEMATODES 

IN ORGANIC POTATO FIELDS 


Golden cyst nematode is one of the most destructive 

pests of potato. At high population, cyst nematodes can 

inflict serious damage to vegetable crops. Symptoms 

on above ground plant parts resemble that of drought 

injury or nutrient deficiency. Most farmers are not 

aware that their fields are infested by cyst nematodes. A practical and appropriate tool should be 

available for them to determine presence of these harmful organisms in their fields. 

Thus, water-floating technique is a very useful tool for farmers in assessing golden cyst nematode 

infestation in their own fields. In this foregoing exercise, living and squirming nematodes will be 

impressive to see, particularly for farmers who do not even know they exist 179 . 


• One hour and thirty minutes for field walks, and observations in learning field and hands-on 

exercise in processing area; and 



• To make participants aware and understand how proper identification of golden cyst nematodes 

contributes to better management of the problem in organic vegetable fields; and 

• To learn how to identify golden cyst nematode infested fields and experience how living 

nematodes look like. 


Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp 221-222. 


International Institute for Biological Control, BPI Compound, Baguio City, Philippines. pp110. 

263 


appropriate? 

ɶ In FFS, TOT, and VST sessions, 

when existing farmer’s fields 

are possibly infested by golden 

cyst nematodes; and 


experience how live cyst 

nematodes look like and learn 

how other farmers manage them 

in their fields.

materials 

264 


• Organic vegetable field suspected to be infested with golden cyst nematodes; 

• Field supplies (e.g., fine mess nets or sieves # 10, 20, and 30, magnifying lens [10x], plastic bags 

for specimens, farming tools, bowl and water); and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila paper, marking pens, and masking tapes). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide big group into five small groups. Go to the field and observe plants showing symptoms 

of golden cyst nematode infestation. In suspected nematode infested field, gather soil samples 

with plant. With aid of fine mess nets or sieves # 10, 20 and 30, wash soil samples until semiclear 

water solution is obtained. With the finest sieve, collect water solution and place in clean 

and transparent glass vial. 

2. Have water in vial settle down for 20 minutes or wait until particles are already settled. With 

the aid of 10 x-magnifying lenses, observe squirming pechay seed-like golden cyst nematodes. 

List down observations in small groups. 

3. After observations, conduct participatory discussions in a big group to allow sharing of 

experiences among participants and facilitators. Synthesize and summarize output of small 

groups into one big group output. Draw up conclusions and recommendations from this 

exercise. 


❏ Have you seen any squirming pechay seed-like structures? 

❏ Can you explain or describe (e.g., color, structure, appearance, size, etc.) what you saw to the 

group? 

❏ What symptoms were expressed in plant by golden cyst nematode infestation? 

❏ What were the possible sources of pest infestations? How are they transmitted? 

❏ How can we avoid infestation of golden cyst nematodes in our organic vegetable fields? 

❏ What cultural management practices can be undertaken to prevent golden cyst nematode 

infestation in organic potato fields?



BACTERIAL OOZING TECHNIQUE: IDENTIFYING 

BACTERIAL WILT DISEASE OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES IN FARMERS’ FIELDS 


Diseases of vegetable crops are caused by plant pathogens such 

as virus, fungus, bacteria, and nematodes. For organicallygrown 

solanaceous vegetables, the most destructive disease 

caused by bacteria is bacterial wilt, commonly known as 

kuyos. The disease initially causes partial wilting of plants. 

The vascular tissue of main stem turns brown. The infected 

tubers ooze through eyes or stolon end of tubers from 

vascular ring of cut tubers. This bacterium is soil-borne 

and can persist for many years. High soil temperature and high soil moisture favor the disease. 

Unless farmers know how to determine which plant pathogen causes disease, they cannot employ 

appropriate control or management approaches. 

For farmers to determine if their fields are infected by bacterial wilt or other bacterial diseases, they 

can adopt the bacterial oozing technique 181 . This technique can be used also to determine if other 

bacterial diseases infect an organic vegetable field. In farmer field school (FFSs), this technique will 

be a useful tool to aid farmers in their decision-making process, hence this exercise. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of different solanaceous vegetable 

diseases in learning field and adjoining organic vegetable farms; and 





International Institute for Biological Control, BPI Compound, Baguio City, Philippines. pp106-107. 

265 


appropriate? 


sessions when there 

are different vegetable 

diseases that can be found 

in learning and adjoining 

fields; and 


learn practical tools to 

identify bacterial diseases 

in their own organic 

vegetable fields.


266 


• To make participants aware and understand that different solanaceous vegetable diseases are 

caused by different plant pathogens; and 

• To learn a practical method in identifying bacterial diseases of organically-grown solanaceous 

vegetables. 

materials 

• Fields planted to different organically-grown solanaceous vegetable crops infected with 

different diseases; and 


methodology 


steps 


organically-grown solanaceous crops in learning and adjoining fields infected with different 

diseases. Search for partially wilting plants, observe symptoms, pull plants, and bring them 

to processing area. List down all observations related to pest and disease occurrence, kind of 

crops planted, crop stand, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area, cut roots of plants, and observe them. Cut a part of stem above 

ground level to about 5-cm length. Insert toothpick into stem part and hang it in a glass of 

water. Leave glass for a few minutes. Do the same process using tubers, roots, and different 

parts of stem. Observe ooze coming out of stem-base (e.g., bacterial wilt). Compare different 

set-up. 

3. Brainstorm in small groups and present output to big group. Conduct participatory discussions 

to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 





❏ What happened to the color of water? Have you seen milky liquid from the stem? 

❏ Do you believe this is causing wilting of organically-grown solanaceous crop you tested? Why? 

How can we confirm this? 

❏ Does healthy crop produce or have this milky liquid coming from stem or tuber? What were 

the symptoms of infected plants before soaking? 

❏ What will you do in your farm if you confirmed that there is bacterial wilt infection of 

organically-grown solanaceous vegetable you planted? 

❏ Do you know of other practical ways of determining the presence of bacterial wilt in your 

organic vegetable farm? How do we do it? 

267


SAP TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE: UNDERSTANDING 

HOW VIRUS DISEASES ARE TRANSMITTED IN 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE FIELDS 


Virus diseases are most difficult to manage in organic 

vegetable production. Either one or a combination of the 

following usually transmits them: (a) direct mechanical 

contact, (b) aid of insect victors, or (c) other carriers. Strong 

winds and rains, as well as action of man who tends his 

vegetable crops regularly and other animals harboring around 

these crops may cause direct mechanical transmission of 

virus diseases. Symptoms of some virus diseases may also 

appear similar to those suffering from physiological and 

nutritional disorders. 

268 


In farmer field schools (FFSs), farmers will need practical techniques that will ensure accurate 

disease identification and understanding of virus disease transmission in their own fields. Thus, this 

simple exercise was designed to enable participants to address this particular concern. 



appropriate? 


sessions, when first signs 

or symptoms of virus 

disease infection are 

observed in learning and 


ɶ When organic farmers 

want to learn practical 

techniques to accurately 

identify and understand 

virus disease transmission 

in their organic vegetable 

fields. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, observations, and collection of suspected virusinfected 

vegetables in learning and adjoining field; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session and setting-up of exercise in processing area; 

and 

• Fifteen to thirty minutes consecutive weekly observations and processing after setting-up this 

exercise. 


Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp 226-228.



• To make participants aware and understand how accurate virus disease identification and 

transmission lead to its better management in their own farms; and 

• To learn through hands-on and direct observations how virus diseases are transmitted in 

organically-grown vegetables by mechanical means. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields where signs and symptoms of virus infections can be observed; 

• Mortar and pestle (can be improvised), suspected virus infected and healthy test-plants, handsprayer 

and sandpaper); and 

• Other office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, and marking pens). 

methodology 

• Field walks, hands-on and brainstorming 

steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks. Let them observe 

and collect healthy and suspected virus infected plants or plant parts in learning and adjoining 

organic vegetable fields. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations 

related to signs and symptoms (e.g., rosetting, curling, mosaic appearance, etc.), pest and 

disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area and set-up this exercise by performing the following activities: 

5 Pound suspected virus-infected plants and extract juice or sap; 

5 Create artificial mechanical damage by rubbing sandpaper on leaves of healthy test-plants 

(e.g., same crop species, or any seedlings of other crop species); 

5 Spray or rub extracted sap or juice on damaged and undamaged leaves of healthy testplants; 

and 

5 Observe and take note of physical changes on test-plants after 14-21 days. 


discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 

269

270 




some suggested questions for processing discussions 

❏ What organically-grown vegetable crops did you observe showing symptoms of virus infections? 

❏ Were there differences in symptoms exhibited by different organically-grown crops you observed? 

❏ Did you observe same symptoms in test-plants after one week, two weeks, and three weeks? 

Were you convinced that virus diseases could be transmitted through mechanical means? 

❏ What are the other means by which virus diseases can be transmitted in organically-grown 


❏ What is the importance of knowing how virus diseases are transmitted in organically-grown 


❏ What practical management strategies can you design after knowing virus diseases transmission 

mechanism?


MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL CONTROLS OF DISEASES 

Included in this sub-section are exercises illustrating best practices and experiences shared 

by FFS farmers and other organic agriculture practitioners on using various mechanical and 

physical control strategies for disease management in organic vegetable production. Among 

others, mechanical or physical strategies include hot water treatment for control of soil-borne 

diseases, leaf removal and proper disposal for leaf diseases, and uprooting and proper disposal for 

viral diseases. 

Likewise, this sub-section compiles exercises exemplifying best practices and experiences by FFS 

farmers and other organic agriculture practitioners on exploiting compatible cultural practices for 

disease management in organic vegetable production. These include practices such as hilling-up, 

mulching, among others. Other cultural practices such as crop diversification, inter- or multiple 

cropping, and crop rotation, are incorporated in ‘Insect Pest and Plant Diseases Management’ 

section, which simultaneously minimize insect pests and plant diseases occurrence. 

271


HOT WATER TREATMENT AS A CONTROL STRATEGY 

AGAINST SOIL-BORNE DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY- 



272 


Many farmers believe that use of certified seeds will ensure 

production of healthy and vigorous seedlings. This is not 

so. In vegetable areas, where soil-borne plant pathogens are 

prevalent, proper seedbed care is of paramount importance. 

This includes using appropriate soil media, proper seed bed 

preparation, and soil sterilization. Hot water treatment is 

a practical soil sterilization method, which when done 

properly will safeguard seedlings from fungal and bacterial 

disease infections and will promote better seedling growth and development 184 . 

Some organic vegetable farmers constantly make modifications to improve effectiveness of hot water 

treatment as a soil sterilization method. In farmer field schools (FFSs), these innovations should be 

shared among farmers to further improve current best practices of soil sterilization using hot water 

treatment. This exercise was so designed to allow farmers to freely share these experiences. 


• One hour and thrity minutes for field walks, observations, and hands-on exercise in learning 

field; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session 



appropriate? 


sessions, when soil-borne 

vegetable diseases are 

prevalent in farmer’s 

fields; and 

ɶ When organic vegetable 

farmers want to learn 

more about other farmers’ 

best practices in using hot 

water treatment to control 

soil-borne vegetable 

diseases in seedbed. 

• To make participants aware of and understand the importance of soil sterilization in the control 

of soil-borne vegetable diseases in seedbeds; and 

• To learn current innovations by farmers and further improve their skills in using hot water 

treatment as a soil sterilization method. 






materials 


• Field supplies (e.g., kerosene can, fire wood, black plastic sheets, mat or jute sacks, sprinkle 

cans, etc.); and 

• Organic vegetable field ready for seedbed preparation (e.g., vegetable seedbed for the learning 

field). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide big group into five small groups. Before sterilizing seedbeds by hot water treatment, 

each group should observe already established seedbeds in adjoining farms and record estimated 

percentage germination, seedling vigor, weeds present, pest and disease occurrence, etc. 

2. Each small group will then sterilize their seedbeds (e.g., hands-on) using hot water treatment. 

The groups may opt to leave a portion of their seedbed untreated for comparison. The procedure 

below is an option that participants can brainstorm in big group for possible modification: 

5 Stir soil several times and expose to sunlight; 

5 Pour boiling water (70-90%) to seedbed until water penetrates soil to at least four inches 

deep; 

5 Cover treated seedbed with black plastic sheets for at least 30 minutes; and 

5 After one to two days, incorporate appropriate soil media and sow required amount of seeds. 

3. Every week thereafter, each group will record same observations they made in their seedbed 

before hot water treatment. After every observation, participants should brainstorm in small 

groups to summarize their observations but present same to the big group every other week 

until seedlings are ready for transplanting. The summary of weekly observations should be 

printed in Manila paper. 

4. After final observations, conduct participatory discussions in a big group to allow sharing of 


groups into one big group output. 

273

5. Draw up conclusions and recommendation from this exercise. 


274 


❏ When is the best time to prepare and sterilize seedbed by hot water treatment? Why? 

❏ Did you observe differences in percentage seed germination, seedling vigor, pest and disease 

occurrence, etc., in hot water treated and untreated seedbeds? 

❏ Were there variations or modifications made by each group to common procedures used in 

sterilizing seedbed by hot water treatment? Why? Did variations or modifications improve 

effectiveness of method? 

❏ Did sterilizing seedbed by hot water treatment reduce occurrence of soil-borne vegetable 

diseases? Was it cost efficient? Was it practical? What other benefits can you derived from 

soil sterilization? 

❏ What other management strategies can you use, which will complement seedbed sterilization 

by hot water treatment, to reduce disease occurrence?



USING PROPER MEDIUM FOR SEEDBED PREPARATION 

TO CONTROL SOIL-BORNE DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY- 



Many vegetable farmers still produce their seedlings in 

seedbeds without using appropriate seedbed medium. This 

practice usually results in production of small and weak 

seedlings that are susceptible to attack by pests and diseases. 

Poor seedling growth and development in seedbeds is often 

associated with use of infertile and pathogen infected soils. 

Infertile soil medium cannot provide the right amount and 

kind of nutrient elements that are necessary at earlier stage of seedling development. 

On the other hand, use of pathogen contaminated soil medium may lead to early development of 

soil-borne diseases in vegetable plants, which may eventually result in low yield and poor quality 

product 186 . It is therefore important for organic farmers to understand and become aware of the 

advantages in using appropriate medium for seedbed preparation. Through field walks, observations 

and participatory sharing of experiences among farmers in farmer field schools (FFSs), their skills, 

and understanding of this cultural management practice can be further enriched, hence this exercise. 


• One hour and 30 minutes for field walks, observations, and hands-on exercise in learning field; 

and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour of brainstorming session. 


• To make organic farmers aware of and understand the importance of using appropriate seedbed 

medium to control soil-borne vegetable diseases; and 

• To learn better practices of other farmers and further improve their skills in using appropriate 

medium for seedbed preparation. 





275 


appropriate? 


VST sessions, two 

weeks before seedbed 

preparation in learning 

field; and 

ɶ When organic farmers 

want to learn better 


farmers regarding the use 

of appropriate medium for 

seedbed preparation.

materials 

276 


• Office supplies (e.g., , Manila papers, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, and crayons); 

• Field supplies (e.g., garden soil free from soil-borne pathogens, river sand, measuring cans, 

dried crushed alnus leaves or other leguminous leaves, ash, sprinkle cans, etc.); and 

• Organic vegetable fields ready for seedbed preparation (e.g., vegetable seedbed in learning 

field). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide big group into five small groups. Before seedbed preparation, each group should 

observe already established seedbeds in adjoining farms and record materials used, estimated 

percentage germination, seedling vigor, weeds present, pest and disease occurrence, etc. 

Interview some organic farmers to gather other relevant information. 

2. Each small group will then gather appropriate seedbed medium and prepare seedbed (e.g., 

hands-on) for their assigned vegetable crops. The participants in each small group should 

brainstorm also for possible modification of procedure and materials to use. The groups may 

opt to leave a portion of their seedbed untreated for comparison. 

3. Every week thereafter, each group will record the same observations they made before seedbed 

preparation. After every observation, participants in each small group should brainstorm 

and summarize their observations but present the same to big group every other week until 

seedlings are ready for transplanting. The summary of weekly observations should be printed 

in Manila paper. 

4. After final observations, conduct participatory discussions in big group to allow sharing of 


groups into one big group output. Draw up conclusions and recommendations from this 

exercise.



❏ When is the best time to gather medium and prepare seedbeds for organic vegetable growing? 

Why? 


occurrence, etc., in treated and untreated seedbeds, which you prepared, and seedbeds you 

observed in adjoining farms of learning field? 

❏ Were there variations or modifications made by each group to common procedures and medium 

used in preparing seedbeds? Why? Did variations or modifications improve effectiveness of 

method? 

❏ Did use of appropriate medium for seedbed preparation reduce occurrence of soil-borne 

vegetable diseases? Was it cost efficient? Was it practical? What other benefits can you derive 

by using appropriate medium for seedbed preparation? 

❏ What other management strategies can you use to reduce disease occurrence, which will 

complement the use of appropriate medium for seedbed preparation? 

277


USING RAISED BEDS AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 

AGAINST DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES 


Raised beds or plots are usually constructed depending on 

the preference of farmers and prevailing field conditions. 

However, an ideal raised bed is about 1-m wide, 10-m long, 

and 30-cm high. Raised beds are preferred over flat beds in 

areas with heavy rainfall and in lower elevation areas where 

drainage is poor. It is also advisable in stony areas where 

278 


topsoil is shallow and had to be strapped always to establish right soil depth before planting for 

better crop growth. 

Raised beds are also easier to work on, neater and less subject to trampling because spaces in between 

beds serve as pathways as well. Properly prepared raised beds promote good root development, 

conserve soil moisture better, and make drainage more effective, thus minimizing infection of 

fungal and bacterial diseases in organic vegetable production 188 . 

Farmers through field walks, observations, and participatory discussions in farmer field schools 

(FFSs) can share the best practices in raised bed preparation. This approach will allow them to learn 

from experiences shared by co-farmers and enable them to further improve effectiveness of raised 

beds as a management strategy against diseases of organically-grown vegetables. This exercise was 




appropriate? 


sessions, when bed and 

plot preparation is about 

to start in adjoining and 

learning fields; and 


learn more from cofarmers 

about their 

improved practices in 

raised bed preparation. 









• To create awareness and appreciation among participants on the role of raised beds in plant 

disease management of organically-grown vegetables; 

• To learn and understand the best practices of co-farmers in using raised beds or plot as a disease 

management strategy in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn from others and understand other benefits derived by farmers from using raised beds 

in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., hand lenses, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons, Manila papers); 

and 

• Organic vegetable crops grown in raised beds and flat beds (e.g., vegetable crops are more or 

less at same growth stages). 

methodology 


steps 


organic vegetable crops grown in raised and flat beds in fields. Take note of different activities 

in raised and flat bed preparations. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to pest and disease occurrence, crop stand, weed growth, soil moisture, 

drainage conditions, etc. 


Conduct participatory discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants 

and facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in raised and flat bed 

preparations. 


conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. Facilitate farmers to do hands-on during 

actual bed preparations in their learning fields of the best experiences they shared. 

279


280 


❏ What were the commonest dimensions (e.g., width, length, and height) of raised beds you 

observed in farmers’ field? 

❏ When is the proper time to prepare raised beds? Why? What crops need to be grown in raised 

beds? Why? 

❏ Did you observe any differences in pest and disease occurrence on organic vegetable crops 

grown in raised and flat beds? What pests and diseases were more prevalent? 

❏ Were there differences in crop stand, weed growth, soil moisture, and drainage conditions 

between organic vegetable crops grown in raised and flat beds or plots? 

❏ Did you observe variation in raised bed preparations? Were there differences in pest and 

disease occurrence among variations? Were there differences in crop stand, weed growth, soil 

moisture, and drainage conditions among variations? 

❏ Were there variations in other cultural management practices employed when using different 

variations of raised bed or plot preparations? 

❏ Which of the raised bed variation was most cost efficient? Which of the raised bed variation 

was most practical? 

❏ Was organic vegetable growing in raised beds effective in reducing disease occurrence? 


complement growing of organic vegetable crops in raised beds? 

❏ What other benefits can you derive by growing organic vegetables in raised beds?



PROPER METHOD OF SOWING IN SEEDBED 

TO CONTROL SOIL-BORNE DISEASES OF 



There are different sowing techniques used in 

organic vegetable production. Some techniques used 

by vegetable farmers were very appropriate while 

some were less appropriate to their prevailing local 

conditions. These inappropriate sowing practices often lead to wastage of seed materials, high 

incidence of seedbed diseases, poor quality seedlings and consequently, to very low productivity 190 . 

On the other hand, use of appropriate sowing methods can result in production of healthy seedlings, 

reduction in cost of production, and increase in productivity and profitability. 

In farmer field schools (FFSs), best sowing techniques practiced by some organic vegetable farmers 

can only be shared among and learned by most of them to enrich their current practices through 

participatory, experiential, and discovery-based learning approaches. Thus, the foregoing exercise 

was designed primarily for this purpose. 


• One hour and thirty minutes for field walks, observations, and hands-on exercise in learning 




• To make participants aware and understand how proper seed sowing techniques in seedbed can 

help control soil-borne diseases of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn better practices from other farmers and further improve their skills in proper seed 

sowing techniques in seedbed. 





281 


appropriate? 


during seed sowing in seedbed 

of learning field; and 

ɶ When organic farmers want 

to learn better practices from 

other farmers on proper seed 

sowing techniques in seedbed.

materials 

282 


• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers, ruler, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, and crayons); 

• Field supplies (e.g., seeds, watering cans, measuring cans, bamboo sticks, etc.); and 

• Organic vegetable seedbed ready for sowing (e.g., vegetable seedbed in learning field). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide big group into five small groups. Before sowing seeds in seedbed, each group should 

observe already established seedbeds in adjoining farms and record sowing method, seeding 

density, estimated percentage germination, seedling vigor, pest and disease occurrence, etc. 

Interview some farmers to gather other relevant information. 

2. The participants in each small group should brainstorm for possible modification of sowing 

method to use. Each small group will then sow seeds in seedbed (e.g., hands-on) prepared for 

their assigned organic vegetable crops. The groups may opt to use conventional sowing method 

to a small portion of their seedbed for comparison. 

3. Every week thereafter, each group will record the same observations they made before sowing 

in their seedbed. After every observation, participants in each small group should brainstorm 

and summarize their observations but present the same to the big group every other week until 

seedlings are ready for transplanting. The summary of weekly observations should be printed 

in Manila paper. 

4. After final observations, conduct participatory discussions in a big group to allow sharing of 


groups into one big group output. Draw up conclusions and recommendation from this exercise. 


❏ When is the best time to sow seeds in seedbeds for organic vegetable growing? Why? 

❏ What were the most appropriate seeding rate and distance between rows? Why? 


occurrence, etc. in seedbeds where you sow seeds and in seedbeds you observed in adjoining farms?


❏ Were there variations or modifications made by each group to common procedures for proper 

seed sowing in seedbed? Why? Did variations or modifications improve effectiveness of 

method? 

❏ Did use of appropriate seed sowing method in seedbed reduce occurrence of soil-borne 

vegetable diseases? Was it cost efficient? Was it practical? What other benefits can you derive 

from appropriate seed sowing method in seedbed? 


complement appropriate seed sowing method in seedbed? 

283


MULCHING AS A MEANS OF DISEASE PREVENTION IN 



Mulching is a cultural management practice where plant 

residues (e.g., cogon grass, other weeds, rice straws or 

pine needles), plastic (e.g., polyethylene sheets) and other 

appropriate materials are laid out on vegetable plots or beds 

primarily to conserve soil moisture and suppress growth of 

weeds 192 . Mulching also minimizes splash soil erosion and 

284 


soft rot or other soil-borne disease infections 193 . The purposes for and practices of mulching vary 

from farmer to farmer, from crop to crop, and from season to season. 

In farmer field schools (FFSs), these learning experiences can be shared among organic farmers and 

facilitators through field walks, observations, and participatory discussions to enrich everyone’s 

experiences of said practice and thus contribute to better plant disease management of organicallygrown 

vegetables in their own fields. This exercise was designed specifically to address this concern. 






appropriate? 


sessions as part of ‘Other 

Cultural Management 

Practices in Vegetable 

Production’ topic; and 



some improved practices 

in mulching. 

• To create awareness and appreciation among participants on the role of mulching in pest and 

disease management of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn and understand other benefits experienced by farmers from practice of mulching in 

growing vegetables. 



192 Bautista, O.K. (ed) 1994. Introduction to tropical horticulture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 

(SEARCA) and University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna, The Philippines. pp312-314. 




materials 


• Organic vegetable plots or beds mulched with plant residues (e.g., cogon grass, other weeds, 

rice straws or pine needles), plastic materials (e.g., polyethylene sheets) or other materials; and 

• Non-mulched vegetable plots or beds (e.g., in the same area where you have mulched vegetable 

plots or beds). 

methodology 

• Field walk and brainstorming 

steps 


mulched and non-mulched vegetable plots or beds in the fields. Take note of different practices 

in mulching. List down all observations related to pest and disease occurrence, crop stand, 

weed growth, soil moisture conditions, etc. 


participatory discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 




❏ Did you observe any differences in pest and disease occurrence between mulched and nonmulched 

vegetable plots or beds? What pests and diseases were more prevalent? 

❏ Were there differences in weed growth and soil moisture conditions between mulched and nonmulched 

vegetable plots or beds? 

❏ Did you observe different mulching materials? Were there differences in pest and disease 

occurrence with different mulching materials? Were there differences in weed growth and soil 

moisture conditions with different mulching materials? 

❏ Were there differences in cultural management practices employed when using different 

mulching materials? 

❏ Which mulching material was most cost efficient? Which mulching material was most practical 

to use? Was mulching effective in reducing pest and disease occurrence? 

285

286 


❏ What other management strategies can you employ to complement mulching in reducing 

pest and disease occurrence? What other benefits can you derive from mulching in organic 

vegetable production?



LEAF REMOVAL AND PROPER DISPOSAL AS A 

DISEASE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY AGAINST LEAF 

DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


In certain instances, removal of entire plants is unnecessary. 

Satisfactory control can be achieved by simply removing 

and disposing properly diseased foliage of organic 

vegetable crops 195 . For instance, lower leaves of snap bean 

and garden pea are removed and burned to control powdery 

mildew and bean rust. Potato foliage affected with late 

blight is dehaulmed and destroyed by burning to prevent 

inoculums from reaching tubers. Farmers, as an effective 

management approach against purple blotch disease, report 

removal and proper disposal of outermost fungus-infected 

leaves of green onion and leek. 

In many FFSs conducted in Benguet and Mountain Province, leaf removal is normally shared 

as a common practice of farmers in managing moderate leaf disease infections in their organic 

vegetable farms. It is their experience that removal of infected leaves at earlier stage of disease 

development can effectively prevent spread of these diseases to other plants or plant parts. This 

exercise was designed so those organic farmers can share their best experiences in employing leaf 

removal and their proper disposal as a management strategy against leaf diseases of organicallygrown 

vegetables. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers and handson 





195 Quebral, F.C. 1988. What one should know about plant diseases. University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp18-20. 

287 


appropriate? 



early symptoms of leaf 

diseases on vegetables 

organically-grown in 

learning and adjoining 

fields; and 


innovative practices of leaf 

removal and disposal from 

others as a management 

strategy against leaf 

diseases of organicallygrown 

vegetables.


288 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants about the role of early leaf removal 

and disposal as a management strategy against leaf diseases of organically-grown vegetables; 

and 

• To learn and do hands-on of proper leaf removal and disposal as a management strategy against 

leaf diseases of organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 


• Organic vegetable crops showing early symptoms of leaf diseases in learning and adjoining 

fields; and 

• Other supplies (e.g., pruning shear, knife, or scythe). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe organic 

vegetable crops showing early symptoms of leaf diseases in learning and adjoining fields. 

Take note of cultural practices employed. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to disease occurrence, degree of infection, and characteristic symptoms, 

etc. 


Conduct participatory discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants and 

facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in managing leaf diseases of 

organically-grown vegetables. Develop an improved procedure of leaf removal and proper 

disposal as a management strategy for leaf diseases of: 

5 Powdery mildew and bean rust of legumes; 

5 Early and late blight of potato; and 

5 Purple blotch of green onion and leek.


3. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of leaf removal when early infection of leaf diseases is 

observed in learning field by improving the procedure below: 

5 Determine if there are early symptoms of leaf diseases in learning field; 

5 If there are early symptoms, remove all disease-infected leaves; 

5 Dispose off all foliage removed and other plant debris properly; and 

5 Take note of all relevant observations and experiences during the activity. 




❏ Did you observe vegetable crops showing early symptoms of leaf diseases in learning and 

adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe any farmer practicing leaf removal to control early infection of leaf diseases 

in the field? 

❏ What leaf diseases can be effectively controlled by leaf removal? Is leaf removal applicable 

to all vegetables with leaf diseases? When is the best time to do leaf removal to control leaf 

diseases? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative practices by farmers in leaf removal to control leaf diseases of 


❏ Did you observe lesser degree of disease infection when leaf removal was practiced to control 

leaf diseases? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement leaf removal as a control 

strategy against leaf diseases of organically-grown vegetables? 

289


UPROOTING AND PROPER DISPOSAL AS A 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY AGAINST TYMO VIRUS 

DISEASE OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN CHAYOTE 


The most common symptoms and effects exhibited by 

chayote plant with tymo virus disease are overgrowths, 

stunting, yellowing, curling, and mottling. Collectively, 

these symptoms are locally known as agparparya or 

parparya. The tymo virus disease is very infectious and 

can be transmitted easily from diseased to healthy plants 

by mere contact or by animals, men, and machines. It 

is also suspected that tymo virus can be spread by some 

insects. 

290 



appropriate? 


sessions, when early 

symptoms of tymo virus 

disease are observed on 

chayote planted in learning 


ɶ When organic farmers want 

to learn from other farmers 

proper uprooting and 

disposal of chayote plants 

infected with tymo virus 

disease. 

Uprooting or removal of entire diseased plant is one common control measure. Diseased plants 

are systematically removed from a plant population in order to reduce the amount of inoculum to 

which chayote crop will be exposed. Uprooting is a very sound practice in disease management, 

particularly when tymo virus disease is just starting to build up. In severe cases, complete 

destruction or uprooting of entire chayote population is an effective way of eradicating tymo virus 

disease 197 . In the highlands, some chayote farmers practice uprooting tymo virus-infected plants in 

their fields. Unfortunately, they lack knowledge on the proper disposal of uprooted infected plants. 

Many organic farmers, however, know that uprooting and proper disposal of virus-infected plants is 

the most practical and effective management strategy against tymo virus disease. 

Through time, organic farmers that are more enterprising in the Cordilleras have evolved more 

effective strategies that can complement uprooting and proper disposal for better tymo virus disease 

management. Through participatory, discovery-based, and experiential learning approaches in 

farmer field schools (FFSs), these strategies can be further improved. The foregoing exercise was 

designed to achieve this purpose. 



197 Quebral, F.C. 1988. What one should know about plant diseases. University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp18-20.



• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of proper uprooting and disposal of 

chayote plants infected with tymo virus disease in learning and adjoining fields; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand the role of proper uprooting and disposal in 

management of tymo virus disease of chayote; and 

• To learn from other farmers proper uprooting and disposal in management of tymo virus disease 

of chayote. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable fields showing early symptoms of tymo virus disease on chayote planted in 

learning and adjoining fields; 


• Other supplies (e.g., plastic bags, cutting, and digging tools, basket, match or lighter, etc.). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe tymo virusinfected 

chayote plants in learning and adjoining fields. Interview other farmers, if necessary. 

List down all observations related to: 

5 Varieties or cultivars of chayote planted; 

5 Degree of tymo virus disease infection of varieties or cultivars; and 

5 Cultural management practices employed (e.g., uprooting, pruning, leaf removal, disposal 

of crop residues, etc.) 


291

292 


3. Conduct participatory discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants and 

facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in proper uprooting and disposal 

to manage the tymo virus disease of chayote. 



5. Facilitate farmers to do hands-on of proper uprooting and disposal to manage tymo virus disease 

of chayote when early symptoms are observed in learning field by improving procedures given 

below: 

5 Look for tymo virus-infected vines and trace downward to base of plant; 

5 Dig and uproot plants with tymo virus-infected vines; 

5 Place uprooted plants in a plastic bag or any suitable container; 

5 Dispose and burn tymo virus-infected plants in a pit; 

5 Repeat process as often as necessary or as disease symptoms are observed in learning field; 

and 



❏ Did you observe tymo virus-infected chayote plants in farmers’ field? What symptoms did you 

observe on chayote plants infected with tymo virus disease? 

❏ What chayote varieties or cultivars were more resistant to tymo virus disease? What chayote 

varieties or cultivars were more susceptible to tymo virus disease? 

❏ What sanitation practices did farmers commonly employ against tymo virus disease of chayote? 

❏ Did farmers employ uprooting of tymo virus–infected chayote plants? Did farmers properly 

dispose uprooted tymo virus–infected chayote plants? How? 

❏ Did you see different degrees of infection in chayote fields where uprooting and no uprooting 

of tymo virus-infected plants were done? Did you observe any innovative sanitation practices 

employed by farmers? What were these practices? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement proper uprooting and disposal of 

tymo virus-infected chayote fields?



DEHAULMING AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY AGAINST 

LATE BLIGHT DISEASE OF POTATO 


Dehaulming is a cultural management strategy employed against 

late blight disease of potato. The practice consist of defoliating 

potato crop but leaving at least one foot of stem intact on tubers 

that are kept in field with rows well hilled-up to prevent late blight 

spores to get in contact with tubers. The tubers are not harvested 

for at least two weeks after diseased foliage had been cut off to 

allow time for spores to be washed off 199 . 

The importance and economic value of this activity is highly 

appreciated during and after harvesting of potatoes. It prevents 

spread of late blight disease from foliage to tubers and allows production of disease-free seed tubers 

for next planting season. Consequently, productivity is improved, production cost is reduced, 

and higher profitability is achieved. In farmer field schools (FFSs), some innovative dehaulming 

practices must be shared among farmers to improve their current best practices. The foregoing 

exercise was designed to ensure participatory sharing of these best experiences. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, observations, interaction with farmers, and hands-on 




• To create awareness and understanding among participants on the role of dehaulming as a 

management strategy against late blight disease of potato; and 

• To learn and do hands-on of dehaulming potato when late blight is observed before harvesting 

in learning field. 





293 


appropriate? 


sessions, when potato 

crop is ready for 

harvesting in learning 

field; and 

ɶ When organic 


innovative dehaulming 

practices from 

other farmers as a 


against late blight 

disease of potato.

materials 

294 


• Office supplies (e.g., Manila paper, notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, and crayons); 

• Organic potato crops ready for harvesting in learning and adjoining fields showing late blight 

infections; and 

• Other supplies (e.g., bolo and scythe). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe late blight 

infected potato crops that are about to be harvested in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of 


related to the disease occurrence, degree of infection and characteristic symptoms, etc. 


participatory discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 

Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in managing late blight disease of potato. 

Develop an improved procedure in dehaulming potato. 

3. Facilitate each farmer to do hands-on of dehaulming when potato crop ready for harvesting in 

learning field is infected with late blight by improving the procedure below: 

5 Get sample tubers, observe tuber skin, and determine if it is ready for harvesting; 

5 Determine if rows are properly hilled-up and hill-up if necessary; 

5 Defoliate crop leaving at least one-foot stem intact on potato tubers; 

5 Dispose off all plant debris properly; 

5 Leave tubers in field for at least 10 days then harvest; and 






❏ When do we employ dehaulming in potato? Is dehaulming applicable to other tuber and root 

crops? When is the best time to do dehaulming? 

