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<strong>Figurative</strong> <strong>uses</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong><br />
3 1924 021 620 277
FIGURATIVE USES OF ANIMAL NAMES<br />
IN LATIN AND THEIR APPLICATION<br />
TO MILITARY DEVICES<br />
A STUDY IN SEMANTICS<br />
BY<br />
EUGENE STOCK MCCARTNEY, A.B.<br />
A THESIS<br />
Presented to the Faculty <strong>of</strong> the Department <strong>of</strong> Philosophy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Pennsylvania, <strong>in</strong> Partial Fulfilment <strong>of</strong><br />
the Requirements for the Degree <strong>of</strong><br />
Doctor <strong>of</strong> Philosophy<br />
PRESS OP<br />
THE NEW ERA PRINTtNO COMPANr<br />
Lancaster, Pa.<br />
1912
i<br />
no<br />
C (^\<br />
In armonim generibus milites sumunt ab <strong>animal</strong>ibus nom<strong>in</strong>a.<br />
(Serv. Aen. i%, 503.)
PREFACE.<br />
The writer first became <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the subject <strong>of</strong> this<br />
thesis by try<strong>in</strong>g to parallel for class-room purposes the not<br />
<strong>in</strong>frequent figurative <strong>uses</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> <strong>in</strong> Caesar <strong>and</strong><br />
Xenophon. The idea <strong>of</strong> approach<strong>in</strong>g it seriously from the<br />
view-po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> semantics was due to the conflict<strong>in</strong>g testimonia<br />
veterum <strong>in</strong> regard to the reason for the transfer <strong>of</strong><br />
the term testudo to the military device.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>troduction, be<strong>in</strong>g very general <strong>in</strong> character, is<br />
naturally not <strong>in</strong>tended to be exhaustive.<br />
For k<strong>in</strong>dly criticism <strong>and</strong> suggestions, as well as for as-<br />
sistance <strong>in</strong> pro<strong>of</strong>-read<strong>in</strong>g, the writer takes pleasure <strong>in</strong> express<strong>in</strong>g<br />
his thanks to Pr<strong>of</strong>essors J. C. Rolfe <strong>and</strong> W. B. Mc-<br />
Daniel <strong>and</strong> Assistant Pr<strong>of</strong>essors R. G. Kent <strong>and</strong> G. D.<br />
Hadzsits, <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Pennsylvania.<br />
E. S. McC.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.!<br />
M. Breal, Essai de Semantique, Paris, 1897.<br />
R. Dozy, Supplement aux Dictionnaires Arabes, Leyde,<br />
1881.<br />
Encyclopae<strong>di</strong>a <strong>of</strong> Superstitions, Folklore <strong>and</strong> the Occult<br />
Sciences, Chicago <strong>and</strong> Milwaukee, 1903.<br />
Genthe, Epistula de proverbiis Romanorum ad <strong>animal</strong>ium<br />
naturam pert<strong>in</strong>entibus, Hamburg, 1881.<br />
J. B. Greenough <strong>and</strong> G. L. Kittredge, Words <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong><br />
Ways <strong>in</strong> English Speech, New York, 1901.<br />
A. Gubernatis, Zoological Mythology, London, 1872.<br />
Sylvio Kohler, Das Tierleben im Sprichwort der Griechen<br />
und Romer, Leipzig, 1881.<br />
A. Lang, The Secret <strong>of</strong> the Totem, London, 1905.<br />
A. H. Layard, N<strong>in</strong>eveh <strong>and</strong> its Rema<strong>in</strong>s, London, 1849.<br />
Ch. L. Maufras, L'Architecture de Vitruve, Paris, 1847.<br />
G. Murray, The Rise <strong>of</strong> the Greek Epic, Oxford, 1907.<br />
C. W. C. Oman, A History <strong>of</strong> the Art <strong>of</strong> War, London,<br />
1898.<br />
A. Otto, Die Sprichworter und sprichwortlichen Redens-<br />
arten der Romer, Leipzig, 1890.<br />
G. A. E. A. Saalfeld, Tensaurus Italograecus, Wien, 1884.<br />
W. R. Smith, The Religion <strong>of</strong> the Semites, London, 1894.<br />
A. Walde, Lat. etym. Worterbuch, Heidelburg, 19 10.<br />
F. O. Weise, Die grieschischen Worter im Late<strong>in</strong>, Leipzig,<br />
1882.<br />
J. G. Wilk<strong>in</strong>son, The Ancient Egyptians, Boston, 1883.<br />
E. F. Wortmann, De comparationibus Plaut<strong>in</strong>is et Teren-<br />
tianis ad <strong>animal</strong>ia spectantibus, Marburg, 1883.<br />
' In ad<strong>di</strong>tion to the books above listed, the various lexica have been<br />
consulted.<br />
The abbreviations <strong>of</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> works <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> authors are those <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Thesaurus L. L., except that Veg. is used to refer to the military writer.
<strong>Figurative</strong> Uses <strong>of</strong> Animal Names<br />
IN Lat<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Of some seven hundred <strong>names</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong>s* found <strong>in</strong><br />
Harper's Lat<strong>in</strong> Lexicon, about one-third are used <strong>in</strong> sig-<br />
nifications more or less figurative. This seems a large<br />
proportion, but the list is far more impos<strong>in</strong>g when we con-<br />
sider that metaphorically the <strong>names</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong>s are capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one <strong>in</strong>terpretation, attract<strong>in</strong>g to themselves a<br />
tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> k<strong>in</strong>dred ideas <strong>and</strong> suggestions whereby language<br />
is progressively enriched, an enrichment to which there is<br />
hardly a limit. The list becomes even more impressive when<br />
we realize that from these <strong>names</strong> there are formed adjectives,<br />
verbs, <strong>and</strong> even adverbs. Furthermore, an <strong>animal</strong><br />
name may become a prefix, as ^ov- <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ro- <strong>in</strong> Greek.^<br />
Not content with represent<strong>in</strong>g the vices <strong>and</strong> virtues <strong>of</strong><br />
human be<strong>in</strong>gs by <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong>, writers <strong>of</strong> comedy <strong>and</strong><br />
satire further ri<strong>di</strong>culed the acts <strong>of</strong> men by the use <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
which were strictly appropriate to <strong>animal</strong>s alone.* Aga<strong>in</strong>,<br />
allusions to an <strong>animal</strong> may be present <strong>in</strong> extenso without<br />
any mention <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong>.^<br />
A glance at Murray's New English Dictionary under<br />
the caption dog, cat, horse, etc., will reveal <strong>in</strong> some meas-<br />
ure the extent <strong>of</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> this phenomenon <strong>in</strong> English.<br />
" The word <strong>animal</strong> is used <strong>in</strong> the Lat<strong>in</strong> sense.<br />
' Bulimum Graeci magnam famem <strong>di</strong>cunt, adsueti magnis et amplis rebus<br />
praeponere (Sou-, a magnitud<strong>in</strong>e scilicet bovis. H<strong>in</strong>c est, quod gr<strong>and</strong>es<br />
pueros poimuSas appellant, et mariscam ficum ^oiavKov, Paul. Fest. p. 32<br />
Miill. Cf. Varro Rust, ii, 5, 4 ; also the English use <strong>of</strong> horse, bull, elephant,<br />
to denote hugeness, strength, loudness, coarseness, as seen <strong>in</strong> horse-laugh,<br />
horse-nettle, horse-play, horse-ant, horse-sense, bull-frog, bull-fiddle, elephant-folio.<br />
* Cf. Omnes . . . sibilent, Plant. Merc. 407 ; Omnis plateas perreptavi. Plant.<br />
Amph. loii; Nostras ae<strong>di</strong>s arietat, Plant. True. 256.<br />
" Cf. Vergil's figure <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ds chaf<strong>in</strong>g like steeds at the barriers, Aen. i,<br />
52-63-
The citation <strong>of</strong> a few examples like blackbird-brig, donkey-<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>e, alligator-wrench, caterpillar-traction-eng<strong>in</strong>e, grasshopper-connect<strong>in</strong>g-rod<br />
will show the flexibility <strong>of</strong> the English<br />
language <strong>in</strong> the transfer <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> to mechanical<br />
devices <strong>and</strong> contrivances. Its freedom <strong>in</strong> other fields is<br />
quite as pronounced.®<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to try to ascerta<strong>in</strong> the ca<strong>uses</strong> for such<br />
freedom <strong>and</strong> scope <strong>in</strong> the transferred <strong>uses</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong>.<br />
Primitive man must have been curious about all phenomena<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature. Probably noth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his usual round <strong>of</strong> activ-<br />
ities attracted <strong>and</strong> engrossed his attention so much as the<br />
multitud<strong>in</strong>ous manifestations <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> life throng<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
air, roam<strong>in</strong>g the fields, <strong>and</strong> swimm<strong>in</strong>g the streams. Even<br />
had he not been curious, necessity, stern <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>exorable,<br />
would soon have compelled him to form an acqua<strong>in</strong>tance<br />
with them.<br />
For food <strong>and</strong> sustenance he was dependent <strong>in</strong> large meas-<br />
ure upon them. To capture them he had to learn <strong>their</strong><br />
habits <strong>and</strong> haunts. The more <strong>in</strong>timate he became with<br />
<strong>their</strong> traits, the better could he provide himself with food,<br />
the better could he safeguard his own life. His knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> world he purchased at his own expense. By<br />
bitter experience he learned which was the dangerous end<br />
<strong>of</strong> a snake or scorpion, which set <strong>of</strong> extremities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
panther or wild ass it was advisable to avoid. He found<br />
out which beasts were best for the spit, <strong>and</strong> which it was<br />
ju<strong>di</strong>cious to leave <strong>in</strong> <strong>their</strong> own doma<strong>in</strong>.<br />
His clear vision <strong>and</strong> keen hear<strong>in</strong>g were <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ctively exer-<br />
cised <strong>in</strong> the detection <strong>of</strong> possible danger, chiefly from the<br />
<strong>animal</strong> world. His h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> bra<strong>in</strong> were busied <strong>in</strong> fashion-<br />
<strong>in</strong>g weapons <strong>and</strong> devices to capture his prey or defend his<br />
own life. He had a real <strong>and</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g acqua<strong>in</strong>tance with the<br />
manifold <strong>animal</strong>s about him, he recognized <strong>their</strong> <strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>-<br />
guish<strong>in</strong>g calls <strong>and</strong> cries, he knew <strong>their</strong> characteristic ac-<br />
tions, manners, traits, <strong>and</strong> <strong>di</strong>spositions, he located with<br />
ease the favorite retreat <strong>of</strong> the wild beast.<br />
* See Greenough <strong>and</strong> Kittredge, Words <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> Ways <strong>in</strong> English Speech,<br />
361 ff., Words from the Names <strong>of</strong> Animals.
He found it both convenient <strong>and</strong> necessary to designate<br />
the various creatures he hunted, whose capture was so essential<br />
to him. His <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> world is attested by<br />
the large number <strong>of</strong> onomatopoetic <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
verbs represent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>their</strong> cries.''<br />
For better protection aga<strong>in</strong>st man <strong>and</strong> beast, he allied<br />
himself with other men. The clan or tribe was formed.<br />
He found greater need <strong>of</strong> a more extensive me<strong>di</strong>um <strong>of</strong> communication.<br />
He groped about for greater freedom <strong>and</strong><br />
fulness <strong>of</strong> expression. He drew upon the resources nearest<br />
at h<strong>and</strong>, the th<strong>in</strong>gs with which he was by force <strong>of</strong> cir-<br />
cumstances most familiar. He called a man a deer because<br />
he was fleet, a sheep because he was timid, a fox because<br />
he was sly. The terms might persist <strong>and</strong> become personal<br />
<strong>names</strong>,* or even designate a nation.^<br />
In his op<strong>in</strong>ion the <strong>animal</strong>s were capable <strong>of</strong> communicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> reason<strong>in</strong>g.^" He attributed to them various pow-<br />
ers <strong>of</strong> prognostication.^^ He endowed parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>their</strong> bo<strong>di</strong>es<br />
with magical reme<strong>di</strong>al powers.-'^ He went so far as to<br />
deify them.^* The most savage <strong>animal</strong> might be accepted<br />
by a tribe <strong>of</strong> men as a totem <strong>and</strong> thereafter be developed<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a god."<br />
Not content with fables <strong>and</strong> myths about well-known<br />
<strong>animal</strong>s, -"^^ he fashioned from his own imag<strong>in</strong>ation beasts<br />
<strong>of</strong> fantastic shape.^®<br />
He forsook his hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> noma<strong>di</strong>c life for agricultural<br />
pursuits. His observation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> world became<br />
keener, if possible. It took a long search to f<strong>in</strong>d beasts<br />
' Mugit bovis, ovis balat, equi h<strong>in</strong>niunt, gall<strong>in</strong>a pipat. Non. 156, M.<br />
'Lat<strong>in</strong> As<strong>in</strong>us, Asella, Aguila, etc.; Greek ToCpos, "Ittttos, K6paf, etc.;<br />
English Crow, Fox, etc. ; In<strong>di</strong>an Big Bear, Hawk Eye, etc.<br />
•BotwrroSs.P<strong>in</strong>d. O. 6, 153.<br />
" Probably the conversation between Achilles <strong>and</strong> his horse Xanthus {II.<br />
xix, 408 sqq.) is a rem<strong>in</strong>iscence <strong>of</strong> the naivete <strong>of</strong> primitive times.<br />
"Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. viii, 28, 42 (102-103).<br />
" Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. xxx, treats <strong>of</strong> reme<strong>di</strong>es derived from various <strong>animal</strong>s.<br />
" lx9ii»v— <strong>of</strong>ls ol Sipoi deois M/ulfiy, Xen. Anab. i, 4, 9. Cf. also Ov.<br />
Fasti, ii, 471 sqq.<br />
" A. Lang, The Secret <strong>of</strong> the Totem.<br />
'" Cf. Gubernatis, Zoological Mythology. Cf . also, Aesop, Phaedrus,<br />
Hyg<strong>in</strong>us, Babrius, etc.<br />
" Centaur, unicorn, etc.
suitable for domestication; <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g them docile <strong>and</strong><br />
tractable, he had bitter trials <strong>and</strong> <strong>di</strong>scourag<strong>in</strong>g experiences.<br />
The domestic <strong>animal</strong> was his friend, or even his k<strong>in</strong>.<br />
The tribal blood flowed <strong>in</strong> its ve<strong>in</strong>s. Even the god himself<br />
was at times an ox or a sheep. The slaughter <strong>of</strong> an<br />
ox was buphonia, or ' ox-murder.' The habit <strong>of</strong> slaughter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>animal</strong>s <strong>and</strong> eat<strong>in</strong>g flesh was considered a departure<br />
from the laws <strong>of</strong> primitive piety.-'^<br />
His dependence upon the <strong>animal</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdom was cont<strong>in</strong>-<br />
ually becom<strong>in</strong>g more varied, if not more pronounced, not<br />
merely as one <strong>of</strong> his sources <strong>of</strong> food supply <strong>and</strong> for draught<br />
purposes, but for the necessaries, conveniences, weapons,<br />
<strong>and</strong> even the meager luxuries that could be produced from<br />
fur, bone, <strong>and</strong> hide.<br />
Civilization advanced, man's horizon broadened, his m<strong>in</strong>d<br />
unfolded, but still his life was closely connected with the<br />
<strong>animal</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdom. Signa ex avibus, signa ex quadrupe<strong>di</strong>-<br />
bus, <strong>and</strong> auspicia pullaria played an important part <strong>in</strong> his<br />
existence. Birds <strong>and</strong> beasts became, as it were, eponymous<br />
heroes.^® Vultures fly<strong>in</strong>g over seven low-ly<strong>in</strong>g hills de-<br />
term<strong>in</strong>ed the founder <strong>of</strong> an empire,^® the cackl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> geese<br />
saved a city,^" the tripu<strong>di</strong>um <strong>of</strong> chickens <strong>in</strong>fluenced the con-<br />
duct <strong>of</strong> the general,^^ tlie quiver<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> entrails <strong>and</strong> the<br />
action <strong>of</strong> bird <strong>and</strong> beast decided policies <strong>of</strong> state.^^ Animal<br />
sacrifices appeased the anger <strong>of</strong> heaven.<br />
In countless ways human existence was l<strong>in</strong>ked with that<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdom, <strong>and</strong> thus it is not at all strange that<br />
<strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> played so large a role <strong>in</strong> the development <strong>of</strong><br />
man's l<strong>in</strong>guistic resources.<br />
" Lecture viii, <strong>in</strong> W. Robertson Smith, The Religion <strong>of</strong> the Semites. Cf<br />
Murray, The Rise <strong>of</strong> the Greek Epic, p. 59 sq. Cf. also Varro, Rust, ii,<br />
5, 3 : Hie (taurus) socius hom<strong>in</strong>um <strong>in</strong> rustico opere et Cereris m<strong>in</strong>ister, ab<br />
hoc antiqui manus ita abst<strong>in</strong>eri voluerunt, ut capita sanxer<strong>in</strong>t si quis occi-<br />
<strong>di</strong>sset.<br />
" Hirp<strong>in</strong>i from the guidance <strong>of</strong> the hirpus ' wolf,' Strabo<br />
Picenum from that <strong>of</strong> the picus<br />
v, 4, 12<br />
' woodpecker,' id. v, 4, 2.<br />
" Liv. i, 7, 1.<br />
"Id.<br />
" Id.<br />
V, 47. 4-<br />
X, 40, 5-6.<br />
"^ Qui (rex Deiotarus) nihil umquam nisi auspicato gerit. Cic. Div, i,<br />
IS, 26.<br />
; .
