Walia Special Edition on the Bale Mountains (2011) - Zoologische ...

<strong>Walia</strong>
<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains
Journal of thE Ethiopian WildlifE and natural hiStory SociEty

<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains
Published 2011
Edited by: Deborah Randall 1 , Simon Thirgood 2 and Anouska Kinahan 3
1 Frankfurt Zoological Society, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Email: deborah.a.randall@gmail.com
2 Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, now the James Hutton Institute, UK
3 Frankfurt Zoological Society, Bale Mountains Conservation Project, Bale Mountains National
Park, Ethiopia. Email: anouskakinahan@fzs.org
Acknowledgements:
This publication was made possible with the financial assistance of the Frankfurt Zoological Society,
the European Union, the Darwin Initiative Harenna Project and the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation
Programme. The editors would like to extend a very big thank you to Zewditu Tessema, Head of
Resource and Information Center from Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS)
for her endless patience, input, guidance and oversight of the final stages of the production of this
<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong>.
Layout Design: Thomas Engida, tomnet_et@yahoo.com
Cover Photos- © Delphin Ruché and Vincent Munier
EWNHS Members of the Board of Management
Dr. Theodros Atlabachew President
Wzo. Azeb Girmai Vice-President
Dr. Asferachew Abate Member
Ato Yeneneh Teka Member
Dr. Habtemariam Abate Member
Wzo. Aster Tefera Member
Dr. Mekuria Argaw Member
Ato Mengistu Wondafrash Non-voting member
Disclaimer: This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The contents of this
document are the sole responsibility of the Frankfurt Zoological Society and EWNHS and can under no circumstances
be regarded as reflecting the position of the European Union.

This <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong> is Dedicated to Simon Thirgood
1962-2009
From a vantage point on the Morobawa plateau in the Bale Mountains, in the warm sunlight, Simon and I
sink down into a couple of tussocks of Festuca grass. The year was 2003 and we were looking around for
potential sites for the project that we were tentatively calling the Bale Ecosystem Project. Having spent a few
hours walking over the plateau, we settled in the warm grass and, deeply content, our conversation roamed
from the minutiae of the research questions to which we wanted answers to the intractability of barriers to
conservation in Ethiopia to the allure of the Bale Mountains.
Simon Thirgood was an applied ecologist, born in Liberia in 1962 and brought up in Canada. His
professional work was built on a solid scientific foundation with a PhD from the University of Southampton
on the behavioural ecology of fallow deer and post-doctoral work, based out of the University of Cambridge,
on the mating system of black lechwe in Zambia. From 1992, the practical application of ecology grew in
his work, initially through the Joint Raptor Study which examined the interaction between the management
of moorlands in Scotland for driven grouse shooting and the conservation of birds of prey. This work
culminated in his first book, Birds of Prey and Red Grouse which he co-authored with Steve Redpath. His
interest in Ethiopia emerged through his relationship with Karen Laurenson and her work on diseases among
wild carnivores and domestic dogs in the Bale Mountains - as a key to understanding the disease threats to
Ethiopian wolves. Simon’s interest and work in conservation culminated in his appointment, with Karen, as
Programme Manager for the Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS). Simon, Karen and their young family were
based in the Serengeti and he was responsible for projects in Tanzania and Zambia. Simon also had significant
input into FZS projects in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa. Following two years in the Serengeti, Simon
was offered the position of Head of Ecology at the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute in Aberdeen. In
recognition of his abilities as an applied ecologist, he became one of the editors of the Journal of Applied
Ecology and, at this point, he edited his second book - People and Wildlife: Conflict or Co-existence (coedited
with Rosie Woodroffe and Alan Rabinowitz).
From 1995, when Simon first visited Ethiopia, his commitment to the country and the conservation
of its unique biodiversity and ecosystems grew. Throughout his career, he recognised the value of investing
time and energy in mentoring talented students and, as such, he supported or supervised three PhD Ethiopian
students (Anagaw Atickem, Anteneh Shimelis and Ermias Admasu) as well as other post-graduate students
from the Universities of Oxford and Addis Ababa. He was generous with his time and support of the students,
working with them through the questions they were setting out to answer and he became a role model for
many of these young people. He was also excited by the potential to seek answers to research questions in
Afroalpine ecosystems such as those in the Bale Mountains and any brief walk with him in the mountains
always led to questions being asked and hypotheses being proffered. He recognised the extraordinary value
and allure of the Bale Mountains and, with Karen, ensured that it became a key site for FZS’s work in Africa.
Simon’s untimely death in August 2009, while working to set up a project, funded by the Darwin
Initiative, to strengthen the community conservation work of the people in Guassa-Menz, means that his
contribution to science and conservation in Ethiopia will probably remain intangible, unmeasured. And yet
his influence and legacy will be profound, primarily through the people to whom he reached out and touched
with his energy, clarity of vision and thought, and his acerbic but always accurate evaluations of their work.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains I

This <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong> emerged out of those conversations, back in 2003, in the long Festuca
tussocks of the Morobawa plateau and others, fuelled by single malt whisky, that we had aside the fire back
at the base in Dinsho. Indeed, he died after one such evening, some years after we had held those first
discussions: on a wild night in the mountains that he loved, drinking single malt whisky from Scotland, and
talking awhile with his old friend and colleague, Zelealem Tefera. Their conversation roamed, as ever, from
the minutiae of research questions to the continued intractability of barriers to conservation in Ethiopia and
to the allure of Ethiopian mountains.
It is fitting, then, that this <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong> is dedicated to Simon.
Stuart Williams
Maputo, Mozambique
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains II

Foreword
The Bale Mountains are unique in Africa. They encompass Africa’s largest alpine plateau and contain the
largest populations of two of Africa’s least known and yet most charismatic species – the Ethiopian wolf and
the mountain nyala. They also harbor an exceptionally high number of other species endemic to Ethiopia
and, in some cases, endemic to the Bale Mountains themselves. For this they are included in Conservation
International’s Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot and are designated one of BirdLife International’s
Important Bird Areas. Isolation and rarity put these endemic species at high risk of extinction and, thus,
in need of effective conservation strategies that are supported nationally and internationally. But not only
does this area protect a significant portion of Ethiopia’s and the world’s biodiversity, it also gives rise to key
watersheds and natural resources that are the basis for local, national and international livelihoods. The more
we learn about the range of goods and services provided by the Bale Mountains, the more vital our efforts
become to ensure their conservation and sustainable management.
At the heart of the Bale Mountains is the Bale Mountains National Park, one of Ethiopia’s most
important protected areas. The park was proclaimed after early scientific studies revealed the uniqueness of
the Bale Mountains, thus eliciting the attention needed to drive greater conservation efforts. These research
pioneers – Herbet Mooney (1958-1959), Lesley Brown (1963 and 1965), Curtis Buer (1969-1971), and Chris
Hillman (1980s-90s) – have been followed by many others and our knowledge of the Bale Mountains has
grown accordingly. Securing the future of the Bale Mountains National Park remains a top priority for the
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority and, wherever possible, research should continue to underpin
conservation and management decisions.
This <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> contains the work of recent Ethiopian and international researchers and
conservationists, covering a range of ecological, sociological and management issues. It will be a great
resource for future conservationists, researchers and managers alike, and will raise international awareness
of the Bale Mountains, their ecological, social and economic importance and the threats they face. Many
questions and challenges remain. It is my hope and belief that this <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> will draw the attention of
other researchers and conservation practitioners so that, together, we may better understand and manage the
Bale Mountains for future generations.
Dr. Kifle Argaw,
EWCA Director
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains III

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
WILDLIFE
MAMMALS OF THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, ETHIOPIA: COMPILED AND ANNOTATED
CHECKLIST, ASEFA, A. ................................................................................................................................................ 3
STRUCTURING OF THE BIRDS OF THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, SHIMELIS, A., BEKELE, A.,
ASEFA, A., WILLIAMS, S., GOVE, A. AND THIRGOOD, S. ................................................................................... 15
ETHIOPIAN WOLF MONITORING IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS FROM 2001-2004, RANDALL, D., TALLENTS,
L., WILLIAMS, S. AND SILLERO-ZUBIRI, C.......................................................................................................... 28
OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATUS OF THE MOUNTAIN NYALA: 2000-2005, MALCOLM, J. AND
EVANGELISTA, P.H .................................................................................................................................................... 39
POPULATION ESTIMATES AND DIET OF STARK’S HARE (LEPUS STARCKI PETTER, 1963) IN THE BALE
MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, ETHIOPIA MEKONNEN, T., BEKELE, A. AND MALCOM, J. ..................... 53
ECOLOGY AND REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY OF AN AFROALPINE SPECIALIST: ETHIOPIAN WOLVES IN
THE BALE MOUNTAINS SILLERO-ZUBIRI, C., GOTTELLI, D., MARINO, J., RANDALL, D., TALLENTS, L.
AND MACDONALD, D.W. ....................................................................................................................................... 61
A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF THE BALE MONKEY (CERCOPITHECUS DJAMDJAMENSIS)
POPULATION SIZE AND HABITAT USE IN THE HARENNA FOREST WAKJIRA, K., GASHAW, M. AND
PINARD, M. .................................................................................................................................................................. 80
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES RECORDED FROM THE BALE MOUNTAINS LARGAN, M AND SPAWLS, S.. 89
CONSERVATION OF ETHIOPIAN AMPHIBIANS: A RACE AGAINST TIME MENGISTU, A.A., LOADER, S.,
GETAHUN, A., SABER, S. AND NAGEL, P............................................................................................................... 92
A SUMMARY OF THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE MOUNTAIN NYALA (TRAGELAPHUS BUxTONI)
IN BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, MAMO, Y. AND PINARD, M. .......................................................... 94
ECOLOGY AND VEGETATION
MAPPING HIGH-ALTITUDE VEGETATION IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS, ETHIOPIA. TALLENTS, L.A. AND
MACDONALD, D.W. ................................................................................................................................................. 97
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK OVER 32 YEARS: A STUDY OF LAND
COVER CHANGE. TESHOME, E., RANDALL, D. AND KINAHAN, A.A.............................................................. 118
CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGINS OF GLADES IN THE HARENNA FOREST, ETHIOPIA.CHIODI, G. AND
PINARD, M.................................................................................................................................................................. 131

FACTORS AFFECTING FIRE ExTENT AND FREqUENCY IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK.
ABERA, K AND KINAHAN, A.A. ............................................................................................................................. 146
THE STATUS OF THE ERICACEOUS VEGETATION ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPE OF THE BALE MOUNTAINS.
ASSEFA, Y., WESCHE, K. AND FETENE, M............................................................................................................ 158
BALE MOUNTAIN LAKES: ECOSYSTEMS UNDER PRESSURE OF GLOBAL CHANGE? EGGERMONT, H.,
WONDAFRASH, M., VAN DAMME, K., LENS, L. AND UMER, M........................................................................ 171
rESOurCE uSE
DIRECT CONSUMPTIVE USE VALUE OF ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS
ECO-REGION, ETHIOPIA. WATSON, C., MILNER-GULLAND, E.J., MOURATO, S ........................................... 181
LIVESTOCK GRAZING IN BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, ETHIOPIA: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE.
VIAL, F. MACDONALD, D.W. AND HAYDON, D. T................................................................................................ 197
TRADITIONAL BEEKEEPING AND PATTERNS OF HOST TREE USE IN THE HARENNA FOREST, BALE
MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK. LEFEVRE, B. AND PINARD, M. ..................................................................... 208
VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS FOR BAMBOO ORIGINATING FROM SHEDEM KEBELE, BALE ZONE. TESFAYE.
A. A. .............................................................................................................................................................................. 213
THE DISTRIBUTION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF MINERAL SPRINGS IN THE HARENNA FOREST. CHIODI,
G. AND PINARD, M. .................................................................................................................................................. 225
PrOTECTED ArEA mANAGEmENT
GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLANNING FOR THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK. NELSON, A...... 243
PEOPLE IN NATIONAL PARKS – JOINT NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN BALE MOUNTAINS
NATIONAL PARK – WHY IT MAKES SENSE TO WORK WITH LOCAL PEOPLE. TADESSE, D., WILLIAMS, S.,
AND IRWIN, B. ........................................................................................................................................................... 257
RISK OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION BETWEEN DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK AND WILD UNGULATE IN THE
BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, ETHIOPIA. SHIFERAW, F. AND LAURENSON, M.K. ..................... 269
TOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS: TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL
PARK. ADMASU, B. , ASEFA, A. AND KINAHAN, A.A. ........................................................................................ 282
CAN CARBON CONTRIBUTE TO CONSERVATION FINANCING? A TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS OF REDD IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK. KINAHAN, A.A. AND
WATSON, C.................................................................................................................................................................. 295
ENSURING THE LONG-TERM CONSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEMS: THE ROLE OF MONITORING
DATABASES HOPCRAFT, G. .................................................................................................................................... 306

OThEr INFOrmATION
BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK PARTNERS .............................................................................................. 332
ETHIOPIAN WILDLIFE & NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY MEMBERSHIP REGISTRATION FORM............... 339

Introduction
This <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong> grew from a research and monitoring symposium that was conceived by
Stuart Williams of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme and Alastair Nelson of Frankfurt Zoological
Society back in 2004, when they were both leading projects in the Bale Mountains. Their idea was to work
out a vibrant research programme for the future by bringing together all those research active at the time in
the Bale Mountains, those interested in future work and those that had experience elsewhere in key subject
areas. The symposium was hosted in the lodge at the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) headquarters
in Dinsho in early 2005 and allowed national and international experts to present their work, discuss the
dynamics and status of this extraordinary and relatively unique ecosystem and make plans for the future. In
these respects, it was a landmark occasion for the park.
The symposium was important for other reasons, not least because it provided the basis for developing
an ecological monitoring plan for the BMNP. The assembled expert group worked together to identify the
priority ecosystem components of the Bale Mountains and thus the ecological systems and processes that
should be the targeted for conservation action. They also articulated and ranked the threats facing those
ecosystem components. Whilst subsequent iterations refined these outputs, the symposium developed the
foundation of the framework for conserving and monitoring this site of global importance and a key part of
Ethiopia’s national heritage.
Those involved from the beginning will know that this <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong> has had one of the
longest gestation periods of any known publication. Indeed, during this gestation, two of the editors have
created a little girl each, and the other editor’s two little girls have almost grown into teenagers! Sometime
after the symposium, Simon and Deborah revived the idea of this <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> and took on the onerous job
of cajoling and bullying some recalcitrant authors to provide manuscripts. They also raised money from key
BMNP partners to ensure its publication. When Anouska joined FZS on the Bale Mountains Conservation
Project (BMCP), she was co-opted to the editorial team and brought fresh enthusiasm to the endeavour.
Together they were able to obtain additional contributions from authors who had not been at the original
symposium, thus providing a more complete record of research in the Bale Mountains. The result is that this
<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> pulls together many aspects of research work carried out in the Bale Mountains between 1990
and 2011.
Simon provided much of the initial drive for the publication of this <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> and his untimely
death in 2009 occurred on the brink of the final stage. This was a blow for the other editors and took some
time to overcome. It is to their huge credit that they did find renewed energy to ensure its completion, thereby
also providing a tribute to Simon and his contribution to the Bale Mountains. I would like to thank them for
their dogged and polite persistence.
Perhaps partly because of its long gestation period, the <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> of <strong>Walia</strong> provides a valuable
assimilation of the research carried out over the past two decades. It also lays out tools for the future
management of the ecosystem. But many unanswered questions remain and the management challenges are
becoming ever more complex and urgent. Thus, I hope that this publication encourages others to build on
previous and ongoing work by continuing to undertake management oriented research in the Bale Mountains.
A list of priority research topics is available, first included in the 2007 General Management Plan (GMP) and
now updated and maintained on the BMNP website (www.balemountains.org).
Finally, this <strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> is evidence of the range of individuals and organizations involved in
research, monitoring and management activities in the Bale Mountains and the partnerships that already exist.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 1

These partnerships are essential for filling technical and resource gaps and collaborations should continue to
be promoted between the park, universities, national and international research institutions, government and
NGOs. As envisioned at the outset of the 2005 research symposium, the result will be a strong research and
monitoring programme that guides urgent management action to conserve and sustainably manage the unique
global heritage that is the Bale Mountains.
Karen Laurenson
Programme Manager, Frankfurt Zoological Society
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 2

Mammals of the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia: A Compiled and
Annotated Checklist
Addisu Asefa
Bale Mountains National Park, PO Box 107, Bale, Goba, Ethiopia
Email: adde_bird@yahoo.com
Abstract
Basic data on mammals of the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP), including an updated species
checklist, have not been systematically compiled and published since 1993. In this review paper I use
published and unpublished data, as well as personal records made on an ad hoc basis, to provide an
updated species checklist of mammals of the BMNP. At least 78 species of mammals, belonging to
nine orders and 23 families of mammalian groups, are known to occur in the BMNP. Twenty (26%)
of the total species reported here are endemic to Ethiopia representing 40% and 67% of the total
mammal species and endemics, respectively, occurring in the Ethiopian highlands. Further, at least
five species are presumed to be confined to the Bale Mountains area while another five species are
locally endemic. The present trend of ecological degradation in the Bale Mountains is a severe threat
to the conservation of biodiversity overall, but particularly the survival of rare and range restricted
species. Therefore, to ensure the long-term survival of species, the maintenance of mammal species
diversity and the integrity and proper functioning of the Bale Mountains ecosystems, a thorough
understanding of aspects of their ecology and the major factors threatening their persistence is
crucial, as such data would help design appropriate conservation and management measures.
Introduction
Ethiopia’s geographical location, diverse ecosystems and various climatic conditions have resulted
in diversification of its flora and fauna (Yalden 1983). The country is one of the top 25 biodiversity
rich countries in the world (Woldemariam 2007). Much of the country’s wildlife diversity occurs
in the highlands (Williams et al. 2004), which arise from the vast extent and isolation of Ethiopian
highlands within the Afro-tropical region (Yalden 1983). The Bale Mountains of south-eastern
Ethiopia form the largest continuous area above 3000 m a.s.l. in Africa, supporting the most extensive
area of Afroalpine and sub-Afroalpine [Ericaceous] vegetation on the continent (Miehe and Miehe
1994). The Bale Mountains have a distinct endemic flora and fauna, resulting from a combination
of large area, isolation from the rest of Ethiopian highlands and climatic history (Yalden and Largen
1992; Hillman 1988; Williams et al. 2004).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 3

The Bale Mountains have the highest incidence of animal endemicity of any terrestrial habitat
in the world, which, together with 160 endemic species of flowering plants (Hillman 1988; NH
2004; Williams et al. 2004), provided the main reason for the establishment of the Bale Mountains
National Park (BMNP) in 1971 (Hillman 1986, 1988). Williams et al. (2004) described the BMNP
as the single most important conservation area in the Ethiopian highlands. The National Park is
part of Conservation International’s Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot Area (Williams
et al. 2004), and is one of the 69 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) designated in the country, harbouring
about 280 bird species, of which six are endemic, seven are globally threatened and 44 (88% of
the total in the country) are Afro-tropical highland biome species (EWNHS 2001; Asefa 2006-07).
Furthermore, the importance of the hydrological services that the area provides to southeastern
Ethiopia and parts of Somalia have currently led the National Park to be internationally
recognized as a globally important conservation area (BMNP 2007). Despite such great conservation
importance, the BMNP is exposed to severe human-induced threats from expanding settlement,
agricultural and livestock grazing (Miehe and Miehe 1994; Stephens et al. 2001; NH 2004; Williams
et al. 2004; OARBD 2007).
In order to ensure the long-term survival of the rare, unique floral and faunal species and
the proper ecosystem functioning of the area through effective and efficient management systems,
four management programmes (Park Operations, Ecological Management, Tourism Development
and Management, Community Outreach) are currently running in the National Park (OARBD 2007,
Nelson this edition). The purpose of the Ecological Management programme is to increase
knowledge about ecological processes and species throughout the park so that they can
be properly managed (OARBD 2007; Kinahan 2010). This can be achieved through mitigation
measures and collection of monitoring data that is fed back into adaptive management (OARBD
2007; Kinahan 2010). Thus, the availability of basic ecological information on the fauna and flora
of the area, including updated species check lists, simple indexes of species diversity (e.g. species
richness) and status of the different biota is among the data required to attain the programme’s
purpose (OARBD 2007). In addition to its importance for conservation planning, the availability of
such basic ecological information on the biodiversity of the BMNP has other benefits; including (i)
drawing national and international attention to the area; (ii) serving as baseline data for subsequent
future detailed biological and ecological studies, and (iii) providing data with which to assess the
management effectiveness of the National Park (Sutherland 1996; OARBD 2007; Kinahan 2010).
An updated species checklist of mammals of the National Park has not been systematically
compiled and published since Hillman (1993) despite several additions of new species to the list
thereafter (BMNP 2003; Asefa 2005). Even Hillman’s checklist by itself was incomplete, as there
were reports of some confirmed species records in the area that were absent from his list (see BMNP
1986; Hillman 1986; Yalden and Largen 1992; Hillman 1993). In this review paper, using published
and unpublished data and personal records made on an ad hoc basis, I present an updated species
checklist of mammals of the BMNP, where I have been working as a conservation biologist and park
warden since 2002.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 4

History and Physical Features of the Ethiopian Highlands
The Ethiopian highlands were formed during the Oligocene and Miocene geological periods, between
38 and 7 million years ago (Miehe and Miehe 1994), before the formation of the Rift Valley that
splits the highlands into two (Yalden and Largen 1992). The highlands have a lower limit of about
1100 m a.s.l. and an area of 519 278 km2 (Williams et al. 2004). Ethiopia contains more than 80% of
the highland massif above 3000m a.s.l. on the African continent (Yalden 1983). The highlands (land
above 1500 m a.s.l.) constitute around 43% of the country and are the most densely populated areas
in the country, inhabited by 88% of Ethiopia’s human and 65% of its livestock population (Yalden
1983; CSE 1997; EWNHS 2001). This has led to land degradation through agriculture, overgrazing
and soil erosion, which are the most serious threats to the sustainability of these biologically and
ecologically important ecosystems (EWNHS 1996; Stephens et al. 2001; Williams et al. 2004).
The Bale Mountains are situated in the southeast highlands of Ethiopia, geographically
separated from the western and central highlands of the country by the Rift Valley. Located in the
centre of the Bale Mountains, the BMNP encompasses an area of 2200 km2 . The National Park
contains a landscape ranging from 1500 m a.s.l. to 4377 m a.s.l. Five main vegetation zones are
designated in this National Park: the northern Grasslands (Gaysay valley), the northern woodlands,
ericaceous forest, the Afroalpine moorland and grassland and the Harenna Forest (Hillman 1986;
Miehe and Miehe 1994; Asefa 2006-07).
The BMNP area experiences two rainy seasons: heavy rain and small rain. The heavy rain
is from July to October, with the highest peak in the August and the small rain from March to June,
with the highest peak in the April. The highest temperature recorded is 18.4oC in February and the
lowest is 1.4oC in January (Hillman 1986; Refera and Bekele 2002).
Provisional Checklist and Endemic Species of the BMNP
In this review paper, nomenclature mostly follows the names used by Hillman (1993). However,
the materials referred by Hillman (1986), Yalden (1988) and Hillman (1993) to Crocidura fumosa
from the Bale Mountains were found to be a mis-identification (Yalden and Largen 1992); thus,
as used in this paper, the one from the Harenna forest in the south side of those mountains is C.
thalia, whereas that from the north side is C. glassi. Also, the material these authors referred to as
C. baileyi is in fact C. lucina (Yalden and Largen 1992). For the remainder of species, which were
not mentioned in Hillman’s (1993) list, names follow Kingdon (2004). Deviations from these, when
deemed necessary, are indicated where appropriate.
In his pioneer work of attempting to compile a checklist of mammals of the BMNP, Hillman
(1986) listed the occurrence of 47 mammal species in the area. Six years later, he produced a revised
checklist in which he listed 66 species (Hillman 1993). Thereafter, an updated checklist of mammals
in the National Park has not been published. However, unpublished documents on mammals of the
BMNP suggest a total of 77 species in the park (Williams 2002; BMNP 2003).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 5

Information gleaned from various sources, including the overall number and list of endemic
species in the BMNP and the whole Ethiopian highlands (BMNP 1986; Hillman 1986; Yalden 1988;
Yalden and Largen 1992; Hillman 1993; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995; BMNP 2003; Williams et al. 2004)
are summarized on Table 1. At present, 78 species of mammals, including the endemic subspecies
Menelick’s bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus menelicki), have been reported in the BMNP (Table 1;
see the Appendix). These belong to nine orders and 23 mammalian families (Table 2). Twenty (26%)
of the species reported here are endemic to Ethiopia (Table 1). Williams et al. (2004) indicated that
193 species of mammal are known from the Ethiopian highlands, of which 31 are endemics. Thus,
the mammal species of the BMNP constitute about 40% and 65% of the total mammal species and
total number of endemics in the Ethiopian Highlands, respectively (Table 1). From these figures
it is possible to conservatively state that for its size, the BMNP harbours a disproportionate total
number of mammal species and endemic mammal species when compared to the whole Ethiopian
Highlands.
Table 1. Total number of mammal species and number of endemic mammal species in the BMNP and the
Ethiopian highlands overall.
Attribute BMNP Ethiopian highlands
% BMNP/Ethiopian
highlands
Total number of mammal
species
78 193 40
Number of endemic
mammal species
20 31 65
Percent endemic mammal
species
26a 16a a = Percent of endemics calculated as [(number of endemic species/overall species) x100].
Table 2. Number of species in each mammalian family and order in the BMNP.
Name of Order Name of Family
No of species in
the family
% of species
Order chiroptera Family Pteropidae 1 1
Family Rhinolophidae 5 6
Family Vespertilionidae 4 5
Order Insectivora Family Soricidae 7 9
Order Rodentia Family Sciuridae 1 1
Family Gliridae 1 1
Family Muridae 15 19
Family Thryonomidae 1 1
Family Rhizomyidae 2 3
Family Histricidae 1 1
Order Primates Family Lorisidae 1 1
Family Cercopithecidae 4 5
Family Colobidae 1 1
Order Carnivora Family Mustelidae 3 4
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 6

Name of Order Name of Family
No of species in
the family
% of species
Family Canidae 4 5
Family Viverridae 7 9
Family Hyaenidae 1 1
Family Felidae 5 6
Order Artiodactyla Family Suidae 3 4
Family Bovidae 7 9
Order Hyracoidae Family Procaviidae 2 3
Order Lagomorpha Family Leporidae 1 1
Order Tubulidentata Family Orycteropodidae 1 1
Total Orders = 9 Total Families = 23 Total Species = 78 Total Percent = 100
Several of the endemic mammal species of the BMNP are also locally or nearly locally
endemic to the National Park itself. Five species of mammals are confined to the Bale mountains area;
namely, Crocidura harenna, C. bottegoides, Megadendromus nikolausi, Tachyoryctes macrocephalus
and Chlorocebus djamdjamensis. Five species have been reported from only a few localities outside
the BMNP; namely Crocidura glassi, C. lucina, Arvicanthis blicki, Stenocephalemys albocaudata
and Lophuromys melanonyx (Yalden 1988; Yalden and Largen 1992; see also the Appendix). Of
the six mammal genera endemic to the Ethiopian highlands, two of them, Megadendromus and
Stenocephalemys, are found in the BMNP (Williams et al. 2004).
The data presented here indicate that the mammal fauna of the BMNP is dominated by two
groups of mammal species; namely, rodents and carnivores, composed of 21 (27%) and 20 (26%)
species, respectively. Fifteen (75%) endemic species belong to two mammal groups; namely rodents
(10 species) and shrews (5 species) (see the Appendix).
Discussion
This review paper convincingly demonstrates that the BMNP is one of the most important mammal
conservation area in the Ethiopian highlands, as indicated by the high number of total mammal
species and high number of endemic species it contains. Yalden and Largen (1992) noted that the
endemic species of Ethiopia mostly belong to African groups and probably evolved within Ethiopia
(rather than being relicts who have become extinct elsewhere). The species considered to be locally
endemic to the BMNP are also assumed to have evolved in the area. In addition to its large size
and separation from the rest of Ethiopian highlands, the BMNP’s varying topography and diversity
of habitats provided the conditions necessary for evolution of distinct genus and species, and then
permitted their survival (Yalden and Largen 1992).
In view of the speed with which important habitats of the Ethiopian highlands, including
the Bale Mountains, are being destroyed by human modification and resource extraction, the study
and conservation of endemic species are matters of the greatest urgency (Yalden and Largen 1992;
Stephens et al. 2001). Among the little known small mammals of the BMNP are several species of
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 7

shrews and rodents. For instance, of the seven shrew species known from the BMNP, five of them
are endemics (Yalden and Largen 1992; see also the Appendix). With the exception of C. thalia, all
are only known from east of the Rift Valley and C. Harenna and C. bottegoides are only known from
the Harenna forest in the southern BMNP. Only a few records have been available for C. glassi and
C. lucina from other localities (the former from ‘Gara Mulatta’ in Harar, and from Mt ‘Albasso’,
Arsi; and the latter from Mt ‘Albasso’) outside the Bale Massif (Yalden and Largen 1992). Two
other endemic rodent species, A. blicki and S. albocaudata, are also only known from ‘Chilalo’ Mts
(=Arsi) outside the BMNP. The endemic L. melanonyx is one of the most common rodents in the
Bale Mountains, but has only been recorded on single occasion in the western highlands in Debre
Sina (Yalden 1988; Yalden and Largen 1992; Sillerio-Zubiri et al. 1995). Given the current trend
and irreversibility of habitat degradation in the fragile ecosystems of the Ethiopian highlands, it
is possible that a number of these species could face local extinction in unprotected areas outside
the BMNP. This makes their conservation in the BMNP particularly important for the survival of
species.
Among the larger mammal species of the BMNP, five deserve special conservation attention
since they are not only endemic and/or globally threatened, but are also important flagship species
for the Ethiopian highlands. These include the endangered endemic Bale monkey (Chlorocebus
djamdjamensis), Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) and mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), as
well as the endangered wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and the vulnerable lion (Panthera leo) (Datson
2002; OARBD 2007).
The Bale monkey is a medium-sized arboreal primate belonging to the family Cercopithecidae.
Until recently, it remained one of the least known endemic mammals of Ethiopia (Mekonnen 2008;
Wakjira et al. this edition); even its taxonomic position is still debated. It was first described as a new
species of Cercopithecus djamdjamensis in 1902, from the Djam-Djam Mountains, a region found
approximately 30 km west of Harenna Forest (Carpaneto and Gippoliti 1994). Based on new records
in the Bale Mountains, Dandelot and Prévost (1972) re-described the Bale monkey and named it
Cercopithecus aethiops djamdjamensis as a distinct form of the vervet/grivet complex. The Bale
monkey is now classified as a distinct species as Chlorocebus djamdjamensis (Groves 2005; Grubb
2006).
Recent ecological studies on the Bale monkey in the Harenna forest of the southern Bale
Mountains indicated that the area harbours a significant population of the species with an estimated
1,437 individuals in the BMNP (Wakjira et al. this edition) and 1,746 individuals in the forests
adjacent to the park (Mekonnen 2008). However, its future survival in the Djam-Djam Mountains is
in question as the area is substantially deforested (Carpaneto and Gippoliti 1994). Bale monkeys are
known to be bamboo forest specialists, and that bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) contributed 76.7% of
their overall diet, of which 73% was from young leaves (Mekonnen 2008; Wakjira et al. this edition).
These authors have remarked that the narrow ecological niche of the species may be a threat for the
species, particularly in the face of unsustainable bamboo harvesting by local people for commercial
purposes. The Bale monkey is currently classified as an endangered species (Mekonnen 2008).
With about 500 individuals remaining in seven small isolated populations, the Ethiopian
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 8

wolf is a rare canid endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia. Ethiopian wolves are solitary hunters,
specialized on diurnal rodents that constitute about 96% of their diet (Sillero-Zubiri et al. this
edition). In contrast to their solitary foraging behavior, wolves live in packs that defend exclusive
pack territories. The Afroalpine area of the BMNP is home to over half the global population of
wolves (Randall et al. this edition). The major threats for the long-term survival of the Ethiopian
wolf population in the BMNP and other parts of its range are: 1) canid-related diseases like canine
distemper and rabies; 2) habitat loss and fragmentation; 3) overgrazing by livestock, which affects
its prey basis; 4) persecution; 5) hybridization with domestic dogs; and 6) traffic kills (Gottelli and
Sillero-Zubiri 1992; Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1997; Williams 2002; Asefa 2008). The Ethiopian
Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP), since its establishment in 1995, has been counteracting
these threats to the wolves through the implementation of conservation activities, including regular
wolf population monitoring, education, vaccination of domestic dogs present in the wolf’s range and
research activities.
The mountain nyala is the last large ungulate to be discovered in Africa. The species is
known to occur in six localities from the south-eastern highlands, in which the largest area of its
habitat (about 75%) lies in the BMNP (Yalden and Largen 1992; Malcolm and Evangelista 2005;
Malcolm and Evangelista this edition). Four of the sites outside the BMNP are controlled hunting
areas, while one is a reserve. The northern Juniper-Hagenia woodlands and Gaysay grasslands
harbour the largest population of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) with about 1000-1300
individuals or approximately two-thirds of the global population (Refera and Bekele 2004; BMNP
2007).
The lion and the wild dog populations in the BMNP inhabit the southern Harenna forest of
the National Park, representing unique forest populations of these savannah species (Datson 2002).
The Bale Mountains not only contain a high number of mammal species and endemic mammal
species, but also harbour similar diversity of floral and other vertebrate species. About 1600, 300
and 17 species of plant, bird and amphibian species, respectively, are known to occur in the area.
Of these, 160 of the plant species, 6 of the bird species and 11 of the amphibians are endemics (NH
2004; Williams et al. 2004; Asefa 2006-07).
Conclusion
The BMNP contains a significant number of mammal species, many of which are endemic to the
country and some of which are locally or nearly locally endemic to the Bale Mountains. This implies
that the BMNP is a very important conservation area in the Ethiopian highlands and is an area with
immense benefits for species evolutionary processes. However, except in the case of the Ethiopian
wolf, mountain nyala and rodent communities in the Afroalpine area, little information exists on the
ecological aspects of other mammal species. However, the present trend of ecological degradation
in the area poses a severe threat to the survival of most of these rare species (Stephens et al. 2001). It
has even been said that‘‘if conservation efforts in the BMNP are not successful and people continue
to exploit the resources in an unsustainable way, more species of mammals would go extinct than
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 9

any area of equivalent size on the globe.’’ (Williams 2002; Professor J. Malcolm, Ethiopian Wolf
Conservation Programme field coordinator from 2005-2007, Pers. Comm.). Therefore, detailed
ecological studies on the present distribution and status of and major threats to mammals of the Bale
Mountains National Park should be made in order to develop and implement targeted management
activities that would promote the long-term survival of rare species, maintain mammal diversity, and
ensure the integrity and proper functioning of the Bale mountains ecosystem as a whole.
Acknowledgements
All the authors whose works were used in this review paper are duly acknowledged. The BMNP
office also deserves special thanks for the permission given to use office documents.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 11

Appendix. Updated checklist of mammals of the BMNP. ** Endemic species.
Scientific name Common name Sources*
Order Chiroptera
Family Pteropidae
Rousettus angolensis Bocage’s Fruit Bat d
Family Rhinolophidae
Rhinolophus clivosus Geoffroy’s Horseshoe Bat d
R. landeri Lander’s Horseshoe Bat d
R. simulator Bush Horseshoe Bat d
R. fumigatus Rüppell’s Horseshoe Bat d
R. hildebrandtii Hildebrandt’s Horseshoe Bat d
Family Vespertilionidae
Pipistrellus nanus Banana Bat d
Plecotus austriacus Grey Long-eared Bat d
Miniopterus inflatus Greater Long-fingered Bat d
Myotis scotti** Scott’s Hairy Bat d
Order Insectivora
Family Soricidae
Crocidura glassi** c
C. lucina** c
C. bottegoides** d
C. flavescens d
C. harrena** d
C. olivieri d
C. thalia** c
Order Rodentia
Family Sciuridae
Euxerus erythropus Stripped Ground squirrel ab
Family Gliridae
Graphiurus murinus African Doormouse d
Family Muridae
Arvicanthis blicki** Blick’s Grass Rat d
A. dembeensis Grass Rat ae
A. niloticus Lowland Grass Rat d
Dendromus lovati Lovat’s Mouse d
D. mystacalsis Banana Mounse d
Lophuromys flavopunctatus** Harsh-furred Mouse d
L. melanonyx** Black-clawed Mouse d
Lophiomys imhausi Crested Rat d
Megadendromus nikolausi** Nikolaus’ Rat d
Mus mohamet** Mohamet’s Mouse d
M. triton d
Otomus typus Swamp Rat d
Praomys albipes** White-footed Rat abc
Stenocephalemys albocaudata** White-tailed Rat d
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 12