❏ Did you observe potato crops ready for harvesting that were infected with late blight in learning 

and adjoining fields? 

❏ Did you observe any farmer dehaulming potato crops before harvesting? 

❏ Did you observe any innovative practices by farmers in dehaulming potato crops before 

harvesting? When is the best time to harvest after dehaulming? 

❏ Did you observe any difference in degree of late blight infection between dehaulmed and not 

dehaulmed potato tubers in learning and adjoining fields? 

❏ What other cultural management options can you use to complement dehaulming of potato 

before harvesting as a control strategy against late blight disease? 

295

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF DISEASES 

296 


Man has become aware on advantages of working with nature rather than against it. Since 

then, use of natural enemies and antagonist of crop pathogens, generally called biological 

control (bio-con) agents, for plant diseases and pest management had gained popularity 

worldwide. The widely quoted and accepted definition of biological control of plant diseases is 

‘reduction in amount of inoculums or disease-producing activity of a pathogen accomplished by or 

through one or more organisms’ 200 . 

Assembled in this sub-section are exercises that represent some best practices and experiences 

shared by FFS farmers and other organic agriculture practitioners on using biological control 

methods for disease management in organic vegetable production. These include use of beneficial 

organisms that suppress diseases (e.g., through competition, antagonism, and induce resistance), 

practice of bio-fumigation (e.g., release of isothiocyanate gas from crucifers to control bacterial wilt 

and root knot nematodes), and application of compost tea (e.g., non-aerated compost tea or NCT and 

aerated compost teat or ACT). 

200 Sinohin, A.M. and V.C. Cuevas. 2005. Biological control of damping-off pathogens of tomato. Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated 

Production and Pest Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 8p.



USE OF BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS IN MANAGING 

SOIL-BORNE DISEASES OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES 


In soil, many microorganisms live in close proximity and 

they interact in a unique way. The use of beneficial soil 

microorganisms for biological control of soil-borne plant 

pathogens is possible only if such interactions between species 

as competition, amensalism, and parasitism or predation 

occur. Competition is a condition where there is a suppression 

of one organism as two species struggle for limiting quantities 

of nutrients, oxygen, or other common requirements. 

Amensalism, on the other hand, occurs when one species is 

suppressed while a second is not affected, typically a result of 

toxin production, while parasitism or predation refers to direct attack of one organism on another 202 . 

In organic vegetable production, use of a soil fungus, Paecilomyces lilacinus (commercially known 

as BIOACT) as parasite of Meloidogyne incognita (root knot nematode) or as competitor of another 

soil fungus, Plasmodiophora brassica (clubroot), is a typical example of a beneficial microorganism 

used to control a harmful microorganism 203 . Such practices as soil incorporation of guano and 

organic matters to increase soil pH will drastically reduce population of harmful soil microorganisms 

in favor of beneficial ones 204 . In farmer field schools (FFSs), some innovative farmers can share their 

experiences in using useful soil microorganisms to improve current practices in managing soilborne 

diseases of organically-grown vegetables. This exercise is meant to address this particular 

concern. 



202 Alexander, M. 1977. Introduction to soil microbiology. 2 nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, USA. pp405-437. 

203 Davide, R.G. 1990. Biological control of plant pathogens: progress and constraints in the Philippines. Phil. Phytopath. 26:pp1-7. 

204 Callo, Jr. D.P. 1993. Recent Development on the Utilization of Soil Microorganisms for Biological Control of Plant Pathogens. Term paper submitted in 

partial fulfillment of the requirements for Advance Soil Microbiology, Institute of Graduate School, Gregorio Araneta University Foundation, Malabon 

City, Philippines. pp11-12. 

297 


appropriate? 



of topic on ‘Integrated 

Disease Management’; 

and 

ɶ When organic 


from others some 

innovative practices 

in using beneficial 

soil microorganisms 

for management of 

vegetable diseases.


298 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of crops where beneficial 

soil microorganisms were used for plant diseases management of organically-grown vegetables; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand the role of beneficial soil microorganisms for 

plant diseases management of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn from other farmers some innovative practices in using beneficial soil microorganisms 

for plant diseases management of organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 

• Organic vegetable crops in adjoining fields of learning field where beneficial soil microorganisms 

are used to manage vegetable diseases; and 


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe organic 

vegetable fields where beneficial soil microorganisms were used to manage vegetable diseases. 

Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to pest and disease 

occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc. 



facilitators. As a wrap-up session, the following activities may be undertaken as an option: 

5 Post in processing area an illustration showing some beneficial and harmful soil 

microorganisms; 

5 Ask each small group to examine and familiarize themselves with appearance of 

microorganisms in illustration;


5 Let each small group discuss among themselves and relate what they learn from field walks 

to what was depicted in illustration; 

5 Request each small group to role-play their impression of a beneficial and harmful soil 

microorganisms; and 

5 Process activity in big group. 




❏ What beneficial soil microorganisms did farmers use to manage plant diseases of organicallygrown 

vegetables? Did you observe differences in crop stand, pest and disease occurrence, 

etc.? 

❏ What is the commonest beneficial soil microorganism used in an area? Why is this beneficial 

soil microorganism preferred over others? 

❏ What benefits were derived from using beneficial soil microorganisms to manage plant diseases 

of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ What vegetable diseases can be managed by using beneficial soil microorganisms? When is 

the most appropriate time to use beneficial soil microorganisms to manage plant diseases of 


❏ What innovations did you learn from other farmers in using beneficial soil microorganism to 

manage plant diseases of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ How did you feel doing a role-play? Did it help you understand the topic better? How? 

❏ How do we conserve and enhance multiplication of beneficial soil microorganisms in our own 

farms? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement use of beneficial soil microorganisms 

to manage diseases of organically-grown vegetables? 

299


BACTERIAL WILT MANAGEMENT IN ORGANICALLY- 

GROWN SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES THROUGH 

BIO-FUMIGATION 


Bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, is a 

serious disease of many solanaceous vegetables (e.g., 

tomato, eggplant, pepper, and potato) that can reduce yield 

and income of farmers tremendously. Infected plants in 

field appear in patches and first symptom is wilting of 

younger leaves or slight yellowing of older leaves. The 

bacteria can survive in soil for a long time and can infect 

many plants including weeds. The bacteria are spread 

through infected seedlings, contaminated irrigation 

water, farm implements, and animals. Some practices to 

300 



appropriate? 


sessions, prior to or during 

land preparation and 

as component of topic 

on ‘Integrated Disease 

Management’; and 


innovative practices in using 

crop wastes as bio-fumigants 

for management of bacterial 

wilt disease in organicallygrown 

solanaceous 

vegetables. 

minimize bacterial wilt are: (a) use of resistant varieties; (b) crop rotation with rice, corn, beans, or 

crucifers; (c) removal of infected plants from the field; (d) solarization; and (e) bio-fumigation. 

Bio-fumigation is a breakthrough in bacterial wilt management. This refers to suppression of soil 

pests and diseases by toxic substances such as isothiocyanates (ITCs) produced by brassica green 

manure following incorporation into soil. In farmers’ field trials, use of broccoli green manure 

reduced bacterial wilt incidence by 52-81%, mustard by 29-61% and radish by 27-70% across 

locations. The efficacy of bio-fumigation is influenced by soil texture as shown by reduction of R. 

solanacearum population ranging from 74-87% in clay loam soil compared to 96% to almost 100% 

population reduction in sandy loam soil. 

Brassica wastes like stems and leaves of broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower are available in large 

quantities in areas where these crops are grown extensively (e.g., Benguet and Mountain Province) 

and are considered a problem in garbage disposal or solid waste management. These waste materials 

can be used as bio-fumigants to reduce bacterial wilt incidence of solanaceous crops like potato, 

tomato, and eggplant in areas where bacterial wilt is a problem. The practice of bio-fumigation can 

also help alleviate problem in solid waste management. 

205 Bayot, R.G., V.P. Justo, and J.P. Dangan. 2005. Management of tomato bacterial wilt using bio-fumigation. Paper presented during a Workshop on 

Integrated Production and Pest Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 

11p.


In farmer field schools (FFSs), such innovative experiences can be shared with farmers to improve 

their current practices in managing bacterial wilt disease of organically-grown solanaceous 

vegetables. This exercise is meant to address this particular concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, farmer interviews, and observations prior to or during 

land preparation of learning and adjoining fields previously grown with vegetables infected 

with bacterial wilt disease and where brassica crop wastes are aplenty; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on on soil incorporation of brassica waste in during land 

preparation in learning field; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand how brassica wastes can be used as bio-fumigants 

for management of bacterial wilt in organically-grown solanaceous vegetables; and 

• To learn some innovative practices in using brassica wastes as bio-fumigants for management 

of bacterial wilt in organically-grown solanaceous vegetables. 

materials 

• Learning and adjoining fields previously grown with solanaceous vegetables infected with 

bacterial wilt disease and where brassica crop wastes are aplenty 

• Farm implements (e.g., carabao or hand tractor with plow and harrow, spade, bolo, and others) 


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe learning 

and adjoining fields previously grown with solanaceous vegetables infected with bacterial wilt 

disease and where brassica crop wastes are aplenty. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List 

down all observations related to pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, 

etc. 

301

302 




facilitators. As a wrap-up session, agree in big group how to improve some procedures provided 

below: 

5 When sources of brassica wastes such as leaves and stems of organically-grown broccoli, 

cabbage, cauliflower, and radish, are available near learning field, these can be used as 

bio-fumigants. If not, prepare land thoroughly and sow mustard seeds at a rate of 4 kg per 

hectare. Follow standard organic farming practices such as compost fertilization, planting, 

and integrated pest management. 

5 In case of brassica wastes obtained from nearby fields, chop tissues, incorporate in soil 

thoroughly at a rate of 5 kg/sqm area, and rotavate immediately. Otherwise, when sown 

mustard plants are about to flower, plow them under and rotavate immediately to crush 

plant tissues. 

5 Irrigate soil to field capacity to hasten decomposition and seal soil pores to minimize 

dissipation of gaseous isothiocyanates (ITCs). 

5 Plow field 3-4 weeks after bio-fumigation and plant healthy solanaceous (e.g., tomato, 

pepper, or eggplant) seedlings or seed pieces (e.g., potato). 

3. Go back to learning field and do hands-on on collection, chopping, broadcasting, and plowing 

under of brassica wastes in small group. 

4. Return to processing area, process output in small group, and share experiences and lessons 

learned to big group. 




❏ What organically-grown solanaceous vegetables were infected with bacterial wilt? Did you 

observe differences in crop stand, disease severity, and others among different organicallygrown 

solanaceous vegetables? 

❏ Did you observed brassica waste everywhere around your learning field? What is commonest 

brassica waste in nearby areas? 

❏ What benefits can be derived from using bio-fumigants to manage plant diseases of organicallygrown 

vegetables?


❏ When is the most appropriate time to use brassica waste as bio-fumigants to manage bacterial 

wilt of organically-grown solanaceous vegetables? 

❏ What innovations did you learn from other farmers in using bio-fumigants to manage plant 

diseases of organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ How did you feel doing a hands-on? Was it practical? Can you improve procedure to make it 

easier for farmers to follow? How? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement use of bio-fumigation to manage 


303


USING TRICHOdERMA AS BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 

AGENT OF DAMPING-OFF PATHOGENS IN 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN TOMATOES 


Damping-off is the most important disease of tomato 

especially in seedbeds. The three fungal pathogens that cause 

damping-off in tomatoes are Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia 

solani, and Pythium sp. In case of severe damping-off 

incidence, only about half of tomato seeds sown in seedbeds 

would be able to germinate. When disease pressure is too 

high, some vegetable farmers change seedbed areas after 

several plantings to escape this disease. Most farmers sow 

large volume of seeds to ensure survival of enough seedlings 

for transplanting. 

304 



appropriate? 


VST sessions, prior 

to or during seedbed 

preparation and as 

component of topic on 

‘Integrated Disease 




in using Trichoderma 

for biological control 

of damping-off in 


tomatoes. 

Nowadays, trend in pest and disease management is towards biological control. This is due to 

unintended impact of continuous chemical pesticides use (e.g., environmental pollution, health 

hazards, and disruption to ecosystem functions). Among biological control agents, Trichoderma 

sp., a common soil fungus is receiving a great deal of attention. Trichoderma is a natural component 

of soil micro-flora. It is fast growing and secretes many hydrolytic enzymes. These traits make 

this fungus a good decomposer of soil organic matter. In fact, aside from its antagonistic nature 

towards several plant pathogens, Trichoderma was also observed by organic vegetable farmers in 

Benguet and Mountain Province as a compost-decomposer and growth-enhancer of tomato and 

celery. These observations were also reported in Taiwan. 

Recently, its use as biological control agent (bio-con) against damping-off in tomatoes has become 

attractive alternative to chemical pesticides. The effectiveness of Trichoderma in controlling this 

disease was proven in field trials conducted with tomato farmer-cooperators in Laguna. Seedbeds 

treated with Trichoderma (e.g., pseudokoningii, parceramosum and harzianum species) showed 

about 90% survival compared with only 14% in untreated ones. Aside from pellet form, powder 

form of Trichoderma is now commercially available in 250-gram pack. One pack of product is 

enough to treat seeds good for one-hectare planting. The product can also be applied directly to 

seedbed 3 days before seed sowing at 3.0 grams per square meter. 

206 Sinohin, A.M. and V.C. Cuevas. 2005. Biological control of damping-of pathogens of tomato. Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated Production 

and Pest Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 6p.



their current practices in managing damping-off disease of organically-grown tomatoes. This 

exercise is meant to address this particular concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, farmer interviews, and observations prior to or during 

seedbed preparation of learning and adjoining fields previously grown with tomatoes infected 

with damping-off disease; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on on using Trichoderma as biological control agent against 

damping-off in tomatoes before or during seedbed preparation in learning field; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand how Trichoderma can be used as biological 

control agent against damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes; and 

• To learn some innovative practices in using Trichoderma as biological control agent against 

damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes. 

materials 

• Seedbeds of learning and adjoining fields previously grown with organic tomatoes infected 

with damping-off disease; 


• Other supplies (e.g., Trichoderma pellet or powder, spade, bolo, and others). 

methodology 


steps 


and adjoining fields previously grown with organic tomatoes infected with damping-off disease. 

Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to pest and disease 

occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc. 

305

306 





below: 

5 If Trichoderma will be applied directly into soil, dry pellets (36 % moisture content) 

are mixed with top soil of seedbed 2 weeks before seed sowing. With soil treatment, its 

powdered form is applied to seedbed 3 days before seed sowing at a rate of 3 grams per 

square meter. 

5 If Trichoderma will be applied directly to seeds, a 250-gram pack would be able to treat 

(prior to sowing in seedbed) wet seeds good for one hectare. 

3. Go back to learning field and do hands-on in using Trichoderma as biological control agent 

against damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes in small group. 






❏ What organically-grown vegetables, aside from tomatoes, were infected with damping-off? Did 

you observe differences in crop stand, disease severity, and others among different organicallygrown 

vegetables? 

❏ Did you observe damping-off infections on seedbeds grown to organic tomatoes and other 

organic vegetables everywhere around your learning field? What is commonest organicallygrown 

vegetable infected with damping-off in nearby areas? 

❏ What benefits can be derived from using Trichoderma as biological control agent against 

damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes? 

❏ When is the most appropriate time to use Trichoderma as biological control agent against 

damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes? 

❏ What innovations did you learn from other farmers in using Trichoderma as biological control 

agent against damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes? 



❏ What other cultural management practices can complement using Trichoderma as biological 

control agent against damping-off in organically-grown tomatoes?



PREPARATION AND USE OF EGG YOLk + COOkING 

OIL (EYCO) FOR MANAGEMENT OF POWDERY 

AND DOWNY MILDEWS IN ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLES 


Powdery and downy mildews are serious fungal diseases 

infecting vegetative portions of many organically-grown 

vegetables. White powdery and cottony growths are usually 

observed on infected plant parts. These diseases, more 

prevalent during high moisture conditions, are characterized 

as follow 207 : 

Powdery mildew, caused by Erysiphe polygoni D.C., appears 

as small, discrete, white moldy spots on upper surface of 

leaflets, which rapidly enlarge to an indefinite size until they coalesce. A light powdery white 

dirty-gray fungus growth later covers part of entire upper leaf surface, petioles, and young stems. 

Infected leaves gradually turn yellow, then brown, and die. This disease infects mostly solanaceous 

and cucurbit vegetables. 

Downy mildew, caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis Rostow, appears as yellow spots on surface 

of leaves with a purplish downy-growth on lower surface. These yellow spots may soon turn 

reddish-brown and eventually kill leaves. If infected plants do not die, fruits may not mature and 

flavor is poor. This disease infects mainly legume and parsley vegetables. 

Recently, control of mildews were found effective by spraying crops with various biological 

pesticides, which includes use of egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO). This simple technology is widely 

adopted by Korean farmers for controlling various insect pests and improving plant health. The 

EYCO is simply made at home by manual or motor mixing of cooking oil and egg yolk. Cooking 

oil showed direct and indirect effects in control of plant pathogens and insect pests, while egg yolk 

served as natural emulsifier and biological fertilizer. In lettuce, seedling stands increased by over 

70% and showed 89.6-96.3% control value when EYCO was applied against powdery mildew. This 

result is comparable to effect of applying a fungicide, Azoxystrobin. 

207 Callo, Jr., D.P., J.R. Medina, L.B. Teofilo, H.A. Tauli, and W.R. Cuaterno. 2002. Manual of Participatory Technology Development Activities for IPM in 

Vegetables. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp380-386. 

307 


appropriate? 


VST sessions, at early 

vegetative stage and 

as component of topic 




learn how to prepare 

and use egg yolk + 

cooking oil (EYCO) for 

management of powdery 

and downy mildews 

in organically-grown 

vegetables.

308 



their current practices in managing powdery and downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables. 

This exercise is meant to address this particular concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, farmer interviews, and observations early vegetative 

stages of organically-grown vegetables in learning and adjoining fields infected with powdery 

and downy mildews; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on on preparation and use of egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO) 

for management of powdery and downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables; and 



• To make participants aware of and understand how to use egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO) for 

management of powdery and downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn some innovative practices in using egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO) for management of 

powdery and downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables. 

materials 

• Learning and adjoining fields grown with organic vegetables infected with powdery or downy 

mildew at early vegetative stage; 

• Farm implements (e.g., knapsack sprayer, mixer, cooking oil, poultry eggs, and others); and 


methodology 


steps 


and adjoining fields grown with organic vegetables infected with powdery or downy mildew at 

early vegetative stage. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related 

to pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc.





below: 

5 Break eggs and separate yolks from white; 

5 Macerate egg yolk with small amount of water for 3-4 minutes; 

5 Put one (1) yolk to 60 ml cooking oil in container and mix thoroughly; 

5 Allow emulsion to stand for 5 minutes before mixing it with water for spraying; 

5 Mix 48 ml of EYCO emulsion to 16 liters of water and spray to plants in early morning or 

late afternoon (e.g., not in heavy sunlight); 

5 Prepare 0.3% solution for protective spray application or 0.5% solution for curative spray 

application; and 

5 Monitor sprayed plants weekly (use marker in affected area for reference). 

3. Go back to learning field and do hands-on on preparation and use of egg yolk + cooking oil 

(EYCO) for management of powdery or downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables in 

small group. 






❏ What organically-grown vegetables were infected with powdery or downy mildews? Did you 

observe differences in crop stand, disease severity, and others among different organicallygrown 

vegetables? 

❏ What are commonest organically-grown vegetables infected with powdery or downy mildews 

in nearby areas? 

❏ What benefits can be derived from using egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO) for management of 

powdery or downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ When is most appropriate time to use egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO) for management of 

powdery or downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ What innovations did you learn from other farmers in using egg yolk + cooking oil (EYCO) for 

management of powdery or downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables? 

309

310 




❏ What other cultural management practices can complement use of egg yolk + cooking oil 

(EYCO) for management of powdery or downy mildews in organically-grown vegetables?



USING COMPOST TEA TO MANAGE DISEASES OF 



‘Compost tea’ is a concentrated microbial solution (‘brew’) 

produced by extracting beneficial microbes from compost. 

This ‘brew’ is produced by adding compost materials to water 

in a container and suspending in solution. The extraction 

process could take at least 24 hours. The ‘tea’ or ‘soup’ is 

applied in various ways, much like a fungicide, to control 

target plant pathogens. There are many potential benefits of 

compost tea (CT). Aside from providing direct nutrition, it 

also makes available microbial functions, such as competing 

with disease-causing microbes, degrading toxic pesticides and other chemicals, producing plant 

growth hormones, mineralizing plant available nutrients, fixing nitrogen and beneficial microbes, 

leaving no room for pathogens to infect plant surfaces. In addition, CT helps create a balanced soil 

food web. 

Compost tea is used for managing various plant diseases such as anthracnose disease of watermelon, 

powdery mildew on roses and apples, gray mold on green beans, strawberries, grapes, and geraniums, 

root rot on potatoes, tomatoes, and grapes, fusarium wilt of peppers and cucumbers, and dampingoff 

of pea seedlings. Locally, compost tea has been proven to be effective in preventing damage 

of two soil-borne pathogens (Sclerotium rolfsii Curzi and Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn) to tomato and 

pechay seedlings. 

The technology is a potentially sustainable endeavor for any interested individual as production cost 

is low and materials are readily available. The CT technology is a cheap, easy, and environmentfriendly 

endeavor that farmers could readily adapt. It does not require a lot of capital nor is labor 

intensive. Its trade-off is its short shelf-life - meaning that it cannot be stored for a long time, unless 

it is frozen or refrigerated. The compost tea products could be marketed to fellow farmers using 

recycled mineral water or soft drink bottles. Brewing containers could range from plastic pails to 

water impounding structures. 

208 Ebuega, M.E. and C.L. Padilla. 2005. Compost tea for managing tomato diseases. Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest 

Management in Processing Tomato: Issues and Prospects held on July 2005 at Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 9p. 

311 


appropriate? 


sessions, prior to or 

during land preparation 

and as component of topic 





in using compost tea to 

manage many diseases 


vegetables.

312 


This exercise facilitates undertaking a simple procedure in preparing and using compost tea to 

manage many plant diseases of organically-grown vegetables. In summary, one starts compost tea 

preparation by selecting compost source, then water is added to compost, let mixture stand for some 

time, and finally get liquid (‘tea’). The tea is then applied or watered to plant or sprayed as a foliar 

fungicide. In farmer field schools (FFSs), such innovative experiences can be shared with farmers 

to improve their current practices in managing many disease of organically-grown solanaceous 

vegetables. This exercise was designed to address this particular concern. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, farmer interviews, and observations in learning and 

adjoining fields with organically-grown vegetables lightly or moderately infected with diseases; 

• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on on compost tea preparation in learning field one week 

after planting; 

• Thirty minutes hands-on on compost tea application to organically-grown vegetables that are 

lightly or moderately infected with diseases in learning field two weeks after planting; and 

• Thirty minutes brainstorming session in processing area every week thereafter. 


• To make participants be aware of and understand how compost tea can be used to manage many 

diseases of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To learn some innovative practices in using compost tea to manage many diseases of organicallygrown 

vegetables. 

materials 

• Learning and adjoining fields with organically-grown vegetables lightly or moderately infected 

with plant diseases; 


• Other supplies (e.g., compost tea from different sources). 

methodology 

• Field walks, hands-on, and brainstorming


steps 


and adjoining fields with organically-grown vegetables lightly or moderately infected with 

diseases. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to pest and 

disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc. 


participatory discussions to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. As 

a wrap-up session, agree in big group how to improve some procedures provided below: 

Compost tea preparation: 

5 Gathering compost source. 

Compost sources are varied, and so are their microbial compositions. Garbage composts 

are easily available and cheap, but health risks always come with it. If contaminants are 

eliminated through strict quality control, then it is a good source of compost tea due to 

its varied compost make-up. Tree, grass, or any plant-based compost specially when 

composted using Trichoderma or bacterial inoculants, are also excellent raw materials 

for compost tea brewing. Animal manures are good materials, too. Vermi-culture or 

earthworm compost is a superb compost tea material as well. Any compost materials such, 

as sugarcane bagasse, hay, coffee, and the like could also be tried. Just make sure that they 

are clean and free from plant diseases. 

5 Extracting the compost tea. 

Place compost materials in plastic bags or containers to prevent contamination. Place 

compost in a pail, or any suitable container. For every kilogram of compost, add one liter 

of water. Brew mixture by letting it stand for one to three days. Get tea by using a nylon 

or metal fine net. Separate solid compost from liquid portion. The liquid portion is the tea 

that can be applied like a fungicide. Use compost tea for watering plants or apply it as a 

foliar spray to control soil-borne pathogens. 

Compost tea application: 

5 Using compost tea as water for irrigation to control soil-borne pathogens. 

313

314 


Especially as a control against damping-off pathogens, compost tea preparations can be 

used as water for irrigation after planting seeds and every time seeds or seedlings needs 

watering. Using compost tea preparations as watering medium for two weeks will give 

sufficient amount of control against soil-borne pathogens such as damping-off. For field 

control of soil-borne diseases, compost tea can be incorporated into irrigation water. 

5 Using compost tea as a foliar spray to prevent or limit disease development. 

The compost tea can also be applied as a foliar spray but should be sieved thoroughly to 

prevent clogging of spray nozzles. If conditions are favorable for disease development 

and initial symptoms are visible, compost tea spray solution placed in a knapsack or any 

common sprayer can be applied to leaves as a preventive spray or to limit spread and 

development of disease. 

3. Go back to learning field and do hands-on on compost source collection and compost tea 

preparation in small group. 



5. After one week, go back to learning field and do hands-on on compost tea application on 

organically-grown vegetables slightly or moderately infected with diseases in learning field by 

each small group. 

6. Every week thereafter, return to processing area, process output in small group, and share 

experiences and lessons learned to big group. 




❏ What organically-grown vegetables were infected with plant diseases? Did you observe differences 

in crop stand, disease severity, and others among different organically-grown vegetables? 

❏ Did you observed disease-infected vegetables in adjoining fields of your learning field? What 

are commonest plant disease infecting vegetables in nearby areas? 

❏ What benefits can be derived from using compost tea to manage plant diseases of organicallygrown 

vegetables?


❏ When is most appropriate time to use compost tea to manage diseases of organically-grown 

vegetables? 

❏ What innovations did you learn from other farmers in using compost tea to manage plant 




❏ What other cultural management practices can complement use of compost tea to manage 


315


USING RESISTANT VARIETIES AS A MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGY AGAINST BEAN RUST DISEASE OF 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN LEGUME VEGETABLES 


The development of resistant or tolerant varieties through 

selection and breeding is one of the best approaches 

to pest management 210 . Sometimes, growing cultivars 

resistant to a particular disease is the only way in which 

diseases can be controlled. Overhead irrigation during 

dry season, right timing of planting and general field 

sanitation are known to reduce incidence of bean rust. 

However, using bean rust resistant varieties is a more 

316 


practical and economical disease management approach for organically-grown legume vegetables. 

In the Cordilleras, organic farmers themselves through their experiences select outstanding varieties 

most suitable to local growing conditions. Vegetable varieties that are high yielding, tolerant to 

diseases and environmental stresses are selected for seed production. In the case of bean rust, 

farmers had identified which among their organically-grown legume vegetables are more resistant 

or tolerant to the disease during a particular season. These experiences must be regularly shared 

among farmers in farmer field schools (FFSs) to update their knowledge on local adaptability of 

these legume varieties. This exercise was designed to achieve this purpose. 



appropriate? 


session, before planting 

organic leguminous 

vegetables in learning field; 

and 


learn varietal adaptability 


leguminous vegetables to 

bean rust and other stresses 

from other farmers. 

• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of organically-grown leguminous 

vegetables most adapted to bean rust and other stresses in learning and adjoining fields; and 




210 Bautista, O.K. (Ed) 1994. Introduction to tropical horticulture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 

(SEARCA) and University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna, The Philippines. pp366-379.



• To make farmers aware and understand how adaptability of organically-grown leguminous 

vegetables to bean rust and other stresses can improve productivity; and 

• To learn adaptability of organically-grown leguminous vegetables to bean rust and other 

stresses from other farmers. 

materials 

• Fields planted to organically-grown leguminous vegetables showing different adaptability to 

bean rust and other stresses in adjoining fields of learning field; and 


methodology 


steps 


organically-grown leguminous vegetables planted in adjoining fields of learning field. Interview 

other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to: 

5 Kind and variety of leguminous vegetables planted; 

5 Degree of bean rust infection and pest infestation; 

5 Crop adaptability to other stresses; and 

5 Farmer’s reasons for choosing particular leguminous vegetables. 



facilitators. Classify leguminous vegetables observed and shared by farmers according to: 

5 Varieties or cultivars most resistant or tolerant to bean rust; 

5 Varieties or cultivars most resistant or tolerant to other stresses; 

5 Varieties or cultivars with highest yield potential; 

5 Varieties or cultivars most adapted to local conditions during dry and wet seasons; and 

5 Varieties or cultivars most preferred by farmers and consumers. 

317

318 





❏ Did you observe differences in adaptability of organically-grown leguminous vegetables to 

bean rust and other stresses in farmers’ fields? 

❏ Did you observe crops introduced from different elevations that were adapted to bean rust and 

other stresses in farmers’ fields? 

❏ What pests and diseases were prevalent on crops observed in farmers’ fields? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers their experiences on adaptability of organically-grown 

leguminous vegetables planted in the area to bean rust and other stresses? Which of the 

leguminous vegetables they tried were more adapted to bean rust and other stresses in an area? 

Why? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers some organically-grown leguminous vegetables that were 

more adapted to bean rust and other stresses in the area? What were these leguminous 

vegetables? Why did these leguminous vegetables have wider range of adaptability? 

❏ Which of these leguminous vegetables were more adapted to bean rust and other stresses during 

the wet season? Which of these leguminous vegetables were more adapted to bean rust and 

other stresses during the wet season? 

❏ What were the good characteristics of organically-grown leguminous vegetables that were 

observed adaptable to bean rust and other stresses in the locality? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement adaptability of organicallygrown 

leguminous vegetables to bean rust and other stresses in improving productivity and 

profitability?

Section 6 

SIMULTANEOUS INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 

An ‘Insect Pest and Disease Management’ section is incorporated in this field guide to 

highlight several discovery-based exercises, which simultaneously address management of 

both insect pest and plant disease problems in organic vegetable production. All discoverybased 

exercises compiled under this section are either new or additional exercises identified in a 

previous curriculum development workshops conducted in 1998 211 and 2008 212 , respectively, which 

were validated by participants in a previous intensive one-month Refresher Course for Trainers 

of Farmer Field Schools in IPM for Crucifers and Other Vegetables in the Cordilleras 213 and in a 

recent three-day Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for FFS of IPM 

on Organic Vegetable Farming 214 held in 1998 and 2008, respectively. Many of these discoverybased 

exercises were adapted from Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for Vegetable IPM, 

Volume II 215 . These exercises emphasize some fundamental principles of insect pest and disease 

management 216 , such as: 

• Exclusion. Exclusionary measures prevent a pest or pathogen from entering and becoming 

established in a non-infested or non-infected area. Measures include plant quarantine 

regulations, crop diversification, and use of certified pest- or disease-free seed materials. 

• Eradication. This involves eliminating a pest or pathogen once it has become established 

on plant or in a cropping area. Non-chemical eradication measures include removing and 

destroying pest-infested or disease-infected materials and plant trash, leaf removal, pruning 

and crop rotation with non-susceptible crops. 

211 Binamira, J.S. 1998. A Consultant’s Report: Curriculum Development for Trainers and Farmer Field Schools on IPM in Crucifers and Other Highland 

Vegetable Crops. Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resources Management Project, Department of Agriculture, CAR Regional Field Unit, Baguio City, 

Philippines. pp6-23. 

212 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2008. Highlights of Outputs. Workshop on Designing Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management For Organic 

Vegetable Production held on 28-30 April 2008 at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development 




214 Callo, Jr., D.P. 2008. Highlights of Outputs. Write-shop to Develop A Field Guide of Discovery-based Exercises for FFS of IPM on Organic Vegetable 

Farming conducted in the Philippines on 17-19 June 2008 at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and 

Development Council (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 


Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp 259-286. 

216 Quebral, F.C. 1988. What one should know about plant diseases. University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp11-20. 

319

320 


• Protection. This is achieved through interposing a protective barrier between pest or pathogen 

and susceptible plant. One environment-friendly barrier is spraying soap solution in vegetables 

to avoid infestation of scale insects or infection of sooty mold. 

• Resistance. This refers to development and use of cultivars that can thwart or impede activity 

of a pest or pathogen. Generally, resistance can be categorized as vertical or specific resistance, 

and horizontal or non-specific resistance. Vertical resistance is usually conferred by one or 

a few genes and is effective only against some biotypes of pest or strains of pathogen. Many 

genes control horizontal resistance and resistance is evenly spread against all biotypes of pest 

or strains of pathogen. 

• Therapy. This refers to treatment of plants infested by a pest or infected by a pathogen. An 

example of non-chemical therapy is application of heat (hot or moist) to affected area or plant 

parts or materials. This inactivates or inhibits a pest in an infested area or a pathogen in an 

infected area or plant tissues. 

• Avoidance. This tactic alters environment by making it less favorable to growth and development 

of a pest or a pathogen. Examples include field sanitation measures such as leaf removal, 

and cultural practices, such as changing planting density, date of planting, date of harvesting, 

fertilization, liming, and irrigation. 

In entomology, the mechanism of plant resistance to reduce insect attack can be categorized into 

tolerance, non-preference and antibiosis 217 : 

• Tolerance. Plant has the ability to give satisfactory yield in spite of injury levels that would 

normally occur in nonresistant plants. The known components in this type of resistance include 

plant vigor, ability of plant to compensate growth, and wound healing. 

• Non-preference. Refers to inherent plant characteristics that drive insects away from a specific 

host plant. In non-preference, normal insect behavior is impaired such that the chance of insect 

in using a plant for oviposition, food, or shelter is lessened. 

• Antibiosis. Antibiosis had the most deleterious effect on insects and so far the most sought 

objective of plant breeders. Antibiosis usually impairs an insect’s metabolic processes and 

often involves consumption of plant metabolites. The obvious effects of antibiosis on insects 

include the following: death of immatures, reduced growth rate, morphological malformations, 

increased mortality in pupal stage, small adults with reduced fecundity and life span, 

restlessness, and other abnormal behavior. 

217 Javier, P.A. 2009. Personal communication.

Section 6 • Simultaneous Insect Pest and Disease Management 


SOIL SOLARIZATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Soil solarization is a cultural management practice where soil 

under is exposed to sunlight for some time after cultivation 

to kill soil-borne insect pests and plant disease-causing 

pathogens in prepared seedbeds, beds, or plots intended 

for organic growing of vegetables. Vegetable farmers 

in the Cordilleras practice two common methods of soil 

solarization: (1) exposing prepared seedbeds, beds or plots 

to direct sunlight before planting, and (2) exposing prepared 

seedbeds, beds or plots covered with black polyethylene plastic to sunlight to accumulate heat 

then removing it before sowing, planting, or transplanting 219 . Farmers for their organic vegetable 

production can easily adapt both methods. 