Much homely wisdom <strong>and</strong> many shrewd observations on<br />
life were stored up <strong>in</strong> <strong>animal</strong> proverbs.** Pr<strong>of</strong>ert cornua<br />
'vultur,^'^ 'the vulture grows horns,' represented the impos-<br />
sible; piscari <strong>in</strong> aerej^^ 'to fish <strong>in</strong> air,' signified the use-<br />
less; lupo agnum eripere^^ 'to rescue the lamb from the<br />
wolf,' typified the <strong>di</strong>fficult.<br />
Denies can<strong>in</strong>i were used <strong>in</strong> eat<strong>in</strong>g; the door <strong>of</strong> a mistress<br />
was subjected to a vigorous arietatio; senectus cerv<strong>in</strong>a denoted<br />
longevity.<br />
The farmer supported his v<strong>in</strong>es with cervi, the architect<br />
planned a testudo, the surgeon operated with a corvus, the<br />
veter<strong>in</strong>arian treated a ranula, the sol<strong>di</strong>er shot with a scorpio,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>fantryman rallied round an aquila, an ursa roamed<br />
the heavens, the gambler threw a canis, the lover called<br />
his sweetheart passer, the botanist searched for a dracon-<br />
tium, the jeweler prized a chelidonia gemma. A new spe-<br />
cies <strong>of</strong> fish was observed, it grunted, it became the porcus<br />
^mar<strong>in</strong>us; the unfamiliar elephant was called Luca bovis;^""<br />
camelopardalis^^ visualized prom<strong>in</strong>ent phases <strong>of</strong> two <strong>animal</strong>s<br />
better known.<br />
Christianity made its advent. Agnus signified the Master,<br />
Draco, the Devil, phoenix, the resurrection, Ix'^^t the<br />
new religion.<br />
The absence <strong>of</strong> the figurative <strong>and</strong> derived <strong>uses</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong><br />
<strong>names</strong> would seriously impair the resources <strong>of</strong> a language.<br />
Each <strong>animal</strong> has some <strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g trait, so that<br />
the satirist is provided with a full quiver from which to<br />
shoot the shafts <strong>of</strong> ri<strong>di</strong>cule, the comic poet with a perennial<br />
fount from which to draw a supply <strong>of</strong> humor. A slight<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex <strong>of</strong> the loss <strong>in</strong>cident to the exclusion from Lat<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
derived <strong>uses</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> may be obta<strong>in</strong>ed by try<strong>in</strong>g<br />
° Cf. Genthe, Epistula de proverbiis Romanorum ad <strong>animal</strong>ium naturam<br />
fert<strong>in</strong>entibus ; Sylvio Kohler, Das Tierleben im Sprichwort der Griechen<br />
und Romer; A. Otto, Die Sprichworter und sprichwortlkhen Redensarten<br />
.der Romer, Das Tierreich, p. 384 sqq.<br />
"Claud, xviii, 352.<br />
" Plaut. Asm. 99.<br />
" Plaut. Poen. 776.<br />
" Naevius ap. Varro, L<strong>in</strong>g, vii, 39.<br />
"... quod erat figura ut camelus, maculis ut panthera; Varro, L<strong>in</strong>g, v,<br />
100.
to imag<strong>in</strong>e Plautus <strong>and</strong> Terence,*^ or Horace, without them.<br />
The possibilities <strong>of</strong> mirth-mak<strong>in</strong>g from this source were<br />
keenly appreciated by writers <strong>of</strong> the Old Comedy <strong>in</strong> Greece,<br />
as the citation <strong>of</strong> a few titles will show; e. g., the Birds <strong>and</strong><br />
Frogs <strong>of</strong> Magnes, the Beasts <strong>of</strong> Crates, the Goats <strong>of</strong> Eupolis,<br />
the Fishes <strong>of</strong> Archippus, the Snakes <strong>of</strong> Menippus,<br />
the Night<strong>in</strong>gales <strong>of</strong> Cantharus, the Ants <strong>of</strong> Plato, the<br />
Wasps <strong>of</strong> Aristophanes, <strong>and</strong> the like.<br />
That such transferred <strong>uses</strong> are popular <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> is ap-<br />
parent without demonstration. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly we are not<br />
surprised to learn from Servius that the sol<strong>di</strong>ers were fond<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> <strong>and</strong> were <strong>in</strong> the habit <strong>of</strong> co<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g them for<br />
military weapons. Comment<strong>in</strong>g on the military testudo, he<br />
says :'" <strong>in</strong> armorum generibus milites sumunt ab <strong>animal</strong>ibus<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>a, ut aries. That the <strong>names</strong> are non-technical is at-<br />
tested by Vegetius :*^ testud<strong>in</strong>es, musculos, arietes, v<strong>in</strong>eas,<br />
ut appellant, ' as the laity say.'<br />
There can be no doubt that the list <strong>of</strong> such <strong>names</strong> was<br />
far larger than the number now extant. This can easily<br />
be <strong>in</strong>ferred from the opposition to those that <strong>di</strong>d manage<br />
to force <strong>their</strong> way <strong>in</strong>to good st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g. How many <strong>names</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d perished under the censorship <strong>of</strong> the technical<br />
writers <strong>and</strong> purists who had the summa potestas over them,<br />
can only be conjectured.<br />
Besides this source <strong>of</strong> loss, some words have <strong>di</strong>sappeared<br />
through the destruction <strong>of</strong> the works <strong>in</strong> which they were<br />
embo<strong>di</strong>ed. The preservation <strong>of</strong> our clearest passage on<br />
the ericius,^^ cheval-de-frise, is due solely to antiquarian<br />
curiosity.<br />
That Tacitus^* <strong>and</strong> Plutarch regarded such <strong>names</strong> as un-<br />
" Cf. E. F. Wortmann, De comparaiionibus Plaut<strong>in</strong>is et Terrentianis ad<br />
<strong>animal</strong>ia spectantibus.<br />
°° Serv. Aen. ix,<br />
" Veg. ii, 25.<br />
503. Quoted <strong>in</strong> Isid. Orig. xviii, 12, 6.<br />
^Sallust ap. Nonius, 555, M.<br />
°' Although Tacitus describes a large number <strong>of</strong> sieges <strong>and</strong> military<br />
engagements, testudo is the only <strong>animal</strong> name that he <strong>uses</strong> for the various<br />
devices. Though cuneus is frequent, caput porci never appears. Such passages<br />
as tormentis hastas, saxa, et faces <strong>in</strong>gerere (^Ann. ii, 81), must <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
the onager <strong>and</strong> scorpio. Perhaps vague expressions like tormentis servorum<br />
patefacta sunt flagitia {Ann. iii, 23) refer to the eculeus. In Hist.
•<strong>di</strong>gnified, may be <strong>in</strong>ferred from <strong>their</strong> <strong>in</strong>frequent or guarded<br />
use <strong>of</strong> them. Signs <strong>of</strong> the struggle that such words had, to<br />
atta<strong>in</strong> recognition <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, face us on every h<strong>and</strong>.<br />
While the citation <strong>of</strong> a few examples may not be conv<strong>in</strong>-<br />
c<strong>in</strong>g, the multiplication <strong>of</strong> apologetic expressions by various<br />
authors affords conclusive pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> the opposition to them.<br />
About four centuries after Xenophon used Kpw
8<br />
' the so-called crane.' Athenaeus, the Deipnosophist, refers<br />
to the same contrivances <strong>of</strong> Archimedes as KopaKe: aiSrjpoi^*^<br />
s<strong>of</strong>ten<strong>in</strong>g the expression by an adjective. Tzetzes, however,<br />
ref<strong>uses</strong> to lower the tone <strong>of</strong> his poetic description by<br />
either Kopa^ or yepavot.*^ Polybius <strong>di</strong>splays similar re-<br />
luctance <strong>in</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g the same mach<strong>in</strong>es.**<br />
Ammianus <strong>and</strong> Vegetius show that cuneus is technical<br />
for the wedge-shaped formation <strong>of</strong> battle, while caput porc<strong>in</strong>um<br />
<strong>and</strong> caput porci are naive military terms : des<strong>in</strong>ente<br />
<strong>in</strong> angustum fronte, quern habitum caput porci simplicitas<br />
militaris appellat;** <strong>and</strong>, Quam rem (cuneum) milites<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ant caput porc<strong>in</strong>um.***<br />
ovaypo^j says Lydus, isbanale: /caraTreXTj;? Se iariv eiS trXriOei ovaypoi.*^<br />
Philon says that aKopirioi is vulgar for the technical<br />
evdvTOva. a Tivei Kal aKOpTriow KaXovaiv.^'^<br />
The Kpiol <strong>of</strong> Procopius may not be merely explanatory.<br />
He seems to imply that it is colloquial : /iri'^avai at xpiol<br />
Ammianus expresses his <strong>di</strong>sapproval <strong>of</strong> the new-fangled<br />
term for the old scorpio : scorpio . . . cui etiam onagri vocabulum<br />
<strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong><strong>di</strong>t aetas novella.*® A second time he seems to<br />
lament the usage <strong>of</strong> his day : Scorpionis . . . quem appellant<br />
nunc onagrum.^" Vegetius <strong>uses</strong> the generaliz<strong>in</strong>g third per-<br />
son <strong>in</strong> speak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the cuniculus : genus oppugnationum . .<br />
quod cuniculum vocant.®^<br />
Festus says that the astronomical suculae is a transfer <strong>of</strong><br />
an age <strong>in</strong>elegant <strong>in</strong> speech: Stellas ... quas appellarunt a<br />
pluvia hyadas Graeci. Nostri forsitan existimantes a subus<br />
<strong>di</strong>d saeculo parum eloquenti, <strong>di</strong>xerunt eas suculas.^^<br />
Even post-classic Lat<strong>in</strong>, with all its corruptions <strong>and</strong> barbarisms,<br />
<strong>di</strong>d not fail to recognize the humble orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
vulgarity <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> these terms<br />
Scropha. Mach<strong>in</strong>as . . . quas<br />
:<br />
vulgo Scrophas appellant.<br />
^;^*; P- ?°8 .f " Math. Vett. p. 122.<br />
Jj-fH^st. II, 35. "Procop. B. G. i, 21.<br />
Polyb. viu, 8, I sq. " Amm. xxiii, 4, * 7.<br />
Amm xvii, »o •<br />
13, 9.<br />
jj ^^jjj<br />
Veg. lu, 19. MVeg. iv, 24<br />
Lydus, De Mag. K, 46. « Fest. p. 3oi MiiU.<br />
.
Catus. Mach<strong>in</strong>am qu<strong>and</strong>am parvam, quae l<strong>in</strong>gua vul-<br />
gari Catus <strong>di</strong>citur.®^<br />
The accumulation <strong>of</strong> these various quasi-apologetic ex-<br />
pressions shows how rigorous was the opposition to trans-<br />
ferred <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> on the part <strong>of</strong> the purists. While the<br />
preju<strong>di</strong>ce aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>their</strong> use was never entirely era<strong>di</strong>cated,<br />
the convenience <strong>of</strong> the terms <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> picturesqueness<br />
enabled them to escape total ostracism.<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g pages an effort will be made to trace<br />
the reasons for the transfer <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> to military<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> devices, both <strong>of</strong>fensive <strong>and</strong> defensive.*"*<br />
These <strong>animal</strong> terms appealed so strongly^^ to the Romans,<br />
especially the later technical writers, that they deemed it<br />
worth while to stop to expla<strong>in</strong> the transfer, <strong>in</strong> some <strong>in</strong>-<br />
stances even hazard<strong>in</strong>g a guess as to the reason for it.<br />
Such a penchant <strong>di</strong>d the Roman have for etymologiz<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
that at times we f<strong>in</strong>d three or four reasons adduced, a few<br />
<strong>of</strong> them not without a gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> humor. Our present task<br />
will be to sift <strong>their</strong> testimony, <strong>in</strong> an endeavor to <strong>di</strong>scover<br />
the <strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g shape, trait, habit, or characteristic that<br />
caused the transfer. The change from the literal to the<br />
figurative is seldom due to a resemblance <strong>in</strong> more than one<br />
particular.<br />
Apropos <strong>of</strong> this Breal says: II n'est pas douteux que le<br />
langage designe les choses d'une fagon <strong>in</strong>complete et <strong>in</strong>exacte.—Mais<br />
si je prends un etre reel, un objet existant dans<br />
la nature, il sera impossible au langage de faire entrer dans<br />
le mot toutes les notions que cet etre ou cet objet eveille<br />
dans I'esprit. Force est au langage de choisir. Entre<br />
toutes les notions, le langage en choisit une seule: il cree<br />
a<strong>in</strong>si un nom qui ne tarde pas a devenir un signe.'*<br />
Consequently, <strong>in</strong> order to effect a transfer from one<br />
" Quoted by Du Cange, s. vv.<br />
" Cf. <strong>in</strong> Eng. basilisk, cat, crows' feet, culver<strong>in</strong>, dogs <strong>of</strong> war, ram,<br />
torpedo, etc.<br />
The appeal <strong>of</strong> such figures is shown by the grim 'joke <strong>of</strong> Black Agnes<br />
<strong>of</strong> Dunbar, when she had smashed the penthouse <strong>and</strong> saw its occupants<br />
scamper<strong>in</strong>g away from beneath : " Behold, the English sow has farrowed."<br />
Oman, A History <strong>of</strong> the Art <strong>of</strong> War, p. 133.<br />
"Essai de SSmantique, pp. 191, 192.<br />
'
lO<br />
object to another, it is essential for at least one property to<br />
be the common possession <strong>of</strong> each. For <strong>in</strong>stance, a metal<br />
is unstable. Mercury is ever on the w<strong>in</strong>g. The similarity,<br />
as seen <strong>in</strong> the cont<strong>in</strong>ual motion <strong>of</strong> both, ca<strong>uses</strong> an easy<br />
transfer <strong>of</strong> the god's name to the metal.<br />
The po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>of</strong> contact between the <strong>animal</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the mili-<br />
tary <strong>in</strong>struments to which the <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> are applied<br />
will be found for the most part <strong>in</strong> two th<strong>in</strong>gs : first, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
shape, generally <strong>of</strong> a part <strong>of</strong> the body, as the horn, m<strong>and</strong>i-<br />
bles, jaws, shell; secondly, <strong>in</strong> actions, as kick<strong>in</strong>g, bit<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
burrow<strong>in</strong>g.®'^<br />
ARIES, Gk. Kpuk Ram ;<br />
Instrument.<br />
transf., A Batter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
As military mach<strong>in</strong>es, like all mechanisms, must go<br />
through a long process <strong>of</strong> evolution, it is evident without<br />
demonstration that the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> the batter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>strument<br />
was recognized <strong>and</strong> employed before the term /eptos<br />
{aries) was applied to it.^® The question before us, then,<br />
is to decide whether the device lived a rather anonymous<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> existence under the general term /irjxO'V^ until one<br />
end was f<strong>in</strong>ally shaped to resemble a ram's head ; or whether<br />
the similarity <strong>in</strong> the method <strong>of</strong> attack <strong>in</strong>spired the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the term k/)w's, this <strong>in</strong> turn, comb<strong>in</strong>ed perhaps with the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kea\'^ for the end <strong>of</strong> the beam, suggest<strong>in</strong>g the fashion-<br />
<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the ram's head.<br />
An explanation <strong>of</strong> the transfer <strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> aries would<br />
seem like ' carry<strong>in</strong>g coals to Newcastle,' were it not for the<br />
fact that late Roman writers specifically attribute the fig-<br />
urative use to the shape <strong>of</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> the beam.<br />
In one passage Ammianus implies this : cum<br />
iam . . . aries<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g pages some citations descriptive <strong>of</strong> <strong>animal</strong> life will<br />
be made, <strong>in</strong> order to give a Greek or Roman background for the change,<br />
or to show how similar were the words applied to the <strong>animal</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>es. Some such passages will be <strong>of</strong> a date later than the transfer,<br />
though even these may reflect the views <strong>of</strong> authors far earlier, especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> the Natural History <strong>of</strong> Pl<strong>in</strong>y <strong>and</strong> the Lexicon <strong>of</strong> Suidas.<br />
"Thuc. ii, 76, 4, speaks <strong>of</strong> a batter<strong>in</strong>g device under the title /ajSoX^ij.<br />
Apparently the first use <strong>of</strong> the term Kpibs for the <strong>in</strong>strument is <strong>in</strong> Xen.<br />
Cyr. vii, 4, i.