Scientific name Common name Sources*
S. griseicauda** Grey-tailed Rat d
Family Thryonomidae
Thryonomys swinderianus Marsh Cane-Rat d
Family Rhizomyidae
Tachyoryctes splendens Common Mole rat d
T. macrocephalus** Giant Mole rat d
Family Histricidae
Hystrix cristata Crested Porcupine d
Order Primates
Family Lorisidae
Galago senegalensis Senegal Galago d
Family Cercopithecidae
Cercopithecus aethiops Grivet Monkey d
C. Pygerythrus Vervet Monkey d
Chlorocebus djamdjamensis** Bale Monkey e
Papio anubis Olive Baboon d
Family Colobidae
Colobus guereza Guereza Colobus d
Order Carnivora
Family Mustelidae
Aonyx capensis African Clawless Otter e
Ictonyx striatus Zorilla d
Mellivora capensis Honey Badger /Ratel d
Family Canidae
Lycaon pictus Wild Dog d
Canis simensis** Ethiopian Wolf d
C. aureus Golden Jackal d
C. Mesomelas Black-backed Jackal e
Family Viverridae
Atilax paludinosus Marsh Mongoose d
Civettictis civetta African Civet d
Genetta genetta Common Genet e
G. abyssinica Ethiopian Genet e
G. Tigrina Blotched Genet e
Herpestes ichneumon Egyptian Mongoose d
Ichneumia albicauda White-tailed Mongoose d
Family Hyaenidae
Crocuta crocuta Spotted Hyena d
Family Felidae
Felis silvestris Wild Cat d
F. serval Serval d
F. caracal Caracal d
Panthera pardus Leopard d
P. leo Lion d
Order Artiodactyla
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 13

Scientific name Common name Sources*
Family Suidae
Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Giant Forest Hog d
Potamochoerus larvatus Bushpig d
Phacochoerus africanus Common Warthog d
Family Bovidae
Silvicapra grimmia Bush/Grey Duiker d
Cephalophus natelensis Red Duiker d
Oreotragus oreotragus Klipspringer d
Redunca redunca Bohor Reedbuck d
Tragelaphus buxtoni** Mountain Nyla d
T. scriptus Common Bushbuck ae
T. scriptus meneliki** Menelik’s Bushbuck d
Order Hyracoidae
Family Procaviidae
Procavia habessinicia Ethiopian Rock Hyrax d
Heterohyrax brucei Yellow-spotted Hyrax d
Order Lagomorpha
Family Leporidae
Lepus starcki** Starck’s Hare d
Order Tubulidentata
Family Orycteropodidae
Orycteropus afer Aardvark d
Sources*: a = BMNP (1986); b = Yalden (1988); c = Yalden and Largen (1992); d = Hillman (1993);
and e = BMNP (2003).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 14

Structuring of the Birds of the Bale Mountains National Park
Anteneh Shimelis 1 , Afework Bekele 1 , Addisu Asefa 2 , Stuart Williams 3 , Aaron Gove 4 and Simon
Thirgood 5
1 Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
2 Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia
3 Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, Ethiopia
4 University of Stockholm, Sweden
5 Macaulay Institute & Aberdeen University, UK
Abstract
Using bill morphology and species specific dietary requirements, we classified 117 resident
bird species of the Bale Mountains National Park. Five was the number of groups suggested by
preliminary cluster analysis. This was further confirmed by results of Principal Component
Analysis and Discreminant Function Analysis. A non-parametric statistical test showed the majority
of morphological and dietary attributes did have values that varied significantly across groups of
species. To determine the relevance of this species grouping in determining the structuring of the
National Park’s resident bird community, data on species distribution across habitat was evaluated.
This showed that, except in one instance, the distribution of species across habitats followed
significantly the determined group structure.
Introduction
As a community, a group of species collectively respond to environmental and ecological processes
as a result of their historical and ecological similarities (MacArthur 1971; Whittaker 1975; Diamond
1975; Holmes et al. 1979; Wiens 1989; Keddy 1992; Weihir & Kedy 2001; Wilson 2001; Krebs
2000; Simberloff and Dayan 1991). Understanding of the causes of such similarities and the
consequent group attributes is the central objective of both the theoretical and empirical aspects
of community ecology. Any study in the field, starts by asking “what is a community of living
organisms like when it is there?” Standard community definitions stress on features that emerge
consistently upon evaluation (Wiens 1989). The co-occurrence of individuals of several species in
time and space is one principal characteristics of the definition (MacArthur 1971; Whittaker 1975;
Diamond 1975; Holmes et al. 1979; Wiens 1989; Weihir and Kedy 2001; Wilson 2001; Krebs 2000).
This refers to partial or total distributional overlaps amongst species pairs as resident occupants
of a given area (Krebs 2000; Dunning et al. 1992). Another very important feature attributed to
communities is the interaction of species entities. Interaction in this sense refers to relationship of a
group of species at parallel planes of resource utilization (Holmes et al. 1979; Richard et al. 1986;
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 15

Cornell and Lawton 1992; Rice and Kronlund 1997; Dunning et al. 1992; Levy 1987) emphasizing
particularly on interspecific competition. Communities are also viewed as possessing a dynamic
stability that tends toward an equilibrium composition. This composition may be repeatable or
constant under similar environmental conditions allowing recognition of community types. Last but
not least, communities possess emergent properties in structure and functioning. All these criteria
imply a community may constitute two or more individuals of more than one species. This definition
does not make any taxonomic restrictions indicating that co-occurring species that are interacting
as competitors for one or more limiting resources form a community with predictable structural
and functional attributes (Holmes et al. 1979; Wiens 1989; Dunning et al. 1992; Rice and Krolund
1997). Within this general theoretical framework, empirical data both on morphology and ecology
must be evaluated to determine groups of species that make up a community.
In this paper we evaluated functional and morphological clustering of the resident avi-fauna
assemblage in the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) which is the most important mammal
and bird conservation area in Ethiopia. The objective was classifying the total bird species of the
site based on interspecific similarities in dietary preferences and bill shape (Keddy 1992). The
resulting group membership was then used to evaluate group differences in distribution across
habitat types in the moorland and montane forest landscapes. Resulting groups were not treated as
complete communities mainly because species from other taxa may also qualify as members due to
strong interspecifc similarities in the exploitation of the resource base (Wiens 1989). Instead each
group is treated as an assemblage and the analysis and subsequent interpretation was undertaken to
demonstrate the usage of empirical data to test theory in the field of community ecology illustrating
all members of a single higher taxon may not qualify as components of a single community on the
ground. It is thus important to evaluate the data at hand perusing clearly defined group attributes to
make scientifically sound inferences regarding species assemblage of a taxon which is the object of
an investigation.
Traditionally an exhaustive list of species of a higher taxon in a given area is considered
as a species pool of co-occurring species form which subset assemblages of a community are built
spatially and temporally (Diamond 1975; Keddy and Weiher 2001; Cody 2001). But all member
species of a pool may not posses similar traits that is a prerequisite for a set of species to interact
(Diamond 1975; MacArthur 1971; Keddy 1992). This premise may serve as a filter to structure
a total list of co-occurring species in to groups of species with overlapping traits that make them
respond similarly to environmental constraints and opportunities (Keddy 1992). This would give the
opportunity to evaluate if such structuring of a total species assemblage of a site in to communities
may have repeated patterns in composition along gradients of relevant environmental attributes
ultimately determining community boundaries in space (MacArthur 1971; Wilson 1974; Whittaker
1975; Diamond 1975; Holmes et al. 1979; Wiens 1989; Weihir and Kedy 2001; Wilson 2001; Krebs
2000).
The main research questions addressed in this paper are: 1) How is the total bird species
list of the BMNP structured into communities based on key traits that determine interspecific
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 16

interactions? 2) Would such classification of species in to communities be reliably detectable in the
field? Further questions are as follows: Can one consider the whole bird assemblage of the BMNP
as members of a single community or several communities? If the latter, what is the species pool
of each community? Is there intercommunity difference in composition across habitat types? Can
such classification reflect the distribution of resident birds across different habitat types within each
ecosystem?
Methods
Study area
The Bale Mountains National Park located at 6030’- 7o00’ N, 39030’- 39055 E is part of the South-
Eastern highland massif in Ethiopia and contains the largest extent of Afro-alpine habitat in the
continent (Sillero-Zubiri 1995). It encompasses an area of 2200 km2 with elevation varying between
1400 m to 4400 m a.s.l. (Hillman 1986). Topography within the BMNP can be divided in to three
categories by elevation-the northern slopes between 3000 and 3800 m a.s.l.; the central plateau
and peaks between 3800 and 4400 m a.s.l.; and the southern escarpment from 1400-3800 m a.s.l.
(Hillman 1988). Depending on slope, aspect and soil types, each of these areas in the park has its
own characteristic vegetation. In the northern slopes a mix of Juniperus/Hagenia/Hypericum where
montane grassland and heath dominates near the tree line; sparse afro-alpine vegetation at its center
and; and the vegetation in the southern escarpment constitutes Erica/Hypericum/Hagenia/Aningeria
and Podocarpus. A bimodal local climate with two wet seasons that have heavy and small rains
is characteristic to the site. The heavy rains occur from July to October, with the highest peak in
August and the small rains from March to June, with a peak in April. Records show that this area
experiences temperature extremities particularly in areas of the highest altitudes during the dry
season and more or less the same pattern of warm during the wet season. The highest temperature is
18.4 Co in February and the lowest is 1.4 o in January (Hillman 1986).
Structuring of the avi-fauna of the BMNP
Censuses conducted between November 2002 and October 2005 determined a total list of resident
birds composed of 117 species in the National Park (NP). The range of species includes wetland
birds to small passerines that inhabit forest and afro-alpine moorland habitats. As much as the
habitat preference of groups of species, their diet and related ecological and morphological features
are diverse (Fry et al. 1992; Zimmerman et al. 1996; Sincliar and Ryan 2003). This suggests the
total bird assemblage of the NP may contain a group of species that may be assembled to form more
than one community. The possibility of such phenomena was explored by gleaning data from the
literature that helped to evaluate the potential of interspecifc interactions.
Interaction amongst species is defined as the ability of each to affect the resource level
that is available to one or more of species that co-occur with it both in space and time (Daimond
1975; Rice and Kronlund 1997). Resources for a species include food, breeding habitat and cover
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 17

from predators (Krebs 2001). Interspecifc interaction within this context may refer to similarities in
attributes related to foraging and habitat occupancy (Rice and Kronlund 1997). We thus determined
broad dietary requirement, bill shape and crude information on habitat choice that resulted from
observations on the ground as measures of species grouping characteristics. The habitat occupancy
data was generated mainly from the authors’ extensive observation of the birds in the BMNP for
more than half a decade and also from what is generally known in the literature.
The data generation involved numerical coding attributes that involved awarding a species
a 1 if a given attribute under a category is applicable and a 0 if not. This data was subjected to a
hierarchical cluster analysis that grouped species by measuring percent dissimilarity distance based
on interspecific comparison of attributes. This was further followed by a classification analysis
using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). This provided an idea of the number of distinct clusters
of species each of which may be considered partial or complete representation of a community.
Following this, group membership of species was predicted using K-means clustering. The resulting
species group membership was used to constrain species specific data on diet and bill morphology
in a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis comparative test for statistically meaningful group differences.
This was further followed in a Discriminate Function Analysis (DFA) to depict species clustering
on a two dimensional diet and morphological space. The relevance of this species grouping in the
structuring of the total bird species assemblage on the ground was evaluated using species specific
habitat occupancy data collected by the authors during the specified study period within the BMNP.
The meaningfulness of the habitat occupancy differences across groups was evaluated using a
non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis comparative test that was followed by a DFA. The analysis was
conducted using PCORD and SPSS.
Results
The resident bird assemblage in the BMNP is composed of 117 species. Within this assemblage
there are varying degrees of differences amongst species pairs with regard to taxonomic affinity
and behavioral and morphological attributes suggesting the total list may be broken in to more
than one species groups that may have different collective responses to variations in environmental
attributes. Within this context, interspecific differences in bill morphology and dietary behavior
were evaluated to determine different species clusters. Preliminary cluster analysis that measured
the proportion of dissimilarity in food habit and bill morphology amongst species pairs suggested the
total bird list of the BMNP constituted 5 bird assemblages (Fig 1). Species clusters were determined
at nodes where 75 % or more of differences in attributes evaluated was detected. Results of Principal
Component Analysis showed, the NP’s birds formed clusters of species assemblages along foraging
and morphological gradients. The first three components represented different gradients of food
habit and bill morphology. The first axis explained 25.7 % of the variation in the data set and it was
mainly defined by flycatcher like bill morphology and foraging habits (Table 1).
Other important variables relative to this axis included diets that include fruits, ground
invertebrates and seeds. In positioning species at the extreme negative hand of the axis insectivorous
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 18

feeding habit and the related bill morphology played the most important role. Positioning of species
towards the right side of this axis was due to increases in seed and fruit eating habits. The second
axis that explained 14.4% of the variation in the data set was mainly influenced by granivorous food
habit and serin like bill morphology (Table 1). Dietary variables that included fruits, insects, ground
invertebrates and bill shapes that allowed such dietary habits played important role in the ordination
of species along this axis. The cluster at the negative end of the axis was dominated by granivorous
birds and towards its positive hand predatory attributes were more apparent (Table 1). Between them
these two axes defined four species clusters of similar species. The third PCA axis mainly separated
the large predatory birds that are normally known as raptors from the rest of the bird assemblage as
it was defined by variables attributed to birds in such a group.
The Park’s bird assemblage was divided into four distinct groups within the limits of the
space allowed by the attributes that dominated the first and the second components and plotting the
first component with third added another set of large predatory birds to what was already determined
by the first component. This strengthened further the pattern of species grouping in to five clusters
suggested by the earlier preliminary cluster analysis that grouped species according their proportional
differences in dietary habit and bill morphology.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 19

Abyssina
Abyssini
Abyssina
African
Bale Par
Balck-ba
Black-he
Brow n-w o
Cinnamon
Dusky Fl
Foxy Cys
Grey-bac
Grey Woo
Lesser
Montane-
Nyanza S
Paradize
Rufous C
Scaly-th
Scaly-th
Taw ny-fl
White-ba
White-ch
White-ru
Black-he
Common B
Greater
Blue-hea
Emerald
Grey Cuc
Klass's
Puff-bac
Red-ches
Senegal
Common F
Grey-hea
Tropical
Montane
Banded B
Red-fron
Yellow -f
Sharp's
Silvery-
Montane
coallare
malachit
Tacazze
Yelow -be
Abyssini
African
Baglaphe
Black-he
Brow n-ru
Bronze M
Common W
Pin-tail
Streaky
Sw ainson
Sw ee Wax
Yellow -c
Yellow -s
Wattled
Blue-spo
Dusky Tu
Lemon Do
Olive Pi
Red-eyed
Tambouri
White-co
Black-w i
Speckled
White-ch
Yelow -fr
Narina T
Slender-
Abyssini
Abyssini
Rouget's
Long-bil
Moorland
Chestnut
Hill cha
Plain-ba
Red-brae
Crested
Olive Th
White-br
fan-tail
Thick-bi
African
Little G
Yellow -b
Blue-w in
Black-he
Grey Her
Yellow -b
Hadada
Wattled
Spot-bre
Augur Bu
Black Ki
Lanner F
Peregrin
Long-cre
Mountain
Taw ny Ea
Black Go
Red-ches
Black Ea
Martial
Cape Eag
Golden E
Bearded
Lappet-f
Hooded V
Ruppell'
White-ba
0
100
1.1E+01
75
bale birds
Distance (Objective Function)
2.1E+01
Information Remaining (%)
Figure 1. Species clustering on the basis of percent differences in food habits and bill morphology
(numerical coding followed predicted species group membership that resulted from a latter
K-means clustering)
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 20
50
1
3.2E+01
5
25
3
2
4
4.2E+01
0

Table 1. Component loadings of foraging habit and bill morphological attributes in the ordination
of the bird assemblage of the BMNP
Category Attributes C1 C2 C3
Food habits
Insectivorous -0.81 0.19 0.05
Frugivor -0.21 -0.26 -0.02
Granivor -0.16 -0.72 -0.1
Flower nectar -0.05 0.02 0.01
Small passerines -0.05 0.08 -0.43
Large passerines -0.01 0.05 -0.37
Ground Invertebrates -0.17 -0.27 -0.04
Aquatic food -0.03 -0.07 -0.01
Small rodents -0.01 0.06 -0.48
Hares and hyraxes -0.003 0.02 -0.18
Carrion -0.02 0.004 -0.12
Bill morphology
Flycatcher -0.44 0.26 0.08
Thrush -0.12 -0.23 -0.03
Sunbird -0.05 0.02 0.01
Shrike -0.13 0.06 -0.03
Raptor -0.01 0.08 -0.62
Crow -0.06 -0.02 -0.01
Pigeon -0.03 -0.18 -0.02
Serin -0.08 -0.34 -0.04
Parrot -0.02 -0.05 -0.01
Duck -0.004 -0.03 -0.003
Heron -0.01 -0.04 -0.01
Ibis -0.01 -0.02 -0.003
Wader -0.003 -0.001 -0.04
Based on results of the cluster analysis and the PCA species-specific membership of each of
the five assemblages was determined (Table 2). The first assemblage constituted 27 serins, weavers,
a parrot, a love bird, a turaco, a mouse bird, doves, and pigeons species with either or both of
granivorous and fruit eating food habits. The Park’s second bird assemblage is made of 11 wetland
birds ranging from ducks and geese to egrets. Fourteen large and small passerines that mainly forage
on a range of food items on the ground formed the third species assemblage. The fourth assemblage
was made of exclusively the large predatory birds that are commonly known as raptors. Fortyseven
species that are predominantly insectivorous made the species composition of the fifth bird
assemblage and it included babblers, flycatchers, warblers, cuckoos, coucals, shrikes and sunbirds.
The statistical meaningfulness theses divisions was evaluated in Kruskal-Wallis test and discriminate
function analysis. Group differences in dietary preferences were highly significant except for usage
of flower nectar. Results of the DFA showed the assemblages determined were distinct clusters of
birds that generally had significant group differences both in diet and bill morphology.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 21

Table 2. List of species under each of the five clusters determined based on the proportional
differences amongst species pairs in food habit and bill morphology
Assemblage 1 Assemblage 2 Assemblage 3 Assemblage 4 Assemblage 5
Abyssinian Crimson
Wing
African Black Duck
Abyssinian Ground
Thrush
African Citril Black-headed Heron Abyssinian Longclaw Bearded Vulture
Baglaphect Weaver Blue-winged Goose
Chestnut-napped
Francolin
Augur Buzzard Abyssinian Catbird
Black Goshawk
Abyssinian Slaty
Flycatcher
Abyssinian
Woodpecker
Black-headed Ciskin Grey Heron Hill Chat Black Eagle African Hill Babler
Brown-rumped
Seedeater
Hadada Ibis Long-billed Pipit Black Kite
Black-winged Lovebird Little Grebe Montane Nightjar Cape Eagle Owl
Bale Parrisoma (name
check)
Black-backed
Cisticola
Blue-spotted Wood Dove Montane Wagtail Moorland Francolin Golden Eagle Black-headed Batis
Streaky Seedeater Spot-breasted Plover Olive Thrush Hooded Vulture
Black-headed Forest
Oriole
Bronze Mannikin Wattled Ibis Plain-backed Pipit Lanner Falcon Blue-headed Coucal
Common Waxbill Yellow-billed duck Red-breasted Wheatear Lappet-faced Vulture
Crested Lark Yellow-billed Egret Rouget’s Rail Long-crested Eagle
Brown-woodland
Warbler
Cinnamon Bracken
Warbler
Dusky Turtle Dove Fan-tailed Raven Martial Eagle Collared Sunbird
Lemon Dove Thick-billed Raven Mountain Buzzard Common Bulbul
Narina Trogon
Olive Pigeon
White-browed Robin
chat
Peregrine Common Fiscal
Red-chested
Sparrowhawk
Dusky Flycatcher
Pin-tailed Whydah Ruppell’s Vulture Emerald cuckoo
Red-eyed Dove Tawny Eagle Foxy cisticola
Red-fronted Tinkerbird
White-backed
Vulture
Greater Honeyguide
Slender-billed Starling Grey Cuckooshrike
Speckeled Mousebird
Swee Waxbill
Grey-backed
Cameroptera
Grey-headed Bush
Shrike
Swainson’s Sparrow Grey Woodpecker
White-cheeked Turaco Klass Cuckoo
White-collared Pigeon Lesser Honeyguide
Yellow-fronted
Tinkerbird
Malachite Sunbird
Yellow-fronted Canary Montane Whiteeye
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 22

Assemblage 1 Assemblage 2 Assemblage 3 Assemblage 4 Assemblage 5
Yellow-fronted Parrot Nyanza Swift
Yellow-shouldered
Widowbird
Discussion
Puff-back Shrike
Rufous Chatere
Scaly-throated Babler
Scaly-throated
Honeyguide
Senegal Coucal
Sharps Starling
Silvery-cheeked
Hornbill
Tacazze Sunbird
Tawny-flanked Prinia
Tropical Boubou
White-backed Black
Tit
White-cheeked Bee
Eater
Yellow-bellied
Sunbird
Determination of communities based on empirically justifiable theoretical concepts has fundamental
value both for advancement of ecological and conservation sciences. This is so because community
attributes such as species richness are considered to be collective attributes of a group of similar
species that respond similarly to ecological processes operating at various spatial and temporal
scales (MacArthur 1971; Whittaker 1975; Diamond 1975; Holmes et al. 1979; Wiens 1989; Weihir
and Kedy 2001; Wilson 2001; Krebs 2000). But measurement of such attributes of any group or
taxon in a given landscape is a tricky concept. This requires one to follow a procedure to identify a
biological community with evident reflection of the theoretical premises that define such an entity
as a naturally relevant phenomenon.
Evaluation of empirical data in community ecology begins by defining a species pool
for a community under investigation. For an assemblage of organisms such as birds, community
ecologists either use an exhaustive list of a given area of acceptable spatial scale as the species pool
on which site based community evaluations are undertaken (Keddy 1992). This may result in a list
that includes species pairs that may not qualify to be in the same community if the fundamental
theoretical principles of community ecology were to be applied. A species pool may be defined at
a regional or even continental scale as far as valid historical relationships on which the concept of
community ecology is based are established (Ceuto et al. 1999). This is in addition to the application
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 23

of the fundamental proximate ecological principles that decide what collection of species constitutes
a community. Such a step-wise process stops the scientist from stumbling in to the pitfall of
assembling species whose treatment as members of one single community may not be justifiable.
Such a possibility must be treated with considerable caution since a whole assemblage of birds
in a continent or any other justifiably acceptable spatial scale may constitute members of several
communities whose attributes such as species diversity may respond independently and differently
to processes in a given area (Diamond 1975; Wiens 1989; Krebs 2000; Weihir and Kedy 2001;
Wilson 2001; Simberloff et al. 1992). It is thus essential to determine a total list of species for a
community basing the arguments on the assertions of community ecology and the evolutionary
premises that justify them. Undertaking the task in such a manner determines the academic and
applied value of the final outputs.
The magnitude of the impact is highly dependent up on how well one was able to define and
describe a community of living organisms such as birds as a naturally distinct collection of species
that coexist with emergent collective biological attributes that are results of their interlinked responses
to process variations at different spatial and temporal scales (Holmes et al. 1979). For a study of
birds at the community scale a species pool that constitutes all birds in an area of any reasonable
spatial scale may result in lumping species that may better be considered members of different
communities due to significant differences in response to environmental processes (Simberloff et al.
1992; Diamond 1975; Wiens 1989; Keddy 1992; Weihir and Kedy 2001; Wilson 2001; Krebs 2000).
Avoiding this requires a multivariate species ordination procedure that emphasizes on interspecific
similarities or group differences to reflect the natural structuring of species in to subsets of a larger
species assemblage of a given taxon. Ordination using attributes that reflect historical and ecological
relatedness amongst species results in a column of species group membership that can be used to
evaluate for instance the community level distributional response of species across habitat types.
Achieving this requires us to measure and evaluate processes that interlink species to form a group
naturally. This enables one to predict species composition in space as function of deterministic factors
such as historical factors that include biogeography (shared history that predetermines species cooccurrence);
taxonomic or evolutionary history that determines species similarity/differences and
proximate ecological causes that mainly emphasize on interspecifc similarity in resource exploitation
and access; interspecific similarity in response to predation, disease; environmental factors such as
weather and its consequences (Holmes et al. 1979; Keddy 1992; Dunning et al. 1992; Simberloff
et al. 1992). Within such framework ecological studies start with the total species checklist of a
spatial constituent proceeding with classification into subsets using morphological and ecological
characteristics. The main objective is then to be able to determine rules that enable one to predict
the subset clusters within a given spatial and temporal circumstance. This refers to determination of
assembly rules through analysis of data sets that includes the species pool and species traits (Keddy
1992; Rice and Kronlund 1997).
Functional relationship of species is inherent to measurement and evaluation of community
attributes (Peet 1974; Simberloff et al. 1992). In one way or another for two species to be members
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 24

of a community there must be a premise of shared resource exploitation (Simberloff et al. 1992;
Rice and Kronlund 1997). This excludes lumping a species that serves as a resource with another
that exploits in one community or those that do not have any direct relationship at all. Within this
context it is essential for the scientist to determine which group of species is naturally predisposed
to form a community.
Using multivariate ordination techniques various workers have determined groups of
interrelated species based on evaluation of ecological and morphological attributes (Holmes et al.
1979; Shirley and Smith 2005; Askins and Philbrik 1987; Wilson 1974; Simberloff et al. 1992).
Holmes et al. (1979) differentiated a set of 22 (the total bird list is 29 as per Richard et al. (1986)
which apparently may mean the whole breeding bird assemblage of the site is made of only an
insectivorous group) insectivorous bird species of the Hubbard Brooks of West Hampshire, USA
in to 4 groups of foraging guilds. They determined a guild by limiting its definition to a group that
contains species that exploit the same foraging resource in a similar manner. The authors showed
that these four groups were subcomponents of an insectivorous bird community of their study area.
In some cases species classification was undertaken with clear intention of describing ecological
guilds in a community focusing on their trophic boundaries (Teborgh et al. 1990; Wilson 1974). Data
in Askin and Philbrick (1987), was analyzed for each group of species they determined separately.
But it must be noted that criteria that reflect proximate interspecifc interaction may not explain the
observed structuring of a large set of species completely. In some case studies it was shown that
long-term temporal scale patterns of structure, even at small spatial scale, can not be fully explained
by interspecifc interaction alone (Richard et al. 1986). For larger bird assemblages particularly in
some regions of the northern hemisphere, additional attributes such as migratory status was used
in classifying large sets of birds (Böhning-Gaese and Bauer 1995; Akins and Philbrick 1987). In
some instances the nativity of species has been used as classification criteria (Mills et al. 1989).
All these studies tend to lump all species as parts of the same community even in situations where
some actually are predators of a large proportion of the species in the assemblage (a case in point
is Böhning-Gaese and Bauer 1995; Askin and Philbrick 1987; Wethered and Lawes 2005). It is
the theoretical and empirical relevance of such a tendency that our current paper explored and
improvised on.
We examined the value of application of the fundamental principles of community ecology
to define highland bird communities in the Bale Mountains National Park of Ethiopia to test how
well this may be reflected on the ground using bird census data. Since preparation of a species total
list at the continental or regional scale (although this is most preferable) is impractical at this stage
due to lack of species specific distributional data at some finer scale, we decided to use only the
NP’s total species list of resident birds for this purpose. Our analysis of attributes related to dietary
preferences and bill morphology of the 117 resident bird assemblage of the BMNP demonstrated,
species were significantly grouped in to five assemblages representing at least some proportion
of a vertebrate community. We refrained from strongly suggesting that each of this group is a
complete community because there are instances of easily observable holes in some of the groups.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 25

The predators for example, directly interact with mammalian predators in the study area (Sillero-
Zuburri 1995; Tallents 2007). Within a strict sense of the interaction concept that emanates from
overlap in resource exploitation that results in a competitive environment, raptors can justifiably be
considered as members of a predator community together with Ethiopian wolves, jackals, leopards
and other mammalian predators within the BMNP (Wiens 1989). Full description and explanation
of patterns for this community for example will never be complete without availability and usage
of data on the other predators. We evaluated further the relevance of this grouping in determining
group differences in response to habitat type or more importantly in reflecting group differences in
habitat choice.
Constraining species specific habitat distribution with group membership determined based
on diet and bill morphology resulted in significant intergroup distributional differences except in
the case of occupancy of marshes within the interior of the Park’s forests. This species specific
habitat distribution was significantly classified in a DFA with the first function accounting for 59.2
% of the variation in the data set and the second function explaining 27.2 % of group difference
in species specific habitat choice. This clearly demonstrated the group structuring of the Park’s
bird assemblage that resulted from similarities/differences in diet and bill morphology has clear
impact on the collective distributional response which was expressed as total occupancy of a habitat
by a group. Constraining the collective habitat distribution data with a group membership column
that resulted from differences in diet and bill morphology to produce the group habitat distribution
functions in the DFA clearly demonstrated the collective distributional patterns of structure were
caused by historical and ecological processes.
Acknowledgements
This work was a result of research funded by Wildlife Conservation Society, Conservation
International, Peregrine Fund, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Darwin Initiative. BirdLife International
and Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society provided other support.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 27

Ethiopian Wolf Monitoring in the Bale Mountains from 2001-2004
Deborah Randall 1,2,3* , Lucy Tallents 1,2 , Stuart Williams 1,2 and Claudio Sillero-Zubiri 1,2
1 Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, PO Box 215, Robe, Bale, Ethiopia
2 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney
House, Tubney Ox13 5qL, U.K.
3 Frankfurt Zoological Society - Ethiopia, PO Box 100003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
*Email: deborah.a.randall@gmail.com
Abstract
The largest population of Ethiopian wolves, which exists in the Bale Mountains, has been monitored
almost continuously by the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme since 1983. In the present
paper, we outline wolf monitoring activities in the Bale Mountains from 2001-2004 and provide
an estimate of Ethiopian wolf population size for this period. We also discuss wolf monitoring
practices based on a review of the long-term objectives of the EWCP monitoring programme.
Between 2001 and 2004, as a response to a rabies outbreak, monitoring effort and spatial coverage
increased substantially from previous years to include demographic and spatial data on 60 focal
packs throughout the Bale massif and an estimated 300 to 350 adult and subadult wolves (> 1
year old). We present an overview of the EWCP’s wolf monitoring objectives, review monitoring
protocols and activities during this period and outline considerations for ongoing monitoring in
the Bale Mountains. EWCP embraces the following monitoring objectives in Bale: (i) obtaining
reliable, annual population estimates that enable the EWCP to monitor population trends over time;
(ii) ensuring comparable estimates of wolf abundance between study areas and years; (iii) collecting
detailed data on focal packs, including size, composition, territory configurations, and breeding
success; (iv) detecting disease epidemics quickly should they occur, and (v) monitoring changes in
genetic diversity.
Introduction
The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) is a rare canid endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia (Sillero-
Zubiri et al. this edition). They are listed as Endangered by the IUCN Red List (Sillero-Zubiri and
Marino 2008) and restricted to only seven isolated mountain ranges in Ethiopia above 3,000 m
a.s.l. (Marino 2003b). With a global population estimated at around 500 adult individuals, Ethiopian
wolves are the rarest carnivore in Africa, and one of the rarest in the world (Sillero-Zubiri and
Marino 2004). Ethiopian wolves are a social species, living in packs of 2-17 individuals but, unlike
other pack-living canids, individuals forage alone for rodents (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1994,
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 28

1995a; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004, Sillero-Zubiri et al. this edition). As a result of their specialized
feeding habits, Ethiopian wolves are restricted to those montane areas where suitable habitat
supports an abundance of their primary prey species - diurnal rodents of the Afroalpine ecosystem
(Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a). Ethiopian wolves are territorial with packs maintaining discrete
territories that tessellate to occupy all available habitat. In high density wolf areas (> 1 wolf/km2 ),
average pack size is six adults and yearlings and average territory size is 6 km2 (Sillero-Zubiri
and Gottelli 1995b). Dispersing ‘floater’ females, comprising approximately 7% of the population,
range solitarily over the territories of one or more packs (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996).
History of the Ethiopian Wolf Monitoring Programme in the Bale Mountains
The estimation of population size and monitoring of population trends is a critical part of the
conservation and management of endangered species and has been a fundamental activity of the
EWCP since its inception. The largest population of Ethiopian wolves is mostly found within the
2,200 km2 Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in south-eastern Ethiopia. Here the population,
which has been monitored almost continuously since 1983, is subjectively subdivided into eight
linked subpopulations, some of which are continuous within the Afroalpine landscape (e.g. Sanetti,
Chafa Delacha, Rafu, Tullu Deemtu and Central Peaks), others being well-defined by the lava walls
and rocky peaks that demarcate corridors between them (e.g. Morebawa and Web Valley), and
Gaysay Valley, which is more isolated montane grassland at the northern end of BMNP (Fig. 1).
Wolf ranges indicated
Bale
Mountains
° Ethiopia
Web Valley
(10)
Morebawa
(17)
0 ° N 10km
39°30' 39°40' 39°50'
#
Central
Peaks
(9)
Raffu
(5)
Gaysay Valley
(1)
Tullu
Deemtu
(2)
Wolf habitat
Park boundary
Sanetti
Plateau
(9)
Chafa
Delacha
(7)
Figure 1. Wolf habitat in the Bale Mountains with eight study areas indicated. Numbers in brackets
indicate the number of packs identified in each study area between 2001 and 2004.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 29
7°10'
7°00'
6°50'

Regular surveys of wolves were first undertaken in the early 1980s by the Bale Mountains
Research Project (Hillman 1986). From 1987 to 1992, CSZ undertook detailed research on
Ethiopian wolves in the Bale Mountains in four study areas; namely Web Valley, Sanetti
Plateau, Tullu Deemtu and Gaysay Valley (Fig. 1, Sillero-Zubiri 1994). Monitoring of wolves
in these areas has been continued since 1995 up to present by the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation
Programme (EWCP) and, since 2001, the EWCP has expanded the monitoring programme to
include all wolf range in the Bale massif as well as the six other wolf populations in Ethiopia
(Ash 2001). The history of the EWCP monitoring programme in Bale is described in greater
detail in Marino et al. (2006).
Monitoring activities consist primarily of total counts in focal packs. The high densities that
wolves attain in many areas, their diurnal habits, and conspicuous coats render them relatively
easy to find and follow on foot or horseback in the open Afroalpine landscape. Packs are
identified as groups of individuals with distinct compositions, maintaining discrete territories that
have little overlap with adjoining territories, and using exclusive dens during the breeding season.
New packs, whether newly formed by pack fission or previously undiscovered by the EWCP, are
identified by the same criteria. Territory boundaries for individual packs are determined during focal
follows of regular boundary patrols, identified as such by copious scent-marking and, often, active
territorial defence by individual wolves and packs. Maps of territory boundaries are then digitized
in ArcView software (Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands, California, U.S.A.) by
pooling GIS data collected in the field for each pack over a given time period (typically a single
breeding season).
Individual recognition during the early years of the monitoring programme was
assisted by ear-tags, radio-collars, and coat patterns (Sillero-Zubiri 1994; Sillero-Zubiri and
Gottelli 1994, 1995b; Sillero-Zubiri 1996). From 1996 onwards individual recognition was
more difficult due to the absence of artificial marks (previously ear-tagged animals died or
disappeared and no new animals were marked until 2003) and, more recently, a larger number
of focal packs under observation. Population monitoring has thus been based on complete
enumeration of animals in focal packs (i.e. records were kept of all wolves seen around the
den, or during social greetings and patrols, until no new individuals were observed). Sex and
age classes have been assigned to wolves according to the following categories: adults (> 2
years), sub-adults or yearlings (1-2 years), and pups (0-12 months), male, female, unknown
(unknown age and/or sex).
In addition to the continuous monitoring of focal packs, the EWCP conducts monthly transect
counts in the Sanetti Plateau (since 1985) and Web Valley (since 1989) (Marino et al. 2006). From
these, indices of abundance calculated from repeated transects have been used to analyze trends
in these two subpopulations areas. See Marino et al. (2006) for a more detailed description of this
method and the results it has produced.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 30