In continuous practice of soil solarization, some organic vegetable farmers had evolved more 

innovative approaches in their farms that contributed to better pest and disease management in 

organic vegetables. These learning experiences must be shared with other farmers in farmer field 

schools (FFSs) to further improve their current best soil solarization practices, hence this exercise. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks, farmers’ interview, and observations of soil 

solarization practices in seedbeds, beds or plots before sowing, planting, and transplanting in 

adjoining organic vegetable farms of learning field; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour role-playing and brainstorming session in a processing area. 




Volume II. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 366p 

321 


appropriate? 



in seedbed and before 

planting or transplanting 

in learning field; and/or 


learn the best practices 


soil solarization for pest 

and disease management 


production.


322 


• To make participants aware of and understand the contribution of soil solarization in management 

of pests and diseases in organic vegetable farming; and 

• To learn best experiences on soil solarization from other farmers as a strategy for pest and 

disease management in organic vegetable farming. 

materials 

• Seedbeds, beds, or plots ready for sowing, planting or transplanting with organic vegetable 

crops; and 


methodology 


Steps 


seedbeds, beds or plots in adjoining farms where soil solarization were practiced before sowing, 

planting, or transplanting of organic vegetable crops. List down all observations related to soil 

solarization practices, kind of crops planted, crop stand, pest and disease occurrence, etc. 

2. Go back to processing area and do a role-play. Divide big group in five small groups. Request 

for a volunteer-participant from each small group. Other group members will act as observers. 

The volunteers and other group members will perform as follows: 

5 Group I volunteer will represent sunlight (e.g., by use of a flashlight, he or she flashes it to 

other volunteer-participants). 

5 Group II volunteer will represent a clubroot disease of cabbage (e.g., when light is flashed, 

he or she acts like succumbing to death and exits from scene). 

5 Group III volunteer will represent a bacterial wilt disease of potato (e.g., when light is 

flashed, he or she acts also like succumbing to death and exits from scene). 

5 Group IV volunteer will represent a root knot nematode of celery (e.g., when light is flashed 

he or she acts like resisting heat but eventually succumbs to death and exits from scene). 

5 Group V volunteer will represent a cutworm larva about to pupate in soil (e.g., when light 

is flashed, he or she acts like running away from heat but eventually succumbs to death and 

exits from scene).


5 Let other members in each group observe reactions of volunteers (e.g., who is more resistant 

or susceptible to heat, etc.). Relate all experiences to this topic. 


discussion to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 




❏ What is soil solarization? What benefits will you get from practicing soil solarization? 

❏ Did you observe different soil solarization practices in seedbeds, beds, and plots before sowing, 

planting, and transplanting in organic vegetable fields? 

❏ Did you observe differences in plant vigor, crop stand, pest and disease occurrence, etc., 

in vegetables grown from solarized seedbeds, beds, or plots before sowing, planting, and 

transplanting? 

❏ Did you learn from farmers interviewed of better soil solarization practices for different 

organically-grown vegetables? How did they do it? 

❏ When do we need to practice soil solarization in organic vegetable production? Why? 

❏ Were there differences in yields between organic vegetables grown in seedbeds, beds, or plots 

that were solarized and not solarized? 

❏ What other cultural practices will complement soil solarization as a pest and disease management 


323


324 


HILLING-UP AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN ORGANIC 



Most organic vegetable farmers, particularly in the Cordilleras, practice hilling-up. Hilling-up is 

a cultural management practice where soil is cultivated and raised at base of plant primarily to 

enhance better root development, improve anchorage, and suppress growth of weeds. For most 

vegetable crops, this operation is usually conducted a month after transplanting or immediately after 

second application of organic fertilizers, thereby ensuring its proper soil incorporation and its more 

efficient use by plants. For tuber crops, hilling-up is done to suppress growth of aerial tubers and 

prevent infestation of potato tuber moth and other pests 221 . 

Hilling-up also disturbs development of other soil-borne pests and exposes to sunlight many soilborne 

plant pathogens that thrive near base of plants. Hence, this practice contributes largely to 

better pest and disease management. Hilling-up is useful only as a pest and disease management 

strategy if done at proper time. In FFSs, best practices in hilling-up can be shared among farmers by 

conducting field walks, hands-on, simulation exercises, and participatory discussion. This exercise 

was designed to address this particular concern. 






For field walk and brainstorming exercise: 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, observations, 

and interaction with organic vegetable farmers; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session in 

processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and appreciate the 

role of hilling-up in management of organic vegetable 

pests and diseases; 

• To learn from other farmers the proper ways and 

the best time to do hilling-up in organic vegetable 


• To learn from other farmers other benefits derived from practicing hilling-up in organic 


materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., notebooks, ball pens, marking pens, crayons, Manila papers); and 

• Hilled-up and not hilled-up organic vegetable plots or beds (e.g., organic vegetable crops should 

be more or less at same growth stages). 

methodology 


steps 


hilled-up and not hilled-up organic vegetable plots or beds in a field. Take note of different 

practices in hilling-up. Interview other organic vegetable farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to pest and disease occurrence, crop stand, weed growth, soil moisture 

conditions, etc. 

325 


appropriate? 


sessions as part of ‘Other 

Cultural Management 

Practices in Organic 

Vegetable Production’ topic; 



improved practices from 

other farmers in hilling-up; 

and/or 

ɶ When hilling-up operation is 

to be conducted in learning 

field.

326 




3. Synthesize and summarize outputs of small groups into one big group output. Draw up 


For hands-on and brainstorming exercise: 


• One hour and thrity minutes for field walks and 

observations in adjoining organic vegetable fields of 


• Thirty minutes to one hour hands-on and 

brainstorming session. 


• To make participants aware of and understand the 

role of hilling-up for pest and disease management 

in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn and share with co-farmers appropriate skills 

in hilling-up operations for pest and disease management in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., notebooks, pencils, ball pens, and marking pens); 

• Field supplies and tools (e.g., fertilizer materials and grab hoe); and 

• Adjoining and learning fields planted to one-month old organic vegetable crops and ready for 

hilling-up operations. 

methodology 



appropriate? 


sessions, when organic 

vegetable crops are about 

a month after planting or 

transplanting in learning 

field; and/or 


and understand how hillingup 

can be used as a pest 

and disease management 

strategy in organic vegetable 

production.


steps 

1. Divide big group into five small groups. Before hilling-up operation, each group should observe 

and record the crop stand, plant vigor, weeds present, pest and disease occurrence, etc., in 

adjoining organic vegetable fields of learning field. Each small group will then do hilling-up 

(e.g., hands-on) in half of the plots assigned to them in learning field. The other half will not be 

hilled-up for comparison. 

2. Every week thereafter, each group will record the same observations they made before hillingup 

operations. After every observation, participants should brainstorm in small groups to 

summarize their observations but present the same to the big group every other week. The 

summary of weekly observations should be printed in Manila paper. 

3. After final observation, conduct participatory discussion in a big group to allow sharing of 

experiences among participants and facilitators. Synthesize and summarize outputs of small 

groups into one big group output. 

4. Draw up conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. 

For the simulation and brainstorming exercise: 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and 

observations in organic tuber crop fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour simulation exercise and 

brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To make participants aware of and understand the 

role of hilling-up operations in the management of 

organic tuber crop pests; and 

• To learn and share with co-farmers appropriate skills in hilling-up operation for organic tuber 

crops. 

327 


appropriate? 


sessions, when tuber crops 

are about a month after 

planting or transplanting; 

and/or 


farmers want to learn and 

understand how hillingup 

can be used as a 

management strategy for 

insect pests of tuber crops.

materials 

• Office supplies (e.g., notebooks, pencils, ball pens, and marking pens); 

• Field supplies (e.g., plastic trays and two spoon of sugar); and 

• Other materials (e.g., garden soil and at least 8 potato stem cuttings). 

methodology 

• Field walks, simulation, and brainstorming 

steps 

328 


1. Divide big group into five small groups. Go to the field and observe organic potato crops that 

were hilled-up and not hilled-up. Record all observations on crop stand, plant vigor, weed 

growth, soil moisture condition, pest and disease occurrence, etc. Gather some garden soil and 

potato stem cuttings. 

2. Proceed to processing area and do simulation exercise. Each small group fills-up two plastic 

trays with the same amount of soil. Cultivate soil and form two mini-plots per tray. Plant four 

stem-cuttings per tray. To simulate organic fertilizer application, apply one spoon of compost 

to soil in both trays. Simulate hilling-up operation in one of the trays by using spoon as grab 

hoe. No hilling-up operation is done on the other tray. Put water to simulate irrigation in trays. 

3. After the exercise, conduct participatory discussion in a big group to allow sharing of experiences 

among participants and facilitators. Synthesize and summarize output of small groups into one 

big group output. Draw up conclusions and recommendations from this exercise. 

suggested questions for processing discussion 

❏ What is hilling-up? When is the best time to do hilling-up? 

❏ In simulation exercise, what happened when you applied irrigation in hilled-up and not hilledup 

plots? Why? Can this happen in real field conditions? 

❏ In a field, did you observe any differences in pest and disease occurrence between hilled-up and 

not hilled-up organic vegetable plots or beds? What pests and diseases were more prevalent? 

❏ Were there differences in crop stand, weed growth, and other conditions between hilled-up and 

not hilled-up organic vegetable plots or beds? 

❏ Did you observe variation in hilling-up practices? Were there differences in pest and disease 

occurrence among variations? Were there differences in crop stand, weed growth, and other 

conditions among variations?


❏ Were there variations in other cultural management practices employed when using different 

hilling-up operations? 

❏ Which of the hilling-up variation was most cost-efficient? Which of hilling-up variation was 

the most practical to use? Was hilling-up effective in reducing pest and disease occurrence? 

What other management strategies can you employ to complement hilling-up in reducing pest 

and disease occurrence? 

❏ What other benefits can you derive in practicing hilling-up in organic vegetable production? 

329


SURFACE IRRIGATION OR FLOODING AS AN INSECT 

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN 



In surface irrigation, water flows on soil surface, then later 

seeps downward, or moves vertically (surface flooding), 

moves along a canal or horizontally (furrow flooding) in soil 

until it reaches roots of plants 223 . A modification of surface 

flooding is basin irrigation. Ridges are constructed around 

a plant or along contour lines and water is introduced into 

basin. A water hose could be brought to field and water is 

delivered plant by plant, when basin is on a plant-basis. In 

330 


both conventional and organic vegetable production, flooding is a very important cultural practice 

for pest and disease management. 

Flooding kills eggs, larvae, and some adults of soil-inhabiting insect pests, helps control weeds, and 

reduces population of some soil-borne fungal pathogens, and nematodes but may hasten dispersal 

of some bacterial diseases. In farmer field schools (FFSs), innovative farmers can share their best 

experiences in using flooding as a pest and disease management strategy in organic vegetable 

production. Through participatory, discovery-based, and experiential learning approaches, farmers 

can further adapt their best irrigation practices to improve crop productivity, hence this exercise. 



appropriate? 


sessions, as component of 

topic on ‘Integrated Water 

Management’ in organic 

vegetable farming; and 




in flooding as a pest and 

disease management 

strategy in organic 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of different practices in flooding by 

organic farmers in adjoining fields of the learning field; and 








• To make participants aware of and understand the role of flooding as a pest and disease 


• To learn from other farmers some innovative practices in flooding that can be used as a pest and 

disease management strategy in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Adjoining organic vegetable fields of learning field where different practices in flooding can be 

observed; and 


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe irrigation 

practices by flooding in as many adjoining organic vegetable fields of learning field. Interview 

other organic vegetable farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to irrigation 

practices, pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, weed growth, etc. 



facilitators. 




❏ What different flooding practices did you observe in farmers’ field? 

❏ Did you observe differences in crop stand, weed growth, pest and disease occurrence, etc? 

❏ What is the most common flooding practice used in an area? Why is this flooding practice 

preferred over others? 

331

332 


❏ What are the advantages and disadvantages of different flooding practices used for organic 


❏ When is the most appropriate time to do irrigation by flooding in organic vegetable production? 

When is the most appropriate time to do other irrigation practices? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement the practice of irrigation by flooding 

for management of pests and diseases in organic vegetable production?



OVERHEAD IRRIGATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND 

DISEASE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN ORGANIC 



In overhead irrigation, water is applied either in the form of 

a fine mist (spraying) or spray simulating rain (sprinkling). 

Water may be manually applied using watering cans or 

mechanically applied under pressure and at pre-determined 

intervals 225 . Experiences shared by farmers in previous FFSs 

indicated that overhead irrigation is a cultural management 

practice that plays a significant role in pest and disease 

management in both conventional and organic vegetable production. 

Overhead irrigation is suitable to dislodge spores of many fungus diseases (e.g., powdery mildew of 

organically-grown garden pea, downy mildew of cabbage seedlings, rust of beans) from leaf surface 

of infected vegetable crops, thereby minimizing disease infections. Likewise, overhead irrigation 

reduces population of aphids, spider mites, white flies, and thrips in organically-grown crucifers, 

legumes, and solanaceous vegetables. 

Many farmers reported also that irrigating the field for at least eight hours using Jetmatic sprinkler (a 

type of overhead irrigation equipment) disturbed adult DBM, a major insect pest of crucifers, thus, 

minimized egg-laying capacity of female. These experiences and other organic farmer innovations 

can be better shared to other farmers in FFSs through field walks and brainstorming sessions, hence 



• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of different irrigation practices and 

equipment in adjoining organic vegetable farms of learning field; and 






333 


appropriate? 


sessions, before doing an 

overhead irrigation in 

learning field; and/or 


learn the best experiences 


how overhead irrigation 

minimize pest and disease 

occurrence in their 

organic vegetable fields.


334 


• To make participants aware of and understand the role of overhead irrigation in management of 

pests and diseases in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn the best experiences from other farmers on the use of overhead irrigation in minimizing 

pest and disease occurrence in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Conventional and organic vegetable fields where different irrigation practices and equipment 

can be observed; and 


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe irrigation 

practices and equipment used in as many conventional and organic vegetable fields. Interview 

other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to irrigation practices and 

equipment used, pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, weed growth, 

etc. 



facilitators. 




❏ What irrigation practices and equipment used did you observe in the field? 

❏ Did you observe differences in crop stand, weed growth, pest and disease occurrence, etc? 

❏ What is the most common irrigation practice used in an area? Why is this irrigation practice 

preferred over others?


❏ What are the advantages and disadvantages of different irrigation practices and equipment used 

for conventional and organic vegetable production? 

❏ When is the most appropriate time to do overhead irrigation in organic vegetable production? 

When is the most appropriate time to do other irrigation practices? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement the practice of overhead irrigation 

in management of pests and diseases in organic vegetable production? 

335


SANITATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE 


PRODUCTION 


Sanitation is the most common and practical cultural 

management approach against most insect pests and diseases 

in both conventional and organic vegetable production. 

Sanitation starts with the use of clean seeds, seedlings, and 

other planting materials to prevent insect infestations and 

disease infections. On the other hand, pruning, roguing, and 

proper disposal of affected plants or plant parts are employed 

to reduce insect pest and disease incidence in vegetable 

fields 227 . 

336 


Sanitation practices vary with locations and among farmers depending upon their understanding 

of pest or disease problem, crops grown, and cropping season. In FFSs, these innovations and 

best sanitation practices can be shared and learned among organic vegetable farmers through field 

walks, observations and brainstorming. This exercise is designed to enhance learning experiences 

of farmers on proper sanitation practices. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of different sanitation practices in 

adjoining conventional and organic vegetable farms of learning field; and 




appropriate? 


sessions, when first signs 

or symptoms of pest 

infestation or disease 

infection are observed in 

learning field; and/or 


learn best sanitation 


farmers to minimize pest 

and disease occurrence 

in their organic vegetable 

fields. 

• To make participants aware of and understand the role of proper sanitation practices in 

management of pests and diseases in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn the best sanitation practices from other farmers in minimizing pest and disease 

occurrence in organic vegetable production. 






materials 

• Conventional and organic vegetable fields where different sanitation and other cultural 

management practices can be observed; and 


methodology 


steps 


sanitation and other cultural management practices in as many adjoining conventional and 

organic vegetable fields of learning field. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all 

observations related to sanitation practices (e.g., roguing, pruning, leaf removal, disposal of 

crop residues, etc.), pest and disease occurrence, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc. 



facilitators. 




❏ Did you observe different sanitation practices in the field? What were the most common 

sanitation practices employed by farmers? 

❏ Did farmers properly dispose their crop residues? How? 

❏ Did farmers dispose their crop residues for pest and diseases management? 

❏ Did you see differences in pest and disease incidence with different sanitation practices? Did you 

observe any innovative sanitation practices employed by farmers? What were these practices? 

❏ Why do we have to be very cautious in applying different sanitation methods? 

❏ What sanitation practices were more appropriate for each pest and disease problem in organic 


❏ What other cultural management practices can complement proper sanitation to reduce pest and 

disease problems in organic vegetable production? 

337


PRUNING AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE 

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

PRODUCTION 


Regular pruning usually reduces height and yield of a 

plant, and changes its general configuration. The increased 

vegetative growth that occurs after pruning does not 

compensate for decreased photosynthetic area. The new 

leaves that develop may be larger but fewer than the removed 

leaves. It is, however, marketable yield that counts and not 

total yield 229 . Therefore, an organic vegetable farmer has to 

338 



appropriate? 


VST sessions, at any 

appropriate stages of 

all organically-grown 


field; and/or 


learn improved pruning 


farmers for any vegetable 

crop. 

decide on the amount of pruning to be done that will result in favorable effects and yet will not 

reduce marketable yield. 

In both conventional and organic vegetable production, pruning may also be practiced as a strategy 

for pest and disease management. In some twig borer-infested solanaceous vegetables, pruning 

is accomplished on affected plant parts to prevent twig borer larvae from further developing into 

adults thereby drastically reducing pest population. In some instances, satisfactory disease control 

can be achieved by simply removing diseased plant parts. For example, lower leaves of bean rustaffected 

legume vegetables are pruned to reduce disease infection. Late blight-affected potato 

leaves are pruned to prevent pathogen from reaching tubers 230 . 

Conventional and organic vegetable farmers, particularly in the Cordilleras, had many other 

innovative pruning practices that should be shared with other farmers in FFSs to continuously 

improve their current best pruning practices. The foregoing exercise was specifically designed for 

this purpose. 





230 Quebral, F.C. 1988. What one should know about plant diseases. University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp18-20.



• Thirty minutes for field walks, farmer interviews, and observations of pruning practices for 

vegetables grown in adjoining and learning fields; 

• Fifteen to thirty minutes hands-on in pruning of organically-grown vegetables at any appropriate 

time during a season-long activity in learning field; and 

• Fifteen to thirty minutes brainstorming session in a processing area every after pruning activity 

in learning field. 


• To make participants aware and understand that some pruning practices can contribute to better 

pest and disease management in organic vegetable production; and 

• To learn and do hands-on of improved pruning practices shared by other farmers for better pest 

and disease management in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Adjoining fields of learning field grown to any vegetables where pruning is practiced; 


• Field materials (e.g., pruning shears, scythe or bolo, and plastic containers). 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks, interview farmers, 

and observe pruning practices of farmers on both conventional and organic vegetables grown 

in adjoining and learning fields. List down all observations and experiences shared by farmers 

who were interviewed; 

2. Go back to processing area. Brainstorm in small groups on how to further improve current 

pruning practices in organic vegetable production. Develop a procedure on how to do improved 

pruning practices on the following: 

5 Disease-infected foliage or other plant parts; 

339

5 Pest-infested foliage or other plant parts; and 

5 Unproductive, unwanted or dead plant parts. 

340 



sharing of experiences among participants. Agree on a common procedure to be followed. 

4. Do hands-on of appropriate pruning practices for any organically-grown vegetables in learning 

field based on the agreed procedure. 




❏ What do we mean by pruning? 

❏ Did you observe different pruning practices for different vegetables in farmer’s fields? How 

were they compared with vegetables that were not pruned? 

❏ Why do we need to have different pruning practices for different vegetables? 

❏ From the farmers interviewed, did you learn better pruning practices for different vegetables? 

How did they do it? 

❏ Do we need to practice pruning for any vegetable? How do we do it? What changes in appearance 

of different vegetables did you observe weeks or months after pruning? 

❏ Were there differences in plant growth and development between pruned and not pruned 


❏ Were there differences in yields between pruned and not pruned organically-grown vegetables?



MINIMIZING INSECT PEST AND DISEASE OCCURRENCE 

THROUGH CROP DIVERSIFICATION IN ORGANIC 



Crop diversification is planting as many crops at the same 

time in one farm to maximize land use and minimize pest 

and disease occurrence 232 . With this system, number of 

organic vegetable crops grown by farmers in his farm 

depends on such factors as crop preference, technical 

knowledge, adaptability, market demands, and profitability. 

Despite inherent advantage of crop diversification, majority 

of farmers still practice mono-cropping or planting of one 

crop or several crops belonging to one family in one farm on 

a year round basis. 

In the Cordilleras, outbreaks of pests (e.g., diamondback moth or DBM in crucifers) and diseases 

(e.g., clubroot in crucifers, damping off in parsley and cucurbits, and bacterial wilt in solanaceous 

crops) had been associated with continuous practice of mono-cropping. 

In FFSs, farmers will be able to share their unique experiences in crop diversification through 

field walk and brainstorming. In this process, they may influence their co-farmers to practice crop 

diversification instead of mono-cropping and subsequently reduce pest and disease occurrence in 

their communities. The foregoing exercise was designed to share these best practices. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour field walks, observations, and interaction with farmers in both 

conventional and organic vegetable fields; and 

• Thirty minutes to one hour brainstorming session in the processing area. 



232 IIBC. 1990. Manual on Biological Control and Biological Methods for Insect Pests in the Tropics. FAO/IRRI/IIBC Training Course on Biological Control 

in Rice-based Cropping Systems, International Institute of Biological Control, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp1.1/1-1.2/1 (Part 3). 

341 


appropriate? 

ɶ As a special topic on 

‘Cropping Systems’ in 

the FFS, TOT, and VST 

sessions; and/or 


learn more from other 

farmers better crop 

diversification schemes 

as cultural management 

strategies against 

pests and diseases of 


vegetables.


342 


• To make participants aware of and understand the contribution of crop diversification for the 

management of organic vegetable pests and diseases; and 

• To learn from other farmers the best crop diversification schemes for management of organic 

vegetable pests and diseases. 

material 

• Note books, ball pens, Manila papers, marking pens, and masking tapes; and 

• Conventional and organic vegetable fields showing mono-cropping and crop diversification. 

methodology 

• Field walk and brainstorming 

steps 

1. The participants conduct field walk, observe crops grown or crop combinations followed by and 

interact with farmers in the area to gather other relevant information on crop diversification. All 

observations, including severity of pest and disease damages, crop stand, kind of crops grown, 

cultural practices, etc. should be noted. Sample plants infected with diseases or damaged by 

pests may be collected for further assessment. Experiences shared by farmers should be noted; 

2. The participants return to processing area, brainstorm in small groups, summarize their 

observations and experiences shared by farmers, and present their outputs to the big group; and 

3. All learning experiences shared by participants should be synthesized and integrated into one 

output. Conclusions and recommendations should be drawn from the exercise. 


❏ Did farmers practice mono-cropping or crop diversification? 

❏ What crops did farmers grow in this area? What crop combinations did farmers follow? 

❏ What pests and diseases were observed in areas that practiced mono-cropping? In areas that 

practiced crop diversification, which practice had more pest and disease problems? 

❏ How can crop diversification help prevent pest and disease outbreaks in the area? What crop 

combinations had less pest and disease problems?


❏ What pests and diseases were common to all crops? What crop combinations should be followed 

to better manage these pests and diseases? 

❏ What crop combinations should be avoided to discourage prevalence of these pests and diseases? 

❏ Will crop diversification minimize pest and disease occurrence? In what ways? Which crops 

are best for diversification? 

343


CROP ROTATION AS AN INSECT PEST AND DISEASE 


PRODUCTION 


Growing two or more crops one after another is called 

succession cropping. A regular succession of such crops 

being followed for two or more years is more specifically 

termed crop rotation. As a cultural management strategy, 

crop rotation is used with an idea that a crop susceptible to a 

pest or disease is followed by a resistant crop or is combined 

in simultaneous cropping with other crops. There is no 

buildup of organisms to a high level since growth cycle of 

organism is broken 234 . 

344 


In organic vegetable production, particularly in the 

Cordilleras, crop rotation is the most practical management approach to diamondback moth (DBM) 

of crucifers and to many soil-borne diseases of vegetables. Through time, some innovative farmers 

had designed crop rotation schemes that best suit their location specific requirements. These 

learning experiences must be constantly shared among farmers in FFSs to improve their current 

crop rotation practices which will eventually lead to better pest and disease management strategies 

in organic vegetable growing. This exercise was designed to address this particular concern. 



appropriate? 








production; and/or 



their best crop rotation 

schemes as a pest 



production. 

• Thirty minutes for field walks and observations of different crop rotation schemes in adjoining 

conventional and organic vegetable fields of learning field; and 








• To make participants aware and understand how crop rotation can be used as a pest and disease 


• To enhance farmers’ learning experiences by role-playing how crop rotation works as a pest and 

disease management strategy in organic vegetable production. 

materials 

• Conventional and organic vegetable fields where different crop rotation schemes can be 

observed; and 

• Office supplies (e.g., Manila papers or blackboard and chalks, notebooks, staplers, crayons, ball 

pens, and marking pens). 

methodology 


steps 


crop rotation schemes in adjoining conventional and organic vegetable farms of learning 

field. List down all observations related to crop rotation schemes, degree of pest and disease 

infestation, kind of crops planted, crop stand, etc.; 

2. Go back to processing area and do a role-play. A facilitator explains the mechanics of the play 

to the big group and assigns a crop rotation scheme per small group, as shown below: 

5 Group 1 to mono-cropping scheme (e.g., cabbage is planted year-round) 

5 Group 2 to crop rotation scheme 1 (e.g., different crucifers are rotated year-round) 

5 Group 3 to crop rotation scheme 2 (e.g., crucifers and potato are rotated year round) 

5 Group 4 to crop rotation scheme 3 (e.g., potato and other solanaceous vegetables are rotated 

year-round) 

5 Group 5 to crop rotation scheme 4 (e.g., crucifers, legumes, parsley and solanaceous crops 

are planted in succession for two years) 

345

346 


3. Each group should show possible effects and reactions of crops on different factors contributing 

to the development and occurrence of pest and diseases. Thus, a play should portray, among 

others: pest and disease transferred to other crops, pest and disease reduced or controlled, crop 

rotation scheme less or seriously affected by pests and diseases, etc. 

4. Brainstorm in small groups and present output to big group. Conduct participatory discussion 

to allow sharing of experiences among participants and facilitators. 




❏ What is crop rotation? How do you differentiate crop succession from crop rotation? 

❏ Did you observe different crop rotation scheme in the field? What crop rotation schemes did 

farmers commonly practice? 

❏ In role-play, which was the best crop rotation scheme? Why? What were the important 

characteristics of a good crop rotation scheme? 

❏ Do you think crop rotation will solve pest and disease problems in your area? 

❏ What benefits can you derive from practicing crop rotation? 

❏ What other cultural practices can complement crop rotation to effectively manage pest and 

disease problems in organic vegetable production?

Section 7 

PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING, SEED PRODUCTION, HARVEST, 

AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 

Two systems of plant breeding may be distinguished: (1) farmers’ breeding system (or 

informal); and (2) institutional breeding system (or formal). The farmers’ breeding system 

is characterized by dynamic seed flows and continuous on-farm selection (usually mass 

selection). The institutional or formal type of breeding system is characterized by strategic approaches 

and sophisticated selection methods. These two systems are in many ways complementary and need 

each other to become stronger. The farmers’ breeding system can reach its full potential more 

effectively with support from researchers of breeding institutions. Similarly, breeding institutions 

can gain considerable benefits in working together with farmer communities through participatory 

plant breeding (PPB). Decentralized breeding or participatory plant breeding (PPB) was highlighted 

during the last two decades. PPB promises a way of strengthening crop improvement within farming 

communities 235 . Its aims are 236 to: (a) develop locally adapted technologies for crop improvement 

and distribute them more effectively to and among farming communities; (b) improve conservation 

and use of crop genetic diversity; and (c) support local capacity development for generating such 

genetic resources, thus contributing to empowerment or self-help of farmers and other stakeholders. 

On the other hand, on-farm seeds produced by farmer himself are still the most common source 

of available seeds for small vegetable farmers and home gardeners in the Philippines and many 

developing countries. Very often, seeds produced are of poor quality. Frequently, fruits harvested 

for seeds are those that were missed during harvesting for fresh vegetables and the leftovers at the 

end of production season. Little or no positive selection is carried out to choose the best plants 

and fruits for seed production. Oftentimes, plants at the end of production season are weak, thus, 

producing seeds that are not physically and physiologically fully mature. In this regard, farmers can 

perform variety rehabilitation to restore a local variety to its original or desired level of performance. 

In seed rehabilitation, farmers learn to improve their selection skills by identifying lost traits and 

selecting for desired plants in their populations 237 . 

235 Smolders, H. (ed) 2006. Enhancing Farmers’Role in Crop Development: Framework Information for Participatory Plant Breeding in Farmer Field Schools. 

Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. pp. 

9-16. 

236 Weltzien, E., Smith, M.E., Meitzner, L.S., and Sperling, L. 2003. Technical and institutional issues in participatory plant breeding from the perspective of 

formal plant breeding; A global analysis of issues, results, and current experience. CIAT: PPB Monograph No. 1. 208p. 

237 Weltzien, E., Smith, M.E., Meitzner, L.S., and Sperling, L. 2003. Technical and institutional issues in participatory plant breeding from the perspective of 

formal plant breeding; A global analysis of issues, results, and current experience. CIAT: PPB Monograph No. 1. 208p. 

347

348 


Vegetable production in most countries has been characterized by a tremendous increase in yield and 

improvement in quality of produce. This was brought about by improved agricultural technologies 

as well as increasing demand in both local and international markets. These developments, however, 

do not guarantee sufficient supply of good quality vegetables. Post-harvest losses, which range from 

10-50% of annual production, can and do occur at any point from harvest through collection and 

distribution to final purchaser 238 . 

Thus, this section piles up some best practices and learning experiences by FFS facilitators and 

farmer-practitioners, as well as by technical experts on topics related to: (a) participatory breeding 

and seed production; and (b) harvest and post-harvest management practices. 

238 AVRDC. 1990. Vegetable Production Training Manual. Arc Publication No. 90-328. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), 

Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. pp 116-131 and 402-422.

Section 7 • Participatory Plant Breeding, Seed Production, Harvest, and Post-Harvest Management 

PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING AND SEED PRODUCTION PRACTICES 

Generally, participatory plant breeding (PPB) is expected to benefit communities and to be 

of advantage in crops or geographical areas where conventional breeding efforts have been 

or are expected to be less successful, incomplete, or absent. These conditions are largely 

fulfilled in the following circumstances 239 : 

• Marginal agricultural areas, where environments are highly variable, such as in semi-arid, rainfed, 

and mountainous areas, which preclude widespread adaptation of modern varieties; 

• Rural areas with little or no formal seed supply mechanisms and/or primarily subsistence-based 

farming; 

• Minor crops important in local areas have not been the focus of formal sector plant breeding 

efforts; 

• Major crops in highly productive ecosystems, where cultural preferences and biological 

challenges have not been fully met by trait characteristics of modern varieties (e.g., red rice for 

use in special dishes, cultural ceremonies, long rice straw for use as mulch and animal feed, or 

flowers for vegetable soups); 

• Consumer preferences exist for local tastes and other crop characteristics that are lost in formal 

sector breeding products; 

• Specific agronomic conditions where modern varieties have little impact, such as mixed 

cropping systems and organic farming; and 

• Conditions of dramatic change such as after civil war and natural disaster. 

Even so, cultural management practices of vegetable crops intended for seed production, in most 

cases, are similar to those for fresh market or for consumable products. Planting distance, fertilization, 

irrigation, and insect pest and disease management practices for both production systems are very 

similar 240 . Nonetheless, seed production system provides some ecological benefits. Allowing 

239 Smolders, H. (ed). 2006. Enhancing Farmers’ Role in Crop Development: Framework Information for Participatory Plant Breeding in Farmer Field 

Schools. Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. 

pp11-12. 


Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp 289-315. 

349

350 


plants to go through their full flowering cycle creates habitats, as they provide shelter, food, and 

stability, for beneficial insects. The system creates also more ecological niches resulting to increased 

species diversity, pollination rate, and crop yield. Furthermore, it changes nature of soil organic 

matter, since mature tissues of seed-bearing crops contain more lignin and fix more carbon for soil 

food than nitrogen-rich vegetative crops or green manure alone 241 . Some basic differences between 

these systems are: 

• Isolation distance is observed in crops intended for seed production to maintain genetic purity 

by preventing unwanted pollination; 

• Pollinators are absolutely necessary in a seed production area, especially where natural 

pollination is insufficient; 

• Regular field inspection and rouging is done in the entire life cycle of vegetable crop to remove 

from seed production area other crops or cultivars, noxious weeds, off-types, and plants that are 

deformed, diseased, or infested; and 

• Harvesting is undertaken at the most mature stage of seed or stage of physiological maturity of 

seed, when it has accumulated all the needed food reserves. 242 . 

Thus, this sub-section covers exercises adapted from best practices and learning experiences by 

FFS facilitators and farmer-practitioners, as well as by technical experts on seed production topics 

relevant to organic vegetable production. These topics include: (a) keeping seeds pure; (b) selecting 

varieties or lines to produce; (c) developing hybrid and inbreed varieties; and (d) harvesting and 

processing of seeds. 

241 Maghirang, R.G. 2008. Organic Seed Production. Paper presented during the Workshop on Designing Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest 

Management for Organic Vegetable Production held at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development 

(PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines on 28-30 April 2008. 23p. 

242 Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Agriculture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 

(SEARCA) and University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp167-175.



VARIETY SELECTION AND SEED PRODUCTION 

BY FARMERS FOR ORGANICALLY-GROWN SELF- 

POLLINATED (LEGUMIMOUS AND SOLANACEOUS) 

VEGETABLE CROPS 


As mentioned earlier, there are few basic differences between 

growing of vegetable crops intended for seed production 

and those crops for fresh market or for other consumable 

products. For example, isolation distance is necessary and 

can vary according to crop, its pollination habit, and purpose 

for which seeds are grown. For self-pollinated crops like 

solanaceous crops and legumes, isolation distance is small. 

The minimum isolation distance required for seed production 

is 25 m in legumes and tomato, and 50 m in bell pepper. 

Pollinators are not as important for self-pollinated crops as 

they are for cross-pollinated vegetables 244 . 

In many instances, farmers themselves, through their experiences, identify outstanding varieties 

in their specific areas. Species or varieties that produce high yields of good quality products and 

tolerant to pests and environmental stresses are preferred by farmers. Thus, they are selected for 

seed production. In the Cordilleras, vegetable farmers usually use harvest from their own or their 

neighbor’s previous crops for seeds in next cropping. 

Many vegetable farmers use their own or their neighbor’s previous harvests as seeds for next 

cropping. While some farmers practice good seed selection, still, many use seeds that are either 

non-marketable or over mature. In FFSs, many innovative practices can be shared among farmers to 

ensure sustained availability of cheap but good quality seed materials. This exercise was designed 

to achieve this particular objective. 





351 


appropriate? 


sessions, when some 

self-pollinated vegetable 

crops (e.g., legumes 

and solanaceous crops) 

are grown for seeds in 




and do hands-on of 

proper seed selection 

and seed production of 

self-pollinated vegetable 

crops (e.g., legumes and 

solanaceous crops) in 

their own farms.