II<br />
. . . adventaret, prom<strong>in</strong>entem eius ferream frontem, quae re<br />
vera formam eff<strong>in</strong>git arietis.^®<br />
Later on, the same author expresses himself <strong>in</strong> very pos-<br />
itive terms : abies . . . arietis eflficiens prom<strong>in</strong>ulam speciem,<br />
quae forma huic mach<strong>in</strong>amento vocabulum <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong><strong>di</strong>t.<br />
In Vitruvius is found the statement that the ram was <strong>in</strong>-<br />
vented by the Carthag<strong>in</strong>ians at the siege <strong>of</strong> Gades. Vi-<br />
truvius is <strong>in</strong>debted to Athenaeus,®^ who <strong>in</strong> turn has followed<br />
an older military writer. On <strong>their</strong> authority he<br />
states that the Carthag<strong>in</strong>ians wished to raze a fortress<br />
which they had captured. Hav<strong>in</strong>g no suitable implements,<br />
they improvised a ram from a piece <strong>of</strong> timber, <strong>and</strong> by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> this makeshift device, they managed to demolish<br />
the walls:<br />
Primum ad oppugnationes aries sic <strong>in</strong>ventus memoratur<br />
esse. Carthag<strong>in</strong>ienses ad Gades oppugn<strong>and</strong>as castra posu-<br />
erunt; cum autem castellum ante cepissent, id demoliri sunt<br />
conati. Posteaquam non habuerunt ad demolitionem fer-<br />
ramenta, sumpserunt tignum idque manibus sust<strong>in</strong>entes,<br />
capiteque eius summum murum cont<strong>in</strong>enter pulsantes, summos<br />
lapidum ord<strong>in</strong>es deiciebant, et ita gradatim ex ord<strong>in</strong>e<br />
totam communitionem <strong>di</strong>ssipaverunt.®^<br />
As the siege referred to is the one conducted by Hamilcar<br />
imme<strong>di</strong>ately after the First Punic War, this cannot be the<br />
first application <strong>of</strong> the batter<strong>in</strong>g-pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, or the first use<br />
<strong>of</strong> the term aries. Hence it is unwarranted to claim that<br />
this impromptu device, constructed too quickly to permit <strong>of</strong><br />
fashion<strong>in</strong>g a head, secured its name from the resemblance<br />
to the butt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the ram.<br />
Plutarch tells^* <strong>of</strong> some mach<strong>in</strong>es that Pericles <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
at the siege <strong>of</strong> Samos <strong>in</strong> 440 B. C. Diodorus, a contemporary<br />
<strong>of</strong> Caesar <strong>and</strong> Augustus, describes them as ' so-<br />
called rams <strong>and</strong> tortoises,' tow re ovoiia^<strong>of</strong>ievow Kpioix; Kal<br />
^€\o)va
12<br />
day, accounts <strong>of</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>es that received def<strong>in</strong>ite <strong>names</strong> sub-<br />
sequent to the time <strong>of</strong> <strong>their</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction.<br />
No mention is made <strong>in</strong> Greek literature <strong>of</strong> the formal<br />
application <strong>of</strong> the batter<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciple before Thucy<strong>di</strong>des's<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the battle <strong>of</strong> Plataea. Here, however, the<br />
device masqueraded under the title e/i/3o\j;. It was entirely<br />
<strong>of</strong> wood, for it split <strong>and</strong> was rendered useless on strik<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
wall : 17 Se {mX'^^V) P^M'V<br />
efivhrTova-a anreKavKi^e to irpoe'xpv<br />
rr)
.<br />
13<br />
peated attacks. The similarity was too obvious to escape<br />
the notice <strong>of</strong> men whose boyhood had been spent <strong>in</strong> graz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>di</strong>stricts. In <strong>their</strong> everyday economy, the butt<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
formidable brow had been very much <strong>in</strong> evidence. In the<br />
excitement <strong>of</strong> the siege a sol<strong>di</strong>er, struck by the likeness,<br />
called the device «/sto's <strong>and</strong> its name was fixed forever.<br />
To prevent the device from be<strong>in</strong>g set on fire or shattered,<br />
as <strong>in</strong> the case mentioned by Thucy<strong>di</strong>des, it was encased at<br />
the ifi^oX-^ with iron. This, to <strong>in</strong>crease its effectiveness,<br />
was sharpened. The name icpio'i, assisted by the term<br />
Ke
14<br />
the transfer to the resemblance between the hard head <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>animal</strong> <strong>and</strong> the stout end <strong>of</strong> the beam ; or, to the similar-<br />
ity between the butt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> the sw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the mach<strong>in</strong>e, the<br />
ram stepp<strong>in</strong>g back to butt with <strong>in</strong>creased power, just as the<br />
beam is drawn back to acquire momentum <strong>and</strong> force; appellatur<br />
aries, vel quod habet durissimam frontem, qua<br />
submit muros, vel quod more arietum retroce<strong>di</strong>t, ut cum<br />
impetu vehementius feriat.®*<br />
The first derivation can be <strong>di</strong>sregarded, s<strong>in</strong>ce the end <strong>of</strong><br />
the orig<strong>in</strong>al Kpioi was comparatively s<strong>of</strong>t, be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wood,<br />
as Hesychius's def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> Xenophon's Kpi<strong>of</strong> implies.<br />
Durissimam evidently refers to the iron protection <strong>of</strong> later<br />
times ; cf . ferrearn frontem p. 1 1<br />
The second alternative <strong>of</strong> Vegetius is, <strong>of</strong> course, the<br />
only tenable reason for the transfer. The late Greek writer<br />
Procopius,''*' suj^ports this view, speak<strong>in</strong>g with the fullest<br />
assurance: i? Se i^OKoi) avyya kfi^aXKotiivi) KaTacrela-ai re otti;<br />
irpoairOirroi, koX hieXeiv paara o'ia re katt,, koX air' avTOv ttjv<br />
iTTcovvfiiav TavTr]v r) firj'^avt) e%et, eTrei, rfji; Soicov ravTr)
15<br />
TOW reixow iwl ttjv iXeiroXiv /xer^ TocravTrjv jSiai war airoppd^ai<br />
TTjv K€tf)a\^v Tou fii]')(av^itaro'}, rjv 8^ Kai KarwTrrjS'qaa'i e/e n&rav<br />
aXperai, t&v iroX^ixlonVy xal fjteTd, ttoW'^s aSeiai; iirl to ret^os<br />
It is the later life-like heads, with ornamental horns at<br />
the side, as seen <strong>in</strong> the sculptures on the column <strong>of</strong> Trajan,<br />
that caused the confusion among the Romans <strong>in</strong> regard to<br />
the transfer <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
On a priori grounds one would naturally <strong>in</strong>fer that it<br />
was the butt<strong>in</strong>g that gave rise to the figurative use <strong>of</strong> aries.<br />
In the <strong>animal</strong> there are two aspects, <strong>and</strong> only two, that<br />
st<strong>and</strong> out conspicuously, the peculiar spiral horn, <strong>and</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>nate fondness for remov<strong>in</strong>g obstructions, animate or <strong>in</strong>an-<br />
imate, with his head. The contour <strong>of</strong> the horn has enriched<br />
us with the /c/otd? <strong>of</strong> architecture <strong>and</strong> ichthyology.'^^ A con-<br />
voluted horn, like that <strong>of</strong> the ram, is however absolutely<br />
useless for batter<strong>in</strong>g. Had the horn been the basis <strong>of</strong> comparison,<br />
bos would have been far more appropriate as the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> the mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
A store <strong>of</strong> proverbs <strong>and</strong> allusions, emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g the butt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
propensity <strong>of</strong> the ram, shows how easy must have been the<br />
transition to aries ' the buttress ' <strong>and</strong> aries, ' the batter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
device.'<br />
Plautus makes excellent use <strong>of</strong> this characteristic <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ram: Arietes truces nos erimus, iam <strong>in</strong> vos <strong>in</strong>cursabimus,''*<br />
' We<br />
shall turn <strong>in</strong>to fierce rams <strong>and</strong> shall soon be rush<strong>in</strong>g<br />
upon you.'<br />
Suidas <strong>in</strong>forms us that icpio
i6<br />
the astragals,'^^ or figs, fed by its keeper, the ram returns<br />
astragals far <strong>di</strong>fferent, i. e., a vigorous impact. The con-<br />
versation between the ram <strong>and</strong> its master may be repre-<br />
sented as follows :<br />
' I will make you a present <strong>in</strong> pulse if<br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs turn out well.' And the ram rebutted, ' I'll present<br />
you with my strongest impulse.'<br />
KOiov BiaKOVia. orav irpoardcrac<strong>of</strong>jLev "jraiBia hiatcovrjaai, X^<strong>of</strong>iev.<br />
Swcra) aoi el tv^oi aaTpayaXov;, ^ iay(^dSa
:<br />
17<br />
Greeks <strong>of</strong> the term ram to an <strong>in</strong>strument, no part <strong>of</strong> which<br />
was orig<strong>in</strong>ally like the <strong>animal</strong>, po<strong>in</strong>ts conclusively to the<br />
butt<strong>in</strong>g as the true reason for the transfer.<br />
In English, the term, ram, aside from its military <strong>and</strong><br />
naval applications, is used to designate several devices for<br />
batter<strong>in</strong>g, crush<strong>in</strong>g, butt<strong>in</strong>g, or driv<strong>in</strong>g by impact. Among<br />
them may be mentioned the follow<strong>in</strong>g as found <strong>in</strong> The<br />
Century Dictionary<br />
1. The weight or monkey <strong>of</strong> a pile-driv<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
2. The piston <strong>in</strong> the large cyl<strong>in</strong>der <strong>of</strong> a hydraulic press.<br />
3. A hooped spar used <strong>in</strong> ship-build<strong>in</strong>g for remov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
timbers by a jolt<strong>in</strong>g blow on the end.<br />
4. In metal work<strong>in</strong>g, a steam-hammer used <strong>in</strong> form<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a bloom.<br />
5. An hydraulic lift<strong>in</strong>g-mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
In no case is there a use <strong>of</strong> the term ram that is derived<br />
from the shape <strong>of</strong> the device.<br />
EQUUS, Horse; transf., A Batter<strong>in</strong>g iNSTRUMENT(f).<br />
The statement <strong>of</strong> Pl<strong>in</strong>y®" that the horse as a batter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>strument was <strong>in</strong>vented at Troy, equum (qui nunc aries<br />
appellatur) <strong>in</strong> <strong>mura</strong>libus mach<strong>in</strong>is, Epeum ad Troiam (<strong>in</strong>-<br />
venisse <strong>di</strong>cunt), is merely tra<strong>di</strong>tion, go<strong>in</strong>g back ultimately<br />
to the story <strong>of</strong> the Wooden Horse <strong>in</strong> the Odyssey<br />
X<strong>in</strong>rov Koafiov aeurov<br />
Sovpareov, rbv 'Ettcw? hroiqaev trw ''A.Orjvri?^<br />
The idea <strong>of</strong> the aries is due to a critical spirit such as<br />
Pausanias later manifested <strong>in</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g the so-called<br />
Wooden Horse at Athens. Any person <strong>of</strong> common sense,<br />
as he implies, would know that the Trojans were not such<br />
fools as to do what the story ascribes to them, <strong>and</strong> that <strong>in</strong><br />
reality Epeus's <strong>in</strong>vention was a wall-break<strong>in</strong>g device :<br />
:<br />
itttto?<br />
he 6 ica\ov/i€vo^ hovpeio'i, aveuceirai ^^aXxoO?. xal on fiev ro<br />
"jToirjua ro 'ETretou fii)j(^dv7}na rp/ e? hiaXvaiv tov reixovi, olSep<br />
ocTTK fii] traa-av hri^epei rots ^pv^lv evijdeiav Xeyerai Se e; re<br />
eKelvov TOV X<strong>in</strong>rov a>? r&v '^Wrivtov evhov ej(pi rois apiarovi, . . .'^<br />
"Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. vii, 56. S7f (202). Cf. also Varro L. L. vii, 38.<br />
" Od. viii, 492-493.<br />
" Pans, i, 23, 10.
i8<br />
Propertius had long before expressed himself <strong>in</strong> almost<br />
the same ve<strong>in</strong> as Pausanias:<br />
Nam quis equo pulsas abiegno nosceret arces, . . .<br />
We may conclude then that the story <strong>of</strong> a military horse<br />
owes its existence only to the long association <strong>of</strong> the breach<br />
<strong>in</strong> the walls <strong>and</strong> the admission <strong>of</strong> the steed, as if the latter<br />
had forced an entrance.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Murray suggests that " the stratagem <strong>of</strong><br />
the Wooden Horse may represent only a brilliant afterthought<br />
<strong>of</strong> what ought to have been done," or, if real, " may<br />
refer to a siege tower <strong>of</strong> the Assyrian type."**<br />
Consideration <strong>of</strong> Pl<strong>in</strong>y's statement may be <strong>di</strong>smissed with<br />
the criticism <strong>in</strong> Daremberg et Saglio : On ne trouve, ni dans<br />
Homere, ni autre part, rien qui justifie cette etrange <strong>in</strong>ter-<br />
pretation de la legende.*®<br />
CAPREOLI, Wild Goats ;<br />
®^<br />
transj., The Gable Beams <strong>of</strong><br />
THE TesTUDO <strong>and</strong> MuSCULUS, ALSO THE BRACES<br />
IN THE Catapult <strong>and</strong> Scorpion.<br />
Caesar speaks <strong>of</strong> the beams <strong>of</strong> the musculus jo<strong>in</strong>ed by the<br />
gently slop<strong>in</strong>g capreoli: Has (trabes) <strong>in</strong>ter se capreolis<br />
molli fastigio coniungunt.*®<br />
An <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> the term <strong>in</strong> connection with<br />
the testudo is found <strong>in</strong> Vitruvius : Supra trabes (testud<strong>in</strong>is)<br />
conlocentur capreoli card<strong>in</strong>ibus alius <strong>in</strong> alium conclusi.*^<br />
Columella mentions the capreoli as a two-pronged<br />
weed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>strument: capreolis, quod genus bicornis ferra-<br />
menti est, terra commoveatur.** Although <strong>in</strong> this case the<br />
figure is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>verted horns, it seems clear that the<br />
metaphor <strong>in</strong> the structural capreoli is not from the horns<br />
<strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle goat, but from the <strong>in</strong>terlocked horns <strong>of</strong> two<br />
" Prop, iii, I, 25.<br />
"G. Murray, The Rise <strong>of</strong> the Greek Epic, p. 35.<br />
'"Daremberg et Saglio, s. v. aries. The writer <strong>of</strong> the article on oppugnatio<br />
prefers Pausanias's rationalistic view.<br />
"Caes. Civ. ii, 10, 3.<br />
"Vitr. X, 14, 2. In x, 10, 4, Vitruvius speaks <strong>of</strong> the capreoli <strong>in</strong> the<br />
catapult.<br />
" Colum. xi, 3, 46.
