06-bioresourcesstatu.. - M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

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Bioresources Status in
Select Coastal Locations
National Bioresource Development Board
Department. of Biotechnology, Govt. of India and
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Citation
Publication No.
Printed at
Bioresources Status in Select Coastal Locations (2003)
NBDB, New Delhi and MSSRF, Chennai.
MSSRFIRRl03/11
Reliance Printers, Chennai
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculturai and
Rurai Development .
Third Cross road, Institutional Area,
Taramani, Chennai 600 113India.
Telephone: +91 (44) 22541229+91 (44) 22541698
Fax +91 (44) 22541319
E-mail msswami@mssrf.res.in;
executivedirector@mssrf.res.in
Web: www.mssrf.org
Nationai Bioresource Development Board
Gov!.ofIndia. Ministry of Science and technology
Department ofBiotechnology
Block - 2 (7th floor) CGOcomplex, Lodi Road,
New Delhi - 110003.
Telephone: +91 (11) 24362950, +91 (11) 24362881
Fax: + 91 (11) 24360747/24362884
E-mail: natesh@dbt.nic.in
Web: www.dbtlndia.org

Preface
Foreword
Introduction
Bioresources Status in Select Coastal Location
Chapter 1 Gulf of Kachchh
H.S. Sing1J, Prasanna Yennawar and B.H. Palel
Chapter 2 Malvan
L.J. Bhosale
Chapter 3 Vambanad Lake
S.K. Chakraborly and S. Ayyappan
Chapter 4 Lakshadweep Islands
Vineela Hoon and Y.M. Shamsuddin
Chapter 5 Pulicat Lake
R. Bhuvaneswari
Chapter 6 Bhitarkanika
Hemal Kanvinde
Chapter 7 Chilika Lake
Brabma B. Panda and Pralap K. Mobanly
Annexure - I
Executive summary in English
Annexure - II
Executive summary in Hindi
1-62
63-82
83-103
104-141
142-176
177-200
201-226

M.S.SWAMINATHAN
Chairman
M.S. SWAMINATHAN RESEARCH FOUNDATION
PREFACE
Coastal ecosystems, which are among the most productive and biologically rich
ecosystems in our country, include several lakes, lagoons, marshes, mangrove
.swamps, littoral zones and coral reefs. In the recent years, pressure on the
coastal bioresources is on the rise. This necessitates action for conservation,
sustainable and equitable utilization and genetic enhancement of the coastal
bioresources. Sustainable People-centered participatory management of coastal
areas is required to ensure both ecological security of the coastal zones and the
livelihood security of coastal communities. An in-depth understanding of the status
of bioresources in coastal regions holds the key for developing any effective
conservation and utilization strategy.
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation since its inception has accorded highest
priority to the conservation and restoration of coastal ecosystem. The present
project, with the generous support of the National Bioresource Development Board
was undertaken to develop the state of art status reports on bioresources of
selected coastal locations in our country. Sites for the preparation of status
reports were selected based on a expert meeting organized at the Foundation
keeping in view the importance of the sites as well as the threat to the
ecosystem. The present compendium includes seven sites along both east and west
coast of India. It also includes three Ramsar sites and other sites of particular
importance to coastal communities. The study was undertaken in partnership with
local institutions with prior working experience in the area. I hope this
compendium will serve as a useful resource material for scientists, policy makers
and all those involved in contributing to the ecological and livelihood security of
the coastal ecosystem and farming and fishing communities.
We are grateful to the National Bioresource Development Board for their support
in undertaking this project. Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. (Mrs.) Manju
Shrama, Secretary; Dr. S. Natesh, Advisor, and Dr. Sundeep Sarin, Senior
Scientific Officer from the Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India, for their
active advice and encouragement. I also express my sincere appreciation to my
colleagues Drs. Ajay Parida, Hemal Kanvinde and R. Bhuvaneswari for their
efforts in coordinating the preparation of the status reports.
f).(J.~
M. S. Swaminathan
3rd Cross Street. Taramanl Instltutlonal Area. Chennal (madras) - 600 113. INDIA.
Telephone: (044) 22541229. 22541698. Fax: +91-44-22541319
E-mail: msswaml@mssrf.res.ln

'ST. (~) ~ wrf
Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Sharma
FOREWORD
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Introduction
Coastal ecosystems are transitional areas
between marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Such
areas include brackish water lakes/lagoons,
marshes, mangrove swamps, littoral zones and
coral reefs. Coastal ecosystems are among the
most productive and biologically rich ecosystems
on earth and are also the most endangered.
Flood control, ground water recharge and
discharge, shoreline stabilization, climate
stabilization, carbon sequestrations are some of
the major function and non-marketed values of
Indian wetlands. Marketable resources such as
timber, thatch, medicine, food, fodder and fuel,
fish and aqua-culture, water spent and tourism,
floodplain farming, culture and heritage, water
supply, transport are some of the major market
value of our wetlands.
The livelihood strategies of millions of people in
India are dependent on coastal ecosystems. Yet,
they are one of the most neglected ecosystem
with very little or no management inputs. Despite
their important role in maintaining the ecology
and economy of their regions, almost all coastal
ecosystems in India are endangered by a lack of
appreciation of their role. A few of the country's
coastal ecosystems, which have a great deal of
biological wealth are protected under the Wildlife
Protection Act, whereas others, which may not
be as biologically rich, do not share the same
protection, and are easy targets for
unsustainable development.
In order to ensure that coastal ecosystems are
managed in.a sustainable manner, there is a need
to understand that coastal ecosystems are
influenced by what happens. beyond the
administrative boundary, an "Area of Influence
Management" approach within the ecological
boundary may be more acceptable. Local
communities have evolved with the coastal
ecosystems and are the best judges of resource
management. Their time-tested traditional
methods can only be utilized through their
participation and economic returns going back to
them. Without an economic value and
participation, conservation of coastal bioresources
will have no support, from local
populations and will not survive.
A great challenge in relation to the sustainable
management of coastal areas in developing
countries is the design of coastal development
strategies which can lead to the ecological
security of the coastal zone and the livelihood
security of coastal communities becoming
mutually reinforcing (Swaminathan, 1998). This
necessitates the study of the coastal
environment not only from the physico-chemical,
biological and ecological bases but also through
cultural, economic and social development
National Bioresource Development Board
(NBDB) since its inception, has initiated
programmes with two main approaches I.e.
resource-based approach and region-based
approach. The Resource-based approach
includes preparation of digitized inventories of
bioresource I.e. plant, animal, microbial and
marine. The Region-based approach aims to
develop special programmes for critical areas of
the country that is, the hill-ecosystem especially
the north-eastern region, desert eco-system, and
coastal and marine ecosystem. NBDB has also
constituted expert committees to identify areas
of research and intervention for conservation
and sustainable utilization of bioresource.
In a meeting of the coastal ecosystems experts
working group in November 2000, it was
suggested that an integrated programmes on
inventorisation, characterization and
enhancement of coastal bioresource be taken up
in a network mode. The committee identified
MSSRF to be the nodal agency for preparation of
the status reports for selected coastal regions of
the country.

Preparation of status report and development of
action plan is based on following hypothesis
Coastal bioresource are under threat due to
increasing anthropogenic activities
Socio economic factors play a major role in
conserving the coastal bio resources
The project upon completion hopes to assess
- the current status of the bio resources of
selected coastal areas; and
the dependence of human communities on local
resources. It will also provide significant clues
towards - conservation and sustainable
utilization of bioresource in selected study
sites.
Subsequently, the project aims to develop
strategies for conservation and enhancement of
bioresources in a few selected villages in the
study sites.
To operate the present project, the sites were
selected based on the ecological status of the
region. This compilation have included both sites
under areas of pristine diversity, areas with good
Site
Gulf of Kucbchh
Malvan
Vembanad lake
Lakshadweep island
Pulicat lake
Bhitarkaniaka
Chilika Lake
Investigator
Dr.Prasanna Yennawar
Prof. L.J. Bhonsale
Dr. S.K.Chakraborty
Dr.Vineeta Hoon
Dr.R. Bhuvaneswari
Dr.Hemal Kanvinde
Prof. Brahma B. Panda
diversity but under severe threat and areas in
need of rehabilitation and restoration The study
was undertaken in these areas in a network
mode. Institutions/organizations with prior
experience of working in the selected sites were
identified and a common framework was
developed during a workshop conducted at
MSSRF. The institutions and principal
investigators for the preparation of the status
report are given in the table.
These studies were primarily based on the
published literature supplemented by field visits,
wherever necessary. The reports were discussed
at a workshop conducted at Chennai and based
on the inputs from experts, modified and final
versions have been developed.
We have received enthusiastic support from
several government officials, local people and
organizations during the preparation of this
report. We are appreciative of their support and
look forward for their continued cooperation for
developing a site-specific action plan for these
important regions for sustainable management
and utilization of bioresources.
Institution
Gujarat Ecological Education & Research
Founcation (GEERFoundation)
Indroda Nature Park, Sector 9,
Gandhinagar - 382 009. Gnjarat, India
Department of Botany
Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416004.Maharashtra
Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE)
(DeemedUniversity)Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, Fisheries University
Road, Seveb Bungalows, Versova, Mumbai 400 061
Centre for Action Research on
Environment Science and Society
160, Sivananda Road, Gill Nagar Extension 2
Choolaimedu, Chennai 600 094
M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation
Taramani Institutional Area
Taramani, Chennai 600 113.
Centre for Action Research on
Environment Science and Society
160, Sivananda Road, Gill Nagar Extension 2
Choolaimedu, Chennai 600 094
Genecology & Tissue Culture Laboratory
Department of Botany Berhampur University,
Ganjam District, Berhampur 760 007. Orissa

I. Introduction
Gulf of Kachchh *
Marine bio-resources are quite different from their
terrestrial counterparts. The concept to be
applied for conservation and protection of the
marine and coastal ecosystems altogether has a
different approach. Unlike the terrestrial area,
marine area is more sensitive and nearby
activities tend to have the same or at times higher
impact. Land being replaced by water, it is a
difficult task to control the impact of activities
that take place beyond the area limits. This makes
it even more necessary to understand and
comprehend the activities in the nearby area and
in particular on the periphery.
Gujarat covers a total land area of 196,024 km'
(9.9% of Indian land area) (FSI, 1999). The
agricultural area of the State is 95,000 kID' (Forest
Statistics, 1998). It has a coastline of 1650 km,
which is the longest among all the littoral States of
the Country and is 21.9% of the Indian coastline of
7517 km. Its continental shelf occupies 165,000km'
being 35.3% of the Indian continental shelf of
468,000 km' (Fisheries Statistics, 2000). The
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is about 200,000
km' (9.9% of Indian EEZ). The coastline has two
indentations, the Gulfs of Khambhat and Kachchh,
and these together, cover around 60% of the
coastline of the State.
'* 'Kachchh' has been pronounced on spelt variously in different
literature. This term is adapted (rom the Atlas-Orient Longman
School Atlas, 1997 and for consistency we used the same
throughout the report
1
Gulf of Kachchh
- H.S. Singh, Prasanna Yennawar and B.H, Patel
The literature available on the coastal area of
India shows that the Gulf of Kachchh has been
neglected since a longtime. There bas been a little
information available in some reports but they
cover only few aspects of the Gulf of Kachchh.
Hence, there is a need to compile all the data
available elsewhere and prepare status report on
the bio-resources of the Gulf of Kachchh, which
can give entire information at a glance. The
current regime of the Gulf of Kachchh has been
analysed by Srivastava & John (1977). They have
given a brief description of how the currents
prevailing in the gulf are controlled by various
parameters like wind, tide, bathymetry, coastal
configuration, density distribution, etc.
The preparation of status report is carried out by
the literature survey and refering the official
publication of the Government. The annual reports
of the Governmental Departments were also
referred and some of the villages were also visited
to collect the preliminary information. Mostly the
report is based on secondary data but some of the
information gathered during the study carried out
by GEER Foundation has also been incorporated.
The aim of the status report is also to identify the
important biological resources in the Gulf of
Kachchh and their present status. This identified
resources and their present status can be useful to
monitor it through the long term study .with
observations on regular intervals as well as to
analyse the pressure on the bio-resources.

Gulf of Kachchh
II. Description of Site
i. Geographic location
The Gulf of Kachchh is an indentation in the
Saurashtra Peninsula of the western coast of
India, aligned approximately in the east-west
direction (Figure 1). Water depth in the Gulf
ranges from 15 to 55m and the deeper areas
occurs in the axial part along east west. The Gulf
lies between latitudes 22" 15'N to 23"N and
longitudes 69"E to 70"35'E. At seaward (western),
it is 70 km wide from where it tapers gradually
eastwards, extending for nearly 170 km and has
an area of 7350 km'.
The southern shores of the Gulf area are marked
by a low-level coastal plain with indentations,
deep inlets and a large number of river openings.
In the southern region, an area of 457.92 km' that
includes 42 islands is managed under Marine
National Park & Sanctuary.
Table 1 : Distribution of Wildlife Protected Areas
around the Gulf of Kachchh
Bin-geographic Area National Area Sanctuary Area Tntal
SUb.division park
Bio-geographic Zone -3lndian Desert, Biotic Province- 3A Kachcl1h
Uttle Rann 4.000 - WiidAss 4,953.7 4.953.8
GreatRann 15,000 GreatRann 7,506.2 7.506.2
Kachcl1h Plateau 26.650 - Narayan 444.2 444.2
Sarovar
Kacl1c11hGIB 2.0 2.0
Tntal 45650 - - 4 12,906.1 2,906.2
BiD-geographic Zone.B, Coasts, Biotic Province- SA West Coast
Gulf of Kachchh 7.350 Marine 162.9 Marine 295.0 457.9
National Sanctuary
Park
Source: Singh, 200f.
FIgure 1 : The Gulf 01 Kacbchh Msp.
2
f
Numerous live and dead corals with their reefs,
islands and extensive mudflats fringe the southern
coast. In contrast, the northern coast is fringed by
tidal flat only.
Entire coast in the west of Kachchh, including the
network of Kori creek has e~ensive mudflats. Out
of 42 islands, 33 have coral reefs. The intertidal
coral reefs on islands and the coastal zone in
Jamnagar are either degraded or dead, 20 to 30%
coral reef area is live in the intertidal zone (SAC
Report, 1994).
Majority of the coast in Kachchh and Jamnagar
are occupied by Prosopis chilensis. Thorny scrub
forests occur on the coast of Jamnagar and also on
some of the islands.
About 100 km towards northwest of the Gulf of
Kachchh is located the opening of the Indus river,
discharging an annual suspended load of over 400
million tones. Some of the suspended sediments
are transported towards south-east direction into
the Gulf of Kachchh where the sediments are in
transit under the action of the high speed of the
currents.
The Gulf of Kachchh is a terrestrial ecosystem but
it is a part of biogeographical zone 'coasts'. As per
biogeographical classification by the WII,
Dehradun, the Park and Sanctuary area lies in the
biotic province 'SA-WestCoast'. The Gulf areas is
located between the terrestrial biotic provinces of
semi arid - 4B Gujarat-Rajwara and Desert-3
Kachchh. Distribution of area under various
categories/eco-systems are indicated as under:

Gulf of Kachchh
Table 2: Distribution of Biotic and Sub-biotic provinces, land regions in the Gulf of Kachchh area
Sub-biotic
provinces/ Area km' Districts/Area Ecosystem type
land regions
BiD-geographic Zone- 3, The Indian Desert: Biotic Province 3B Kachchh
3B, Kachchh 23,452 Part of Kachchh (main land) Desert thorn forest, Euphorbia, lizyphus, salvadora &
Plateau Prosopis scrub Acacia senegal & A. nilotica forest, dry
grasslands, Inland wetlands & dry streams.
3B, Banni 2,900 Part of Kachchh (Banni Grassland, herbaceous cover (Suaeda sp.), Prosopis scrub,
grassland) marsh vegetation, inland wetlands, saline blanks.
The Rann, Rann saline scrubs, saline grassland, Prosopis
19,300 Part of Kachchh (Rann of
3B, Rann scrub, Suaeda cover, marsh vegetation, wetlands, creeks and
Kachchh)
islands.
BiD-geographic Zone- 4, The Semi-arid, Biotic Province 4B Gujarat-Rajwara
4B, Saurashtra
Plateau
63,119 Rajkot, Jamnagar (including-
Surendra Nagar, Porbandar,
Amreli, Junagadh &
Tropical dry deciduous forests-dry teak, dry savannah,
Euphorbia scrub, dry grassland, Boswellia, Acacia nilotica,
A. catechu, A. senegal & lizyphus forest, dry tropical
Bhavnagar) riverine forest, grassland, minor dams & seasonal streams.
BiD-geographic Zone- 8, The Coast, Biotic Province 8A The West Coast
8A, Gulf of 7,350
Mangroves, coral reefs, mudflats, island system, estuaries,
Kachchh Kachchh, Jamnagar & Rajkot algal beds & sandy beaches.
Source: Singh, 2001.
Table 3 : Distribution of notified area under varions categories in Marine National Park & Sanctuary in
the Gulf of Kachchh in km'.
Sr. Name of category/ Coastal Islands Total
No. ecosystem zone
1 Mangrove 44.94 38.36 83.3
2 Mudflat and 185.45 55.02 240.47
Marsh vegetation
3 Sandy area 6.23 7.87 14.1
4 Reef area 6.99 11.28 18.27
5 Reef vegetation 8.31 10.09 18.4
6 Other 57.1 26.28 83.38
Total 309.02 148.90 457.92
Source: SA C, 1998
Table 4: Landuse pattern in the Coastal area of Gulf of Kachchh in km'

Gulf of Kachchh
Table 5 : Natural wealth of coastal area of Gulf of Kachchh
District Metallic Non-metallic Economically
minerals minerals useful rocks
Kachchh Bauxite Agate,Bentonite, Limestone,
Fireclay,Ochres sandstone
Jamnagar Bauxite Chalk,Gypsum, Limestone
Quartz,Silica-sand
Source: AfehJ; 1995
ii. Geomorphology
The northern plank of the Gulf Le. area from
Jakhau to Kandla has irregular and dissected
configurations. The western half, overlooking the
open Arabian Sea, trends NW-SE and is
dominantly muddy and made up of extensive tidal
fiats. The E-W trending coast that lies inside the
Gulf of Kachchh, is sandy and silty with narrow
beaches. It merges with the Little Rann to the
east. However, the southern plank of the Gulf Le.
the area from Navlakhi to Dwarka, trending E-W,
overlooks the Gulf and shows a crenellated rocky
shoreline with the subtidal zone consisting of
channels, shoals, submerged islands, sand bars,
coral reefs and mangroves.
The beach sands are calcareous and dominated by
bio-casts. The consolidated ancient equivalents of
these biogenic sands are the famous miliolite
rocks. The minerological and petrographical
studies of the submerged intertidal rocks of the
Gulf of Kachchh indicate that they are calcareous
sandstones. The petrology of the rocks, study of
the foraminifera and the nature of insoluble
residue, suggest that these rocks were formed in
an intertidal region of deposition during a period
of lowered sea level (Hashmi et al., 1977).
The Rann is the most remarkable and unique
feature of the Kachchh region, occupying its
northern and eastern parts, forming more than
half of the aerial extent of Kachchh. Mehr & Malik
(1996) give specific account of the formation of
Little Rann (falling between 23'10'N to 23'45'
latitudes and 70'45'E to 71'45'E longitudes) and
owe its origin to the transgression through the Gulf
of Kachchh. According to them the Little Rann
represents the former extension of the Gulf of
Kachchh when the sea:level was high during the
last Holocene transgression.
a. Bathymetry :
The sea slopes gently towards west from the
Arabian sea coast of Kachchh. The sea bed is
Mineral tuels
The tides are of mixed semi-diurnal type (M, type),
with a large diurnal inequality and varying
amplitude, which decreases from north to south
along both the coasts. Because of unique position,
nearness to the Tropic of Cancer, funnel shape of
the Gulf and resonance effects, it experience very
high tides, roughly the highest anywhere along the
Indian coast. The tides, in general, are low on the
open Arabian sea near the Gulf of Kachchh. The
mean high-water spring (MHWS) of 3.47m in Okha
increases to 5.36m at Sikka to 7.31m at Navalakhi.
Longshore currents with low wave energy
dominate the open coasts along the Arabian Sea.
The tidal currents dominate the fiow in Gulf of
Kachchh. Maximum velocities occur during midtide,
which is around 4 knots, associated with high
wave energy.
During the SW monsoon the coastal surface
currents along the West Coast of Saurashtra fiow
alongshore directed northwards. At a distance of
3-5 km from the coast the alongshore current
develops a shoreward component. This
phenomenon is reverses during NE monsoon when
the alongshore-current fiow equator-wards and its
perpendicular component gets directed away from
the shore.
The currents in the Gulf though tidal, are monsoon
in origin. The flow adjusts its directional
orientation with the changing dire( .ion of the wind
affected by changing seasons of the year.
iii. Climate
mostly sandy and muddy. This is
caused by the prograding sediment
from the Indus delta.
Lignite Depth of the Gulf of Kachchh ranges
from a maximum of about 60m at the
mouth to less than 20m at the head of
the Gulf. The topography is very
irregular at the mouth and the central
part of the Gulf and consists of pinnacles and
scarps ranging in height from 6 to 32 m. towards
the head the relief is subdued due to the covering
of fine-grained sediment.
4
b. Tides and currents :
The climate in the coastal area of the Gulf of
Kachchh is arid to semi-arid. The northern plank
is extreme arid while southern plank shows semiarid
climate. The .climate is very dryas the
rainfall is always below average every year, which

is about 300mm. The
atmospheric temperature
reaches to 47°C in summer
to as low as oDe in the
winter. The salinity of the
Gulf water reasonably
remains moderate with
minute fluctuation in
monsoon. The south-west
monsoon which brings rain
from the Arabian sea
extends from June-July to
September. The winter
season is preceded by
month of October, which is
largely a transitional
period. Winter lasts from Source: GEC, 1999; NIo, 1998; CSMCRI, 1998
November to February,
when the climate is cool and dry, and there are
occasional showers of short duration. January is
the coldest month.
a. Hydrography :
The Gulf of Kachchh is an area of negative water
balance where evaporation exceeds the sum of
precipitation (rainfall) and river runoff (Sen Gupta
et aZ., 1999). The turnover/mixing/exchange times
are quite short because of shallow depths, large
tidal amplitude and strong tidal currents (Desai,
1997). Because of high tidal amplitudes, increasing
upstream, it has huge inter-tidal expanses,
perhaps the widest along the Indian coast.
Table 6: Hydrographical features of the Gulf of
Kachchh
Parameters
Area
Depth (mean)
Volume
River runoff (R)
Rainfall (P)
Evaporation (E)
Water Balance (R+P-E)
Tides
Tidal expanse
Details
Large quantity of sediments from River Indus is
prograding the shelf along Kachchh. Prograding
sediments of the Indus delta accumulate on the
northern shores of the Gulf while the southern
shores remain deprived of sediments because of
Gulf of Kachchh
Table 7 : Hydrochemical features of the Gulf of Kachchh
Stalion Depths Salinity %, O,mg.I" PO.-P pmol.l" NO,-N pmol.l"
Okha Surface 35.27 - 36.39 7.02 - 8.04 1.00-1.26 0.79.2.28
Bottom 35.72 - 36.45 6.90 - 7.87 0.95 -1.09 1.58 - 2.37
Poshitra Surface 35.99 - 37.18 6.04 - 7.23 0.67 - 1.59 2.83 -3.28
Bottom 36.25 - 37.03 5.90 - 6.86 0.71 -1.65 2.95 - 4.49
Kalubhar Surface 36.26 - 37.86 6.52 - 6.66 0.89 - 1.05 4.63 - 4.93
Bottom 36.68 - 36.91 6.07 - 6.43 0.89-1.10 4.82 - 4.95
Pirotan Surface 37.12 - 37.85 7.64 - 7.67 0.95 - 1.00 4.89 - 5.35
Bottom 37.19 - 37.99 7.49 - 7.62 0.95 -1.38 5.55 - 5.90
Kandla Surface 38.32 - 39.38 6.50 - 6.72 0.95-1.10 6.64 - 6.83
Bottom 38.15 - 40.02 6.33 - 6.91 1.00 - 1.21 6.58 - 6.73
Mundra Surface 37.15 - 37.48 5.20 - 5.50 1.00 - 1.10 -
Bottom 37.22 - 37.69 5.00 - 5.17 1.10-1.15 -
7,350 km'
20-60 m (30m)
2,20,000 Mm'
140 Mm' y"
3,087 Mm' y-'
7,350 Mm' y"
Negative
Jakhau-Kandla 3-8m
Okha-Jamnagar 3-5 m
Jakhau-Kandla 0.5-2 km
Okha-Jamnagar 1->5 km
5
the existence of a dynamic barrier caused by the
high velocity tidal stream flowing through the
central channel of the Gulf. (Nair et aZ., 1982).
b. Hydrocbemistq .-
The coastal water of Gulf of Kachchhare more or
less homogenous displaying a one-layer structure.
This is caused by the shallowness of the depths
and medium to high tidal amplitudes associated
with tidal currents and turbulence. As a result,
the chemical parameters maintain almost similar
concentrations both vertically and horizontally
over some distance.
Because of these movements the waters are always
well oxygenated and are close to or over
saturation values. Other constituents of the water
body e.g. nutrients, toxic and non-toxic trace
metals, maintain concentrations within acceptable
limits. (Table 7)
The Gulf, in general, has excellent water quality
quite close to the characteristics of a pristine
water body. At any given instant it may contain
around 1350 Gg (Giga gram) dissolved oxygen.
Marginal degradation in water quality in localized
areas around industrial and urban centres is
possible. But such changes can only be ephemeral
because of semi-diurnal tidal flushings associated
with moderate to strong tidal currents. However, it
will be worthwhile to examine the residual tidal
effects on natural and anthropogenic substances.
iv, Short summary on vegetation and animal life:
Intricate network of 42 islands with their coral
reefs, mangroves, creeks, mudflats and sandy
beaches are endowed with a fantastic array of

Gulf of Kachchh
marine life. Out of 42 islands, 33 islands have coral
reefs and 20 islands are fringed with mangroves.
Bural-Chank, Kalubhar, Paga, Chandri, Narara
and Pirotan are the largest islands with coral
reefs in the Gulf of Kachchh. Biologicaldiversity of
the area is attributed to the varied habitats, which
support over 103 species of algae, 10 species of
mangroves,. about 279 coastal flora, about 74
species of sponges, 52 species of soft and hard
corals, 4 species of sea anemones, 144 species of
fishes, 27 species of prawns, 21 species of crabs,
200 species of molluscs, 3 species of turtles, 3
species of snakes and 5 species of mammals and
about 200 species of birds. Colorful sponges and
corals, reef fishes, prawns, lobster, pearl oyster,
window pane oyster, sea horse, giant sea anemone,
sea hare, puffer fish, shark, cat fish, ray fish, star
fish, sea urchin, Sabella, Bonellia, dugong, sea
turtle and dolphin are important marine life in
this area (Singh 1994 & GEER, 2002).
III. Population Profile
The coastal area, upto 20 km. from the shoreline,
is 30,022.25km', which is 15.3%of the state. Most
of the land area is utilized for cultivation
purposes. 25% of area is not available for
cultivation. This is where the habitation and
natural wealth exists.
Table 8 : Coastal Gulf of Kachchh with number of villages in the
periphery of20 km.
District Taluka No. of No. of Coastal Population
towns villages area Km' Urban Rural
Kachchh Lakhpat 0 56 6,749.77 2,50,382 3,61,865
Abdasa 1 109
Mandvi 1 64
Mundra 1 56
Anjar 3 48
Bhachau 1 58
Rajkot Maliya 0 36 576.71 0 58.310
Morbi 0 5
Jamnagar Jodiya 1 48 4,863.53 5,72,486 4,75,947
Dhrol 1 11
Jamnagar 5 78
Lalpur 1 31
Khambhalia 2 69
Dwarka 5 77
Kalyanpur 0 45
Total 22 791 12,190.01 8,22,868 8,96,115
Source: Census J .1991
6
Based on the 1991 census, the 20km coastal belt
around the Gulf has human population of 1,718,990
with the desert region of Kachchh having a low
population density of 54 persons/km'. The
population density is higher in other two districts
and is centered around 100 persons/km'. The
literacy rate which is low (38%) in the Kachchh
district increases in Rajkot (43%) and Jamnagar
(40%) districts. Of the total working population,
agricultural workers constitute the majority. The
sex ratio (average of rural and urban population)
in Kachchh, Jamnagar and Rajkot districts was
96,94 and 95 (rural) respectively. In urban areas of
Kachchh and Jamnagar districts the literacy
percentage was 56 and 59 respectively.
The landuse pattern in these 3 districts indicate
that about 85% of the forest cover of the coastal
region falls in the Kachchh district while the
Jamnagar district has only 14%. The coastal belt
of the Jamnagar district however has 64% of the
total cultivable land in 20 km zone with the
Kachchh district having about 35%. Cotton is the
dominant crop in the Kachchh district while oil
seeds dominate the agricultural produce in the
other two districts. Other major crops are wheat,
bajra, sugar cane, spices and pulses.
Due to extreme unreliability of rainfall, the
agriculture is largely fed by extracting ground
water, which is apparently a
more reliable source of water,
particularly in the Kachchh
district. However, due to
faster rate of withdrawal
from shallow as well as deep
aquifers relative to the rate
recharge, a sharp decline in
the water table has occurred
with the rise in salinity.
Salinity encountered within
the region originates from
two sources. One is inherent
due to marine origin of
geological formations and the
other because of seawater
ingress from the adjoining
coast. Lakhpat and Anjar
talukas have been
categorised as over exploited
while in Mandvi, Bachau,
Mudra and Abdasa talukas
all in Kachchh district and
Jodia and Okhamandal in

Jamnagar district, the ratio of balance draft to
utilizable recharge has become unfavorable. The
Wagber community is involved in fishing activity.
The Rabari communities along the coastal tract
practice the profession of cattle breeding. The koli
community is mortly involved in labour works
including that of salt works.
Animal husbandry is an important economic
activity in arid and semi-arid areas supporting
farm income. Gujarat has its native breeds of
cattle, buffaloes, sheep and horses. In the
Kachchh region 'Kankrej' breed of cattle is
famous and is also being exported to other
countries. However, during the .periods of droughts
livestock becomes the first victim and a large
number of .animals either parish or have to be
migrate to other areas.
Infrastructure facilities such as education, health,
drinking water, communication, transportation
and power are modest in the coastal belt. While
primary school facilities cover over 80% of the
villages, secondary education is confined to only
about 6 to 10% of villages. Health facilities are
also modest. Drinking water is a perennial
problem. Railway network towards the district
head quarter is available in Jamnagar district
from the majority of the coastal villages but in
Kachchh it is negligible. Several villages are well
connected .with tarred roads.
IV. Biodiversity and Conservation Values
i. Flora
Gulf of Kachchh
around Pirotan, without any marked difference
with 'depth throughout the Gulf. Most common
species were Nitzshia, Navicula, Thallassionenw.
Thall-essiosira and Coseinodiseus, while the
species like Coeolithophorides, Cyelotella, etc.
were rare (GEC, 1999). COMAPSstudies identified
genera like Synedra and Guinardia only at
Poshitra. However, no endemic species have been
recorded from this region during these studies.
b. Algae and seaweeds :
Gujarat coasts harbours around 210 species of
marine algae (seaweed) having a projected
biomass of >1,00,000 tonnes (fresh weight) year-I.
The Gulf contributes to the maximum species and
biomass level as well for the west coast of India
(Untawale et al., 1981). The oldest reviews on the
ecology of marine algae are of Gislen (1930),
Feldmann (1937;1951), Fischer-Piette (1940),
Chapman (1946; 1957), Doty (1957), which were
mostly based on qualitative surveys and biography.
Most of the work that has been conducted on
marine algae pertained to reports of occurrence or
general description of species and their
distribution. The systematic ecological studies on
the marine algae from the Gulf of Kachchh are
scanty. Boergesen (1930; 1931;.1932; 1933a;1933b;
1934; 1937a; 1937b and 1938) extensively surveyed
the marine algae on the coast of Gujarat, the then
part of, Bombay presidency and gave a
comprehensive list of species. Krishnamurthy &
Joshi (1970) prepared a check-list of the Indian
marine algae. Srinivasan (1969) prepared a
monograph 'Phycolgia Indica', which is a
collection of some icons of Indian Marine Algae.
Gopalakrishnan (1969) gave a list of marine algal
species collected at Dona Reef near Port Okha.
Bhandari and Trivedi (1975) surveyed the seaweed
resources of Hanuman Dandi & Vumani reefs near
Okha Port to estimate the harvestable quantities.
They have also provided information regarding
proper harvest of seaweeds. Avrainvillea
nigrieans has been reported for the first time from
Adatra coast by Sreenivasa Rao et al. (1971). Ulva
beytensis has been reported from Bet Dwarka
situated at the entrance to the Gulf of Kachchh, by
Thivy and Sharma (1966). Similarly, Turbinaria
ornata has been reported for the first time from
Hanuman Dandi area by Shah and Vaidya (1967).
Enterornorpha gujaratensis has been reported
for the first time in Gujarat by Kale (1967).
Caulerpa eharoides has been recorded from Okha
coast by Thivy & Visalakhmi (1963c). From the

Gulf of Kachchh
same coast Spongomorpha indica has been
reported for the first time by Thivy & Visalakhmi
(1963b). The elegant looking Caulerpa
verticillata has been recorded from Okha reef by
Thivy & Visalakhmi (1963a). Thivy & Sreenivasa
Rao (1963) reported the occurrence of
Polysiphonia gopnathensis from the reef at
Gopnath. Chondria armata has been reported
from Port Okha from the lower mid-littoral levels of
Adatra by Thivy & Sreenivasa Rao (1963). A
detailed description of the different species of
Ulva has been given by Krishamurthy & Joshi
(1968). The species of Enteromorpha from India,
many of which one existed in the Gulf of Kachchh,
have been described in detail by Joshi and
Krishnamurthy (1972). An analysis of the seaweed
drift on the Saurashtra coast and its constituents
, have been given by Krishnamurthy (1967). A
survey of the alginate producing seaweeds from
Adatra reef (Okha) has been done by Sreenivasa
Rao et al. (1964).
Murthy et al. (1987) made an ecological study on
the intertidal algae at Okha wherein they have
described the fluctuations in mean monthly
biomass and the environmental factors. According
to them Sargassum is the only genus which was
present in the sampling units throughout the year.
Further, they observed that the contribution of
Chlorophyceae to the total biomass was less as
compared to that by Phaeophyceae or
Rhodophyceae.
There exists a definite contrast between the two
coasts of the Gulf as regards species diversity and
biomass, with luxuriant growth on the southern
shores. The inter-tidal expanse varies from 1-5 kID
with gradual slope and mostly coralline
substratum on the south, very conducive for algal
growth. The MNP area houses 89 species. Species
recorded from a few island were 79 from Bet
Dwarka, 43 from Kalubhar and 40 from Pirotan.
Red algal species (Rhodophycease) dominated
with 39 species, followed by 25 green algae
(Chlorophyceae), 21 brown (Phaeophyceae) and
only 3 blue-green (Cynophyceae)(Sen Gupta et al.,
1999).
The northern shore of the Gulf, on the other hand,
has very poor algal biodiversity. The substratum
being sandy/muddy it does not support algal
growth. Only Enteromorpha (Chlorophyceae) and
some blue-green algae were found in the mangrove
region of Mundra.
8
The supra-littoral zone of the southern shores was
dominated by Ulva sp. Other common algae in this
region were green algae Ernodesmis, Struvea
and Microdictyon and non-articulated coralline
algae-Melobasia(red algae): Brown algae Padina,
Dictyota, Colopomenia, Iyengaria dominated
the mid-littoral zone. Red algae Kjellimania,
Halymenia, Griffisthsia, etc. were dominant in
the lower mid-littoral and sub-tidal zones. Subtidal
region (below 5 meter water depth) was
dominated by Sargassum, Turbinaria and
Kjellimania (Sen Gupta et al., 1999).
c. Sea grass :
Seagrass species exist in the subtidal regions of a
few islands. Two Halophila species exist off
Kalubhar and H. ovalis and Thalassia can be
found off Pirotan. Rich sea grass beds off Kalubhar
islands indicate high prospects of the presence of
the rare and endangered species Dugong dugon,
the sea cow.
d. Mangroves :
The area under mangrove cover along the Gujarat
coast is the second largest in India, next to the
Sunderbans. Of the 1031 km' for State, the Gulf of
Kachchh region with 994 km' mangrove cover
forms 96% of the total. Majority of this mangrove
cover belongs to the Kachchh district,
encompassing an area of 854 kID' (86% of Gulf) of
which over 800 kID'borders the Kori creek (Forest
Statistics, 1998). The coast of Jamnagar and
Rajkot district cover an area of 141 kID' (14%). The
notified mangrove forest ,area is 1324.4 km' for
Kachchh, Jamnagar and Rajkot district together.
Although this region has the maximum mangrove
cover in the State, it displays the low diversity
with only one dominating species Avicennia
marina (Cher) along with mangrove associated
species, like Salvadora per sica, Salicornia
brachaiata, Sueda sp. and Alueropus grass
(Chavan, 1985). On the other hand, Jamnagar
region houses 7 species, e.g. A. marina,
A.officinalis, A.alba, Rhizopora mucronata,
Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras comuculatum
(Singh, 2000, GEER Foundation 2002. These
mangroves were having the associate halophytes
as above, (Singh, 2000).
Due to high salinity, grazing and cutting pressure
on the Kachchh mangroves, they have stunted
growth (1-2 m tall). However, trees in some
untouched patches gain a height of 4-5 m on
Pirotan island and 5-10 m in Kori Creek with fairly

good girth of the trunk (Singh, 2000). Very often
salt encrustation on the ground level hampers the
growth of plant and tunes the land denuded and
unproductive (Naskar & Mandal, 1999).
The best conserved mangroves of Gujarat are
those which lie along the Kori creek, this is
because they are located in sparsely populated
area near the international border wtth Pakistan
and have relatively difficult accessibility.
Mangroves have been the subjects of several
researches in the past. Lakshmanan et al. (1983)
has described the economic significance of
mangroves as medicinal plants. They have
provided a comprehensive list of mangrove
species, with medicinal value of the different
parts. Lakshamanan et al. (1983) have stressed
the economical and ecological importance of
mangroves and provided gnidelines for the
conservation practices by which mangroves can be
effectively utilized as renewable resources.
Khachar (1996) prescribed afforestation of
mangroves as a remedy for the indiscriminate
felling of the mangroves on the coast and adjacent
islands of the gulf. Thereafter, Singh (1994)
extensively surveyed mangroves in the Gulf of
Kachchh. Singh (2000) presents the qualitative
and quantitative data on mangroves.
ii. Fauna
The first attempt to record the fauna of the
Okhamandal region, in a systematic and scientific
way, was done by James Hornell when he was
commissioned to do so by Shri. Sayajirao Gaekwad
of Baroda. Hornell submitted a comprehensive
report of the general survey of the coastal fauna to
the erstwhile Government of Baroda (Hornell,
1909; 1916). Another attempt to survey intertidal
fauna of certain parts of the Gulf of Kachchh was
made by Gideon et al. (1954). These authors have
given a comprehensive ecological and taxonomic
account of the different animal groups. Pillai et al
(1979) have given a preliminary generalized
account of the flora and fauna of the major coastal
ecosystems in Gulf of Kachchh based on a
reconnaissance survey, they have also briefly
described the prevailing physical features and the
visible ecological impact of human interference on
the ecosystem.-
a. Zooplankton :
The Gulf of Kachchh is moderately rich in
zooplankton with frequent occurrences of high
standing stock of organisms. The distribution
pattern was comparable to that of phytoplankton
9
Gulf of Kachchh
pigments. The inner Gulf sustained a higher rate
of zooplankton production. The composition was
fairly diverse and consisted mainly of cope pods
and decapods. The other major groups were
Chaetognaths, Siphonophores, Medusae,
Amphipods, Polychaetes and fish -eggs.
Contribution of decapods was more in the inner
Gulf with decrease in diversity. The rich
crustacean fauna, particularly the high
population of Streptocephalus, provided a
congenial feeding ground for prawns and fishes
(Desai, 1997).
During the lCMAM observations in 1998-99, 15
zooplankton forms were recorded from 4 stations.
The population density varied widely between the
stations, from 340 to 1766 organisms m-'. The
minimum was recorded at Pirotan and the
maximum was off Kandla. Fish eggs were the
dominant group everywhere (GEC, 1999). Earlier
records indicated Copepods as the dominant group
and Paracalanus as the most abundant species,
which were later confirmed during COMAPS data
collection.
In the ICMAMstudies, as well, copepods were the
dominant group represented by 6 species in which
Paracalanus sp. was the dominant one followed
by Centropages sp. different larval stages of
benthic crustaceans, such as, zoea, nauplii and
mysis were abundant at all the stations. In the
chaetognatha group, Sagitta sp. showed site
specificity occurring only near Pirotan. Veliger
larvae of gastropods and- trocophora larvae of
polychaetes appeared in considerable numbers,
may be due to the spawning period for molluscs
and polychaetes.
b. Marine invertebrates (Benthos) :
On the low-energy margin of the Gulf of Kachchh,
especially on the southern side, wide tidal flats
with patches of corals in the inter-tidal zone are
present. Th~ remainder of the Gulf consists of silt
and clay with patches of fine sand. Silt-size
materials are found at the mouth, fine silt and
medium silt occur at the southern side of the Gulf
at its head. The percentage of organic matter
varied between 1.9 and 2.4 percent. Over a period
of ten years from 1985 to 1994, an improvement in
various parameters such as biomass, population
and group diversity was observed.
Considerable information is available on the
economically important animal species. Hornell
(1951) prepared a monographic work on the
Indian molluscs, which lists the molluscs of Gulf of

Gulf of Kachchh
Kachchh. Ninety-one species of Pelecypods
belonging to 27 families have been described from
the Gulf of Kachchh \\ith a note on their relative
abundance (Kundu, 1965). Moses (1938) has
reported that there were 10 rich beds of the
windowpane oysters between Balapur Bay and
Pindara Bay of Gulf of Kachchh. Economic
significance of the windowpane oyster fisheries
along the gulf coast has been re-assessed by
Verghese (1976). Gokhale et at. (1954) have
reported growth rate of pearl oyster Pinctada
pinctada in the Gulf of Kachchh. Various aspects
. of the pearl fisheries in Gulf of Kachchh have been
described by Eswaran et at. (1969).
During the ICMAM data collection in February-
March 1999 along coastal regions of the Gulf total
group observed varied from 5 to 10. The groups
were polychaetes, amphipods, decapods, molluscs,
echinoderms, crustaceans, gorgonians, corals and
bryozoans.
c. Corals:
Genetic diversity of the scleractinian corals
occurring around the Poshitra point and the niche
differentiation of various reef-building corals have
been studies by Patel (1978).Various possibilities of
establishing coral based industries in Gujarat and
their potential to generate employment were
discussed by Patel & Bhaskaran (1978).
Satellite imageries indicated that the total reef
area in the Gulf was 217 km' in 1975, which
decreased to 118 km'in 1985 and 123 km' in 1986
with net loss of 94 km' or 43% of the coral cover.
The satellite pictures show that the reefs that are
interpreted as having died out between 1975 and
1985 in fact lie buried under mud, proving
conclusively that the important, if not the only,
cause for coral damage is the heavy silt load
(Bahuguna & Nayak, 1998; Bahuguna et at., 1998).
Satellite imageries also clearly showed that the
core area of the MNP coral reefs, which covered
116km'in 1975,was reduced to 83 kID'in 1982 and
53 km' in 1985. The Remote Sensing data
supported by ground truth data collection
revealed that between 1985 and 1991 a net
improvement (from 53 to 85 km') in coral cover
within the core area of the MNP has taken place
(Bahuguna & Nayak, 1998). This happened mainly
because of the imposition of the ban on coral sand
extraction by the cement factory at Sikka. The
reefs are generally restricted to areas exposed to
the strong tidal currents and live corals are
generally confined to the northern and western
10
sides of the islands. The diversity of coral species
is the lowest of all Indian reefs. A total of 44
species of Scleractinian corals (stony corals) and
12 species of soft corals were reported in 1988
(Pillai & Patel, 1988). The monograph on Biological
Diversity of Gujarat listed 40 species and 23
genera of stony corals, 3 species of soft corals and
4 sea fans from the Gulf (Pilo et at., 1986). Most of
these corals are hermatypes (reef forming) while
only a few are ahermatypes.
The subtidal observations, underwater
photography and videography shows that live
corals - both soft and hard, are abundantly
present in the sub-tidal regions of the reefs at
various stages of growth. The genera Favia,
Favites, Goniopora, Montipora, Turbinaria and
the broken branches of Acropora. The soft corals
genera are Dendronephythya and Nephthya.
Stony corals dominate most of the reef area.
d. Fisheries :
Gujarat tops the list of the 9 littoral states of India
in marine fish production accounting for 23.1% of
the National total. In 1997-98 the State exported
17.9%of its marine catch, which was 32.5% of the
National export. Value-wise Gujarat earned 13.6%
(Rs. 637.85 crores) of the Country's marine
products export earning (Rs. 4,697.48 crores)
(Fisheries Statistics, 2000).
The Gulf of Kachchh and Arabian sea areas of
Kachchh district supports a good fishery of
commercially important species. The coastal
centres along the Arabian Sea and the Kori Creek
had a fish landing of 50,193 tons which was
around 70% of the catch for Kachchh district
during 1997~98.The three districts bordering the
Gulf together landed 1,28,653tons during the same
year, which was 18.3% of the State total 7,02,355
tons. It can be obvious from the above that the Gulf
proper accounts for 60% of total landings from the
northern waters of Gujarat (Fisheries Statistics,
2000). It is not clear what is the actual fish
production from the Gulf, as the landings consist of
even catches from outside the Gulf.
It has been stated earlier that the state has
reached the maximum sustainable yield (MSY)for
fishing in the coastal belt upto a water depth of 75
meters (Fisheries Statistics, 2000). The present
trend indicates an intensification of fishing, which
may, eventually, lead to overfishing of the stock.
Fish with less commercial value, like Bombay
Duck, Ribbon fish, small Sciaenids and
miscellaneous fish, constituted over 70% of the

catch in 1997-98. This leads to the inevitable
conclusion of over-exploitation of the stock of
quality fish in the shelf area off Gujarat.
e. Marine mammals & reptiles :
This is one of the important groups of fauna in the
Gulf of Kachchh. The marine mammals in the Gulf
of Kachchh consist of dolphins, porpoises and
dugongs. Dugongs commonly known as sea cow,
has become rare and is threatened in this region.
The past studies in this area show that this
species has fair population record. But, due to
unregulated fishing activities and growing
anthropogenic pressures, it~ population is under
stress.
The reptile fauna of the Gulf of Kachchh consists
of three speCies of turtles and four species of sea
snakes. All the turtles are now under threatened
category and needs attention for their
conservation. Many turtles were seen dead on the
beaches of islands during the recently completed
study on MNP & S (GEER 2002). The sea snakes
are quite common in the Gulf of Kachchh water.
Many times they get entangled in the fishing nets
and their bite is fatal.
iii. Threatened species
In fact, all the marine flora and fauna comes
under threatened category but the checklist is
prepared according to local status of individuals
(see Annex. - XIII).
iv. Conservation values
a. NurseI;Y/breeding ground:
The various ecosystems in the Gulf of Kachchh as
well as the surrounding areas acts as a nursery
and breeding ground for various faunal species.
Coral reefs are considered to be a nursery and
breeding ground for many of the invertebrates,
algae, plankton, etc., which provide the feed for
many fishes and prawns. This fishes and prawns
helps the local fishermen to yield better through
their catch. The mangrove ecosystem through
their creeks also provides a nursery and breeding
ground for many commercially important prawns
species. Many waterfowl also prefer to make their
nests on mangroves. Mangroves are considered to
be an important site for bird nesting. The salt pans
surrounding the Gulf of Kachchh even provides
various birds their nesting area as it is away from
public interference. The sandy beaches and scrub
vegetation on the coast also provides nesting sites
for many coastal birds.
Gulf of Kachchh
b. Eco-tourism :
As. such this area is not popular for eco-tourism
due to the adverse environmental conditions,
difficulty in accessibility of many locations and
lack of facilities for the visitors in lodging and
boarding. But the efforts made by the authorities
of the Marine National Park & Sanctuary on
Jamnagar coast are appreciable. Since the
formation of MNP & S, Nature Education Camps
are conducted for local school children at various
locations for the awareness of marine life. Some
other non-governmental organisations are also
engaged in the same activity at Bet Dwarka.
c. Heritage values :
Some of the area along the Gulf of Kachchh has
very important heritage value. One of the
important sites is Dwarka and Bet Dwarka which
is one of the 'Dham' has lot of mythological
importance in Hindu religion. This place has
always been major a attraction for pilgrimage. The
Bet Dwarika has some basis for the underwater
mythological story which has been proven by
recent archeological exploration by the National
Institute of Oceanography. They have explored the
submerged 'Dwarika Nagari' of Lord Krishna.
This is one of the important heritage value in this
area.
Beside this, the past emperor of Navanagar State,
His Excellency Shri. Jam Saheb, built various
palaces and some important. buildings in the
vicinity of Jamnagar area which also have
heritage values.
t/. r#lter transport:
As such there is no regular passenger traffic in
between the main channel of the Gulf of Kachchh
as well as among the different islands over there
except for Bet Dwarka. These boat services are
available from Okha port exclusively for
pilgrimage. Otherwise other islands' have been
visited only by Forest Department for vigilance
and monitoring purposes and also by the
fishermen. Mainly fishermen boats are engaged in
water transport. The commercial transport in the
water is seen at major ports and most of the newly
begun SBM of oil refineries. Many barges,
commercial ships and oil tankers can be seen at
Kandla, Navlakhi, Okha and Mundra ports. The
regular ship traffic is also available for the
transport of domestic goods from Salaya port
towards the Middle East countries and Africa.
e. Research & Education:
Various nearby institutions and universities are
11

Gulf of Kachchh
involved in the research activities in the Gulf of
Kachchh. But the systematic work which cover all
the aspects is sadly still lacking. Much of the work
concerned with only one aspect, at a time and at
a locality and bears academic interest only. The
education of the basic knowledge of marine
science in the schools, colleges and universities is
still lacking for the native people. Only MNP & S
authority conducts nature education camps at
different places for the awareness of marine life to
local school and college students.
f. Uniqueness and representative richness:
Overall diversity and status of life in this area
shows some unique features of the Gulf of
Kachchh. First of all, are the coral reefs, a living
paradise in the sea. Despite growing
anthropogenic pressure in this area, the coral
reefs are existing with good diversity of coral
species, associated invertebrates and algal flora.
The another important feature of the Gulf of
Kachchh is the mangrove ecosystem which is the
second in India. The wetlands in the Gulf of
Kachchh also support lot of diverse form of birds.
Hence, the Gulf of Kachchh is become one of the
important halts for many of the migratory birds.
V. Bio-resource Profile
i. Wild
a. Food/feed, fodder, firewood, timber :
The area in the vicinity of the Gulf of Kachchh is
always facing scarcity of drinking water and even
the agricultural status of this area is not good.
The coastal people mainly eat fish and other
marine products in their diets. Similar problem is
faced by the livestock over here, just after the
rains the cattle and camels need to be sustained
on the dry grasses. Camels have successfully
adapted their diet to some of the saline coastal
flora as well as the mangroves. But during the
past few years the Forest Department restricts
this. Even in drought mangroves are not allowed
to be used as fodder. This area does not have
sufficient forest for the use of timber or firewood.
So this is an additi0!1al burden again on the
mangroves. Many fishermen cut mangroves on the
island during their voyage for fishing. It is also
recommended to provide the local population a
supplementary SOl!rce of firewood to avoid illegal
cutting of mangroves.
The coastal area is devoid of big size trees. Mainly
growth of Euphorbia sp., Acacia senegal (Gorad),
Zizyphus mauritiana Bordi and Prosopis
12
chilensis have been observed in the coastal area
of Jamnagar. In the past, the plantation of tree
species were carried out, however, the survival
percentage of Prosopis chilensis was higher
among all species and it has been established,
along the drainage areas and in some of the
pasture land. Earlier, the people used the fuel
wood of mangroves species, but the dependency on
mangrove species has been reduced considerably
due to enforcement of Wildlife Protection Act and
with the availability of fuelwood from alternative
source like Prosopis chilensis. The fuelwood of
Prosopis is used in the entire region.
As mentioned earlier; entire tract falls under arid
to semi arid region. The growth of the tree species
is stunted due to adverse climatic conditions. The
majority of demand for the timber is met by
bringing it from other areas of the state, other
states and countries. Small quantity of small
timber met from species like Acacia senegal,
Acacia leucogloea,Prosopis chilensis and Acacia
nilolica which grow locally.
The pasture lands and wastelands are overgrazed
and are in poor condition. Due to repeated grazing
and non-maintenance of good quality grasses, the
shortage of fodder is always experienced by the
people. The grass is collected and stored in the
godowns by the Forest Department. During the
scarcity time, the collected grass is given to the
villagers at subsidised rate. The grass produced in
this area is not sufficient to sustain the increasing
cattle population. Therefore, the people use
mainly the agricultural residue of Jawar,
groundnut and maize. The people also grow
wheat, fodder crop, etc. during winter wherever
water facilities exist and residue of such crop is
used as fodder by the people. The extent of
cultivation of such crop is very less.
There are 10 (4225 hal and 9 (10802 hal reserved
vidis in Jamnagar and Kachchh districts
respectively. The quantity of grass collection was
17 lakh kg and 10.6 lakh kg in Jamnagar and
Kachchh districts, respectively.
b. Minor Forest Produce/ NTFP :
The leaves of Avicennia officinalis (Cher) and
Ceriops condollena (Karod) are also eaten by the
cattle. The leaves of Commiphora wightii (Gugal)
are eaten by camel and goats and its gum is used
for rheumatism and skin diseases. The leaves of
Azadirachla indica area used as fodder, insect
repellent and oil from its seeds is used in
manufacturing soaps, disinfectants, emulsifying

agents for insecticides, etc. The gum of
Prosopis chilensis, Acacia nilotica (BaviIJ)
and Azadirachta indica (Neem) is used. for
medicinal and industrial purpose. The fruits
of Cordia mixa (Gunda), Cordia rothii
(Gunde), Zizyphus mauritiana (Bordi), Z.
Nummularia (Chanibor) are eaten. The fruits
of Cordia mixa (Gunda) and Capparis
spinosa (Kabar) are used for making pickles.
c. House construction:
The house constructions in this area are of
traditional rock boulders as well as bricks.
Previously, before the formation of the Marine
National Park, a few cement companies
extensively used coriIJ sand and boulders for
cement preparation. But it has stopped after
the formation of Protected Areas.
d. Potential genetic resources :
SeveriIJ seaweed species from the Gulf region
are being harvested commercially. These are
Gelidiella aceroasa and Gracilaria sp as
Agarophytes; Sargassum sp, Cystosiera sp
and Turbinaria sp as Alginophytes and
Hypnea sp and Halymenia sp as
Carrageenophytes.
Apart from these, several marine ilJgae have
potential and can be exploited
pharmacologically for bio-active substances
present in them. Those found in Gujarat
waters are: Codium dwarkens (antiviral
activity), Halimeda sp (diuretic,
hypotensive), Padina tetrastromatica (antiimplantation),
Stoechospermum
marginaturm (Spasmolytic), Spatoglossum
aperum (hypotensive, anti-implantation),
Sargassum tenerium (CNS-depressant),
Amphiora fragilissima (antiviral, uterine
contraction), Acanthophora spicifere (antiimplantation)
and Laurencia papillosa (diuretic)
(Kamat et al., 1991; Prabhadevi et al., 1997). The
shoreline of the southern coast has gradual slope
with high tidal amplitude and moderate wave
action. These are ideal conditions to undertake
commerciiIJ cultivation for economiciIJly important
seaweeds.
e. Fisheries :
The checklist of fish species encountered during
the field visits at various locilJities as well as fish
landing stations in Marine National Park &
Sanctuary is given in Annexure VIII. There were
totiIJ 144 fishes encountered during the study. Out
of these, 28 cartilaginous fishes and 116 bony
Gulf of Kachchh
Table 9. Species wise marine fish production in
1999-2000 (in thousand tons)
Species State production MNP&S % of State
White Promfret 11,133 5,197 46
Black Promlret 3,489 1,159 33
Bombay duck 88,168 224 0.2
Thread lin 1,938 816 41
Jew fish .9,538 4,778 50
Hilsa 1,710 16 0.9
Clupeids 12,733 2,575 20
Shark 16,588 393 23
Catfish 24,526 6,362 26
Ribbon lish 59,616 6,399 10
Shrimp 48,032 6,265 13
Prawns (medium) 7,284 1,468 20
Prawns Oumbo) 1,126 291 25
Lobsters 511 38 7.5
Squid / cuttle 23,423 21 0,1
Small scienides 2,24,417 3,193 14.2
Mullet 5,378 1,418 26
Coilia 16,651 s26 0.1
Eel 3,347 524 15.6
Leather jacket 2,206 681 31
Seer fish 7,133 2,193 31
Indian salmon 1,647 319 19
Silver bar 3,635 874 2.3
Perch 7,156 664 9
Crab 1,657 148 9
Levta 2,205 0 0
Misc. 85,706 2,092 2.4
Total 6,70,951 75,841 11
13
Source : Flsher;y Slat/slles, 2000; OEER 2()(J2
fishes were recorded. The cartilaginous fishes
mainly consists of various types of sharks, skates
and rays. The common species among them were
Scoliodon laticandis, Rhixoprionodon diglinx,
etc. However, important fishes among these
categories were Hammer headed shark, Zebra
shark, Saw fish, Guitar fish, Cow ray and Electric
ray. The bony fishes mainly contribute the
commercially important food fishes as well as reef
fishes. The common bony fishes recorded in this
area were Horpodon neherius (Bombay duck),
Bregmaceros macclellandii (Indian cod), Solea
elongata (Elongate sole), Synaptura orientalis
(Oriented sole), Cynoglbssus lingua (Long tongue
sole), Muraenesox cinercus (Conger eel),
Trichiurus muticus, T. haumela (Ribbon fish),
Tetradon leopardis (Blow. fish), T. immaculatus
(Puffer fish), Arius cealatus (Cat fish),

Gulf of Kachchh
Parastromateus niger (Black pomfret),
Pampus argenteus (Silver pomfret),
Clupea fimbriata (Fringe scale
sardine), Polynemus indicus (Indian
Tassel fish), Mugil cephalwlus (Jumping
mullet), Boleophthalmus dataus, B.
tennis (Goby), Sciaenoides biauritus
(Rock Perch), Lates calcarifer (Sea
Perch), Therepon jarbua (Crescent
Perch), etc.
The checklist of commercially important
prawns recorded in the Marine National
Park & Sanctuary is given in Annexure
IX. There were 27 species of
commercially important prawns from 4
families. Out of these family, Penaeidae
contributes 21 species. The commonly
recorded prawns were. Penaeus
monodon, P. penicillatus, P. semisulcatus,
Metapenaeus brevicornis, M.
kutchensis, Parapenaeopsis hardwickii,
P. sculptilis, Palaemon
semmelink ii, etc. The prawn's
composition in the fish catch in this area
is the major.
The catch composition of the major
fishes shows 28 groups of commercial
fishers were compared with their
Table 10.Marine fish production trend in Gujaral & MNP
& S area
Year Production % Annual Value MNP&S % of State
growth rale {Iakh Rs.}
1980-81 2,18,872 5.86 5,712.88 4,036 1.8
1981-82 2,20,607 0.79 6,034.91 36,145 16.4
1982-83 1,92,669 -12.66 6,416.08 30,185 15.7
1983-84 2,23,281 15.89 8,851.72 28,745 12.9
1984-85 2,90,708 30.20 13,022.88 32,222 11.1
1985-86 3,06,577 5.46 13,302.62 26,912 8.8
1986-87 3,15,942 3.05 17,356.84 28,502 9.1
1987-88 3,27,560 3.38 19,269.30 40,695 12.4
1988-89 4,14,075 26.41 23,487.98 46,986 11.3
1989-90 4,32,364 4.42 24,153.63 47,806 11.5
1990-91 5,00,462 15.75 31,088.74 56,144 11.2
1991-92 5,30,017 5.91 42,590.36 66,133 12.5
1992-93 6,09,103 14.92 56,579.32 67,260 11.1
1993-94 6,19,836 1.76 59,650.41 70,376 11.3
1994-95 6,45,261 4.10 75,988.48 60,230 9.3
1995-96 5,98,351 -7.27 77,512.99 69,102 11.5
1996-97 6,60,068 10.31 90,078.06 77,012 11.6
1997-98 7,02,355 6.41 1,02,584.00 56,866 8.1
1998-99 5,51,660 -21.46 91,019.00 28,830 5.2
1999-00 6,70,950 21.62 1,17,293.00 72,495 10.8
Source: Fishery Statistics, 200f4' GEER 2002
production in State as well as in Marine National sea in the Gulf of Kachchh.
Park & Sanctuary area in the year 1999-2000 The fish production data is collected from the year
(Table 9). Maximum production was recorded from 1980-81 to 1999-00 (Table 10). The total marine
small scienides which was 2,24,417 (thousand productiOli of the State, its annual growth rate
tones), Bombay duck (88,168 t. tons), Ribbon fish with value is also described and compared with
(59,616 t. tons), shrimp 48,032 (t. tons), etc. the production in Marine National Park &
However, the miscellaneous group consists of Sanctuary. During 20 years of catch composition,
85,706 t. tones. In Marine National Park & maximum production of state is recorded in 1996-
Sanctuary area, the species wise production 97 and 1997-98, which was 660068 and 702355 MT.
shows similar trend of production as in the State The maximum production in Marine National Park
but the composition of catch within species varies. & Sanctuary area was also recorded in 1996-97
White pomfret contribute 46% of catch and silver and 1997-98 which was 69102 and 77012 MT and
pomfret 33% from Marine National Park & 11.5 & 11.6% of the State production.
Sanctuary landing centres. Even, 50% catch of Among the mechanized boat category, total 15,183
Jew fish and 41% catch of thread 'fin fish is were recorded in State; however, Marine National
contributed from Marine National Park & Park & Sanctuary area contributes 605 (Table 11).
Sanctuary. In Seer fish, Leather Jacket, 31% catch The sub-categories of mechanized boats measured
was recorded from Marine National Park & 527 fiber glass IBM, 76 fiber glass OBM and 2
Sanctuary. Other categories of fish group were Dugout conoes OBM were recorded in this area.
contributed like 23% in Sharks, 20% in Clupeids, The non-mechanized boats category shows that
25% in Jumbo prawns, 20%. in medium sized and 14,671 boats in State and 1062 in Marine National
26% in Mullet. This shows that the majority of the Park area. This total was again contributed by
commercially important fishery is based on the sub-categories of 778 plank bolted boats, 53
catch from fishing centres in Marine National Park vahans, 3 dugout conoes and tarapa. However, 225
& Sanctuary. It also denotes the productivity of the boats from other categories were recorded.
14

Table 11. Details of non-categorlsed boats
Typeof boaVcategory Gujarat MNP&S
Mechanized
Fiberglass IBM 1,118 527
FiberglassOBM 3,247 76
DugoutCanoesOBM 929 2
Plankboltedboats 11 0
Vahanwithmotor 3 0
Tolal 15,183 605
Non-Mechanized
DugoutCanoes 669 3
Tarapa 6,044 3
Plankboltedboats 4,424 778
Vahan 361 53
Others(tin) 3,173 225
Total 14,671 1,062
Source: Fishery Sia/lsiles, $000; (lEER 2002
Tabte 12. Categorised boat distribution
Typeof boat Gujarat MNP&S
Trawllers 6,787 134
Gillnetters 3,764 534
FRPIBM 454 48
FRPOBM 3,893 359
WoodenOBM 1,895 55
Others 663 0
Mechanised 17,456 1,130
Non-mechanised 8,819 1,049
Tolal 26,275 2,179
Source: Fishery Statistics, 200~'GEED 2002
The categorised boat distribution in Marine
National Park & Sanctuary with comparison to the
State is shows that there were 1130 mechanised
and 1049 non-mechanised boats which were 17456
& 8819, respectively in State. Among other
subcategories, 134 trawl!ers, 534 gil!netters, 48
FRP lEB, 359 FRP OBM and 55 wooden OBM were
recorded.
Table 13. Details of Gears
Type Gujaral MNP&S
Trawlnets 41,793 1,089
Gillnets 7,96,366 1,24,388
Bag/ Dollnet 34,633 3,007
Castnet 61,260 798
Others 4,89,924 1,55,478
Total 14,23,976 2,84,760
Source: Fishery Statistics, 200~' GEEn 2002
15
Gulf of Kachchh
The details of numbers of gears used shows that
majority of the fish catch in this area depends
upon the gill net fishing. This is proved by, out of
the total 2,84,760 gears, 1,24,388 gill nets were
recorded. The other important contribution comes
from non-categorised gears which was 2,84,760.
Altogether, Marine National Park & Sanctuary
area has 21 landing stations, which have 3,577
fishermen families, 24,830 fishermen population,
5580 active fishermen, 1,535 fishing boats and
72494561 Kg fishing production.
There were total 40 fishing centres out of which 21
were in Marine National Park & Sanctuary, 16
inland and 3 out of the region. This shows that
4.5% of states fishing station were recorded in this
area. The total fishermen families were 4,906 out
of which 3,577 based on marine and 1,329 on
inland fishing which is 6.3% of State's fishermen
families. Similarly, 7.2% of State's fishermen
population were observed in this area which is
32,609. Out of this population, 16,847 male and
15,762 females were recorded. However, 24,830
(9.1% of total) were marine and 7,779 (4.5%) were
inland fishermen. The active fishermen population
in this area was recorded 6,962 which was 6.6% of
State. Out of this population, 5,358 (6.8% of State)
were full time fishermen and 1,150 (6.9% of State)
were engaged in part time fishing activities. Total
191 fishermen were engaged in marketing of fish,
169 in repairing of fishing nets and i96 in other
activities of fishing were recorded in this area.
The literacy trend of fishermen shows 3134 literate
fishermen in this area which was 1.9% of State.
Out of this population, 2,477 were male and 657
were female. The fishermen families with own
houses were recorded 4,906 in this area. The caste
wise category of the fishermen families shows that
there were 79 scheduled caste and 4,817 OBC
fishermen in this area. However, the population
records was 510 SC, 32,039 OBC and 60 others.
Regarding the skilled fishermen in this area, there
were 257 male and 58 female trained in various
activities of fishing.
f. Ornamentals :
Many of the local families are engaged in shell and
coral collection from the reef areas of the Gulf of
Kachchh to prepare them for ornamelltal use. In
Bet Dwarka and Dwarka, there are lot of stalls for
the sale of these products. As these are the
pilgrimage centre, visitors from outside buy it for
some mythological importance and use in
performing Pooja.

Gulf of Kachchh
Table 14. Fishing centres with number of boats and centre wise fish production during 1999-2000
ii. Domestic
Fishing cenlre No. or Tolal Aclive Fishing boals Fish Prod.
families population fishermen Mech Non-M Tolal
.Jamnagar 35 202 55 0 0 0 0
Bedi 439 2,952 474 149 39 188 15,70,137
Sikka 430 3,005 570 127 43 170 9,91,599
Sachana 424 2.943 667 150 28 178 26,50,378
Sarma! 46 292 76 1 17 18 2,14,171
Bed 116 706 164 14 20 34 3,74,882
Okha 59 376 101 21 20 41 3.24,37,279
Be!balapur 160 1.247 266 101 26 127 57.01,870
Mi!hapur 35 178 69 0 7 7 0
Varavada 41 233 79 0 0 0 0
Arambhada 31 198 67 5 18 23 0
Salaya 706 5,520 1,220 291 39 330 35,40,882
Bharna 145 941 251 29 19 48 2,71,045
Vadinar 138 897 204 6 20 26 3,43,322
Chudeshwar 43 272 54 0 0 0 0
NanaAmbla 86 545 145 0 0 0 2,23,602
Jodiya 289 1,944 428 21 17 38 8,2,1.437
Balambha 35 216 71 0 0 0 9,982
Balachadi 38 200 58 3 1 4 1,53,420
Zinzuda 31 I 190 54 0 0 0 0
Navalakhi 149 998 320 88 81 169 8,11.855
a. Agriculture :
Grand lolal 3,577 24,830 5,580 1,133 402 1,535 7,24,94,561
The agricultural situation in the state seems to
have improved during the last three decades as
retiected in the trend during the years 1969-70 to
1992-93. Though the total cultivated area hardly
increased for agricultural crops, production has
more than doubled and so has the yield. This
could be a result of increased irrigation facilities,
improved input delivery system and due to the
past several and continuous good monsoon years.
In contrast to this, agricultural production is
reported to be on the decline in' the coastal areas.
Inspite of the implementation of the recommendations
of several Government committees much
remains to be done.
Despite of the ongoing structural transformation in
the State, population dependent on agriculture
has remained substantially large.' In the coastal
region of Kachchh, agricultural workers consist
70% of total workers. Hence, in the event of
adverse impact of salinity ingress on agriculture, a
large section of coastal population will be affected.
Natural calamities enhance the disaster scenario.
16
The nature and magnitude of such impacts will be
determined by the area under cultivation,
cropping and landholding patterns (Desai, 1997).
Though moderate in regional comparison, the
growth rate of agricultural output has been
substantial in the State. The growth rate of
agricultural output has increased to 2.30%
compound growth rate per annum considering the
triennium averages of 92-95 over 62-65. The figure
for 70-73 over 62-65 was only 1.78%, the period
during which the green revolution had not spread
evenly in the country. Gujarat has maintained this
tempo of growth, except during the eighties, a
decade of successive droughts. A notable feature is
that the growth of output has come about despite
the fact that the total cropped area has recorded
a negative growth rate of -0.09% during the last
three decades and so is the case with the net sown
area. The major components contributing towards
the growth of yield are a substantial increase in
mechanization, area under irrigation,
consumption of fertilizers, cropping intensity and
labour productivity. Moreover, there has been a
change in cropping pattern. The percentage share
of food grain has decreased and that of non-food

Table 15.Fish landing stationwise information as per
1997census.
Gujaral MNP&S % of State
No. of Fishing Centres 886 40 4.5
Marine 190 24 12.6
Inland 696 ' 16 2.3
Fisherman families 77,162 4,906 6.3
Marine 42,855 3,577 8.4
Inland 34,307 1,329 3.8
Fisherman population 4,49,440 32,609 7.2
Male 2,30,305 16,847 7.3
Female 2,19,135 15,762 7.2
Marine 2,75,005 24,830 9.1
Inland 1,74,435 7,779 4.5
Active fisherman
Full time 78,717 5,355 6.8
Part time 16,589 1,150 6.9
Marketing of fish 1,864 191 10.2
Repair of nets 2,673 169 6.3
Process of fish 1,073 1 0.1
Others 3,903 196 5.02
Total 1,04,819 6,962 6.6
Literate fisherman 160,880 3,134 1.9
Male 96,146 2,477 2.6
Female 64,734 657 1.02
Families with own house 73,045 4,906 6.7
Castewise category family
Scheduled caste 465 79 16.9
Scheduled tribes 23,922 0 0
aBC 52,013 4,817 9.2
Others 762 0 0
Total 77,162 4,896 6.3
Castewise category population
Scheduled caste
2,711 510 18.8
Scheduled tribes
1,21,820 0 0
3,20,482 .
aBC
32,039 26.3
Others . 4,427 60 1.3
Total
4,49,440 32,609 7.2
Trained fisherman population
Male 5,510 257 4.6
Female 183 58 31.6
Total 5,693 315 5.5
Source: fishery Statistics, 2000; GEEN2002
grain has increased. It appears that the Sate has
switched over from low value coarse cereals to oil
seeds and sugar cane. The share of wheat and
rice has also increased to a certain extent and
that of dry-land crops like pulses has almost
doubled.
Cropping pattern: An increase of 11% or 5.5% per
annum has been observed in the total cropped
area in the Kachchh district in the year 93-94
17
Gulf of Kachchh
compared to 91-92. However there has
been hardly any percentile increase
between 91-92 and 95-96. But in the
Jamnagar district there is a reduction of
almost an equal amount during 91-92 to
93-94.
In the coastal region of Kachchh, cotton
became the dominant crop covering 35%Of
the cropped area in 93-94 from 8% in 91-
92. Fodder crops cover about 42% of the
total and a drop in these crops has been
observed. This pattern of cropping has a
mixed impact on the environment. Chtton
is a crop that invites the highest number
of pests inducing greater usage of
pesticides, whereas a higher proportion of
fodder crops sends good signals for animal
husbandry, milk production and livestock.
As against this, oil seeds are the dominant
crop in the coastal region of Jamnagar
district claiming 43% of the total cropped
land and the area under fodder is only
32%. Similarly, the coastal talukas of
Rajkot district also reveal dominance of
oil seeds covering on overwhelming
proportion of 58%. An alarming trend in
three folds growth in the area of
cultivation of drugs and narcotics was
noted in the Kachchh district.
b. Landholding Pattern :
In the coastal districts around the Gulf of
Kachchh, the landholding pattern is
influenced by climatic conditions and lack
of significant irrigation facilities. This
situation is reflected in the dominance of
medium and large size landholdings.
These size-classes account for more that
50% of the landholdings as the smaller
sizes cannot be viable under these
conditions.
However, some changes seem to have taken place
in this pattern during the last decade 1981-91.
Though the large and medium landholdings have
remained relatively dominant, there has been a
discernible decline in the small and marginal
holdings. This was so especially in the smaIl and
marginal holdings in the case of the district of
Jamnagar that might force agricultural activities
to be more intensive requiring more inputs in
terms of water, fertilizers and pesticides. As far as
area of operational holdings is concerned, there

Gulf of Kachchh
Table 16 : Cropping pattern of coastal districts around the Gulf of Kachchh (in ha.)
District
Wheat 8aira Sugarcane Spices Pulses
91-92 93.94 91-92 93-94 91-92 93-94 91-92 93-94 91-92 93-94
Kachchh 5,337 5,763 41,372 41,333 82 46 192 185 36,103 36,104
Jamnagar 36,860 38,552 72,696 47,656 867 840 33,051 11,145 10,009 7,891
Rajkot 5,139 4,839 32,817 32,748 107 85 1,275 688 888 922
Total 47,736 49,154 1,46,88512,1737 1,056 971 34,518 12,018 47,000 44,917
District
Fruits& Veg Drugs& Narc. Callan OilSeeds Fodder
91-92 93-94 91-92 93-94 91.92 93.94 91-92 93-94 91-92 93-94
Kachchh 3,028 3,022 2,595 8,906 30,869 1,85,452 32,522 32,546 2,21,353 2,20,360
Jamnagar 4,356 4,322 28,198 28,210 2,31,015 2,30,328 1,86,610 1,69,786
Rajkot 2,435 2,396 37,737 36,767 1,46,246 1,45,250 23,555 22,083
Total 9,819 9,740 2,595 8,906 96,804 2,50,399 4,09,783 4,08,124 4,31,518 4,12,229
Source : Directorate of Agriculture, Ahmedabaft
has been an increase of only 10% in the coastal
talukas and 12% in the district of Jamnagar.
However, some changes seem to have taken place
in this pattern during the last decade 1981-91.
Though the large and medium landholdings have
remained relatively dominant, there has been a
discernible decline in the small and marginal
holdings. This was so especially in the small and
marginal holdings in the case of the district of
Jamnagar that might force agricultural activities
to be more intensive requiring more inputs in
terms of water, fertilizers and pesticides. As far as
area of operational holdings is concerned, there
has been an increase of only 10% in the coastal
talukas and 12% in the district of Jamnagar.
c. Forestry :
The recorded forest area of Gujarat, spread over
18,830 km', covers only 9.6% of the geographical
area of the State. The actual forest cover of the
State is 11,934 km', which constitutes 6.1% of the
geographIc area. These estimates include the
mangrove forests covering an area of 1031 km', Per
capita forest area in Gujarat works out to 0.04 ha,
whIch is nearly one-third the national average of
0.11 ha. There has been a reduction in per capita
land area (38%) and forest area (37%) in Gujarat
~ Zilla Panchllf81 Office? Dhu}.
between 1970-71 and 1995-96 indicating the
amount of pressures on land and forest. The forest
cover, which houses rich flora and fauna is
degrading at places from dense through open
forest to scrub-land.
d. Livestock :
Table 17: Forest cover in the vicinity of the Gulf of Kachchh (area in kIn')
Animal husbandry is an important economic
activity in arid and semi-arid regions supporting
farm income. Gujarat has its native breeds of
cattle, buffaloes, sheeps and horses. In the
Kachchh region, 'Kankrej' breed of cattle is a
powerful draft animal and is also being exported
to other countries. This breed has adapted to
semi-arid conditions and this is, probably, reflected
in the fact that it has existed since pre-historic
times and is also found in the Indus valley
civilization seals. However, this region faces
frequent droughts and livestock becomes tbe first
victim during such conditions. During such periods
a large number of cattle sheep, etc. either perish
or have .to be migrated to other areas. During the
decade 1982-92, the cattle population growth
indicated negative rates in all the three coastal
districts. In the Kachchh district even goats
witnessed similar negative growth rate and only
sheep showed considerable positive growth rate.
District Geographicarea Forestarea Denseforest Openforest Mangrove Total Scrub
Jamnagar 14,125 1,208.9 25 173 140 338 67
Kachchh 45,652 2,879.5 251 1,035 854 2,140 739
Rajkot 11,203 359.2 6 81 0 87 60
Total 70,980 4,447.6 282 1,298 994 2,565 866
Source: FSi; 1999; Forest Statlstics~ 1998
18

In the coastal talukas of Kachchh district animal
population is more than that the human
population resulting a ratio of 1.35:1. This would
mean greater pressure on land and water
resources, which is controlled by cultivation
fodder on the Banni grasslands of the Great Rann
of Kachchh. In the two coastal talukas of Rajkot
district, the animal to human ration is also large
at 2.6:1. Here perhaps, the situation is managed
by migrating the animals for seasonal grazing.
The information about the cattle population in
some of the coastal villages in Jamnagar district is
available. According to available information,
56,094 cattle population is spread out over an
area of 318.47 km', which renects that the total
number of animals per km was 176.13. Goats and
buffaloes constituted 31.09% and 35.39% of the
total livestock population. About 2,546 families in
the region were involved in livestock rearing.
Rabaris a socio cultural group rear cows,
buffaloes, goats and sheep.
VI. Threats to the Bio-Resource
Gujarat is the second largest industrialized state
in India. The industries consist of cement,
chemicals, dyes and dye-intermediates,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, pulp and paper, rubber
and plastics, dairy products, electronics,
engineering goods, petroleum, natural gas and
jeavy water plant. These are located mostly along
the estuaries and coastal marine areas. The State
cultivated 95,000 kIll' agricultural land producing
a variety of crops consuming around 6,00,000tons
of fertilizers and pesticides annually - the
applications of which are more than the national
rate and are increasing with every passing year.
With increasing industrialization the volume of
effluents is always on the increase. The coastal
population, on their turn, should be adding over
600 Mm' sewage per year and wastewater to the
marine areas around .. These treated, partially
treated and untreated human and industrial
wastes are generating considerable stress for the
marine environment.
The main threats to the ecosystem of the Gulf of
Kachchh are from oil, petrochemicals and allied
industries. The Gulf area is being aggressively
developed as an oil importing base because of its
proximity to the oil exporting countries of the
Middle East. The coastal oil and refinery facilities,
as at pr:>sent, are: crude oil terminal at Vadinar
and the S~laya-Mathura pipeline of Indian Oil
19
Gulf of Kachchh
Corporation, Reliance Petroleum and ESSAR oil
grass root refineries at Moti Kahavdi and Jam
Khambhaliya respectively targetted to process
together 39 million tones (MT) of crude oil per
a(lnum, the planned Vadinar-Bina overland
pipeline of Bharat Petroleum and sub-sea pipeline
of Bharat-Oman Petroleum near Narara, the
proposed Vadinar-Kandla submarine products
pipeline and the Kandla -Karnal cross country
products pipeline. All these are being established
in the inner-half of the Gulf.
Six single buoy moorings (SBM)will be ultimately
permitted to be located in the Gulf. As of 1999, 4
SBMs are in place and the remaining two are
under consideration. These are being used to
import 40-80 MT crude oil per year through the
facilities on the coast. The import is targeted to be
increased gradually to 100 MT yr-'. During
operation each SBM is allowed to release an
average of 300 barrels (41 tones) oil per year to
the sea, as estimated by the Environment
Protection Agency. (EPA) of USA in 1978 for all
offshore oil terminals in US waters. These figures,
were for the second-generation SBMs.The present
fourth~generation SBMs have no permission to
release any crude oil to the Gulf.
One moderate accidental oil spill at sea or on land
will be enough to destroy, almost irreversibly, the
fragile coral reefs and their associate lush nora
and fauna. It is believed, as of 1999, that several
small oil spills have already taken place in the
Gulf and have not been reported to any of the
official agency. It seems it is like a free for all
situation on pollution in the Gulf. Anybody can do
anything and can get away with it, and/or create
avoidable confusion afterwards. A few oil spills
during late 1999 were, however, detected. Being
small their ecological damages were insignificant.
But their sources could not be identified beyond
suspicion.
The industries existing and planned along the
coast, with their associated urbanization will be
releasing their wastewater, in treated or untreated
form, to the coastal Gulf. Treatment of industrial
and municipal wastewater is an expensive
process. Almost all over the world, usually no more
wastewater is treated than is deemed absolutely
necessary to meet legal obligations; and in many
places the wastewater is released into the sea
without any treatment at all. Wastewater release
to the Gulf from the two refineries RPL and EOL
are not permitted, even in treated form as these

Gulf of Kachc
Table
Year
1897
1909
1925
1944
1954
1960
1973
1973
1975
1987
1989
1996
1998
1999
2000
2001
industries had t
two refineries
hh
18 : Natural disasters recorded in the Gulf of Kachchh and nearby area
Evenl Area of impacmt Impact
Cyclone OffJafarabad, Veraval& GoK Severe damage to the mangroves
Cyclone Surat-Jafarabad-Kandla Severe damage to fishing activity
Cyclone Kandla-Okha Severe damage to local population
Cyclone Kandla Severe damage to fishing activity
Cyclone Vadinar Severe damage to local population
Cyclone Dwarka-Mandwa Fishing hampered
Drought Entirearea in vicinityof GoK Illegalcutting of mangroves for fodder.
Cyclone Vadinar Fishing hampered
Cyclone Okha Fishing hampered
Drought Entirearea in vicinityof GoK Illegalcutting of mangroves for fodder.
Cyclone Navlakhi-Vadinar Severe damage to fishing activity
Cyclone Kandla Fishinghampered, mangroves destroyed
Cyclone Kandla Damageto mangroves, inter-tidalfauna,
coral reefs. Habitatdestruction for many
marine animals as well as nesting grounds
of birds.
Cyclone Dwarka-Naliya Damageto mangroves, inter-tidalfauna,
coral reefs. Habitatdestruction for many
marine animals as well as nesting grounds
of birds.
Drought EntireGulfof Kachchh The livestock is suffered, migration in
many localitiesdue to scarcity for fodder
Earthquake Kachchhregion Subtidal reefs might have possibly damaged.
Population in the vicinityof the Gulfis
severely affected.
o be cleared by MoEF of GO!. The During the observations in February 2000, several
have to administer tertiary bits of pieces of drifting nylon nets got entangled
wastewater and use that for with some of the observation gears. These are
lopment. This restriction is not obviously discards of fishing vessels. Such drift
other wastewater generation nets have often ensnared marine mammals
ir consent applications need to sometimes choking them to death and hence are
treatment to
greenbelt deve
applicable for
sources as the
clearance only 0f
GPCH. banned by an International Convention of !MO. It
The population
the shore was
establishment
around the Gulf upto 20 km from
1.'12 million in 1991. With the
of the two refineries and other
is apparent that stricter vigil against
operation is required for the conservation
marine mammals in the Gulf of Kachchh.
such
of
ancillary industr ies, population along its southern As mentioned earlier, MNP & S in the Gulf of
shores has gone up by an estimated 4% annum, Kaclrchh covers an area of 457.92 km'. Of this,
which will lead to 2.18 million in 1999. The fate 398.40 km' have also been notified by GMB for
and effects 0f
the municipal wastewater harbor developments. Thus a huge 87% area of
discharges to th e Gulf from all these sources could MNP & S is under overlapping dual control. GMB
be anybody's gu ess. have never taken MNP authorities into confidence
A considerable area along the coast has been
denuded of mangrove vegetation for
industrializatio n and urbanization. However, a
replanting progr amme has been undertaken in
some arEas by monospecies
afforestation.
in decision-making processes in port developments
around the Gulf of Kachchh. Problems from ports
and harbor developments combined with those
from oil import activities will, certainly, not help to
serve the exact . purpose of conservation,
protection and regeneration of marine life in the
20

MNP & S. This dual control confusion need to be
sorted out the soonest for the sake of survival of
the fragile, but rich marine bio-environment of the
Gulf. The abundance of floating sediments in the
Gulf, as of now, seem to be aided and abetted by
port developments of GMB and disposal of dredge
spoils from the navigational channels to the
harbours.
The only major port in Gujarat, Kandla-Vadinar
Port, and two all weather ports Okha and Sikka
are located in the Gulf. Rozi Bandar, near
Jamnagar and Adani Port near Mundra on
Kachchh coast, are the other ports which are
being developed very fast as all weather ports
also. Another all weather and deep- draught port
has been planned to be located at Poshitra near
Okha. Shipping traffic with its associated problems
of oil spill, garbage and ballast water disposal
always create threats to the harbor basins and
their adjacent waters.
The three districts around the Gulf together have
21 salt. industries producing about 6.1 MT or
nearly two-thirds of the State and 70% of India.
Gulf of Kachchh
Desalination of seawater to the tune of 11,400
m'd. l for RPL and 32,000 m' d' l for EOL are being
carried out to produce freshwater. Disposal of
concentrated brine (bittern) together with its
seepage from the salt pans could pose a threat in
the long run.
i. Natural threats
The history of this area is continuously under the
threats of natural disasters like cyclone,. drought
and earthquake. Some many geographic changes
happened in the recent past this area. It is proven
by many area of Rann still has the fossils of
marine life. This area is also considered as the
most recent area of geological point of view. The
table 18. shows the series of natural disaster
occurred in the Gulf of Kachchh regions since last
few decades.
Cyclones in 1998 and 1999 brought serious
negative impact on mangroves. Majority of old
trees on Chhad, Jindra and Pirotan were severely
damaged. Tops of Avicennia trees on Khara
Chusna were also broken.
Table 19 : Details of notification of protected areas in or adjoining the Gulf of Kachchh area.
Name Notification No. Area km'
MarineNationalPark . i) AKH-137-80-WLP-l079-109483-P2 dt: 1-8-1982
(cancelledvide no. dated 20.7.1982)(110.00) -
ii) IAKH-138-2-82-WLp.l081-126827-V2 dt: 20.7.1982 162.89
iii)Settlementfor some of the area is yet to be done
MarineSanctuary i) GKH-140-80-WLP-l079-109483-P2 dt: 12.8.1980 271.32
ii) AKH-138'1182-WLP-108-126827-V2dt: 20.7.1982 186.60
iii)Settlement works have been done for part of the
Sanctuary but some of the area is yet to be settled.
WildAss Sanctuary i)' GHKH-13-WLP-1972-79736-Pdt: 12.1.1973 4840.89
ii)GKH-13-78-WLP-1976-89899-Pdt: 13.1.1978 112.81
iii)Settlement works have just started in 1998
after 25 years of notification
KhijadiaBirdSanctuary i) AKH-81/1081-WLP-l02123-P2dt: 27.5.1981 1.83
ii) AKN-209-82-WLP-l081-102123-V2dt: 6.11.1982 4.22
iii)Settlement works have been completed and area
was declared as Sanctuary on December 1998.
NarayanSarovar i) AKH-62181-WLP-l 080-110872-P2 dt: 14.4.1981 765.79
WildlifeSanctuary ii) GNV-16/93-WLP-l09-2156-V2dt: 27.7.1993
iii)GVN-17/93-WLP-10922-2156-V2dt: 27.7.1993
iv)WLP-32-A-870dt: 1.7.1995
94.87
-
v) GVN-11/95-WLP-IV-l 094-SCA-197-614-GIdt:9.8.1995
vi) Sanctuary has first, non-forest and viliagesettlements.
444.23
Settlement works have been started from 1998. .
Source: Slugh, 200f
21

Gulf of Kachchh
VII. Conservation And
Management Efforts
i. Current legal status
The Gulf df Kachchh includes various zones like
reserve forests, unclassed forests (notified 'under
Sec. 4 of IFA, 1927) and non-forest areas. Details
about the notification of some of the protected
areas in/near the Gulf of Kachchh are as under.
ii. Govt., NGO, local communities & other
institutions
There are several Government, Non-governmental
and local communities which are working in
several aspects of the Gulf of Kachchh. Some of
the Governmental organizations are as follows:
Central Salt & Marine Chemical Research
Institute (CSMCRI): It is located in Bhavnagar
and one of the CSIR Laboratory. The research
area of this institute covers various aspects like
extraction of chemicals from various biological
resources of the Gulf of Kachchh like sea weeds,
algae, etc.
National Institute of Oceanography (NIO): It is
also one of the CSIR Laboratory. Even though, it is
situated in Goa is continuously paying attention on
the various oceonographical aspects of the Gulf of
Kachchh.
Space Application Centre (SACIISRQ): This is
located in Ahmedabad and working on the
Satellite imagery and GIS data of the Gulf of
Kachchh. It is also involved with GEER
Foundation for verifying the ground truth data in
the Gulf of Kachchh as well as forest cover of
Gujarat.
Physical ResearchLaboratory (PHL): This is also
located in Ahmedabad and working on physical
aspects of the Gulf of Kachchh.
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
(CMFRI): It has its regional centre at Veraval and
it continuously monitor the fish catch and landings
in the Gulf of Kachchh area.
Gujarat Ecological Education Research
Foundation (GEER Foundation): GEER
Foundation is autonomous body set up by Forest
Department State Government and it is actively
engaged in Ecological Education & Research in
the Protected areas of Gujaral.
Indian Council of Ag1"icultural Research (ICAR):
This is also to monitor the fishery resources of the
Gulf of Kachchh through its Agricultural
22
Universities and their research stations at Okha
and Sikka.
Various State Government Departments: Various
State Government Departments like Forest &
Envirllnment Department, Fisheries Department,
Agricultural Department, etc. continnously
engaged in the conservation program as wen as
implementation of different policies in this area.
World Wide Fund for Nature - India: It is parent
organization under WWF for Nature - India, New
Delhi. In Gujarat following divisions of WWF for
Nature - India are existing and each of them
headed by Divisional Director. The four regional
offices of WWF for Nature - India is having each
similar objects and scope to work for the
promotion of nature conservation and
environmental protection through support to
research field projects, education and training to
raise funds for conservation, publishing literatures
regarding wild animals, poster, calendars and
diaries for creating nature conservation
awareness throughout the world.
Gujarat Ecological Commission (GEC): GERI
campus in Vadodara is a registered autonomous
body working since 10 years mainly on ecological
study of restoration and degradation of the
various sectors. It is a parent organisation of
Gujarat Ecological Society.
GSFCScienceFoundation: It is a large society set
up, non-profit independent foundation, working on
specially promoting work in major areas like
environment water management and nature
resources.
Prakruti Mandal and Youth Club: Gujarat is
having wide scope of nature lovers while
performing a particular group for the nature
conservation and environmental protection
through young generation.
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE):
This Institute is established in 1984 and operating
successfully from Bhuj district of Kachchh area.
This institute mainly focuses on ecological studies
and restoration activities in semi-arid and arid
region of Kachchh.
VIII. Future Prospects
Interaction with the native people during the
study resulted into various suggestions, which may
be useful for further consideration and
implementation of policies as well as monitoring of
resources available in this area.