352 


• Fifteen to thirty minutes weekly field walks, observations, hands-on, and interaction with 

farmers; and 

• Fifteen to thirty minutes weekly brainstorming session in processing area. 


• To create awareness and understanding among participants that variety selection and seed 

production can be accomplished by farmers in their own farms; and 

• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on of innovative practices in seed selection and seed 

production of self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., legumes and solanaceous crops). 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., paper bags, plastic pails, plastic twines, scythes, and tagging materials); 

and 

• Self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., legumes and solanaceous crops) grown for seeds in 

learning and adjoining fields. 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe selfpollinated 

vegetable crops (e.g., legumes and solanaceous crops) grown for seeds in learning 

and adjoining fields. Take note of cultural management practices employed. Interview other 


5 Uniformity in height 

5 Date of flowering (e.g., number of days from emergence to flower initiation) 

5 Maturity (e.g., number of days from emergence to harvest) 

5 Growth habit (., height, branchiness, branching behavior) 

5 Duration of harvest period


5 Pest and diseases incidence (e.g., major pests and diseases) 

5 Size and shape of pods or fruits (e.g., maturity index of crop) 

5 Other fruit or pod characters (e.g., texture, cracking, firmness, shelf life, acceptability) 



facilitators. 

3. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in seed/variety selection and seed production 

of self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., legumes, and solanaceous crops) in their own farms, 

especially on the following: 

5 Selection of species or varieties for seed production; 

5 Important plant and fruit characters 

5 Isolation distance between crop varieties; 

5 Regular field inspection and roguing; and 

5 Harvesting at most mature stage of seed. 

4. Facilitate each small group to do hands-on of best experiences in seed selection and seed 

production in a portion of some self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., legumes, and solanaceous 

crops) grown in learning field, as follows: 

5 Determine area needed for farmer’s seed requirement (e.g., know farmer’s seed requirement 

per hectare, his normal yield level per cropping, and his estimated production per unit area). 

5 Measure and mark boundaries in a portion of some self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., 

legumes, and solanaceous crops) grown in learning field (e.g., using above estimated area). 

5 Conduct regular inspection and roguing (e.g., regular removal of other cultivars, weeds, offtypes, 

deformed or disease and pest affected plants and other plants whose characteristics 

do not conform with desired cultivar at early vegetative, flowering, fruiting and harvesting 

stages). 

5 Employ other cultural management practices shared and agreed upon in a big group 





353


354 


❏ What is a self-pollinated crop? What were the most common self-pollinated vegetable crops 

observed in the field? 

❏ Do we need pollinators for self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., legumes and solanaceous crops) 

intended for seed production? 

❏ Why do we need to maintain an isolation distance between vegetable crops intended for seed 

production? 

❏ Why do we need to conduct regular monitoring and roguing of self-pollinated vegetable crops 

(e.g., legumes and solanaceous crops) grown for seed purposes? 

❏ Which self-pollinated vegetable crops did farmers grow and use for seed purposes? 

❏ What selection criteria did farmers use? 

❏ What seed selection and seed production practices did farmers employ for self-pollinated 

vegetable crops (e.g., legumes, and solanaceous crops)? 

❏ Did you learn better seed/variety selection and seed production practices for self-pollinated 

vegetable crops (e.g., legumes and solanaceous crops) from other farmers? 

❏ What cultural management practices are important for self-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., 

legumes and solanaceous crops) grown for seed purposes?



PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING BY FARMERS 

FOR ORGANICALLY-GROWN SELF-POLLINATED 

(STRING BEAN AND EGGPLANT) VEGETABLE CROPS 


Native to Southeast Asia, string bean, yard long bean or 

pole sitao is a mostly climbing plant, and a close relative 

of cowpea. It comes in different varieties, from a more 

common pale green pod variety or a more slender darker 

green one to a deep brownish red variety. The vegetable 

is popular among farmers and usually grown on poles, 

although free-growing varieties are also available. Young 

pods of string bean are used as cooked vegetable, mostly 

combined with rice as main dish. In Indonesia, fresh young 

pods are consumed as salad. Sometimes, shoots and young 

leaves are also consumed. Like other fruiting vegetables, 

growth stages of string bean overlaps. After germination, 

growth is very fast. Flowering usually starts on 5 th week 

after sowing and harvest of young pods starts 2 weeks later. 

Depending on crop health and intensity of harvesting, 

senescence starts 1½-2 months after sowing and plant dies 

after 3-4 months. Pods can reach a length of one yard (90 cm); hence it is also called yard-long bean. 

String bean is a naturally self-pollinating crop, although some degree of cross-pollination by insects 

occurs. Flowers are large and easy to manipulate, keel is straight, beaked, and not twisted. Flowers 

have few floral nodes per raceme. 

Eggplant, on the other hand, originates from India and is now generally grown as a vegetable throughout 

the tropical, sub-tropical, and warm temperate areas of the world. Eggplant varieties display a wide 

range of fruit shapes and colors, ranging from oval or egg-shaped to long club-shaped, and from white, 

yellow, green through degrees of purple pigmentation to almost black. An increasing number of F1 

hybrid varieties are available in the market. However, many farmers still prefer to keep or exchange 

their own seed. Fruits are popular in the market as they are used in many dishes, either as boiled, 

fried, or stuffed. Unripe fruits are sometimes used as curries. Although semi-perennial, eggplant is 

usually grown as an annual with cropping season duration of 5-6 months. Seeds are small and need a 

245 Smolders, H. and Caballeda, E. 2006. Field Guide for Participatory Plant Breeding in Farmer Field Schools: With Emphasis on Rice and Vegetables. 

Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. 136p. 

355 


appropriate? 


sessions, when some selfpollinated 

vegetables 

(e.g., string bean and 

eggplant) are organicallygrown 

as parent materials 

for studies of plants’ 

biological processes (e.g., 

planting to harvest) and 

for participatory plant 

breeding exercises (e.g., 

flowering stages) in 



from other farmers and do 

hands-on of proper selfing 

and hybridization of selfpollinated 

vegetables (e.g., 

string bean and eggplant) 

in their own farms.

356 


nursery for planting. Plant are bushy and because of a need for wider planting distance, they require 

a larger than average area for field studies. Flowering starts on 6 th to 8 th week after transplanting and 

harvest of fresh fruits begins 2 weeks later. Similar to other fruit vegetables, growth stages overlap. 

Eggplant is an often-crossed crop. The flower is normally perfect, having functional male (anthers) 

and female (pistil) parts. The flowers are borne solitarily or in clusters of two or more. In solitary 

flowering type, flower drop may be as high as 80%. Fertilization in mature flowers occurs between 

06:00-11:00 a.m. However, this is influenced by daylight, temperature, and humidity, such that exact 

timing is determined by observation and experience. 

In FFSs, many innovative experiences can be shared among farmers to understand the biological 

processes involved in reproduction of self-pollinated vegetable crops, such as string bean and 

eggplant, which is a prerequisite for successful operation of participatory plant breeding program. 

After learning plant’s reproduction processes, farmers will be able to apply their knowledge by 

crossing a number of self-selected self-pollinated varieties, and study different methods and tools, 

which influence success of hybridization. 


• Fifteen to thirty minutes daily (1 st week) and weekly (succeeding weeks) for field walks, 

observations, hands-on, and interaction with farmers; and 



• To create awareness and understanding among participants of crops’ biological processes and 

how selfing in often-crossed crop (e.g., eggplant) and hybridization of self-pollinated vegetables 

(e.g., string bean) can be accomplished in their own farms; and 

• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on using innovative experiences in selfing in oftencrossed 

crop (e.g., eggplant) and hybridization of self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., string bean). 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., scissors, glassine bags, aluminum foil, forceps, dissecting needle, paper 

clips, magnifying glass, pen, and tags); and 

• Self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., string bean and eggplant) organically grown as parent materials 

for cross-breeding exercises in learning and adjoining fields.


methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe selfpollinated 

vegetables (e.g., string bean and eggplant) organically grown for study of crops’ 

biological processes and cross-breeding or hybridization exercises in learning and adjoining 

fields. Take note of cultural management practices employed. Interview other farmers, if 


5 Plant morphology and growth stages (e.g., duration of and changes in morphological 

structures at different growth stages) 

5 Other relevant plant characters (e.g., branchiness, fruiting duration, spines, etc) 

5 Flower morphology (e.g., perfect or imperfect flower) and date of flowering (e.g., number 

of days from emergence to flower initiation) 


5 Pest and diseases incidence (e.g., major pest and diseases) 

5 Size and shape of pods or fruits (e.g., maturity index of crop) 

5 Other pod or fruit characters 



facilitators. 

3. Motivate farmers to share their understanding in crops’ biological processes and best experiences 

in hybridization of self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., string bean and eggplant) in their own farms, 

especially on the following: 

5 Selection of species or varieties as parent materials for hybridization; 

5 Morphological differences of species or varieties selected as parent materials for hybridization; 

5 Pest and disease reactions of species or varieties selected as parent materials for 

hybridization; and 

5 Yield comparison of species or varieties selected as parent materials for hybridization. 

4. Facilitate each small group to do hands-on of best experiences on studying crops’ biological 

processes and hybridization exercises for some self-pollinated vegetables (e.g., string bean and 

eggplant) organically-grown in learning field, as follows: 

357

358 


a) Studying Crops’ Biological Processes and Hybridization Exercises for String Bean 

Biological Processes of String Bean: 

5 Study plant morphology and growth stages (e.g., duration of and changes in morphological 

structures at different growth stages). 

5 Study flower morphology (e.g., type and parts of flower, duration of stigmatic receptivity 

and anther dehiscence, pollination and emasculation procedures, etc.). 

5 Study flower and fruit setting (e.g., number of flowers for pollination and fruits that set 

after pollination). 


Emasculation of String Bean Flowers (Female Parent): 

5 Select varieties to emasculate in learning field. Choose flower buds that have reached their 

maximum unopened size, started to pale slightly, and are to open the following morning. 

Select the first developing bud on raceme for crossing, which tends to set, pods more easily 

than later developing buds. Remove other buds to divert all nutrients in peduncle into one 

pod increasing success rate and to avoid confusion in labeling; 

5 Hold selected bud for emasculation firmly but gently to avoid any stress at fragile attachment 

of bud and raceme. Using small scissors, or even long thumbnails, make a cut at center of 

bud starting from its straight edge. Cut about two-third the width of unopened bud, taking 

care not to damage enclosed style and stamen. 

5 Grasp upper portion of folded petals by thumb and index finger and gently tear-off cut 

segment, leaving upper portion of style, stigma, and stamens free and exposed. Remove 

10 anther sacs with small scissors, taking care not to touch receptive green-tipped stigmatic 

surface. 

5 Repeat emasculation process using other flowers. 

5 After completing emasculation, record number of emasculated plants in a crossing table, 

as shown in example below: 

Parent Materials 

Mother 

Plants 

(Female 

Parent) 

Father Plants (Male Parent) No. of 

Variety 1 Variety 2 Variety 3 Variety 4 Crosses 

Variety 1 3 4 7 

Variety 2 3 3 


Variety 4 4 4



Pollination of Emasculated String Bean Flowers (Female Parent): 

Note: Ideally, flowers should be pollinated immediately after emasculation, although it is 

possible to wait until the following morning. In latter case, bagging is necessary after 

emasculation to prevent unwanted contamination. 

5 Collect freshly opened flowers from selected male parent variety. Place flowers in a paper or 

glassine bag, close it and attach a label with name of variety. Store bags with flowers in a cool 

shady place in the refrigerator until used. The pollen remains viable for a maximum of 12 hours. 

5 To perform pollination, anther sacs must be exposed by removing or slipping backward 

innermost petals of mature open flowers. Use hairy-necked style as a brush to rub pollen 

grains on green circular stigma. 

5 Use one flower to pollinate up to four emasculated buds. Only obliquely arranged discshaped 

stigma at tip of style is receptive, not the hairy portion beneath. 

5 Affix a small tag listing crossing and date to raceme or peduncle beneath pollinated flower 

bud. Do not allow hands, equipment, and other objects to touch receptive portion of stigma 

and anther sacs. 

5 Upon completion of crossing procedure, cover pollinated flower with a glassine bag to 

keep insects out and to minimize risk of contamination. Take care to exclude and remove 

crawling and flying insects from plants during and immediately following pollination. 

5 Check if each group has completed their exercises and record crosses in crossing table 

developed earlier. 


Inspection of Pollinated String Bean Flowers: 

Note: Unfertilized flowers may remain attached for 48 hours after anthesis. You can make a 

good check on success of a cross three days after anthesis. 

5 Observe plants daily until three days after pollination. Note unfertilized flowers to drop-off. 

5 After 7-10 days, check for percentage of successfully pollinated flower buds by counting 

the number of pods developed per cross as follows: 

% Set Seed = 

Number of flower buds with pods x 100 

Total number of pollinated flower buds 

359

360 


5 After 18-22 days, pods are ready for harvest. 


b) Studying Crops’ Biological Processes and Hybridization Exercises for Eggplant 

Biological Processes of Eggplant: 

5 Study plant morphology and growth stages (e.g., duration of and changes in morphological 

structures at different growth stages). 

5 Study flower morphology (e.g., type and parts of flower, duration of stigma receptivity and 

anther dehiscence, pollination and emasculation procedures, etc.). 

5 Study flower and fruit setting (e.g., number of flowers for pollination and fruits that set 

after pollination). 


Emasculation of Eggplant Flowers (Female Parent): 

Note: Emasculation should be done in the afternoon between 3-5 p.m. prior to flower opening. 

5 Choose flower buds that will open following morning. 

5 Open/incise flower bud with a pair of forceps then remove 5 anthers. 

5 Cover emasculated flower bud with a glassine bag. 

5 Put a breeding tag with name of parent varieties, date of emasculation, and name of breeder. 


Pollination of Emasculated Eggplant Flowers (Female Parent): 

Note: Pollination should be done the following morning, between 7-10 a.m. 

5 Inspect bags of emasculated female parent flowers and observe if they are still intact and 

flowers have opened. 

5 Collect freshly opened flowers in selected male parent variety, put in a plastic bag, and 

write name of variety on bag. These flowers will serve as male parents. 

5 Carefully remove glassine bag from emasculated female parent flower. 

5 Cut petal of male parent flower and carefully rub pollen from the anther sac on stigma of 

emasculated female parent flower. 

5 Cover pollinated female parent flower again with glassine bag, add name of male variety 

and date of pollination on breeding tag. 

5 Take note of all relevant observations and experiences during this activity.


Inspection of Pollinated Eggplant Flowers: 

5 After pollination, wait for 3-4 days and inspect crosses. 

5 Remove bags and check if baby fruits are developing and tags are still attached. 

5 After 7-10 days, check for percentage of successfully pollinated flowers by counting the 

number of baby fruits developed per cross as follows: 

% Set Seed = 

Number of flower buds x 100 


5 After 25-30 days, fruits are mature and ready for seed harvest. 





❏ What are the similarities and differences in plant morphology of a string bean and an eggplant? 

❏ What are the similarities and differences in flower morphology of a string bean and an eggplant? 

❏ Why do we need to monitor flowering stages of parent varieties? 

❏ Why do we emasculate and pollinate flowers during hybridization of string bean and eggplant? 

❏ When are the best times for emasculation and pollination of string bean and eggplant flowers 

for successful hybridization? 

❏ What is the use of a variety crossing table? What are the reasons for low success rate of your 

hybridization work? 

❏ What is the purpose of bagging and tagging of emasculated and pollinated string bean and 

eggplant flowers? 

❏ What is the most productive and cost efficient way to hybridize two varieties? 

❏ How many successful crosses do we need to build a successful hybridization program? How 

many crosses can you manage? 

361


SEED SELECTION AND SEED PRODUCTION 

BY FARMERS FOR ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

CROSS-POLLINATED (CUCURBITS) VEGETABLE CROPS 


In the Cordilleras, local demand for seed materials of 

horticultural crops is quite high. For vegetables, this is 

evident in amount and volume of imported seeds. Plant 

breeders or scientists from research institutions generally 

identify the most appropriate species or varieties for seed 

production. Traditionally, however, farmers themselves, 

based from their experiences, identify appropriate varieties 

in their specific areas. Again, although cultural management 

practices of vegetable crops intended for seed production are 

similar to those for fresh market; a few differences need 

utmost consideration. 

362 



appropriate? 


sessions, when some 

cross-pollinated vegetable 

crops (e.g., cucurbits) 

are grown for seeds in 




and do hands-on of 

proper seed selection and 

seed production of some 

cross-pollinated vegetable 

crops (e.g., cucurbits). 

For cross-pollinated crops like cucurbits and crucifers, maintaining appropriate isolation distance is 

important to maintain genetic purity by preventing unwanted pollination and unnecessary admixture 

of seeds at harvest, especially when planting two cultivars of the same crop. The minimum isolation 

distance for seed production is 400 m in cucurbits, and 1,000 m in crucifers. The presence of 

pollinators (e.g., ants, bees, wasps, and flies) is necessary for cross-pollinating crops. In cucurbits, 

assisted pollination, which involves collection of pollen from dehiscing male flowers and manually 

introducing them on receptive female flowers of the same plant, is sometimes necessary to increase 

fruit setting 247 . 

Regular field inspection and roguing should be done throughout the life cycle of crop to remove 

other crops or cultivars, noxious weeds, off-types, deformed or pest and diseases affected plants, and 

other plants whose characteristics do not conform with desired cultivar at early and late vegetative, 

flowering, fruiting, and harvesting stages. Many vegetable farmers use their own or their neighbor’s 

previous harvests as seeds for next cropping. 






While some farmers practice good seed selection, still, many use seeds that are either non-marketable 

or over mature. In farmer field schools (FFSs), many innovative practices can be shared among 

farmers to ensure sustained availability of cheap but good quality seed materials. This exercise was 

designed to achieve this particular objective. 


• Fifteen to thirty minutes weekly field walks, observations, hands-on, and interaction with 

farmers; and 



• To create awareness and understanding among participants that farmers can do seed selection 

and seed production in their own farms; and 

• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on of innovative practices in seed selection and seed 

production of some cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits). 

materials 


• Other supplies (e.g., paper bags, plastic pails, plastic twines, scythes, and tagging materials); and 

• Some cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits) grown for seeds in learning and adjoining 

fields. 

methodology 


steps 


cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits) for seeds in learning and adjoining 

fields. Take note of cultural management practices employed. Interview other farmers, if 


5 Uniformity in crop stand and vigor at early vegetative stage; 

5 Date of flowering (e.g., number of days from emergence to flower initiation); 

363

5 Maturity (e.g., number of days from emergence to harvest); 

5 Pest and diseases incidence (e.g., major pest and diseases); and 

5 Size and shape of fruits (e.g., maturity index of crop). 

364 




facilitators. Motivate farmers to share their best experiences in seed selection and seed production 

of some cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits) in their own farms, especially on the 

following: 

5 Selection of species or varieties for seed production; 

5 Isolation distance between crop varieties; 

5 Presence of pollinators and conduct of assisted pollination; 

5 Regular field inspection and roguing; and 

5 Harvesting at the most mature stage of seed. 

3. Facilitate each small group to do hands-on of best experiences in seed selection and seed 

production in a portion of some cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits) grown in 

learning field, as follows: 

5 Determine area needed for farmer’s seed requirement (e.g., know farmer’s seed requirement 

per hectare, his normal yield level per cropping, and his estimated production per unit area). 

5 Measure and mark boundaries in a portion of some cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., 

cucurbits) grown in learning field (e.g., using above estimated area). 

5 Conduct regular inspection and roguing (e.g., regular removal of other cultivars, weeds, offtypes, 

deformed or disease and pest affected plants and other plants whose characteristics 

do not conform with desired cultivar at early vegetative, flowering, fruiting and harvesting 

stages). 

5 Ensure presence of pollinators (e.g., providing artificial food or growing flowering plant 

around) or conducting assisted pollination (e.g., manual pollination of receptive female 

flowers). 

5 Employ other cultural management practices shared and agreed upon in a big group 


5 Take note of all relevant observations and experiences during this activity on a weekly basis. 


conclusions and recommendations from this exercise; and


5. As an additional activity, conduct participatory discussions on steps to be undertaken after 

hybridization, particularly on the following areas: 

5 Evaluation of hybrids; 

5 Selection from F 2 population onwards; 

5 Selection environment and criteria; and 

5 Labeling and nomenclature of selections. 


❏ What is a cross-pollinated crop? What were the most common cross-pollinated vegetable crops 

observed in farmers’ field? 

❏ Do we need pollinators for cross-pollinated vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits) intended for seed 

production? 

❏ Why do we need to maintain an isolation distance between vegetable crops intended for seed 

production? 

❏ Why do we need to conduct regular monitoring and roguing of cross-pollinated vegetable crops 

(e.g., cucurbits) grown for seed purposes? 

❏ Which cross-pollinated vegetable crops did farmers grow and use for seed purposes? 

❏ What seed selection and seed production practices did farmers employ for cross-pollinated 

vegetable crops (e.g., cucurbits)? 

❏ Did you learn better seed selection and seed production practices for cross-pollinated vegetable 

crops (e.g., cucurbits) from other farmers? 

❏ What cultural management practices are important for some cross-pollinated vegetable crops 

(e.g., cucurbits) grown for seed purposes? 

365


PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING BY FARMERS 

FOR ORGANICALLY-GROWN CROSS-POLLINATED 

(CUCURBITS) VEGETABLE CROPS 


366 



appropriate? 


when some cross-pollinated 

vegetables (e.g., cucurbits) are 

organically-grown as parent 

materials for studies of plants’ 

biological processes (e.g., 

planting to harvest) and for 

participatory plant breeding 

exercises (e.g., flowering stages) 




and do hands-on of proper 

hybridization of crosspollinated 

vegetables (e.g., 

cucurbits) in their own farms. 

The cucurbit family represents a large and highly diverse 

range of vegetables that are popular among farmer 

communities throughout Asia and in many other parts of 

the world. The family includes crops like bitter gourd 

(ampalaya), squash (kalabasa) wax gourd (kondol), 

cucumber (pipino), chayote (sayote), bottle gourd (upo), 

sponge gourd (patola), water melon (pakwan), melon 

(milon), and others. Although the morphology of plants 

and fruit types differ, most crops have very similar 

features, like: (a) plant and flower morphology; (b) crop 

growth development; (c) type of pests and diseases 

affecting crop; (d) reproductive processes [monoecious/ 

single sex flowers, insect pollinated]; and (e) suitable breeding and selection methods. 

Crops in cucurbit family are grown primarily for their fruits and have been adapted to suit very different 

environments and consumer demands. Fruits are eaten fresh as sweets or used in salads, and are valued 

in green or mature form and used in a variety of culinary dishes. Some cucurbit crops feature important 

secondary purposes as well. For example, consumers savor stems, leafs, flowers, and seeds. Many plant 

parts also exhibit medicinal values. Some crops are even used for non-food purposes, such as in case of 

sponge gourd and bottle gourd. This reflects great diversity in cucurbit family. 

Many cucurbit crops are organically-grown as cash crops. This places high demand in market channels. 

Knowing customer preferences will add to the effectiveness of a participatory breeding program for 

organically-grown cucurbit crops. Participatory breeding in cucurbit crops is well appreciated by 

farmers in tropical countries, even though commercially bred varieties are available in many regions. 

Cucurbit crops have very distinct morphological features in terms of plant habit, flowering, and fruiting. 

Unlike cereals, which have very distinct vegetative and reproductive growth phases, plant growth stages 

in cucurbits overlap each other. The plant continues to grow, flower, and produce new fruits until entire 

plant ages and dies off. 


Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. 136p.


Most cucurbits have a monoecious flower, which means that flowers of both sexes appear on 

same plant. A flower can be either male or female. The flowers are thus incomplete, a typical 

characteristic of cucurbits, which result mostly to their out-crossing or cross-pollinating in nature. 

Other well-known crops with monoecious flowers are corn and cassava. Female flowers are easily 

distinguishable by ovule (baby fruit) below petals, which develops into a fruit after pollination 

of stigma. The ovule is divided into 4-5 segments, each with many egg cells. Male flowers have 

anthers instead. Some varieties of melons and watermelons however also produce a small percentage 

of complete flowers, that is, ‘female flowers’ with anthers. 

In cucurbits, insects, such as bees, butterflies, flies, and beetles, primarily pollinate flowers. Insects 

are attracted to visit flowers because of its color and nectar, and by doing so; they carry some pollen 

to the next flower, thereby facilitating the pollination process. Besides color and smell, insect’s 

visiting behavior is also strongly influenced by environmental factors, including day and night 

fluctuations, sunshine and rainfall, and flower opening and closing. These aspects therefore, have a 

profound influence on the pollination process. 

In FFSs, many innovative experiences can be shared among farmers to understand the biological 

processes involved in reproduction of cross-pollinated vegetable crops, such as those in cucurbit 

family, which is a prerequisite for successful operation of participatory plant breeding program. 

After learning plant’s reproduction processes, farmers will be able to apply their knowledge by 

crossing a number of self-selected cross-pollinated varieties, and study different methods and tools, 

which influence success of hybridization. 


• Fifteen to thirty minutes daily (1 st week) and weekly (succeeding weeks) for field walks, 

observations, hands-on, and interaction with farmers; and 



• To create awareness and understanding among participants about the crops’ biological processes 

and how hybridization of cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., cucurbits) can be accomplished in 

their own farms; and 

• To learn from other farmers and do hands-on using innovative experiences in hybridization of 

cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., cucurbits). 

367

materials 

368 



• Other supplies (e.g., , glassine bags, forceps, , paper clips, , pen, and tags); and 

• Cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., cucurbits) organically grown as parent materials for crossbreeding 

exercises in learning and adjoining fields. 

methodology 


steps 

1. Divide participants in small groups and ask them to conduct field walks and observe crosspollinated 

vegetables (e.g., cucurbits) organically-grown for study of crops’ biological processes 

and hybridization exercises in learning and adjoining fields. Take note of cultural management 

practices employed. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related 

to: 

5 Plant morphology and growth stages (e.g., duration of and changes in morphological 

structures at different growth stages) 

5 Other plant characters (e.g., branchiness, vigor) 

5 Flower morphology (e.g., perfect or imperfect flower) and date of flowering (e.g., number 

of days from emergence to flower initiation) 


5 Pest and diseases incidence (e.g., major pest and diseases) 

5 Size and shape of fruits (e.g., maturity index of crop) 

5 Other fruit characters (color of rind and flesh, flesh thickness, taste, texture, etc) 



facilitators. 

3. Motivate farmers to share their understanding in crops’ biological processes and best experiences 

in hybridization of cross-pollinated vegetables (e.g., cucurbits) in their own farms, especially 

on the following: 

5 Selection of species or varieties as parent materials for hybridization; 

5 Morphological differences of species or varieties selected as parent materials for hybridization;


5 Fruit characters of the selected parents 

5 Pest and disease reactions of species or varieties selected as parent materials for 

hybridization; and 

5 Yield comparison of species or varieties selected as parent materials for hybridization 

4. Facilitate each small group to do hands-on of best experiences on studying crops’ 

biological processes and cross-breeding exercises for some cross-pollinated vegetables 

(e.g., cucurbits) organically-grown in learning field, as follows: 

Plant Morphology and Growth Stages of Cucurbits: 

Note: This activity on morphology and growth stages of vegetables helps farmers to structure 

and share their knowledge on plants with each other. 

5 Ask participants prior to session to collect as many samples of any suitable cucurbit crops. 

For comparison, include plants of different varieties and different crops. Ensure that entire 

plants are dug up, including stems, vines, fruits, and root systems. 

5 Each small group of 5-6 farmers observes plants carefully and note differences between 

different growth stages, crops, and varieties. Make drawings of plants and plant parts, 

name parts, and mention their functions. 

5 In addition, give each small group one or more of following tasks: 

• Assess number of days between germination and flowering, fruiting, fruit harvest, and 

seed maturity. Prepare a timeline and indicate respective number of days for dates 

of flowering, fruit harvest, and maturity of crops and varieties used in hybridization 

studies. 

• Count number of nodes to first female flower 

• Count number of male and female flowers on plants and compute female sex rate as follows: 

Female Sex Rate = 

Number of female flower x 100 

Total number of flowers 

• Count number of fruits and female flowers and compute fruiting rate: 

Fruiting Rate = 

Number of fruits x 100 

Total number of female flowers 

369

370 


• Ask small groups to present findings in plenary. Display and discuss drawings. Ensure 

that participants understand growth stages and terminologies used. 

• Take note of all relevant observations and experiences during this activity. 

Plant Reproductive Morphology of Cucurbits: 

Note: In this exercise, farmers acquaint themselves with flower characteristics and biological 

processes involved in reproduction of cucurbit crops. This session precedes hands-on 

and practice of hybridization. 

5 Each small group of 5-6 farmers will collect as many flowers from as many crops as 

possible in learning and adjoining fields. Flowers may be taken from field, flower garden, 

trees and bushes in backyard, or from the wild. Include also flower of cucurbit plants for 

comparison. Spread collected flowers on table. 

5 Assign each small group to study different flowers, one of which should be a cucurbit flower. 

Participants use scissors, scalpels, forceps, and magnifying glasses to study different parts 

of flower including ovule with stigma, egg cells, and stamen. 

5 In addition, assign each small group the following tasks: 

• Make a drawing of flowers studied; add names and functions of flower parts. 

• Indicate which flowers are complete or perfect, and which are incomplete or imperfect. 

• Make a drawing of cucurbit plant’s life cycle. 

5 Each small group will present and discuss their findings in plenary. Discuss results and 

ensure that reproduction processes are clear to everyone. 


Preparation for Hybridization Works in Cucurbits: 

5 Prior to hybridization practice, review crossing table prepared earlier as shown in the 

example below: 

Parent Materials 

Mother 

Plants 

(Female 

Parent) 

Father Plants (Male Parent) No. of 

Variety 1 Variety 2 Variety 3 Variety 4 Crosses 


Variety 2 3 3 


Variety 4 4 4


5 Head for learning field in the afternoon. Select female flower buds that will open the next 

day. Once flower buds have been identified, cover them with glassine bag or aluminum 

foil to prevent insects from entering. Clip the bag at bottom carefully with stapler. Be sure 

not to damage peduncle. 

5 In the male parent, select male flowers that will open the next day. Cover the flower bud 

with glassine bag of aluminum foil to prevent opening contaminating the pollen with 

pollen from other flowers. 

5 Write variety’s name on bag (optional). 

5 At end of exercise, enter varieties and number of bagged flower buds in crossing table. 


Pollination of Cucurbit Female Flowers (Female Parent): 

Note: To be undertaken in early morning or afternoon following preparation for crossbreeding 

works. 

5 Inspect bags on female flowers and observe if they are still intact and flowers have opened. 

5 Review crossing table for selected male parents. 

5 Proceed with collecting bagged freshly opened male flowers on plants of selected parent 

variety and put flowers in a plastic bag identified with name of male variety. 

5 Prior to pollination, carefully remove glassine bag from female flower. Gently rub pollen 

from the anthers of the male flower on stigma of female flower. Be sure to touch all lobes. 

Once again, pull bag over flower and staple or secure with clip. 

5 Add name of male parent on bag. It is custom to write mother plant first followed by father 

plant. Write also date of crossing and initials of breeder for identification. 

5 At end of exercise, count number of crosses and enter both father variety and number of 

crosses in crossing table. 


Inspection of Fertilized Cucurbit Flowers: 

5 Three to four days after pollination, remove bags and observe crossed flowers. By this 

time, flower petals have dropped. If pollination was successful, ovary (baby fruit) is clearly 

visible and growing. if it was not successful, flower has wilted all together. 

5 Attach a tag to stem just below successfully hybridized flower so that it is easily visible. 

On tag, write name of parent varieties (with female parent first), date when cross was made, 

and initials of farmer-breeder. 

5 Count the number of successfully pollinated flowers and make a record in crossing table. 

371

372 


5 Calculate percentage of successful crossing by computing success rate as follows: 

% Successful Crosses = 

Number of pollinated fruits x 100 


5 Discuss results from variety crossing table in plenary. Compare and review targets, number 

of actual crossing with rate of success. 



conclusions and recommendations from this exercise; and 

6. As an additional activity, conduct participatory discussions on important concerns, particularly 

on the following areas: 

5 Potential characters of hybrids produced; 

5 Evaluation of hybrids produced; and 

5 Purity of hybrids as a function of purity of parents used. 


❏ What are the similarities and differences in plant morphology of different cucurbit crops? 

❏ What are the similarities and differences in flower morphology of different cucurbit crops? 

❏ Why do we need to monitor flowering stages of parent varieties? 

❏ Why is emasculation not required for cucurbit crops? Why do we pollinate flowers during 

hybridization of cucurbit crops? 

❏ When are the best times for preparation and pollination of cucurbit flowers for successful 

hybridization? 

❏ What is the use of a variety crossing table? What are the reasons for low success rate of your 

hybridization work? 

❏ What is the purpose of bagging and tagging of pollinated cucurbit flowers? 

❏ What is the most productive and cost efficient way to hybridize two varieties? 

❏ How many successful crosses do we need to build a successful hybridization? How many 

crosses can you manage?


HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 

As pointed out earlier, losses during and after harvest are distributed throughout the entire 

marketing chain, from farmer to consumer. These are attributed to three general technical 

causes, namely: (a) poor quality at harvest; (b) careless harvesting and handling; and (c) 

improper processing methods 249 . 

• Poor quality at harvest. No amount of treatment can convert produce that is poor in quality 

at harvest into one of good quality. Quality could, at best, be only maintained. Poor quality 

produce may be due to: (a) wrong variety [or hybrid] for intended purpose; (b) improper 

production methods and conditions; and (c) harvesting either immature or over-mature produce. 

• Careless harvesting and handling. This includes: (a) carelessness during harvesting and 

physical handling; (b) failure to consider control of environmental factors that affect shelf life 

of produce; and (c) delay in primary processing. 

• Improper processing method. Harvested produce has to be processed properly so that good 

quality at harvest can be maintained. This includes proper methods and conditions in post 

harvest handling and processing. 

Thus, this sub-section deals on exercises adapted from best practices and learning experiences 

by FFS facilitators and farmer-practitioners, as well as by technical experts on harvest and postharvest 

management topics relevant to organic vegetable production. Among others, these include 

exercises on determining right maturity in harvesting organic vegetable crops, harvest and postharvest 

handling and primary processing of organic vegetables, and maintaining quality of organic 

vegetables for marketing. 

249 Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Agriculture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 

(SEARCA) and University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp 424-435. 

373


DETERMINING RIGHT MATURITY IN HARVESTING 

ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLE CROPS FOR SEED 

PRODUCTION AND MARkETING PURPOSES 


Crop maturity varies with the kind, variety, season, and 

purpose for which vegetables are grown. The right crop 

maturity normally depends on whether it will be harvested 

for seed production or marketing as fresh vegetable. For seed 

production purposes, crops are harvested at the most mature 

stage of seed. This is also called as the stage of physiological 

maturity of seed when all food reserves needed by the seed 

have been accumulated. Thus, it is at its state of maximum 

dry weight, its highest vigor, and quality level 251 . 

374 



appropriate? 



harvesting of organicallygrown 





from others better ways 

to determine the right 

maturity in harvesting 

crops for seed production 

or marketing as fresh 

vegetables. 