19<br />
<strong>animal</strong>s. A h<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> this might possibly be drawn from<br />
Vitruvius's capreolorum compactiones.^^<br />
Isidore's words seem to po<strong>in</strong>t conclusively to this idea,<br />
for he says that rafters are called luctantes ow<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>their</strong><br />
support<strong>in</strong>g each other <strong>in</strong> the fashion <strong>of</strong> contestants: Luc-<br />
tantes <strong>di</strong>cuntur, quod erecti <strong>in</strong>vicem se teneant more luc-<br />
tantium.®" This obviates the necessity <strong>of</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g the figure<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>verted horns, s<strong>in</strong>ce luctantium is not restricted to<br />
human be<strong>in</strong>gs. Animals ak<strong>in</strong> to the capreoli are given to<br />
fight<strong>in</strong>g with horns <strong>in</strong>terlocked:<br />
Inter se adversis luctantur cornibus hae<strong>di</strong>.®^<br />
In capreoli, then, the figure seems to be drawn from the<br />
position <strong>of</strong> the horns <strong>of</strong> two struggl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>animal</strong>s.<br />
TESTUDO, Gk. xeXwz^, A Tortoise ; transf.,<br />
A Shed- Like Protection used by Storm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Parties <strong>in</strong> Siege Operations.<br />
Three reasons are assigned or implied for the transfer<br />
<strong>of</strong> the term.<br />
1. Resemblances between the appearances <strong>and</strong> <strong>di</strong>sappear-<br />
ances <strong>of</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> the ram beneath the testudo, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
stick<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>and</strong> withdraw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the head <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong>.<br />
2. Similarity <strong>in</strong> the manner <strong>of</strong> deflect<strong>in</strong>g objects.<br />
3. Likeness <strong>in</strong> shape.<br />
Vegetius has adduced a reason, colored with a little un-<br />
conscious humor, for the transfer <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> name tes-<br />
tudo to the military device. With the testudo arietaria<br />
(see p. 24) <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d, he compares the constant stick<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
<strong>and</strong> withdraw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the head <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> to the extension<br />
<strong>and</strong> withdrawal <strong>of</strong> the ram-headed beam with<strong>in</strong> its shelter<br />
Testudo a similitud<strong>in</strong>e verae testud<strong>in</strong>is vocabulum sumpsit,<br />
quia, sicut ilia modo reducit modo proserit caput, ita mach<strong>in</strong>amentum<br />
<strong>in</strong>terdum reducit trabem, <strong>in</strong>terdum exerit, ut<br />
fortius caedat.^^<br />
This reason for the transfer appealed so strongly to<br />
Vegetius that he went astray <strong>in</strong> his natural history <strong>in</strong> rep-<br />
"Vitr. X, 15, 3. "Verg. Georg. ii, 526.<br />
"Isid. Orig. xix, 19, 6. "Veg. iv, 14.<br />
:
20<br />
resent<strong>in</strong>g the tortoise as repeatedly stick<strong>in</strong>g forth his head.<br />
As later quotations will show, the tortoise keeps its head<br />
with<strong>in</strong> its shell <strong>in</strong> times <strong>of</strong> danger.<br />
Vegetius's derivation is impossible because it implies that<br />
the military testudo was <strong>in</strong>vented to shelter the ram <strong>and</strong> the<br />
men work<strong>in</strong>g it The first use <strong>of</strong> the term x^^^ for the<br />
device is <strong>in</strong> Xenophon's x^^®'^ ^v\Cvq,^^ where it is merely<br />
a cover<strong>in</strong>g for a trench.<br />
The very relation <strong>of</strong> the adjecti\e to the noun <strong>in</strong> xeXwvoi<br />
Kpio
21<br />
In Athenaeus there appears the same idea. He advises<br />
the plac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wooden tortoises <strong>in</strong> front <strong>of</strong> the combatants <strong>in</strong><br />
order to m<strong>in</strong>imize <strong>their</strong> dc<strong>in</strong>ger : irpoi Se r&v KivSvveuovrtov<br />
orpaTKOT&v irpoa^petrdrjaav yeppojfeK&vai d>9 ttXtjctuu, iva<br />
€ux^P
22<br />
confused can be obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the descriptions <strong>of</strong> the tes-<br />
tudo <strong>of</strong> shields, which was <strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ctively <strong>and</strong> exclusively a<br />
Roman military device. Ammianus, after pictur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
three rows <strong>of</strong> shields <strong>of</strong> <strong>di</strong>fferent level, likens the formation<br />
to a vaulted structure. The result <strong>of</strong> this shape is, that<br />
stones <strong>and</strong> other missiles are deflected as showers <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong><br />
are by a ro<strong>of</strong>. The word testudo is not here mentioned,<br />
but the th<strong>in</strong>g that appealed to the writer as most important<br />
was the shape: Densetis cohaerentes supra capita scutis,<br />
primi transtris <strong>in</strong>stabant armati, alii post hos semet curvan-<br />
tes humilius, tertiis gradatim <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>atis summisse, ita ut<br />
novissimi suffrag<strong>in</strong>ibus <strong>in</strong>sidentes formam ae<strong>di</strong>ficii forni-<br />
cati monstrarent. Quod mach<strong>in</strong>ae genus contra <strong>mura</strong>les<br />
pugnas ideo figuratur hac specie, ut missilium ictus atque<br />
saxorum per decursus cadentium labiles, <strong>in</strong>star imbrium<br />
evanescant.-"'-'<br />
Livy,^"^ after an account <strong>of</strong> the testudo made <strong>of</strong> shields,<br />
compares the slop<strong>in</strong>g sides to the ro<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong><br />
then goes on to state the result : fastigatam, sicut tecta ae<strong>di</strong>-<br />
ficiorum sunt, testud<strong>in</strong>em faciebant ... ita nee ipsos tela ex<br />
muro missa subeuntes laeserunt, et testud<strong>in</strong>i <strong>in</strong>iecta imbris<br />
<strong>in</strong> modum lubrico fastigio <strong>in</strong>noxia ad imum labebantur.<br />
The last two citations, while by no means conclusive <strong>in</strong><br />
themselves, are very significant when we recall that all<br />
the other transferred mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> testudo, except <strong>in</strong> prov-<br />
erbs, are due to a similarity <strong>in</strong> shape. Among these are the<br />
architectural testudo,^"^ <strong>and</strong> ak<strong>in</strong> to it, the chelonium (see<br />
p. 50) used <strong>in</strong> the catapult.<br />
Servius^"^ is quite explicit as to the reason for the term<br />
testudo when applied to the shields, attribut<strong>in</strong>g it to the<br />
general curv<strong>in</strong>g surface, not liken<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>vidual shields<br />
to the segments <strong>of</strong> a carapace: Testudo est scutorum conexio,<br />
curvata <strong>in</strong> testud<strong>in</strong>is modum.<br />
Apollodorus speaks with equal assurance <strong>in</strong> regard to the<br />
"" Amm. xxvi, 8, 9.<br />
"°Liv. xxxxiv, 9. This passage is perhaps one <strong>of</strong> the sources <strong>of</strong> the<br />
previous citation.<br />
^°° Cf. testud<strong>in</strong>atum.<br />
""Serv. Aen. ix, 503. Quoted <strong>in</strong> Isid. Orig. xviii, 12, 6.
23<br />
^eX&vai eXa^paC ' light tortoises/ which, he says, were con-<br />
structed with the express purpose ( iva ) <strong>of</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>their</strong><br />
shape like that <strong>of</strong> the tortoise : '^O^vovrai Se aviaov'^ek oi<br />
jcdfjLaKei irap eva "va to vtt' air&v (ry(i]fia -g yeXmvr].^'^^<br />
Varro likewise assigns the figurative use to a likeness <strong>in</strong><br />
external appearance, as the connection <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>cates (see quo-<br />
tation p. 39).<br />
We may conclude, then, that orig<strong>in</strong>ally a device was<br />
needed to ward <strong>of</strong>f weapons. The most effective contrivance<br />
happened to be convex, the shape <strong>of</strong> the tortoise.<br />
From this resemblance came the transferred use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
term testudo}'^^<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Isidore, the term testudo is likewise applied<br />
to an <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>vidual shield: Dicitur autem et testudo scutum.<br />
Nam <strong>in</strong> modum testud<strong>in</strong>is fit clypeus.^"'''<br />
The name testudo is itself due to the resemblance between<br />
the testae <strong>of</strong> the vaulted ro<strong>of</strong> to the segments <strong>of</strong> the<br />
curv<strong>in</strong>g shell: Testudo <strong>di</strong>ctus, eo quod tegm<strong>in</strong>e testae sit<br />
adopertus <strong>in</strong> camerae modum.^"*<br />
Fancy is given free re<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Martial's testudo^°^ for the<br />
hedgehog's ball <strong>of</strong> sp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Ovid's use <strong>of</strong> the term^^"<br />
for an ornamental head-dress.<br />
In post-classical Lat<strong>in</strong>, cancer, ' crab,' <strong>and</strong> cattus, ' cat,'<br />
partly <strong>di</strong>splaced the term testudo:<br />
Expugnavit Rex hanc civitatem per duo vasa (<strong>in</strong>strumenta)<br />
concava, quae faciebant artifices sapientes. Unum<br />
vas Cattus vocabatur, aliud Cancer. Erant haec vasa longa,<br />
quadrata, ex omni parte laterum clausa :<br />
versus terram nul-<br />
lum munimen habebant, sed versus caelum de tabulis forti-<br />
bus ac spissis tectum, mach<strong>in</strong>arum lapides m<strong>in</strong>ime metuebat,<br />
etc.<br />
•" Math. Vett. p. 15.<br />
"° In vol. I, p. 244, <strong>of</strong> his revision <strong>of</strong> J. G. Wilk<strong>in</strong>son's The Ancient<br />
Egyptians, S. Birch has expressed the op<strong>in</strong>ion that the trypanon or pike <strong>of</strong><br />
the testudo arietaria <strong>of</strong> the Greeks <strong>and</strong> Romans, <strong>and</strong> the cover<strong>in</strong>g or v<strong>in</strong>ea<br />
which protected the men while they worked the batter<strong>in</strong>g-ram, were most<br />
probably borrowed orig<strong>in</strong>ally by the Greeks from Egypt.<br />
*"Isid. Orig. xviii, 12, 6.<br />
"' Isid. Orig. xii, 6, 56.<br />
""Mart, xiii, 86, i.<br />
""Ov. Ars iii, 147.
Infra<br />
:<br />
24<br />
Fuit Cancer <strong>in</strong>strumentum magnum forte, pariter et ponderosum.<br />
In eo erat trabs magna, pariter longa, <strong>in</strong> una<br />
parte grossa, <strong>in</strong> altera parva. In grossiori parte, sive <strong>in</strong><br />
capite, fuit ferro forti circumdata, et <strong>in</strong> fronte ipsius Can-<br />
cri fortissime colligata. Trabs haec super quaedam <strong>in</strong>strumenta<br />
jacuit, quod faciliter moveretur. Hie Cancer cum<br />
ad murum pervenisset, et octo <strong>in</strong> circulos, qui <strong>in</strong> trabe erant,<br />
funes immisissent, ex paucis ictibus pro magna parte cadere<br />
coegerunt.<br />
Mox:<br />
Ex parte terrae fuerunt obsessi per Cattum atque Cancrum;<br />
quia solus Cancer, qu<strong>in</strong>gentos hom<strong>in</strong>es occupabat.-'^^<br />
Another <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> the testudo type <strong>of</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>e is found<br />
: Unum fuit mach<strong>in</strong>amentum, quod nostri<br />
<strong>in</strong> sus, ' the sow '<br />
Suem, veteres V<strong>in</strong>eam vocant, quod . . . protegit <strong>in</strong> se sub-<br />
sidentes, qui quasi more suis, ad murorum suffo<strong>di</strong>enda pene-<br />
trant fundamenta.<br />
The locusta was a somewhat similar device :<br />
Locusta ambulatoria:<br />
<strong>in</strong>tus hom<strong>in</strong>es ducentes eam, possunt se haerere<br />
muro aut prope murum castelli et defendere se a saxis<br />
hostium ac missilibus.-'^-'*<br />
The English has a rather strik<strong>in</strong>g figure prompted by<br />
the shape <strong>of</strong> the tortoise. To turn turtle, is common <strong>in</strong> nau-<br />
tical slang <strong>and</strong> its application has been extended to other<br />
fields. The figure is due, <strong>of</strong> course, to the shape <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hull <strong>of</strong> the capsized vessel.<br />
Turtle is also used <strong>of</strong> the detachable segment <strong>of</strong> a rotary<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g-mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
TESTUDO ARIETARIA.<br />
Vitruvius, after describ<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>vention <strong>of</strong> the simple<br />
aries whose weight was supported by men, tells <strong>in</strong> detail<br />
how it was made more efficient. It was supported on a<br />
cross-beam; then it was rendered movable by a platform<br />
"' Quoted by Du Cange, s. v. Cancer.<br />
"^ Quoted by Du Cange, s. v. Sus.<br />
Quoted by Du Cange, s. v. Locusta.
25<br />
equipped with wheels; f<strong>in</strong>ally protection was afforded the<br />
sol<strong>di</strong>ers work<strong>in</strong>g it by the ad<strong>di</strong>tion <strong>of</strong> a cover<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> hides.<br />
With such a preface, he states that the complex mach<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
iestudo arieiaria, was so named by its <strong>in</strong>ventor because <strong>of</strong><br />
its sluggish movements : quod tardos conatus habuerat, testud<strong>in</strong>em<br />
arietariam appellare coepit."*<br />
The grammatical relation shows that the comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />
the words, testudo arietaria, is due to the development <strong>of</strong><br />
the simple testudo, not the simple aries. When the func-<br />
tions <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>strument are enhanced, logic dem<strong>and</strong>s that the<br />
change be shown by an adjective. A lift<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e, when<br />
it has a fixed base, is called a crane. When the whole ma-<br />
ch<strong>in</strong>e moves it is called a travel<strong>in</strong>g-crane. When the<br />
corvus, primarily for pierc<strong>in</strong>g or hold<strong>in</strong>g, has its scope <strong>of</strong><br />
operations <strong>in</strong>creased so that it is adapted to tear<strong>in</strong>g down<br />
walls, the new function is shown by an epithet, demolitor.<br />
Vitruvius clearly , thought that the testudo arietaria was<br />
developed from the simple aries. If this were so, <strong>and</strong> if<br />
the slow movements figured <strong>in</strong> the transfer, then we should<br />
expect an adjective testud<strong>in</strong>eus, ' <strong>of</strong> tortoise-like sluggishness,'<br />
to show the new function <strong>of</strong> the aries, i. e. the mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
would be aries testud<strong>in</strong>eus, ' the ram <strong>of</strong> tortoise-like sluggishness.'<br />
If the <strong>in</strong>strument aries is the basis <strong>of</strong> the com-<br />
plex mach<strong>in</strong>e, then the term aries is logically the basis <strong>of</strong><br />
the expression denot<strong>in</strong>g the contrivance.<br />
As it is, the grammatical order <strong>of</strong> the two words, testudo<br />
arietaria, xeXeoi/T; Kpio^opm, proves that the function <strong>of</strong> the<br />
testudo is <strong>in</strong>creased. The Greek adjective icpio^opm, where<br />
Kpio- is the equivalent <strong>of</strong> an objective genitive, is sufficient<br />
evidence that testudo arietaria means, not ' the ram's tor-<br />
toise,' but ' the ram-carry<strong>in</strong>g tortoise,' i. e. the tortoise<br />
mo<strong>di</strong>fied to carry a ram.<br />
Vitruvius is apparently <strong>in</strong>debted to Athenaeus,^^^ who<br />
accounts for the transfer Sta t^k ^paSvrrjra (tar<strong>di</strong>tatis<br />
causa).<br />
When the testudo was placed on wheels (subrotata) <strong>and</strong><br />
"* Vitr. X, 13.<br />
"» Math. Vett. p. 3.