FisheI:)' and fishing communities; Gulf of Kachchh
is an important fishing grounds for prawns,
lobsters, pomfrets, catfisb, bombay duck, mullets,
sharks, clupeids and many other commercially
important fishes. A large number of fishing villages
are dependent upon Gulf of Kachchh fisheries for
livelihood. However, fishermen are uneducated
and they have so far not been known for latest
fishing technoiogy. Proper knowiedge of gear, nets
and boats is lacking because of illiterate fishermen
and negligence of local fishing authority. Fishing
area and period should be allotted and strictly
followed by the local fishery societies, which may
reduce overexploitation. Creeks and reef area
should be strictly prohibited for the fishing as it is
the nursery ground for many fishes.
P. penicillatus and M. kutchensis have wide
distribution, high growth rate and market value.
Hence culture of this species is desirable. Even
many landing station are still lacking of cold
storage facility. Hence, local businessmen should
be encouraged to start cold storage at each of the
landing station to avoid the spoiling of fresh stock
of fish. Many areas have fishery co-operative
society. But these societies run on their own and
have different rules and regulation. There should
be some governance on operation of these
societies.
Drag-netting of fish and prawns should be totally
banned on all the reefs, since this fishing activity
uproots the coral heads.
Serious efforts should be made for the
improvement of infrastructure facility in fishing
station and the basic needs in the villages such as
drinking water. hospital, roads, education should
be provided.
Fuel wood and fodder requirements' Social
forestry programme has to be strengthened for
each of the coastal village for the fuel and fodder
requirement. This may provide optional source for
them to divert from traditional cutting of
mangroves for fuel wood. Even the participation of
native people should be encouraged. Rural
Development department should provide financial
support such activities. Iu case of the land belongs
to forest Department, the prescriptions given in
the working plan should be considered.
Harvesting of mangrove leaves: Permission to
harvest mangrove leaves as fodder for livestock
should not be given under any circumstances, not
even during drought years. The mangroves in the
23
Gulf of Kachchh
Gulf of Kachchh and the Kori creek area off the
west coast of India. are one of the main reasons
for a high productivity of waters in the Gulf of
Kachchh and Arabian Sea.
Restoration of mangrove forests; The mangrove
vegetation has certain striking peculiarities as
compared to the other ecosystems of the globe.
They provide food through their detritus pool, to
the marine fauna, and due to this reason there is
always a rich catch of different types of fishes,
prawns, etc. from the Gulf of Kachchh. The
mangroves are solely .responsible for arresting soil
erosion and thus stabilize the coastal soils in the
gulf. The mangrove also provide necessary
roosting and/or nesting sites for a wide variety of
migratory and resident water birds. The mangrove
vegetation of Gulf of Kachchh is an important and
integral part of marine ecosystem and there is an
urgent necessity, now; to take necessary steps to
conserve these ecosystems on a priority basis,
which otherwise, is being tampered continuously
by man and his agents, resulting in the
devastation of our marine wealth. Following are
some of the suggestions for conservation and
development of mangroves.
a) Primary attention should be paid to the
mangrove forests existing on different islands
and along the coastline in the Gulf. Mangroves
in this area are extensively cut and used as
fuel and fodder.
b) Camel grazing on the coastal and island
mangroves is quite heavy which should be
checked and totally prohibited.
c) Any settlement or farming on the island should
not be permitted. At present, Ajad and Bet
Dwarka are the islands in the Gulf where
human inhabit. Other islands like Kalubhar.
Garu, Shiyadri are used by people from
mainland for farming just after the monsoon.
d) The plantations of mangroves should be carried
out at the potential sites.
Commercial exploitation of algae: There are
number of commercially important seaweeds like
agarophytes (Gracillaria, Gelidium. Hypnea,
Gelidiella, etc) with good reproductive potential
and regeneration capacity. However, the biomass
that is available through these forms is far less as
compare to earlier records. This is obviously due
to the unmethodical harvest during inappropriate
periods. Undue tampering of the sea weeds at
critical level hampers the onward continuance of

Gulf of Kachchh
their life cycle. Sargassum is the most exploited
for the extraction of commercially important
product, the Aliginates. Over 'exploitation of this
weed cause remarkable decline the abundance.
Government should prepare the regulatory scheme
on the exploitation of algae and weeds from this
area. The harvesters should be given permit for
certain areas and exact produce should be kept in
record.
Vigilance in the protected area: Though, it is very
difficult to keep eye on all the areas because of
remoteness and un-accessibility, but the guards
and foresters should keep a check on atleast the
traffic from mainland, which goes regularly to this'
area. The local staff should be even provided with
boat facility. From the recent observation of our
study team, there sbould be proper' understanding
at the administrative level with Forest Guards,
Custom & Excise Guards and Coast Guards. Many
times it becomes debatable between tbem,
regarding who is governing the area.
Industrialization: Considering the growing
industrialization in the Gulf of Kachchh, it is very
important to involve the local regulatory body of
the Government. The impact assessment many
times done by the central agencies, which do not
have knowledge of local area and the report, is
submitted in a single visit or observation. Before
clearing any new industry, it important to take the
local authority into confidence.
Tourism: As such there is no tourism in this area.
It is recommended to promote tourism at various
places. But the impact must be studied before it
starts on commercial basis. The local authority of
MNP & S is presently running Nature Camps for
students of the local villages for the awareness of
marine life. The effort behind this is appreciable.
Salt works: Salt pans in the nearby area of Gulf
provides nesting grounds to many birds as well as
feeding area. Considering the expansions of salt
area in the vicinity of the Gulf, it is very important
to manage it properly. The seaward side of the salt
24
pan must be planted with mangroves and be
protected by prohibiting human entry in the area.
Keeping of pets in this area should be totally
banned as they are the main predators of birds as
well as their juveniles and eggs.
Nesting grounds for birds: Many islands in the Gulf
of Kachchh as well as the coastal area of
mainland are observed to be nesting grounds for
the birds. These area should be identified and
managed separately.
Nesting grounds for turtles: Few islands in the Gulf
of Kachchh as well the coastal areas are observed
to.be the nesting grounds for the sea turtles. These
areas should be identified and managed
separately.
Communal estabUshment on islands: On many of
islands fishermen established Darga or Pir for the
prey. Many times these Pirs are visited by nearby
population and make lot of disturbance to the
flora and fauna of there as well as leave lot of
garbage. Some of the recently built Pirs do not
have any historical or mythological origin. It just
to encroach the area over there. Hence, no new
communal establishment would be allowed in
remote areas.
Long term monitoring project: This is the first ever
effort to compile the status of bio-resources
available in the Gulf of Kachchh. But it's very
important to monitor it continuously after specific
intervals so that exact trend can be found out,
which ~ay be useful for management &
conservation. So it is strongly recommended to
have a long-term project for monitoring these
identified resources.
Marine biological station' The monitoring study
must accompanied with the research station
facility. So it is strongly recommended to develop a
marine biological station on Island, which is easily
accessible to remaining islands as well as
mainland. Many parameter analysis have to run
immediately after sampling. This is possible only if
the station is there.

Acknowledgements
Gulf of Kachchh
GEER Fo.undatio.n is thankful to. M.S. Swaminathan Research Fo.undatio.n fo.r sanctio.ning the study o.n
bio.-reso.urces o.f the Gulf o.f Kachchh. During the co.urse o.f the repo.rt preparatio.n, the o.fficials and
pro.fessio.nal experts listed belo.w have pro.vided valuable guidance and useful suggestio.ns. We are
thankful to. fo.llo.wing individuals:
Dr. J. P. Aggarwal, Principal Chief Co.nservato.r o.f Fo.rests, Gujarat State, Gandhinagar.
Mr. Pradeep Khanna, Chief Co.nservato.r o.f Fo.rests, Wild Life, Gujarat State, Gandhinagar.
Dr. S. A. Chavan, Ex-Principal Chief Co.nservato.r o.f Fo.rests, Gujarat State, Gandhinagar.
Mr. G. A. Patel, Ex-Chief Co.nservato.r o.f Fo.rests, Wild Life, Gujarat State, Gandhinagar.
Mr. C. N. Pandey, Directo.r, GEER Fo.undatio.n, Gandhinagar.
Mr. R. J. Asari, Co.nservato.r o.f Fo.rests, Marine Natio.nal Park & Sanctuary, Jamnagar.
Mr. P. K. Parmar, Co.mmissio.ner, Fisheries Department, Gandhinagar.
Mr. G. B. Ande, Co.nservato.r o.f Forests, Kachchh Circle, Bhlij.
Mr. S. P. Jani, Dy. Co.nservato.r o.f Fo.rests, Marine Natio.nal Park & Sanctuary, Jamnagar
Mr. M. I. Patel, Dy. Directo.r, Fisheries Department, Gandhinagar.
Mr. B. R. Raval, Asst. Directo.r, GEER Fo.undatio.n, Gandhinagar.
and the staff o.f GEER Fo.undatio.n
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25
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marine algal flora II. Ibid, 16: 311-357.
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Gulf of Kachchh
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26
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Gulf of Kutch. Marine Fishery Information
Service. T

Gulf of Kachchh
ABBREVATIONS
FSI Forest Survey of India NIO National Institute of GPCB Guiarat Pollution Controi
EEZ Exclusive Economy Zone Oceanography Board
GEER Gujarat Ecological COMAPS Coastal Mapping Survey GMB Guiarat Maritime Board
Education & Research GES Guiarat Ecological Society IMO International Maritime
Foundation GEC Guiarat Ecological Organisation
mCN International Union of Commission !FA Indian Forest Act
Conservation of Nature ICMAM Integrated Coastal and NGO Non Governmental
WII Wildlife Institute of India Marine Area Management Organisation
SAC Space Application Centre MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield ISRO Indian Space Research
NW North West MNP&S MarIne National Park & Organisation
SE South East Sanctuary PRL Physical Research
NE North East SBM Single Buoy Moorings Laboratory
E-W .East West SS Suspended Solid CMFRI Central Marine Fisheries
SW South West CRZ Coastal Regulation Zone Research Institute
MHWS Mean high water spring Veg. Vegetation !CAR Indian Council of
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand Narc. Narcotics
Agricultural Research
Cr Cromium MT Million Tonnes
WWF World Wildlife Federatlon
Mn
Fe
Cu
Ni
Zn
Ph
Gg
Chl-a
CSMCR!
Manganese
Ferric
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
Lead
Gigagram
Chlorophyll
Central Salt & Marine
EPA
USA
UV
RPL
EOL
GOI
MoEF
Environmental Protection
Agency
United States of America
Ultra Violet
Reliance PetrochemIcals
LimIted
ESSAR Oil Limited
Government of India
MInistry of Environment &
GSFC . Guiarat State Fertilizer
Corporation
GUIDE Gujarat Institute of Desert
Ecology
OBC Other Backward Class
Mech. Mechanised
Non-M. Non-Mechanised
Prod. Production
Misc. Miscellaneous
Chemicals
Institute
Research Forest
28

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ANNEXURE
1.List of Islands and submerged reefs In the Gulfof Kachchh with the description of Important features, threat~ & use of blo-resources.
"
I .Name01the island Major habitat Important leatures Threats Use of bio-resources
(GPS location)
1 2 3 4 5
Bet Dwarka Coral reefs One of the largest Island In Gulf of Kachchh, Conch shape Unregulated pilgrimage, grazing and Cutting of wood, northern side
(22'24,2' - 22'28.6' N Mangroves of the island derives the name, religious place with famous cultivation, cutting of woods for fuel, coral reef used for eco-tourism &
69'05, l' - 69'09.1' E) Mudflats pilgrimage, some area under cultivation, scrub forests with growing population causing increasing nature camp,
Sandy beaches Acacia sp., Commiphora wightii, Euphorbia, sa/vadora, ioad of sewage,
Aloe, Zyzyphus sp" Caryotoa arens, etc, Good corals, reef
fauna and flora in the northern reef.
Paga Reel Coral reefs Submerged reef, good coral reef, some part of reef remain Illegal fishing acfivities. This reef is Fishing in the reef, dead shell and
(22'28,8' - 22'30.0' N Sand dunes submerged even in low-tide like lagoon, good diversity of ciose to the main channel for ship coral collection for ornamentai
69'11,6' - 69'15,0' E) corals and associated flora and fauna. Overall very rich traffic, which goes toward Kandla Port, purposes.
marine life. which may cause severe impact of
pollution,
Okha Coral reef Vegetation shrub type, salvadora sp, Coral reef degraded Area under highly disturbances likes Use of coastal area for fish
(22'28,0'N- 69'04,9' E) Mudflats with few invertebrates, port activities, military establishment, processing activities.
fishing, etc.
Sonl Mlyar Rocky area with shrub vegetation of sa/vadora sp. local people visit this area for fuel Cutting of wood for fuel wood,
(22'26.2'N - 69'06,6'E) wood,
Samlanl
(22'29,0' - 22'29,5' N
Corals, Rocky shores and pools support very diverse corals as well
as invertebrate life, Vegetation shrub type with salvadora
Visits of
education
many
trips
college and
for collection
university
of algae,
Exploitation of algae (quantity not
done),
69'05,0' - 69'05.4' E) sp. Situated just near to Okha port having
impact of port traffic.
Kyu Rocky elevafed area with shrub vegetation of Euphorbia sp, Highly influenced by the nearby salt Nearby salt industry is encroached
(22'24,2' - 22'24,5' N industry activities, upto this island and now it is part
69'05.9' - 69'06,7' E) of mainland,
Sanbeliya Rocky substratum with shrub vegetation of Euphorbia sp, Visits by fishermen during their voyage, Fishing in the nearby area.
(22'18,0'N- 69'18.7' E)
Chandrl Reef ,,'. Coral reefs Submerged reef, good coral reef, some part of reef remain Illegal fishing activities. This reef is Fishing in the reef, dead shell and
(22'30.4' - 22'31,8' Hi Sand dunes submerged even in low-tide like lagoon, good diversity of close Okha port, which could lead the coral collection for ornamental
69'07,0' - 69'08.4' E) corals and associated flora and fauna, Overall very rich impact of shipping traffic as' well as purposes,
marine life, pollution,
Dabdaba Rocky & murrumy substratum, sandy beach in west, cliffed Visits of fishermen, collection of Collection of window pane oyster in
(22'22,0' • 22'22.4' N, . area, thick scrub forests with Euphorbia sp" Aloe sp" windowpane oysters, nearby area,
69'11 S • 69'11.8' E) Commiphora w/ghtii, Tamar/nt/us indica, good growth of
grass,
Oevdi Rocky, scrub forests, intertidal area which is rocky Visits of fishermen, collection of Collection of window pane oyster in
(22'22,0' - 22'22,2' N supports good invertebrate fauna, windowpane oysters. nearby area,
69'11.1' - 69'11,' E)
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Name of the island Majnr habitat Important leatures Threats Use of bio-resources
(GPS Location)
1 2 3 4 5
Asab Very small island, rocky & sandy, scrub forests with Aloe, Occasional visits by fishermen and local Illegal cutting of wood
(22"23.TN- 69" 12.3' E) Euphorbia and other shrubs. people.
Man Marodl & Langha Rocky, muddy, scrub forests with Commiphora wightii, Occasional visits by fishermen and locai Illegal cutti ng of wood and
Marodi Euphorbia sp., Salvadora sp., nesting sites for few of fhe people. destroying nests of birds.
(22"00.0' - 22"00.0' N birds like Reef Heron, Grey Heron, Painted Stork, Night
69"12.8' - 69" 13.0' E) Heron.
Leffa Very small island, rocky & sandy, scrub forests with Aloe, Occasional visits by fishermen and local Illegal cutting of wood
(22"23.0' - 22"23.2' N Euphorbia and other shrubs. people.
69"12.0' - 69"12.-' E)
Khara Chusna Coral reefs Covered with excellent corals and associated fauna, highest Regular visits of fishermen for religious Fishing in the reef area
(22"25.0' - 22"25.1' N Mangroves recorded mangroves in MNP & S. nesting and breeding purpose, fishing in the nearby reef area.
69"16.6' - 69"16.1' E) ground for birds.
Mltha Chusna
(22"24.8' - 22"24.9'
69"16. l' - 69"15.2'
N
E)
Coral reefs Rocky, scrub forest, nesting site for birds, covered with
excellent corals and associated fauna.
Regular visits of fishermen for religious
purpose, fishing in the nearby reef area,
culling 01 vegetation on isiand for fuel.
Fishing in the reef area,
cutting at trees on island.
illegal
Shaldar
co,
o,
(22"27.9' - 22"28.2'
69"17.6' - 69"19.5'
N
E)
Coral reefs
Mangroves
Mudflats
Sandy beaches
Large sandy coast In west, intertidal mudflats, some
shrubs, large mangrove forests, breeding and nesting
ground for turtle as well as many birds, corals in mostly
degraded form. The diversity of reef community is poor.
Growing sedimentation cause
submergence of coral reef over here.
Fishing in the reef and creek, illegal
cutting of mangroves .
Fishing and cutting of mangroves.
. Noru Coral reefs Excellent cover 01 mangroves and coastal vegetation on Sedimentation on the reef, fishing on the Fishing and culling of wood.
(22"30.4' - 22"31.8' N Mangroves island, sand patches in west, large intertidal mudflat in reef and illegal culling of wood.
69"18.9' - 69"21.1' E) Mudflats east, corals with good diversity towards Shaidar side reef
Sandy beaches area, reef flora and fauna Is in good lorm, nesting ground
for many birds species.
Chank Coral reefs Only small patch of high tidal mudflat is remained without Sedimentation covers on reef area. Remoteness of this island and hard
(22"31.6' - 22"32.2' N Mangroves mangrove vegetation. Very excellent mangrove with good Fishing in the reef area but occasionally. in accessibility made lillie
69"24.0' - 69"24.3' E) Mudflats diversity and density. Corals on the west and north side of ignorance in the use of biothe
reef. Nesting ground for many birds. resources in this island.
I
Ajad Coral reefs Elevated rocky and morumy island with human Habitation, cultivation, grazing, culling Fishing, use of vegetation for
(22"22.2' • 22"23.0' N Sandy beaches inhabitation, cultivable land and fresh water source. Good trees, exploitation of bauxite in the past, grazing, commerciai exploitation of
69"19.5' - 69"20.5' E) coverage of Isiand vegetation. lillie patch of mangroves fishing, visits of fishermen to religious window pane oyster.
and excellent pafch of corals and associated fauna in places.
south-western side of island.
Khimra Ghat Mangroves Rocky and morumy, mudflat, scrub forests with Acacia Goat and camel grazing, illegai Grazing of livestock by local people.
(22"20.2' - 22"20.4' N Mudflats sp., Euphorbia and other shrub species. cuitivation by farmers, processing of
69"19.6' - 69"19.1' E) windowpane oyster.

'"-
Name of the island Major habitat Important features Threats Use of blo-resources -I
(GPS Location)
1 2 3 4 5
Garu Mangroves Rocky and morumy, mudflat, scrub forests with Acacia Goat and camel grazing, illegal Grazing of livestock by local people.
(22'19.4' • 22'19.6' N Mudflats sp., Euphorbia and other shrub species. cultivation by farmers, processing of
69'20.9' - 69'21.3' E) windowpane oyster.
Shlyadri Mangroves Mudflats, mangrove forests and other shrubs Visits by fishermen, fishing in creek, Fishing, cutting of mangroves.
(22'19.3' - 22'19.5' N Mudflats illegal cutting of mangrove for fuel and
69'19.9' - 69'20.4' E) fodder.
Panero Mangroves Mudflats, mangrove forests and other shrubs. Visits by fishermen, fishing in creek, Fishing, cutting of mangroves.
(22'21.0' • 22'21.5' N Mudflats illegal cutting of mangrove for fuel and
69'26.6' - 69'27.5' E) fodder.
Gandiyo Kado Mangroves Mud flat, mangrove forests and other shrubs. Visits by fishermen; illegal cutting of Cutting of mangroves for fuel and
(22'23.1' - 22'23.8' N Mudflats mangroves for fuel and fodder. fodder.
69'28.7' • 69'29.9' E)
Rozi Mudflats Mudflat and rocky substratum, with shrub vegetation of Illegal cutting of wood for fuel and Cutting of wood for fuel and fodder.
(22'17.6' - 22'19.0' N Sandy beaches Euphorbia sp. fodder, processing of window pane
69'26.6' - 69'25.1' E) oyster. It is now become part of
mainland.
Dhanl Coral reefs Sandy area in the west, north and east, large intertidal Sedimentation load almost covered the Fishing in the reef and creeks,
(22'22.2' - 22'25.6' N Mangroves mudflat in the centre, scrubby mangroves, good coverage north-eastern and north-western reef, illegal cutting of mangroves for fuel
69'30.5' - 69'33.4' E) Mudflats towards southern side of the island. Corals in moderate easy accessibility from mainland cause and fodder.
Sandy beaches condition in northern side. lot of pressure from fishermen in the
creeks as well as in reefs.
Narara Coral reefs Reef flora and fauna in good condition, diversity is good, Island now totally connected with Cutting of mangroves for fuei and
(22'25.8' • 22'28.3' N Mangroves mangroves in excellent condition. Nesting sites of many mainland because of encroachments by fodder by local fishermen, paddle
69'42.1' • 69'44.7' E) Sandy beaches birds. various oil companies, few S8M may fishing create lot of disturbance to
add oil leakage, paddle fishing and eco- reef flora and fauna.
tourism are the major threats.
Kalubhar Coral reefs Largest island in the Gulf of Kachchh having some Sedimentation rate is high, many part of Fishing in the reef, cutting of
(22'24.4' - 22'27.5' N Mangroves agricultural land, excellent corals and associated reef flora the reef is now submerged with mangrove wood for fodder and fuel.
69'35.3' • 69'39.4' E) Mudflats and fauna in north, north-eastern and western side of reef. sediments. Visits of nearby fishermen
Sandy beaches Central mudflat, sandy beaches in north and north-west, for fishing, illegal cultivation and cutting
intervened by many creeks which suppiies tidal water. of mangroves for fuel and fodder.
Borla Reef
(22'23.8' - 22'26.0'
69'11.4' - 69'13.6'
N
E)
Coral reefs Submerged reef, good coral reef, some part of reef remain
submerged even in low-tide like lagoon, good diversity of
corals and associated flora and fauna. Overall very rich
marine life.
Illegal fishing activities. The offshore
terminal of proposed Poshitra Port will
be coming up on this reef.
Fishing in the reef, dead shell and
coral collection for ornamental
purposes.
Mangunda Reef
(22'23.8' - 22'26.0'
69'11.4' • 69'13.6'
N
E)
Coral reefs
Submerged reef, good coral reef, some part of reef remain
submerged even in low-tide like lagoon, good diversity. of
corals and assOCiated flora and fauna. Overall very nch
manne life.
Illegal fishing activities. The offshore
terminal of proposed Poshitra Port will
be coming up on this reef. .
Fishing in the reef, dead shell and
coral collection for ornamental
purposes.
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I
Name of the island
(GPS Location)
Major habitat Important features Threats Use of blo-resources
1 2 3 4 5 J
Goose Reef
(22'28.6' - 22'30.6' N
Coral reefs
Sand patches
Submerged
fauna.
reef with rich coral and associated flora and Nearby offshore activities of shipping
traffic towards SIkka port, GSFCjetty and
Fishing on coral reef. I
69'47.0' - 69'50.4' E) RPL jetty.
PIrotan Coral reefs Live coral patches on the edge of east and north side of Eco-tourism, major attraction for local Fishing, use of vegetation for fuel
(22'35.8' - 22'36.2' N Mangroves reef, good diversity of corals and associated fiora and tourists, visifors for religious purpose as for visitor as well as inhabited
69'57.0' - 69'57.6' E) Mudflats fauna, mangroves In excellent condition, high tidal mudflat well as nature lovers and research employee of light house and others.
Sandy beaches in central and west side of island, intertidal mudflat in east personais.
and west, shrub vegetation of island.
Jindra Corai reefs Coral reef in east and north, few species of corals In Illegal fishing activities, Fishing in Used by Mis. Digvljay Cement
(22'33.3' - 22'35.4' N Mangroves patches, mangroves 4 species, Avicennia sp. dominant, creeks and reefs, Cutting of mangroves Factory for extraction of sand and
69'59.6' - 70' 01.8' E) Mudflats high tidal mudflat In the centre for fodder and fuel, easily accessible corals before declaration of MNP.
Sandy beaches from mainland creates lot of Interterence. Fishing. Mangrove cutting for
fodder & fuel.
Chhad Coral reefs Coral reef In north, sand on reefs in west, mangroves Illegal fishing activities, religious places Fishing, cutting of mangroves for
, [(5,
(22'33.7'
69'57.5'
- 22'34.8' N
- 70' 00.2' E)
Mangroves
Mudflats
Sandy beaches
Avlcennia sp. dominant, other species Cer/ops sp.,
Rh/zophora sp. And few trees of Aeg/ceras sp. shrub
vegetation in mudflat, important nesting site of birds.
attracts local fishermen community, easy fodder and fuel.
access from mainland cause frequent
visits of locai people.
Dedeka.Mundeka Coral reefs Large coral reef in north-west, good diversity of corals and Illegal cutting of mangroves for fodder Fishing, cutting of mangroves.
(22'30.8' - 22'33.2' N Mangroves associated flora and fauna, Bonnelia sp. a rare is recorded and fuel, fishing in the creeks and reef
69'51.8' - 69'56.2' E) Mudflats over here, mangroves in good condition, shrub vegetation, area, fishermen visit to the religious
Sandy beaches sandy beach in west. places on islands.
Bhalns Bid Mangroves Excellent growth of mangroves, intertidal mudflat, Fishing, illegal cutting of mangroves for Fishing, illegal cutting of
(22'32.2' - 22'33.1' N Mudflats surrounded by creeks. fuel and fodder. mangroves for fuel and fodder
69'56.3' - 69'57.4' E) .
Sikka Coral reefs Good diversity and density of corals and associated flora Paddle fishing, nearby industrialization Fishing.
(22'28.6' - 22'29.2' N Mangroves and fauna. New recruitment and growth of corals. by GSFS and RPL factories and their
69'46.4' - 69'47.2' E) Mangroves In good condition, most of fhem are recently establishments in coastal area.
planted.
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Gulf of Kachchh
List of reef vegetation species and their status in the Gulf of Kachchh area.
Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
GREEN ALGAE (Chlorophycae)
1 2 3 4
1. Boodlea eomposita - Intertidal reef UG
2. Bryopsis indica - Intertidal reef C
3. Bryopsis plumosa - Intertidal reef UG
4. Bryopsis ramulosa - Intertidal reef R
5. Cau/erpa raeemosa Sea grapes Intertidal reef G
6. Caulerpa taxifolia Sea feathers Intertidal reef C
,. Caulerpa setularioides Sea feathers Intertidal reef UC
8. Caulerpa erassifolia Sea grapes Intertidal reef UG
9. Caulerpa eupressoides Sea grapes Intertidal reef R
10. Caulerpa sealpelliformis Sea feathers Intertidal reef C
11. Cau/erpa vertieel/ata Sea feathers Intertidal reef UG
12. Cladophora g/omerata - Goral boulders G
13. Cladophora prolifera - Goral boulders UG
14. Chaetomorpha indica - Intertidal reef UG
15. Codium deeortieatum Fleshy algae Coral boulders R
16. Codium dwarkense Fleshy algae Gorai boulders C
11. Codium elongatum Fleshy algae Goral boulders UG
18. Codium spargiosum Fleshy algae Coral boulders G
19. Chlorodesmis auriculata Turtle weed Goral boulders C
20. Ceratodietyon spongiosum Sponge weed Goral boulders G
21. Halimeda eapiosa Goralline algae Reef rock, corals UG
22. Halimeda diseoidea Coralline algae Reef rocks, corals UG
23. Halimeda maero/oba Goralline algae Reef rocks, corals C
24. Halimeda mieronesiea Goraiiine algae Reef rocks, corals UG
25. Ha/imeda opuntia Goralline algae Reef rocks, corals UG
26. Halimeda tuna Coralline algae Reef rocks, corals C
21. Udotea indica - Goral boulders UG
28. Ulva faseiata Sea lettuce Reef rocks, corals R,
29. Ulva laetuea Sea lettuce Reef rocks, corals C
30. Ulva retieulata Sea lettuce Coral boulders UG
31. Ulva rigida Sea lettuce Goral boulders UG
32. Enteromorpha intestinalis Filamentous algae Reef rocks, corals C
33. Enteromorpha elathrata Filamentous algae Reef rocks, corals UG
34. Enteromorpha f1uxuosa Filamentous algae Reef rocks, corals R
35. Enteromorpha tubulosa Filamentous algae Reef rocks, corals UG
36. Valonia utrieularis Bulb algae Reef rocks, corals R
31. Valoniopsis paehynema Bulb algae Goral boulders R
BROWN ALGAE (Phaeophyceae)
38. Dietyota atomaria.
39. Dietyota eilio/ata
40. Dietyota diehotoma
41. Dietyota diverieata
42. Dietyota cervicornis
-
-
-
-
-
Reef rocks, corals
Reef rocks, corals
Reef rocks, corals
Reef rocks, corals
Reef rocks, corals
C
UC
UG
G
UG
43.
44.
Dietyota bartayresii
Dietyopteris australis
-
-
Reef rocks, corals
Reef rocks, corals
UG
C
33
.

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
BROWN ALGAE (Phaeophycae)
1 2 3 4
45. Dictyopteris woodwardii - Reef rocks, corals UC
46. Ectocarpus sp. - Reef rocks, co rals UC
47. Sargassum po/ycystum Sea weed Reef rocks, corals C
48. Sargassum bulbosa Sea weed Reef rocks, corals C
49. Sargassum johnstonii Sea weed Reef rocks, corals C
50. Sargassumtenerrimum Sea weed Reef rocks, corals C
51. Sargassum plagiophyllum Sea weed Reef rocks, corals C/R
52. Turbinaria ornata Turbin weed Reef rocks, corals UCIR
53. Galaxaura marginata - Reef rocks, corals R
54. Hormophysa triquetra - Reef rocks, corals C
55. Hydroclathrus clathralus - Reef rocks, corals R
56. Iyengaria slellata - Reef rocks, corals C
57. Padina gymnospora Funnel weed Reef rocks, corals C
58. Padina letraslomatica Funnel weed Reef rocks, corals C
59. Rosenvingia intricala - Reef rocks, corals C
60. Spathoglossum asperum - Reef rocks, corals R
61. Spathoglossum variabi/e - Reef rocks, corals C
62. Fauchea peltata - Reef rocks, corals R
63. Actinotrichia tragi/is Spike weed Reef rocks, corals C
REO ALGAE (Rhodophyceae)
64. Acanthophora delilei - Reef rocks, corals C
65. Acanthophora spicitera - Reef rocks, corals C/R
66. Amphiroa crassa . Reef rocks, corals UC
67. Amphiroa toliacea - Reef rocks, corals R
68. Amphiroa tragilissima - Reef rocks, corals C
69. Asparogopsis taxitormis - Reef rocks, corals C
70. Galog/ossa bombayance - Reef rocks, corals C
71. Ghampia indica - Reef rocks, corals C
72. Ghondria ornata . Reef rocks, corals UC
73.. Ghondria dasyphylla . Reef rocks, corals R
74. Goe/arthrum opuntia - Reef rocks, corals R
75. Dasya sp. - Reef rocks, corals R
76. Desmia hommanni - Reef rocks, corals R
77. Gelidiella acerosa - Reef rocks, corals C
78. Gelidium pusillum - Reef rocks, corals UC
79. Gelidiopsis graci/is - Reef rocks, corals R
80. Gigartina sp. - Reef rocks, corals R
81. Gracillaria verucosa - Reef rocks, corals C
82. Gracillaria corticata - Reef rocks, corals C
83. Gracillaria pygmaea - Reef rocks, corals R
84. Grateloupia indica - Reef rocks, corals UC
85. Grate/oupia felicina - Reef rocks, corals C
86. Halymenia venusta - Reef rocks, corals C
87. Halymenia t10resia - Reef rocks, corals C
88. Halymenia porphyroides - Reef rocks, corals UC
89. Haliminthocladia clayadosii - Reef rocks, corals C
90. Hypnea muscitormis - Reef rocks, co rals UC
34

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
RED ALGAE (Rhodophycae)
1 2 3 4
91. Hypnea cervicornis - Reef rocks, corals C
92. Laurencia papiiiosa - Reef rocks, corals UC
93. Rhodymenia australis - Reef rocks, corals C
94. Rhodymenia pa/mata - Reef rocks, corals UC
'95. Scinaia indica - Reef rocks, corals R
96. Scinaia furcellata - Reef rocks, corals C
97. Sebdenia po/ydaty/a - Reef rocks, corals R
98. So/ieria robusta - Reef rocks, corals UC
99. Hydroc/athrus c/athratus - Reef rocks, corals UC
100. Chnoospora imp/exa - Reef rocks, corals R
SEA GRASSES
101. Cymodocea serru/ata Manatee grass Sand over reef UC
102. Ha/ophila ovalis Turtle grass Sand over reef C
103. Tha/assia sp. Turtle grass Sand over reef UC
II. List of mangrove species recorded in the Gulf of Kachchh area.
Species Name Local Name Habitat Status
1. Avicennia marina Makad or bhurad Intertidal mudflat C
2. Avicennia officinalis Cher or tawar Hightidal mudflat UC
3. Avicennia alba Pat Cher Hightidal mudflat R
4. Ceriops taga/ Kunari Creek UC
5. Aegiceras cornicu/atum Creek UC
6. Rhizophora mucronata Kurod Creek UC
7. Rhizophora apicu/ata Creek R
8. 8ruguiera gymnorhiza Chitleri Hightidal Mudflat R
9. 8ruguiera cylindrical Highlidal Mudflat R
10. Sonnettia apeta/a Hightidal Mudflat R
III. Checklist of vegetation species recorded in the coastal area of the Gulf of Kachchh.
Scientific Name Local Name Habit Status
1 2 3 4
Cissampe/os pareira Venivel Tw R
Coccuius hirsutus Vevdi H C
Coccu/us pendu/us Paravalti, Valur H 0
Tinospora cordito/ia Galo,Gulvel Tw 0
Nymphaea stellata Poyana H 0
Argemone mexicana Darudi H C
Cadaba fruticosa Telio Hemkand S 0
Capparis cattilaginea Katar S VR
Capparis decidua Kerdo S C
Capparis sepia ria Kanthar S 0
C/eome gynandra Ghandhatu H 0
C/eome simplicitolia H R
Cieome viscosa Pili Tilvan H C
35

Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name Local Name Habit Status
1 2 3 4
Maerua oblongifolia Hemkand S C
Viola cinerea Banalsha H R
Polygala chinensis Pili bhoysan H R
Polygala erioptera Patsan H C
Plolygala irregularis - H 0
Polycarpaea spicata Vajrdanti H C \
Polycarpea corymbosa - C
Portulaca quadrifida Zini luni H C
Tamarix dioica. Bhuri pras S R
Bergia cappensis
Bergia ammannioides
Berg ia s uflruticosa
Jal-Jambvo
-
-
H
H
C
C
0
Abelmoschus moschatus Khat bhindianski H 0
Abutilon glaucum Kanski S C
Gossypium sp.
Hibiscus ovalifolia.
Pavonia ceratocarpa
Sida spinosa
Kapas
-
Khatumbdejo
-
S
H
H
H
,
C
C
R
C
Thespesia populnea Paras Piplo T I
Adansonia digitata Rukhado T I
Melhania futteyporensis Adabau S R
Corchorus aestuans Chunch H C
Corchorus depressus Bahuphali H C
Corchorus fascicularis H 0
Corchorus olitorius - H C
Corchorus tridens H 0
Grewia tenax
Grewia villosa
Triumfetta rhomboidea
Gangeti
-
-
S
S
S
C
R
C
Triumfetta rotundifolia H C
Fagonia cretica Ohamasa S C
Tribulus terrestris Betu Gokharu H C
Aegle marmelos Bili T I
Limonia acidissima Kothi, kotha T R
Balanites aegyptiaca Ingorio T 0
Commiphora wightii Gugal S R
Azadirachta indica Limdo T C
Melia azadirach Bakan Limdo T I
Celastrus paniculatus Malkangani Tw VR
Maytenus emarginata
Zizyphus nummularia
Cayratia carnosa
Viklo
Chani Bor
Khat Khatumbo
S
S
CI
" "
C
C
C "
Cissus quadrangulare Had sankal CI R
Cardiospermum halicacabum Kagdoliyo CI R
Rhus mysurensis Kaseli, Oasam S VR
Moringa oleilera Sargavo T I
Abrus precatorius Chanothi Tw 0
Alysicarpus
Alysicarpus
longifofius
tetragonolobus.
Motosamervo
.
H
H
C
0
36

Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name local Name Habit Status
1 2 3 4
Alysicarpus styracifolius H 0
Alysicarpus vaginalis H C
Arachis hypogaea Mungfali H Cr
Clitoria tematea Gami Tw C
Cr%laria burhia Kharshan S 0
Crotolaria medicaginea Abdavmethi H C
6oniogyna hirta H C
Indigofera caerulea S R
Indigofera cordifolia H C
Indigofera linnaei Fatakiyu H C
Indigofera linifolia var. linifolia H C
Indigofera oblongifolia Zil,Ziladi S C
Lotus comicula/a H VR
Lotus garcini H VR
Rhynchosia minima var.minima Tw C
Rhynchosia minima var.laxiflora Oariya vet Tw R
Sesbania sesban S C
Tephrosia purpurea H C
Tephrosia strigosa. H C
Tevemeira cuneifolia Jethimadh, H C
Vigna sp. H 0
lomia gibbosa Samarapani H 0
Bauhinia racemosa Asotri T VR
Cassia auriculata Aval S C
Cassia italica Pat mindhi aval R
Cassia occiden/alis Kasundro S 0
Cassia pumila Nani Chimed H C
Cassia tora Puvadiyo H C
Parkinsonia aculeate Ram Bavat S I
Peltophorum pterocarpum Tamrafali T I
Tamarindus indica Amli T R
Acacia leucophloea Harmo baval. Hiver T C
Acacia nilotica Oesi Baval T C
Acacia senegal Goradio Baval T C
Leucaena leucocephala Pardesi Baval T I
Mimosa hama /a Kasi baval Us R
Pithecellobium dulce Gorasamli T I
Prosopis cineraria Khijado T C
Prosopis chilensis Gando Baval S C
Vahlia digyna Pilo agio H R
Ceriops tagal S C
Rhizophora mucronata Karod S C
Terminalia catappa Desi Badam T I
Ammannia baccifera Jal agio,lal agio H C
Ammannia multiflora H 0
Ludwigia parviflora Panlavang H C
Coccinia grandis Ghiloda CI C
Cucumis callosus Kolhimdu H 0
Cucumis prophetarum Kantalo indran H C
37

Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name local Name Habit Status
1 2 3 4
Corallocarpus epigeus - CI R
Luffa sp. - CI 0
Momordica charantia. Karela, Kareli CI Cr
Mukia maderaspatana Chanak chibhadi CI C
Tricosanthes cucumerina Jangali parvar CI C
Opuntia elatior Phafda thor S C
Glinus lotoides Mitho Okharad H C
5esuvium portulacastrum - H R
Trianthema portulaca strum - H C
Trianthema triquetra - H C
la/eya govindia H R
Borreria articularis Ganthiyu H C
Borreria stricta - H C
Dentella repens H R
Mitragyna parviflora Kadam T I
O/denlandia corymbosa Parpat, Parpati H C
Acanthospermum hispidum - H C
Echinops echinatus Utkanto H C
Eclipta prostrata Bhangaro H C
Launaea procumbens Moli Bhonpatri H C
Launaea sarmentosa Bhon patri H 0
Pulicaria wightiana Sonasali H C
Pulicaria sp. (Violet) - H C
Vernonia cineraria Sahadevi H C
Xanthiumstrumarium Gokhru,Gadariyu H C
Oyerophytum indicum Pavi Us R
limonium stocksii - S VR
Aegiceras corniculata - T R
Mani/kara hexandra Rayan T VR
Jasminum grandiflorum Jui CI I
Salvadora oleoides Mithu Pilu T C
Sa/vadora persica Khari Pilu T C
Catharanthus roseus Barmasi S I
Nerium indicum lalkaren S I
Thevetia peruviana Pili karen S I
Galotropis gigantea Akado S C
Galotropis gigantea var. (white) Akado S R
Calotropis procera Nano Akado S C
Leptadenia pyrotechnica Khip S 0
Leptadenia reticulata Oodi CI VA
Oxystelma secamone Jal-Dudhi H R
Pentatropis capensis Shingroti Tw 0
Pentatropis spiralis - Tw C
Pergularia daemia Chamardudheli Tw C
Sarcostemma acidum Sam S R
Cryptostegia grandiflora Rubber Vel CI I
Periploca aphylla Ratl khip S VA
Enicostema hyssopifolium Mamejevo H C
Cordia gharaf Nani Gundi T C
38

Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name Local Name Habit Status.
1 2 3 4
Sericostoma pauciflonum Karvas US C
Coldenia procumbens Basario Okharad H C
Heliotropium curassivica H R
Heliotropium
Heliotropium
indicum
marifolium
Hathi Sundho
Zinku okharad
H
H
C
a
Heliotropium ovalifolia - H C
Trichodesma zeylanicum
Convolvulus microphyllus
Convolvulus sp
-
Shankavali
,
H
H
H
C
C
a
Cressa cretica Rudanli H C
Evolvulus alsinoides Kali shankavali H C
Ipomoea acqualica
Ipomoea coplica
Nali ni bhaji
-
H
H
C
R
Ipomoea eriocarpa Bodi fudardi Tw C
Ipomoea fistulosa S C
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Ipomoea pes-trigridis
Darianivel
Wagpadi vel
H
Tw
C
a
Merremia emarginata - H C
Rivea hypocrateriformis Fang CI C
Datura metal Dhanluro S C
Datura innoxiana Kalo Dhanluro S C
Lycium barbarum Taleli S R
Physalis minima Popli H C
Solanum albicule - H VR
Solanum indicum Ubhi Ringani H C
Solanum sural/ense Bhoy Ringani H C
Wilhania somnifera Ashvgandha S C
Dopatrium junceum H R
Kickxia ramossisima Bhini ghilodi H R
Pedalium murex Ubhu Ghokharu H C
Sesamum indicum - H Cr
Mellingtonia hortensis
Barleria prionitis
Deshibuch
-
T
S
I
C
Blepharis maderspatensis Ulingan H C
Blepharis repens Zinku ulingan H C
Blepharis linariaefolia
Dipteracanthus patulus
Hygrophilla auriculata
-
-
KanIa shelio
H
H
H
R
C
a
Rungia repens - H C
Lepidogathis trinervis Harancharo H C
Peristrophae bicalyculata Kali anghedi H C
Avicennia alba Pal cher S R
Avicennia marina Tivar S C
Avicennia officinalis Tavariya T C
Clerodendron multiflorum
Premna integrifolia
Leucas asper
Leucas bit/ora
Arani
-
-
S
S
H
H
C
R
C
a
Leucus cephalotes Kubo H C
39

•
Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name Local Name Habit Status
1 2 3 4
Leucus sp. H 0
Dcimumcanum Ran Tulsi H C
Dcimum sanctum Tulsi H I
Sa/via p/ebeia H R
Boerhavia e/egans H 0
Boerhavia chi/ensis H C
Boerhavia diffusa Satodi H C
Boerhavia verticillata Punarnava H C
Bougainvillea spectabi/is Boganvel S I
Achyranthes aspera Anghedi H C
AelVa /anata S C
A/temanthera ficoidea H 0
A/temanthera sessilis H C
Amaranthus /ividus Tandaljo H C
Amaranthus spinosus H C
Celosia argentea Lampdi H C
Digera muricata Kanjro H C
Pupaliea /appacea H C
Artip/ex stocksii Khati bala H R
Salicomia brachiata S C
Sa/so/a baryosma S C
Suaeda fruticosa Khari morus S R
Suaeda nudiflora Morus H C
Po/ygonum p/ebeium H 0
Arist%chia bracteo/ate Kidamari H C
Crozophora rattler! Kala okharad H R
Da/echampia scandens CI R
Euphorbia hirta Oudheli H C
Euphorbia microphylla H C
Euphorbia nivulia Thor S C
Euphorbia tirucalli Kharsani S I
Phyllanthus fratemus Bhonya amli H C
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Bakarato H 0
Tragia hi/derbranditii S R
H%ple/ea integrifolia Kanjo T I
Ficus bengha/ensis Vad T I
Ficus racemosa Umaro T 0
Ficus religiosa Piplo T 0
Casuarina equisetifolia Sharu T I
Ceratophyllum demersum H 0
Hydrilla verticillata Jam bam H 0
A/oe barbadensis Kuvarpalhu H G
Asparagus racemosus Shalavari GI G
Asparagus dumosus H R
Urgenia indica H R
Comme/ina bengha/ensis H G
Comme/ina forsaka/aci H G
Cocos nucifera Nariel T I
Hyphnea dichotoma Ravan lad T VR
40

Scientific Name
1
Phoenix sylvestris
Cyperus ingoriee
Cyperus bulbosa
Cyperus pygma eus
Cyperus rotundus
Fimbristylis cymba ria
Aeluropus lagopoides
Cenehrus eiliaris
Chloris barbata.
Diehanthium annulatum.
Digetaria adseendens.
Eragrostis eiliaris
Pennisetum typhoides
Melanoehenehris jaequemontii
Setaria tomentosa
Sorghum bieolor
Sporobolus maderaspatana
Uroehondra setulosa
Zea mays
Zoysia matrella
GYMNOSPERM
Ephedra foliata
Local Name
2
Khajuri
Anjan,Jhinu dhamnu
Tarodiyu
Bajro
Juwar
Makai
Gulf of Kachchh
Habit Status
3 4
T 0
H C
H C
H R
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H Cr
H C
H C
H Cr
H C
H R
H Cr
H R
CI-sh VR
Abbreviations:- H:Herb; S:Shrub;T: Tree; Tw: Twiner; CI:Climber; C:Common; Cr:Crop; PL:Planted; O:Oecassional; VR:Very
Rare; R:Rare; 1:lntroduced; Us:Under Shrub.
Category
1
SPONGES
Calcareous
Non-calcareous
IV. Checklist of marine invertebrates species in the Gulf of Kachchh.
Species Name Common name Habitat Status
2 3 .4 5
Grantesse hastifera Reef flat UC
Heteropis glome rosa Reef flat UC
Leueandra donnani Reef flat C
. Leueandra dwarkansis Reef flat C
Leueandra wasinensis Reef flat UC
Syeon grant/aides Reef flat C
Jaspis stellifera Reef flat C
Jaspis reptans Reef flat UC
Jaspis sp. Reef flat C
Aeanthella eavernosa Reef flat UC
Aeanthella klethra Reef flat UC
Clathria reinuordt/ Reef flat C
Haliclona faseigera Reef flat C
Haliclona eymiformis. Reef flat C
Cribroehalina obemada Reef flat UC
Ireinia ramosa Reef flat C
Ireinia sp. Reef flat UC
Theonella eylindriea Reef flat UC
Leueonia sp. Reef flat C
41

Gulf of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common name Habitat Status
1 2 3 4 5
Euplectella sp. - Reef flat C
Asteropis simplex - Reef flat UC
Geodian variospiculosa - Reef flat C
Donatia seychellensis - Reef flat UC
Tuberella aaptos . Reef flat UC
Chondrilla australiensis - Reef flat UC
Chondrilla agglutinans - Reef flat UC
Tetilla dectyloidea - Reef flat UC
Cellius redieyi - Reef flat UC
Cellioides fibrosa - Reef flat UC
Reniera permollis - Reef flat UC
Reniera topsenti - Reef flat C
Reniera horneIIi - Reef flat C
Reniera fibroreticulata - Reef flat UC
Reniera semifibrosa . Reef flat C
Halichondria pancea . Reel flat C
Halichondria reticulata . Reef flat UC
Siphonochalina crassifibra - Reef flat UC
Siphonochalina minor - Reef flat UC
Desmocelle tubi/ate - Reef flat UC
Phakellia donnani - Reef flat UC
Cicalypta dichotoma - Reef flat UC
Higginsia sp. - Reef flat UC
Esperella plumosa - Reef flat UC
Demacidon minor - Reef flat UC
lotrochota baculifera - Reef flat UC
Guitarra indica - Reef flat UC
Psammochela elegans . Reef flat UC
Chondropsis kirkii - Reef flat UC
Myxilla aranceria - Reef flat UC
Clathria corallitineta - Reef flat UC
Clathria spiculosa . Reef flat UC
Raspailia fruticosa . Reef flat UC
Acarnus torti/is . Reef flat UC
Bubaris radiata . Reef flat UC
Spirastrella vagabunda - Reef flat UC
Placospongia carinata - Reef flat UC
Suberites carnosus - Reef flat UC
Suberites f1abellatus . Reef flat UC
Polymastia gemmipara - Reef flat UC
Megalopastas ratiaria - Reef flat UC
Darwinella australiensis - Reef flat UC
Spongelia fragilis - Reef flat . UC
Spongelia cinerea - Reef flat UC
Cliona ceronaria . Reef flat UC
Adocia sp. - Reef flat C
Auletta elongata - Reef flat C
Auletta Iyrata - Reef flat C
Auxinella virgultosa - Reef flat UC
42

Gulf of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common name Habilat Status
1 2 3 4 5
HYDROZOA
BRYOZOAN
COELENTERATES
Desmocidon minor . Reef flat UC
Echinodictyum gorgonioides . Reef flat C'
Gel/iodes fibrosa . Reef flat C
Gel/ius fibulatus . Reef flat UC
Gel/ius ridleyi . Reef flat UC
Hippospongia c/athrata . Reef flat UC
Plumularia sp. . Reef UC
Aglaophenia aspressina. . Reef UC
Solanderi sp. . Reef UC
Millipora sp. Fire corals Reef slope R
Distichopora sp. Lace coral Reef slope R
Single unidentified sp. Intertidal Reef UC
Jelly fishes Thysanostoma thysannura Jelly fish Open sea C
Cephea sp. lion's Man Jelly fish Open sea UC
Chironex f1echeri Box jelly fish Open sea R
Sea Anemone Stichodactyla gigantea Giant Sea anemone Reef C
Bunodactis sp. Sea anemone Reef C
Metridiumsp. Sea anemone Reef C
Ceroamtjods sp. Tube anemone Reef C
Zooantharians Palythoa caesia . Reef rock C
Palythoa sp.1 . Reef rock UC
Palythoa sp. 2 . Reef rock R
Protopalythoa sp. 1 . Reef rock C
Sphenopus marsupia lis . Reef rock UC
Zoanthus sp. . Reef rock UC
Protopalythoa sp. 2 . Reef rock UC
PLATYHELMINTHES
POLYCHAETE
ECHINODERMATA
Pseudobiceros gratus Polyclad flatworm Reef UC
Pseudoceros leptostichus Polyclad flatworm Reef R
Eurylepta sp. Flatworm Reef UC
Pseudobiceros sp. Flatworm Reef R
Protula magnifica Tube worm Reef.sand C
Sabel/astarte sp. Tube worm Reef.sand R
Sabel/a sp. Tube worm Reef.sand C
Protula sp. Tube worm Reef.sand R
Cryptopel/a longibranchialis Brittle star Reef rock C
Ophiarachna incrassata Brittle star Reef rock C
Portiometra audersoni Feather star Reef rock R
Holothuria fascogilva Sea cucumber Reef rock C
43

Gulf of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common name Habitat Status
, 1 2 3 4 5
ECHIURA
CRUSTACEANS
Pseudobonellia biuterina Bonnelia, tongue worm Reef slope/pools RIT
Isopode Sphaeroma sp. - Mangroves C
Shrimps Thor amboinemis Anemone shrimp Anemone C
Periclimenes brevicarpalis Anemone shrimp Anemone C
Odontodatylus scyllarus Mantis shrimp Reef R
Vir philippinensis Coral shrimp Coral reef R
Crabs Grapsus albolineatus Shore crab Sand C
Plagusia dentipes Shore crab Sand C
Chirostylus sp. Spider crab Coral rock R
Ocypode ceratophthalma Ghost crab Reef rock C
Ocypode sp. Common crab Beach C
Carpilius convexus Reef crab Reef UC
Scylla serata Mud crab Beach C
Neptunus pelagicus Neptune crab Reef C
Matuta . Reef UC
Polyonyx sp. . Reef C
Eriphia sebana Red eyed crab Reef R
Veruna Iilterata Sargassum cr. Reef R
Calappa hepatica Box crab Reef R
Dromidiopsis edwardsi Sponge crab Reef R
Charybdis troncata Sand Crab Beach C
Clibanarium humulis Hermit Crab Beach C
Clibanarium infraspiran Hermit Crab Beach UC
Grapus sp Rock Crab Reef. rock C
Portunis longiceps Sand Crab Beach C
Portunis sp. Sand Crab Beach UC
Uca moriones Sand Crab Beach UC
Lobsters Panulirus polyphagus Common Lobster Reef, subtidal R
Barnacles Balanus amphitrite Barnacle Rock, Coral boulders C
Balanus tintinabulam Barnacle Low tidal rocks R
Thalamus sp. Barnacle Rock, Coral boulders C
Balanus sp. Barnacle Rock, Coral boulders UC
Lepas tesudinata Goose neck Reef slope R
V.Checklist of coral species encountered during the study with their details in MNP & S.
Species Name Common Name Habitat Form Status
1 2 3 4 5
Hard corals
Acropora humilis Flower coral Reef slope Table R
Montipora monastriata Pore coral Reef flat Papillate C
Montipora foliosa Pore coral Reef crest Tuberculate C
Montipora danae Pore coral Reef flat FOlious C
Montipora explanata Pore coral Reef flat Folious UC
Montipora digitata Pore coral Reef flat Encrusting UC
Montipora verrucosa Pore coral Reef flat Encrusting UC
44

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Habitat Form Status
1 2 3 4 5
Psammocora digitata Exclamation coral Reef slope Encrusting UC
Siderastrea savignyana Pillow coral Reef slope Massive, encrusting R
Pseudosiderastrea tayami False pillow coral Reef slope Small, oval, Encrusting R
Coscinaraea monile Wrinkle coral Reef slope Encrusting UC
Goniopora planu/ata Anemone coral Reef flat, pools Encrusting, columnar C
Goniopora minor 'Anemone coral Reef wall, pools Encrusting, ramose C
Goniopora columna Anemone coral Reef flats, pools Encrusting UC
Porites /utea Hump coral Reef flats Massive, encrusting C
Porites compressa Hump coral Reef flats, pools Massive, columnar C
Porites so/ida Hump coral Reef flats Massive, solid C
Porites lichen Hump coral Reef flats Massive, encrusting C
Favia speciosa Knob coral Reef flat Massive to sub massive C
Favia favus Knob coral Reef flat Massive to submassive C
Favia maxima Knob coral Reef flat Massive to submassive C
Favites f1exuosa Mosaic co ral Reef flat Sub massive, encrusting C
Favites comp/anata Star coral Reef flat Massive to dome shaped C
Favites abdita Reef flat Massive C
Goniastrea pectinata Brain coral Reef flat, pools Oval, small UC
P/atygyra sinensis Valley or brain coral Reef flat, pools Solid, oval UC
P/atygyra /ame/lina Valley or brain coral Reef flat, pools Solid, oval R
Platygyra dalea Valley or brain coral Reef Flat, pools Solid, oval R
Hydnophora exesa Spine coral Reef slopes Encrusting solid UC
P/esiastrea versipora Small knob coral Reef slopes Solid, encrusting R
Montastrea annuligera False knob coral Reef flat Massive, encrusting R
Dip/oastrea heliopora Double star coral Reef slopes Massive R
Leptastrea purpurea Crust coral Reef slopes Solid R
Cyphastrea sera ilia Lesser knob coral Reef flat Encrusting R
Acanthastrea echinata Starry cup coral Reef slopes UC
Symphyllia radians Sinous cup coral Reef pools Oval C
Symphyllia recta Sinous cup coral Reef flats, pools UC
Mycedium e/ephantotus Chinese lenuce coral Reef flats Tabular, plate C
Dendrophyllia micranthus Tree coral Reef slopes Tree form RfT
Tubastrea fau/kneri Red cave coral Reef slopes Clumps R
Turbinaria peltata Disc or plate coral Reef flat Plate, disc C
Turbinaria crates Disc or plate coral Reef flat Plate, disc C
Sofl Coral
Lobophyton sp, 1 Ridged leather coral Reef crest - C
Lobophyton sp, 2 Lobed leather coral Reef crest - C
Sinularia sp, Leather coral Reef flat, crest - C
C/avu/aria sp, Cauliflower coral Reef pools - R
Dendronephythya sp, Tree coral Reef pools - R
SClerophyton dacty/um Sofl coral Reef pools - UC
Eusmilia fastigora Flower coral Reef pools - UC
Subergorgia sp, Sea fan Reef slope - C
Ehinogorgia sp, Sea fan Reef slope . C
Pteroeides sp, Sea pen Reef pools - RfT
45

Gulf of Kachchh
VI. Checklist of molluscan species encountered during the study of MNP & S.
Species
1
Name Common Name
2
Habitat
3
Status
4
GASTROPODA
Troehus stel/atus
Troehus radiatus
Trochus tentorium
Stellata trochus
Banded trochus
Top shell
Rocky substratum
Rocky substratum
Rocky substratum
of intertidal
of intertidal
of intertidal
reef
reef
reef
C
C
UC
Euchelus tricarinata
Euchelus asper
Rocky beaches/ surf zone
Rocky beaches/ pools
C
C
Clanculus eeylanicus Rocky shores UC
Manodonta australis Rocky shores R
Umbonium vestiarium Button shell Sandy bottom of reefs C
Iseanda erenulitera Sandy bottom of reefs UC
Turbo petholatus Tapestry Turban Shallow rubble area of reef C
Turbo brunneus Dwarf Turban Shallow rubble area of reef C
Turbo coronatus Homed Trubon Shallow rubble area of reef C
Astraea stel/ata Rubble/sand of reef UC
Astraea semicostata Rubble/sand of reef R
Liotia cidaris Coral boulders/ rubbles UC
Nerita crepidularia Violet Nerite Mangrove / mud UC
Nerita polita Polished Nerite Rocky shores, hightidal C
Nerita albicilla Ox-plate Nerite Reef rocks, boulders UC
Turrita vittata Sandy area of coral reef UC
Ratina costata Costate Nerite Reef rocks UC
Architectonica laevigata Sundial shell Sandy area of lower intertidal reef C
Cel/ana radiata limpets Rocky shores, hightidal C
Clypidina notata limpets Rocky shores, hightidal C
Scutus unguis Shield limpets Rocks/ shallow water UC
Oiodora lima limpets Rocky shores, hightidal C
Diodora ticaonica limpets Rocky shores, hightidal C
Oiodora funiculata limpets Rocky shores, intertidal C
Cypraea tigris Tiger cowrie Sand, rubble area of reef C
Cypraea mappa Map cowrie Undersurface of coral slabs R
Cypraea mauritiana Chocolate cowrie Undersurface of coral slabs UC
Cypraea arabica Arabian cowrie Reef rock! crevices, rock pools C
Cypraea talpa Mole cowrie Under coral heads, iower intertidal UC
Cypraea vitel/us Pacific Deer cowrie Under coral heads, lower intertidal C
Cypraea eameola Carnelian cowrie Coral dweller C
Erosoria tardus Thrush cowrie Mud over reef C
Erosoria oeel/ata Ocellata cowrie Sand over reef C
Erosoria inocel/ata Inocellata cowrie Sand over reef C
Erosoria lamarcki lamarck's cowrie Sand over reef UC
Cypraea lynx Eyed cowrie Intertidal reef C
Cypraea onyx Onyx cowrie Sand, mud over reef UC
Cypraea caurica Caurica cowrie Intertidal reef C
Cypraea caputserpentis Serpent's head cowrie Intertidal reef R
Cypraea teres Intertidal reef UC
Cypraea errones Wandering cowrie Coral dweller, under algae UC
Cypraea annules Gold ringed cowrie Under stone, shallow reefs C
Cypraea timbriata Fimbriate cowrie Intertidal reef area UC
46

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
1 2 3 4
Cypraea ziczac Zic-zag cowrie Mid reef zone R
Cypraea assellus Asellus cowrie Coral reef dweller R
Lambis chiragra Chiragra spider conch Coral reef, subtidal R
Tibia delicatula Beak shell Mud cover over reef R
Tibia curta Beak shell Mangroves/ mudflats C
Strombus lentiginosus Silver conch Intertidal reef area UC
Strombus plicatus Pigeon conch Subtidal reef area R
Strombus mutabitis Mutable conch Sand over reef UC
Strombus labiatus Samar conch Sand over reef UC
Tonna galea Brown Tun Sand over reef R
Tonna fascia ta Banded Tun Sand over reef R
Tonna dolium Spotted Tun Sand + Mud over reef R
Tonna cepa Channeled Tun Sand + Mud over reef UC
Bursa Iissostoma Frog shell Reef rocks, boulders in coral reef C
Bursa spinosa Spiny frog Reef rocks, boulders in coral reef C
Bursa elegans Elegant frog Reef rocks, boulders in coral reef C
Bursa tuberculata Tuberculate frog Reef rocks, boulders in coral reef C
Cymatium perryi Perry's triton Coral dweller C
Cymatium piteare Hairy triton Sand over reef UC
Cymatium aquatite Triton shell Sand aver reef C
Cymatium cinguiatum Triton shell Sand ove r reef UC
Distortio reticulata Reticulate triton Coral dweller R
Natica didyma Moon shell Sand + Mud over reef UC
Natica picta Moon shell Sandy bottom of reef C
Natica maculosa Moon shell Sandy bottom of reef C
Natica vitellus Banded moon Sandy bottom of reef R
Te/escopium telescopium Telescope shell Mud, mangroves or sand C
Cerithium rubus Horn shell Rocky bottom of reef C
Cerithium morus Horn shell Rocky bottom of reef C
Cerithium echinatum Horn shell Rocky bottom of reef C
Mitra mitra Episcopal mitra Coral dweller, shallow water UC
Mitra stictica Partifical mitra Coral dweller UC
Mitra obeliscus Sand over reef C
Mitra scutulata Sand over reef UC
Turritella terebra cerea Screw shells Sandy intertidal areas C
Turritella terebra Screw shells Sandy intertidal areas C
Uttorina intermedia Periwinkle shell Rocky shore, hightidal C
Uttorina scabra Periwinkle shell Rocky shore, hightidal C
Uttorina undu/ata Periwinkle shell Rocky shore, hlghtidal C
Tectarius ma/accanus Beaded periwinkle shell Rocky shore, hightidal UC
Chicorius ramosus Ramose murex Reef rocks & crevices UC
Chicorius virgineus Reef rocks & crevices UC
Murex pa/morosae Rose branch murex Reef rocks & crevices R
Hexap/ex cichoreus Endive murex Coral reef dweller R
Murex brunneus Adustus murex Reef rocks & crevices UC
Murex maurus Reef rocks & crevices UC
Murex haustellus Wood rock shell Coral reef dweller R
Murex pecten Venus comb shell Coral reef dweller R
Murex tribulus Sand + Mud over reef R
47

Gullo! Kach.chh
Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
1 2 3 4
Rapana bulbosa
Thais bufo
Thais rudolphi
-
-
Sand + reef rocks of intertidal
Rocky shores, hightidal
Rocky shores, hightidai
area R
UC
C
Thais hippocastanea - Rocky shores, hightidal UC
Thais carinifera
Thais sacellum
-
-
Rocky shores,
Rocky shores,
hightidal
hightidal
UC
UC
Thais intermedia - Rocky shores, hightidal UC
Thais tissoti
Drupa konkanensis
Drupa contracta
OCinebra bombayana
-
-
-
-
Rocky shores,
Rocky shores,
Rocky shores,
Rocky shores,
hightidal
hightidal
hightidal
hightidal
UC
C
C
C
Conus figulinus Fig cone intertidal reef, under algae C
Conus geographus Geographic cone Shallow coral reef UC.
Conus striatus Striate cone Shallow coral reef R
Conus tessulatus
Conus amadis
Tessellate cone
-
Shallow coral reef
Subtidal coral reef
C
UC
Babylonia spirata Spiral Babylon Sandy / rocky shores C
Babylonia zeylanica Sri Lanka Babylon Sandy / rocky shores C
Cantharus spiralis Whelks Sandy / rocky shores C
Cantharus undosus Whelks Sandy I rocky shores UC
Olivia gibbosa Globular olive volutes sand over reef C
Olivia caerulea Volutes Sand over reef UC
Olivia nebulosa Volutes Sand over reef UC
Olivia nebulosa intricata
Nassarius olivacea
Intricate volutes
-
Sand over reef
Sand dweller
UC
C
Nassarius nodifera
Pyrene f1ava
Pyrene terpsichore
Pyrene zebra
Pyrene scripta
-
-
-
Sand dweller
Sand over coral reef
Reef rocks, coral boulders
Reef rocks, coral boulders
Reef rocks, coral boulders
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
Turbinella pyrum
Hemifusus pugilinus
Hemifuscus cochlidium
Common Chank
-
Subtidal reefs
Sand + mud on subtidal reef
R/EN
R
.
Sand + mud on subtidal reef UC
Haliotis varia Common Ear Shell Sandy bottom of subtidal reef C
Ellobium auris-jude
Cassidula nucleus
-
-
Sandy bottom of subtidal
Mud / mangrove
reef R
R
Marginella angustata Sandy bottom of subtidal reef R
Bulla ampulla Bubble shell Sandy bottom of subtidal reef C
Siphonaria laciniosa Rocky shores, mid tidal R
Dentalium elph Elephant tooth Sandy bottom of subtidal reef R
Dentalium aprinum Elephant tooth Sandy bottom of subtidal reef R
BIVALVIA
Arca granosa Ark shell Sandy bottom of intertidal zone C
Arca bistrigata Ark shell Sandy bottom of intertidal zone R
)l,rca symmetrica Ark shell Rocky shores UC
Perna viridis Green mussel Rocky shores UC
Brachyodontes karachiensis - Rocky shores UC
Pteria brevilata Winged mussel Sandy bottom of reef R
48

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
1 2 3 4
Pleria chinensis Winged mussel Sandy bottom of reef R
Pinna bicolor Mussels Intertidal reef RfT
Pinctada fucata Pearl oyster Subtidal reef zone RfT
Chlamys tranquebaricus Scallop Subtidal reef zone R
Pecten crassicostatus Scallop Subtidal reef zone R
Ammurium pleuronectes Subtidal reef zone R
Placenta placenta Windowpane oysters Subtidal reef zone T/R
Cardita antiquate - Sandy area of low water reef C
8eguina veriegata . Sandy / rocky shores R
Cardium flavum Cockles Sandy area of subtidal reef C
Cardium asiaticum - Sandy area of intertidal reef UC
Cardiumsetosum - Sandy shores UC
Gafrarium divaricata Venus shell - Sandy intertidal area C
Meretrix meretrix - Sandy intertidal area C
Pitar erycina - Sandy intertidal area C
Sunetta danacina . Sandy intertidal area C
Sunetta effosa - Sandy intertidal area R
Dosinia prostrate - Sandy shores/ rocky crevices C
Dosinia cretacea . Sandy shores/ rocky crevices UC
Dosinia rustica - Sandy shores/ rocky crevices C
Dosinia gibba . Sandy shores/ rocky crevices UC
Venus reticulate - Sandy shores/ rocky crevices C
Periglypta fishcheri - Sandy shores/ rocky crevices UC
Katelysia opima - Mud + Sand intertidal area C
Paphia malabarica - Mud + Sand intertidal area C
Paphia textile - Mud + Sand intertidal area C
Paphia ala-papillons - Mud + Sand intertidal area C
Donax incarnatus Wedge shell Sandy area C
Donax faba - Sandy area C
Donax cuneatus - Sandy area UC
Cultellus cultellus - Sandy intertidal area R
Siliqua radiata Sunset shell Sandy intertidal area R
Solen truneatus . Sandy bottom of reef RfT
Venerupsis microphylla - Sandy bottom of reef UC
Mactra cornea - Sandy shores C
Spisula voyi - Sandy shores UC
Tapes radia tus - Sandy shores UC
Anrulus sinuata - Sandy bottom UC
Gastrana polygona - Sandy bottom UC
Pasmmobia radiata - Sand intertidal area UC
Martesia straita Wood borer Mangroves, ship wreckage C
Teredo sp. Wood borer Mangroves, ship wreckage C
Crassostrea crassostrea Rock oyster Hightidal rocks, reef rocks .C
Crassostrea graphoides Indian common rock oyster Lower intertidal rocks UC
Saccostrea cucullata Rock oyster Hightidal rocks C
CEPHALOPOOS
OCtopus cyanae Common reef octopus Intertidal reef C
OCtopussp. 1 Parachute octopus Lower intertidal, sub tidal reef R
49

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name
1
(New record in GoK)
Octopus sp. 2
Loligo duvanoeli
Sepia aculeata
NUDIBRANCH
SP.1
SP. 2 (New record in GoK)
AMPHINEURA
Chitonsp.
Ap/ysia sp.
Common Name
2
Guttie fish
Squids
Habitat
3
Lower intertidal reef
Lower intertidal, subtidal reef
Lower intertidal, subtidal reef
Lower intertidal reef
Lower intertidal reef
Lower intertidal reef
Lower intertidal reef
VIT.-Checklist of the fishes recorded in the Gulf of Kachchh region.
Species Name Common Name Local name Status
1 2 2 3
CARTELAGENOUS FISHES
Sphyrna b/ochii Hammer headed shark (arrow head) Kannar T
Sphyrna tudes Hammer headed shark (squat head) Kannar T
Nebrius ferrugineus Rusty shark/Giant Sleepy Shark T
Stegostoma varius Zebra shark Shinawala, magara R
Chiloscyllium indicum Ridge back catshark UG
A/opias vulpinus man-eating shark R
Atelomycterus marmoratus Marbeled catshark R
Rhincodon typus Whale Shark ENfT
Carcharhinus /imbatus Grey Shark Moosi, Magara UG
Muste/us manazo Gummy Shark Magara UG
ScoJiodon laticaudus Yellow dog shark Moosi, Sandha G
Rhizoprionodon oligoJinx Grey dog shark G
Carcharhinus mac/oti Maclol's shark UG
Ga/eocerdo cuvier Tiger shark Bhewar R
Pristis microdon Small toothed saw fish R
Pristis cuspidatus Pointed saw fish R/EN
Rhynchobatus ancy/ostomus Bow-mouthed guitar fish RfT
Rhynchobatus djeddensis White spotted shovel nose guitar fish Kasaj UG
Rhinobatus granu/atus Granulated shovelnose guitar fish Kasaj UG
Trygon wa/ga Scaly sting ray UG
Trygon zugei Pale-edged stingray UG
Rhinoptera javanica Javanese Gow ray UG
Gymnura poeciJura Long-tailed butterfly fish R
Aetomy/aeus macu/atus Mottled eagie ray R
Trygon uarnak Honey combed sting ray R
Narcine brunnea Brown electric ray R
Narcine timlei Spotted Electic ray R
Raja mamiJlidens Prickly skate RfT
BONY FISHES
Exocoetus voJitans Two winged flying fish G
Harpodon nehereus Bombay duck Bumla G
50
Status
4
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Local name Status
1 2 2 3
saurida tumbil Greater lizard fish UC
Bregmaceros mcclellandi Indian Cod C
Psettodes erumei Indian halibut, flat fish UC
Solea eiongata Elongate Sole C
Synaptura orietaiis Oriental Sole C
Synaptura zebra Zebra Sole UC
Pseudorhombus arsius Left-handed founder UC
Cynog/ossus iingua Long tongue-sole C
Cynoglossus /ida Shoulder spot tongue-sole UC
Muraenesox te/abonoides Pike eel Vam UC
Muraenesox cine reus Silver conger eel C
Trichiurus muticus Cutlass fish, ribbon fish C
Trichiurus savala Small-headed ribbon fish UC
Trichiurus haumela Large headed ribbon fish C
Diodon hystrix Spotted porcupine fish UC
Tetradon lunaris Green rough-backed blow fish UC
Tetrodon /eopardus Banded leopard blow fish C
Tetradon immacuiatus Immaculate blow fish, Puffer fish C
Hippocampus guttulatus Sea horse R
Syngnathus serratus Crested pipe fish R
Syngnathus cynospi/os Pipe fish UC
Batrachocepha/us mino Frog headed cat fish UC
Arius cea/atus Englaveo cat fish C
Choridactylus multibarbis Organge banded goblin UC
Cybium commersoni Barred Spanish mackerel, seer fish UC
Cybium gutta tum Spotted Spanish mackerel UC
Batrachus grunniens Frog fish UC
Batrachus gangene Frog fish UC
Parastramateus niger Brown Pomfret, black pomfret Halwa C
Pampus argenteus Silver pomfret Paplet C
Pampus chinensis Chinese pomfret Vinchuda UC
Be/one strongylurus Round tailed alligator UC
Belone choram Fork-tailed alligator gar UC
Hemrhamphus georgi Long billed half beak UC
Cyprinodon dispar KilJi fish UC
Coilia dussumieri Golden anchovy UC
Coilia reynaldi Anchovy UC
Engrauiis dussumieri Dussumier's anchovy UC
Engraulis hamiltonii Hamilton's anchovy UC
Engraulis mystax Mustached anchovy UC
Engrauiis purava Anchovy UC
Nematalosa nasus long ray bonyd bream UC
Clupea fimbriata Fringe scale sardine C
C/upea toii Giant herring UC
Clupea iiisha River shad, Indian shad Hilsa C
Kowala coval White sardine C
PeII ana elonga ta Slender shad C
Ophisthopterus tantoor Long finnel herring C
Chiracentrus dorab Dorab, wolf herring UC
51

Gulf of Kachchh
Species Name Common Name Local name Status
1 2 2 3
Elops machnata Giant herring UC
Polynemus tetra dactylus Four thread tassel fish Dara UC
Polynemus heptadactylus Seven thread tassel fish UC
Polynemus plebeius Common tassel fish UC
Polynemus indicus Indian tassel fish Dara C
Mugil cepahalus Jumping mullet C
Mugil seheli Blue spotted mullet UC
Mugil dussumieri Dussumier's mullet UC
Liza strongylocephalus Yellow tailed mullet UC
Liza tade green back mullet UC
Mugil parsia Gold-spot mullet C
Mugil waigiensis Diamond scale mullet C
Liza macrolepis Borneo mullet C
Sphyraena obtusata Blunt jawed sea pike UC
Sphyraena jello Giant pike UC
Echeneis neucrates Slender sucker fish UC
Boleophthalmus detatus Goby C
Boleophthalmus tenuis Goby C
Boleophthalmus dussumieri Goby UC
Boleophthalmus viridis Goby UC
Mene maculata Moon fish UC
Upenoides sulphureus Yellow goat fish UC
Upenoides vittatus Yellow striped goatfish UC
Sciaena glaucus Dussumier's jewtish UC
Sciaenoides biauritus Rock Perch C
Sciaenoides brunneus Rosy jew fish UC
Johnius dussumieri Dussumier's Silver Dhoma UC
Sciaena diacanthus Two-spinned jew fish UC
Sciaena vogleri Drab jew fish UC
Sciaena semiluctuosa Drab jew fish UC
OIo/ithus rubur Rosy jew fish UC
OIolithus argenteus Silver banded jew fish UC
OIolithus maculatus Spotted jew fish UC
Drepane punctata Spotted bat fish UC
Pomocanthus semicirculatus Blue angel fish UC
Scatophagus argus Saint peter's leather skin UC
Leiognathus equula Greater pony fish UC
Caranx malbaricus Malbar trevally UC
Caranx hippos Six banded trevally UC
Chorienemus 10100 Leather skin I jacket UC
Chorinemus sancti-petri Slender queen fish UC
Lates calcarifer Cock up, Sea Perch C
Pentapus aurolineatus Gold lined large eyed bream UC
Lutianus argentimaculatus Red Snapper UC
Lutianus johni Moses perch UC
Lutianus fulviflamme One-spot golden snapper UC
Therapon jarbua Crescent perch C
Epinephelus fasciatus Bandel reef cod UC
Lethrinus cine reus Bridle bigface bream UC
52

Species Name
1
Lethrinus miniatus
Lethrinus ramak
Ghrysophrys datnia
Ghrysophrys berda
Pagrus spinifer
Teuthis oramin
Pristipoma guoraca
Pristipoma hasta
Psammoperca waigiensis
Pertica filamentosa
Gal/yadon harid
Atropus strapus
Mega/aspis cordy/a
Trachynotus blochi
Euthynnus affinis
Fishularia perimba
Species Name
1
Common Name
2
Longe nosed pigface bream
Yellow banded pigface bream
Sea bream
Black bream
Long spined red bream
White spotted spine foot, rabbit fish
silver grunter
lined silver grunter
Waigeu sea perch
Long rayed silver biddy
Red lined parrot fish
Horse mackerel
Torpedo treavally
Blooh's dart
Mackerel tuna
Smooth lute mouth flute fish
Local name
2
Karkara
Gulf of Kachchh
VIII. Checklist of the prawn species recorded in the Gulf of Kachchh region.
Penaeus indicus
Penaeus latisulcatus
Penaeus merquiensis
Penaeus monodon
Penaeus penicillatus
Penaeus semisulcatus
Metapenaeus affinis
Metapenaeus brevicornis
Metapenaeus burkenraadi
Metapenaeus kutchensis
Metapenaeus Iysianassa
Metapenaeus monoceras
Metapenaeus stebbingi
Parapenaeopsis hardwickii
Parapenaeopsis sculptilis
Parapenaeopsis stylifera
Trachypenaeus granulosus
Trachypenaeus pescadoreensis
Metapenaeopsis stridulans
Solenocera crassicornis
Acetes indicus
Palaemon tenuipes
Palaemon semmelinkii
Palaemon styliferus
Hippolysmata ensirastris
saran marmoratus
A/pheus distinguiendus
Local Name
2
Zinga, kolambi
Zing a, kolambl
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zing a, kolambi
Zing a, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
Zinga, kolambi
53
Habitat
3
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Creek, vicinity of mangroves
Status
3
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
C
C
Status
4
UC
C
C
C
C
C
UC
C
UC
C
R
R
UC
C
C
UC
R
R
R
R
UC
R
C
R
UC
R
R

Gulf of Kachchh
IX. Checklist of the marine mammals and reptiles recorded in the Gull of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common Name Habitat Status
Reptiles
Sea snakes Hydrophis spiralis Yellow Snake Coastal & Open Sea C
Hydrophis cyanocinctus Annulated Snake Coastal & Open Sea UC
Hydrophis mamillaris Bombay sea snake Coastal & Open Sea UC
Hydrophis caerulescens Many toothed snake Coastal & Open Sea UC
Turtles Chelonia mydas Green Turtle Coastal & Open Sea EN
Lepidochelys alivacea Olive Ridley Turtle Coastal & Open Sea EN
Ceretta ceretta Loggerhead Turtle Coastal & Open Sea EN
Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback Turtle Coastal & Open Sea UN
Mammals
Delphinus delphis Common Dolphin Coastal & Open Sea T
Tursiops truncatus Bottle-nosed Dolphin Coastal & Open Sea R
Sauca chi/ensis Indo-Pacific humpbacked Dolphin Coastal & Open Sea R
Neophocaena phocaenoides Finless Porpoise Coastal & Open Sea T
Dugong dugon Dugong Coastal & Open Sea EN
X. Checklist of the mammals & reptiles recorded on the periphery and adjoining
areas of the Gulf of Kachchh.
Category Species Name Common Name Status
Reptiles
Uromastyx hardwickii Spiny tailed lizard C
Calotes versicolar Common Garden lizard C
Hamidactylus flaviviridis Northern house Gecko C
Hamidactylus brookii Brook's Gecko UC
Mebuya carinata Common shink UC
Varanus begulensis Common Indian monitor UC
Ptyas mucosus Rat snake UC
Eryx conicus Russell's earth boa UC
Naja naja Indian Cobra UC
Echis carinatus Saw-scaled viper C
Daboia russe /Ii Russel's viper C
Bungarus caeruleus Krait C
Mammals
Ungulates Anti/ope cervicapra Black buck C
Boselaphus tragocamelus Nilgai C
Gazella gazella Chinkara C
Eqivus hemionus khur Wiid ass C
Sus scrota Wild boar C
Carnivores Felis chaus Jungle cat C
Felis libyca Desert cat R
Felis caracal Caracal -
Viverricula indica Small Indian civet R
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Common palm civet R
Herpestes edwardsi Common mongoose C
Herpestes auropunctatus Small Indian mongoose C
Hyaena hyaena Stripped hyaena R
Canis lupus Wolf C
Canis aureus Jackal C
54

Category
Logomorpba
Rodentia
Cbiroptera
Pholidota
Insectivora
Primates
Species Name
Vulpes vu/pes
Vu/pes benga/ensis
Lutra perspicillata
Mel/ivora capensis
Lepus nigricoliis
Funambulus pa/marum
Funambu/us pennanti
Hystrix indica
Mesiones hurianae
Mus booduga
Bandicota indica
Microchiroptera
megachiroptera
Canis crassicaudata
Hemiechinus auritus
Paraechinus micropus
Sunsus musinus
Presbytis entei/us
Common Name
Desert fox
Indian fox
Smooth Indian otter
Ratel
Indian Hare
Three stripped palm squirrel
Five stripped palm squirrel
Porcupine
Indian desert Gerbille
Indian filed Gerbille
Bandicot
Pangolin
Long-eared hedge hog
Pale hedge hog
Grey must shrew
Common langur
Gulf of Kacbcbh
XI. Checklist of waterfowl recorded in / near Marine National Park & Sanctuary
in the Gulf of Kachchh.
Scientific Name
1
AQUATIC BIRDS
Podiceps cristatus
P nigricol/is
P rut/col/is
Pe/ecanus onocrota/us
P philppensis
P crispus
Pha/acrocorax carbo
P fuscicoliis
P niger
Anhinga me/anogaster
Ardea cine ria
A. purpurea
Butorides striatus
Ardeo/a grayii
Bubu/cus ibis
Casmerodius a/bus
Mesophoyx intermedia
Egretta garzetta
E.gu/aris
Nycticorax nycticorax
Mycteria /eucocephala
Anastomus oscitans
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
Threskiornis melanocepha/us
Pseudibis papil/osa
P/egadis fa/cinel/us
Common Name
2
Great Crested Grebe
Black-necked Grebe
Little Grebe
Great White Pelican
Spotbilled Pelican
Dalmatian Pelican
Great Cormorant
Indian Cormorant
Little Cormorant
Darter
Grey Heron
Purple Heron
Little Heron
indian Pond Heron
Cattle Egret
Large Egret
Intermediate Egret
Little Egret
Western Reef Heron
Black-crowned Night Heron
Painted Stork
Asian Openbill
Black-necked Stork
Oriental white ibis
Black ibis
Glossy Ibis
55
Status
3
UC
Rr
UC
C
Rr
UC-e
UC-C
UC-C
C
C
C
Rr
Rr-UC
UC-C
UC-C
UC-C
C
C
C
UC
C
Rr-UC
Rr
C
UC
Rr-UC
Status
C
C
UC
UC
C
R
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
.R
C
C
C
UC

Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name
1
Plata lea leueorodia
Phoenieopterus ruber
p. minor
Anas aeuta
A. ereeea
A. poeeilorhyneha
A. strepera.
A. penelope
A. querquedulla
A. elypeata
A. ferina
. A. fuligula
Haliastur indus
Haliaetus leneoryphus
Circus aeruginosus
Pandion haliaetus
Grus grus
Grus virgo
Amaurornis phoenieurus
Gallinula ehloropus
Porphyria porphyria
Fuliea atra
Haemantopus ostra/egus
Himantopus himantopus
Reeurvirostra avoeetta
Dramas ardeola
Esacus reeurvirostris
Vanellus leueurus
Vanellus indieus
Vanelus malabaricum
Pluvialis squatarola
Pluvialis fulva
Charadrius lesehenaulti
Charadrius hiatieula
Charadrius dubius
C. alexandrinus
C. mongolus
Numenius phaeopus
Numenius arquata
Umosa limosa
L lapponiea
Tringa erythropus
T.totanus
I stagnatilis
Iaebularia
I oehropus
Xenus einereus
Aetitis hypo/eeos
Arenaria inter press
Gal/inag gallina go
Calidris eanutus
Common Name
2
Eurasian Spoonbill
Greater Flamingo
Lesser Flamingo
Northern Pintail
Common Teal
Spot-billed Duck
Gadwall
Eurasian Wigeon
Garganey
Northern Shoveller
Common Pochard
Tufted Duck
Brahminy Kite
Pallas's Fish Eagle
Western Marsh Harrier
Osprey
Common Crane
Demoiselle Crane
White-breasted waterhen
Common Moorhen
Purple Swamp hen
Common Coot
Eurasian Oystercatcher
Black-winged Stilt
Pled Avocet
Crab-Plover
Great Stone Plover
White-tailed Lapwing
Red-wattled Lapwing
Yellow-wattled Lapwing
Gray Plover
Pacific Golden Plover
Greater Sand Plover
Common Ringed Plover
Little Ringed Plover
Kentish Plover
Lesser Sand Plover
Whimbrel
Eurasian curlew
Black-tailed Godwit
Bar-tailed Godwit
Spotted Redshank
Common Redshank
Marsh Sandpiper
Common Green Shank
Green Sandpiper
Terek Sandpiper
Common Sandpiper
Ruddy Turnstone
Common Snipe
Red Knot
56
Status
3
C
Ab
Ab
UC-C
UC-C
UC
UC
Rr-UC
UC
C-Ab
Rr-UC
Rr
UC
Rr
UC
UC
C-Ab
Ab
UC
UC
UC
UC
C
C
C
Ab
Rr-UC
Rr
C
Rr
Rr
Rr
UC-C
Rr
UC-C
C
C
C
UC-C
C
UC
Rr
C-Ab
C
UC-C
Rr-UC
UC
C
C
UC
Rr

Scienlilic Name Common Name Status
1 2 3
C. tenuirostris Great Knot Rr
C. alba Sanderling UC
C. minuta lillie Stint C
C. temminckii Temminck's Stint UC
C. alpina Dunlin UC
C.ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper C
Umicola falcinel/us Broad-billed Sandpiper Rr
Philomachus pugnax Ruff C-Ab
Larus cachinnans Yellow-legged Gull C
L.heuglini Heuglin's Gull UC
L. fuscus Lesser Blackbacked Gull C
L.ichthyaetus Pallas's Gull(Great Black-headed Gull) UC
L.brunnicephalus Brown-headed Gull C
L.ridibundus Black-headed Gull C
L. genei Slender-billed Gull UC-C
Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern UC
Gelochelidon nilotica Gull-billed Tern C
Sterna caspia Caspian Tern C
S. aurantia River Tern UC
S. hirundo Common Tern Rr-UC
S. saundersi Saunder's Tern UC-e
S. alb/frons lillie Tern UC-C
S. benghalensis Lesser Crested Tern UC-e
S.. bergii Great Crested Tern Rr
Rhynchops albicol/is Indian Skimmer Rr
Ceryle rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher UC
Alcedo at/nis Small blue Kingfisher C
Halcyon amauroptera Stork-billed Kingfisher Rr
H.smyrnensis White-breasted Kingfisher C
H. pileata Black-capped Kingfisher Rr
TERRESTRI AL BIRDS
Elanus caeruleus Black-shouldered Kite R
Milvus migrans govinda Black Kite R
Accipiter badius Shikra R
Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier M
C.pygargus Montagu's Harrier M
Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon M
F. chicquena Red-necked Falcon. R
F.tinnunculus Common Kestrel RM
Francolinus pondicerianus Grey Francolin R
Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl R
Cursorius coromandelicus Indian Courser R
Pterocles exustus Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse R
Columba livia Rock Pigeon R
Streptopelia decaocto Eurasian Collared Dove R
S. senegalensis Laughing Dove R
Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet R
Eudynamis scolopacea Asian Koel R
Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal R
Athene brama Spoiled Owlet R
57
Gulf of Kachchb

Gulf of Kachchh
Scientific Name Common Name Status
1 2 3
Gaprimulgus asiatic us Common Indian Night jar R
Apus affinis House Swift RM
Gypsiurus balas/ensis Asian Palm Swift R
Merops philippinus Blue-tailed Bee-eater RM
M. orienta lis Green Bee-eater R
Goracius garrulus European Roller RM
G. benghalensis Indian Roller R
Upupa epops Common Hoopoe RM
Eremopterix grisea Ashy-crowned sparrow-lark R
Galandrella cheleensis Asian Short-toed Lark M
G.ray/al Sand Lark R
Galerida cristatus Crested Lark R
Hirundo rustica Common Swallow RM
H. daurica Red-rumped Swallow RM
liJnius vittatus Bay-backed Shrike R
L. excubitor Great Grey Shrike RM
L. isabel/inus Rufous tailed Shrike M
L. schach Long-tailed Shrike R
Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo R
Sturnus pagoda rum Brahminy Starling R
S. roseus Rosy Staling R
Acridotheres tristis Commonm Myna R
A. ginginianus Bank Myna R
Dendrocitta vagabunda Rufous tree-pie R
Gorvus Splendens House Crow R
G.macrorhynchus Jungle Crow R
Pycnonotus leucotis White-eared Bulbul R
P.cafer Redvented Bulbul R
Turdoides caudatus Common Babbier R
T. malcolmi Large Grey Babbler R
Prinia inornata Plain Prinia R
Prinia buchanani Rufous fronted Prinia R
Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird R
Acrocephalus scirpaceus Eurasian Reed Warbler R
Sylvia curruca Lesser Whitethroat R
saxicola torquata Common Stonechat R
Oenanthe deserti Desert Wheatear RM
Oenanthe picata Variable Wheatear R
saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin R
Anthus campestris Tawny Pipit M
Motacilla f1ava Yellow Wagtail RM
Motacil/a maderaspatesis White-browed Wagtail R
. M. alba White Wagtail RM
Nectarinia asiatica Purple Sunbird R
Zosterops palpebrosus Oriental White-eye R
Passer domestic us House Sparrow R
Petronia xanthocol/is Chestnut-shouldered Petronia R
Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver R
Lonchura malabarica indian Silverbill R
C=Common; UC=Uncommon; Rr=Rare; RM=Resident migrant; R=Resident; M=Migrant; Ab=Abundant.
58

XII. Checklist of locally threatened, endangered and rare species in the
Gulf of Kachchh and peripheral area.
Gulf of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common Name Habitat Category
ALGAE
1 2 3 4 5
Green algae Codium decorticatum R
Bryopsi s ramul osa R
Viva (asciata R
Valonia utricularis R
Valoniopsis pachynema R
Enteromorpha flexuosa R
Caulerpa cupressoides R
Brown algae Hydroclathrus clathratus R
sargassum plagiophyl/um R
Spathoglossum asperum R
Turbinaria ornate R
Red algae Acanthophora spicifera R
Amphiroa foliacea R
Chondria dasyphyl/a R
Coelarthrum opuntia R
Dasya sp. R
Desmia hommanni R
Gelidiopsis graci/is R
Gigartina sp. R
Gracil/aria pygmaea R
Sebdenia polydatyla R
Chnoospora implexa R
Scinaia indica R
MANGROVES
Avicennia officiani/is Pat Cher Hightidal mudflat T
Avicennia alba Pat Cher Hightidal mudflat R
Ceriopes tagal Kunari Creek T
Agiceroes comiculata Creek T
Rhizophora mucronata Kurod Creek T
Rhizophora apiculata Creek R
Bruigiera gymnorhiza Mudflat R
Bruigiera parylflora Mudflat R
Sonnertia ape tala Mudflat R
INVERTEBRATE FAUNA
Stinging corals Mil/ipora sp. Fire corals Reef slope R
Distichopora sp. Lace coral Reef slope R
Jelly fish Chironex fie cheri Box jelly fish Reef slope R
Flat worm Pseudoceros leptostichus Flatworm Reef R
Pseudobiceros sp. Flatworm Reef R
Tube worm sabel/astorie sp. Tube worm Reef R
Protula sp. Tube worm Reef R
Echinoderms Portiometra audersoni Feather star Reef R
Zoantharians Palythoa sp. - Reef rock R
59

Gulf of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common Name Habitat Category
1 2 3 4 5
MOLLUSCA
Gastropod Manodonta australis Top shell Rocky beaches R
Astraea semicostata Turban shell Rubble/sand in reet R
Architectonica laevigata Sundial shell Sand over reef R
Cypraea caputserpentis Serpent's head cowrie Intertidal coral reef R
Cypraea ziczac Zic-Zag cowrie Mid reef zone R
Lambis chiragra Spider conch Subtidal reef R
Strombus plicatus Pigeon conch Subtidal. reef R
Distortio reticulata Reticulate triton Coral dweller R
Murex palmorosae Rose branch murex Reef rocks & crevices . R
Hexaplex cichoreus Endive murex Coral reet dweller R
Murex haustellus Wood cock shell Reef dweller R
Murex pecten Venus comb shell Sand + mud on reef R
Rapana buibosa - Sand + mud on reef R
Murex tribulus - Sand + mud on reef R
Conus striates Straita cone Shallow water reef R
Turbinella pyrum Common chank Subtidal reef R
Hemifuscus pugilinus Volume shell Sand + mud on reef R
Ellobium auris-jude - Sandy bollom R
Dentalium elph Elephant tooth Sandy bollom R
Dentalium aprinusm Elephant tooth Sandy bollom R
Bivalve Pteria brevi/ata Winged mussei Sandy bollom R
Pteria chinensis Winged mussel Sandy bollom R
Pinctada fucata Pearl oyster Subtidal reef T
Chlamys tranquebaricus Scallop Subtidal reef R
Pecten crassicostatus scallop Subtidal reef R
Ammurium plemonectes . Subtidal reef R
Placenta placenta Window pane oyster Subtidal reef . T/R
Beguina veriegata . Sandy / rocky shores R
Siliqua radiata Sunset shell Sandy intertidal R
Pinnabicolor Mussel Intertidal reef T
Cephalopod OCtopussp. Parachute octopus Intertidal reef T
Loligo sp. Cullie fish Intertidal reef T
sepia sp. Squid Intertidal reef T
Amphineura Chiton sp. - - T
Aplysia sp. - . R
CRUSTACEANS
Prawns Metapenaeus Iysianassa R
Metapenaeus monoceros R
saron marmoratus R
Alpheus distinguiendus R
Palaemon tenuipes R
Paiaemon styliferus R
Trachypenaeus granulosus R
Trachypenaeus pescadoreensis R
Metapenaeopsis stridulans R
Solenocera crassicornis R
60

Gulf of Kachchh
Category Species Name Common Name Habitat Category
1 2 3 4 5
Shrimp Odontodatylus scyllarus Mantis shrimp Reef R
Vir philippinensis Coral shrimp Reef R
Crabs Chirostylus sp. Spider crab Coral boulders R
Eriphla sebana Red eyed crab Coral reef R
Veruna litterata Sargassum crab Reef R
Calappa hepatica Box crab Reef R
Promldiopsis edwardsi Sponge crab Reef R
Lobster Panulirus polyphagus lobster Subtidal reef R
Barnacles Balanus tintenabulam Barnacle Subtidal region R
Lepas tesudinata Goose neck barnacle Rocky subtidal region R
Echiura Pseudobonellia binterina Bonnelia I tongue worm Reef slope R
CORALS
BIRDS
FISHES
Acropora humilis Flower coral Reef slope R
Platygyra lamellina Valley or brain coral Reef flat, pools R
Dendrophyllia micranthus Tree coral Reef slopes R
Tubestrea faulkeneri Red cave coral Reef slopes R
Clavularia sp. Cauliflower coral Reef pools R
Dendronephyfhya sp. Tree coral Reef pools R
Pteroeides sp. Sea pen Reef pools R
Siderastrea savignyana Pillow coral Reef slope R
Pseudosiderastrea tayami False pillow coral Reef slope R
Favia maxima Knob coral Reef flat R
Platygyra lamellina Valley or brain coral Reef flat I pools R
Platygyra versipora Small knob coral Reef slope R
Montastrea annuligera False knob coral Reef flat R
Diplostrea heliopora Double star coral Reef flat R
Cyphastrea serai/ia Lesser knob coral Reef slopes R
.
VERTEBRATE FAUNA
.
Pelecanus phi/ippensis Spotted-billed Pelican R
Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian Pelica~ R
Anhinga melanogaster Darter T
Ephippiohynchus asiaticus Black-necked Stork T
Haliaeetus leucoryphus Pallas's Fish Eagle R
Rhynchops albicolis Indian Skimmer R
Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon R
Sphyrna blochii Hammer headed shark (arrow head) T
Sphyrna tudes Hammer headed shark (squat head) T
Nebrius ferrugineus Rusty shark/Giant Sleepy Shark T
Stegostoma varlus Zebra shark R
Alopias vulpinus man-eating shark R
Atelomycterus marmoratus Marbeled catshark R
Rhincodon typus Whale Shark EN
Galeocerdo cuvier Tiger shark R
Pristis microdon Small toothed saw fish R
Pristis cuspidatus Pointed saw fish R
61

Gulf of Kachchh
Category
1
REPTILES
ea snake
urtles
MARINE MAMMALS
Species Name
2
Co mmon Name Habitat Category
3 4 . 5
Rhynchobatus ancylostomus Bow-mouthed
guitar fish R
Gymnura poecilura Lo ng-tailed butterfly fish R
Aetomylaeus maculatus Mottled
eagle ray R
Trygon uarnak Ho ney combed sting ray R
Narcine brunnea Bra wn electric ray R
Narcine timlei Spotted
Electic ray R
Raja mamillidens Pr ickly skate R
Hippocampus guttulatus Se a horse R
Syngnathus serratus Crested
pipe fish R
Gymnothorax undulatus
R
Fistularea petimba Fly ing fish R
Exocoetus volitans Flying
fish R
Mene maculata
R
Drepane punctata Ch anda fish R
Unophora vagaduna
R
Plerois volentans Sc orpion fish R
Dyodon hystrix Po rcupine fish R
Parapegasus netans Fly ing fish R
Hydrophis mamillaris
Hydrophis caerulescens
Chelonia mydas
Lepidochelys alivacea
Dermochelys coriacea
Bo mbay sea snake Open Sea R
Ma ny toothed snake Open Sea R
Gr een Turtle Open Sea EN
alive
Ridley Turtle Open Sea EN
Leather
back Turtle Open Sea EN
Delphinus delphis Co mmon Dolphin Coastal & open Sea T
Tursiops truncatus Bo ttle nose dolphin Coastal & open sea R
Sauca chilensis Ind o-Pacific Coastal & open sea R
hu mpback dolphin
Neophocaena phocaenoides Porpoise
open Sea T
Dugong dugon Du gong Beaches T
Abbreviations: EN: Endanrerett To' T1Jreaten~R: 1lIJre
62

Mangroves in Chusua
Algal coverage at page reef
Coral pirotan

.'
Avicennia marina dense patch
t._~
"'~
~:.,.
(Ajad A. Marina)
"y..•..
~,
.~.;
:4 '. ,
t~'.~
" '~ ~
"'4
-if ~-: ;}!
~.
..•'
-'
~
f)'"
'~
.~
,
~
. - ~
J\
Mangroves patches

Mangr()veNursary-Bedi Bandar
._.~.. . . -... -
Fresh Water Pond at Ajad

I. Introduction
Malvan
Bio-resource inventory for the coastal region of
India has been presently launched. It has got
three major aspects, namely, the status, human
dependency, and sustainable development and/or
conservation. The first and foremost task is to
prepare the "Status report" for each of the coastal
sites selected for the present inventory. The status
report will present the scope of work to be taken
up and will help to plan the further programs/
activities of the project on Bio-resources.
There was a news in E-TV in Jan., 2002 that a
Tahsil Malvan from Sindhudurg district of
Maharashtra has a village by name 'Achra'. People
from this place leave the village (empty) for about
3-5 days for free wandering of the Ghost; with the
idea that if these 3-4 days are given to the Ghost,
he won't trouble people during their stay in the
village. There are three such villages from Malvan
Tahsil viz. Achra, Chindar and Varyangani. Such
is the site "Malvan".
The Tahsil is spread over 66.3 sq. km. It covers 136
villages and 772 wadis controlled by 63 Gram
Panchayats and one Nagar Parisad. There are 217
primary schools, 29 secondary schools, 1 B. Ed.
College, 1 Degree College. In addition there is one
63
Malvan
- L.J. Bhosale
Govt. Technical College School and 4 Urdu
Schools. There are 54 Co-op. Societies. The total
number of Bank branches is 14. The major sources
of income for the tahsil are agriculture,
horticulture, fishery and wages (labour). So long
as industry is concerned, tahsil has only cashew
factories.
The tahsil has potential for tourism also. Some of
the interesting places are: Sindhudurg Fort,
Bharatgad Fort, Dhamapur Lake, Rameswaram
Mandir, Tarkarli beach, Ozar (Ojhar) tali. Out of
these two places have been already chosen for
tourism development. viz; Dhamapur and
Anganewadi.
The data and information was mainly collected
from concerned offices such as Fishery
department, Government of Maharashtra;
Collectorate, Sindhudurg district; Statistics
department etc. The periodic/annual reports were
collected or referred on the spot and information
was noted. Visits to Malvan were made to gather
information from offices located at the place. Visit
was made to fish processing factory. Government
officials as well as other resource persons were
also approached. Frequent visits to sources of
information has led to the present set of data.