Monitoring Activities the Bale Mountains from 2001-2004
From 2001-2004, the effort and spatial coverage of the EWCP monitoring programme in the Bale
Mountains increased substantially from previous years, largely in response to a rabies outbreak and
subsequent vaccination of wolves (Randall et al. 2004; Knobel et al. 2008). During this time, the
number of monitoring personnel also increased from only two staff in 2001 and less than 100 person
days to nine staff in 2004 and over 1,000 person days expended in the field collecting a substantial
amount of data on pack size, composition, and distribution over a wider area (Fig. 2). Monitoring
effort was unevenly distributed throughout the Bale massif with the most effort concentrated in
the Web Valley, Sanetti Plateau, and Morebawa areas in 2003 and 2004 (Fig. 1). During these
years monitoring in the Web Valley was particularly high in response to the rabies outbreak in that
area (August 2003 to January 2004, Randall et al. 2004) and monitoring in the Sanetti Plateau and
Morebawa areas focused on assessing the survival of wolves captured and vaccinated during the
emergency vaccination programme (Knobel et al. 2008).
Figure 2. Monitoring effort in eight study areas of the Bale Mountains from 2001 to 2004. Numbers
above bars indicate the number of monitoring personnel employed by the EWCP each year.
The monitoring methods used followed those described above for determination of
pack boundaries and complete enumeration of unmarked individuals in focal packs based on
sex and age assignment. However, a certain level of individual recognition was also possible
following the vaccination intervention in 2003 (Randall et al. 2004; Knobel et al. 2008) when
unique combinations of colour-coded ear tags were put on a number of wolves in three study
areas (Web Valley, Morebawa, and Sanetti Plateau).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 31

Ethiopian Wolf Population Size in the Bale Mountains from 2001-2004
Previous to this study, the most recent estimate of the total Ethiopian wolf population size in the
Bale Mountains was 250 individuals (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2000). This estimate, made in 2000 at the
Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Strategy Workshop held at the headquarters of the BMNP, was based
on extrapolation of known wolf densities in ‘optimal’, ‘good’, and ‘marginal’ habitat categories
(sensu Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1992; Sillero-Zubiri 1994; Marino 2003a) to the extent and types
of habitat available in the Bale massif (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2000). Habitat categories throughout
wolf range were assigned on the basis of quantitative data showing correlations between rodent
density, wolf abundance and vegetation height, as described by Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri (1992)
and later applied by Marino (2003b) to estimate population sizes in other wolf ranges.
From 2001-2004, a total of 60 packs were monitored in the Bale Mountains with an estimated
328 adult and subadult wolves (> 1 year) in eight study areas (Table 1). Twenty-three floater females
were suspected based on ranging behaviour spanning more than one pack territory. However, floater
females are difficult to identify and monitor without individual identification, therefore their number
was estimated as 7% of the total population in each study area based on previous estimates of the
relative number of floaters in the population (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996).
Wolf numbers in the Web Valley presented in Table 1 are estimated before the rabies
outbreak in late 2003, which reduced the population from 68 adults and yearlings to approximately
21 individuals in early 2004. Thus, there were probably around 350 adult and subadult wolves
in the Bale Mountains before the rabies outbreak in late 2003, and probably around 300 wolves
immediately after the outbreak. Therefore, we conclude that there were approximately 300 to 350
wolves in the Bale Mountains between 2001 and 2004 but, since a number of packs were probably
not yet identified or monitored, total population size is likely to have been larger than 350 wolves.
Pups were excluded from our estimate of population size, ensuring comparability with previous
estimates (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b; Marino et al. 2006).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 32

Table 1. Packs monitored in the Bale Mountains between 2001-04. ID’s refer to the territory location
in Figure 3.
Study area ID Pack name Pack size Study area ID Pack name Pack size
Web Valley ‡ 1 Alando 4 Sanetti 29 Badagasa 10
2 Darkeena 9 30 Batu 8
3 Doda 7 31 BBC 9
4 Hybrid 2 32 Bilisa 6
5 Kotera 10 33 Garba Guracha 11
6 Megity 8 34 Lencha 6
7 Mulamu 9 35 Nyala 6
8 Sodota 2 36 quarry 6
9 Tarrura 10 37 Sulula 5
10 Wolla 2 Floaters 5
Floaters 5 TOTAL 72
TOTAL 68
Central Peaks † 38 Buyamo 4
Gaysay † 11 Gaysay 3 39 Dandy 6
40 Kara 4
41 Kurumesa 3
Morebawa 12 Ariye 3 42 Lucky 5
13 Burra 5 43 Saletti 3
14 Chalaka 3 44 Shaya 7
15 Chokisa 4 45 Wasama 5
16 Duna 8 46 Worgona 4
17 ¥ Fotura 2 Floaters 3
18 Fulbana 8 TOTAL 44
19 Genale 6
20 Gurati 6 Chafa Delacha † 52 Abala 8
21 Haro Bachay 4 53 Agicho 6
22 Huke 5 54 Bedessa 6
23 Kumbuta 6 55 Konteh 8
24 Leliso 5 56 Likita 3
25 Osole 6 57 Shefa 8
26 Rogicha 6 58 Shiwwa 4
27 Waota 6 Floaters 3
28 Weshema 3 TOTAL 46
Floaters 6
TOTAL 92 Tullu Deemtu 59 ¥ Tullu Deemtu 1 3
60 ¥ Tullu Deemtu 2 2
Raffu † 47 Chufo 3 TOTAL 5
48 Dimma 2
49 Kolela 6 Total packs 328
50 Onburi 4 Total floaters 23
51 Raffu 5
Floaters 1 Grand Total 351
TOTAL 21
‡ Pack sizes determined from monitoring during the 2002-2003 breeding season (ie. before the rabies outbreak in late 2003)
Pack sizes determined from monitoring during the 2003-2004 breeding season.
† Pack sizes are estimated from fewer data collected between late 2003 and early 2005.
¥ Territory boundaries in Fig. 3 are estimated as no spatial data were available.
Figure 3 shows the distribution of known packs in the Bale massif from 2001 to 2004.
Territory boundaries are depicted for Web Valley packs during the 2002-2003 breeding season (i.e.
before the rabies epidemic in late 2003) and for the Sanetti Plateau and Morebawa packs during the
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 33

2003-2004 breeding season (after the vaccination intervention). Territory boundaries for other packs
are based on fewer data, due to lower monitoring effort in those areas, collected between 2003 and
early 2005.
Wolf habitat
Pack territory
2
Web Valley
9
7
3
5 6
1
4
10
7°00'
13
Morebawa
24 20
23
21
16
27
19
28
18
25
15 22
17
13
26
48
8
Central Peaks
45
43
46
39 44
40
38 41
Raffu 47
42 37
49
51
30
Sanetti
Plateau
35
33 29
12
50
Tullu Deemtu
59
31
36
34 32
N°
0 10km
39°40'
Chafa 53
Delacha
39°50'
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 34
11
Gaysay Valley
60
52
55 54
58
57 56
Figure 3. Territory boundaries of known wolf packs in the Bale Mountains from 2001-2004.
Territories in the Web Valley (2002-2003 breeding season, i.e. before rabies), Sanetti Plateau (2003-
2004 breeding season), and Morebawa (2003-2004 breeding season) were well known as monitoring
effort was high in these areas. Territory boundaries in other areas were less well known as they
were based on fewer data collected between late 2003 and early 2005. Territories in white are only
estimates of territory boundaries as no spatial data were available for these packs. Numbers refer to
the ID for each pack in Table 1.
Objectives of the EWCP Monitoring Programme
Based on consultations between field staff in the EWCP and other organisations working in the Bale
Mountains at this time, the objectives of the wolf monitoring programme for Bale were laid out as
follows:
• To obtain baseline data on population size, density, abundance, and genetic diversity
• To estimate population size annually and monitor trends over time
• To monitor pack size, composition, territory configurations, and breeding success for a
number of focal packs
• To detect disease epidemics
• To assess long-term changes in genetic diversity
Monitoring Changes in Population Size
The monitoring programme’s primary aim is to quickly and reliably detect changes in population
size. Pack enumeration has proven useful for monitoring demographic changes in focal packs and

long-term study areas. However, total counts of focal packs are only useful for calculating absolute
population size if all packs in the Bale massif are monitored and pack demographics are reliably
determined for each pack, both of which require a substantial investment of resources and are
difficult (if not impossible) to achieve. The tremendous quantity and quality of monitoring data
collected by the EWCP on focal packs over many years has made it possible to follow meaningful
trends in group size, pack territories and reproductive success. While variation in monitoring effort
across packs, study sites, and years makes estimating total population size a challenge, extrapolation
of these data have provided a means of assessing population trends up to present.
As a complementary approach, an index of abundance from the Web Valley and Sanetti
Plateau transects has been applied successfully to estimate wolf trends in high density wolf areas
(Marino et al. 2006). However, the index was deemed less accurate at estimating wolf abundance in
low-density areas (Marino et al. 2006)
Monitoring Long-term Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is deemed necessary for population persistence because it allows the evolutionary
adaptability of populations to natural or human-induced environmental changes (Allendorf and
Leary 1986; Gilpin and Soulé 1986; Lande and Barrowclough 1987) and counters the negative
effects of inbreeding on fitness (Lande 1988; Falconer 1989; Frankham 1995; Amos and Balmford
2001). Thus, one of the EWCP’s conservation goals is to maintain 90% of the species’ genetic
variation over 200 years - the recommended target for the genetic minimum viable population
(MVP) (Ralls and Ballou 1986; Soulé et al. 1986).
From 2002 to 2005, a study was undertaken to examine the current level and distribution
of genetic variation in the Bale wolf population (Randall et al. 2010). A total of 156 Ethiopian
wolves present in the population during this period were sampled and genotyped at 17 polymorphic
microsatellite markers. Within subpopulations, allelic richness ranged from 4.2 to 4.3 (with 4 to 12
alleles per locus) and expected heterozygosity (H ) ranged from 0.584 to 0.607. A similar analysis
e
of genetic variation is currently being completed for other populations across the species’ range
(Gottelli et al., unpublished data). These data provide a baseline from which changes in genetic
diversity can be monitored.
Genetic methods can also be used for monitoring population size and demography; and noninvasive
genetic sampling is a particularly useful tool that can be applied to species that are either
too rare or elusive to observe, or where the threatened status of a population precludes or deters
capture and handling of animals (Kohn and Wayne 1997).
Indeed, individual identification of wolves using genetic methods has been possible in both
the Bale population (Randall et al. 2007; Randall et al. 2010) and smaller populations in North
Ethiopia (Asmyhr et al. unpublished data, Gottelli et al. unpublished data). However, low quality or
quantity DNA obtained from faecal or hair samples are more prone to erroneous genotyping which
have undesirable consequences for analyses using genetic data (for example, genotyping errors
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 35

lead to greatly inflated population estimates, Waits and Leberg 2000; Creel et al. 2003). Rigorous
laboratory protocols can reduce the number of genotyping errors, such that their consequences for
demographic and genetic monitoring are sufficiently minimised. Randall (2006), determined that (i)
faecal samples provide a useful source of DNA for noninvasive genetic studies in Ethiopian wolves,
and (ii) three PCR replications were sufficient to obtain reliable multilocus genotypes in this study
if the DNA concentrations in faecal extracts was sufficiently high. Thus a system of ‘extract sorting’
(Morin et al. 2001) is recommended to substantially increase the reliability of the genotyping results
while alleviating the need for excessive and costly PCR replications. This means selecting a priori
those samples with sufficient DNA to give reliable genotyping results with minimal replications.
One drawback of monitoring population size and demography using genetic methods is the longer
time required to process samples in the lab (particularly non-invasive faecal samples) and, thus,
obtain results.
Conclusions
From a conservation management perspective, the EWCP’s monitoring programme for Bale has
three main aims: (1) to obtain reliable, annual population estimates for the wolf population that
includes all available wolf habitat in the Bale massif (including both low and high density areas), (2)
to detect rapid, short-term declines caused by outbreaks of disease that might necessitate immediate
intervention or other management action, and (3) to detect slow declines (or increases) over the longterm,
resulting from habitat modification/loss or other environmental and demographic factors. A
fourth aim is to monitor genetic diversity over time. Importantly, the future monitoring programme
should ensure comparability of population estimates with the existing long-term dataset.
Given these aims, EWCP has designed a monitoring protocol for Bale that targets six focal
packs in each of three core wolf areas (i.e. Web, Sanetti and Morebawa) to ensure early detection
of drastic declines and clinical signs of disease. Data collected includes detailed information on
pack size, structure, territorial boundaries, and breeding success for all focal packs. In addition, the
monitors collect data on a similar number of peripheral packs for each core study area. Elsewhere in
the Bale massif, demographic and reproduction data are collected opportunistically. Non-invasive
genetic sampling could also provide a tool for monitoring changes in wolf demography and genetic
diversity throughout the species’ range, particularly where other census methods are not feasible.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 38

Observations on the Status of the Mountain Nyala: 2000-2005
James Malcolm 1* and Paul H. Evangelista 2
1 Department of Biology, University of Redlands, P.O. Box 3080, Redlands CA, 92373-0999, USA
2 Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins
CO 80523-1499, USA
*Email: James_Malcolm@redlands.edu
Abstract
Between 2000 and 2003, we conducted a rapid assessment of the known range and status of the
mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) supplemented with a thorough literature search of historic
accounts and recent reports. The mountain nyala is known to inhabit three distinct mountain ranges
in Ethiopia’s southern highlands. These are the Ahmar, Arsi and Bale Mountains. For this report, we
assessed two sites in the Ahmar Mountains, two sites in the Arsi Mountains, and three sites in the Bale
Mountains. Historical and recent reports were collected from all areas including known populations
that were not visited (Arba Gugu, Woga Bulu, and southern escarpment of the Bale Mountains). A
world population in the range of 3,500-4,000 is likely, down from the last comprehensive survey
results of between 7,000 and 8,000 (Brown 1969). Probably 80% of the world’s population survives
in the Bale Mountains and contiguous Harenna Forest. Current conservation efforts employ multiple
strategies with varying results. Mountain nyala populations found in the Galama Mountains, which
are centrally situated within the Arsi range, are especially threatened. Uncontrolled burning,
deforestation, livestock grazing, cultivation and illegal hunting have nearly resulted in the regional
extinction of the mountain nyala and other wildlife species on the Galama Ridge, Mt. Chilalo and Mt.
Kaka. In contrast, the mountain nyala population in the Gaysay Valley of Bale Mountains National
Park is thriving, and density may exceed the capacity of the fragmented forests that remain. Further
monitoring of known mountain nyala populations and determining the full extent of the mountain
nyala’s range will be required to provide better total population estimates, establish effective
management strategies, and achieve meaningful conservation of the species.
Introduction
The mountain nyala is a magnificent antelope restricted to a small part of southeast Ethiopia. In
1969, Leslie Brown estimated a world population at 7,000-8000. It is close to 40 years since Brown
made his surveys, and human encroachment has occurred throughout the species range. It is the
purpose of this paper to compile current information on the species and to assess its conservation
status.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 39

The limited range of the mountain nyala was first recognized in the 1920s and 30s. In 1933,
Osgood (Harper 1945) estimated that the world population could not number more than a few
thousand and might be much lower. The mountain nyala was placed on the A list of endangered
animals by Harper (1945). It has retained this status except for a brief period from 1969-1975
following several reports by Leslie Brown that estimated the total population to be between 7,000
and 8,000.The mountain nyala is currently listed as Endangered by the World Conservation Union
due to reduced populations (A1) and continued decline (C1) (IUCN 2003). The species is fully
protected under Ethiopian law; however, sustainable management practices permit approximately
30 older males to be legally harvested annually.
The species is known to occur in seven regions, each with different population densities,
habitat types, and human impact. From south to north, these sites are: the Bale Mountains, the
Arsi Mountains, Munessa, Worga Bula, Arba Gugu, DinDin and Kuni -Muktar (Fig. 1). For this
assessment, J. Malcolm conducted brief surveys of these areas, except for Worga Bula and Arba
Gugu and Kuni Muktar, between January and June 2002. The Galama Mountains, eastern slope of
the Bale Mountains, and Kuni-Muktar were briefly surveyed by P. Evangelista between 2000 and
2003. In addition, we collected current and historical reports from all of the areas and conducted
interviews with resource managers at federal and regional levels.
The mountain nyala, although a large animal, is a difficult species to survey. It is largely
nocturnal, preferring areas of dense vegetation cover during the heat of the day. Several census
methods have been tried, including transects (Stephens et al. 2001; EWCD censuses) and a Lincoln
Index (Hillman 1986a). Although these methods may provide rough estimates, they could be
improved with a better understanding of the species’ behavior and movement patterns. Refera
and Bekele (2004) conducted direct counts in the Gaysay Valley of Bale Mountains National Park
(BMNP). This method, however, is only useful in open areas and where the surveyed animals are
conditioned to daily human activities.
We should note that these surveys, as well as our own, are limited to areas where mountain
nyala are known to occur. The Bale Mountains, for example, have never been adequately surveyed.
Mountain nyala populations have been discovered on the eastern slopes as recently 2002 by the
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (previously Wildlife Conservation Department). The
southern slopes, including the Harenna Forest, are currently being surveyed (A. Atickem pers
comm). There is a good probability that other populations exist, and this will be discussed later in
the paper.
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The Bale Mountains
Figure 1. The known range of the mountain nyala
The Bale Mountains cover a large expanse of Ethiopia’s southern highlands with nearly 3,500 km2 of Afro-alpine and sub-alpine ecosystems. The Harenna Forest, part of a dense band of wet montane
forest between 1,500 and 3,200 m, covers almost 5,000 km2 on the southern and western slopes.
Mountain nyala are known to occur in five partially disjunct populations but are also suspected to
inhabit unexplored areas on the southern slopes of the massif. In 1970, BMNP was created to protect
mountain nyala and Ethiopian wolf populations and their critical habitats (Waltermire 1975). The
park is centrally situated in the Bale Mountains and covers approximately 2,200 km2 (Fig. 1)
The grasslands and shrublands of the Gaysay Valley (including those at the Park’s
headquarters), in the northern tip of BMNP, now support the highest density of mountain nyala and
the best studied over the years. This area was not mentioned by Brown (1969), and the species was
rare in the area in the 1970s and early 1980s (T. Hundessa 2002 pers comm; J. Malcolm pers obs).
The Gaysay Valley is situated near the park’s headquarters and has been regularly visited by tourists.
As a result, wildlife and habitat in the area have been well protected over the years and mountain
nyala populations grew rapidly. By 1987, it was possible to see herds of up to 500 mountain nyala
on the Gaysay grasslands in the evening. Transect data from Gaysay, initiated by the park in 1985
showed rates of 20-26 mountain nyala per kilometre of transect (Stephens et al. 2001). During the
change of government in 1991, civil unrest in the Bale region resulted in the illegal killing of many
wildlife species and the movement of people into the park (Woldegebriel 1997). Some of these areas
have never been reclaimed by the park and the level of protection has been greatly reduced. Transects
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conducted in the 1990s averaged four mountain nyala per kilometre (Stephens et al. 2001); however,
in 2001 Refera and Bekele (2004) counted between 682 and 731 animals in four surveys in the
Gaysay Valley and adjacent BMNP headquarters. These numbers provide the best current estimates
The Hanto hunting block lies just north of the park and still supports a number of mountain
nyala. A census team from the EWCD estimated 375 mountain nyala within the hunting block in
1998. The area was visited in 2002 and the number of mountain nyala appeared to be noticeably
lower than the previous EWCD estimates (J. Malcolm pers obs). Despite a 5 km buffer between
BMNP and the hunting block, it is likely that mountain nyala move between the two areas (A.
Atickdem pers comm. 2007).
An extensive East-West ridge that runs approximately 30 km east of Goba supports a large
and stable population of mountain nyala. The northern slopes of the ridge are moderately inhabited
by people and livestock, while the southern slopes have large tracts of intact forests. Mountain nyala
are mostly found between 1,800 and 3,000 m, but are sometimes found as low as 1,600 m in acacia
woodlands (P. Evangelista pers obs). Two contiguous hunting blocks (Odo Bulu/Besemena and
Abasha/Demero) were established in 2002 and 2003 and have since been surveyed by the EWCD
several times. Overall, the eastern ridge of the Bale Mountains may have over 600 km2 of mountain
nyala habitat and a population of 1,500-2,000 is probable.
Outside these two main centres of population (Gaysay Valley and the eastern ridge), mountain
nyala population densities are low or unknown elsewhere in the Bale Mountains. The species is still
seen occasionally on the Sanetti Plateau, and the EWCD has reported mountain nyala in the high
forests to the east of Sanetti in an area called Sheddem. In 2003, mountain nyala were reported from
a new area just outside the extreme southwest corner of BMNP close to the town of Angetu. They
were reported to be on steep bamboo slopes where there were few cattle. A wildlife department
expedition counted three mountain nyala; however, the area has considerably dense vegetation that
would inhibit most survey methods. Local people report large numbers of mountain nyala west
of Angetu, but this area has not yet been thoroughly explored or surveyed. Some mountain nyala
remain in the western extension of the Bale Mountains south of the towns of Dodola and Adaba. The
Ethiopian Forestry Department in cooperation with German Technical Aid (GTZ) has established a
horse trekking business in the area. The opportunity to see mountain nyala is an important incentive
for tourists. A biologist was employed for three months in 2001 to count the species (Abdumuriam
2002 pers comm.). He estimated 50 mountain nyala, which seems reasonable on the basis of a visit
made in January 2002 (J. Malcolm pers obs).
Over most of their range in the Bale Mountains, mountain nyala have declined substantially
since Brown’s surveys in the 1960s. For instance, Brown (1966) reported seeing 35 mountain nyala
in a day in the woodlands and moorlands above Goba. Most of the trees in this area have now been
cut, and mountain nyala are only rarely seen
Transect counts across the Sanetti by car have dropped from one mountain nyala per 12.5 km
in the 1970s and early 1980s to one per 50 km in the 1990s (with several years when the monthly
transects yielded no sightings; Stephens et al. 2001). Similar declines have been noticed over much
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of the park’s interior, where human and livestock encroachment has become more prevalent. Other
than the populations that reside in the Gaysay Valley, the eastern ridge of the Bale Massif, and
unexplored highlands of the Harenna Forest, it is possible that only 150 to 200 mountain nyala
persist in other areas oft the BMNP. Summing the totals for the different parts of the Bale Mountains,
a population of between 2,500 and 3,000 seems probable for the areas where mountain nyala are
currently known to occur.
Arsi Mountains
The Arsi Mountains are situated in the central highlands east of the Rift Valley (Fig. 1). Largely
defined by the Galama Ridge and several isolated volcanic cones, the highlands are mostly covered
by giant heath and Afro-alpine ecosystems with small pockets of montane forest at lower elevations.
The first record of mountain nyala came from this area (Lydekker 1910), and several early collecting
and hunting expeditions visited the Galama Ridge in the 1920s (Fuertes and Osgood 1936; Maydon
1925; Sanford and LeGendre 1930). Leslie Brown visited the Arsi Mountains in 1966 finding
mountain nyala throughout. He estimated the regional population to be about 700 despite the fact
that almost all the flanking forests had disappeared. He stated that nyala “are now a scarce and
beleaguered species existing in a fraction of its previous habitat” (Brown 1966).
In the 1970s and 1980s, The Arsi Mountains contained several open hunting blocks available
to licensed professional hunters and their clients; mountain nyala were plentiful, and most of the
record trophy mountain nyala were taken from this area. All hunting was closed in Ethiopia between
1993 and 1995. During this time, the Arsi Mountains were heavily exploited for wood and wildlife
by the local people. Uncontrolled burning, cultivation, livestock pressure, and poaching greatly
reduced the region’s natural resources and disrupted ecosystem processes (Kubsa 1999; Evangelista
2007). When controlled hunting blocks were established in 1995 under the new hunting system, the
Galama Ridge, Mt. Chilalo, and Mt Kaka had little remaining wildlife. Between 1996 and 1998,
only seven mountain nyala were harvested from the Galama Ridge and Mt. Chilalo. The operator
of the hunting concession voluntarily ceased all hunting activities, but continued to pay fees and
maintained guards in an effort to let the wildlife populations and habitat recover. In 2000 and 2001,
P. Evangelista and a research team conducted a ten-week ecological assessment of the area. The
team estimated that about 90% of the Galama Ridge had been burned in the previous seven years,
and agriculture was observed as high as 3,410 m (P. Evangelista pers obs). Tentatively, the team
concluded a total population of 125-150, with 80-100 along the Galama Ridge, 10-20 around Mt.
Chilalo and 30-40 on Mt. Kaka. Kubsa to the west of Mt. Kaka was not included and may still
harbor mountain nyala as it did in Leslie Brown’s time.
Munessa is a district and town in the Arsi region that lies on the eastern slopes of the Rift
Valley. A ridge of woodlands runs in a north-south orientation to the east of the town of Munessa
at an elevation of about 2,400 m. The forest is situated between Lake Langano, which is as close as
10 km to the west, and Mt. Kaka, about 25 km to the east. The forest once stretched for more than
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 43

60 km, extending south toward Wondo Genet. Continuous tree felling over the past 40 years has
reduced the forest coverage in the south, and the wooded area now extends about 40 km varying in
width from 4 to 8 km. The area was first gazzetted as forest reserve in 1969. In 1987 it was named
the Munessa Shashemane Integrated State Forestry Development and Utilization Project. Mounain
nyala occur almost exclusively in the Munessa part of the project, which covers 111 km2 and ranges
from 1,900 to 2,500 m in elevation. Approximately 85 km2 are covered in Afro-montane forest with
Podocarpus falcatus, Croton macrostachyus and Schefflera abyssinca dominant. The remaining 26
km2 are covered by a plantation forest comprised mostly of Cupressus lusitanicus with some Pinus
and Eucalyptus spp. Mountain nyala were not known to exist in Munessa when Brown did his
surveys in the 1960s; however, they appear to have flourished within the plantations. The plantation
is intensively managed for timber and is also a controlled hunting block.
In 2002, J. Malcolm visited the area and, working with two experienced trackers, conducted
four searches for mountain nyala. Mountain nyala were seen during three of the four surveys, including
a herd of 13 females with a single male and a herd of four females and two males. Droppings and
footprints were common. The mountain nyala frequented the native forests and areas of regrowth
following the harvest of Cupressus (J. Malcolm pers obs). During the trip, the entire area of the
forest was not surveyed, so the full range of mountain nyala within the natural forest and plantation
was not determined. Mountain nyala have been able to flourish in this area largely because of the
absence of domestic livestock and farming. Because of the low elevations of Munessa, we can
speculate that the species may have occupied large forested areas at lower elevations in the past.
The forest administration encourages the conservation of mountain nyala and habitat through
sustainable harvest strategies. They receive some direct compensation from the hunting fees and
employ several game scouts to work with hunters and tourists. Despite the guards and intensive
management of Munessa, livestock grazing and poaching still occur. The 2002 visit coincided with
an annual holiday for the Oromo people, traditionally celebrated by a group hunt. Twenty people
from the plantation’s workforce were mobilized in case of incursions, but the day passed quietly.
However, the next morning two men were riding through the forest with spears, and the guard was
sure that they were after mountain nyala (Malcolm pers obs). Trophy hunting brings important
revenues to the plantation and local community, indicating the potential economic value of wildlife
resources. In addition, Munessa is very close to the most popular resort destination for people living
in Addis Ababa, namely Lake Langano. An expensive safari lodge (Bishangari) has recently been
built on the Munessa side of the lake and further utilization of wildlife resources, such as wildlife
viewing and photo safaris, seem plausible.
The EWCD estimated the mountain nyala population in Munessa using a transect method in
1995 and 1999. Their figures were 95 and 81 animals, respectively. Based on the 2002 observations
by J. Malcolm, the mountain nyala population is likely to have increased to 200 animals.
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The Ahmar (Chercher) Mountains
The mountains flanking the east side of the Rift Valley subside above Arsi and re-emerge 50 km farther
north as a steep ridge rising to 3,000 m. This mountain range is known as the Ahmar or Chercher
Mountains. A population of mountain nyala was reported for the first time in 2005 in an area called
Worga Bula. Located east of the town of Ashmira and close to the larger town of Teferi Birhan, the
area is defined by steep-sided gorges and ranges from 1,800 to 2,800 m in elevation. The forests are
dominated by Juniperus procera, Podocarpus gracilior and Schefflera abyssinica; however, much
of the area has been degraded by various land-use activities. In an effort to inhibit further degradation
of the landscape, there was an immediate call for the establishment of a controlled hunting block that
would encompass over 78 km2 . Preliminary surveys by the EWCD suggest that the mountain nyala
population is at 150. Further surveys and research are expected, and it is suspected that mountain
nyala may migrate to and from Arba Gugu in response to seasonal variability.
To the north of Worga Bulu are two controlled hunting blocks called Arba Gugu and
DinDin. Although the two blocks are relatively close to each other and similar in elevation, they are
separated by a plateau and cultivated land at lower elevations (Malcolm pers obs). Arba Gugu covers
approximately 225 km2 and ranges in elevation from 2,000 to 3,600 m. In 2002, J. Malcolm talked to
the professional hunter that held the concession. It was reported that mountain nyala mostly inhabit
the steep, shrubland slopes as well as the mature montane forest above 2,800 m (D. Assimacopolus
2002 pers comm). Because of the steep terrain, most of the remaining habitat is inaccessible to
humans and livestock, and provides a sanctuary for the mountain nyala. Recent population estimates
for Arba Gugu were unavailable for this study. In 1995, the EWCD estimated 445 mountain nyala
and permitted an annual harvest quota of three for 1996. The mountain nyala population, as seen in
other areas, appears to have increased since the early 1990s, and it is possible to see as many as 20
animals in a day (D. Assimacopolus 2002 pers comm)
The DinDin hunting block occupies about 25 km2 of the ridge and shares area portion with
a Forest Priority Area. Mountain nyala have been hunted in the region since at least the mid-1960s
(S. Haile 2002 pers comm), but the locality was not mentioned by Brown in his survey. Thomas
Mattanovich (2002 pers comm), the professional hunter for the hunting block, has visited the area
since the 1970s. He reports that the population declined in the era of the Derg (1974-1991) when
laws regulating the use of wildlife and natural resources were largely ignored. Mountain nyala
populations never recovered to the levels of the 1970s (T. Mattanovich 2002 pers comm). The
EWCD hunting census groups have visited DinDin three times, once in 1995 and twice in 1999. The
population estimate for 1995 was 100. The first group that visited in 1999 saw seven mountain nyala
and estimated a population of 116. Later in the same year a biologist from the EWCD visited the
area but failed to see any mountain nyala and concluded the population was in decline. A review of
2001 Landsat satellite images suggests that there is probably less than 150 km2 of available habitat,
including the high forests and the shrub covered slopes.
During the time of our survey, there appeared to be little human or livestock presence at
the DinDin hunting block, nor was there any apparent evidence of tree cutting in recent years (J.
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Malcolm pers obs). This situation exists because the concession holder retains a force of 12 game
guards to protect the remaining habitat. Uncontrolled burning of vegetation still occurs regularly at
lower elevations, and it is presumed that low levels of poaching still occur. With the help of local
scouts and a guide from the Hareghe Department of Natural Resources, we made four attempts
(mornings and evenings) to locate mountain nyala. No mountain nyala were observed; however, we
did find fresh tracks and scat (Malcolm 2002 pers obs). Other scouts in our party reported seeing
mountain nyala in the vicinity, citing a dozen locations where they can be seen on a regular basis.
The maximum potential population could be 150; however, 100 may be more reasonable (Malcolm
pers obs).
North of the Arba Gugu and DinDin hunting blocks, the Ahmar Mountains drop in elevation
and curl eastward. The entire ridge used to be extensively wooded and supported two significant
populations of mountain nyala: Asbe Teferi with Kuni-Muktar (recorded together as Asbe Teferi
by Brown in 1966) and, further to the north, Gara Muletta. The species now only survives in Kuni-
Muktar, which was designated a wildlife reserve in 1990. It is remarkable that the population of
mountain nyala has persisted so long in this pocket of habitat. Ian Grimwood, the consultant head
of Ethiopian Wildlife in 1963, considered the population doomed at that time (Brown 1966). It is
typical in this area that forage for livestock is cut by hand and carried back to the homestead. This
reduces the disturbance to mountain nyala from livestock and other domestic animals.
The Kuni-Muktar Wildlife Reserve consists of two small forested areas that lie above the
village of Kuni. The Muktar Forest lies east of the village and the Sobaly-Jelo Forest lies to the west.
The two upper Afro-montane forests have elevation ranges from 2,300 to 3,075 m and sustain the
northernmost population of mountain nyala ever recorded. Collectively, the forests cover less than 25
km2 . The forests have historically supported stable populations of mountain nyala despite their small
area (Brown 1969a). By 1996, poaching, deforestation and agricultural development had severely
degraded the habitat, and reports indicated that the mountain nyala were no longer present (East
1999). In 2001 and 2002, however, a team of biologists from the EWCD and Harerghe Department
of Natural Resources conducted a survey of mountain nyala confirming their persistence (Argaw
et al. 2002; F. Kebede 2006 pers comm). They used survey questionnaires and counted mountain
nyala in the evening when they emerged from cover. For the first two surveys, they concentrated
on Muktar Terara counting 25 and 28 mountain nyala, respectively. In the second two surveys they
concentrated in the Jelo area and counted 24 and 27 mountain nyala (Agnaw et al. 2002).
In 2005, Kuni-Muktar was visited by P. Evangelista and associates from Colorado State
University for a vegetation and habitat assessment. The team not only reported mountain nyala
persisting in the fragmented forests, but also found two ambitious efforts to restore native forests
and critical habitat being facilitated by the Oromia regional authority. The first was a relocation
program that moved approximately 30,000 people from the area between 2001 and 2004. The
human population around Kuni is now estimated to be about 7,500 households (S. Muktar 2005 pers
comm). The second was a reforestation program begun in 2004 when 77 ha of Juniperus procera
were planted in the vacated agricultural fields on Muktar Terara, and 980 ha of Juniperus procera,
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Casuarina equisetiflium lia, Hagenia abyssinica, Grevillea robusta and Olea africana were planted
on Sobaly-Jelo Terara. Additional reforestation efforts were planned for 2007 (K. Kabiso 2005 pers
comm; M. Eshetu 2005 pers comm). Given these efforts, it is possible that a population of 200
mountain nyala persist in the Kuni-Muktar Wildlife Reserve with the potential to increase provided
restoration trends continue.
Historic and Potential Habitat
At least one mountain nyala population has been extirpated in the recent past. This population
occurred on Mt. Abaro and the neighboring forests around Wondo Genet approximately 40 km east
of Lake Awassa. Trophy specimens were shot in the 1950s (Ward 1975); however there have been
no reliable reports of mountain nyala after 1975. Guides at Wondo Genet still promise to show
visitors mountain nyala, but it is unlikely that they still survive in the area. North of Kuni-Muktar,
mountain nyala once were thought to occupy the Gara Muletta Mountains, but this population has
not been adequately confirmed. Leslie Brown (1966) visited the area and reported seeing one spiralhorned
antelope which could have been a mountain nyala or a greater kudu. An expedition from
the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) visited the area in 2001 for two weeks and
concluded that no mountain nyala were present (EWCP report).
There are persistent reports of other mountain nyala populations that may be worth
investigating., Mountain nyala are reported to occur in Adola (Kebre Mengist), Agere Maryam and
Sheik Hussein (90 km east of the Bale Mountains). Mountain nyala horns were reportedly found
in the Adola area in the 1970s (Pohlstrand 2002 pers comm). Extensive forest still exists, but it is
now densely populated with people and there were no reports of mountain nyala (Malcolm pers
obs). Agere Maryam is another potential area for mountain nyala. The forested area is about 80 km
southwest of Adola. Although the area is isolated from human activities, it is still unknown whether
or not mountain nyala inhabit the forests. Pohlstrand (2002 pers comm) thought that mountain
nyala might occur in the forests 15 km south of Sheik Hussein. Although we cannot present any
conclusive evidence on the mountain nyala populations in these areas, we do recommend that the
areas be surveyed for mountain nyala in the immediate future.
Summary of Known Mountain Nyala Populations
It is difficult to census any wildlife species that prefers dense montane habitats and steep terrain.
Regional population estimates are reported and compiled in Table 1. These numbers are highly
tentative and are based on brief observations and second-hand reports. We did not conduct any
systematic sampling, but our estimates take into consideration available habitat and land-use
activities. Furthermore, it is highly likely that mountain nyala exist beyond the areas included in
this report. The EWCD conducts regular surveys of the controlled hunting blocks, but the latest data
were not available for this report. Based on the information we gathered (mostly between 2000 and
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 47