26<br />
equipped with a more ponderous framework to support the<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased stra<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> an aries <strong>in</strong> action, its progress was necessarily<br />
impeded by the ad<strong>di</strong>tional weight, especially where<br />
there were irregularities <strong>in</strong> the ground. Hence its movements<br />
resembled the sluggishness <strong>of</strong> the creature that Pacu-<br />
vius calls tar<strong>di</strong>grada}'^^ Clearly the testudo shelter<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
ram is an adaptation <strong>of</strong> a previous testudo, <strong>and</strong> the resemblance<br />
<strong>in</strong> the slow progress is an <strong>in</strong>cidental <strong>and</strong> neces-<br />
sary concomitant. In other words its slowness is a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mo<strong>di</strong>fied con<strong>di</strong>tions, not a cause <strong>of</strong> the name.<br />
MUSCULUS, A Little Mouse; transf., A Small<br />
Shed-Like Protection used <strong>in</strong> Siege Operations.<br />
A very romantic flavor has been imparted by Vegetius<br />
to his description <strong>of</strong> the Musculi, the small shed-like pro-<br />
tections for besiegers. They form the advance guard <strong>in</strong><br />
storm<strong>in</strong>g cities, he <strong>in</strong>forms us, <strong>and</strong> prepare the way for<br />
the larger siege mach<strong>in</strong>es. They receive <strong>their</strong> name from<br />
the sea musculus, which, though comparatively small, still<br />
furnishes aid <strong>and</strong> guidance to the whale: Musculos <strong>di</strong>cunt<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ores mach<strong>in</strong>as, quibus protect! bellatores sudatum au-<br />
ferunt civitatis; fossatum etiam adportatis lapi<strong>di</strong>bus lignis<br />
ac terra non solum conplent, sed etiam solidant, ut turres<br />
ambulatoriae s<strong>in</strong>e impe<strong>di</strong>mento iungantur ad murum. Vocantur<br />
autem a mar<strong>in</strong>is beluis musculi; nam quem ad<br />
modum illi, cum m<strong>in</strong>ores s<strong>in</strong>t, tamen balaenis auxilium adm<strong>in</strong>isculumque<br />
iugiter exhibent, ita istae mach<strong>in</strong>ae breviores<br />
[vel] deputatae turribus magnis adventui illarum parant<br />
viam it<strong>in</strong>eraque praemuniunt.<br />
The story that the sea-mouse was a sort <strong>of</strong> cicerone to<br />
the whale was too good for Pl<strong>in</strong>y to omit. He cites the<br />
musculus as be<strong>in</strong>g a fish well known for its friendship for<br />
the whale. When the latter's vision is obstructed by his<br />
fat heavy eyebrows, the musculus swims ahead <strong>of</strong> his great-<br />
ness, the whale, show<strong>in</strong>g the treacherous shoals <strong>and</strong> perform<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the function <strong>of</strong> eyes : amicitiae exempla sunt . . . balaena<br />
et musculus, qu<strong>and</strong>o praegravi superciliorum pondere<br />
"'Pac. ap. Cic. Div. ii, 64, 133.<br />
"'Veg. iv, 16.
27<br />
obrutis eius oculis, <strong>in</strong>festantia magnitud<strong>in</strong>em vada praena-<br />
tans demonstrat, oculorumque vice fungitur.^^*<br />
Although it is not essential for a belief to be well-founded<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to ga<strong>in</strong> sufficient currency to effect a transfer, the<br />
metaphor <strong>of</strong> Vegetius appears too <strong>in</strong>volved to appeal to<br />
the popular consciousness. It is hardly probable that the<br />
sol<strong>di</strong>ers stra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>their</strong> imag<strong>in</strong>ation to such an extent when<br />
easy <strong>and</strong> obvious comparisons presented themselves at every<br />
turn.<br />
In order to ga<strong>in</strong> currency, a transfer must appeal to the<br />
rank <strong>and</strong> file <strong>of</strong> the sol<strong>di</strong>ery. This means that the story<br />
would have to be generally known to the troops, <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong><br />
ad<strong>di</strong>tion, that the prelim<strong>in</strong>ary manoeuvr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the musculi<br />
must be a regular part <strong>of</strong> siege tactics, a th<strong>in</strong>g which<br />
is not emphasized by military writers.<br />
Isidore's fanciful derivation from murusculus (musculus<br />
cuniculo similis fit, quo murus perfo<strong>di</strong>tur, ex quo appellatur,<br />
quasi murusculus) ,^^^ is another <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>cation <strong>of</strong> the density <strong>of</strong><br />
the mist that beclouded the real etymology.<br />
Oman states^^" that the bore <strong>and</strong> its shelter are sometimes<br />
referred to <strong>in</strong> the chronicles under the one term " musculus,<br />
' the mouse,' because its object was to gnaw a round hole <strong>in</strong><br />
the lower courses <strong>of</strong> the rampart."<br />
In classic times, the musculus was always clearly <strong>di</strong>fferen-<br />
tiated from the terebra, <strong>and</strong> its employment to protect the<br />
operation <strong>of</strong> the latter mach<strong>in</strong>e was but one <strong>of</strong> several ap-<br />
plications.<br />
If the figure were that <strong>of</strong> gnaw<strong>in</strong>g, we should expect the<br />
term musculus to be applied first to the bore or pick, <strong>and</strong><br />
then by synecdoche to the mantlets, whereas the converse<br />
appears to have been the case, e. g. cupiunt murum succidere<br />
musclis.-^^^<br />
"'Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. ix, 62, 88, (186). Cf. also id. xi, 37, 62, (165), Musculus<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>us, qui balaenam antece<strong>di</strong>t. The English has a close analogy <strong>in</strong> the<br />
pilot-fish, "so named because it is <strong>of</strong>ten seen <strong>in</strong> company with a shark,<br />
swimm<strong>in</strong>g near a ship, on account <strong>of</strong> which sailors imag<strong>in</strong>e that it acts as<br />
a pilot to the shark." Webster.<br />
"°Isid. Orig. xviii, 11, 4-<br />
"° Oman, A History <strong>of</strong> the Art <strong>of</strong> War, p. 133.<br />
^ Abbo, De Bellis Parisiacae Urbis, i, 99 <strong>in</strong> Scriptores Rerum Germani-<br />
carum.
28<br />
Aga<strong>in</strong>, had the idea <strong>of</strong> gnaw<strong>in</strong>g even remotely occurred<br />
to the Romans, it is <strong>di</strong>fficult to underst<strong>and</strong> how Isidore, who<br />
ransacked Lat<strong>in</strong> literature for derivations, should be driven<br />
to his hypothesis, especially when he <strong>uses</strong> perfo<strong>di</strong>o, a term<br />
suggestive <strong>of</strong> gnaw<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The appositeness <strong>of</strong> the figure <strong>of</strong> gnaw<strong>in</strong>g seems to be<br />
merely <strong>in</strong>cidental, <strong>and</strong> that with a special use <strong>of</strong> the mus-<br />
culus at a time when the bore was one <strong>of</strong> the two great<br />
weapons <strong>of</strong> siegecraft.<br />
When one considers the epithets <strong>and</strong> verbs descriptive<br />
<strong>of</strong> the advance <strong>of</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> the mantlet character, it seems<br />
hardly probable that all should escape a sobriquet recall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the method <strong>of</strong> locomotion. Several mach<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> the mus-<br />
culus type are said to creep.<br />
Lucan pictures vividly the advance <strong>of</strong> the v<strong>in</strong>ea; me<strong>di</strong>is<br />
subrepit v<strong>in</strong>ea muris.^^^<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> the large towers, this verb is very appro-<br />
priate because <strong>of</strong> the motion <strong>of</strong> the wheels<br />
Hae (turres) nullo fixerunt robore terram,<br />
Sed per iter longum causa repsere latenti.-'^^<br />
In the cat, the creep<strong>in</strong>g is aga<strong>in</strong> prom<strong>in</strong>ent.<br />
Hue faciunt reptare Catum, tectique sub illo<br />
Suffo<strong>di</strong>unt murum.^^*<br />
Significant is the epithet ' creep<strong>in</strong>g ' <strong>in</strong> locusta ambulatoria<br />
(see p. 24), likewise a mach<strong>in</strong>e to protect storm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
parties.<br />
The alternative <strong>of</strong> creep<strong>in</strong>g affords an easy transition for<br />
the figure, <strong>and</strong> while not so strik<strong>in</strong>g as the reason adduced<br />
by Vegetius, is still highly picturesque.^ ^^ As the adjective<br />
"^ Lucan, ii, 506.<br />
"^ Lucan, iii, 457-458.<br />
"' Quoted by Du Cange, s. v. Catus.<br />
"'In A Dream <strong>of</strong> Fair Women, Tennyson adds a touch <strong>of</strong> life to his<br />
picture by the use <strong>of</strong> the epithet creep<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
Heroes tall<br />
Dislodg<strong>in</strong>g p<strong>in</strong>nacle <strong>and</strong> parapet<br />
Upon the tortoise creep<strong>in</strong>g to the wall.<br />
In English, the figure <strong>of</strong> creep<strong>in</strong>g or crawl<strong>in</strong>g appears <strong>in</strong> caterpillartraction-eng<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Worm-fence <strong>and</strong> snake-fence suggest the s<strong>in</strong>uous appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>their</strong> <strong>animal</strong> prototypes when <strong>in</strong> motion.<br />
:
29<br />
' walk<strong>in</strong>g ' is very apropos for the erect advance <strong>of</strong> the tall<br />
perpen<strong>di</strong>cular towers, turres ambulatoriae, so the term musculi<br />
is quite suited for describ<strong>in</strong>g the low horizontal ma-<br />
ch<strong>in</strong>es, which move slowly <strong>and</strong> with <strong>their</strong> bo<strong>di</strong>es almost<br />
upon the ground.<br />
The fact that musculus, a muscle, is a figure drawn from<br />
the creep<strong>in</strong>g motion, that <strong>of</strong> the biceps, supports this view.<br />
TEREBRA A Wood-worm (?) : A<br />
Bore for Penetrat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Walls Dur<strong>in</strong>g Sieges.<br />
An <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> popular etymology, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>of</strong><br />
sparrow-grass <strong>in</strong> English, is seen <strong>in</strong> Isidore's derivation for<br />
terebra: Terebra vocata a verme ligni, qui vocatur terebra,<br />
quem Graeci repeSova (sic) vocant. H<strong>in</strong>c <strong>di</strong>cta terebra, quod<br />
ut vermis terendo forat, quasi terefora, vel quasi transforans.<br />
CORVUS, Gk. Kopa^ Crow: traitsf., i. A Grapnel;<br />
2. A Batter<strong>in</strong>g Instrument.<br />
Corvus is a picturesque term for a po<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong>strument.<br />
Even the clutch <strong>of</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>-bow, xe{/aouj07i/eoi' to'|ov, probably<br />
gets its name,' accord<strong>in</strong>g to the scholiast, from its likeness<br />
to the beak <strong>of</strong> the bird: ad<strong>di</strong>mus fieri posse corvum<br />
ideo appellatum quod corvi caput cum {sic) suo rostro<br />
imitetur.^^^<br />
If a mach<strong>in</strong>e resembled the beak <strong>of</strong> a bird, it was very<br />
natural for corvus to be selected as its name, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
strength <strong>and</strong> power <strong>of</strong> that bird are subjects <strong>of</strong> frequent<br />
comment. Aristotle applies to the crow the terms, Icrxupov<br />
Kal a-K\7jp6v,^^^ ' strong <strong>and</strong> destructive.'<br />
Egyptian crows, Kopaxe; AlyvirTtoi, says Aelian, on fail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to get what they want, perch <strong>in</strong> flocks upon ships <strong>and</strong> sever<br />
the cables <strong>and</strong> rigg<strong>in</strong>g by peck<strong>in</strong>g: arvxna-avTei 8e &v<br />
nrow, avfiTrerovTai, Kal eavTOVi KadlaavTei iirl rd xepai rij?<br />
veaxs rmv (T^oivrnv eaOlovcrl re Kal hiar<strong>in</strong>vovcn t^ anltara. i^a<br />
The crows <strong>of</strong> Libya are famed for <strong>their</strong> lift<strong>in</strong>g ability,<br />
Isid Orig xix, 19, 14.<br />
"" Aiist. De Part. Anim. 662 b.<br />
^"Matii. Vet't. p. 333-<br />
""^el. N. A. ii, 48.
30<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g adept at pick<strong>in</strong>g up stones with both beak <strong>and</strong> claw<br />
•^^^0119 KOfii^ovai Kol TM tTTOfiarc Kal tok ow^i, Koi i/xlSdWovaiv<br />
eV Tov Kepafiov}^'^<br />
The crow also employs its m<strong>and</strong>ibles with great skill, be-<br />
<strong>in</strong>g able to gouge out the eyes, even <strong>of</strong> the larger <strong>animal</strong>s,<br />
such as the ass <strong>and</strong> the bull: d/ioVe toIi ^d>oi
31<br />
had only two, <strong>and</strong> they were manipulated like the m<strong>and</strong>ibles<br />
<strong>of</strong> a crow; hence the figure.<br />
The Tyrian corvus was fashioned as a defensive eng<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
corvique et alia tuen<strong>di</strong>s urbibus excogitata praeparaban-<br />
^jjj.139 fQj. grasp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> seiz<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The corvus <strong>of</strong> Duilius, unlike that <strong>of</strong> the Tyrians, was<br />
<strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ctly <strong>of</strong>fensive. Its end was tipped with iron sharp-<br />
ened to a po<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>and</strong> shaped like a baker's pestle, as Poly-<br />
bius states : iirl he rov ireparo^ avrov (aruXov) •jrpoaijp/jLoa-To<br />
tnSrjpovv ohv virepov airw^a-fievov}*^<br />
The comparison with the pestle shows that the <strong>in</strong>strument<br />
is likened to a crow with closed m<strong>and</strong>ibles, to facilitate<br />
pierc<strong>in</strong>g. It was <strong>in</strong>tended, as Polybius goes on to say, to<br />
hold the ships together by forc<strong>in</strong>g its way through the deck,<br />
not by grappl<strong>in</strong>g : ore Se raw aavlari t&v KaTaarpc<strong>of</strong>iaTcov<br />
ip.ira'yevTei oi KopaKes <strong>of</strong>iov avvSi^a-aiev to? vaik.^*^<br />
As the corvus <strong>of</strong> Duilius resembled that <strong>of</strong> the Tyrians<br />
<strong>in</strong> name only <strong>and</strong> not <strong>in</strong> purpose or construction, Polybius<br />
is correct <strong>in</strong> his statement with regard to Duilius's <strong>in</strong>vention<br />
<strong>of</strong> a crow.<br />
Vitruvius speaks <strong>of</strong> a corvus demolitor,^*^ which evidently<br />
is identical with an eng<strong>in</strong>e that Vegetius describes, although<br />
the latter does not use the term corvus. The two descrip-<br />
tions are quite similar. Vegetius comments as follows<br />
trabem, quae adunco praefigitur ferro et falx vocatur ab eo,<br />
quod <strong>in</strong>curva est, ut de muro extrahat lapides.-'**<br />
Polybius's words are somewhat analogous : eirl he rov<br />
irepaTo^ avrov (trrtiXov) irpoaripfioaTo
32<br />
figitur ferro et falx vocatur ab eo, quod <strong>in</strong>curva est, ut de<br />
muro extrahat lapides, aut certe caput istius vestitur ferro<br />
et appellatur aries.^*^<br />
The corvus then had three <strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ct military <strong>uses</strong>, as is<br />
shown by the operations at Tyre <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>f Mylae <strong>and</strong> by the<br />
corvus demolitor, the transfer be<strong>in</strong>g due <strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>stance<br />
to the resemblance to the closed or open m<strong>and</strong>ibles <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bird.<br />
The comparison with the beak <strong>of</strong> a bird was prompted by<br />
the shape <strong>of</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> the implement; the selection <strong>of</strong> the<br />
term corvus, however, was due to the fact that the crow is<br />
the most common bird with strong m<strong>and</strong>ibles.<br />
In English, the figurative use <strong>of</strong> the word crow is common<br />
<strong>in</strong> the mechanical world <strong>in</strong> crow-bar. Colloquially we<br />
have such expressions as to crow over, as the crow flies,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the like.<br />
In alligator-wrench there is present the figure <strong>of</strong> fixed<br />
gap<strong>in</strong>g jaws <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> monkey-wrench, that <strong>of</strong> a movable jaw.<br />
CORAX, Gk. Kopa^ A Crow :<br />
Batter<strong>in</strong>g Device.<br />
transf., A K<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong><br />
Vitruvius speaks <strong>of</strong> the corax very <strong>di</strong>sparag<strong>in</strong>gly, stat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that it is utterly <strong>in</strong>effective: De corace nihil (Diades) puta-<br />
vit scribendum, quod animadverteret earn mach<strong>in</strong>am nullam<br />
habere virtutem.^*®<br />
Vitruvius is quot<strong>in</strong>g an earlier military writer, Diades,<br />
probably through Athenaeus, for the latter refers to the<br />
Kopa^ <strong>in</strong> the same ve<strong>in</strong> : tov h^ Kopaxa, oii ^rifii elvai d^iov<br />
The corax suggests the corvus demolitor. It seems pos-<br />
sible that the <strong>di</strong>rect transliteration from the Greek <strong>in</strong> corax<br />
<strong>and</strong> the epithet <strong>in</strong> corvus demolitor serve the same purpose,<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>di</strong>fferentiat<strong>in</strong>g the batter<strong>in</strong>g-crow from the types employed<br />
at Tyre <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>f Mylae.<br />
'"Veg. iv, 14.<br />
"'Vitr. X, 13, 8.<br />
"' Math. Vett. p. 5.<br />
'
33<br />
GRUS, Gk. ye'pavoi, Crane; transf., i. A Batter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Instrument; 2. A Lift<strong>in</strong>g Device.<br />
Vitruvius <strong>in</strong> speak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the corvus demolitor, a sort <strong>of</strong><br />
batter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>strument (see p. 31), says that it is sometimes<br />
dubbed grus: corvum demolitorem quem nonnulli gruem<br />
appellant.^**<br />
As several <strong>of</strong> these <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> reflect <strong>their</strong> Greek<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>, this use <strong>of</strong> grus may have been <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the<br />