Malvan
REGIONAL PLAN
RATNAGIRI - SINDHUDURG RESOURCE REGION.
LOCATION
RATNAGIRI-SINDHUDURG REGIONAL PLANNING BOARD
II. Description of Site
i. Location
Malvan is situated 16°04'N latitude and 73°28'E
longitude on the West coast of Maharashtra. It is
a Tahsil place in Sindhudurg district. The former
Ratnagiri district was split into two, the south
part was named Sindhudurg district. The district
boundary is to the north of Deogad (Map: 1). The
district marks southern boundary of state of
Maharashtra. Malvan is one of the 7 tahsils in
Sindhudurg district. It covers the area of 663.3 sq.
km. The number of villages under the tahsil is 136;
in addition there are 772 "wadis'.
ii. Climate
Malvan experiences three well-defined seasons
i.e. summer (Feb-May), rainy (June-Oct) and
winter (Nov-Jan).
The mean annual rainfall is 1997 mm. The
maximum rain days occur in June. Total no. of
rainy days are 106with maximum rainfall ranging
from 960-2500mm. October is the month with low
rainfall.
iii. Soils and topography
The chief rock types are basalt, granite and
gneisses. The soil is lateritic. The tahsil is typical
of Konkan region having a narrow belt of coastline
and non-deltaic seaboard. The rivers are short
course and rushing, ending in small estuary,
finally joining the Arabian Sea. The Western Ghats
from the eastern boundary of the tahsil. The tahsil
is limited in the north by Achara river and the
south boundary is another river, Karli. There are
two more rivers in the tahsil, Kolamb and
Kalavali. These rivers form tidal swamps and
support mangrove vegetation.
iv. Vegetation and animal life
More than 30 mangrove species have been
recorded from region during several visits of the
investigator. The most important species of
mangroves, which is critically endangered,
Xylocarpus granatum, is recorded by the author
from Malvan tahsil (Bhosale et. aI., 2000).
At least 20 species of edible fish from estuaries are
recorded from the tahsil. The corals are found
around Malvan. Its seaweed flora is very rich. The
fauna is equally rich hence Marine park is
proposed (Map 2). There are about 100 species of
avifauna. About 10 species of reptile and 10
species of mammals (Kavinde, 1997, BCPP Final
Report).
In addition Western Ghat region of Malvan
supports medicinal plants, the list includes about
124 species (Annexure I) as per the research data,
collected by Dr. Yadav of Botany Department of
Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
III. Population Profile
The provisional population totals are available on
the basis of 2001 census are given below:
Table 1 : Population Profile of District and Tahsil
Total Population
Males
Females
SindhudurgDistrict Malvan Tahsil
8,61,672
4,14,900
4.46,772
Source: Provisional Population TOtals
Maharastra 200.1 Census
1,16,091
95,777
6,314
The population figure is higher than the year 1991
by 3.55%, in 1991 it was 6.56% higher than
previous census.
The sex ratio (number of females per 1000males)
was 1137 in 1991 which is now 1077.
64

- -----------------------------------------
o .---"
RATNAGIRl- SINDlillDURG REGIONAL PLANNING BOARD
MAP-2 Proposed marine park: at Malvan
The literacy rate in males is 90.2% and in females
it is 71.67%.The ranking of Sindhudurg district on
the basis of population in Maharashtra is on
number 33 out of 35 district; the no. 1 district with
highest population being Mumbai. On the basis of
sex ratio this ranking is just reverse with
Sindhudurg district at no. 2 and Mumbai at no. 35
(with 774 females/IOOOmales).
Table 2 gives detailed information on population of
Malvan Tahsil.
Table 2 : Urban and Rural Populations of
Malvan Tahsil
Total Population
Sex Ratio
Urban Rural
18675
9499males
9176females
Source : Provisional Popu/aUon Jbtals
MalJarastra 2001 Census
97416
46278males
51138females
Map 3 gives Tahsil wise population density where
Malvan comes under the range of 175-200/sq. km.
in 1991 and 200-250/sq. km. in 2001. Map 4 gives
the change in sex ratio in Maharashtra where
Sindhudurg district falls in the highest range of
decrease in ratio.
Malvan is a historical place. It is known for a fort
built on huge rocky island in the Arabian sea just
2 km. inside from the Malvan beach. The fort is
known as "Sindhudurg" meaning "a fort in the
sea". The district is named after the fort. This fort
65
REGIONAL PLAN
RATNAGIRI-SINDHUDUIW UF:SOURCE REGION
ECG-DEY. STRATEGY
~ MARINE PARK (PROPOSED)
._., ATMALVAN
l' i CORE ZONE
LEGEND
N
~,
NOT 10 SCAL£
Malvan
has become tourist's attraction. People wonder at
the structure of the fort. It was built in 1664by the
Great Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The island on
which this is built was called 'Kurate'. The area
covered by the fort is 44 acres. There are huge
rocks all around the fort. It is recorded that, to
built this fort there were 500 stone workers (locally
called Patharwat), 200 iron smith, 3000 labour and
hundreds of skilled hands working continuously
for 3 years. And there were 5000 soldiers (Mavale)
offering protection to the workers.
There is a wall around the fort, which measures 3
km. in length, 10m in height and 2-4 m in width. It
is said that lead had been used in cementing the
footing layers (plinth). The entrance is skillfully
planned, which is not easily visible even after
reaching the fort. There are small boats from
Malvan to the fort.
IV. Biodiversity and Conservation Values
The Biodiversity values are concerned with the
importance of sites with respect to
Preservativeness, Uniqueness, Naturalness,
Diversity or Richness, Support functions and
Potential values of the site. These values for
Malvan site are applied with respect to flora and
fauna.
The tahsil has total four estuaries, which support
mangrove vegetation. It is the best sites for
mangroves along the west coast of Maharashtra.

Malvan
\
tESHWA
U ••••• M
2001 A.D.
, ~
".....J. ,.1 :.(;110
. ,
REGIONAL PLAN
RATNACRI-SINDHUDUHG RESOURCE PEGION
TALUKAIVISE POPI.lLATION DENSITY
RATNAGIRI ~ SINOHUOURG P.E(,IONAl PLANNING BOARO
Until 2000 it was not known that there is
Xylocarpus granatum existing along West Coast
of India. This species is reported from Malvan
tahsil. It is uniqueness. X. granatum is a
Critically Endangered mangrove species. The list
of mangroves and associates is given in Annexure
II.
The area is rich in medicinal plants. A list of 124
plants along with parts used with the ecological
status of the species is given in Annexure I.
The Uniqueness of the site is also due to Corals.
Corals are endangered along the Indian coast and
the present site is only one in Maharashtra having
corals, (the corals are being formed and found
near Mumbai in past few years).
Marine algae is yet another attribute of the site for
which it is known. The number of species of algae
found along Malvan Coast goes into hundreds.
LE.GEND
MAP _ 3 Talukwise Population Density
66
POPUtATION OE•••• SllY PER sa K!-'
~ BElow .• __ J:,O
~ '''O~ J7S
~ 17S • JOO
$- J l()('-- J~O
~ 250:~ ABOVE
_ REGION BOUtfOtlRY
___ STATE BOUNDARY
__ ._ DISTRICT BOUNDARY
lALUKA SOU:'-lOP,IlY
II '0 '. '. '••••, /'...
Iw! ...........~
The site is Unique with representiveness for
mangroves, algae, corals, Western Ghat flora and
medicinal plants. It is also unique in faunal
components. It supports more than 13 molluscan
species, two amphibians, 12 reptiles, about 100
bird species, about 10 mammals and several
species of fish.
Taking into account the biodiversity in this marine
habitat, it is proposed by Govt. of Maharashtra to
develop Marine Park at Malvan (Map2).
The. conservation values of the area indicate that
the site is versatile with aquatic and terrestrial
habitats both fresh water and saline/marine
conditions. There is no protection provided to the
area except CRZ Notification. The human
interference is increasing with mangrove
ecosystem where land is being reclaimed. The
Kbarland Development Board is in itself a Great
N

I""F--r'--' -~------i,
~:::~::, "••.,~

Malvan
MAP- 5 Fishing Activities for Ratnagiri & Sindhugur Region
REGION BOUNDARY
!iTAIE DOUNOJ\RY
DISTRICT BOUNDARY
iALVY.A BOUNDARY
, 0'
Itt:GION ..\1. PLAN
Sl@L1IlPJl.RG J~I:S!_:n!gc~1:--'!J.:;~jJOf\:
FISIUNG ACTIVITIES (l'IXI)
, ~ I \0 " 10
~
LEGEND
1~~HrA~~~:
~==-~~_._-------_. RAT HAGIHI-SI'II.1HuDURG 'o£GIQ.NAL ----,,--~_._ PL Armll~~QQ':illL .._-
__-_-~=~~.~-_-_-
>l5H'NG "lLAGEI . .lJllllii
_-_-~=-_ ~ -_~~Q
No.or BOAlS Al ;:}l.CHSF.rlll::~eH__•. - - --~
POtENl1 At INLMlll FI'iHING '::. ~"GES r-:~'~ :"-~..:].
YlLLAG[ BOU'lDARY_ .. _
WAlEl1 CO~RS£ .. - . - .
NAilOr1At HIGH V,,\.C _
H1GI-i WA.'C .•. __ .,' __
Table 4 : Specieswise marine fish production for last five years (In tonnes),
Sindhudurg District, zone 21 to 25_
Sr.No. Variely 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-2000
1. Elasmobranches 403 372 818 100 312
2. Eals 111 71 49 77 64
3. Cat fishes 580 738 1396 1450 534
4. Chirocentrus 277 776 754 1246 517
5. Sardines 561 2026 1720 2237 1938
6. Hilsa ollisha - 1 - - -
7. Anchoviella - - - 8 -
8. Thrissocles 3 - - - -
9. Other clupeids 405 1172 1145 1132 569
10. Harpodon nehereus - - - 2 34
11. Perches 5 - - - -
12. Redsnapper 2 4 11 24 3
13. Poly nom ids - - 3 - -
14. Sciaenids 4 16 38 8 26
68

Sr.No. Variety 95-96
15. Ribbon fish 4003
16. Otolithes Sp 1983
17. Caranx 377
18. Pomfrets 572
19. Blackpomfrets 689
20. Mackerel 14054
21. Seer Fish 2004
22. Tunnaies 549
23. Bregmaoeres 3
meecllilandi
24. Soles 806
25. Leiognathus 728
26. Carangids 465
27. Upenaeid sp. 557
28. Penaeid Prawns 2203
29. NonPenaeid Prawns 11
30. Lobstors -
31. Lactrius 698
32. Cuttle Fish 2162
33. Miscellaneous 6932
TOTAL 41147
Marine I/sh productio
Table 5: Average Annual (Boat site) prices
Marine fish of various varieties of
Sindhudurg
Report)
district (Based on 199
Sr. No. Variety Price in Rs.
Per Ton 1997. 98
1. Elasmobranches 38,768
2. Ells 26,673
3. Catfishes 15,764
4. Chirocentrus 30,151
5. Sardines 7,567
6. HilsaOlisha 21,148
7. Clupeids 6.749
8. Red Snapper 28,273
9. Polynomids 50,000
10. Sciaenids 26,316
11. Ribbon Fish 9,723
12. Otolithes Sp. 10,017
13. Caranx 9,953
14. Pomfrets 89,359
15. Blackpomfrets 53,273
16. Mackeral 12,615
17. Seer fish 41,729
18. Tunnies 4,720
19. Solves 4,638
20. Carangids Small 7,5,45
21. Leiognathus 7,576
22. Upenaeids sp. 7,009
23. Prawns .81,347
96-97 97-98 98-99 99-2000
4831 4727 4385 6580
3592 2210 3209 1225
370 430 575 165
210 599 381 158
638 602 818 308
7894 1826 6186 2711
3403 1970 1773 348
472 1720 298 950
11
1222 1334 1622 749
792 408 237 1321
8433 178 183 409
645 955 1195 902
2834 3036 2901 921
126 4
1 1 6
648 625 767 306
1204 947 1791 994
8886 7471 6390 6076
55956 34824 42996 29238
'/1 /'/1 2000-200/ probably 532!i 10'/1'/18S.
of
7-98.
69
Sr. No. Variety Price in Rs.
Per Ton 1997-98
24. Shrimps 10,000
25. Lobsters 2,50,000
26. Lactarisu 20,568
27. Cuttle fish & squids 21,771
28. Miscellaneous 4,605
Weighted Average 20,004
Malvan
Table 6 : Utilisation of marine fish production of
Sindhudurg district (tonnes) in the year
1996-97 and 1997-98
Sr. Item Fishery Year
No. 1996.97 1997-98
1 Fresh form 41,739 23,021
2 saltcured form
A) Rawsfish, let in for salting 5,069 4,157
B) Salted fish let out 3,803 3,119
C) Salt used 1,370 1,122
3 In-sundried form
A) Rawfishlet in for sun drying 9,148 7,646
B) Sundried fish let out 1,525 1,275
Total Fish production 55,956 38,824
Malvan region has more than 26 fishing villages/
centres and another 22 villages are Potential
Island fishing locations. About thousand fishing
boats are operative. There is a factory for fish
processing with capacity upto 20 tonnes of fish.

L
Malvan
Amongst the type of fish processed exported
prawns are prominent. The other fish are Ribbon
fish, King fish, shrimps, fin fish and a variety
locally called Mhukul, Squid and Cuttle fish. Black
Pomfret is also processed.
The feed is contributed by pulses - dry leaves and
husks. The noteworthy feed is Avicennia, a
mangrove, where the leaves and tender branches
are fed to cattle, especially milching animals.
The fish processing unit, Amison Fishery, has
suspended the processing since October 2001
for theperiod of one year becauseit is declared
as "fish famine", said the official. TheAmison
Fishery last year could send only 33 containers
to JNPT for export in place of 103earlier year.
Theprocessed fish is exported (100%export) to
Japan, China, Malaysia, Hong Kong, UK,etc.
b. FodderlFirewood, Timber:
Fodder is generally obtained from wild species of
grass and herbs and shrubs growing naturally on
hill slopes and all around. The cattle is left in
mangroves for grazing.
Firewood is collected from natural forests of the
western Ghat (western Ghat is at door-step of local
people). On many occasions Australian Acacia is
also used for firewood. This species is planted by
Social Forestry Department of Maharashtra State.
Aegiceras corniculatum and many mangrove
species are used as firewood.
Timber species are teak, Terminalias and other
plants in wild. The important one is wild mango
tree, which is used for making boxes for Alphonso
mango export to other states of India.
House construction is dependent on teak, Jamun
(Scyzigyum), Terminalias, Sonneratia,
Cyanometra (for fencing) Excoecaria (fencing)
and Aegiceras (fencing). Vitex, Adhatoda
also used for fencing.
etc. are
Bioactive-medicinal products : There is a huge
list of plants under this category (Annexure I).
To name a few, Kokam apart from edible fruit wall,
has got medicinally important oil in the seeds.
Xylocarpus is threatened because its seeds are
used in domestic treatment of illness. Adhatoda is
in commercial trade. Many other mangrove species
are said to have medicinal properties.
NTFP/NWTP/MFP : Gums, resins, merabollans,
Calophylluym inophyllum fruits are the
examples of NTFP/MFP. Fruits of Sonneratia
caseolaris are edible. Aegiceras corniculatum is
known for its honey and Salvadora
used as 'tooth brush'.
sticks are
70
Potential Genetic Resources : The area falls in
one of the 12 centres of Biodiversity, the Western
Ghat area. Moreover, it has wealth of marine flora
and fauna alongwith corals. So there are plenty of
wild Genetic Resources. However, there is no work
undertaken in any of the institution.
Microbes: Rhizobium, Azotobactor, Vermicompost,
are the examples of microbes which need to be
dealth with.
Ornamentals : In ornamentals Orchids are
important species, which have good biodiversity in
the region. There are many species of
Zirgiberaceae family and enough wild fiora. There
is a variety of aquatic plants, which can be used
for augmenting tanks and ponds.
ii. Domesticated Bioresources
a. Crops:
The domesticated crops which constitute the
domesticated bioresources could be classified into
the categories namely, cereals, pulses, oil crops
and horticultural crops.
Cereals : Among the cereals paddy is the most
important resource. The area under paddy
cultivation is 12094 ha in Malvan Tahsil, which
includes both indigenous as well as hybrid
varieties.
The indigenous varieties yield 23 quintaVha and
the hybrid varieties yield 50 quintal/ha, on an
average. Ratnagiri-24 is a very famous hybrid
variety of Paddy.
Total land under paddy cultivation in Sindhudurg
district is 74278 ha and out of this 15.98% is in
Malvan Tahsil, which is third largest Tahsil in the
district as per the area under paddy. The yield of
paddy is around 23 quintaVha. The hybrid variety
yields, around 50 quintaVha. The yield is mostly
used domestically. The next important cereal is
Eleusine (Nachni), which occupies an area of 800
ha across the Tahsil. Setaria italica is another
potential cereal.
Pulses : The area under cultivation of pulses is
750 ha across the Tahsil. The major pulses are
moong, Mycrotilema uniflora, Lablab
perpurens.
Map 5 indicates that out to total agricultural
production 50% is rice, 20% is horticultural and
30% is other crops.
Oil Crops: Groundnut is the major oil crop, which
occupies an area of around 200 ha. The other oil
crops being grown domestically are seasamum,
Guzotia abyssinica.

A
MAP- 6 Principal crops of Ratnaglrl & Sindhudurg Region
A
E
REGIONAL PLAN
~f.'!oI-l5RRI23T~J
RATNAGIRJ-SINDHUOLRG RESOURCE REGION.
UNDER PRINCIPAL CROPS IN TALUKAS'
LEGEND"'- (198"'982)
region boundory. - - - B
\oluto boundory. - -- E3
\oluko ploce. ~
horticulture - -- ---1llllIl
rice.-- - ------8
othey. - - - - --\88
10 :Ill lOlC.W.'~
I~
RATNAGIRI-SINDHUDURG REGIONAL PL"'NNING e.OARQ 15
SOUllt(:L ••~jO USt SVIIY£Y CO"l.lUCI~C lIY 1I.~.Il.Pllo.o.AD
It is to be noted that no information is available on
human dimension of domesticated bioresources.
Therefore, in the future work, aspects of pest and
diseases, other limitations, fertilizers and their
effect on wild bio-resources etc. have to be
undertaken.
b. Horticultural Crops :
.The agro-climatic condition of the tahsil (the
entire Konkan belt of Maharashtra, in that sense)
is favourable for certain horticultural crops like
cashew nut, mango, coconut, arecanut which are
being grown commercially and are treated as
71
N
Malvan
"plantation resources". Other than these, the
important horticultural resources are, Jackfruit,
Breadfruit, Pineapple, Jamun, Kokum, Jamphal,
Arum, Radish, Amaranthus, Beans, Chilli,
Ridgegourd, Littlegourd, Snakegourd, Pumpkin,
cucumber, etc.
c. Livestock:
Genetic resources of livestock in Malvan Tahsil
comprise of mainly cows and buffaloes, goats,
poultry (indigenous breeds of hens and cocks);
pigeons and ducks are also found. Among cows
and buffaloes, both indigenous as well as exotic

Malvan
breeds are found in the region. Census of livestock
is not available and an inventory needs to be
launched to know what feed is used for livestock
and whether they depend on wild resources.
Aquaculture: Prawns (and lobsters) are the major
genetic resonrces for aquaculture. Prawns are
exported from Malvan. The prawn farms occupy
an area of around 20 ha. The seeds for
aquaculture are brought from Goa. The largest.
Aquaculture farm comprises of 16 ponds prawns
located at Tarkarli and it is owned by Kanade
firm.
Plantation: There are considerable genetic
resources of plantation species along the Tahsil.
They are, to name the major ones. Mango, Cashew
nut, Coconut, Arecanut, Kokum, Sal, Teak,
Casuarina sp. Australian acacias, Bamboo, Black
Pepper, Terminalia sp.
The variety of Cashewnuts, namely, Vengurla-1
and Vengurla-5 are high yielding resources.
Similarly, Alphonso mango is a vital genetic
resource.
Malvan Tahsil is known for its horticultural (fruits)
products, Mango, Cashew, Coconut are the major
commercial horticultural crops. The productive
land under mango cultivation is 1882 haon an
average 1 lakh boxes of elite quality mango per
year are commercially marketed. It is mostly
Alphonso variety. Each box of mango costs around
Rs. 400.00 on an average.
Table 7 gives a picture of the Horticulture crops of
Malvan.
Table 7 : Horticulture crops and acreage
HorticultureCrops Area
Mango 1882ha
Cashewnut 5000ha
Coconut 1248ha
Arecanut 200ha
Kokum 12.25ha
Blackpepper 51 ha
Chikoo 7 ha
Area under Cashewnut cultivation is about 5000
ha, which produces 35 lakhs kg. of nuts 1 year,
which annually brings Rs. 70-80 crores. (This
needs collection of first hand information) Area
under coconut plantation is 1248 ha. Chikoo
(Sapota) is planted in about 7 ha.
Supari (Arecanut) is also one. of the major
horticulturarrcrops, which occupies an area of
around 200 ha.
72
Kokum (Garcenia indica) occupies small area of
12.25 ha. Though it contributes to daily
consumption, there is some population of the
species naturally occurring and to some extent it
is planted on hill slopes owned privately. Black
pepper is grown in about 51 ha.
Apiculture: No household or commercial
apiculture is observed along Malvan Tahsil.
However; the honeycombs are found in mangrove
forest. Therefore, the mangrove forests could be a
resource for apiculture. The bees are wild and are
difficult to domesticate, but there is good
potential.
VI. Threats to the Bioresources
i. NaturaVEnvironmental
Malvan faces no threats from cyclone. The
localized monsoon storms are very common. But,
environmental pollution, especially water pollution
due to sewage Is a common threat to mangrove
bioresources.
Pest and diseases are another Natural threat for
domesticated bioresources amongst which mango
and cashew 'catch attention. Agrochemicals a\e
used for these crops; which again contributes to
water and air pollution.
ii. Anthropogenic
The major threat to bioresources in Malvan area is
anthropogenic. The first and foremost is the overexploitation
of bioresources for food, fodder, timber
and other needs whatever use they can make.
It is to be noted here that in case of Xylocarpus
granatum its natural regeneration is ceased
because the seeds are collected. by local people for
their medicinal properties.
Another threat to the bioresources is
encroachment, especially in case of mangrove
ecosystem. Yet another threat is the bunding of
the estuaries that prevents brackish water flow to
the mangrove land. This is done for reclamation
and to change the land use pattern.
iii. Potential Threats to the local
dependent population
Malvan is a place on the West Coast of India in the .
vicinity of Arabian Sea. It has potential th~eat of
cyclone. Sometimes sea becomes rough and then
the coastal activity is slowed down.
There is possibility of losing mangroves which in
itself is a potential threat. Obiviously there. is

threat of low fish production, 'low output from fish
industry and disturbed economy of the area.
Most of the people are dependent of fish as major
item in their meals. If fish catch goes. down or if
crabs and other mollusc productiop is lowered due
to mangrove degradation, it will affect the local
inhabitants in two ways: their daily dietary item
will not be available and secondly, fishing as a
livelihood will be lost. As a consequence the labour
in fish processing factory will have to lose the job.
Same is true for mango and cashew labour.
Tourism may prove harmful to natural
bioresources of this area, if utmost care is not
taken.
VII.Conservation And Management Efforts
The conservation efforts are negligible. Fishery
ponds are developed by cutting down (felling)
couple of Xylocarpus trees at some places, though
not within the boundary of Malvan Tahsil.
Nevertheless, at Achra fishery ponds have become
a threat to mangroves.
i. Current Legal Status
A Marine Park is planned at Malvan, which will be
legally protected. At present it is not under
Biosphere Reserve or any such protection
REFERENCES
Census of India 2001. Series 28 Maharashira
Provisional Population Totals, Paper 1 of 2001.
Brought out by Samir Kumar Biswas, Director of
Census Operations, Mabarasbtra.
Census of India 2001 Series 28 Maharasbtra Provisional
Population Totals. Paper 2 of 2001, Rural-urban
Distribution of Population. Brought out by Samir
Kumar Biswas, Director of Census Operations,
Mabarasbtra.
Fish, Production Report 1997-98.Dep!.of Fisberies Govi.
of Mabarashtra, Mumbai.
Information Bulletin on Sindbudurg District. Brougbt
out by Shri Milind Bandivadekar, Cbief Dis!.
Information Officer, Sindhudurg district.
Jbila SamajIk & Artbik Samalochan, Sindhudurg Jbila.
(District Social and EconomicReview,Sindhudurg
Acknowledgements
Malvan
measure. Some areas of the Western Ghat region
of Malvan Tahsil are protected under Reserve
Forest.
ii. Applicable Protection Acts
Forest Acts, Environment Pollution (Control) Acts
and CRZ are applicable' in this region.
iii. Government, Non-Government,
Local Communities and Other Institutes
There is hardly any regular conservation activity
except that some part of Western Ghat Forest
comes under Reserve Forests. Now some NGOs are
coming forward to work in Sindhudurg district.
The overall picture is disappointing.
VIII. Future Prospects
Eventhough conservation activities, are not
initiated in this area, there is enough room to
undertake awareness' programmes to educate
common public.
The conservation status6f the bioresources can be
improved by undertaking programmes for public
I.e. local inhabitants. What is needed is the joint
effort of forest department, educationaVresearch
institute and NGO active in the region.
District). Finance & Statistics Directorate, Govi.
of Mabarasbtra. Mumbai
Nagarpalika Varsbiki (Artbik Stbiti) (Annual Report of
Municipality on Economic Status) 1999-2000.
District Sindbudurg. Dist639582*1. Statistical
Office, Sindhudurg.
District Domestic Product of Mabarasbtra. 1993-94to
1998-99. Directorate of Economics & Statistics.
Gov!. of Mabarashtra, Mumbai.
Regional Plan. Ratnagiri-Sindbudurg Resource Region
(Draft) 1981-2001. Vol. I: Survey Ratnagiri-
Sindbudurg Regional Planning Board, Ratnagiri.
Report on Malvan Tahsil prepared on special occasion
by Tabsil Agriculture Officer,Malvan. Sept. 2001
District and Block level officers - personal interviews.
My heartfelt thanks are due to Dr. M.S. Swaminathan for giving me the opportunity to work as a partner
of this project. I also put on record my thanks to Dr. PC. Kesavan, Director, MSSRF and Dr. Ajay Parida .
for keeping my involvement in this piece of work.
I am thankful to Government of Maharashtra officials in Sindhudurg district and other resource persons
whose help made this report possible.
73

Malvan
ANNEXURE I
Number of species belonging to family Orchidaceac, Zingiberaceae, Liliaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Asteraceae.
Lamiaceae, Bignoniaceae Aponogetonaceae which are found in wild along the Western Ghats region of Malvan have
high potential of ornamental plants. Some important one are enlisted below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Rhyncoslylis retusa (Orchidacea)
Acampe pramorsa (-do-)
Pholidata imbricata (-do-)
Thunia Venosa (-do-)
Flickingera macraci(-do-)
Eria dalzellii (-do-)
Dolicandron falcata (Bignoniaceae)
Oroxylum indicum (Bareingtoniaceae)
Oraxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)
Habenaria commelinifolia (Orchidaceae)
Ramphicarpa longiflor (Scrophnlarialeae)
Xylia xylocarpha (Mimosaceae)
Sterospermum chelonoides Bignoniaceae)
Lagerstromea reginae(Lylhraceae)
CapariS zeylanica (Caparidaceae)
Costus speciosus (Zingiberaceae)
Desmochim tricutrum (Febaceae)
Tamarix ericordes(Tamaricaceae)
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
Ixora cocineae (Rubiaceae)
Operculina terpethum (Convolvilaceae)
Pomea Campanulata (Convolvulaceae)
Flora vitifolia (Malvaceae)
Nelumbo nucifera (Nelumbonaceae)
Pogostemon deccanensis (Laminaceae)
Nymphea nouchali (Nymphaeaceae)
N. Pubescens (-do-)
Dendrobium ovatum (Orchidacea)
Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)
Gloriosa Superba (Liliaceae)
Dioscora bulbifera(Dioscoreaceae)
Bauhinia Vahli (Casalpiniaceae)
Jasmlnum malabaricum (Oleaceae)
Valesheria sp.
Habenaria commelinifohia (Orchidaceal)
luisia birchea (Orchidaceae)
Drimia indica (Liliaceae)
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF MALVAN REGION
S.No. Name ollhe planl Vernacular Names' Paris Used Sialus
MINISPERMACEAE
1 Cyc/ea pe/tata hook Pakar Stem Frequent
2 Stephania japonica (Thumb)Miers phadvei Rool Common
NYMPHEACEAE
3 Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. Kamal Rool Common
4 Nymphaea pubescens Willd Kamal Root Common
5 Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex. Salib Lalkamal Flower Cultivated
FLACOURTIACEAE
6 Casearia graveo/ens Dalz. Bokhada Root Common
7 Hydnocarpus pentanadra(BuCh-Ham.) . Kadukavth, Fruit,Seeds Frequent
Oken Katvel. Kowali
8 F/acourtia montana Grah. Attak. Talbor Fruit Rare
CLUSIACEAE (Guttifeiaae)
9 Ca/ophy/lum inophy/lum L. Undi Bark Cultivated
10 Grainia indica Choiss Kolam Fruit Cultivated
MALVACEAE
11 Kydia calycina Roxb Varang Leaves Common
12 Ma/achra Capitata L. Ranbhendi w.p Rare
13 Sida rhombifolia subsp. Rhombifoiia L. Chikana,Sahadevi Root Common
14 Sida rhombifolia var. retusa - Root Common
74

S.No. Name of the plant Vernacular Names Parts Used Status
15 Thespsia populina (L.) Soland Gulbhbendi Seed Cultivated
16 Urena lobata L. Rantupkadi Root Common
STERCULIACEAE
17 Helicteres isora L. Murubsheng Fruit Common
18 Sterculia urens Roxb. Gular, Gulu Gum Rare
T1L1ACAEAE
19 Corchores capsularis L.Chochhe WP. Common
20 Grewia miocrocos L. Ansali, Shirai WP Common
21 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
,
L1NACEAE
Jhinjhira WP. Common
22 Hugonia mystax L. Climbing flux Root Rare
RUTACEAE
23 lanthoxylun rhetsa (Roxb.) DC.Fruit Chirphal Frequent
SIMAROUBACEAE
.
24 Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Maharuk Bark Cultivated
BALALITACEAE
25 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Hinganbet Balanites Common
OCHANACEAE
26 OChana obtusala DC. Kanakchampa Bark Rare
CELASTRACEAE
27 Celastrus paniculate Willd. Mal-kangoni Seeds Common
SPINDACEAE
28 Allophyllus coMe (L.) Racusch lipani Root Common
29 Spindus trifoliatus L. Ritha Fruit Cultivated
ANACARDIACEAE
30 Anacardium occidentle L. Kaju Fruit Cultivated
31 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Shimt Bark Common
32 Mangifera Indica L. A'mb Fruit Cultivated
33 Semecarpus ana cardium L. Bibba Fruit Occasional
34 Spondias pinnata (1.1Kurz A'mbada Leaf Rare
MORINGACEAE
35 Moringa oleifera Gertn. Shevga Bark, Fruit Cultivated
PAPILIONACEAE
36 Abrus precatoprius L. Gung W PI. Common
37 Mucuna pruriens DC. Khag-Kuiri,Kivach RooVHair Common
38 Pracalyx scariosa (Roxb.) Ali. Ranghevada Root Common
.39 Pongamia glabra Vent. Karanj Bark Common
40 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Bibla Bark, Seeds Infrequent
41 Pueraria tube rosa DC. Bhui Kohla Root Occasional
42 Teramnus labualis(L.) Spring Ranudid Root Frequent
43 Trigonella foenum-graceum L. Methi W PI Cultivated
MIMOSACEAE
44 Mimosa pudica L. Ljalu Root Common
DROSERACEAE
45 Drosera indica L. - WPI Common
75
Malvan

Malvan
S.No. Name of the plant Vernacular Names Parts Used Status
COMBRETACEAE
46 Claycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Poir. Ushki Leaves Common
47 Terminalia arjuna Wight. Arjun Bark Frequent
48 Terminalia beilerica Roxb. Behada Fruit Common
49 Terminaiia catappa L. Deshi-Badam Fruit Cultivated
50 Terminalia chebuta Rell. Hirda Fruit Common
51 Terminalia crenulata Roth. Ain Bark Common
MRYTACEAE
52 Barrihgtonia racemosa(L.) Spr. Samudraphal Root,Fruit Rare
53 Careya arborea Roxb. Kumbha Fruit, Root Common
54 Syzygium jambos (L.) Aist. Jambhul Bark, fruit Common
MELASTOMACEAE
55 Melastoma malabaricumCogn. Limba, Limtoli Leaves Frequent
56 Memcylon umbeilatumBurrn. Anjan Leaves, Root Common
LYTHRACEAE
57 1.agarstrontia reginae Roxb. Bhondara Root, Seed Common
58 Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz. OhayatiRoot, Fls Common
PASSIFLORACEAE
59 Passiflora foelida L. -- Fruit Common
CUCURBITACEAE
60 Trichosanthes cucumeriana L. Jangli Padwall W. Plant Common
61 Trichosanthus tricuspidata L.Kaundal Fruit Common
RUBIACEAE
62 Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. -- W. Plant Common
63 Ixora coccinea L. Bakara Flower Frequent
64 Morinda pubescens J.E.Sm. Bartotondi Root Common
65 Mussaenda glabrata (Hook f.) H. Ex. Sarvad Root Common
OLEACEAE
66 Jasminum malbaricumWeight Kausar, Mogra Flowers Cultivated
APOCYNACEAE
67 Alstonia scolarisR.Br. Salvin Bark Frequet
68 Carria conge.sta var. cogesta Karvand Fruit Common
69 Ervatamia heyneana Cooke Nagkuda Bark Rare
70 Holarrhena anlidysentrica Wall Kuda Bark/Seeds Common
71 Quirivelia frutescens (L.) M.R.& S.M. Krishnsriva Root Common
72 Rauwolfia serpenlina B. ex. Kurz. Hadki Root Infrequent
ASCLEPIDACEAE
73 Gymnenia sylvestre R. Br. Kavali -Pitani Leaves Common
74 Holostemma annulare(Roxb.)K.Sch. Shidodi, Tultuli W. Plant Common
75 Leptadenia reticulata Wt. & Am. Hirandodi, Shingut Root Rare
76 Oxystelmma esculentum:U.)R.Br.Ex Oudhani Fruit Common
SCHULT
77 Pergularia deamia (Forssk) Choive. Utami Leaves IRoot Common
78 sarcostemma intermedium Ocone Phok Stem . Common
79 sarcostemmaviminale (L.) R.Br. ssp. Soma Stem Common
Vamile(S.brivistigma Wight & Am.)
76

S.No. Name of the plant Vernacular Names Parts Used Status
80 Tylophora fasiculata Buch-Ham. Bhindodi Root Uncommon
81 Tylophora Indica (Burm. f.) Merr, Pitmare Root Frequent
82 Wattakaka volubils (L. f.) Stapf, Hirandodi Root Common
lOGANIACEAE
83 Sterychnos nux-omica L. Kanal , Kajar-vel Fruit Rare
BORAGINACEAE
84 Coldenia procumbense L. Tripakshi W.Piant Common
CONVOlVULACEAE
85 Merremia vitifolia (Burm.!.) Hall.F. Navati W. Plant Common
86 Operculina turpethum(L.} S. Nishothar Root Common
CUSCUTACEAE
87 Cuscuta chinensis Var. chinensis Lam. Amarvel W, Plant Common
88 Cuscuta hyalina Roth. Amarvel W. Plant Common
SOLANACEAE
89 Solanum anguivi Lamk. Dorli/ringni Root/Fruit Common
BIGNONIACEAE
90 Heterophragma quadriioculare(Roxb.) Varas Bark Common
K. schum (H. roxburg-hii DC.)
91 Oroxylum indicumVent. Tetu Root Common
PEOALIACEAE
92 Pedalium murex L. Motha Gokharu Seeds, Root Common
ACANTHACEAE
93 Acanthus iIIsifolius L. Marandi Whole Plant Common
94 Andrographis peniculata Nees. Kadechiraita Whole Plant Common
95 Astercantha longifolia Ness. Talimkhana Seeds Common
VERBENACEAE
96 Cleodendrum inermi Gaertn Vanjai Root Common
97 Cleodendrum infotunatum Spreng Karl Root Frequent
98 Cledendrum serra tum Spreng Bharang Root Common
99 Gmelina arborea Roxb Shivan Root Common
100 Premna interifolia L. Kara-narvel - -
101 Tectona grandis L. Sag Root Common
EUPHORBIACEAE
102 Aporsa lindleyana Bailioh Salai Bark Frequent
103 Baliospermum montanum (Willd) Danti Root Common
Mucll-Arg.
104 Bride Ilia retusa Spreng Pattharphod Bark Common
105 Bride Ilia squamosa (Lam.) Gehrm Asan Bark Frequent
106 Euphorbia anticorum L. Narsej Milky latex Frequent
107 Homonoia riparia Lour. Pashanbhebaka Root Common
108 Jatropha curcas L. Mogaliyerand Fruit Common
109 Macranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell Chandwar Gum Common
(M. tomentosa Wt.)
110 Phyllanthus urinaria L. - Seeds Common
111 Spium insigne var rnalbaricum (Wt.) Hura M.late~ Common
Hook.
112 Tragiainvolucrata L. Khagkholti Root Common
77
Malvan

Malvan
S.No. Name 01 the plant Vernacular Names Parts Used Status
MORACEAE
113 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk Phanas Fruit Common
ZINZIBERACEM:
114 Costus speciosus (Wend!.) Haiti Kosht Rhizome Common
HYPOOXIDACEAE
115 Curculiago orchioides Gaertn, Kalimusali Root Common
AMARYLLIOACEAE
116 Crinum latifolumVar latifoliumL. Gadambikanda Tuber Common
TACCACEAE
117 Tacca pillnatifida Forst. Devakanda Rootstock Common
DISCOREACEAE
118 Dioscorea bulbifera Linn, Kadukaranda Tuber Frequemt
119 Dioscorea oppositaefolia L. Paspoli Root Common
L1L1ACEAE
120 Gloriosa superba L. Bachnag Tuber Common
SMILACACEAE
121 Smilx macrophylla Roxb. Ghotvel Tuber Common
KRACEAE
122 Amorphophalus
Nicols
paeonifolius (Dennst.) Suran Tuber Rare
PALMAE
123 Caryota urens L. Bherll-mad Fruit Cultivated
PANDANACEAE
124 Pandanus furcatus Roxb, Kevda Leaves Frequent
Mangrove Species and Associates along Malvan estuaries
S.No. Name 01 the Species Kolam Tarakarli Kalwali. Achra.
a. Mangrove Species
1, Rhizophora mucronata + + + +
2, R. apiculata + + + +
3, Ceriops tagal + + +
4. Kandelia candel + + +
5, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza + +
6 Sonneratia alba + + + +
7, S. caseolaris +
8. Avicennia marina + + + +
9. A. otticinalis + + + +
10, A. spp. + + + +
11. A. marina + + + +
Var. acutissima
12. Acanthus ilicifolius + + + +
13. ' Excoecaria agallocha + + + +
14. Lumnitzera racemosa + + +
15, Aegiceras comiculatum + + + +
16, Xylocarus granatum +
78
•

S.No.
+ Preset and - Absent
Name of the Species Kolam Tarakarli Kalwali. Achra.
b. Mangrove associates
17. Salvadora persica +
+ +
+
18. Derris heterophylla + + + +
19. Ipomoea pes-caprae
+ + + +
20. Thespesia populnea + + + +
21. Clerodendrum inerme + + + +
22. Premna integrifolia + + +. +
23.
24.
c. Halophytic species
5esuvium portulaca strum + + +
d. Seagrass species
Halophila beccarii + + +
e. Other species
25. Aeluropus lagopoides +
+ +
+
26. Portaerasia coarctata + + + +
27. Stenophyllus barbata +
+ + +
28. Cyperus sp. + +
+ +
29.
I. Fern species
Acrostichum aureum +
Mollusc of Malvan Coast
S.No. Species
1 Turritella duplicata
2 T. cerea
3 Terebra persica
4 Terebracinctella
5 Pahia malabarica
6 Maretrix meretrix
7 Natica maculosa
8 Bursa tubercula
9 Macrtra mera
10 Ungual anatina *
11 Sunetta donacina *
12 Mactra mora *
13 Cancellaria coltifera *
'" non molluscan
Corals of Malvan
S.No. Family Species
1 Sideraslreidae Coscinaraea sp.
2 Sideraslreidae Psuedosiderastrea tayama
3 Porilidae Porites (Porites) lichen
4 Porilidae Porites (Porites) Lutea
5 Porilidae Porties (Synarea) sp.
6 Favidae Cyphastrea sp.
79
.
Malvan
Dommant edIble fIsh of Malvan
'--';:S".N~o.----s.~'P;;;e.;;'C~;;;'eS~-------1
+
+
- -
. .
1 Chorinemus toloo
2 Naucates
3 Singnathus spicifer
4 Chatoessus nasus
5 Psettus argenteus
6 Platycephalus macracanthus
7 Sillago sihama
8 Echeneis naucrates
9 Gerres poeti
10 Sphyrana jello
11 Equula dussummieri
12 Pseudorhombus javanicus
13 Amblypharynodon melettinus
14 Gpbius criniger
15 Ambassis gymnocephalus
16 Sarinella melanura
17 Chrysophyns haffara
18 Glyphidodon coslestinus
19 Hils ilisha
20 Mugil dussumieri
21 M.caranthus
22 Caranx boops
23 Barrachus grunniens
24 Silant herring
25 Penaeus monodon *
'" Not-fish

Malvan
S.No.
1
2
Family
Bufunidae
Ranidae
AMPHIBIA
Scientific Name
Bufo melanostictus
Umnonectus tigeriuns
REPTILIA
Common Name
Common toad
India bull frog
S.No. Family Scientific Name Common Name
1 Boidae AhaetuJla Nasutus Green whip snake
2 Boidae Ptyas mucosus Rat snake
3 Chamaeleontidae Chamaleon zeylantus Indian chameleon
4 Elapidae Bungarus caruleus Common Indian Krait
5 Elapidae Bungarus fasciatus Banded Krait
6 Elapidae Naja naja naja Common codra
7 Emydidae Batagur baska Common batagur
8 Varanidae Varanus fiaveacena Yellow monitor lizard
9 Viperidae Vipera ruseJlt ruseJlt Russel's Viper
AVES
S.No. Family Scien/ilic Name Common Name
1 Acciptridae Milvus migrans Pariah kite
2 Acciptridae HaJiastur Indus Brahminy kite RARE
3 Acciptridae Accipiter badlus Shikra
4 Acciptridae SptJornls cheela Crested serpent eagle
5 Acciptridae Lethyophaga ichthyaetys Grey headed fishing eagle
6 Acciptridae Gyps bengalensis Whitebacked Vulture
7 Acciptridae Pandion haJiaetus Osprey MIGRATORY
8 Acciptridae Cricus aeruginosus Marsh harrier MIGRATORY-
9 Alaudidae Alauda gulula Eastern skylark
10 Alcedinidae Halcyon smyrnensis Whitebreasted kingfisher
11 Alcedinidae Halcyon chloris Whitecollared kingfisher
12 Alcedinidae Ceryle rudis Lesser pied kingfisher
13 Anatidae Dendrocygna javanica Lesser whisliling teal
14 Anatidae Tadorna ferrugiea Brahminy duck
15 Anhingidae Anhi nga rufa Darter
16 Apodidae Cypsiurus parvus Palm swift
17 Ardeidae Ardea cinera Grey heron
18 Ardeidae Ardeola striatus Little green heron
19 Ardeidae Ardeola grayii Pond heron
20 Ardeidae Egretta alba Large egret
21 Ardeidae Bulbucus ibis Cattle egret
22 Ardeidae Egretta intermedia Smaller egret
23 Ardeidae Egretta grazetta Littie egret
24 Ardeidae Nycticorax Night heron
25 Ardeidae Ixobrychus minutus Littie Bittern
26 Ardeidae Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Chestnut bittern
27 Ardeidae Thereskiornis melanocephala White ibis ,
28 Ardeidae Ardeagolath Giant heron RARE
29 Artimidae Artamus fuscus Ashy swallow shrike
30 Capitonidae MegalaJima haemacephala Coppersmith .
80

S.No.
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Family
Caprimulgidae
Charadriidae
Charadriidae
Charadriidae
Charadriidae
Charadriidae
Columbidae
Columbidae
Columbidae
Columbidae
Coraciidae
Corvidae
Corvidae
Corvidae
Cucuiidae
Cuculidae
Cuculidae
\Dicruridae
Falconidae
Falconidae
Jacanidae
Jacanidae
Laridae
Larldae
Laridae
Laridae
Laridae
Meropidae
Motacillidae
Motacillidae
Muscicapidae
Muscicapidae
Nectarinidae
Nectarinidae
Oriolidae
Phalacrocoracidae
Phasianidae
Phasianidae
Picidae
Picidae
Picidae
Picidae
Picidae
Picidae
Podicepididae
Psttacidae
Pycnonotidae
Pycnonotidae
Rallidae
Rallidae
Scientific Name
Caprimugu/us indicus
Vanellus indicus
Charadriius dubius
Ca/idris minuta
Calidriatestaceae
Lemnodronus semipa/matus
Treron phonicoptera
Streptopelia decaoto
Streptope/ia chinensis
Streptopelia orientaliss
Coractas benghalensis
Dendrocitta vagabunda
Corvus sp/endens
Corvus macrorhynchus
Eudynamys sc%paceae
Cucu/us micropterus
Centropus sinensis
Dicrurus adsimilis
Fa/co tinnuncu/us
Fa/co peregrinus
Mtopidius indicus
Hydrpphasianus chirrurgus
Sterna a/bitor/s
Sterna aurantia
Larus ridibundus
Larus brunnicepha/us
Sterna hirundo
Merops orienta lis
lV10tacilla alba
Motaci/la citreo/a
Muscicapa parva
Pachycephe/a griso/a
Nectarinia zey/onica
Nectarinia asiatica.
Orio/us xanthornus
Phalacrocorax niger
Francolinus gu/aris
Gallus gallus
Micropternus brachvrus
Dinopium benga/ensis
Chrysoco/aptes incidus
Jynx torquilla
Passer domestic us
P/aceus philippinus
Podiaceps rut/colly
Psittacula krameri
Pycnonotus jocosus
Pycnonotus cafer
Amarurotus phornicurus
Porphyrio porphyrio
81
Common Name
Malvan
Jungle night jar
Redwattled lapwing
Little ringed plover
Little stint MIGRATORY
Curlew sandpiper MIGRATORY
Snipebilled godwit MIGRATORY
Green pigeon
Ring Dove
Spotted Dove
Rufoustailed Dove
Indian roller
Tree pie
House crow
Jangle crow
Koel
Indian cuckoo
Crow pheasant
Black drongo
Kestrel
Peregern falcol
Bronzewinged jacana
Pheasant tailed jacana
Little tern
Indian river tern
Blackheaded gull RARE+MIGRATORY
Brownheaded gull RARE+MIGRATORY
Common tern MIGRATORY
Green bee eater
White wagtail
Yellowheaded wagtail
Redbrested flycatcher
Magrove whistler
Purplerumped sunbird
Purple sunbird
Blackheaded oriole
Little cormorant
Swamp patridge
Red jungle fowl
Rufous woodpecker
Lesser goldenbacked woodpecker
Large Goldenbacked Woodpecker
Wryneck MIGRATORY
House sparrow
Baya
Dabchick
Roseringed Parakeet
Redwhiskered bulbul
Redvented bulbul
Whitebresated Waterhen
Puple moorhen

Malvan
S.No. Family Scientitic Name Common Name
81 Rallidae Fulica atra Coot
82 Rallidae Gallinu/a chloropus Moorhen
83 Rostratulidae Rostratula bnga/ensis Painted snip
84 Scolopacidae Numenius arquara Curlew
85 Scolopacidae Tringa tetanus Common red shank
86 Scolopacidae Tringa ochropus Green sandpiper
87 Scolopacidae Tnnga hypo/eucos Common sandpiper
88 Strigidae Athene brama Spolted owlet
89 Strigidae Bubo bubo Eagle owl
90 Strigidae Sturnus contra Pied myna
91 Strigidae Acridotheres tristis Common myna
92 Strigidae Acr/dotheres fuse us Jungle myna
93 Sylviidae Or/hotomus sutprius Tailor bird
94 Sylviidae Acrocephalus agericola Paddy field Warbler
95 Sylviidae PhyUoscopus fuscatus DuskY leaf Warbler
96 Timaiidae Turdiodes striatus Jungle babler
97 Turldae Copsvchus saularis Magpie robin
98 Turidae Erithacus svecicus Blue throat MIGRATORY
99 Upupidae Upupa epops Hoopoe
MAMMALIA
S.No. Family Scientific Name Common Name
1 Canidae Canis aureus Jackal
2 Cercopithecidae Macaca mula Ita Rhesus macauque
3 Fedilae Felis viverina Fishing Cat
4 Lutrinae Lutra lutra Eurasian olter
5 Muridae Mus booduga Liltle Indian field mouse
6 Muridae Mus museu/us House mouse
7 Muridae Rattus rat/us House rat
8 Petropodidae Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox
9 Viverrldae Herpestes edwardsi Indian grey man goose
10 Viverridae Herpestes palustris Marsh mangoose
82

Alphonso mangos
Cashew fruit flower parts, nuts
and edible fleshy thalamust (Orange)
Jack fruits ....

Mangrove vegetation
Kokam fruits
(Garcinia indica)
Kokam tree with fruits
(Garcinia indica)

Vermicompost project demonstration
workshop at Golwan
Cereal development - demonstration Ramgad 0.4 ha
Popular cashnut processing unit
(Factory) Malvan

I. Introduction
Vembanad Lake
The State of Kerala comprises of the narrow
southern most strip of the humid western ghats
and is bound by South Kanara on the north and on
the east, in descending order by western
Karnataka, Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Madurai,
Ramanathapuram and in the extreme south by
Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts of Tamil
Nadu. The eastern and western boundaries are
demarcated by natural features: all along the west
stretches the Arabian sea; and on the east the
western ghats, three thousand to eight thousand
feet (900 - 2450 m) high, separate the area from
the adjoining states of Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
The ghats are thickly wooded in parts with
mountain scenery of unrivalled beauty. Kerala
exhibits considerable diversity in terrain but is
broadly divisible into three well-defined zones: the
hills, the plains and the seaboard. Owing to the
mountainous nature of the state in parts and the
heavy rainfall it receives, streams are numerous.
In the Malabar region the principal rivers are the
Bhavani, Kabbani and the Rampur, tributaries of
the Cauvery, which flows eastward into
83
Vembanad Lake
- S.K.Chakraborty and S. Ayyappan
Karnataka. But majority of the streams rise on the
western face of the watershed, the Periyar,
Chalakudi, Minachil, Pambiyar and Kodayar being
the more important of these. Most of them have
very winding courses and they all discharge
themselves into the backwaters or estuarine
lagoons - a chain of which extends almost along
the entire coast, separated from the sea hy a bar
of sand or silt. A number of these rivers have the
dams constructed for hydroelectric and irrigation
purposes.
The climate of Kerala all along the coast is
equable and damp with the temperature seldom
rising above 32'C and fall below 20'C. In the hills,
the temperature varies with altitude. Rainfall is
very heavy, the greatest being under the influence
of southwest monsoon between May and
September. The State however, receives the benefit
of northeast monsoon as well. The mean annual
rainfall is around 250 cm for the state. The mean
relative humidity is around 70% and it may be 90%
at the highest. The abundant rainfall and
excessive humidity are responsible for effects on
climate and vegetation. The tropical rain forest is
observed at many of the places.

Vembanad Lake
The Vembanad Lake is unique in many ways in
that it serves as a waterway connecting many of
the islands and is also an important place of
tourist interest. Recently it has been declared as
a Ramsar Site. Development of agriculture in the
Kuttanad - the southern part of Vembanad Lake
and adjoining raised lands has been one of the
important land development schemes undertaken
by the erstwhile government of Travancore.
Uniform supply of freshwater is required for paddy
culture. In this place, some of the areas are rainfed
and some are irrigated. After acquiring large
tracts of these fields many of the enterprising
9'40'
9'30' -
o water
-L... Rivers
---- Kultlllad boundary
• • •••• Boundaries of
agronomk zones
'0
\. tN
C 5 10 151

has mainly sandy soil. As the part of tropical rain
forest, this area has luxuriant growth of terrestrial
herbs, shrubs and trees. Thongh lot of damages
have been done to the ecosystem, some mangrove
vegetation still remains.
iv. Short summary of vegetation and animal life
a. Vegetation:
Coffee, Indian rubber plant, black pepper, and tea
plantations are specialities of this area. Most of
the terrestrial plants are represented here. Part of
Vembanad Lake has rich representatives of many
species of mangroves.
b. Animal life:
Vembanad Lake, with an estuarine environment,
has rich representation of fish and other aquatic
life. The most important being the penaeid
prawns and giant freshwater prawn. The
mangrove vegetation supports a wide variety of
birds and mammals.
III. Population Profile
There were 1,38,691 houses, contributing a
population of 7,52,866 around the lake. Among
these houses 17,369 belonged to fishermen, with a
population of 95,182. The members in the
fishermen and non-fishermen households' number
was 5.48 and 5.42 respectively (Kurup et al.,
1989). However, in a census done on fisher folk by
the Directorate of fishery in 1982, the average
number of members in fishermen households was
found to be 6.56.
1. Occupational status
A total of 23,992 fishermen are actively engaged in
fishing; 7,650 fishermen are engaged in related
activities like middlemen and vendors of fresh fish.
Among the fisherfolk 5.54% are engaged in fishery
allied occupations whereas 6.91% work in other
fields not connected with fishery. Even among the
non-fishermen category a few get their earnings
from fishery related occupations, though the
percentage is very small (0.37%). Further, 24.76%
of the non-fishermen category finds their livelihood
from other fields of activities. On the whole only
3.19% of the total population in the area covered
are active fishermen.
85
Vembanad Lake
IV. Biodiversity And Conservation Values
1. Flora
Typical tropical rain forest is visible in most of the
parts of Kerala. Luxuriant forest vegetation is
noticed and the families Rubiaceae,
Sterculearaceae, Verbenaceae, Compositae,
Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, Leguminoceae,
Asclipidiacea, etc., coffee, Indian rubber, black
pepper and tea plantations are some of the
specialty of this area.
a. Mangrove vegetation of Vembanad Lake :
The numerous rivers flowing towards the Arabian
sea, with their large load of sediments created
various pits and offshore bars in the near shore
regions and the body of water behind these formed
the nuclei of the present day lagoons and
estuaries. In general, the mangroves are confined
to very small pockets by the bank of these
estuaries and adjacent river system. A number of
mangrove vegetations worth preservation and
conservation are located. Out of them
Kumarakomn, which is located on the side of
Vembanad lake is the largest.
•••••
F7p£e : 1!.
10' )c(
,.•.
I!-

Vembanad Lake
b. Kumarakom (9°37' N; 76°26' E)
It is located by the side of Vembanad estuary the
largest of its kind in Kerala as a continuous chain
of about a kilometer in length. Tidal action in Fort
Cochin is nearly 90 cm as recorded in the year
1974. But a study in 1984 shows at present the
tidal range is 20-60 cm. Major discharges into the
estuary are the rivers such as Meenachal,
Achancoil, Pamba, Manimala, and Moovattupuzha.
The Kavanar, a tributary of the Meenachal River
empties very near to the mangrove location.
Construction of Thanneermukkam barrage and
Thottapally spillway have changed the physicochemical
properties of the water body in this part
of the estuary with a host of other still unknown
characteristics totally different from natural
Vembanad estuary that existed two decades ago.
c. Kannamali (9° 52' Nand 76° 16'E) :
This mangrove is also in the Vembanad estuary
near the bar mouth and hence the marine
influence is very prominent. Area of the Cochin
Corporation is a typical mangrove location. Thus
mangroves are seen in Kumbalam, Trippunithura,
Edappalli and Vypin besides the Mangalavanam of
Cochin near the FCI godown and the surrounding
artificial islands. Rivers Periyar and Varapuzha
join the lake north of this part of the Vembanad
Lake.
d. Kumarakom :
There is a mixed population of Rhizophora
apiculata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza running
north to south bordering the Vembanad estuary.
Pure stands of Sonneratia caseolaris is observed
inside the sanctuary proper with a dense under
growth of Phragmites karka (tall grass) suitable
for perching birds. The Sonneratia trees are 10m
high with a dense under growth of young saplings
and seedlings of the mother tree. However,
whenever openings are made, species such as
Ardisia elliptica, Cerbera odollam, Hibiscus
tiliaceus, Thespesia populnea, Terminalia
catappa, Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera
littoralis do occur. Since the margins of the
estuary is well protected by laterite walls, the
characteristic natural zonation is unfortunately
regulated (Ramachandran and Mohanan, 1987).
The estuarine margins are pinged by Kandelia
candel and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora
apiculata, Sonneratia caseolaris and Avicennia
officinalis are observed up to the Barringtonia
86
racemosa zone where Heritiera littoralis,
Calophyllum inophyllum, Hibiscus tiliaceus are
also seen. Derris trifoliata, Caesalpinia crista,
Salacia chinensis, Mucuna pruiriens, Argyeria
sp and Anamirta coeculus are the climbers.
Presence of Flagellaria indica is unique and it is
the common climber masking the canopy. Littoral
species such as Pongamia pinnata, Morinda
citrifolia, Premna serratifolia, Lagerstroemia
speciosa, Dolichandrone spathacea, Pandalus
fascicularies etc. are present further inside along
the bunds. Few cultivated taxa such as Cocos
nucifera, Hevea braziliensis, Gliricidia sepium
are also thriving well. Semiparasitics
Loranthaceae like Dendrophthoe falcata and
Viscum sp. are often found hanging on Kandelia,
Rhizophora and Bruguiera sp. Acampe
praemorsa an epiphytic orchid is rarely seen in
the area. The inside canals support water plants
such as Nymphoides indica, Salvinia molesta,
Crinum defixum, Eichhorinia crassipes, Pistia
stratiotes and Ludwigia adscendens.
e. Kannamali (Edapalli, Cochin) :
The areas adjoining Cochin and nearby islands at
the mouth of Vembanad estuary used to be the
single largest mangrove habitat in Kerala. The
high population density of the area has
deteriorated the mangrove. However, still in some
pockets mangroves remain. Rhizophora
mucronata attains its maximum development
towards Kannamali. Avicennia officinalis has
invaded most of the disturbed and reclaimed
areas. Rhizophora mucronata fringes the
margins of canals followed by R apiculata,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza & B cylindrica. On the
tidal levels are Avicennia officinalis and
Sonneratia caseolaris. Thick foliage of Acanthus
ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum is seen in areas
with low salinity. Samadera indica and Hopea
ponga are the species often found along with
mangroves in Edappally region. Areas with more
brackishwater influence support Typha
angustata, Cyperus javanicus, Eichhorinia
crassipes, SCirpus littorali, Cyperus pangorei
etc.
ii. Fauna
The fauna is similar to any of the tropical rain
forest. Among the endangered species of mammals
Loris tardigradus, commonly known as slender

loris, is vulnerable. This is chiefly due to habitat
destruction and use of this species as a laboratory
animal in experiments. The other mammals
include Macaca silinus - lion tailed macaque. This
is also endangered due to habitat destruction
(shrinkage of vegetation). The Malabar civet -
Viverra megaspila is also one of the species,
which is endangered.
The fishing cat - Felis viverrina live on tidal
creeks, rivers and mangrove forests. Due to
destruction of the habitat their numbers have
reduced. The gaur - Boss. gaurus also lives in
tropical forests but their numbers are also
shrinking.
Among amphibians the Malabar tree toad
Nectophryne tuberculosa is endemic to this area.
But their numbers have reduced to the extent that
it is difficult to sight.
a. Avian fauna typical of the region are:
Thickbilled Warbler - Pharogamaticola aidon
Indian Great Reed Warbler - Acrocephalus ste1wtoreus
Migratory wag tail - MotacWa flara
Greatpied hornbill - Buceros Mcornis
Malabarpied hornbill - Buceros spp.
Langhing Thrushes Garrulax
Mountain Thrushes - Zoothera dauma
Large woodshrike
Fairy Blue bird
Yeilowbacked sun bird
Spider hunters
Woodpeckers
Blue bird bee-eater
b. Mangrove Fauna :
- Tephrodornis virgatus
- Irena puella
- Aethopyga siparaja
- (Anachnothera)
- (Di1wpium javane11$e,
Hemicircus, Dryocopus
Picumnus
- (Ntctoyornis athertoni)
(Salim Ali, 1960).
The distribution and importance of mangrove
fauna is very important. The mangrove faunal
diversification is very few but is exclusive to it.
Species found on the tree are of the rainforest
.origin, whereas, those seen in and on the
substratum are mainly of marine and estuarine
nature.
Bird's in the mangroves seek food and nesting in
the trees. Several species of Phalacrocorax
(Cormorants) are commonly seen. Darters (snake
birds) are mainly represented by Anhinga
Vembanad Lake
anhinga (L). Herons use the mangrove fishing
ground and often nest with cormorants and
Darters communally. While the heron, Egretla
alba (L) is common, the night heron (Nycticorax
nycticorax) is occasionally seen. The bird
sanctuary in Kumarokom abodes about 3000 night
herons. It is also famous for little, cormorant
(Podiceps ruficollis), Egrets, Darters, bitterns,
water hens etc. Teals are winter visitors and is a
common sight in Kuttanad region especially in
Kumarakom. Ardeola greyii (the paddy bird) is
common in lowlands and throughout the
mangroves. Falcons, hacks eagles, Brahminy kite,
Haliasur indus and vultures are usually seen in
the mangroves and adjacent sea coast. Water hen
(Amaurornis sp.), chestnest bittern (Ixobrychus
cinnamomeus) and several species of king fishers
are available Crocodiles and monitors are very
rare. Nerodia piscater (Water snake) Ptyas
mucosus (rat snake), Chersydrus granulatus
etc. are often occurring in mangroves. Fish eating
mammals such as Hespestesare often seen. Lutoa
vulgaris is a common otter in Vembanad Lake.
Mangrove areas are notorious for the mosquito
population.
87
The molluscs are a conspicuous in intertidal
areas. Bivalves and several species of gastropods
such as the mangrove snail Telescopium
telescopium feed on the substratum. Polychaetes
and barnacles attached to trunks and roots of
trees are commonly seen.
The commercially important prawns
Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Penaeus indicus
and Metapenaeus sp form the bulk of the prawn
landings from the backwater and estuaries. The
mud crab Scylla serrata is also abundant
frequently seen. The fiddler crab Uca sp. and the
mud lobster Thallassina anomula are common.
Fishes of the mangrove areas are diverse. It is well
known that many of them enter the mangrove for
breeding. Juveniles of many species spend their
life in mangrove for food and protection from
predators .
c. Commercially important fish species
are as follows :
Mugil cephalus, Liza parsia, Chanos chanos,
Sarotherodon mossambicus, Etroplus
sura tensis, E.maculates, Ambassis
gymnocephalus, Mystus gulio, Trachysurus

Vembanad Lake
gymnocephalus, Gerres filamentosa and among
prawns: Metapenaeus dobsoni, Penaeus indicus,
M.monoceros and among freshwater species of
fish - Labeo dussumieri and giant freshwater
praswn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. According
to Kurup (1997) Labeo .dussumieri is one of the
endangered species. Among molluscan species,
Vellorita cypri1wids is one of the major species
supplying to the lime industry of the state.
iii. Threatened species- mCN listed species
Loris tal"digradus
Macca silinus
Felis viverrina
Neclophl"yne
tubcl"cutosa
Cl"ocodlllus POl"OSUS- Indian crocodile
Labeo dussumieri
Macrobrachium
rosenbergii
the slender loris is vulnerable
long tail macaque is endangered
due to habitat destruction
fishing cat
Malabal" tree frog
endangered
tbreatened
a. Bio resources used by iocal communities from
mangroves:
A variety of products .are directly available
from mangroves:
• Construction poles, firewood, timber,
charcoal, tannin etc.
• It offers good pastures for cow, buffalo and
goat and stall-feeding is practiced with
fodder from mangroves rich in minerals and
vitamins.
• Minor uses are honey, medicines, fish
poisoning and hedge plants.
• This forms the nursery breeding ground of a
variety of fish; prawns and clams. This is
utilized by the local community.
iv. Conservation values
a. Buffering action / Shoreline and
inland protection :
Mangrove vegetation exerts protection against
encroachment of sea, destructive forces of tide
and hurricanes. It also saves the banks from flash
flood and saves lives and properties of the people.
It has the ability to stabilize the water area
against long-term climatic fluctuations and sea
level rise.
88
b. Nursery / Breeding gronnds :
The lake is the nursery ground fOr several species
of fish and prawns. The chief among them being
the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium
rosenbergii. Apart from prawn, the lake is the
breeding ground for several species of fish like
Lates calcarifer, Labeo rohita, Etroplus
suratensis, Mugil cephalus etc.
c. Nesting grounds:
Kumarkom mangroves are famous as bird
sanctuary. Several cormorants of the
Phallacocorax species are seen. Darters like
Ahinga ahinga (L) are well represented here.
Herons by far outnumber the avian fauna. They
use the mangroves as fishing ground and for
nesting along with darters and cormorants. Gulls
and teals are commonly seen.
d. Refugium for endangered species :
The Kumarakom mangroves are famous as a bird
sanctuary. It shelters many species of birds like
teals in winter, cormorants, darters, egrets,
bitterns & water hens throughout the year. Herons
& darters- are also common. A good number of
endangered fish species are present in Vembanad
lake. Chief among them is the giant fresh water
prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Most of the
penaeid shrimps like Penaeus monodon, P.
indicus, Metapenaeus dobsoni, M. monoceros &
M. affinis have an estuarine phase in their life
history, I.e. the post larvae and juveniles migrate
to the estuaries which provide them the nursery
grounds. The soft, organically rich substratum of
inshore region is preferred by them.
e. Ecotourism :
Estuaries and backwaters are sources of
recreation. The Vembanad lake is no exception.
The Vembanad lake near CochinNypin islands
serves as the place of tourist interest. As Kashmir
has become out of reach for most of the tourists
from India and abroad; the number of tourists
hiring houseboats in the Cochin backwaters has
gone up considerably. The KTDC is encouraging
such ventures in a big way.
f. Water transport :
The Vembanad lake is by various water ways. Most
of the islands on the Vembanad estuary are
connected by boats owned by Govi. of Kerala.

g. Uniqueness and representativeness /
Richness:
Any estuarine system would be very rich in
resources. The uniqueness of Vembanad lake
region lies in the resources of giant fresh water
prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. This along
with penaeid. prawns like Penaeus indicus, P.
monodon etc. are the source of foreign exchange
earners for the state of Kerala. Apart from this the
Kumarakom mangroves - the largest in Kerala is
on the Vernban ad estuary. The list of mangrove
plants present have been listed elsewhere in this
report. A large number of nesting birds as well as
migratory birds visit this mangrove. It is also a
habitat for a good variety of aquatic and
terrestrial mammals.
Kumarakom mangroves (9' 37'N; 76' 26'E) is
situated about 15 km west of Kottayam town on
the eastern bank of Vembanad estuary. The bird
sanctuary covers an area of 8 ha. of marshy land
close to the estuary. Several cormorants, darters,
herons are seen nesting. Egrets, bitterns and
water hens are also present.
h. Research and education :
The significance of Vembanad lake has increased
several folds after the commissioning of
Thaneermukham salt water barrier. The lake is
clearly divided into southern saline and. northern
freshwater system, and a number of studies have
been done on various aspects of hydrology, fishery,
mangroves, bird sanctuary etc. A lot of research
can still be carried out on the Vembanad lake.
Some of the important works are discussed here.
Foraminiferans (Protozoa) : Among the sediment
samples from the Cochin black waters 12 living
species of benthic foraminiferans were observed in
a study carried out by Seibold (1972):
Ammnoia sorbina, Discorbis tepida,
Trochammina globussa, Miliammina sp..
Ammnobaculites persicus, Quinqueloculina
miletti, Boliving striatula, Elphidium
somaense, Protelphidium schmitti, Nonion
asterizans, Cassidella panikkari, Globegerina
sp.
Copepods and other plankton: The zooplankton of
Cochin backwaters and Vembanad lake have been
studied by a number of researchers like Haridas et
al. (1973), Madhupratap and Haridas (1978),
Madhupratap (1979) and others. According to the
study carried out by Madhupratap and Haridas
89
Vembanad Lake
(1975) copepods were present in all the stations
from Cochin backwaters to Alleppy.
Siphonophores, invertebrate eggs, fish eggs and
larvae, amphipods, isopods, cladocerans and
other crustaceans are the other zooplankton.
Large number of hydromedusae occurred in the
backwaters. Among ctenophora -Pleurobrachia
sp. and Beroe sp. were recorded. The
chaetognaths were represented by Sagitta bedoti,
S.enflata, S.oceanica and Krohnitta pacifica
(Nair, 1971). Copepods were represented by a
number of species, important among them being
the genus Eucalanus sp. and Calocalanus sp.
Macrohenthic Population: The macrobenthic
population of the Vembanad Lake has been
reported by Ansari (1974) and Pillay (1979), with
the abundance of polychaetes, bivalves, decapods
and amphipods. There was a progressive decline
in the salinity from the lower part of the
backwaters towards upper reaches. Among the
polychaetes Prionospio sp. was dominant. The
molluscs were represented by Meretrix casta,
Modiolus striatulus and Nuculana sp. Crabs
were represented by Viaderiana sp. and
Halicarnicus sp. According to Pillay (1977), two
species of sea anemones, one each of Cirrianthus,
Sipunculoidea, Echiuroidea, Echinodermata and
five species of fishes were also found.
Phytoplankton : The studies on the phytoplankton
have been carried out by a number of workers.
The study carried out by Devassy and Bhattathiri
(1974) indicated that phytoplankton comprised of
three main groups- diatoms, dinoflagellates and
other algae - Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae.
The phytoplankton showed a bimodal variation
with peaks in May and November. Qasim et al.
(1972) have recorded a negative correlation
between salinity and abundance of plankton.
According to Qasim (1980) the diatom Biddulphia
sinensis occurs very abundantly in the estuary
while Ceratius furca blooms during monsoon
season. Tetraselmis gracillus is another common
species.
V. Bio-Resource Profile
Wild bioresources
i. Food / Feed
a. Clam fisheries of Vembanad lake :
The molluscan fisheries of Vembanad lake is
exclusively sustained by black clam - Vellorita

Vembanad Lake
cyprinoides (Grey). As mentioned in the
preceding columns with a length of 60 km north to
south from Cochin to alleppy and an area of 21,053
ha. with the commission of salt-water barriers, the
lake is divided into two entirely different
ecosystems. The northern sector downstream is
estuarine while the southern upstream is
freshwater.
The main demand for lime from clam resources is
for brick laying, plastering and white washing. At
present, number of industries such as the
Govetnment owned Travancore Cements and
Travllllcore Electrochemicals use clam shells
(Mammen, 1984). According to a rough estimate
they consume nearly one lakh tonnes of clam
shells annually. The clam resources of the lake
have been estimated by Rasalam and Sebastian
(1976) and Achary (1987) based on the data
gathered from co-operative societies. The clam
beds were located by Kurup et at. (1990). This
study is important as it pertains to more than a
decade after the commissioning of the barrier ..
The species Vellorita cyprinoides supports
sustenance fisheries in the estuaries and
backwaters of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Tamilnadu
and Andhra Pradesh and contributes 67% to the
clam fishery. The meat is locally consumed and it
is also used in supplementing various aquacultue
feeds (Kizhakundan and Narasimhan, 1995). This
species plays an important role in the rural
economy of Kerala.
Exploitation Pattern : The Department of Mining
and Geology controls the clam collection and
periodically leases out areas for dredging and also
issues licenses to divers to collect surface deposits
of live (black) and dead (white) clam shells. There
has been lot of agitation from the divers who feel
that dredging leads to depletion of live clams. The
fisherfolk operating stake and Chinese dip net also
feel that dredging has lead to depletion of their
catch. These allegations are not entirely without
basis (Mammen, 1984).
Cutter suction dredgers are used in Vembanad
Lake. As the dredger cuts through the soil, the
90
suction pump takes the soil and clam shells along
with water to the floating washery, where the
shells are separated and delivered to a barge
while the clay water slurry is allowed to flow into
the lake. Initially the dredger used to collect about
50 tonnes of sub fossil clam deposit in two hours
later as the resource declined due to
overexploitation, it took upto six hours to get 50 t
of clam shell (Mammen, 1984). However, even at
this rate the factories are finding it economical to
dredge the shell rather than buy from the divers.
The factories claim that they are dredging in
deeper waters and thus do not come in the way of
collection of clams by the divers. According to
them, if the divers get the sole licence for
collection, they are likely to dictate the terms.
Estimates of the exploited clam population: The
population of clam in Vernban ad lake has been
estimated by Kurup et at. (1990). They had
divided the regions into ten zones comprising five
zones each on the northern and southern side of
the Thanneermukkam barrier. They reported the
presence of extensive clam beds in the regions
where the lake bottom is sandy. The clams avoid
the areas' where high percentage of silt is present.
The important live clam beds of different zones as
reported by Kurup et at. (1990), are presented in
Tables 1 & 2.
Size distribution of clam : The size of the
exploited clams varies from 9 to 59 mm. However,
size below 10 mm and above 39 mm were rarely
represented. The dominant modal groups were 15
- 19, 20 - 24 & 10- 14 mm, in that order. The sizes
prevalent in different zones of the lakes were
analysed. It appears that the dominant mode in
zone I was that of 30-34 mm. Here the clam is
present in semi-enclosed lake with low salinity. In
zone II and III where higher salinity is prevalent
the modal groups 15 - 19 and 10 - 14 mm were
dominant. Zone IV had almost all the three groups
15 - 19, 20 - 24 and 25 - 29 mm equally
represented. Zone V had modal group 20 - 24 mm,
which was not apart from all other zones with a
dominant modal group of 30 - 34 mm.

Vembanad Lake
Table 1 : Important black clam beds of northern sector and zonewise clam production
Name of Ihe bed Area Deplh Salinity (ppl) Exploited quantity
lone (Ref. Point) (ha) (Mean) m) Monsoon Post-mono Pre-mono of black clam
June-Sept. Oct.Jan. Feb-May (Tonnes)
I. t Veluthully kayal 20.00 3.00
2. Kumbalangi 17.50 2.70
3. Ezhupunna 8.00 3.00
4. Pandathu 7.50 3.60 0.5 -4.0 3.0-7. 6.0-17.0
Total 53.50 284.33
II. l Thaikkatluserry 28.00 3.50
2. Eramelloor 12.00 4.00 0-7 0.5-18.0 9.0-23.0
3. Arrer 17.00 3.00
Tolal 57.00 739.05
III. 1. Perumbalam-N 30.00 2.00 0-8 6-18 12.0-18.0 475.74
IV. 1. Perumbalam - S 8.00 2.80
2. Nediathuruthu 32.00 3.50
. 3. Chempu kayal 110.00 2.75 Freshwater 0-5-13.0 10.0-13.0
4. Poochakkal 12.00 2.00
5. Manappurm 60.00 2.40
6. Anjuthuruthu 28.00 2.50
7. Murinjapuzha 40.00 3.75
Total 290.00 1560.86
V. 1. Pallippuram
Thanneermukkam 120.00 2.20
2. Vaikom Jetty 8000 3.45 Freshwater 0.11 9-11
3. Vaikom electric tower 55.00 3.50
Tolal 255.00 633.85
Tolal area of ciani beds 685.00 3693.83
Table 2 : Important black clam beds of southern sector and zonewlse clam production
Name of the bed Area Deplh Salinity (ppt) Exploited quanlily
lone (Ref. Point) (ha) (Mean) m) Monsoon Post-mono Pre-man. of black clam
June-Sept. Oct.Jan. Feb-May (Tonnes)
VI. 1. Vechoor 55.00 1.75
2. Pathiramanal north 42.00 2.25 Freshwater Freshwater 0.5-4.0
3. Kayippuram- Kannankara 36.00 2.30
4. Thanneermukkom 4.00
5. Puthenkayal 28.00 4.00
Total 165.00 582.71
VII. 1. Muthamma 210.00 2.15
2. Kumakom 15.00 2.35 Freshwater Freshwater 0.5-2.5
3. Kavanatlinkara 50.00 2.50
Total 275.00 977.68
VIII. 1. Aryad 440.00 2.0 Freshwater Freshwater 0.5-2.0 1771.63
Total area of clam beds 880.00 3332.02
Source: KlIRlIP et.a1., 1990
91

Vembanad Lake
Estimates of live clam production: While the dead
shells of the clam cater to the lime industry, the
live clam serves as a food. According to Kurup et
al. (1990), the estimated catch of live clam for
1988-89was 7026 t and the catch per hectare of
the lake was computed as 333.7 kg. The total area
of the live bed of clam is estimated as 1565
hectares. The maximum catch is from zone VIII
followed by zone IV and the lowest in zone 1.
Hornell (1921) indicated that the black clam
(Vellorita sp.) is not so clearly abundant in the
lakes as the backwater clam, its habitat being
restricted to regions usually more distant from the
sea than that of the latter. However, over the years
drastic changes have occurred in the distribution
and abundance of these species. Though it has
been observed that Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus )
and M. casta (Hanley) have been recorded from
the northern part of the lake in addition to
Vellorita cyprinoides ( Gray) as observed by
Rasalam and Sebastian (1976), their distribution is
now confined to very narrow stretches along the
high saline bar mouth area. Probably the black
clam has taken up their niche and the fishery of
the lake is excessively supported by this (Kurup et
al. 1990).
There have been reports that black clam can
tolerate extreme salinity variations from 0.8 to
29.5 %0 (Nair and Shynamma, 1975). Kurup et al.
(1990) noticed clam beds in the regions where the
salinity varied from 0 to 23%0.However, they have
also noticed the perennial abundance of this
species only from regions where the bottom salinity
varied from 0- 13%0.More than 80% of the clam
beds were found to be situated in areas where the
bottom salinity was less than 13%0.The large size
groups were found to be flourishing in the lower
Kuttunad area where the salinity was 0-2%0.This
observation corroborates with the' observation of
Hornell (1921) that Vellorita cyprinoides is
purely a freshwater species and made mark~\!changes
in the habits and acquired tolerance for
the saline conditions (Kurup et al., 1990).
Nearly 5.5 % of the total area of the northern
sector supports a regular fishery of live clam as
compared to 10.2 % of the southern sector. The
catch 5392.45kglha and_3786.39 kglha. in the
northern' and southern sectors respectively. The
zone IV gives marginally higher values of the clam
resources as more people.come here for collection
(Kurup et al.; '1990). With the commissioning of
92
the ldukki hydropower project the flow of
freshwater from the Muvathupuzha river is
discharged into this region which makes the ideal
requirement of salinity for V.cyprinoides i.e. 0.5 -
13%0. Thus a conducive environment for the
growth and reproduction of V. cyprinoides is
provided even before the monsoon period. During
the period January-May, the shutters of the
Thanneermukkam barrier are closed. Hence the
water level in the upstream increases making
collection of the clams difficult. But in the
downstream region, the water level is substantially
lower during their period, making collection
easier. Because of this, there is difference between
collection of clam in the pre-monsoon season
between northern and southern sectors.
Growth studies of this species have been made by
Kizhakundan and Narasimhan (1995), which
indicate that this species grows to 24.6, 39.09,
47.19 and 51.83 mm at the end of I-IV years of its
life span. The asymptotic length was estimated as
58 mm and growth coefficient, K as 0.56. The
decline in the clam resources has been very
drastic. Rasalam and Sebastian (1976) reported
that about 26, 858 t of live clams were collected
from Vembanad Lake in 1968. Acharya (1987)
observed that the average clam productions
during the period from 1979-1984was 21,4901.The
data analyzed by him shows a steady decline in
production from 1983 onwards reaching a value of
13, 804 t in 1984.Kurup et al. (1990) estimated the
catch of this resource around 7202 t in 1987- 89.
The estimated catch from the northern sector was
3693.8t, which was only 35.8% of that of estimated
by Achary (1987) for 1984. The southern region has
not shown much variation and the replenishment
rate is stable. It is thus inferred that construction
of the salt water barrier has not made any impact
on the black clam resources in the southern
sector-Thanneermukkam to Alleppy. The low
quantity of catch obtained in the northern sector
illustrates the declining trends in catch from the
lake over the years and it is independent of the
existence of the barrier. The reasons for the
decline as cited by Kurup et ai. (1990) are listed
below:
i) Increased fishing pressure and resultant
removal of undersized clam of 10-14 mm.
il) Indiscriminate fishing practice using toothed
iron rakers for combing the clam beds and,
disturbing spat settlement.