When marketing as fresh vegetable, a certain period is known to be the most appropriate time or 

schedule of harvesting. This also signifies the best time to pick vegetable pods or fruits for them 

to be more appealing to consumers. Although each crop has its own signs to show that it is ready 

for harvest (maturity index) 252 , the produce is often harvested too early if it commands a good price 

and there is a great financial need, or if there is a risk of losing crops owing to unfavorable climatic 

conditions. 

Farmers in the Cordilleras and other organic vegetable growing areas had their own experiences in 

determining the right maturity for their organically-grown vegetable crops and some good reasons 

for their continuous practice. These best practices must be shared among farmers in farmer field 

schools (FFSs) to further improve their understanding in determining right maturity in harvesting 

their organically-grown vegetable crops either for seed production or marketing purposes. The 

foregoing exercise was designed to achieve this particular purpose. 





252 PCARRD. 1985. National Technoguide on Indigenous Vegetable Backyard Gardening. Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and 

Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp41-43.



• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of harvesting operations in 

organically-grown vegetables at adjoining fields of learning field; and 



• To make participants aware and understand how proper timing of harvesting their organicallygrown 

vegetable crops for seed production or marketing purposes can improve productivity and 


• To learn better experiences from other farmers on the proper timing of harvesting their 

organically-grown vegetables that will improve productivity and profitability. 

materials 

• Organically-grown vegetable crops ready for harvesting in adjoining and learning fields; and 


methodology 


steps: 


vegetable crops ready for harvesting in adjoining and learning fields. Interview other 

farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to timing of harvesting, crops planted, 

crop stand, etc. 



facilitators. List down important observations shared by farmers, such as: 

5 Crops grown for seed production and for marketing as fresh vegetables; 

5 Criteria used in deciding when to harvest crops for seed production and for marketing as 

fresh vegetables; and 

5 Cultural practices followed for crop grown for seed production and for marketing as fresh 

vegetables. 

375

376 





❏ Did you observe vegetable crops organically grown either for seed production or marketing 

purposes in farmers’ fields? 

❏ What crops did farmers grow for seed production and marketing as fresh vegetables? 

❏ When do farmers harvest their organically-grown vegetable crops for seed production purposes? 

When do farmers harvest their crops for marketing as fresh vegetables? 

❏ What criteria do farmers use in determining the right time of harvesting for seed production or 

marketing purposes? 

❏ Did you observe differences in cultural management practices employed for vegetable crops 

organically grown for seed production or marketing purposes? 

❏ Did you observe differences in pest and disease occurrence between crops organically grown 

for seed production and marketing purposes? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers their best experiences on the proper timing of harvesting 

different organic vegetable crops? How did they do it? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement proper timing of harvesting to 

improve productivity and profitability of vegetables organically grown for seed production and 

marketing purposes?



DETERMINING MATURITY INDEX IN 

HARVESTING ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

SNAP BEANS AND GREEN PEAS FOR SEEDS 


Maturity index refers to signs expressed by a crop 

to show that it is ready for harvest 254 . If crop is 

grown for seeds, harvesting should be done at the 

stage of physiological maturity that when seeds 

have accumulated all food reserves, are at their 

state of maximum dry weight, highest vigor and quality level. For any vegetable crop or variety, 

big seeds have more food reserves than small seeds, all other factors being equal, hence are better 

seed materials. Big seeds produce plants that are more vigorous. They flower early and give higher 

yields. For seed production of vegetable crops, seeds are harvested when fruits or pods are overmature 

for consumption 255 . 

For snap beans and green peas, pods are harvested when yellowish or in most cases when they are 

already starting to dry up. In middle elevation areas of Benguet and Mountain Province, majority 

of vegetable farmers grow snap beans and green peas due to their adaptability to relatively warmer 

temperatures. Many farmers depend on legume vegetable seeds produced in their own fields. Thus, 

quality of their seeds depends on the proper timing of harvesting and storage. 

In FFSs, innovative experiences in determining proper maturity indices of various legume vegetables 

must be shared among farmers to further improve their existing practices. The foregoing exercise 

was specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 


• Thirty minutes to one hour for field walks and observations of proper maturity index for 

organically-grown legume vegetables intended for seeds in adjoining and learning fields; and 




254 PCARRD. 1985. National Technoguide on Indigenous Vegetable Backyard Gardening. Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and 

Development (PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp41-43. 



377 


appropriate? 


before harvesting of organicallygrown 

legume vegetables intended 

for seeds in learning field; and 

ɶ When farmers want to learn from 

others better ways to determine the 

right maturity index of organicallygrown 

legume vegetables intended 

for seeds.


378 


• To make participants aware and understand how harvesting at proper maturity index of 

organically-grown legume vegetables intended for seeds can improve productivity and 


• To learn better experiences from other farmers on harvesting at proper maturity index of 

organically-grown legume vegetables intended for seeds. 

materials 

• Organically-grown legume vegetables intended for seeds ready for harvesting in adjoining and 

learning fields; and 


methodology 


steps 


legume vegetables intended for seeds ready for harvesting in adjoining and learning 

fields. Interview other farmers, if necessary. List down all observations related to maturity 

indices used, timing of harvesting, crops planted, crop stand, etc. 



facilitators. List down important harvest indices shared by farmers, such as: 

5 Color of crop foliage at harvesting time; 

5 Color, shape, and size of pods or fruits at harvest time; 

5 Time to harvest pods or fruits during pod or fruit development stage; and 

5 Other criteria considered for harvesting. 





❏ Did you observe some maturity indices used in harvesting organically-grown legume vegetables 

grown for seeds in farmers’ fields? 

❏ What maturity indices did farmers’ use when harvesting organically-grown snap beans and 

green peas intended for seeds? 

❏ What reasons did farmers give for using a particular maturity index when harvesting organically 

grown snap beans and green peas intended for seeds? 

❏ Did farmers use a different set of maturity indices in harvesting other vegetable crops intended 

for seeds? What are these maturity indices? 

❏ Did you observe different seed-borne pests and diseases among organically-grown legume 

vegetables intended for seeds harvested at varying maturity indices? 

❏ Did you learn from other farmers their best experiences on using various maturity indices in 

harvesting organically-grown legume vegetables intended for seeds? How did they do it? 

❏ What other cultural management practices can complement the use of proper maturity index 

in harvesting organically-grown legume vegetables intended for seeds to improve productivity 

and profitability? 

379


PROPER HARVESTING AND SEED STORAGE FOR 

SUSTAINED AVAILABILITY OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLE VARIETIES AND BREEDING LINES 


In plant breeding, harvest time is one of the most critical 

periods in a season. Selected varieties, plants and crosses 

must be carefully identified, harvested, threshed, and stored. 

Seeds of fruits are extracted after harvest, or if fruits can be 

380 


stored long enough, just before re-planting. Seed lots must be identified with tags and labels and 

entered in bags to avoid admixtures. Clean storage rooms must be prepared for fruit and seed that 

will be used for next season. Additional fruits may be harvested for further post-harvest evaluations 

like cooking quality, taste, and shelf life 256 . 

In farmer field schools (FFSs), innovative experiences in harvesting and seed storage of their 

organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines must be shared among farmers to further 

improve their existing practices. The foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this 

purpose. 


• At least thirty minutes for brainstorming session; 

• At least one hour for mini-workshop; 

• At least one hour for participatory discussion using guide questions; and 

• At least half day for field visit (optional). 


appropriate? 


sessions, just before 

harvesting and before 

start of discussions on 

‘Harvesting and Postharvest 

Management in 

Vegetables’. 


Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. pp75- 

76.



• To discuss issues, problems, and concerns in harvesting and seed storage of farmers’ organicallygrown 

vegetable varieties and breeding lines; 

• To build awareness among farmers of their best practices in organically-grown vegetable 

varieties and breeding lines; and 

• To discuss some interventions by experts to improve harvesting and seed storage of farmers’ 

organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines. 

methodology 

• Mini-workshop, field visit, and guided participatory discussions 

materials 

• Five cartolina cardboard (4 x 8 inches of assorted colors), notebooks, Manila paper, marking 

pens, paste, scissors, Kraft envelop (e.g., for mini-workshop); 

• Five guide questions (one for each group), Manila paper, marking pens (e.g., for participatory 

discussion); and 

• Village-type farmers’ harvest and seed storage facilities (e.g., for field visit). 

steps 

Field Visit: 

1. Conduct field visit to village-type harvest and seed storage facilities for organically-grown 

vegetable varieties and breeding lines. Expose participants to these facilities and their 

operations that have been existing for at least 2 years. 

2. Ask participants to observe and interview farmer-breeders, seed production personnel, and 

farmers focusing more on objectives of the topic. 

Mini-workshop: 

3. Divide big group into five smaller groups. Facilitators prepare sufficient materials including 

notebooks and drawing materials. Instructions for sharing of experiences and mini-workshop 

will be provided by facilitators (e.g., to be written in a sheet of paper), as follows: 

381

382 


5 Farmers will share their experiences on methods of harvesting, drying, and storage. Focus 

will be on farmers’ practices to keep different varieties; 

5 Facilitators guide discussions considering differences between farmer’ practices and 

requirements for breeding (e.g., comparison of farmers’ and breeders’ system of harvest 

and storage) using table below: 

COMPONENTS FARMERS’ SYSTEM BREEDERS’ SYSTEM 

Variety cross for selection 

Post-harvest evaluation 

Re-testing of variety 

Planting in own field 

Others 

5 Facilitators elaborate on requirement to avoid admixtures, keeping records of various fruits 

and seed lots, and need or seed bags and clean storage spaces; 

5 Motivate farmers to share experiences by asking questions by asking where farmers 

foresee problems; and 

5 Prepare a work plan or harvest of cross-breeding studies in learning field and assign 

responsibilities. 

4. Conduct brainstorming sessions in small groups and present results to the big group. 

5. The facilitator should guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize 

result of small groups’ brainstorming and workshop sessions in plenary and come up with 

recommendations as a result of this activity. 

Guided Questions: 

6. Facilitators formulate five questions on relevant issues, problems, and concerns in harvesting 

and seed storage of farmers’ organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines. 

7. Each small group draws a question, brainstorms for 10 minutes, answers question, and presents 

output to the big group.


8. Facilitators guide a participatory discussion to solicit reactions from participants and share 

additional information on issues, problems, and concerns in harvesting and seed storage of 

farmers’ organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines. 


❏ What are the main differences between farmers’ system and breeders’ system of harvesting and 

seed storage? 

❏ Do you have sufficient labels, bags, drying areas, and storage space to handle different varieties 

and lines? 

❏ Where can you get original seed to keep your variety true-to-type? 

❏ What are the issues, concerns, and problems confronting farmers in harvesting and seed storage 

of their organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines? 

❏ What has been done to address issues, problems, and concerns in harvesting and seed storage 

of organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines at farmer and community levels? 

❏ What are the farmers and researchers best experiences in harvesting and seed storage of 

organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines? 

383


VILLAGE GENEBANk FOR SUSTAINED AVAILABILITY 

OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLE VARIETIES AND 

BREEDING LINES 


A key problem for farmers in their participatory plant 

breeding (PPB) program is ensuring safe storage of their 

generated and introduced key varieties and breeding lines. 

Local storage techniques by small farmers in humid tropical 

384 



appropriate? 






Management in 


areas are often inadequate to safeguard against seed loss because of insect damage and loss of 

viability. Difficulties also occur because of low quality packaging and inadequate identification 

and labeling, resulting in seed admixtures and accidental loss of seed lots. A village genebank 

facilitates access to local varieties and breeding materials generated by farmers’ PPB programs, and 

increases ownership by farming communities. 

Village genebanks supports farmers’ PPB programs in different way. They support local breeding 

programs; farmers need to access genebanks more frequently and, therefore, they need to be 

established close to farmers who will use breeding materials. In addition to local and exotic varieties, 

village genebanks may store seeds of multiple breeding lines. In practice, a village genebank can 

have 100 or more different entries. 

Conditions for seed storage at community level depend on purpose and length of storage needed. 

Three types of storage can be distinguished: (a) Inter-seasonal storage spans period between two 

seasons, which can be 1-4 months; (b) Over-seasonal storage secure availability of sufficient seed 

over a longer span of time, usually more than one season as mid-term backup; and (c) Backup 

storage allows storage of collected local varieties, especially the more exotic materials, as backup 

for future use in local breeding programs. 

Village genebanks for farmers’ PPB programs are by definition small, accessible, and low-tech. 

Examples of low-tech storage used by farmers are: (a) closed rat-proof aluminum cupboards are 

suitable for inter-seasonal seed storage; (b) small air-tight plastic or tin containers, applied with 

ash or silica gel for dehydration and grinded neem [Azadirachta indica] or dried marigold flowers 


Participatory Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. pp117- 

118.


[Tagetes sp.] as insect repellent, are suggested for use in over-seasonal seed storage; and (c) small 

air-tight mini-glass bottles can be used for long-term seed storage of different varieties and breeding 

materials. 

Farmers managing village genebanks should keep two types of record books: (a) store book, where 

type and origin of seed stored is retained, such as name of variety or breeding lines, date of harvest, 

quantity stored and taken out; and (b) source book, which contains information concerning history 

and characteristics of variety or breeding lines which is important in creating a reference tool and 

monitoring progress of breeding work. 

In farmer field schools (FFSs), innovative experiences in maintaining village genebanks for farmers’ 

organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines must be shared among farmers to further 

improve their existing practices. The foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this 

purpose. 


• At least thirty minutes for sharing of experiences; 

• At least one hour for mini-workshop; 




• To discuss issues, problems, and concerns in village genebank operation for farmers’ organicallygrown 

vegetable varieties and breeding lines; 

• To build awareness among farmers regarding their best practices in village genebank operation 

for organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines; and 

• To discuss some interventions by experts to improve harvesting and seed storage of farmers’ 

organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines. 

methodology 

• Mini-workshop, field visit, and guided participatory discussions 

385

materials 

386 


• Five cartolina cardboard (4 x 8 inches of assorted colors), notebooks, Manila paper, marking 

pens, paste, scissors, Kraft envelop (e.g., for mini-workshop); 



• Village genebank facilities (e.g., for field visit). 

steps 


1. Conduct field visit to village genebanks for organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding 

lines. Expose participants to these facilities and their operations that have been existing for at 

least 2 years. 

2. Ask participants to observe and interview farmer-breeders, seed production personnel, and 

farmers focusing more on objectives of the topic. 

Brainstorming Session: 

3. Conduct brainstorming sessions in big group as follows: 

5 Farmers will share their ideas on need for a village genebank. Focus will be on farmers’ 

storage practices to keep different varieties; 

5 Facilitators elaborate different types of seed storage (e.g., comparison of farmers’ and 

breeders’ genebank operations); 

5 Farmers and facilitators share ideas on need for proper record keeping and labeling; 

5 Facilitators summarize shared ideas, experiences, and recommendations. 


4. Divide big group into five smaller groups. Facilitators prepare sufficient materials including 

notebooks and drawing materials. Instructions for sharing of experiences and mini-workshop 

will be provided by facilitators (e.g., to be written in a sheet of paper), as follows: 

5 Small groups sit down to prepare outline for a source book; 

5 Similarly, small groups make outline for a store book


5 In plenary, small groups present their output 

5 In plenary, facilitators consolidate outlines for source book and store book to come up with 

one standard format. 

5. The facilitator should guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize 

result of small groups’ brainstorming and workshop sessions in plenary and come up with 

recommendations as a result of this activity. 


6. Facilitators formulate five questions on relevant issues, problems, and concerns in village 

genebank operations for farmers’ organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines. 


output to the big group. 


additional information on issues, problems, and concerns in village genebank operations for 

farmers’ organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines. 


❏ Why do we need village genebanks? 

❏ How many seed lots do you need to store, and for how long? List number of breeding lines and 

varieties separately. 

❏ How do you store seed lots now and what improvements can you suggest? 

❏ Is your community’s capacity sufficient to run a village genebank over a long time? 

❏ What has been done to address issues, problems, and concerns in village genebanks for 

organically-grown vegetable varieties and breeding lines at farmer and community levels? 

387


POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PRIMARY PROCESSING 

OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLES 


During plant growth, roots absorb nutrients, moisture, and 

carbon dioxide from atmosphere. The leaves then convert 

these into structural components (e.g., cell walls, membranes, 

and organelles) and food reserves. At harvest, plant parts we 

388 



appropriate? 






Management in 


are interested in are separated from the rest of the plant, hence, photosynthesis in these plant parts 

essentially stops. 

The harvested produce, therefore, has to depend on food and water reserves it has accumulated 

during growth to maintain its physiological processes. Theoretically, once food and water reserves 

declined appreciably, the usefulness of produce is greatly diminished, if not ended. As food and 

water reserves are diminished, the produce’ susceptibility to microbial attack also increases, thus 

resulting in decline of usability. 

Food reserves decrease through degradation (breaking down) and by respiration, while water reserves 

are lost by transpiration. Such decreases in food and water reserves are reflected as moisture loss 

or shriveling, chemical changes (e.g., change in color, taste, aroma, contents of sugar and vitamins), 

and textural modifications (e.g., softening, loss of crispiness, and toughening), and greater activity 

of pathological organisms (e.g., rotting). Any factor that hastens these processes and encourages 

microbial growth will hasten deterioration. The most important factors are as follows: 

• Temperature. Low temperature slows down respiration, transpiration, and other processes 

resulting in deterioration of any produce up to a certain extent. This is the basis for immediately 

cooling a produce and then keeping it at a low temperature. Most tropical produce cannot, 

however, withstand temperature lower than 12 °C. They show abnormalities like discoloration, 

development of sunken areas (pitting), and failure to ripen. These are indications of physiological 

disturbance within a cell. Most crops introduced from temperate zone, like strawberry and 

cabbage, can tolerate temperature as low as 0 °C. 



259 Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 



• Oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen (O 2 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) also influence respiration 

rate within immediate vicinity of the commodity. Since O 2 is a reactant of respiration, by law of 

mass action, a decrease of O 2 from 21 % will slow down respiration rate. Too low concentration 

of O 2 , however, will result in fermentation, giving produce a fermented odor, an off-flavor, 

which is not desirable. 

On the other hand, since CO 2 is a product of respiration, an increase of CO 2 from 0.03 % will 

result in a decrease rate of respiration up to a certain point. Too much accumulation of CO 2 , 

results in CO 2 injury, as manifested by symptoms like discoloration, off–odor, and off-flavor. 

A decrease in O 2 and an increase in CO 2 in immediate vicinity of a commodity, therefore means 

increased storage life. However, a very low amount of O 2 or a high level of CO 2 in a container 

of produce results in rapid decline in quality. 

• Relative humidity. Temperature and relative humidity primarily controls the rate of decline in 

water reserves. The cells of most vegetable produce contain very high amount of moisture. If 

relative humidity of atmosphere is low, the tendency is for cells to lose water to the atmosphere. 

Hence, for most produce, higher temperature and lower relative humidity result in faster water 

loss. Consequently, shriveling occurs. 

At a given temperature, lower relative humidity causes faster transpiration and consequently 

faster shriveling of produce. High temperature aggravate low relative humidity. Vegetables are 

best stored at high relative humidity (e.g., 80-95%), but produce should be healthy, containers 

as well as storage space should be clean because microorganisms multiply very fast under high 

relative humidity. 

• Injuries. Injuries serve as avenues for entry of microorganisms and easy exit of water from 

produce. Even if no wound is visible, cells might have been ruptured during careless handling. 

Fast deterioration of injured cells is a result of evolution of ethylene, faster rate of respiration, 

and transpiration of injured cells as a response to injury. High levels of ethylene speed up 

ripening, causes green produce to turn yellow, and root vegetables to sprout. Therefore, injuries 

have to be kept to a minimum, if not entirely avoided. 

In FFSs, innovative experiences in post-harvest handling and primary processing of crucifers and 

other vegetables must be shared among farmers to further improve their existing practices. The 

foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 

389


390 


• At least one hour for role-playing; 

• At least one hour for puzzle game; 




• To discuss issues, problems, and concerns in post-harvest handling and primary processing of 

organically-grown vegetables; 

• To build awareness among participants on the recent advances in post-harvest handling and 

primary processing of organically-grown vegetables; and 

• To discuss some interventions by government and private sector to improve post-harvest 

handling and primary processing of organically-grown vegetables. 

methodology 

• Role-playing, field visit, puzzle game, and guided participatory discussions 

materials 

• Manila papers, marking pens, and bond papers (e.g., for role-play); 

• Five cartolina cardboard (4 x 8 inches of assorted colors), Manila paper, marking pens, paste, 

scissors, Kraft envelop (e.g., for puzzle game); 



• Post-harvest facilities, traders (e.g., for field visit). 

steps 


1. Conduct field visit to post-harvest facilities and trading post for organically-grown vegetables. 

Expose participants to post-harvest facilities and trader operations that have been existing for 

at least five years. 

2. Ask participants to observe and interview traders, post-harvest personnel, and farmers focusing 

more on objectives of the topic.


Role Play: 

3. Divide big group into five smaller groups. Each small group will designate among them who 

will be farmer, trader or feed miller, government or private sector, and researcher. Instructions 

of roles will be provided by facilitators (e.g., to be written in a sheet of paper), as follows: 

5 Farmer will focus on prevailing issues and problems on post-harvest handling and primary 

processing operations that concerns farmers; 

5 Trader will focus on prevailing issues and problems on post-harvest handling and primary 

processing operations that concern traders or feed millers; 

5 Government sector will focus on measures or interventions (e.g., low farm gate price or 

government support price); 

5 Private sector will focus on support to farmers (e.g., no market or procurement or market 

linkage); and 

5 Researcher will focus on recent advancement to cope up with global competitiveness 

issue (e.g., post-harvest handling and primary processing problems in organically-grown 

vegetables). 

4. Conduct brainstorming sessions in small groups and present role-play to the big group. 

5. The facilitator should guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize result of 

role-play and come up with recommendations as a result of this activity. 

Puzzle Game: 

6. Facilitators prepare necessary materials as follows: 

5 Make cartolina cardboard cutouts of equal sizes (4 x 8 inches). Each cartolina cardboard 

will make 7-10 cutouts of equal sizes. 

5 Draw cabbage head or parts of matured cabbage plant (e.g., whole cabbage plant ready for 

harvest). 

5 Prepare guide questions. (Guide questions will be written on cutouts, kept on Kraft 

envelopes, and provided as part of puzzle game. These will be used to facilitate participatory 

discussion or brainstorming session.) 

7. Facilitators divide big group into five smaller groups (or use their PTD groupings). 

8. Each small group is assigned (by draw lots) as group of farmers, traders or feed millers, 

government or private sectors, and researchers. 

391

392 


9. Each small group forms a puzzle and answers guide questions written on a completed puzzle. 

10. Each small group conducts a brief brainstorming session to answer guide question and present 


11. Facilitators guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize salient points and add 

some key points that may be left out. The big group also provides additional issues, problems, 

or concern and how to address them. 


12. Facilitators formulate five questions relevant to post-harvest handling and primary processing 

operations in organic vegetable production. 




additional information on issues, problems, and concerns related to post-harvest handling and 

primary processing operations in organic vegetable production. 


❏ What are the issues, concerns, and problems confronting post-harvest handling and primary 

processing in local organic vegetable industry? (Post-harvest handlers and Traders) 

❏ What has been done to address post-harvest handling and primary processing in local organic 

vegetable industry in the Philippines? (Government and Private Sectors) 

❏ What is the most recent advancement in post-harvest handling and primary processing of 

organically-grown vegetables in the Philippines? (Researchers) 

❏ Arrange issues and problems in matrix form, as shown in the example below: 

ISSUES/PROBLEMS 

PRIVATE/ 

GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS 

RECENT ADVANCES 

1. Low Price • Government price support • Pesticide-free product 

2. No marketing outlet • Private sector procurement 

and market linkages 

• Product transformation


Note: Facilitators will have to read some recent post-harvest handling and primary processing 

technologies for latest information. All questions are applicable to VST, TOT, and FFS. 

FFS will focus only on farmer and trader issues, problems, and concerns. If not addressed 

during discussions, facilitators will provide inputs on government and private sector 

interventions and recent technologies in organic vegetable production. 

393


MAINTAINING QUALITY OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN 

VEGETABLE CROPS FOR MARkETING 


394 


Post-harvest operations to which organic vegetables are 

subjected vary with crops, distance to which it is transported, 

and outlet (e.g., whether it is for export, for domestic market, or for processing plant). Generally, 

organic vegetable produce are cleaned, sorted, and packed before transporting them, if intended for 

local market. If for export, additional operations have to be done such as weighing, fumigating, 

and labeling. Cleaning and sorting are also more thorough. For most importing countries, grading 

is a necessary operation. Grading is sorting according to a set of criteria recognized by organic 

vegetable industry. This set of criteria is termed as standards. 

Simple methods can be used to prolong storage life of produce for a few days. For small-scale 

producers or retailers, or for home use during hot dry season of a year, quality of organic vegetables 

can be maintained for longer periods under ordinary conditions by evaporative cooling methods. 

Cooling occurs when water is evaporated from a moist surface, because it uses heat or respiration 

coming from the produce in the process of evaporating. At the same time, relative humidity within 

immediate vicinity of produce is increased, thus minimizing shriveling. These methods include: 

(a) sprinkling leafy vegetables with water; (b) wrapping with banana leaves; and (c) burying fruit 

vegetables in moist sand, sawdust, or sterilized soil. Other methods include storing (d) inside a clay 

jar with water at bottom of jar but not coming in contact with fruit; or (e) inside a wet cloth tent. 

In FFSs, innovative experiences in maintaining quality of organically-grown crucifers and other 

vegetables for marketing must be shared among farmers to further improve their existing practices. 

The foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 



appropriate? 


sessions, after discussions 

of the topic ‘Post-harvest 

Handling and Primary 

Processing of Vegetables’. 

• Two hours for field visit to some traders or post-harvest, where there is ongoing organicallygrown 

vegetable buying operations (optional for FFS); 

• Thirty minutes for role-playing; and 

• At least one hour for participatory discussion in small and big groups. 



261 Bautista, O.K. (ed). 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. 2 nd Edition. SEAMEO regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture 




• To discuss participants’ marketing practices, channels, strategies, problems, issues, and 

concerns affecting them and how these are addressed; and 

• To develop an improved marketing strategies for organic vegetable farmers to increase their income. 

methodology 

• Field visit, role-playing, and brainstorming 

materials 

• Notebook, ball pen; 

• Manila paper and marking pen per group; and 

• Some organic vegetable traders and post-harvest handlers, where there is an ongoing 

procurement operation. 

steps 

Field visit: 

1. Prior to field visit, facilitators conduct initial interviews with organic vegetable farmers, traders, 

or government personnel involved in organic vegetable procurement. 

2. Present initial results of observations or data gathered to participants. Brainstorm in a big 

group to agree on what data to collect and observe or what questions to ask during interviews 

with the farmers. Some examples of questions to be asked are: 

5 Is the farmer selling his own organic vegetable produce individually or through a 

cooperative? Why? What are the requirements, terms, and conditions? 

5 Who sets the selling price? How much do they sell their organic vegetable produce? Are 

they satisfied with the price of their produce? 

5 What processes were done before they sell their organic vegetable produce? How many channels 

do their vegetable produce pass through before reaching traders or post-harvest handlers? 

3. Participants conduct field visit in small groups to some vegetable traders or trading posts, 

where there is ongoing organic vegetable procurement operation and implement procedure 

agreed upon by the big group. Participants may consider the following factors in marketing 

organically-grown vegetables: 

395

396 


5 Know the current price of organic vegetable produce; 

5 Know the transportation cost in marketing; 

5 Consider risk and labor in marketing; 

5 Know the condition of organic vegetable produce (e.g., Can it stand long storage?); 

5 Know the expected damage or loss in storage and marketing of organic vegetable produce; 

5 Bid or canvass for higher market prices; and 

5 Know the supply and demand situation. 

4. Go back to the session hall, consolidate outputs of field visit in small groups, and report it to 

the big group. 

Role-playing: 

5. Divide big group into five small groups and give them their respective assignments or tasks. 

6. Three small groups role-play their organic vegetable marketing practices, problems, or concerns 

and how these are addressed. Group leaders assign the following roles to their group members, 

such as: 

5 One participant as trader; 

5 One participant as government representative; 

5 Two participants as farmers; and 

5 One participant as an assembler (e.g., whenever applicable). 

7. Two groups act as observers to record and report practices, channels, strategies, problems, 

issues and concerns, and recommendations made to address some problems or issues portrayed 

in role-play. 

8. Facilitators guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize results of this exercise. 


❏ In what form do farmers normally sell their organic vegetable produce? Why? 

❏ When do they sell their produce? Why? 

❏ Where do farmers get their market information? 

❏ Do farmers grade and pack their organic vegetable produce before selling or marketing? 

❏ Do farmers store their organic vegetable produce before selling or marketing? 

❏ What storage practices do farmers employ before selling or marketing their organic vegetable 

produce?


❏ Who sets the selling price for organic vegetable produce? What are the bases of buying or 

selling price? Are farmers satisfied with selling or buying price set? Why? 

❏ Who buys the farmer’s organic vegetable produce? Why did farmers prefer to sell their organic 

vegetable produce to this outlet? 

❏ Do farmers sell their organic vegetable produce individually or through a cooperative? Why? 

❏ What are some of the farmers’ common organic vegetable marketing problems, issues, or 

concerns and how do they address them? 

397

398 


Section 8 

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCT CERTIFICATION PROCESS AND 

MARkETING STRATEGIES 

Organic agriculture includes all agricultural systems that promote environmentally, socially, 

and economically sound production of food and fibers. It aims to optimize the quality aspects 

of agriculture and environment by respecting the natural capacity of plants, animals, and 

landscape. Organic agriculture dramatically reduces external inputs by relying on the use of local 

resources and the management of the ecosystem and by refraining from use of chemo-synthetic 

fertilizers, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. It allows powerful laws of nature to increase both 

agricultural yields and disease resistance 262 . 

Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances 

agro-ecosystem health, including bio-diversity, biological cycle, and soil biological activity. This 

is accomplished by using agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using 

synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within a system 263 . 

In the Philippines, organic agriculture industry is estimated at P250 million or US$6.2 million. Of this 

value, domestic organic agriculture industry is about P100 million while imports of organic agriculture 

products are estimated at P150 million. The industry is predicted to expand by approximately 10- 

20% annually, but growth could be accelerated with indispensable government support. Likewise, 

it is anticipated that demand for organic agriculture products would outpace local production, while 

potential for increased imports particularly for processed products clearly exist 264 . 

Generally organic agriculture products are marketed in Metro Manila and major urban centers. 

Organic agriculture products used to be very difficult to find in the country. Market for organic 

products could only be found in specialty stores, or during exhibits. Though it is true that organic 

products were sold in niche markets (e.g., weekend markets frequented by upper middle class 

and elite shoppers), now organic products can be seen in supermarkets (e.g., SM, Shop-wise, and 

Landmark), where middle-class income earners shop 265 . 

262 IFOAM. 2006. What is Organic Agriculture: International Definitions. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). As cited in: 

Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/what. 

263 FAO/WHO. 2006. What is Organic Agriculture: International Definitions. International Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization 

(FAO/WHO) Codex Alimentarius Commission. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/philorganic/what. 

264 Canono, J.F. 2000. Philippines Organic Products, Organics Market Brief 2000. Paper prepared for Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agriculture 

Information Network of USDA. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/market. 

265 Pearl 2 Report. 2004. State of the Sector Report on Philippine Organic and Natural Products. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information 

Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/market.

Section 8 • Organic Vegetable Product Certification Process and Marketing Strategies 

In 2004, the Philippine National Organic Board (PNOB) was created to support, among others, 

the following: (a) implementation of Philippine National Organic Standards and Certification 

System; and (b) establishment of a five-year Organic Industry Development Program for adoption 

by respective units of Department of Agriculture (DA), in partnership with the private sector 266 . 

Data gathered by Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP) show that major products 

sold locally include rice, vegetables (e.g., lettuce, cucumber, tomato, ampalaya, okra, camote, 

kangkong, mustard, pechay, squash, eggplant), fruits (e.g., banana, mango, papaya), and muscovado 

sugar 267 . 

266 DA. 2004. Department of Agriculture (DA) Administrative Order No. 25. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www. 

pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/policy. 

267 OCCP. 2005. Report of the Organic Certification Center of the Philippines. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www. 

pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/market. 

399

ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCT CERTIFICATION PROCESS 

400 


Certification is a system by which the conformity of products, services, and practices to 

standards is determined and confirmed. Certification of organic agriculture is primarily a 

certification of production systems or method. It is also a combination of the certification of 

products and quality systems. It is one way of ensuring that products claimed to be organic are really 

produced based on organic standards and procedures. 

There are three modes of verifying if standards are met, namely: first-party certification, second-party 

certification, and third-party certification system. In the first- party system, which is exemplified by 

the participatory guarantee system, a producer has adopted an internal control system and claims 

that the farm’s products are organic. In the second type, the consumer verifies that the production 

system adheres to standards set by him. This is usually seen when there are organized producer 

and consumer groups. In the last type, certification is done independently by a third party or a 

certifying body without direct interest in the business. The third party verifies and confirms that a 

product, service, system, process or material conforms to specific requirements. The third party 

visits an organization, assesses their management system and issues a certificate to show that the 

organization abides by the principles set out in the standards. 

Organic standards for production and processing, fish farming, organic textile and harvesting of 

wild life that have been developed. Organic standards generally include: avoidance of synthetic 

chemical inputs and GMO; use of farm that has been free from chemicals for a number of years, 

keeping detailed records of production and sales; maintaining strict separation of organic products 

from the non-certified; and undergoing periodic on site inspections. 

Certification and standards are important tools that are used generally in defining products from 

organic agriculture and specifically to safeguard the integrity of organic vegetable production. 

Originally, on a voluntary basis, organic certification also serves to efficiently market organic 

products. Understanding the standards will direct practitioners in planning, converting, and 

managing organic operations. As organic production and trade become more regulated and subject 

to mandatory certification, at the national and international markets, it is important to know and 

understand the standards and certification systems applicable to one’s production and/or trading 

activity.


Broadly, a certification process may be split into two parts: (a) inspection [or control] to verify that 

production and handling are carried out in accordance with the standards against which certification 

is to be done; and (b) certification to confirm that production and handling conforms to those 

standards. Certification procedures for organic products should make it possible to track and control 

flow of products from primary production at farm level through each stage of manufacturing right 

to final consumer product. Producers and exporters will have to obtain certification against organic 

standards applicable in those markets, in which they intend to sell their products with an indication 

that they are organic 268 . 

In the Philippines, initial activities towards development of national organic certification program 

started in 1996. In 2000, the Organic Certification and Inspection Program was spearheaded to 

pursue development of organic agriculture products for export. In early 2001, a team of experts 

drafted the Manual of Operation, Certification and Inspection. In mid-2001, the basic Certification 

Standards of the Philippines (CSP) was finalized and the Organic Certification Center of the 

Philippines (OCCP) was created. Recently, the Department of Agriculture (DA) accredited OCCP 

as the sole certifying agency for organic agricultural products in the country 269 . A non-government 

organization (NGO), named Alliance of Volunteers for Development Foundation (AVDF) has also 

set up a certifying body, called Philippine Organic Guarantee Incorporated (POGI). AVDF claims 

to have the people’s organizations of indigenous people as members, and it is also working with 

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Basic Standards 270 . 

268 Limpin, L.R.K. 2009. Organic Standards and Certification. Documents prepared for PCARRD’s Training Manual on Organic Agriculture in the 

Philippines, Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP), 78-B Dr. Lazcano St., Brgy. Laging Handa, Quezon City. pp. 1-3. 