2003), the total mountain nyala population for the areas surveyed would be approximately 3,680.
This estimate is slightly higher than two other recent estimates by East (1999) and Sillero Zubiri
(in press). These authors estimated about 2,000 but were not aware of the populations east of Goba
around Odo Bulu or increasing population trends observed in protected areas. Despite the recovery
of many regional populations and the possibility of additional undocumented populations, there is
little doubt that the species has gradually declined since Brown’s expeditions in the 1960s and has
struggled to rebound following the civil unrest between 1991 and 1995.
Table 1. Regional estimates of mountain nyala population numbers.
Conservation Issues
AREA NUMBER
Kuni Muktar 200
Din Din 100
Arba Gugu 350
Munessa 200
Arsi 130
Bale 2700
TOTAL 3680
Habitat requirements
The mountain nyala has been considered, most particularly by Brown (1969), an ecological specialist
largely restricted to the heath and moorland zones. Similar reports by early hunters also support
Brown’s observations (Fuertes and Osgood 1936). However, we now know that mountain nyala
prefer the dense cover and plant rich high montane forests. These forests provide protection from
climatic extremes, concealment from predators and offer a diverse array of forage to maintain dietary
requirements throughout the year. Generally, mountain nyala inhabit mesic habitats between 1,800
and 3,500 m, but are often observed in the higher Afro-alpine and sometimes in the lower acacia
woodlands. As habitat becomes fragmented and forage diminishes, mountain nyala are known to
frequent agricultural lands at night, feeding on barley, beans and maize. Forest plantations may also
prove to be important habitat, especially for cover and routes of travel. Although the mountain nyala
is, with little doubt, a specialist species to Ethiopia’s highlands, the species is also adaptable and has
a remarkable ability to survive in adverse environmental conditions. This has been demonstrated
in Kuni-Muktar, where the species was thought to be extinct in 1998 (East 1999); in the Galama
Mountains, where the species has managed to persist despite widespread burning of the landscape,
poaching and other human activities; and at Gaysay and BMNP headquarters, where they share a small
area of habitat with people and livestock from the town of Dinsho. Although these circumstances
still pose significant threats to local populations, the adaptive characteristics of the species give
wildlife managers critical time to implement improved management and conservation strategies.
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Threats
Predictably, the main threats to the species come from humans; largely in the form of land-use
practices that have resulted in degraded or loss of habitat over the last century. Much of the montane
forest has been cut and has been replaced by agriculture. Deforestation tends to be incremental.
Over the last 30 years, the closed-canopy montane forest south of Goba has been slowly removed
so that only a few large trees of scattered Hypericum remain (Malcolm pers obs). This is the area
where Brown counted 30 mountain nyala in a day, but now there are few signs of mountain nyala.
Preliminary satellite analysis of the vegetation in the Bale Mountains suggests about 10% reduction
in mountain nyala habitat in the last 10 years (Malcolm pers obs), while even higher losses can be
observed in the Galama Mountains (Evangelista et al. 2007).
As agriculture expands to higher elevations, livestock grazing is pushed to sub-alpine and
Afro-alpine ecosystems. To promote the growth of grasses and forbs, local people will burn the
montane shrubs and heathlands that provide vital thermal cover for wildlife. As livestock populations
move into mountain nyala habitat, there is a decrease in available forage, increased interaction with
domestic dogs and greater opportunity for poaching. Chris Hillman (1987 pers comm) was the first
to note that mountain nyala seem to avoid any area with cattle. Almost all of the extant mountain
nyala populations occupy areas that have few cattle. This is especially evident in Munessa where the
species has congregated in an area of unusually low elevation but one which is kept clear of cattle
by the foresters. Another example can be found above Dodola, where mountain nyala occupy very
steep slopes with cattle both above and below them.
Illegal hunting of mountain nyala seems to be limited in most areas where they occur.
Woldegabriel (1997) reported that two sets of horns on average were found around BMNP each
year until the civil unrest began in 1991. Today, only a small area of BMNP (i.e. Dinsho, Gaysay
Valley) is patrolled regularly. Evidence of poaching on Sanetti, the eastern escarpment of the Bale
Mountains, and Harenna Forest has been observed and documented in recent years (Evangelista
pers obs; Evangelista et al. 2007). Perhaps the most effective deterrent to illegal hunting is the
establishment of controlled hunting blocks. Some professional hunters (but not all) maintain
permanent camps in the concessions, employing guards and game scouts to patrol for illegal hunting
and deforestation activities. As local communities receive revenue and employment opportunities
from the establishment of controlled hunting blocks, they tend to become more proactive in
conserving wildlife and habitat. In a recent case, community members reported poachers within a
controlled hunting block to local authorities resulting in the arrest of three individuals. With a staff
of less than 30 up until recently, it has been impossible for the EWCA alone to effectively enforce
Ethiopia’s wildlife laws and regulations.
There has been no record of disease or parasites affecting or regulating mountain nyala
populations. However, bovids are known to be susceptible to a number of pathogens, and it is likely
that mountain nyala are vulnerable to a number of diseases or parasites that can be transferred by
other wildlife species or livestock. Several studies are currently being conducted.
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Several predator species are known to prey on mountain nyala. Perhaps the most common
are the leopard (Panthera pardus) and hyena (Crocuta crocuta), which share much of the mountain
nyala’s range. On the eastern and southern slopes of the Bale Mountains, lions (Panthera leo) are
known to prey on mountain nyala and influence local movement and distribution of herds (Evangelista
pers obs). Other incidents of predation or killing of mountain nyala calves have involved jackals
(Canis mesomelas), warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus), and domestic dogs (Gebre Kidan 1996)
Conservation
Effective conservation strategies for the mountain nyala are needed if the species is to survive.
Although there are many approaches to conservation, several key milestones must be met before
success can be achieved. The first is that policy and regulations regarding mountain nyala, habitat,
and management must be clearly defined and enforced. New wildlife policy has been in development
for nearly five years and urgently needs completion and implementation. Furthermore, legislation
that addresses illegal hunting and habitat destruction need to be formulated and enforced. This
should coincide with restoration efforts of critical habitat. Specifically, reforestation programs (as
seen in Kuni-Muktar) must be immediately implemented. Many of Ethiopia’s highland tree species
are slow growing and may take as long as 30 to 60 years before providing adequate habitat. In
particular need are DinDin, the Galama Mountains and BMNP headquarters.
Perhaps the best approach to conservation is through sustainable management that includes
economic development and benefits to local communities. The Munessa Shashemane Integrated
State Forestry Development and Utilization Project serves as a strong working model of sustainable
management. A limited number of mountain nyala are legally hunted each year providing important
revenue to the company, federal and regional governments, and local communities. Likewise, timber
is commercially harvested at a sustainable rate which allows a fixed annual off-take and time for replanting
and tree growth. The system works because mountain nyala and habitat are: (1) intensively
managed and monitored, (2) protected from exploitation, (3) recognized for their economic benefits,
and (4) harvested at sustainable levels.
Legal hunting is seen as a quandary by some. If overseen and managed properly, it could
provide one of the most effective means of conservation. Professional hunters that have rights to
controlled hunting blocks regularly employ game scouts and guards to protect wildlife populations
and habitat. In DinDin, for example, the professional hunter employed 12 game scouts to keep the
area free of cattle and humans (despite the fact that he was not allowed to shoot any animals). In the
Soba hunting block by BMNP, the professional hunter had persuaded people to relocate from prime
mountain nyala habitat. In Odu Bulu, the professional hunter developed a water-supply system to
the town of Buko. Many people in the Arsi Region were unhappy when controlled hunting ceased,
as it provided an important source of employment and revenue. At the same time, removing any
animals from a species that numbers less than 4,000 is risky and wildlife managers must be vigilant
in monitoring populations and meeting management objectives. Today, about 1% of mountain nyala
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 50

populations within hunting blocks are allowed to be hunted. All hunting activities are under the
direction of a licensed professional hunter, a game scout from EWCA, and an observer from the
Oromia regional authority.
Since 1943, there are no records of mountain nyala in captivity, although all the other spiralhorn
antelope have been kept and bred in zoos. A genetically sustainable ex situ breeding program
would be extremely expensive and has been opposed by the Ethiopian wildlife authorities. Modern
cryogenic methods (frozen eggs and sperm) have not been tried. These methods are usually a last
resort for imperiled wildlife. A proactive conservation strategy for the mountain nyala, however, can
still insure the survival of the species.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the members of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority for their
openness and cooperation. Fekadu Garedew and Mohammednur Jemal provided help in the Bale
Mountains. We are very grateful to Dr. R.D. Estes and Mrs. Jerry Mann for financial support. We
would also like to thank the many people who helped with information gathering in the field; in
particular, P. Swartzinski, A. Randell and N. Alley.
References
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Tragelaphus buxtoni in Ethiopia. Mammalia, 33: 545-597.
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mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Report to National Geographic Society.
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simensis), and other animals in the Mendebo Mountains, Bale Province, Ethiopia
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(Tragelaphus buxtoni). African Indaba, 5(2). www.africanindaba@co.za
Fuertes, L. A. and Osgood, W.H. 1936. Artist and naturalist in Ethiopia. Doubleday, Doran & Co.
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American Committee for International Wild Life Protection, New York Zoological Park
New York.
Hillman, J.C. 1986. Conservation in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Oryx, 20: 89-94.
Hillman, J. C. 1986. Bale Mountains National Park. Management Plan. Ethiopian Wildlife
Conservation Organization, Addis Ababa
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IUCN 2003. 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.redlist.org
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the conservation of Galama Controlled Hunting Area. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
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Maydon, H.C. 1925. Simien, its heights and abysses. H.F. & G. Witherby, London.
Refera, B. and Bekele, A. 2004. Population status and structure of mountain nyala in the Bale
Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology, 42: 1-15.
Sanford, G. and Lege,ndre, S. 1930. In quest of the queen of Sheba’s antelope. Natural History,
30:17-32 and 30: 161-176
Stephens, P.A., dSa, C.A., Sillero-Zubiri, C. and Leader-Williams, N. 2001. Impact of livestock and
settlement on the large mammalian wildlife of the Bale Mountains National Park, southern
Ethiopia. Biological Conservation, 100: 307-322.
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Ward, R. 1975. Records of Big Game 16 th Edn. Rowland Ward Publications, London.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 52

Population Estimates and Diet of Stark’s Hare (Lepus starcki Petter, 1963) in the Bale
Mountains National Park, Ethiopia
Tariku Mekonnen 1* , Afework Bekele 1 and James Malcolm 2
1 Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, PO.Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
2 Department of Biology, University of Redlands, Redlands CA 92373, USA
* Email: tmgutema@yahoo.com
Abstract
The population status and diet of Starck’s hare Lepus starcki Petter, 1963 was investigated in the Bale
Mountains National Park from June-September (wet season) and December-January (dry season)
in 2006/2007. Population surveys were carried out using distance sampling. The ‘line intercept’
method was used to estimate the coverage of vegetation in the study area. Diet was identified by
analyzing faecal pellets and direct observation.
The density of Starck’s hare was estimated to be 18.35 per km2 during the wet season (with
95% confidence interval 12.47-26.99) and it was 13.33 per km2 (95% CI 9.17-19.39) during the dry
season. The population in the study area was estimated to be 6300 during the wet season (95% CI
4300-9200) and 4600 during the dry season (95% CI 3100-6600). More hares were detected from
Sanetti Plateau and less from Web Valley (Kotera). Vegetation coverage was high (65.21%) during
the wet season and low (

The present study aims to address this information gap by providing current population
estimates and information on the diet of Starck’s hare in BMNP. This information will form the
base-line data relevant to further studies and conservation of the species and the Ethiopian wolf.
Study Area and Methods
The study area
This study was conducted at the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP). The typical Afroalpine
habitats in BMNP; namely Sanetti Plateau (3800-4050 m a.s.l.), Web Valley (3450-3550 m a.s.l.)
and Tullu Deemtu (4000-4377 m a.s.l.) formed the main study areas. Details are provided in Sillero-
Zubiri (1994).
Distance sampling methods
To estimate density we used distance sampling (Buckland et al. 1993). Ten 4 km long parallel
transects were systematically placed over 40 km2 on each of the three study areas at an interval of
1 km. The first transect was randomly taken, then the others were placed parallel at a distance of 1
km. Transects were traversed on foot, each time a hare was seen the numbers of animals seen, the
sighting distance, bearing, habitat type, and wind level were recorded. The survey period was carried
out at dusk and dawn. For data analysis, Distance version Beta 4.1 was used. The default detection
function, half normal with a cosine adjustment, was used. SPSS version 13.1 software was used.
Data for the availability of vegetation were obtained from 44 sample sites using line intercept
method. At each sample site, coverage and frequency of individual plants were recorded and noted
for each species touching the 15 m line intercept (Floyd and Anderson 1987; Sutherland 1996;
Cummings and Smith 2001). Samples were systematically taken every 200 m interval from along
transects randomly laid at different directions in the study area. Plant specimens were collected,
pressed, dried and identified in the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University.
To find the mean percentage coverage of each species (MPCSp), the following formula was
used:
TCSp
MPCSp = × 100
L
Where, TCSp = Total cover of the species, L= Length of line
To find the mean percentage vegetation coverage of the site (MPCS),
MPCS
TCS
= × 100
L
Where, TCS = Total cover of the site, L = Length of line
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 54

To identify the types and proportion of plant species used by L. starcki, a combination of
faecal analysis and direct observation was used. Fresh pellets of Starck’s hare were collected from
sites of different vegetation types during both seasons. In each season, two pellets were collected
from 25 independent dropping groups at a minimum of 200 m apart. Samples were preserved in
70% ethanol and taken to the Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, for further analysis
where they were broken up, homogenized and then washed independently with distilled water to
remove fine particles for proper identification and air dried. Two slides were prepared for each
sample (mixing thoroughly) and observed under the microscope to identify the plant fragments.
All fragments found on the slides were identified as monocotyledon, dicotyledon, or unidentified.
Relative occurrence was determined by dividing the number of microscopic views in which a given
species occurred by the total number of views x 100 (Uresk 1978; Katona and Altbacker 2002).
In addition, direct observation was also used to identify different species of grasses
consumed by Starck’s hare. Four different types of habitats, where hares usually fed, were chosen
for observation from a hide. Using 8 x 42 binoculars, species of plant eaten were examined for 120
hours (68 and 52 hrs during wet and dry seasons, respectively). The plant species on the habitat was
directly observed, before and after, to see the plant eaten by looking at bitten stems and leaves.
Results
A total of 389 and 267 Starck’s hares were recorded during wet and dry seasons, respectively. The
difference was statistically significant (X2 = 22.69, df =1, P< 0.001). The highest number was 185
during the wet season in the Sanetti Plateau and the lowest was 61 during the dry season in Web
Valley (Table 1). Once a hare was seen on a transect, others were often observed. The number of
sightings refers the number of times a first hare was seen and individuals is the total number seen.
Table 1. Number of sightings and Starck’s hares recorded from each site during the two seasons.
Study site Season Number of sightings
Sanetti
Tullu Deemtu
Web Valley
(Kotera)
Total
Wet 59 185
Dry 82 124
Wet 52 109
Dry 49 82
Wet 70 95
Dry 48 61
Wet 181 389
Dry 179 267
Number of
individuals
The mean density of Starck’s hares in the study area was estimated to be 18.35 and 13.33/
km 2 during wet and dry seasons, respectively (Table 2). The highest density was obtained from
Sanetti during the wet season (25.40/km 2 ) and the lowest at Web Valley during the dry season (8.51/
km 2 ).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 55

Table 2. Estimates of density and abundance of Starck’s hares for each site.
Total
Study sites Season Density
Sanetti
Tullu Deemtu
Web Valley
(Kotera)
95% Confidence
interval (CI) Abundance 95% CI
Wet 25.40 17.43-37.01 3400 2300-4900
Dry 21.17 14.59-30.73 2800 1900-4100
Wet 16.11 10.71-24.23 1400 1000-2200
Dry 10.31 7.05-15.10 900 600-1300
Wet 13.54 9.28-19.74 1600 1100-2400
Dry 8.51 5.88-12.33 1000 700-1500
Wet 18.35 12.47-26.99 6300 4300-9200
Dry 13.33 9.17-19.39 4600 3100-6600
The results of the line intercept vegetation sampling from the Sanetti Plateau are given in
Table 3. Twenty seven species were found in the wet season and 23 in the dry season. However,
the proportion of plant species changed dramatically between the seasons (Table 3).The most
abundant plant species in the study area were Festuca spp., Alchemilla abyssinica, Helichrysum
spp. and Trifolium species. During the dry season, wetland plants were available for feeding. These
include Carex monostachya, Ranunculus oreophytus, Haplocarpha rueppelli and Trifolium acaule.
Although Festuca spp. and Alchemilla spp. decreased in coverage during the dry season, their
relative abundance was high. The percentage of plant cover is relatively high during the wet season
(65.21%) and low (< 30%) during the dry season.
Of the 27 plant species identified from the study area, Starck’s hares entirely fed on four
species of monocotyledons (grasses) during the wet season; Festuca spp., Koeleria capensis,
Agrostis gracilifolia, and Carex monostachya (Table 4). During the dry season, a number of species
of dicotyledonous plants were also included in the diet, though the proportion of monocotyledons
was still high (Table 4).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 56

Table 3. Coverage of plant species identified from the study area using line intercept method from
Sanetti Plateau.
Species Family
Coverage %
Wet Dry
Agrostis gracilifolia C.E. Hubbard Poaceae 0.2 0.8
Alchemilla abyssinica Fress. Rosaceae 11.8 4.2
A. haumanii Rothm. Rosaceae 1.2 1.6
A. rothii Oliv. Rosaceae 5.3 1.12
Anthemis tigreensis A. Rich Asteraceae 0.72 0.53
Arabis alpina L. Brassicaceae 0.21 0.11
Artemisia spoerri Engl. Asteraceae 0.61 0.52
Carex monostachya A. Rich Poaceae 0.3 0.43
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forsk. Boraginaceae 0.21 0.10
Dianthoseris schimperi A. Rich Asteraceae 0.2 0.14
Erica philippia Complex Ericaceae 0.42 0.41
Euryops prostratus Nordenstam Asteraceae 0.37 00
Festuca spp. Poaceae 15 6.33
Haplocarpha rueppelli P. Beauv. Asteraceae 2.6 0.12
Hebenstretia dentata L. Scrophulariaceae 0.2 0.17
Helichrysum citrispinum Del. Asteraceae 2.6 00
H. gofense. Cuf Asteraceae 8.8 5.25
H. splendidum Lees. Asteraceae 5.9 1.22
Koeleria capensis Nees Poaceae 0.51 0.31
Lobelia rhynchopetalum Hemsl. Campanulaceae 0.2 0.23
Ranuculus oreophytus Del. Ranunculaceae 0.23 0.81
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae 0.3 0.63
Salvia nilotica Juss. Ex. Jacq Lamiaceae 0.34 00
Satureja simensis (Benth.) Brif. Lamiaceae 0.11 00
Senecio schultzii Hochst Asteraceae 0.9 0.32
Thymus schimperi Ronniger Lamiaceae 0.72 0.31
Trifolium acaule A. Rich Papilionaceae 5.6 2.18
Table 4. Relative frequency of occurrence of plants identified from 25 independent samples of
droppings per sample (MN= monocotyledon, DC= dicotyledon, UN= unidentified).
Independent Wet Dry
droppings MN DC UN MN DC UN
1 83.33 - 16.67 66.66 33.33 -
2 100.00 - - 100.00 - -
3 100.00 - - 71.43 14.29 14.29
4 77.78 - 22.22 90.00 - 10.00
5 91.67 - 8.33 87.50 12.50 -
6 100.00 - - 42.85 28.57 28.57
7 100.00 - - 83.33 16.67 -
8 100.00 - - 84.62 7.69 7.69
9 100.00 - - 75.00 25.00 -
10 90.00 - 10.00 83.33 10.00 6.67
11 100.00 - - 100.00 - -
12 100.00 - - 71.43 14.29 14.29
13 100.00 - - 77.78 11.11 11.11
14 83.33 - 16.67 60.00 20.00 20.00
15 100.00 - - 100.00 - -
16 100.00 - - 72.72 9.09 18.18
17 100.00 - - 90.00 10.00 -
18 100.00 - - 100.00 - -
19 100.00 - - 80.00 - 20.00
20 87.50 - 12.50 70.66 12.67 16.67
21 100.00 - - 80.00 10.00 10.00
22 87.50 - 12.50 83.33 10.00 6.67
23 100.00 - - 75.00 12.50 12.50
24 100.00 - - 100.00 -
25 100.00 - - 100.00 - -
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 57

Starck’s hares were highly selective for monocot plants with limited use of dicots during the dry
season (Table 5).
Table 5. Plant coverage and percentage dietary composition of starck’s hare from faecal analysis.
Season
Monocot (%)
Plant coverage Diet
Dicot (%)
Plant coverage Diet
Wet 16.01 95.88 49.2 00
Dry 7.87 81.82 19.33 11.32
Starck’s hares were mostly restricted to rocky grassland with low wind areas. However,
during the dry season when grasslands dried out, most were observed feeding in wetland habitats
(Table 6).
Table 6. Number and percentage of Starck’s hares recorded from different types of habitats at
different level of wind.
Wet
Dry
Discussion
Habitat type Wind level
Rocky
grassland
Wetland Others Strong Medium Low
No. of
individuals 278 42 69 45 125 219
%
No. of
71.47 10.80 17.74 11.66 32.13 56.30
individuals 95 112 60 54 71 142
% 35.58 41.95 22.47 20.22 26.59 53.18
IUCN (2006) listed Starck’s hare as a species of least concern. The results reported here confirm
that this endemic species is still locally abundant at least in the Afroalpine moorlands of the Bale
Mountains.
The population densities reported here are broadly similar to those published by Sillero-Zubiri
(1994), with estimates of 30, 20 and 17 per km2 for Sanetti, Tullu Deemtu and Kotera respectively
versus 23.3, 13.2 and 11.0 per km2 for the same three areas in this study. The highest density of
hares occurred on the Sanetti Plateau. This could be due to the lower levels of livestock and human
disturbance compared to the Web Valley. The hares were most abundant in a rocky grassland habitat
with scattered Erica for shelter and in small valleys where they might be protected from cold and
predators.
During the dry season counts of hares declined. It is not clear is this is an artifact of sampling
or a result of a die-off or dispersal of young animals.
Total plant cover was higher in the wet than the dry season. In this study, the most abundant
plant species during both seasons were Festuca spp, Alchemilla abyssinica, Helichrysum gofense,
H. citrispinum and Trifolium acaule. In both seasons, Starck’s hare showed a strong preference
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 58

for eating grass species. During the dry season, they fed on a more diverse set of plants then in the
wet season, despite the greater plant diversity in the wet season. This might be due to the relatively
lower availability of grass in the dry season. Certain species such as Alchemilla spp were never eaten
although abundant.
From all the grass species identified fro the study area, Starck’s hares fed most frequently on
Festuca species. This was the most available soft grass species. Soft and green parts of the plants
were the most preferred in both seasons. Most literature describes hares as generalized herbivores,
with a diet consisting primarily of grasses and shrubs but also bark, fruits, leaves and buds depending
on habitat type (Hamolka 1987; Rao et al. 2002). However, in the present study, hares were observed
feeding almost exclusively on grass with very limited herbs. The habitat of Starck’s hare similar to
that recorded by Kingdon (1997).
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program (EWCP) and Addis Ababa
University for providing financial and material support.
References
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 60

Ecology and Reproductive Strategy of an Afroalpine <strong>Special</strong>ist: Ethiopian Wolves in
the Bale Mountains
Claudio Sillero-Zubiri 1* , Dada Gottelli 2 , Jorgelina Marino 1 , Deborah Randall 1,3 , Lucy Tallents 1 and
David W. Macdonald 1
1 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, Tubney House, Abingdon Road,
Tubney Ox13 5qL, UK
2 Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
3 Frankfurt Zoological Society, PO Box 100003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
*Email: claudio.sillero@zoo.ox.ac.uk
Abstract
Ethiopian wolves Canis simensis are confined to seven ranges of Afroalpine habitats in Ethiopia,
where they combine conspicuous sociability with specialised, solitary foraging for a narrow range
of Afroalpine rodent species. A detailed field study in the Bale Mountains in 1988-1992 yielded
information on the behavioural ecology of this rare carnivore, and was followed up by other field
studies on population biology, ecological requirements and genetics. Here we present a review of
the current state of knowledge of Ethiopian wolves’ biogeography, diet, foraging behaviour, spatial
organization, territoriality, social structure, mating behaviour, reproductive biology dispersal,
biogeography, and genetics. We conclude with remarks on the cost the wolves’ specialisation to the
Afroalpine ecosystem poses to their long-term conservation.
Introduction
At ca. 20 kg, the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis differs from such typical, medium-sized canids as
the coyote C. latrans in its unusually long legs and a long muzzle (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1994).
Restricted to rodent-rich Afroalpine habitat within the Ethiopian highlands, its diurnal habits and
distinctive coat render this species conspicuous. A bright tawny rufous fur, with a characteristic
pattern of white marks, a thick black and white bushy tail and broad, pointed ears result in a rather
‘foxy’ appearance (Sillero-Zubiri and Marino 2004). This, and its reliance upon small prey, misled
early European naturalists to name this species the Simien fox. Uncertainty over its taxonomy led
to an array of alternative vernacular names, including the Simien jackal, Abyssinian wolf, ky kebero
(Amharic for red jackal) and jedala faarda (Orominia for horse’s jackal).
Unlike other medium- to large-sized canids, which typically are generalist predators and
widely distributed (Macdonald 1992). Ethiopian wolves combine conspicuous sociability with
specialised, solitary foraging for a narrow range of Afroalpine rodents. Today, these wolves are
confined to Afroalpine pockets in a handful of Ethiopian mountains, and total less than 600 individuals,
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 61

distributed in seven small and fragmented populations (Marino 2003a). One of at least nineteen
species of mammals restricted to the Afroalpine grasslands and heathlands of Ethiopia (Yalden
and Largen 1992), Ethiopian wolves evolved in the isolation of this huge mountain massif, which
comprises 80% of Africa’s land above 3000m a.s.l. (Yalden 1983; Malcolm and Ashenafi 1997).
The dominant herbivores in these high altitudes are rodents, particularly molerats (Rhyzomidae)
and grass rats (Muridae), adapted to the extreme diurnal temperature fluctuations, and these are
the main prey of Ethiopian wolves (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995a,
1995b). As top predators of the Afroalpine ecosystem, Ethiopian wolves attain densities as high
as 1.2 adult per km² in prime habitats (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b) and adult wolves have
no known predators except man. Ironically, the specialisation on Afroalpine rodents that was once
the basis of the species’ success is now the force that constrains Ethiopian wolves to a fragmented
habitat (Yalden and Largen 1992; Marino 2003), and heightens the risk of local extinctions in the
face of stochastic and anthropogenic factors (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1997; Haydon et al.
2002, 2007).
Study Area
Field studies of Ethiopian wolves in the Bale Mountains began full-time in 1988, and still continue,
having expanded to other populations in Ethiopia since 1997. Most work has taken place in four study
areas: Web Valley (3450 m a.s.l.), Sanetti Plateau (4000 m a.s.l.), Morebawa (3600-3800 m a.s.l.),
and Tullu Deemtu (3800-4300 m a.s.l.) in the central massif of the Bale Mountains National Park
of southern Ethiopia (7°S, 42°E). This is the largest realm of Afroalpine habitat in Africa, spanning
over 1,000 km² and harbouring over half of the global Ethiopian wolf population (Marino 2003a;
Randall et al. this edition). The first three study areas represent typical open-grassland Afroalpine
habitat and sustain the highest wolf densities (ca. 1.2 wolf/km² in Web and Sanetti, ca. 0.9 wolf/km2 in Morebawa) (Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1992; Sillero-Zubiri 1994; Tallents 2007). Tullu Deemtu
is characterised by Helichrysum dwarf-scrub, also a common habitat type, which sustains a much
lower wolf density (ca. 0.25 wolf/km²).
The Solitary Wolf as the Top Predator of the Afroalpine Rodent Community
Diet
The diet of Ethiopian wolves was studied by scat analysis (689 droppings) and 946 hours of watching
focal animals that yielded 811 attempts to kill prey, of which 361 corresponded to successful kills/
feeds (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a). Rodents accounted for 96% of all prey occurrences in
droppings and 97% by volume of undigested faecal material. Wolf prey included six rodent species,
Stark’s hare Lepus starkii, cattle, birds, insects and undigested sedge leaves, Carex monostachya.
Giant molerat Tachyoryctes macrocephalus – mean weight 618 g - was the main component in the
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 62

overall diet (36% of total prey occurrences) and was present in 69% of all faecal samples, whereas
diurnal rats Arvicanthis blicki, Lophuromys melanonyx and Otomys typus (respective mean weight
126 g, 94 g and 100 g) together accounted for 59% of occurrences and appeared in 78% of the
samples. These four species together accounted for 86% of prey occurrences and no significant
differences were found for these main four prey items between months or between dry and wet
seasons (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a).
Direct observations indicated a higher incidence of large prey (hare, rock hyrax Procavia
capensis capillosa, birds, lambs, and antelopes) than suggested by scat analysis. Of all feeding
instances observed, 69% were grass rats while giant molerat kills accounted for 22% of all successful
attempts. Giant molerats formed the bulk of the prey by weight (40%), while diurnal rats were second
(23%), although taken more often. Carrion, hares, hyraxes, and birds contributed the remaining
36.5% of the total prey weight, of which 12% was scavenged from livestock carcasses.
The diet was broadly similar at the three sites (Web Valley, Sanetti and Tullu Deemtu), with
giant molerat as the single most important food item. In areas where this species is absent or rare it is
often replaced by the common molerat Tachyoryctes splendens. For instance in the Bale Mountain’s
Gaysay Valley, common molerats constituted 32 % of all animals eaten (Malcolm 1997), and in
Menz, central Ethiopia, 31% of occurrences - 17% by volume - in the wolf diet (Ashenafi 2001).
Analysis of faeces from wolf populations across the Ethiopian highlands confirmed this dietary
specialization, amply dominated by diurnal rodents even where molerats were absent or rare and
livestock abundant (Marino et al. 2010).
Foraging behaviour
During 946 hours of focal observation away from dens, wolves spent 43% of their time foraging
(Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995a). They foraged solitarily throughout the day, travelling widely at a
walk or trot, covering large areas of their home range. Peaks of foraging activity were synchronised
with the activity of diurnal rodents above the ground. The wolves used various hunting strategies:
molerats were commonly stalked, while zigzag and hole-checks were aimed at grass rats. Although
foraging wolves were mostly observed alone, their daily hunting ranges overlapped considerably.
Of 35 occasions in which more than one wolf was present during kills involving rats, only 23%
were within 10 m. In the remaining observations, wolves shared the same foraging area, but did not
appear to interfere with each others’ foraging attempts or prey captures. Occasionally small packs
hunted hares, antelope calves, and sheep. In 12 of 20 attempts to catch hares, two to four wolves
hunted simultaneously. In the northern grasslands wolves have been observed in packs of three to
four animals hunting reedbuck Redunca redunca (n = 3) and a mountain nyala calf Tragelaphus
buxtoni (Sillero-Zubiri pers. obs.).
Rodents and Ethiopian wolf distribution
The role of the Afroalpine rodent community in limiting the distribution of Ethiopian wolves was
studied by looking at the relationship between wolf abundance and the species composition, relative
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 63

abundance and activity pattern of the rodent community in various habitats. Combined biomass of
all diurnal rodents and hares in the Afroalpine grassland habitats was estimated at 24 kg/ha in Sanetti
and 26 kg/ha in Web, with giant molerats contributing about one third of this biomass (we assumed
that an average molerat weighed 618 g (n = 11), and occurred at a biomass of 10-25 kg/ha, with
patches of up to 55 kg/ha) (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995a, 1995b). Stark’s hares averaged 2,250 g (n =
4), giving a projected biomass of 0.4-0.7 kg/ha. A more recent study by Tallents (2007) estimated
lower prey biomass, with diurnal rodents represented by 9-12 kg/ha in the short pastures of the Web
Valley (with a peak of 17.1 kg/ha), 4-7 kg/ha in the meadows of Sanetti and Morebawa, and the
uniform Helichrysum heaths of Tullu Deemtu harbouring ca. 1.5-2.5 kg/ha.
Indices of giant molerat biomass for Helichrysum dwarf-scrub and Ericaceous belt were only
1/5 and 1/150 respectively of those in Afroalpine grasslands (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995b). Positive
correlations between wolf density and molerat abundance in four areas (Tullu Deemtu, Sanetti,
Web and the Ericaceous belt) suggested that molerats were a vital determinant of wolf presence
(Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995b). Because they are roughly six times the weight of any other rodent,
hunting T. macrocephalus is likely to be considerably more efficient than hunting a smaller species.
Nonetheless, the positive correlation between wolf abundance and an index of biomass of smaller
rodents showed that the giant molerat was not the only determinant of wolf distribution. The biomass
index for grass rats (in kilograms per 100 transect snap-trap nights) was highest on Sanetti Plateau,
followed, in order, by Web Valley, montane grasslands, the Ericaceous belt and Tullu Deemtu (Table
1). A. blicki and L. melanonyx were the most numerous species in Afroalpine grasslands. Ethiopian
wolf density, measured both from observation and road counts, correlated positively with the total
biomass index and the biomass index for diurnal species, but not for nocturnal species. Also a
positive correlation was detected between rodent burrows and wolf sign (droppings or diggings)
along habitat assessment transects. A similar correlation was found between wolf signs and the
average index of fresh giant molerat signs (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995a, 1995b).
Large mammal densities in the Afroalpine grasslands are low and, in any case, they might
be largely unavailable to the wolves. Rodents were the most abundant, conveniently-sized prey,
and easiest to catch. Their availability was more predictable, insofar as their abundance was
closely associated to different habitat types ((Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995a, 1995b, Marino 2003b,
Tallents 2007). The predictability of the rodent prey may be one selective pressure favouring pack
territoriality (Sillero-Zubiri 1994).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 64