wooden pound<strong>in</strong>g device, called yepavoi, which the Greek<br />
miller employed <strong>in</strong> crush<strong>in</strong>g his gra<strong>in</strong>. Hesychius comments<br />
on 'yepavo^ <strong>in</strong> this sense :<br />
opyavov ^vXivov, iv ^ KoirTovariv<br />
01 a\
34<br />
Polybius refers to these contrivances <strong>of</strong> Archimedes with-<br />
out committ<strong>in</strong>g himself to the use <strong>of</strong> either term.^^*<br />
Tacitus, <strong>in</strong> his Histories, alludes without doubt to the<br />
grus adapted to military purposes, but, with his usual aver-<br />
sion for un<strong>di</strong>gnified <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong>, he eschews the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the term. Under the general term mach<strong>in</strong>amentum, he<br />
pictures <strong>in</strong> vivid colors the manner <strong>of</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g the grus,<br />
tell<strong>in</strong>g how it was lowered <strong>and</strong> how it carried <strong>of</strong>f members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the storm<strong>in</strong>g party, plac<strong>in</strong>g them with<strong>in</strong> the walls : Praecipuum<br />
pavorem <strong>in</strong>tulit suspensum et nutans mach<strong>in</strong>amentum,<br />
quo repente demisso praeter suorum ora s<strong>in</strong>guli plu-<br />
resve hostium sublime rapti verso pondere <strong>in</strong>tra castra effun-<br />
debantur.^^^<br />
Such a use <strong>of</strong> the grus <strong>in</strong> siege operations was long before<br />
foreshadowed by the stage '^epavo^, which removed actors<br />
or corpses from the stage : 5? ^e yepavoi firj^dvTjfid eariv ix<br />
fieretopov KaTa(f>€p6fJLevov e(j) dpTrajy amfj.aTO'} S Ke^prjTai 'Hw?<br />
apird^ovaa to aSifia to M.efivovo
35<br />
ultimately achieved a signal victory over its more aristo-<br />
cratic synonym before the l<strong>in</strong>es between the Romance languages<br />
were clearly drawn.<br />
The rivalry between grus <strong>and</strong> corvus may perhaps be<br />
roughly paralled <strong>in</strong> English by alligator-wrench <strong>and</strong> croc-<br />
o<strong>di</strong>le-wrench. The latter expression, perhaps a prov<strong>in</strong>cialism,<br />
is sometimes used colloquially, though recognized by<br />
no st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>di</strong>ctionary. Alligator-shears <strong>and</strong> croco<strong>di</strong>leshears<br />
are however regarded as identical by The Century<br />
Dictionary <strong>and</strong> Cyclope<strong>di</strong>a.<br />
The transfer <strong>of</strong> the term yepavoi is, <strong>of</strong> course, due to a<br />
fancied resemblance between the long neck <strong>of</strong> the bird <strong>and</strong><br />
the project<strong>in</strong>g arm <strong>of</strong> the mach<strong>in</strong>e. The Greek writers<br />
make frequent comment on the neck <strong>of</strong> the crane, some-<br />
times <strong>in</strong> complimentary terms, sometimes <strong>di</strong>sparag<strong>in</strong>gly.<br />
Homer expresses his admiration <strong>in</strong> a graceful hexameter<br />
yepdviuv f) kvkvcov SovXixoSeipmv .^^^<br />
j(r]v&v ^<br />
Aristotle <strong>in</strong> more prosaic fashion speaks <strong>of</strong> the long necks,<br />
T0V9 rpaxn^ov? fiaKpoik^^^ <strong>of</strong> the cranes, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> other pas-<br />
sages shows that it was proverbial for an epicure to wish for<br />
a gullet like a crane's : iju^aro rt? oyjtocjxir/o'i wv tov (f)dptjyya<br />
avToi fjLaKporepov yepdvov yeveadai.^^''<br />
SUCULA, A Little Pig; transf., A W<strong>in</strong>dlass, used <strong>in</strong><br />
THE Scorpion <strong>and</strong> Catapult,^®* as Well<br />
AS IN Other Devices.<br />
PORCULUS, A Little Pig; transf., A Clutch<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Device used with the Sucula.<br />
Festus attributes the transfer <strong>in</strong> the mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> sucula to<br />
the figure <strong>of</strong> a breed<strong>in</strong>g sow, surrounded by her litter:<br />
Sucula est mach<strong>in</strong>ae genus teretis materiae, et foratae, ac<br />
crassae, quam, ut uber scr<strong>of</strong>ae, porculi circumstant sic, ver-<br />
santesque ductario fune volvunt.^'®<br />
^n. ii, 460.<br />
Arist. De Acoust. 800 b.<br />
"'Arist. Nic. Eth. 11 18 a. Cf. Athen. iv, I3i„e: yipavoi tovtovI tov<br />
X<strong>di</strong>TKOvTos SMTecva/Uvri SiA, tov irpaxTov Kal t&v ir'S.evpuv SiaK6\j/€iev ri lUruirov.<br />
"''Vitr. X, 12, I.<br />
"° Fest. p. 301 Miill.<br />
:
36<br />
Walde <strong>in</strong> the first e<strong>di</strong>tion <strong>of</strong> his Lat<strong>in</strong> etymology^®*<br />
<strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>guishes between sucula, the <strong>di</strong>m<strong>in</strong>utive <strong>of</strong> sus, <strong>and</strong><br />
sucula, the w<strong>in</strong>dlass. If that <strong>di</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ction be warranted, the<br />
figurative use <strong>of</strong> sucula <strong>in</strong> Festus is a case <strong>of</strong> popular etymology,<br />
much like that <strong>of</strong> sparrow-grass or cow-cumber <strong>in</strong><br />
English. The mistake would recall the popular miscon-<br />
ception <strong>of</strong> suculae, ' Hyades,' which must have caused Pl<strong>in</strong>y<br />
much amusement. His comment is as follows : Nostri a<br />
similitud<strong>in</strong>e cognom<strong>in</strong>is Graeci, propter sues <strong>in</strong>positum ar-<br />
bitrantes, <strong>in</strong>peritia appellavere suculas.-'*^<br />
In his second e<strong>di</strong>tion, however, Walde regards sucula,<br />
a little pig, <strong>and</strong> sucula, a w<strong>in</strong>dlass, as identical <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>.<br />
When the term sucula, a w<strong>in</strong>dlass, was derived, whether<br />
popularly or deliberately, from sucula, a little pig, it was<br />
an easy transition to liken the clutch <strong>in</strong> the device to a<br />
suckl<strong>in</strong>g pig. It is quite evident that Cato had such a<br />
figure <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d when he gave <strong>di</strong>rections for the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> a w<strong>in</strong>e-press : Porculum <strong>in</strong> me<strong>di</strong>a sucula facito.-^®^<br />
The metaphor <strong>in</strong> porculus is then a logical extension <strong>of</strong><br />
the figure <strong>in</strong> sucula.<br />
In English, the term dog is used to denote the device for<br />
clutch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> hold<strong>in</strong>g a cable <strong>in</strong> a w<strong>in</strong>dlass. We may<br />
compare also the Greek use <strong>of</strong> oVos, ovCaKo
37<br />
tle<strong>in</strong>de latior proce<strong>di</strong>t et adversariorum ord<strong>in</strong>es rumpit,<br />
quia a pluribus <strong>in</strong> unum locum tela mittuntur. Quam rem<br />
milites nom<strong>in</strong>ant caput porc<strong>in</strong>um.^®*<br />
The transfer, as is shown by the synonym cuneus, is due<br />
to the shape, although we may well suppose that the epithet<br />
owed its favor to the pictures it recalled <strong>in</strong> the m<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong><br />
the sol<strong>di</strong>ers, who, as country lads, had seen the destructive<br />
snout plough its way through the earth <strong>in</strong> search <strong>of</strong> roots.<br />
ERICIUS, A Hedge-Hog: iransf., A Device Equipped<br />
WITH Sp<strong>in</strong>ose Shafts to Repel or<br />
Retard Assailants.<br />
The ericius was a defensive contrivance equipped with<br />
long ech<strong>in</strong>ated shafts. While it is not described <strong>in</strong> (detail<br />
by any Lat<strong>in</strong> author, its structure may easily be imag<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with the aid <strong>of</strong> a passage <strong>in</strong> which Sallust makes it the<br />
Lasis <strong>of</strong> a comparison. He tells how javel<strong>in</strong>s ra<strong>di</strong>ated from<br />
an axle <strong>in</strong> the manner <strong>of</strong> a military ericius: Saxaque <strong>in</strong>-<br />
gentia et orbes axe iuncti per pronum <strong>in</strong>citabantur, axibusque<br />
em<strong>in</strong>ebant <strong>in</strong> modum ericii militaris veruta b<strong>in</strong>um<br />
pedum. "^<br />
It is <strong>of</strong> course obvious that the likeness is between the<br />
sp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> <strong>and</strong> the sp<strong>in</strong>ose shafts <strong>of</strong> the device.<br />
This transfer must have appealed to the sol<strong>di</strong>ers, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
<strong>animal</strong>, as Pl<strong>in</strong>y shows, is ready, when curled up like a<br />
ball, to ward <strong>of</strong>f its foes: ubi (er<strong>in</strong>acei) sensere venantem,<br />
contracto et ore pe<strong>di</strong>busque ac parte omni <strong>in</strong>feriore, qua<br />
raram et <strong>in</strong>nocuam habent lanug<strong>in</strong>em, convolvuntur <strong>in</strong> formam<br />
pilae, ne quid comprehen<strong>di</strong> possit praeter aculeos.-"'®<br />
Some time later, Cassiodorus draws a lesson from the<br />
hedge-hog, which, thanks to an all-wise nature, is always<br />
under arms, be<strong>in</strong>g protected by a countless number <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sharpest sp<strong>in</strong>es : Her<strong>in</strong>acius . . . est, quem vocamus hericium,<br />
<strong>animal</strong> omn<strong>in</strong>o timidum, natura providente semper armatum<br />
: cuius cutem <strong>in</strong> vicem setarum sudes acutissimae densissimaeque<br />
communiunt.^*^<br />
Analogous to the military hedge-hogs, but with a meta-<br />
"*Veg. iii, 19. '"Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. viii, 37, $6, (133).<br />
"=8111. apud Non. 555, M. ""/» Psalm. 103, 18.
38<br />
phor less suggestive <strong>of</strong> <strong>their</strong> <strong>animal</strong> prototypes, are the<br />
Frisian horses, cheveaux-de-frise, <strong>of</strong> the seventeenth cen-<br />
tury, which were pieces <strong>of</strong> timber set with long iron spikes<br />
<strong>and</strong> employed <strong>in</strong> defensive operations, especially aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
cavalry charges.<br />
:<br />
CERVI ET CERVOLI, Deer: transf., Antler-like<br />
Branches Set up <strong>in</strong> the Ground.<br />
The cervi were sharpened branches <strong>of</strong> trees set up to obstruct<br />
or impede the advance <strong>of</strong> a foe. Caesar used them<br />
effectively at the siege <strong>of</strong> Alesia: Huic (vallo) loricam p<strong>in</strong>nasque<br />
a<strong>di</strong>ecit, gr<strong>and</strong>ibus cervis em<strong>in</strong>entibus ad commissu-<br />
ras pluteorum atque aggeris, qui ascensum hostium tar-<br />
darent."*<br />
The cervi were also used to block the progress <strong>of</strong> an<br />
enemy <strong>in</strong> the open<br />
Quaque patet campus planis <strong>in</strong>gressibus hostis,<br />
^®®<br />
Cervorum ambustis imitantur cornua ramis, . . .<br />
The cervoli, cheveaux-de-frise on a small scale, are recommended<br />
by Hyg<strong>in</strong>us for use <strong>in</strong> fortifications<br />
Cervoli trunci ramosi. Ad hos decurritur, si soli natura<br />
nimia teneritate cespes frangitur, neque lapide mobili nisi<br />
confragosum vallum extrui potest, nee fossa fieri, ut non<br />
ripae decidant. '''*'<br />
The metaphor <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>stance is unusually easy, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the terms ramus <strong>and</strong> ramosus were regularly used for the<br />
antlers <strong>of</strong> the deer. Pl<strong>in</strong>y does not hesitate to call them<br />
rami, 'branches'; (Natura) lusit <strong>animal</strong>ium armis, sparsit<br />
haec <strong>in</strong> ramos, ut cervorum.'^'^^<br />
Phaedrus <strong>uses</strong> the figure very felicitously as he pictures<br />
a stag admir<strong>in</strong>g his branch<strong>in</strong>g antlers reflected <strong>in</strong> a spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Ad fontem cervus, cum bibisset, restitit,<br />
Et <strong>in</strong> liquore vi<strong>di</strong>t effigiem suam.<br />
Ibi dum ramosa mirans laudat cornua . .<br />
Caes. Gall, vii, 72, 4.<br />
"» Sil. X, 412-3-<br />
"°Hyg. Mun. Castr. 51. Cf. also Front<strong>in</strong>. Strat. i, 5, 2.<br />
'"Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. xi, 37, 45, (123). Cf. id. viii, 22, 50, (116).<br />
'"Phaedr. i, 12, 3-5.<br />
:<br />
.^''^<br />
:
39<br />
Vergil <strong>uses</strong> the adjective arboreus as well as ramosus <strong>in</strong><br />
describ<strong>in</strong>g the branch-like appearance <strong>of</strong> the horns.^''*<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce ramus <strong>and</strong> ramosus are applied so freely to the<br />
antlers <strong>of</strong> the stag, it is very natural for cervi to be employed<br />
for the antler-like branches.<br />
Varro's explanation that the term is due to the resem-<br />
blance to the horns is, <strong>of</strong> course, obvious : Cervi ab simili-<br />
tud<strong>in</strong>e cornuum cervi: item reliqua fere ab similitud<strong>in</strong>e ut<br />
v<strong>in</strong>eae, testudo, aries.^''*<br />
ONAGER, Gk. ovaypo
40<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>atis, non solum equi eliduntur et hom<strong>in</strong>es, sed etiamr<br />
hostium mach<strong>in</strong>amenta franguntur."^<br />
Ballistae et onagri, si a peritis <strong>di</strong>ligentissime temperentur,<br />
universa praecedunt, a quibus nee virtus ulla nee munim<strong>in</strong>a<br />
possunt defendere bellatores. Nam more fulm<strong>in</strong>is<br />
quicquid percusserit aut <strong>di</strong>ssolvere aut <strong>in</strong>rumpere con-<br />
suerunt.'^''*<br />
It is clear that the basis <strong>of</strong> the transfer <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g lies <strong>in</strong><br />
the similarity between the motion <strong>of</strong> the arm <strong>of</strong> the onager<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>di</strong>scharg<strong>in</strong>g missiles <strong>and</strong> the <strong>animal</strong>'s use <strong>of</strong> its h<strong>in</strong>d<br />
legs. The relation <strong>of</strong> cause <strong>and</strong> effect was aga<strong>in</strong> obscured<br />
by the Romans, who emphasized the likeness <strong>in</strong> results.<br />
The Greek ovaypm as a ballista is late <strong>and</strong> evidently reflects<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> usage. Procopius speaks <strong>of</strong> it as though it were<br />
rather unfamiliar : a-tfievSovy Se avral (at firj-x^avai) eiaiv ifi~<br />
ipepsK Kal ovaypoi iiriKaKovvTai.^''^<br />
The ovaypoi <strong>of</strong> Suidas were defensive mach<strong>in</strong>es to seize<br />
assailants, the figure be<strong>in</strong>g due to the bit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong><br />
Svaypoi firj'xavjjfiaTa, oi Xey<strong>of</strong>ievoi apvaye;, o'Cye apird^eiv tow<br />
irpoviovra'i eirt^aW<strong>of</strong>ievoi el'x^ov.<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> the horse, the ancients regularly used as<br />
beasts <strong>of</strong> burden <strong>and</strong> for menial tasks <strong>animal</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the same<br />
genus as the onager, <strong>and</strong> so had ample occasion to note <strong>their</strong><br />
freedom with <strong>their</strong> heels. Pl<strong>in</strong>y recommends the adm<strong>in</strong>is-<br />
ter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> frequent potions <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>e to check the familiarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mule <strong>in</strong> this respect : Mulae calcitratus <strong>in</strong>hibetur v<strong>in</strong>i<br />
crebriore potu.^®" In the same chapter, he pays his respects-<br />
to the unusually hard ho<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong>: duritia eximiapedum.<br />
Its dangerous heels enabled the wild-ass to make an al-<br />
liance with the lion<br />
:<br />
@rip7i
41<br />
It is quite possible that it is the ho<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the ass <strong>and</strong> mule,<br />
as well as those <strong>of</strong> the horse, whose impr<strong>in</strong>t we see <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> recalcitro, <strong>and</strong> the English descendant, recalcitrant.<br />
EQUULEUS (ECULEUS), A Little Horse; transf..<br />
An Instrument <strong>of</strong> Torture.<br />
While the equuleus is not properly <strong>in</strong>cluded under the<br />
Mach<strong>in</strong>ae Bellicae, it was sometimes used <strong>in</strong> camp life as;<br />
Curtius shows : Tot conscii, nee <strong>in</strong> eculeum quidem <strong>in</strong>positi,<br />
verum fatebuntur?^^^<br />
Prudentius refers to the equuleus as a noxialis stipes, evi-<br />
dently a piece <strong>of</strong> timber <strong>of</strong> stout body, which assisted per-<br />
haps by converg<strong>in</strong>g supports, somewhat similar to stocky<br />
legs, roughly resembled a horse. ^**<br />
Isidore, however, assigns another reason for the transfer,<br />
attribut<strong>in</strong>g it to the method <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>flict<strong>in</strong>g torture : Equuleus<br />
autem <strong>di</strong>ctus quod extendat.-'^*<br />
The transfer <strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g is made easy by the fact that the<br />
horse is an <strong>animal</strong> tra<strong>di</strong>tionally associated with torture.<br />
Among the early Achaeans, says Murray, " if a woman<br />
attempted to bear a child to any man but her special master,<br />
she was apt to be burned alive, or torn asunder by horses."^*^<br />
In speak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the mutilation <strong>of</strong> the corpse <strong>of</strong> Hector,<br />
" A far worse story was really h<strong>and</strong>ed<br />
the same author says :<br />
down by the tra<strong>di</strong>tion. There are fragments <strong>of</strong> the rude<br />
unexpurgated saga still extant, accord<strong>in</strong>g to which Hector<br />
was still alive when his enemy tied him to the chariot rail<br />
<strong>and</strong> proceeded to drag him to death. Sophocles, always<br />
archaic <strong>in</strong> such matters, explicitly follows this legend<br />
{Ajax, 1031). So does Euripides {Androm. 399). Evea<br />
so late a writer as Vergil seems to adopt it."^*®<br />
The Vergil passage runs as follows:<br />
"^ Curt, vi, 10, 10. Cf. also Amm. xiv, 5, 9.<br />
"°Cf. Vault<strong>in</strong>g-horse, wood-horse.<br />
"* Isid. Orig. v, 27, 21.<br />
"" Murray, The Rise <strong>of</strong> the Greek Epic, p. 75.<br />
' Murray, id. p. 118.