-------------------------------------------------
iii)Pollution hazards from coconut husks retting
ground.
iv)Pollution from industries.
it. Prawn resources
a. Penaenid prawns
The other main resource of the lake was the
penaeid prawns. They were dominant in zones 1 &
2. Highest catch was recorded from zone 2
followed by zone 1. No penaeid fishery was located
in zone 10. Metapenaeus dobsoni, M.monoceros
and Penaeus indicus were available throughout
the year. M.dobsoni formed 72.2% of the total
penaeid yield while P.indicus and M.monoceros
contributed 14.88 and 10.31% respectively.
b. Palaemonid prawns :
Four species of Macrobrachium contributed 1.83%
to the total production of the lake. Of these
M.rosenbergii and M.idella contributed 0.55 and
0.99%respectively. Zone 7 followed by zone 5 gave
the maximum yield of these two species.
c. Crabs:
Highest contribution of crabs came from Zone 1
followed by zones 3 and 2.
The penaeid prawn resources are biologically
related to the brackish water ecological system.
Adults and larvae of six species of penaeids are
found to inhabit the lake. Available information
suggests that the post larvae of Mefapenaeus
dobsoni, M. monoceros and Penaeus indicus
remain in the backwaters for 5, 10 and 6 month
whence they attain the sizes of 50, 85 and 80 mm
respectively (Mohamed and Rao, 1972). Larval
stages of M. dobsoni and M. monoceros are
available in the inshore and estuarine areas on
year round basis. The juveniles of P.indicus and
P.semisulcafus do not penetrate the estuarine
envionment as deeply as in the case of M.dobsoni,
M. monoceros and P. monodon. The major part of
the post larval prawn migration into the estuary
takes place during the premonsoon period
followed by lesser magnitude in the post-monsoon.
The migration pattern is strongly influenced by
lunar phases and tidal rhythm.
Palaemonid prawns of commercial importance
available in the lake are the giant freshwater
prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M idella.
With the onset of monsoon, these species descend
into the lake from the adjoining rivers. The down
stream breeding migration is observed during
Vembanad Lake
August to November when the estuary has
mesohaline characteristics (8- 15 ppt. of salinity).
This enables the larvae to complete its
metamorphosis. The zoea is planktonic and as it
transforms into the post larval stage, it sinks to
the bottom and grows rapidly to the size of 20-30
mm. The return migration into the rivers begins by
December or early January. The commercial size
group of M. rosenbergii and M. idella are 18-32
cm and 7-12 em respectively
Of all the penaeid and palaemonid prawns
available in Vembanad, the one that has received
maximum attention is the giant freshwater prawn,
Macrobrachium rosenbergii. The catch of this
species was reported to be around 400 tonnes in
sixties (Raman, 1967) has dwindled to a mere 39 t
in 1988-89 (Kurup ef al., 1992). The main reason
for the decline is that enroute the downward
breeding migration, the berried females are
subjected to indiscriminate exploitation. A wide
array of indigenous fishing gear and methods were
employed for the exploitation of M. rosenbergii,
including cast net, gill net and stake net.
93
The fishery of M. rosenbergii in the downstream
part of the lake is seasonal and therefore it could
be inferred that the migratory stocks descending
from the upstream part of the lake and confluent
rivers constitute the fishery.
Prior to the construction of the Thanneermukkam
barrier, Kumarakom and adjacent regions of the
upstream part of the lake offered ideal
brackishwater conditions for hatching and
completion of larval metamorphosis. Therefore,
the fishery was well restricted to the upper
reaches of the lake (Raman 1967), as the stock
could not perform the downward migration for the
purpose of breeding. However, after the
commissioning of the barrier, a shift in the
breeding ground was found effected by 40 Km
downward (Kurup et.al., 1992) and the berried
females M. rosenbergii are compelled to
undertake lengthy spawning migration in order to
reach the breeding ground. With the
intensification of fishing activity in, the lake for
freshwater prawn during July to December, the
slow moving ovigerous females are most vulnerable
to heavy fishing pressure and this may be the
reason for their heavy exploitation in the
downstream part of the lake.
The result of the studies carried out by
Harikrishnan and Kurup (1997) indicates that on
an annual basis 23.4 t of berried females are

Vembanad Lake
exploited from Vembanad Lake which forms nearly
21% of the exploited stock of M.rosenbergii of
Vembanad Lake. As most of downstream regions
are congenial for the completion of larval
metamorphosis, it could be area, wbich is also
contributing to the replenishment of the stock.
Based on the present exploitation it appears only
one third of the berried females are able to reach
the breeding ground where the hatching and
larval metamorphosis are completed. The rest are
destined to be caught at different regions of the
lake during downward migrations.
The catches had gone down to 39 t in 1988-89and
it recorded an increase upto 129 t. in 1995-96, it
could not reach the level of 400 t of 1967.However,
the increase in the catches in 1994-95& 1995-96as
compared to 1980s is due to the closure of the
barrier for a shorter period i.e. from 160 days to
106 days. The stock may have revived as the
opening of the barrier in April (Table 2) might
have facilitated the post larvae and juveniles
trapped in the downstream part of the lake to
continue their return migration to upstream
waters (Kurup, 2000).
The other reason for the revival of stocks may be
the increased availability of nursery/grow out
areas. It has been reported that more than 60% of
the paddy fields in lower Kuttanad and Kayal are
now follow aquaculture during the monsoon
months (KWBSP,1990) for various reasons. Most of
the polders in lower Kuttanad and Kayal provide
ideal nursery ground for the subadults and
juveniles. The reduced use of pesticides in
Kuttanad may be one of the contributing factor for
the revival of the fishery.
iii. Fishery Resources
Vembanad Lake water body has an area of 21,050
ha of which the estuarine northern portion has
12,440ha and the freshwater southern portion has
8,610 ha. The study on the fish fauna was made by
Kurup et at. (1993) employing two vessels - "Flying
Fish" and "Dutchman" made available by the Indo-
Dutch Co-operation Programme on the Kuttanad
Water Balance Study Project. The area was
divided into .10 zones (Fig.2). The total number of
units of similar gears operated in each sub zone
was enumerated and at least 30% units were
examined by them for the total weight, length
frequency, sex, maturity stages etc.
a. Species composition:
From the lake, 115 species belonging to 84 genera,
94
six species of penaeid prawns, four species of
palaemonid prawns and three crabs were
identified. The annual production from the entire
lake during July 1988 to June 1989 period was
estimated as 7202.1 t of which penaeid prawns
with a catch of 4383 t contributed 60.86%, fishes
34.8%(2506.1 t), crabs 181 t (2.51%) and
palaemonids 131.6 t (1.83%). The average annual
production per hectare was 342.14 kg. (Kurup et
aI., 1993). The northern portion of the barrier
yielded 93% of the catch while the southern
portion yielded only 7%. The average annual yield
of the northern sector was 538 kg/ha as against 59
kg/ha by the southern sector.
b. Groupwise landings :
During July-December except in September, fishes
dominated the catch. The percentage wise species
composition of the important fin fishes as worked
by Kurup et al. (1993) is as follows: sciaenids (8.32
%, glassy perchlets - 4.69 %, catfishes - 4.34%,
pearl spot 4.5%, mullets 2.77%, estuarine spat
2.28%, gerrids 1.56%, half beaks 1.16%. The
followingspecies contributed more than 100 tonnes
to the fishery of the lake: Daysciaena albida,
Ambassis gymnocephalus, Etroplus suratensis,
Tachysurus maculates, Tachysurus
subrostratus, Ehirava fluviatilis, Gerres
filamentosa and Liza parsia.
c. Seasonwise / Gearwise landings
The month of February, with a landing of 1021.23
t recorded the highest landing followed by 224.38
t in July. Premonsoon and post monsoon months
recorded 44.1 and 34.13% of the catches. Fishes
were dominant during monsoon followed by postmonsoon.
This was true for palaemonids also.
Penaeid prawns and crabs were dominant during
premonsoon period.
Two of the stationary nets - stake net and dip net
accounted for 72.48% of the total catch from the
lake. The stake net contributed nearly 52% and
the dip net about 21%. Among the wandering
gears, gill net 10.15%,seines 9.68%, cast net 3.49%
and line fishing 2.54% was the major contributors.
Maximum catch from the stake net was recorded
during January.
Kurup (1982) has reported 106 species of fishes.
Menon and Raman (1961) reported seven species
of penaeid prawns frqm the lake. Kurup et al.
(1993) recorded six of them. Kathirvel et al. (1973)
reported Portunus pelagicus and P. sanguinolentus
as a migrant species.

Evaluating the annual landing trends of different
zones studies by Kurup et at. (1993) indicates
downstream sectors - Thanneermukkam barriers
to Cochin were the most lucrative sector. Highest
catch was from zone 1 and it started declining
from zone 2. However, the rate of decline in the
catches between zone 2 and 4 and also between 5
and 6 was very sharp. Fishery of zone 6 showed
more resemblance to zone 8 than to zone 5. The
drastic ecological changes (Kurup et al., 1989)
encountered in zone 6 and the adjoining
downstream areas due to man made changes can
be taken as the reason for the observed depletion
of the resources.
Post larval recruitment into brackish water
environment can be considered as a causative
factor in bringing about the fluctuations in the
prawn yield (Blaxter, 1962). Natural immigration
of the penaeid prawn larvae into Vembanad Lake
during high alien periods have been reported and
certainly the environment at the lake offers a
better refuge as a nursery than the marine
habitat. In recent years 16,000 ha were reclaimed
from the lake (Anon, 1988). The salinity of the
estuary has also presently decreased. Prior to the
construction of the barrier, salinity incursion was
noticed upto Pulinkizh, about 90 Km away from
Cochin and salinity upstream reached upto 23 ppt
in Kumarakom - Muhamma region (Josanto, 1971).
However, in the present condition, the salinity of
the region did not go beyond 6 ppt. Similarly in the
downstream region from the salinity barrier, in
zone 6 salinity did not go beyond 10 ppt (Kurup et
al., 1980) against 22 - 26 ppt (Josanto, 1971).This
. may be either due to Periyar diversions into
Muvatupuzha or commissioning of the Edamalayar
Hydroelectic Project. Thus a reduction of nursery
area has affected the production of penaeid
larvae.
d. Salinity tolerance
The Post larvae, which arrive in the lake, can
tolerate a wide range of salinity (Kuttyamma,
1975) and hence invade the best feeding grounds
even those with moderate salinity values, for rapid
growih. As they grow bigger in size, they become
more sensitive to low salinity and hence are forced
to descend into more favourable downstream
areas. The maximum growth rate of penaeid
prawns. is also associated with optimum saline
.conditions (Kuttyamma, 1975). The shrinkage of
nursery grounds may have resulted in over
crowding of juveniles in the lower reaches viz:
Vembanad Lake
zone 1 and 2. These areas where the shrimp
juveniles become concentrated are subjected to
heavy fishing pressure due to indiscriminate
operation of stake nets. The incidences of size
growth over fishing are very much discernible in
case of M. dobsoni.
Prior to construction of the barrier, the fishery ill
the upstream region was also sustained by
Penaeus indicus, P.monodon, Mctapenaeus
dobsoni, M. monoceros, Mugil cephalus, Liza
macrolepis, Chanos chanos etc. But after the
construction of barrier, very little catch is
obtained from the southern part. Some of the
freshwater fishes like Horabagrus brachysoma ,
Clarias batrachus, and Ompak bimaculatus are
on the wane and need protection and artificial
propagation. The production of Etroplus
suratansis however has increased especially from
zone 8 during December - May when the barrier
remained closed. The stagnant oligohaline
conditions prevalent in the upstream regions of
the lake may be very congenial for the survival of
this species.
95
e. Depletion of resources :
It is obvious that salt-water exclusion project is
responsible for the remarkable difference in the
yield pattern in the up stream and down stream
regions of the lake. Further, the depletion of the
resources in the up stream is not adequately
compensated either by natural propagation of
freshwater species or by ranching using fast
growing freshwater fishes like the carps.
f. Variation in fishing intensity and gears
and their catch in Vembanad Lake:
The fishing methods employed for exploitation of
fin fishes and crustaceans of lake has been
described by Gopinath (1953), Shetty (1965),
Kurien and Sebastian (1982) and Kurup and
Sammuel (1985) and Kurup et al. (1993). The
fishing methods of the lake can be classified into
seven categories namely stake nets, dip nets, gill
nets, seine nets, cast nets lines and indigenous
methods.
Out of the stake nets studied and recorded, only a
small percentage was found to be operative in the
upstream (southern) region. Nearly 90% of the
stake nets have cod end mesh size of 13 mm and
about 47% have these below 8mm. They are not in
the operation during monsoon season. With the
building up of barrier, the intensity of tidal

Vembanad Lake
currents in these areas have reduced. This has
adversely affected the stake net fishery.
Chinese dip nets are abundant in the lower
reaches of the estuary, which is operated round
the year except during monsoon.
or
There are 23 types of gill nets identified by Kurup
et al. (1989). "Ozhukku vala", "Neetu vala" and
"Chemmeen vala" are extensiveiy operated in the
Cochin backwaters for pep.aeid prawns. More than
90% of the Etroplus suratensis are caught from
the upstream region -using "Karimeen vala".
I
About five types of cast nets are operated in the
lake, which are specifically designed for P.
indicus, palaemonids, pearl spot and other fishes.
The cast net operations start from June and
extend up to November.
Landings by two stationary gears namely stake
and gill net accounts for 72048% of the total catch
of the lake. Out of these, stake net alone
contributed more than 50% of this the rest of the
catch was contributed by gill net, seine net, cast
net and long liners in that order.
Fishers of Vembanad Lake employ an incredibly
complex array of fishing gears. The differences in
the gears employed have a direct bearing on the
dissimilarity of the resources (Kurup and
Sammual, 1985). Among the various gears
employed about three fourth of the landings are
from stationary gears. Out of this nearly 50% of the
catch comes from stake net which is comparable
to the fixed bag net fishery of the Hooghly - Matlah
estuarine system (Datta et al.,1971). The
stationary gears are almost e.ntirely confined to
the down stream regions of the lake. It is felt that
blocking of the regions proximal to the sea with
stationary gears, is inimical to the lake fishery,
because they either indiscriminately filter out the
incoming prawns and fishes irrespective of their
size or destroy out wardly migrating fishes such as
Mugil cephalus, Liza parsia, Chanoschanos etc.
In the downstream regions of the lake, the fishing
methods and gears used are much diversified and
they show both seasonal and regional variations.
During the pre-monsoon seasons, the fishermen
belonging to the upstream region of the lake and
Quilon and Kanyakumari migrate to lower zones
for fishing penaeid prawns resources. This type of
migration is comparable to the migratory fishers
(Jbingran, 1985) of the Hooghly- Matlah estuarine
system.
Based on the ecology, the distribution of fish has
96
been studied by Kurup and Samual (1987). The
three factors they studied were temperature,
salinity and dissolved oxygen, which has a direct
bearing on the occurrence and abundance of the
organisms inhabiting the estuarine system.
The classification of McLusky (1974) for estuarine
organisms based on their salinity tolerance was
found to be suitable for classifying the fishes of
Vembanad lake.
Oligohaline fishes : These are mainly freshwater
species, some of which can tolerate salinity
upto 5%0.
True Estuarine Fishes: These fishes are true
estuarine organisms adapted to tolerate wide
range of salinity fluctuations. This group of fish
really constitutes major stocks and is present
in the lake throughout the year.
Marine Fishes: Based on the salinity tolerance
the marine fishes inhabiting the lake has been
classified into two categories: -
a. Euryhaline marine fishes
b. Stenohaline marine fishes
Almost all the freshwater species listed in
Vembanad Lake were reported from various river
systems of Central Travancore (John 1936, Silas,
1949). So it may be presumed that these fishes
undertake regular migrations from the
southernmost region of the Vembanad lake to the
adjoining rivers viz. Pamba and Achancoil. Of the
22 species list under oligohaline fishes, six are
commercially important.
Most of the true estuarine species which inhabit
all the sectors of the lake are commercially
important since their dominance is observed in the
catches throughout the year. The relative
abundance of these true estuarine species have a
direct reiationship with the prevailing salinity.
T.maculates, Gerres filamentosus, G.setifer,
D.albida are the most thriving species. Etroplus
suratensis and L.parsia are also commercially
important. Out of the 41 euryhaline marine species
eleven are commercially important. A.chacunda,
S.commersonii, T.mystax, T.purava, E.tauvina,
L.johni. L.calcarifer are important.
Out of the 48 species of stenohaline fishes reported
from the lake, the regular occurrence of the
species were recorded from the mouth and lower
reaches during the premonsoon season -
A.djeddaba, T.blochi, J.belangerii, V.sehelihave
importance commercially.

g. Salinity as a factor for determining
abundance of fish :
The distribution and abundance of fishes of the
Vembanad Lake is mainly dependent on tbe
prevailing environmental conditions of which the
most important is the prevailing environmental
conditions and the annual floods (Kurup and
Samuel, 1980 a). Of the hydrographical factors
studies, salinity was found to be the most
fluctuating one and has a direct bearing on the
abundance and distribution of fishes on the lake
(Kurup and Samuel, 1987).
The distribution of fishes within any water body
shows a zonal pattern. Vembanad Lake also does
exhibit the same. The lake has a permanent
connection with Arabian Sea and there is regular
ingress and egress of marine fishes into and from
the lake. The marine fishes are found to be
dominant on the northern sector, and brackish
water fishes are prevalent in the central sector.
The complete absence of stenohaline and
euryhaline marine fishes is observed in the
southern sector beyond the Thanneermukkam
bund. This is only due to the closure of the bund
during pre-monsoon periods, which not only
prevents salt-water penetration, but also ingress of
migratory marine fishes into the southern sector of
the Vembanad lake. Before the construction of the
bund, the salinity during this sector reached up to
23%0 (Josanto, 1971) but after that the salinity
seldom reached beyond 4%0. Before the
construction of the Thanneermukkam bund, the
southern sector of the lake provided an ideal
habital for heterogenous assemblage of euryhaline
marine fishes, crustaceans and true estuarine
fishes which ultimately constituted a diversified
and abundant fishery resources (KSSP, 1975). But
under the changed habitat, not only the diversity
of fish species but also the entire fishery resources
of this region were completely depleted and the
fishery is now dependent on the availability of a
few estuarine and freshwater species like E.
suratansis, T. maculates and A. dayi.
h. Past Threats :
Mass mortality of shoaling specimens of Ambassis
gymnocephalus due to ammonia discharged from
industrial complex at Kalamassery has been
reported from Eloor. In most of the cases, mass
mortality had been during the pre-monsoon period,
the reason being the poor discharge of waters from.
the rivers and consequent stagnation of the
effluents dumped by factories in the region.
97
Vembanad Lake
Several parts of the lake have been used as an
ideal site for retting of coconut husks. The impact
of various associated noxious gases and smell and
depletion of oxygen may deteriorate the
environment. Azis and Nair (1978) conducted a
survey on the population of the retting zones of the
backwaters of Kerala and found that most of these
places have been left barren and only during the
monsoon months some fishes are available.
\. Labeo dussumieri :
The indigenous carp is one of the endangered
species of Vembanad lake. One of the major
reasons cited for its decline by Kurup (1994) is the
low rate of fecundity of this species vis-a.-vis the
Indian major carps. In case of rohu (Labeo
rohita), the mean fecundity was found to be 121-
545 whereas in case of L.dussumieri it varied
from 91-254. Higher fecundities have been notied
in other species of Labeo like L.calbasu, L.bata
etc. as compared to L.dussumieri.
iv. Fodder
Grass is grown in most of the area / districts
covering Vernban ad Lake area. Apart from that
the mangrove vegetation of Kumara~om area is
also used by many of the domestic animals for
grazing.
v. Firewood
The districts of Ernakulam, Allpuzha and
Kottayam receives good amount of rainfall from
both South West and North East monsoons. The
results in the growth of sbrubs continually
throughout the year. This is used as a firewood. In
additional to this the wood generated from
mangrove is also used as a firewood.
v\. Timber / House Construction
Some of the common sp. of mangroves used as
timber are Avicennia officinalis, Brugueira
gymnorrhiza, Heritiera littoralis.
Some of the mangroves which grow the bigger size
are used in construction of houses etc. Chief
among them are Avicenia marina, A. officinalis,
Brugueira gymnorrhiza, Cerebra odollum,
Kandelia candel, Exocoecaria agallocha,
Sonneratia caseolaris, Rhizophora apiculata,
Terminaelia catappa etc.
vii. Bioactive medicinal products
A number of plants particularly mangroves have
medicinal properties. It is well known that most of
the mangroves have antibacterial properties.

Vembanad Lake
Some of plant like Cerebra odollum, belonging to
the family Apocynacae is used for poisoning fish.
Derris trifoliate a climber of family Fabaceae is
also used for killing fish.
viii. Microbes
The micro-organisms found in this habitat are
responsible for the mineralization and cycling of
nutrient salts and elements and contribute
significantly to the transfer of energy among tropic
levels. Thirty fungal isolates have been reported
from sediments, 24 delaying plant parts and 7 form
of floating plants from a small area near Kochi
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium and
Trichodesnia are mainly estuarine forms while
Humicola. Cirrelalia, Conoplea and
Cylindritrichum are. the marine forms. Bacteria
of the mangrove environment include Bacillus,
Micrococus, Coenobacterium, Pseudomonas,
Vibrio, Aeromonas, Moraxella, Cyptophaga,
Flavobacterium, Alcaligenes

Impact of Thottappally spillway and
Thanneermukkam salt water barrier on paddy
production works and Fishery:
The problems created by these two structures
were manifold, some of.them being:
i) The present flood discharge through the
Thottappally spillway is only 1/3rd of what
was designed for. Hence, flooding of paddy
fields continued.
Ii) Once the rainy season is over, the shutters of
Thanneermukkam salt barrier are lowered to
prevent the entry of salt water. This coupled
with excessive evaporation and meagre flow of
river results in insufficient water flow in the
lakes eyen rendering boating difficult.
Appendix - 1.
iii) The relting of coir fibre is poor due to the
absence of tidal influence.
iv) Area for foraging for the larvae of marine
prawns, which was reduced due to
reclamation, was further reduced due to
closure of sluice gates by the salt-water
barrier.
v) As there is no flow of water, the inlet of sea
opposite the Thotlapally spillway is blocked by
a sand bar.
vi) Lowering of the Thanneermukkam shutters
resulted in flooding of north of the barrier.
vii) As there was no flushing of water, major area
of the southern part of the lake was covered
by African payal Salvinia moresta.
viii)Acid levels increased to lethal levels killing
the clam Vellorita cyprinoids which is the
only source of lime in the state. Acidity also
increased the copepod infestation on the gills
of fishes.
ix) After monsoon, the shutters are raised
resulting in surging of salt water. As the fishes.
get very little time for acclimatization, mass
mortality occurs.
x) Pollution from coconut husk retting results in
mosquito menace in stilI water.
iii. Threats to local dependent population
The local population is very much dependent on
the fishery resources of the lake. The most prized
catch is the giant freshwater prawn - M.
msenbergii. However, the decline in most of the
fish catch in general and M. rosenbergii in
99
Vembanad Lake
particular has affected economy of the local
population severely.
VII. Conservation and Management Efforts
LApplicable Protection Act
Coastal regulation zone notification of 1991 is
applicable in Vembanad Lake and adjacent areas
ii. Government Agencies
The Department of Fisheries, Kerala State in
collaboration with Fishermen Co-operative
Societies of the state is monitoring ban during
monsoon. Tourism industry is well developed in
Kerala. Due to the problems lingering in Kashmir.
tourists are attracted to backwaters of Kerala,
which provides an excellent house boating
facilities.
iii. Non Government Agencies
Many of the mangrove vegetation of Kerala are
under threat. From a total area of 70,000 ha,
vegetation is reduced to about 5,000 hectare.
Many of these areas are under village panchayat
or local bodies.
iv. Local communities
The local communities have a very high degree of
awareness and they are not benefited by the
construction of the salt barrier. The consequent
reduction of catch and mangrove and the damage
to the ecosystem is well documented. The local
communities in collaboration with the government
and non-government agencies are willing to
restore the pristine glory.
v. Other Institutions
Fishers co-operative societies, Federation of
fishermlln societies, Universities and other
educational/research institutes are contributing
towards its development and restoration.
VIII. Future Prospects
The Vernban ad Lake along with its confluent a
lucrative fishery during the 1950's & 1960's. The
giant freshwater shrimp became a big foreign
export earner of the state from the inland side.
However,with the commissioning of salinity barrier
in 1976, which divided the lake into two entirely
different types of water, bodies completely changed
the ecology of the area. Coupled with the barrier
construction was the reduction of water spread
and pollution from industries dealing in pesticides,

Vembanad Lake
agrochemicals, sewage and industrial effluents &
excessive fishing pressure resulted in growth over
fishing followed by recruitment overfishing.
a) The Thanneermukkam salt barrier shouid be
kept open for longer periods so that the nursery
grounds of fishes and prawns can be doubled.
This would also remove the restriction imposed
on migration of many finfishes.
b) By construction of a dike along the
southeastern boundary, the problem of salt
incursion into the paddy field can be resolved.
c) The growth overfishing followed by recruitment
overfishing can be regulated by increasing the
mesh size of the gears to about 20-25 mm.
d) The number of stake nets should be reduced as
it exerts lot of pressure on the juveniles of
penaeid prawns. Illicit operation of stake net
during high tide should be stopped.
e) The seaward migratory species for spawning
purpose shall be protected by minimizing the
fishing activities at the bar mouth and adjacent
regions, especially during the monsoon months.
f) Ranching in the down stream region with seeds
of penaeid prawns, mullets, milk fish (Chanos
chanos) and sea bass (Lates calcarifer) and in
the upstream region with Indian major carps,
selected indigenous carps, exotic carps, pearl
spot and giant fresh water prawn should be
done.
g) Creation of artificial spawning areas or
sanctuaries for brackishwater fishes and clam.
h) The shallow water areas along the fringes of
Acknowledgements
the lake can be utilized for aquaculture
practices. The Padasekharams of the lower
Kuttanad region can be utilized for raising
freshwater prawns and fish as a follow-up crop
after the paddy harvest.
i) The downstream migrating berried females of
M. rosenbergii should be given the status of
endangered species. Ranching by hatcheryproduced
seeds could be tried. A similar
endangered status can be accorded to Labeo
dussumieri also.
j) Exploitation of black clams below 20 mm should
be banned.
k) The present practice of allowing clay-water
slurry to spread in the lake from dredgers
should be stopped.
I) Use of poisons, explosive devices etc. should be
strictly prohibited for catching fish.
m) The mangrove vegetation covering about 44 ha
and bird sanctuary now fenced have a total of
8 ha. This is one of the main tourist attractions.
This should be further developed to attract
more people. However, the rubber and coconut
plantations have resulted in damage to the
mangroves. Attempts should be made not only
to preserve the sanctuary and the vegetation
but also to improve the rehabilitation of
appropriate mangrove species within & outside
the sanctuary.
Trespassing the sanctuary should be strictly
prohibited. Only those with bonafide historical,
ornithological, ecological interest should be
allowed inside the campus.
The authors are grateful to M.S. Swaminathan Research Fbundation for
providing the opportunity to present this report.
The authors record their thanks to Dr. E. Vivekanandan, G. Gopakumar and C. Muthiah
for providing many of the reprints on the subject.
100

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APPENDIX -Ia
Closing and opening dates of shutters of the Thanneermukkam salinity barrier.
Year Closing dale Opening dale NO.of days closed
1979 - 1980 01.01.80 14.05.80 135
1980 - 1981 09. 01.81 02.05.81 113
1981 - 1982 01.01.82 20.04.82 110
1982 - 1983 19.12.82 07.05.83 139
1983-1984 10.12.83 08.06.84 181
1984-1985 26.12.84 26.05.85 15
1985-1986 30.12.85 14.06.86 166
1986-1987 04.12.86 04.06.87 182
1987 -1988 04.01.88 30.04.88 117
1988-1989 10.12.88 24.05.89 165
1989 - 1990 14.12.89 26.05.90 163
1991 - 1992 12.12.91 14.04.92 124
1992 - 1993 15.12.92 08.04.93 114
1993 - 1994 18.12.93 18.04.94 121
1994-1995 12.12.94 18.04.95 127
1995 - 1996 22.12.95 22.04.96 122
1996-1997 15.12.96 09.04.97 115
1997 - 1998 30.12.97 11.05.98 132
I b. District-wise Fisheries Population during 1999-2000.
Vembanad Lake
Male Female Children Total Active Fishermen
Alappuzha
Marine 35387 34 226 44034 113647} 39916
Inland 20873 20143 22265 63281 }
Kottayam
Marine. . . .
Inland 8359 8171 8812 25342 7057
Ernakulam
Marine 24039 23272 26670 73981 } 24165
Inland 22284 21672 21450 65406}
103

. Lakshadweep Islands
I. Introduction
Lakshadweep lsI a nod s
The Lakshadweep Islands are the only coral atolls
of the Indian Nation. Rapid developments are
taking place in the islands of the Lakshadweep
Archipelago. They are facing a difficult transition
from traditional isolation to the invasion of
civilization, technology and changing political
pressures. These developments often give room for
concern. A dilemma currently exists in
Lakshadweep; on one hand islanders have the
natural desires for cultural stability and economic
growtb. On the other, the limitations on resources
and the fragile environments loom as deterrents to
sustainability. Too often, small islands such as
Lakshadweep, are persuaded to sell their
birthright to attract industry or tourism for
apparent economic advantages. However the end
result is environmental degradation, of a type that
threatens the ambiance and the very existence of
these islands.
This study describes the socio-cultural conditions
of the Lakshadweep group of Islands and defines
the various wild and domesticated bio-resources
used by the people. The report also highlights
human gender dimensions of resource use, which
will provide important inputs in managing the
resource in future plans.
II. Description Of Site
i. Location
The Lakshadweep islands lie between 8'N to 12'N
Latitude and 71'E and 74'E longitude (Figure 1).
104
- Vineeta Hoon and V.M. Shams uddin
They are situated about 225 to 450 km from Kochi
and lie in a north south direction in the Arabian
Sea, more or less parallel to the Kerala coast.
Table 1 : Lakshadweep Basic Facts
Island 36 (10 inhabited, 1 tourist resort)
Geographical Area 32 SQkm
Land Use Area 26.32 sQ km
Lagoon Area 4,200 sQ Km
Territorial waters 20,000 sQ km
Economic Zone 4,00,000 sQ km
Location 8 N to 12 N Latitude and
71 E to 74 E iongitude
Distance Kavaratti-Calicut 340 km
Kavaratti-Kochi 404 Km
Kavaratti-Mangalore 352 km
Population 2001 60,595
Males 31,118
Females 29477
Population density 1894/sQkm
Temperature Range Max: 35 C-38 C; Min: 17 C-18 C
Relative Humidity 70-75%
Average Annual 1500 mm in northern islands
Rainfall 1640 mm in southern islands
This group of islands consists of 12 atolls. 3 reefs,
5 submerged banks with a total area of 32 Km',
and useable land area of 26 Km'. They have a
lagoon area of 4200 Km' and territorial waters of
20,000 Km'. Lakshadweep covers 4,00,000Km' out
of the 8,59, 992 Km' of Exclusive Economic Zone of
the west coast of India. Only 10 of the 36 islands
are inhabited. These are Andrott, Agatti, Amini,
Bitra, Bangaram, Chetlat, Kadmat, Kiltan,

~
,
s.llwU V.'",~''''' ~ Jf. CIwtf'11.""
l PlrtJ
'. 'SaIktUCllv')'."~ ril.......... K"f~l.
~
"
Figure 1. The Lakshadweep Islands
I N D I A
Kavaratti, Kalpeni, and Minicoy. Bangaram has
been developed as a tourist resort. Kavaratti is
the capital, or the prime administrative hub.
Agatti houses the only airport and airstrip. The
other islands are small and exist as satellites of
the inhabited islands.
Owing to its remoteness and difficult access the
Union Territory of Lakshadweep is classified as a
Scheduled Tribe area and its population declared
Scheduled Tribes. Table 1 presents basic facts
about Lakshadweep
ii. Climate
The islands have a warm and humid climate (air
temperature 17°C-38°C, humidity 70%). They are
influenced by southwest monsoon from May to
August; the northeast monsoon from November to
January has little effect. The total rainfall ranges
from 160 cm in northern islands (Amini) to 175 cm
in the southern island (Minicoy). Most of this rain
occurs from June to September brought by the
southwest monsoon, the number of rainy days
being 80.94 days, and with June being the wettest
month. Low water holding capacity of soils and
high light intensity is a serious handicap for the
cultivation of crops particularly the annual crops
• 1
105
Lakshadweep Islands
as the rain or irrigation water is lost by percolation
or evaporation. Daily evaporation of water
even in the month of July is 1.9 to 5 mm per day.
The maximum temperature is 37°C during summer,
tempered by sea breeze. March, April and May are
the hottest months of the year with an average
temperature of 33°C, sometimes reaching up to
37°C. The temperature variation between the
maximum and minimum is around 4.5°C. The wind
prevailing in these islands are oriented in
southwest to west direction from June to July, and
northwesterly in August-September. Relative
humidity is about 75 per cent almost throughout
the year, and temperatures range from 31.1 to
22.7°C.
The mean wind velocity varies from 6 to 17 Km per
hectare. The cyclonic disturbances are often
present in October-December. The variation in
rainfall all over these islands for the past 50 years
is 69% in Minicoy and about 27% in Amini. (cf.
Saigal, p.15)
The islands experience two seasons: The Fair
season and the Monsoon season
a. Fair season:
The fair season lasts from October to April. The
seas are calm and the tuna shoals move towards
these islands. Skies are clear and temperatures
warm (30°C). There is very little rainfall. These six
months are the most important period of the
islanders' life and the island economy. Everything
happens in the fair season. Fishermen rise before
dawn and go out to fish. Fishing trips last from five
hours in Minicoy to 14 hours at Agatti. Copra and
fish is seen drying in all the suitable places
throughout the islands. The main economic
activities in the fair season are:
1. Deep sea tuna fishing
2. Post harvest operations (Fish processing, Maas
making, fish drying and copra drying)
3. Construction work
b. Monsoon season:
The Monsoon season lasts from June to September.
Very little productive activity can be observed in
the islands during the monsoon season. The seas
are very rough and the islands experience
torrential rain and high wind speeds. This is a
very difficult time for the islanders and it is a time
when they feel their isolation the most. Bad
weather, coupled with high wind speeds and rough
seas can result in the cancellation of scheduled
flights and ships. Very little fresh food is available
in the islands. Fishing is restricted to the lagoon
and the catch is limited.

Lakshadweep Islands
iii. The Natural Ecosystems
There are four natural ecosystems in the Islandsland,
lagoon, reef and ocean.
a. The Land
Topography: The islands consist of coral
formations built up on the Laccadive-Chagos
submarine ridge rising steeply from a depth of
about 1500 m to 4000 m of the west coast of India.
The Union Territory of Lakshadweep along with
the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelagoes form
an interrupted chain of coral atolls and reefs on a
contiguous submarine bank covering a distance of
over 2000 km. This ridge is supposed to be a
continuation of the Arravalli Mountains, and the
islands are .believed to be remnants of the
submerged mountain cliffs (P.S.B.R. James et al.
1986).
Table 2 : Island wise Area
Sl Island AreaSqKm
1 Minicoy 4.37
2 Kalpeni 2.28
3 Andrott 4.84
4 Agatti 2.71
5 Kavaratti 3.63
6 Amini 2.59
7 Kadmat 3.12
8 Kiltan 1.63
9 Chetlat 1.04
10 Bitra 0.1
11 Bangaram 0.58
Total 26.89
These islands are flat and scarcely rise more than
two meters. At an average they are 5-6 km long
and less than a kilometer in width, rising from the
floor of the ocean of 3.4 km depth. (Wafer, 1986).
They are made up of coral sand and boulders,
which have been compacted into sand stone.
There are many man made pits and inland
depressions in the islands dug out for coil' retting
industry and for growing cereal crops.
All the islands have a North South Axis, except for
Androtl that ha,s an East-West direction
lengthwise. All of them are wide in the North and
taper off towards the south. The human settlement
in nearly all the Islands is concentrated in the
wider northern part. Several of the islands have
small islets separated from them by a narrow
channel. It is possible to walk to these islands
106
during very low tides. The distance in between the
inhabited islands vary from 32 km to 182.5 km,
except in the case of Amini and Kadmat, which lie
only 9.5 km apart.
Soils: The soils of these islands are structure less,
formed by the disintegration of coral debris. The
shore is rocky and full of disintegrated corals in
the East and extreme North and South of the
Island. On the western side the soils are mostly
sandy, intermingled with patches of disintegrated
coral debris. Soil fertility and water holding
capacity are extremely poor in such parts and it
is difficult to grow plants except for coconut on the
western side of the islands. From the profile
studies in these areas a clear picture of the
process of coral weathering can be noticed.
Soil in rest of the part of the islands varies in color
I.e. brown to light brown, depending on the
vegetation and elevation of the area. On the basis
of dry sieving, this soil can be classified as sand as
there is practically no sand, silt or clay. Soils of
these areas get dissolved in acid and no residue is
left. They contain about 80-90 % Calcium
carbonate, less than two percent AI,O, and traces
of SiO,.Nutrient holding capacity of these soils as
well as water holding capacity are low. White
coral sands are found below 10 to 30 em from
surface. Thickness of the layer of white sand
varies from 10 to 60cms. The color variation of the
topsoil is due to the presence of organic matter.
The main sources of organic matter are household
wastes, other vegetation and livestock and bird
droppings. Organic content of these soils increase
as one travels from fringes of the island to the
center. The water table of the soil in swampy and
wetlands is very high and varies from 0 and to 40
em depending upon the elevation and the tidal
situation. During high tide water comes to the
surface inundating the entire area. Potash content
of these soils is very low while organic carbon,
Nitrogen and Phosphorous is medium to high. In
low lying areas and in areas on the fringes of open
depression the content or Organic carbon,
Nitrogen and Phosphorous and water retention
capacity are comparatively high in comparison to
other areas.
Hardpan is a characteristic feature of soil profiles
and is found at a depth of 15cm to 3 meter
depending upon the elevation and the water table.
Thickness of this hardpan ranges from 15cm to
120cm. Maximum thickness of this hardpan was
noticed in Kadmat Island where cut blocks of this

area being used as bricks for building houses. A
thin mixed layer of organic material deposit was
discovered just above the hardpan showing hereby
that hardpan does not allow the colloidal material
to percolate down. White coral sand is found
below this hardpan. No hardpan exists in the
marshy or wetland and depression in these
islands.
Ground water: Freshwater resources are limited.
The hydrological system is extremely fragile. The
water is contained in a freshwater lens 1.5 m.
below the surface. The water is periodically
renewed by rainfall. Conserving and protecting it
from pollutants is very important. It will be very
expensive to replace this resource, if depleted.
Figure 2 - The Hydrological Cycle
The islanders explained that fishes like kalatha
kunni and farat as well as karadi (tortoise) and
panjari (dragon fly) are extremely beneficial in
maintaining clean water supply and in keeping
the mosquito population down by eating the
mosquito larvae in the open water bodies. Kalatha
kunni and faral are introduced into new wells
and in this way their population is maintained.
The islanders protect these fauna and do not
allow anyone to harm them. In recent years,
however, the population of all these species has
come down to the point of needing to include them
in the endangered list. The islanders maintain
that this is because the agriculture department
has introduced bleaching powder into the ponds
and wells, and spray DDT to control the
mosquitoes. The water bodies have been thus
polluted and the population of the beneficial
insects and fish has drastically declined (Hoon,
V;1996).
b. Reefs and Lagoon
Coral reefs of the Islands are mainly atoll except
one platform reef at Androth. Almost all the atolls
have a NE-SW orientation with the island on the
east, a broad well shaped reef on the west and a
lagoon in between. These -lagoons are protected by
reefs on the outer edge, and provide a safe
anchorage for small vessels. The reef on the
107
--1-,
Lakshadweep Islands
ell:stern side is closer to the island and the lagoon
is very shallow. The coral patches in the eastern
lagoon are expos~d during low tide. The eastern
reef flat faces the highest stress from trampling by
reef gleaners and net operators since it is easily
accessible by foot.
The reef flat occupies an area of 136.5 km'. Sea
grass occupies 10.9 km' and lagoon occupies 309.4
km' (Bahuguna and Nayak S, 1994). The depth of
the sea increases outside the coral reef and can
reach upto 1500-3000 m. Andrott is the largest
Island with an area of 4.84 km' and the only
Island that does not have a Lagoon.
Figure 3 - The Ecosystem profile
.•••. ~"-.!.. "••.•.
~ -.of -. 'lloo,>.s-
On the leeward side the reef slopes into the sea.
The first plateau is found around a depth of 5-6 m.
The second plateau with the sandy patches is
found around 25m - 30 m (Andreas, 1997). This
area is locally called the bar area, where one can
witness the variety of the coral formation in all
their glory and species variety. The fishermen
favor this bar area, for harpooning and spearing
specific kinds of Rays and big fish. This bar area
is around 200 m around the reef.
During high tide water exchange takes place
between the lagoon and the open sea over the reef.
The lagoons have sand bottoms with scattered
coral boulders and pinnacles followed by extensive
sea grass beds at the landward side. The lagoon
opens to the sea through one or more natural
entrance points. These are natural breaks in the
reef that allow boats to ply between. the ocean and
the lagoon. There are other small shallow
entrances, locally known as chals. The chals are
important since these are the points where the fish
shoals enter and leave the lagoon with the tidal
change. These chals are therefore favored reef
fishing spots for net operators and are used by the
fishermen during the monsoon season.

Lakshadweep Islands
c. The Ocean
The islands appear as tiny specs in the vast
expanse and yet because of them, about 4,00,000
sq km of the sea can be claimed by India as an
exclusive fishing zone. The territorial waters used
by the Islanders cover only 20,000 sq. km of this
entire area. The ocean contains substantial living
and non-living marine resources. Several Tuna
varieties, shark, Seer fish, half beaks move about
in shoals around the islands. Sharks, rays as well
as a large number of food fishes frequent these
waters.
III. Population Profile
Human activity within the system of Lakshadweep
centers around fishing and coconut cultivation.
Tourism is an emerging industry. Until recently
there was only one tourist resort at Bangaram
catering to International tourists. There is a
modest development of light industry, such as tuna
fish canning in Minicoy, coir fiber factories,
coconut oil press, printing press and pickle
making units.
Fishing is the mainstay of the economy and is an
important source of protein. Diesel power
generators fulfill the energy demand for domestic
power and light industry. The island households
use all the ecosystems within their vicinity but
they put nothing back in terms of management of
these free natural resources.
i. Settlement History
The history of these islands is obscure. The
general belief is that the first settlements on these
islands took place in the period of Cherman
Perumal, the last king of Kerala. The first settlers
were Hindus. In the 7 th century the inhabitants of
the islands embraced Islam, following the
advocation of the Islamic religion in the islands by
the people of Minicoy are quite different from the
Islands in the North. Islam is the dominant religion
and it plays an important role in the customs and
traditions of the Island and also places certain
constraints on the people's use of time (Hoon,
1990).
Records show that various rulers and dynasties
have administered the islands of Lakshadweep
since the 11" century. The Cheras ruled the
islands followed by the Kolathris, Ali Rajas of
Cannanore, Tipu Sultan and the Bibi of Arakal.
The main interest in controlling these Islands was
to control the coir trade. The Portuguese and
British also showed interest in these islands for
the same reason. The British managed to wrest
control of the Islands from the Rulers of Malabar
in 1905. Coconut cultivation in these islands
became the main activity of interest for all the
rulers and significantly, owning coconut trees
became the wealth marker and status
differentiation among the islanders. The Amin
Gutcherry was an important administrative unit
where people deposited their coir in return for
rice. The Amin was normally the Karanwar from
the biggest Tarawad, and the high caste • the
Koyas - who owned the coconut trees. The
Melacheris and the Malmis were the lower castes,
being the coconut climbers and the boatmen/
sailors. Almost all the ruling powers, made use of
the social hierarchy prevalent in these islands.
Tension often crept up between these groups, and
Ellis in his account mentions a conflict in 1913,
which was taken to the High Court in Madras.
The British L, in true coionial spirit, brought a
systematic and organized extraction regime. They
focused on earning revenue from land. In 1880 the
system of dMding land into blocks was introduced
to uninhabited islands of Tinnakara, Bangaram,
Hazrat Ubaidullah. Traces of the old culture still 1. The British government introdnced the policy of 'Ietting ont'
land to the islanders (who until then did not have a concept of
linger however despite the influence of Islam, owning land, and this only helped the colonial interest) to grow
caste system still prevails based on occupation- coconut. This system of 'cowles'. that is, "a grant of land, free
of assessment for a certain period, or subject to assessment,
landowners (Koyas), sailors (Malmis) and gradually rising to full assessment, granted to induce ryots to
cultivators (Melacheris). bring under cultivation unpromising wasteland or to plant trees/
shrubs Cor green manure."[Lakshadweep Gazetteer, p.233]While
According to tradition, the first islands to be such n system was already known in Malahar. the British called
it ~improvjng leases" in the islands. By 1875 the British
settled were Amini, Kavaratti, Androth, and administration had also drawn up a Land Manual. for fixing
Kalpeni. People then moved on to the other boundaries and property. on the AmiudiYi Islands. Ellis. who had
been deputed to these islands on an inspection, keeps referring
islands, like Agatti, Kiltan, Chetlat and Kadmat. to a 'confused' state of affairs so far ns property notious on land
An old dialect of Malayalam is spoken on all the
h
. h b.t t
islands except Minicoy, where t e III a I an s
speak Mahal and use the Divehi script of the
were concerned. They also introduced the concept of Pandaram
land, owned by the government, and 'jenmom' land, of the
'landlords'. Significantly. the manual also included a term hy
which minor accretion of land by the action of tbe sea. also came
Maldives. The customs, dress, and food habits of under goyernment property_
108

Parali and Suheli. Baugaram was leased out to the
Amin at Agatti for 20 years provided he plant a
certain stipulated number of coconut trees. The
same was done at Kalpitti. In this way, the British
administration enjoyed both revenue from land
and the profits from the coir trade from the
uninhabited and the inhabited islands of
Lakshadweep. In 1904, the Amin of Agatti
surrendered his lease and Bangaram was
auctioned for another five-years lease period. It is
interesting to note that even today the Indian
administration has continued this system of
auctioning and leasing land as in the case of
tourist resort operators.
It is interesting, that none of the rulers of
Lakshadweep showed any attention to the coral
reef resources or in developing the maritime
resource potential. At this time fishing was merely
a subsistence activity, with little scope for
revenue. The earliest Lighthouse to be built was at
Minicoy, which fell on the line of transit for several
foreign ships and vessels. Numerous shipwrecks
had occurred on that route, and one of them even
close to Bangaram between 1828 and 1911, as
noted by the inspector, Ellis (1924), in his Short
account on the Laccadive Islands and Minicoy.
People resisted the early British attempts to start
their kinds of schools. But by late 19 th century,
most of these islands had their schools, and this
was done, by allowing traditional 'madrasas' to
continue alongside the schools of the
administration. Prior to the re-organization of the
states, Lakshadweep was part of the Madras
state. On 1" November, these islands were formed
into a Union Territory. These islands had been
already declared Scheduled Districts, under the
Scheduled Districts Act of 1874, by the notification
of February 1889. By the Government of India' Act
of 1919, the territory was declared a "backward
tract" under Section 52-A. Under the Government
of India Act of 1935, these islands became
"excluded areas" and the constitution franted in
1950 retained the same immunities granted to the
areas under the 1935 act. The British introduced
the Permit system to regulate entry of outsiders to
visit the islands. A system that is followed even
today.
ii. The status of women
70000.
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000.
O.
Lakshadweep Islands
ancestral or tharavad property is passed on
through the female line of the family, thus ensuring
their economic independence. The husband is
obliged to make an annual payment towards the
maintenance of the wife as a part of the marriage
contract. There is a marked difference in the
status of women in Minicoy compared to the other
islands. The husband takes the wife's family name
after marriage. The women of the house manage
all family affairs. At any given time, two-thirds of
the adult male population is away working as
seamen on International shipping lines. The
famous traveler Marco-Polo has referred to
Minicoy as the Island of women. Minicoy women
are hard working and apply themselves to any
kind of work. This includes processing fish,
making copra, assisting in house construction and
village administration. The female chief
(Boduthatha) as the 'bead of the women's assembly
organizes women's labor for common purposes. In
the other islands however women are confined to
housework and child rearing.
iii. Population and demography
The UT of Lakshadweep has a steadily growing
population. The population figures and decadal
increases based on census reports are presented
in fignre 4.
Figure 4 - Population Growth
According to the 2001 census, the population of
Lakshadweep iu 60529. The island wise break up
of area and population is presented in figure 5.
The density of population is 1,894/sq km in 2001 as
against 1,616/sq km in 1991 and 1258/sq in 1981.
Lakshadweep stands the 4 th position in population
density for the whole of India. The first and second
An interesting feature of the culture of these being Delhi (9294) and Chandigarh (7,903)
islands is the matrilineal type of society, which respectively. The decennial population growth rate
follows the Marumakkathayam system of of Lakshadweep in 2001 is 17.19% as against
inheritance (Mannadiar, 1977). Under this system 28.47% in the previous decade of 1981-1991.
109

Lakshadweep Islands
70000
soooo
50000
40000
30000
20000
'0000
0
Figure 5 • Population of Lakshadweep 2001
c
= Jl " ~
~ " ~ I J J i
IOlotal • Ma~0 female I
The growth in population poses a heavy drain on
the natural resources. This can lead to serious
shortages and environmentally harmful practices.
The recent changes in building styles and living
have already depleted fresh water supply.
According to a NEERI report' published in 1989,
the Lakshadweep Islands have exceeded their
carrying capacity of population with reference to
fresh water available (Roon V: 1990).
The sex ratio in 2001 is 947. The unfavorable sex
ratio for females is of interest since these Islands
are famous for the matrilineal society.
Development aspirations are modeled on Kerala
state that has the highest sex ratio of 1058 in the
country. Only one island - Minicoy - has registered
a favorable sex ratio of 1057 females per 1000
males. Kavaratti the administrative Capital
registers the lowest sex ratio of 829 (census: 2001).
iv. Literacy
Literacy is an important population
characteristic, since it can impact population
change, sex ratio, marriage, migration etc.
According to Census of India 2001, there are
45,281 literates in Lakshadweep. Out of this 24806
are males and 20,475 are females. This means that
87.52% of the population is literates. Figure 6
shows the break up of literacy rate from 1951-
2001 2 • The male population dominates in respect
of literacy. The literacy rate for both Males and
Females has steadily increased from a literate
percentage of 15.23% in 1951 to 87.52 % in 2001.
Female literacy has gone up to 81.56% in 2001
from 5.3% in 1951 registering an increase of 76.26
points. AIl the islands have registered
improvement in female literacy. Minicoy stands
first (90.86%) in female literacy followed by
Kadmat (86.44%). The lowest female literacy is
registered in Amini (75.95%). Lakshadweep stands,
3 n1 in literacy in India. The first and second being
Kerala (90.92%) and Mizoram (88.49%).
Figure 6 • Literacy Rate 1951.2001
100 --------~--.-----. ~.---- .------,
~ :
80
70
80
50
40
'0
20
'0 o
% 1951 1961 1971 t981 1991 2001
leilTotal.MaleS o Females I
Lakshadweep has made important strides iii
health and in 1999 the Infant Mortality Rate (lMR)
was 20.21 and the Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
was 0.84. Lakshadweep has a fairly homogeneous
population and 100% of the native population is
Muslim. The caste distinction between Koyas and
Melachertes is no. longer an issue as both castes
have equal opportunity to study and seek
employment. Despite the adverse sex ratio for
females, there is no apparent gender disparity in
education or taking up jobs. The only Padma Shri
awardee in the Islands is a lady doctor. The entire
indigenous population because of their economic
and social backwardness has been classified as
scheduled tribes. According to the Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes list, 1956, the
inhabitants of Lakshadweep who and both of
whose parents were born in these Islands are
treated as Scheduled Tribes'. There are no
Scheduled castes lIsted for this Union Territory.
v. Transport and Communication
Satellite earth stations link the islands with the
rest of the world. Direct dialing telephone and fax
facilities are found in all the islands. Internet
connectivity is as yet only in Kavaratti.
Transport between the Islands and with the rest of
the country, is restricted to weekly ship services,
helicopter services and an air service between
Cochin and Agatti and Goa and Agatti. Emergency
2. Literacy rates for 1951,1961 and 1971 relate to population aged five years and above. The rates.for the years 1981-2001 relate
to the population aged seven years and above.
3. This distinction of having to be born in the Islands to avail ST status causes an identity problem for those children who are born
in mainland hospitals. Despite the fact that both the child's parents may be natives of UTL.
110

transport facility, particularly during the monsoon
months from May to August is provided by the
Helicopter service. Cargo and provisions are
carried to the Islands by 4 ships. Privately owned
Manjus and Government owned barges are also
used to transport' goods from Mangalore, Cochin
and Beypore to the Islands. Internal transport
used are bicycles, motorized two wheelers, auto
rickshaws, tractors and for official purposes jeeps
and cars.
IV. Biodiversity And Conservation Values
i. Coral reef Biodiversity
The Lakshadweep archipelago consists entirely of
coral reefs, the most diverse of all marine
ecosystems. Coral reefs are known to host many
ievels of biodiversity ranging from planktonic
organisms to sharks. The dominant species on
reefs are corals and fishes. During the past nine
decades, several studies in this region have been
undertaken by the National Institute of
Oceanography; The Zoological Survey of India
(ZSI) and The Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute (CMFRI). The ZSI carried out extensive
surveys in 1982-87and published in 1991, a volume
on the fauna of Lakshadweep. Similarly the
CMFRI carried out a survey from January to
March 1987 to study the fishery potential which
culminated in the publication of a special issue on
Lakshadweep (CMFRI bulletin 43, 1989).
The coral fauna of Lakshadweep is known to
harbor a total of 105 species divided among 37
genera (Pillai, 1996). Rodrigues (1996) has
recorded 29 new records for species in
Lakshadweep (annexure - 1). The Lagoon and reef
flat faunal elements are dominated by Accropra
spp, Pocillopora spp., Porities spp., and massive
and encrusting favids. Psammocora spp is
common in the northern islands. There is a
profusion of blue coral (Helipora coerulea.
Millepora spp) which forms the dominant element
in the lagoon. (PilIai, 1996). Eighty six species of
macrophytes, ten species of Anomuran crabs,
eighty one species of Brachyran crabs, 155 species
of Gastropods, 24 species of Bivalves, 13 species of
sea stars, six species of brittle stars, 23 species of
sea cucumbers, 15 species of sea urchins and 120
species. of fish are found in the Lakshadweep
(Rodrigues 1996).'A list of fish species found in
Lakshadweep is attached in annexure - 2~
The green turtle and the hawksbill turtle are also
found in all the Islands. They graze on the sea
Lakshadweep Islands
grass beds and frequent the bar area and lagoon
area. There are many symbiotic relationships
between reef animals. Even though there are many
kinds of organisms on the reef, there are not large
populations of anyone kind. Hence species of fish,
mollusks and crustaceans, which are favored by
islanders, are vulnerable to over fishing.
111
There are several types of primary producers in
the coral ecosystem. The zooxanthellae live
symbiotically with the coral polyps, take up their
nutritional requirements from the coral excreta
and translocate nitrogen back to the corals in a
quick re-cycling process of about four hours.
Borrowing filamentous algae and calcareous algae
are also associated with the corals. The latter are
secondary frame builders in the reef. Benthic
macroalgae like the sea grass are the most prolific
primary producers.
There are several types of primary producers in
the coral ecosystem. The zooxanthella'e live
symbiotically with the coral polyps, take up their
nutritional requirements from the coral excreta
and translocate nitrogen back to the corals in a
quick re-cycling process of about four hours.
Borrowing filamentous algae and calcareous algae
are also associated with the corals. The latter are
secondary frame builders in the reef. Benthic
macroalgae like the sea grass are the most prolific
primary producers on the lagoon floor. Microalgae
in the lagoon sands are likewise important
primary producers far exceeding the
phytoplankton in productivity (Saldhana,1989).
ii. Island flora and fauna
a. Flora:
The warm tropical climate is conducive to good
plant growth. The islands are rich in botanical
biodiversity; roughly 150 species of plants have
been identified in an initial exercise of the
resource mapping survey carried out by the
Agrobiodiversity Corps in Kavaratti and Minicoyin
October 1996. These include hard wood trees, soft
wood trees, shrubs, medicinal herbs and fruit
trees. The botanical plants do not seem to be
endemic to Lakshadweep with the genus widely
found all across Southeast Asia. The plants have
to adapt themselves to the coral isiand attributes
and grow taller or shorter as the case may be.
Coconut trees cover most of the Island. Other
common trees are the breadfruit (chakka), Neem
and moringa trees. The fringes of the islands are
covered with Pemphis acidula (Cheeruthalem),

Lakshadweep Islands
and, Scaveola koneiggi (Kanni). Pandanus (Screwpiues),
once growing wild have been cleared to
make way for coconut plantations and to extend
housing for government servants, school buildings
and helipads. Appendix: D-3. provides a list of
species found in Lakshadweep.
A few attempts have been made to describe the
flora of Lakshadweep. Dr J.S Gardiner, 1903-1906
who explored the Maldives and Minicoy Island,
provided the earliest description. A more recent
survey was undertaken by Ananda Rao and J.L
Ellis in 1995. The variations in the types of
vegetation in these islands are not perceptible.
Mangroves are found only in Minicoy Island. They
are not established elsewhere since there are no
rivers of rivulets carrying silt. (Ananda Rao & J.L
Ellis, 1995).
b. Fauna:
The land fauna of Lakshadweep is unremarkable
and consists mainly of rodents and lizards. Cats
were brought in to control the rodents and are the
only carnivore found in these Islands. There is a
variety of short-legged goats that were originally
brought here from the Malabar Coast. These goats
have completely adapted themselves to the Island
environment and are now considered as a native
variety.
Birds: Daniels R (1991) has prepared a checklist of
birds in which 67 birds have been listed (Appendix
D4) while the Madras Naturalists Society (1991)
have prepared a checklist of birds, in which 101
species of birds have been identified. The most
significant feature of Lakshadweep Islands is the
breeding colony of terns in the Pitti Island. The
Pitti Island is the breeding ground for four species
Naturalists Society, 1991)
People report that some coconut varieties,
endemic to Lakshadweep such as Lakshadweep
Micro and the Kaidathali are rarely grown any
more. The population of the former has reduced to
2% of the coconut cultivated and there are only 2
trees of the latter in the islands.
iii. Conservation Values
a. Direct Values
Extractive value: The produce from the coral
reefs that are extracted are: house construction
materials such as: coral shingle, coral boulder and
sand: Food, various fish and molluscs, medicines,'
bait fish for Tuna fishing and shark fishing.
Non-extractive use value: Coral reefs are
beautiful to behold and people derive immense
pleasure from knowing that they exist. Tourists
and Coral reef enthusiasts are willing to travel far
to spend time scuba diving and snorkeling to view
a pristine reef. Coral reefs can be sites for
generating income from eco-tourism. The
Administration is therefore promoting tourism as a
revenue earner.
Productive use value: Corals constitute the
central organisms in the coral reef community. Due
to their symbiotic association with zooxanthellae
and the efficient recycling of nutrients
productivity of coral reefs is high. These corals
check erosion and are closely associated with
diverse organisms such as brachyuran crabs,
gastropods and fishes. Turtles consume sea
grasses in the reef.
b. Indirect Values
of terns (Sooty, Noddy, Large Crested and Brown Non-extractive non use value: The Islands have
Winged). Terns are fish eating seabirds with been formed by coral growth and the living coral
colonial nesting habits. Pitti Island is very reef forms a barrier around the island and
important because such breeding colonies are very protects them from the erosive force of the ocean
rare and it is the only breeding ground in the waves. During high tide water exchange takes
Indian Territory for the Noddy Tern. (pitti Island place between the lagoon and the. open sea over
Lakshadweep: An ornithological Study, Madras the reef and prevents eutrophication from takIng
Threatened species: Some of the important notified species found at the site are
Animals: Hawks bill turtle
Green Turtle
Fish: Dolphins
Sharks & Rays
Sea horse
Grouper
Birds: Sooty, Noddy and
Large Crested Tern
Echinodermata:
Coelenterates:
112
Cowries (Cyprae tigris, moneta,etc.)
Cone shells
sea Cucumber (All Holothurian)
Sponges (all Calcareans)
Reef building coral (All Scleraetinians).
sea Fan (All Gorgonians)

place in the lagoons. The Pitti Island' and
numerous other sandbanks
~
provide a safe haven
.
for water birds such as the sooty and Noddy terns.
Option value: The value of knowing that the
resource is available should one decide to use it at
some time in the future. The site is a rich source
of coral and its associated species diversity. Very
little quantitative information exists on the species
available. An important economic use of coral reef
organisms is for the extraction of bioactive
substances and compounds useful for industries.
Recent reports suggest that coral skeleton can be
used for ortho-surgery (Rodrigues,1996). This
potential has not been utilized so far.
Existence value: Is the value of knowing that the
reefs exist in a certain condition. Coral reefs are
known to host many levels of biodiversity ranging
from planktonic organisms to sharks. They provide
nursery grounds for many fishes and are a habitat
for rare species. Even though there is a great
diversity of organisms on the reef, there are not
large populations of anyone kind and target
species are vulnerable to over fishing.
Bequest Value: the value' of knowing that the
resource will be available for future generations.
80.% of the 10.0. students surveyed at Agatti in
January 20.0.2, felt that it was essential to conserve
coral reef habitat for the future generation.
V. Bio Resource Profile
Natural resource management on the islands
revolves around the management of flora and
fauna as well as freshwater management. The Bioresource
profile of Lakshadweep will include both
the wild and domesticated flora and fauna found
on the land, Lagoon, Reefs and Oceans. The
people utilize resources from each of these natural
ecosystems to sustain themselves. The reefs
provide basic construction material for building
houses and the coconut trees provide wood .for
frames and thatching for roofs.
i. Economy based on Wild Resources
a. Fisheries
Fisheries comprise subsistence fishing in lagoon
using a variety of traditiunal methods and deepsea
fishing. The Lakshadweep seas are rich in
tuna, shark, rays, sea cucumbers and ornamental
coral fish. Fishing is the main stay of their
Lakshadweep Islands
Figure 7 • Percentage of Total Catch. 1999
others
11%
comex
1%
purches
2%
Tuna
83%
Rainbow
runner
SoB
0%
1%
Seer
1%
Shark
economy. Mechanised Pablo boats, subsidized by
the government enable fishermen to venture out
further and increase their fish catch. Estimation of
the sustainable resources on a scientific basis has
not yet been done. However it has been estimated
on the basis of the number of tuna shoals and on
the results of the experimental long line fishing
that Lakshadweep waters support a fishable stock
of 50.,0.0.0. tonnes of deep swimming tuna and allied
species. 50.,0.0.0. tonnes of surface swimming
s,~ipjack and 10.0.,0.0.0. tonnes of shark. (Dept of
fisheries, 1990.). The present exploitation is only
around 15,0.0.0. tonnes per annum (Figure 7). The
islands being oceanic, tuna is, the most
predominant fish, contributing to more than 80.% of
the landings.
Training in Pole and line fishing methods from
Minicoy has helped the fishermen from the other
Figure 8. Quantity and Valua of Fish Landing
15000.
10000
5000.
in Lakshadweep
0..
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
10quantity (tonnes) • value (Rs in Lakhs) I
4. Pitti Island is the noddy terns only breeding ground in Indian territory (Pitti Island Lakshadweep: An ornithological Study. Madras
Naturalists Society, 1991)
113

Lakshadweep Islands
islands to improve their tuna catch. The annual
fish landings that were 6800 MT in 1988 have gone
up to 14626 Mt in 1998. This is a per-eapita catch
of 224 kg. Four hundred mechanized pole and line
tuna fishing boats caught these from near shore
waters. About 85% of the total landings constitute
skipjack tuna. About 65% of the landing goes for
curing and 32% goes for domestic consumption
that gets marketed afresh in the local market.
Around 6000 people directly and 3000 people
indirectly find self-employment opportunities and
earn income from fishing.
Figure 9. represents the island wise fish landing.
Almost 60% of the total catch is caught by
fishermen from Minicoy, Agatti and, Kavaratti.
This includes. the catch from Suheli - an
uninhabited island, which is a traditional fishing
ground for Kavaratti fishers. Kavaratti, Minicoy
and Agatti are also the most developed islands in
Lakshadweep.
Fishing methods
Figure 9 ~ Island wise fish landing in Tonnes (1998)
8 Minicoy
17%
DKalpeni
4%
1:13Kavaratli
,4%
Q Kiltan
8%
lDAgatti
- 16%
1. Pole and line tuna fishing: At present there are
400 boats engaged in tuna fishing 8-10 people form
a team in one boat. Four men who do the pole and
line fishing. A wate~-spraying machine has now
been included in the Tuna fishing boat and
thereby the 4 people involved in water chumming
activities are no longer needed. The number or'
pole and line fishermen has increased to six from
four. Nowadays the fishing boat team not only
share the tuna catch, but continue the
partnership, in post harvest activities of Preparing
Mas and even marketing the Mas. This fishing
takes place only during the fair season October-
May. 5-8 m long bamboo poles, nylon line and
barbell hooks are used. Some of the new fishing
boats are fitted with GPS sets and C B radio.
114
Operation: depending on the tuna fishing ground
the boats leave early in the morning. The first step
•
is to collect bait and keep them live in a bait tank
inside the boat. In Minicoy Island bait is collected
in a separate operation the day before and the live
bait is kept in flotation tanks called Laban. The
boat then moves to the deep sea scouting for tuna
shoals. Once the shoal is sighted the tuna is
chummed by throwing the b&it into the water and
the fishermen start fishing with the pole and line
and land the fish in the boat.
Catch composition: Skip jack 70% and yellow fin
tuna 30%. Average landings 200 numbers/
operation when landing is good and 100 numbers
when landing is poor. Fifty percer.t of the total
catch goes to the boat owner and 50% are shared
amongst the team of ten fishermen. The number of
boats fishing from a shoal varies with the size of a
shoal and number of boats around. The
understanding is that none of the boats will create
a problem for the other while fishing from the same
shoal.
Post Harvest operation: As soon as the Tuna
catch is landed on the shore. The fishermen start
cutting and cleaning the Tuna. The heads are
chopped off and the body is neatly filleted and the
skeleton also removed. AIl this waste is buried in
a pit dug at the seashore itself. The Tuna fillets
are boiled in a huge pot filled with seawater. After
boiling the fillets are removed and smoked on a
fire using coconut leaves and husk. Thereafter
they are dried in the sun to remove residual
moisture. They are then packed in Gunny bags
and exported to the mainland markets either
through the Co-operative society or directly.
The gender aspects of Tuna post harvest work
differ from Island to Island. In Minicoy it is only
the women who take care of all post harvest work
once the fish has landed. In Agatti however the
same 10 teams members (male) are involved
together for the preparation of Mas for export. In
the other islands both men and women participate
in Mas making.
1!. Net Fishing: Nets are used to catch fish in the
lagoon. It is estimated that at lest 8-10 fishers per
Island operate their nets on a daily basis. The
quantity of lagoon fish caught varies from 2 kg by
cast net, 8kg by shore seine to 200 Kg from the
Olavala and Kandalivala operation. The
department of fisheries does not enumerate the
quantity of fish caught by individual operators and
concentrates on only the big operations.

The most popular nets used are:
Ad/va/a (sbore seine) : The operation is termed
bala adiyal. This is a rectangular shaped net. It is
operated by 2-4 people and is operated throughout
the year near the shore. The nets dimensions are
length 15-20 m; width 2-3 m and mesh size 15-25
mm. The average catch size is 8 kg. The total
catch is divided into equal parts depending upon
the persons involved in the operation plus net: e.g.
if 4 persons are involved total catch is divided 5
equal parts as the net owner gets one extra part.
Veeebuvala (cast net): There are six types of
circular cast nets classified according to the mesh
size. These nets are also named according to the
type of fish caught. e.g. Mannakatha bala (Goat
fish net) and Furachi bala (whip fin majjara net).
In most cases cast net are operated from the shore
or reef by a single fisher and the catch is kept by
him. When the cast net operation is carried out
from a boat "odams". 1-2 persons are needed to
row the boat. In this case the catch w:illbe divided
among the persons, boat and net.
Pattuvala (set gil/net). These are of two types.
Mesh size 12 cms and 14 cms. The nets with 12
cms mesh size are used in specific spaces Inside
the lagoon. Both the ends of the nets are anchored
in the lagoon. Two people (male) operate this net.
The net is set and anchored in the reef area.
These nets are observed morning and evening on a
daily basis. The fish entangled or gilled in the net
are removed without hauling the net. The net
location is changed if the catch is not good and
left in the same place for a week if the catch is
good. The nets are set where the grounds are
clear free from obstacles like boulders, corals etc.
Olabala and Cbandalibala : Olabala and
Chandalibala are operated as one unit, in which,
Olabala is a scaring device. It comprises a long
rope along which strips of coconut leaves are
hung. Kandalivala is a long webbing with head
and foot ropes provided with floats and sinkers.
The unit is operated inside the lagoon during low
tide to catch coral fishes. The Operation involves
25-30 persons (male) and is operated only during
the monsoon. The team is divided into two. One
group stays at the shore and spread out the
chandalibala. The other group shoots the olabala
over the reef forming an arc. The fish around the
reef get attracted to the olabala and swim towards
it. The team then pulls the Olabala towards the
Lakshadweep Islands
shore ad the fish swim along until they reach tIie
shore. Here the net operators quickly circle the
fish and haul them up. The nets used for this
operation were made in the island before 1970.
Later they were b(lUght from the mainland or
supplied on subsidy by' the fisheries department.
3. Reef gleaning
5. 15 women and 10 men were intervie-..ved to gather the information presented above.
115
Cowry Collection': Reef gleaning has provided an
income for women on the islands from time
immemorial. Women and children gleaned the reef
for items of value and gathered all kinds of
mollusks, cowries and even octopus at times.
Thereby they can supplement the household
earnings. They use this money for buying things for
the house and children. Coral shingle was also
gathered for making lime wash and building or
repairing houses.
One can see Gender values in operation in reef
related activities. Men are responsible for fishing
and women for gathering items of value from the
reef. Division of labor is on the same principle as
man the hunter and provider and women the
gatherer and sustainer. Women from fisher families
collect cowries and other mollusks in their free
time both for pleasure and to supplement their
income. Small cowries are sold for Rs. 1/- each and
the big cowries used as souvenirs can fetch a price
of Rs 25 to 50 depending on the size and beauty.
Chank are rare but collected whenever they are
found.
Typically women go in a group of 6-10 during low
tide to collect cowries. The group can consist of
family members and friends. They calculate the
tide timetable by observing the waxing and waning
of the moon. Cowry collection takes place during
the fair season from September to April. Within
this period collection time is around 15 days a
month. Three days before and three days after the
full moon and new moon. The 14 1h and 27 1h moon
days are the lowest tide dates.
Since cowry collection is a matter of luck and
individual concentration and skill. People keep
whatever he or she collect as their own. No
sharing is involved amongst tbe group members.
However if they have used the services of a
boatman to take them to and from the reef each
individual in the group has to pay the boatman in
cash or cowry. Normally they pay Rs. 5 per head
or give the boatman 5 cowries each. Islanders feel
that the cowry quantities are cyclic. What they

Lakshadweep Islands
take during the fair season is replaced during the
monsoon season. They believe that other cowries
from the deep sea come and take the place of the
ones that are collected (Hoon, 96).
The women stated that cowry collection no longer
remains only women's work. Men and young boys
also go out to collect cowries both for as a hobby
and also for seIling them to the tourists. They felt
that the women are at a disadvantage now for
collecting cowries. They have competition from
young men and boys. These boys and men are not
restricted by clothing and tides and can go as is
convenient for them. They can swim and snorkel
and do not need to wait for low tide to collect
cowries. They can skin dive and collect big
cowries for selling as souvenirs. The women feel
that these cowry enthusiasts go even before the
low tide and hence can get the choicest pick.
Kal moodai' This is a primitive type of fishing
activity mainly done by children during low tide
times in all seasons within the shallow eastern
lagoon. It is a kind of intense reef gleaning activity
where the small coral boulders are covered with a
net and shaken. A few people of both genders
carryout this operation today. The Gear used is
one small cast net, leaf bag and plastic slippers.
Octopus bunting-Appal Kootblll' Octopus usually
lie hidden in crevices of coral reef. When an
octopus is spotted, it is pierced with a pointed iron
rod. As the octopus writhes out of its hiding place
the iron rod is taken out of the water with the
octopus.
Women may catch octopus if they spot them in
shallow waters while they are gleaning the reef.
Generally young boys go as a team of two to hunt
for octopus. They snorkel out to the favorite
hunting grounds and then skin dive looking for
octopus. One stays on the surface while the other
skin dives and looks for octopus. When they find
one they pierce it and bring it to the surface. The
octopus is greatly relished by the local people.
There is a ready market for dried and fresh
octopus within the islands.
4. Collection of building construction materials:
Coral boulders, shingle and sand are collected for
building construction purposes. Shingles are the
broken peaces of acropora coral that get washed
ashore. Boulders big and small massive coral.
Boulder coral serves as a substratum for the coral
planuelae to settle and new colonies to form within
the lagoon. Removal of coral boulders from the
lagoon only results is a sandy bottom and destroys
the habitat for new coral growth to take place.
Boulder coral are collected from the entire reef
area and even the patch reefs found within the
lagoon.
Boulders can be distinguished as two types:'
1. Kummayatba kallthey can be 1-4 feet in length
and breadth. They are used for construction and
making lime. This type of boulders are collected by
men since it is hard work and one goes into the
lagoon. They use boats and crowbars to heave the
boulders into the boat. This activity is carried out
during low tide period. 2-3 craft loads are
collected with one days work. One boatload is
equal to 400-500 Kg.
2. Uralam Kill' This type of boulder is used for
laying the foundation during the building
construction and is not used for making Iiine.
Collection is carried on by women, children and
men.
Boulder collection appears to be indiscriminate
and no part of the reef is considered sacred.
Boulders are used for laying foundations they are
most in demand at this time. Boulders are
normally collected for own use and not sold. There
is no class distinction for collecting coral boulders
and people from all income groups can collect
corals for their own use.
3. Sand: Two types of sand are used in building
construction. Typically 5000 to 10000 bags of sand
are required to build one house.
'l8deyam kummayatb Mann. is used for making
blocks and thick plastering work.
Nanakumayatba Mann. is used for fine plastering
work.
4. Sbingle: Three types of Shingles are collected
from all the seashore area.
fala kall: this is the biggest size around one foot
in length. It is used to make the foundation.
Jally. These shingles are 1'h « in length and width.
They are used in masking the roof concrete, fioor
concrete and making concrete wall bricks.
Pudi Jally. This is of very small size and is used
for giving a top finish to the fioor.
Women and children in the islands routinely
6. Inrormation on shingles, boulder and sand collected first hand during a socio-economic assessment exercise carried out at Agatti
Island April 2001.
116

collect coral shingle for household construction
and repairs. The shingle is mixed with lime or
cement and pressed in a mould to make bricks for
building walls and houses. One bag of shingles sells
for Rs. 10-15.Whenever a new construction takes
place the building owner has to apply with the
dept of environment to get permission for
gathering shingle. They are normally permitted to
utilize 100 bags of 10 -15 kg each. Though most
people tend to double this figure. All income
groups participate in this activity.
b. Tourism
Tourism is not a traditional activity and has been
introduced by the Administration to. earn revenue.
The native population receive very little of the
profits from tourism directly but do receive them
indirectly through government subsidies.
Planning for Tourism development in Lakshadweep
started in the five year plans 1974-79.During this
period one of the beautiful uninhabited island
known as Bangaram near Agatti island was
developed as a tourist resort to attract Western
tourists.
Currently there are three types of tourists :
• The day tourist who spends only the day time
on the Islands and return to the tourist ship at
night.
• The resort tourists, that stays overnight in one
of the tourist huts at Kavaratti, Kadmat,
Kalpeni and Minicoy.
• International tourists that stay for longer
periods at Bangaram Island, Kadmat and
Agatti Island Beach resort. These are tourists
who are interested in scuba diving and
snorkeling and come here to enjoy the isolation
and coral environment. There are two dive
schools in Lakshadweep located in Bangaram
and Kadmat.
Since the islands constitute a tribal territory,
entry is by permit, potable water is in short supply.
It is only after meeting the needs of local
inhabitants that surplus water can be spared for
other needs including tourism.
c. Pitti Island - Tern egg collection
Pitti Island has been a natural bird sanctuary ever
since the people of Kavaratti can remember. It is
colonized by terms, mainly noddy terms and sooty
terms, and is currently under the purview of the
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). It has
117
Lakshadweep Islands
been deemed a notified bird sanctuary; and no one
is allowed to set foot there without the permission
of the BNHSand the Lakshadweep Administration.
The islanders believe in sustained harvest and
collect the eggs laid by the terms only during the
pre-monsoon months of April I May. This was
because the birds would not sit on their eggs
during these hot months, and if uncollected, he
eggs would rot. It was observed that the birds
would flyaway and nest elsewhere rather than sit
on the rotted eggs. It was, therefore, necessary to
collect the eggs and provide a clean sanctuary for
the terms to nest and propagate their species
(Hoon, 1998)
ii. Domesticated resources
a. History of Agriculture
The early settlers started cultivation of some
cereals in the middle part of the island for meeting
their food requirements. They worked hard to
make the area for cereal cultivation in low-lying
region so as to get capillary water for the soil
moisture. In the interior part of the islands, lowlying
areas are seen with mounds all around. The
belief is that coconut was initially not a man made
crop, but in due course the economic importance
of the coconut was realized by the people and
planned gardening started with the crop. In
uninhabited islands like Suheli, Bangaram,
Thinnakara, Parali and Cheryakara self sown type
of plantations are still seen.
Till the late 1960's cultivation of cereals and
millets such as a special variety of rice called jeer
sala and finger millet (Ragi) and cholam was
practiced in the Island of Androth. The land
owners in the middle part of Androth continued
Ragi cultivation where low lying (created) fields
were available. The variety of finger millet i.e.
(chenna) had a very much preferred golden color.
They totally lost the cultivation in 1965 when a
cyclone swept the island. The farmers demanded
that the Administration should supply them seeds
of Chenna. The administration however selected a
similar type of variety developed by the TNAU-
Coimbatore. The cultivation was renewed until
1978.Once again a cyclone swept the area in 1978
and the entire crop was lost, since the fields were
flooded with rainwater. Mootha Kada Nalla Koya,
a farmer brought the matter to the notice of the
administrative authorities and pursued on getting
stocks of cereals and millets for cultivation
(Chenna and cereals) in Androth. He died in 1984

Lakshadweep Islands
and thereafter cultivation of such crops
diminished and vanished. The low-lying area of
Androth is now utilized for cultivation of banana,
colocascia and sweet potato (in summer). These
crops are more profitable to grow than cereals.
In the past a few farmers kept milch cows since
they could successfully cultivate fodder
(Guniea,Napier, Fodder cholam). Recently people
have started settling in the Low-lying areas. They
startel! planting more coconut trees, thereby
reducing the land available for growing fodder.
b. Coconut Management
Coconut is the most important crop in the islands.
It is a non-irrigated crop. The land-based economy
revolves around the coconut palm. There are
about 700,000 trees in all the islands. Twenty eight
million nuts were harvested in 1999, most of these
were converted into copra and exported to
Mangalore and Calicut.
Every part of the coconut tree is utilized. The
coconut kernel is processed into copra and
provides the islanders with cash income. The husk
is used for producing coir as well as for smoking
tuna. The coconut shell is used for fuel and for
making handicrafts. The fronds serve to thatch
roofs and weave hats and mats. The haft and midrib
are used for fencing around houses and making
Table 3 - Varieties of Lakshadweep coconuts
English name Mahal name Malayalam name Description
stands for drying fish and copra. The trunks of
fallen trees provide rafters and posts for house
construction. Nectar (meera) from the coconut
trees is collected to make palm jaggery and
vinegar.
Meera is no longer collected in Kavaratti, mainly
because the honeybees introduced by the
Agriculture Department attack the meera and the
climbers who collect it. The presence of frogs and
toads behind the fronds also disturbs the collection
process. However, meera collectors may be found
at Kadmat, Kiitan, Chetlat, Agatti, Andrott and
Minicoy.Vinegar is made by fermenting meera and
Jaggery by boiling meera.
There are five types of coconut palms commonly
found in all the islands. The islanders plant all
five varieties all the time. These varieties are
identified by their colour and size. Table 3
provides a description of these coconut varieties.
The Lakshadweep ordinary is the preferred
variety for copra and the dwarf varieties are
important since they contain plenty of water and
the Ramzan fasts are broken only by drinking
coconut water. The popular varieties of coconut
cultivated are Laccadive Ordinary, L.Small and
L.Micro of which the largest population of L.Micro
is found in Kalpeni and Androth. Laccadive
Ordinary has a big husk and hence is preffered ill
Lakshadweep Rairu (red) Chenga Tall tree. redish colour, oil Most preferred variety. This is
Ordinary Rathru (dark red) content 68.70% 1 null ratch a good ovule and pollen parent
Nuru (green tali) Karinga Green colour oil content Most preferred variety
68-70%,1 nutl ratch
Laccadive small Shirka Oil content 72% 2 nuts Iratch
Laccadive micro Oamburu Mouliar koya thenga Micro-green bears coconuts The leaves are used to weave hats.
in 18 months 5 nutsl ratch These are irregular bearing trees and
the yield is good every alternate year.
Yellow dwarf Teeriru Chendengh Yellow nuts, oil content 33%
elneer variety, 1 nut Iratch oil
content 28-30% 1 nul! ratch
Green dwarf Pandinetapattam Oil content 28-30% 1 nut I ratch
Source : Hoon~ v.: 1996
Kaldathali This has a sweet husk when tender. It is used as an antidote for vomiting
and reduces stomach ache. For minor
eye troubles like swelling and strain,
(Almost extinct) the kernal of the coconut is removed
as a round ball with the nectar
trapped inside. This is placed on the
affected eye to soothe.
Kahari goboli Micro female, 1" diameter
Kuhiana ru Micro male, trees barren
118

the islands for coir production. The Micro
population has been considerably reduced in all
the islands and agriculture census 1991 indicated
that 2 % of the palm population in the islands are
Micro variety.
Till the beginning of the 20" century the people of
Kalpeni, Androth and Kiltan preferred Micro
variety for the reason that they could transport
the coconut with the husk. They were sold in
Calicut, Mangalore and Cannanore. There was a
great demand for such Micro varieties in the
Mainland for pooja purposes and to make the best
quality of desiccated copra. Brokers from Kerala
took this variety on a large scale and in turn
supplied to cities like Bombay, Ahmedabad,
Lucknow, and Nagpur etc.
c. Other crops
Sailani variety of banana with a thick skin was
well known culinary variety. The variety was also
known for its medicinal value for stomach
disorders and urinary complaints. Crops other
than coconut cultivated are: Bread fruit, Banana,
Colocasia, Moringa, Cow pea, Papaya, betel Vine,
Pumpkin, Water melon, sweet potato, curry leaf,
lemons and grape fruit or chakotra lemons. There
are a few mango trees in the islands of Kalpeni,
Andrott, Kavaratti and Agatti. Lemon was also
cultivated by the people of Androth and Chetlat.
All the trees were uprooted during the 1965, 78
and 79 cyclones.
d. Animal Husbandry
Goats were introduced into the islands from the
time human habitation took place. The early
settlers brought with them a special breed of short
legged goats from the Malabar coast. This variety
has now assumed the status of local variety. These
goats are well adapted to the island environment.
They eat the grass that grows below the coconut
trees after the monsoon, but will also feed on sea
Weeds and casuarina needles. The agriculture
department has tried to introduce other breeds
such as Jamanapari, Thalicheri and Malabari
from the mainland. The islanders however reject
them since they require more care and are not as
hardy as the local variety of dwarf goats.
Pallam Abdusala (1924-2001) of Kadmat was the
biggest goat rearer in the islands. He had a stock
of more than 100 goats per year until 1980. He
became the Amin of Kadmat in 1976 and there
after his goat rearing interest waned and by 1980
was no longer a big goat owner. Big stocks of dwarf
119
Lakshadweep Islands
variety of goats can be seen in the islands of
Kadmat, Kiltan , Androth and Minicoy.
During the olden days a thick growih of grass of
variety Paspalam called Ola Kul was found in
abundance in the uninhabited parts of the islands.
At this time the coconut plantation was not so
dense and it was possible to rear livestock. People
of Kiltan, Andrott, Kalpeni and Kadmat reared
Milch cows also when growth of Paspalam grass
was in abundance. People of other islands used to
pay long visits to Andrott and Kiltan in order to
feed the infants, children and elderly milk.
Animal Husbandry schemes in retrospect of cattle
and goat rearing are now discouraged for the fact
that cultivation of fodder is not possible due to the
limited fresh water supply. Here itis worth
mentioning that the only recouping source of
water'is rain. 80 % of the rainfall is lost by run off
and only 20% percolates to the aquifer.
Cattle and Goat rearing is not practiced in large
scale in the islands due to the limitation of fodder
available. Every household owns one or two goats.
These goats are generally tended by the women
and children of the household and are mainly
reared for slaughter during the Bakrid festival.
e. Pests and Diseases
Rat menace: This is a severe problem for coconut
production. This pest is endemic in the islands.
They destroy nuts at all stages while maximum
damage is caused to tender coconuts of 3\12 and 4%
months maturity. The rats make a small hole of
about 5-6 em diameter near the stalk portion of
the nut. The rats generally bore the stalks of the
tender part of the nuts. The observation is made in
this regard showed that the boring at Kalpeni was
on the larger nat surface of the nut.
During 1930's one of the inspection officers from
Malabar collectorate reported that rat menace in
Laccadives was more than 50% of the total nut
production. During the 1960's the damage level
was surveyed in all the islands and on an average
the loss in production was accounted for 40 - 45%.
Maximum damage observed in the islands of
Andrroth, Kalpeni and Minicoy, 58%, 6% and 54%
respectively.
The administration started rodent control
programmes commencing from 1965-1966.
Necessary consultation in this regard was made
with the CPCRI, Kasargod. The following
disciplines were recommended by the ICAR and
Implemented.