Table 1. Ethiopian wolf density (individuals/km²) and biomass index, weighted for sub-habitat
area, for diurnal and nocturnal snap-trapped rodent prey. The biomass index represents the biomass
(kg) contributed per 100 trap nights using data from all months. Mean weights used as follows:
Arvicanthis blicki: 126g; Lophuromys melanonyx: 94g; L. flavopunctatus: 49g; Stenocephalemys
griseicauda: 101.5g; S. albocaudata: 129.5g; Otomys typus: 100g. Home ranges (km 2 ± SD) were
estimated as average 100% minimum convex polygons of wolf packs in Bale between 1988-1991.
Group size is the average number of adult and subadults (mean ± SE) in a pack.
Web Sanetti Montane Tullu Ericaceous
Valley Plateau Grassland Deemtu Belt
Biomass index:
Diurnal rats 2.7 2.9 1.6 0.4 0.4
Nocturnal rats 1.8 2.1 1.2 1.4 1.7
TOTAL 4.4 5.0 2.8 1.8 2.1
Ethiopian wolf density:
Road counts 1.0 1.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
Observation 1.2 1.2 0.3 0.2 0.1
Pack home ranges: 6.5 ± 2.1 5.5 ± 1.3 7.4 13.4 ± 2.0 -
Group sizes: 6.7 ± 0.7 4.9 ± 0.3 4.5 ± 0.3 2.6 ± 0.4 -
Wolf Packs Carve Out the Precious Suitable Habitat Available
Pack home ranges and rodent biomass
While the abundant rodent fauna characteristic of the Afroalpine habitat constitutes a very rich
and predictable source of food, this habitat is very restricted in geographic distribution. Between
1988 and 1992 all areas supporting a substantial rodent biomass in Bale were occupied by resident
wolf packs, organised into discrete groups that were spatially and temporally stable (Sillero-Zubiri
and Gottelli 1995b). Groups were composed of 2 to 13 adults and subadults (> 1 year old) and the
average group size for all 14 known packs in Web and Sanetti was 5.9 ± 0.5 (mean ± SE), with Web
packs significantly larger than Sanetti’s (Table 1). Tullu Deemtu packs were notably smaller and
averaged 2.6 ± 0.4. Subsequent studies indicated similar group size values not differing between
Web and Sanetti (Marino 2003b; Tallents 2007), although across a longer time period group size in
either areas was also affected directly or indirectly by disease (Marino 2003b).
Home ranges of resident wolves overlapped almost completely with other pack members
and entirely contained the home ranges of pups and juveniles (81 to 87 % intragroup annual home
range overlap between adult-adult and adult-subadult dyads, n = 4 packs) (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli
1995b). Home ranges of individual residents ranged between 2.0 - 15.0 km² (n = 92) and most of this
variability was attributed to habitat type (Table 1). For instance, combined home ranges (i.e. pack
home ranges estimated as minimum convex polygons) in Afroalpine grasslands averaged 6.5 km² ±
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 65

2.1 and 5.5 km² ± 1.3 in Web and Sanetti, respectively (n = 7 packs). In Helichrysum dwarf-scrub
home ranges were twice as large, and explained by the different density of prey species (Table 1).
On the other hand, the home ranges of three non-resident females in Web overlapped widely with
other packs and ranged from 8.5 - 18.7 km², their mean range being significantly larger than those of
resident dominant females. These floater females disperse and occupy narrow ranges between pack
ranges, awaiting a breeding opportunity (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a).
A follow up study added a population recovery period after the 1992 rabies epizootic and
showed similar home range sizes overall, but the packs that survived attained significantly larger
territories than before at high density, or than any new packs during the recovery (Marino 2003b).
Tallents (2007) recorded similar results to those of Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli (1995b) after a rabies
outbreak in 2003, but with somewhat larger home ranges and greater variation. Small ranges,
particularly those recorded in the grasslands and herbaceous communities of Web and Sanetti, are
a reflection of the great density of the food resources available in some Afroalpine habitats. The
ranges observed are among the smallest, and density among the highest, reported for all eight Canis
species (Sillero-Zubiri 1994). Established relationships between metabolic rate, body weight and
size of home range in mammals would predict home ranges of 42 km², (Carbone et al. 1999), nearly
eight times the mean values observed in Web and Sanetti.
Different factors drive the numbers of the different age-sex classes in a pack. Home range
size is correlated with group size (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b; Marino 2003b) and the number
of adult males (Tallents 2007) and territories were enlarged whenever a reduction in group size in
a neighbouring pack allowed it, which is indicative of an ‘expansionist strategy’ (sensu Kruuk and
Macdonald 1985). A second adult female was more likely to be found in territories with a greater
proportion of the best molerat habitat, and more subadults were found in higher quality territories
(i.e. with a greater prey density). The advantage of the expansionist strategy is apparent in the
greater areas of high-quality foraging habitat, and greater per capita prey density, in larger territories
(Marino 2003b; Tallents 2007). Under intense competition for rodent-rich grasslands, pack group
size may determine the outcome of territorial boundary clashes and the maintenance of a high quality
range may be the greatest advantage of group-living (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1998).
Marking and territoriality
Studies of scent-marking behaviour and inter-pack aggression in Ethiopian wolf packs provided
additional evidence of territoriality (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1998). Movements and activity
at the periphery of ranges was characterised by ‘border patrols’ during which groups of pack
members of both sexes trot and walk along the territory boundary. In 167 km of border patrols
totalling 68 hours, 1,208 scent marks were deposited at an overall rate of 7.2/km. Raised-leg
urinations were the most frequently deposited scent mark (4.7/km), followed by ground scratching
(2.3/km). Defecations and squat urinations during border patrols were rare (0.23/km and 0.04/km
respectively). Scent-marking rates were highest along or near territory boundaries (mean number of
scent-marks deposited per kilometre significantly greater (F = 6.40, P = 0.012) during patrols
(1,313)
than at other times) where wolves vigorously over-marked neighbours’ scent-marks. Most direct
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 66

encounters between neighbouring wolves at territory borders were aggressive and involved repeated
chases (102 out of 119 encounters) and the larger group was most likely to win (the larger group won
in 77% of cases, whereas victorious and defeated groups were the same size in 15% of encounters).
Ethiopian wolf packs in Bale occur at saturation density, in a system of highly stable
tessellated territories (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b). Frequent scent-marking, inter-pack
encounters and aversion to strangers’ marks probably constrain each pack to its territory, while
positive feedback keeps each territory boundary adequately marked. A further function of scentmarking
may be to indicate sexual and social status. Wolves in Bale are seasonal breeders and in any
given year mating was synchronised to a period of one to three weeks in the latter part of the rainy
season (August-October), suggesting that a social mechanism triggered mating (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
1998). Scent-marking might allow females to monitor their reproductive condition reciprocally and
synchronise their oestrus. On the other hand, neighbouring packs’ males may gather information on
the receptivity of females. While border encounters occurred throughout the year, peak intrusion
pressure coincided with the mating season. Fifty out of 169 observed encounters between wolves
of neighbouring packs consisted of territorial intrusions by small groups of neighbouring males
attracted by a receptive resident female. Highly seasonal mating may be connected to the occurrence
of a philandering mating system in Ethiopian wolves (Sillero-Zubiri 1994; Sillero-Zubiri et al.
1996a).
Philopatry and the Risk of Inbreeding
Dispersal and philopatry
Lack of suitable habitat places a tight constraint on dispersal in Ethiopian wolves. In Bale immigration
was rare, births and deaths predominated over transfers between packs, and all pack members were
close kin. Relatedness values from microsatellite data were similar for adults (females R = 0.39,
males R = 0.33) and subadults (R = 0.30) (Fig. 1), and approximate relatedness values expected
among half-siblings in this population (Randall et al. 2007). With kin of opposite sex residing in
the same group, natal philopatry provided the potential for inbreeding, in a situation of severely
limited dispersal opportunities (Sillero-Zubiri 1994). Although dispersal was rare, both behavioural
observations and genetic evidence suggest that which occurs is sex biased (Sillero Zubiri et al.
1996a; Randall et al. 2007). In Web and Sanetti, behavioural observations between 1988 and 1992
suggested that 63% of females dispersed at, or shortly before, sexual maturity at two years, some
becoming ‘floaters’ (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a). Under stable demographic conditions Ethiopian
wolf males are philopatric (Randall et al. 2007), however short and long distance male dispersal has
been observed following demographic disturbance due to disease outbreak (Marino 2003b). Pack
fission and males seeking extra-pack sexually receptive females during the breeding season can also
act as male dispersal into neighbouring territories (see below). The population sex-ratio of adults
was biased toward males at 1.9:1 ± 0.07 (SE), with the mean pack sex-ratio of adults at 2.6:1 ± 0.2
(Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 67

Female breeding slots are the most coveted
Adaptive explanations of sex-biased dispersal include avoidance of reproductive competition - for
breeding status or resources - (Dobson 1982) or of inbreeding (Harvey and Ralls 1986). In Ethiopian
wolves observations of same-sex aggression prior to female dispersal support the competitionfor-breeding-status
hypothesis (Sillero-Zubiri 1994; Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1998), while
inbreeding avoidance also plays a role (Randall et al. 2007). In Bale, only the dominant female in
each pack typically breeds (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a; Marino 2003b; Randall et al. 2007), indicating
a high level of reproductive competition. Between 1988 and 1992 each breeding female was clearly
dominant over her daughters, and, in all study packs with more than one subordinate female the
lowest ranking female left the group at 18-28 months-old (Sillero-Zubiri 1994). During this period 14
subordinate females emigrated or disappeared from focal packs, whereas only four entered a different
pack and two returned to their natal group, suggesting that approximately 57% of dispersing females
either died or failed to find residence in the study population. Of the 14 females known prior to
dispersal, 10 settled as floaters next to their natal territory (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a).
Figure 1. Mean pairwise relatedness (± SE) for (a) individuals with known kinship, and (b)
individuals with unknown kinship. Numbers above bars indicate (a) number of dyads or (b) number
of packs from which mean values were calculated (from Randall et al. 2007).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 68

No new packs were formed between 1998 and 1992 (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995b)
but an apparent attempt by a subordinate female to split a pack suggested that fission could be a
mechanism for pack formation (this ended when the subordinate’s litter succumbed, probably killed
by the dominant female) (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a). During this period female ascendancy to
breeding status, either by immigration or inheritance, only occurred after the death of a dominant
and so the chances of a female ever securing a breeding position were low. Five out of 10 dominant
females retained their breeding position throughout four years of observation, whereas the remainder
maintained that role until they died. Breeding openings occurred at an average of 0.12 ± 0.09
opportunities for a subordinate female per year per pack. During contests for a breeding position,
resident females appeared to have an advantage over floaters (three breeding females were replaced
by their daughters after their deaths).
In late 1991 a rabies epidemic decimated the population in Bale and resulted in the
disintegration of three out of five packs in Web, causing the sudden opening of potential breeding
opportunities (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996b; similar epidemics took place in 2003 and 2008, see
Randall et al. 2004 and Johnson et al. 2009). Rather than forming smaller, new breeding units,
the surviving packs maintained their social cohesion and readjusted their territorial boundaries to
occupy the habitat available (Marino 2003b). After a new epidemic in 2003, seven out of nine packs
survived, and again packs remained cohesive and territory boundaries shifted (Tallents 2007). It
took five years after the first die-off for new packs to start forming, in one case by the fission of a
large pack, and twice by the grouping of dispersing individuals, mostly from neighbouring packs.
This suggested that the establishment of a new group depends not only on the availability of highquality
habitat but also on the presence of sufficient number of helpers to defence the new territory
from the ‘expansionist’ packs that survived (Marino 2003b). The population reduction also opened
breeding vacancies to subordinate females, but social factors delaying formation of new breeding
units maintained population growth low at low densities (Marino 2003b; Marino et al. 2006).
Among Ethiopian wolves, inbreeding avoidance may be an additional adaptive advantage
of female-biased dispersal and may underlie the observed mating behaviour. Male philopatry and
the long tenure of breeding females increase the potential for incest within groups, which may be
countered in part by female dispersal (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). A detailed genetic study of Ethiopian
wolves also found that although mean pairwise relatedness within packs (R = 0.39) was significantly
greater than that estimated from random assignment of individuals to packs, breeding pairs were
most often unrelated (Randall et al. 2007). This strongly suggests that female-biased dispersal also
reduces the number of incestuous matings in the population. However inbreeding is not entirely
absent in the population. Kinship analysis showed that 11 of 15 (73%) of successful matings were
between unrelated individuals (R = -0.26 to 0.22, P < 0.05). Four apparently incestuous matings
resulted in 9 of 47 (19%) pups being potentially inbred (Randall et al. 2007). Given the potential
negative consequences of inbreeding for the long-term genetic and demographic viability of the
population, inbreeding should be monitored in this population, particularly in the face of further
habitat loss and/or disease outbreaks.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 69

Extra pack copulations and multiple paternity
During the short mating season, the dominant female exercises choice in accepting when and with
which male she mates. Of 30 observed instances of mating that involved copulation between 1988
and 1992, only nine (30%) took place with males from the female’s pack, whereas the other 21
(70%) involved males from other packs (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a, Fig. 2). Within packs, females
copulated only with the dominant male and rejected all mating attempts by lower ranking males
(Sillero-Zubiri 1994; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996a). In contrast, mate choice with regard to male status
was not apparent when a female courted and mated with outside males. Microsatellite DNA analysis
has confirmed the occurrence of multiple-paternity in litters (Gottelli et al. 1994; Randall et al. 2007)
and extra-pack paternity (EPP) accounted for 28% of all resolved paternities, occurring in 45% of
litters (Randall et al. 2007). Multiple and extra-pack paternity suggest that extra-pack copulations
(EPCs) are an important reproductive (or fitness) tactic for both male and possibly female wolves.
Extra-pack and multiple-paternity may rival male philopatry and female-biased dispersal in
importance as an outbreeding mechanism in a situation where habitat constraints impede dispersal.
An alternative, but non-exclusive, explanation may be the prevention of infanticide from neighbours
(Wolff and Macdonald 2004) who, in this competitive milieu, could benefit by killing the offspring
of neighbouring packs.
Percentage of observations
100
80
60
40
20
0
alpha
beta
other
Intra-pack males
copulations (n=30)
rejects (n=46)
alpha
beta
other
Extra-pack males
Figure 2. Frequency with which Ethiopian wolf females were observed in sexual encounters with
males from their packs or neighbouring packs.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 70

Cooperative Breeding
Role of helpers at the den
Studies of wolf social behaviour conducted during 1988-1992 included detailed observations
of behaviour at 20 dens where pups emerged. In those, all wolves helped to rear the litter of the
dominant female, guarding the den, chasing potential predators, and regurgitating or carrying rodent
prey to feed the pups (Sillero-Zubiri 1994). Given the high degree of relatedness among group
members (Randall et al. 2007), subordinate wolves may increase the indirect component of their
inclusive fitness by acting as helpers or, if competition within the group is intense, subordinates
may be induced to help as a ‘payment’ for remaining in the territory. Ethiopian wolf males tend to
help throughout their lives and never disperse; the dominant male at least shared paternity, whereas
subordinate males appear generally to have no probability of fathering the pups, nevertheless they
still help. Subordinate females help more intensely than do males for one or two years before
dispersing or inheriting the breeding position. The balance of costs and benefits to all participants
in a cooperative breeding system have been widely debated (e.g., Solomon and French 1997). One
aspect of the debate is whether groups containing many helpers deliver more food and care to the
young than do smaller groups.
The development of the young wolves is divisible into three broad stages (Sillero-Zubiri
1994). First, early denning (birth to four weeks) when the pups are confined to the den and are
entirely dependent on milk. Second, mixed nutritional dependency (week five to week 11) when
milk is supplemented by solid foods such as rodents provisioned by all pack members until pups are
completely weaned. And third, post-weaning dependency (week 12 to six months) when the pups
subsist almost entirely on solid foods supplied by breeders and non-breeding helpers. Juveniles are
considered independent after six months, when they cease receiving appreciable quantities of food
from adults. Juvenile become subadults and are ‘recruited’ at one year of age.
Although the mother and putative father spend more time at the den on average than do
other wolves, some non-breeders spend more time at the den than do the breeders themselves. The
proportion of time pups were left unattended declined significantly as the number of helpers in the
pack increased. Pack size may thus influence anti-predator behaviour, because baby-sitters were
active in deterring and chasing potential predators. Unattended young might be taken by spotted
hyaenas Crocuta crocuta, domestic dogs, honey badgers Melivora capensis and eagles Aquilla
verreauxi, A.rapax. On the other hand, no evidence has been found that increases in pack size result
in measurable increases in numbers of pups at any age.
In the original 1982-1992 study observations were made of nine wolf packs during the
breeding season to quantify the amount of solid food provisioned to pups. Non-maternal food
provisioning for 17 litters constituted 67% of feedings observed other than nursing. Independent of
the number of donors, there were significant differences in the rate of food contributions per hour
by individuals of different breeding status, sex or age (F = 9.08, P < 0.0001; Table 2). Breeders
(5,119)
contributed significantly more food than did non-breeders, and females more than males. Breeding
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 71

females contributed more than any other wolves, dominant males came second, and non-breeding
males contributed on average the least food. When the net contribution rate was considered (i.e.
food items contributed minus items eaten by the individual helper), breeding females were still the
most generous individuals, followed by subadult females, which contributed more than any other
non-breeder.
Table 2. Individual contributions of Ethiopian wolves to cooperative pup-care in relation to
reproductive status, sex, and age during 2,115h of den observations. Values are mean ± SD. Sample
size was 17 breeding males, 18 breeding females, 49 non-breeding adult males, 11 non-breeding
adult females, 16 subadult males and 12 subadult females. Baby-sitting measured as the percentage
of observation time in which individuals of a given category were present within 200m of the den.
Feeding measured in number of solid food items (i.e. whole rodents or regurgitations) contributed
per hour.
Breeders Non-breeders
Behaviour/Age male Female males Females
mean ± SD mean ± SD mean ± SD mean ± SD
Babysitting
Visits per hour:
Adults 1.9 ± 0.6 2.6 ± 0.7 1.1 ± 0.7 1.3 ± 1.2
Subadults 1.3 0.7 1.6 ± 1.1
Percentage of time:
Adults 17.3 ± 8.6 23.6 ± 11.4 11.4 ± 9.5 11.4 ± 9.5
Subadults 8.6 ± 8.4 11.1 ± 8.8
Grooming rate:
Adults 0.04 ± 0.05 0.06 ± 0.06 0.02 ± 0.03 0.04 ± 0.08
Subadults 0.03 ± 0.04 0.03 ± 0.05
Food Provisioning
Hourly total food contribution:
Adults 0.06 ± 0.05 0.12 ± 0.09 0.03 ± 0.03 0.04 ± 0.06
Subadults 0.03 ± 0.03 0.06 ± 0.07
Hourly net food contribution
Adults 0.05 ± 0.04 0.10 ± 0.08 0.02 ± 0.03 0.04 ±0.04
Subadults 0.02 ± 0.04 0.06 ± 0.04
The prediction of a positive correlation between the total amount of food delivered to the
pups, and the number of non-breeding helpers present was not supported in this study, since the
presence of helpers did not increase feeding frequency at the den (r = 0.18, n = 7, P > 0.05). However,
s
while the total food-provisioning rate did not increase significantly with the number of contributors
to the den, the share contributed by non-breeding helpers did do so. Food contributions by nonbreeders
were accompanied by reduced parental input in pup rearing - reducing food contributions
by the dominant male (r = -0.63, n = 7, P > 0.05) and female (r = -0.85, n = 7, P < 0.05) - and hence
s s
a reduction in energy expenditure by the breeding pair (Fig. 3).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 72

Mean feeding rate (contributions/hour)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Number of helpers
dominant pair
non-breeders
Figure 3. Rate of feeding pups (contribution of solid foods per hour) by the dominant pair in
relation to the number of non-breeder helpers.
Pup survival
Between one and six pups emerged from each breeding den, and the observed average litter size for
20 litters born between 1988 and 1991 was 4.1 ± SE 0.36. While there was no significant difference
in litter size between years (F = 1.10, P = 0.379), the presence of an additional nursing female
(3,16)
at the den was associated with smaller litter size (see Allo-suckling below). The number of pups
emerging from the den was not significantly correlated with the number of adults and subadults at the
den (r = -0.26). The hypothesis that the number of non-breeding helpers enhances the reproductive
s
output of the group was not supported either. Pups survival at emergence was not correlated with
the number of non-breeding helpers (r = -0.26, n = 20, P > 0.05), nor was survival at whelping (r =
s s
-0.28, n = 20, P > 0.05). Similarly, there was no significant correlation with survival at six months,
one or two years and the number of non-breeding helpers.
Marino (2003b) looked at relationships between wolf group size and reproduction or survival
in a time series between 1988 and 2000 and confirmed the absence of a simple, direct relationship
between them. Instead, wolf density within territories appears to be negatively correlated to the
number of pups emerging from the den and pup survival and the survival of adults at the population
level correlates with density. Intriguingly, Tallents (2007) studied a subset of packs and found
litter size from emergence to 11 months was correlated with the number of adult males in the
pack, potentially through their role in securing high quality territories. There may be other effects
mediated by prey availability, with the impact of helpers possibly only being felt when times are
hard. Between weaning and ten months, juvenile survival was strongly correlated with the extent
of high quality foraging habitat, a pattern probably mediated through access to high prey densities
for the provisioning adults and subadults, and also through the juveniles’ own foraging success as
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 73

they moved towards independence. Additionally, juveniles aged 10-12 months had lower survival
in territories with a greater degree of overlap with neighbouring packs, indicating they may be
vulnerable to foraging competition and intraspecific aggression, particularly during the mating
season when territorial incursions increase (Tallents 2007).
Allo-suckling
The most extreme manifestation of cooperative care by Ethiopian wolves involves nursing the
offspring of the dominant female, or allo-suckling (Sillero-Zubiri 1994, Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
Of the 20 successful breeding attempts observed eight dens had a subordinate female acting as allosuckler.
These females, two years-old females or older, often were closely related to the breeder and
at least two showed signs of pregnancy. Allo-suckling obviously has the potential to confer benefits
to infants, and reduce the mother’s energetic costs. For example pups with access to two lactating
females were suckled significantly more often (0.43 ± 0.05 SE bouts per hour versus`0.26 ± 0.03;
t = 2.78, df = 60, P = 0.007). Pups whose mother was assisted by an allo-suckler received a higher
energetic input per capita until weaning (weeks 4 to 18) and enjoyed better survival than did those
nursed by their mother alone. Dominant females apparently benefit from allo-suckling by sharing
the costs of lactation, and thus lowering their per capita suckling frequency, without affecting a
reduction in the pups’ overall milk intake. For a more detailed treatment of energetic contributions
of allo-suckling see Sillero-Zubiri et al. (2004).
Although one might expect up to double the average litter size of pups in those with two dens
that was not the case; mean litter size on emergence from 12 dens with only one nursing female was
5.1 ± SE 0.35, significantly larger than that from eight dens with an allo-suckler, 2.6 ± SE 0.39 (t =
4.88; df = 16; P = 0.0002). Tallents’ data (2007) supports these results, with a lower proportion of
the litter surviving from three to eight months in packs with more adult and subadult females. The
presence of an allo-suckler was associated with distinct social unease in the pack and evident tension
between the dominant and subordinate females, suggesting that female aggression inside the den
may have an influence on pup mortality prior to emergence (Sillero-Zubiri 1994).
The foregoing results raise several interesting puzzles, which we hope the continuing
research of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme will resolve. First, to the extent that the
allo-sucklers do indeed make a long-term contribution to pup survival, this is initially disguised
by the counter-intuitive earlier effect of litter reduction. Although the helpers in general, and allosucklers
in particular, appear to work assiduously for the well-being of the pups, and notwithstanding
the rather large size of our data set, demonstrating any survival benefit is difficult at best. Perhaps
such benefits are conditional upon circumstances. One intriguing speculation is that males nursed
by two females do well: one such male grew up to acquire the dominant male position in his pack,
another became dominant male in a pack with six adult males, and three survived a rabies epizootic
in which nearly all other pack members perished (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1996b). Additionally, the
benefit of the presence of an allo-suckler in a pack of Ethiopian wolves might be contingent on
the availability of prey. As suggested above, in a good year, unassisted females may not need help,
but allo-suckler assistance might be important in harsh years. In a scenario where the chances of
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 74

successful dispersal are very low, concentrating resources in fewer, fitter, individuals might raise
their prospects of securing a dominant position, and eventually breeding status.
Biogeography and Genetics: The Big Picture
Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA indicate that the closest living relatives of Ethiopian
wolves probably are the gray wolves Canis lupus and coyotes (Gottelli et al. 1994; Wayne and
Gottelli 1997; Vilà et al. 1999) and the estimated coalescence for the species is of ≈ 102,602 years
ago (Gottelli et al. 2004) - from a mean sequence divergence of ~ 1.0% and assuming a divergence
rate of 10%/Myr for the canid control region I as in Vilà et al. 1999). The history of the species thus
appears to be relatively short. One evolutionary interpretation is that the Ethiopian wolf is a relict
form of a Pleistocene invasion into East Africa of a gray wolf-like progenitor (Wayne et al. 2004),
pre-adapted to the cold temperatures of the Ethiopian highlands. Fossils of gray wolf-like canids are
known from Europe from the late Pleistocene, and land bridges into Northeast Africa existed when
the climate was generally cooler and drier than present (Kingdon 1990). At the onset of the last
glaciation, approximately 100,000 years ago, the Afroalpine habitats in Ethiopia were vast allowing
this pre-adapted canid to flourish; while competition with well-established tropical carnivores may
have prevented it from advancing further south into East Africa (Gottelli et al. 2004).
The end of the Pleistocene roughly 12,000 years ago brought the most recent change in the
climate, and the extensive Ethiopian Afroalpine steppes shrunk to their present state, reducing the
habitat available to Ethiopian wolves by an order of magnitude (Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1992;
Gottelli et al. 2004). Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA suggest that small population sizes and
multiple population bottlenecks may have characterised the recent evolution of Ethiopian wolves
due to climatic effects on habitat availability (Gottelli et al. 2004) and disease outbreaks. Indeed,
the Ethiopian wolf appears to have the most limited genetic variability at the population level of any
extant canid (Gottelli et al. 1994, Wayne et al. 1997).
Across the extant populations and within populations, mitochondrial DNA and nuclear
microsatellites revealed a strong genetic structuring, indicating isolation and lack of gene flow
(Gottelli et al. 2004, Randall et al. 2010, Gottelli et al. unpublished data). The most parsimonious
genetic subdivisions across populations corresponded to three mountain areas: Wollo/NE Shoa,
Simien/Mt. Guna/Mt. Choke, and Arsi/Bale, a pattern closely matching the geographical history of
Afro-alpine fragmentation. The highest genetic variability was found in the populations north of the
Rift valley (Gottelli et al. 2004, unpublished data). The Arsi Mountains population, represented in
the study by current and historical genetic samples, also showed that haplotypes and alleles unique to
this population have been lost over the last 100 years. There is also significant genetic structuring at
the population level, both within packs and within subpopulations in the Bale Mountains, emerging
as result of intense sociality, limited dispersal, and localized disease outbreaks causing population
bottlenecks (Randall et al. 2010). Given the current levels of genetic isolation and small population
sizes the conservation and genetic management of these populations is critical to preserve them as
the main reservoir of genetic variability in the species.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 75

The Cost of <strong>Special</strong>isation: A Conservation Challenge
The apparently sterile Afroalpine steppes of Ethiopia support a rodent biomass which is spatially
and temporally predictable, and comparable to other rodent-rich habitats elsewhere in Africa, which
may explain why the Ethiopian wolf is the only canid to specialize so completely on rodents (Sillero-
Zubiri et al. 1995a). The rodents’ distribution and diurnal activity also concur with Ethiopian wolves’
diurnal and solitary foraging habits, and their confinement to Afroalpine habitats over 3,000 m a.s.l..
Global warming during the last 10,000 years progressively confined the Afroalpine ecosystem to
the highest mountains, and today 60% of all Ethiopian land above 3,000 m has been converted to
farmland (Marino 2003a).
Ethiopian wolves face threats that arise from their isolation, small size, and the increasing
contact with humans and disease transmission from domestic dogs (Sillero-Zubiri and Marino
2004). Transmission of rabies is the main threat for wolves in Bale population and can have serious
consequences for small populations (Haydon et al. 2002, 2006; Randall et al. 2004, 2006). Elsewhere
habitat loss is ever increasing the risk of population extinctions. Two small populations became
extinct when suitable wolf range shrunk below 20 km² in recent years (Marino 2003a), but seven
still survive in Afroalpine ranges across the country, with Bale the largest (Marino 2002a; Randall
et al. this edition). Aspects of the demography of wolves in Bale, particularly their high adult
survivorship, also stress the resilience and stability of wolf populations (Marino 2003b; Marino
et al 2006; Haydon et al. 2002). Although their small, fragmented populations are a poor omen for
Ethiopian wolves, their concentration in a few clearly defined sites, their charisma and, we hope, a
fair understanding of their biology, lend hope that with unwavering commitment from all concerned
and adherence to a well-founded management plan (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1997; Sillero-
Zubiri et al. 2004) they will survive. Protective measures require the consolidation of the General
Management Plan for the Bale Mountains National Park (OARDB 2007) and other protected areas,
and active efforts to monitor and protect all remaining populations.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority and the Bale Mountains National Park
for permission to undertake this research, and all the staff of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation
Programme (EWCP) who assisted collecting data in the last 20 years. EWCP is a partnership
between the Oxford University’s WildCRU and the Ethiopian authorities under the auspices of the
IUCN/SSC Canid <strong>Special</strong>ist Group. We thank Born Free Foundation, Frankfurt Zoological Society,
Wildlife Conservation Network, Wildlife Conservation Society, Peoples’ Trust for Endangered
Species and many others for their financial support.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 76

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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 79

A Preliminary Assessment of the Bale Monkey (Cercopithecus djamdjamensis)
Population Size and Habitat Use in the Harenna Forest
Kumara Wakjira 1 , Menassie Gashaw 2 and Michelle Pinard 3*
1 Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2 Darwin Project on Biodiversity Monitoring in the Harenna, BMNP, Ethiopia
3 Institute for Biological and Environmental Science, University of Aberdeen, UK
*Email: m.a.pinard@abdn.ac.uk
Abstract
Surveys were conducted in December 06-January 07 (dry season) and in August 07 (wet season) in
the Harenna Forest to provide a preliminary estimate of population size and distribution of the Bale
monkey. A total of 163 km of transects were surveyed in three habitats, bamboo forest, bamboomixed
forest and non-bamboo forest. A total of 204 monkeys were observed, in 31 groups over an
altitudinal range of 2200-3400 m a.s.l. Group size ranged from 2-20 (median = 5) and was similar
for the two survey periods. Monkeys were found only in bamboo and mixed-bamboo forest. A
mean density of 9.6 ind/km2 (SE=8.8) and overall abundance of 1437 individuals (SE=1315) were
estimated. The high variability associated with these estimates is a consequence of small sample
size. Repeated sampling and increased sampling effort within the sites is needed to increase the
reliability of the population estimates.
Introduction
The Bale monkey (Cercopithecus djamdjamensis; Fig. 1) is considered by some to be endemic to
Ethiopia (Kingdon 1997), but its taxonomy is uncertain, and the taxonomic level appropriate for
determining endemics is subject to debate. Neumann (1902) described the Bale monkey as a new
species, Cercopithecus djamdjamensis, naming it after the ‘Djam-Djam’ mountain, south of Dodola.
Dandelot and Prevost (1972, cited by Shimada et al. 2002) further described the Bale monkey as
Cercopithecus aethiops djamdjamensis, being a distinct form within the vervet and grivet monkeys’
complex; a taxonomic examination was made using specimens collected from localities west of
Dodola.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 80

Figure 1. The Bale monkey (Cercopithecus djamdjamensis) taken by Sisay Taye (19/03/2007) in
the Harenna Forest.
A Harenna Forest expedition in 1986 collected the specimen of Bale monkey but rather
considered it as Sykes monkey (Hillman 1986) - whose range is known to be in Somalia. In the
Harenna Forest, the Bale monkey was first recorded by Lernould (1988).
According to historical information, the Bale monkey was originally distributed throughout
the higher altitudes of the Ethiopian massifs (Kingdon 1997). But over time, their range was reduced
due to loss of habitat and probably through hybridization with vervet or grivet monkeys (Kingdon
1997). Currently, Bale monkeys are thought to be restricted to the forest in south-east of the country
(Kingdon 1997), but little information has been published about them. Kingdon (1997) believes
that the Bale monkey deserves recognition as an endangered species because of its restricted habitat.
The monkey has been recorded in the Harenna over time but little is known of its population size or
habitat associations.
The aim of this study was to conduct a preliminary assessment of the population in the
Harenna and to document the distribution and habitat associations for the species. This survey
provides baseline information on the abundance of the Bale monkey and a sampling protocol that
can be used for guiding the design of an appropriate monitoring and management strategy for the
species and its habitat.
Methods
Study site
The study area is located in the Harenna Forest, in the southern section of Bale Mountains National
Park. Starting just below the escarpment, the study area includes the bamboo zone (2700-3400
m a.s.l), the bamboo-Schefflera-Hagenia zone (2300-2700 m a.s.l), the Aningeria zone (2000-
2300 m a.s.l) and Croton- Syzgium zone (1600-2000 m a.s.l). The study area was located in two
areas, Harenna Rira and Harenna Wegie, within the park boundary. The largest portion of the study
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 81

site lies in the Harenna Rira, as it accounts for a larger coverage of bamboo zone (Ali, personal
communication, 2006).
The first survey, December 06 to January 07, was held during the dry season, and the second
in August 2007, during the rainy season. Sampling was conducted during both the dry and wet
seasons in order to capture any variability in the population that may be related to environmental
conditions.
A pilot study was made in October 2006 to record the presence or absence of the target
species in the Harenna Forest and assess the feasibility of this work. The reconnaissance survey
confirmed the species presence and provided information on the geographical range of Bale Monkey
with recordings of the locations of previous Bale monkey sightings.
Sampling design
Within both blocks of the study area, the habitat was stratified into three survey stations: the bamboo
forest, bamboo-mixed forest and the non-bamboo forest (Table 1). These habitat types were selected
following discussions with local informants during the reconnaissance visit.
Table 1. Habitats sampled during the field seasons, with sampling intensity. Each sample array had
eight transects (700m long) separated by 100 m.
Habitat December 06-March 07 August 07
Bamboo Forest
8 sample arrays
44.8 km surveyed
12 sample arrays
49 km surveyed
Bamboo-Mixed Forest
4 sample arrays
22.4 km surveyed
6 sample arrays
30 km surveyed
Non-bamboo forest
2 sample arrays
17 km
Not sampled
The bamboo forest: this sampling area incorporated the escarpment area of Harenna Forest
that fringes the ericaceous zone (2800-3200 m a.s.l.). This region is predominantly characterized
by Arundinaria alpine. Ten sample arrays were randomly established in the field station (5.6 km2 ).
Each array was composed of eight line transects, 700 m long, separated by 100 m.
The bamboo-mixed forest: this sampling area incorporated bamboo and other plant species
(i.e., Schefflera, Hagenia, Dombeya ), and falls adjacent and at a similar altitude to the bamboo
escarpment. Six sample arrays were randomly placed in the field station (3.36 km2 ).
The non-bamboo forest it refers to the area where bamboo vegetation is entirely absent.
It characteristically encompasses the lower elevation of the study area (1773-2376 m a.s.l.).
Erythrina, Croton, Syzgium and Prunus are the commonest trees in the zone. This sample station
was systematically established in Yadot and Awo areas as they were considered representative of
the habitat in the south and west, respectively. Less sampling effort was expended in this station
because preliminary research and local knowledge indicated that the Bale monkey was unlikely to
occur in this habitat.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 82