42<br />
Hector<br />
Visus adesse mihi largosque effundere fletus,<br />
Raptatus bigis, ut quondam, aterque cruento<br />
Pulvere perque pedes traiectus lora tumentis.^*^<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to one form <strong>of</strong> the story, Dionysus had the<br />
limbs <strong>of</strong> Lycurgus wrenched apart by horses : K&Kei Kara<br />
Aiovvtrov ^ovXtjo'iv vtto "irircav Biadapel« Aram, xiv, 5, 9.<br />
""Liv. i, 38, lo-ii. ""Hier. Epist. i, 3.<br />
"'Prud. Perist. v, 109-112.<br />
:
43<br />
Analogous to this use <strong>of</strong> equuleus are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
It. Cavelleto : Spezie <strong>di</strong> tormento a cui si ponevano i rei<br />
per far loro confessare la colpa.^^*<br />
Fr. Chevalet: Sorte de cheval de bois a dos en arete<br />
sur lequel on mettait, avec des boulets aux pieds, les soldats<br />
qui avaient commis certa<strong>in</strong>s fautes.-*®^<br />
Ger. Esel: Der holzerne Esel, e<strong>in</strong> Strafmittel ftir<br />
Soldaten.i»«<br />
Eng. Steed : An English religious poet <strong>of</strong> the fourteenth<br />
century says <strong>of</strong> Christ, "on stokky stede he rode.""''<br />
Eng. Horse : A wooden frame, sometimes called a timber<br />
mare, on which sol<strong>di</strong>ers are sometimes compelled to<br />
ride as a punishment.^®*<br />
MURMILLO or MIRMILLO,!®® A K<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> Seafish;<br />
transf., A Gallic Helmet.<br />
The scholiast on Juvenal attributes the transfer to the<br />
fish represented on the helmet : Mirmillo^*"* armaturae Gal-<br />
licae nomen, ex pisce <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>tum, cuius imago <strong>in</strong> galea f<strong>in</strong>gitur.<br />
Too little credence^"* is given to the words <strong>of</strong> the scholiast,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce from Festus we may <strong>in</strong>fer that the use <strong>of</strong> mur-<br />
millo for the helmet was an <strong>in</strong>terme<strong>di</strong>ate stage between the<br />
adoption <strong>of</strong> the device <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> the term for a glad-<br />
iator. Murmillones replaced the term Galli to <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>cate the<br />
men who wore the murmillonic k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> armor : murmillonicum<br />
genus armaturae Gallicum est ipsique murmillones ante<br />
Galli appellabantur, <strong>in</strong> quorum galeis piscis effigies<br />
<strong>in</strong>erat.2»2<br />
In spite <strong>of</strong> the silence <strong>of</strong> the lexicographers, there seems<br />
''* Dizionario delta L<strong>in</strong>gua Italiana, Tommaseo e Bell<strong>in</strong>i.<br />
"" Dictionnaire Geniral de la Langue Fratifaise, Hatzfeld et Darmesteter.<br />
"" Deutsch-englisches Worterbuch, Lucas.<br />
*" Words <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> Ways <strong>in</strong> English Speech, Greenough <strong>and</strong> Kittredge,<br />
p. 367-<br />
"* The Century Dictionary.<br />
'"ob zu gr. iMp/eSKos, impiiivas, 'e<strong>in</strong>e Art Meerfisch.' Walde Lat. etym.<br />
Worterbuch, s. v.<br />
"" Schol. ad Juv. viii, 200. Forcell<strong>in</strong>i s. v. questions this read<strong>in</strong>g by<br />
jn}3pTA„(r0(iX/ta." Jahn however makes no comment upon it.<br />
'" Harper's Diet, <strong>and</strong> Walde give only one mean<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
'"" Paul. Fest. p. 284 Miill.
44<br />
to be no doubt that the term murmillo was actually applied<br />
to the armor as well as to the gla<strong>di</strong>ator.<br />
An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g parallel <strong>of</strong> an emblem or device giv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rise to a sobriquet is afforded by " culver<strong>in</strong> from L. coluber,<br />
' snake,' because the figure <strong>of</strong> a serpent was frequently en-<br />
graved on ordnance <strong>of</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d."^"*<br />
MUREX, A Shell-Fish : transf.. Caltrop.<br />
Under its Greek name, tribulus, Vegetius describes the<br />
military murex as a defensive device with four sharp shafts<br />
ra<strong>di</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from it <strong>in</strong> such a way that, no matter how it was<br />
thrown, one shaft always rema<strong>in</strong>ed upright <strong>in</strong> a threaten<strong>in</strong>g<br />
position: Tribulus est ex quattuor palis confixum propug-<br />
naculum, quod, quomodo abieceris, tribus ra<strong>di</strong>is stat et<br />
erecto quarto <strong>in</strong>festum est.^**<br />
The effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the contrivance is manifested <strong>in</strong> Polyaenus's<br />
account <strong>of</strong> the operations <strong>of</strong> Nicias aga<strong>in</strong>st the Syr-<br />
acusans. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the night the Athenians scattered cal-<br />
trops over the level pla<strong>in</strong>. When the enemy charged, they<br />
found <strong>their</strong> progress h<strong>in</strong>dered s<strong>in</strong>ce the po<strong>in</strong>ts penetrated<br />
the ho<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>their</strong> horses : Nt/c/a?, arpaTOTreSevSvTcov 'Kdrjvalmv<br />
irepl to "OXvimov, es rd irpd tov a-TpaTOtreSov x'^P^'")<br />
onaXei ov, eKeXevcre vvKrmp Tpi06\ov^ Kajacnreipai. ''Eirfl Be<br />
Trj'i va-repauK "Ek^uvto^ 6 'S.vpaKOvaUov 'Cirirap^oi -irporf^aje<br />
roiK i'jnrei';, f/v avr&v ala'xp^ ^f'^yV) "^^^ rpi^oKav ipm'rj'yw-<br />
fievaiv iv toi^<br />
The sharp sp<strong>in</strong>es are so characteristic <strong>of</strong> the fish, that the<br />
term murex was applied to many sharp objects. It is commonly<br />
used to denote jagged <strong>and</strong> dangerous rocks: Muri-<br />
ces petrae <strong>in</strong> litore similes muricibus vivis, acutissimae et<br />
navibus perniciosae.^"®<br />
"Greenough <strong>and</strong> Kittredge, Words <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> Ways <strong>in</strong> English Speech,<br />
P- 367-<br />
Veg. lii, 24. The Lat<strong>in</strong> term murex is used by Curt, iv, 13, 36, <strong>and</strong> by<br />
Val. Max. iii, 7, 2.<br />
'^ Polyaenus i, 39, 2.<br />
*" Isid. Orig. xvi, 3, 3.
45<br />
Pl<strong>in</strong>y <strong>in</strong>forms us that Cato, <strong>in</strong> order to prevent the assembl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the people <strong>in</strong> the Forum, decreed that it be<br />
strewn with murices, probably sharp stones :<br />
mutatis moribus<br />
Catonis Censorii qui sternendum quoque forum muricibus<br />
censuerat.^"'^ These murices may be forerunners <strong>of</strong> the<br />
military murices.<br />
With an emphasis <strong>of</strong> such character placed upon the sharp<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts, the transition is very easy to the military murex, the<br />
prom<strong>in</strong>ent feature <strong>of</strong> which is the sharp sp<strong>in</strong>e-like shaft.<br />
The murex was used also as a means <strong>of</strong> torture for pris-<br />
oners. The Romans, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the tra<strong>di</strong>tional story, re-<br />
taliated for the cruelty to Regulus by conf<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Carthag<strong>in</strong>ian<br />
captives <strong>in</strong> a box bristl<strong>in</strong>g with murices, ' spikes :'<br />
Tu<strong>di</strong>tanus somno <strong>di</strong>u (Regulum) prohibitum atque ita<br />
vita privatum refert, idque ubi Romae cognitum est, nobilis-<br />
simos Poenorum captivos liberis Reguli a senatu de<strong>di</strong>tos et<br />
ab his <strong>in</strong> armario muricibus praefixo destitutos eodemque<br />
<strong>in</strong>somnia cruciatos <strong>in</strong>terisse.^"*<br />
In English military parlance the expression crows' feet<br />
is used at times to denote the caltrop.<br />
ASPIS, Gk. cunrk, An Asp ; transf., A Shield.<br />
To Just<strong>in</strong>ian we are <strong>in</strong>debted for an <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>in</strong><br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> the word aspis, mean<strong>in</strong>g shield :<br />
tes fabricari et vendere arcus, sagittas ;<br />
Prohibemus priva-<br />
aspidas <strong>in</strong>super sive<br />
scutaria.^"*<br />
The Thesaurus <strong>of</strong> Stephanus <strong>and</strong> the Dictionary <strong>of</strong> Liddell<br />
<strong>and</strong> Scott unite with the Auctor Etymologici Magni<br />
<strong>in</strong> giv<strong>in</strong>g precedence to the second mean<strong>in</strong>g. Saalfeld <strong>in</strong><br />
his Tensaurus Italograecus <strong>and</strong> the Thesaurus L<strong>in</strong>g. Lat.<br />
adopt the reverse order. In Greek, atrirk means shield <strong>in</strong><br />
nearly every <strong>in</strong>stance, while <strong>in</strong> the Lat<strong>in</strong> aspis the order<br />
<strong>of</strong> frequency is the reverse.<br />
The Auctor E. M. ascribes the change to the method <strong>of</strong><br />
locomotion <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> as it advances <strong>in</strong> a whirl<strong>in</strong>g coil<br />
'"Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. xix, I, 6, (24).<br />
""Cell, vii, (vi),4. 4-<br />
'^Novell. lust. 86, 4.