Lakshadweep Islands
1. Pre-baiting with inert materials such as
coriander, grains etc.
2. Baiting in the households, godowns etc. using
Bropmidiolone, Roda cake/ Roban cake.
3. Mass rat hunt campaign in the coconut fields
and placing anti coagulant bait materials on
the crowns of coconut palms.
4. Banding coconut tree truncks at the height of
5" to 6" from the ground level.
5. Fumigation of rat burrows with Alphos/celphes
tabs.
6. Follow-up action once in three months in the
identified pockets of rat nuisance.
The level of damage was successfully brought
down to 5% - 10% with the implementation of the
above-mentioned measures.
Loose approaches crept into the picture in the
matter of implementation of control packages. The
mass participation of the peoples for rat hunt has
weakened in every Island. The administration has
transferred the implementation of this scheme to
the village panchayat. Recent survey conducted in
Andrott and Kalpeni islands revealed that rat
damage in 2001 is at the level of 16%-20%.
Rhinoceros beetle: This is a common pest in all
the islands. It attacks the frondal region of the
palm. After electrification the damage has
reduced due to the fact that the streetlights trap
these beetles. However it became endemic in the
islands and cause on an average 8%-10% damage
to the coconut production. The intensity of attack
is more in the thickly planted coconut gardens in
the middle part of the islands. Earlier the beetle
control operation was carried out with the use of
BHC + sand mixture. The use of BHC is now
banned and biological control introduced.
Eryomide mite (coconut mite): Incidence of
coconut mites was first reported from the island of
Kalpeni. It has recently been noticed that this pest
has migrated to other islands of Andrott,
Kavarathi and Minicoy. Mealy bugs, scaie insects
and white flies attack coconut seedlings and
young palms but the extent of damage is in smaller
magnitude.
The intercrops like cucurbits, brinjal, chilies,
cowpeas etc. have common pests as in the
mainland. They are controlled by the use of
pesticide supplied by the agriculture department.
Wherever bio-control technology is available, that
only is adopted for control of pests and diseases.
120
]}iseases: Stem bleeding disease is commonly
noticed in the coconut plantation. Bud rot of
coconut was once noticed in the Amini Island and
now controlled effectively. The toll of root wilt
diseases was observed in Kalpeni Island during
the 1970's but is now controlled.
f. Fertilizer and manure use :
The agriculture department units in the islands
introduced fertilizer and manure use since 1957-
58. The fertilizers recommended were Amonium
sulphate, Urea, Sulphate of potash, Muriate of
potash and sulper phospahate. A soil analysis
showed that the soil was very poor in Nitrogen and
Potash content. The college of Agriculture,
Vellangani, Trivandrum recommended the use of a
specially constituted mixture of 8:0:16 (N:P:K)
mixture for coconut. In 1973-74 The CPCRI
Kasargod, recommended to stop using sulphate of
Potash and minimize the use of Super Phosphate.
The annual consumption of chemical fertilizers
was about 40 mt nitrogen 8-10 mt, phosphatic and
60 mt of phospate fertilizers. In 1996-97 the use of
chemical fertilizers was banned and the use of
organic manures and organic wastes through
composting and leaf manure application were
popularized by the agricultllral department.
Intercropping in coconut gardens and multicropping
became a practice of the farmers with
the use of fertilizers and manures. This trend
continued till 1990-91 after which the scope for
intercropping and multicropping diminished due
to the rapid subdivision and fragmentation of
holdings making it impossible to raise annuals.
g. Hinderences to Agricultural development
1. Rapid subdivision and fragmentation of land
holdings has led to a very small holding size.
The percapita land holding size in 1996-97 was
1/20 of aha.
2. There is a tendency for the owners of Ihis newly
subdivided land to plant coconut trees to mark
their land boundaries. This has increased the
density of coconut trees and makes it
impossible to do any kind of intercropping.
3. The soil is loose and porus and has low
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and phosphate content.
Water holding capacity is poor.
4. The number of residential house has increased
with disintegration of the Joint property
Marimakkuthayam system and the popularity of
the nuclear family. This further causes a loss of
land for agriculture or plantation.

5. Sea erosion assumed severe proportion leading
to loss of coastal land.
6. Aspirations of islanders are changing and they
are no longer interested in cultivation of crops.
7. There is an absence of any kind of quarantine
facility or system in the islands. This leads to
free movement of pests and diseases between
islands and Island and mainland.
h. Recommendations
Considering the healthy existence of the people in
this tiny and isolated islands the following
recommendations are made for improving
agricnlture strategy of development in the UT.
1. The density of coconut palms population is very
high. The recommended spacing of 7m x 7m is
to be practiced. To achieve this, thinning out
Lakshadweep Islands
and removal of unthrifty and senile palms to be
prudently taken up.
2. Intercropping and Multicropping to be revived
to success fully grow olecultural and
horticultural crops. To enhance production and
productivity per unit area and harness
availability of fresh fruits and vegetables.
3. Streamline and systematic packages approach
for organic recycling of green manures, green
leaf manure and organic wastes to improve the
depleted soil nutrient status and improve
production and productivity of coconut
plantation.
Table 4 - Anthropogenic threats to Reef Resources
Activity Consequences Action taken Remarks
4. The use of pleurotus pith manure to be
regularly demonstrated and popularized to
improve the water holding capacity of soil. It
Blasting in LaOoon Coral mortality, reef Ban. GOl1990 No blasting since 1984
damage
Dredging in lagoons Coral mortality, erosion Regulate
Building Jetties on Large scale coral Regulate EIA not scientifically carried out and
the eastern side mortality. damage. tertrapods have been thrown into the
sea on the eastern reef at Amini Island
even before jetty building has been
authorized.
Collection of shingle Erosion Regulatewith license Unlicensed collection continues
Collection of boulder Coral mortality and Ban, GOI 1990 Collection continues
hampers regrowth
Collection of sand Erosion Regulatewith license Unlicensed collection continues
Reef Gleaning! walking Reef damage by walking GO! notification banning Heavystress observed on the near
& poking with iron rods, collection of mollusks shore reefs especially on the eastern
Trapping over boulder overturning coral heads. in 2002 side of islands. Habitat damage
Octopus catching Habitat damage NIL
Drag net fishing with Coral mortality and Nil The monsoon season is the main
small mesh size in juvenile population breeding period for fish. Hence unre
the monsoon season. reduction stricted fishing of juveniles will bring a
decline in fish catch.
Bait fishing Decline in bait fish - Culture of live baits
Tourism Garbage!sewage regulate Dayarrivals are encouraged. Resort
Collection of shells, Reef damage ban tourists and scuba divers are very
corals etc.
limited. The dive instructors are very
Boating! Anchor damage regulate aware of conservation and encourage
Scuba diving! Inexperience regulate good practices.
snorkeling Flipper damage regulate
Researchfor bio- Large scale collection regulate Don't know the status.
active compounds of marine organisms
121

Lakshadweep Islands
increases the water retention capacity by 10
fold.
5. Biological control of pests and diseases of
coconut and intercrops to be intensified.
6. Plant Quarantine Act to be promulgated.
7. Rodent control in coconut garden combined
with traditional rat hunt campaign to be
revived to make it a peoples programme.
8. Proper grading, packing and storage facilities
for copra and mas to be encouraged. A
consortium approach for marketing of these
products to be ensured.
9. Nutrition gardening1homestead gardening to be
encouraged.
10.0rnamental gardening for healthy
beautification of homesteads to be encouraged
through dweep panchayat.
l1.Processing facilities for papaya and breadfruit
to be opened to help farmers with post harvest
production.
12.0nly 25-30%of the coconut husk is now utilized
for coir production and the rest goes waste.
Project oriented approach to be implemented
for the full utilization of coconut husk.
13.Household small-scale industrial units to be setup
for utilization of coconut shells, coconut
fiber, cowries and shells aimed at women
welfare.
VI. Threats To The Bio-resource
The threats to the bio-resources comes from both
natural and anthropogenic forces. Natural ca)lses
are due to global warming, sea level rise and
storm damage. These are unavoidable. The recent
problems seen in Lakshadweep are coral mortality
due to an epidemic of the crown of thorns starfish,
which destroyed vast areas of coral growth in the
mid 1990's followedby the coral bleaching event in
1998. C. Raghukumar: 1997 also notes a disease
killing corals in Kavaratti termed black band
disease.
The main threat due to anthropogenic forces is the
increase in population. The population of
Lakshadweep at the time of independence was less
than 20,000 of Lakshadweep. In 2001 the
population had gone up to 65,000. This means the
population has tripled since independence.
Lakshadweep has the 4th highest density of
population in India.
122
This growth in population coupled with
modernization of the society and popularity of the
nuclear family has put great pressure on the
limited land and fresh water resources. There is
now a fresh water shortage on every Island and in
several places the water needs to be desalinized.
There is a growth garbage, sewage, defecation on
shore leading to eutrification and unhygienic
conditions.
More people means more house construction,
increased human activities. Table 4 lists the
anthropogenic threats to the Lakshadweep
resources and the action taken by the government
to mitigate the threats.
VII. Conservation And Management Efforts
The need for conservational management of coral
reefs and their associated organisms is urgent and
is recognized by the IUCN as a global priority.
Global concern has led to the formation of the
Global Coral reef Monitoring f"etwork (GCRMN)
and Coral reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean
(CORDIa). The GCRMN has encouraged the
formation of the Indian Coral Reef Monitoring
Network (ICRMN) and The Lakshadweep Coral
Reef Monitoring Network (LCRMN)
i. Applicable protection Acts and Current
legal status
The 1972 Wild life Protection Act was first to
include corals as a protected species. This act has
been amended in 1974, 1986 and 2001 to include
more species from coral reefs under schedule A,
for protection.
The Lakshadweep Administration has modified
this ruling to permit collect shingles for house
construction on a permit basis and has banned the
collection of coral boulders. (Notification number
17/2/98-ST&E). Environment wardens have the
duty of punishing offenders. Despite this illicit
collection of boulder coral continues and one could
see evidence of this while doing transects or
merely walking around the island.
In 1996 a notification was passed that people
could collect shingles by obtaining a permit from
the environment wardens. Non-permit holders
would be regarded as offenders. The notifications
are not taken seriously for example in the Island
of Agatti 22 permits were issued in 1996 to collect
a total of 4325 bags of Shingle. In 1997 45 permits
were issued to collect 11400 bags. The applicants
had applied for double that quantity. A man who

had recently built his house stated that while he
had received a permit for 150 bags, he had
collected around 300 to complete his house
construction. It is therefore safe to assume that
islanders collect exactly the amount they need
irrespective of what the permit says (Boon Vet al:
2002).
In 1998 another notification was issued which
stated that people desirous of collecting shingle
need to apply for a permit and remit Rs 5/- per bag
of 20 kg that they wished to collect. It is
interesting to note that the number of permit
applicants abruptly declined. Field observations
show that shingle collection is carried on
regardless. The administration therefore has no
longer a record of how much shingle is collected or
benefited' with remittance for shingle collection.
Island stakeholders explain that one needs a
minimum of 400 - 500 bags of shingle in order to
construct a modest two-bedroom house. Each bag
of shingle weighs 20 kg. Which means 8-10 tons of
shingle are required per house constructed.
Islanders also estimate that a minimum of 20
houses are constructed every year. By a
conservative estimate this would mean that (20
houses x 10 tons of shingle) at least 200 tons of
shingle are collected and used within the island.
This estimate is supported by the data collected by
monitoring shingle collection (Boon V et al: 2002).
The people perceive coral shingle collection as
their right and are unable to see how this can
destroy the island. They explain that shingles are
like broken and dead twigs and branches of a tree
that wash ashore. This is part of circle of life and
is utilized for construction on the islands itself.
When the houses break the shingle will return to
the island for island building and hence there can
be no harm In collecting shingle. They wanted an
explanation for the disappearance of Parralli III.
They made the point that no person had ever
collected a shingle or boulder from there and yet
it disappeared.
ii. Government, Non-Government, and
local efforts
a. Local efforts
Local efforts in Lakshadweep is in reality only the
government endeavor to protect the reefs.
Traditional customary laws in Lakshadweep deal
only with harvest sharing and there appear to be
no customary practices towards reef protection.
This despite the fact that every citizen of
Lakshadweep knows that the islands are a
123
Lakshadweep Islands
creation of corals and that the reef protects the
islands from storm damage and wave erosion.
The NGOs in Lakshadweep have come up only to
participate in Government schemes and do not
seem have a vision of their own.
Table 5 describes the management efforts during
the five years and annual plans.
The Lakshadweep Coral reefs are the only atolls
in Indian Territorial waters. The rich marine
reservoir is a national heritage and must be
conserved. The Lakshadweep islands do not boast
of a Protected Area. The Administrator therefore
declared at the National Development Council
meeting in January 1997 "The corner stone of all
policies in the 9'" plan is going to be ecology and
environment". This declaration is based on the
realization that the long-term survival of the
Union Territory depends upon the protection,
preservation and conservation of its unique and
extremely fragile eco-system. All development
plans in the islands have to be ecologically
compatible and must avoid ecological stress. In
pursuance of the above policy, the following
management action plans were initiated.
The Department of Science, Technology and
Environment has recently completed an
Environment Impact Assessment report of the 9'"
plan document in which Environment Impact
statement in respect of each of the schemes
proposed by the plan implementing departments
has been prepared and stated from Chapter 1-15.
The statement which will have a direct beneficial
impact on coral reef management are the
following:
1. Cattle rearing is incompatible with the island
ecology and so should be halted.
2. All toilets should be biological. toilets to
eliminate sewage
3. Stress on Non conventional energy use
4. Environment audit of all existing factories in all
Government and private sectors to be
conducted.
5. The shipping vessels should be so designed that
the wastes generated should not be dumped
into the lagoon but should be stored and
disposed in the seas far from the islands.
6. When new vessels meant to enter the lagoons
are to be procured it should be ensured that the
draft of the vessels should be limited to the
existing depth of the channel and further
deepening, dredging will not be permitted as
prescribed by the CRZMP.

Lakshadweep Islands
Table 5 - Management Action in the five-year plans
Coral ReefCon.)lervalion in 5 Year Plans Remarks
1956- 1979 Emphasis on Social and Community development Focused on Every plan had a budget for
5 year plans and encouraging people to take up fisheries as a profession blasting rocks
annual plans in Northern Islands.
1980-85 Under the sector Fisheries, Scheme No 15Plan to declare Not implemented since Suheli is an
Suheli Par as a Marine National Park important fishing ground for the
islanders.
1986-90 Sector Tourism: while tourism has been a component in Ban on blasting reef for harbour
previous Vyear plans. For the first time the plan activities.
documents refer to Lakshadweep as a Paradise
for swimmers and deep sea divers.
Four schemes were floated. All implemented
Scheme 1- Construction of huts
Scheme 2-tourist Information Centres
Scheme 3-Boat Cruising in Lagoon and speed boat
Scheme 6-Air strip in Agatti
VIII 1991-96 Stress on off shore Fisheries and tourism Implemented
XI 1997-2002 Included Environment Impact Assessment for all the EA not effective,
departmental activities, Stress on Tourism development
Annual plan Building jetties for embarkation/disembarkation on the Already started.
2001-2002 eastern side of the island during the monsoon after EIA
7. Scheme NO.8 providing harbour facilities in all
the islands by widening channels and extending
and widening jetties should be dropped and no
dredging work be done in the lagoon as this
increases sedimentation which will ultimately
effect the health of the corals
The Department of Science, Technology and
Environment also conducts periodic awareness
programs and has proposed establishment of a
Marine National Park and National and World
environmental Heritage status for some of the
chosen islands of the UT of Lakshadweep.
Building MateriaJBoard. The islands do not have
any indigenous building material corals have been
used traditionally as building material, which has
caused a grave destruction of corals. The mining
of the corals has now been stopped and a House
Building Material Board has been constituted to
provide building material at economic cost to the
islanders.
Action initiated to ban plastic / polytbene
materlaJs : A draft notification has already been
published inviting suggestions from public.
Pbased reduction of cbemical fertilizers:
Promotion of !lio fertilizers from coir pith,
recycling of biological waste.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Action
Plan. The plan has already been formulated and is
being vigorously implemented.
124
iii. Other Environment Actions
a) Rain water
community
harvesting - individual and ,
b) Optimum tapping of solar energy
c) Awareness creation through'"'I'V; AIR regular
shramadhans, NGO's.
d) Sustainable development policy in Agriculture,
Fisheries, Shipping, Urban development etc.
e) Creation of Scientific Data Bank
• Remote Sensing of Reef, GIS or ReM
Monitoring in collaboration with other
scientific institutions
• Biological Productivity of Lakshadweep
Reefs
• Biomedical potential of Lakshadweep Reefs
• Inorganic wealth of Lakshadweep Reefs
• Restoration of damaged reefs
• Research and Development Activities.
Laksbadweep coral Reef Monitoring Network
An initiative to monitor the health and socioeconomic
impacts on coral Reefs has been started
in 2000. They propose to monitor the degradation
of corals both inside and outside he reef by regular
diving and to employ protective measures to
prepare a master plan for the conservation of
corals.

Environmental wardens and Wildlife wardens
have been appointed in each of the inhabited
islands. They have been given scuba diving
training. Their duty is to see that no coral shingle
collection takes place and the islanders do not fish
endangered marine animals. In 1999 one chief
conservator of forests has been allotted a post in
the Administration of Lakshadweep to develop a
management plan for the coral reefs of
Lakshadweep.
Tourism. With regard to tourism the following
statement has been made "the negative impact of
tourism, generation of sewage, waste, increased
consumption of water and change in landscape
etc. An extremely low volume, high value added
very specialized tourism therefore would be
appropriate to make tourism environmentally
sustainable." A regular system to educate tourists
of prohibitions under CZMP and environmental
laws regarding corals may be introduced
(Srivastava, et al. 1997).
VIII. Future Prospects
Clearly the Lakshadweep Administration is very
concerned with environmental protection. More
laws and recommendations have been passed in
Lakshadweep than almost anywhere else and it
would seem as if they have all the pollution
causing threats under control.
The reality is something quite different. Every kind
of reef and fish collection goes on despite the ban
and notification. The Islanders appear to be sick
and tired of bans. They feel alienated from the
very resources that they have used Jrom time
immemorial. They are quick to seize any
opportunity to disregard the bans since
implementation is non-existent and at the best
very weak. There is one environment warden for
each. island who is in charge of issuing license to
allow a limited .quantity of shingle collection. He
has the additional powers to issue notices and fine
offenders. Field observations show that it is
impossible for this single environment warden to
work effectively and hence they turn a blind eye to
the collections or report them as old collections.
As a result no one is convinced about the value of
the bans and tend to ignore them.
The local people are n'lt taken into confidence
and their consensus has not been sought before
125
Lakshadweep Islands
issuing the bans. Attitude of the people is that
since it is the government who is issues the ban;
let them protect the reef and all the species
included in the ban. At the same time some
Islanders state that the local administration is not
serious about implementing the bans. In the case
of shingle, boulder and sand the notifications have
lead to increased collection and hoarding by
certain individuals.
Complete quantitative and qualitative information
on local, ecological, social, economic and political
context are lacking from the site. Such
information is essential to prepare a plan that
integrates conservation and local economic
development. This information is also essential to
logically convince the local people about the
gravity of the situation.
Islanders are literate and hence can be educated
on the importance of coral reefs. They are already
aware that they owe their existence to reef
building corals. Through integrated conservation
and management approaches the livelihood
security of resident populations could be greatly
enhanced. In order for timely detection of
anomalies and threats, information can be
collected by monitoring resources and pollution.
Two things are urgently needed:
The first step towards protecting this site would be
to undertake a study on the dependence of the
local communities on the services and resources
provided by the site. With such basic information
available from grassroots, a people friendly,
conservation, monitoring and development plan
could be achieved with the participation of the
Island Administration and the Islanders.
Consensus building: through continuous public
meetings and awareness campaigns involving all
professions, age, and gender groups. We must take
a island stakeholders participatory approach for:
a) assessing resources, b) fixing levels of
exploitation; c) imposing size regulatiou, d)
periodic closure during breeding season of
sensitive species to permit recovery and e)
establishing Zoning - demarcation of areas for
different uses including one undisturbed core area
near every island. The role of the environment
warden could be changed from policeman to
consensus builder and provider of information.

Lakshadweep Islands
Acknowledgemen ts
We would like to acknowledge our gratitude to Dr. M.S Swaminathan for giving us the opportunity to
prepare this report. Mr. Mehra, administrator of UTL and Dr. Syed Ism~il Koya Deput~ Direc:or .Science
and Technology, Department of Tourism and Chairperson LCRMN for bemg generous With their lime and
sharing their reference material. O.G Moosa, Asst Curator, Agatti Museum for his art work.
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A\ppen d' IX 1 -L'18t 0f CoraI8
Lakshadweep Islands
KINGDON METAZOA 50. Porites (porites) solida (Forsskal, 1775)
PHYLUM CNIDARIA 51. Porites (synarea) rus (Forsskal, 1775)
CLASS: Anlhozoa
SUB CLASS: HEXACORALIA SUBORDER: Favlina
ORDER: Seleraelinia FAMILY: Favlldae
SUBORDER: Astroeoenilna
52. Cyphastrea microph/halma (Lamarck, 1B16)
FAMILY: Thamnasteriidae
53.
54.
Cyphastrea,
Diploastrea
erailia (Forsskal, 1775)
helipora (Lamarck, 1816)
f. Psammocora contigua (Esper, 1797) 55. Echinopora lamellose (Esper, 1795)
2. Psammocora profunda cella /Gardiner, 1696) 56. Favia fuvus? (Forsskal, 1775)
'57. Favia matthai (Vaughan, 1918)
FAMILY: Poeilloporidae
3. Pocillopora damicornis (linnaeus, 1758)
4. Pocillopora eydouxi (Edwards et Haime, 1860)
5. Pocillopora verrucosa (Ellis et Solander, 1786)
6. Stylophora pistillata (Esper, 1797)
58.
, 59.
60.
61 .
62.
'63.
Favia pallida (Dana, 1846)
Favia roumana (Gardiner, 1899)
Favites cMiia (Ellis el Solander, 1786)
Favites fexuosa (Dana, 1846)
Favites halicora (Ehrenberg, 1834)
Favites russelli (Wells, 1954)
FAMILY: Acroporidae
7. Acropora (Acropora)
, 6. Acropora (Acropora)
9. Acropora (Acropora)
10. Acropora (Acropora)
11 . Acropora (Acropora)
12. Acropora (Acropora)
13. Acropora (Acropora)
14. Acropora (Acropora)
15. Acropora (Acropora)
'16. Acropora (Acropora)
*17. Acropora (Acropora)
18. Acropora (Acropora)
19. Acropora (Acropora)
*20. Acropora (Acropora)
, 21. Acropora (Acropora)
'22. Acropora (Acropora)
aspera (Dana, 1846)
austera (Oana, 1846)
corymbosa (Lamarck, 1816)
danai (Edwards el Haime, 1860)
formosa (Dana, 1846)
forskali (Ehrenberg, 1834)
granulose (Edwards el Haime, 1860)
humilis (Dana, 1846)
hyacinthus (Dana, 1846)
latistella (Brook, 1892)
millepora? (Ehrenberg, 1834)
monticulosa (Bruggemanna, 1879)
nasuta (Dana, 1846)
nobilis (Dana, 1846)
paniculafa? (Verrill, 1866)
pulchra (Brook, 1891)
' 64. Goniastrea edwardsi (Chevalier, 1971)
65. Gonistrea pectinata (Ehrenberg, 1834)
66. Gonistrea retiformis (Lamarck, 1816)
'67. Hydnophora exesa (Pallas, 1766)
68. Hydnophora microcono (Lamarck, 1816)
69. Leptastrea boffae (Edwards el Haime, 1849)
70. Leptastrea purpurea (Dana, 1646)
71. Leptastrea trinsversa (Kluzinger 1879)
72. Leptoriaphrygia (Ellis el Solander" 1786)
'73. Monastrea curta (Dana, 1846)
'74. Monastrea magnistellata (Chevalier, 1971)
'75. Montastrea valenciennesi (Edwards et Haime, 1848)
76. Piatygyra dacdalea (Ellis el Solander, 1786)
77. Platygyra lamellina (Ehrenberg, 1834)
78. Piatygyra sinensis (Edwards ef Halme, 1649)
79. Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck, 1816)
FAMILY: Oealmldae
23. Acropora (Acropora) robusta Dana, 1846) 80. Galaxea astreata (Lamarck, 1816)
24. Acropora (Acropora) teres (Verrill, 1866) 81. Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus, 1767)
25.
26.
'27.
28.
'29.
30.
Acropora (Acropora) valida (Dana, 1846)
Acropora (Isoopora) palifera (Lamarck, 1816)
Astreopora listeri (Bernard, 1896)
Astreopora myriophthalma (Lamarck, 1816)
Aslreopora ocellala (Bernard, 1896)
Montipora foliosa Pallas, 1766)
FAMILY: Mussldae
82. Acanthastrea echinata (Dana, 1846)
83. Lobophylha corymbosa (Forsskal, 1775)
84. Symphylha recta (Dana, 1846)
85. Symphylha radians (Edwards ef haime, 1849)
'31. Montipora foveolata Dana, 1846) SUBORDER: Caryophylliina
32.
33.
34.
Montipora
Montipora
Montipora
berculosa (Lamarck, 1816)
gescens (Bernard, 1697)
venosa (Ehrenberg, 1634)
FAMILY: Caryophylilidae
66. Euphyllia Euphyllia glabrescens
(Chamisso ef Eysenhadl, 1821)
SUBORDER: Fungiina
'87. Paracyathus sp.
FAMILY: Agarieiidae SUBORDER: Dendrophylliina
35.
.36.
'37.
38.
39.
Gardineroseris planu/ala (Dana, 1846)
Pachyseries rugosa? (Lamarck, 1801)
Pavona decussata (Dana, 1846)
Pavona varians (Verrill, 1664)
Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg, 1634)
FAMILY: Oendrophylliidae
*88. Dendrophyllia Sp.
89. Tubastrea aurea (Ouoy el Gaimard, 1833)
'90. Turbinaria frondens (Dana, 1846)
91. Turbinaria mesenterina (Lamarck, 1816)
FAMILY: Fungiidae
SUBCLASS: Oeloeorallia
ORDER: Sioionifera
'40. Fungia (Darafungia) scruposa (Klunzinger, 1879) FAMILY: Tubiporidae
41.
42.
'43.
Fungia (fungia) fungiles Linnaeus, 1756)
Fungia (Pleyractis) scuta ria (Lamarck, 1801)
Fungia (Verallofungia) concinna (Verrill, 1864)
92. Tubipora musica Linnaeus,
ORDER: Coenotbecalia
FAMILY: Helioporidae
1758
FAMILY: Porilidae 93. Heliopora coerulea (Pallas, 1766)
44. Goriopora labota (Edwards el Haime, 1660) CLASS: Hydrozoa
45. Goriopora stokesi (Edwards .1 Haime, 1851) ORDER: Milleporina
'46. Porites (porites) compressa (Dana, 1846) FAMILY: Milleporidae
'47. Porites (porit.s) lichen (Dana, 1846) 94. Millepora eresa (Forsskal, 1775)
48. Porites (porites) lutea (Edwards ef Haime, 1860) 95. Millepora dichotoma (Forsskal, 1775)
, 49. Porites (porites) nigrescens (Dana, 1848) 96. Millepora platyphylla (Hemprich el Ehrenberg ... 1834)
Source: Rodrigues, C.L (1996) Taxonomic and Ecological Survey of the Lakshadweep
For Peru mal Marine Park. Dept of Marine Sciences aDd Marine Biotechnology. Goa lIn/vers/1); Goa.
* New Distribution records for Lakshadweep Islands
127

Lakshadweep Islands
Appendix 2 Some of The Commonly Deeuring Species of Fishes in Lakshadweep
S.No. Scientific Name Local Name Local Name in Minicoy
1. Fistularia petimba Chukkanthati Digunagutholi
2. Holocenrus lacteoguttatus Kaduva Hudubarihi
3 Myripristis murdjan Perumkanni Labodubarihi
4 Sphyraena barracuda Thiruthakkadiyam Farutholi
5 Epinephelus merra Fullichemman Sikkisikkifana
6 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Foodam --
7 Therapon jarbua Kotha Galikkooru
8 Caranx crumenophthalmus Bangada Murimas
9 C. stellatus Kuluval --
10 C. sexfascfiatus Maduthala Digufanihandi
11 Elagatis bipinnulatus Chameen Maniya
12 Coryphaena hippurus Affunose Fiyala
13 Lutianus kasmira Manhan Reendumas
14 L. gibbus Chemmali Ginimas
15 L. bohar Pularian Rymas
16 Apri on virescens Chovidukallam Gilolu
17 Gerres ob/ongus Purachi Sala
18 Lethrinus mahsena Metti Filolu
19 Mulloidichthys samoensis Manakkam Thelakanthi
20 M. auriflamma Manthamanakkam Rheeduthelakanthi
21 Parupeneus bifasciatus Kalmanakkam Gowdaru kaluoh
22 Kyphosus vaigiensis Punji Kiruliamas
23 Chaetodon xanthocephalus Manheppakikathaja Rhindukokk
24 C. falcula Pakkikathiya Handupholimas
25 C. auriga Pakkikadiya Handupholimas
26 Abudefduf sexfasciatus Kalli Galiburang
27 Gomphosus coeruleus Irachchichulam Hibaruhikkae
28 Tha/assoma hardwicki Kuppichulam Galihikkae
29 Siganus stellatus Kalloran Vori
30 lanclus cornutus Kodiyan Didanegi
31 Acanthurus triostegus Kurichil Rabolu
32 A. lineatus Varipad Haravalu - rykathi
33 A. elongatus Neythala Kalahandi
34 Pempheris oualensis Ambatta Ammasabodi
35 Nasa unicornhis Kom ban Karu kkan Niggammas
36 N. brevirostris Mudian Thumbi
37 Acanthocybium solifndri Ayakura Digumas
38 Auxis thazard Ragundi --
39 Gymnosarda unic%r Pallan Choora Vori-Kenneli
40 Thunnus abesus Valiya Choora --
41 T. a/bacares Poovan Choora Kannalimas
42 Katsuwonus pelamis Maschoofra Kalibilamas
43 Euthynnus affinis Choora Letti
44 Istiophorus platypterus Olameen Funghibaru
45 Xiphias gladius Kutherameen Mashibaru
46 Pterois volitans Fanhukuthi Fanghamas
47 Remora remora Kottar keesakan Attamas
48 Melichthys niger Karutha karattki Kalihi
128

S.No.
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
Scientific Name
Balistoides viridescens
Balistapus undulates
Ostracion tuberculatus
Diadon hystric
Nebrius concolor
Lagocephalus lagocephalus
Stegostoma varium
Rhincodon typus
Galeocerdo cuvieri
Triaenodon abesus
Atopias vulpinus
Sphyrna zygaena
Carcharias tricuspidatus
Carcharias limbatus
Rhynchobatus. djiddensis
Dasyatis uarnak
Aetobatus narinari
Torpedo marmorata
Tylosurus annulatus
Hemiramphus marginatus
~xocoetus volitans
local Name
Palli
Valupallan karatti
Thombu
Veerkunnon
Moren
Paravchundu
Poochachuravu
Vaybedu
Valiya churavu
Kallasuravu
Valanchuravu
Attachuravu
Manavalkodi
Neyyan churavu
Mana churavu
Thirandi
Vaval
Thimi thirandi
Karuthonakunhi
Kadukka
Parava
Source: Thirty Years 01 FJsber/es Development In Laksoadweep :
Published by Ihe 1Jepartment 01 F1sberle~ KSJ'sraitl 1990
Table -2 Fishes Important Live Baits
S.No. Scientific Name local Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Spratel/oides delicatulus
S. japonicus
Anthias cooperi
Archamia fucata
Ostorhynchus apogonides
Dipterygonotus leucogrammaicus
Caesio chrysozona
Lepidozygus tapeinosoma
Chromis caeruleus
Caesio tile
C. coerulaureus
Abudefdul biocel/atus
Apogon bandanensis
A. endekataenia
A. sangiensis
Dascyl/us aruanus
Chromis dimidiatus
C.ternatensis
Lakshadweep Islands
local Name in Minicoy
Rondu .
Rondu
Goun
Kari-koli
Nidammiyaru
Digu-koli
Feruvehi
Vorimiyaru
Nigudigumiyaru
Madi
Dethuntholi
Ethuntholi
Hondeli, Vayichala
Rehi, Chala
Rybureki
Rebodhi
Bodhi
Kura
Mugurang
Bureki
Nilamahi
Rymugurang
Kekkurimugurang
Rommas
Kalubodhi
Rugbodhi
Rybodhi
Galiburang
Ekkibadong-nilamahi
Nilamahi
Source: Annex.1 10 Thirty Years 01 Fisheries Development In Laksbadweep:
Published by tbe Department 01 FJsherles~ Ksvarattl .1990 pages 90.
129

Lakshadweep Islands
Appendix 3 - List of Plants
list of plants of lakshadweep found in Geo-economic survey of Lakshadweep
Botanical Name Common Name Botanical Name Common Name
Herbs, shrubs & /rees:
Artacarpus incisa Bread-fruittree Caladium
Azadirachta indica Neam Crepis acaulis
Argemone mexicana Mexican Poppy Cyperus arenarius
Alstonia scholaris Dendrocalmus S1rictus Bomboo
Anona squamkosa Custard Apple Datura stramonium The deadly night shade
Anona muricata Delonix regia (Gold Mohur)
Flame olthe forest
Areca catechu (kavungu) Areca Palm Dodenia viscose
Abuti/on indicum Disoscorea oppositifilia
Anisomeles indica Desmodium trif/orum
Aerva lanata (kattucheera) Dactylocteni um agyptium
Aeschynomene indica Ery thima indica Coral Tree
Ammania Baccifera Eellpta prostrata
Ageratum conyzoides Eragrostis tenella
Acalypha indica Heus religiosa Peepul
Achyranthes aspera Ficus bengalensis Banyan
Apluda Sp Fieus indica
Alysicarpus SP. Fimbristyiis spathacea
Monilifer (Pooranpa/l u)
Sombas Ma/abaricum Gossyplum arboreum Wild cotton tree
Boerhavia diffusa Clyricidia maculata
Cocos nucifera (Thenga) Coconut palm Gloriosa superba
Casuarina equinsetifolia (chavok) Casurina Hibiscus tiliaceus
Calophyllum inophyllum
Premna integufolia) Pinnu (mal) Punnu
Calatropis gigantean
Indigotera corditolia
Milkweed Indigofera purpurea
Colocassia antiquorum Yam Indigo fera tinctoria Wild Indico
Cariya papaya Papaya Ipomaeabffoba (patala) Goat-foot creeper
Citrus medica Lime Ipomea sp.
Cassia occiden/a/is Ischa~mum indicum
Clerodendrum SP Ixora coccinea
Cayratia Camosa Lantana camara (arippoo) Honey sucker
Cissus quandrangularis Lantana camara (arippoo)
Cardiospermum The ballon vine Leucas aspera
Halicacabum Mangifera indica The Mango
CarD/a/aria medicaginea Morinda citrifolia
Corchorus aestuans Macaranga rasburghli
Cyanootis cristata Moringa pterygosperma Drumstick
Commelina bengalensis Moringa o/lifera (Morigakka) Drumstick
Colocassja antiquorum Musa sapientum Banana
Oscimum sanctum Sweet Basil Quisqualis Indica Rangoon Creeper
Pemphis acidula
(Cheruthalam)
Ricinus communis Castor
Pandanus ordorattisimus Screw Pine Rungia Parsif/ora
Psidi~m guavjava Guava Scaevola koenigii Kanni
Plenrostylia wightia Spinifex littorens Porcupine or spinygrass
Plumbage zeylanica Tamarindus indicus Tamarind
Piper betel (vettila) Betel vine Toumefortia argentea Tamara
Polycarpae spicata Terminalia catappa Badam
Polygala Erloptera
Typlophora Indica
Pancratium leylanicum Tridax procumbens
Phy/lanthus Madarus patensis Thespesia populnea (cheerani) Portia or SI. Mary's tree
Phyla nodiflora Vinca rorea Periwintle
Ploygonum barbattum Vettiverrea Vettiver
Pavetta Indicum
ZiZirnoides
Physalis minima Capa cherry Vi/ex negundo
Physalisperuviana Cape berry Zizyphus jujuba (elenthapazham) Ber
Source: Geo-Economic Survey 01 Laksoadweep
130

S.No.
Procellaridae
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Phaethonlidae
6.
Sulidae
7.
8:
9.
\ Lakshadweep Islands
Commonplants oflakshadweep in 'I:K Mukandans list
Common Nama Local Name Billanical Name
Banana
Chilli
Cucumber
Drumstick
Paddy
The common pepper
Tapioca
Vazha
Pachamulaku
Kattu patavalam
Vellarikka
Moringakkai
Mulli
Pacha
Chakkarapullu
Katakaspoovu
Chembaruthi
Arali
nellu
Kurumulagu
Marakkilangu
'Wew plants introduced
Musa paradisiacal
Capsicum Annum
Trichosanthes Cucmerina
Cucumis sativus
Moringa Obifera
Spinifex squarrosus
Lanalvulus alsinoides
Kyllinga monocephata
Setaria italica
Bhumea membrancea
Stachytarpheta indica
Bougainvillaea sepetabills
Codiaeum variegatum
Quamoclit pinnata
Hindisus rosasinensis
Cosmos sulphureus
Nerium odorum
Pedilanthus tithymaloifd
Oryza sativa
Piper nigrum
Manihot utilissima
• Crotalaria tysonii
• Codiaeum variegatum
• Cephalandra indica
• Cosmos sulphureus
• Spilanthes acimella
Thalassia hemprichii
Cymodocea isoetifolia
Souree: Mukundan T.K. Lakshadweep: A Hundred Thousand Island. pp. 100-103,.
Appendix 4 - List of Birds
A List of Birds from the Lakshadweep Archipelago and the Adjacent waters
Name of species
Wedge tailed shearwater Procel/aria pacifica
Persian shearwater Procel/aria Iherminieri
Jousnin's gadfly petrel Bulweria fal/ax
Wilson's storm petrel Oceanites oceanious
Forktailed strom petrel OCeanodroma leucrohoa
Short tailed tropic bird Phaethon aethereus
Masked booby Sula dactylatra
Redfooted booby Sula sula
Brown booby Sula leocogaster
131
Status
u.
U.
U.
U.
U.
u.
R
R
R

Lakshadweep Islands I
S.No. Name of species Sialus
Ardeidae
10. Eastern grey heron Ardea cinerea R?
11 . Little green heron Butorides striatus R?
12. Indian pond heron Ardeo/a grayii R?
13. Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis R?
14. Little egret Egretta gazetta R?
15. Indian reef heron Egretta gu/aris R?
Analidae
16. Common teal Anas crecca M
17. Garganey Anas querquedu/a M
18. White-eyed pochard Aythya nyroca M
Accipitridae
19. 81ackwinged kite Hanus caeru/eus M
20. Pariah kite Milvus migrans S
21. White-bellied sea eagle Haliacetus /eucogaster S
22. Pale harrier Circus macrourus M
23. Montagu's harrier Circus pygargus M
24. Marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus M
Pandionidae
25. Osprey Pandion haliaetus M
Falconidae
26. Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus M
27. Kestrel Fa/co tinnuncu/us M
Rallldae
28. . Whitebreasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus R?
Charadriidae
29. Grey plover P/uvialis squataro/a M
30. Golden plover Pluvialis dominica M
31. Large sand plover Charadrius /eschenaultii M
32. Kentish plover Charadrius a/exandrinus M
33 Lesser sand plover Charadrius mongo/us M
34. Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus M
35. Curlew Numenius arquata M
36. Greenshank Tringa nebu/aria M
37. Common sandpiper Tringa hypo/eucos M
38. Turnstone Arenaria interpres M
39. Eastern knot Calidris tenuirostris M
40. Sanderling Calidris a/bus M
41. Little stint Calidris minuta M
Recurvirsolridae
42. Blackwinged stilt Himantopus himantopus R?
Dromadidae
43. Crab plover Dromas ardeo/a U
132

S.No. Name 01 species Slatus
Stercorariidae
44. South polar skua Catharacta maccormicki M<
45. Pomatorhine skua Stercoranius pomarinus M<
46. Parasitic skua Stercoracius parasiticus M<
laridae
47. Whitecheeked tern Sterna repressa M
48. Brownwinged tern Sterna anaethetus R
49. Sooty tern Sterna fuscata R
50. little tern Sterna albifrons U
51. large crested tern Sterna bergii R
52. Lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis R
53. Noddy tern Anous stolidus R
Columbidae
54. Blue rock pigeon Columba livia IR
55. Rufous turtle dove Streptopelia orientalis S
Psitlacidae
56. Roseringed parakeet Psittacula krameri IR?
Cuculidae
57. Koel Eudyna~s scolopacea R
Strigidae
58. Brown wood owl Stric leptogrammica IE
Alcididae
59. Small blue kingfisher Alcedo athis R?
Hirundinidae
60. Easterm swallow Hirundo rustica M
61. House martin Delichon urbica M
lanidae
62. Brown shrike Lanius cristatus M
Corvidae
63. House crow Corvus splendens IR
Sturnidae
64. Indian myna Acridotheres tristis IE
Motacillidae
65. Pipit Anthus sp. U
66. Yellow wagtail Motacilla f1ava M
Zosteropidae
67. White-eye Zosterops palpebrosa R
Lakshadweep Islands
R: residents; M: migrant; U:uncertain; S. Stragglers; I: introduced; E. extinct. Asterix marks those seen only on the ocean. Birds
with italic serial numbers are those seen by the author in 1988
Source: 'RJ Ranjith Daniels:199]" Island Biogeography and the Birds of Lakshadweep Archipelago.
Indian Ocean" Journal Bombay Natural History Society
133

Lakshadweep Islands
Appendix 5
Significant Notifications related to Coral and Reef Resources
1. The Lakshadweep Gazette
Published By Authority
Extraordinary
VoLxxxvii. No. 35, TUESDAY,18 th SEPTEMBER, 2001/27 th BHADRA, 1923 (SAKA)
MINISTRYOF ENVIRONMENTAND FORESTS
NOTIFICATION
New Delhi, the 11'" July, 2001 "2. Shark and Ray (All Elasmobranchii)
S.0.665 (E):- In exercise of the powers conferred by 3. Sea Horse (All Sygnathidians)
Sub-section (1) of section 61 of the wild Life 4. Giant Grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus)";
(Protection) Act, 1972). The central Government, (h) after part IV, relating to Crustacea &
being of the opinion that it is expedient so to do, Insects, the following Parts shall be inserted,
hereby makes the following further amendments in namely:-
Schedule I and schedule III of the said Act with "Part IV A - Coelenterates
effect from the date of publication of this 1. Reef Building Coral (All Scleractinians).
notification in the Official Gazette, namely:- 2. Black Coral (All Antipatharians).
1. In Schedule 1 to the said Act:- 3. Organ Pipe Coral (Tubipora musical
(a) in Part II A relating to "fishes", after entry 4. Fire Coral (All Milipora Species).
1, the following entries shall be inserted, 5. Sea Fan (All Gorgonians)
namely
PART IV B - Mollusca
1. Charonia tritonis 19. Cypraea carneola. 37. Murex ramosus
2. Lambis truncata 20. Cypraea mauritiana 38. StrombiJs plicatus sibbaldi
3. Lambis chiragra 21. Cypraea onyx 39. Strombus listeris
4. Lambis chiragra arlhritica 22. Cypraea argus. 40. Fasciolaria trapazium.
5. Lambis mil/epeda 23. Cypraea testudinaria 41. Fusinus longicaudus
6. Lambis crocea 24. Cypraea moneta 42. Mitra mitra
7. Lambis scorpius 25. Ovula Ovum 43. Mitra papalis
8. Conus bengalensis 26. Volva volva 44. Cymatium pi/eare
9. Conus malne-edwardsi 27. Turbo marmopratus 45. Nauti! us pompili us.
10. Conus textile. 28. Trochus ni/oticus 46. Tridacna maxima
11. Conus nobilis 29. Xancus pyrum 47. Tridacna squamosa.
12. Conus geographus 30. Harpulina lapponica. 48. Hippopus hippopus.
13. Conus marmoreus 31. Harpulina arausiaca 49. Pifer erycina.
14. Cypraea lamancina 32. Tudicla spiralis. 50. P1eria brevi/ata.
15. Cypraea cribaria 33. Cypracsis ruta 51. Placenta placenta
16. Cypraea tigris 34. Cassis cornuta. 52. Paphia ala-papilionis. "
17. Cypraea mappa 35. Murex palmrosae.
18. Cypraea talpa. 36. Murex haustel/um
Part IC C-Echinodermata
Sea Cucumber (All Holothurians)
2. In Schedule III to the said Act, after entry 19
relating to Wild Pig, the following entry shall be
inserted namely:-
"20 Sponges (All Calcareans)."
[F.No. 1-4/95/WL-I]
134
S.C. ShARMA, Add!. Director General of Forests
(WL).
Note: The entries in various Schedules of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 have been amended
from time to time. The last notification in this
regard was issued vide S.O. 474 (E) dated the 29'"
May, 2001

2. The Lakshadweep Gazette
Published By Authority
Extraordinary
Lakshadweep Islands
Vol.xxxvii. No. 53, FRIDAY,21,t DECEMBER, 2001l30 th AGRAHAYANA,1923 (SAKA)
New Delhi, the 11 th July, 2001
S.O (E):- In exercise of the powers conferred
by Sub-section (1) of section 61 of the wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972) (53 of 1972), the Central
Government, being of the opinion that it is
expedient so to do, hereby makes the following
further amendments in Schedule I and schedule
II1'of the said Act with effect from the date of
publication of this notification in the Official
Gazette, namely:-
3. In Schedule 1 to the said Act:.
(a) in Part II A relating to "fishes", for serial
number 2 and the entry relating thereto,
the following serial number and entries
shall be substituted, namely
"2. Shark and Ray
(i) Anoxypristis cuspidate
(ii) Carcharhinus hemiodon
(iii) Glyphius gangeticus
(iv) Glyphius glyphius
(v) Himantura fluviatilis
(vi) Pristis microdon
(vii) Pristis zijsron
(viii) Rhynchobatusdjiddensis
(ix) Urgymnus asperrimus."
(b) For Part IV B, relating to Mollusca and the
enteries there relating to, the following
Part IVB and the entries shall be
substituted, namely:-
1. Cassiscormuta
MINISTRYOF ENVIRONMENTAND FORESTS
NOTIFICATION
2. Charonia tritonis
3. Conus malne-edwardsi
4. Cypracsis rufa
5. Hippopus hippopus.
6. Nautilus pompilius.
7. Tridacna maxima
8. Tridacna squamosa.
9. Tudicla spiralis.
2. In Schedule IV to the said Act, after serial
number 18 and the entries relating thereto,
the following serial numbers and entries
shall be added, namely:-
"19 Mollusca
(i) Cypraea lamancina
(ii) Cypraea mappa
(iii) Cypraea talpa.
(iv) Fasciolaria trapazium.
(v) Harpulina arausiaca
(vi) Lambis chiragra
(vii) Lambis chiragra arthritica
(viii) Lambis crocea
(ix) Lambis millepeda
(x) Lambis scorpius
(xi) Lambis truncata
(xii) Placenta placenta
(xiii) 8trombusplicatus sibbaldi
(xiv) Troch,usniloticus
(xv) Turbo marmopratus
(S.C. ShARMA,)
Additional Director General of Forests (WL).
To the Government of India
(F.No.1-4j95 WL-1)
Note: The various Schedules of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 were amended from time to time and
the last notification in this regard was issued on 12 th July, 2001 vide S.O. 665 (E) dated the 11 th July,
2001
135

Lakshadweep Islands
3. THE LAKSHADWEEP GAZETTE
Extra Ordinary
Vol. xxxm, No.40, FRIDAY, 22'" AUGUST, 1997 / 1st BHADRAS, 1919 (SAKA)
Administration of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep
(Department of Science, Technology & Environment)
Kavarathi Island, dated 20.11.96
NOTIFICATION
Coastal Zone Management Plan for Union Territory
of Lakshadweep
E.No. 10/3/90 - ST & E: Whereas the Lakshadweep
Administration prepared and submitted the Coastal
Zone Management Plan (CZMP) identifying and
classifying the Coastal Regulation zone (CRZ) areas for
Lakshadweep in accordance with the guidelines given in
Annexure - I & II of the CRZ, Notification 1991 as
amended in 1994 and notified under' Section 3 (1) and
Section 3 (2) (v)of the Environment Protection Act, 1986
and rules 5 (3)(d) of Environment Protection Rules
1986,Declaring Coastal Stretches as Coastal Regulation
Zone and Regulating Activities in theCRZ. The
submitted CZMPfor Lakshadweep has been approved
with certain modification by the Central Government
vide their letter No. J-19011j16/91- IA-I1Idated 27"
September, 1996in accordance with the powers vested
under section 3(3) (i) of CRZNotification,dated 19.2.91.
In exercise of the powers conferred under section 3 (3)
(i) and 3 (3) (ii) of CRZNotification dated 19.2.1991,the
followingCoastal Area Classification and Deveiopment
Regulations is notified in respect of the Union Territory
ofLakshadweep:
(a) Categorization of Coastal Areas
(i) CRZ I
Nonew construction shall be permitted within the CRZ
- I area. However in those uninhabited islands, which
are classified as CRZ - I, continuation of existing
traditional rights, special rights and customary uses are
allowed.
The following areas are categorized as CRZ - I
1. Pitti, the Bird Sanctuary
2. Mangrove area of Minicoy. Island at its south
Western end
3. Perumal par reef and lagoon
4. Cheriyapani reef and lagoon
5. Valiyapani reef and lagoon
6. All coral reef that may emerge in future
7. Kodithala islet (of Kalpeni Islan"i)
8. Thilakkam islet I (of Kalpeni I',l!tnd)
9. Thilakkam islet II (of Kalpeh. Island)
10. Thilakkam islet III (of Kalpeni Island)
11. Pitti islet I (of Kalpeni Island)
12. Parali I (of Bangaram Group)
136
13. Parali II (of Bangaram Group)
14. Kalpitti islet (of Agatti Island).
15. Viringili (of Minicoy Island)
16. Suhali Valiyakara
17. The coral reefs surrounding all the Islands
comprised in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.
18. All sand dunes
(il) CRZ - IV
Coastal stretches in the Andaman & Nicobar,
Lakshadweep and small islands except those designated
as CRZ-I,CRZ-IIor CRZ-I1I.
The following islands are categorized as CRZ-N, the
width of the No Development Zone (NDZ) in these
islands shall be as specified below:
1. Andrott Island - Uniformly 50 meters from High
Tide Line (HTL)
2. Amini Island - Uniformly 50 meters from HTL
3. Kavarathi Island - Uniformly 50 meters from HTL
4. Kalpeni Island - Uniform ly 50 meters from HTL
5. Agatti Island - Uniformly 50 meters from HTL
6. Minicoy Island - (i) 20 meters from HTL, on the
non-lagoon side or smaller lagoon side (ii) 50
meters from High Tide (HTL) for rest of the area
7. Kadmat Island - 20 meters from HTL on the nonlagoon
side or smaller lagoon side (ii) 50 meters
from the HTL for rest of the area.
8. Kiltan Island - (i) 20 meters from the HTL on the
non-lagoon side or smaller lagoon side (ii) 50
meters from the HTL for rest of the area.
9. Chetlat Island - (i) 20 meters from the HTL on
the non-lagoon side or smaller lagoon side (ii) 50
meters from the HTL for rest of the area
10. Bitra Island - (i) 20 meters from the HTL on the
non-lagoon side or smaller lagoon side (ii) 20
meters from the HTL for rest of the area.
11. Cheriyan Island - Uniformly 50 meters from HTL
12. Thinnakara Island - Uniformly 50 meters from BTL
13. Suheli Cheriyakara Island - Uniformly 50 meters
from HTL
14. Bangaram Island - Uniformly 50 meters from HTL
b) Prohibited Activities
The following activities are declared as prohibited
within the Coastal Regulation Zone namely:

i. Setting up of new industries and expansion of
existing industries except those directly related to
water front or directly needing foreshore facilities
ii. Manufacture or handling or storage or disposal of
hazardous substances as specified in the
Notifications of the Government of India in the
Ministry of Environment & Forest, No. S.O.594 (E)
dated 28'" July, 1989, S.O. 966 (E) dated 27"
November, 1989 and GSR 1037 (E) dated 5"
December, 1989:
iii. Setting up and expansion of fish processing on
units including warehousing (excluding hatchery
and natural fish drying in permitted areas)
iv. Setting up and expansion of units mechanisms for
disposal of waste and effluents, except facilities
required for discharging -treated effluents into the
water course with approval under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,
and except for storm water drains
v. Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from
industries, cities or towns and other human
settlements
vi. Dumping of city or town waste for the purposes of_
land filling or otherwise
vii. Dumpingof ash or any wastes from thermal power
stations
viii. Land reclamation, bun ding or disturbing the
natural course of sea water with similar
obstructions, except those required for control of
coastal erosion and maintenance or clearing of
waterways, channel and ports and for prevention of
sandbars and also except for tidal regulators,
storm water drains and structures for prevention of
salinity ingress and for sweet water recharge
Ix. Mining of sands, rocks and other substrata
materials, except those rare minerals not available
out side the CRZ areas
x. Harvesting of drawal of ground water and
construction of mechanisms therefore within 200m
of HTL in the 200 m to 500 m zone it shall be
permitted only when done manually through
ordinary wells for drinking , horticulture,
agriculture and fisheries
xi. Construction activities in ecologically sensitive
areas as specified in Annexure - I of the
Notification dated 19.02.1991
xii. Any construction activity between the Low Tide
Line and High Tide Line except facilities for
carrying treated effluents and waste water
discharges into the sea, facilities for carrying sea
water for cooling purposes, oil, gas and similar
pipelines and facilities essential for activities
permitted under the Notification dated 19.02.1991.
xiii. Dressing or altering of sand dunes, hills, natural
features including landscape changes for
Lakshadweep Islands
beautification, recreational and other such
purpose, except as permissible under Notification
19.01.1991
c) Restricted activities within the CRZ - IV
The followingactivities shall be regulated in accordance
with the manner laid down below:
New buildings or extension of the existing buildings
shall not be permitted within the NoDevelopmentZone.
1) Nonew jetties shall be built in the lagoonwith out the
approval of the Ministry of Environment and Forest.
Should exceptional circumstances make it necessary
to widen or lengihen any jetty in the lagoon, prior
approval of Ministry of Environment and Forests
shall be taken through the Department of
Environment of Lakshadweep Administration.
2) The desigu and construction of buildings shall be
consistent with the surrounding landscape and local
architectural style and in consonance with the
building Bye Laws being formulated by the Union
Territory of Lakshadweep Administration.
3) Coral stones, shingles / boulders and sand from the
beaches and coastal waters are not allowed to be
removed or disturbed. (The collection of corals is
allowed for scientific studies / for museum
specimens with specific permission from the
competent authority).
Note: Till such time an alternate building material is
available collection of shingles from the beach in
regulated manner is allowed with specific permission
from the competent authority of Lakshadweep
Administration.
1) Nonew ship repair facilities shall be allowed in the
lagoons
2) No blasting would be permitted in and around-the
lagoon except dredging of those existing navigation
channels which have already been approved by the
Ministry of Environment & Forest.
3) Capital dredging will not be permitted in and around
the lagoons and coral formations.
4) Under water blasting in and around the lagoons and
coral formations shall not be permitted.
5) In the CRZ areas where the NDZhas been reduced
from 50 meters to 20 meters construction for nonresidential
use in this zone is not permitted.
1) Dredged material will not be disposed
within the CRZ area
(d)This notificationis exiended to the wholeofthe Union
Territory of Lakshadweep. This will come into force
with immediate effect.
137
Sd/-.
(RAJEEV TALWAR)
Administrator -
EXTRAORDINARY

L ak shad we e pis I and s
4. Vol. XXXIV, No.31, FRIDAY, 30" October, 1998/ 8 tb Karthika 1920 (SAKA)
Administration of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep
(Department of Science Technology and Environment)
Kavarathi Island
Dated: 29.10.1998
NOTIFICATION
Lakshadweep Protection of Corals (Amendment) Bye-Laws, 1998.
FNo. 17/2/98 ST & E - in exercise of power conferred to authorized in this behalf by the Administration by
Administrator, Union Territory of Lakshadweep by notification.
regulation 82 (i) (g) of Lakshadweep Panchayath
Regulation, 1994.the Administrator, Union Territory of
Lakshadweep hereby makes the followingbye-law.
1.This bye-lawsmay be caned "Lakshadweep Protection
of Corals (Amendment) bye-laws, 1998.
(1) It shall come into force with immediate effect
2. In section 4 of the Lakshadweep Protection of Corals
bye-law 1998 (hereinafter referred to as CF
principal bye-law).
(1) sub-section (b) shall be omitted
(2) after clause (a) of the principal bye-law the
following clause shall be inserted
(b) the Wild LifeWardens ChiefWild LifeWarden on
being satisfied of the bonafide requirement may
issue a permit after inspecting the site of collection
for a maximum of 15 bags with each bag weighing
not more than 20 kg. On payment of permit fees of
RS.5/- (Rupees five) only per bag.
3. For Section 6 of the principle bye-laws, the following
shall be substituted namely
4. Coguizance of Offence
The Court of Judicial Magistrate shall take
coguizance of offence under this bye-laws in their
respective jurisdiction on a complaint made by Wild
Life Warden I Technical Assistant I Environment
Warden of the Department of Science, Technology
and Environment, Lakshadweep or any officer
(Sd/-.)
(RAJEEV TALWAR)
Administrator
The problem of collection of coral shingles has been
discussed at various form in the Union Territory. It was
recommended that loose coral shingles lying on the
shore should be allowed to the collected for the purpose
ofconstruction. It was recommended that these couldbe
mixed with cement to form blocks and thereby replace
bricks, which have to be imported from the mainland.
This would reduce the cost of construction ofpermanent
houses in the islands. This recommendation has been
made by wise and experienced islanders in super
session of the ban to dig coral shingles along the shore.
Hence taking into account the advice of District
Panchayat members, Village Panchayat members and
scientists like Dr.Ali Manikfan, it would be appropriate
to ban the digging of coral shingles, but to allow
collection of lose shingles that lie around the edges of
the islands.
In order to reduce digging up of the shore and
consequent damage to the coral shoreline, e.g. on the
western side of the Coast Guard Land, the Deputy
Conservation of ..... Chief Wild Life Warden (which
activity also covers preservation of the environment and
ecology)may delegate such powers to the police so as to
stop any indiscriminate digging up on the shoreline and
transportation of coral shingles in bulk.
(Rajeev Talwar)
Administrator
5. ADMINISTRATION OF THE UNION TERRITORY OF LAKSHADWEEP
Kavaratti - 073 555, dated the 4 tb March, 1983
CIRCULAR
Sub: Union Territory of Lakshadweep - conservation of corals and other fauna and flora-Orders issued.
FNo. 48/1/83-Fy.: The Lakshadweep archipelago is
formed of coral atolls and, therefore, the very existence
of these islands depends upon the coral reef and coral
growih. The corals support a variety of animal and
plant life forming an ecosystem of its own, the
disturbance ofwhich will alter the balance and adversely
affect the entire aquatic life in the lagoon and the area
138
outside. This will be disastrous for the fishery of the
area, which depends mainly on the live bait resources of
the lagoon and reef around. The destruction ofthe coral
habitat also destroys the beauty of the colorful lagoons.
Due to indiscriminate destruction of the corals in recent
times, already much damage has been caused in the
lagoon life, rendering a desolate look, Therefore, in

order to ensure the very existence of these islands and
to preserve the beauty and ecosystem of the lagoons for
the future generations ofthe inhabitants ofLakshadweep
in particular and for the country in general the following
restrictions are imposed "ith immediate effect.
1. Destruction and collectionof corals, whether dead or
living, from the lagoon of any island or from its reef
or outside the reef by any individual or institution,
are completely banned except with written
permission of competent authority in special cases,
after satisfying that such collection will not have
adverse affect.
2. Collecting and selling corals as .... By individuals
are completely prohibited. In the case of Handicraft
Societies, however, limited and restricted collection
and sales willbe allowed on written permission after
assessing the resources in each island.
3. Tourists on no account will be allowed to destroy or
collect corals from anywhere in Lakshadweep.
Lakshadweep Islands
4. Fishing with in the lagoon is allowed only for
domestic consamption and is permitted to only the
inhabitants of Lakshadweep.
5. Fishing inside the lagoon and on the reef, which
include catching fish, collection of, see shells, weeds
and any other aquatic life is completely banned for
tourists. However, they will be allowed fishing
outside the reef for sports.
6. The blasting and removal of corals and boulders by
the Lakshadweep Harbour Department willhereafter
be only in consultation wiih the Administration.
7. The above orders apply to all the inhabited and
uninhabited islands of the Union Territory of
Lakshadweep.
SdI-.
(OMESH SAIGAL)
Administrator
EXTRAORDINARY
6. Vol. XXXIV, No. 31, Friday, 30 th October, 1998 / 8 th Karthika 1920 (SAKA)
ADMINISTRATION OF THE
UNION TERRITORY OF LAKSHADWEEP
(DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT)
Kavaratti island, dated: 29.10.1998
A. NOTIFICATION_
LAKSHADWEEP PROTECTION OF CORALS (AMENDMENT)
BYE- LAWS, 1998
ENo. 17/2/98 - ST & E: In exercise of power
conferred to Administrator, Union Territory of
Lakshadweep by regulation 82 (i) 9g) of
Lakshadweep Panchayath Regulation, 1994: the
Administrator, Union Territory of Lakshadweep
hereby makes the following bye-law.
1. (1) This bye-laws may be called "Lakshadweep
Protection of Corals (Amendment_ bye-laws,
1998
(2) It shall come into force with immediate
effect
2. In Section 4 of the Lakshadweep Protection of
Corals bye-law 1998 (hereinafter referred to as
CF principal bye-law)
(1) Sub-section (a) shall be omitted
(2) After clause (a) of the principal bye-law the
following clause shall be inserted.
(b) The Wild Life Wardens Chief Wild Life
Warden on being satisfied of the bonafide
requirement may issue a permit after inspecting
the site of collection for a maximum of 15 bags
with each bag weighing not more than 20 kg. On
payment of permit fees of RS.5/- (Rupees Five)
139
only -per bag.
3. For Section 6 of the principal bye-laws, the
following shall be substituted, namely:
4. Cognizance of offence
The court of Judicial Magistrate shall take
cognizance of offence under this bye-laws in their
respective jurisdiction on a complaint made by
Wild Life Warden / Technical Assistant /
Environment Warden of the Department of
Science, Technology and Environment,
Lakshadweep or any officer authorized in this
behalf by the Administration by notification.
Sd/-
(RAJEEV TALWAR)
Administrator
The' problem of collection of coral shingles has
been discussed at various form in the Union
Territory. It was recommended that loose coral
shingles lying on the shore should be allowed to be
collected for the purpose of construction. It was
recommended that these could be mixed with
cement to form blocks and thereby replace bricks
which have to be imported from the mainland.

Lakshadweep Islands
This would reduce the cost of construction of
permanent houses in the islands. This
recommendation has been made by wise and
experienced islanders ,in super session of the ban
to dig coral shingles along the shore. Hence
taking into account the advice of District
Panchayat Members, village Panchayat members
and Scientists like Dr. Ali Manikfan, it would be
appropriate to ban the digging Oof coral shingles,
but to allow collection of lose shingles that lie
around the edges of the islands.
7. THE LAKSHADWEEP GAZETTE
PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY
EXTRAORDINARY
In order to reduce digging up of the shore and
consequent damage to the coral shore line, e.g. on
the western side of the Coast Guard land, the
Deputy Conservation of the
Chief Wild Life Warden (which activity also covers
preservation of the environment and ecology) may
delegate such powers to the Police so as to stop
any indiscriminate digging up on the shore line
and transportation of coral singles in bulk.
Vol. XXXIV,No.18, Monday, 10" August 1998/ 19 th SRAVANA,1920 (SAKA)
ADMINISTRATION OF THE UNION TERRITORY OF LAKSHADWEEP DEPARTMENT OF
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY? ENVIRONMENT
ENo. 17.2.98-ST&E:WHEREASthe coral has to be
protected to preserve the environment of
Lakshadweep Islands.
NOW, therefore, the Administrator U.T. of
Lakshadweep in exercise of the powers conferred
by Regulation 82 (1) (g) of Lakshadweep
Panchayat Regulations 1994, hereby makes
following bye-laws namely:
1. (1) These bye-laws may be called
Lakshadweep Protection of Corals Bye
Laws, 1998.
(2) They extent to the whole of U.T. of
Lakshadweep.
(3) They shall come into force w.e.f.
01.10.1998.
2. No person shall excavate or cause to be
excavated corals in any form including coral
boulders, pebbles, shingles, sands without
permit issued by Wild Life Wardens / Chief
Wild Life Warden, Lakshadweep
Administration.
3. No person shall use or cause to be used any
corals in any form including coral boulders,
pebbles, shingles, sands for construction or for
any other purpose except as permitted in the
duly issued permit.
4. (a) For obtaining permit to excavate corals in
any form for a bonafide use, application in the
140
prescribed form as in the enclosed schedule
shall be moved before the Wild Life Wardens /
Chief Wild Life Warden.
(b) The Wild Life Wardens / Chief Wild Life
Warden on being satisfied of the bonafide
requirement may issue a permit after
inspecting the site of excavation for a
maximum off 5 bags with each bag weighing not
more than 20 kg. on payment of permit fees of
Rs. 100/- RS.5/- each bag.
5. Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes
any provision of these bye-laws or directions
issued there under shall in respect of each
such failure or contravension be punishable
with a fine which may extent to Rs. 100/- and
shall be liable for the seizure of the corals in
any form excavated or in his possession.
6. Cognizance of offence:
The Court of Judicial Magistrate shall take
cognizance of offence under these bye-laws in their
respective jurisdiction on a complaint made by the
Wild Life Warden, Lakshadweep Administration or
an officer authorized in this behalf by the
Administrator by Notification.
7. Compounding of offence:
An offence under these bye-laws may be
compounded on payment of afince of Rs. 100/- by
the offender for each of the' offence.
SdI-
(RAJEEV TALWAR)
Administrator

"
Aerial view of an Island
Erosion measures
-- ....
-""',
.- ,-
BaiUlshing
Coral boulders on the shore.
A banned activity
.'
.-
.-
-"
.'
'.
- .'
.'
.'
.'
--
. ,
-I
.-
"
"
- J
.' .. -1
.-
.'
.'
.'
-,

I!i ~ ~ - •• /II'f;~ If:~"
"',..- . "
-",,'--.
Coconut thatch
Reef gleaning

Lakshadweep Islands
8. (To be published In an extraordinary issue of Lakshadweep Gazette)
Administration of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep
Directorate of Science, Technology & Environment
Kavaratti, dated 17.7.1998
NOTIFICATION
F.No. 17.2.96-ST & E: Whereas, to ensure that
non-hlodegradable waste Is deposited only in the
garbage bins eliminating litering, as also to
minimize generation of non-bio-degradable waste
hazardons to the islands prohibiting the use of
polythene / plastic materials for packing and
carrying cousumer goods, draft bye-laws viz.
Lakshadweep Sanitation and Conservancy byelaws
was published in the Lakshadweep Times of
27'" May 1996 inviting comments to reach the
Deputy Director (S&T) on or before 24 th June,
1996).
And Whereas the comments so received have been
only considered.
Now, therefore, the Administrator, D.T. of
Lakshadweep, in exercise of the powers conferred
by section 82 of the Lakshadweep panchayats
Regulations, 1994 hereby makes the followingbyelaws,
namely:
These bye-laws may be called Lakshadweep
Sanitation conservancy Bye-Laws, 1998.
They extend to the whole D.T. of Lakshadweep
They shall come into force-on such date as notified
in the Official Gazette and different dates may be
appointed for different islands.
In these bye-laws, unless the context otherwise
requires:
Definitions as given in Lakshadweep Panchayat
Regulations 1994 shall be applicable.
The "Prohibited substance" means substance
prohibited by notification in the Official Gazette,
under bye-law 4.
Non-bio-degradable rubbish means waste which
does not degrade by natural biological process and
includes polythene, plastic, glass, tetra wastes.
Bio-degradable rubbish means waste which is
degradable by natural biological process and
includes food leftovers, tree leaves, coconut husk
and pith paper waste but exclude human excreta.
t41
No person shall dispose off or cause to be disposed
off non-bio-degradable waste in any place or
manner except into garbage bin when provided for
collection of bio-degradable waste.
No person shall dispose off or cause to be disposed
off bio-degradable waste in any place or manner
except into garbage bin when provided for
collection of bio-degradable waste.
Administrator may be notification in the Official
Gazette prohibit use of non-bio-degradable
substance to the extent as may be specified in
such notification.
On and from the date specified in the notification
issued under sub-section (1) no person shall use
such prohibited substance to the extent specified
therein.
Penalty for contravention of the bye-laws, whoever
falls to comply with or contravenes any provision
of this bye-laws or directions issued there under
shall in respect of each such failure or
contravention be punishable with a fine which may
extend to Rs. 100/-
Cognizance of offence: No court shall take
cognizance under these bye-laws except on a
complaint made by the Environment Warden of
Dept. of Science, Technology and Environment,
Lakshadweep Administration or an officer
authorized in the behalf by the Administrator by
notification in the Gazette.
Compounding of offence: An offence under these
bye-laws may be compounded on payment of fine of
Rs. 100/- by the offender for each offence.
Sd/-.
(RAJEEV TALWAR)
Administrator
To The Manager, Lakshadweep Gov!. Press (2
copies) for publishing in extra-ordinary issue of
Lakshadweep. Gazette.

Pulicat Lake
I. Introduction
Pulicat Lake
The Pulicat Lake region is the second largest
brackish water lagoon next to Chilika Lake in
Orissa state. The lagoon is spread over two states:
Andhra Pradesh (84%) and Tamil Nadu (16%) (Fig.
1). Fishing communities have played a significant
role in conserving this ecosystem through
generations of interactions with the lagoon system
and other ecosystems around. Over the years they
have developed immense empirical knowledge,
about this resources in their immediate vicinity
and developed a variety of traditional technology
according to different ecological needs. The
culture and life style of many indigenous and local.
communities were embodied on biological
resources. In about 147 villages, more than one
lakh people are dependent on the bio-resources of
the Pulicat Lake. Mammals, sea turtles,
amphibians, snakes, birds, insects, reptiles form
the important faunal biodiversity. Tiger prawns,
white prawns, crabs, mullets, clams, edible oyster
and catfish form the important aquatic bioresources.
The regional/landscape diversity
includes, mangroves, sand dunes and beaches,
scrub jungle, wetlands with herbs and shrubs and
cultivated fields with cashew, paddy, fruits and
vegetables. Pulicat also attracts and supports
many migratory and resident water birds.
Pulicat has been an ancient antbropogenic center
starting from 10'"century, during the Chola period
as a result of its rich bio-resources. It was also an
important international trade center which, the
Dutch colonized until British East India Company
took over in 1781. During the British rule the
international attraction of the Pulicat Lake was
142
- R. Bhuvaneswari
lost as Madras evolved as a major trading center.
In the post independence period, Pulicat was in a
slow pace of development till seventies. Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) identified the
site for rocket launching station in 1985 at
Shriharikota replacing some of the traditional
villages. Kaattupalli Island, in the south of Pulicat
Lake was developed into Ennore Island with a
thermal power plant, port and a petrochemical
complex. In the present context Pulicat Lake
suffers from rapid siltation and morphometric
changes, which has larger impact on the bioresources
of the region.
India, in its attempt to be a part of the
globalization process, has necessitated the
increase of industrial houses from petrochemicals
to aqua farms. The gigantic developments that are
coming up at much velocity in the Pulicat Lake
region as a part of new development paradii,rm
have mystified the local communities. These
development projects are to fetch baskets of
foreign exchange by catering to the growing
consumer needs of the developed nations in total
disregard of the environmental and ecological
depletion. The recent changes in and around the
Pulicat lagoon indicates wide array of social,
ecological and economic problems in the region,
through inorganic pollution, siltation, erosion, loss
of seasonal bar mouth openings etc. It is
unfortunate that the Government considers
coastal development synonymous to technological
development and industrialization. It is therefore
highly necessary to find out the present status of
the bio-resource of Pulicat Lake to draw out
strategies for conservation of Pulicat ecosystem
sustainably.

N
ANDHRA PRADESH
;----- ....•.....
\" '
..\
I
, ••.•-.. TAMIL NADU
,
.J
II. Description of the Site
i. Location
Figure 1 : Location of Pulicat Lake
DOl'3varisatl'3
Swamamukhi River
Chinamu
Kanangi Riv
l' d
~
Gumidipund"
Pulicat Lake is situated between the 13° 24' N -13°
47' N latitude, and 80° 3'- 80°16' longitude is
confluent with the Bay of Bengal at about 1.5 km.
The lake is supplied with fresh water from four
rivers - the Swaranamukhi, the Kalangi, the
Araniar and the Royyala Kalava. (Fig.2). The lake
extends for a distance of 59 km with a total water
spread area of 178 square miles. The minimum and
maximum width of the Lake from the sea was
recorded to be 0.2 and 17.5 km respectively
(Chaco et al, 1953). About one third of the total
area of Pulicat Lake lies in the Thiruvallur district
of Tamil Nadu and the rest in the Nellore District
of Andhra Pradesh. The depth of the lake ranges
between 0.5 and 9 meters. The Pulicat Lake can be
divided into two sectors, the Northern sector
comprising the areas north of Annamalaicheri
including Chinnamangodu and Periamangodu
kuppams, Sunnambukulam and Arampakkam in
Tamil Nadu and Tada, Irakkam, Venadu and
Sriharikottah in Andra Pradesh and the Southf'T'n
Sector comprising the areas near Aurivakkum,
Sempasipalli, Dhonirevu and Pulicat to
Chinthamani lock near Ennore (Krishnan and
143
."......I
I
I
I
l
~ PULICAT LAKE
STATE BOUNDRY
uckiingham Canal
Pulicat Lake
10
5
o
MILES
Sampath, 1978). The Northern sector is shallower
than the Southern sector. As the water level rises
by November with monsoon rains, the bar mouth
opens up causing gradual fall in the water level.
For this reason during February most of the areas
in the Northern Sector dry up and the Southern
sector becomes shallower. Lagoon also receives
catchments water, domestic sewage of the city and
effluents from North Chennai Thermal Power
Station (NCTPS) and Ennore Creek through
Buckingham canal in the east and opens into Bay
of Bengal in the south. The Buckingham canal also
influences the rise and fall in the water level.
The Pulicat aquatic ecosystem could be divided
into four distinct environments (Rao and Rao,
1975) (Fig. 2).
a. Channel' The channel zone is prone to tidal
variations and inflow of seawater controls the
hydrographical characters.
b. Western lagoon: The western lagoon shows
extreme seasonal variations in salinity (0.5 to
41.5 °/00)'temperature (23.5 - 33.8° C) and pH
(7.1 -8.4).
c. Southern lagoon: This is a traditional
environment between the channel and the
western lagoon.

Pulicat Lake
Figure 2 : River systems and four distinct aquatic environments of Pulicat Lake.
Swarnamukhi Rive
Kanangi River
Western lagoo
Source: Rao and Rao 1975
d. Northeastern lagoon: Relatively' calm
conditions prevail in the north- eastern lagoon
and the variations in salinity, temperature and
pH range 8.5 to 40.5 '/,0, 24.4-33,5°C and 7,5 -
8.1 respectively.
ii. Ecological History
Historians feel that the Pulicat Lake could have
been an outlet of the four rivers, which drains its
floodwater during the monsoon season. In due
course the lake spread in length and breath and
breached into the Bay Of Bengal Sea. Salinity
conditions and seasonal circulation of fresh water
in the lagoon led to the development of mangrove
ecosystem and raised enormous amount of fishes
ot1heastern lagoon
fields and salinization occurs, which leads to
changes in vegetation and loss of crop production.
The establishment of rocket launching station at
Sriharikota and Ennore industrial area through
extensive roads and bridges have disturbed water
circulation and flow, causing further damage. The
fisher folk living near the lake are gradually losing
their livelihood. Caratini (1994) projects that with
this current rate of silting through various
processes and the current average depth of the
lake (which is less than one meter). The Pulicat
lake could get filled up totally before the end of
this century leading to its ecological death.
iii. Climate
and fish diversity, prawns, clam beds and The climate is cha'racterized as sub-tropical
estuarine grass beds. The wetlands also evolved, humid with four distinct seasons summer (April to
attracting divers, seasonal and water birds, thus June), pre-monsoon (July to September), monsoon
creating anthropogenic livelihood opportunity (October to December) and post monsoon (January
which, attracted human population tracing back to March). However,the temperature is reduced by
to Chola period 10" century, The bar mouth of such breeze from Bay of Bengal during summer with a
a lagoon got deepened and widened in course of minimum temperature of 15' C and maximum
time, facilitating the Dutch who landed at Pulicat temperature is 45' C with high humidity. Though
in1606 A,D (Krishnan et ai, 1999), to use Pulicat the rainfall occurs in both the monsoons, the
Lake as a natural harbour. Inland communication maximum is obtained only through the Northeast
was established during this period and it has monsoon. The average rainfall is about 1000mm.
developed into an international trading center. As The winter is short and mild. Maximum fresh
a result of urbanization, extensive deforestation of water is obtained during the monsoon season both
mangroves took place and the land along the from rainfall and from the rivers leading to very
margtns of the lagoon eroded and got drifted by low salinity condition. Water temperature range
the monsoon floods as silt flooded into the lagoons from 23.5'C to 35.3' C, Salinity 1.85 to 58.82 %"
at the rate of one meter for each century. Silting dissolved oxygen 2.23 mIll to 8.31 mill. The
also causes the floodwater to enter agricultural maximum tidal amplitude occurs during peak of
144

the spring tides around 1 m and the tidal influence
around 10 km from Pulicat pass (Krishnamurthy,
1974).
iv. Soil
The bottom soil is mainly composed of fine quartz
sand along the eastern shore and bar mouth area.
Shallow marginal areas are oozy mud and sandy
mud along the western shore of the lake from
Edamanikuppam on the south to Arambakkam-
Puliancheri on the Northern side. Most of the Lake
bottom is composed of clay to clayey-sand with
patches of algae and weeds (Krishnan and
Sampath, 1978). The substratum could be
classified into three types: (a) Predominantly
sand, (b) Sand and Mud in equal mixture and (c)
Predominantly mud. Composition of soil is silt
2.5%, Sand 45-60% and clay 40-50%. The soil pH
varies from 7.2 to 7.6.
v. Wind and wave action
Continuous strong winds with an average speed of
9.0 to 16.4 km. ph are common from the southwest
quadrant for about seven months (March-
September) of the year. Such winds giving rise to
strong waves in the lake through out the daytime.
During October to February, the wind is from
northwest quadrant in the morning and northeast
quadrant in the evening (report of the Regional
Metrological Observatory, Chennai).
vi. Water movements and tidal action
The water movement in the lake is dependent on
the quantity of water received from the rivers and
the tidal oscillations of the sea. The river entering
the Lake receives maximum rainfall, only during
the monsoon periods (October to December). The
maximum mixing and movement of the water
occurs during this period which is felt up to 10 km
from the bar mouth. As the freshwater influx
lessens, tidal effects begin to appear in certain
parts of the Lake and the flow of fresh water into
the sea is very much reduced. When there is no
discharge of water from the river, evaporation in
the lake is considerably high and the water level
in the lake decreases and a marine isostatic head
develops near the lake. The strong southwest and
southeast winds favors the distribution of seawater
in the lake. During this period the currents in the
channel are controlled by the tides and in the lake
by the winds (Rao and Rao, 1975).
Waves in the Pulicat Lake are mostly wind
generated. The wave direction changes according
Pulicat Lake
to the wind direction. Height of the wave in the
lake seldom exceeds 0.6 m with short wave
lengths. The Bar mouth openings are generally
shorter in width and keeps away the larger waves
of the open sea and therefore the waves in the
Pulicat Lake are not rough through out the year.
The height of the wave ranges from 0.3 to 0.7
meters and the period of the wave only up to 5
seconds (Rao and Rao, 1975).
The lake is subjected to a limited tidal influence.
The tidal effect is to a larger extent masked by the
influence of wind-generated waves, which can
sufficiently account for the diurnal changes of
water level in the lake. The oceanic tide enters
the lake area and the fluctuations are of diurnal
types with amplitudes usually less than one foot.
The magnitude of salinity variations is directly
proportional to the amount of .rainfall. Plankton
biomass and phytoplankton standing crops follow
the tidal cycle. Zooplankton populations though
varied with the tide are generally more abundant
during night high tides than during other tidal
stages (Kaliyamurthy, 1976).
145
vii. Temperature, Salinity and pH
The surface waters of the lake have a temperature
range of 32.6" C to 33.8" C in the dry season and
from 23.5" C to 24.5" C in the monsoon. The western
and southern lagoon have slightly lower
temperatures (23.5"C) in the monsoon season
compared to the other parts of the lake, as large
volumes of fresh water debouch into these regions
exerting a cooling effect. During monsoon season,
the salinity of the surface waters of the lake is
minimum and at some places less than 0.5 '(00' The
dry season salinity of the lake waters is generally
high. The salinity of the channel area is 34.4 '(00'
which is more or less equal to the salinity of the
Bay of Bengal waters near the lake mouth. In this
period the main area of the lake is super saline
and the channel is almost filled with seawater.
Northern extremities of both the western and the
northeastern lagoons have highest salinity of 41.5
'(00' This is of special interest from ecological point
of view, since it determines the limits of invasion of
marine and fresh water organisms. (Rao and Rao,
1975)
The pH values of the lake range from 7.8 to 8.4.
During dry season the pH values of the lake
closely follow the salinity values. Evaporation
plays an important role during dry season in the
Pulicat Lake resulting in super saturation with

Pullcat Lake
respect to certain constituents such as carbonates
and bicarbonates. In the monsoon season the fresh
water from river Kalangi influences the water
resulting in the reduction of pH as a result of
dilution.
viii. Vegetation
The vegetation in the Pulicat Lake could be
classified into:
• Halophytic vegetation: Halophytic vegetation
occurs towards the northern side of the lake.
Vegetation here is very scattered and sparse
with Halophytic species, along the marshes and
canals the shrubs, trees like neem (Azadircta
indica), sea grass (Hatophylla ovalis) and
creepers (Ipomoea pes capre). Small mangrove
patches with species like Aegiceras
corniculatum, Avicennia marina, Excoecaria
agaleocha, Lumnitzera racemosa were found
near the bar mouth of the lake and around the
village bordering the sea.
• Fresh water vegetation: The vegetation in the
fresh water region is thick with shrubs, herbs,
trees, climbers and floating vegetation. Shrubs
composed of Cane, Mogili, Vepa and trees like
Palmyra covered by climbers and coconut
groves are common. Most of the vegetation
along the fresh water bodies is diminishing due
to reduced water retaining levels as a result of
over exploitation of ground water. The exotic
species like Prosopis juliflora are spreading
like a wild fire and suppresses the growih of
the native species (Chaco et ai, 1953).
• Cultivated vegetation: Cash crops like cashew
nut and casuarinas were extensively cultivated
in the islands. On suitable soils, paddy (Oryza
sativa) and vegetables and fruits are grown.
ix. Animal Life
Similar to the vegetation the animal life also has
marked differences with reference to salinity.
Mammals, sea turtles, reptiles, snakes,
amphibians, birds, insects, prawns, crabs, mullets,
clams, edible oyster and catfish are the animals
species that exist in the Pulicat Lake region.
I. Population Profile
There are about 15,000 households with a
population of 75,000 in the immediate surrounding
of the lake and along the fringe areas. Around
5,000 households with a population of 25,000 from
the surrounding mandals within the radius of 10 to
146
100 km depend on the lake ecosystem for their
livelihood. Hence the total households depending
on the lake is 20,000 with a total population is
about 100,000. Altogether there are about 140
village habitats are spread over two states - with
five taluks (Vakadu, Chittamur, D.V. Satram,
Sullurpet and Tada) in Andhra Pradesh and
another two taluks (Gummidipundi and Ponneri) in
Tamil Nadu. However, 58 villages in Tamil Nadu
are directly dependent on the lagoon with the
population of 41,803. The male and the female
ratio is around 1. The total adult population the
female population is less than 1, among the
children its is above one indicates demographic
change towards gender equity. (Annexure 1).
There are 10600 families in the region with an
average family size of 4 persons. Education status
represents less than 40% literate population.
Among literates 38 % are educated up to high
school, 2.5 % are educated up to higher secondary
school, 0.7 % have gone up to college and only 0.3
% have acquired technical education (Annexure
2).
i. Community Composition
A dominant group belonging to most backward
caste characterizes the region and the others are
represented by Scheduled caste and Scheduled
tribes. There are four prominent indigenous
groups in this region.
(a)Pattamavar or Pattapu Kapu fishing community
(b)Mala community
(c)Yamidi community
(d)Vanniyars or Pakanati Reddi community
Among the above four different communities, the
largest group is Pattamavar or Pattapu Kapu
fishing community belonging to the most
backward caste and the smallest group is the
Vanniyars or Pakanati Reddi community. The
Pattamavar or Pattapu Kapu fishing community is
the maJn fishing community in the region. The
others are Mala, Yanadi and Vanniyars or
Pakanati Reddi communities similar to Scheduled
caste, Scheduled tribes and Reddis in Andhra
Pradesh respectively. Vanniyars or Pakanati Reddi
communities were concentrated in the
Shriharikota Island before 1970 but during the
construction of Rocket Launching station these
populations are displaced. A very small group of
Muslims were also present in the lake area. They
live in isolated villages (Nawab peta, Zameelabad
of vakadu mandal in A.P/Ponneri taluk in T.N) and

one or two families in very few of other villages.
Each year about 5000 people within a radius of ten
to 100 kIn around Pulicat Lake come for fishing.
(fig 3)
'00
90
0)
70
eo
40 '"
90
20
10
0
Figure 3. Community Composition of Pullcat Lake
FOrw8rd
BllCkward
Souroe : F1sberJes Census" 2000
1. Livelihood patterns
Most backward
ScheckileclC&ste
Historically fishing was the major livelihood
activity in the region. The changes in the bioresource
pattern lead to giving an equal emphasis
to the agriculture in the surrounding regions of the
lake. In the present context both can be
considered as important sources of livelihood. The
other sources of livelihoods are Charcoal making,
toddy tapping, timber plantation and agricultural
labourers. Small-scale livelihoods include shell
excavation, woodcutting, transportation, .small
.business, money lending, vending etc. Out of total
adult population in the Pulicat region of Tamil
Pulicat Lake
Nadu, 57.71% are involved in money earning
livelihoods in which 80.54% is men and 19.46% is
women. Fishing, fresh fish trade (FIT), dry fish
trade (DFT), net making, allied activities,
government and private jobs are the
main occupation of the region. Men
mainly concentrate on fishing where as
women concentrate on FFT and DIT.
Less than 5% of the income generating
population is involved in government
and private jObs (fig 4).
iii. Economic Conditions
Pulicat was a thriving market in
international trade during the pre
colonial and colonial times. It was
during the Dutch period that Pulicat
was at its peak of glory, exporting a
wide range of textiles from cotton to silk, muslin,
and colored velvet's, calicoes, salted fish and
spices. Today though agricultural products do not
contribute much to the economic activity of
Pulicat, other occupations like fishing and trading
have made it an emerging urban center. However,
the fisher folk in the Pulicat region are much
below the poverty line of the country, more than
50% of population earns less than Rs 6000 per
year. Only 4 % represent above 15,000, which is
also IIluch below the poverty line (fig 5).
SchedJledTribe
The traditional industries of PulIcat are
• Pullcat Handloom Lungi Industry: Pulicat was
one of the major cotton textile centers in the
Figure 4. Comparison of Livelihoods among Men and Women In the Pul1cat Region In Tamil Nadu
0).00
70.00
60.00
50.00
% ,",,00
90.00
20.00
10.00
000
RSll
.67 0.04 0.01 1.66 0,01 0.01 0.70 0.09
322
0.02 1.10 0.00 0.89 0.32
ASling HT OFT Net !mldna: Alliedactivlties Governrrent Prlyate Othen Total
Source : FJaber/sa Census, 3000
147
•••

Pulicat Lake
Figure 5. Annual Income Status of Fisher Folk In
Pullcat Region.
Source : Fisheries Census, 3000
E;iLess 11m 3000
o 3001 to 6000
~ 600110 12000
1312001 to 15000
• ftOOJe 15000
Coromondal coast with tnternational contacts
between the 16 th and the 18 th centuries. Before
the arrival of the Portuguese and Dutch, there
were strong trade connections between Pulicat
and Eastern countries like China, Malaysia,
and Sumatra. Before 1816, there were more
than 1000 weaving looms. This came down to
100 during the 1980's. Mukundamman Koil
Street used to be busy with handloom activity
until a few decades ago, but after the arrival of
power loom lungies, which were cheaper, the
handloom lungi production dwindled and
nothing of it exists now.
• Boat Building Industry: This industry was at
Thoniravu. The Thoniravu literally mean the
place where boat (Thoni) building is done. It is
an island covered on three sides by the river
and one side by the canal. This island village
had a population of more than 1000 people who
were mostly Muslims and the rest of them were
scheduled castes. There were 160 families in
Thoniravu of which 15 families were involved in
the boat building Industry, while the rest were
involved with fishing. Each boat could cost
around RS.35000/- at the rate of RS.1200/foot
depending upon the thickness of the wood used.
Recently a modern boat-building workshop,
which uses fibre glass in place of wood, has
come up at Pulica!. They build boats of 27 feet
lengih and each boat costs about Rs.60000.
• Palm Leaf Industry: The Muslim women are
engaged in doing beautiful handicrafts out of
palm leaves, which they export to various
places through their cooperative. Pulicat
artisans have been working on this trade for
more than a hundred years and their products
had won some very good accolades and
national level recoguition. Right now around
300 women are involved in the knitting of these
articles and all of them were given special
training from the women's Cooperatives. This
industry has good scope for improvement in
148
future since handicrafts are in great favor
among the urban people.
• Fishing Industry: Fishing is the backbone of
the economy in Pulicat and its hinterlands. The
uniqueness of fishing in Pulicat is that it has
the largest prawn fish catch in India.
Fisherman who fish in the river use a small
boat while those who fish in the sea, use
catamarans and motorized boats depending on
their affordability. Fish are sold in the Bazaar
market, apart from a small local consumption;
the major catch is sent to bigger cities and
exported. There are established companies who
have contractual agreements with tbe
fisherman for purchasing their catch on term
basis. The catch includes a variety of species
from small fishes to large ones like sharks.
IV. Biodiversity & Conservation Values
The regionaViandscape diversity includes,
mangroves, wetlands, marine system, tropical dry
evergreen vegetation, shore vegetation, lake, and
cultivated fields with cashew, paddy, fruits and
vegetables. The lake also attracts and supports
many migratory and resident water birds.
I. Flora (Annexure ill)
The shore of the lake is sandy and open and
slopes gently towards the water edge. The
vegetation is sparse with trees, prickly pears,
herbs and some grasses. On the northern side of
the Pulicat lake the shore vegetation is formed of
many herbs and shrubs. Near the bar mouth no
plant was seen on the shore, but the littoral region
was strewn with masses. (ISRO-SHAR-TR-99-98,
1998)
Mangrove systems consist of 12 tree species
belonging to six families, six climbers belonging to
three families and eight grasses belonging to two
families. Tropical dry evergreen vegetation is
dominated by 11 tree species representing 8 .
families and three species of shrubs in three
different families. Apart from the above, Prosopis
juliflora is invading. Wetlands consist of six
species of halophytes belonging to two families.
The Marine system contains three species of
grasses in two families and six algal species
belonging to six families.
ii. Fauna (Annexure IV)
The faunal diversity of the lake include 25 species
of polychaete worms, 12 species of penaeid

prawns, 29 species of crabs, 19 species of molluscs,
8 species of amphibians, 69 species of reptiles, 56
species of birds, more than 50 species of mammals
(Sanjeevaraj, 1999) and 88 species of fishes
(Ramadevi et ai, 2002)
From December to February about 10,000 to 15,000
flamingoes arrive at this place. 72 different species
totaling about 60,000 birds can be seen. Open bills
are the earliest to arrive. They come as scouts,
before rains hover over the lake or sanctuary
without alighting.
There are more than 32 species of Phyto and
Zooplanktons that are fed upon by diverse aquatic
animals. Plankton concentration is generally high
during post monsoon with a preponderance of
zooplanktons. The macro vegetation in the lake
consisted of rooted submerged plants such as
Halophylla ovalis and Zymodocea isoetifolia.
The highest density was (3250 nos/m') from the
southwest. The periphyton on the macrophytes
consisted chiefly of diatoms and varies from 5 to
2455 mm'. Bottom fauna consiste mostly of
polychaetes, tanaids, ambhipods, and mollusks.
Their concentration is more during monsoon and
post monsoon seasons, the pre-monsoon season
showing the lowest number. Based on the benthos
productivity the lake can be classified as
mesotrophic. (Raman et ai, 1975).
Out of three zones the southern zone was found to
be the most productive (average 1410/m2j followed
by the middle (average 1384/m2j and northern
average 1115/m2j zones. Molluscs and polychaetes
were responsible for the maximum production in
southern zone whereas in the middle zone,
amphipods mollusks and polychaetes formed the
important groups in order of abundance. In the
northern zone also amphipods were recorded in
maximum quantities followed by mollusks. (Raman
et ai, 1975).
iii. Threatened Species
Fish varieties like Sea bass, Milkfish and
Threadfins, prawns like Flower prawn and Tiger
prawn are threatened species in these areas.
Cardisoma carnifer (Herbst) a crab, Mud
Skippers like Periophthalmus sp and edible
oyster (Crasostrea madrasensis) which were
vulnerable to environmental changes prevalent at
Pulicat lake, are now also under threat.
iv. Conservation values
Pulicat Lake
Similarly sea turtles, rays and dog-faced snake
were also lost from the system (Sanjeeva Raj,
1998). However, some species like amphibians
which do not live in saline condition, are found in
the lake and also breeds like the frogs (Rana
crassipes) but at the same time some species
which are purely marine animals are also found in
the lake like Elephant Tusk Shell (Dentalium
octangulatum), Fish leech (Ozobranchus
branchiatus) lamp Shell (Glottidia sp.) etc.
Besides all these, a rare blood red, and totally
blind gobiid fish, which is unique to aquatic
ecosystem, Lepeophtherirus krishnai, a new
piscicolous copepod also found in the lake
(Kaliyamurthy, 1990). Clam beds, Oyster beds and
estuarine grass beds are some of the unique subsystem
with their associated fauna in the lake.
Among the local vegetation some plants usually
found at higher elevations on hills, are also
occurring especially in Sriharikotta island. They
are: Ampelocissus tomentosus, Chloroxylon
swietenia, Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Opilia
amentacea, Pamburus mission is, Polyalthia
korintii, Pterospermum canescens,
Pyrenacantha volubilis, Strychnos potatorum,
Suregada angustifolia, Thespesia lampas,
Trema orientalis, Ventilago denticulate
etc.(Suryanarayana and Rao, 2002)
As winter sets in, migrant water birds from distant
northern lands have been arriving at their
ancestral breeding sites in south India. Most such
sites have been traditionally protected by local
peasants who look forward to the arrival of these
birds to their village as deities that bring good
luck to their paddy crops. Ironically, what these
migrant birds give back to the farmers in turn is
their excreta (guano), which dissolves in water
and supplies nutrients to paddy fields.
In Pulicat Bird sanctuary a variety of birds have
kaleidoscopic feeding association. Nelapattu Bird
Sanctuary, a breeding sanctuary for birds is about
95 kID north of Chennai and about 80 km south of
Nellore, on national highways (NH 5). This
sanctuary invites numerous birds to nest and
breed on Indian Oak (Barringtonia acutangula)
trees. Birds that arrive late in the season take
shelter on the babul trees, (Acacia nilotica)
growing on the edges of the sanctuary. It is
interesting to watch birds nesting pattern,
breeding behavior, feeding habits and protection of
Around 10 to 12 fish species, found to be common nestlings at this sanctuary located at Vedurupattu
20 years ago in the lake are lost from the system. village 91 km from Chennai on NH 5. At this place
149

Pulicat Lake
about 40 to 50 painted strocks even nest on
housetops and breed every season. Few
cormorants, egrets and spoonbills also join them
occasionally. 67 km away from Chennai on the
same NH 5 a 50-meter right is the
Bodilingaapaadu village with dispersed banyan
trees. Around 30 grey herons and some
cormorants' nest and breed here. The feeding
grounds for the water birds in all these four sites
are the Pulicat Lake. During the month of March,
the lake water in this region is totally drained, so
that these birds are forced to terminate their
breeding abruptly and desert these sites. The wild
life division of the Andhra Pradesh forest
Department has been managing these sanctuaries
since 1976 (Sanjeevaraj and Jacobsen, 2000).
• Eco-tourism: Pulicat Lake is 40 km from
Chennai city. Ponneri is the closest town that
can be reached by local train from the central
station in Chennai in a couple of hours. The
lake with its huge water bodies facilitate
swimming, fishing, windsurfing, boating, etc can
attract national and international tourists
every year. During winter a large number of
migratory birds visiting the bird sanctuary
around the Pulicat Lake also invites seasonal
tourists. A number of students also visit the
lake for research and school trips during their
field visits. The site also has ancient temples,
monuments, historically important structures to
invite tourist through out the year. However,
eco-friendly tourism activities and festivals like
"Flamingo festival" are needed at the site.
• Heritage vaiues: Pulicat with its ancient
temples, cemeteries churches and fort is a
heritage sites. Starting from the 10" Century
Chola temple, followed by the temples from
Nayak period to the Old Dutch churches and
cemeteries one can see the pages of history of
Pulicat Lake. The Dutch cemetery is under the
care of Archeological Survey of India gives a
view of colonial Dutch architecture. Stone
pillars, each ot' which is carved a skeleton, is
supposed to depict life and death, flanks the
entrance of cemetery. There is another
cemetery at the back of the church, which is
more ancient though in the state of disrepair.
The Portuguese the first of the colonial powers
to set foot in Pulicat halted on the way from
Malacca and built a church which was
dedicated to Nossa Senlwra Dus Prazeres (Old
Lady of Joys) in 1515 AD and worship still
150
continues here. There is an old lighthouse
nearby island. During the reign of Venkata II
(1586-1614) the Farman declaration right for
trading was given to the Dutch. Queen Eravi
who built Fort Geldria in 1607 and came in 1:0
existence in 1610 A.D is now in shambles.
History records that this fort was destroyed and
rebuilt several times. Today all that remains
are pieces of its walls and a mud moat covered
by thorny bushes. In 1781 the English attacked
and captured Pulicat contributed the valuable
lighthouse (1859) and Buckingham canal, which
helped trade and fishing even during British
period and remained useful until India's
independence (INTACH, 2000).
• Uilter transport: During 17" century the Dutch
ships used to land in bar mouth of Pulicat Lake
for the transport of goods from India to other
places. Buckingham canal was used for
internal transport of goods even till the British
period. The site existed as an international
port until East India Company took over. Major
transport was curtailed as Madras port evolved
as an international port. However, the water
transport is through Katamarans (very small
boat with simple long woods) and boats with
and without motors continue between the
islands and surro'unding villages.
• Research and education: Surveys made in this
lake were concentrated during the early
nineteenth century by Hornall (1908)
Anantharaman (1951) and Chaco (1951, 1952)
Chaco et al (1953) stressed the need for
developing the Pulicat Lake fisheries. The
Government of Tamil Nadu started a research
unit in July 1971 to study the important aspects
of Pulicat Lake and its fisheries. The
Department of Zoology, Madras Christian
College established an estuarine biological
laboratory at Pulicat in 1969. This facilitated
many students to visit the lake frequently to
study and conduct research about polychate
(Sunder Raj and Sanjeevaraj, 1987) and Ph.D
degrees.
The studies conducted at the lake could be
classified into description of species and ecological
studies. The descriptive studies like the biology of
Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lac) (Raman et at,
1975), Gerres oyena, G.filamentosus and
G.limbus (Prababhakar Rao, 1970) and copepod
parasitism (Kaliyamurthy and Ganapathy, 1978)
was studied and the age and growth of commercial

fish Gerres lucidus (Kaliyamurthy et al 1990) the
Penaid post-larvae in relation to lunar, diurnal
and tidal periodicity at the lake mouth was
studied by Subramanyam and Rao and Rao (1973).
The ecological studies like assessment of the
abundance of prawn post larvae at the lake mouth
(Gopalakrishnan, 1972; Raman and Gopinathan,
1973) and the availability of post larval prawns in
relation to various ecological parameters
(Gopinathan, et all information on the distribution
of prawn post larvae inside the lake (Gopinathan.
1978). The latest information on the vegetation of
the Pulicat region that fall under Andhra Pradesh
Nellore district is documented by Suryanarayana
and Sreenivasa Rao, 2002.
In 1984 the CReNIO (Centre For Research On New
International Economic Order) institute was
started to work with associated problems of the
Pullcat Lake. Madras Christian College research
scholars also conducted intensive study in crabs,
behavioral patterns and etc. World Wild Life
(WWF) is also actively participating in educating
local people in various aspects.
• Traditional mechanism 01 Shoreline and
inland protection: The Pulicat system has
supported an ever-increasing population for
centuries through its aquatic flora and fauna.
Fishes form the major resource for livelihood
security for the villages surrounding the lake.
The demand and supply of the system is
managed through a traditional fishing system
called 'Paadu system'. 'Paadu' literally means,
"fishing site" is unique in management of fish
resources through temporal and spatial
allotment or agreement to harvest the fish
among the different villages. Present fishing
grounds that fall under paadu systems are
given in annexure V. These fishing grounds fall
within a radius of 5 km from the bar mouth of
the lake (fig. 6), where the salinity of the water
is better maintained and the drying up of the
lake is less extreme. (Mathew, 1991).
The paadu system is caste-specific, gear specific
and area specific (Mathew, 1991). There is three
designated fishing grounds: -
• Vadakku paadu- is to the west of the bar
mouth in a north. south axis, stretching from
Pullcat Lake. Area spread is 1.25 km 2
• Munthurai paadu- is spread out, the other
paadus are in the shape of canal. Area spread
is 2.50 km 2
151
Pulicat Lake
Figure 6 : Fishing Grounds of Pulicat Lake.
Source: Mlltnew .1991
• Odai paadu- is the least productive and is
almost abandoned by the paadu fisherman now.
Area spread is 0.45 'km 2.
The paadu system practiced in this lake is unique
because of its caste-based distribution of access
and rights. It may be defined as a traditional
system of granting entitlements to eligible members
of a particular community for undertaking
specified fishing activities in certain desiguated
fishing grounds of the Pulicat Lake. Considering
the distribution of fishery resources in the lagoon
waters, the limitations of the fishing ground and
the preponderance of fisherman around the lake,
it is clear that the paadu system has contributed
to the sustainability of the lagoon fishery. In spite
of the fact that conservation of the resources is not
the principal aim of the paadu system the control
over access rights limiting them only to the
members of the paadu system perhaps has
indirectly contributed towards preventing a
collapse of the lagoon fishery.