Survey method – Dec 06-Jan 07
Line transects (Buckland et al. 2001; Ross and Reeve 2003) were established in sample arrays that
were randomly predetermined on grid cells in a map of each field station. A minimum distance of
1.5 km was used between two neighboring sample arrays; this distance was assumed to be sufficient
to avoid double detection.
A systematic set of parallel lines were randomly superimposed onto the survey area in the
bamboo and bamboo-mixed forest stations. Each sample array had eight straight parallel lines of
0.7 km length for each. The parallel lines were spaced at 100 m intervals following the slope. An
average speed of the surveyors was set to 1 - 1.5 km/h. In total, 128 lines covering a total of 89.6
km in length were sampled in total.
In the non-bamboo forest, a single transect was surveyed along the road and established
footpaths. An average speed of the surveyors was set to 3-5 km/h; the speed differed from that in
the bamboo because of local conditions. In sum, 18 km of transects were surveyed in this strata.
The effective width of each sides of transects were surveyed. We recognize that the use of the road
for establishing the sampling transect potentially introduces a bias, however, because this habitat
was not a priority, we included it only to verify that the Bale monkey is not common in the habitat.
The data that were recorded included: (1) time at which survey started; (2) time at which
animals were located; (3) group size; (4) the location of animals, (5) physical substrate (e.g., ground,
plant species) on which sighting made, (6) observer-animal (nearest) distance and angle relative to
transect line (including height above the ground at which the animal was located), (7) activity of
animals, (8) animal’s behavior in response to observer, (9) environmental factors (cloud, rain, main
rivers, dominant trees, anthropogenic information) and (10) time at which search ended. Binoculars,
video and cameras were used to assist the assessment.
Second field survey - August 2007
The survey in the bamboo forest and mixed bamboo forest was repeated in the previously sampled
areas in August 2007. A few additional sample sites were established to increase sample size. No
sampling was conducted in the non-bamboo forest because no sign of the Bale monkey had been
recorded during the previous survey.
Some other modifications were made to survey method to increase the efficiency of sampling.
Unlike the first period, the area sampled and distance between sampling lines were not fixed. Rather
area and distance between lines was based on the nature of the habitat, specifically, accessibility and
slope. A transect length for each sample site was set between 4-5 km. During this survey a total of
eighteen sample sites were established, for a total length of 79 km, with an average sighting distance
of 46 m within bamboo forest and 61 km within bamboo-mixed forest. Otherwise, data recording
format and surveying techniques followed the previous approach.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 83

Analysis
Data were summarized by habitat and field period. Non-parametric analysis of variance was used
to compare group sizes between habitats and field periods. A Spearman Rank Correlation Analysis
was used to examine the association between group size and altitude.
The program DISTANCE v 2.0 (Laake et al. 1994) was used for estimating mean density and
abundance for the data collected during the second field season; this analysis was not conducted on the
data from the first field season as the number of observations was insufficient. ArcView 3.3 was used
to produce a map of the distribution of the sample sites, observation records and settlement locations.
Results
Population size and attributes
A total of 31 groups of monkeys were observed during the two field periods (Table 2). Monkeys
were always found in groups, with group size ranging from 2 to 20. Group size was skewed, with
several observations of group sizes much larger than the median (5). The range and median group
sizes overlapped between the bamboo and the mixed-bamboo forest for the two field periods.
Table 2. Number of monkeys and group size recorded during the two field seasons.
Habitat December 06-March 07 August 07
Bamboo Forest
Bamboo-Mixed
Forest
N o n - b a m b o o
forest
Total 25 monkeys in 6 groups
Median group size = 4.5 (min =
2, max=6)
Altitudinal range = 2431-3006
Total 23 monkeys in 3 groups
Median group size = 10 (min=2,
max=11)
Altitudinal range = 2365-3178
No monkeys observed Not sampled
Total 107 monkeys in 17 groups
Median group size = 5 (min=2,
max = 17)
Altitudinal range = 2460-3099m
Total 47 animals in 5 groups
Median group size=10 (min=2,
max=20)
Altitudinal range=2315-3051
The surveys were conducted between 7:00-11:30 and 14:00-17:30, when the encounter rate
with monkeys was relatively high. It was not possible to differentiate males and females during the
observations; once spotted, the monkeys quickly flush into dense vegetation that conceals them.
Using the 22 observations from the second field season, the mean density of monkeys was
estimated to be 9.6 individuals/km2 and abundance equal to 1437 individuals (Table 3). However,
the low number of observations and the relatively high estimates of standard error to mean ratio
suggest that these figures should be considered as very preliminary. The information gathered
during the second survey increased the estimate of suitable habitat from 108 km 2 (based on the Dec
06-Jan 07 data) to 149 km 2 (based on the Aug 07 data).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 84

Table 3. Estimates of population density and abundance using DISTANCE.
Parameters Dec 06 –Jan 07 Aug 07
A=area occupied by Bale Monkey 108 km 2 149 km 2
L=total length sampled 89.6 km 79 km
Density (ind/km 2 ) 8.18 9.64 (SE=8.8)
Abundance 883 1437 (SE=1315)
Mean cluster size 11.4 (SE =2.26)
Mean cluster density 0.84 (SE =0.75)
Habitat and feeding preferences
Monkeys were observed between 2200 m and 3400 m, in bamboo and bamboo mixed forest. Within
these two habitats, there was no correlation between the number of animals found per group and
altitude (Spearman Rank Correlation). No animals were observed in the non-bamboo forest in the
dry season. Overall, 77% of the monkeys recorded were observed feeding on bamboo leaves, 9.1%
perching on Schefflera, 7.6% foraging on the ground, 6.1% perching on Hagenia and Dombeya
trees.
Although monkeys were most frequently observed feeding on young bamboo leaves,
additionally they were seen to forage on other parts of the bamboo, such as shoots, rhizomes, roots
and immature stem of the cane. According to local informants, Bale monkeys prefer to feed on the
regenerating roots and shoots over the leaves. Stems of immature bamboo that are fed on by the
monkeys seemed to either dry up or experience stunt and malformed growth. In fact, encountering
this type of bamboo was useful as a sign of the presence of the species. Monkeys were seen feeding
on other plant species, and local informants also listed several species that were commonly used as
food by the monkey (Table 4).
Table 4. Plants consumed by Bale monkey in the Harenna Forest, with note of part eaten and source
of information. Monkeys were also observed eating insects.
Species Parts eaten
Source of
information
Allophyllus abyssinicus fruit Local people
Anano (Vernacular name) stem Local people
Arundinaria alpine leaf, rhizome Direct observation
Galiniera coffeoides fruit Local people
Harira (Vernacular name ) stem Local people
Kalala (Vernacular name ) stem Local people
Polycias fulva fruit Local people
Rapanea melanocephalus fruit Local people
Rubus steudnerii fruit Local people
Schefflera abyssinica fruit Direct observation
Shefflera volkensi fruit, leaf Direct observation
Syzygium guineense fruit Local people
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 85

Discussion
This preliminary assessment suggests that the Harenna Forest, in particular, the belt containing the
bamboo and mixed-bamboo forest, supports a population of Bale monkeys that is large enough to
consistently be encountered. In the discussion that follows, we will consider sampling issues and
observations that maybe relevant for future efforts in monitoring and management of the species
and its habitat.
Sampling strategies
As discussed earlier, there are major challenges associated with conducting field observations of
the Bale monkey. High rainfall, thick fog, steep and undulating terrain, and thickness understory
vegetation characterize the area. On top of these site conditions, the shy nature of the species and
its tendency to hide when disturbed make it a challenge to sample the species. One implication of
these challenges is that our estimates are probably conservative and that total transect length needs
to be relatively long to get density estimates with narrow confidence intervals.
Our observations and those of the local people we spoke with suggest that the Bale monkey
prefers the dense, inaccessible part of the forest. The monkeys have been seen to visit forest glades
or clearings to forage on the ground materials (Authors, personal observations) but these events are
uncommon. The results of this study document the association of the Bale monkey with the bamboo
and mixed-bamboo forest. Sampling in the non-bamboo forest was limited to one roadside transect
More sampling in this and other similar habitats in adjoining areas are needed to determine if the
distribution of the Bale monkey is, indeed, restricted to the bamboo and mixed-bamboo forest.
Although the climatic conditions were different during our two survey periods, the mean
encounter rate and group size were similar but our survey methods differed and sample sizes were
small, precluding a statistical comparison. The survey methods used during the first field season
were relatively rigid and laborious given the terrain occupied by the Bale monkey; the methods
used in the second season were more flexible, in that the distance between transects and length of
transects was defined by the terrain and accessibility.
Threats
The expansion of settlements toward the core habitats of the species raises concerns about the
protection of the species and its habitat. A remarkable concentration of settlements was recorded
around Herelle and Wgie-Gora. Settlements recorded near Bijamo, Haduqa and Asreda are seasonal,
used by pastoralists during the dry season. It is unknown whether or not the monkeys are influenced
by the presence of humans or livestock.
In other regions, conflicts have arisen between vervet monkeys and farmers because of their
proclivity for crop raiding. Currently, no cultivation is associated with the seasonal settlements on
the Herelle side that lie close to the bamboo forest. On the Wegie side, however, there are large
expanses of wheat and barley cultivation. Local informants indicated that it is rare for the Bale
monkeys to enter the fields, therefore crop damage due to the monkeys is insignificant.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 86

Monitoring and management priorities
Our observations suggest that the current distribution of the Bale Monkey is closely associated
with the bamboo and mixed-bamboo forest. This forest type occurs on very steep slopes that are
dissected by steep ravines, making it very difficult for humans to access in an extensive way. Local
people harvest bamboo as a subsistence crop but there is also some commercial harvest around Rira
(Tesfaye this edition). One priority for monitoring is therefore to assess the extent and quality of
the bamboo and mixed-bamboo forest. Remotely sensed data may play an important role, given the
difficulty of access to these habitats for field surveys or monitoring. Management priorities may
include the regulation of the level of bamboo harvesting (Tesfaye this edition), or at least restricting
commercial activities within the park. The location of settlements and agricultural fields may also
need to be considered in terms of the implications for the Bale monkey and its habitat.
Finally, additional surveys in the locality are necessary to improve the estimate of the
population density and abundance. There are other stands of bamboo within Bale Mountains
National park and its surroundings where Bale monkeys have been recorded. Additional sampling
in these areas would be helpful for establishing a better understanding of the species distribution.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Oromia Bureau and the Bale Mountains National Park for permission
to work in the Harenna Forest. Mr Addisu Assefa provided helpful information about the monkey and
the bamboo forest, as well as logistical support. The Frankfurt Zoological Society Bale Mountains
Conservation Project, in particular, Deborah Randall and Alastair Nelson, also provided logistical
support and encouragement to publish the manuscript. The field work was supported by Hussen
Batu, Mohamed Batu and Aliyu. Wildlife Conservation Department (now, the Ethiopian Wildlife
Conservation Authority) and the Darwin Initiative (DEFRA, UK) provided financial support. Mr.
Fanuel Kebede helped with the survey and other aspects of the project. Two anonymous reviewers
and Deb Randall provided helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
References
Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D. R., Burnham, K. P., Laake, J. L., Borchers, D. L. and Thomas, L. 2001.
Introduction Distance Sampling: Estimating Abundance of Biological Populations. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Dandelot, P. and Prevost, J. 1972. Contribution a l’etude des primates d’Ethiopie (Simiens).
Mammalia, 36: 607-633.
Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society 1996. Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia, A First
Inventory. A Technical Report held by EWNHS, Addis Ababa.
Kingdon, J. 1997. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals, Princeton University Press, New
Jersey. 476 pp.
Laake, J.L., Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R. and Burnham, K.P. 1994. DISTANCE User’s Guide. V
2.0. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Vol. 2.
Lernould, J. 1988. Classification and geographical distribution of guenons: a review. In:. A Primate
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 87

Radiation: Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons. (Gautier-Hion A., Bourlière F.,
Gautier J., Kingdon J. (Eds)) Cambridge University Press, New York: pp 54-78.
National Research Council. 1981. Techniques for the Study of Primate Population Ecology. National
Acadamy Press, Washington.
Ross, C. and Reeve, N. 2003. Survey and census methods: population distribution and density. In
Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology: A Practical Guide , (Joanna M. Setchell and
Deborah J. Curtis (Eds)) pp. 90-107. Cambridge: University Press.
Shimada, M.K., Terao, K. and Shotake, T. 2002. Mitochondrial sequence diversity within a subspecies
of savanna monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) is similar to that between subspecies. Journal
of Heredity, 93 (1): 9-18.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 88

Amphibians and Reptiles Recorded from the Bale Mountains
Malcolm Largen 1 and Stephen Spawls 2 *
1 5 Ash Grove, Formby, Liverpool L37 2DT, England; e-mail: ptychadena@aol.com
2 7 Crostwick Lane, Spixworth, Norwich NR10 3PE, England; e-mail: stevespawls@hotmail.com
Introduction
It is not yet possible to compile a complete list of the amphibians and reptiles present in the Bale
Mountains; merely a few of those few species that have been recorded to date (Largen and Rasmussen
1993; Largen 2001; Largen and Spawls 2006). There is considerable scope for fieldwork leading to
new discoveries, particularly of still undescribed endemic taxa.
It is already clear that the region is a significant centre of amphibian diversity, with the Bale
Mountains National Park providing an important refuge for at least 17 species. These include 48% of
those that are endemic in Ethiopia and no fewer than five of the six endemic genera (Altiphrynoides,
Spinophrynoides, Balebreviceps, Ericabatrachus, Paracassina).
In contrast, reptiles generally fare less well at high elevations. Only three Ethiopian
snakes have yet been recorded at altitudes in excess of 2800 m, all of which are found in the Bale
Mountains (Psammophylax variabilis: 1900-3000 m, Duberria lutrix: 1800-3100 m, Pseudoboodon
lemniscatus: 1750-3300 m).
Our knowledge of Bale Mountains lizards is clearly inadequate and one can confidently
predict that there must be many more montane and forest specialists, in addition to the two endemic
chameleons already identified.
There are, of course, many reasons to conserve the environment in the Bale Mountains
National Park, with amphibians and reptiles being included among the numerous beneficiaries of good
management practices. However, the two Endangered frogs (Balebreviceps and Ericabatrachus)
perhaps deserve special mention, because currently known from only two sites, most important of
which is the narrow belt of Erica woodland lying just below the timber-line at 3200 m (12 km N
of Katcha). This is such a restricted and obviously fragile biome that special measures may well be
justified to ensure its continued survival and that of its amphibian inhabitants. Also vitally important
is further fieldwork to provide essential data on the distribution, abundance and general biology of
these enigmatic species.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 89

Species and their Recorded Localities in the Bale Mountains
Amphibians
Pipidae
Xenopus clivii Near Shawe River.
Bufonidae
Bufo kerinyagae Dinshu area.
**Altiphrynoides malcolmi Shifta Rock; Dinshu area; Urgana Valley; Garba Guracha; 6-20 km SE
of Goba; 12 km N of Katcha.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (to loss of forest and ericaceous moorland habitat).
*Spinophrynoides osgoodi Dinshu; 6-8 km SE of Goba; vicinity of Katcha; Shawe River; Channa.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (to loss of forest habitat).
Microhylidae
** Balebreviceps hillmani 12 km N of Katcha.
Conservation status: Endangered (by loss of restricted and fragile
habitat).
Ranidae
Ptychadena anchietae Yadot River; S of Shisha River.\
* Ptychadena cooperi Between Dodola and Adaba; Mt Gaysay; vicinity of Dinshu.
* Ptychadena erlangeri Katcha; near Shawe River; Yadot River.
** Ptychadena harenna Yadot River.
Conservation status: Data Deficient (since known only from the type
specimens).
* Ptychadena neumanni Between Dodola and Adaba; Mt Gaysay; vicinity of Dinshu; Little
Batu; 17 km SE of Goba; vicinity of Katcha.
** Ericabatrachus baleensis 12 km N of Katcha; Katcha.
Conservation status: Endangered (by loss of restricted forest habitat).
Phrynobatrachus minutus Near Shawe River.
Phrynobatrachus natalensis S of Shisha River.
Hyperoliidae
* Leptopelis gramineus Dinshu area; 7-20 km SE of Goba; Tagona River; Little Batu; Katcha;
near Shawe River.
* Leptopelis ragazzii Near Dinshu; 6 km SE of Goba; vicinity of Katcha.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (to loss of forest habitat).
* Paracassina kounhiensis Dinshu area; vicinity of Katcha; near Shawe River.
* Afrixalus enseticola Katcha; near Shawe River.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (to loss of forest habitat).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 90

Lizards
Agamidae
Acanthocercus atricollis Vicinity of Dodola and Adaba; S slope of Mt Gaysay; Dinshu.
Chamaeleonidae
* Chamaeleo affinis Vicinity of Dinshu; Goba; SE of Goba.
** Chamaeleo balebicornutus Katcha; near Shawe River.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (to loss of forest habitat).
** Chamaeleo harennae 12 km N of Katcha; Rira; Katcha; Arbagona.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (possibly to loss of forest habitat
within its limited range, though the species extends above the timberline
and Necas, 2004 found it thriving in farmland where few trees
remain).
Scincidae
mabuya megalura W of Dinshu.
Snakes
Typhlopidae
Typhlops lineolatus Yadot River; S of Shisha River.
Colubridae
Dasypeltis scabra S of Shisha River.
Duberria lutrix Dinshu.
* Lamprophis erlangeri Dodola.
Psammophylax variabilis Near Dinshu.
Pseudoboodon lemniscatus Dodola; near Adaba; Shawe River.
Viperidae
* Bitis parviocula Dodola.
Conservation status: Vulnerable (to loss of forest habitat).
* = Ethiopian endemic, ** = Bale Mountains endemic.
References
Largen, M.J. 2001. Catalogue of the amphibians of Ethiopia, including a key for their identification.
Tropical Zoology, 14: 307-402.
Largen, M.J. and Rasmussen, J.B. 1993. Catalogue of the snakes of Ethiopia (Reptilia Serpentes),
including identification keys. Tropical Zoology, 6: 313-434.
Largen, M.J. and Spawls, S. 2006. Lizards of Ethiopia (Reptilia Sauria): an annotated checklist,
bibliography, gazetteer and identification key. Tropical Zoology, 19: 21-109.
Necas, P. 2004. Chamaeleo (Trioceros) harennae fitchi (Reptilia: Sauria: Chamaeleonidae), ein
neues Chamäleon aus dem äthiopischen Hochland. Sauria, Berlin, 26 (1): 3-9.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 91

Conservation of Ethiopian Amphibians: A Race Against Time
Abebe Ameha Mengistu 1 , Simon Loader 1 , Abebe Getahun 2 , Samy Saber 3 and Peter Nagel 1
1 University of Basel, Department of Environmental Sciences, Institute of Biogeography, Basel,
Switzerland.
2 Addis Ababa University, College of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
3 Al-Azhar University, Faculty of Science, Zoology Department, Assiut, Egypt.
Abstract
Ethiopia has a diverse amphibian fauna distributed across an array of habitats, which range from
savanna, moist tropical forest to Afroalpine grasslands. Little is known about the taxonomy,
evolution, population biology and conservation status of the different species. This lack of research
can be attributed to, 1) the bad reputation that many people had towards amphibians and reptiles,
2) little or no commercial importance of these animals in Ethiopia, and 3) the cryptic and nocturnal
nature of the life of most of these fauna. Therefore, it is not surprising that until recently, little
coverage has been given to the study of amphibians by higher education and research institutions in
the country.
Degraded landscape in the Ethiopian Highlands Ptychadena sp. (Lake Ziway, Ethiopia)
Currently 64 amphibian (26 endemic) species are recorded in Ethiopia, with a large proportion
of this diversity found restricted to highland regions of the country. The Ethiopian Highlands are of
particular importance as several endemic amphibian species with narrow distributions can be found
in this region. For example, the Bale Mountains, part of the Ethiopian Highlands on the eastern side
of the Rift Valley, contain remarkable diversity of species, many with highly restricted distributions.
Two remarkable monotypic genera of amphibians (Balebreviceps, and Ericabatrachus) are found
only in Bale (Largen and Spawls this edition). These species have narrow distributions restricted
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 92

to just two montane sites in Harenna Forest. For this reason, these species are of high conservation
priority. Recently, Bale has been subject to devastating levels of deforestation (a ten-fold increase
in deforestation in the last ten years, Teshome et al. this edition). Without immediate conservation
action these species are likely to become threatened with extinction. Furthermore, as is the case for
amphibians worldwide, the survival of Ethiopian amphibians faces threat from climate change and
a pathogenic fungal disease.
One of the most comprehensive reference materials on Ethiopian amphibians has been the
catalogue compiled by M.J. Largen, who also collected several specimens from the field in the
1970s and 1980s (Largen and Spawls this edition). However, despite his efforts, several questions
on the taxonomy and biology of these fauna remain unanswered. With several unexplored areas
across Ethiopia, there are a large number of habitats that require systematic surveying for better
understanding of the natural history and conservation status of amphibian fauna. In addition to
international experts conducting research in the area, intensive training and participation of local
researchers in the field will ultimately be most important to answer the many varied research questions.
This will also facilitate acquaintance of the local community towards the value of amphibians in
the environment. Among other workers in this area, the authors of this paper are working on the
systematics, biogeography and conservation of Ethiopian amphibians, in particular of those in the
highlands. The future preservation of Ethiopian amphibians will depend upon continued research
and appropriate application of conservation options, a race against time.
We are interested in hearing about any observations or queries on amphibians in Ethiopia.
Please contact us at: abbefish@yahoo.com. We are grateful to the Faculty of Science (Addis Ababa
University) and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority for facilitating field works to our
group.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 93

A Summary of the Conservation Status of the Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni)
in Bale Mountains National Park
Yosef Mamo 1 and Michelle Pinard 2 *
1 Institute of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Aberdeen, UK
2 Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Cruickshank Building, 23 St Machar Drive,
Aberdeen AB24 3UU, UK
*Email: m.a.pinard@abdn.ac.uk
Abstract
This note presents an executive summary of the doctoral thesis conducted by Yosef Mamo that
examined conservation issues for the mountain nyala in Bale Mountains National Park. The
objectives of the thesis were as follows: to examine the population size and dynamics of the mountain
nyala; to evaluate the relationships between the mountain nyala and its habitats in terms of use and
preference; to study the effects of encroachment by local people and livestock on mountain nyala
habitat availability and use; and, to determine the perceptions of the local people in the vicinity of
the park headquarters towards the conservation values of the park and the mountain nyala.
Introduction
The mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), is a spiral-horned bovid, endemic to the Ethiopian
highlands and endangered due to habitat loss and land degradation. The responses of a species
to anthropogenic pressures can be complex, dependent upon life history characteristics, local
environmental conditions, and the specific attributes and impacts of the disturbance (Mace et al.
2001). To help inform conservation decisions related to the mountain nyala, this study examined
four questions: what is the current population size and how is it changing; how do mountain nyala
relate to their habitat in terms of use and preference; how does encroachment of habitat by people
and livestock affect habitat availability and use; and, what are the perceptions of the local people
living in and near mountain nyala habitat towards the conservation values of the park and how do
these vary among the settlements in the area.
Population Size and Dynamics
Distance sampling techniques and total count methods were employed to gather data on demographic
parameters, movement and habitat. The study was undertaken between 2003-2005; previously
collected data on demography of the species from the same area, mainly from1983-85 period, were
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 94

used for comparison. The study revealed that the total population size of T. buxtoni in the study
area varied between 887 and 965 (95% CI) antelope, representing a reduction by about 48% from
what was reported in 1980’s. However, due to contraction of its habitat, the average densities of
mountain nyala have shown an increase from what was reported in 1980s. The population structure
consisted of 58% adults, 25% sub-adults, 9% juveniles and 5% calves, with a sex ratio of 2:1 (♀:♂).
Significance differences in most parameters such as density, age-group composition, recruitment
and sex ratios were observed between the population in the Dinsho sanctuary and that found in the
Gaysay/Adelay area. No conclusive evidence was found to suggest that demographic characteristics
of the species have made a significant contribution on observed decline in population size since the
1980s, because many life history traits (e.g., age structure, and group size) were similar between
1983-85 and 2003-05 periods.
Habitat Components
The general aim this research was to describe the basic components of the mountain nyala habitat
and assess how mountain nyala relates to them. The study area was divided into three parts, based
on the dominant vegetation and relative location. Random sampling in plots (100 m2 ) placed along
transects was used, with 69 plots were Gaysay grassland, 71 in Adelay woodland and 31 in Dinsho
woodland areas. The major parameters measured were: ground cover; incidence of browsing;
vegetation height; slope; altitude; canopy openness; visibility; and, tree density. Indices of habitat
suitability and use were based on mountain nyala abundance and incidences of browsing. Gaysay
grassland was found to be the most suitable while Dinsho woodland the least suitable habitat to
mountain nyala. Seven types of vegetation were identified in Gaysay grassland area with open
grassland vegetation covering the largest proportion (58%). In Dinsho woodland, five vegetation
groups were identified with Hygenia and Juniperus woodland covering the largest proportion (68%).
In Adelay woodland, Hygenia and Juniperus woodland covered the largest proportion (65%). When
all vegetation types are pooled together, levels of browsing decreased with increase in vegetation
height and increased with increase in patch size. However, positive correlations were reported
between levels of browsing and vegetation height for Helichrisum species and while negative
correlations were recorded for Artemesia and open grassland in terms of patch size. The study also
revealed that greater availability of vegetation does not necessarily result in higher use by mountain
nyala.
Interactions between Livestock and Mountain Nyala Habitat
The main aim of this study was to assess how the presence of livestock and local people affect
habitat availability, composition and structure to mountain nyala. Also, the research investigated
how livestock use of the area affects mountain nyala habitat use and preference. Parameters such as
presence and/or absence of both livestock and mountain nyala dung, levels of browsing, vegetation
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 95