:<br />
46<br />
<strong>and</strong> not elongated. It is a figure drawn from the weapon,<br />
for the serpent is accustomed to fight with its body coiled.<br />
ao-TTt? . . . iirl Tov epTrerov, Sia rd icvk\ov
:<br />
47<br />
While the second alternative does not account for the se-<br />
lection <strong>of</strong> the asp rather than some other species <strong>of</strong> the<br />
snake family, still it gives ad<strong>di</strong>tional assurance that the<br />
metaphor arises from the similarity <strong>in</strong> shape.<br />
SCORPIO, Gk. o-KopTTio?, A Scorpion: transf., i, An<br />
Instrument Primarily for Shoot<strong>in</strong>g Arrows;<br />
2, An Arrow; 3, A K<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> Ballista.<br />
In striv<strong>in</strong>g to account for this transfer <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g, Tertullian<br />
has led us <strong>in</strong>to a bewilder<strong>in</strong>g labyr<strong>in</strong>th <strong>of</strong> compari-<br />
sons that seems irremeabile. He f<strong>in</strong>ds numerous likenesses<br />
<strong>in</strong> the general complexity <strong>of</strong> both <strong>animal</strong> <strong>and</strong> ma-<br />
ch<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>in</strong> the source <strong>of</strong> the danger, <strong>in</strong> the contour <strong>of</strong> the<br />
frontal claws <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong> <strong>and</strong> the shape <strong>of</strong> the bow, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
method <strong>of</strong> attack, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the dangerous po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> the st<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the arrow<br />
Scorpii series ilia nodorum, venenata <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>secus venula<br />
subtilis, arcuato impetu <strong>in</strong>surgens, hamatile spiculum <strong>in</strong><br />
summo tormenti ratione restr<strong>in</strong>gens; unde (i. e. from all<br />
<strong>of</strong> these po<strong>in</strong>ts) et bellicam mach<strong>in</strong>am, retractu tela vege-<br />
tantem, de scorpio nom<strong>in</strong>ant.^^*<br />
There is no suggestion <strong>of</strong> the naive <strong>in</strong> Tertullian's ex-<br />
planation. It is a conscious endeavor to f<strong>in</strong>d po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>of</strong><br />
resemblance.<br />
Heron has found the cause <strong>of</strong> the transfer <strong>in</strong> the general<br />
shape <strong>of</strong> the scorpion, eiidvrova. a Tivei koX aKopiriow KoKovaiv<br />
avo Tjj? irepl rd axHua 6iioi6Tr}To
48<br />
ferunt mortem. ^^^ That is, not, ' because they cause death,'<br />
but, 'because they use small delicate po<strong>in</strong>ts as an <strong>in</strong>strument<br />
<strong>of</strong> death.'<br />
The Greek technical name for the mach<strong>in</strong>e, /caraireXrai<br />
<strong>of</strong>u/8e\e«? ,<br />
' sharp-missiled catapults,' supports the deriva-<br />
tion <strong>of</strong> Vegetius, s<strong>in</strong>ce the weapon <strong>of</strong> the catapult is pri-<br />
marily the arrow. In fact, <strong>of</strong>v/3e\e«, emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t, is <strong>di</strong>rectly <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the tra<strong>di</strong>tion <strong>of</strong> the sagas<br />
which furnish clues for the explanation <strong>of</strong> the effectiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> ancient Greek archery. " There is no doubt whatever<br />
that the primitive <strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong> Greece poisoned <strong>their</strong><br />
arrow-heads. The very word for poison, to^ikov, means<br />
' belong<strong>in</strong>g to an arrow.' And many myths tell <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>-<br />
curable <strong>and</strong> burn<strong>in</strong>g pa<strong>in</strong>s caused by arrows. The arrows<br />
<strong>of</strong> Heracles <strong>in</strong> Hesiod {Aspis, 132) 'had on the front <strong>of</strong><br />
them death <strong>and</strong> trickl<strong>in</strong>g drops.' "^^^<br />
The prom<strong>in</strong>ence <strong>of</strong> the erect tail, together with the gen-<br />
eral shape <strong>of</strong> the body, <strong>and</strong> the belief <strong>in</strong> the deadly results<br />
<strong>of</strong> the st<strong>in</strong>g, ensured the selection <strong>of</strong> the scorpio for the<br />
transfer <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> the bee, whose aculeus makes men yell<br />
apis aculeum s<strong>in</strong>e clamore ferre non possumus.^^^<br />
The metaphor <strong>in</strong> scorpio <strong>di</strong>d not always proceed laxis<br />
habenis. Isidore is quite explicit on the subject, <strong>in</strong>form-<br />
<strong>in</strong>g us that the term may be applied to the arrow alone,<br />
whether it is <strong>di</strong>scharged from the bow or from the catapult<br />
Scorpio est sagitta venenata arcu vel tormentis excussa,<br />
quae dum ad hom<strong>in</strong>em venerit, virus, qua figit, <strong>in</strong>fun<strong>di</strong>t;<br />
unde et scorpio nomen accipit.^^*<br />
While the transfer is assigned <strong>in</strong> this passage to the<br />
st<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g rather than the st<strong>in</strong>ger, we can aga<strong>in</strong> account for<br />
the statement through a confusion between cause <strong>and</strong> effect.<br />
In later times the term scorpio became synonymous with<br />
^*®<br />
onager: Scorpionis quem appellant nunc onagrum. . .<br />
In this <strong>in</strong>stance, the similarity is between the erect caudal<br />
''" Veg. iv, 22.<br />
"'° Murray, The Rise <strong>of</strong> the Greek Epic, p. 120.<br />
^' Cic. Tusc. ii, 22.<br />
Isid. Orig. xviii, 8, 4.<br />
Amm. xxiii, 4, 4.<br />
:
49<br />
appendage <strong>and</strong> the threat<strong>in</strong>g arm <strong>of</strong> the mach<strong>in</strong>e. Scorpio<br />
(appellatur) quoniam aculeum desuper habet erectum.^^"<br />
Between no other <strong>animal</strong> <strong>and</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>e are there so many<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>of</strong> similarity, real or <strong>in</strong>cidental. A description <strong>of</strong><br />
one would almost fit the other<br />
aculeus<br />
acumen<br />
spiculum<br />
ictus<br />
Animal.<br />
figere<br />
venena <strong>di</strong>ffundere*^^<br />
venenum <strong>in</strong>fundere<br />
arcuato impetu <strong>in</strong>surgens<br />
<strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>secus venula subtilis<br />
tenui fistula perforati<br />
venenata venula<br />
eum <strong>in</strong>terficere demonstratur<br />
:<br />
aculeus<br />
acumen<br />
spiculum<br />
ictus<br />
figere<br />
Mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
virus <strong>in</strong>fundere^^^<br />
retractu tela vegetans.<br />
fistula . . . patula tenuitate<br />
sagitta venenata<br />
<strong>in</strong>ferre mortem<br />
Chele ( Gk. XV^V ) , properly the claws <strong>of</strong> a scorpion or<br />
crab, is transferred to the claw-shaped trigger <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
That the Romans had a wholesome respect for the scorpion,<br />
is shown by Ovid's vivid picture <strong>of</strong> its erect menac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tail: elatae metuendus acum<strong>in</strong>e caudae scorpios.^^^<br />
The belief <strong>in</strong> the deadly effect <strong>of</strong> its venom is revealed by<br />
the tra<strong>di</strong>tion that Orion, the Nimrod <strong>of</strong> Classic Mythology,<br />
was killed by a scorpion : Orion, cum venaretur et <strong>in</strong> eo<br />
exercitatissimum se esse confideret, <strong>di</strong>xisse etiam Dianae et<br />
Latonae se omnia quae ex terra oriuntur, <strong>in</strong>terficere valere<br />
quare terram permotam, scorpionem misisse, qui eum <strong>in</strong>terficere<br />
demonstratur. ^^^<br />
That the scorpion impressed its <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>viduality upon the<br />
Greeks, is attested by numerous proverbs.<br />
''"' Amm. xxiii, 4, 7.<br />
"^This word recalls the derivation from (rKopwlj^ti).<br />
'^ Ov. Fast, iv, 163.<br />
"^Hyg. Astr. ii, 26.<br />
:
so<br />
'To act the scorpion,' as Hesychius tells us, denotes<br />
bestial anger. aKopwlasaai- ws drjpiov Tpa^vvov, opyi^ov.<br />
aKopviov oKTOMTovv iyeipsK rem<strong>in</strong>ds one <strong>of</strong> the English ex-<br />
pression, 'You're stirr<strong>in</strong>g up a hornets' nest'<br />
vtro iravTi \{d^, becomes proverbial for danger. Soph-<br />
ocles makes excellent use <strong>of</strong> the figure <strong>in</strong> the Captives.<br />
ev iravTi 'yap toi aKopTrio
SI<br />
from the break<strong>in</strong>g on board <strong>of</strong> heavy seas." By synecdoche<br />
the terms are then applied to the entire vessel.<br />
In baseball circles the turtleback <strong>di</strong>amond has made its<br />
advent <strong>in</strong> recent years.<br />
LUPUS, Gk. Xw«o9, a Wolf; transf., A Jaw-Shaped<br />
Device for Seiz<strong>in</strong>g the Aries,^** or even Men.<br />
An <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> the military use <strong>of</strong> this word is found <strong>in</strong><br />
a passage where Livy tells <strong>of</strong> iron wolves threaten<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
carry besiegers al<strong>of</strong>t with<strong>in</strong> the walls : <strong>in</strong> alios lupi superne<br />
ferrei <strong>in</strong>iecti, ut <strong>in</strong> periculo essent, ne suspensi <strong>in</strong> murum ex-<br />
traherentur."^®<br />
Compar<strong>in</strong>g this wolf with the one employed to recover<br />
articles from the bottom <strong>of</strong> a well, one might suppose the<br />
transfer to lie <strong>in</strong> the physical act <strong>of</strong> seiz<strong>in</strong>g : Lupus qui est<br />
canicula, ferreus harpax, quia si quid <strong>in</strong> puteum deci<strong>di</strong>t,<br />
rapit et extrahit, unde et nomen accipit.^**<br />
An <strong>in</strong><strong>di</strong>cation <strong>of</strong> the real reason for the name can be ob-<br />
ta<strong>in</strong>ed from the description <strong>of</strong> Vegetius, who lays stress on<br />
the shape <strong>of</strong> the gripp<strong>in</strong>g apparatus, which resembles a pair<br />
<strong>of</strong> shears <strong>and</strong> is equipped with teeth : Plures <strong>in</strong> modum for-<br />
ficis dentatum funibus <strong>in</strong>ligant ferrum, quem lupum vocant,<br />
adprehensumque arietem aut evertunt aut ita suspendunt ut<br />
impetum non habet ferien<strong>di</strong>.^^^<br />
Further confirmation <strong>of</strong> the view that it is the shape <strong>of</strong> the<br />
jaws, <strong>and</strong> not <strong>their</strong> action, that ca<strong>uses</strong> the transfer is found<br />
<strong>in</strong> lupus, a bit with wolf-like teeth, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> lupus, a h<strong>and</strong>saw.<br />
The power to grip <strong>and</strong> seize is a result <strong>of</strong> the shape. As <strong>in</strong><br />
other <strong>in</strong>stances, a confusion has arisen between cause <strong>and</strong><br />
effect. In English a close analogy is found <strong>in</strong> the seven-<br />
teen <strong>uses</strong> <strong>of</strong> dog, " a name given to various mechanical de-<br />
vices, usually hav<strong>in</strong>g or consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a tooth or claw used<br />
for gripp<strong>in</strong>g or hold<strong>in</strong>g."^^*<br />
^This recalls the proverbial antipathy between the wolf <strong>and</strong> the sheep.<br />
Liv. xxviii, 3, 7.<br />
'"'Isid. Orig. xx, 15, 4.<br />
=" Veg. iv, 23.<br />
^ Murray, New Eng. Diet. s. v. dog.
52<br />
The proverbial rapacitas <strong>of</strong> the wolf,^*^ which is respon-<br />
sible for lupus, a voracious fish or person, facilitates the<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> the word wolf to denote the device which works<br />
with results so similar.<br />
In Procopius there is described a Xvko?, ' wolf,' which,<br />
though more complex than the Roman device, operated with<br />
wonderful precision <strong>and</strong> accuracy.^** Like onager (see p.<br />
40), it is an <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> Greek <strong>in</strong>debtedness to Lat<strong>in</strong> for an<br />
<strong>animal</strong> name to designate a military mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Wolves <strong>of</strong> various types were employed dur<strong>in</strong>g the mid-<br />
dle ages:<br />
Lupus Belli appellatur a Matth. Westmonaster. ann.<br />
1304: lussit rex arietem fabricari, quem Graeci Nicontam<br />
vocant, quasi v<strong>in</strong>centem omnia, et Lupum belli. Verum<br />
arias <strong>in</strong>decens et <strong>in</strong>compositus parum aut nihil pr<strong>of</strong>uit:<br />
Lupus autem belli, m<strong>in</strong>us sumptuosus <strong>in</strong>clusis plus nocuit.<br />
Lupus, nude, <strong>in</strong> Chronico Estiensi apud Murator. torn. 15,<br />
col. 359: Unum maximum Lupum cum quo capiebat for-<br />
tilitias dom<strong>in</strong>i Marchionis.<br />
Loupus. M<strong>and</strong>atum Ricar<strong>di</strong> 11. Regis Angl. ann. 1394:<br />
Necnon ad quoscumque defectus, tarn <strong>in</strong> muris, portis, turel-<br />
lis, Loupis, pontibus, barreris et fossatis, quam <strong>in</strong> domi-<br />
bus.235<br />
CUNICULUS, A Rabbit; transf., A Tunnel Employed<br />
IN Siege Operations.<br />
The transferred application <strong>of</strong> cuniculus for an underground<br />
passage was a very broad one, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g even aque-<br />
ducts. The term was, however, used most frequently <strong>in</strong><br />
its military signification. Among a warlike people this<br />
was very natural. As a nation, the Romans were <strong>in</strong> <strong>their</strong><br />
early days more familiar with siege tactics than with<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g operations.<br />
'^ Ael. N. A. xi, 37, has classified the wolf, dog, lion, <strong>and</strong> panther by the<br />
term Kapxapidoura, <strong>animal</strong>s with teeth dove-tailed, so to speak, <strong>and</strong> hence<br />
adapted for seiz<strong>in</strong>g. Of the first two <strong>animal</strong>s, which are the more familiar<br />
ones, the Lat<strong>in</strong> chose wolf for the figurative use, the English selected dog.<br />
Procop. B. G. 21, 19 sq.<br />
Quoted by Du Cange, s. v. Lupus.
S3<br />
In spite <strong>of</strong> the statement <strong>of</strong> Varro^^e <strong>and</strong> Pl<strong>in</strong>y,^*'' cunicuius,<br />
' an underground passage,' is derived from the name<br />
<strong>of</strong> an <strong>animal</strong> <strong>and</strong> not vice versa.<br />
Paulus gives the real sequence <strong>of</strong> the transfer <strong>in</strong> the<br />
first <strong>of</strong> his explanations, though the second is an etymolog-<br />
ical absur<strong>di</strong>ty : Cuniculum, id est foramen sub terra occul-<br />
tum, aut ab <strong>animal</strong>i, quod simile est lepori, appellatur, cui<br />
subterfossa terra latere est solitum, aut a cuneorum simili-<br />
tud<strong>in</strong>e qui omnem materiam <strong>in</strong>trant fidentes.^**<br />
Vegetius, however, <strong>di</strong>splays no hesitancy <strong>in</strong> his deriva-<br />
tion, rightly ascrib<strong>in</strong>g the transfer to the <strong>animal</strong>'s habit <strong>of</strong><br />
burrow<strong>in</strong>g: Genus oppugnationum est subterraneum atque<br />
secretum, quod cuniculum vocant a leporibus, qui cavernas<br />
sub terris fo<strong>di</strong>unt ibique conduntur.<br />
While the burrow<strong>in</strong>g ca<strong>uses</strong> the transfer, an <strong>in</strong>terme<strong>di</strong>ate<br />
step must have been the application <strong>of</strong> the term cuniculus to<br />
the results <strong>of</strong> the <strong>animal</strong>'s excavat<strong>in</strong>g propensities, i. e. to<br />
the burrow.<br />
A figure somewhat similar to that <strong>in</strong> cuniculus is found<br />
<strong>in</strong> talpa, the mole, or <strong>di</strong>gger: Talpa. Mach<strong>in</strong>a ad sufFo-<br />
<strong>di</strong>endos muros, sub qua latent, qui cuniculos conficiunt.^*"<br />
The cunicularii <strong>of</strong> earlier days are recalled by the tal-<br />
parii: Habebat quippe quosdam artifices, quos Fossores vel<br />
Talparios vocant, qui ad modum talpae subterranea fo<strong>di</strong>-<br />
entes, quaslibet murorum et turrium firmitates ferramentis<br />
vali<strong>di</strong>ssimis perrumpebant.^*^<br />
The popular belief <strong>in</strong> the burrow<strong>in</strong>g ability <strong>of</strong> the rabbit<br />
is shown by Pl<strong>in</strong>y's statement, on Varro's authority, that the<br />
cuniculi underm<strong>in</strong>ed a town <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong>.^*^ M. Varro auctor<br />
est a cuniculis suffosum <strong>in</strong> Hispania oppidum.<br />
Martial has a clever <strong>di</strong>stich play<strong>in</strong>g upon the two <strong>uses</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the word cuniculus:<br />
Gaudet <strong>in</strong> effossis habitare cuniculus antris.<br />
Monstravit tacitas hostibus ille vias.^*^<br />
Varro Rust, iii, 12, 6.<br />
^'Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. viii, 55. 81, (218)- Veg. iv, 24.<br />
"^Du Cange, s. v. Talpa.<br />
"^ Quoted by Du Cange, s. v. Talparii.<br />
'"Pl<strong>in</strong>. Nat. viii, 29, 43, (104).<br />
""Mart, xiii, 60.<br />
"' Paul. Fest. p. 50 Mull.
54<br />
TIGRIS, IN Persian, An Arrow ;<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lat., A Tiger.<br />
An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> the opposite phenomenon, the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> a weapon giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to the name <strong>of</strong> an <strong>animal</strong>,<br />
is seen <strong>in</strong> the Lat<strong>in</strong> tigris. The word goes back ultimately,<br />
through the Greek riypi
55<br />
tion is due to the burden rather than the support<strong>in</strong>g object.<br />
The figurative use arises then from the general resemblance<br />
between the pendent baggage <strong>and</strong> a rider astride his <strong>animal</strong>.<br />
If one may judge from the <strong>animal</strong> <strong>names</strong> (or derivatives<br />
from them) <strong>in</strong>cluded under Mach<strong>in</strong>ae Bellicae <strong>in</strong> Du<br />
Cange,*^" a siege dur<strong>in</strong>g the Middle Ages might have sug-<br />
gested a zoological garden. The list is as follows<br />
Aries^^^ Musclus<br />
Asellus Onager<br />
Berbices Panthera<br />
Cancer<br />
Scropha<br />
Catus<br />
Sp<strong>in</strong>garda*^^<br />
Colobr<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Sp<strong>in</strong>gardella<br />
Ericius Sus<br />
Falconeta<br />
Talpa<br />
Gatta<br />
Talparii<br />
Hirundo<br />
Turturela<br />
Locusta<br />
Vulpes<br />
Lupus<br />
Vulpecula^si<br />
Moschetta<br />
Du Cange, Tom. vii, p. 515.<br />
=" Not listed, but referred to under lupus <strong>and</strong> vulfes respectively.<br />
*"Vocis etymon a Germ. Spr<strong>in</strong>tz, quod muscetam, genus accipitrum,<br />
significat, deducit Ferrarius. Du Cange s. v. sp<strong>in</strong>garda.<br />
:
Aspis 45<br />
Aries 10<br />
Cancer=^ 23<br />
Capreoli 18<br />
Caput Porci 36<br />
Cattus 9, 23, 28<br />
Cervi 38<br />
Chelonium 50<br />
Corax 32<br />
Corvus 29<br />
Cuniculus 52<br />
Equuleus 41<br />
Equus 17<br />
Ericius 37<br />
Grus 33<br />
Locusta^ 24<br />
Lupus 51<br />
^ Not captions.<br />
INDEX.<br />
56<br />
Muli 54<br />
Murex 44<br />
Murmillo 43<br />
Musculus 26<br />
Onager 39<br />
Porculus 35<br />
Scorpio 47<br />
Scropha 8<br />
Sucula 35<br />
Sus=^ 24<br />
Talpa=»» 53<br />
Talparii^"" 53<br />
Terebra 29<br />
Testudo 19<br />
Testudo Arietaria 24<br />
Tigris 54