Pulicat Lake
V. Bioresource Profile ..,,;, Table 2 Timber bio-resource of the Pulicat Lake
Bio-resources of the region could be broadly
classified into wild and domesticated. The wild
bio-resources constitute food, feed, fodder,
ftrewood, timber, medicine, ornamentals etc:
domesticated resources include crops, livestock,
aquaculture, plantation etc.
i. Wild bio-resources
a. Terrestial- Timber, ornamentals and medicinal
plants: Among the different wild bio-resources
12 species of ornamental plants (Table 1) were
identified.
Table 1. Ornamental plants ofPulicat Lake
S.No local Name Botanical Name
1 AdavikanaKambaram Bar/eria prionotis
2 Ponna Ca/ophyllum inophyullum
3 Pisungi C/erodendrum inerme
4 Peddagirakati Crota/a/ria /abumifolia
5 Pidalha Garcinia spicata
6 Gorinla Lawsonia inermis
7 Pogada Mimusops e/engi
8 Jamera Ne/umbo nucifera
9 Kaluva Nymphaea Muchali
10 Errijambi Ochna obtusata
11 Pedda Opuntia coccinelliefera
12 Papidi Morinda tinctoria
Source: ISRO-SHAR-TR 1998
27 species of timber trees (Table 2) were also
identified as used by the local communities for
construction of houses, boats, instruments, etc.
As part of their culture even today many
traditional medicines are prepared out of leaves,
barks, seeds, roots etc, of different wild plant
species for different ailments. There are about 39
plant species (Table 3), which are identified for
such uses. However wild aquatic bio-resources is
the central point of livelihood in this system in
which fishes and prawns form a major economic
resource. Salt making and clam shells supplement
the income of the local community.
b. Aquatic Wild Bioresources:
• Fishes: Among the 88 species of fish occurring
in the lake most of them are marine and very
few of them are fresh water fishes. The fresh
water fishes constitute Perciformes,
Clupeiformes, Mugiliformes, Atheriniformes and
Tetraodontiformes species. However only eight
152
Sl.no local Name Botanical Name
1. Cheekireni A/bizzia amara
2. Dirisena A/bizzia lebbeck
3. Peddamanu Ailanthus exce/sa
4. Vepa Azadirachta indica
5. Kadapa Barringtonia acutangu/a
6. Thali Borassus flabellifer
7. Dividivi Caesa/pinia coria ria
8. Sarugudu Casuarina equisetifolia
9. Nakkera Cordia dichotoma
10. Mavalenka Crataeva nurva/a
11. Palchari Da/bergia panicu/ata
12. Ellari Dalbergia lanceo/aria
13. Neridi Cassine glaucam
14. Nilagiri Euca/yptus sp.
15. Kundanedu Eugenia bracteata
16. Pidalha Garcinia spicata
17. Gumpena Lannea coromandelica
18. Kol1achellu Lepisanthes tetraphyl/a
19. Alii Memecy/on umbel/a tum
20. Pogada Mimusops elengi
21. Togaru Morinda pubescens
22. Kanuga Pongamia pinnata
23. Narudu Pterospermum canescens
24. Neredu Syzizium cumini
25. Chinla Tamarindus indica
26. Maddi Terminalia arjuna
27. Gangaravi Thespesia popu/nea
Source: ISRO-SHAR-TR 1998
species (Nematalosa nasus, Hyporhamphus
libatus, Cerres limbatus, Thryssa purva,
Mugil cephalus, Silago sihama, Oxyurichthys
microlepis and Triacanthus biaculeatus) are
found in abundance. The local fisher folk
identify the following as economically valued
species mullets, lates (Koduva) Lactarias
(sudumbu) Polynemus (kala), Sillago (kilangan)
Chanos, megalops, elops etc.
The pre monsoon months were the most productive
followed by summer, post monsoon and monsoon.
Gross primary production of lake ranged from 312
to 2500 mg C/m'/day.Annual production of the lake
was computed as 312 g C/m'/year (Kaliyamurthy,
1978). The average annual fish yield of the lake is
1214tones or 34.59 kglha (Anon, Annual reports of
CIFRI, Barrackpore, 1969-1972), which is
equivalent to 3.459 kg Clba (Kaliyamurthy, 1975)
Zoo plankton .production of the southern sector of
the lake was 1.4 to 2 times higher than that of the
northern sector, which was also reflected in the

Table 3. Local medicinal plants and Its usesoln Pullcat Lake
S.No Local Name Botanical Name Paris Used Used For
Pulicat Lake
1 Guriginja Abrus precatorius Leaves Boils on breast
2 Nallatumma Acacia ni/otica Bark Tooth ache
3 Ullareni Achyranthes aspera Leaves/stem Knife cutslTooth brush
4 Kala banda Aioe vera Leaves cooling effect
5 Easwari Aristoiochia indica Root Snake bite
6 Vepa Azadirachta indica Leaves Itches, scabies/chicken pox
7 Tella Uppili Aizma tetracantha Leaves Chicken pox
8 Palauri Caparis brevispina Root Tooth ache
9 Nagetimullu Caparis rotundifolia Root Head ache
10 Thangedu Cassia auriculata Leaves Cooling
11 Kasintha Cassia occidentalis Leaves Bone fractures
12 Saraswathi Centella asiatica Leaves Cooling
13 Erripucha Citrullus colccynthes Leaves Sprains
14 Mavalangi Crataeva nurvala Stem bark Diuretic
15 Nelatadi Curculigo orchioides Root Swellings
16 Pacharu Dalbergia paniculata Leaves - Filarial swellings
17 Bandaru Dodonaea viscosa Leaves Swellings
18 Beera Drypetes sepia ria Root Scorpion stings
19 Gayapaku Eailia sonchifolia Leaves Antiseptic
20 Kundanedu Eugenia bracteata Root Tonsils
21 Nelapata Euphorbia hirta Leaves Bowel problems. worms in children
22 Alli Ficus racemosa Latex Fractures
23 Bhootulasi Geniosproum prostratum Whole plant Breathing problems
24 Gunji Glycosmis pentaphylla Root Dandruff
25 Adavi Gummadi Gmelina asiatica Root Dandruff
26 - Indigofera aspalthoides Leaves Boils in head
27 Kalichiteega Wattakaka volubilis Leaves Body pains
28 - Mollugo pentaphylla Leaves Wounds
29 Kukkatulasi OCimumcanum Whole plant Mosquito repellant
30 Enugapalleru Pedalium murex Leaves Diurectic
31 Nelausiri Phyllanthus amarus Root Jaundice
32 Peetarincha Pisonia aculeata Root Anaemia
33 Nallabalusu Plectronia parviflora Root More lactation
34 Naragongji Polyalthia korintii Root Stomach ache
35 Peddanelli Premna latifo/ia Root Cuts/wounds
36 Nallapilli salvadora persica Young stem Tooth brushes
37 Kasichellu Solanum nigram Leaves/Berry Stomach Ache
38 Kotari Tinospora cordifolia Leaves Boils
39 Mirapagandra Taidalla assiatica Root Fever
40 Pamudonda Tricosamtges palmata Leaves Head ache
41 Kukkupala teega Tylophora indica Leaves Snake repellent/Boils
42 Surati Venti/ago maderaspatana Stem bark Scabies
43 Manga Mangifera indica Stem bark! Seed Dandruff/ stomach pain
Source: [SRO-SHAR-TR 1998
fish yield of the respective zones (Kallyamurthy
1975).
Mystus gulio is available in Pulicat Lake
throughout the year in fairly large numbers and
153
contribntes to an important fishery resource in the
lake together with other catfishes. This species
was observed to breed In the lake during August to
October. The fecundity was found to vary from

Pulicat Lake
1285 to 24768 in the fish of size range from 80 to
128 mm. (Kaliyamurthy, 1981).
The post larvae and juveniles of commercially
important fishes like Chanos chanos, Elops
saurus, Megalops cyprinoids, Sillago sihama,
Gerres spp, Mugil spp, are available at the mouth
region of the lake and Hemirhamphus gaimardi
and Tylosurus strongylurus. showed their
occurrence throughout the lake all the year round
(Rao and Kaliyamurthi, 1974). The juveniles of
these two sps. occurred in different salinity and
different temperature but they were abundant in
the 36 to 38 ppt salinity and prefer moderately
higher salinity. As H. gaimardi is known for its
herbivorous habit and T.' strongylurus for its
carnivorous habit (prawns, mysids, and other
crustaceans) their abundance in these areas may
be due to ample supply of food of these fishes.
• Prawns: Penaeus indicus, P. monodon, P.
semisulcatus, Metapenaeus monoceros and
M.dobsoni are the common Prawns that occur
in the Pulicat Lake. Tiger 'Prawn and White
Prawn form the major Prawn production from
the system. Out of total catch of Pulicat prawns
constitute about 50 % and mullets 20 %.
Generally close to the lake mouth the maximum
number of Prawn larvae was seen in three
peaks in July, December and April. Same time a
descending order of abundance towards the
interior portion of the lake with peaks in
December and April observed. (Gopinathan,
1978)
• Crabs: Green Lagoon crabs Scylla serrata
(Forskal) and Scylla tranquebarica
(Fabricius) and Indian blue-swimming crab
Portunus pelagius (Linnaeus) support a fairly
lucrative commercial fishery in the Pulicat
Lake. Scylla serrata reaches its peak during
November - Junuary. This crab is preferred
than other species of crabs because of its meat
quality, its large size and its ability to stay alive
out of water for few days. Mesopodopsis
orientalis (Tattersall) is available in tIfe
Pulicat Lake and it forms one of the important
food items of the fishes of the lake (Kaliamurthy
1972). Deep-sea portunid crab Podophthalmus
vigil (Fabricius) is an off shore crab and its
occurrence in estuary is a rare phenomenon.
(Raman and Srinivasagam, 1978).
• Clam: Clam fishing begins in January or
February and continues until October or
November. The fishing method mainly carried
out by women is hand picking. The annual
landings of Meretrix casta were highest in 1980
(309.7 tones) and decreased in 1981 (168.2
tones) and 1982 (85.9 tones). The dramatic
decrease in 1982 is a result of the fact that the
shell industry, which purchased the clamshells,
shifted to Sullurpet in Nellore district in
Andhra Pradesh (Thangavelu and Sanjeevaraj
1988).
• Crafts: A total of 575 boats operated in Pulicat
region in 1985 this has increased to 5101 in
2000 mostly belonging to Wooden make and
Vallam type. The boats are ordinary country
crafts called 'Nattupadagu'. The length of this
plank built boat ranged from 6-8 meters with a
capacity of about 2 tones. The mechanized
boats are around 98 mostly belongs to Kasi
Visalakshikuppam and Thiruchinankuppam
villages(Fisheries census 2000). (AnnexureVI).
• Gears: Varity of fishing gears are used in
Pulicat region, which consists of 8185 gillnets,
4306 traps and 1363 loglines, these are
Table 4. Group wise annual landings from the Puticat Lake during 1965-66to 1972. (In metric tones)
Group 1965-66 1966.67 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
Prawns 478.794 519 634.533 378.652 566.1 561.54 417.40 569.31
Mullets 317.487 204 202.239 193.953 215.6 214.61 297.99 382.34
Clupeids 27.944 72 63.537 59.375 105.0 125.57 105.13 114.50
Catfishes 47.210 28 56.613 47.438 58.7 20.40 - 29.90
Crabs 81.194 34 23.428 52.066 - 89.40 102.23 72.14
fierches 87,622 82 84.328 121.036 96.7 87.35 125.40 135.36
Beloniforms 14.266 18.681 27.7 29.62 30.12 23.18
Sciaenids 21.239 20.664 - - . 17.90 23.04
Threadfins 13.637 14.114 28.6 10.82 11.72 5.21
Miscellaneous 19.970 20.908 - - - 16.47
Source: Ka/Jyamurto.f; 1979.
154

commonly used by local fisher folk. Apart from
this 149 Trawlnet, 12 shore seine and 22614
other types of gears are used (Fisheries census
2000) (Annexure VII).
Estimation of fish landings through fish catch with
different nets has been one of the quantification
methods used by the Government organizations
Pulicat Lake
like Fisheries Departments and researchers. Such
quantification helps in estimating the productivity
of the lagoon systems. The data based on such
estimation shows steady increase of the fish
production in the system from 1950 to 1970 (Table
4&6). Also the latest data of 2000 also shows
similar trend (Table 5). This increase is due to
Table 5. Annual landings In and around Pulicat during 2000 in metric tonnes
NAME OFTHE FISH OBGN OBBSGN OBHL OBBN OBSCOOP NMSN NMBSGN NMHL NMBN NMSCOOP TOTAL
Rays
Catfishes
33
-
-
1
24
33
-
362
-
-
35
1
2
3
6
.
-
-
-
-
100
400
Wo~ herring
Oil sardina
Othersardines
Othershads
Stolephorus
44
16
874
369
1
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
271
-
-
-
11
-
-
-
-
2
81
203
70
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
6
-
-
-
-
63
368
1077
439
1
Thryssa 101 13 - 1 - 116 14 - - 8 253
Other clupeids
Ha~ beaksfull beaks
Rying fishes
98
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
70
23
.
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
9
-
121
10
70
Perches
Goat fishes
Threadfins
Croackers
Ribbon fishes
Leather-Jackets
Other carang ids
Silver Bellies
2
19
18
32
19
13
223
40
-
-
-
21
-
-
3
3
22
-
-
1
-
39
77
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
9
1
22
4
2
77
16
1
3
-
33
-
.
10
7
4
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
I
30
31
19
109
23
57
391
66
Black pomfret 12 - - - - - - - - - 12
Silver pomfret 2 - - 5 - 7 - - 3 - 17
Indian mackerel
Seer fishes
1192
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
189
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1381
1
S.Commersoni
E. affinis
64
.
-
-
29
2
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
31
-
-
-
-
-
125
2
Bill fishes
Barraudas
Mullets
Sales
Penaeid prawns
Lobsters
1
4
12
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
11
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
.
-
-
-
.
-
.
-
-
-
3
13
-
.
-
-
-
4
11
-
2
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
3
7
25
9
22
3
Crabs
Miscellaneous
12
55
5
9
-
1
-
-
-
.
10
29
14
19
-
-
-
-
-
-
41
113
Total 3258 74 228 639 81 915 121 45 3 25 5389
Efforts (Units) 45432 4518 3748 436 711 20876 7623 3261 31 1219 -
Efforts (A.F.H.) 104146 19084 13955 1004 1711 50363 27391 11157 46 3373 -
Source: CMFm Reff/onal OffJCe Chenoa/. aDON Out board Ifill nel; OROSN Outboard bottom set oe4' OBHL Oul board nooks and clams; OOON Outboard
bottom net. OBSCOOP Outboard scoop net NMGN Non mechanized gill net; NMBSGN Non mec1JBnlzed bottom set giU nel
155

Pulicat Lake
seeding procedures and sophistication of fish
catching nets of the Government agencies like
State Fisheries Department and through some
local groups.
The table 6 highlights the greater extractions of
fish resources in the southern sector. It may be due
to overfishing or due to the seeding done by the
fisheries department in the southern sector of the
lake and further investigations are necessary in
this respect.
Table 6. Total and sector. wise annual landings of
fish from the Pulicat Lake
Period
1965-66
1966.67
1967
1968
1968
1970
1971
1972
Sectorwise landings (I) Tolal landings (t)
Northern Soulhern
Seclor Sector
754.837
321.0
412.659
312.678
424.400
500.240
548.724
Source : J1JJngraD~ 1991
418.414
665.000
721.151
614.209
716.300
670.730
624.617
ii. Domesticated Bio-resources
Agriculture and livestock
1173.000
986.000
1133.810
926.887
1140.700
1170.964
1173.341
1371.448
As elsewhere in south India rice is the staple food
for people living in the islands inside the Pulicat
Lake. But at the same time the system in which
they are is saline which does not allow many
species to be cultivated. However, 30 species of
frnits and 16 species of vegetables are cultivated
in the region (Table 7), among the plantation
Casuarinas cultivation is common. Around one
lakh population of livestock has been
domesticated. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, and
poultry form the dominant livestock species with a
population of one lakh. On an average each have
household has one cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep and
two individual in poultry. Available data on
livestock population of some of the viliages are
given in (Table 8).
b. Aquaculture:
Table 7. Fruits and Vegetables of Pulicat region
No. Local Name Bolanical Name Part
1 Munthamamidi Anacardium occidentale Fruits
2 Panasa Artocarpus heterophyl/us Fruits
3 Thati Borassus flabel/iter Fruits
4 Pemu Calamus rotang Fruits
5 Nallabalusu Canthium parviflorum Fruits
6 Aridonda Capparis zeylanica Fruits
7 Donda Coccinia grandis Fruits
8 Kobbari Cocos nucitera Fruits
9 Doti Diospyros ferrea Fruits
10 Beera Drypetes sepia ria Fruits
11 Kundanedu Eugenia bracteata Fruits
12 Alli Ficus racemosa Fruils
13 Tenechellu Guazuma ulmitolia Fruits
14 Veiaga Umonia acidissima Fruits
15 Mamidi Mangitera indica Fruils
16 Pala Manikara hexandra Fruils
17 Pogada Mimusops elengi Fruits
18 Bontha jemudu Opunitia dilleni Fruits
19 Mogili Pandanus tectorius Fruits
20 Eetha Phoenix sylvestris Fruits
21 Seema chinta Pithecel/obium dulce Fruits
22 Jama Psidium guajava Fruits
23 Chirupala Secamone emetica Fruits
24 Neredu Syzizium cumini Fruits
25 Pullamamidi Spondias pinnata Fruits
26 Chintha Tamarindus indica Fruits
27 Regu Ziziphus mauritiana Fruits
28 Pariki Z oenoplia Fruits
29 Eetha Phoenixsp. Fruits
30 Dividivi Caesalpinia coria ria Fruits
31 Alii Memecylon umbel/a tum Leaves
32 Nelasaga sansevieria roxburghiana Leaves
33 Thati Borassus flabel/iter Leaves
34 Eetha Phoenix farinitera Leaves
35 Pedda eetha Phoenix sylvestris Leaves
36 Kobbari Cocos nucitera Leaves
37 Ponnagantikura Alternanthera sessilis . Leaves
38 Thotakura Amaranthus viridis Leaves
39 Mellaku Asystasia gangetia Leaves
40 Bacchali Basel/a rubra Leaves
41 Atikimamidi Boerhavia diffusa Leaves
42 Aridonda Capparis zeylanica Leaves
43 Donda Coccuinia grandis Leaves
44 Ishiranthakura Gisekia pharnaceoides Leaves
45 Adavigogu Hibiscus surrattensis Leaves
46 80dditeega Rivea hypocrateriformis Leaves
Aquaculture activity has attracted severe
criticism from environmentalists. At the same time
shrimp farming has become lucrative business in
the southern coast particularly in Neliore district
with 3782 hectares under aquaculture, which
surrounds three fourth area of the Pulicate Lake. Source: ISRO- SHAR _ TR -1998
156

Table 8. Livestock population in some of the representative villages of Pulicat Lake.
Pulicat Lake
SINo Villages Callie Bullalo Goal Sheep Poultry Others
1 Pulica! 238 196 254 85 568 -
2 Kotlaikuppam 124 48 156 25 341
3 Ligh! House Kuppam 28 25 65 - 138
4 Edamani 51 32 94 35 184
5 Annamaaicheri 130 70 98 25 149 -
6 Arambakkam 125 110 30 240 415 -
7 Elavur 145 87 240 80 543
8 Sunnambukulam 265 316 201 - 588 -
9 Arumbakkam 190 90 115 20 412 .
10 Nochikuppam 60 70 20 115 213 -
11 New Gummudipoondi 317 216 413 63 718 -
12 Old Gummudipoondi 215 344 217 37 618 -
13 Thonirevu 24 15 68 18 178 .
14 Naduvurma!ha Koil kuppam 68 25 98 15 189 -
15 Thulukapalayam 30 12 64 14 165 -
16 Vairavankuppam 25 12 168 - 216 -
17 Arangan 10 8 96 21 224 -
18 Thandalom 22 12 86 - 218 -
19 Koonangkuppam 124 -
20 Katlupakkam 9 5 36 - 85 -
21 Andikuppam 36 18 85 17 235 -
Source: Assistant director. Animal HuslJandl'J) PonDer}, 2001.
However the industry is in doldrums because of a
viral attack (Vasanth et ai, 1990)'
Among the various fishes rabbitfishes in
aquaculture had been occupying markets in
Israel, USA, Singapore, Japan, etc. This species is
also abundant in Pulicat Lake with an average
count of 5000 juveniles (dominated by Siganidae
javus), through out the region indicating its
potential in the aquaculture (Vasanth et ai, 1990).
Pulicat Lake, has an average depth of 1.5 meters,
which incidentally is the optimum depth for
shrimp growth. Pulicat could be developed as a
"Giant pond" for shrimp farming through juvenile
stocking. Pulicat Lake would yield 11250 tones of
shrimp per year. Calculating even at a very low
rate of about Rs. 60 per kg of shrimp, or Rs 60,000/
- per tonne the total income from shrimp yield
alone from the Pulicat Lake would amount to an
incredible RS.67 crores per year. If this amount
were equitably distributed among around 30000
fisherfolk participating in this, it would work out
to an enviable figure Rs. 1860/- per head per
month (Sanjeevaraj, 1994). Also there is great
potential for poly-culture in the lake, through
stocking it with wild or hatchery-produced seed of
the mud-crabs (Scyhlla serrata and Scylla
157
tranquebarica), variety of native brackish water
finfish like mullets (Mugil spp.), Pearl-Spot
(Etroplus maculates), Thread-Fin
(Eleutheronema te'tradactylus) and Milk Fish
(Chanos chanos), avoiding predator fish like cat
fishes and the Bhekti or Sea bass (Lates
calcarifer), etc (Kaliyamurthy et ai, 1977).
Realizing the potential and demand, the
aquaculture industry has taken a giant leap
through induction of latest technologies. However,
uncontrolled expansion of brackish water
aquaculture farms and their intensive farm
practices create several environmental issues like
salination of agriculture land and fresh water
sources.
VI. Threats to Bioresource
I. Natural and Environmental
The bar mouth plays an important role in
estuaries in maintaining a dynamic state of
environmental condition induced by tidal
incursion from the sea and discharge from the
river. The influx from the sea is greatly responsible
for minimizing fluctuations in physico-chemical
conditions in lagoons. Ingression of fish and prawn
seed is affected through the mouth of estuaries

Pulicat Lake
and lagoons. which form the nursery ground for
them to feed and grow. Chaco et at (1953) have
reported that the mouth of this lake gets closed
every five years. But due to frequent failure of
monsoon in this area the closure of mouth became
almost an annual feature. Invariably closure took
place around pre monsoon period (June/July) and
lasted till the outbreak of monsoon (November/
December).
Silt brought by river Kalangi on the mid-western
side does the greatest damage of all to the bottom
vegetation. oyster beds. and aquatic life like
worms. juvenile prawns and crabs. Siltation by the
river Arni in 'the south impedes navigation for
transport of fuel wood and shells in the
Buckingham canal and hence handicaps fishing.
Siltation of the iake in general leads to spread
over of floodwaters on to the villages around the
margins of the lake. Great volumes of silt from the
River Swarnamukhi have been filling up the
northern regions of the lake forming extensive
marshes and mud flats that attract a variety of
water birds to feed. Caratini (1994) projects that
with this current rate of silting through various
processes and the current average depth of the
lake (which is less than meter). it could get filled
up totally before the end of this century leading to
its ecological death.
ii. Anthropogenic
The extensive deforestation. sand mmmg in
riverbeds results in topsoil erosion along the
watersheds and riverbeds. is drifting the topsoil as
silt into the waterways. Road across the northern
sector of Pulicat Lake. from Sulurpet to
Sriharikota Rocket Launching Station (SHAR) is
an obstruction for the free flow of water to
northern regions which is promoting more siltation
in the north. The road should have been a culvert
with wide-open waterways.
The 630 MW NCTPS set up by the Tamil Nadu
Electricity Board (TNEB) draws 44 lakh liters of
fresh water from the Ennore Creek and lets out
hot coolant water into the Buckingham Canal and
discharges toxic fly ash. in the form of slurry into
lagoon system. Despite precipitators and chemical
filters. the fly ash contains toxic elements such as
arsenic. cadmium. mercury. lead. manganese.
fluoride. and beryllium (Rajathy and Azariala.
1996). Fly ash is especially harmful as it can be
inhaled and can lead to permanent respiratory
disorders. dermatitis. and cancer. The silica in fly
ash could cause silicosis. Increased temperature
158
accelerates the metabolic activity of organisms
and reducing the solubility of oxygen in water.
This leads to oxygen depletion and results in the
death of aquatic life.
The Ennore Satellite Port. a sheltered harbor
facility further compounds the problem. It handles
about 16.12 tones of coal. which is the daily
requirement for the NCTPS and thermal power
station at Ennore and Mettur. Over 440 hectares
have been acquired for the port. which has been
hailed as a corporate port. The first phase of its
work consists of the construction of a coal jetty.
wharf and an entrance channel and related
dredging operations. The main construction work
includes two berths for handling coal vessels up to
65000 dead weight tonnage (DWT)dredging for the
approach basin. onshore civil works. navigational
aids and two breakwaters. 13 million meters of soil
is to be dredged for a 16-meter deep access
channel. The construction of the breakwaters has
caused ingression of the sea to 50 meters into the
mainland that separates the Pulicat lagoon system
and the sea. This. the sea erosion has affected
nearby hamlets. which is home to over 20000
strong fishing communities. The sea erosion
caused by port construction has led to dramatic
fall in fish catch. Tiger prawn. mud crabs. tread
finfish and bhetki. which were found in plenty.
have become scarce. Pulicat lagoon system ought
to carry .about 10000tonnes of seafood now carries
hardly 5 percent of its capacity (Sanjeevaraj.
2000).
The second major problem is the Tamil Nadu
Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO)in its
newfound role as a facilitator of industrial parks.
is acquiring 2900 hectares for the proposed
petrochemical park. This will include 600 hectares
for constructing additional berths at the Ennore
Satellite port to serve the units set up at the park
(Frontline. 2000). This park extends across
Kattupalli panchayat which is bound by the Bay of
Bengal in the East. the Buckingham Canal in the
West. the Pulicat lagoon in the north and the
Ennore Creek in the south. The fishermen of this
panchayat are facing livelihood problems because
of the acute fish depletion within 10 meters of the
shoreline. For instance before the satellite port
and NCTPS came up they would sell their catch at
a market which was just 8 km away. now they
have to travel 20 km to reach the market affects
the freshness of the catch and in turn its selling
price (Sanjeevaraj. 1999).

iii. Potential threat to the local bio-resource
dependent populations
The problems and threats of the Pulicat Lake
could be three-dimensional pollution, sea erosion,
and loss of livelihoods. Discharges of
petrochemical, fertilizer, and pesticide industries,
sewage and thermal power stations into the
Buckingham Canal reduces fresh water inflow and
periodic closure of the lake's mouth.
A decade ago they used to catch 3000 kgs of fish
per day while today even in a whole season they
cannot get more than 10 kgs. Prawns and mullets
take a major share. Once on an average 1200
tones of fish and crustaceans were harvested.
There is a steep drop in the catch lif fish, prawns,
mullets and crabs since 1970. The birds are also
threatened as a result of fishing even tiny fish fry
and fingerlings, which form chief food of nestlings
are getting depleted. Even some of the voracious
pelicans, are also captured by fisher folk for food.
On sea erosion Ennore Satellite port has started
washing away parts of the villages Koraikuppam
and Sathankuppam. The fisherfolk fear that the
erosion of the sand bar is a direct threat to their
livelihood as the lake ecosystem would disappear
and merge with the Bay of Bengal.
Uncontrolled fishing by seafood export companies
that even harvest brood stocks of hatchery is one
of the main reasons of biodiversity loss.
Unscientific aquaculture for gross commercial
gains, pumping out the lake water and
discharging it back as polluting effluents is
another cause for concern. The effluents reduce
the number of aquatic organisms and interfere
with bird breeding. Rapid siltation has also caused
loss of biodiversity. Loss of mangroves may be one
Pulicat Lake
of the reasons hastening siltation, reducing
biodiversity and hence depriving fisherfolk of their
livelihood.
VII. Conservation and Management Efforts
Conservation and management efforts had been
initiated during 1980's. The Government of India,
declared Pulicat Lake as a wild life sanctuary in
1980. In accordance with the Environmental
(protection) Act, 1986 it classified the coastal
stretch within 500 meters of the high tide line
(HTL) into Categories I, to IV, and declared in
1991 as Coastal Regulation Zone. According to
Coastal Regulation Zone notification "the coastal
stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers
and backwaters influenced by tidal action in the
landward side up to 500 meters from the high tide
line and the low tide line are classified as CRZ I".
The CRZ I regions must be protected by law. As
per this notification, the entire Pulicat water
system, including the lagoon, the Ennore creek
and Buckingham Canal, is designated CRZ 1.
i. Applicable Protection Acts
In the present context there are around ten Acts,
which could be directly applied for the protection
of the Pulicat Lagoon ecosystems (Table 9).
The International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) proposed
Pulicat lagoon system as Ramsar site of
international importance. World Wide Fund for
Nature declared the same as protected area.
ii. Government Organisations (GO), Non
Government Organisations (NGO) and other
groups involved in conservation and
management efforts of Pulicat Lake
Number of organisations are involved in
conservation and management of Pulicat Lake
Table 9. Applicable Protection Acts of Government of India during different periods
SINO ACTS YEAR
1 ForestConservationAct1980MarineProductsDevelopmentAuthority 1972
2 IndianForestAct 1972
3 Water(Preventionand ControlofPollution)Act 1974
4 MarineZonesof India(Regulationof Fishingby Foreignvessels) 1980
5 TamilNaduFishingRegulationAct 1981
6 Environment(Protection)Act 1986
7 FishermanAct 1987
8 TheCoastalRegulationZone(CRZ)Notification 1991
9 WildlifeProtectionAct1972andwildlife(Protection)AmendmentAct 1991
10 TheAquacultureAuthorityBill 1997
159

Pulicat Lake
SINo.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Name of the Organization
Mr.Arivazhagan Rayan, IFDP, PulicatPostOffice, PonneriTaluk, Thiruvallur District,601 205 Tamil Nadu
Dr. B. R. Subramanian, ICMAM, DOD Icmam Project Directorate, 2"" Floor, NIOT, Campus, Velacherry,
Tambaram Main road, Pallikkaranai,Chennai601 302.
Mr. Delli Babu, C/o Copdanet,Armbakkam, GummidipoondiTaluk,Thiruvallur District,Tamil Nadu
Mr. Eswariah, CAMEL, Sallurpet, 524121, Nellore District,Andhra Pradesh
Rev. Fr. I. Ignatius, SI. Xavier's Society, TADA, near Syndicate Bank, Nellore Distr,ict, 524 401
Andhra Pradesh
Mr. K. Paramanandam, ARP Office, P.K. Street, Arumbakkam. Gummipoondi Taluk, Thiruvaliur District,
TamilNadu
Mr. KK Ethirajulu, Rurai Development Project, Varadaiahpalem, Chittamur Mandai, Nellore District,
Andhra Pradesh "
Mr. M. Subba Rao, MASSES,Valayanandapuram,Gadur 524101, Nellore District,Andhra Pradesh
Mr.N.Kannadasan,CoastalPoorDevelopmentAclionNetwork,Arumbakkam,GummidipoondiTaluk,Thiruvallur
District, Tamil Nadu
Mr. Preston Ahimaz, Director,WWF-India, 13, 11th Street, Nandanam Extension, Chennai 600 035
Mr. P.Veeraraghavulu, President, Rural DevelopmentSociety, High School Road, TADA, 524401, Nellore
District,Andhra Pradesh
Mr. Rajendran, Forest Beat Officer,Andhra Pradesh ForestOffice, Salurpet
Dr. Ramesh, Institutefor Ocean Development,Anna University,Chennai 600 020
Mr. Sridaran, PREPARE, 3-116-A,GNT,'Road,TADA 524 401, Nellore District,Andhra Pradesh
Mr. Varadan, SCINDEA, Pulicat,PonneriTaluk,ThiruvallurDistrict601 205. Tamil Nadu
Mr. V. Rajagopal,Associationfor the Rural Developmentand Education,Arumbakkam, SathyaveduMandai,
Chittor District 517 588 Andhra Pradesh.
among the GO's CFRI, State Forest Department
and State Department of Environment from both
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are actively
involved, among the NGO's more than twenty five
are working on this conservation and management
of the lake. Most of the NGO's are working along
with the local communities. However there are no
dominant local groups involved in the process.
Some of the active organisations are given in the
Table 10 along with their addresses.
VIII. Future Prospects
There are five taluks from Andhra Pradesh and
two taluks in Tamil Nadu states surrounding the
Pulicat lake region. The indigenous community in
Gumidipundi and Ponneri taluks in Tamil Nadu
utilize the maximum aquatic bioresource of the
lake and survive on it. Demographic change in
these taluks will have maximum effect on the lake
bioresources. The literacy rate in this region is low
with extremely low technical education.
Strengthening this will enhance the income
generating activities and reduce the pressure on
the lake.
Attaining gender equity in population composition
is very important. Thc recent trend in male female
160
ratio in attaining one, which shows demographic
equity. When it comes to income generating
activities less than 20% of the female population is
involved. This indicates the need of female
empowerment through engendered livelihoods,
which will also lead the sustainable management
of bioresources of the lake.
More than 50% of the population earns annual
income of only rupees 6,000 per year, which is
much below the national poverty line. The
available livelihood activities in this region are
lopsided towards excessive harvest of the
resources of the lake. There is an urgent need to
diversify the livelihoods among the fisher folks,
like processing and market linkages in increase
the income of the region.
Mangrove vegetation, which is seen at the
northern end of the Pulict Lake, could be
propagated at other parts of the lake. Mangrove
roots can help in soil binding and thus prevent
erosion and also act as wind, flood shields and
breeding grounds for prawns. Above all mangrove
foliage can attract large water birds like egrets,
night herons, open bills and painted strokes to
nest and breed.

Coconut groves could be tried also on the Pulicat
Lake to provide alternate means of livelihood for
the fisherfolk. Casuarinas groves flourish on the
east coast of India so well that wastelands around
the Pulicat -Lake can plant with them, since they
provide timher for rural housing and fuel wood for
the poor.
Palmyra trees, once so ahundant on the east coast,
have disappeared as huildiug materials. But they
are good shields against tidal waves and the seeds
can he used also for fastening catamaran logs and
fishing nets during a tidal wave. It can even help
to save valuable human life in houses constructed
on them during tidal waves, which are so common
on the east coast of India.
Sandy wastelands around the Pulicat Lake are the
natural habitat for the medicinal plant
Catharanthes rosea, which is exported for its
alkaloids known to be of therapeutic value against
oral cancer. Medicinal farming could be another
alternate occupation for the fisherman.
Fish catches could also be regulated through
regulating the type of gear, their mesh size, fishing
season and magnitude of catches. Licensing for
fishing could also be an important measure taken
towards a sustainable development of the lake
fisheries.
On an average more than 60% of the world's
population live in the coastal areas and depend on
the fish catches from the coastal aquatic systems
which accounts more than 95% of the world's
Acknowledgements
Pulicat Lake
marine catch. Rapidly increasing population
results in expansion and diversification of
economic activities in the coastal region leading to
high level of competition for resources affecting
the sustainability of coastal areas.
Rapid development and expansion of intensive
aquaculture for shrimp has resulted in wide
spread degradation of environment. Pumping of
untreated and partly treated chemical effluents,
fly ash and thermal wastes by the industries
causes irreparable damage to the system. Pollution
on one hand and unsustainable exploitation of
fishery resources on the other lessen the average
daily income of the fisherfolk and threatens their
livelihood. Sustainable fishing would lead to
prosperous livelihood for the surrounding islands.
The lake region is also historically known for its
rich tradition and culture with ancient temples,
monuments, and buildings, which, could be a
useful capital for ecotourism. Traditional smallscale
industries could also be a one of the
important livelihood opportunities to be
encouraged.
Policies have to be identified with the ground
realities, understanding the direct and intimate
closeness between the communities and their
common resources, over-ridding the community's
rights to livelihood. Constructive initiative of
prevention of unregulated fishing and possible
restoration of the ecology should emerge through
active involvement of the coastal communities.
I take this opportunity to thank Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, Chairman, MSSRF for providing me with this
opportunity to write this status report. I am also thankful to Prof. P.C. Kesavan for his support, Dr. Ajay
Parida for bis constant guidance and encouragement and Dr. Hemal Kanvinde for patiently editing the
report.
I also appreciate the administrative help given by Ms. Y. Dilhara Begam, MSSRF.
At this juncture I would also like to thank Dr. Kaliyamurthi, Prof. Chellaiah and Dr. John Joseph {)f
MSSRF for their valuable suggestions. I am also grateful to the organizations and individuals listed
below for their support:
A. Sreenivasan Rtd. Joint director of Fisheries, Dr. M.B. Ragunathan of Zoological Survey of India (ZSI),
Dr. E. Vevekanandhan CMFRI, Chennai, Ms. Padma, of State Fisheries, Dr. S.K. Sundarraj and Dr. N.
Narasimhan of Madras Christian College, Mr. Karunanidhi, Madras Christian College, Estuarine Lab
Technician, Mr. Reddy of Tamil Nadu Forest Office, Dr. S. Ramesh of Anna University Ocean department,
Dr. Balaji IFS, Department of Environment of Fbrest Chennai. Mr. L. Pushpha Kumar of C.P. Ramaswamy
Foundation, Ms. Banumathi of World Wildlife Forest,Tamii Nadu State Office, Prof. P.J. Sanjeevaraj of
Centre for Research on New International Economic Order (CReNIEO), Mr. Rajesh of Consumer Action
Group (CAG), Dr. G.R.M. Rao of Central Institute of Brackish water aquaculture (CIBA), Ms. Ramya
Rajagopalan of International Fish workers collective.
161

Pulicat Lake
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162
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ANNEXURE -I
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DETAILS OF FISHERMEN POPULATION - YEAR 2000
Children Adults Total
SI
Name of the Village
Family
No. Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Population
Size
1 BattaiktJppam 177 114 291 380 372 752 567 486 1,043 4.48
2 Bethaniakuppam 30 56 86 47 42 89 77 98 175 4.73
3 Arambakkam 503 544 1,047 591 649 1,240 1,094 1,193 2,287 4.89
4 Venkatesape rumalnagar 46 52 98 86 68 154 132 120 252 4.42
5 Rakkampalayam 100 107 207 203 207 410 303 314 617 4.03
6 Vallampedukuppam 65 59 124 117 117 234 182 176 358 3,48
7 Madhukalkuppam 42 43 85 38 39 77 80 82 162 4.91
8 Metlukuppam 21 23 44 34 34 68 55 57 112 3.61
9 Sunnambukulam 72 79 151 149 131 280 221 210 431 2.3
10 Karakkadu 30 25 55 65 63 128 95 88 183 4.07
11 Sirumburkuppam 19 20 39 23 19 42 42 39 81 4.76
12 Chinnamangadu 145 149 294 246 235 481 391 384 775 3.16
13 Periyamangadu 151 148 299 281 258 539 432 406 838 3.95
14 Pudukuppam 212 246 458 325 328 653 537 574 1111 4.98
15 Annamalaicheri 261 310 571 400 470 870 661 780 1441 4.21
16 Aurivakkam (East & West) 111 125 236 169 189 358 280 314 594 4.07
163

Pullea! Lake
SI
No.
Name of the Village
Children Adults Total
Male Female Tolal Male Female Total Male Female Population
17 Kulalhumedu 76 90 166 147 126 273 223 216 439 4.43
18 Jamilabadh 191 195 386 251 228 479 442 423 865 4.41
19 Thonirevu 70 101 171 183 182 365 253 283 536 4.16
20 Senjiammannagar 28 25 53 67 66 133 95 91 186 2.78
21 Kottaikuppam 120 137 257 263 249 512 383 386 769 5.42
22 Andikuppam 84 104 188 185 163 348 269 267 536 5.31
23 Nadoor Madhakuppam 281 323 604 681 600 1281 962 923 1885 4.38
24 Karaiyar street 108 128 236 201 178 379 309 306 615 5.64
25 Israelkuppam 26 31 57 56 48 104 82 79 161 3.93
26 Edamanikuppam 58 86 144 112 110 222 170 196 366 3.7
27 Pasiyavaram 69 81 150 107 97 204 176 178 354 4.21
28 Goonankuppam 229 210 439 352 390 742 581 600 1181 3.31
29 Thirumalainagar 138 173 311 265 300 565 403 473 876 3.37
30 Sembasipallikuppam 114 143 257 199 218 417 313 361 674 3.27
31 Lighthouse kuppam 89 117 206 202 212 414 291 329 620 3.15
32 Lighthouse nadukuppam 48 42 90 100 122 222 148 164 312 3.25
33 Karimanal 31 44 75 62 59 121 93 103 196 4.08
34 Arangamkuppam 276 270 546 383 406 789 659 676 1335 4.12
35 Vairavankuppam 133 161 294 219 210 429 352 371 723 416
36 Sathankuppam 169 160 329 325 326 651 494 486 980 4.03
37 Koraikuppam 80 73 153 76 79 155 156 152 308 4.6
38 Kamarajnagar kattupalli 54 50 104 82 94 176 136 144 280 3.01
39 Sivanpadaikuppam 160 158 318 256 267 523 416 425 841 3.7
40 Kattukuppam 116 136 252 308 273 581 424 409 833 3.53
41 Ennorkuppam 141 163 304 193 213 406 334 376 710 5.18
42 Mugalhuvarakuppam 143 164 307 235 250 485 378 414 792 4.89
43 Nettukuppam 317 321 638 610 599 1209 927 920 1847 3.54
44 Thazhankuppam 379 396 775 618 565 1183 997 961 1958 4.36
45 Kathivakkam periyakuppam 90 81 171 96 102 198 186 183 369 3.97
46 Kathivakkam chinnakuppam 67 78 145 142 145 287 209 223 432 3.82
47 Ernvurkuppam 67 63 130 125 107 232 192 170 362 4.47
48 Indira Gandhikuppam 36 66 102 82 57 139 118 123 241 4.92
49 Kasikoilkuppam 168 184 352 153 172 325 321 356 677 4.54
50 Kasi Visalakshikuppam 75 78 153 55 63 118 130 141 271 4.75
51 Kasi VlWSWanatharkoilkuppam 272 268 540 208 221 429 480 489 969 4.99
52 Palagaithottikuppam 108 69 177 119 131 250 227 200 427 4.74
53 Pattinatharkoilkuppam 281 291 572 289 ~.314 603 570 605 1175 3.71
54 Thiruvottiyurkuppam 95 99 194 218 155 373 313 254 567 2.86
55 Ondikuppam 57 47 104 167 145 312 224 192 416 3.04
56
57
Thiruchinankuppam
Lakshmipuram
401
40
442
..
38
843
78
918
160
881
94
1799
254
1319
200
1323
132
2642
332
2.94
3.86
58 Nallathanneerodaikuppam 145 249 394 606 285 891 751 534 1285 4.16
Total 7615 8235 15850 13230 12723 25953 I 20845 20958 41803 3.94
164
Family
Size

ANN E XU R E -II
EDUCATIONAL STATUS - YEAR 2000
Palica! Lake
SI Primary High Hr. Sec. Total
Name of the Village
Total
College Technical
No. School School School literates Illiterates
1 Battaikuppam 253 30 4 1 0 288 702
2 Bethaniakuppam 63 7 0 0 0 70 59
3 Arambakkam 486 76 7 2 1 572 1374
4 Ven katesaperu mal nagar 60 10 0 0 0 70 136
5 Rakkampalayam 76 38 5 0 0 119 434
6 Vallampedukuppam 28 25 0 0 1 54 249
7 Madhukalkuppam 60 0 0 0 0 60 74
8 Mettukuppam 9 27 3 0 0 39 53
9 Sunnambukulam 29 2 0 1 0 32 337
10 Karakkadu 76 18 1 0 0 95 60
11 Sirumburkuppam 29 0 0 0 0 29 30
12 Chinnamangadu 58 4 0 1 0 63 595
13 Periyamangadu 78 56 0 0 0 134 597
14 Pudukuppam 183 80 33 0 0 296 629
15 Annamalaicheri 315 33 0 0 0 348 907
16 Aurivakkam (East & West) 233 55 4 1 0 293 224
17 Kulathumedu 59 25 6 2 0 92 287
18 Jamilabadh 286 136 3 3 0 428 289
19 Thonirevu 98 145 39 20 2 304 184
20 Senjiammannagar 4 0 0 0 0 4 154
21 Kottaikuppam 213 294 29 11 6 553 140
22 Andikuppam 129 209 18 0 1 357 125
23 Nadoor Madhakuppam 843 500 50 27 14 1434 280
24 Karaiyar street . 148 174 9 1 1 333 203
25 Israelkuppam 40 60 8 0 0 108 36
26 Edamanikuppam 178 72 4 1 0 255 80
27 Pasiyavaram 40 70 0 0 0 110 205
28 Goonankuppam 473 263 5 5 0 746 294
29 Thirumalainagar 164 196 1 1 1 363 408
30 Sembasipallikuppam 270 133 5 3 2 413 184
31 Lighthouse kuppam 184 178 1 3 0 366 185
32 Lighthouse nadukuppam 58 156 0 2 2 218 54
33 Karimanal 40 31 3 0 0 74 110
34 Arangamkuppam 317 193 11 4 1 526 643
35 Vairavankuppam 156 170 10 3 2 341 275
36 Sathankuppam 214 151 15 2 0 382 520
37 Koraikuppam 51 49 3 0 0 103 145
38 Kamarajnagar kattupalli 10 16 0 0 0 26 216
39 Sivanpadaikuppam 176 42 2 1 0 221 . 444
40 Kattukuppam 60 20 5 0 0 85 659
165

Pulicat Lake
SI
Primary High Hr. Sec. Total Total
Name of the Village
College Technical
No. School School School Literates Illiterates
41 Ennorkuppam 170 287 7 6 2 472 148
42 Mugathuvarakuppam 212 281 16 7 2 518 163
43 Nenukuppam 179 177 20 2 0 378 1183
44 Thazhankuppam 181 186 9 5 2 383 1203
45 Kathivakkam periyakuppam 57 55 3 1 0 116 174
46 Kathivakkam chinnakuppam 39 53 3 1 0 96 273
47 Ernvurkuppam 49 70 4 2 2 127 169
48 Indira Gandhikuppam 16 13 1 1 0 31 164
49 Kasikoilkuppam 327 127 0 0 0 454 94
50 Kasi Visalakshikuppam 105 37 0 0 0 142 68
51 Kasi Viwswanalharkoiikuppam 668 37 0 0 0 705 98
52 Palagailhonikuppam 239 18 0 0 0 257 105
53 Paninatharkoilkuppam 525 209 16 0 0 750 233
54 Thiruvoniyurkuppam 67 263 20 0 0 350 128
55 Ondikuppam 12 108 15 0 0 135 248
56 Thiruchinankuppam 555 655 10 1 1 1222 1111
57 Lakshmipuram 29 24 4 2 0 59 252
58 Nallathanneerodaiku ppam 34 15 3 0 2 54 . 1087
Total 9711 6359 415 123 45 16653 19481
ANNEXURE-ill
la. Mangrove Vegetation
SINo. Scientific Name Family
1 Aegiceras corniculaturn Myrsinaceae
2 Avicennia alba Avicenniaceae
3 A. marina var accutisima Avicenniaceae
4 A. officinalis Avicenniaceae
5 Ceriops decandra Rhizophoraceae
6 C. tagal Rhizophoraceae
7 Excoecaria agallocha Euphorbiaceae
8 Phoenix paIudosa Arecaceae
9 Rhizophora apiculata Rhizophoraceae
10 R. mucronata Rhizophoraceae
11 Sonneratia apetala Sonneratiaceae
12 S. alba Sonneratiaceae
Source: SanJeevJlraJ and Paul Rat .1999.
lb. Mangrove climbers
SINo. Scientific Name Family
1 Caesalpinia bonduc Caesalpinaceae
2 Caesalpinia crista Caesalpinaceae
3 Dalbergia spinosa Fabaceae
4 Derris scandens Fabaceae
5 D. heterophylla Fabaceae
6 Derris trifoliata Leguminosae
SOUTee: Sanjeevaraj IlOd Paul.ll8j, ./999.
166
Ie. Mangrove grasses
SINo. Scientific Name Family
1 Myriostachya wightiana Poaceae
2 Porteresia coarctata Poaceae
3 Urochondra setulosa Poaceae
4 Fimbristylis ferruginea Cyperaceae
5 Aeluropus logopoides Poaceae
6 Stenophyllus barbata
7 Cyperussp
8 Scirpus fittoralis Cyperaceae
Source: SanJeevaraj lIod Paul Raj, .1999.
Id. Associate trees
SINo. Scientific Name Family
1 Cynometra iripa Fabaceae
2 Dolichandrone spathacea Bignoniaceae
3 Phoenix paludosa Palmae
4 Tamarix dioica Tamaricaceae
5 T. troupii Tamaricaceae
6 T. ericoides Tamaricaceae
7 Thespesia populnea Malvaceae
8 Hibiscus tiliaceus Malvaceae
9 Barringtonia racemosa Barringtoniaceae
10 Acrostichum aureum Pteridaceae
11 salliadora persica Salvadoraceae
Source: Ssojeevaraj and Paul Raj, 1999.

Ie. Associate shrubs
SINo. Scientific Name Family
1 Acanthus ilicifolius Acanthaceae
2 Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Rubiaceae
3 Glerodendrum inerme Verbenaceae
Source: .Sanjeevaraj and Pauf Raj, 1999.
If. Sea Grasses
SIND. Scientific Name Family
1 Enhalus acoroides Hydrocharilaceae
2 Halophi/a ovalis Hydrocharitaceae
3 Enhalus keonji
Source: Sanjee.araj and Paul Raj, 1999.
Ig. Marine algae
SIND. Family Order
1 Ceramiales Polysiohonia suteissima - Rho
2 Gigantinales Graci/aria confervoides - Rho
3 - Hypnae muciformes- Pha
4 Ulvales Enteromorpha sp - Chi
5 Siphoneles Acetabularia sp. - Chi
6 Hormogonales Oscil/atoria sp.
Source: Sanjeef'llraj and Paul Raj, 1999.
Ih. Algal species present
SIND. Division
1 Chlorophyta
2 Phaeophyla
3 Rhodophyta
4 Cynophyta
Source: Sanjeevaraj Bnd Paul Raj, 1999.
ANNEXURE-IV
II. Faunal elements of Pulicat Lake
a. Arthropoda (Prawns and Crabs)
SIND. Scientific Name
1 Penaeus indicus
2 P. monodon
3 P. semisulcatus
4 P. merguiensis
5 P. japonicus
6 P. canaliculatus
7 P. latisulcatus
8 Metapenaeus monocerops
9 M. burkenroadi
10 M. dobsoni
11 Macrobrachium idella
12 M. idea
13 Scylla serrata
14 Scylla transquebarica
15 Sesarma quadratum
167
S.No. Scientilic Name
16 Doclea sp.
17 Metapenaeus brevicornis
18 M. affinis
19 Alphaes sp.
20 Uca annulipes
21 Uca triangularis
Source: Sanjee.araj and Paul Raj, 1999.
b. Teleostei (Fishes)
SIND. SCIENTIFIC NAME
Pullea! Lake
1
.
Muraenesox bagio (Ham)
2 Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray)
3 Thryssa kammalensis (Bleeker)
4 Thryssa malabarica (Bloch)
5 Thryssa mystax (Schneider)
6 Thryssa purava (Ham.)
7 Stolephorus andhraensis Babu Rao
8 Herkloisichthys quadrimaculatus (Ruppell)
9 sardinella sp.
10 Hi/sa kelee (Guvier)
11 Anodontostoma chacunda (Ham)
12 Nematalosa nasus (Blkr)
13 Mystus gulio (Ham)
14 Arius arius (Ham)
15 Arius caelatus (Val.)
16 Arius maculatus (Thunberg)
17 Plotosus canius (Ham)
18 saurida thumbi/ (Block)
19 Uza parsia (Ham.)
20 Uza subviridis (Val.)
21 Uza tode (Forsskal)
22 Uza vaigiensis (Quoy&Gaimard)
23 Mugi/ cephalus (Unnaeus)
24 Valamugi/ cunnesius (Val.)
25 Valamugi/ seheli (Forsskal)
26 Atherinomorus duodecimalis (Val.)
27 Hypoatherina temminckii (Blkr)
28 Strongylura strongylura (V.Hasselt)
29 Xenentodon canci/a (Ham.)
30 Hyporhamphus limbatus (Val.)
31 Grammoplites scaber (Unn.)
32 Platycephalus indicus (Unn.)
33 Ambassis commersOili GUider
34 Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacepede)
35 Ghanda ranga (Ham.)
36 Epinephelus morrhua (Val.)
37 Epinephelus salmoides (Lacepede)
38 Sillago sihama (Forsskal)
39 Sil/ago vincenti Mckay

Pulicat Lake
SINo. SCIENTIFIC NAME SINo. SCIENTIFIC NAME
40 Lactarius lactarius (SCshneider) 65 Drepane punctata (Unn)
41 Gazzaminuta (Bloch) 66 Nandus nandus (Ham)
42 Leiognathus brevirostris (IIal.) 67 Terapon jarbua (Forsskal)
43 Leiognathus dussumieri (IIa/.) 68 Terapon puta Guv
44 Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal). 69 Terapon theraps (Guv.)
45 Leiognathus sp/endens (Guv.) 70 Etrop/us suratensis (B/och
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Secutor insidiator (Bloch)
Secutor ruconius (Ham)
Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal)
Lutjanus kasmira (Forsskal)
Gerres abbre viatus (Blkr)
Gerres filamentosus (G&V)
Gerrres limbatus Guv.
Gerres oyena (Forsskal)
Gerres poeti Guv.
Gerres setifer (Ham)
Pomadasys hasta (Bloch)
Pomadasys kakkan (Guv.)
Acanthopagrus berda (Forsskal
Rhabdosargus sarba (Forsskal)
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
Oreochromis mossambica (Peters
Uranoscopus guttatus Guv.
Boleophthalmus boddarti (Pallas)
Gtenotrypauchen microcephalus (Blkr)
Acentrogobius cyanomos (Blkr)
Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (G&V)
Gtenogobius criniger (G&V)
Favonigobius reichei (Blkr.)
Glossogobius biocellatus (G&V)
Glossogobius giuris (Ham)
Oxyurichthys microlepis (Blkr.)
Parachaeturichthys polynema (Blkr.)
Euryglossa orienta lis (Bloch.)
60 Grenidens crenidens indicus Day 84 Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch.)
61 Lethrinus nebulosa (Forsskal) 85 Ghelonodon patoca (Ham)
62 Daysciaena albida (Guv.) 86 Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & SCh.)
63 Nibea maculata (SCh.) 87 Takifugu oblongus (Bloch.)
64 Upeneus sulphureus (Guv.) 88 Tetraodon cutcutia (Ham.)
Source: Zoological Survey 01 India.• 2001
,
c. Mollusca
SINo. SCIENTIFIC NAME
1 Grassosrea madrasensis
2 Meretrix casta.
3 Anadora granosa
4 saccostrea cacullata
5 Katelysia opima
6 Perna virdis
7 Modiolus sp.
8 Trapezium quadrangularis
9 T. ob/angatum
10 Placenta placenta
Source: Sanjeevarajllod Paul Rat 1999.
d. Amphibia
SINo. Common Name SCIENTIFIC NAME Family
1 Indian burrowing frog Tomoptera breviceps Ranidae
2 Common toad Bufo melanostictus Bufunidae
3 Ornate microhylid Microhyla ornate Microhylidae
4 Skittering frog Occidozyga cyanophlyctis Ranidae
5 Green frog Occidozyga hexdactyla Ranidae
6 Paddy field frog Ummonectes limnocharis Ranidae
7 Indian bull frog Ummonectus tigerinus Ranidae
8 Chunnam frog Polypedates maculatus Rhacophoridae
Source: Saojeevaraj and Paul Raj, 1999.
t68

e. Reptilia
SIND. COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY
1 Asiatic file snake Chersydrus granulatus Acrochordidae
2 Garden lizard Calotes versicolor Agamidae
3 Rocllizard Psammophilus blanfordanus Agamidae
4 Fanthroated lizard Sltana ponticeriana Agamidae
5 Thinket snake Acrochordus granulatus Boidae
6 -- Ahaetulla mycatarijans Boidae
7 Green whip snake Ahaetulla nasutus Boidae
8 Olivaceous keelback Atret/um schistosum Boidae
9 Common Sand Boa Eryx conicus Boidae
10 -- Gerardia frevostiana Boidae
11 Common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus Boidae
12 Checkered keel back Natrix stolata Boidae
13 Rat snake Ptyas mucosus Boidae
14 Indian python Python molurus Boidae
15 Indian chameleon Chamaeleon zeylanicus Chamaeleontidae
16 Hawksbill sea turtle Eretmochelysimbnca~ Chelonidae
17 Olive ridiey sea turtle Lepldochelys olivacea Chelonidae
18 Buff striped keelback Amphiesma stolata Colubridae
19 Stripped keel back Amphiesma stolata Colubridae
20 Fasciolated rat snake Argyrogena fasciolatus Colubridae
21 Dog faced water snake Cerberus rhynchops Colubridae
22 -- Dendrelaphis ahaetulla Colubridae
23 Indian Bronze back Dendre/aphis tristis Colubridae
24 Greek snake Dryophis pu/verulent/s Colubridae
25 Trinket snake E1aphe Helena Colubridae
26 Schneider's snake Enhydris enhydris Colubridae
27 Banded kukri snake Oligodon arnensis Colubridae
28 Rat snake I dhaman Pytas mucosus Colubridae
29 Checker keelback Xenochrophls piscator Colubridae
30 Estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus Crocodilidae
31 Common Indian Krait Bungarus caeruleus Elapidae
32 Banded Krait Bungarus fasciatus Elapidae
33 Common cobra Naja naja naja Elapidae
34 King cobra Ophiphagus Hannah Elapidae
35 Common batagur Batagur baska Emydidae
36 Spotted pond turtle Geoclemys hamlltonl Emydidae
37 Three keeled terrapin Geomyda tricannata Emydidae
38 -- Kachuga kachuga Emydidae
39 Saw backed terrapin Kachuga tecta Emydidae
40 -- Morenia ocel/ata Emydidae
41 Tokay Gekko gecko Gekkonidae
42 Spotted gekko Hemidactylus brookl Gekkonidae
43 Yellow bellied lizard Hemldactylus flavlviridis Gekkonidae
44 Southern house gekko Hemidactylus leschenaulti Gekkonidae
45 Bark gekko Hemidactylus prashdii Gekkonidae
46 House gecko Hemidactylus prashdii Gekkonidae
47 Hook nosed sea snake Enhydrina schistose Hydrophidae
48 Yellow sea snake Hydrophis spira lis Hydrophidae
49 -- Hydrophis caeru/escens Hydrophidae
169
Pulicat Lake

Pulicat Lake
SINo. COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMilY
50 f!ydrophis nigrocinctus Hydrophidae
51 Estuarine sea snake f!ydrophis obscurus Hydrophidae
52 Microcepnalophis cantoris Hydrophidae
53 Microeephalophis gracilis Hydrophidae
. 54 Praescutata viperina Hydrophidae
55 Burrowing skink Barkudia insularis Scincidae
56 Common Skink Mobuya carinata Scincidae
57 Striped grass skink Mabuya dissimilis Scincidae
58 Bronze grass skink Mabuya macula ria Scincidae
59 White spotted skink Riopa labopunclata Scincidae
60 Dotted garden skink Riopa punclala Scincidae
61 Chitra indica Trionychidae
62 Flap shell turtle Ussemys punelata Trionychidae
63 Pelochelys bibroni Trionychidae
64 Trionyx gangelicus Trionychidae
65 Trionyx hurum Trionychidae
66 Ussemys olivaeea Trionychidae
67 Common blind snake Rampholyphlops bra minus Typhlopidae
68 Beaded blind snake Typhlops acutus Typhiopidae
69 Typhlopsporrectus Typhlopidae
70 Typholps braminus Typhlopidae
71 Indian monitor lizard Varanus bengalensis Varanidae
72 Yellow monitor lizard Varanus f1avescens Varanidae
73 Water monitor lizard Varanus salva lor Varanidae
74 Pit viper Trimeresurus erythrurus Varanidae
75 Russel's Viper Vipera russe /Ii ruse/Ii Varanidae
Source: AP FOrest Department 1985.
f. Birds of Pulicat Lake
SINo. OIFFERENT GROUPS OF BIRDS
1.Winter breeding migrants
1 A. Aquatic Aamingo
2 Grey or spot billed pigeon
3 Grey Heron
4 Spoon Bill
5 Paintedstor!<
6 White Ibis
7 Little Cormorant
8 Open billed stor!<
9 B.Terrestrial Pied crested luckoo
10 Koll
2. Winter Migrants
11 A. Aquatic large Coromorant
12 large Egret
13 Pintail
14 Common Teal
15 SpotBill
16 Wigeon
17 Gadwal
18 GarganeyTeal
19 Shoveller
170
SINo. DIFFERENT GROUPS OF BIRDS
20 Tufted pochard
21 Cotton Teal
22 Littie Ringed Polover
23 RedCrested Pochard
24 RedShanik
25 Common snipe
26 Common sand piper
27 Little stint
28 Blackwinged s@
29 Rivertern
30 Creatstone curlew
B.Terrestrial Grey shrike
31 White bellied
32 Drongo
33 YellowWagtail
34 Paradiseflycatcher
35 White wagtail
36 Common sand grove
37 Common green pigeon
38 Common swallow
39 Crested true snife
40 Bluetailed Beeeater
3. Resident birds
41 A. Aquatic I Pond Heron

SINo. DIFFERENT GROUPS OF BIRDS
42 CattleEgret
43 Little Egret
44 RedWattled Lapwing
45 YellowWattledLapwing
B.Terrestrial Grey patridge
46 GreyQuail
47 Ring dove
48 Spotted dove
49 Rose ringed parakeet
50 Crow pheasant
51 Common Indian Night jar
52 PalmSwift
53 Pied king tisher
54 Small blue king fisher
55 81ueJay
56 Hoopoe
4. Birds of Prey
57 Blackwinged kite
58 Common pariah
59 Bramhaneyktte
g. Birds of Neelapattu Santuary
<
SINo. DIFFERENT GROUPS OF BIRDS
Pulic.at Lake
60 White Eyedbuzzard
61 Coppu smith
62 Roofus wood peeker
63 Indian pitta
64 Indian small sky lark
65 StrattedSwallow
66 Black drongo
67 Common Myna
68
Golden backed wood peeker
69 Whtte backedvulture
70 PaleHarrier
71 Marsh Hamer
72 Spotted outlet
5. Rare winter visitors
73 Darter
74 Indian ReefHeron
75 BlackIbis
76
Black headedgull
77 Brown headedgull
Source: AP Forest Department 1985.
S.No. FAMilY SPECIES COMMON NAME
1 Anatidae Anas acuta Pintail
2 Anatidae Anas clypeata Shoveller
3 Ardeidae Ardea clnera Grey heron
4 Ardeidae Egretta grazetta little egret
5 Ardeidae Nyctlcorax nytlcorax Night heron
6 Ardeidae Ardeola grayll Pond heron
7 Ciconiformes Plata lea leucorodla Spoonbill
8 Ciconiformis Bubulcus Ibis Cattle egret
9 Ciconiidae Mycteria leucocepha/a Painted stork
10 Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax carbo little Cormorant ,
11 Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax niger little cormorant
12 Podicepididae Podiceps ruficol/is Dabchick
13 Rallidae Fulica atra Coot
14 Recurvirostridae Himantopus himantopus Blackwinged stilt
15 Ciconiformes Phoeniconpterus rose us Flamingo
16 Ciconiformes Pseudibis papil/osa Indian black Ibis
17 laridae Larus ridibundus Blackheaded gull
18 laridae Sterna aurantia Indian river tern
19 Pelicanidae Pe/ecanus onocrota/us Rosy/white pelican
20 Scolopacidae Tringa hypoleucos Common sandpiper
21 Anatida~ Anas crecca Common teal
22 Anatidae Netta rufina Redccrested pochard
23 Ardeidae Threskiomis aethiopica White Ibis
24 Ardeidae Threskiomis me/anocephala White Ibis
25 Gruiformes Galimul/a ch/oropus Indian moor hen
Source: Andors Pradesh FiJrest department~ 1985
171

Pulicat Lake
ANNEXURE -v
Fishing Grounds of Pulicat Lake
SINo. Name of the Paadu No. of allocated fishing
units/day (Suthu valai)
A. VADAKKU PADU
1. Bandu paadu 2
2. Selhumelai paadu 1
3. Naduthurai Paadu 1
4. Vangu paadu 1
5. Chetti paadu 1
6. Ajimunai paadu 2
7. Kalramunai paadu 2
8. Chinna paadu 4
9. Klinja paadu 3
10.
11.
Palla paadu
Melalhittu paadu
3
- -
4
12. Kattamani paadu 2
13. Pasimunai paadu 2
B. MUNTHURAAI PADU
14. Annamar paadu 4
15. Pambu paadu 4
16. Nandu paadu 5
17. Kusini paadu 2
18. Sammankuzhi paadu 2
19. Pinnottu paadu 1
20. Munnottu paadu 1
21. Kakalhittu paadu 1
22. Jalli paadu 2
23. Pana paadu 2
24. Padagu paadu 2
25. Ultharai paadu 2
Source: Mathew; 1991
172

L
-

~
~
29 Thirumalainagar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 255 9 0 0 3 0 261 264 0 154
30 Sembasipallikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 97 0 6 0 18 0 85 103 0 39
31 Lighthouse kuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 178 0 0 0 178 . 0 0 178 0 0
32 Lighthouse nadukuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 76 19 0 0 0 0 95 95 0 19
33 Karimanal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 13 13 0 0
34 Arangamkuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110 81 4 4 0 0 191 195 0 57
35 Vairavankuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 26 0 0 0 0 72 72 0 34
36 Sathankuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 158 0 1 1 0 0 158 159 0 64
37 Koraikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 7 0 0 0 0 42 42 0 23
38 Kamarajnagar kattupalli 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 0 0 0 0 0 47 47 0 2
39 Sivanpadaikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 126 0 O' 0 0 0 126 126 0 0
40 Kattukuppam 4 0 0 4 0 0 4 104 0 0 48 0 0 56 104 0 56
41 Ennorkuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 1 0 0 0 0 27 27 1 20
42 Mugathuvarakuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 56 1 0 0 41 0 16 57 0 1
43 Nettukuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 165 0 0 0 0 0 165 165 0 49
44 Thazhankuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 58 0 0 0 0 0 58 58 0 9
45 Kathivakkam per~akuppam 8 0 0 8 0 0 8 32 0 0 0 0 0 32 32 0 32
46 Kathivakkam chinnakuppam 5 0 0 5 0 0 5 41 0 0 0 0 0 41 41 0 40
47 Ernvurkuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 27 27 0 26
48 Indira Gandhikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 27 27 0 27
49 Kasikoilkuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 0 0 60 60 0 7
50 Kasi Visaiakshikuppam 30 0 0 30 0 0 30 27 0 0 0 0 0 27 27 0 5
51 Kasi VlWSwanatharkoilkuppam 15 0 0 15 0 0 15 76 0 0 0 0 0 76 76 0 12
52 Palagaithottikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 0 0 0 0 0 38 38 0 7
53 Pattinatharkoiikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 117 0 0 0 0 0 117 117 0 18
54 Thiruvottiyurkuppam 6 0 0 3 3 0 6 23 0 0 0 0 0 23 23 17 0
55 Ondikuppam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 11 11 0 0
56 Thiruchinankuppam 27 0 0 27 0 0 27 59 0 0 0 0 0 59 59 0 7
57 lakshmipuram 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 0 0
58 Nallathan neerodaikuppam 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 30 0 0 0 0 0 30 30 0 0
Total 98 0 0 95 3 0 98 4929 161 11 53 1942 68 3038 5101 22 22819
-0
'"
".,
r-< .,
"'"
'"

FISHING GEARS - YEAR 2000
ANNEXURE -VII
Pulicat Lake
SINo. Name of the Village Gillnel Trawlnel Shoreseine Boalseine Longline Trap Others Tolal
1 Battaikuppam a a a a a a 4015 4015
2 Bethaniakuppam 260 a a a a a a 260
3 Arambakkam a a a a a a 1365 . 1365
4 Venkatesaperu mal nagar 57 a a a a a a 57
5 Rakkam palayam 632 a a a a a a 632
6 Vallampedukuppam 48 a a a a a a 48
7 Madhukalkuppam a a a a a a 110 110
8 Mettukuppam a a a a a a 34 34
9 Sunnambukulam a a a a a a 220 220
10 Karakkadu a a a a a a 350 350
11 Sirumburkuppam a a a a a a 55 55
12 Chinnamangadu a a a a a a 416 416
13 Periyamangadu a a a a a a 207 207
14 Pudukuppam a a a a a a 1017 1017
15 Annamalaicheri a a a a a a 3120 3120
16 Aurivakkam (East & West) a a a a a a 482 482
17 Kulathumedu a a a a a 1465 1265 2730
18 Jamilabadh a a a a a 150 3665 3815
19 Thonirevu a a a a a 1880 2912 4792
20 Senjiammannagar a a a a a 279 6 285
21 Kottaikuppam a a 6 a a a 525 531
22 Andikuppam a a a a a a 116 116
23 Nadoor Madhakuppam a a 6 a a 30 317 353
24 Karaiyar street a a a a a a 133 133
25 Israelkuppam 20 a a a a a 19 39
26 Edamanikuppam 32 a a a a 50 101 183
27 Pasiyavaram 103 a a a a a 40 143
28 Goonankuppam 681 a a a 294 a 2 977
29 Thirumalainagar 246 a a a 108 a 7 361
30 Sembasipallikuppam 298 a a a 5 a 198 501
31 Lighthouse kuppam a a a a 1 21 454 476
32 Lighthouse nadukuppam 267 a a a 243 a a 510
33 Karimanal a a a a a 5 98 103
34 Arangamkuppam 514 a a a 19 1 54 588
35 Vairavankuppam 272 a a a 41 a 87 400
36 Sathankuppam 165 0 a a 23 a 207 395
37 Koraikuppam .43 a a a 4 a 74 121
38 Kamarajnagar kattupalli 94 a a a a a 0 94
39 S!vanpadaikuppam 300 a 0 a 73 75 50 498
40 Kattukuppam a 8 0 a 27 350 120 505
41 Ennorkuppam 77 a a a a a 28 105
175
J

Pulicat Lake
42 Mugathuvarakuppam 323 0 0 0 0 0 99 422
43 Nettukuppam 378 0 0 0 0 0 75 453
44 Thazhankuppam 796 0 0 0 0 0 161 957
45 Kathivakkam periyakuppam 275 16 0 0 0 0 38 329
46 Kathivakkam chinnakuppam 163 10 0 0 28 0 37 238
47 Ernvurkuppam 169 0 0 0 38 0 25 232
48 Indira Gandhikuppam 128 0 0 0 37 0 0 165
49 Kasikoilkuppam 229 0 0 0 71 0 0 300
50 Kasi Visalakshikuppam 68 30 0 0 25 0 0 123
51 Kasi Viwswanatharkoilkuppam 150 30 0 0 65 0 50 295
52 Palagaithottikuppam 105 0 0 0 30 0 0 135
53 Pattinatharkoil kup pam 252 0 0 0 102 0 169 523
54 Thiruvottiyurkuppam 251 18 0 0 48 0 0 317
55 Ondikuppam 175 0 0 0 36 0 15 226
56 Thiruchinankuppam 361 31 0 0 0 0 0 392
57 Lakshmipuram 28 1 0 0 0 0 0 29
58 Nallath annee rodaiku ppam 225 0 0 0 45 0 76 351
Total 8185 149 12 0 1363 4306 22614 36629
176

Selling fish catch in market
Mullets
Selling Prawn catch in market
Schylla Serrata

Light house village with
traditional paadu system
Fishermans are preparing nets
in mechanised boats
Bar mouth of Pulicat Lake
Aquaculture ponds around Pullcat Lake

Feeding and breeding during
October in Pulicat Lake

I. Introduction
Bhitarkanika
In 1994, a local paper in Orissa reported an
agitation against large and intensive aquaculture
farms in ecologically sensitive areas. This
movement and many others in the country lead to
the recognition of a classification of different
management zones in coastal areas which is
widely known as the Coastal Regulation Zone Act.
In 2001 a local paper wrotE1 an article on the
clashes between the fishermen and the local
authorities over fishing rights. This highlights the
conflicts in management of bio-resources as a
result of a shrinking resource base that try to meet
the legitimate demands of the human resources to
a right to basic decent life. Such instances are
prevalent everywhere but acquire more
significance in areas of greater biodiversity and
whose bio-resource~ are protected by law. The
challenge today is to find processes and products
that will meet the needs of the local population
without over exploiting or depleting the resources.
The study describes the socio-cultural conditions
of the Bhitarkanika area of coastal Orissa and
defines the various wild and domesticated bioresources
used by the people. Recently it has been
declared as a Ramsar Site.
The study is a result of a desk top reading of
earlier reports and published materials about the
177
Bhitarkanika
- Hemal Kanvinde
site and a field visit and interviews with a few
people related to resource management, such as
the Marine Fisheries Officer, District Agriculture
Officer, The Assistant Conservator of Forests and
the Chief Conservator of Forests, (Wildlife), Orissa,
researchers and scientists from various institutes
and speaking informally to the residents of
Bhitarkanika. The report also highlights gender
dimensions of resource use that will provide
important inputs in managing the resource in
future plans.
II. Site Description
i. Location
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the
east coast of India, in the State of Orissa (20° 30'
and 20° 50' Nand 86° 30' and 87°06'E) covering an
area of 672.00sq.km. The sanctuary is bounded by
Dhamara river to the north, Maipura river to the
south, having a stretch of 35 km. of seacoast, the
Bay of Bengal to the east and the Brahmani river
to the west. The sanctuary falls in the Rajnagar
Block of Kendrapara District of Orissa. This
district was established in 1993, by the division of
Cuttack district.
Situated near the former port Chandbali, which is
about 50 km, from Bhadrak Railway station of
Orissa. It is also approachable from Gupti situated
at a distance of' 25 km. from Rajnagar, the

Bhitarkanika
headquarters of mangrove forest division.
Rajnagar is at a distance of 130 km from
Bhubaneshwar, the state capital.The sanctuary is
interspersed with numerous rivers, creeks and
nallahs which are the distributary system of
Baitarani and Brahmani rivers.
ii. Climate
The climate is hot and humid most of the year. In
winter the temperature comes down to 10° C
minimum and in summer the maximum
temperature reaches upto 45° C. Due to the
coastal environment, humidity is also high
throughout the year, varying between 75-95%.
The variation in annual rainfall is dependent on
the monsoon. The main monsoon months are
August and September. The average annual
rainfall is 1300 mm, based on the data collected at
Dangmal Crocodile Research Centre during last 26
years. The area is prone to severe cyclonic storms
during April-June and October-November almost
every year and also there are occasional tidal
bores. During the monsoon the entire area gets
flooded with excess water from the river and
becomes a freshwater wetland. And as the water
subsides the area becomes brackish water again.
This phenomenon gives rise to luxuriant mangrove
wetlands.
iii. Soils and Topography
The deltaic mangrove swamps of Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary area, are subjected to regular
tidal inundation, and are extremely low lying.
Mean elevation above mean sea level is between 1-
2 meters. Higher ground extends to about 3-4
meters.
The core area of the Bhitarkanika Wildlife
sanctuary is mostly formed by the alluvial filling of
the littoral zones. There is a continuous land, built
up through sedimentation and subsidence, forming
a prograding delta. The deltaic region is covered
by sediments of the flood plain deposits of subrecent
origin and Pleistocene forms.
The area is influenced by heavy alluvial silt
brought down by the rivers and deposited in
deltaic areas due to regular tidal inundation.
Chadha and Kar (1999) report eight newly
surfaced islands due to heavy siltation in the river
mouths. On northern end of the coastal section are
flat sand spits with a number of small sand dunes
about 0.5-1.0 m in height covered with the beach
vegetation typical of the area. At points, as a
178
result of the prevailing wind action the dunes are
very high, sometimes exceeding 20 m.
Due to the regular inundation through tidal action
the soil is mostly clayey loam and highly slushy.
The surface soil is composed of silt loam and
clayey loam and is about 3-4 m in depth. The soil
though well aerated, is saline, in the elevated
areas, away from the creeks and channels the soil
is more sandy and comparatively less moist and
saline. The soil pH varies from 6.3 to 7.1 . The
water is alkaline with a pH of 7.4-8.0. Table 1.
describes the soil characteristics of the
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary (Kanvinde and
Das 1995).
Table 1 : Soil characteristics
Areas
Outer estuaries
pH Organic matter % EC IAllhos cm'
6.8
Inner estuaries
Creeks at lower elevations 6.9
Creeks at higher elevations 7.1
Transitional! hinterlands 6.3
EC:Eleclrlcal conductivity
30--12
24--9
15--6
5--1
iv. Short Summary on vegetation and animal life
The mangrove vegetation is locally known as
"Hental Jungle" as the hen tal plants (Phoenix
paludosa) predominate in many areas of the
sanctuary and are very useful plant species for
the local inhabitants. The sanctuary covers an
area of 762 sq.km. and 130 sq.km of this is
mangrove forests.
The mangroves of this sanctuary are similar to
those of the Sunderbans and are a part of the
Indo-Pacific mangal elements. The mangroves of
Bhitarkanika are the only surviving, relatively
undisturbed examples of this vegetation on the
Orissa coast.
The vegetation 'of Bhitarkanika contains the
maximum number of mangrove species in India but
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.8
Figure 1: Jlfap of Bh/larkanlka

the absence of Nypa fruitcans (locally known as
'Golpata' in Bengal) in Bhitarkanika and
Mahanadi delta and that of Heritiera littoralis
(Dhala Sundari) in the Sundarbans regions of West
Bengal is a surprising contrast in the distribution
pattern of the species between the two deltas
(Banerjee, 1987).
The wetland is a refuge to a diverse variety of
mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. The
area is recognized for its natural and viable
population of the salt-water crocodiles and the
mass nesting beach of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles.
More than 100 bird species occur in the area, both
migratory and resident. The bar-headed goose,
grey pelicans, spoonbill and brahminy duck need
special mention. The coastal waters also contain
dolphins and little Indian porpoise. The creeks
and mudflats abound with small crustaceans and
invertebrates. The horseshoe crab is an important
species found in the area since it is believed that
its blood has potential medicinal properties. The
interior elevated regions support mammals such
as spotted deer, sambar and wild boars and
reptiles like the water monitor lizard.
Swaminathan et al (1994) describe this mangrove
forest as one of the best in biodiversity attributes
for India in an evaluation study of the Indo-Pacific
Region undertaken for the International Tropical
Timber Organization and recommended it as best
suitable as a Genetic Resource Conservation
Centre. In another study on prioritization of
coastal sites for conservation under the
Biodiversity Support Group-WWF-India project,
Bhitarkanika has been mentioned as a site that
needed conservation action for the survival of its
biodiversity (Kanvinde, 1997).
III, Population Profile
I. History
The area has been under the zamindary system in
the 18 th and 19 th century. In the study area the
land holdings are less than 5 acres per family, the
paddy is rain fed and a second crop is usually not
possible. Keeping this in mind the Kanika Raja,
the Zamindar constructed a set of canals that
brought sweet water of the rivers into mangrove
area, and hence encouraged people to settle in the
area. The settlers are from the Midnapore area of
west Bengal and have little knowledge of the.
forest. After the 1971 Bangladesh liberation war,
there was another massive influx into the area.
149.75
91.5
144.93
.14.00
. 9.12
Bhitarkanika
Shortly before the abolition of the Zamindari
system, the Kanika Raja leased out 10,765 ha of
forestland to local residents and to settlers from
Midnapore. Till the 1970s, mangroves were
considered unwanted plant communities and large
tracts of the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary
were converted into agriculture lands under the
"Grow More Food" and the "Land to the landless"
programmes.
The original people of the area are a tribe of
honey gatherers and the hunters, who know the
forest intimately. There are more than hundred
villages in the six panchayat that are within the
sanctuary, with an population of 41,296 (2001
Census, Kendrapara Statistics Office) dependent
on the resources of the forest. Paddy cultivation
and snbsistence fisheries are the livelihood for the
people. Paddy yield is poor (0.8-1 ton/ha.), may be
due to the soil nature. Choudhury (1987) records
38 angiosperms as being used by the people of
Bhitarkanika.
179
Fishing has been a traditional livelihood for the
locals. It gained momentum after mechanized
trawlers from Digha (West Bengal) and Andhra
Pradesh started operating. Recently fishing has
been prohibited within 20 km of the Gahirmata
beach and authorized officers were appointed to
regulate fishing through a notification issued in
December 1993 under the Orissa Marine fishing
Regulation Act (1982).
Table2 :Landuse 01 the area
Double crop
Khari!
Mangrove
Degraded Forest
Marshy land
Source: la.vl.de a.d Da. (19951
The major part of the forest has been converted to
resettlements plots to rehabilitate cyclone victims
and is now under agriculture. There is a constant
construction of salt-water embankments and
dykes, which do not allow any free flow of water or
any spill over area times of flood. In the past
decade there was a spurt of aquaculture farms
constructed and now they are abandoned.
ii. Management History
The Bhitarkanika sanctuary area was part of the
zamindari of the Kanika Raja till 1952 when it was
vested by the Revenue department of Orissa. In
1957 it was transferred to the Athgarh forest