heights, evidence of wood use by the local communities and tree crown damage were collected from
171 randomly laid plots (each 100 m2 ). Additional 25 plots were used to measure spatial changes
of vegetation structure and cover across Gaysay grassland area. Livestock presence negatively
affected vegetation structure, composition and cover of the area. Livestock presence in the area
was negatively correlated with most of the measured variables as well as, the presence of mountain
nyala. The result revealed that settlements and agriculture expansion activities have considerably
reduced habitat availability and, in turn, affected population size of mountain nyala.
Attitudes towards Conservation and the Park
The main aim this study was to examine the attitudes, and awareness of the local communities
towards conservation values of BMNP, its flora and fauna with particular emphasis on mountain
nyala. Specifically, the study investigated how attitudes vary with different groups of people
involved in recent or long term settlements; people with different livelihood strategies and among
people living at in different distances away from the park. questionnaires and interviews were
directed to randomly selected households and key-informants in 7 villages located near the park.
Out of the 136 people interviewed, about a quarter of respondents (26%) felt that they benefited
from while 55% felt that they experienced conflict by living near the park. The most important
benefits identified were leasing of horses to tourists (62%), serving as tourist guide (44%), and use
of park’s vehicles in time of emergency (38%). But a significant portion (83%) of the respondents
agreed that there is lack of equity in benefit distribution. The main conflicts identified were fear
of forceful relocation (84%), livestock or grazing restrictions (74%) and restriction of firewood
collection (54%). Perceived benefits and conflicts were varied across livelihood strategy but not
proximity to the park and duration of settlement. The majority of respondents (66%) believe that
their presence in the area does not contribute to habitat degradation, an attitude more commonly held
among recent (within 2 yr) settlers than long-term settlers (within 15 yr). The overall attitude of the
local people towards the park and mountain nyala is appeared to be positive since, for example, 80%
of respondents would support the park’s conservation activities if given the chance, suggesting that
there is scope to enhance cooperation and improve the prospects for conservation of the mountain
nyala and its habitat.
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Mapping High-Altitude Vegetation in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia
Lucy A. Tallents* and David W. Macdonald
Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, Tubney House, Abingdon Road,
Tubney, Abingdon, Oxon, Ox13 5qL, UK.
*Email: lucy.tallents@linacre.oxon.org
Abstract
We used remotely-sensed multi-spectral imagery to develop a map of Afroalpine vegetation in the
Bale Mountains in southern Ethiopia. This is the largest and most intact area of Afroalpine vegetation
over 3000 m a.s.l., and harbours many endemic flora and fauna, including several Bale endemics
and the largest population of the rarest canid in the world, the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis.
We isolated 23 spectrally separable land cover classes using unsupervised classification.
Quantitative vegetation surveys provide descriptions of each class. All classes for which sufficient
ground-truthing data existed (n = 17) were statistically distinct in terms of substrate, species
composition, height and/or vegetation cover. The majority of classes identified discrete vegetation
communities, while some represented the interface of different land cover types which occurred in
the same pixel.
The map provides a comprehensive baseline from which to monitor the effects of
anthropogenic activities and global warming on the extent and degradation of alpine vegetation in
the Bale Mountains, and is a valuable tool for planning natural resource use management within the
Bale Mountains National Park. It also provides the context for research into the habitat preferences
and ecology of the endemic wildlife which the park was established to protect.
Introduction
An understanding of the status and spatial distribution of resources is a prerequisite for effective natural
resource management and integral to the management of both exploited and pristine ecosystems.
As well as enabling the monitoring and assessment of flora, vegetation maps are often the first step
in mapping the distribution of other taxa, and as such are vital tools in cataloguing and managing
biodiversity. Such maps provide baseline data on the current abundance of endangered species and
offer a framework within which to plan ecological research, investigate species interactions, and
assess the response of natural communities to global climate change.
The Bale Mountains are a water catchment (Hillman 1986b) and conservation landscape
(Mittermeier et al. 2005) of international importance. Our aim was to map vegetation in the Afroalpine
zone of the Bale Mountains at a finer spatial scale and broader extent than previously achieved.
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Such a map is necessary to investigate fine-scale patterns of habitat selection and dependency of
the endangered and endemic alpine species. It provides a baseline from which to monitor the effect
of anthropogenic activities on the alpine plant communities and informs decision-making by the
national park authorities about how to minimise potentially adverse impacts on ecosystem services
provided by the park.
The Bale Mountains are in the southern highlands of Ethiopia (06°41’N, 39°03’E and
07°18’N, 40°00’E), and represent the largest area in Africa of Afroalpine vegetation over 3000m
(Yalden, 1983). The contiguous massif is 2067 km2 , or 17.5% of African land above 3000m, and is
the most intact remnant of original highland vegetation (Brooks et al. 2004). The massif comprises
one of Conservation International’s Key Biodiversity Areas, included in their Eastern Afromontane
hotspot (Brooks et al. 2004), and is listed as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by Birdlife International
(Fishpool and Evans 2001). Many of the species endemic to Ethiopia are associated with the highaltitude
moorland and grassland abundant in Bale (Yalden 1983). These national endemics include
19 species of mammal, three of which are found only in the Bale mountains (Asefa this edition): the
giant molerat Tachyoryctes macrocephalus, unstriped grass rat Arvicanthis blicki and harsh-furred
mouse Lophuromys melanonyx (Yalden and Largen 1992). The area is also a hotspot of endemicity
for amphibians (Largen and Spawls this edition) and birds (Shimelis et al this edition), and supports
a diverse raptor guild which exploits the abundant rodent fauna (Birdlife International 2005). The
flora of the alpine zone is equally notable, with no less than 163 highland endemics, 27 of which are
restricted to Bale itself, including Alchemilla haumannii (Birdlife International 2006) and Euryops
prostratus (Williams et al. 2004).
The BMNP was created in 1969 with the purpose of protecting the endemic mountain nyala
Tragelaphus buxtoni and Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis, and the alpine zone and the tropical forest
on the southern slopes (Hillman 1986a). The park boundaries encompass 52% of the land above
3000 m a.s.l., with most of the remainder in Somkero-Korduro, a spur to the west, and in Gaysay to
the north. The area is characterised by high-altitude plateaux and wide valleys bounded by volcanic
plugs, lava flows and the precipitous Harenna escarpment to the south (Miehe and Miehe 1994).
The first map of vegetation within and around the BMNP was published by Waltermire (1975,
cited in Hillman 1986a), and most work has focussed on the montane forest and ericaceous belt (e.g.
Miehe and Miehe 1993, 1994; Bussmann 1997, Hillman 1986a). These brief descriptions of the
vegetation are restricted to small areas at the top of altitudinal transects, and the initial maps were
hand-drawn from field surveys and aerial photography on 1:50,000 base-maps (Ethiopian Mapping
Agency). More detail is presented in the management plans of the BMNP (Hillman 1986a, Nelson
this edition), which includes a map of five subdivisions of the park, based on altitude and dominant
flora. This map was derived from ground-surveys, 1:50,000 base maps, Landsat imagery and EMA
aerial photography from the late 1960s and early 1970s. Nine of the 16 vegetation types described
fall within the alpine grassland and moorland (subalpine) zones. Although useful for broadscale
management, these few categories do not adequately represent the complexity of vegetation
communities, or the diversity of the animal communities that inhabit them. Other published studies
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of the alpine vegetation have been with reference to suitable habitat for the Ethiopian wolf (Marino
2003, Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1997) and maps have been limited in spatial resolution (Hillman 1986a) or
extent (Marino 2003), both of which constrain their use for more general research or management.
In conclusion, the park currently lacks a detailed map of land cover throughout the alpine zone, and
this study aims to fill that gap.
Methods
To summarise our approach, we derived principal components of the Landsat spectral bands, and
used them as the input for an unsupervised classification to isolate spectrally unique land cover
classes. We created a qualitative description of each land cover class based on substantial groundtruthing
data and expert knowledge of the area. We then tested whether land cover classes were
distinguishable from each other in terms of their substrate, plant cover and height, and species
composition, using quantitative vegetation survey data.
Preparation of the satellite imagery
Variations in microclimate, substrate and drainage create a fine-scale mosaic of Afroalpine vegetation,
making it difficult to delineate large enough homogeneous patches as training sites for supervised
classification. Inaccurate classifications can result, especially where mixed pixels represent a
large extent of the image (Cingolani et al. 2004). Terrain complexity in mountainous regions can
also impair supervised classification through the inclusion of pixels with varying slope/aspect and
therefore illumination in the same training sample (Townshend and Justice 1980). For these reasons,
we chose unsupervised classification (Mather 1987) to map land cover, and determined the plant
species composition and substrate of each class post-hoc. This exploits the full range of reflectance
values, ensuring that all combinations of spectral characteristics are represented, and that classes are
clearly distinguishable from each other (Lillesand et al. 2004).
Erdas (v8.7, Leica Geosystems GIS & Mapping LLC) was used to manipulate and analyse
remotely-sensed data. The Landsat 7 ETM+ image (NASA Landsat Program, 2005: path 167 row
055, 28th Nov 2000) was downloaded from the Global Land Cover Facility (www.landcover.org).
These free geotiffs contain all nine Landsat spectral bands. They are projected in UTM using the
WGS84 datum and reference ellipsoid, and orthorectified using nearest neighbour sampling (Tucker
et al. 2004). The digital elevation model (DEM) from the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
(SRTM)’s 3 arc second dataset (USGS 2006) was also downloaded from the GLCF in UTM WGS84.
Ground-control points were obtained using a Garmin 12 hand-held GPS (Garmin Ltd.)
along readily-identifiable features such as rivers, lake edges, lava cliffs and roads. Alignment of the
Landsat image and ground data was slightly improved by a sub-pixel shift of 10m south and 20 m
west applied to the Landsat image. Co-registration of the DEM was also improved by a linear shift
of 180 m north.
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A preliminary unsupervised classification of land above 2900m discriminated two classes of
high-altitude vegetation. Lower-altitude forest and agricultural land was assigned to a third class,
which was then masked (e.g. Lauver and Whistler 1993). The reduction in spectral variability of the
image enhanced our ability to distinguish between the land cover types of interest.
A principal components analysis (PCA) on the eight non-panchromatic bands reduced
dimensionality of the dataset by partitioning the majority of the spectral variation into fewer bands.
This allowed us to remove spectral anomalies such as haze and banding (Jensen 1996) which were
separated into the last components and excluded from the classification.
Unsupervised classification
We set the minimum number of classes as the number of habitat types that could be distinguished
visually in false-colour composites by an observer familiar with the area. We examined exploratory
classifications using 20 to 50 classes to assess the representation of known land cover types and the
ability of the classification to distinguish between them. We determined the appropriate number
of classes by a combination of testing for statistical separation of classes, and expert knowledge
of the site. It is important to include expert knowledge in the classification process, particularly in
topographically complex areas (Shrestha and Zinck 2001), to ensure that the map represents the fine
distinctions needed by end users, and isolates land cover types of particular research or management
interest.
Clusters were initialised along the principal axis, using the automatic scaling range option.
The convergence threshold was set to 0.98, with 30 as the maximum number of iterations, and every
cell in the grid used as input for the clustering algorithm (Leica Geosystems 2003).
Our criterion for class separation was that ellipses plotted in full-dimensional feature space
showed no overlap at 1.28 standard deviations (SD). This allowed for 20% of the pixels to lie in the
extremes beyond the ellipse, potentially falling within the signature of another class, but incorporating
80% of the pixels in non-overlapping space. Separation of class means was assessed by Euclidean
distance, and spectral relationships between classes were illustrated using a dendrogram, based on
complete linkage agglomeration (Leica Geosystems 1991-2003).
Vegetation sampling
Clustered stratified random sampling was used to survey vegetation intensively within the areas of
primary interest in the Afroalpine zone: the Web Valley and Sanetti Plateau. Grid cells of 200 x
200m were chosen at random, and five locations coordinates were generated random within each
cell. See Tallents (2007) for further detail on the sampling design. Data from 442 vegetation
sampling locations and the central four points of 112 rodent trapping grids were included; 39 of the
latter were located outside the two sites of primary interest. Extensive surveys throughout other
areas of the Bale Mountains resulted in qualitative descriptions of the vegetation at a further 132
random locations, ensuring that all land cover classes were represented in the ground-truthing data.
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Observers located each point by GPS, and four subsamples (N/E/S/W) were taken at each
location. Sampling density was equivalent to that on rodent trapping grids, with 5m between
subsamples. For each plant species intersected by the sampling rod, observers recorded the maximum
height, plant part (leaf, stem or flower) and colour (to indicate seasonal changes in nutritional
quality). Substrate (earth, rock or water), date, time and observer were also recorded.
Vegetation was surveyed by observers without formal botanical expertise, limiting the
number of taxa which could be identified to species level. Surveys occurred in both wet and dry
seasons, so the flower structures necessary for identification of grasses and some herbaceous species
were not always present. All grass-like plants were therefore split into two categories only: wetland
sedges and grasses. Similarly, no attempt was made to distinguish between different mosses or
lichens.
Ground-truthing and statistical analysis
The land cover type represented by each class was determined using qualitative habitat descriptions,
supplemented by visual examination of aerial photographs, false-colour composites, 199 groundtruthing
photographs and familiarity with areas gained during field surveys between April 2003 and
April 2005. To assess how related clusters of classes in the distance dendrogram differed from one
another, pairwise statistical comparisons were made at each node for which sufficient data existed.
Differences in plant species composition and substrate were assessed using contingency tables.
General Linear Models (GLMs) were used to test for differences in altitude, slope, aspect, and
percent vegetation cover, and mean sward height was also compared after accounting for species
composition and altitude. Tests used all classes and all species for which enough data were available;
sample sizes varied depending upon which classes were being compared.
The combination of mountainous terrain, low sun elevation (52.1 degrees) and sun azimuth
(139.6 degrees) at the time of satellite image capture caused large differences in illumination
between southeast and northwest slopes. This meant that classes on steeply sloping ground may
have differed from each other only in the degree of illumination, rather than in species composition
or density of vegetation. Therefore we calculated the incidence angle of the sun’s rays to describe
the relative illumination of each pixel, and test for differences in average illumination between
classes. The following formula was taken from Dozier and Frew (1990):
θ i = arccos(cosθ 0 *cosS + sinθ 0 *sinS*cos(Φ 0 − A))
where θ = illumination angle, θ = solar elevation, S = pixel slope, Φ = solar azimuth and A = pixel
i 0 0
aspect.
We investigated seasonal changes in photosynthetic activity by categorising plants into ‘alive’
(flowering or green) or ‘dead/dormant’ (brown or yellow). This was hard to determine for some
pubescent species such as Helichrysum sp.; the status of these species was assigned as ‘unknown’
unless there was evidence of flowering.
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We derived class descriptions from the quantitative surveys of substrate, cover, vegetation
height and plant species composition, supplemented by photos, qualitative descriptions of vegetation
structure, and familiarity with easily identifiable plant communities.
Results
Landsat PCA
Principal components (PCs) one to three captured over 95% of the variation in the Landsat pixel
values, Table 1; see Tallents (2007) for factor loadings. PC1 isolated the factors which most strongly
influenced reflectance in all wavelengths, contrasting water bodies and densely vegetated land with
highly reflective bare soil. It was positively correlated with illumination (r = 0.44), separating
heavily shaded from sun-facing slopes. PC2 had high values in cool, damp areas with high plant
productivity such as drainage lines, and was lower in the arid Tullu Deemtu rain shadow and welldrained
lava slopes. PC3 correlated strongly with altitude (r = -0.65), contrasting the Helichrysumdominated
high plateaux with the lower-altitude grassy valleys.
Table 1. Eigenvalues and variability captured by the Landsat image principal components.
PC Eigenvalue Cumulative %
1 4.99 62.39
2 1.47 80.79
3 1.14 95.06
4 0.27 98.39
5 0.06 99.16
6 0.04 99.65
7 0.02 99.95
8 < 0.01 100.00
PC8 only described differences between the two highly correlated thermal bands, and
appeared as spatially random speckle, with some striping characteristic of the scanning path. PC7
isolated speckle probably associated with the resampling undertaken during orthoregistration, and
was discarded along with PC8. The remaining six PCS captured over 99% of the variability in the
data (Table 1), and formed the input for the classification. PCs 4 to 6 were retained despite their
relatively low information content because they highlighted features of interest and it was expected
that they would allow discrimination between broadly similar land cover classes. The fact that
components have low eigenvalues can simply indicate that the variability they encapsulate is very
localized (Eastman and Fulk 1993), so they can help to distinguish rare habitat types or those which
are spectrally similar despite being floristically distinct (Townshend and Justice 1980).
Classification
Several classifications fulfilled the criterion of spectral separability based on non-overlapping 80%
ellipses. The one with 23 classes (here labelled A to W) was chosen because it adequately represented
the full range of land cover types, and clearly delineated habitats of interest, such as wetlands, grass
versus herbaceous pasture, lava flows and high-altitude Helichrysum meadows, Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Afroalpine vegetation in the Bale Mountains. See legend for plant species abbreviations.
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Where sufficient ground-truthing samples were available, class clustering in the distance
dendrogram could be explained by the dominance of particular species, the degree of soil
waterlogging, the coverage of rock/open water/vegetation, vegetation height, or topography (altitude/
slope/illumination, Table 2).
Table 2. Topographic characteristics and survey sample sizes of land cover classes.
See Table 3 for class names.
Vegetation surveys
Class
Median altitude
(m)
Mean slope
(°)
Mean illumination
Cos(θ ) i
Point
samples
A 3779 16.0 0.43 6
B 3711 11.3 0.56 24
C 3654 12.7 0.57 51
D 3793 10.8 0.54 11
E 3780 8.2 0.62 39
F 3973 7.6 0.57 307
G 4088 6.6 0.61 197
H 4089 5.3 0.62 238
I 4079 5.0 0.63 432
J 4102 3.5 0.61 343
K 3506 14.5 0.68 22
L 3743 11.2 0.67 21
M 3560 18.2 0.76 4
N 3890 5.6 0.66 99
O 3808 11.6 0.70 14
P 3730 7.1 0.61 122
q 3530 8.3 0.59 140
R 3577 9.5 0.67 99
S 3694 5.9 0.62 263
T 3698 6.0 0.64 271
U 3490 5.9 0.63 831
V 3539 4.3 0.62 1148
W 3444 12.7 0.68 70
Total 4752
We recorded 16,672 plants in 45 taxa, of which 82% were identified to species level and a further
7% to genus level. Unidentified plants comprised only 1.1% of the dataset, and the remainder were
assigned to the broad classes of grasses, mosses and lichens.
Seasonal differences were observed in the degree of open water (contingency table: Χ = 35.6,
2
p < 0.001, n = 4104), with more in the wet season (3.2% cover versus 0.7% in the dry season). No
differences were found in the percent cover of earth or rock substrate between seasons. A greater
proportion of the vegetation was recorded as alive or actively growing in the wet season (76.9%
versus 43.4% in the dry season, Χ = 395.5, p < 0.001, n = 3614).
1
Differences between land cover classes
Most land cover classes could also be distinguished from their nearest neighbour using the quantitative
survey data. Exceptions were classes A, B and C from each other, classes K, L and M from each
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other, and class N from O, because too few vegetation samples were available for at least one
class within each combination, . Based on the entire dataset, significant differences were observed
between habitats in the frequencies of the three substrates (Χ = 149.4, p < 0.001, n = 4104), and
32
the degree of vegetation cover (Χ = 128.5, p < 0.001, n = 4104). Vegetation height also differed
16
between habitats, after accounting for differences in species composition (Χ = 7020.8, p < 0.001,
255
n = 19,040). Different land cover classes dominated at different altitudes. Figure 2 illustrates
the distance dendrogram created from the spectral characteristics of each class. In all pair-wise
comparisons between clusters for which adequate sample sizes (n > 40) were available, clusters
differed significantly from each other in at least one of the following characteristics: substrate, cover
and height (Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5 respectively), and species composition (Table 4).
Table 3. Dominant and characteristic species of each land cover class.
Abbreviations: AA - Alchemilla abyssinica, AH - A. haumanni, AP - A. pedata, AT - Artemisia
afra, CC - Carduus camaecephalus, CM - Carex monostachya, EA - Erigeron alpinus, EP - Euryops
prostratus, ER - Erica sp., GR - grasses, HC - Helichrysum citrispinum, HD - Hebenstretia dentata,
HG - H. gofense, HR - Haplocarpha rueppellii, HS - H. splendidum, KF - Kniphofia foliosa, LI -
lichens, LR - Lobelia rhynchopetalum, MO - mosses, PA - Plantago afra, RA - Ranunculus sp., SM
- Salvia merjame, TM - Trifolium sp., TY - Thymus sp., US - Urtica simense.
Classes Species (% occurrence)
D & E: Lava flows HS (6.6), ER (1.5), EP (8.0), GR (25.5)
F: Bare rock and Helichrysum HC (7.6), AH (2.7), AA (17.3), LR (0.6)
G: Sparse Helichrysum HG (16.7), HC (7.6), HS (6.0), AA (17.3), LR (0.5)
H: Dense Helichrysum HC (4.9), HS (14.3), AA (15.8), LR (1.0)
I: Solifluction soil EP( 6.1), HG (6.3), AA (19.6), HC (4.4), HR (2.7)
J: Mima mound AA (14.6), HC (3.4), RA (1.2), TM (2.9)
K, L & M: Grazed Erica moorland GR (29.5), ER (9.8) TY (2.7)
N & O: Helichrysum grassland GR (30.1), HS (6.3), HC (4.2), EP (7.3)
P: Sedge swamp CM (4.0), RA (1.5), AA (14.7), HR (3.6)
q: Mesa edge/wetland AT (13.2), AP (4.9), CM (1.8), HR (3.2), KF (3.5), CC (1.2)
R: Bushy grassland AT (12.2), KF (4.4), AA (14.8), SM (3.4), AH (2.2)
S: Rocky grassland AT (8.1), KF (2.0), HC (3.7)
T: Rocky Helichrysum grassland GR (30.0), HS (2.4), HC (3.3), KF (1.5)
U: Alchemilla pasture AA (23.6), AP (5.7), CC (1.3), SM (3.5)
V: Grass pasture GR (31.0), AA (18.0), CC (1.6), SM (4.9)
W: Drainage lines AP (12.6), CM (1.1), HR (4.0), RA (2.3)
Land cover class descriptions
Each land cover class is described below, and their dominant and characteristic plant species are
listed in Table 3. Figure 1 displays the map of land cover classes. Table 5 shows substrate and
vegetation height characteristic of each land cover class or cluster, and also lists the ratio of shrubs
to ground cover to illustrate the vegetation structure.
A. Shaded arboreal heather slopes and lakes
Class A has low reflectance in all bands, either through low illumination (i.e. steep slopes facing
north west), or through absorption of light by arboreal vegetation and deep water bodies. It has the
second highest mean slope (16°) and the lowest illumination, Table 2.
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B. Rocky slopes with Alchemilla haumannii and heather
Gentle slopes vegetated by Alchemilla haumannii and varying densities of Erica, with scattered
rocks or scree.
C. Grazed sparse heather slopes and short sedge swamps
A mixed class, representing both clumped Erica and shallow wetlands with short sedges. Sample
size was too low to accurately describe the plant species composition.
D. Lava slopes: rock formations with interspersed heather
Shaded slopes dominated by bare rock and boulders, with interstitial Erica. An example of this class
is the spectacular lava formations at Rafu.
E. Lava flows: boulders interspersed with shrubby grassland
The flatter tops of the lava flows with a preponderance of bare rock, although less so than class D
(Table 5). Euryops prostratus is highly prevalent, with Erica and Helichrysum splendidum bushes
scattered through sparse grassland.
F. Bare rock and Helichrysum citrispinum/Alchemilla haumannii
Vegetated mainly by A. haumannii and H. citrispinum (characteristic of rocky ground, (Hedberg
1957)), or short H. splendidum, bare bedrock dominates the spectral signature. It has the highest
proportion of rock along with class T, the highest cover of A. haumannii and the second highest
cover of H. citrispinum after class G. The ground cover is dominated by A. abyssinica rather than
grasses.
G. Sparse mixed Helichrysum with Alchemilla abyssinica
Helichrysum sp. dominate this class; it has by far the highest cover of Helichrysum gofense, and
also the highest cover of H. citrispinum. Grass cover is low, and there is more bare soil, pebbles
and scattered small rocks and fewer expanses of bare rock than its closest relative, class F. As with
classes I and J, solifluction (churning of the soil through diurnal freeze-thaw cycles) is likely to
contribute to the low vegetation cover at the high altitude characteristic of this class,
Table 2.
h. Dense Helichrysum splendidum with scattered giant lobelia
Representing the high-altitude Helichrysum pastures characteristic of the Bale Mountains plateaux,
this class has by far the highest density of H. splendidum, and the highest occurrence of giant lobelia
Lobelia rhynchopetalum. It is the most widespread vegetation type in the northwestern reaches of
Sanetti, south of the Rafu lava flows. The uniform H. splendidum cover is interrupted by occasional
lichen-covered rocks and Lobelia stands, and grasses dominate the ground cover.
I. Sparse Helichrysum gofense/Euryops prostratus
With very low cover dominated by creeping shrubs such as H. gofense and Euryops prostratus, this
class has short vegetation and large expanses of bare soil. It is part of the nival zone (cold desert
belt), found at a median altitude of 4079 m. Solifluction is likely to be a major cause of the low
vegetation cover in this class and its closest relative, class J. Fairly high densities of Haplocarpha
rueppellii support this conclusion, as this species is often found on solifluction soil as well as
favouring wetlands and stream edges (Hedberg 1957).
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J. mima mounds and grazed mineral springs (horas)
Characteristic of mima mounds occupied by high densities of giant molerats Tachyoryctes
macrocephalus, this class has a very high proportion of bare earth, with the lowest percentage cover
and shortest vegetation. It is found on the flattest ground (
Table 2) and also has the narrowest range of slope values of all the classes. Trifolium sp. occur at
high densities beneath the sparse grasses and A. abyssinica.
K. Short heather and mixed shrubs
Dense, short Erica bushes interspersed with A. haumannii and H. splendidum.
L. Boulders and grazed heather
Similar in plant species composition to class K, this class has the highest proportion of rock substrate,
in the form of boulders. It has the highest cover of Thymus sp., and scattered Artemisia afra bushes.
M. Dense Erica on steep, sun-facing slopes
This class is found on the steepest sun-facing slopes, and has the densest Erica of all classes except
class A, for which too few representative samples are available for comparison. There are too few
vegetation samples to give an accurate description of its floral composition.
N. Helichrysum splendidum grassland
H. splendidum dominates the shrub layer, with interstitial and underlying short grass pasture, E.
prostratus and H. gofense. H. splendidum is present at lower densities than class H, and at a density
comparable to class G. Along with class O, this class has the highest vegetation cover. This is the
most prevalent land cover class in the southwest and south centre of the massif in the rain shadow of
Tullu Deemtu mountain. In its southernmost reaches, close to the Harenna escarpment, short Erica
bushes become more common.
O. Rocky Helichrysum splendidum grassland with scattered heather
With a similar plant species composition to class N, this class is found on sunnier slopes and
contains more Erica intermingled with the H. splendidum. Its discrete distribution and high thermal
reflectance probably result from a higher occurrence of boulders than found in class N.
P. Sedge swamp
Deep sedge swamps, springs and waterlogged soils with the second greatest extent of open water.
This class has the highest prevalence of Carex monostachya, and high occurrence of wetland species
such as Haplocarpha rueppellii and Ranunculus sp.
Q. Kniphofia wetlands, riverbanks and vegetated mesa edges
This mixed class represents wet soils with dense shrubby vegetation, including Kniphofia foliosa
wet pastures, mesa edges covered by dense A. afra, L rhynchopetalum and few boulders, and mixed
pasture/open water pixels along river banks. It has the greatest mean height, with high A. afra, K.
foliosa and A. pedata cover.
r. Artemisia/Kniphofia/Alchemilla haumannii grassland
Dry bushy grasslands dominated by A. afra and K. foliosa, with a ground cover of A. abyssinica
and grasses. Less rocky than classes S and T, with a higher level of illumination and the highest
coverage of Hebenstretia dentata, which favours rocky and dry ground (Hedberg 1957).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 107

S. Rocky H. citrispinum/Artemisia/Kniphofia grassland
Rocky shrublands with tall, diverse vegetation. The dominant shrub species is variously A.
haumannii, K. foliosa, H. citrispinum, A. afra and H. splendidum. The ground cover is largely
grasses, with little bare soil.
T. Rocky Helichrysum grassland
Distributed at similar altitudes to T, this class differs in having more bare soil and grass, and a higher
frequency of Helichrysum species in the shrub layer. It is the dominant vegetation in the plain to the
east of Morebawa hill, including Kerenza valley.
u. Alchemilla abyssinica pasture
Alchemilla abyssinica is present throughout the Bale Mountains alpine zone, but is most prevalent
in class U. The low density of grasses and additional presence of A. pedata mean that Alchemilla
dominates the ground layer. Associated species are Carduus camaecephalus, Salvia merjame and
Trifolium sp. This class has a low proportion of rocks, and occasional K. foliosa and Helichrysum
bushes.
V. Grass pasture
Representing the grass-dominated pastures found on low-lying flat ground, gentle slopes and mesa
tops, this class is characteristic of the Web Valley. It has the highest occurrence of Salvia merjame
and, like the Alchemilla pasture, is highly seasonal, desiccating through the dry season and exhibiting
a flush of green growth as the rains begin.
W. Alchemilla pedata drainage lines and swamp edges
Class W has the highest proportion of open water, and the highest cover of three taxa which prefer
waterlogged soils: A. pedata, H. rueppelli and Ranunculus sp. The prevalence of Urtica simense
may be associated with high grazing levels in these seasonally productive pastures.
Table 4. Comparing plant species composition of clusters at each node. See Figure 2 for nodes and
Table 3 for species abbreviations. Species in bold are significantly more abundant, species in italics
are significantly less abundant than expected, i.e. standardised residuals (SR) >2 or

Node Clusters Species in 1st cluster
16 P-V vs W AA AT AP HC hr LI rA uS
17 P-T vs U-V
AA AP Ah AT CC Cm EP GR hC hG hr hS LI
mO PA SM KF TS
18 P-q vs R-T AP AT CC Cm hr HS LI PA SM rA TS uS
19 P vs q AT EP hC KF SM hG
20 R vs S-T AA Ah EP HC HR
21 S vs T AT EP
22 U vs V AA Ah AP GR HD HG LI MO KF SM uS
Table 5. Substrate and cover characteristics of the land cover classes. See Table 3 for class names
Class % cover % rock % water Mean height (mm) Shrub : ground cover
D & E 68.1 16.4 0 38 0.40
F 77.9 14.5 1.1 50 0.23
G 75.0 9.3 0 46 0.29
H 82.9 10.8 0.5 59 0.28
I 72.8 6.0 1.7 36 0.38
J 59.0 4.3 2.7 32 0.15
K, L & M 73.8 21.3 5.0 119 0.09
N & O 83.8 13.6 0 46 0.33
P 78.6 8.9 5.2 66 0.17
q 80.6 4.3 2.2 146 0.13
R 80.8 6.7 0 116 0.32
S 82.9 12.8 0.1 85 0.41
T 83.0 13.8 0.5 47 0.32
U 79.8 2.8 0.6 47 0.17
V 77.1 4.2 0.2 36 0.08
W 63.2 0.7 15.7 50 0.05
Table 6. Substrate and cover characteristics of the land cover classes. See Table 3 for class names
Class % cover % rock % water Mean height (mm) Shrub : ground cover
D & E 68.1 16.4 0 38 0.40
F 77.9 14.5 1.1 50 0.23
G 75.0 9.3 0 46 0.29
H 82.9 10.8 0.5 59 0.28
I 72.8 6.0 1.7 36 0.38
J 59.0 4.3 2.7 32 0.15
K, L & M 73.8 21.3 5.0 119 0.09
N & O 83.8 13.6 0 46 0.33
P 78.6 8.9 5.2 66 0.17
q 80.6 4.3 2.2 146 0.13
R 80.8 6.7 0 116 0.32
S 82.9 12.8 0.1 85 0.41
T 83.0 13.8 0.5 47 0.32
U 79.8 2.8 0.6 47 0.17
V 77.1 4.2 0.2 36 0.08
W 63.2 0.7 15.7 50 0.05
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 109

A. Arboreal heather/lake
B. Rocky heather/A. haumannii
3
C. Sparse Erica & short sedge
4
D. Erica-dominated lava slope
7
E. Lava flows/grassland
2
H. Dense H. splendidum
6
F. H. citrispinum/bare rock
8
9
G. Sparse mixed Helichrysum
5
I. Sparse H. gofense & soil
J. Mima mound
10
M. Sunny heather slopes
1
K. Short heather/shrubs
13
14
L. Boulders/grazed heather
12
N. H. splendidum grassland
15
O. H. splendidum/heather
W. Swamp edge/drainage line
11
P. Sedge swamp
Q. Kniphofia swamp/mesa edge
19
16
R. Artemisia/Kniphofia
18
S. Bushy grassland
20
21
17
T. Rocky Helichrysum grassland
U. Alchemilla pasture
22
V. Grass pasture
Figure 2. Dendrogram showing spectral relationships of the 23 land cover classes. Numbers beside nodes refer to statistical comparisons of species
composition detailed in Table 4.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 110

A. Arboreal heather/lake
-E 64.6
+W 24.6
B. Rocky heather/A. haumannii
†
C. Sparse Erica & short sedge
†
D. Erica-dominated lava slope
+R 8.6
+W 2.3
E. Lava flows/grassland
†
+R 11.9
-W 0.6
***
H. Dense H. splendidum
NS
F. H. citrispinum/bare rock
NS
+E 90.1
-W 1.3
G. Sparse mixed Helichrysum
NS
***
I. Sparse H. gofense & soil
-R 5.2
+W 2.1
J. Mima mound
NS
M. Sunny heather slopes
***
K. Short heather/shrubs
†
L. Boulders/grazed heather
†
+R 15.2
NS
N. H. splendidum grassland
O. H. splendidum/heather
†
-R 0.7
+W 15.7
-R 5.8
-W 1.1
W. Swamp edge/drainage line
P. Sedge swamp
-R 6.5
+W 3.7
***
Q. Kniphofia swamp/mesa edge
NS
-R 5.5
+R 10.5
R. Artemisia/Kniphofia
+R 12.3
-W 0.2
***
***
S. Bushy grassland
NS
+R 5.6
-W 0.6
T. Rocky Helichrysum grassland
NS
***
U. Alchemilla pasture
-R 3.6
V. Grass pasture
NS
Figure 3. Comparisons of substrate between clusters and classes. Χ2: *** p < 0.001, NS = not significant, † too few samples. ‘+’ greater than expected
(SR > 2), ‘-’ less than expected (SR < -2). E = earth, R = rock, W = water. Numbers indicate mean percent cover.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 111

A. Arboreal heather/lake
61.3
B. Rocky heather/A. haumannii
†
C. Sparse Erica & short sedge
†
D. Erica-dominated lava slope
68.1
71.9
E. Lava flows/grassland
†
82.9
78.2
**
H. Dense H. splendidum
78.7
*
F. H. citrispinum/bare rock
76.6
*
72.4
G. Sparse mixed Helichrysum
NS
I. Sparse H. gofense & soil
72.8
***
66.7
59.0
J. Mima mound
***
M. Sunny heather slopes
73.8
***
K. Short heather/shrubs
†
L. Boulders/grazed heather
†
N. H. splendidum grassland
83.8
*
O. H. splendidum/heather
†
78.9
W. Swamp edge/drainage line
63.2
NS
P. Sedge swamp
Q. Kniphofia swamp/mesa edge
NS
81.7
R. Artemisia/Kniphofia
NS
**
S. Bushy grassland
NS
79.3
T. Rocky Helichrysum grassland
NS
79.8
*
U. Alchemilla pasture
78.2
V. Grass pasture
77.1
*
Figure 4. Comparisons of vegetation cover between clusters and land cover classes. Χ2 : * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, NS = not significant, †
not enough samples. Numbers indicate mean percent cover.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 112

A. Arboreal heather/lake
82 ± 176
B. Rocky heather/A. haumannii
†
C. Sparse Erica & short sedge
†
D. Erica-dominated lava slope
26 ± 42
34 ± 68
E. Lava flows/grassland
†
49 ± 71
40 ± 67
***
H. Dense H. splendidum
41 ± 68
***
F. H. citrispinum/bare rock
37 ± 66
***
32 ± 58
G. Sparse mixed Helichrysum
NS
***
I. Sparse H. gofense & soil
26 ± 53
23 ± 47
J. Mima mound
19 ± 38
***
M. Sunny heather slopes
87 ± 145
***
K. Short heather/shrubs
†
L. Boulders/grazed heather
†
N. H. splendidum grassland
39 ± 62
**
O. H. splendidum/heather
†
44 ± 92
W. Swamp edge/drainage line
42 ± 92
NS
P. Sedge swamp
52 ± 113
85 ± 159
Q. Kniphofia swamp/mesa edge
117 ± 188
***
94 ± 142
69 ± 133
R. Artemisia/Kniphofia
70 ± 137
61 ± 119
***
*
S. Bushy grassland
55 ± 113
39 ± 77
***
31 ± 70
T. Rocky Helichrysum grassland
***
37 ± 80
***
U. Alchemilla pasture
32 ± 66
V. Grass pasture
28 ± 52
***
Figure 5. Comparisons of vegetation height between clusters and land cover classes. GLM: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, NS = not significant,
† not enough samples. Numbers indicate mean height (including points which were bare earth) ±SD.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 113

Discussion
We easily detected biologically and statistically significant differences between all adequately
sampled classes in their vegetation height, cover, substrate and/or dominant plant species. The
latter is of particular interest given that remote-sensing lends itself well to describing vegetation
cover and structure, but is generally less sensitive for detecting differences in species composition
and diversity (Lewis 1998). Our findings illustrate that unsupervised classification of remotelysensed
imagery is an effective way to create maps even for arid Afroalpine areas where vegetation is
generally short and sparse, and soil reflectance can dominate the image. The differences between the
spectral signatures of some classes may be determined mainly by soil characteristics or topography
rather than by the actual herb layer (e.g. Dirnböck et al. 2003), particularly in the poorly vegetated
nival zone, but this was mirrored by diverging plant species composition. In effect the classification
process is distinguishing soil-vegetation complexes, and may be detecting edaphic and microclimatic
factors which in turn determine vegetation communities.
More sophisticated techniques exist to map vegetation via classification of remotely-sensed
imagery. These can incorporate elements such as supervised classification (Lillesand et al. 2004),
topographic correction of irradiance values (Fahsi et al. 2000), and expert-based decision rules
(Bolstad and Lillesand 1992) to enhance classification accuracy, which can then be quantified using
various statistical methods (Mather 1987). A tasselled cap transformation might also be informative,
as it purports to remove the effect of soil background (Lillesand et al. 2004), enabling more sensitive
detection of differences in vegetation. However, this could potentially erode useful information
given the strong association between substrate and flora, and the sometimes weak vegetation
signal. The basic approach presented here was adequate to build a map representing ecologicallymeaningful
land cover classes. However, it could be refined by assessing to what degree these
spectral classes overlap with recognised plant communities, and incorporating this community-level
data to increase the accuracy and ecological content of the vegetation map (e.g. Domaç and Süzen
2006). Homogeneous areas of the classes identified here and confirmed as botanical entities could
provide training samples for supervised classification or a hybrid approach (Lillesand et al. 2004).
Existing vegetation maps can be approximated by our classification, although the former
are usually coarser either in spatial scale or vegetation categories (e.g. Teshome et al. this edition).
For example, Marino (2003) mapped vegetation from three study areas: Web Valley, around Tullu
Deemtu peak and Central Sanetti. Her classes were created by clustering records of plant species
into communities, mapping these communities using the survey points as training samples for a
supervised classification, and then amalgamating communities which represented similar habitat
quality in terms of rodent abundance. As such, her vegetation communities are broader than those
presented here, and most correspond directly with between one and six of these 23 land cover
classes (Tallents 2007).
In the nival zone, corresponding to land cover class I and to a lesser extent to classes G
and J, soil is mostly glacial moraine and vegetation is sparse (Niemelä and Pellikka 2004). These
large extents of bare soil can be caused by solifluction, or frost heaving, and are common above
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 114

elevations of 4100-4200 m a.s.l. in East African mountains (Hedberg 1964). Class J also represents
the mima mounds which are the favoured habitat of giant molerats Tachyoryctes macrocephalus: the
predominance of bare soil indicates their role as ecosystem engineers, as they eject soil from their
burrow systems when excavating, and when plugging their burrows at night for thermoregulation
(Yalden 1975). They also graze and gather vegetation for bedding around burrows, which further
denudes the landscape.
Anthropogenic activities also modify the vegetation of the Afroalpine zone. A substantial
human population lives within and around the boundaries of the BMNP (van de Veen 2004), and
seasonal movements occur as livestock are herded into the highlands during the wet season (Stephens
et al. 2001, Vial et al. this edition). Ericaceous vegetation is managed through burning to improve
forage quality and reduce retreats for leopards Panthera pardus and spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta.
Classes K and L are probably kept short by a combination of grazing by livestock (Vial et al. this
edition) and burning (Abera and Kinahan this edition). The occurrence of the denuded class J around
the lower-altitude horas, or mineral springs (Chiodi and Pinard this edition), could indicate that
heavy livestock grazing pressure and soil poaching has reduced natural vegetation cover.
The map was initially designed to investigate habitat preferences of endemic and restricted
range species, specifically the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis and its rodent prey. Therefore
emphasis was placed on describing the substrate, vegetation growth form and dominant species
within discrete land cover classes, rather than providing comprehensive species lists or assessing
vegetation community structure or clines. However, this comprehensive map of land cover within
the Afroalpine zone will be of great use as a tool to monitor changes in the extent and degradation
of alpine vegetation within the Bale Mountains (Teshome et al. this edition). Alpine and nival zones
have been identified as particularly vulnerable to climate change (e.g. Pauli et al. 2003), and this
map will provide a baseline to monitor vegetative responses to global warming. It will also facilitate
management of the BMNP through zonation of anthropogenic activities such as grazing and reedcutting
based on the extent and vulnerability of each vegetation type (Nelson this edition). This
map will provide a spatial framework within which the results of past surveys can be placed, and by
which future monitoring of the Afroalpine zone can be planned.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 117

The Changing Face of the Bale Mountains National Park over 32 years: A Study of
Land Cover Change
Eyob Teshome, Deborah Randall and Anouska Kinahan*
Frankfurt Zoological Society, Bale Mountains Conservation Project, PO Box 165, Robe, Ethiopia
*Email: anouskakinahan@fzs.org
Abstract
The Bale Mountains National Park provides a number of important ecological and hydrological
services locally, regionally, and globally. However, the park and its services are under immense
pressure as a result of a rapidly increasing human population settling within and around its boundaries.
It is well documented that human pressures can alter and transform land cover. Using GIS and
remote sensing, this study examines and describes the changes in land cover throughout the park
over a 32 year period, during which human population pressure is known to have increased over
time. We analyzed satellite images from the years 1973, 2000 and 2005 in a Digital Image Processing
system to produce a time series of land cover maps and used GIS to advance the analysis and to
trace land cover and landscape dynamics during the study period. It was found that montane forest,
which comprises more than 40% of the total area, was lost at an average annual rate of 3.74 km2 during the study period. Nearly 120 km2 of montane forest was lost during this period. Conversely,
glades, clearings within montane forest, steadily increased in area at an average annual rate of 1.14
km2 . Such dynamics were also observed in the Afroalpine where pasture lands are expanding very
rapidly at a rate of 28 km2 per year, particularly between 2000 and 2005, at a cost of Erica, montane
forest and woodland which in turn are shrinking at a rate of 13 km2 , 15 km2 and 1.77 km2 every year
through out this period. Moreover, this study also found that the numbers of patches in all the land
cover classes were increasing while average patch size decreased. This study shows that forest and
woodlands are being transformed into grasslands across the study area as well as nearly all land
cover classes undergoing fragmentation. We suggest that such landscape transformations are as a
result of increased human pressure in the park which appears to be accelerated in more recent times.
Introduction
Studying changes in land cover, such as cropland, forest, wetland, pasture, and land use, such as
grazing, agriculture, urban development, logging, and mining is a central element to understanding
local and global environmental changes and their driving forces (Meyer 1995). Understanding such
dynamics can aid policy makers to give due attention and optimize their resource allocation either
on the driver side through prevention or impact side through mitigation.
Change detection is “…the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or
phenomenon by observing it at different times” (Singh 1989). It is an important process in monitoring
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 118

and managing natural resources and urban development because it provides quantitative analysis
of the spatial distribution of the population of interest (Chen 2002). Information about change is
necessary for updating land cover maps and the management of natural resources which can be
obtained by visiting sites on the ground and or extracting it from remotely sensed data (xiaomei
and Rong qing 1999). In addition to studying land cover change, examining land cover distribution
particularly in reference to fragmentation where habitats are transformed into smaller patches
(Wilcove et al. 1986), context can be extremely useful in helping us identify the underlying forces
driving such changes (Nagendra et al. 2004).
Land cover change results from two important causes; natural and anthropogenic. Although
natural events such as flood, fire, and drought may modify land cover globally, the principal cause of
alteration of land cover is human use, agriculture, over-grazing, forest harvesting and urbanization
(Meyer 2005, Vitosek et al. 1997). Currently, human induced modifications of land cover are
advancing at a very high rate and greatly affect most of the earth’s surface (FAO 1983). Such changes
can lead to, among other things, loss of biodiversity (Skole et al. 1994), soil erosion, fluctuation in
wetlands (Detenbeck 1993) and reduction in carbon storage (Kates et al. 1990). Therefore it is
important to not only understand land cover changes but also the factors driving these changes and,
subsequently, the consequences of such changes (Ehrlich 1998).
Conventional methods, which rely on field studies for monitoring land cover change, are
labor intensive, time consuming and carried out relatively infrequently. Resulting land cover
maps soon become outdated; particularly in a rapidly changing environment, making it difficult
to monitor changes with such methods of surveying (Olorunfemi 1983). In recent years, satellite
remote sensing techniques have been developed, which have proved to be of immense value for
preparing accurate land use and land cover maps and monitoring changes at regular intervals of time
(Harries and Ventura 1995). For example, in inaccessible regions, this technique is perhaps the only
method of obtaining the required data in a cost and time efficient manner. The use of remote sensing
then allows long term monitoring of land cover and land use which is an important first step to
understanding the processes that cause such changes and, thus, developing conservation strategies
to address them.
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is the most important conservation area in
Ethiopia. The international, national and regional values of the park are immense. The level at which
this is true can be split into two broad categories: the extent to which human communities, both
local and distant, are dependent on ecological processes within the Bale massif (Tadesse et al. this
edition), and the importance of the area for biodiversity conservation (Asefa this edition). However,
there has been an increase in human habitation within and outside the park over the last thirty
years, which has accelerated particularly in the past 10 years. Population estimates in 2000 revealed
1,217,864 people living in the Bale Zone (EthioGIS 1999). From the observations we have made, it
was noted that the people are making a living from farming, grazing and illegal logging, to name a
few (see also Watson et al. this edition). Such activities increasingly place the natural resources and
wildlife under immense pressure (OARDB 2007).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 119