269 Alleje, J. 2005. Status of Certification in the Philippines. Proceedings of Workshop on Development Path of Organic Certification: Building Partnerships 

in Strengthening Organic Agriculture in the Philippines held 7-8 April 2005. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. http//www. 

pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/standards. 

270 Briones, A.M. 2001. National Study: Philippines. Report of the Regional Workshop on ‘Exploring the Potential of Organic Agriculture for Rural Poverty 

Alleviation in Asia and the Pacific held on 26-29 November 2001 in Chiang Mai, Thailand. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information 

Network. http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/standards. 

401


UNDERSTANDING ORGANIC GUARANTEE SYSTEM 

FOR STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION OF ORGANIC 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTS 


402 



appropriate? 






The organic guarantee system is a way by which consumers 

are assured that they obtain organically produced foods. Broadly, there are two (2) ways of 

assurance. One way is the producer’s personal guarantee (no need for a certification program). 

The other way is through a third party certification, a system by which conformity to applicable 

standards is determined and confirmed by a third party or an independent body 271 : 

• Producer’s guarantee. The producer (e.g., farmer, processor, or operator) gives assurance to 

customers. This is applicable where producer’s integrity is widely known to customers who 

usually live within same locality as producers. The producer’s guarantee, also known as first 

party certification, is sufficient when there is mutual understanding between producers and 

consumers such as in various versions of producer-consumer partnerships. There may be no 

popular term used for it but such patronage is a common practice in small towns and villages 

across Asia. 

It occurs when a producer, with an installed internal control system, claims that his farm is 

organic. This type of certification system exists in areas or communities where producer and 

consumer know each other. In the past two years, IFOAM has been studying Participatory 

Guarantee System (PGS) and has recognized it as an alternative guarantee system, which falls 

under first party certification 272 . 

• Third party certification. When producer is unknown, certification is done by an independent 

body or a third party. The production system, the process or method instead of a product, is 

certified as organic. Once certified organic the product carries the organic seal signifying that 

the production process and or processing method is compliant to the organic standard. Thus the 

‘organic’ quality is not verifiable by product testing although in some cases product testing can 

be used to detect non-compliance. The major activities in a certification program are: standard 

setting, inspection, and certification. 

271 Phil-Organic. 2006. Standards and Certification: Philippine Organic Farming. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network (Phil- 

Organic). http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/standards. 

272 Limpin, L.R.K. 2009. Organic Standards and Certification. Documents prepared for PCARRD’S Training Manual on Organic Agriculture in the 

Philippines, Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP), 78-B Dr. Lazcano St., Brgy. Laging Handa, Quezon City. pp. 5-12.


Third-party verification is the only verification process for organic agriculture that issues a 

certificate. It was first instituted in the 1970’s by organic farming groups that first developed 

organic standards. In the early years, farmers inspected one another on a voluntary basis, 

according to a general set of standards. Today third-party certification is a much more formal 

process. Third party verification system is done by a party without direct interest in the economic 

relationship between the supplier and buyer. Certification is the formal and documented 

procedure by which a third party assures that the organic standards are followed. And this 

leads to consumers’ trust in the organic production system and the products. Certification gives 

organic farming a distinct identity and credibility and makes market access easier through 

posting of organic mark on product labels 273 . 

In FFS, innovative experiences in instituting organic guarantee system that maintains and assures 

quality of organic vegetable products must be shared among farmers to further improve their 

productivity and profitability. The foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this 

purpose. 


• Two hours for field visit to some community-based farmer-producers, where organic guarantee 

system (e.g., first and/or third party verification) for organic vegetable products is appropriately 

demonstrated (optional for FFS). 

• Thirty minutes for mini-workshop in small groups; and 

• At least one hour for participatory discussion in big group. 


• To discuss participants’ problems, issues, and concerns affecting different organic guarantee 

system (e.g., first and/or third party verification) followed in their production system for organic 

vegetable products and how will they be addressed and how these are addressed; and 

• To develop strategies for improving organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party 

verification) between farmer-producers and consumers of organic vegetable products to 

increase farmers’ incomes. 

methodology 

• Field visit, mini-workshop, and brainstorming 


Philippines, Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP), 78-B Dr. Lazcano St., Brgy. Laging Handa, Quezon City. pp. 15-20. 

403

materials 

404 




• Some organic vegetable intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, 

wholesalers, etc.), where there is apparent organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party 

verification) for their ongoing organic vegetable production system. 

steps 


1. Prior to field visit, facilitators conduct initial interviews of some market intermediaries (e.g., 

households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) where there is apparent 

organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party verification) for their ongoing organic 

vegetable production system. 


group to agree on what data to collect and observe or questions to ask for interviews of farmers. 

Some examples are: 

5 Organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party verification) followed by farmerproducers 

in their production system for different types of organic vegetable products (e.g., 

mature, immature fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and to what different types of consumers? 

5 Personal guarantees possessed (e.g., first and/or third party verification) by farmerproducers 

that will assure consumers of quality organic vegetable products? 

5 Processes and methods in farmer-producers organic vegetable production system certified 

as organic? 

5 Participants conduct field visit in small groups to some farmer-producers where there 

is apparent organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party verification) for their 

ongoing organic vegetable production system and implement procedure agreed upon by 



the big group.




Provide sheets of paper and pens to draw and write results of discussions. Facilitators should not 

read out questions, but introduce them in a natural way during brainstorming in small groups: 

5 Each small group consolidates observations on organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/ 

or third party verification) followed by farmer-producers in their production system for 

organic vegetable products; 

5 Each small group specifies organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party 

verification) followed by farmer-producers in their production system for different types 

of organic vegetable products (e.g., mature, immature fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and 

different types of consumers of organic vegetable products; 

5 Each small group lists all types of personal guarantees possessed by farmer-producers that 

assure consumers of quality organic vegetable products; and 

5 Each small group writes down processes and methods used by farmer-producers in their 

organic vegetable production system that were certified as organic. 

Participatory Discussions: 



❏ What organic guarantee system (e.g., first and/or third party verification) is followed by farmerproducers 

in their production system for organic vegetable products (e.g., mature, immature 

fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and to what different types of consumers? 

❏ What personal guarantees are possessed by farmer-producers, which will assure consumers of 

quality organic vegetable products? 

❏ What processes and methods used by farmer-producers in their organic vegetable production 

system were certified as organic? 

❏ What are the advantages and disadvantages of different organic guarantee system (e.g., first 

and/or third party verification) followed by farmer-producers in their production system for 

organic vegetable products? 

❏ What are some of farmers’ common problems, issues, and concerns affecting different organic 

guarantee systems (e.g., first and/or third party verification) followed in their production system 

for organic vegetable products and how will they be addressed? 

405


UNDERSTANDING SECOND PARTY CERTIFICATION 

PROCESS FOR ORGANIZED GROUPS OF CONSUMER 

AND PRODUCER OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTS 


406 


Second party certification occurs when a consumer verifies 

production system and adheres to standard set by consumers. This type of certification system fits in 

a situation where there exist an organized consumer and producers group and is commonly known 

as a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA). CSA is defined as a direct marketing partnership 

between a farmer or farmers and a committed network of community supporters or consumers 

who help to provide a portion of a given farm’s operating budget by purchasing shares of a season’s 

harvest in advance of a growing season. CSA shareholders make a commitment to support the 

farm financially (and/or through other roles) throughout a growing season, thereby assuming some 

of costs and risks along with grower(s). Its primary objective is to create an alternative distribution 

system independent of conventional produce market, develop a mutual understanding of needs of 

both producers and consumers as well as develop a better way of life through mutually supportive 

producer-consumer interactions and cooperation. 

In FFS, innovative experiences in instituting organic vegetable certification system for organized 

producer and consumer groups that maintains and assures quality of organic vegetable products 

must be shared among farmers to further improve their productivity and profitability. The foregoing 

exercise was specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 



appropriate? 






• Two hours for field visit to some organized producer and consumer groups, where communitybased 

organic certification system for organic vegetable products is appropriately demonstrated 

(optional for FFS); 


• At least one hour for participatory discussion in big group. 


Philippines, Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP), 78-B Dr. Lazcano St., Brgy. Laging Handa, Quezon City. pp. 12-13.



• To discuss participants’ problems, issues, and concerns in organic certification system followed 

by organized producer and consumer groups, for their organic vegetable products and how will 

they be addressed; and 

• To develop strategies for improving organic certification system between organized producer 

and consumer groups of organic vegetable products to increase their incomes. 

methodology 


materials 



• Some organized producer and consumer groups of organically-grown vegetables, where 

there is apparent organic certification procedure followed for their ongoing organic vegetable 

production system. 

steps 


1. Prior to field visit, facilitators conduct initial interviews of some organized producer and 

consumer groups of organically-grown vegetables where organic certification procedure is 

apparently followed for their ongoing organic vegetable production system. 


group to agree on what data to collect and observe or questions to ask for interviews of farmers. 

Some examples are: 

5 Organic certification procedure followed (e.g., organized producer and consumer groups) 

in their production system for different types of organic vegetable products (e.g., mature, 

immature fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and to what different types of consumers? 

5 Certification standards possessed by organized producer and consumer groups that will 

assure consumers of quality organic vegetable products? 

5 Processes and methods used by organized producer and consumer groups for their organic 

vegetable production system certified as organic? 

407

408 


5 Participants conduct field visit in small groups to some organized producer and consumer 

groups, where there organic certification procedure is apparently followed for their ongoing 

organic vegetable production system and implement procedure agreed upon by the big 

group. 





Provide sheets of paper and pens to draw and write results of discussions. Facilitators should not 


5 Each small group consolidates observations on organic certification procedures followed by 

organized producer and consumer groups in their production system for organic vegetable 

products; 

5 Each small group specifies organic certification procedure followed by organized producer 

and consumer groups in their production system for different types of organic vegetable 

products (e.g., mature, immature fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and different types of 

consumers of organic vegetable products; 

5 Each small group lists all types of standards possessed by organized producer and consumer 

groups that assure consumers of quality organic vegetable products; and 

5 Each small group writes down processes and methods used by organized producer and 

consumer groups in their organic vegetable production systems that were certified as 

organic. 

Participatory Discussions: 

5. Facilitators guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize results of this 

exercise. Participants should have clear understanding of the following: 

5 Certification process for organized producer and consumer groups; 

5 Requirements for certification application for organized producer and consumer groups; 

5 Inspection path (e.g., farm inspection and processing inspection); 

5 Duration of certification process (e.g., 6 months from certification to inspection); and 

5 Validity of inspection (e.g., 18 months) and certification cost (e.g., minimum fee is P15,000).



❏ What organic certification system is followed (e.g., organized producer and consumer groups) 

for their organic vegetable products (e.g., mature, immature fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and to 

what different types of consumers? 

❏ What standards are adopted by farmer-producers that will assure consumers of quality organic 

vegetable products? 

❏ What processes and methods used by organized producer and consumer groups in their organic 

vegetable production system were certified as organic? 

❏ What are the advantages and disadvantages of organic certification system followed by 

organized producer and consumer groups in their organic vegetable products? 

❏ What are some of farmers’ common problems, issues, and concerns in organic certification 

system followed by organized producer and consumer groups in their organic vegetable 

products and how will they be addressed? 

409

MARkETING OF ORGANICALLY-GROWN VEGETABLE CROPS 

410 


Many people do not have a very clear understanding of marketing. No single definition 

of marketing will satisfy everyone. Some tend to think of marketing as ‘selling’ or 

‘advertising’. Others see marketing as an all-inclusive social process that can solve all 

the world’s problems. Meanwhile, some critics seem to blame marketing for most of society’s ill 275 . 

Parallel to organic vegetable production practices, marketing outlets should be well thought-of 

prior to production of any organic vegetable crop. Yield should always be correlated with efficient 

marketing techniques. To increase net return from marketing practices, organic vegetable produce 

should be classified according to their perishability, or classify them as essential or non-essential. 

With this latter classification, proper selection of organic vegetable crops to produce will be highly 

relevant to market demand and marketing practices 276 . Markets today increasingly dictate what 

farmers should grow, and therefore are a vital determinant, not only of farmer’s income, but also 

of crop diversity 277 . Production is related to issue of supply and demand during period of scarcity 

and surplus. The prices of products go up when there is scarcity of production and go down when 

there are surpluses. Farmers grow varieties that are for family consumption while at the same time, 

produce crops that suit preferences of market 278 . 

Thus, this sub-section explores farmers’ market environment and analyzes linkages between market 

and crop diversity. It aims to strengthen farmers’ knowledge of their product market and develop 

a realistic strategy and action plan to diversify marketable organic farm products. Farmers first 

focus on internal aspects, investigating their main problems in production and marketing of crops 

and capacities to change their current production and marketing strategies. Later, farmers, traders, 

and other stakeholders analyze external aspects, exploring existing and alternative strategies. They 

also examine crop’s success factors for current and future markets, including an analysis of products, 

potential for novel diversity within crops, features of customers, market chain, competitors, and a 

macro-analysis. Subsequently, this combined information of internal and external market analysis will 

lead to determining strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and risks for developing an action plan 279 . 

275 McCarthy, E.J. and Perreault, Jr., W.D. 1987. Learning Aid for Use With Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach. 9 th Edition. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 

Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA. pp. 1-7; 1-8. 

276 PCARRD. 1975. The Philippines Recommends for Vegetable Crops. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and 

Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. pp. 147-164. 

277 Smolders, H. and Caballeda, E. 2006. Field Guide for Participatory Plant Breeding in FFS: With Emphasis on Rice and Vegetables. Participatory 

Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. pp. 120. 

278 Centro de Investigacion, Educacion y Desarollo (CIED). 2006. Biodiversity, Interculturability and the Market. As cited in: Community Biodiversity 

Development and Conservation Programme (CBDCP). 2006. Pathways to Participatory Farmer Plant Breeding: Stories and Reflections of the 

Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation Programme. Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE). 

Manila, Philippines. pp. 154-157. 

279 Smolders, H. (ed). 2006. Enhancing Farmers’ Role in Crop Development: Framework Information for Participatory Plant Breeding in FFS. Participatory 

Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. pp. 11-12.



UNDERSTANDING MARkETING CHAIN FOR 

PROFITABLE GROWING OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

CROPS 280 


Buying and selling operations are at the heart of marketing 

process. Markets and marketing middlemen develop to facilitate buying and selling operations. 

How well these operations are carried out affects consumer welfare. This is so because goods take 

on value only when they are in the right place at the right time so that customers can own them 281 . For 

organically grown vegetable crops, marketing chain varies with different types of organic products 

(e.g., mature, immature fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.) and different types of consumers. This chain 

passes through different types of intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, 

traders, wholesalers, etc.) between farmers and consumers. 

In FFS , innovative experiences in maintaining appropriate marketing chain for organic vegetable 

products must be shared among farmers to further improve their productivity and profitability. The 



• Two hours for field visit to some community-based market intermediaries, where market chain 

for organic vegetable selling operations is appropriately demonstrated (optional for FFS); 


• At least one hour for participatory discussion in a big group. 


• To discuss participants’ problems, issues, and concerns affecting market chain in organic 

vegetable selling operations and how these are addressed; and 

• To develop strategies for improving farmer-intermediaries relationship in organic vegetable 

selling operations to increase farmers’ income. 


Enhancement of Diversity of Genetic Resources in Asia (PEDIGREA) Publication. Center for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands. pp. 120-121. 


Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA. pp. 1-9; 1-14. 

411 


appropriate? 





Processing of Vegetables’.

methodology 


materials 

412 





wholesalers, etc.), where there are ongoing selling operations. 

steps 



households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) involved in organic 

vegetable selling operations. 


group to agree on what data to collect and observe or what questions to ask during interview 

with the farmers. Some examples of questions to be asked are: 

5 What different types of organic vegetable products (e.g., mature, immature fruits, flowers, 

leaves, etc.) are sold to what different types of consumers? 

5 To whom do farmers sell their organic vegetable products? 

5 What types of intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, 

wholesalers, etc.) exist between farmers and consumers of organic vegetable products? 

5 Participants in small groups conduct field visit to some market intermediaries (e.g., 

households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) who are involved in 

organic vegetable selling operations and who implement the procedure agreed upon by the 

big group. 


the big group.




Provide sheets of paper and pens to draw and write results of discussion. Facilitators should not 


5 Each small group draws a marketing chain (see figure below as an example) of organic 

vegetable products; 

5 Each small group specifies different types of products (e.g., mature, immature fruits, 

flowers, leaves, etc.) and different types of consumers of organic vegetable products; 

5 Each small group lists all types of intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village 

collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) exist between farmers and consumers of organic 

vegetable products; and 

5 Each small group writes down proportion of produce going into each sub-chain. 

District 

Market 

Traders 

Example of a market chain for organic vegetables in Cambodia 

10% 

Village 

Collector 

Phnom Penh 

Market 

Other 

Provinces 

FARMER 

80% 

413 

Local 

Costumers 

5% Local Market 5% 

Consumers Consumers Consumers Consumers

Participatory Discussion: 

414 




❏ What happened to your different harvested organic vegetable products at different seasons? 

❏ Were your harvests sorted and graded (e.g., quality, size, etc.)? 

❏ What maximum amount would have been possible for you to sell your harvested organic 

vegetable products? 

❏ How repeatedly can you provide such volume of organic vegetable products? 

❏ What are the advantages and disadvantages of your different selling destinations for harvested 

organic vegetable products? 

❏ Are there any other possible selling destinations for harvested organic vegetable products that 

you know but do not use? 

❏ What are some of farmers’ common problems, issues, and concerns affecting market chain in 

organic vegetable selling operations and how will they be addressed?



PRICING AND PRICING ARRANGEMENT FOR 

PROFITABLE GROWING OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE 

CROPS 282 


Demand must be considered when setting prices. Usually, 

a market will buy more at lower prices so that total sales may increase if prices are lowered. In 

this regard, retailers and wholesalers, for example, use traditional markups that they feel will yield 

a reasonable rate of profit. In this regard, farmers should understand how various types of prices 

differ, how they relate to each other, and how they affect profits as sales volume varies 283 . 

In FFS, innovative experiences in pricing and pricing arrangement for marketing of organic 

vegetable products must be shared among farmers to further improve their existing pricing schemes. 

The foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 


• Two hours for field visit to some market intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village 

collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) who are involved in organic vegetable selling operations 

where market pricing and pricing arrangement is appropriately demonstrated (optional for FFS); 




• To discuss participants’ problems, issues, and concerns affecting market pricing and pricing 

arrangement in organic vegetable selling operations and how these are addressed; and 

• To develop strategies for improving pricing and pricing arrangement in organic vegetable 

selling operations to increase farmers’ income. 

methodology 





Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA. pp. 19-13 to 19-18 and 19-23 to 19-30. 

415 


appropriate? 





Processing of Vegetables’.

materials 

416 





wholesalers, etc.), where pricing and pricing arrangement are aptly established in their ongoing 

selling operations. 

steps 



households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) to understand pricing and 

pricing arrangement for organic vegetable products. 


group to agree on what data to collect and observe or what questions to ask during interviews 

with farmers on: 

5 Price agreements (e.g., before, during, and after harvest) for organic vegetable products sold; 

5 Prices received by farmers for their organic vegetable products at different seasons; and 

5 Time (e.g., days before or after harvest) of payments to farmers for their organic vegetable 

products; and 

3. Participants in small groups conduct field visit to some market intermediaries (e.g., households, 

neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) to understand pricing and pricing 

arrangement for organic vegetable products. 





Provide sheets of paper and pens to draw and write results of discussion. Ask farmers to further 

elaborate on questions about pricing and pricing arrangement. Facilitators should not read out 

questions, but introduce them in a natural way during brainstorming in small groups:


5 Price agreements (e.g., before, during, and after harvest) for organic vegetable products 

sold; 

5 Prices received by farmers for their organic vegetable products at different seasons; and 

5 Time (e.g., days before or after harvest) of payments to farmers for their organic vegetable 

products; 


6. Ask each small group to present and discuss results; and 



❏ With respect to sold organic vegetable produce, what kind of arrangement do you undertake 

with buyers? 

❏ When was such agreement made (e.g., before, during, and after harvest)? 

❏ When was such prices determined and how? 

❏ Which prices were received for different organic vegetable products at different seasons? 

❏ When (e.g., days before or after harvest) was money paid for different organic vegetable 

products? 

❏ What would have been your minimum price for different organic vegetable products at different 

seasons? 

❏ What are some of the farmers’ common problems, issues, and concerns affecting pricing and 

pricing arrangement in organic vegetable selling operations and how will they be addressed? 

417


UNDERSTANDING MARkET COMPETITION FOR 

PROFITABLE GROWING OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS 284 


A practical first step in searching for breakthrough opportunities 

is to define present (or potential) markets. Markets consist of 

potential customers with similar needs and sellers offering 

various ways of satisfying those needs. The development of 

418 


successful marketing strategies depends to a large extent on planner’s ability to segment markets. 

Unfortunately, this is not a simple process. It usually requires considerable management judgment 

and skill. Marketers who have their necessary judgment and skill have a real advantage over their 

competitors in finding profitable opportunities 285 . 

In FFS, innovative market competition schemes for marketing organic vegetable products must 

be shared among farmers to further improve their existing strategies. The foregoing exercise was 

specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 



collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) involved in organic vegetable selling operations where 

several market competition schemes are suitably recognized (optional for FFS); 




when is this exercise 

most appropriate? 


VST sessions, after 

discussions of the 

topic ‘Post-harvest 

Handling and 

Primary Processing 

of Vegetables’. 

• To discuss participants’ problems, issues, and concerns affecting market competition in organic 

vegetable selling operations and how these are addressed; and 

• To develop strategies for improving market competition strategies in organic vegetable selling 

operations to increase farmers’ income. 




Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA. pp. 3-1 to 3-18 and 4-11 to 4-14.


methodology 


materials 




wholesalers, etc.), where market competition schemes are suitably instituted in their ongoing 

selling operations. 

steps 


1. Prior to field visit, facilitators conduct initial interviews with some market intermediaries 

(e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) to understand market 

competitions for organic vegetable products. 


group to agree on what data to collect and observe or questions to ask during interview with 

the farmers on: 

5 Market strategies for selling organic vegetable products; 

5 Major competitors for selling organic vegetable products at different seasons; and 

5 Market competition strategies to out-do major competitors for selling organic vegetable 

products. 


neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) to understand market competition 

schemes for organic vegetable products. 



419


420 




elaborate on matters of market competition. Facilitators should not read out questions, but 

introduce them in a natural way during brainstorming in small groups: 

5 Market strategies for selling organic vegetable products; 

5 Major competitors for selling organic vegetable products at different seasons; and 

5 Market competition strategies to out-do major competitors for selling organic vegetable 

products; and 





❏ What strategies did you undertake to get a better price for your organic vegetable products? 

❏ Who are your biggest competitors in marketing organic vegetable products at different seasons? 

❏ What can you do to out-do your competitors in marketing organic vegetable products? 

❏ What do you do with your organic vegetable harvest when price is too low? 

❏ What are some of the farmers’ common organic vegetable marketing problems, issues, or 

concerns and how will they be addressed?



MARkETING PROBLEM TREE ANALYSIS FOR PROFITABLE 

GROWING OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS 286 


The marketing process does not take place automatically. It 

requires that certain marketing functions or activities be 

performed by various marketing groups and by consumers 

themselves. The following functions are essential to marketing 

of all goods: buying, selling, transporting, storing, grading, financing, risk-taking, and market 

information 287 . In marketing organic vegetable products, several problems may be encountered 

along the way, while performing these essential marketing functions. 

In FFS, innovative experiences in addressing problems in marketing organic vegetable products 

must be shared among farmers and analyzed to craft a more sustainable business venture. The 




collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) involved in organic vegetable selling operations where 

marketing problems can be critically articulated (optional for FFS); 




• To identify the problems, issues, and concerns in marketing organic vegetable products in local 

communities and determine how they can be addressed; and 

• To develop marketing problem tree which can be analyzed and used to develop strategies for 

improving marketing operations of organic vegetable products in local communities to increase 

farmers’ income. 




Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA. pp. 1-15 to 1-20. 

421 







Handling and 

Primary Processing of 

Vegetables’.

methodology 


materials 

422 




• Some market intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, 

wholesalers, etc.), involved in organic vegetable selling operations where marketing problems 

can be critically articulated. 

steps 




competitions for organic vegetable products. 



with farmers on: 

5 Main problems and reasons for problems in marketing organic vegetable products; 

5 Secondary problems and reasons or problems in marketing organic vegetable products; and 

5 Tertiary problems and reasons or problems in marketing organic vegetable products. 

3. Participants conduct field visit in small groups to some market intermediaries (e.g., households, 

neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) to understand marketing problem tree 

for organic vegetable products. 


the big group.





elaborate and develop marketing problem tree in organic vegetable production as shown below. 

Facilitators should not read out questions, but introduce the following in a natural way: 

5 Main problems and reasons for problems in marketing organic vegetable products; 

5 Secondary problems and reasons or problems in marketing organic vegetable products; and 

5 Tertiary problems and reasons or problems in marketing organic vegetable products. 

Primary 

Reason 1 

Secondary 

Reason 1 

Tertiary 

Reason 1 


PRIMARY 

PROBLEM 1 

SECONDARY 

PROBLEM 1 

Tertiary Problem 

1 

Example of a market problem tree 

MARkETING 

VEGETABLE X 


423 

Primary Problem 

2 

Secondary 

Problem 2 

Tertiary Problem 

2 

Primary 

Reason 2 

Secondary 

Reason 2 

Tertiary 

Reason 2 

7. Facilitators guide a participatory discussion to synthesize and summarize results of this exercise.


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❏ What were the main problems you experienced in marketing organic vegetable products? 

❏ What are your suggested solutions to these main problems? 

❏ What were the secondary problems you experienced in marketing organic vegetable products? 

❏ What are your suggested solutions to these secondary problems? 

❏ What were the tertiary problems you experienced in marketing organic vegetable products? 

❏ What are your suggested solutions to these tertiary problems? 

❏ Can you develop marketing problem tree of your community, which can be analyzed and used 

to develop strategies for improving marketing operations of organic vegetable products?



PROPER USE OF MARkET INFORMATION FOR PROFITABLE 

GROWING OF ORGANIC VEGETABLE CROPS 288 


Marketing managers often fail to take full advantage of all 

available information to help them make effective decisions. 

While time and cost factors usually prevent one from obtaining 

perfect information, there is often much more information already 

published and readily available than managers actually use. On the other hand, others tend to be 

survey researchers, who feel they must always rush out to gather primary data whenever some 

problem arises. They tend to overlook large amount of secondary data that are already in their 

internal records or in various published sources. These data are often available for free, or for a fee 

that is usually far less than cost of obtaining primary data 289 . 

In FFS, innovative experiences in obtaining information for marketing of organic vegetable products 

must be shared among farmers to further improve their current system of accessing and using market 

information. The foregoing exercise was specifically designed to achieve this purpose. 



collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) involved in organic vegetable selling operations where use 

of market information can be readily observed (optional for FFS); 


• At least one hour for participatory discussion big group. 


• To discuss participants’ problems, issues, and concerns in accessing and using market 

information for organic vegetable products in local communities and how these are addressed; 

and 

• To develop market information strategies for improving marketing of organic vegetable 

products in local communities to increase farmers’ income. 




Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA. pp. 1-15 to 1-20. 

425 







Handling and 

Primary Processing 

of Vegetables’.

methodology 


materials 

426 




• Some market intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, 

etc.), involved in organic vegetable selling operations where use of market information can be 

readily observed. 

steps 




information strategies for organic vegetable products. 



with farmers on : 

5 Types of market information required to determine or change market strategies; 

5 Time of availability of market information required to determine or change market strategies. 


neighbors, village collectors, traders, wholesalers, etc.) to understand market information 

required for organic vegetable products. 






elaborate on matters of market information required in organic vegetable production. Facilitators


should not read out questions, but introduce them in a natural way during brainstorming in 

small groups: 

5 Types of market information required to determine or change market strategies; 

5 Time of availability of market information required to determine or change market 

strategies. 





❏ What types of market information would you like to have to determine or change your market 

strategies? 

❏ When would you like to have this market information available? 

❏ Where would you secure different types of market information you will need to determine or 

change your market strategies? 

❏ How would you secure these different types of market information you will need? 

❏ What would be the cost of securing these different types of market information you will need? 

❏ Can you develop your own market information strategy to improve marketing operations for 

organic vegetable products, which will result to increase farmers’ income? 

427

Glossary 

428 


agricultural limes are lime materials containing oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates of calcium (Ca) and 

magnesium (Mg) that are applied to soil to reduce soil acidity. 

agro-ecosystem analysis (aEsa) refers to weekly study of crop agro-ecosystem components, such as plant 

morphology, agronomy, herbivores, natural enemies of the herbivores, diseases, rats, weather, water, 

weeds, etc., in a ‘learning field’, which will lead into a process useful for decision-making. 

activity is a generic term for participatory training experiences such as exercises, games, role-plays, small 

group experiences, and instrumentation. 

antibiosis (amensalism) occurs when one species is suppressed while a second is not affected, typically a 

result of toxin production. 

ammonium phosphate (ammophos) is a chemical fertilizer material, which is a rich source of nitrogen and 

phosphorus elements or nutrients. 

ammonium sulfate (ammosul) is a chemical fertilizer material, which is a rich source of nitrogen and sulfur 

elements or nutrients. 

aphids are soft-bodied tiny insects whose color normally varies from yellowish-green to dark olive-green or 

almost dull black, which cause injury by sucking up cell sap of plants. 

avoidance is a fundamental principle in pest and disease management, which alters environment by making 

it less favorable to growth and development of a pest or a pathogen. 

Bacteria are considered the simplest of plants. They are tiny, consist of only one cell, and multiply by cell 

division as frequently as every 10-15 minutes. They lack green pigments and cannot produce their own 

food. Most of them gain entry through wounds or natural openings found on surface of plants. Once 

inside, bacteria multiply rapidly, break down plant tissues, and usually move throughout plant. 

Bacterial diseases refer to diseases that are caused by bacteria. The most common symptoms of bacterial 

diseases on plants are maceration or disintegration of tissues, ‘water-soaked’ appearance, and ‘foul’ 

odor. 

Bacterial oozing technique (BoT) is a practical tool used by farmers for identifying bacterial wilt disease 

of solanaceous vegetables. This consists of putting a cutting of suspected diseased plant part in a glass 

filled with tap water to allow a cloudy bacterial fluid to ooze from that plant part to water.

Glossary 

Bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, is a bacterial disease of solanaceous crops causing rapid 

wilting, stunting, and death in tomato, and wilting of younger leaves or slight yellowing of leaves in 

potato. It survives in soil for a long time, infects many plants including weeds, and spreads through 

infected seedlings, contaminated irrigation water, farm implements, and animals. 

‘Ballot box’ evaluation (BBE) is a simple, easy-to-use pre- or post-training evaluation tool for farmers and 

extension workers of their knowledge and skills in integrated pest management IPM). A participant 

selects an appropriate ‘ballot box’ where he or she drops his or her code number representing a correct 

answer. 

‘Barangay’ soil map is a map developed to indicate not only soil types but also location of farmer’s individual 

farms. The information contained in a barangay (village) soil map is very useful in determining 

appropriate soil management strategies for each soil type as determined by actual field examination and 

sharing of experiences among farmers. 

Baseline data are agronomic, demographic, socioeconomic, and other related data gathered from farmer field 

school (FFS) participants, which are used for comparison with current data when stakeholders review 

and assess impact of local integrated pest management (IPM) programs on farmer-participants and their 

communities. 

Bean fly is a pest of leguminous vegetables belonging to the fly family, whose yellowish to reddish maggots 

hatch from eggs to feed as miners, working down the petiole into stem of plants. 

Behavior refers to any observable or visible action or activity performed by a learner. 

Beneficial insects refer to insect groups that give benefit to farmers in terms of insect pest reduction and 

improvement of yield and quality of products. A beneficial insect can either be a parasitoid or a predator 

that controls population of pests or pollinators. 

Beneficial microorganism refers to a soil-borne organism that gives benefit to farmers in terms of suppressing 

harmful soil-borne plant pathogens which consequently improve yield and quality of products. Beneficial 

microorganisms interact with harmful microorganisms through competition, amensalism, or parasitism. 

Bench terracing is an effective erosion control measure practiced in the Cordilleras, which consists of 

creating a series of level strips running across a slope. 

Big group discussion is a term used to describe the use of big groups (e.g., plenary sessions) in identifying 

and solving problem by participatory discussion. 

Biological control is use of living organisms such as parasitoids, predators, and disease organisms to control 

pest populations. 

Biological control agents refer to any living organism used in reducing pest population in organic vegetable 

farms. 

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Black cutworm is a lepidopterous pest of vegetables whose blackish larva remains buried below surface of 

ground level and attacks root and base of crop during first two weeks of crop growth. 

Borer insects refer to a group of destructive insects whose immature stages bore or make tunnels on fruit or 

stem of plant. 

Brainstorming is a basic and highly popular tool for group problem solving. It can be used to identify 

problems, to suggest causes for problems and to propose solutions for problems. The technique 

emphasizes deferred judgment and quantity to get quality. 

Cabbage butterfly is a butterfly whose caterpillar feeds and produces big holes on the foliage of cabbage and 

other cruciferous crops. 

Cabbage moth is a brownish gray pyralid moth whose larva attacks the growing point, which often results to nonformation 

of head or perforations on leaves of cabbage and other cruciferous crops during heavy infestation. 

Cage trap is a type of trapping material made of appropriate wire mess, which is used in collecting and 

controlling field and house rats. 

Calcium phosphate (CP) is an organic foliar spray derived from bones of grass-eating animals. It serves as 

flower inducer and strengthens flowers of crops 

Calendar insecticide application means any scheduled insecticide treatment undertaken with no 

consideration for pest density or anticipated crop loss. 

Case study is a technique designed to give group training in solving problems and making decisions. The 

facilitator’s role is typically catalytic rather than didactic. 

Certified seed is a high quality seed intended for commercial planting that passes through a seed certification 

standard of National Seed Industry Council in terms of genetic purity and identity. A certified seed is 

classified by a certifying agency depending upon its quality either as a breeder, a foundation, a registered, 

a certified, or a good seed. 

Chemical control means any strategy or method that employs the application of any pesticide to control pests. 

Chewing insects refer to a group of destructive insects whose destructive stages have mandibulate or chewing 

mouthparts. 

Club root is a fungal disease of crucifers causing swelling of the roots with characteristic club-like shapes 

and a reduction of fine lateral roots. The later reduces ability to absorb water resulting to stunted growth 

and death of plants under dry climatic conditions. 

Common cutworm is a lepidopterous pest of vegetables whose greenish to blackish-brown larva is voracious 

feeder and feed actively at night. Damage consists of feeding on young and mature leaves of host making 

large holes on leaf blade.

Glossary 

Competition is a condition where there is a suppression of one organism as two species struggle for limiting 

quantities of nutrients, oxygen, or other common requirements. 

Compost tea is a concentrated microbial solution (‘brew’) produced by extracting beneficial microbes from 

compost. Aside from providing direct nutrition, it also makes available microbial functions, such as 

competing with disease-causing microbes, degrading toxic pesticides and other chemicals, producing 

plant growth hormones, mineralizing plant available nutrients, fixing nitrogen and beneficial microbes, 

leaving no room for pathogens to infect plant surfaces. It is applied much like a fungicide, to control 

target plant pathogens. 