Bhltarkanika
division and was notified as the Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary in 1975. A separate Mangrove
Division, with headquarters at Rajnagar was
created in 1990 for the management of Orissa's
Mangrove forests. This division is currently
responsible for the management of the
Bhitarkanika protected areas. 145 sq.km. forested
area within the sanctuary has received greater
protection since 1998 with up-gradation to a
National Park. In 1997 the coastal stretch of the
sanctuary and. areas further south have been
declared as Gahirmata (Marine) Wildlife
Sanctuary for the protection of sea turtles and
other endangered marine life.
Kanvinde and Das (1995) give a brief outline of the
management of the mangrove forest under the
zamindari system and greater details are reported
in the Chadha and Kar (1999).
III. District and block profile
The site falIs in the Rajnagar Block of Kendrapara
di~trict of Orissa. There are six panchayats whose
populations derive bio-resources from the
mangrove and associated areas.
Table3:Shortstatlstlcallnfonnatlonofthestate,
district and block
Orissa Kendrapora R'lnaoar
Geographical area 1,55,707 sq, km, 2548sq.km 344.29 sq.km
Blocks - 9 -
Policastations - 7 1
Gram panclJaya1s - 205
Villages - 1,532 310
Numbero! households -
Tolal -population 3,87,06,920
Mal. 1,86,12,340
1,80,94,580
Decennl~ Orowt!l ra7ts 20.06
(1981.1991)
1,82,562
13,01,856
6,46,356
6,55,500
17.15
18,715
1,18,939
60,594
58,345
-
Population density 203 451 305
5axratio 971 1,007 945
Uteracyrate 49.09 63.61 57.04
Cultivatoro - - 20,679
AgnculturaJ labourers - - 6,717
forestaraa 47.033 sq.km. 248.05 sq.km. 1188ho.
Agnculture araa 52.1% 70.6% 25,177ha
PostofOOes - 268 22
PrimaJyschoo~ - 1,255 146
SecondarYschoo~ - 314 32
CoDeges - 42 4
Pnmary healthcantero - 51 6
Soure6 : Ols(rl&( S/8t/st/&61 H6ndbook 1887 - K60dr6p6n1
This district ranks 7" in population density and 3"'
180
in sex ratio among the 30 districts of Orissa.
Table 4: Key population features of Onssa State and
Kendrapara DiSlnct
Parameter Yaar Orissa Kandrap.ra
Population 2001 36,706,920 1,301,850
Populat,on density 1991 203 451
Figure. 2 : Panchayat population for 1981- 1991
50
2001 336 492
Decenr.;al growth rata 1991-91 20.06 17.15
1991-2001 15.94 13.24
Sex ratio 1991 971 1~07
,•.•.
""
"" ,..
""
40
""-.,.,
"'" ,..
; 30
f 20
10
o
2001 972 1014
Soure6: ProY/slooal Populat/on Tolals. Pap6r 1of 2001. BoW. of Od.rsa.
The six panchayats of the Rajnagar block that
influence the resources of Bhitarkanika are
Dangmal,.Talchua, Rangani, Gupti, Ishwarpur and
Satbhaya. The local people are either Oriya or
Bengalis that have migrated a few decades ago. A
study of the populations in the villages for the past
few decades show that there were more migrations
in 1950's and in 1970's (Chadha and Kar 1999).
Kanvinde (1998) describes the differences in
village structures of Oriya and Bengali families.
The local residents depend on the protected
forests for fuel, timber and harvest them as they
did during the zamindary times. Thus it appears
that Protection Laws and Acts do not necessarily
protect the bio-resource.
Population In thti panc:1tayMs
101981 •'9911
LIter.to Popul.tIon
I gl.' •••. I
Figure. 3: Literate population for the six panchayats

-- 2olf1
1981
1961
1941
1921
1901
Docadal Growth Rate
lo_ •....... j
•10 0 .",wlh""e 10 20 30
Figure. 4: Decadal Growth Rate for
Orissa and Kendrapara .
Of the six important panchayats, the highest
growth is observed in Rangani, that has more of
agricultural area (see map). Satbhaya shows the
least increase in population.
Figure 4 shows that is the 1941-1961,there was a
greater increase in population in the district.
IV. Biodiversity and
Conservation Values
I. Flora
This sanctuary harbours one of India's largest
mangrove forest in terms of number of species and
levels of variation in ecological conditions.
Primary productivity of the mangrove trees, by
harnessing solar energy and production of
biomass, increases the secondary and tertiary
productivity of the area. It is estimated that
mangrove detritus production of a ton per hectare
has a potential fish yield of 800-1000 kgi'hll/year
(Lal 1990) Decline in offshore shrimp catch and
populations of mangrove mud crabs has been
attributed to destruction of mangroves in
Indonesia (UNESCO, 1987). Thus these plant
formations not only form a base for secondary
production within themselves but also increase the
productivity of neighbouring water bodies.
The earliest description of the vegetation of this
region is provided by Haines (1921-25) followed by
taxonomical and ecological studies by Banerjee
(1985), Banerjee and Rao (1990),
Choudhury,(1984,1987,1989,1990). The description
presented here is adapted from Patnaik and
Choudhury (1989) and Kanvinde and Das (1995).
The vegetation can be classified into mangal and
salt brush formations. The highlights of the
vegetation being the occurrence of three species
each of Avicennia, Sonneratia, Rhizophora,
Xylocarpus and Heritiera in sanctuary. A list of
mangrove species and associates
Annexure 1.
is presented in
Manga! formations
Bhitarkanika
The mangrove elements are mostly concentrated
along the network of creeks and channels. It
extends from the sheltered bays to the elevated
banks of the upper riparian zone, where the
composition of the mangrove community is
different due to the presence of non-mangals and
transitory mangals. The mangals are classified
into three categories .
Eumangals: These are typical mangrove taxa,
which survive water logging due to the periodic
submersion through tidal action and are adapted
for. high variations in salinity and poor soil
aeration. The eumangals are generally evergreen
and show a high degree of xerophytism through
morphological and reproductive adaptations.
Almost pure formations of Porteresia coarctata -
a dominant grass element - are gregarious along
the banks which are submerged during the tide.
181
Semimangals: The elements of this category
exhibit various adaptations characteristic of
halophytes. In many cases they are, however
devoid of pneumatophores and vivipary. These
taxa grow very close to the river banks and creeks
Transitional Mangals: The plants of this category
have features of halophytes, but are well adapted
to more terrestrial habitats. The majority of them
are deciduous while some are evergreen. These
are found in areas where tidal action is limited or
absent and the salinity is low.
Saltbrush formations
The sandy vegetation is found along the littoral
tract of Satbhaya and Gahirmatha. This
vegetation is mostly composed of shrubby and
herbaceous elements. The characteristic elements
of this terrain are Spinifex littoralis, Cyperus
arenarius, Hydrophylax maritima, Ipomea pescaprae,
Launea sarmentosa, Gisekia
pharmacoidess, Suadea maritima, S.monoecia,
and Vetivera zizanoides.
ii. Thuna (This section on Fauna Is contributed
by Dr Sudhakar Kar, Research officer, Wildlife
Wing, Forest Department, Gov!. of Orissa)
The animals that are associated with the
mangroves, cover a wide range of invertebrate and
vertebrate groups (Kenneally, 1982, Kar, 1981,
Dash and Kar, 1990; Kar and Satapathy; 1996 and
Kanvinde 1997) (Annexure - 2)

Bhitarkanika
Mammals: Among the mammalian fauna, the
leopard (panthera pardus) thrived in this area
but its existence is doubtful at present. During the
last 26 years, only once it was spotted in the
Bhitarkanika forest block by the author (S.K.K) in
August 1987. But local people reported that there
was a good population of panthers in
Bhitarkanika and incidents of attack on man and
animal (domestic) were narrated by them. The
other important mammals sighted from this site
are wild boar, monkey, spotted deer, fishing cat
and sambaI'.
Birds: Kar (1991) prepared a checklist of birds, in
which 170 species of birds have been identified in
Bhitarkanika sanctuary and later Patnaik et al
(1999) added another 29 species to its list.
(Annexure - 2) Bhitarkanika provides feeding,
perching, roosting, nesting facilities etc. for
thousands of resident, local migratory and long
distance migratory birds.
Reptiles: Bhitarkanika is one of the few
sanctuaries in the world where a number of rare
and endangered reptili'lll species (Annexure - 2)
are seen thriving in good numbers, but there is
much human pressure on their habitats.
Bhitarkanika holds the largest population of
endangered estuarine crocodiles in India. Due to
combination of poaching and habitat loss, the
population of Estuarine crocodile. (Grocodylus
porosus) is reduced to only 29 adults, six subadults
and 61 juveniles (Kar and Bustard, 1989) as
per the 1976-77 census. In 1975, the Forest
Department, Government of Orissa established a
Salt Water Crocodile Research and Conservation
Centre at Dangmal in the heart of the sanctuary
with the purpose of quickly multiplying the
population using the 'grow and release' technique
(Kar, 1981 and Kar and Patnaik 1999). Details are
as follows:
To strengthen the depleted population in nature,
2100 captive reared young crocodiles (above 1.0
meter) of the captive rearing center have been
released into the rivers and creeks of the
sa~ctuary (Kar and Bustard, 1991 and S. K. Kar
pers com). Census of crocodiles in Bhitarkanika
river systems have been taken up to assess the
population status, number, size class, sex
composition, movement pattern survival etc. of
crocodiles including their habitat features.
The mass nesting or arribada (a Spanish term of
mass arrival) of Olive Ridley turtles have been
182
taking place for several decades at Gahirmatha
beach which is about 35 km. long. It is the largest
turtle rookery of its kind in the world (Bustard,
1976). A minimum of 0.5 lakb to a maximum of 7.4
lakb female turtles visit the beach for nesting each
year. Mass nesting occurs usually once or twice in
a nesting season during the period from late
December to April.
Table 5 : Census of Crocodiles
Year Halchlng Yearlings Juveniles Sub.adull Adutt Tolal
1995.96 304 71 34 21 10 511
1996.97 136 232 161 63 68 660
1997.98 252 106 121 113 76 668
1998-99 149 146 160 144 72 672
1999-2000 319 181 123 145 146 914
2000-2001 341 277 237 136 107 109S
Snakes : (Order: Squamata) include the deadly
poisonous species such as King Cobra
(Ophiophagus hannah) locally known as
Jhadakhalua, Indian Rock Python (Python
molurus) etc. The lizards include largest Indian
Hzard (water monitor), Varanus salvator,
Varanus flavescens (Biswas and Kar, 1982). other
lizards are chameleons (Ghameleo n zeylanicus)
Garden lizards (Galotes versicolor) etc.
(Annexure - 2).
Amphibia: There are 5 species of amphibians so
far recorded in the mangrove swamps of
Bhitarkanika (annexure -2).
Fish: Mangrove areas support a range of
interconnected food web which directly sustain the
fisheries. Algae and detritus sustain shrimps and
prawns which provide a food source for species
such as Bhekti (Lates sp.) Cat fishes etc. Many
fish and prawn species spend most of \their adult
life time at sea and return to the mangrove areas
where they spend their early life up to adulthood
and then return again to the 3ea for breeding and
spawning. (Annexure - 2)
Invertebrates : The invertebrates fauna include
macro fauna and meiofauna_ As many as 60
genera and 64 species of sedimentary macro fauna
are found to be inhabiting in the littoral sediments
of Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem. As such
meiofauna comprising of 35 genera and 55 species
belonging to sixteen families_ Among the
invertebrates crustacean, protozoans, molluscs
and zoo plankton are the important ones and
found to be inhabiting the mangrove estuarine
sediments. The study carried out on invertebrates

has indicated that macro and meio-fauna
communities of Dangmal, Bhitarkanika and
Gahirmatha are different to each other. The
difference is due to variation in trophic diversity,
abundance in food, dissolved oxygen, soil and
water salinity, organic matter of sediments etc.
Threatened species:
Animals: Saltwater crocodile; Water
monitor lizard; Olive ridley sea turtle; King
cobra; Migratory duck; King crab and Water
fowl
Plants : Merope angulata; Cerbera manghas,
Heriteira spp.; Amoora cuculata Xylocarpus spp
i. Conservation Values
The conservation values for Bhitarkanika are very
high, since it the only site in mainland India that's
has enough mangrove and associates to provide a
secure habitat to many endangered species,
especially reptiles. The protected area also
provides an undisturbed mass-nesting beach for
Olive Ridley Turtles. In the cyclone in 1999, the
entire Paradeep area, south of this site was
devastated, while at this site the damage was
minimal in the peripheral areas. In fact the iocals
spoke of no damage at all in the core areas of the
protected zones. Kanvinde (1997) has given the
following classification of conservation values for
Bhitarkanika.
Direct Values
• Consumptive use value: The produce from the
forest that are used are: timber, fuelwood,
bark, grasses, vegetables, medicines, fish and
crabs and prawn seeds
• Productive use value: The ecosystem produces
fish, prawn,honey, fuelwood and timber.
Indirect Values
• Non consumptive value: The site is a haven for
many endangered and rare species. It also has
anheronry within its core zone. It has been a
site for mass nesting of Olive Ridley turtles. It
supports the largest number of mangrove and
associate species.
• Option value: The site is rich source of
mangrove diversity, there has been no
information on the fish diversity of this site. The
site harbors King Crab, an animal which is a
living fossil and now of medicinal importance.
• Existence value: In terms of area, this forest is
next only to Sunderbans. The presence of many
Table7:Genderolesindifferentactivities
Bhitarkanika
endangered reptiles and mangrove species
gives it an high existence value. The grass
Portesia coarctata is a wild rice variety
capable of withstanding flooding and saline
conditions.
Most of the information presented in this section is
based on utilization of plant and plant products.
Mangroves being the important resource for
Bhitarkanika, the following table describes the
uses of different parts resources.
183
V, Bio-Resource Profile
Table6:UtilizationofMangrovesResources
Resource
1) Leaves
2) Wood
3) Bark Rbers
4) NealiaGrass
5) Fruits
6)Tide
7) Rshes
8) Honey
Utilizalion
Fodderforcatle
Fertilizer
Mat making
Fuel wood
Agnculturallmplements
Boat making
Bridge across small creeks
Thatching
Rope Making
Mat and basket making
Consumption
Collection of young shrimps
dunng high tide
Fishing, Aquaculture
Food and medicine
Impact on economy
Surplus milk sold commercially
Higher productivity
Household use and also sold
Household use and also sold
Used in farms
Used for fishing and transportation
Better accessibility
Household use
Household .useand also sold
Household use and also sold
Utilized in times of absolute
shortageoffood
Sold to shrimp farmers
Household use and shrimps sold
A source of income
Source: Suryanarayanan and Kanvlnde 1997
Suryanarayanan and Kanvinde (1997) have
described a resource base use pattern, based on a
socio economic survey of a few villages in the
Bhitarkanika Sanctuary. Kanvinde (1998) has
given a short account of the gender roles in
resource use and processing from Bhitarkanika
area.
AdMly Men Women Children
Agriculture All processes House restricted Help in straw
activity of boiling collection and
rice before drying storage
fishing cast nets, use boats fish in nearby Small round nets to
for fishing in the creeks walets catch prawns
and off shore areas
Fodder and Cut trees and leave in Cut trees and Collect dned wood
ft.

Bhitarkanika
i. Wild Bioresourees
The wild bioresources have been classified under
different headings from a user point of view.These
are: Food/feed; Fodder, Firewood, Timber; House
construction; Bioactive-medicinal products; NTFP/
NWTP/MFP;Potential Genetic Resources; Microbes
and ornamentals. The study tries to describe all
the above categories from information gathered
through literature survey and interviews with
local villagers and officials.
a. Food : Fish:
Brackish and marine resources are the basis of
livelihoods of many families. Fishing is done for
household consumption as well as for a means of
earning money. Information given in the following
paragraphs is based on the work of Mishra (2000)
in which he concludes that fishing is the most
profitable activity in this area.
In Bhitarkanika area every household uses the
mangrove forest with its creeks for fishing. The
women catch fish with smaller round nets. The fish
catch by women varies from 2 kg to 20 kg per day.
People owning small boats called 'nonga' (rowing
boats) catch fish from 5 kg to 100 kg per day and
sell it for a price of Rs. 15/- to Rs. 40/- per kg.
People owning larger motor boats called the
'But/mH' catch more fish as they can go further
into deeper waters (within the sanctuary area)
and three quintals of fish are caught daily. A
minimum of 6 labourers are required to catch fish.
Butbuti is also used for transportation purpose.
Where road transport is less, people travel by
these boats across the river. They earn Rs. 250/per
day using the boats for transporting people.
People owning 'trawlers' go deeper into the sea to
catch fish. Each trip into the sea is for a minimum
of four days. Each trawler is worth Rs. 10 lakh.
Each trip requires 7 labourers and expenditure
per trip is Rs. 1,500/- on labour and diesel. Their
catch varies from a minimum of 5 quintals to a
maximum of 70 quintals per trip. The nets of the
trawlers sweep the floor of the sea and catch all
fish that come across the net.
People also set nets across the larger rivers. They
set these nets every day during high tide and
remove it before low tide sets in. The net is nearly
15 feet long and catches all types of fishes. The
fish that are not marketable are dried and sold in
Berhampur, Sambalpur, Chandbali and Cuttack.
The season for dry fish processing is from
184
December to May.The dried fish is bought by small
businessmen from this area and sold to far away
places.
Ports and Fish-landing stations
Some important ports and fish landing stations in
and around Bhitarkanika area are described
below. (Chaddha and Kar 1999)
• Dhamra-Chandbali port Dhamra was
recognized as a port by the then Government
and a notice was issued to the fact in the month
of May, 1858 and the Chandbali on 28 th March,
1881. There was a regular steamer service to
this Chandbali port till the outbreak of World
War II. Shipping activities picked up again and
rice and paddy was exported. People used to
depend for basic necessities like salt, cottonyam,
kerosene, spices, tobacco, etc. on this port
and the export items included rice, paddy, jute
and black gram.
In 1934,in shipping terms there were only four feet
of soundings below chart datum. Due to very few
vessels coming here and poor maintenance, the
shipping activity became practically nil and now
Phamra and Chandbali have turned to be fishing
harbours besides some transport of paddy.
A large number of fishing trawlers operate from
Phamra and the catch is sent to Calcutta.
Facilities like cold storage, fish canning, etc. are
available .besides a metalled road to Calcutta-
Madras Highway. The Government of Orissa has
announced the development of a major port at
Dhamra in collaboration with International
Seaports Ltd.
• Talehua : Talchua is a fish landing center
constructed on the Southern side of
Kalibhanjadia island at a distance of about 3
km. from Dhamra Port. This project was started
in 1994 and attracted lot of controversy
worldwide since it is inside the Bhitarkanika
Sanctuary and any increase in number of
fishing vessels from this center will have
adverse effect on the olive ridley sea turtles.
The fish landing center is constructed at a cost
of Rs. 84.94 lakhs and comprises of query of
length 65 meters, a fish drying yard, a packing
and auction hall as well as provisions for fresh
water and repair of nets. This center will cater
to the needs of about 9000 fishermen and about
90 trawlers and mechanized boats are proposed
to use this base.

• Tantiapal fish landing center : Tantiapal is
situated along the side of the Hansua river near
Kollipur in Mahakalpada Block of District
Kendrapara. It is located about 3 km. upstream
of the mouth of river Hansua. There is a saline
embankment to protect the hinterland from
floods. There are about 822 active fishermen
out of a population of 4466. There are about 30
mechanised crafts operating from Tantiapal.
The estimated project cost is RS.60.40 lakhs.
All the boats operating from this base will access
the sea through the core of the Gahirmatha
Marine Sanctuary and adversely affect the sea
turtles.
State, district and area fishing profile
Table8 :ImportantSpeciesofMarineflsh CatchfromOrissa
coast (MT)
S.No. Species/group 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94
1. Prawn 4314 5025 3580
2. Pomfret 4350 5169 6299
3. Hilsa 5973 6001 6064
4. Polynemids 1311 3216 3156
5. Clupeids 4332 3757 1627
6. Sciaenids 9512 9534 12490
7. Catfish 10396 7663 6020
6. Elasmobranchs 5619 10260 7252
9. Other varieties 49219 66549 55215
Total 95026 119376 103925
S.No. Species/group 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97
1. Prawn 5676 6211 6656
2. Pomfret 6520 7527 6676
3. Hilsa 4545 5~96 6365
4. Polynemids 1919 2290 2975
5. Clupeids 7403 3912 5050
6. Sciaenids 16304 16133 16150
7. Catfish 6194 7056 7346
6. Elasmobranchs 9126 6354 6496
9. Other varieties 61001 66116 69626
Total 122692 123199 133462
Source: Handbook on Dsneries slatlslles. Orissa 199&-97-
Directorate of Fisheries. Gov'. olOrlsSJl? Cuttllck. 138 pp
The table above gives an indication to the wealth
of fish resources harvested by the coastal
population of Orissa. A district wise breakup of the
catch is given below. The table indicates that
Balasore and Kendrapara are the two districts
with a higher catch in comparison to the other
districts in the past few years.
185
Table9:DistrictwiseMarineflsh Landings(MT)
for Orissa state
Bhitarkanika
DislJicl 1985-66 1986-67 1987-68 1966-69 1969-90 1990-91
6aIasore 23699 26139 24916 26349 40799 32502
Bhadrak - _. _. -
Cut1ack 13346 1 16706 19236 23635 28734
Kendrapara ... 19933417 ... .. - ...
Jagatsinghpur ... - .. .-
Puri 9966 - 7537 8111 8005 10339
Ganjam 6570 9803 8799 6424 5456 6617
5965
Talal 53581 55324 59960 60120 77695 78192
District 1991.92 1992-92 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97
6aIasore 3722 53793 25320 31736 33153 35491
8hadrak
Cut1ack
.-
34576
-
42946
7856
...
16244
...
9202
.
9903
Kendrapara - .- 13479 14172 16518 20405
Jagatsinghpu - ... 32309 30877 35372 35085
Puri 17194 16979 18853 23926 22573 26569
Ganjam 6036 5658 6108 5937 6361 6009
Talal 95026 119376 103925 122892 123199 133462
Source: Handbook on fisheries statistics. Orissa 1996-97.
Directorate 01 Fisheries.
GON. 01 Orissa, Cuttack. 198 pp.
Information of fish catch is available for
Kendrapara since its inception in 1993. The table
shows that the fish catch is steadily increasing in
Kendrapara, Balasore and Jagatsinghpur
districts.
Table10:Species-wiseMarineflshingLanding(MT)
for Kendrapara
S.Mo Species (1998-99) (1999-2000) (2000-2001)
,. Shall< 662 825 69.15
2. 5_ 353 13B 122.9
3. R¥ 206 411 20.2
4. Oil sardine 956 137 144.43
5 Othersardine 250 825 163.3
6 Hilsashad 824 550 818.25
7 Othershad 574 412 84.3
8 Thrissocles 412 1 -
9 Anchovies 471 1 -
10. Other clupeids 609 1 1304.98
11 Harpodon nehereus 103 13 339.85
12. Chirocentrus (silver bar) 324 410 44.2
13. Polynemids 427 550 7.B
14. Chorinemus 235 413 -
15. Ribbon fish(Trichiuridae) 574 275 647.47
16. Garangids 368 1050 15.5
17. Indian mackerel 500 - 3.1
18. Other_ - 13B 6
19. S.commerson - 275 -

Bhitarkanika
S.No. Species (1998-99) (1999.2000) (2000-2001)
20. S.gultalus - - -
21. S.lineolatus - - -
22. Tunnies 147 276 -
23. Mugil (mullets) 382 135 614.35
24. Eels 265 275 27
25. Caffish 941 275 1580.04
26. Thread finbreams 103 688 -
27. Pigfacebreams 88 275 -
28. Other perches 132 - 14
29. Setaenids (croaker) 1147 - -
30. leiognathus (silver bellies) 221 2168 -
31. Black pomfret 339 413 45.1
32. Silver pomfret 397 550 639.53
33. Sole (flal fish) 59 138 158.35
34. Penaeid prawns 54 16 6628
35. Non-Penaeid prawns 66 51 83.25
36. Marine crustaceans (crab) 35 34 54.05
37. Other crustaceans 6 14 33.85
38. Squid & cuttlefish - 1 -
39. Misc. fish 2280 2024 6138.58
In the Bhilarkanika area, there are three main
fish landing centers described earlier. The table
below indicates the craft type, ownership in the
three centers. Since Dhamra was a port and is one
of the oldest fish landing centers, it has the largest
number of fishing crafts. Talchua is fairly recent
and has a large potential to grow.
Thble11:BasewiseOperationofMechanisedand
Non-MechanisedBoatsinBhitarkanika
SI.No. Type of boats
1. Wooden trawlers
Fish Landing Cenlre
Dhamara Talchua Sarunei
a. Department 0 0 0
b. private 49 28 0
C.co-operative 0 0
2. Gill nellers
a. Department 0 0 0
b. private 105 40 8
C. co-operative 0 0 0
3. Motorised country c,rah
a. private 117 60 20
b. cooperative 0 0 0
4. Total mechanized and
motorized boats
271 128 28
5. Total non mechanized boats 158 120 130
Since the Gahirmata marine sanctuary has been
declared in 1998, fishing is prohibited in the off
shore regions of the Bhilarkanika area and a
number of fishermen have been affected. The
crafts affected adversely by the declaration are
given below.
186
Thble12:FlshingFleetaffectedbyMarineSanctuary
Disbid Fishing base Tl'llwler Gillnetter Motorised Country CIllft
Kendrapara Kajal patia - 20 90 145
Kharanasi - 50 130 210
Jamboo - 20 90 85
Kandarapafia - 20 25 100
Tantiapal - 10 25 67
Talchua 36 88 180 486
Barunei - 10 39 232
Gopalpur - - 18 32
Bhadrak Dhama", 90 157 226 286
Source: Handbook of Fisheries statistics 2000,
Govt. of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of
Animal Husbandary and Dairing,
Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi
As described at the start of this section the
country' crafts and motorized boats belong to the
poorer section of the population. And though the
gill netters and trawlers may belong to rich
fishermen, they employ the local people in their
fishing expeditions. Thus overall laws that curtail
their rights to resource harvesting do affect the
poorer section of the population.
b. Fodder, Fuel and Timber:
Mangroves are used as fodder and the animals are
left in the protected areas to graze either
mangroves or the grasses in the open areas. The
area grazed and damage done to the natural
forests has not been estimated and there is a need
to define the fodder needs of cattle. The greatest
damage by such freely moving cattle is the
trampling on seedlings that does not allow natural
regeneration to occnr.
Chadha and Kar (1999) list 40 villages as entirely
dependent on mangroves for their firewood needs.
Of the 14 kgs of firewood used daily per household
12 kgs are of mangrove origin. They also state
that 20% of village population are engaged in
collecting firewood, leaves bark etc. from the
forest on a daily basis. Local villagers use clay
stoves to cook. All mangrove species can be used
as fuel. Some such as Ceriops and Bruguiera are
said to give more heat. Local villagers still depend
on the forests for fuel wood. Though the women
collect dead wood from the forest, they also cut
down branches and leave it to dry until the next
collection. There are no studies on the fnel-wood
needs and their availability in the local markets.
A few people mentioned that a decade ago some
solar cookers were distributed to families living in
the core area. This information has to be verified

to see whether the solar cookers were efficient in
reducing dependence on mangrove wood as a fuel.
Nearly all mangrove species are used in making
either houses or farming implements. All parts of
the Phoenix tree is used in house building. It is one
of the most extracted timber resource. Since better
quality timber (Heretiera spp.) is found in the core
zone, its extraction is restricted. Another freely
used timber source is the Casurina plantations
along the Gahirmatha beach. Under the Ecodevelopment
plan of the Sanctuary Authority,
there are provisions to undertake avenue
plantations. These plantations will cater to the
fuel and timber needs of the local population.
c. Non Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) :
The Center For Minor Forest produce has
proposed a classification of NTFP with 26
categories in two broad groups, (Shiva and Mathur
1997). The two broad groups are
Group 1 Commodities: NTFP of plant, animal and
mineral origin
Group 2 : Services : Tourism, recreation and
wildlife watching etc.
A separate study is needed to understand the
. resources under each head. At present the
information is available on two NTFPs, honey and
a grass used to make baskets.
• Honey: The local name for honey is 'Mahu'.
There are a group of 35 adivasi households
called 'Dalai' living in Dangmal village ..
• Agriculture labour
• Honey collection
D No employment
187
Table 13:HoneyandbeeswaxcoUected
Year Honey (qUs)
1996 45.0
1997 41.8
1998 19.9
1999 14.4
2000 8.63
2001
Source: Division Forest Office, Rajnagar, 2001
They have been collecting honey for generations.
Only men above the age of 15 years from the
community go for honey collection. They do not
depend totally on honey collection for their
livelihood They also work as servants in other
houses, as agricultural labourers, on fishing
launches and any work that is available in the
Forest Department, plantations, etc. The women of
this community do not go for honey collection. The
honey is collected mainly in the summer season
from March to May. Since the area has been
declared a sanctuary from 1975 onwards, they
have to sell honey to the Forest Department. When
sold to the department they earn Rs. 25/- per kg.
They go in a group of 7-10 people (Chadha and
Kar 1999) and later distribute the profit amongst
themselves. Good quality honey is collected mainly
in the flowering season of 'Khorsi' (Aegiceras
corniculatum), and of 'Garani' (Ceriops
decandra),
• Basket and Mat making: Every household
makes baskets, mats, hand fans, and various
other items of the leaves and bark of mangrove
trees. The bark fibers of 'Bahumurga'
(Flagellaria indica), is used for rope making.
The leaves of 'Hental' (Phoenix paludosa) are
used for mat making.
Harijan communities from the sanctuary area
make mats and baskets out of 'Naalia grass'
(Myriostachya wightiana). They collect 20 kg of
Naalia grass which is enough to make four
baskets, every 7 days. The price of the baskets
vary from Rs. 4/- to Rs. 40/- according to the size.
The Forest Department issues forest passes for this
resource harvest. They face danger of being
attacked by crocodiles when they go for collecting
Naalia grass .
d. Bioactive medicinal plants
Bhitarkanika
Bee wax (kg)
95.75
126.0
52.3
47.15
34.00
88.00
There are many articles in which the medicinal
value of mangroves is described. The local
communities do use the local plants for home
remedies, but an in depth understanding of their

Bhitarkanika
level of dependence and rate of extraction of
medicinal plants from the mangroves and
. associated areas is not available at the moment. A
study on this could be initiated. At present a study
on anti microbial and bio-pesticide properties of a
few mangrove species are under study at MSSRF.
e. Potential genetic resources:
The presence of the highest number of mangrove
species makes this site a genetic resources
paradise. This has been emphasized by many
workers (Swaminathan et al 1994 and Rao et. al.
2001). There are studies undertaken to
understand the relationship between species (Lata
and Balakrishna, 2000) and to understand the
working of salt tolerance in a few mangrove and
associate species, such as Portersia coarctata.
"Salt Gene" splicing and incorporating these into
other plants to check for salt tolerance are under
trials (Parani 1999).
There are a few reports on the occurrence of
Horseshoe crab /King Crab (Carcinoscorpius
rotundicauda and Tachypleus gigas) in the
coastal waters of this area.
f. Microbes:
On the use of microbes as a resource by local
people or by communities far away there is no
information.
g, Ornamentals:
The site is a protected area and trade of any plant
or animal is prohibited. Yet there are some
incidents of trade in animals, reported by the local
forest officers. There are no ornamental fish,
orchids, ferns etc that are used by the local people
as a resource.
ii. Domesticated Bio- resources
a. Crops:
The people have done cultivation after cleaning
the mangrove forest. Though this area has fertile
soil, there is saline water entry into the fields
during the dry period. Since 1972 the Irrigation
Department, Government of Orissa has helped in
building saline embankments, so that the salt
water is stopped from entering the fields and also
to protect the village and fields during cyclones.
The cyclones destroyed more of land before 1972,
when the embankments were made, even now the
embankments get breached in many places during
188
high velocity cyclones. Rice is the main cereal
crop grown in this area. The other cereals are
wheat, maize and ragi. Pusle crops are arhar,
moong, biri. Oilseeds that are cultivated in the
Rajanagar block are groundnut, til, castor,
linseed, mustard and sunflower. The vegetables
crops of the area are potato, sweet potato, onion,
brinjal and spices are chilly, garlic, ginger and
coriander.
Rice is grown mainly during the monsoon season,
few people living near the river banks grow salt
resistant varieties of rice, in areas where the salt
water enters the fields during the dry season. The
local names for the salt resistant variety of rice
are, 'Balunki' and 'Chakrakanda'.
Table14:CalendarofAgriculturalActivitiesforPaddy
Cultivation
Monlh Ploughing Sowing Transplanting Harvesting
...
March
April
May ... ...
June ...
July ... ...
Aug
...
...
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
...
**.*
...
A calendar of the agricultural activities is shown
in the above table. The practices described here
are common to both Oriya and Bengali cultivators.
More information on the processes of
transplanting, weeding, harvesting and post
harvest activities with gender differentiated
information is available in Suryanarayanan and
Kanvinde (1997).
Table15:MangroveandNon-mangrove specles
used fora plough
Part Mangrove species Non mangrove SJlecies Glrtllclass
Juali Xylocarpus gnmatum(sisumara) Thespesia paputnea 40.60cm
(habbai)
Xylocarpus mo/uccensis Unidentified(Kanlo)
(pi_n)
Esa Heritiera fomes (Sundari) 25.40cm
Il>ntiera Iittaralis(Bada Sundan)
Khusal Miroo,apa haxandra (khiro)
Kanthi Acacia nilotica (babool)
Acacia auriculiformis (Akashi) 30.40cm
langalo llirlliera fame, (Sundan)
Il>rlliera Iittorali,(Bada Sundan) 30.40cm.
Source: Suryanarayanso BDd Kanvlnde 1997

The ploughs and other implements are almost
exclusively local in origin. Local artisans assemble
the implements. The traditional plough in use in
the sanctuary includes four components; the juali
(yoke), the esa (beam), the khusa (handle) the
kanthi (shank)2, and the langalo (body ard) on to
which the phalo (plough share) is fitted using
metal clamps (jugali). The portion on to which the
plough share if fixed is the phalo. The moi is
made either from bamboo or from Excoecaria
agallocha (guan)
District and block details: The major crop is the
kharif paddy. The residents cannot cultivate a
second crop from the residual moisture. In
addition to paddy they cultivate vegetables like
brinjal, chilli, tomato, ladyfinger and pumpkin.
Jute, sugarcane, chilly, ginger, banana and
coconut are also cultivated in some areas of the
district. The new HYV paddy preferred by the
residents of Rajanagar Block are Parijat, 16T-5656,
MTU 7029, Swarna, CRI009, 1014, and 1018. The
local varieties preferred are Pattani, Balunki and
Raspunjuri. The diseases related to paddy are
sheath rot, brown sport and stem borer.
Table16: Theyieldrate(qWha)fordilferentcropsforthe
2000Kharifseason.
Crop Kendrapara Rajnagar
HYV Rice 18.10 15.70
Local rice 10.87 10.04
HYV maize 15.88 15.30
Jute 27.37 15.50
Chilii 12.14 11.50
Ginger 141.83 145.70
Total pulses 7.31 8.66
Source: .District Agricultural Strategy Committee Meeting
for KHARIF 2001 of Kendrapars District
Panchayats of Ishwarpur and Gupti are closer to
big rivers and get a good supply of fresh water,
reflecting in the greater paddy productivity.
Satbhaya . and Talchua panchayats have no
irrigation, and the rivers close to them are under
high tidal influence, so the farmers are not able to
use the brackish water for irrigating their fields;
thus the low productivity. The villages of Satbhaya
have no mangrove forests between them and the
sea and are the most vulnerable to storms and
cyclones.
189
Bhitarkanika
Table17: Paddy(HYV)productivitylortheyear2000
In the six panchayats
Panchayo' Revenue Non.paddy Area under Paddy
villages area (ha.) paddy (ha.) productivity
(HYV)Q1IftIa.
Dangmal 18 55 1813 12.0
Gupti 17 108 1412 16.0
Ishwarpur 23 102 2209 19.0
salbhaya 18 5 616 90
Talchua 18 63 1571 9.6
Rangani 22 96 1817 14.8
Rainagar810ck 310 1023 24.065 15.7
Source: District agriculture office~ Keodrapara.
The Kendrapara district covers an area of
2,29,565 ha. Out of this 1,69,981 ha is cultivated
area and 1,60,000ha is exclusively used for paddy
cultivation. Cyclones, floods and drought create
havoc with the crops and decrease productivity.
The most affected area being the Rajnagar block.
Table18:TheproblemareasinKendraparadistrict
Area type Land area in ha.
Flood prone 34,952
Saline 32,354
Waterlogged 15,850
Drought prone 1,10,397
Total 1,93,553
Souree: District Agriculture Office, Kendrapara
The district agriculture officer of Kendrapara
spoke about the difficulty to increase the yield in
Rajnagar block due to the saline nature of the soil
and the frequent flooding with either floodwaters
from the rivers or saline waters after a cyclone. He
said that one family is trying a lift irrigation
system and if that works such that a second crop
is possible then his department will help in setting
up such lift irrigation systems. .
b. Livestock :
One of the main reasons of the decrease of
mangrove cover is cattle grazing. The cattle are
left in the forests to forage. These animals not only
graze on the young leaves of many mangrove and
associated species but also damage the seedlings.
Most of the villages have indigenous buffaloes and
cows. The Bengali households also look after
ducks in addition to fowls and goats.

Bhitarkanika
Table19:CensusoflivestockinKendraparadistrictfor
1991& 2001.
Livestock 1991 2001
Male Female Tolal Total
Caltle Crossbreed 6830 9460
Indigenous 229630 237494 483414 471101
Buitalo 3091 19470 22561 16000
Sheep 22236 36235 58471 40805
Goat 34066 62941 97007 110244
Pigs 899 1180 2079 --
Poultry Fowls 470287 -- --
Ducks 15268 485555 159614
Source: Statistical Handbook 199~Directorate 01 Animal
Rusbsodlu:r and veterinary SerJl"fce~ Cuttack and Dlst.
Animal Hushandary and veterinary O/Dec? Kendrapara.
#J)islrfct Veterinary O//lce? Kendrapara
The table above shows the population of various
categories of livestock in the Kendrapara district.
The information pertaining to the six panchayats
was not available. An attempt needs to be mad r to
provide for fodder alternatives and ensure that
these alternatives are sustainable. I
c. Plantations : ,
After a major cyclone in 1971, a casuaJina
plantation project was implemented along jthe
Gahirmata beach, to prevent sea erosion. Tnese
coastline plantations were found detrimental to
turtle nesting and hence were discontinued. I
Irrigation department have constructed saline
embankments to limit the damage done by fldods
nearly everywhere in the sanctuary area. T~ese
embankments used to breach very often andl an
attempt to strengthen them through plantatipns
has been taken up under the Eco-development
plan of the Sanctuary Authorities. These avehue
plantations along the boundaries of the villa,ges
and the Sanctuary are done using Eucalyptus,
Casurina, Acacia nilotica, Acabia
auriculiformes and Azadiricta indica. I
establishment of wood lots, rejuvenation of
degraded mangroves, trials in pisciculture and
horticulture, building safe bathing ghats and deep
tube wells and schools, establishing basket making
centers, strengthening local paths and tracks and
developing eco-tourism centers an a few areas in
the sanctuary.
There are a few articles and manuals on nursery
techniques and experiments to increase the
growth rate of mangroves from the Bhitarkanika
area (Kanvinde, 1995, Rao et al 1998, Eganathan
et al 2000, Eganathan and Rao ?001 and Thatoi et
al 1999,2000and 2001).
There are no commercial plantations
(horticultural or timber etc) within and in the
vicinity of the Bhitarkanika area.
VI. Threats to the Bio-Resource
I. NaturaVenvironmental
The area is unique due to the high tidal amplitude
and ample fresh water from the rivers that flush
out the salt form the soil. Periodic cyclones have
damaged crops and villages. In fact as a result of
cyclonic storms, the affected people have been
rehabilitated on mangrove lands, causing a lot of
forest to be cut down.
Table20:Croparea(ha.)lossduetofloodingin2001
Crop type
Paddy submerged
Non-paddy submerged
Kendrapara
55,571
5,848
Rajnagar
1759
129
Source : Olstrict Agriculture Olljce~ Kendrapara
A good monsoon or heavy rains have now become
a threat, since most of the area is encroached and
there are bunds that prevent free flow of the
flooding waters. As a result, some of the bunds
breach and cause flooding in the cropland.
Apart from these, degraded mangrove areas :are
also being rejuvenated. The species of choice iare
Pests specially sheath rot, stem borer and brown
spot are the major pests that cause a loss to the
Rhizophora apiculata, Ceriops decandra, agriculture production.
Bru.guiera cylindrica and Sonneratia apetdla.
During the year 2000-2001,a total area of 277ha. ii. Anthropogenic
was covered by mangrove plantations and ithe The main threat to the resources of Bhitarkanika
area for April to Sept 2001 has been 303 1 ha. is unsustainable, illegal extraction. Fishing is
(Nayak,2001).A component of the eco-development prohibited, yet the locals are seen fishing. Timber
~~anm~ntgrh~::n~~~:;;i~~~ p:;~~e tt~:ek::~~fil~~; and fuel wood collection is prohibited, yet the
recently constructed huts are made of mangrove
development to the local people. The eco- wood. The cattle and other livestock use
development plan is being applied in 12 vill~ges mangroves and associate species as fodder, when
and the other activities under the plan are Ithe
. 190

the rice straw is exhausted. A few years ago the
natural resources were under threat by the
creation of prawn farms. These prawn farms
exploited the water resources and polluted them
with effluents rich in organic matter. This threat is
less now, with strict vigilance from the Sanctuary
Authorities. Livestock grazing is also a great
problem, especially in areas of new plantations.
Nayak (2001) estimates a lakh of buffaloes and
cows graze in the sanctuary area during the
cropping season.
Development that can harm the biodiversity of the
area is a very alive threat. In the past decade a
plan to construct a road along the northern
boundary of the Sanctuary was implemented. This
road joins Rajnagar to Talchua and has two
bridges, one of these bridge is now unsuitable for
use. But this road had made sanctuary very
accessible and may lead to increase in poaching of
animals.
The Brahmani and Baitarani rivers flow through
the high industrial and mining regions of Orissa
before they reach Bhitarkanika, and may contain
a lot of mine tailings. The effect of these on the
fisheries, animals and plant life is not known. It
may be that the anaerobic conditions in the
mangrove soils trap the heavy metals from the
mine tailings that pollute river waters and make
them unavailable to the plants.
Ill. Potential
Increasing population (decadal growth rate of +
13.25) that will depend on the same "protected
resources" will, in future lead to severe conflicts
on resource use. On one hand the sanctuary
authorities are ensuring more legal protection to
the area by upgrading part of the sanctuary as
well as increasing areas under protection, while
on the other hand the people are underprivileged
with poor facilities for health care, education,
transport and employment opportunities.
The site is one of the finest examples of a vast
diversity of life forms and so many of them are still
not known. Thus there is a need to ensure that
this site is protected.
iv. Threats to the local dependent
populations
In the present study, with the available
information at hand, it is difficult to say which of
the populations and why they or their livelihoods
are threatened. The local officials and residents
though have a few ideas :
191
Bhitarkanika
Declaration of an area as protected under the
Wildlife (Protection) Act usually leads to curtailing
the rights of the local dependent populations to
extract the resources. One of the major threats to
the local population is the prohibition to fishing in
the Marine Sanctuary area. Most of the small
fishermen have boats that are ill equipped to go
further into the sea. They usually fish in areas
that are now protected. The families do not have
the resources to buy better boats or trawlers.
These people will end up as the labourers of
trawler owners, who are either from West Bengal
or Andhra Pradesh.
The Sanctuary Authorities sometimes suspend the
collection of "naalia". Though this activity is not
the sole livelihood source of the harij an
community, they do not have any other source of
income during those months and they may then go
for illegal collections.
VII. Conservation and
Management Efforts
At present the area is protected with the
declaration of two sanctuaries and a national
park. There are many areas of conflict between
the local residents and the Protected Area
authorities. The Divisional Forest Office at
Rajnagar has initiated a Eco-development Plan in
order to lessen the dependency. Some activities
under this plan are:
• Vocational training in coir mat, rope making,
tailoring, basket making, mushroomcultivation,
food processing and bee keeping.
• Distribution of fuel and fodder seedlings
• Distribution of solar cookers
• Grass plantations
i. The following acts are applicable in
the study site (Chadha and Kar 1999).
Forests and wildlife in Kanika Zamindari area
had traditionally been managed under the local
rules prescribed by the local rulers from time to
time. After the merger, the area was governed
under Indian Forest Act and a number of other
legislations enacted from time to time. Strategic
location of the area has brought it under a number
of special laws like the Orissa Marine Fishing
Regulation Act (1982). Coastal Regulation Zone
Guidelines under Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.

Bhitarkanika
Before 1952, the forests were governed under Section 50 gives powers to the officers for entry,
'KANIKA RAJ JUNGLE MAHAL NIYAMABAiLI' ,
meaning rules for management of Kanika Jungles.
search, arrest
the provisions
and detention, if any violation of
of this act are noticed. It also
The notification was issued by Mr. Gopal Pra~ad gives immunity to the officers for certain
Das, Dewan of Kanika Raj. It has the listlof actions done in good faith.
protected forest blocks and various prescripti@ns
for public use of forest produce were incorporated
specifying the rates against different use. I
a. Indian Forest Act. 1927. This Act was enacted
on 21" September 1927 to consolidate the law
relating to forests, the transit of forest prodbce
and the duty leviable on timber and other forfst
produce in the above act. Chapter II deals v-;ith
the whole process of declaration of ReserVed
Forest and the acts that are prohibited in stich
forests in sections 3 to 27. Chapter III de~ls
with the Village Forests and Chapter IV delus
with the Protected Forests. Section 29 to 33
deal with the process of declaration i of
Notifications issued under section 30. Chapter V
deals with the control over forests and laJds
not being the property of Government. Chapter
VI and VII have the provisions for imposing
duty on timber and other forest produce dnd
controlling their transit. Chapter IX lias
important provisions regarding seizure lof
,
property therein.
b. Wildlife (Protection) Act. 1972 This act receiVed
the assent of the President of India on 19'h
September, 1972 and is one of the impordnt ,
steps taken by Government of India for
protection of wildlife. It has undergone certain
modifications from time to time. Main featutes
of this Act are : I
Chapter II deals with prohibition on hunting, of
animals mentioned in schedules I, II, III and Iv.
c. The Forest (Conservation) Act. 1980 This is a
landmark piece of legislation in the history of
Nature conservation in India and was enacted
at a time when developmental activities were
taking a heavy toll on the natural resources by
diverting large chunks of forest land. This
imposes strict restriction on the diversion of
forest land for non-forest purpose without the
prior approval of the Central Government and
provides for raising compensatory afforestation
on equivalent non-fore.st land. As a result, the
diversion of forest land for developmental
activities has slowed down. In Bhitarkanika
incidents of leasing of forest land by local
Revenue Authorities were observed till 1994
and after action was initiated against the
erring officials, the process has come to a halt.
d. The Orissa Marine Fishing Regulation Act 1982
The Act provides for the regulation of fishing in
the sea along the coast of Orissa state. Chapter
II of the act deals with the regulation of fishing
and lays down restrictions in specified areas.
Chapter III prescribes for penalties to be
imposed for violation of the prescribed
regulations. Section 14 empowers the
authorized officer to enter and search a vessel
if he has reason to believe that the vessel is
used in contravention of any of the provisions of
this Act and such a vessel can be impounded
and any fish found in it can be seized. Section
17 provides for imposing penalties after holding
It also deals
under special
with grant of hunting
circumstances.
permIts an enquiry. There is a provision for appeal to
the appropriate Appellate Board ..
Chapter IV deals with the process. of
declaration of Sanctuary, National Park and
closed areas, settlement of rights inside
I
the
sanctuary,
sanctuary
restrictions on
and other controls.
entry in the
I
Chapter V is an important chapter dealing I in
trade or commerce in Wild Animals, articles
and trophies and includes
in certain wildlife articles.
guidelines for tdde
Those who deal I in
wildlife articles. are supposed to talke
permission from Chief Wildlife Warden of the
state and submit the returns. I
Chapter VI is the most impl)rtant chapter
dealing with crime control and investigati6n.
I
192
e. The Environment (Protection) Act. 1986 This
Act provides for the protection and
improvement of environment and for matters
connected therewith. It empowers the Central
Government to take necessary measures for
protecting and improving the quality of the
environment and preventing, controlling and
abating environmental pollution. There is a
provision for making rules to implement the
Act. In Bhitarkanika this Act is of great
significance since all the coastal stretches of
th~ area fall in the CRZ I category.
Apart 'from the above acts, there are a few
institutions that help in the management and

generate information that will help in the
management of the site. These are:
ii. Government Organizations:
The Wildiife wing of Forest Department with its
Mangrove Division is the main Government Agency
in the area. This area is remote and the local
agriculture and health officers are rarely seen.
The Fisheries department with its Marine Division
has a center and an officer at Talchua and
Dhamara fish landing centres.
iii. Non-Government Organisations
There are few NGOs such as the MSSRF and
Nature Club active in the area. The MSSRF had a
project on Man and Mangrove interactions with an
aim of Rejuvenating Degraded Mangrove Areas
and another on survey of the genetic wealth of the
mangroves, Nature Club has its main office at
Kendrapara and mostly deals with health issues.
One of the most effective activist NGO was the
Orissa Krishak Mahasang, an organisation of
farmers and fishermen led by the late Banke
Behary Das. This organisation successfully led
many agitations against the prawn farming
activities and also was instrumental in publishing
articles on Bhitarkanika in Oriya for everyone to
understand. Nature and Wildlife Conservation
Society of Orissa, Bhubaneshwar; Project
Swarajya, Cuttack and Wildlife Society Of Orissa,
Cuttack are also involved in the conservation and
awareness activities in the area.
iv. Local communities:
There is no information of any cooperative
activities from the local communities, either in
environment or in fishing or farming activities.
v. Other Institutions:
Research on the animal and plant life of
Bhitarkanika is very actively pursued. The main
centers that have a research interest in this area
are Wildlife Institute of India; Regional Plant
Resources Centre, Bhubaneshwar; Research
Department of the Wildlife Wing of the Forest
Department, Govt. of Orissa; Regional Research
Laboratory, Bhubaneshwar; Zoology and Botany
Departments of Utkal University, Bhubaneshwar
and MSSRF.
viii. Future prospects
Mangroves have a significant multiple-use role and
are a renewable resource. They are among the
193
LocatIon of Goods and Services
Bhitarkanika
world's most productive ecosystems. Through
integrated conservation and management
approaches the livelihood security of resident
populations could be greatly enhanced. A
summary of mangrove based products is provided
in Table 21.
Understanding the complexities and diversity of
mangrove dependencies by caste, tribe and
gender, changes in the access and control dictated
by an 'outsider authority' is likely to have
different impacts to the user subgroups. To ensure
that the interests of the user subgroups are
protected, these groups/stakeholders should be a
part of the decision making processes. This
requires a clear commitment from the part of the
facilitating agency and all the stakeholders. The
role of Joint forest management, specially joint
mangrove management could be instrumental in
bringing together the aspirations of the most
dependent communities and those of the
Sanctuary Authorities.
Table21:Mangrovebasedproducts
Valuation of Goods
and Services
Marf

Bhitarkanika
Acknowledgements I
I am thankful to Dr. M. S. Swaminathan for h~S , encouragement and valuable suggestions in developing
the concept of bio-resources. I am grateful to Dr. EC. Kesavan, Director, MSSRF and Dr. Ajay Parida
giving me this opportunity to contribute and /0 be a part of a conservation network.
,
for
I also acknowledge with gratitude the wholehearted support I received from the Forest Department,
Fisheries Department and District Agriculture, Office, Kendrapara, Government of Orissa.
I would like to mention the valuable assistande provided to me by Dr and Mrs. S. D. Sharma and the
people of the Bhitarkanika region in gatheringl information for the report. I wish to leave on record my
thanks to Dr L. N. Acharjyo for going through the manuscript with great thoroughness and for his
suggestions for improvement.
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Bhilarkanika
Mangroves
ANNEXURE
I
Annexure I : List of Mangroves an~ associate species in Bhitarkanika Area
I
Mangrove associates
ScientilicName FluniIy LocaIName I Scientific Name FluniIy LocaINarne
Aeqiceras oornieulatum Myrsinaceae Kbarsi I Ar:rosticl1:urrumrewn I'teridarele KhaJi

Bhitarkanika
No. CommonName Zoologil>liName No. Common Name ZooIogicalName
ro. Black Bellied Plover 112. Collared Scops 01\1 Otus lJaJckamoena
61. Pacific Golden Plover PluvialiB lidva 113. Pied Cuckoo CIamatorja.oolJf.nw;
65. Larger Sand Plover Cilaradrius lesclienaultii 114. Chestnut Winglld Cuckuo CIamatorcorommuJus
66. Little Ringlld Plover CI1llmdrius dubius I 115. CommonHawkCuckuo Oucul.us varius
67. Kentish Plover ChnrairiusaJ.exandrinus 116. Indian Roller ComJ;ias lJenglw1ensis
6S.
69.
Lesser Sand Plover
Greater Stone Plover
amradrius=:j
117.
118.
CommonHoopoe
Indian Grey Hom Bill
Upupaepops
Tock:us birostris
70. Black Wmged Stilt Himantapus /tin 119. LargeGreeoBarhet MegaJaimazelan:i.ca
I
71. Stone Curlew 120. CoppersmithBarhet Megalai:nahaemaeephala
72. Eurasian Curlew Numen:i.usa:rquala 121. F'ulvous Breasted Wood F\rlrer Picoides macei
73. Brown Headed Gull La:rus lrrwmieephalu~ 122. Rufous Wood F\lcker H1fPOlJi= h:yperyth:rus
74. Black Headed Gull LarusridilJUndus 123. Grey Headed Wood Peeker Pieuscmms
75. Heuglin's Gull La,'USheuglini 124. BlackRmnpedFlamehack Di:nopi:wn benghaJense
76. Pallas Gull Laru~ ich1h:glJ£tus 125. Greater Flame Back Chrysolaptes hicidus
77. Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hylJridus 126. Ashy Crowned Sparrow Larl< Erenwpterf:r.grisea
78. Gull Billed Tern Gelncl1elidon nilntiea 127. Indian Small Sky Lark AIauda[Jll1(JuJa
79. River Tern Sterna auranlia 128. Bam Swallow Hirurulorustica
60. Little Tern Sterna albilrons 129. RedRmnped Swallow Hirurulodauriea
81. LesserCrested Tern Sterna lJengalensiB 130. Golden Oriole OIiolus oriolus
82. CommonTern Sterna lI:i:mrulo 131. Black Headed Oriole Grialus xant!IDmus
83. Black Bellied Tern Sterna mela:Jwgaster 132. Black Drongu Dimurus adsimiliB
84. Indian Skimmer Rynchaps a1lJi£ol1is 133. White Belled Drongu Di;:rurus eaernlecens
85. RockPigBOn ColwnhialWia 134. GreyheadedMyna Sturnus maln1Jari£:us
86. OraIlll" Breasted Green PigBOn Treron !Jieincta 135. Asian Pied SIarling Slurnus conlra
87. Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopeliadeeaocto 136. CommonMyna Aeridotheres triBtiB
88. Spotted llive Streptopelia c/tinensis 137. Jungle Myna Aerid.otheres fuseus
69. Oriental Turtle llive Streptopelia arienla1iB 138. Rufous Treepie Dendroeitta leu£ogastra
90. Little Brown Dove StreptopeliasenegalirMs 139. HouseCrnw Corous splendens
91. Emerald llive Chakophapsindica I 140. LargeBilledCrow Corousrnnerorhynchos
92. LargeindianParakeet l'!;iffaeula eupairia 141. SmallMinivet Itricrocotuseimwmmnells
93. Rose RinglldParakeet Psillacula /cram.eri 142. East India Scarlet Minivet Itricrocotus Ilal1.l1neus
94. Blossom Headed Parakeet l'!;iffaeula cyanocephala 143. Black Wmged Cuckooshrike Coraeina melaschiBtos
95. AsianKoel
i
EIld:y"omys sro/opacefi 144. Black Headed Cuckooshrike Coraeinamela:JIDp1era
96. Green Billed Malkoha Phaenicoplweus triBt},; 145. Common lora Aegit/tina tiphia
97. GreaterCoucal Centrapus sinensis 14fl. Red Wlliskered Bulhul PYCl1fJl1.otusjOCOSUS
98. Spotted Owlet Atherle lJrarnn 147. Red 'kIlted Bulhul Pycnono Ius cafer
99. Grey NiglItJar Co:primulgusindwlls 148. Olive Backed Pipit Anlhus hadgsni
100. LargeTailed NiglItJar Co:primu.l{Jusmncrurus 149. PaddyFieldPiplt Anlh:lIsnnvaeselandiae
101. Common Indian Night Jar Caprimu./gus asialuJ 150. \iillowheaded \\IlgtaIl Motnr:itlacitreola
102. fulmSwift I 151. Yellow\\IlgtaIl
103. Common King Fisher Alcedo althis I 152. Fbrest \\IlgtaIl Molar:illa indica
104. Pied King Fisher Ceryl.erudiB 153. PurpleRumpedSunBird Nectarinia zeylanica
105. BrownWmglldKingFisher HoJ.cyonmnauroplera 154. Purple Sun Bird Nectarlnia asiatica
106. White Breasted King Fisher HoJ.cyonsmyrnemd.s 155. Maroon Breasted SunBird
107. Collared KingFisher Todiramphuscliloris 156. Oriental Wbite - Eye 'bJsteropspaipelJrosa
108. Black Capped KingFisher Ho1cyonpiJ.eata 157. Pintail Snipe Galli:nngo sten:u:ra
109. ChestnutHeadedJ3ee.Eater Merops tesch.enrn.dtii I 158. Black Tailed Godwit Limosalimnsa
110. BlueTailedBeeEater AferopspldUippinus 159. BarTailed Godwit Limnsalapponica
111. Green Bee Eater Merops oriellta1iB 160. Whimhrel Numenius phacapus
/,
198

No. CommonName Zoolog\allName
161. CommonRedshalJk Tri:ngafJJtanus
162. Common Green Shank Tringa nebuJnria
163. Green Sand Piper TrirIfJa ocltrapus
164. WJod SandPiper Tringaglareo/a
165. TerekSandPiper TrirIfJa !£rex
166. CommonSandPiper 'J'ri:ngaltypoI
167. RuddyTmnstone Arenaria interpres
168. UttleStint Calid:ri.smimda
169. Tennninck's Stint Calidris temm:irwkii
170. Dnntin Calid:ri.s alpim
171. Ruff Ph:iJtJrnlJduIsp1J{ffl1lZ
172. GreatThickKnee Esat:usmagnirostri1l
173. Eurasian Oyster Caleher HaemaJnpus ostralegus
174. PiedAvocet Recurvirostra a:vosetta
175. Oriental Pratincole PraiiTl1JC()/amoldiviarnm
176. Indian Pitta Pilla IJra£I1yura
177. Brown Shrike Laniw; r:ristaJ:us
178, White Throated F1IIltail Rhipiduraal1Ji.coUis
179. BlackNapedMonarch Hypotftymis azurea
180. Asian Paradise Fly Catcher Terpsiphm1eparadisi
181. RedBreastedFlyCalcher Musdcapa parva
182. \\orditer FlyCatcher M!lSCiMpatilfllassim
183. BlueThrootedFlyCatcher MusdcapatubeeuJoiiJes
184. 0rangIl Headed Thruah ZOOthera eitrim
185. Oriental Magpie Rubin CkJpsych:uJisa:ularis
186. BIackRedstsrt Och:ruaesphoenieuroides
187, GreyTiI Parusmojar
188. CommonTailorBird Ortlwtamus sutariw;
189. Common ChiefChuff Plryl!£Jsca[Jwioollybiia
190. ChesinulCappedBabbler Timalia pileata
191. CommonBabbler 'I'urdnides caudaius
192. Jungle Babbler T'urdtJilJes striaJ:us
193. SlripedTitBabbler M={lUlaris
194. BlMkHeadedMunia. LarwliuraMaiar:ea
195. Baya \\eaver Ploeeusphiltppi:mLs
196, Mangrove Whistler Pachycephala{fri.;lo/a
197. Tiekell's Thrusb Tu:rd:usU11i1xJ1or
198. Indian Silverbill Lortdrma rna1nlJa:rial
199. Goliath Heron ArdeagoliaJh
Amphibians
No. CommonName Zoological Name
1. Commonindian Toad Bufom.elannstictW3
2. CommonTree Frog Palypedntesmaeulates
3. Indian Skipper Frog lIo:nacyo:nnphlyctis
4. Indian Cricket Frog lIo:na lim'flDCharis
5. IndianBull Frog lIo:na ligerim
,
199
Reptiles
Crocodile
1.
Saltwater crocodile
Lizards
No. CommonName
1. Indian Garden Lizard
2. Flln-ThroaledLizard
3. Indian Chameleon
4. Spotted Indian HouseGecko
5. Common Indian house Gecko
6. Common Skink
7. indian Monitor Lizard
8. YellowMonitor Lizard
9. \\liter MonitorLizard
Snakes
Bhitarkanika
Crocodilus porosus
Zoological Name
Calotesversicolor
8i.ftm.a 'JlQIWiceriarIa
Chamoeleanzeylmt:icus
HernilIadylw; brooki
Hem1daelylw; Ilavi:lJi:ridis
MolJwyaca:rinala
Varanus bengalensis
Varanus Ilavescens
Varanus salvator
No, CommonName Zoological Name
1. Indian Python Pythanmol:urus
2. Common Green whip snake A1IlletuJJn,nnsutus
3. Golden tree snake Chrysopelearmw1e
4. Indian rat snake Ptyasm:ucosus
5. Common cat snake Baigat:rigonata
6. Dogfaoed water snake Cerberw!rh'lfl1£hnps
7. Buffstriped Keel back AmphiesmasfJJlata
8. Common'Mlnn snake Typhli:na1Jra:mirla
9. CommonindianKrait 1JI.tnfJaruscaerulIrus
10. BandedKrail IJ1.mjgarw; fc=iatus
11. KingCobra Oph:i!Jphoqushan1Iflh
12. Hook nosed sea snake FJn1Iydrim sckistosa
13. Bamboopilviper Trimeresurus gro:m:ineus
14. Russell's viper Vipera rw;seUi
15. Indian Cobra (Binocellale) Najanoja
16. Indian Cobra (Monocellate) Naja nojaKanuthia
Sea Turtles
No. CommonName Zoolog\allName
1. Oliveridley sea turlle Lepi£kJchelysolivaceae
2. Hawksbill Sea turlle Eretmochelysim1Jrica1a
3. Leatherback Sea Turtte Demwchelys eori.a£ea
4. Green sea turlle Chelnn:iamydas
Fresh-water turtles
No. CommonName ZoologIcalName
1. Hard shelled tnrtle Boiaqur baska
2. South Indian roofed Turtle KaeliugatenJmia
3. North Indian roofed turlle Kachuga teem teem

Bhilarkanika
Fish No. CommonName
No. CommonName ZooIogicalName 21. Podarke spp.
1. Hilsa Hilsa illi~ha
2. Kbaing.J. Mulletsp.
3. Bhekti La1es eakarifer
4. Kantia Mustus {fUlilJ
5. Kokillor Anchovy CoiliaduBswnieri
6. RiceFish Ory:daslJ1ela~tigma
7. P.3nchax Aplor1lei111RpoIW/1f12
8. PulferFish Cheionodonn"vialilis
9. AcherFish To:rotesjaculator
10. Climbingperch Anabas testudi1/£l.~
11. Dw.uigourami Colisalalia
12. Eleotrid Sleeper
13. Glass Fish Chandasp.
14. PipeFish PeriopthaJamussp.
15. Mudskipper BoleopthaJamusp.
Important invertebrates
22. Glycera spp.
23. Goniades spp.
24. Phyllodoce spp.
25. Prinospia spp.
26. Scolelepis spp.
27. Nerine spp.
28. Poludora spp.
29. Magilone spp.
30. Myriochele picgta
31. Axilholla spp.
32. Clymene spp.
33. Mesochaiploplria spp.
34. Thelepus spp.
35. . Ammotrypane spp.
36. Capitelluthis spp.
37. Capitella spp.
38. Hetromastus spp.
39. Nolomastus spp.
Macro Fauna 40. Darychone spp.
41. Leplochela spp.
No. CommonName 42. Tanaiss spp.
1. Polystonella spp. 43. Psendolanaiias spp.
2. Rolalia beccaru 44. Cirolenea spp.
3. Loboplytum spp. 45. Exorphaevoma spp.
4. Seerophytum spp. 46. Corophium spp.
5. Gyrosloma spp. 47. Ampelisea spp.
6. Polydonles spp. 48. Hyale spp.
7. Polynoe spp. 49. Elasmopus spp.
8. Pisione spp. 50. Acetes spp.
9. Pscudoeyrylhoe spp. 51. Emivila spp.
10. Eyrulhee spp. 52. Ocypoda maevour
11. Morophyse spp. 53. Ocypoda platytamis
12. Lumbri conereis spp. 54. Ocypoda ceralophthalamus
13. Odontosylhis spp. 55. Seylla serrala
14. Neries chilkausia . 56. Umbonium spp.
15. Pseudonereis spp. 57. Hydrobis spp.
16. Perinereis spp. 58. Nasa orisensia
17. Lycaslis indica 59. Tapes spp.
18. Lycaslic meraukensia 60. Chandium spp.
19. Platyneries spp. 61. Dentallium spp.
20. Leocralides spp.
200

\ ~I

1. Introduction
Chilika Lake
Chilika, the largest brackish water lagoon in Asia,
has been strongly associated with cultural
heritage as well as socio-economic status of the
state of Orissa. Like other lagoon systems in the
world, Chilika lagoon, a semi-enclosed body of
water connected with the Bay of Bengal by an
inlet mouth, supports indigenous species of
economic importance, acts as spawning and
nursery ground for migratory species, used for
fishing and breeding larval and adult forms of
fishes and also regarded as valuable site for
tourism and recreation. Due to its vast potential
wealth of living and non-living resources and rich
biodiversity, Chilika lagoon is considered as a
'Ramsar (Wetlands) Site', a status accorded to it
by the International Convention of Environment
held in Ramsar in Iran in 1971. India became a
Contracting Party to the Convention in October
1981, and designated Chilika Lake (Orissa) and
Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) as its first
two Ramsar Sites. After that the number of
Ramasar Sites in India has been increased to 19
which include Ashtamudi Wetland, Kerala,
Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Orissa, Bho Wetland,.
Madhya Pradesh, Deepor Beel, Assam, East
Calcutta Wetlands, West Bengal, Harike Lake,
Punj ab, Kanjli, Punjab, Kolleru Lake, Andhra
Pradesh, Loktak Lake, Manipur, Point Calimere
Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, Pong
Dam Lake, Himachal Pradesh, Ropar, Punjab,
Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan, Sasthamkotta Lake,
Kerala, Tsomoriri, Jammu & Kashmir, Vembanad-
Kol Wetland, Kerala and Wular Lake, Jammu &
Kashmir.
Wetlands are transitional areas between dry
terrestrial and permanent aquatic ecosystems and
201
Chilika Lake
• Brahma B. Panda and Pratap K. Mohanty
are recognised as highly productive. The
importance of the aforesaid wetlands in socioeconomic
frontiers has been increasingly felt. At
the national level, 22 national wetlands and 11
national lakes have been identified for intensive
conservation and management so as to restore
these wetlands as waterfowl habitats along with
its rich resources of genetic diversity. It is
therefore important to survey and record the
biodiversity and bioresource profiles of Chilika,
which has been supporting a population of more
than 2 lakhs of people living in and around Chilika
lagoon. The international scientific community has
felt the need for regular survey of coastal lagoons
of the world since a long time. India signed the
Convention on Biological Diversity on June 5 1992,
ratified it on the February18, 1994 and brought
into force on May 19, 1994. The objective has been
to develop a framework for the sustainable
management and conservation of India's natural
resources, such as Chilika. The lagoon has been
under constant ecological threat due to siltation
and sedimentation, choking of the mouth of the
lagoon into the sea, and too much human
interference. The major problems identified with
the Chilika lagoon are 1. Siltation, 2. Choking of
the outer channel, 3. Shifting of the mouth
northwards, 4. Decrease of salinity, 5.
Eutrophication followed by prolific infestation of
aquatic weeds, 6. Decrease of fish productivity, 7.
Shrinkage of water area, 8. Loss of biodiversity,
and 9. Increase of human interference through
prawn and aquaculture. Owing to the ecological
threats that Chilika is facing, the lagoon has been
added to the Montreux Record on June 16, 1993.
Montreaux record lists wetlands of international
importance, which are already in danger due to
environmental degradation. However, following
successful rehabilitation efforts, Chilika in the

Chilika Lake
meanwhile has been removed from the Montreux
Record on 11 November 2002. Efforts, largely by
the Chilika Development Authority (CDA), were
rewarded by the Ramsar Wetland Conservation
Prize for 2002, which was conferred upon the CDA
at ceremonies in Spain on 18 November 2002.
To address the various problems concerning the
Chilika lagoon, the Government of Orissa has
established the Chilika Development Authority
(CDA), in the year 1992. CDA has been executing
and monitoring various multi-disciplinary and
multi-dimensional developmental activities either
by itself or through commissioning of out side
agencies, the overall objective being to protect the
ecosystem of the lagoon with all its genetic
diversity. Apart from several measures
undertaken, one of the major accomplishments
achieved by the CDA in this direction has been
artificial opening of a mouth on September 23,
2000 linking the sea, Bay of Bengal, near
Magarmukh. While efforts have been on to protect
and restore Chilika from further degradation, it is
imperative that the status of Chilika with its
ecosystem and people and their socio-economic
conditions need reassessment. This has become
more pertinent after September 23, 2000 when the
unprecedented interference into the ecology of
Chilika through the opening of the new mouth at
Sipakuda took place. The status report may help
in detection of the changes that have been taking
place transforming the lagoon system in the conrse
of time. This information is vital for predicting the
fate of the lagoon as most lagoons do not persist
for long periods in the geological time scale and
eventually become swamps, marshes and
ultimately mig~t vanish with plant-colonisation
and encroachment (Barnes, 1980).
Figure 1: Location and map of the Cb/llke lagoon snowing
the sectors with some of lis towns a.nd vl/Jages and road
links and wafer routes.
202
II. Description of the Site
i. Location
Chilika lagoon is located at 19° 28' - 19° 54' N and
85° 06' - 85° 35' E on the east- coast of the state of
Orissa, India. The lagoon is about 71km long and
3-32 km wide. The area ranges from and 89,100 ha
during dry season (December-June) to116, 500 ha
during rainy season (July-October). The lagoon is
separated from the sea by a sand bar of 60 km in
length. The total area of the sand bar has been
estimated to approximately 323.62 km' and it acts
as a barrier island between the lagoon and the
sea. The lagoon has a 24 km long channel,
designated as the outer channel, which runs
parallel to the coast to join the Bay of Bengal near
Arakhakuda, the only mouth of Chilika till
September 2000. Choking and silting of the mouth
at Arakhakuda was causing reduction of tidal
influx of sea water, which in turn resulted in
decease of salinity of water inside Chilika. lt i.s
reported that high rate of littoral drift at the
shore-front of the lake resulted in a shift of the
inlet mouth towards north (Chandramohan and
Nayak, 1994).
The outer channel, at Satapada peninsula divides
into two branches. One continues along the
original course and the other turns at right angle
and enters into the main part of the lake at a
point called Magarmukh near Satpada. At
Satpada opposite the village Sipakuda the second
mouth measuring 110 m width and 280 m length
was opened on the 23'" September 2000. Based on
depth and hydrographic parameters the lagoon
has been divided into 1. Northern, 2. Central, 3.
Southern sectors, and 4. Outer channel (Figure 1).
Rivers Daya, Bhargavi and tribu taries of river
Mahanadi enter into the Chilika on the north. Th.e
two rivers along with eight smaller rivulets like
Ratnachira, Kusumi, Kina, Salia, Khalajhare,
Malgoni, Dhanua, Salia and ten water channels,
discharge approximately 375,000 cusecs of
freshwater carrying about 13 million tonnes/year
of silt into the lagoon. Deposition of silt has been
rendering the lagoon shallower over the years. On
the south the lagoon is connected to Rushikulya
estuary by the Palur canal.
As of now, the said canal has been narrowed off
due to heavy siltation. Further, the water holdings
along the canal being used for prawn culture do
not allow much water to flow into Chilika.

ii. Climate
The state of Orissa is located in the subtropical
belt. The Chilika lagoon is located along the Orissa
coast between Gopalpur and Puri that experience
dry sub humid and megathermal type of climate
with little or no surplus water. Generally speaking
the region experiences four different seasons:
summer (March-May), rain (June-September), postrain
(October-November) and winter (December-
February). Mostly southwest, and to a less extent
the northeast monsoons bring rain to this region.
During summer, the weather remains extremely
hot due to high insolation and long sunshine
hours. The winter is moderately cool, influenced
by flow of cold wave from north to south. The
change in climatological profile profoundly affects
the hydrography of the lagoon in a significant
manner. Table 1 depicts the climatology of solar
energy data over Chilika region. The annual cycle
of insolation over Chilika shows a trend typical of
the tropics with maximum values during premonsoon
period (March-April-May) and minimum
during monsoon period (June-July-Augnst-
September). The monsoon minimum could be
attributed to the maxtmum daylight cloud amount
and no clear sky days during the period. Albedo is
the measure of reflecting power of the surface and
therefore is an indication of the roughness of the
lagoon surface during the course of the annual
cycle. The lowest albedo observed during July to
September suggests that the lagoon surface is
iii. Geomorphological features
Chilika Lake
Within and around Chilika lagoon, a diversity of
landforms is exhibited (Rao et al., 1986). The
major geomorphic unit can be classified into (1)
Denudation, (2) Marine/coastal, (3) Fluvta, and (4)
Aeolian, which are described as follows (Figure 2)
a. Deoudatiooallandform : Consisting of mainly of
the denudational hills and inselbergs bordering
mostly southwest and northwestern part of the
Chilika lagoon, and buried Pediplain is
distributed in the western part of the lagoon
starting right from the foot up to the western
part of the lagoon boundary. Lithologically, they
comprise of Khondalites and gneissic rocks of
easternghats. The denuded hills with heights of
over 625 m are generally dissected. The trend
of the crust line extends from northeast to
southwest. The entire geomorphic unit is
covered by fairly thick vegetation.
~"f,j:NftiBL$~t
••...•.e.O.D_':r./~
.lJ...--:;-"-~

Chilika Lake
30 km north with respect to its present
confluence of the Chilika lagoon. The area
between the palaeo lagoon boundary and the
present lagoon boundary is mud flat, which is
evident even now. The total area of this unit
extends approximately 400 sq. km. Some 'parts
of the area seem to be the reclaimed land. The
eastern most part of the Chilika lagoon is
bordered by a linear and spit or a barrier spit
which separate the lagoon from the Bay of
Bengal. The length of the spit extends for about
60 km with an average width of about 150m.
except at two places in the north-eastern part
where sea water flushes into the Chilika lagoon,
the barrier spit forms a continuous feature. The
shape of the bar is curvilinear, concave towards
the sea. From the earlier literature it is evident
that the inlets position and width changes due
to the influence of wave action, long shore
current in the form of littoral drift and the
influence of fresh water discharge and field
currents near the mouth of the lagoon.
c. Fluvial landform : The deltoid plain extends
between the river Daya and the coast. From the
alluvial plain with very gentle slope towards
southwest, most of the area is under 30 m
elevation. The land supports agriculture of
paddy crop.
d. Aeolian landform: Consisting the coastal sand
dunes, which lies all along the northern part
with width ranging from 1 to 8 km. The sand
dunes are discontinuous with their linear
direction paralleling the coast.
iv. Remote Sensing Information
Use of Remote sensing techniques for documenting
the bio-resources profile of Chilika lagoon is
limited. Recent studies depict the information on
vegetation, water quality, turbidity and sediment
load in the lagoon and their variability with time
(Mohanty et al., 2001; Pal and Mohanty, 2002).
Classified photomaps of Chilika lagoon during and
are shown in images. The images clearly depict
the variability of different lagoon features in the
time-space continuum. The images further
indicate the sediment load in the lagoon and their
temporal and spatial variability. Based on the soil
brightness indices Chilika lagoon itself can be
divided into three main regions namely, 1.
Productive eutrophicated region at the
northwest, 2. Turbid - drainage region at the
northeast and 3.Deep water region at the southcenter
of the lagoon.
204
v. Limnological features
Limnology of Chilika lagoon has been extensively
studied by different groups in the past (Asthana,
1976; ZSI, 1995; Respond Project, 1998). Some of
the salient limnological features are as follows.
a. Tidal influx: The tidal inlet is a narrow
waterway connecting the lagoon with the ocean
and is maintained by the tidal flows. The
eastcoast of India is subjected to variable wave
climate, showing .the long shore sediment
transport towards north during March to
October and towards south during November to
January. Further, the annual long-shore
transport rate is observed to increase
northward along the east coast of Indi a
(Saxaena et al., 1976). The Chilika lagoon is
situated almost on the northern end of the Bay
of Bengal and the waves approaching from
u'orth are limited. The data on daily littoral
current observation showed that the long shore
sediment transport is northward throughout the
year along the shorefront of the Chilika lagoon.
The fresh water discharge during the southwest
monsoon flushes out the part of the sediment
deposited in the inlet mouth. The migration
rate of the inlet mouth is higher during the
southwest monsoon period. In the fair weather
season, the inlet mouth gets silted up since the
tidal prism becomes very low, the length of the
connecting channel between the sea and the
lagoon is too long, about 21 km, and the
hydraulic head loss due to the frictional effects
canses further reduction in the flood flow into
the lagoon. This has been one of the major
arguments in favour of an artificial mouth
opening near Satapada in order to increase
tidal prism (Chandramohan and Nayak, 1994).
The discharge of water from the lagoon into the
sea and the influx of water from sea to the
lagoon through this channel have been very
weak that resulted in the gradual siltation of
the lagoon over the years.
D. Bathymetry : The bottom is characterized by
loose mud and silt. The depth is uneven, the
northern broader part being the shallowest and
the narrower southern point being
comparatively deeper. Depth varies from sector
to sector as well as from season to season. In
summer the depth ranges between 0.94 - 2.63 m,
while the depth in the flood season varies from
1.78 to 3.70 m. The northern sector is the
shallowest with depth varying from 0.2 to 1.6 m.

The central sector is moderately deep, 0.7 to
2.8 m. The southern sector is the deepest zone,
1.2 - 3.25 m. The average depth in the channel
is 1.86m. Seasonal variation in depth is seen in
all sectors, minimum with the lower limit but
maximum with the upper limit of the depth.
c. Transparency: The transparency values vary
between 10-86cm in northern sector, 17-125cm
in central and 20-130 cm in northern sector.
d Temperature, pH and salinity: The surface
temperature of the lake varies from 28.4 to 36°C
during summer, 30.5 to 32.4°C and 23.1 to 27.2
°C during fall and winter, respectively. The pH
values vary from 7.6 to 10.2 in the lake. The
maximum and minimum pH were 10.2and 8.3 in
northern, 9.7 and 8.3 in central and 7.6 and 9.1
in southern sectors recorded during three
c '"
~
.0 "
3
"' ,.
.• j
;: "
'"
"
~" ,
;;
;; '"
~ 27
!"- '"
;( 25
,.
1015
1
::1 1000
'"
~,
;; ,
;;
~
E ,
!"-
";; ,
;; ,
;:
8:7'l
l~
>

Chilika Lake
in the northern sector ranged from 4.0 to 14.2
ml I-I and 4.4 to 12.9 ml I-I, respectively. In the
central sector the values ranged between 6.0
and 8.4 (surface) and 5.5 and 8.6ml 1-1 (bottom)
whereas in southern sector, it varied between
5.6 and 10.4mI I-I (surface), and 5.6 and 11.3mI
\'1 (bottom).
f. Nutrients: The available nutrient status namely
nitrate, phosphate and silicate indicate that
the southern sector is the poorest in nutrients
with around 0.45 mg N I-I, 0.193- 4.64 mg PI-I
and 6.28-48.12 mg Si 1-1. The northern sector is
the richest with nutrients showing 0.05-2.58 mg
N \,1, 0.58-4.72 mg P I-I and 10.28-95.11 mg Si 1-1.
The same in the central sector remain in
between the two above sectors with around1.21
mg N I, 0.58-4.72 mg P \,1, 9.58-53.61 mg Si I-I.
6
"5
j"
II •
CIl -3.5
~ ,
~ 2.5 ,
15
1
E
;: ~. .
"g •
o
Q ,
. '
d: 6
E 5
2 •
c
~'
o ,
" 1 o
250
200
~ i 150
I
~ 100
50
o
b. 'IOtalsuspended matter: The total suspended
matter is found to be 52-849 at central sector, 25.5-
606 at the northern sector and 50-413 mg I-I at the
southern sector.
/. Sediment type and sediment organic carbon:
Information with respect to sand, silt, and clay
fractions of the sediment at the three sectors of
the lake are 15.86-94.48, 4.13-36-33, 1.38-60.61
% for the northern, 14.8-42.824.39-31.52, 31.46-
54.16 % for the central and 35.3-54.77, 28.21-
34.96, 14.86-31.98 % for the southern sector,
respectively. Like wise the range of organic
carbon in the sediments from northern, central
and southern sectors were 0.03-1.5, 0.15-1.98
and 0.06-0.87%, respectively. It may be noted
that the aforesaid limonological features
pertaining to Chilika lagoon have been on the
H/PJre " : Monthly J'IU'Iatlonof meteorololflw parameters oyer ChlUla Lake
206

asis of available data from an earlier study
conducted during 1993-1998 (Respond Project,
1998), which is prior to the opening of the
second artificial mouth on September 23, 2000.
Unpublished results available from author's
laboratory (P. K. Mohanty, data not shown) on
limnological features on the basis of our recent
field survey undertaken during November 4-6,
2001, however pointed to a qualitative change
with respect to temperature, salinity, pH,
dissolved oxygen etc. in Chilika, particularly
after the opening of the new mouth.
j. Meteorology: Meteorology of Chilika lagoon
plays an important role in the hydro biological
process. The monthly variations of different
meteorological parameters are shown in
Figures 3 and 4 (Mohanty, 1990).
vi. Short summary on vegetation and animal life
The lagoon is rich with its flora and fauna.
Available information on the flora of Chilika
indicates the occurrence of more than 700 plant
species in Chilika and the surrounding area (CDA,
2001). A survey of the fauna of Chilika lagoon
carried out by the Zoological Survey of India
during 1985-87 recorded over 729 species of
wetland fauna including 217 species of fishes and
156 species of birds (ZSI, 1995).
Chilika supports some of the largest congregation
of aquatic birds in the country, particularly during
the winter. Flocks of migratory waterfowl arrive
from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral
Sea, remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of
Mongolia, Central and South East Asia, Ladakh
and the Himalayas, to feed and breed in its fertile
Ill. Population Profile
Chilika Lake
waters. Chilika lagoon occupies a unique place for
its rich resident and migrant avifauna. The
number of bird species recorded from Chilika has
been listed to be 167. On an average about 90-100
bird species numbering about 20 lakhs visit Chilika
every year during the months of winter (Forest
Department of Orissa, 1997). Both the flora and
fauna of Chilika includes rare and endangered
species.
The entire region of Chilika inclusive of the lake is
spread over three coastal. districts of Orissa
namely Puri, Khurda and Ganjam. According to
the available census (Census of India, 1991), the
total population of the above region is 2, 24, 891
belonging to 293 villages and two Notified Area
Councils namely, Balugaon and Rambha. The
villages are distributed under seven blocks:
Brahmagiri, Konas, Krushnaprasad of Puri; Tangi
and Chilika of Khurda; and Khallikote and
Ganjam of Ganjam district (Figure 1, Table 2).
It may be noted that the eight villages with a
population of 10120 belonging to Konas block are
not directly in connection with Chilika, but are
located on the banks of rivers Daya or Luna linked
with Chilika. The people from the said villages
very much depend on fishing from Chilika, and the
aforementioned rivers provide the waterway for
the purpose. The fishermen communities are
included in Scheduled Caste (SC) that number 65,
398. SC includes the castes such as keuta,
kandara, kaibarta, tiara, nolia etc. All the
castes speak Oriya with exception to nolia, who
speak Telugu. It may be noted that the workers in
Table2: Blockwisedistributionofvillagesa10ngwithpopulationproffieinandaroundCbi1ikalagoon.
ND. Df TDtal Sc. CultivatDrs Agr!. labDurer livestDck labDurer ••
District BIDcks villages pDpulatiDn Caste male female male female male female
Puri Brahmagiri 25 15861 2730 2865 4 308 5 478 9
Kanas 8 10120 3858 1240 2 279 2 850 0
Krushna prasada 131 66009 14833 7999 25 2757 136 4129 231
Khurda Tangi 11 14028 6100 690 6 163 1 2155 27
Ghilika 54 53786 21055 4248 22 2459 20 5210 22
Balugaon. 12404 2974 414 53 250 5 240 1
Ganjam Khallikote 36 23502 6710 1654 172 1244 442 1149 47
Ganjam 28 19968 4200 2593 355 670 709 1117 13
Rambha. 9213 2938 496 2 243 276 376 3
Tolal 293 224891 65398 22199 641 8373 1596 15704 353
It Notified Area Council (HAC). - Include labourers Dve on OsheL]' Ill1d flsblng.
Source: Census 01 India (1991).
207

Chilika Lake
agriculture and/or fishery mostly constitute the
male folk. Out of the SC, keutas constitute about
68% and are considered as a superior class.
Kondara constitute the second largest fishermen
community (CIDA, 1992). Apart from these
traditional fishermen communities, there are
refugees from Bangaladesh who are well settled in
. Tangi area and practice fishing as their primary
occupation. Further, with advent of prawn culture,
many non-traditional fishermen belonging to upper
castes have also entered the fray and compete
with the traditional fishermen for fishing. The
gender ratio of the total population as well as that
of SC is approximately 1:1. Cultivators include
landowners that account a population of 22, 840.
Agriculture labourers account 9, 969 (males 8,373
and females 1,596). Workers living on livestock,
mostly represented by the fishermen community,
account 16,057 (male 15,704 and female 353). The
fisherman population has been estimated to be 1,
04, 040 (male 30, 630, female 26, 540 and children
46, 866) belonging to 128 fishermen villages
(Directorate of Fisheries, 1997).
Irrespective of the caste, horizontally, the
fishermen communities may be divided on
economic lines. Families having ownership of nets,
boats, equipment accessories for fishing are at a
higher level; whereas fishermen with out these
assets comprise the lower level. According to an
estimation there are in total 454 motorised boats,
4, 971 traditional boats and 19, 190 nets in the
locality (Directorate of Fisheries, 1997).
IV.Biodiversity and Conservation values
i. Flora
The earliest information on the flora of Chilika is
available from Annandale (1920). In the same year
Narayanswami and Carter (1920) listed about 150
species of vascular plants that included a few
pteridophytes. The said list has been revised and
the nomenclature updated (Panigrahi, 1988).
Aquatic terrestrial vegetation of Chilika and the
adjoining regions have been in the mean time
enlisted to be 546 species, belonging to 379 genera
and 107 families (Patnaik 1973a; Panda and
Patnaik 1985, 2002) and the list is likely to go up.
In its wave site, CDAdisplays a tentative plant list
containing 706 species belonging to 488 genera
under 80 dicot and 25 monocot families (CDA,
2001).
Depending on the local habitat condition, the
vegetation of Chilika has been categorised under
three groups, namely :
208
1. Aquatic vegetation: consisting hydrophytes
(Table 3) dominated by Potamogeton
pectinatus and allied species
2. Littoral scrub jungle: comprising of Salvadora
persica, Pongamia pinnata, Colubrina
asiatica, Cassipourea ceylanica, Aegiceras
corniculatum, Azima tetracantha, Pisonia
aculeata, Clerodendron inerme, Carmona
retusa, Carissa spinarumm, Crateva
spinarumm, Meytinus emarginatus, Opuntia
dillenii, Ficus sp., Crateva adansonii,
Lepisanthes tetraphylla, StrebIus asper etc, a
few climbers such as Cissus quadrangutasris,
Pentatropis capensis, Tyrophora indica etc.
and trees represented by Ficus sp., Crataeva
adansonii, Lepisanthes tetraphylla etc., and
3. Sand dune and psammophytic vegetation:
comprising of Hydrophylax maritima,
Ipomoea pescaprae, Macrotyloma ciliatum
etc. (Panda and Patnaik, 1988). Species like
SaIi cornia brachiata, Suaeda maritima,
Sesuvium portulacastrum, Phyla nodirlora,
Heliotropium curassavicum and some others
occur in marshes and salt fields along the edges
and other shallow areas of the lake.
The vascular hydrophytes that include a few
pteridophytes are predominately found at the
northern sector (Table 3). These include
submerged, emergent and floating types (Mohanty
et ai, 2001).
The Chilika lagoon has also been surveyed for
algal flora including phytoplaktons by number of
workers (Biswas, 1924, 1934; Parija and Parija,
1946; Roy, 1954, Patnaik, 1973a; Patnaik and
Sarkar, 1976;Adhikary and Sahu, 1991,1992;Sahu
and Adhikary, 1999, Raman and Satyanarayana,
2002). Occurrences and distribution of the algal
flora is presented in Table 4. It needs to be
underlined that the agarophytes Gracillaria
lichenoides and G. verrucosa (=G.
conrervoides), which were earlier reported to be
very abundant is now represented by a single
species, G. verrucosa confined to the central
seetor presently (Sahu and Adhikary, (999).
Biomass (wet weight) of different vegetation types
and its distribution is assessed from remotely
sensed data combined with in situ observations.
Maximum wet-weight biomass of submerged
macrophytes estimated for northern, eentral, and
southern seetors are 6460, 6200, 5020 glm'
respectively. Potamogeton pectinatus followed by

Table3:Distributionofmajorvasrularhydrophytes at differentsectorsofChilikalagoon.
Submerged Vegetation
Potamogeton pectinatus (NGS)
P. nodosus (N)
Najas laveo/ata (NGS)
Ruppia maritima (GS)
Hydrilla verticillata (N)
Vafiisneria spiralis (N)
Ceratophyllum demersum (N)
Myriophyllum oliganthum (N)
Hafophifa ovalis(GS)
H. beccarii (GS)
Emergent Vegetation
Schoenop/ectus /ittoralis (NGS)
S. articu/atus (N)
Phragmites karka (N)
Cyperus compressus (N)
Eleocharis dulce (N)
Typha angustata iN)
Fimbristylis cymosa (N)
Pofygonum flaccidum (N)
Myrostachya wightii (N)
Panicum pa/udosum (N)
P. repens (NG)
P. wa/ense (N G)
Najas raveo/ata make the highest contribution to
the wet-weight biomass of submerged vegetation in
the entire lake (Respond Project, 1998;Mohanty et
al., 2001).
Mlr-91 Ajx-95
fuKxl
Figure 5. Percentage of wet-weight biomass 01 major
submerged macrophytes in northern sector of
Chfllka Lagoon.
In the weed infested northern sector the maximum
biomass recorded for floating and emergent
vegetation are 3400 and 7500 glm' respectively.
Figure 5 depicts the inter annual variation in
biomass percentage of the major submerged
macrophytes. It is observed that Hydrilla
verticillata and Vallisneria spiralis have large
variability as compared to other species but
having opposite trends. Observed salinity
variations in the northwestern sector (area of
luxuriant weed growth) between March 1994 (0.27-
0.36 %0) and May 1998 (6.08 - 10.80 %0) may
account for the difference in the lagoon (Respond
Project 1998).
Raman and Satyanarayana (2002) reported the
occurrence of 42 species of phyotplankton
Northern (N), Central (C) and Southern (S)
209
Floating Vegetation
Eichhornia crassipes (N)
Pistia stratiotes (N)
Azolla pinnata (N)
Lemna minor (N)
$a/vinia natans (N)
Nymphoides indica (N)
N. hydrophylla (N)
Nymphaea nouchali (N)
Marsilea quadrilolia (N)
Chilika Lake
represented by cynophyceans, bacillariophyceans,
dinopbyceans, chlorophyceans and
euglenophyceans. Of theses the cyanophyceans,
represented mostly by Oscilltoria, constituted the
bulk (81%) of the total phytoplankton.
ii. Fauna
The faunal diversity of Chilika is very much rich.
It has been studied rather extensively by the
scientists during 1915-24 (Annandale, 1915, 1924)
and later during 1985-87 (ZSI, 1995). Sporadic
attempts were also made in between by few
investigators (Jones and Sujansinghani, 1954; Roy
and Sahoo, 1957; Menon, 1961; Rajan et al., 1968;
Sharma and Satpathy, 1978; Sarma and Rao, 1980;
Rao, 1987; Dandapani, 1992). Phytal fauna (Sarma
and Satapathy, 1978) and meiofauna (Sarma and
Rao, 1978) have also been studied, which included
animal groups: foraminifera, nematoda,
oligochaeta, polychaeta, copepoda, ostracoda,
amphipoda, isopoda, tenaidea, insect larvae,
halacaridae, cumacidaceae, kinorahyncha,
gastropoda, plelecypoda, rotifera etc. There is a
wtde variety of animal life forms representing
various groups of animal kingdom, ranging from
protozoa, porifera, polyzoa, brachiopoda,
coelenterata, ctenophora, isopoda, echiura,
sipuncnla, chaetoguatha, platyhelminthes,
annelida, crnstacea, insecta, arachnida, molluska
to pisces, amphibia, reptilia, aves and mammalia
(Table 5). Chilika lagoon hosts over 729 species of
wetland fauna including 217 species of fishes and
156 species of birds, 7 toad and frogs and 30
snakes and lizards (ZSI, 1995).
Chilika and its islands harbour numerous insects
fauna like coleopteran, odonata, butterflies,

Chilika Lake
Table4.OccurrenceanddistributionofalgaeinCbilikalagoon
Class Name
Northern Central Southern Ouler
sector sector sector channel
Cyanophyceae Anabaena sp. + + +
Gloeocapsa sp. + +
Lyngbya aestuarii ++ ++ ++
L. confervoides ++ ++ ++
Nostoc sp. + +
Oscil/oloria letevineus ++ ++ ++
Phormidium fragile + +
Trichodesmium erythraeum ++
Dianophyceae Ceratium turea + + +
Noctiluca miliaris + + +
Dinophysis candata +
Bacillariophyceae Biddulphia pulchella + +
Tabel/aria fenestrata + +
Pleurosigma elongturn + + +
Chaetoceros affinis + +
SkeJetonema costatum +
Thalassiosira subtilis +
Xanthophyceae Tribonema bombycinum + + +
Chlorophyceae Spirogyra ,p. + + +
Oedogonium sp. + + +
Cladophora glomerata +++ ++
VIva lactuca ++ +++
Chaetomorpha /inum ++ +++ +++ ++
Enteromoprpha intestinalis +++ +++ ++ ++
E. compressa ++ +++
Charophyceae Chara sp. + +
Nitella ,p. +
Rhodophyceae Graci/aria verrucosa ++
210
Macrozoobenthos that play an
important role in sedimentation in
wetlands were studied in Chilika
(Respond Project, 1998). About 60
species mainly representing
coelenterates, polychaetes,
amphipods, tanaidacea, isopods,
gastropods and lamellibranches
contributed to the taxonomic
composition of the benthic
macrofauna of the Chilika lagoon.
Gastropods contributed the largest
number of individuals, which included
Modiolus undulatus, Stenothyra
blanfordiana, Nematonereis
unieornis, Nassarius (Aeieulina)
subeonstrietus, Finella virgata,
Aneistrosyllis eonstrieta, Synidotea
variegata, Heteromastus similis,
Didontoglossa estriata and
Clementia vatheleti. Species
diversity (Shannon-Weiner function)
showed a wide variation with values
ranging from a minimum of 0.02 to
2.08 bits. Comparatively high values
were observed in southern sector and
outer channel, and low values in
Jiuy common +++, common ++1 Jess. common + central and northern sectors
Source: Modilled /rom Adblkary and Sabu, 1992,. Sabu and AdblkaIy, 1999. (Respond Proj ect, 1998). Studies
carabid beetles, moths, wasps and bees, dipteran
insects, neuropteran insects, dragonflies,
damselflies, heteromera and termites. A recent
survey has recorded mosquitoes belonging to 22
species and 5 genera viz. Anopheles, Aedes,
Armageres, Culex, and Mansonia (Dash et al.,
1988). Of the five species of Mysidaceae now
known from brackish waters in India, four species
namely, Rhopalophthalmus egrgius, Macropsis
orientalis, Potamomysis assimilis and Gastro
mutieus were found in Chilika (Patnaik, 1988).
Central sector of the lagoon harbours maximum
percentage of mysids as compared to other sectors
of the lagoon. Mysid is considered as one of the
important food items for prawns and many
brackish water fishes. Mysids, therefore, constitute
the raw materials for preparation of feed for larval
feeding in the prawn hatcheries. A total of 136
species under 66 families were reported from the
Chilika. This number includes 7 species of lanl!
mollusks and 13 species of fresh water mollusks.
The rest of species are either marine or brackish
water / estuarine. Oyster (e.g. Ostrea talpur, Area
spp., Meretix spp.) occurs in small patches.
carried out on the meiobenthos of soft sediments of
Rambha Bay during 1978-80 revealed the relative
abundance, density, composition and seasonal
fluctuation of sedimentary meiofauna (Rao, 1987).
The systematic study revealed as many as 14.
meiofaunal taxa and 117 species in Chilika lagoon.
The density of meiofauna ranged between 1128and
1583/10cm' and the biomass ranged between 7.72
and 10.53 mg/l0cm' in the Rambha Bay.
Brachyuran crabs from Chilika include 28 species
distributed under 22 genera and 9 families (ZSI,
1995). The survey conducted by ZSI (1995),
furthermore, revealed the presence of 13 species of
prawn and shrimps belonging to 8 genera and 5
families; and 8 species of hermit crab belonging to
3 genera and 2 families. According to a recent
estimation released to the media from the CDAas
many as 15 species belonging to 11 genera under
5 families of prawn have been vanished from
Chilika during the last six decades. Furthermore,
4 species of prawn and 5 species of crab recorded
during the last four years have been claimed to be
new (Times of India, New Delhi, Eastern India
Special, 09/12/2001,page 5).

A total number of 217 species of fish under 147
genera, 71 families and 15 orders, which included
fresh, brackish and marine fishes (ZSI, 1995). The
number of fish species has been put at 225 by
others (Dean and Saltink, 1991), 259 (Mohanty,
2002) and 240 (Khora, 2002). According to a recent
press release from CDA,as many as 103 species of
fish belonging 52 genera under 14 families have
been vanished from Chilika during the last six
decades. Among 156 species of fish found in 2001,
about 38 are reported to be new species (Times of
India, New Delhi, Eastern India Special, 09/12/
2001,page 5).
Amphibians consisting of 7 species of toads and
frogs listed under 4 genera, belonging to 3 families
(ZSI, 1995). Reptiles include 12 species of lizards
and 30 species of snakes (ZSI, 1995). Chilika
lagoon is famous for the Barkuda Island Limbless
skink (Barkudia insularis). The generic name
has been attributed to Barkuda island. The only
holotype of the skink was dug up by F. H. Gravely
from Barkuda island in July 1916 (Brochure on
Pictorial Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles
of Ghilika, Chilika Wildlife Division).
Chilika popularly known as the birds' paradise
has been attracting more than a million birds that
include migratory, resident, breeding and nomadic
birds. During 1990s, attempts have been made to
census waterfowl populations in India. Of 1,421
sites counted in India, 34 sites covered during the
Asian waterfowl census 1994-1996qualify as sites
of international importance. Of these, the Chilika
lagoon topped the national list harbouring a total
of 1,484,186water birds of 85 species in 1996. The
available records on bird from different sources
vary from 156 species under 91 genera and 23
orders (ZSI, 1995) to 159 species under 92 genera,
27 families and 9 orders (Dev, 1997). Of the 159
species listed by Dev (1997), about 90 are
migrants, 60 residents and 3 vagrants. A brochure
released by the Chilika Wildlife Division (2000),
however put the list of bird species at 167.
So far in ail 19 species of mammalian fauna are
listed under 18 genera, 10 families and 5 orders
from Chilika and its surrounding area (ZSI, 1995).
The Irrawady River Dolphin (Orcaella
brevirostris), first reported by Annandale (1915),
is presently confined to Satapada-Magarmukha
area and occasionally seen between Kalijai and
BJllugaon (Dandapani, 1992).
211
Table5:FlmnaofChiIika
ttl. Taxon Species Genera Family Onle,
1. PROTOZOA 61 37 31 12
2. PORIfERA 7 5 4 3
Chilika Lake
Remart

Chilika Lake
and Carter (1920) are no more found during a
survey undertaken by CDA recently (CDA, 2002).
Banerjee and Roy (2002) listed some of the most
important, endemic and rare plant unique to the
Chilika lagoon, which include Cassipourea
ceylanica, Colubrina asiatica, Commiphora
wightii, Strychnos nux-vomica, S. potatorum,
.Sercostemma acidum, Cissus vitiginea,
Commiphora caudate, Aegiceras comiculatum,
Stenoclina pelustris and Aristolochia indica.
Some of the rare, vulnerable and endangered
species listed in the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) Red List of threatened animals belong to
habitat of the lagoon area. The Dhuanali forest in
the north east of Chilika was the home of wild
buffalo, recorded in 1960,is no more found in that
region. The black bucks (Antilope cervicapra)
which were found in large numbers around
Balukhand and in the Chilika range along the
coastal shore zone have decreased their numbers
to a great extent. Ram et al (1994) report that
Irrawady river dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris),
was once abundant in the lagoon but today it is
endangered, their number has been dwindled to a
few. Gradual increase of mechanized boats has
been posing threat to the population of Dolphin.
The last census conducted by the Zoological
Survey of India in association with the Wildlife
Department, Government of Orissa had put their
population in the lake at over 150 during the 1980s
(India Abroad, news features 15/09/ 2000).
According to the latest available information the
population of the Irrawady dolphin in the lagoon
had been reduced to less than 50 (Sinha et al.,
2002). The above species of Dolphin has been
included in the Schedule of Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 (amended in 1991) and regarded as a
endangered animal as per IUCN Red Data Book.
Sea cow (Dugong dugong) is also a rare mammal
reported in Chilika region, but no more seen at
present.
Among birds, 17 species of wetland birds of orders:
Pelecaniformes, Ciconiformes, Anseriformes,
Gruiformes and Charadriiformes are recognized as
'threatened' or 'endangered' species occurring in
wetland ecosystem (Alfred and Nandi, 2000). Birds
like Common cranes (Grus grus), Common
shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) and Mallard duck
(Anas palatyrhychos) and European white stork
(Cicnia cicona), which were visitors in 1930s are
not seen now. Dev (1997) indicated the following
212
bird species: l.White stork (Cicnia ciconia) a
winter migrant from Germany, 2.Black necked
stork (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) a winter
migrant from Assam, 3.Lesser adjutant stork
(Leptoptilos javanicus) a resident, 4. Adjutant
strok (L.dubius) a resident, all the four belonging
to the order Ciconiformes, 5. Smew duck (Mergus
albellus), a winter migrant from Ladakh of the
order Anseriformes, 6. Red kite (Milvus milvus)
from Scandanavia of the order Falconiformes, and
7. . Asiatic dowithcer (Limnodromus
semipalmatus) from Central Asia of order
Charadriiformis to be rare and endangered.
According to ZSI (1995), another four species of
birds namely Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps
crstatus), Black necked Grebe (P. nigricoillis),
Curlew Sand Piper (Caladris testasew) and
Avocet (Recurvirostra. avecetta) are indicated as
rare. Among reptiles, Barakudia limbless skink is
perhaps extinct now.
iv. Conservation values
a. Habitat (Sbelter):Chilika has been a natural
habitat for water fowls and Irrawady river
dolphins. During the months of winter, birds
from other parts of the world, Siberia, Caspian
Sea of Russia, Mangolia, North and Central
Asia, Northern Europe, Antarctica, Persian
Gulf, Iran, Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet, as well as
from the northern and northeastern parts of the
country including Ladakh, Kashmir and Assam
come in large numbers for shelter to Chilika. As
per the available reports, as against an
estimate of more than 19 lakhs of birds
recorded in 1999, the figure dropped to 14.5
and 13 lakhs in 2000 and 2001, respectively.
(The New Indian Express, Bhubaneswar, 07/
01/2002). The annual bird census conducted by
the Wildlife Wing of Orissa, the figure has been
put at 15 lakhs for the winter of 2002. As many
as 87 species of birds were sighted during the
annual one day census conducted on January
13, 2002, of which 65 were migratory and 22
were residents (The New Indian Express,
Bhubaneswar, 06-02-20q2).
b. Buffering action/Sboreline and inland
protection: Chilika has been separated from
the Bay of Bengal by a 60 kIDlong narrow sand
bar. The total area of the sand bar has been
estimated to around 323.62 km' and acts as a
barrier island between the lagoon and the sea.
The sand bar with its sand dunes and
vegetation offers shoreline protection of the

lake from the sea. The two openings, one
natural at Arakhaknda, and the second
artificial one at Sipakuda, provide the tidal
links for the lake with the sea. Tidal inlets
through the above openings are mainly
responsible maintaining the salinity gradient as
well as buffering action across the lake. The
inlets of the lagoon are reportedly closed due to
strong long shore drifts in the past. For better
protection of sand dunes and ridges
aforestation along the sand bar was suggested
(Orissa Government, 1974).
c. Nursery/Breeding grounds: The Chilka lagoon
has been a breeding ground for a number of
fishes. Information with respect to breeding and
spawning is available with respect to at least
44 species, of which Mugil cephalus, Liza
macrolepis, Hilsa ilisha, Nematolosa nasus,
Eleutheronema tetradactylum, Mystus gulio,
Pseudosciaena coiber, Lates calcarifera,
Gerres setifer and Etroplus suratensis are of
economic importance (Kowtal, 1969; Natrajan
and Pattnaik, 1971; Mohanty, 1975).
The lagoon provides vital protection and support
for many fishes during one or more stages of their
life cycle. The lake forms the nursery ground for
about 30 species in addition to the immigrants
from the sea. As of 1964-65,the outer channel was
the richest in species composition, besides serving
as a gate way for the fry of perches and mullets
(M. cephalus, L. macrolepis etc.). The northern
sector comes next in providing breeding and
nursery ground, followed by southern and central
sectors in that order. The lagoon serves as nursery
ground for large number of post larval and
juvenile immigrants such as clupeids, mullets and
perches (Kowtal, 1969)
d. Nesting grounds: Of 156 birds listed, there are
about 28 resident birds seen throughout the
year in Chilika (ZSI, 1995). Chilika has been
the breeding ground for the entire resident as
well as a few migrant birds. The site is an
important area for wintering and staging water
birds. Out of 159 bird species listed by Dev
(1997), 60 are indicated as resident and 99
winter migrants.
Inside the lagoon, a few islands in the central
sector, Bhasramunda and Chadyoga, for instance,
also serve as perching and nesting ground for
winter-birds. Yet another island, Nalabana, in
central sector off Balugaon, has a wide stretch of
swampy zone (ca 8 km') and has emerged as a bird
213
Chilika Lake
sanctuary, playing host to the migratory birds from
Siberia and Kazakhstan. The island is covered
with aquatic plants, predominantly, Phragmites
karka that provide nesting ground for birds.
During the season of mansoon the island Nalabana
remains entirely under water. With the onset of
summer the island gradually emerges. Migratory
birds start flocking from October-November
onwards. At the time of our field tour undertaken
during the winter season in the months of October-
November 2001 we had observed that the
vegetation of P. karka at Nalabana island was no
more as luxuriant and prolific as it used to be in
the preceding years. It remains to be seen how the
disappearance of Phragmites will affect the
nesting and breeding population of the wetland
birds.
e. Refugium for endangered species: In addition
to supporting large to very large numbers of
waterfowl, Chilika lagoon also provides a
refugium for certain rare and endangered
species, such as the Spoon-billed Sandpiper
(Eurynohynchus pygmeus), Asian Dowitcher
(Limnodromus semipalmatus) and Goliath
Heron (Ardea goliath). Birds of prey seen at
Chilika include the Brahminy kite (Haliastur
indus), the Pariah Kite (Mitvus migrans),
Crested Honey-buzzard (Pernis ptilorhymus),
Black-shouldered Kite (Etanus caerulins),
Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisus), White-bellied
Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), Whitebacked
Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Pale
Harrier (Circus macrourus). Pied Harrier
(Circus melanoleucos) and Marsh Harrier
(Circus aeroginosus), b'lt also rare species
such as Palla's Fish-eagle (Haliaeetus
leucoryphus) and Osprey (Padion haliaetus).
According to a recent survey conducted in
January 2001 by the Bihang Institute of
Ornithology and Mass Ecodevelopment (BlOME)
the population of migratory birds was 9.9 lakhs
comprising of 112 species, as compared to 15
lakhs of 125 species reported in 2000 (The
HIndustan Times, Orissa Edition, New Delhi
04/02/2001). The aforesaid source further
indicated that the birds which reappeared in
the lake after a gap of four to five years
included the Australian Stilt (Himaqutopus
leucocephalus), Asian Dowitcher
(f,imnodromus semipalmatus), Spoonbilled
Sandpiper (Eurynohynchus pygmeus), Curlew
Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) and
Broadbilled Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus).

Chilika Lake
The report said that the Australian Stilt
(Himantopus leucocephalus) was first sighted
at the Chilika lagoon in 1994. But the bird was
not sighted at Nalabana since 1997 (Dev, 1997).
f. Ecotourism: At present Chilika has been the
highlight of tourist's attraction in the East
Coast of India. The tourist spots within Chilika
lagoon include, the Break Fast Island, and the
Honeymoon Island located in the southern
sector, and the Kalijai, a hill temple resort of
Goddess Kalijai in the central sector. To begin
with, four places along the Chilika lagoon have
been identified for promotion of eco-tourism.
These include Satapada, Balugaon, Barkul and
Rambha. The vast stretch of blue water and the
unexplored stretch of empty beach across the
sand-bar separating the lagoon from the sea,
the million-plus migratory birds during winter
at Nalabana Bird Sanctuary and the Irrawady
dolphins that are seen in Safapada offer
immense scope for development of eco-tourism
at Chilika. The Orissa State Tourism
Department (OSTD) has established a Yatri
Nivas at Satapada-on-Chilika, and Pantha
Nivas (Tourist Hotel) at Barkul and Rambha
along with development of recreational
facilities for the benefit and attraction of
tourists.
g. Heritage value: In history Chilika has been
described as the centre of maritime activities
(Patra, 1996). There are several references
about the existence of the ports in the Chilika
lagoon from ancient times. In the 2" A. D. the
Greek geographer Ptolemy has referred to the
port of Palour, which has been identified with
the modern Palur village of. Ganjam District.
The lake has been referred to as "a Bay of the
Sea" by Hiuen Tsang in the 7" century A. D.
From the medieval to as late as the British
period people from south India used to travel to
Lord Jagannath at Puri by ships through the
water route of Chilika. The recent
archaeological excavation at Manikpatna in
the northern tip of Chilika lagoon has
archaeologically established the fact that
Chilika indeed was an international port during
the ancient and medieval times. Till today on
the coast of Chilika, the people of Orissa
commelllJ)rate their rich maritime heritage of
yore celebrating the Boitabandana
(worshipping of ships) festival by way of floating
the miniature boats made of paper or banana
214
peels, with lighted lamps inside, on the day of
kartika purnima (the full-moon day of month
of Kartika falling during October-November)
every year.
INS Chilka, one of the premier basic training
establishments for sailors of the Indian Navy, was
commissioned on 21 February 1980. The recently
initiated survey by the Oceanic Archaeology
Department of the Goa-based National Institute of
Oceanography is expected to throw fresh light on
the archaeological history of the lake and the
remnants of the ancient port, which was believed
to have existed at the mouth of the lake (Times of
India, New Delhi, 25/12/2001)
The ever enchanting and picturesque lake has
been a source of inspiration through the ages to
poets, artists and philosophers. The poet laureate
of Orissa, Radhanath Ray was by its grandeur and
beauty to compose the kavya entitled 'Chilika'
which has been an epic in oriya literature and a
master piece of descriptive geography. One of our
nationalist leaders from the state Utkalmani
Pandit Gopabandhu Das composed the famous
patriotic anthem during his train journey along
the coast of Chilika in 1922. 'Kalijai', the lyric
composed by Pandit Godabarisha Misra narrating
the episode of a father escorting his newly married
daughter, the later died, as the boat capsized and
overtaken by a gusty storm across Chilika at a
point beyond the island Kalijai, is now a part of
the folklore. The Rambha Bungalow (the Summer
Palace of the Khallikote Raja Saheb) located on
the coast of Chilika at Rambha is historically
important for it was the venue of the meeting of
the 'Ganjam Jatiya Samiti' in January 1902, that
led to the formation of 'Utkal Samilini', in 1903
under the leadership of Utkal Gaurab
Madhusudhan Das. The Utakal Samilani later
played a leading role in the formation of the Orissa
State in 1936 (Padhi, 2001).
b. Uilter transport: Facility for water transport is
available in Chilika by both mechanized boats
and motor launches. Balugaon is the important
town on the coast of Chilika (central sector) on
the national high way (NH 5) that is liked by
water transport with Kalijai, Krishnaprasad,
Nuapada, and Satapda (Figure 1). Transport
service by motor. launch is being operated by
the state government, whereas transport by
boat service is operated by the Boating
Societies. About 60-70 mechanised country
boats are operating at Rambha, Balugaon/

Workshop/Seminar
conference
Table6: Workshops,seminarsandronferenresonChilika
Organizer(s) Dates Place
National conference The Orissa Environmental 1986 Berhampur
on natural heritage of Society
Orissa with special
emphasis on Chilika
lagoon
Saving Chilika lake, Canadian International February Bhubaneswar
Saving the people of Development Agency and the 3-6, 1992
Chilika' Centre for Development
Research and Training, Xaviers
Institute of Management
International workshop Chilika Development Authority December Bhubaneswar
on sustainable and Department of Water 12-14, 1998
development of Chilika Resources, Government of
lake, Orissa Orissa
International workshop Chilika Development Authority, January Bhubaneswar
of restoration of Chilika Wetland International, South 18-20, 2002
lagoon Asia and Indian Institute of
Tourism and Travel Management
Barakul, and Satapada for transport of tourists
and local passengers inside Chilika.
f. Research and education: Research on Chilika
at this moment has been rather limited. The
Department of Marine Sciences of Berhampur
University, The Estuarine Biological Station
(ZSI) at Berhampur are some of the local
Institutions, which are carrying out research
pertaining to ecology and faunal survey of
Chilika lagoon. The Wildlife Wing of the Forest
Department of Orissa' is also active in certain
aspects of research pertaining to Chilika
lagoon. The CDA, which has also set up a
Research Laboratory at Balugaon is keeping
data on hydrological parameters and
coordinating with other local, national and
international governments and non-government
organisations, with an overall objective being
ecorestoration of Chilika lagoon. The Wetland
Research Centre under the patronage of CDA is
being set up at Balugaon to concentrate on
scientific research on problems relating to
Chilika. CDA is also involving some of the local
NGOs in educating and implementing
environmental awareness programmes in the
locality that are in operation at the grass root
level. Institute of Life Sciences, Regional
Research Laboratory, Utkal University ORSAC,
all in Bhubaneswar are engaged in research on
different aspects of the Chilika lagoon.
215
Chilika Lake
Furthermore, the Fishery Training College of
the Government of Orissa situated at Balugaon
and the Fishery College, a residential college
under the Orissa University of Agriculture and
Technology, situated at Rangailunda (near
. Berhampur University Campus) are engaged in
imparting fishery related training and
education to employees of the Fishery
Department and students in the locality,
respectively. Table 6 presents the list of
workshops, seminar or conferences held on
different aspects of Chilika.
j Uniqueness and representativeness: Chilika
with its diverse flora and fauna is in many ways
unique. Chilika has been wintering ground of
migratory species of Arctic and Central Asian
waterfowls. The lagoon has been the habitat
for Irrawady river dolphins. Its richness,
however, lies with its fishery and tourism
resources.
V. Bio-Resource Profile
i. Wild
a. Fish : Fish and fishery constitutes one of the
primary resources of Chilika that is supporting
the livelihood of about 1 lakh fishermen from
about 200 villages in and around Chilika. Some
of the commercially important fish from Chilika
include, Mugil cephalus, Liza macrolepis,
Eleutheronema tetradactylum, Etroplus

Chilika Lake
suratensis, Lates calcarifer, Sparus serba and
Hilsa ilisha. Similarly, the lake supports
commercially important populations of
Crustacea, including P. monodon, P. indicus,
Scylla serrata and Neptunus pelagicus.
Table7: DataonIishand prawnlanding(inmetrictonne)
at Chilikafrom1985-86to 2001-2002
Year Fish Prawn Total Crab
1985-86 7446 1144 8590 .
1986-87 7283 1589 8872 -
1987-88 6863 1241 8104 .
1988-89 5211 917 6128 -
1989-90 5493 1177 6670 .
1990-91 3792 481 4273 .
1991-92 3680 876 4556 .
1992-93 3207 951 4158 .
1993-94 2798 687 3486 .
1994-95 1239 176 1415 .
1995-96 1056 214 1270 -
1996-97 1352 281 1633 12
1997-98 1492 150 1642 10
1998-99 1556 137 1693 10
1999-00 1556 180 1737 9
2000-01 3818 1071 4889 94
2001-02(up to 2618 942 3560 48
September' 01)
Source: COA (2001); Ass/slaot Dlrec/or Fisheries (2001).
The data on fish catch from Chilika from 1985"86
Crable 7) indicated that there was a decline on the
fish yield from 1985-86 to 1998-99. From 2000-01
there has been a dramatic increase in fish catch
in Chilika attributed to opening of the new mouth
near Satapada on September 2000. This was also
marked by an increase in prawn and crab catch
along with improvement of physical and chemical
conditions of the lagoon (Pattnaik, 2002).
b. Fuel' The local communities entirely depend on
the forest to meet their fuel requirement. The
tribals supply bamboo 10 Ihe fishermen to make
fishing tools. The fisherwomen, while returning
home cut and bring fuel wood. In some fishing
communities, women spend five to seven hours
almost everyday to bring leaves (casuarina and
cashew nut) to meet their fuel requirement.
Fuel wood is in short supply and hence it
provides employment to a large number of
families.
216
c. NTFP/NWFP/MFP: Mango, Casuarina,
Eucalyptus represent the non-wood timber
. products. In villages and inside Chilika the
houses are made up of mud and wood with roofs
thatched with straw from paddy or palm leaves.
Boats are being used for transport of fuel wood.
d. Food, feed and fodder: Many aquatic
macrophytes namely growing in Chilika lagoon
namely Ipomoea aquatica, Nymphaea
nouchali, N. pubescens, N. rubra, Enhydra
flactuans, Marselia minuta, Baccopa
monnieri, Hygrophyla auriculata etc.
constitute as an important source of vegetables
for the local communities. A few of the aquatic
plan ts from Chilika such as Hydrilla
verticillata, Vallisnaria spiralis, Najas
indica, N. gramica, Geratophyltum
demersum etc. serve as the source of food to
carps, cray and other fishes. Hydrophytes like
Ruppia sps., Hallophyla sps. are believed to
be the sources of food for shrimp. A few of them
namely Gyperus rotundus, Spirodela
polyrhiza, Pistia stratoites, Lemna
perpusilla, Panicum paludosum,
Potamogenton nodosus, P. pectinatus etc.
provide food to waterfowls. A number of aquatic
plant species such as Gynodon dactylon,
Paspalidium punctatum, Phragmitis karka,
Panicum paludosum, Arundo donax,
Gommelina suffruticosa etc. are being used as
fodder for domestic cow and buffaloes in the
Chilika region (Banerjee and Roy, 2002).
e. Medicinalplants: Several aquatic plants found
in the Chilika lagoon and adjoining regions are
used as medicine, which include Monochoria
vaginalis, Geratophyllum demersum,
Persicaria orientalis, Hygrophila auriculata.
Enhydra ftuctuans" Ludwigia adscendens.
Neptunica olercea. Like wise a few of the
terrestrial plants from the region having
medicinal value are Gentelta asiatica,
Galotropis gigantea. Gymnema sylvestre,
Hemidesmus indicus, Rauvolfia sqrpentina,
Andrographis paniculata, Hemigraphis hirta,
Strychnos nftx-vomica, Ocium americanum,
Sida cordata, Boerhvia diffusa, Datura metel.
Aerva lanata, Aristolochia indica,
Diplocyclos palmatus etc. (Banerjee and Roy,
2002)
I. Potential Genetic Resources: One of the
economically important plants, kewda
(Pandanus fascicularis Lam.) grows wildly in
the locality, which generally is grown around

agricultural fields for the purpose of fencing.
The male inflorescence is the raw material for
perfume industry. People from Pallur and Malud
earn revenue by selling kewda inflorescences
collected from the interior regions of Chilika to
the nearest distillation plants located at
Chatrapur at a distance of 30 kID. Besides the
inflorescence, people make use of the root from
kewda as rope and for making basket. Seeds
from the plant Callophyllum inophyllum
comonly used for aforestation yield oil.
Gracilaria verrucosa, an agarophyie, which was
occurring widely in Chilika lagoon five decades
ago is now on the decline. The alga presently
restricted to specific areas in the central sector
only and the monthly average production varied
greatly with season (Sahu and Adhikary, 1999).
This above species is an important source of agar
agar. Besides Gracilaria verrucosa, other
seaweeds such as Ulva, Enteromorpha and
Chaetomorpha are also plenty in Chilika which
have the potential for commercial exploitation as
fodder/feed and manure (Adhikary, 2002).
It is important to note that traditionally, the
agricultural farmers have been harvesting the
decomposed sea weed, mostly consisting of bluegreen
algae and green alga from the coast of
Chilika, after drying for a day or two the same is
transported to the crop fields for use as
biofertilizer, often along with cattle dung compost
in the ratio, 4:1.
ii. Domesticated
a. Crops: Rice (Oryza sativa) and ragi (finger
millet, Eleusine coracana) constitute the major
staple food for the local people. Paddy fields,
being low lying, often remain flooded or water
logged. Specific tall varieties of rice such as
Ratnachudi, Budha udhijog, Barmania etc. are
preferred to the high yielding dwarf varieties.
Although a majority of the people living in side
the lagoon do cultivation of rice, the crop yield
has been increasing unreliable because of flood
due to excess rain or excess soil-salinity due to
no rain or drought. Groundnut (Archis
hypogea) constitutes the third crop of the
region.
b. Plantation: There is a large forest area both on
the coastal side and around the lake. Towards
the coast, bordering the sea plants like palm
and coconut grow wildly. The local plantation
mainly consists of Casuarina equisetifolia,
Calophyllwn inophyllum, Anacardium
217
Chilika Lake
occidentale, and Morinda tomentosa,
Eucalyptus citriodora and Acacia
auriculaeformis, mostly carried out through
plantation programmes by the Social Forestry
Project of the State Government. In certain
areas e.g. in localities between Nuapada and
Paikarapur in Krushnaprasad block, and in the
adjoining areas of Satapada and Arakhakuda
of Brahmagiri block, people depend
Anacardium occidentale (yield cashewnut)
and Calophyllum inophyllum (yield oil from
seed) as cash crop, respectively. Coconut
plantation is also seen in certain localities
although to a less extent. Since the soil and
climate of this region is suitable for coconut
cultivation, there is the potential for large scale
Coconut cultivation in this region.
c. Livestock: Livestock constitute buffalo, cow,
goat, sheep, pig and poultry. Over 50,000 cattle
graze in and around the lagoon (Trisal,. 2002).
Bubalus bubalis L. a local variant of buffalo is
known for its characteristic grazing habit. It
grazes over the submerged seaweed by keeping
its head under water, which is interpreted as
an adaptive feature of the animal specific to
the locality. It would therefore be of interest to
identify the under water weeds that could be
exploited further as fodder for the livestock
d. Aquaculture: Aquaculture includes prawn and
shrimp culture, seen widely in the locality.
Aquaculture has been a common practice of the
local people in the villages adjacent to the
lagoon. Aquaculture is being done along the
coast of Chilika, all around. Most of the Palur
Canal as well as water bodies in Krishnaprasad
Block are used for aquaculture. The National
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) promotes prawn culture through
financing various schemes (Directorate of
Fisheries, 1997). The price range of prawn, P.
monodon is RS.380-420per kg, whereas that of
P. indicus is Rs. 180-280 per kg. Commercial
export of prawn or shrimp has been an
important source of revenue for the state
(Directorate of Fisheries, 1997).
Vi. Threats To The Bioresource
i. NaturaVEnvironmental
The idyllic beauty, the scenic landscape of islands
and hills around, the breath taking range of
resident and migratory avifaunal profile, and the
island temple of Goddess Kalijai offer irresistible

Chilika Lake
fare to ever increasing number of tourists and
consequent environmental problems to the fragile
lagoon environment. The current year witnessed a
relatively fall in the concentration of migratory
birds at the Nalabana Bird Sanctuary. This has
been attributed to disappearance of the grass P.
karka due to remarkable increase of salinity at
the central sector, particularly after opening of the
second mouth since September 2000. As a
consequence the birds spread to other areas of the
lagoon, and their concentration at the northern
sector, near Bhusandapur and Kalupadaghat
area, is on increase. This in turn has come as a
boon for bird hunters and poachers in the said
localities (The Times of India, Orissa Speicial,
New Delhi, January 12, 2001 p.6). Through the
river streams of Daya and Bhargavi at the north,
and Malguni, Kusumi and Salia at west, heavy
loads of sediment are being poured into the lagoon
(Patanaik, 2002). The northern sector in
particular witnesses weed infestation at an
alarming rate as a consequence of heavy siltation
along with nutrient enrichment and
eutrophication.
ii. Anthropogenic
Historically; Chilika has been serving as a shelter
for human habitation providing access to both
land and sea. From time Immemorial, the lake has
been put to use for variety of uses - agriculture,
fishing; aquaculture, inland water transport,
exploitation of mineral, recreation, tourism,
dumping of wastes etc. Over fishing has depleted
fish stocks. Although hunting is banned, between
15,000and 20,000 water birds are kIlled each year
by poachers. Hunting and poaching is more
common among rehabilitated as well as illegal
immigrants from Bangaldesh and certain local
communities in villages, Bhusandhapur,
Kalupadaghat, Sorona, Kumandala etc., located
in the northern sector of Chilikli. Despite stringent
laws and tight vigil imposed by the state
administration, poaching of birds in the region
goes unabated (The Times of India, New Delhi,
Orissa Special, p.6 January 12, 2002). A welldressed
bird weighing about 2 kg are available at
Rs. 50 to 100/-. Unfortunately, with the availability
of consumers and the demand for bird meat, it has
become a seasonal business for the past decade
(The New Indian Express, Bhubaneswar,
January 7, 2002).
anthropogenic activities. The annual fish catch
from the lake is ca. 6000 tonnes. Fish landing
record during the period 1957-2000 has shown
consistently decrease in percentage composition of
Hilsa ilisha, Chanos chanos, Elops machnata,
Megalops cyprinoides, Rhinomugli cosula and
Rhabdosargus bedra. During the last two
decades, these species were hardly seen in the
catches indicating depletion of fish diversity in the
lagoon (Mohanty, 2002). Irrational introduction of
exotic fish species has also been reported
(Mohanty,2002). The concomitant mushrooming of
brackish water fish firms, fish landing and
processing centres following the prospects of 'blue
revolution' (boom in aquaculture), all together
pose a potential threat to the fragile ecosystem of
Chilika (Directorate of Fisheries, 1997). Increasing
shallowness coupled with more use of fishing nets
at the outer channel obstruct the free natural
movement of fish and prawn adults and larvae
into Chilika, eventually affecting adversely the fish
yIeld of the lake.
iii. Potential
Tourism impacts can be classified as direct or
indirect. Direct impacts are caused by the
presence of tourists and indirect by the creation of
tourism infrastructure, habit modifications. The
potential impacts of tourism development on
Chilika include 1. Increase of waste disposal in
form of sewage and sludge leading to
eutrophication, 2. Release of vehicular (motorized
boat and motor launch) oil, fuel and fumes causing
aquatic pollution, 3. Noise pollution, 4.
Introduction of alien species, 5.Development of
excessive trails and tracks inside Chilika, 6.
Proposed floating restaurants etc. All the above
will have adverse impact on the Chilika's fragile
ecosystem.
iv. Threats to the local dependent populations
Over one lakh traditional fishermen depend on the
lagoon for their livelihood
Over one lakh traditional fishermen depend on the
lagoon for their livelihood (Directorate of
Fisheries, 1997). Fisheries directly support a
population of 127,000,while associated industries
and marketing operations support at least another
50,000 (Trisal, 2002). The large-scale presence of
illegal prawn gheries (partitions) however has
made their life miserable by not only reducing the
The past few decades have witnessed the near toll catch drastically, but turning the lake into a
of the Chilika lagoon following mainly unrelenting veritable ground of violence and bloodshed.
economic exploitation and attendant According to an official estimate, annual catch
218

from Chilika lake has fallen from 4,273 in 1990-91
to 1,652 metric tonne by 1997-98 (CDA,2001). The
prawn gheries have also become a great threat for
the native and the lakhs of migratory birds, who
come from distant countries to spend the winter
here. In spite of stringent law and regulation a
large chunk of Chilika area remains covered
under illegal prawn cultivation, causing at times
law and order problem to the state-administration
(Chilika Banchao Andolan, 1992). Interestingly,
the fishing community of Chilika lagoon has
strongly opposed to the State Government's
proposed Orissa Fishing Chilika Regulation Bill
2001. The Chilika Machyajibi Mahasangha
described the draft as the one that goes against
the interest of the local fishing community, since it
allows non-fishing co-operative societies to catch
fish in Chilika lagoon. (Times of India, New
Delhi, 23/12/2001, The New India Express,
Bhubanesar, 28/12/2001).
VII. Conservation and Management Efforts
i. Current legal status
The Orissa Government has decided to ban prawn
culture in the Chilika lagoon. The decision comes
in the wake of the recent agitation by the
traditional fishermen demanding demolition of all
types of 'gheries' made in the lake for prawn
culture. (The Hindu, New Delhi, 27/06/99, page
12). According to a recent report) The decision
was approved by a cabinet meeting on 12-12-
2001.The new legislation, Through promulgation of
Orissa Fishing Chilika Regulation Bill - 2001, the
State Government has decided to ban all forms of
culture fishing within 1000 m radius of the Chilika
lagoon. It has been further decided that 47,000 ha
of fishing bed would be leased out to theFISHFED,
an agency of the State Government. The FISHFED
in turn will sub-lease 33,000 hectares to the
fishermen co-operative societies and 14, 000
hectares to the non-fishermen co-operative
societies. The leased period will be for three years
and can be renewed later. The CDA will monitor
the fishing activities on day-to-day basis. A multidisciplinary
team with members from the CDA,
fishery and revenue departments will be set up to
implement the provisions of the above Bill. It is
envisaged that the Bill will ensure protection of
the livelihood of fishermen and fragile ecology of
the Chilika lagoon from the threats of illegal and
unauthorized gheries (The New Indian Express,
Bhubaneswar, 13/12/2001, page 01, Deccan
Herald, Sunday, 20-1-2002). Over 50 per cent of
Chilika Lake
Chilika area are at present covered under illegal
prawn cultivation. Non-traditional methods of
fishing, including pen construction, selective
stocking, external supplemental feeding with
artificial feed and application of drugs and
chemicals would be banned. Sub-leasing for
fishing in Chilika in ide!1tified ecosensitive belts
would be forbidden. The respective district
collectors would lease out the fishing areas to the
Orissa State Fishermen's Co-operative Federation
(OSFCF) to be sub-leased to primary co-operatives.
The CDAwould be entrusted with responsibility of
monitoring and evaluation of fishing activities in
and around Chilika (Down to Earth, New Delhi,
January 31, 2002,pages 20-21).
219
ii. Applicable Protection Acts
• Fisherman Act 1897
• Indian Forest Act 1927
• Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and Wildlife
(Protection)AmendmentAct 1991
• Marine Products DevelopmentAuthority 1972
• Water (Preventionand ControlofPollution)Act 1974
• Forest ConservationAct 1980
• Marine Zones of India (Regulation of Fishing by
Foreigu Vessels) 1980
• Orissa Marine Fishing Regulation Act, 1982
• Orissa Marine Fishing Regulatio~ Rules, 1983
• Environment (Protection) Act 1986
• The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification,
1991
• The Aquaculture Authority Bill, 1997
• Orissa Fishing Chilika Regulation Bill 2001
iii. Government
Being concerned with the degradation of the
Chilika lagoon ecosytem, the Government of Orissa
formed the Chilika Development Authority (CDA)
in the year 1991 as a nodal body with the principal
objectives:
a. To protect the lagoon ecosystem with its genetic
diversity,
b. To execute various developmental activities
either through itself or through some other
agencies,
c. To co-operate and collaborate with institutions
of the state, national and international
institutions for all round development of the
lagoon,
d. To establish management information systems
and database of the lagoon,

Chilika Lake
e. To promote multidisciplinary research, prepare
environmental status report and establishment
of a Research centre for the lagoon.
The Honourable Chief Minster of Orissa is the
Chairman and the Minister of Environment,
Science and Technology is the working Chairman
of the Authority.CDA in collaboration with
Wetland International, South Asia, has been
entrustedf with the job of long term monitoring of
the lagoon. The project entitled "Hydrological
monitoring of Chilika Lake" has been funded by
the World Bank in 1998 as a part of Environmental
Action Plan of the Department of Water Resources,
Government of Orissa under Orissa Water
Resources Consolidation Project (OWRCP) with
budget provision of Rs. 100 lakhs. The first phase
of monitoring commenced from January 1999 and
will continue till the end of December 2002.
CDA in coordination with various Government
Department viz., Tourism, Forest and Wild Life;
Science, Technology and Environment; Fishery;
Revenue; "Rural Development of the State and
Central Governments, also formulates both short
and long term action plans for the overail
development, management restoration of ecology
of Chilika. CDA in turn is employing the services of
the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO),
Goa, the Central Water and Power Research
Station (CWPRS), Pune and the Indian Institute of
Technology (lIT), Chennai. A comprehensive
catchment treatment plan is also being prepared
- using the latest satellite imagery - under the
Orissa Remote Sensing Application Centre
(ORSAC). Considering the seriousness of the
problem, the 10 th Finance Commission
recommended an amount of RS.27 crores as
special problem grant for eco-restoration of the
lake. The 11 th Finance Commissions had approved
sanction of Rs. 30 crores for the purpose (www//
indiaabroaddaily.com, 11-01-2001). The CWPRS,
based on their two-dimensional mathematical
model studies, had recommended development of a
lead channel on the sand pit along the outer
channel which was choked due to siltation and
was preventing free exchange of water between
the take and the sea, resulting in decrease in the
lake's salinity. The CWPRS had also recommended
opening of a new mouth (CDA, 2001).
While the outer channel was desilted in 1999 that
improved exchange of water between the lagoon
and the sea, the new mouth near Satapda, opened
220
The Aquaculture Authority Bill
In 1993, the Supreme Courl said that, ' production alone
cannot be the basis for determining the public interest.
It also agreed to the Kerala Government justifying that
it is under an obligation to protect the economic interest
of the traditional fishermen and to ensure that they are
not deprived of their slender means of livelihood.' The
judgement also emphasised that public interest cannot
be determined only by looking at the quantum of fish
caught in a year.
Thereafter the Supreme Court in its landmark
judgement of 11 December, 1996, ordered to demolish all
the aquaculture farms because it was a violation of CRZ
Notification of 1991.
Some salient features of the judgement were:
• Government of India shall constitute an Authority
under the Environment protection Act, 1986. The
Authority should be constituted before January 15,
1997 and have powers necessary to protect the
ecologically fragile coastal areas, seashore, water
front etc.
• No shrimp culture farm can be set up within the
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) as per the CRZ
Notification dated February 19, 1991 issued by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests.
• Aquaculture farms which do not meet the criteria of
traditional and improved traditional shall be closed
and demolished before March 31, 1997.
• Workers employed in the aquaculture farms that are
top be shut down or demolished shall be deemed to
have been retrenched with effect from April 30, 1997
and shall be paid six years wages as compensation.
• Outside the CRZ zone, no shrimp culture is to be
allowed in mangroves, wet lands, forest lands,
agricultural lands, salt pans, village common lands
etc.
• No shrimp culture is permitted within 1000 m of the
Chilka Lake and Pulikat Lake including bird
sanctuary namely Yadurappattu and Nellapattu.
Some of the salient features of the Aquaculture
Authority Bill :-
• The Bill legislates that alter it is passed all decisions
of courts, tribunals etc. in relation to the aquaculture
farms are deemed to be nullified.
• It seeks to amend and relax the CRZ Notification
dated February 19, 1991. The objective of Issuing the
1991 CRZ Notification was to protect the coastal
areas. Sec. 24, of the AAB seeks to undo the 1991
Notification thereby destroying the coastal ecology.
• All shrimp culture industries would continue,
provided they apply for a license witbin six months
of the enactment of the law to the authority created
by it. As per the Bill they will continue the activities
so long as the license wbicb they have sought for has
not been refused. The license can be renewed every
five years.
• The protection given by the Supreme Court
judgement to the Chilka Aod Pulikat lakes has been
removed.
Source: www./IJlJourfJle.org/F/sbworker/supreme courUudgement.btm

in September, 2000. The old mouth at Arakhkuda
also continues to exist after the opening of the new
one. According to sources from CDA, after the
opening of mouth the fish yield of the lagoon has
increased dramatically. The overall ecology has
also improved. It is claimed that after the
intervention that Penaeus indicus, a species of
prawn indigenous to Chilika, which was thought to
be almost extinct, has reappeared (The Hindu,
New Delhi, 20/11/2000).
In an effort to augment management of habitat at
Nalabana sanctuary the Chilika Wildlife Division
of the Forest Department of Orissa has taken up
plantation of Nalabana Island \vith Phragmites
karka along with earth mounding, creek
renovation and extensive plantation of Casuarina
at the sand bar separating the lake and the sea,
Bay of Bengal. With an objective to reduce the
weed menace, the Orissa Renewable Energy
Development Agency (OREDA), Bhubaneswar, is
encouraging utilisation of weed from Chilika for
generation of biogas. Biogas plants are being
installed in some of the villages adjoining the weed
infested northern sector of the lake on pilot basis.
The Orissa Government has constituted a special
task force to prevent the killing of migratory birds
arriving in Chilika Lake as well as for demolition
of unauthorized gheries for prawn culture on a
regular basis. The task force, comprises officers
from the wildlife wing of the forest department,
revenue and fishery departments, and supported
by a police force are doing the routine patrolling.
The INS Chilka is also providing necessary cooperation
to prevent killing of migratory birds
besides providing adequate protection inside the
Nalabana Bird Sanctuary in the lake.
The Office of the Assistant Director of Fisheries
(Biology and Technology) is yet another
establishment of the State Government located at
Balugaon, started in 1957.The above office keeps
the statistics of fishermen population depending
on Chilika, looks into their welfare, and records
data on fish catchment at different fish landing
stations in Chilika and also the physico-chemical
parameters from different fish landing stations
time to time. The office records the yearly fish
catchment on the basis of fish catch from 12 fish
landing stations from different points in Chilika
lagoon. The office is also responsible to construct
and maintain jetties at the fish landing stations,
namely 1. Bhusandapur and Balipatnapur, 2.
221
Chilika Lake
Soran, 3. Nairi, 4. Palur, Sabulia, 6. Pathara, 7.
Kalupada, 8. Balugaoan, 9. Rambha, 10. Satapda,
11. Krushnaprasad, and 12. Hatabaradi. Presently
out of the twelve the jetties at the first four have
been handed over to FISHFED. Construction of the
rest of the jetties are still in progress. The office is
responsible for implementation of Orissa Marine
Fishing Regulation (OMFR)ActlRule, implemented
in the year 1985 that regulates the registration,
license and renewal of fishing boats in Chilika.
iv. Non-Government
Project Bihang. an NGO based in Bhubaneswar,
actively involved in ecological research on birds in
Chilika lagoon. Pallishree, a NGO,is active taking
up environmental education and awareness
programmes supported by several national and
international agencies in several villages of
Krushnaprasad Block of Puri District.
Chandrashekhar (1992) had analyzed the social
structure of fishermen community of Chilika
lagoon that included community and family
structure, stat~s of fisherwomen in a family and
their role in decision-making process, health of
fisherwomen, dietary and cooking habits and
practices, and role of co-operatives.
Yet another NGO by name Wild Orissa, in
collaboration with CDA and Chilika Wildlife
Division of the Forest Department is active in
educating the local communities, particularly, at a
few villages such as Bhusandapur, Gerasara,
Mangalajodi, Kalupadaghat, Sorana etc. under
the' northern sector in dissuading against
poaching and hunting the birds. 'Mahabir Pakhi
Surakhya Committee' and 'Chilika Bird Protecting
Club' are a few recently formed NGOs, which are
undertaking environmental awareness
programmes involving the local communities (Ama
Samayara Abhibykti Satabdi, the Fortnightly
Magazine in Oriya, 31/10/2001). Efforts are also
being made by the CDA, Law and Forest
Departments and the local Allahabad Bank
motivating local people to stop poaching of birds in
the region (The Samaj, Oriya Daily, Cuttack, 26/
09/2001).
Table.8 lists some of the prominent local NGOsand
people's organizations (POs), which are active in
restoration of the ecology and implementing
environmental and social awareness programmes
in and around Chilika.

Chilika Lake
Table8:ListofNGOsand POsworkinginand
around Chilika lagoon.
t. Anchalika Kunjeswari Sanskrutika Sangathan, AtlPO
Kanas, Dist. Puri 752017.
2. Gopinath Yubak Sangha, Shajanpur, PO. Chaparnik,
Via. Brahmagiri, Dist. Puri 75201 t.
3. Centre for Action, Research and Documentation, RIG
N7 Barmunda Housing Board, Bhubaneswar.
4. Council of Professional Social Workers, Vivekaoanda
marg, Bhubaneswar 75t 002. .
5. Centre lor Youth and Social Development, AtlPO.
Sahid Nagar, Bhubaneswar 751007.
6. Vikash Vahini, College Chowk, PO. Bentapur, Via.
Brhmagiri, Dist Puri 752 01t.
7. Anchalika Mahi Bikash Kendra (Regional Resource
Centre lor Women), At. Gopinathpur, Basedi Sahi
Parikhasha Lane, Purl.
8. Pallishree, 137- Dharmavihar, PO. Kbandagiri,
Bhubaneswar.
9. Sabarmati Samiti, AtlPO Ganjam, Rambha, Dist.
Ganjam, 761028.
10. United Artists Association, AtlPO Ganjam, Ganjam
761026.
It. Wetland International-South Asia, A-127, Second
Floor, Defence Colony, New-Delhi 110 024.
12. Bihanga Institute of Ornithology and Mass Eco-
Development (BlOME), GA-38, Niladri Vlhar, Sector II,
PO. Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar 751 02t.
v. Local communities and other institutions
Chilika lagoon, over the years, has achieved the
dubious distinction of being the largest illegal
aquaculture complex in the world. A vast portion
of the lake close to the shore which is the breeding
ground of shrimp, crabs and fish has been
converted into prawn farms and this has affected
the survival of the local fishing community who
have started starving. The Matsyajibi
Malwsanglla, an organization of the fishing
community of Chilika along with 'Krantidarsi
Yuba Sangam', an NGO, had initiated a movement
under the banner 'Chilika Bancllao Andolana' for
the protection of the rights of the fishing
community over Chilika lake that led to
withdrawal of the Chilika Aquatic Farms Limited,
a Tata concern in 1992 (Chilika Banchao
Andolana, 1992).
. In May 1999, a local fishermen's association
'Chilika Matsyajibi Malwsangha' protested the
Government of inaction against prawn gheries and
their owners. They demolished a few gheries and
as the leaders were arrested, the protest turned
violent and three fishermen lost their lives. These
local groups are still very active and periOdically
222
demonstrate their anger against Government
policies that harm the fish bio-resources and
traditional forms of fishing, (Times of India, New
Delhi, 23/12/2001, The New Indian Express,
Bhubanesar, 28/12/2001 and The Samaj, Oriya
daily, Cuttack, 28/12/2001). Likewise other local
organisations such as the 'Orissa Matsyajibi
Union', and the 'Council of Professional Social
Workers' (CPSW) are against some contentious
clauses in the Orissa Fishing Chilika Regulation
Bill, 2001, that proposes empowering the state
government to sublease 14,000 ha out of 47,000 ha
fishing area in the lagoon to non-traditional
fisherfolk because of the apprehension that this
would lend fillip to the prawn 'mafia' (Down to
Earth, New Delhi, January 31, 2002, pages 20-
21).
VIII. Future Prospects
The foregone information points to the rich
bioresource profile and heritage of Chilika lago~n.
It is to be underlined that that the physico _
biological interactions resulted in the unique
Chilika lagoon ecosystem that include also the
common man, who lives and depends on the
bioresources of Chilika that determines the socioeconomics
of the region. It is the economic over
exploitation of the bioresources, the fish and
fishery, that endangers the fragile ecosystem of
Chilika. Figure 6 depicts the participation of the
common man in exploitation of the bioresources of
Chilika. As a consequence of economic
liberalisation initiated in 1990s that boosted
export and modemised techniques. there has been
changes in the policies relating to "capture and
CHILIKA
Figure 6 : (}yer explollatlon of (be lJloresou.res of Ch1l1ka
and the common man.

culture" of fish/shrimp that not onl~'promoted the
entry of non-fishermen but also marginalised the
traditional fishermen who have been living solely
on the fishery resources from Chilka (Samal,
2002).
Effort should therefore be made to enhance
sustainable dependence of the common men on the
bioresources of Chilika without jeopardizing its
ecology so that the overall socio-economic
conditions of the people depending on Chilika
could be improved significantly. It is to be seen
whether 'blue revolution' and ecorestoration can
work at the same time in context of Chilika?
The historic intervention by opening of the second
mouth opposite to village Sipakuda, 7.26 km away
from Satapada in September, 2000, seems to yield
the intended results (A new lease of life: Chilika,
a brochure released by the CDA). The dramatic
increase in fish, prawn and crab catch since year
2000-01(Table 7), no doubt, lends credence to this.
Over this period the hydrology of Chilika,
particularly the salinity gradient across the
lagoon, is also undergoing significant change, the
impact of which on the bioresource profile in the
long run, however, needs further research and
assessment. Reports on the decline of birds at the
Nalabana Bird Sanctuary and their congregation
at the northern region of the lagoon during the
current winter perhaps is a pointer to the
undesirable side effect of the unprecedented but
sudden interference into the ecosystem of the
Chilika lagoon.
One would still observe relatively more poverty
and unemployment among the common people
living in the water locked regions, mostly
belonging to Krishnaprasad Block of Puri district,
located inside Chilika lagoon, where people live
mostly on agriculture and fishery. Rice cultivation
in the low lying agricultural fields in the region
has been a problem, for excess rain or more influx
of water into Chilika causes flood in the rice fields
and spoils the crop, and so there has been a
tendency among people to use the low-lying
agriculture fields for aquaculture.
The benefit from fishery resource is, however,
being not shared equitably among the local people
of Chilika. There is too much interference of nonfishermen
from out side in fishery and related
business, which has been the major cause of
discontent and resentment among the local
people. The benefits derived from the resources of
Chilika are flowing out bypassing its local people.
Chilika Lake
This has been the bone of contention of the region
for the past decade.
i. Scope lor improvement
Efforts are being made by the State government to
develop road net work connecting the water
locked villages of the Krushnaprasad Block inside
the Chilika lagoon with Malud and Palur on the
south and Nuapada and Janhikuda towards the
north. The newly constructed roads are being
subjected to erosion due to rain or excess of
backwater in Chilika. Maintenance of roads has
been a problem, which can be better protected by
undertaking appropriate avenue plantation on the
roadsides. The soil in the region being saline plant
species of Pandanus and Casuarina could be
ideal for the purpose. Apart from protecting the
roads from soil erosion Pandanus fascicularis has
the potential to support the local community
economically. The business of flower (male
inflorescence of P. fascicularis) during the
seasons, which is presently confined only to village
Malud and its neighborhood has the potential to
spread the entire Krushnaprasad block of Chilika
region that calls for immediate and extensive
plantation of the species. For reasons unknown
unlike people of Ganjam coast, the people in the
Krushnaprasad block are so far are not able to
tap the resource of Pandanus commercially. The
large junk wetlands adjoining Chilika lying barren
has the potential for use in aquaculture. One has
to see for alternative resources for aquaculture
such as economically useful weeds (algae). This
again calls for the utilization of the available
expertise from the scientists of Central Salt and
Marine Research Institution, Bhav Nagar, Gujarat
and Mandapam, Tamil Nadu. Besides planning
and management of ecology and resources of
Chilika the need of the hour is to emphasize on
basic research relating to all aspects of Chilika
lagoon, which is some what lacking at this
moment. This is evident from the updated
bibliography (CDA 2001). The input of basic
. research, quality and quantity, on the fauna, flora
and fishery of Chilika in terms of publications in
peer reviewed journals pioneered by Dr. N.
Annandale and his associates in 1920s
(Annandale, 1915, 1917, 1920, 1924, Sewell and
Annandle, 1922) that continued through 1950s and
1960s (Jones and Sujansinghani, 1951; Rajan,
1964, 1968) till 1970s (Natarajan and Patnaik,
1971; Patnaik, 1973 a, b; Kowtal; 1976, 1978;
Mohanty, 1976) is glaringly missing in the present
days. Renewed impetus on basic research and
223

Chilika Lake
development is warranted. The need for basic
research at present is even more than ever before,
particularly since the time after the opening of the
second mouth in September 2000. There is scope in
the part of Office of the Assistant Director of
Fisheries (Biology and Technology), which is now
housed in a dilapidated building at Balugaon, to
play a vital role in the areas of fish biology and
fishery research. The Chilika lagoon with all its
bio-diversity, bio-resources and socio-economic
potential deserves a full fledged autonomous
Acknowledgements
research institute, independent of the CDA. Such
an institution would not only help revival of the
much needed basic research pertaining to the
biodiversity and bioresources of the lagoon but
also in collaboration with other universities and'
institutions would be able to formulate {lnd
implement long-term strategies for better
management of bioresources augmenting ecorestoration,
eco-development as well as economic
upliftment of the people depending on the
resources from lagoon.
The authors wish to leave on record a few names: Prof. S. N. Patanik, and Dr. S. P. Adhikary, who have
unhesitatingly shared information and provided their published work on Chilika. Discussions -with Sri P.
K. Patnaik, Additional Tahasildar, Banapur and Dr. K. K. Samal, Assistant Director of Fisheries,
Balugaon have been very useful during our survey and fieldwork. The Director of Census, Bhubaneswar
has been very cooperative in getting us data on census 1991 of the Chilika region. Scientists of CDA,
Bhubaneswar; ZSI, Berhampur and Wildlife Wing, Forest Department of Government of Orissa,
Bhubaneswar have helped us in sharing with the relevant literature and background information.
Technical assistance provided by research students Mr. Ravi Panigrahy and Mr. Uma Panda in collection
of data during field survey as well as in compilation of the present report is highly appreciated. Thanks
are also due to Dr. L. N. Acharjyo, Dr. S. S. Khora and Dr. Jita Patra for critically reading the manuscript
and for helpful discussions. Last but not the least, we are thankful to the local people, in and around
the Chilika, who were not only enthusiastic to learn about our effort in bringing out this report but also
extended all possible cooperation in our field studies.
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Khora, S. S. (2002) Ichthyofaunal scenario of Chilika
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GulfofKachchh falls in an indentation in the Saurashtra
peninsula on the western coast of india. This Gulf lies
between 22'15'N to 23' N latitude and 69'E to 70'35' E
longitude and occupies an area of 7350 sq. kms.
The Gulf houses 42 islands with submerged reefs,
coastal swamps, estuaries, coastal sand patches, corals
and mangroves all along the southern coast. The
northern plank of the Gulf I.e. area from Jhakhau to
Kandla have irregular dissected configurations. The
western half, overlooking the open Arabian Sea is
dominantly muddy with extensive mud flats. The eastwest
coastline, lining the inside of the gulf is sandy and
silty with narrow beaches. The Gulf of Kachchh is the
only area in Gujarat where corals exist. Out of the total
42 islands 33 are fringed with coral reefs (25 with live
corals) and 20 with mangroves. The monograph on
Biological Diversity of Gujarat listed 40 species and 23
genera of stony corals, 3 species of soft corals and 4 sea
fans from the Gulf.Most of these corals are hermatypes
(reef forming) while only a few are ahermatypes.
Biologicaldiversity of the area is attributed to the varied
habitats, which support over 103 species of algae
including 3 species of sea grasses, 10 species of
mangroves, 279 of coastal flora, 74 species of sponges,
52 species of soft and hard corals, 4 species of seaanemones,
144species of fish, 27 species of prawns, 21
species crabs, 200 species of molluscans, 3 species of
turtles, 4 species of sea snakes, 3 species of aquatic
mammals and about 200 species of birds. Colourful
sponges and corals, reef fish, prawns, lobsters, pearl
oysters, windowpane oysters, sea horses, sea hare, giant
sea anemone, puffer fish, sharks, cat fish, ray fish, stat
fish, sea urchin, sea turtle, dolphin and dugong or the
sea cow are"some of the important inhabitants of this
Gulf.
The phytoplankton production in the Gulfof Kachchh is
moderate. The presence of 31 genera with 41 species.
The common species of phytoplanktons include
Nitzshia, Thallassionema, Thallassiosina,
Conscinodiscus while species like Cocolithophorides,
Cyclotella etc were rare.
Gujarat harbors around 210 species of marine algae,
with a projected bio-mass of more than 1,00,000toni
year. The Gulf contributes to the maximum species and
biomass level as wall for the west coast of India. A total
of 81 species of algae are reported from the Gulf.
The area under the mangrove cover along the coast of
Gujarat is second largest in India, next to the
Sunderbans. About 994 sq.km of the area is covered ,,1th
mangroves in the gulf, which is 96% of the total
GULF OF KACHCHH
mangrovecover ofthe state. Though the mangroveforest
area is largest in the state the diversity is very lowwith
Avicennia marina being the dominant species. The
other species includeAvicennia offficinalis,Avecennia
alba, Rhizhophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal and
Aegiceras corniculata. The mangrove associates
include Salvadora persica, Salicornia brachiata,
Sueda sp and Aleuropus grass sp.
The fauna of the Gulfof Kachchh is equally diverse. The
gulf is moderately rich in zooplankton species with
frequent occurrence of high standing organisms. The
composition of zooplanktons mainly consits of copepods
and decapods. Major other groups include
Chaetognatha, Siphanophores, Medusae, Amphipods,
Polychates and fish eggs. The other invertebrates mainly
consist of corals, molluscans, crustaceans, echinoderms,
amphipods, gorgonias and bryozoans.
The mammals include dolphins, and endangered and
threatened dugong and porpoise while reptiles include 3
" species of turtles and 4 species of sea snakes. Several
commercially important marine species, for example,
some varieties of prawns and shrimps, breed and spend
a part of their life cycles in this environment.
The various ecosystems in the Gulf of Kachchh as well
as the surrounding areas acts as a nursery and breeding
ground for various faunal species. Coral reefs are
considered to be a nursery and breeding ground for
many of the invertebrates, algae, plankton, etc., which
provide the feed for many fishes and prawns. Many
waterfowl also prefer to make their nests on mangroves.
Mangroves are considered to be an important site for
bird nesting. The sail pans surrounding the Gulf of
Kachchh even provides various birds their nesting area
as it is away from public interference. The sandy
beaches and scrub vegetation on the coast also provides
nesting sites for many coastal birds.
Despite mounting efforts over the past 20 years, the loss
of the biological diversity, mainly from habitat
destruction, over-harvesting, pollution and the
inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and
animals has continued for ytelding sustainable benefits
throughout the country. Urgent and decisive action is
needed to conserve and maintain genes, species and its
ecosystems, with a view to the sustainable management
and use of biological resources. Effective plan is
required for conservation of biological and genetic
resources and for the enhancement of ecosystem
functions.

Malvan tahsil located along west coast of India, is
spread over 66.3 km' (16°04' North latitude and
73°.28' East longitude) It covers 136 villages and
772 hamlets (wadies) under 63 Gram Panchayats.
The tahsil has good potential for tourism. The
bioresource are very rich in the tahsil which have
reached world market like prawns in fishes and
Alphanso Mango in fruits.
The tahsil is surrounded and also cris-crossed by
estuaries which support virgin mangrove
vegetation of Maharashtra, especially at a place
Achra. Malvan tahsil has population record of
1,16,091 for 2001. The population has increased by
3.55% as compared to 1991 census. The urban
population is 18,675. The average sex ratio is
55777 males to 60314 females.
The Biodiversity and conservation values of
Malvan are high. The area is rich in mangroves,
medicinal plants, horticultural crops, marine
corals. It forms the part of Konkan hence rich
scenic beauty is the added feature. The coastal
belt boundary of the area merges into Western
Ghats. Thus the site is unique, with a great
diversity of habitat as well as plant and animal
life.
Bioresources of Malvan can be categorized as
wild, and domesticated. In general, the site
supports wild bioresources such forest, marine life,
estuaries, mangroves, medicinal plants, firewood,
fodder, NTFP, genetic resources, ornamentals etc.
So long as fishery is concerned more than 10,000
tonnes is the catch. The major varieties are
MAL VAN
Ii
Ribbon fish, polynomids, pomfrets, prawns,
shrimps, lobster, cuttle fish and squids. The fish
resources are treated as salt cured, sundried,
rawfish as well as fresh. Amongst domesticated
bioresources cereals crops, pulses, oil crops,
horticultural crops like mango and cashew,
livestock, aquaculture, coconut, areca palm,
kokam, etc. are important.
The ornamental plants account to about 35-40,
belonging to different families including
Orchidaceal. A list of medicinal plants touches the
figure of 124. The mangrove resource total to
including associates, about 30. There are 6 species
of corals and more than 150 algal forms. In
addition there are amphibians, reptiles, birds,
mammals and fish varieties contributing to
bioresources of the site.
The major threats are environmental pollution,
exploitation of bioresources for food, fodder and
timber. Reclamation by bun ding the estuaries is
yet another threat. Most of the threats are
anthropogenic. The potential threats lie with fish
catch, mango and cashew plantations and forest
resources.
Conservation efforts are negligible except CRZ
regulation. There is need for .awareness
programmes. The conservation status can be
elevated by people's participation, joint efforts of
forest departments, research organizations, NGOs,
social workers and agencies having concern with
conservation.

The Vembanad Lake stretching 96.5 Km and
covering an area of 87,000 hactares is the largest
and most important lake of southern India. From
the fishery point of view the lake is very important
as it happens to be the nursery ground of many of
the marine fishes and prawns and more
importantly that of giant freshwater prawn.
For the development of agriculture two
development projects. They were (a) Thottapally
spill-way and (b) Thanneermukkam salt barrier
Of these, the former was completed in early forties
and the latter in 1975. The expectation was that
it would increase the area of paddy cultivation.
Unfortunately the desired results were not
obtained. The flood discharge through the
Thottapally split-way is only 1/3 of what was
designed for. Thus flooding of paddy fields
continued. The Thanneermukkam barrier
constructed on Vembanad Lake resulted in
flooding on the north of barrier. Foraging area of
the marine prawns was also reduced. Moreover,
the giant freshwater prawn, which requires slight
saline waters, was unable to cross the barrier and
was caught in.
The present report describes the meteorology and
flora and fauna of the Vembanad and adjacent
regions. The exploitation of clam fisheries before
and after the construction of the barrier has been
analysed. From the fishery point of view the
published literature shows there are 115 species of
fish belonging to 84 genera and six species of
penaeid prawns, four species of palaemonid
prawns and three species of crabs have also been
VEMBANAD LAKE
iii
reported. The details of species with annual
production has been detailed out in: the report. It
has been observed that the fishing pressure has
increased over a period of time and at present
decline in the catch has been noticed. One of the
reasons for this is the catch of juveniles in large
quantities. Penaeid prawns have also shown a
decline in recent years. The chief among thelli are
the M. dobsoni, M. monoceros and P. indicus.
Among the two palaemonid prawns available here
M. rosenbergii and M. idella, the former has
received maximum attention. After the
construction of the barrier these species are
unable to perform their breeding migration
upstream to the northern side of the barrier where
they get the required salinity for spawning. Tl!e
berried females are also subjected to heavy fishing
during this period resulting in recruitment over
fishing.
The present study has brought out the necessity of
opening of the Thanneermukkam barrier for more
time in order to give more nursery ground of fishes
and prawns, as well as the reduction in the
number of stake net to ease the pressure on the
penaeid prawns. Most important of them is the
total ban on catching the berried females of M.
rosenbergii in order to revive the fishery of this
resource.
Attempts should be made to increase the area of
mangrove vegetation to develop further an
existing bird sanctuary. The mangrove vegetation
would improve the nursery/recruitment grounds of
penaeid, non-penaeid prawns and fishes.

The Lakshadweep Islands are the onlycoral atolls of the
Indian Nation. Rapid developments are taking place in
the islands of the Lakshadweep Archipelago. The
Lakshadweep islands lie helween 8°N10 12°NLatitude
and 71°E and 74°E longilude. This group of islands
consists of 12alolls, 3 reefs, 5 submerged banks with a
tolal area of 32 KIn', and useable land area of 26 KIn'.
They have a lagoon area of 4200 KIn' and territorial
waters of20,000KIn'. Lakshadweep covers 4,00,000KIn'
out of the 8,59, 992 KIn' of Exclusive Economic Zone of
lhe wesl coast of India. Only 10 of the 36 islands are
inhabited. Lowwaler holding capacity of soils and high
light inlensity is a serious handicap for the cultivation of
crops particularly the annual crops as the rain or
irrigation water is lost by percolalion or evaporation.
There are four natural ecosyslems in lhe Islands-land,
lagoon, reef and ocean. The soils of these islands are
slruclure less, formed by the disintegration of coral
debris. Soil ferlility and water holding capacity are
extremely poor. Freshwater resources are limited. The
water is periodically renewed by rainfall. Coral reefs of
the Islands are mainly atoll except one platform reef al
Androth. The reef flat occupies an area of 136.5km'. Sea
grass occupies 10.9km' and lagoon occupies 309.4 'm'.
The lagoons have sand bottoms with scattered coral
boulders and pinnacles followedby extensive sea grass
beds at lhe landward side. The ocean contains
substanlial living and non-living marine resources.
Several Tuna varieties, shark, seer fish,half beaks move
about in shoals around lhe islands.
The coral fauna of Lakshadweep is known to harbor a
total of 105 species divided among 37 genera. 29 new
species are recorded in Lakshadweep. The Lagoon and
reef flat faunal elements are dominated by Accropra
spp, Pocillopora spp., Porities spp., and massive and
encrusting favids. Psammocora spp is common in the
northern islands. There is a profusion of blue coral
(Helipora coerulea. Eighty six species of macrophytes,
ten species of Anomuran crabs, eighty one species of
Brachyran crabs, 155species of Gastropods, 24 species
ofBivalves, 13species of sea stars, six species of brittle
stars, 23 species of sea cucumbers, 15 species of sea
urchins and 120 species of fish are found in the
Lakshadweep.
The islands are rich in floral composition with about
150species of plants have been identified. This include
hard wood trees, soft wood trees, shrubs, medicinal
herbs and fruit lrees. Mangroves are found only in
MinicoyIsland. The land fauna of Lakshadweep mainly
consisl of rodents and lizards.
The Bioresource profile of Lakshadweep will includes
LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
iv
both the wild and domesticated flora and fauna found on
the land, Lagoon, Reefs and Oceans. The people utilize
resources from each of these natural ecosystems to
suslain lhemselves. The reefs provide basic construction
material for building houses and lhe coconul trees
provide wood for frames and lhatching for roofs.
Fisheries comprise subsistence fishing in lagoon using
a variety of traditional methods and deep-sea fishing.
The Lakshadweep seas are rich in tuna, shark, rays, sea
cucumbers and ornamental coral fish. Mechanised Pablo
boats, subsidized by lhe government enable fishermen to
venlure out further and increase their fish calch.
Lakshadweep waters supporl a fishable stock of 50,000
tonnes ofdeep swimmingluna contribuling to more than
80% of the landings. Around 6000 people directly and
3000 people indirectly find self-employment
opportunities and earn income from fishing.
The land-based economy revolves around the coconut
palm. There are about 700,000 trees in all the
islands.The land owners in the middle part of Androth
continued ragi cultivation where low lying (created)
fields were available. Nectar (meera) from the coconut
trees is collected to make palm jaggery and vinegar.
The recent problems seen in Lakshadweep are coral
mortality due to an epidemic of the crown of thorns
starfish, which destroyed vast areas of coral growih in
the mid 1990's followed by the coral bleaching event in
1998. There is now a fresh water shortage on every
Island and in several places the water needs to be
desalinized. Rat menace is a severe problem for coconut
production. Rhinoceros beetle Is a common pest in all
the islands. Maximumdamage observed in the islands of
Andrroth, Kalpeni and Minicoy, 58%, 6% and 54%
respectively. The intensity of attack is more in the
thickly planted coconut gardens in the middle part of the
islands. environment. Eryomide mite (coconut mite)
and Bud rot of coconut was once noticed are another
problems.
Complete quantitative and qualitative information on
local, ecological, social, economic and political context
are lacklng. Such information Is essential to prepare a
plan that integrates conservation and local economic
development. Islanders are literate and hence can be
educated on the importance of coral reefs. They are
already aware that they owe their existence to reef
building corals. Through integrated conservation and
management approaches the livelihood security of
resident populations could be greatly enhanced. In
order for timely detection of anomalies and threats,
information can be collected by monitoring resources
and pollution.

Pulicat Lake is situated between the 13°24' N-13°47' N
latitude, and 80° 3'- 80°16' longitude and is confluent
with the Bay of Bengal. The Pulicat Lake is the second
largest brackish water lagoon in India only next to
ChilikaLake located in the state of Orissa. The lake falls
under the Coastal Regulation Zone I (CRZ-I) and has
been proposed by the International Union of
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
as a Ramsar site. The lake is supplied with fresh water
from four rivers the Swaranamukhi, the Kalangi, the
Araniar and the Royyala Kalava. The lake has a waterspread
area of 178 square miles and spread over the
states of Andhra Pradesh (84%)and Tamil Nadu (16%).
The minimum and maximum width of the lake from the
sea ranged between 0.2 and 17.5 km respectively. The
depth of the lake ranges between 0.5 and 9 meters.
Around 147villages with a.population of over one lakh
people are dependent on the bic-resources of the Pulicat
Lake.
The regionalllandscape diversity around Pulicat Lake
includes mangroves, wetlands, marine system, tropical
dry .evergreen vegetation, shore vegetation, lake, and
cultivated fields with cashew, paddy, fruits and
vegetables. Mammals, sea turtles, amphibians, snakes,
birds, insects, reptiles form the most important faunal
biodiversity.Tiger prawns, white prawns, crabs, mullets,
clams, edible oyster and catfish form the important
aquatic bio-resources on which the economyof the local
people depends.
Mangrove systems consist of 12 tree species, Tropical
dry evergreen vegetation is dominated by 11 tree
species. The faunal diversity of the lake include 25
species of polychaete worms, 12 species of penaeid
prawns, 29 species of crabs, 19 species of mollusca, 8
species of amphibian, 69 species of reptiles, 56 species
of birds, more than 50 species of mammals and 88
species of fishes. •
The wild bioresources constitutes food, feed, fodder,
firewood, timber, medicine, ornamentals etc.
Domesticated resources include crops, livestock,
aquaculture, and plantations. Among the aquatic bioresources
several fresh water fishes belonging to the
families Perciformes, Clupeiformes, Mugiliformes,
Atheriniformes and Tetraodontiformes are the most
commonones. However only eight species (Nematalosa
nlUlus, Hyporhamphus libatus, Gerres limbatus,
Thryssa purva, Mugil cephalus, Silago sihama,
Oxyurichthys microlepis and T"iacanthus
biaculeatus) are found in abundance. Local fisher folk
identify mullets, Lates (Koduva)LactarilUl (Sudumbu)
Polynemus (Kala), Sillago (Kilangan) Chanos,
Megalops, Elops are the economically valued ones.
PULl CAT LAKE
v
Mystusgulio is available In Pulicat Lake throughout the
year in fairly large numbers and contributes to an
important fishery resource in the lake together with
other catfishes.
Fish species like Sea bass, Milkfish and Threadfins,
prawns like Flower prawn and Tiger prawn are
threatened species found in these areas. Cm'disoma
carnifer (Herbst) crab, Mud Skippers like
Periophthalmus sp and edible oyster (Crasostrea
madrasensis)are vulnerable to environmental changes
at the Pulicat lake.
The feeding grounds for the water birds are found in
four sites of the Pulicat Lake - three in Andhra Pradesh
and one in Tamil Nadu. During the month of March, the
lake water in this region gets drained, which forces birds
to terminate their breeding abruptly and desert the sites.
The wildlife division of the Andhra Pradesh Forest
Department has been managing these sanctuaries since
1976 and in Tamil Nadu from 1980.
The demand and supply .of the system is managed
through a traditional fishing system known as the
'Paadu system'. 'Paadu' literally means, "fishing site"
is unique in management of fish resources through
temporal and spatial allotment or agreement to harvest
fish among the different villages.
The massive urban and industrial expansion that is
engulfing the Pulicat Lake region as a part of new
development paradigm has mystified the local
communities. These changes in and around the Pulicat
lagoon indicate a .wide array of social, ecological and
economic problems in the region, through inorganic
pollution, siltation, erosion, loss of bio-resources and
closure of bar mouth openings.
Fish catches could be regulated through regulating the
type of gear, their mesh size, fishing season and
magnitude of catches. Licensing for fishing should also
be an important measure to be taken to ensure
sustainable development of the fisheries in the lake.
Enhanced technical education in the region will reduce
the pressure on the bioresources of the lake and provide
additional income generation activities. In particular,
creation of engendered livelihoods ensuring the
empowerment of women will lead to sustainable
management of bioresources. Policies have to be
identified taking into consideration ground. realities,
understanding the link between communities and their
common resources and their rights to local livelihoods.
Constructive initiatives through prevention and possible
restoration Ofthe local ecology should emerge through
the active involvement of coastal communities.

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the
east coast of India in the State of Orissa covering
an area of 672.00 sq km and has been recently
declared as a Ramsar site. The sanctuary is
bounded by Dhamara River to the north, Maipura
river to the south, having a stretch of 35 km. of
seacoast, the Bay of Bengal to the east and the
Brahmani River to the west. The deltaic mangrove
swamps of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary area,
are subjected to regular tidal inundation, and are
extremely low lying. The core area of the
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary is mostly formed
by the alluvial filling of the littoral zones.
The mangrove vegetation is locally known as
"Hental Jungle" as the hental plants (Phoenix
paludosa) predominate in many areas of the
sanctuary and are very useful plant species for
the local inhabitants. The mangroves of
Bhitarkanika are the only surviving, relatively
nndisturbed examples of this vegetation on the
Orissa coast. The area is recoguized for its natural
and viable population of the salt-water crocodiles
and the mass nesting beach of Olive Ridley Sea
Turtles.
There are more than hundred villages in the six
panchayat that are within the sanctuary, with a
population of 41,296 dependent on the resources of
the forest. Paddy cultivation and subsistence
fisheries are the livelihood for the people. Recently
fishing has been prohibited within 20 km of the
Gahirmata beach and authorized officers were
appointed to regulate fishing through a
notification issued in December 1993.
BHITARKANIKA
This sanctuary harbours one of India's largest
mangrove forest in terms of number of species and
levels of variation in ecological conditions. It is
estimated that mangrove detritus production of a
ton per hectare has a potential fish yield of 800-
1000 kgthalyear. Decline in offshore shrimp catch
and populations of mangrove mud crabs has been
attributed to destruction of mangroves in
Indonesia. The animals that are associated with
the mangroves, cover a wide range of invertebrate
and vertebrate groups. 199 species of birds have
been identified in Bhitarkanika sanctuary.
Bhitarkanika provides feeding, perching, roosting,
nesting facilities etc. for thousands of resident,
local migratory and long distance migratory birds.
It holds the largest population of endangered
estuarine crocodiles in India.
vi
There are 5 species of amphibians so far recorded
in the mangrove swamps of Bhitarkanika. Algae
and detritus sustain shrimps and prawns, which
provide a food source for species such as Bhekti
(Lates sp.) Cat fishes etc. Many fish and prawn
species spend most of their adult life time at sea
and return to the mangrove areas where they
spend their early life np to adulthood and then
return again to the sea for breeding and spawning.
The invertebrates fauna include macro fauna and
meiofauna. As many as 60 genera and 64 species
of sedimentary macro fauna are found to be
inhabiting in the littoral sediments of
Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem.
The conservation values for Bhitarkanika are very
high, since it the only site in mainland India that's
has enough mangrove and associates to provide a
secure habitat to many endangered species,
especially reptiles. The protected area also
provides an undisturbed mass-nesting beach for
Olive Ridley Turtles.
40 villages are entirely dependent on mangroves
for their firewood needs. All mangrove species can
be used as fuel. Nearly all mangrove species are
used in making either houses or farming
implements. Under the Eco-development plan of
the Sanctuary Authority, there are provisions to
undertake avenue plantations. These plantations
will cater to the fuel and timber needs of the local
population.
The presence of the highest number of mangrove
species makes this site a genetic resources
paradise. There are studies undertaken to
understand the relationship between species and
to understand the working of salt tolerance in a
few mangrove and associate species, such as
Portersia coarctata.
Rice is the main cereal crop grown in this area.
Out of 2,29,565 ha in Kendrapara district 1,69,981
ha is cultivated area is exclusively used for paddy
cultivation. The other cereals are wheat, maize
and rag!. Pusle crops are arhar, moong, biri.
Oilseeds that are cultivated in the Rajanagar
block are groundnut, til, castor, linseed, mustard
and sunflower. The vegetables crops of the area
are potato, sweet potato, onion, brinjal and spices
are chilly, garlic, ginger and coriander. Rice is
grown mainly during the monsoon season, few
people living near the river banks grow salt

esistant varieties of rice, in areas where the salt
water enters the fields during the dry season. The
local names for the salt resistant variety of rice
are, 'Balunki' and 'Chakrakanda'.
The main threat to the resources of Bhitarkanika
is unsustainable, illegal extraction. Fishing is
prohibited, yet the locals are seen fishing. Timber
and fuel wood collection is prohibited, yet the
recently constructed huts are made of mangrove
wood. Increasing population (decadal growth rate
of + 13.25) that will depend on the same
"protected resources" will, in future lead to severe
conflicts on resource use.
Through integrated conservation and management
approaches the livelihood security of resident
populations could be greatly enhanced.
Understanding the complexities and diversity of
mangrove dependencies by caste, tribe and
Chilika Lake, a Ramsar Site, located on the East
Coast of Orissa, India is the largest brackish water
lagoon of Asia. The total area of the lagoon varies
from 89,100 ha during dry season (December -
June) to 116, 500 ha during rainy season (July -
October). Tbe lagoon is separated from sea, tbe
Bay of Bengal, by a sand bar of 60 km lengih with
two mouths opening into the sea, one natural at
Arakhakuda and the second artificial, opened on
September 23, 2000 at Sipakuda. Chilka Lake is
spread over three coastal districts of Orissa that
includes 2 notified area councils and 293 villages
distributed under seven blocks. According to the
1991 census the total population of the area is
about 2.25 lakhs. The lake with its rich
biodiversity, scenic beauty and cultural heritage
has been supporting the people of the region since
time immemorial. The ecosystem of the lake,
however, is under increasing natural and
anthropogenic threats due to heavy siltation,
choking of the mouths, decreasing salinity,
eutrophication, shrinkage of water area, loss of
biodiversity, and increasing human interference.
Chilka Lake
vii
gender, changes in the access and control dictated
by an 'outsider authority' is likely to have
different impacts to the user subgroups. To ensure
that the interests of the user subgroups are
protected, these groups/stakeholders should be a
part of the decision-making pr!!cesses. This
requires a clear commitment from the part of the
facilitating agency and all the stakeholders. The
role of Joint forest management, especially joint
mangrove management could be instrumental in
bringing together the aspirations of the most
dependent communities and those of the
Sanctuary Authorities. Complete information on
local, ecological, social, economic and political
context are lacking from the site. Such
information is essential to prepare a plan that
integrates conservation and local economic
development.
The status of Chilika Lake, therefore, is reviewed
on the basis of secondary information with respect
to remote sensing, limnology, population profile,
biodiversity profile, conservation values and
measnres. Fish and fishery constitute the
principal resource that determines the socioeconomics
of the people depending on the Chilika
Lake. Fishery, however, has been considerably
influenced by the economic liberalization initiated
in 1990s that boosted export and introduced
modernized techniques. There has been also
changes in policies relating to "capture and
culture" of fish/shrimp in Chilika that promoted
the entry of non-fishermen into fishery; eventually
resulting in marginalisation of the traditional
fishermen living on the resources from Chilika.
The report calls for more in-depth research on
fish, fishery, ecology, and exploration of
alternative bioresources that would augmeut the
socio-economics, particularly, of the less privileged
and weaker section of the people living in and
around the Cbilika Lake.
.1

3rfU~TTfmJ~
Executive Summary in Hindi
Annexure - II

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