Composting refers to a process involving breakdown of organic materials through action of decomposers 

(e.g., microorganisms and macro-organisms) to form small bits of organic matter called compost. 

Consumers’ guarantee refers to an organic guarantee system which involves groups or organized consumers 

(e.g., Altertrade in Negros Occidental) who certify and buy organic products (e.g., banana) of known 

producers. The major activities in a consumers’ guarantee program are: standard setting, inspection, 

and certification. 

Content refers to subject matters or topics taken up in an activity or activities to attain objectives. 

Contour planting or farming refers to a method of farming where cultivation is accomplished by plowing 

across slope following contour lines rather than up and down. 

Cost and return analysis is an analysis of production cost relative to net return in an enterprise. Usually, the 

lower the cost of production, the higher is the net return for a particular enterprise. 

Cost of production refers to amount of labor, power, and material input costs in each operation for every enterprise. 

Critiquing is an activity to assess progress and effectiveness of learning in terms of learning processes, 

relationships, physical environment, and problems and issues relevant to learning as expressed by 

participants. 

Crop residue-inhabiting pests refer to all pests whose main harborage or habitat, in the absence of a suitable 

host, is crop residue, such as weeds or any plant debris often left in the field after harvest. 

Crop diversification refers to the planting at the same time in on-farm or field of as many crops to maximize 

land uses and minimize pest and disease occurrence depending on such factors as crop preference, 

technical knowledge, adaptability, market demands, and profitability. 

Cross-pollinating vegetables are vegetables wherein pods or fruit setting result from union of female (ovule) 

and male (pollen) reproductive cells of two different plants, varieties, or cultivars. 

Crop rotation refers to the growing of two or more crops after another in a regular succession for two or more 

years with an idea that a crop susceptible to a pest or disease is followed by a resistant crop or combined 

in simultaneous cropping with other crops. 

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432 


Crop sequencing refers to proper arrangement of crops planted in succession to maximize production. A 

good cropping sequence is one that will conserve or improve nutritional status of the soil, add organic 

matter, improve soil structure, protect land from erosion and, ultimately, give high yield. 

Cucurbits are vegetable crops belonging to the cucurbit family. Some examples are squash, cucumber, 

chayote, zucchini, watermelon, bitter gourd, and loofah. 

Cultural control is the modification of the environment by making the area less attractive to pests (e.g., 

tillage, planting date, crop rotation, etc.). 

Curd- or head-forming vegetables are vegetable crops grown primarily for their flowers or terminal buds 

technically known as curds or heads, respectively. Some of these vegetables are Chinese cabbage, 

cabbage, head lettuce, broccoli, and cauliflower. 

Cutworm is a polyphagous moth whose caterpillar is basically a leaf-eater, which can severely defoliate a 

crop when population is heavy. 

Damping off is a fungal disease (caused by Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani, or Pythium sp.) of 

cruciferous, solanaceous, leguminous, and cucurbit crops at seedling stage, which can be distinguished 

by the presence of water-soaked lesions on the hypocotyls or reddish-brown lesions at the base of 

seedlings at or just below the ground level. 

Debate is a participant-involving technique, structured formally or informally, to generate varying viewpoints 

on an issue or problem. 

Dehaulming is a cultural management practice which consists of defoliating potato crop, leaving at least onefoot 

stem intact on tubers, and keeping rows well hilled-up to prevent late blight spores from getting in 

contact with the tubers. Tubers are not harvested for at least two weeks after diseased foliage had been 

cut off to allow time for spores to be washed off. 

Destructive insects refer to a group of insects that feed on vegetable crops specifically on leaves, stems, 

flowers, and fruits causing damage to these crops thereby affecting yield or quality of produce. 

Diadegma is a larval parasitoid used in vegetable production as a biological control agent against the diamondbacked 

moth (DBM) of cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables. 

Diamondback moth (DBm) is a small gray moth with a diamond pattern at the back when its wings are 

closed, whose larva feeds on the leaves of cabbage and other cruciferous crops. 

Didactic teaching is a traditional approach to teaching or instructing, entailing the dissemination of facts, 

knowledge, information, manual skills, etc. Today it is contrasted with experiential or discovery-based 

learning. 

Disease triangle refers to an equivalence theorem, which states that effect of environment, pathogen, and 

host can each be translated into terms of epidemic rate parameter. A result is that changes in anyone of

Glossary 

disease triangle components (e.g., from a more to less susceptible host, from a favorable to an unfavorable 

environment, or from a more aggressive to a less aggressive pathogen) all have an equivalent effect on 

an epidemic. 

Discovery-based learning is a learning process accomplished by doing and experiencing as opposed to 

listening, observing, reading, viewing, etc. It is synonymous with experiential learning. 

Dormancy refers to the inability of a seed, a bulb or a tuber to germinate after harvest even when provided 

with the necessary conditions for germination. 

Downy mildew is a fungal disease of solanaceous and cucurbit crops, which appear as yellow spots on the 

surface of the leaves with a purplish downy growth on the lower surface. These yellow spots may soon 

turn reddish-brown and eventually kill the leaves. 

East-west row growing refers to vegetable growing in east-west row orientation or in relation to the rising 

and setting of the sun. 

Ecology consists of all the organisms at a given locality and their interactions with each other and with the 

physical environment. 

Ecosystem is a biological community considered in relation to its physical environment. 

Eradication is a fundamental principle in pest and disease management, which involves the elimination of a 

pest or pathogen once it has become established on plant or in a cropping area. 

Earthworms are very important soil macro-organism and most helpful living things in soil system. 

Earthworms are farmers’ friends. They digest organic matter and help create humus. They fertilize soil 

with their droppings. The more earthworms there are in soil, the more fertile soil is likely to be. 

Earwigs (Euborellia annulata) are general predators of eggs, larvae, and pupae of Lepidopterans, 

Coleopterans, and Dipterans as well as leafhoppers, planthoppers, aphids, and many soft-bodied insects. 

They belonging to Order Dermaptera, are nocturnal (more active at night), and prefer slightly moist 

conditions as their habitat. 

Entomology is a branch of zoology that deals with study of insects 

Evaluation is the process of assessing the effectiveness of various learning activities, the participants, the 

facilitators and the conduct of the whole program. 

Evaporative cooling method (ECm) is a simple method used to prolong the storage life of vegetable produce, 

under ordinary conditions for a few days, where cooling occurs when water is evaporated from a moist 

surface using heat or respiration coming from the produce in the process of evaporating. 

Exclusion is a fundamental principle in pest and disease management, which includes exclusionary measures to 

prevent a pest or pathogen from entering and becoming established in a non-infested or non-infected area. 

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Exercise is a structured learning experience marked by a learning goal, high participation, and structure. Its 

overall purpose is to generate data from participant analysis. 

Facilitator is a trainer or specialist who, as a change agent, structures learning situations and experiences 

with the end result of enhancing the learner’s capabilities to be sensitive to his or her own processes and 

behavior. He or she is one who functions in a way to allow participants to assume responsibility for his or 

her own learning. The term is in contrast to the more didactic instructor, teacher, lecturer, presenter, etc. 

Farmers’ crop protection (FCP) practice refers to usual crop protection practice of farmers prior to the 

introduction of integrated pest management (IPM) practice in any vegetable production area. Normally, 

an FCP consists of a calendar-scheduled pesticide application for the control of pests and diseases. 

Farmer field school (FFs), by design, is a ‘school without walls’, where about twenty five farmers meet once 

a week for the duration of the cropping season from planting to harvest. In each weekly session of an 

FFS, the farmers, working in-groups, conduct agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA), team building activities 

and special topics. Special topics are designed based on immediate problems encountered by farmers in 

their farming activities. Trained FFS facilitators allow farmers to be experts, facilitating them to bring 

forth and examine their own experiences. 

Feed-backing is a way of receiving information from or giving to one or more participants or facilitators 

concerning one’s behavior, attitudes and relationships in a learning situation. 

‘Feel’ method is a common field method of classifying soil texture for vegetable production by its feel or by 

rubbing soil between thumb and fingers. 

Fermented fruit juice (FFJ) is an organic foliar spray produced by almost same way as FPJ. It uses ripen 

sweet fruits such as strawberry, fig, mulberry, mango, papaya, or banana. FFJ contains enzymes rich in 

potash for fruit sweetener. 

Fermented plant juice (FPJ) is an organic foliar spray made from plant leaves such as thinned crop plants 

like axillary’s buds and young fruits and whatever grasses. With crude sugar, plant juice is extracted and 

gets fermented; liquid is applied to soil, plant leaves, and animal bedding to fortify microbial activities 

Fertilizer management means any strategy or method that will lead to effective and efficient use of fertilizers 

in crop production. 

Field day is an occasion when farmers and facilitators show other people or the community what they have 

learned and the results of their participatory technology development (PTD) activities. 

Field trip or field visit is a planned visit or tour to a given area, site, laboratory, field, plantation, project, etc. 

to study its operation in depth, learn lessons and to report back thereon. The field trip is typically a team 

project or activity, although not universally so.

Glossary 

Field walk is a planned observation accomplished by walking in a field nearby a training site to have a 

first hand experience of an issue or problem related to the training. Observations in a field walk are 

synthesized through small and big group discussions. 

Fish amino acid (Faa) is an organic foliar spray made from fish trash such as bone, head, guts, and skin. 

With crude sugar, juice of fish trash is extracted and gets fermented. It is a nitrogen-fixing extract. 

Flea beetle is an insect pest belonging to the beetle family, whose adult eats out ‘pin holes’ on the leaves of the 

host plants. If attack is excessive, the leaves fall and the plants may be completely defoliated. 

Folk media presentation is a learning tool used to convey a developmental message using the most appropriate 

local medium that is familiar to a group of people. Local songs, dances, poems, proverbs, stories, tales, 

legends, and drama are some of the common forms of folk media. 

Fruit worm is a lepidopterous pest whose larva tunnels into the fruit and feed voraciously on the tissues 

causing fruit to rot and subsequently fall off. 

Functional questionnaire refers to questionnaires in a ‘Ballot Box’ test that focuses on functions of 

organisms or specimens rather than on their technical definitions. A functional questionnaire for 

‘Ballot Box’ evaluation deals mainly on knowledge and skills in identification of pest damages, disease 

symptoms, arthropod pests and their natural enemies, organic fertilizers, as well as soil, irrigation, and 

environmental stresses in organic vegetable fields 

Fungal diseases refer to diseases caused by fungi. The general symptoms of fungal diseases on plants are the 

presence of ‘cottony-like’ and ‘dry’ appearances (e.g., leaf spots) of infected plant parts. 

Fungi are tiny, simple plants commonly called molds. Since they do not have green color, they lack the ability 

to make their own food. They depend upon living host plants for food. Thus, they are parasites, and in 

the course of their feeding, most produce diseases on their host plants. 

Fusarium wilt is a fungal disease of solanaceous, leguminous, and cucurbit crops, which can be distinguished 

by the presence of a reddish discoloration on the roots, which gradually darkens and finally turns brown. 

The diseased plants are stunted and during dry weather, the leaves turn yellow and drop. 

Game is an experiential learning activity marked by a learning goal, competition, rules, scores or outcomes 

and oftentimes with winners and losers. Games may be content-laden or be a ‘pure’ game devoid of 

content. 

Golden cyst nematode is a destructive nematode pest that can inflict serious damage to vegetable crops at 

high population density. Symptoms on above ground plant parts resemble that of drought injury or 

nutrient deficiency. 

Grading refers to the sorting of vegetable produce according to a set of criteria recognized by the vegetable 

industry. 

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Green leaf manuring (Glm) refers to the soil incorporation of plants grown outside an area where it is not 

intended before their flowering stage as a source of organic matter. Weeds gathered on side of terraces 

such as wild sunflowers, when incorporated in vegetable fields are classified as green leaf manures. 

Green manuring (Gm) refers to the soil incorporation of plants grown at a site where it is needed before 

their flowering stage as a source of organic matter. All fast-growing weeds when incorporated before 

flowering at land preparation and hilling-up operations are classified as green manures. 

Green muscardine fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae [Metchnikoff] Sorokin) or GMF is a naturally occurring 

insect pathogen that attacks more than 200 insects. GMF spores land on host’s body and high humidity 

favors its growth. During its development, fungus consumes its host’s contents. When host dies, fungus 

emerges as a white growth and then turns dark green with age. The spores are spread by wind or water 

to new hosts. 

Gross return refers to the product of price and volume relative to the type of produce in every enterprise. 

Group dynamics is a process of interaction of a group at work. It includes such processes as communication, 

goal setting, decision-making, support giving, and leadership. 

Hilling-up is a cultural management practice whereby soil is cultivated and raised at the base of plants 

primarily to enhance better root development, improve anchorage, and suppress growth of weeds. 

Hilling-up also disturbs development of other soil-borne pests and exposes to sunlight many soil-borne 

plant pathogens that thrive near the base of plants. 

Hot water treatment is a practical soil sterilization technique used by farmers to control some soil-borne 

diseases of vegetables in the seedbed. 

Hydroization is a pre-sowing hardening technique to induce drought resistance, which consists of soaking 

seeds for 1-48 hours depending on seeds, and then air drying to their original moisture content before 

sowing. 

Indigenous microorganisms (Imo) are organic foliar sprays that enhance growth and productivity of crops. 

These include known soil microbes such as Microrrhiza and Rhizobium, biological nitrogen-fixers, 

which fix and convert air nitrogen to nutrient forms readily available to plants and can substitute 30-50% 

of plants’ nitrogen requirements. 

Inorganic mineral transformation refers to a long series of bio-chemical transfer beginning with proteins 

and related compounds in soil that culminates in appearance of simple soluble products (e.g., ammonium 

compounds, nitrates, and sulfates) readily available to plants. 

Insect pathogens refer to a group of biological control agents, mostly parasitic micro-organisms, used to 

control insect pests of vegetables. Some insect pathogens infecting various insect pests are viruses, 

bacteria, and fungi. 

Insecticide is a pesticide or chemical used to control insect pests.

Glossary 

Insecticide non-user refers to a farmer or individual that does not use any insecticide to control insect pests. 

Insecticide user refers to a farmer or individual that uses insecticides to control insect pests. 

Integrated crop management (ICm) refers to all management strategies that are ecologically, economically, 

and socially acceptable. Therefore, integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated soil management 

(ISM) are integral part of ICM. 

Integrated pest management (IPm) is a pest management strategy that builds on biological control as 

its foundation. In practice, it develops farmer’s ability of making critical and informed decisions that 

renders production systems more productive, profitable and sustainable. Thus, it makes farmers experts 

in their own fields. 

Integrated rodent management (Irm) refers to a community-based rodent management approach, which 

may include: (a) rat damage assessment procedure for pest monitoring; (b) physical and biological 

reduction control procedures and management strategies; (c) organized farmers and extension 

workers; and (d) legislations, instructions, and related administrative set-ups implementation of rodent 

management at various levels of undertakings. 

Integrated soil nutrient management (IsNm) includes efficient soil nutrient, water and weed management, 

effective soil-borne pest and disease management as well as effective use of soil microorganisms for 

better crop productivity. Consequently, ISM aims to allow a grower to produce optimum yield and 

sustained long-term returns. 

Integration is that stage of learning where the learner is able to piece together the learning in an activity and 

sees the value in its application to his or her real life situation. 

Interaction refers to the dynamics among participants, including communication patterns, relationships, role 

assumptions, etc. 

Jetmatic sprinkler is a type of overhead irrigation equipment commonly used by vegetable farmers in 

Cordillera 

KasaKalIKasaN is the acronym for Kasaganaan ng Sakahan at Kalikasan. It means Nature is 

Agriculture’s Bounty. It is the Philippine Government’s program that seeks to popularize Integrated 

Pest Management (IPM). 

labor and power cost refer to the amount of labor and power spent in each operation for every enterprise 

which is expressed in man-days, man-animal days, or man-machine days. 

leaf-folder is a lepidopterous pest whose larvae feed on leaf tissue and, as it becomes older, folds the leaf to 

form a tube. 

leafhopper is a pest belonging to the cicada family whose nymphs and adults attack solanaceous vegetables. 

As it feeds, it injects a toxic substance, which produces a condition known as ‘hopper-burn’. 

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leaf-miner is a small grayish fly whose larvae mine in-between the leaf epidermis which when several of 

them work in the same leaf, develop blotch and turn the entire leaf white and wither, resulting in the 

stunting of subsequent growth and ultimately in poor yield. 

leaf spot is a fungal disease of cucurbit and leguminous vegetables characterized by the presence of spots, 

circular to irregularly shaped, with tan or gray centers, and surrounded with reddish-brown to darkbrown 

margins. 

leafy vegetables are vegetables grown mainly for their leaves. Some examples of leafy vegetables are 

pechay, mustard, lettuce, celery, ‘kangkong’ (swamp cabbage), and ‘kulitis’ (amaranth). 

learner-centered training refers to a training situation wherein participants are given the opportunity to 

assume responsibility for their own learning. 

learning field is that portion of a farmer’s field school measuring at least 1,000 square meters, containing 

a farmer-run comparative study of integrated pest management (IPM) and farmer’s crop protection 

(FCP) practices. It is in this field that farmers practice agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) which includes 

plant health, water management, weather, nutrient management, weed density, disease surveillance, and 

observation and collection of insect pests, beneficial predators, and parasites. Farmers interpret data 

from the learning field through direct experience using AESA to make field management decisions and 

develop a vision of balanced ecological processes. 

lecture method is a didactic instructional method, involving one-way communication from the active 

presenter to a more or less passive audience or trainee group. 

leguminous vegetables are vegetables belonging to the legume or pulse family. Some examples of leguminous 

vegetables are bush long bean, cowpea, snap beans, sweet peas, garden peas, chicken peas, and winged beans. 

liming refers to the addition of lime to reduce soil acidity or until the soil pH is within that required for 

optimum plant growth. Available iron, aluminum, and hydrogen must be replaced by Ca and Mg bases 

through liming to decrease soil acidity. Adding oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates of calcium and 

magnesium commonly does this. 

market chain refers to market intermediaries (e.g., households, neighbors, village collectors, traders, 

wholesalers, etc.) where different types of organic products (e.g., mature, immature fruits, flowers, 

leaves, etc.) pass through between farmers or producers and their different types of consumers. 

market competition refers to dynamics among potential customers with similar needs and sellers offering 

various ways of satisfying those needs. The development of successful market competition strategies 

depends to a large extent on planner’s ability to segment markets. 

market information refers to all available data from primary (e.g., obtained from new research surveys 

whenever new problem arises) and secondary (e.g., often available for free, or for a fee that is usually far 

less than cost of obtaining primary data) sources that can be used by marketing manager to help them 

make effective marketing decisions.

Glossary 

material input cost is the total cost of all materials used in each enterprise such as seeds, fertilizers, and 

herbicides, among others. 

maturity index refers to signs expressed by a crop to show that it is ready for harvest. 

methodology refers to the various ways and means by which the dissemination of concepts, ideas, knowledge, 

and skills can be affected. This may include the definition of instructional media and the materials to be 

used as aids in facilitating the learning process. 

microbial-based fertilizers are organic fertilizers consisting prepared from live cells of micro-organism 

strains. Some of these microbes could fix air nitrogen, render phosphate soluble, or degrade cellulose. 

miner insects refer to a group of destructive insects whose immature stages puncture or mine on leaves down 

to petiole and stem of plant. 

mulching is the practice of covering bare soil around the stem of a growing plant with a layer of organic 

materials, plastic, and other appropriate materials primarily to conserve soil moisture, suppress growth 

of weeds, minimize splash soil erosion, and soft rot or other soil-borne disease infections. 

Natural enemy refers to a beneficial insect, a predator, a parasitoid or an insect pathogen utilized for the 

control of insect pests. 

Natural pest control is the conservation of beneficial insects, predators, and parasitoids by preventing their destruction or 

preserving their habitat. Choice of plant varieties, maintenance of alternative hosts, and proper soil management are 

among the tactics employed to keep beneficial species active and populous enough to control pests. 

Need-based or threshold-based insecticide application means any insecticide treatment undertaken only 

when actual pest population exceeds a predetermined threshold level. 

Nematodes are active, slender, threadlike roundworms about 1/70th of an inch long. Their mouthpart is 

equipped with a tiny spear or stylet, which they use to puncture plant cells to obtain plant juices. A 

number of plant parasitic nematodes feed from the outside of the roots, stems, buds, and leaves. Others 

feed by tunneling through the roots. 

Net return or net income refers to the difference between gross return less and total cost of labor and 

materials in every enterprise. 

Nitrogen fertilizer refers to any fertilizer material containing nitrogen element or compound. 

Nitrogen fixation refers to fixation of elemental nitrogen into compounds usable by plants through microbial 

processes in soils. Blue green algae and certain actinomycetes are significant nitrogen fixing organisms. 

But worldwide, bacteria are probably most important group in capture of gaseous nitrogen. 

Nitrogen-fixing bacterium (NFB) refers to a microbial-based fertilizer consisting of powdered inoculants belonging 

to genus Azospirillum, a bacterium isolated from roots of ‘talahib’ [Saccharum spontaneum] grass. 

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Nutrient management means any strategy or method that will lead to effective and efficient use of nutrients 

in crop production. 

Non-formal education (NFE) is a participatory learning approach that encourages the learners to see 

themselves as source of knowledge about the real world and to work with the knowledge they have from 

their own experience in the learning process. 

objective refers to the desired organizational and behavioral attributes or characteristics to be attained after 

conducting an activity. 

organic, in this text, refers to particular farming and processing systems described in organic certification 

standards and not in the classical chemical sense. The term ‘organic’ is nearly synonymous in other 

languages to ‘biological’ or ‘ecological’. 

organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agroecosystem 

health, including bio-diversity, biological cycle, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes use 

of management practices in reference to use of off-farm inputs. This is accomplished by using, where 

possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to 

fulfill any specific function within a system 

organic fertilizer refers to a product of biological decomposition or processing of organic materials from 

animal and/or plants that can supply one or more essential nutrient elements for plant growth and 

development. In organic farming, it is considered as the only natural, complete, and chief source of 

plant nutrients. 

organic foliar spray refers to animal and plant juice extracts used as rich sources of plant nutrients, which is 

used to supplement soil application of organic solid fertilizers. In organic vegetable farming, these can 

be derived from different sources such as fruits, young buds and foliage, materials derived from snails 

and marine fishes, and bones from grass-eating animals. 

organic guarantee system is a way by which consumers are assured that they obtain organically-produced 

foods. Broadly, there are three (3) ways of assurance, namely: producer’s personal guarantee, consumers’ 

guarantee, and third party certification. 

organic matter decomposition refers to a process by which plant residues are broken down, thereby 

preventing an unwanted accumulation and allowing release of nutrients held in organic combinations 

within these residues for use by plants. Perhaps one most significant contribution of soil fauna and flora 

to organic vegetable productivity is that of organic matter decomposition. 

organic producer’s guarantee is a practice in organic vegetable production where a producer (e.g., 

farmer, processor, or operator) gives assurance to costumers that his or her products are organic. This 

is applicable where producer’s integrity is widely known to costumers who usually live within same 

locality as producers. A producer’s guarantee is also sufficient when there is mutual understanding 

between producers and consumers such as in various versions of producer-consumer partnerships.

Glossary 

organic solid fertilizer refers to a non-liquid organic fertilizer such as compost, vermi-cast, and others. 

It contains high organic matter, which is not present in any synthetic chemical fertilizer. However, it 

contains low plant nutrients and its solubility is low, hence it should be applied in large quantities to 

supply right amounts of plant nutrients at different growth stages of crops. 

organic third party certification is a certification process undertaken by an independent body or a third 

party, when a producer is unknown. The production system, the process or method instead of a product, 

is certified as organic. Thus the ‘organic’ quality is not verifiable by product testing although in some 

cases product testing can be used to detect non-compliance. 

organic vegetable production is a production system that promotes environmentally, socially, and 

economically sound production of vegetable crops. It takes local soil fertility as a key to successful 

production. Organic vegetable production dramatically reduces external inputs by refraining from use 

of chemo-synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. Instead, it allows powerful laws of 

nature to increase both crop yields and disease resistance 

organic vegetable product certification refers to a certification process in many Asian and Pacific 

countries, which is guided by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) 

Basic Standards and Principles of Organic Agriculture to inspire organic movement in its full diversity, 

and to articulate meaning of Organic Agriculture to world-at-large. These include the principles of 

health, ecology, fairness, and care, upon which organic agriculture is based. 

overhead irrigation is a method of irrigation where water is applied either in form of a fine mist (spraying) 

or spray simulating rain (sprinkling). Water may be manually applied by use of watering cans or 

mechanically applied under pressure and at pre-determined intervals. 

Panel discussion is a term used to describe the use of panel of interrogators and discussants in identifying, 

discussing and solving problem. This activity is an effective tool in helping participants to develop their 

capability to communicate ideas and knowledge with other participants. 

Parasitism or predation refers to direct attack of one organism on another. 

Parasitoid is a beneficial insect that lives for a while in or upon the body of a single host pest species or a few 

closely related species but gradually destroys or kills it. 

Participant refers to a person who is the focus of learning activity and who is expected to participate actively 

in the learning process. 

Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is a decentralized breeding system that promises a way of strengthening 

crop improvement within farming communities. It aims to: (a) develop locally adapted technologies for 

crop improvement and distribute them more effectively to and among farming communities; (b) improve 

conservation and use of crop genetic diversity; and (c) support local capacity development for generating 

such genetic resources, thus contributing to empowerment or self-help of farmers and other stakeholders. 

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Participatory technology development (PTD) is the process of collective and collaborative inquiry with the 

purpose of initiating community actions on solving local problems. 

Pest management means an ecologically-based strategy of maintaining pest population below the economic 

injury level by the use of any or all control techniques that are economically and socially acceptable. 

Pesticide is a compound or chemical, such as acaricide, insecticide, herbicide, fungicide, nematicide, 

rodenticide, and the like, that is used to control pests and diseases. 

Pesticide non-user refers to a farmer or individual that does not use any pesticide to control pests and diseases. 

Pesticide user refers to a farmer or individual that uses pesticides to control pests and diseases. 

pH is an expression of soil reaction (e.g., acid, neutral, or alkaline), which is the negative logarithm of the 

hydrogen ion concentration. Acidity denotes an excess of H+ ions over OH- ions and alkalinity denotes 

the opposite. At neutral reaction, the H+ and OH- ion concentrations are equal. 

Phosphorus fertilizer refers to any fertilizer material containing phosphorus elements or nutrients. 

Physiological disorders refer to all plant abnormalities or disorders that are caused by one of combination 

of non-infectious organisms, nutrient deficiencies or toxicities, and chemical injuries or toxic residues. 

Physiological maturity is when seed have accumulated all food reserves, is at its state of maximum dry 

weight, and highest vigor and quality level. 

Plant disease refers to any physiological disturbance brought about by a pathogen or environmental factor 

that prevents normal development of a plant resulting to changes in its appearance and reduction of its 

economic value. Plant diseases are caused either by infectious or biotic factors, or non-infectious or 

abiotic factors. 

Plant disease management consists mainly of integrating various mechanical or physical (e.g., heat 

treatment, flooding, rouging of diseased plants or pruning of infected plant parts), cultural (e.g., crop 

rotation, trellising) as well as biological (e.g., use of microbial antagonists, use of resistant varieties, biofumigation) 

control methods. 

Pod borer is lepidopterous pest attacking leguminous vegetables whose larvae are voracious feeders on 

inflorescence with developing pods resulting to underdeveloped pods. 

Pollinators are beneficial insects that pollinate flowers of some vegetable crops like cucumber, chayote, 

snap beans, green peas, bell pepper and tomato. Wild bees and honeybees are the most predominant 

pollinators of vegetables. 

Potassium fertilizer refers to any fertilizer material containing potassium element or nutrient.

Glossary 

Powdery mildew is a fungal disease of parsley and leguminous vegetables characterized by small, discrete, 

white moldy spots on the upper surface of the leaflets, which rapidly enlarge to an indefinite size until 

they coalesce. 

Predators refer to a group of biological control agents that are free-living throughout their entire life cycle. A 

predator can be a beneficial insect or arthropod (e.g., spider) that feed on many different species of prey 

(e.g., insect pests or arthropods) by quickly eating them or sucking their body fluids. 

Pricing arrangement refers to how various types of prices differ, how they relate to each other, and how they 

affect profits as sales volume of organically-grown vegetable products varies. 

Pricking-off refers to initial transplanting of some vegetable seedlings (e.g., celery and lettuce) to give them 

greater space in which to grow before finally transplanting in the main field. 

Problem solving is the process of effective decision-making. The skills, which relate to the classic model 

of decision-making, are how to: (a) define the problem, (b) generate data about the problem, and (c) 

generates ideas or alternate courses of action for problem resolution, (d) choose among the alternative 

solution, and (e) implement the solution or decision. 

Process refers to the dynamics of interplay of behaviors within the learning situations leading to the attainment 

of the training objectives. 

Processing is a way of surfacing experiences and insights of participants and interpreting these into the 

learning context. 

Producer’s guarantee, also known as first party certification, refers to an organic guarantee system where 

the producer (e.g., farmer, processor, or operator) gives assurance to consumers. This is applicable 

where producer’s integrity is widely known to consumers who usually live within same locality as 

producers. It is also sufficient when there is mutual understanding between producers and consumers 

such as in various versions of producer-consumer partnerships. 

Productivity refers to the increase in yield resulting from improved decision-making skills among farmers 

associated with integrated pest management (IPM) practices such as selection of appropriate varieties, 

use of biological control agents (e.g., Diadegma or Cotesia), correct timing of fertilizer application, and 

sound water management. 

Profitability refers to the increase in farmers’ net income associated with increased yields and decreased 

production costs as a result of the IPM program. 

Protection is a fundamental principle in pest and disease management, which is achieved through interposing 

a protective barrier between pest or pathogen and susceptible plant. 

Pruning, a practical cultural management strategy, which includes the removal of all diseased and weak plant 

parts (e.g., leaves, stems, flowers, or fruits). 

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‘Pulling the guts’ technique is a practical tool used by farmers to determine the degree of larval parasitism 

by Diadegma semiclausum wasp or diamondback moth (DBM) of crucifers. 

Puzzle refers to a fun-type form of experiential learning that is designed to stimulate participant curiosity, 

creativity, and a problem-solving orientation. In some cases, puzzle is used ‘just for fun. 

record keeping is an essential activity in farming that furnishes valuable information about past 

performance in specific areas of farming operations, which can be used together with other data 

in determining future operations. Record keeping is important because: (1) it increases farmer’s 

efficiency by providing him a basis in deciding where to put his resources; (2) it can be used for 

planning and budgeting; (3) profitability of various operations can be evaluated; (4) it shows where a 

farmer’s money comes from and where it goes; (5) a farmer’s capacity to pay is best shown by his farm 

records; and (6) settling questions becomes easy if all transactions are well recorded. 

repellent crops are crops with pest repelling properties, which are grown in-between or around the area 

planted to vegetable crops to repel some specific destructive pests of a particular vegetable crop. 

resistance is a fundamental principle in pest and disease management referring to the development and use 

of cultivars that can thwart or impede activity or a pest or a pathogen. 

resistant variety means any crop variety that can resist the adverse effect or damage caused by insect pests, 

diseases, and adverse environment. 

return on investment refers to the ratio between net return or income and the total cost of production in 

every enterprise. 

roguing refers to the removal of off-types in crops intended for seed production. It also means the removal 

of diseased plants with the accompanying pathogens for disease management. Roguing must be done 

continuously if it is to be successful. 

role-playing is a learning technique in which participants act out and thus experience real-life roles and 

situations. It is both a form of simulation and experiential learning. 

root feeders refer to a group of destructive insects whose immature stages and some adults of insect feed on 

living roots or base of plants, causing stunted growth or death of plants. 

root knot nematode (rKN) is kind of nematode which causes swellings or knots on the roots of affected 

plants known as galls. Plants affected by this nematode become stunted and wilt readily in hot, dry 

weather. 

root, tuber and bulb vegetables are vegetable crops primarily grown for their swollen underground stems 

or roots. Examples are sweet potato, onion, garlic, carrot, radish, potato, and ginger. 

sanitation is a practical cultural management practice aimed at reducing either the source of inoculums or the 

exposure of the plants to infection. Sanitation excludes use of chemicals or biological control agents (BCA).

Glossary 

sap transmission technique (sTT) is a practical tool used facilitators to show to farmers how virus diseases 

are transmitted in vegetable fields. 

scale insects, as exemplified by California red scale, coconut scale, Florida scale and others, are sucking insect pests. 

They suck plant sap mainly on nether surface of leaves, which consequently turn yellow or dry up. 

scaring materials are repellent materials (e.g., scarecrow, used video, or music tapes), which are installed in 

vegetable fields to scare and repel rats, thus avoiding infestation. 

second party certification occurs when a consumer verifies production system and adheres to standard set 

by consumers as well. This type of certification system fits in a situation where there exist an organized 

consumer and producers group and is commonly known as a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA). 

Its primary objective is to create an alternative distribution system independent of conventional produce 

market, develop a mutual understanding of needs of both producers and consumers as well as develop a 

better way of life through mutually supportive producer-consumer interactions and cooperation. 

secondary pest is a pest that does not normally cause economic damage, except when insecticide application 

destroys its natural enemies. 

seed production refers to the multiplication of seeds selected for planting in the succeeding seasons in 

isolation. In farmers’ fields, these seeds are produced naturally in self- or cross-pollinating varieties. 

seed selection is a process by which farmers select seeds from their standing vegetable crops as mother plants 

for planting or seed multiplication in the succeeding seasons. From the source mother plants, only the 

best fruits or pods are selected. From these fruits or pods, only the best seeds are selected. For any 

variety, big seeds are selected because they have more food reserves than small seeds, all other factors 

being equal, hence better seed materials. 

self-pollinated vegetables are vegetables wherein pods or fruit setting results from union of female (ovule) 

and male (pollen) reproductive cells of the same plant, variety, or cultivar. 

shoot and fruit borers are lepidopterous pests attacking solanaceous vegetables at all development stages. 

At early vegetative stage, the larvae feed on the stem, shoots, and leaves. Later, at fruit setting, the larvae 

bore into the fruits rendering them unusable for marketing and storage. 

simulation or simulation game is a learning activity designed to reflect reality. It may range from a roleplay 

and an in-basket exercise to a mock military invasion. It can be a learning activity akin to real life 

marked by such game attributes as competition, scores, outcomes, winners and losers. 

small group discussion is a term used to describe the use of small groups (e.g., break-up sessions) in 

identifying and solving problem by participatory discussion. 

sloping agricultural land technology (salT) or alley cropping system (aCs) refers to a method of 

farming or cropping system whereby hedges are used along contour lines. In this system, the strips slow 

down and spread water movement, thus reducing the likelihood of serious erosion in cultivated areas. 

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soil biodiversity refers to the relative abundance and varied population of living organisms, both animals and 

plants, in soils, which interact to influence profoundly the physical and chemical trends in soil changes. 

soil-borne organisms refer to all harmful and beneficial organisms living in the soil. Some soil-borne 

organisms are involved in the degradation of higher plant tissues. Even while, growing, plants are 

subject to attack by some soil-borne organisms. 

soil fertility refers to inherent capacity of a soil to supply nutrients to plants in adequate amounts and in 

suitable proportions. 

soil horizons are the individual layers in a soil profile. The upper layers of a soil profile generally contain 

considerable amounts of organic matter and are usually darkened appreciably because of such an 

accumulation. 

soil-inhabiting pests refer to all pests whose main harborage or habitat, in the absence of a suitable host, is 

the soil. 

soil productivity refers to the ability of a soil to yield crops and is a broader term since soil fertility is only 

one of the factors that determine the magnitude of crop yields. 

soil profile refers to the vertical section of a soil showing the presence of more or less distinct horizontal 

layers. Every well-developed, undisturbed soil has its own distinctive profile characteristics, which are 

used, in soil classification and survey and are of great importance. In judging a soil, one must consider 

its whole profile. 

soil solarization is a cultural management practice whereby soil under is exposed to sunlight for some time 

after cultivation to kill soil-borne pests and disease-causing pathogens in prepared seedbeds, beds, or 

plots intended for growing of vegetables. 

soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles into groups or aggregates. The soil texture and soil 

structure help determine not only the nutrient-supplying ability of soil solids but also the supply of water 

and air so important to plant life. 

soil test kit (sTK) is a simple, handy tool for a quick soil chemical analysis that measures amount of available 

soil nutrients. Soil testing can be done right in vegetable fields and results are obtained within a few 

hours. It is a useful tool for farmers and extension workers who need immediate answer to question of 

what kind and amount of organic fertilizers to use for a crop in a particular soil. 

soil texture is concerned with the size of mineral particles. Specifically, it refers to the relative proportions 

of particles at various sizes in a given soil. 

solanaceous vegetables are vegetable crops belonging to the solanaceous or nightshade family, whose 

economically useful parts are the fruits, such as tomato, eggplant and pepper. Potato belongs to this 

family, although it can also be classified under root, tuber and bulb vegetables because it is grown for its 

tuber and is cultivated in a similar manner as the root and bulb vegetables.

Glossary 

specialist refers to a facilitator of a Training of Trainers (TOT), who is a graduate of an intensive fourmonth, 

six days a week season-long Training of Specialists (TOS) in non-formal education techniques 

for integrated pest management (IPM) in rice, corn, vegetables, among others. 

standards are norms, set of guidelines, requirements and principles that are used as in organic agriculture 

and processing. Standards are actually norms or guidelines by which a product or process can be labeled 

as ‘organic’. 

stratification is pre-sowing activity whereby seeds are placed between layers of moist sand, soil, or sawdust 

at high and low temperatures so that action of water and high and low temperatures will soften the seed 

coat. 

sucking insects refer to a group of destructive insects, which have piercing-sucking mouthparts. 

surface irrigation or flooding is a method of irrigation where water flows on soil surface, then later seeps 

downward, or moves vertically (surface flooding), moves along a canal or horizontally (furrow flooding) 

in soil until it reaches the roots of plants. 

sustainable agriculture means any principle, method, and practice that aims to make agriculture 

economically viable, ecologically sound, socially just and humane (equitable), culturally appropriate, 

and grounded on holistic science. 

synchronous planting involves planting of crops at the same time in a large scale to take advantage of 

hostile environmental conditions for pests at the stage new plants are most susceptible to pest attack. 

Synchronization is ideal in cases where product prices are non-fluctuating and irrigation water is 

available year round. 

synthetic refers to any substances manufactured by chemical or industrial processes, which include products not 

found in nature or simulation of products from natural sources (but not extracted from natural raw materials). 

Team building is an organized effort to improve team effectiveness. It is a process consisting of a series of 

synergy-building exercises designed to promote group cohesiveness and effectiveness in performing 

and achieving their common goals and tasks. It may relate to defining and clarifying policies or goals; to 

reviewing and refining procedures; to seeking out ways to be more innovative and creative; to improving 

management practices in such areas as communication, decision-making, delegation, planning, 

coaching, career development and initiatives; to improving relationships between team members; to 

improve external relations (e.g., with local government units); to improve relations with other work 

teams; and to improving services. 

Therapy is a fundamental principle in pest and disease management referring to treatment of plants infested 

by a pest or infected by a pathogen. 

Thinning refers to a cultural management practice, which involves the removal of undesirable plants to ease 

out overcrowding of seedlings, allow better penetration of sunlight, permit proper aeration or more rapid 

drying of dew or rain on foliage after a down pour, and minimize nutrient competition. 

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Third party certification is an organic guarantee system adopted when the producer is unknown, thus, an 

independent body or a third party does the certification. The production system, the process or method 

instead of a product, is certified as organic. Thus, the ‘organic’ quality is not verifiable by product testing 

although in some cases product testing can be used to detect non-compliance. The major activities in a 

certification program are: standard setting, inspection, and certification 

Thrips are minute insect pests whose nymphs and adults suck the plant sap causing the leaves to turn yellow, 

then silvery-white, and later assumed a withered or blasted appearance. 

Training of specialist (Tos) is an intensive four-month, six-day a week season-long training course in 

non-formal education (NFE) techniques and integrated pest management (IPM) for extension and crop 

protection specialists. 

Trap crops are alternate or susceptible crops planted within a particular vegetable area to attract some 

specific destructive pests of a particular vegetable crop thereby reducing their adverse effects to that 

particular vegetable crop. 

Training team refers to a group of facilitators who work together to see to it that the learning process supports 

the objectives of the learning activities. 

Training of trainers (ToT) is an intensive four-month, three days a week season-long training course in 

non-formal education (NFE) techniques and integrated pest management (IPM) for extension workers. 

Trainer refers to a facilitator of a farmer field school (FFS), who is a graduate of an intensive four-month, 

three days a week season-long Training of Trainers (TOT) in non-formal education techniques for 

integrated pest management (IPM). 

Trapping is a cultural management practice, which attracts insect pests to trap materials for the purpose 

of controlling them. The trap materials may contain non-pesticide baits such as sex attractant or an 

attractive food source for insect pest. 

Trellising is a cultural management practice in vegetable, which involves training vegetable crops to grow 

on trellis to improve quality of products and avoid rotting of fruits associated with soil-borne pathogen. 

Trichoderma sp. (e.g., pseudokoningii, parceramosum and harzianum species) is a common soil fungus 

and a natural component of soil micro-flora. It is a fast-growing fungus that secretes many hydrolytic 

enzymes. Aside from its antagonistic nature towards several plant pathogens, it is also a compostdecomposer 

and growth-enhancer of many organically-grown vegetables. 

Trichogramma sp. are very small parasitic wasps (0.1 to 0.5 mm long) which attack eggs of lepidopterous 

insect pests. T. evanescens Westwood was proven to be effective against corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis 

while T. chilonis Ishii was tested against tomato fruit worm, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner. These 

species are also effective against eggs of corn earworm and semi-looper, tomato fruit worm, cotton 

bollworm, sugarcane borers, eggplant shoot and fruit borer, cacao pod borer, soybean leaf folder and 

other lepidopterous insect pests.

Glossary 

Tuber moth is an insect pest attacking potato tubers whose larvae form blotch mines on the leaves which later 

becomes dry and brittle and tunnel on the tubers. 

Urea is a chemical fertilizer material, which is a rich source of nitrogen element or nutrient. 

Tymo virus disease is a disease affecting cucurbits, particularly chayote, caused by virus infection, which is 

characterized by overgrowth, stunting, yellowing, curling, and mottling. 

Varietal adaptability refers to the ability of a specific crop to grow productively under specific local 

conditions such as resistance to local pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. 

Vegetable specialist training (VsT) is an intensive four-month, six-day a week season-long training of 

specialists (TOS) in non-formal education (NFE) techniques and integrated pest management (IPM) for 

extension and crop protection specialists in vegetable production. 

Vermi-cast or worm casting is the material that passes through digestive track of earthworm (worm manure). 

The amount of soil that passes through earthworm bodies annually may amount to as much as 10 t/ha of 

dry earth, a startling figure. 

Vermi-composting involves use of earthworms for composting organic materials. Earthworms ingest all 

kinds of organic material equal to their body weight per day. Earthworms popularly used for composting 

are Lumbricus rubellos and Perionyx excavator. Compared to soil, vermi-compost or vermi-cast is 

definitely higher in bacteria and organic matter, total and nitrate nitrogen, exchangeable calcium 

and magnesium, available phosphorus and potassium, pH and percentage base saturation, and cation 

exchange capacity 

Vernalization is a process by which seeds are subjected to cold temperature treatment before germination to 

trigger process of flowering at the later stage of crop development. 

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (Vam) refers to a microbial-based fertilizer consisting of spores, infected 

roots, and propagules of beneficial vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi belonging to genus 

Glomus (G. mosseae or G. fasciculatum). 

Village genebank refers to a low-tech seed storage facility that supports farmers’ local breeding programs. 

Farmers need to access genebanks more frequently and, therefore, they need to be established close to 

farmers who will use breeding materials. In addition to local and exotic varieties, village genebanks may 

store seeds of multiple breeding lines. In practice, a village genebank can have 100 or more different 

entries. 

Viruses are infectious particles that attack many forms of life, including bacteria and plants. They are so tiny 

that they can only be seen with an electron microscope. 

Virus diseases refer to diseases that are caused by viruses. The general symptoms of virus diseases on plants 

are leaf discoloration, stunting, leaf-rolling or twisting, and vein clearing. 

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water floating technique (wFT) is a practical tool used by farmers in determining the presence of cyst 

nematodes in potato fields. 

water holding capacity (wHC) refers to the amount of water a soil can hold which is proportionately related 

to the physical condition and organic matter content of the soil. Soils high in organic matter are darker 

in color and have greater water holding capacities than do soils low in organic matter. 

water management means any strategy or method that will lead to effective and efficient use of water in 

crop production. 

weed management means any strategy or method that will lead to effective and efficient suppression of weed 

population. 

whitefly is a small white insect pest belonging to the fly family, which congregate on the undersides of the 

leaves where they suck juices and secrete honeydew. Severe infestation can cause plants to wilt. 

white muscardine fungus (Beauveria bassiana [Balsamo] Vuillemin) or wmF is a naturally occurring 

insect pathogen that is commonly collected in agricultural crops for pest control worldwide. During 

development, fungus uses soft tissues and body fluids of host. The growth of WMF requires conditions 

of prolonged high moisture for airborne and waterborne spores to germinate. When ready to produce 

chalky-white spores, fungus grows out of host’s body. 

workshop refers to a ‘hands on’, highly participatory learning effort wherein participants learn by doing. 

Typically, the group is small enough to ensure adequate rapport and intimacy. 

Yellow sticky trap is a type of trapping material, which uses different bases, sticky substances, and shades of 

yellow color to trap adults of white flies and leaf-miners.

References 

Alexander, M. 1977. Introduction to soil microbiology. 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 

USA. 467p. 

Alleje, J. 2005. Status of Certification in the Philippines. Proceedings of Workshop on Development Path 

of Organic Certification: Building Partnerships in Strengthening Organic Agriculture in the 

Philippines held 7-8 April 2005. As cited in: Philippine Organic Agriculture Information Network. 

http//www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/standards. 

Balaki, E.T. 1998. As cited in: Callo, Jr., D.P., Teofilo, L.B., and Tauli, H.R. 2002. Field Guide of Discoverybased 

Exercises for Vegetable Production (Volume II). SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate 

Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), College, Laguna, Philippines. 366p. 

Bautista, O.K. (ed) 1994. Introduction to tropical horticulture. 2nd Edition. SEAMEO Regional Center 

for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) and University of the Philippines Los 

Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna, Philippines. 598p. 

Bayot, R.G. 2008. Diseases Management in Organic Vegetable Production. Power Point Presentation during 

the Workshop On Designing Farmer Field School Curriculum on Integrated Pest Management for 

Organic vegetable Production held at the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural 

Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology, Los 

Baños, Laguna, Philippines on 28-30 April 2008. Slides 1-31. 

Bayot, R.G., V.P. Justo, and J.P. Dangan. 2005. Management of tomato bacterial wilt using bio-fumigation. 

Paper presented during a Workshop on Integrated Production and Pest Management in Processing 

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Annexes 

Annex A 

lIsT oF FFs FaCIlITaTors, FarmEr-PraCTITIoNErs, aND TECHNICal ExPErTs 

wHo ParTICIPaTED DUrING THE worKsHoP oN DEsIGNING FarmEr FIElD sCHool 

CUrrICUlUm oN IPm For orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 

Held at PCARRD Headquarters, Los Baños, Laguna in 28-30 April 2008 

FFs Farmer-practitioners: 

1. mr. rustom agcopra 

Organic Vegetable Farmer 

Balingasag, Misamis Oriental 

2. mr. anthony C. anniban 


La Trinidad, Benguet 

3. mr. Felipe Españo 


Indang, Cavite 

4. mr. Elizar Gelasan 


Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental 

FFs Facilitators: 

8. mr. Zosimo s. alarca 

Municipal FFS Facilitator 

Local Government Unit, Indang, Cavite 

9. mr. omar T. ayco 


Local Government Unit, Tagum, Davao Norte 

10. mr. arsenio Dela Torre 

Assistant Provincial IPM Coordinator 

Local Government Unit, Bacolod City 

Negros Occidental 

11. ms. remedios Inovejas 


Local Government Unit, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

12. mr. Victor llasos 

City FFS Facilitator 

Local Government Unit, Bacolod City 

Negros Occidental 

5. mr. sol ryan N. Geroche 


Tagum, Davao Norte 

6. mr. marcial a. Inocelda 


Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

7. mr. luis magsipoc 


Bayawan City, Negros Oriental 

13. ms. Nida T. organo 


Local Government Unit, La Trinidad, Benguet 

14. mr. marcus rubin 


Local Government Unit, Malaybalay City 

Bukidnon 

15. ms. marilou runas 

Provincial IPM Coordinator 

Local Government Unit, Tagum, Davao Norte 

16. mr. Kulafu a. seballos 


Local Government Unit, Bayawan City 

Negros Oriental 

17. mr. oscar T. Tobia 


Local Government Unit, Vigan City 

Ilocos Sur 

459

Technical Experts: 

460 


18. ms. alma-linda morales-abubakar 

Non-formal Education Expert 

Food and Agriculture Organization Vegetable IPM Programme for Asia, Bangkok, Thailand 

19. Dr. rizaldo G. Bayot 

Research Associate Professor 

National Crop Protection Center, College of Agriculture 

University of the Philippines, Los Baños, College, Laguna 

20. Dr. Jesus s. Binamira 

National Program Officer 

National IPM Program (KASAKALIKASAN) 

Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City and 

Director 

ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network 

21. mr. Damaso P. Callo, Jr. 

Training and Curriculum Development Specialist 

ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network, Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City 

22. Dr. Nenita E. Dela Cruz, Professor 

Research and Extension Office 

Central Luzon State University, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 

23. ms. ofelia F. Domingo 

Subject Matter Specialist 

Agricultural Resources Management Division 


Los Baños, Laguna 

24. mr. rodolfo o. Ilao 

Director 




25. Dr. Pio a. Javier 

Research Associate Professor 

National Crop Protection Center, College of Agriculture 


26. Dr. richard m. Juanillo 

Deputy Executive Director 



27. mr. Jan willem Ketelaar 

Team Leader 

Food and Agriculture Organization Vegetable IPM Programme for Asia, Bangkok, Thailand

Annexes 

28. Dr. Gilberto F. layese 

Director 

Bureau of Agricultural and Fisheries Product Standards 

Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City 

29. mr. audy G. maagad 

Regional IPM Coordinator 

Department of Agriculture Regional Field Unit 10, Cagayan de Oro City 

30. Dr. rodel G. maghirang 

Research Professor 

Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture 


31. Dr. Eduardo P. Paningbatan 

Professor 

Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture 


32. Dr. marilyn G. Patricio 


Central Luzon State University, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 

33. Dr. magin l. retuerma 

Plant Pathologist-Entomologist 

Private Practitioner, Los Baños, Laguna 

34. Dr. Bethilda U. Umali 

Assistant Director 




35. mr. Noelito C. Villa 

Assistant Regional IPM Coordinator 

Department of Agriculture Cordillera Administrative Region Field Unit, Baguio City 

461

462 


Annex B 

lIsT oF ExPErIENCED IPm FaCIlITaTors aND sPECIalIsTs 

wHo ParTICIPaTED DUrING THE wrITE-sHoP To DEVEloP a FIElD GUIDE 

oF DIsCoVErY-BasED ExErCIsEs For FFs oF IPm oN orGaNIC VEGETaBlE FarmING 

Conducted at PCARRD Headquarters, Los Baños, Laguna in 17-19 June 2008 

Experienced IPm Facilitators: 

1. mr. Kulafu a. seballos 


Local Government Unit, Bayawan City Negros Oriental 

2. mr. oscar T. Tobia 


Local Government Unit, Vigan City, Ilocos Sur 

Experienced IPm specialists: 

3. ms. alma-linda morales-abubakar 

Non-formal Education Expert 


4. mr. Cesar a. Baniqued 

Chief 

Plant Diseases Management Section, Crop Protection Division 

Bureau of Plant Industry, Malate, Manila 



ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network, Department of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City 

6. mr. mario Corado 

IPM Specialist 


7. mr. Jan willem Ketelaar 

Team Leader 




Department of Agriculture Regional Field Unit 10, Cagayan de Oro City 

9. mr. Noelito C. Villa 


Department of Agriculture Cordillera Administrative Region Field Unit, Baguio City

Annexes 

Technical Experts: 


Subject Matter Specialist 




11. mr. rodolfo o. Ilao 

Director 





Research Professor 

Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture 




Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture 



Assistant Director 




463

464 


Annex C 

lIsT oF ParTICIPaNTs, FaCIlITaTors aND rEsoUrCE PErsoNs 

IN THE oNE-moNTH INTENsIVE rEFrEsHEr CoUrsE For TraINErs oF 

IPm IN CrUCIFErs aND oTHEr HIGHlaND VEGETaBlE CroPs 

Held at Bineng, La Trinidad, Benguet in 27 September to 17 October 1998 

Participants (local Government Unit, Benguet Province): 

1. ms. rosita V. alubia 

Agricultural Technologist and FFS Facilitator 

Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Tuba 

2. mr. ramon m. anacioco 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Sablan 

3. ms. susan K. aniban 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Tublay 

4. ms. Josephine C. apili 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Kapangan 

5. mr. marcos B. Baucas 


Office of Provincial Agriculturist, Benguet 

6. ms. louisa l. Carbonel 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Bakun 

7. mr. Perfecto B. Cayat 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Kibungan 

8. mr. Dexter B. Dimas 



9. mr. James G. lopez 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Buguias 

10. ms. Victoria C. marcelino 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Atok 

11. ms. Jocelyn T. martin 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Tublay 

12. mr. Nicholas l. Pawid 

Agriculturist II and FFS Facilitator 


13. ms. Edna I. raymundo 



14. mr. Esteban r. reboldela 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Sablan 

15. ms. annabelle I. saingan 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Tuba 

16. ms. Cherry l. sano 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Atok 

17. ms. annie B. sebiano 



18. mr. Denson G. Tomin 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Kapangan 

19. mr. Basanio T. wasing 

Agriculturist II and FFS Facilitator 

Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Bakun

Annexes 

Participants (local Government Unit, mountain Province): 

20. ms. Juliet P. Banoca 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Besao 

21. mr. renato m. Falag-ey 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Bontoc 

22. ms. marifee a. lucaney 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Sabangan 

23. ms. Fructosa D. mamanteo 


Office of Municipal Agriculturist, Sabangan 

Facilitators and Technical resource Persons: 

24. Dr. Edwin T. Balaki 


College of Agriculture (CA) and 

Director of Extension 

Benguet State University (BSU) 

25. mr. Inocencio B. Bernard 

Technical Staff and IPM Specialist 

Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resources Management (DA-CHARM) Project 

Department of Agriculture 

26. Dr. Jesus s. Binamira 

IPM Consultant 





ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network Center, SEAMEO-SEARCA (ASEAN IPM-SEARCA) 

28. mr. roland a. Carpio 




29. Prof. silvestre s. Kudan 


College of Agriculture, Benguet State University (CA-BSU) 

30. mr. Charlie C. sagudan 

Agriculturist II and IPM Specialist 

National Training Center, Agricultural Training Institute 

Cordillera Administrative Region (NTC-ATI-CAR) 

465

466 


31. mr. Freddie T. langpaoen 




32. Dr. Jose r. medina 

Associate Professor 

University of the Philippines Los Baños, College of Agriculture, (UPLBCA) 

33. Dr. sergia P. milagrosa 

Professor, College of Agriculture 

Benguet State University (CA-BSU) 

34. ms. luz m. Palengleng 

Training Specialist II and IPM Specialist 

Agricultural Training Institute, National Training Center (ATI-NTC) 

Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 

35. ms. araceli B. Pedro 


Department of Agriculture, Cordillera Administrative Regional Field Unit (DA-CARFU) 

36. ms. Harriet a. Tauli 

Technical Staff and Non-forma Education Expert 

National Program Office, KASAKALIKASAN (IPM-NPO) 

37. mr. landis B. Teofilo 

Agriculturist II and IPM Specialist 

Department of Agriculture, Cordillera Administrative Regional Field Unit (DA-CARFU)

Annexes 

Annex D 

lIsT oF TECHNICal rEVIEw CommITTEE mEmBErs 

wHo rEVIEwED aND CrITIQUED THE FINal DraFT oF 

FIElD GUIDE oF DIsCoVErY-BasED ExErCIsEs 

For orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 

Held at Laguna, Philippines in 02 February 2009 


Chairman 

Project Specialist and Farmer Field School (FFS) Expert, ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network 

National Agribusiness Corporation (NABCOR), PSE Building, Ortigas Center, Pasig City and 

Philippine National IPM Program (KASAKALIKASAN), Department of Agriculture, Diliman 

Quezon City 


Member 

Assistant Director, Agricultural Resources Management Research Division 


(PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna 


Member 

Professor, Agricultural Systems Cluster 

University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna 

4. Dr. Pio a. Javier 

Member 

Research Associate Professor, Crop Protection Cluster 

University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna 

5. Prof. luciana m. Villanueva 

Member 

Professor VI and Director, Semi-Temperate Vegetable Research and Development Center 

Benguet State University (BSU), La Trinidad, Benguet 


Member 

University Researcher, Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) 

Agricultural Systems Cluster, University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College, Laguna 

7. ms. leilani ramona K. limpin 

Member 

Coordinator and Board Secretary, Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP) 

78-B Dr. Lazcano St., Brgy. Laging Handa, Quezon City 


Secretariat 

Subject Matter Specialist, Agricultural Resources Management Research Division 


(PCARRD), Los Baños, Laguna 

467

468 


Annex E 

lIsT oF ParTICIPaNTs aND FaCIlITaTors DUrING a sEasoN-loNG 

TraINING oF TraINErs (ToT) For HIGHlaND orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 

wHo ValIDaTED THE FIElD GUIDE oF DIsCoVErY-BasED ExErCIsEs 


at Dalwangan, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon, Philippines in 12 May-23 September 2008 

Participants: 

1. ms. anonita m. sagrado 

Provincial Agricultural Office 

Misamis Occidental 

2. ms. ma. Theresa P. Bodiongan 

Municipal Agricultural Office 

Tudela, Misamis, Occidental 

3. ms. Jennifer N. Baguinang 


Claveria, Misamis Oriental 

4. ms. sweetheart m. al-ag 


Don Victoriano, Misamis Occidental 

5. ms. Yvonne Y. waga 


Misamis Oriental 

6. ms. lydia N. Dopenio 


Impasug-ong, Bukidnon 

7. ms. Permelita B. Dal 



8. mr. Generoso Billones 



9. mr. Clementino Esto, Jr. 

City Agricultural Office 

Valencia City, Bukidnon 

10. mr. Emegen l. Disalan 

City Agricultural Office 

Malaybalay City, Bukidnon 

11. mr. Israel roger Tomlay 



12. ms. mayolina Escaba 



13. mr. Pepe Capangpangan 


Libona, Bukidnon 

14. mr. Carlos Pichay 


Libona, Bukidnon 

15. ms. Pacita alecer 


Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon 

16. mr. Pompeyo Deveza 


Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon 

17. mr. ronald montejo 


Baungon, Bukidnon 

18. ms. maribeth Flores 

Northern Mindanao Integrated Agricultural 

Research System (NOMIARC) 

Department of Agriculture Regional Field Unit 10 

Dalwangan, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon

Annexes 

Facilitators: 




Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental 

2. mr. luisito s. ofngol 




3. ms. lilia Cagbabanua 




4. ms. arlene Culgue 




469

470 


Annex F 

lIsT oF ParTICIPaNTs aND FaCIlITaTors DUrING THE sEasoN-loNG 

TraINING oF TraINErs (ToT) For HIGHlaND orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 



at El Salvador City, Misamis Oriental, Philippines in 14 July-26 October 2008 

Participants: 

1. ms. ruth abellanosa 

City Agriculture Office 


2. ms. Clarita adajar 



3. ms. merlita Dablio 



4. mr. alfonso Brazil 



5. mr. Dino Camaro 



6. mr. roberto Enerio 



7. mr. Jaime Galimba 



8. mr. rodrigo lim 



9. ms. marivic alido 

Provincial Agriculture Office 


10. ms. Chona Bonglay 


El Salvador City, Misamis Oriental 

11. mr. Emmanuel Zarate 



12. ms. annie Calacat 

Municipal Agriculture Office 

Manticao, Misamis Oriental 

13. ms. marina Dael 


Jasaan, Misamis Oriental 

14. ms. Elsa Janiola 

Agricultural Training Institute 



15. mr. Virgilio Garay 

Agricultural Training Institute 



16. ms. Eva Pagtalunan 


Tagoloan, Misamis Oriental 

17. ms. Fe sabaduquia 

Provincial Agriculture Office 


18. ms. rosabella Ugmad 


Lugait, Misamis Oriental 

19. mr. alberto acebedo 


Ozamis City, Misamis Oriental 

20. mr. Jose Binondo 


Tangub City, Misamis Oriental 

21. mr. aries Cresencio 



22. mr. Jamel Junaide 



23. mr. Panchito supremo 


Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental

Annexes 

24. Zosimo Vallejos 



Facilitators: 





2. mr. luisito s. ofngol 




3. ms. lilia Cagbabanua 




4. ms. arlene Culgue 




25. ms. agnes Gracia sue s. Butalid 


Clarin, Misamis Occidental 

471

472 


Annex G 

lIsT oF FarmEr-ParTICIPaNTs IN THE sEasoN-loNG 

FarmEr FIElD sCHool oN HIGHlaND orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 



Conducted at Impasug-ong, Bukidnon, Philippines in 1 May-23 September 2008 

Practice FFs site 1: 

Cawayan, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon 

1. ms. lilia Tabian 

2. ms. Teresita Ponce 

3. ms. marjorie Patindol 

4. mr. sonnyboy Pacamalan 

5. mr. Cesario Navaro 

6. ms. Florita Tumilap 

7. mr. Esteban monticella 

8. mr. william monte 

9. ms. Conchita lumiston 

10. mr. Efren lodiana 

11. mr. ronulfo w. Gaburno 

12. mr. Juan Fuentes 

13. ms. merle Enteliso 

14. ms. adelina Cawasan 

15. mr. ramer Batomalaque 

16. ms. lynnie Bansilay 

17. mr. Elmer Bacasmot 

18. mr. George m. Babeda 

19. mr. Generoso apao 


Impalutao, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon 

1. ms. lourdes N. alcoy 

2. mr. reynaldo B. Tondo 

3. ms. Elvira I. Tinda 

4. ms. rebecca m. Tausa 

5. mr. Edgar C. Talasan 

6. ms. marlyn P. semine 

7. mr. sulficio r. sanico 

8. ms. Brenda E. rosita 

9. ms. Genalyn m. rabago 

10. ms. revenia G. Paculba 

11. mr. Cris a. Pabonita 

12. ms. Ellen o. micabalo 

13. ms. rosalie m. masucol 

14. ms. wilma l. lesionan 

15. mr. Teodocio s. Homdos 

16. ms. merly Curay 

17. mr. Carmelito l. Cuansang 

18. ms. Glory Jean s. Ceralvo 

19. ms. Judith a. Campano 

20. ms. marilyn a. arañuez 

21. ms. amelia arañuez 

22. ms. marlou P. agud 

23. mr. arnel C. Homdo

Annexes 


Intavas, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon 

1. ms. leliosa Unlay 

2. mr. orlando Tubiera 

3. mr. moises Tabuan 

4. mr. Jonathan Tabuan 

5. mr. Emilio lucdayan 

6. ms. Perlita lagbas 

7. ms. leonila Javierto 

8. mr. adelino Jaguing 

9. ms. Nicirita Honlay 

10. mr. rodrigo Cerantuga 

11. ms. Evangeline Galarosa 

12. ms. Josefina Galpo 

13. ms. Gina Galpo 

14. mr. rodrigo Evantusa 

15. ms. rosalinda Dugno 

16. mr. larry Data 

17. ms. Cristita Cay-as 

18. ms. Cleofy Cabulay 

19. ms. ana Grace Bayudo 

20. ms. sherlyn Bakuna 

21. mr. alejandro asilan 

22. mr. Iglen astillo 

23. ms. Beverly astillo 


Kibenton, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon 

1. mr. Ernesto E. Viloria 

2. mr. ronilo Tamayo 

3. ms. myrna C. supang 

4. mr. Generoso P. salida 

5. mr. Vivincio N. riblora 

6. mr. leopoldo P. Panlee 

7. ms. Teresita D. menardo 

8. mr. Erwin l. matugas 

9. ms. Erma lindaayan 

10. mr. richard lamparas 

11. ms. Emma D. Jenisan 


San Juan, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon 

1. ms. leonora Unduran 

2. mr. lecenio Ugsod 

3. ms. Vilma Y. Traviña, 

4. ms. marcie sonduan 

5. ms. rogelia T. saripa 

6. mr. rosalyn V. sarento 

7. ms. lily a. salvo 

8. ms. soledad H. romorosa 

9. mr. Noren lumahang 

10. ms. Teresita wayan 

11. ms. Jane Upanta 

12. ms. Bernadette H. linondo 

13. ms. Gemma legaspi 

14. ms. Gretty langue 

15. ms. Tessie C. lagamon 

16. mr. laurencio Q. Klenceslao, Jr. 

17. ms. Elsie Jabutay 

18. ms. marietta D. Gante 

19. ms. Ernita D. Dominto 

20. ms. Nenita Dagunlay 

21. ms. Nely Barba 

22. ms. mercy Bacas 

23. ms. Norma andig 

24. ms. myrna saripa 

12. mr. Edwin r. Española 

13. ms. lilia T. Edura, 

14. ms. lucia s. Erania 

15. mr. roger rublas 

16. ms. angievie D. Dominto 

17. mr. Elorde B. Dogahat 

18. ms. Esther V. Cordero 

19. ms. Josephine s. Canoy, 

20. mr. Geronuo Canoy 

21. ms. rachel s. Bayron 

22. mr. Francisco I. Balisi 

473

474 


Annex H 

lIsT oF FarmEr-ParTICIPaNTs IN THE sEasoN-loNG 

FarmEr FIElD sCHool oN lowlaND orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 



Conducted at El Salvador, Misamis Oriental, Philippines in 1 May-23 September 2008 


Molugan, El Salvador, Misamis Oriental 

1. ms. Tersita U. Valiente 

2. ms. mercy r. sismondo 

3. ms. Berlinda J. Putot 

4. ms. annabelle l. Petallo 

5. ms. Cresencia r. Penales 

6. ms. Cresencia N. Pabalolot 

7. ms. Eva m. Nacua 

8. mr. Enrico P. mendez 

9. ms. mila m. melancio 

10. ms. Corpuzalinda G. mangubat 

11. ms. Pinky E. magtrayo 

12. ms. Jocelyn a. letegio 

13. ms. merlyn l. labis 

14. ms. Floriza m. Jaraula 

15. ms. merlyn P. Fuentse 

16. ms. rosine C. Cumba 

17. mr. salvador m. Cruz 

18. mr. arnold J. Galagnara 

19. ms. Emma Q. Cajilla 

20. ms. reyna m. Cabilao 

21. ms. Judith s. Bagares 

22. ms. leonila r. anion 

23. ms. laura C. abecia 


Poblacion, El Salvador, Misamis Oriental 

1. ms. asuncion C. Yamaro 

2. ms. anita a. Policious 

3. ms. ma. rosario m. oco 

4. ms. Delia a. oco 

5. ms. arsenia Bitacura 

6. ms. Celda C. oclarit 

7. ms. Isidra mejorada 

8. ms. saturnina madjos 

9. ms. rufa lumajang 

10. ms. Helen l. Januba 

11. ms. Edelmina m. Cayubcub 

12. ms. Bertilla m. Cabugsa 

13. ms. ma. ruby G. Boctot

Annexes 


Kalabaylabay, El Salvador, Misamis Oriental 

1. Virgie o. Valle 

2. Cresencia a. Tabalba 

3. rosie N. sabo 

4. Julia C. ralozo 

5. Janice N. ralozo 

6. Gregorio J. ralozo 

7. Delia T. Palasan 

8. Jovencia r. ompoc 

9. marilyn m. ocso 

10. lorita N. Nob 

11. luzviminda m. Nob 

12. warlita V. Neri 

13. wilferdo B. magnetico 

14. Vevencia B. manbetico 

15. Tessie magnetico 

16. Emily N. magnetico 

17. Pacita G. Dadang 

18. margie o. Capili 

19. Juanita m. Bongcayao 

20. Thelma m. apdian 

21. marites m. apdian 

22. letty B. apdian 

23. lelibetjh l. abaday 

24. manilyn Valdez 

25. roel N. Tabalba 

26. Jonathan oco 

27. ricardo Nob 

28. amir myla C. Nob 

29. Clemente Neri 

30. lilia N. maglangit 

31. Condrado P. madrigal 

32. Clemente P. Jover 

33. Nilda B. Bongolto 

34. ramil abaday 

475

476 


Annex I 

lIsT oF FarmEr-ParTICIPaNTs aND FaCIlITaTors IN THE sEasoN-loNG 

Follow-UP FarmEr FIElD sCHool oN orGaNIC VEGETaBlE ProDUCTIoN 



Conducted at Barangay Ricudo, Sinait, Ilocos Sur, Philippines in 18 November 2008-10 March 2009 

Farmer-Participants: 

1. mr. salvador C. abadiez 

Rang-ay, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

2. mr. Nelson V. agbayani 

Ricudo, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

3. mr. Elizalde r. aurelio 


4. mr. maximo a. aurelio 


5. mr. Bernardo V. Balagso 


6. mr. Carlito V. Balagso 


7. mr. Julian V. Batinga 


8. mr. Vicente I. Bautista 


9. ms. Zenaida Y. Bautista 

Duyayyat, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

10. mr. manuel F. Bermudez 

Purag, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

11. mr. alfredo Z. Dacanay 


12. mr. Jaime I. Dayoan 


13. mr. Dominador I. Dela Cruz 


14. mr. Calixto B. Duldulao 


15. mr. James G. Elostricimo 


16. ms. regie G. Gascon 


17. mr. Daniel B. Ibus, Jr. 


18. mr. Diosdado m. Icari 


19. mr. alejandro P. Igarta 


20. ms. Juanita I. Impelido 


21. mr. romeo T. Ingan 


22. mr. arnulfo Y. Ingel 


23. mr. oscar Y. Ingel 


24. mr. robert I. Ingel 


25. mr. marcial a. Inocelda 


26. ms. Francisca Y. Inong 


27. ms. lolita o. Inong 


28. ms. Trinidad a. Inong 


29. mr. reginald l. Tumbaga 

Macabiag, Sinait, Ilocos Sur 

30. mr. Bernardino I. Yabes 


31. mr. Edgar s. Yago 

Ricudo, Sinait, Ilocos Sur

Annexes 

Facilitators: 

1. ms. remedios P. Inovejas 



2. mr. reginald I. Yadao 



477

478 


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