This study investigates land cover and land use changes in the BMNP, by examining temporal
changes in vegetation type with a known increase in population density. This study used a combination
of remote sensing and GIS. Specifically, we aim to describe land cover of the park at three points in
time (1973, 2000 and 2005) and determine a time series of land cover changes in the study area within
this 32 year period. We predicted that with an increase in human pressure we would find an accelerated
increase in land cover change occurring throughout the period (Dompka 1996). As is typical of land
conversion due to anthropogenic pressure and the increase in settlement and agricultural expansion
in the park, we predicted that there would be a reduction in forest areas and an increase in grassland/
shrubland habitats over the years. We further predicted that associated with the land cover loss would
be an overall increase in habitat fragmentation throughout the study area.
Method and Materials
Study area
The BMNP (39°28’ to 39°57’ longitude and 6°29’ to 7°10’ latitude) was established in 1970 by the
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) and is approximately 2200 km2 . The park is
located in the south west Ethiopian highlands in the Bale and West Arsi zones of Oromiya regional
state (Fig. 1). The elevation ranges from 1400 m a.s.l. to 4377 m a.s.l. and includes the largest extent
of Afroalpine (> 3000 m a.s.l.) on the continent (Fig. 2). This remarkable elevation gradient within
the park results in huge variation in temperature and rainfall, with higher temperatures but lower
rainfall occurring at lower altitudes and vice versa in higher altitudes.
1
Figure 1 (left). Map showing location of the study area (hatched) and woredas in Bale Zone (solid
lines).
Figure 2 (right). Map showing elevation ranges occurring in the study area.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 120
2

The Bale Mountains National Park is part of Conservation International’s Eastern
Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot and is on the tentative nomination for World Heritage Site
Listing. The park houses a number of rare and endemic species (Asefa this edition), such as the
mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni (Malcolm and Evangelista this edition), the Ethiopian wolf
Canis simensis (Randall et al. this edition; Sillero-Zubiri et al. this edition), the giant mole rat
Tachyoryctes macrocephalus and the giant lobelia Lobelia rhynchopetalum.
Generally, the study area is characterized by five distinct vegetation zones each of which
harbor its own fauna and flora. The Gaysay valley grasslands are situated within a broad flat valley
at an altitude of 2600-3000 m a.s.l. These grasslands, which are part of the northern projection of the
BMNP boundary, are dominated by Artemisia afra, Ferula communis, Kniphofia foliosa, grasses and
sedges, interspersed with wetlands (Hillman 1986; AAU 2004). The dry evergreen montane forest (or
Gaysay woodland) is also at the northern end of the park and situated 2600 and 3800 m a.s.l. The
lower altitudes are dominated either by Juniperus procera or Hagenia abyssinica with the two species
sometimes co-dominating on slopes. Other species that are not dominant but of significance include
Hypericum revolutum, Myrsine melanophloeos, Erica arborea and Discopodium eremanthum. The
higher altitudes dominated by Hypericum revolutum, Erica arborea between, and Helichrysum
citrispinum and H. splendidum moorland (Hillman 1986; AAU 2004). The central massif of the park
consists of an Afroalpine plateau between about 3200 and 4377 m a.s.l. The area between 3550 and
4000 m a.s.l is covered by Erica shrub on ridges and Helichrysum moorland in the valleys (Assefa
et al. this edition). The highest plateau areas are characterized by H. citrispinum and H. splendidum
while the endemic giant lobelia is scattered across the landscape. At lower altitudes (3200 – 3500
m a.s.l.) such as in the Web Valley and Morebawa, the Afroalpine habitat is characterized by short,
herbaceous plant communities dominated by Alchemilla (A. abyssinica, A. rothii, A. cyclophylla)
pasture, Helichrysum (H. citrispinum, H. cyosum, H. gofense, H. splendidum) shrubs and Artemesia
afra shrubs (Hillman 1986; Sillero-Zubiri 1994; AAU 2004). The Ericaceous belt, composed mainly
of Erica arborea and E. trimera, is located between 3200-3800 m a.s.l. and forms an important
vegetation belt between the high altitude Afroalpine plateau and the lower Harenna forest (Assefa
et al. this edition). Both shrub and tree forms are present, as well as the remnants of ancient forests
of giant heath (Erica arborea) in areas spared from excessive fire (Miehe and Miehe 1994). The
Harenna moist montane forest, rising from 1450 to 3200 m a.s.l. within a distance of only 8 km, is one
of the most extensive and largely natural forests remaining in Ethiopia. It is subdivided into a number
of altitudinal belts based on differences in tree species composition across the altitudinal gradient (Friis
1986; Woldu et al. 1989).
Satellite image acquisition and preparation
We used three types of satellite images in the study; Landsat MSS, Landsat ETM+ and ASTER (see
Table 1 for specifications). The Landsat images were acquired from the Global Land Cover Facility
(GLCF; www.glcf.org) through their Earth Science Data Interface (ESDI), whereas the ASTER was
downloaded from the USGS online data provision interface (http://edc.usgs.gov/products/satellite/
aster.html).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 121

Table 1. Characteristics of satellite images used in this study
Image type Date of acquisition
Spectral composition
(Number of Bands)
Spatial resolution
Land Sat MSS 30/01/1973 4 58m
Land Sat ETM+ 28/11/2000 8 30m
Aster 19/12/2005 6 30m
Prior to analyses the satellite images were preprocessed in order to enhance efficiency,
harmonize data and to reduce error (Jensen 1996). Firstly, the satellite images were stacked to
produce a multispectral image from each of the panchromatic bands provided per image (see Table
1). Single images did not necessarily cover the entire study area, so adjacent images were stacked
independently and merged by mosaic operation. Secondly, the satellite images were geo-rectified to
reduce positional inaccuracies which stem from geometric instability of the satellites during the data
acquisition (Jensen 1996). Both of the geo-rectification strategies were used here, these were the
geometric registration strategy, where images are rectified with ground features, and the image to
image registration strategy, where geometrically distorted images are corrected based on a reference
image. The ASTER 2005 image was rectified by the geometric method, as it had better spatial
resolution to check with ground features such as road and river intersections and the Ground Control
Point data collected from the field. All other images were rectified by image to image registration
using Aster 2005 as a reference.
And lastly, due to the mountainous topography settings of the study area, images were
distorted radiometrically (Hodgson and Shelley 1994). As a result, images were corrected for
their radiometric errors using Topographic Normalization Technique (Colby 1991). In addition we
transformed the Images by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method in order to reduce the
dimensionality of the image (Jensen 1996). This produces a more visually interpretable image and
assists the classification. Images were then clipped using the park boundaries.
Image classification
The following eight land cover types were investigated: shrubland-grassland-pasture (SHR-
GL-PAS), open woodlands (OWL), Erica shrub (ESH), Erica forest and closed woodland (EF),
pasture (PAS), Helichrysum (HEL), montane forest (MF) and glade (GLA). These classes were
defined by unsupervised classification combined with local knowledge of the study area. Eight
classes were selected as these were easily distinguishable visually in the filed and when carrying
out supervise classifications. We generated 900 random points distributed evenly across the study
site. Field assistants sub-sampled these locations based on accessibility, practicality, locality and
logistical feasibility, resulting in 320 ground truthing points. This number of points is well above
the recommended number for the Maximum Likelihood Classifier Technique, which is a minimum
of 250 points for total study area, irrespective of the number of categories used (Congalton 1991).
Ground truthing points were located by hand-held GPS Garmin 12 and the vegetation
type, altitude, slope and aspect were recorded. Photographs were also taken to provide a means of
verifying consistency in the classification data collected by field assistants.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 122

The ground-truthing points made up the training areas around which polygons for each
classification were drawn. These training areas were then used to define the digital signature used
for the supervised classification (Hord 1982). The training process was repeated independently for
each image mosaic.
Supervised classifications of all images were carried out using the Maximum Likelihood
Classifier Technique (Equation 1) (Hord 1982) in ERDAS Imagine software version 8.6 (ERDAS
1992). This method is the most preferred as it takes into account the most variables by using a
covariance matrix (Hord 1982).
Accuracy assessment
Once images were classified by the supervised method then a further 320 random points were
generated and data collected as above, in order to verify and assess the accuracy of the supervised
classification. Accuracy was determined by superimposing the points on the classified image and
obtaining the kappa coefficient, (which expresses the proportion of reduced error as generated by
the classification process compared with the error of a completely random classification, hence a
value of one indicates an accuracy of 100% or zero error) and the overall percentage accuracy, using
ERDAS Imagine. Images were reclassified by altering the training areas, until the accuracy met the
minimum requirement of 85% as set by Anderson et al. (1990).
Land cover change
The three images were compared to detect land cover change in two phases, 1973-2000 and 2000-
2005. Classified images were compared using the post classification image comparison technique
(Singh 1989) in ERDAS Imagine. This technique creates one image based on the difference of the
two comparative images from each year, which provides a summary table of the overall changes per
class; positive values denote an increase whereas negative values imply a decrease.
Patchiness
The patchiness of the land cover classes were also examined for each year. The number of patches
in each class, their areas and perimeters were all determined for each classified image using Spatial
statistical tools of the Geoprocessing tools sets in ArcGIS 9.1 software. Then, by comparing
the number and average area of patches in each of the considered years relative patchiness was
determined.
Results
Classification
Figure 3 shows static land cover classes in the study area for 1973, 2000 and 2005 respectively.
The maps clearly show persistent dominance of montane forest throughout the study periods
which covers 39.2-44.6 % of the total area and is entirely found in the southern part of the park. In
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 123

comparison we see the rarest land cover class is glades, covering a mere 1-3% over the study period
(Table 2). It is clear that distinct vegetation zoning occurs depending on altitudinal range (Fig. 3).
In areas of higher elevation the landscape is dominated by Afroalpine vegetation containing pasture,
shrubland–grassland, woodland and Erica, whereas the lower altitudinal belts are largely covered
by tropical montane forest. A sharp cline in vegetation types is observed down the steep escarpment
throughout the central belt of the study area. Here shrubland cover becomes Erica forest which
lower down becomes montane forest. This variability in land cover classes occurs within a distance
of 10 km and from an altitude of 3200 m a.s.l. to 2000 m a.s.l.
Figure 3. Maps showing the Land cover of the study area prepared by supervised classification for
(A) 1973, (B) 2000 and (C) 2005
SHR-GL-PAS
PAS
HEL
ESH
EF
OWL
MF
GLA
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 124

Table 2. Table showing the area for each land cover class and its percentage coverage of total park
area in each of the years examined.
Land Area
Cover (km 2 Percentag Area
) e (km 2 Percentag Area
) e (km 2 1973 2000 2005
Percentag
) e
EF 265.65 11.89 239.33 10.71 208.94 9.35
ESH 265.91 11.9 236.73 10.59 206.43 9.24
GLA 23.69 1.06 45.57 2.04 68.88 3.08
HEL 134.71 6.03 219.98 9.84 211.5 9.46
MF 996.69 44.6 952.32 42.61 877.03 39.24
OWL 97.54 4.36 53.6 2.4 47.6 2.13
PAS 120.15 5.38 133.6 5.98 273.79 12.25
SHR-GL-
PAS
330.56 14.79 353.79 15.83 340.74 15.24
Accuracy assessment
Results showed that accuracy varied depending on acquisition of date of the image, spatial resolution
and relative area of the land cover. Generally, we found that the accuracy increased the more recent the
image with an overall accuracy of 81%, 92% and 97% for the year 1973, 2000 and 2005 respectively
because the ground truthing points collected in 2007 better represented the image closest in time. Of
the land cover classes montane forest appeared to be the most accurately classified and woodlands
the least (Table 3) mainly as a result of their respective spatial homogeneity. Moreover, the relatively
lower accuracy for the forest in 1973 may be attributed to the effect of spatial resolution of the
images (Table 1).
Table 3. Table showing the kappa coefficient and hence classification accuracy for each land cover
class in each of the years studied.
Land cover change
Kappa Coefficient
Land cover class Name 1973 2000 2005
ESH 0.94 0.97 1
HEL 0.64 1 0.91
PAS 0.65 0.93 1
OWL 0.43 0.85 0.69
EF 0.75 0.85 1
MF 0.99 1 1
GLA 0.71 0.8 1
SHR-GL-PAS 0.82 0.99 0.98
Overall Kappa Coefficient 0.77 0.9 0.96
Overall Classification Accuracy 0.82 0.92 0.97
Results show that all land cover classes exhibited some degree of change over the study period
(Table 4). Pasture changed the most (from 5.3% in 1973 to 12.2% in 2005), followed by Woodland
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 125

(from 4.3% in 1973 to 2.13% in 2005). Woodland, montane forest, Erica forest and Erica shrub all
showed a decrease in total area whereas pasture and glade showed an increase (Table 4). We found
that woodland declined by 51% from 1973 to 2005. However the largest change was recorded
between 1973 and 2000 where 45 % was lost. The second largest loss in total area was recorded for
Erica forest which declined by 21% between 1973 and 2005. Similarly, we found montane forest
area decrease by 12 % from 1973 to 2005. In contrast, glades and pasture showed rapid expansion.
Glades increased by 190 % from 1973 to 2000, a gain of 45 km2, while pasture also increased by
128% (153 km2 ). We further found that the annual rate of change was faster for Montane forest
and pasture in the second period. During this period, rate of land cover loss of the Montane forest
increased from 1.6 to 15 km2 /year whereas the pasture showed an increase in total area from 0.5
to 28 km2 /year. Helichrysum either increased or decreased in area depending on the phase, with an
increase (63.3%) in area between 1973 and 2000 and a decrease (3.85%) between 2000 and 2005.
Nearly 60% of the study area remained unchanged throughout the study period, of which 40% of the
unchanged habitat was montane forest and 7% Erica forest.
Table 4. Change in each land cover class shown as total percentage change and annual area change
over the study period (1973-2005)
Land Cover
Total Area
Change
(Km 2 )
Rate of change
1973 to 2000 2000 to 2005 1973 to 2005
Total Area
Change (%)
Annual
Change
(Km 2 /Year)
Total Area
Change
(Km 2 )
Total Area
Change (%)
Annual
Change
(Km 2 /Year)
Total Area
Change
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 126
(Km 2 )
Total Area
Change (%)
Annual
Change
(Km 2 /Year)
EF -26.32 -9.91 -0.97 -30.38 -12.69 -6.08 -56.71 -21.35 -1.77
ESH -29.18 -10.97 -1.08 -30.3 -12.8 -6.06 -59.48 -22.37 -1.86
GLA 21.88 92.36 0.81 23.31 51.15 4.66 45.19 190.76 1.41
HEL 85.27 63.3 3.16 -8.48 -3.85 -1.7 76.79 57 2.4
MF -44.38 -4.45 -1.64 -75.29 -7.91 -15.06 -119.67 -12.01 -3.74
OWL -43.95 -45.06 -1.63 -6 -11.19 -1.2 -49.95 -51.21 -1.56
PAS 13.45 11.19 0.5 140.19 104.93 28.04 153.64 127.87 4.8
SHR-GL-
PAS 23.23 7.03 0.86 -13.05 -3.69 -2.61 10.18 3.08 0.32
Patchiness
In general, the number of patches for all land cover classes increased throughout the study area over
time, with a corresponding decrease in average patch size (Table 5). In contrast however, although
glade showed an increase in number of patches (8,158 to 19,327) and a decrease in average patch
size (0.29 km2 to 0.24 km2 ) in the first period (1997 to 2000) in more recent times (2000 to 2005),
this class showed a decrease in patch number and an increase in average patch size (to 10,127 and to
0.68 km2 respectively). Pasture land also appears to be different to the other classes with a decrease
in the first period (6.77 to 0.68) followed by an increase (to 0.74), in total area in the second period,
irrespective of the continuous increase in number of patches (1,776, 19,745 and 37,218).

Table 5. Description of patchiness of different land cover for each year
Discussion
No. of
Land cover classesPatches
1973 2000 2005
Average
Area per
patch (km 2 )
No. of
Patches
Average
Area per
patch (km 2 )
No. of
Patches
Average
Area per
patch (km 2 )
EF 5320 4.99 56566 0.42 75736 0.28
ESH 2688 9.89 24000 0.99 42941 0.48
GLA 8158 0.29 19327 0.24 10127 0.68
HEL 4277 3.15 24649 0.89 48794 0.43
MF 1288 77.38 20631 4.62 35491 2.47
OWL 7129 1.37 16987 0.32 26277 0.18
PAS 1776 6.77 19745 0.68 37218 0.74
SHR-GL-
PAS 8270 4 52237 0.68 77066 0.44
The study of land cover and land use changes and patterns can provide important information
particularly in the field of conservation management, by helping to identify areas in need of attention
and their underlying threats (Nagandera et al. 2004; Niemie et al. 2004). The BMNP is an area of
biological and hydrological importance and is undergoing significant land transformation mainly
due to human encroachment (OARDB 2007). However, prior to this study there was no quantitative
study of this change and there was little or no information on historical and current land cover. This
study aimed to identify and quantify historical and current land cover change and patterns across
the study area spanning from 1973 to 2005 using GIS and remote sensing technologies. Our study
confirms that the BMNP is undergoing major land transformation which appears to be accelerated
during recent times, suggesting that increasing human population induced pressures may be the
underlying causes (Lambin and Geist 2001).
Our results show that generally forest cover (montane forest, Erica forest, woodland) is
decreasing while grassy classes such as pasture and glades are increasing (see Chiodi and Pinard this
edition). In the Afroalpine plateau, the dominant and prevailing trend of changes observed is largely
due to this increase in pasture lands, most of which occurred in the second time period (2000-2005).
In contrast, during the first period (1973 to 2000) most change occurring in the Afroalpine area
can be attributed to the large decrease of open woodland (45%) and the expansion of Helichrysum
(63%). In the southern section of the park, we observe a continuous decline in forest cover (12%)
with a corresponding increase in glades (190%).
In Ethiopia during the Derg regime (1974-1991) any settlements in protected areas were
forcefully removed and so there were few if any people living in the Bale Mountains National Park.
This is confirmed by reports that in 1986 “human pressure is not too great” (Hillman 1986) Following
the end of this regime, people slowly began moving back into the park to utilize resources. In 2007,
the park had approximately 20,000 permanent settlers and it is estimated that with seasonal users
this figure can be doubled (FZS unpublished data).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 127

Currently most protection of resources through scout presence and patrolling occurs in the
northern most area of the park (Gaysay), where much of the woodland is located (OARDB 2007).
It is likely, therefore, that the decelerated loss of woodland is associated with this increase in park
protection, perhaps lacking in earlier times. Further it was noted that in 1986 while little human
pressure occurred on the park resources, the exception was the northern part of the park in the
Dinsho region (Hillman 1986).
The transformation of specific land cover types such as shrubland or forests into grasslands is
widely recognized as a consequence of human induced pressure, particularly over-grazing, burning,
tree cutting and associated deforestation (Dompka 1996). Our study shows that as predicted we do
indeed see a major transformation of land with an overall reduction of forests and woodlands while
grasslands such as pasture land and glades are on the increase. Furthermore patch analyses show
that nearly all land cover classes exhibit an increase in the number of patches over time, with a
corresponding reduction in total area and average patch size suggest increased habitat fragmentation
occurring across the park (Laurence and Beirregaard 1997). Interestingly, however while pasture
and glades also show an increase in the number of patches and total area, the average patch size
decreased (similar to other classes) in the first period (1973-2000) but increased in the second period
(2000-2005). This increase in average patch size for these classes may be an indication of the
merging of smaller patches as a result human activities such as over-grazing or forest and woodland
clearing (Ambika et al. 2003).
As the human population grows, demand for additional land will increase. We are therefore
likely to observe expansion of existing settlements or the development of new areas for human and
agricultural activities unless a proper park management strategy is in place (see Nelson this edition).
Hence, the increased fragmentation of pasture land and glades, as indicated by an increase in the
number and size of patches, may imply new development of land for human activities, whereas,
increase in their total area implies expansion of existing land. As a result we suggest that expansion
of glades were largely at the expense of montane forest whereas the expansion of pasture land is at
the expense of vegetation types such as Erica shrub, Erica forest, and grassland-shrub-pasture land
and woodland.
In conclusion, our study supports the notion that there is major land transformation occurring
in the park which has been accelerated more recently. Forests are decreasing at a rapid rate as are
shrublands and woodlands but pasture land and glades are increasing. In addition, the area is becoming
increasingly fragmented, while such changes could be attributed to such factors as climate change,
wild fires, or wild herbivore grazing, other data (settlement, livestock etc. FZS unpublished data)
supports the idea that much of this transformation is due to human induced activities and increasing
human pressure (Duncan et al. 1999). We suggest that further in depth studies are necessary in
order to quantify the human induced threats on the ecosystem so that predictive and preventative
models can be created. An increased understanding of landscape processes is also necessary in
the area in order to examine the potential consequences of such transformations. This study can be
used to assist park management to identify key areas currently under rapid transformation, so that
intervention can occur to halt or slow down the present level of land change.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 128

Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the British Embassy bilateral fund and supported by the Frankfurt
Zoological Society and the Bale Mountains National Park.
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Characteristics and Origins of Glades in the Harenna Forest, Ethiopia
Giovanni Chiodi 1 and Michelle Pinard 1 *
1 Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
*Email: m.a.pinard@abdn.ac.uk
Abstract
Soil, vegetation and historical land use were investigated in nine glades (peri-forest grasslands)
in the Harenna forest, Ethiopia. The aims of the study were to characterize the glades in terms of
soil properties, vegetation and land use, and to investigate their origins, with particular reference
to possible anthropogenic versus natural origin. Three glades and three adjacent forest sites were
studied at each of three altitudes (2300 m, 1850 m, 1750 m) along a soil toposequence. Relative
to adjacent forest soils, soils in glades were distinct with lower pH, total exchangeable bases and
base saturation. Permanent grazing was associated with lower plant species richness and higher
monocot biomass than seasonal grazing; dicot species richness in glades increased with altitude.
Leaching, promoted by local topographic and drainage conditions, and waterlogging are suggested
as potentially important to the formation of the glades, though some glades have characteristics
consistent with an anthropogenic origin. The glades are important for both permanent and temporary
settlers in the Harenna as grazing for livestock; their high social and conservation values could be
compromised by intensive grazing and local expansion of agricultural land.
Introduction
The Harenna forest of Bale Mountains National Park is unusual for many reasons. It extends across
a large altitudinal gradient, thus includes elfin, Erica forest, as well as tall rain forest and subtropical
savanna. Scattered within the forest, but concentrated in the western region, are areas of land that
are dominated by herbaceous vegetation. These distinct patches of grasslands, or forest glades,
represent an important component of the Harenna, in that provide a grazing resource for native
herbivores and local livestock, hunting grounds for predators such as lion, leopard and hyena, and
habitat for endemic species such as the Bale shrew (Yalden 1988).
Despite their ecological and social importance in Bale, little is known of their origins.
Backeus (1992) provides a general review of literature related to peri-forest grasslands, and defined
them as areas dominated by non-arboreal vegetation that occur within forested regions. Both
anthropogenic and natural factors can play a role in their origins, acting independently or together.
In the region, burning and forest conversion to agricultural and grazing land are potentially important
anthropogenic factors. Natural factors such as geomorphology and soil nutrient status could also be
important, as could flooding by oligotrophic waters (Chauvel et al. 1996; Backeus 1993).
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The aim of this study was to examine the soil, vegetation and land use history in glades
across the altitudinal gradient present in the Harenna to characterize them by examining their soil
properties, and comparing these with soils in adjacent forest areas to investigate their origins.
Methods
Study site
The Harenna forest (approximately, 39’- 40’ E, 6’- 7’ N) is located in the southern part of the
Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP). The forest develops on an initially steep, then gradual
escarpment from ~3800 m a.s.l. to ~1600 m a.s.l.; the pronounced altitudinal gradient creates a
variety of forest ecotypes (Hillman 1988; Niatu et al. 1989; Woldu et al. 1989).
Mean annual rainfall at the southern end of the forest (Delo Mena, ~1500 m a.s.l.) is 987 mm
(Tesfaye et al. 2002) and reaches a maximum of 1145 mm in Koromi (3850 m a.s.l.) (Hillman 1988).
There are typically eight rainy months (March-October) and four dry months (November-February)
in a given year. The soils are derived from volcanic parent material, originating from Mesozoic
eruptions of Trappean lava giving trachitic, basaltic and riolitic bedrocks, together with tuffs and
agglomerates (Nigatu et al. 1989).
Sampling design
The study area was divided in to three sampling strata, located at different positions on the
toposequence, reflecting both altitudinal variation and variation of position along the direction of
groundwater movement (Fig. 1; 2400 m a.s.l., 1850 m a.s.l., 1750 m a.s.l.; hereafter S-2400, S-1850,
S-1750). The horizontal distance between S-2400 and S-1850 was about 6 km; the distance between
S-1850 and S-1750 was about 8 km. Three forest glades with adjacent forested areas, were chosen in
each strata, selection was based on accessibility (Table 1). Position and altitude of the glades were
recorded using a GPS and an altimeter, respectively. Adjacent forest sites were chosen randomly at
a distance between 50 m and 100 m from the edge of the glade. Fieldwork was undertaken during
the rainy season between begin of July and end of August 2006.
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Figure 1. Map with the approximate locations of the glades in the three strata sampled in the study.
The outline of Bale Mountains National Park is shown, as are the main rivers and roads.
In each glade except for one, the vegetation was sampled. In Harrawa, part way through the
field work, the site became inaccessible, due to rising river levels therefore only soil was sampled
there.
Historical land uses were investigated through interviews with one key informant from Rira
and information provided was crosschecked through casual interviews with local inhabitants and
validated through field observations.
Soil profile description, sampling and analyses
In each glade, three soil pits were dug at a random location inside the glade at a distance >15 m
from the edge of the glade and the profile of one described according to Fitzpatrick (1977). Samples
were taken from each pit at the depth intervals of 0cm-20 cm and 30 m - 50 cm for a total of three
replicates for each depth interval at each site. The same procedure was applied to each forest site.
Soil samples were air dried for at least one week under a shelter then sieved using a 2 mm soil sieve
before being stored in sample bags and hence transported to the laboratory in Addis Ababa.
Soil samples were analysed for pH, texture, organic carbon, total nitrogen, total exchangeable
bases (sum of Na, K, Ca and Mg), base saturation, cation exchange capacity and electric conductivity;
in all cases, standard methods were used (Black et al. 1965).
Vegetation data
On each glade aboveground biomass was clipped in five randomly located 50 cm x 50 cm plots. Plants
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 133

from each plot were sorted into morpho-species and counted. Morpho-species were categorized into
dicots and monocots and species richness by morpho-species was calculated for each site. Samples
were pressed and air dried in the field for a maximum period of three weeks and then transported to
a facility for oven-drying (80°C, 24h). Dry weight of aboveground biomass was calculated for each
morpho-species for each site.
Data analysis
Mean values with associated standard errors were calculated for each glade and forest site. Paired
t-tests were conducted to compare soil properties in the glades and adjacent forest sites. Spearman
rank correlation analyses were used to determine associations between altitude and soil and
vegetation variables.
Results
General attributes
The glades are variable in appearance, soil types, grazing regimes and history of land use (Fig. 2,
Table 1). The glades in the upper stratum tended to be irregular in shape and topography, whereas
those in the lower stratum tended to be bigger, flatter and more regular in shape. Grazing tended to
be seasonal at higher altitudes and permanent at the lower altitudes. Land use history was variable
within strata and across strata.
The three glades in the uppermost stratum had similar land use histories. Before the Derg
regime (approx. 30 y before present (hereafter, bp), the three glades were permanently inhabited
and permanently grazed. Kella was the site of a former imperial governmental village more than
70 y bp, but the village was gradually abandoned before the rise of the Derg. Shifa and Arrawa
supported smaller settlements. Only one of the three glades is currently used for settlement, and
this is seasonal use only. Currently all three glades are used seasonally for grazing. Oral histories
indicated that trees, shrubs and tall herbs have increased in abundance, the size of the glade has
decreased and bio-turbation has increased in importance over the past 30 y.
Figure 2. Three of the forest glades in the Harenna sampled in this study.
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Table 1. Main characteristics of the glades sampled during the study. Data derived from site observations, soil profile descriptions and interviews.
Stratum Name Altitude Grazing Regime Settlement Pattern Trend over past 30 y
Currently Previously Currently Previously Size Vegetation Type
(m
ASL)
More trees, shrubs
and herbs
Decrease
Few Families (BD)
1 Shifa 2386 Seasonal Permanent (BD) None
More trees, shrubs
and herbs
Arrawa 2390 Seasonal Permanent (BD) None Few Families (BD) Decrease
More trees, shrubs
and herbs
Decrease
Governmental
Village (BC);
Few families (BD)
Seasonal
Permanent (BD,
BC)
Kella 2398 Seasonal
I n c o n c l u s i v e
description
2 Hatcho 1884 Seasonal Permanaent (BD) None Few Families (BD) Decrease
Decrease Stable
Few Families (BD);
None (BR)
One Family
Permanent (BD);
Seasonal (BR)
Ordoba 1886 Permanent
I n c o n c l u s i v e
description
Decrease
None (C)
Harrawa 1860 Seasonal None (C) None
Increase Stable
Village (BC)
3 Ogate 1753 Permanent Permanent (BC) Village
Increase Stable
Village (BC)
Addeye 1735 Permanent Permanent (BC) Village
Increase NA
Few
Families NA
Totani 1745 Permanent NA
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The three glades in the middle stratum had more variable land use histories, with two of the
three previously supporting small settlements with permanent grazing. Currently, only one of the
three glades is permanently grazed and associated with a settlement.
The glades in the lowermost stratum have a longer history of permanent grazing and
settlement than those at higher altitudes. We were unable to get historical data for Totani; this glade
differs in appearance from Ogate and Addeye, in that it is located on a freely-drained hill with rocky
outcrops rather than a flat, water-logged plain. While the vegetation composition is thought to be
relatively stable in the glades in this stratum, they are thought to have increased in size over the past
30 y.
Soil properties
In the glades, soil pH, total exchangeable bases and base saturation were negatively correlated with
altitude (in all cases with r > 0.8, p < 0.01) and positively correlated with one another (r > 0.9, p <
0.001). These three properties, along with cation exchange capacity, differentiated the glade soils
from the adjacent forest soils (Table 2), being higher in all cases in the forest soils (paired t tests,
p < 0.05). The other variables measured did not show an association with altitude, nor consistent
differences in glade and forest soils.
Soils at the higher altitudes tended to be free draining, both in the glades and the adjacent
forests. At the lower altitudes, the glades tended to be waterlogged or poorly drained (Table 2); the
forest soils in S-1850 and S-1750 are freely drained. The soils in the glades at the higher altitudes
were characterized by tunnelling, whereas at the lower altitudes tunnelling was absent. The soil
profile data are presented in the Appendix.
Vegetation
Species richness measured as morpho-species increased with altitude (Table 3, r = 0.79, P = 0.02,
N=8). The maximum value recorded was 15.2 morphospecies m-2 in Arrawa and the minimum in
Totani (5.6 morphospecies m-2 ). The pattern was strongly influenced by dicot species richness;
monocot species richness appeared unrelated to altitude. These patterns hold even if one examines
the permanently grazed and seasonally grazed glades independently.
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Table 2. Soil Properties at two depths in each glade (G) and adjacent forest (F) site. Mean values with standard error noted parenthetically for 3 samples
per depth, per site.
m
S a n d
Total Exc.
B a s e
Stratum Site
Type Depth pH
Silt (%) Clay (%)
CEC
Total N Organic C C/N
a.s.l.
(%)
Bases
Saturation
1 Shifa 2386 G 0 - 20 4.6(0.03) 69 (7.2) 26(6.1) 5(1.2) 3.71(0.86) 57.1(1.64) 6.67±1.33 0.96±0.07 11.6±0.16 12.3±0.67
30-50 4.7(0.03) 75(4.0) 19(3.3) 5.7(0.7) 3.42(0.38) 51.7(0.74) 6.33±0.67 0.61±0.03 7.37±0.12 12.3±0.88
C 0 – 20 6.2(0.15) 56(6.8) 31(4.4) 14(2.4) 20.3(4.23) 54.2(0.42) 37.3±7.88 0.65±0.06 6.68±0.28 10.7±0.67
30-50 5.5(0.06) 58(4.7) 23(5.7) 20(2.7) 24.1(9.02) 44.7(5.13) 50.3±15.19 0.25±0.03 3.04±0.95 11.7±2.19
Arrawa 2390 G 0 - 20 4.2(0.03) 38(4.8) 44(2.3) 18(2.7) 1.74(0.27) 38.3(1.73) 4.33±0.88 0.51±0.01 5.29±0.11 10.3±0.33
30-50 4.5(0.07) 48(2.4) 35(2.7) 16(0.67 0.88(0.12) 33.7(0.90) 2.33±0.33 0.48±0.10 4.02±0.50 8.67±1.20
C 0 - 20 5.4(0.10) 60(1.0) 31(1.0) 9.0(0.0) 18.6(3.16) 50.8(0.40) 36.5±5.50 0.67±0.06 6.42±0.49 10.0±0.00
30-50 5.4(0.20) 57(8.0) 33(5.0) 10(3.0) 11.7(0.61) 45.9(1.90) 25.5±0.50 0.46±0.06 5.19±0.32 11.5±0.50
Kella 2398 G 0 - 20 4.3(0.03) 42(1.3) 44(0.0) 14(1.3) 1.04±0.15 36.7(1.3) 3.00±0.58 0.50±0.02 4.91±0.12 10.0±0.00
30-50 4.4(0.12) 44(2.9) 40(2.0) 16(1.8) 1.07±0.35 32.5(2.21) 3.33±0.88 0.43±0.03 3.91±0.18 9.33±0.33
C 0 - 20 5.4(0.10) 60(1.0) 31(1.0) 9.0(0.0) 18.6±3.16 50.8(0.40) 36.5±5.50 0.67±0.06 6.42±0.49 10.0±0.00
30-50 5.4(0.20) 57(8.0) 33(5.0) 10(3.0) 11.7±0.61 45.9(1.90) 25.5±0.50 0.46±0.06 5.19±0.32 11.5±0.50
2 Hatcho 1884 G 0 - 20 4.4(0.03) 40(8.7) 43(4.4) 18(4.4) 1.32±0.35 38.7(1.05) 3.33±0.88 0.49±0.02 5.07±0.35 10.3±0.33
30-50 4.5(0.03) 52(2.7) 32(3.5) 16(1.8) 0.95±0.14 35.9(0.44) 2.67±0.33 0.36±0.02 3.18±0.17 9.00±0.00
C 0 - 20 5.1(0.19) 68(5.2) 24(5.0) 8.3(3.5) 11.5±3.64 45.3(3.1) 25.3±8.01 0.52±0.12 6.51±1.14 13.0±1.00
30-50 4.9(0.28) 58(0.67) 29(0.67) 14(0.67) 4.68±3.76 41.2(1.6) 10.67±8.17 0.40±0.04 3.67±0.44 9.33±1.20
Ordoba 1886 G 0 - 20 4.8(0.06) 54(1.3) 35(1.3) 11(0.00) 8.43±0.49 48.5(2.5) 17.3±0.67 0.95±0.08 11.0±1.09 11.7±0.33
30-50 5.3(0.09) 65(3.1) 17(5.7) 18(2.7) 9.71±1.98 44.6(4.78) 22.7±6.01 0.38±0.10 4.49±0.72 12.33±1.20
C 0 - 20 5.8(0.03) 54(7.9) 33(4.7) 14(3.3) 34.1±5.56 48.6(3.98) 69.0±5.86 0.57±0.06 6.12±0.98 11.0±1.53
30-50 5.5(0.06) 42(3.3) 30(3.1) 28(0.67) 12.2±2.76 31.3(1.23) 38.7±7.42 0.26±0.02 2.33±0.10 9.00±0.58
Harrawa 1860 G 0 - 20 4.8(0.06) 53(4.6) 33(4.7) 14(0.67) 8.20±2.14 44.7(0.98) 18.3±4.67 0.71±0.01 9.09±0.35 12.7±0.33
30-50 5.5(0.09) 29(1.2) 22(2.3) 49(1.2) 10.1±0.91 34.4(1.53) 29.3±3.48 0.36±0.14 4.99±2.75 12.0±2.00
C 0 - 20 6.0(0.03) 68(1.8) 23(0.67) 9.0(1.2) 44.1±2.94 50.0(1.30) 88.0±5.86 0.71±0.08 7.91±1.34 11.0±0.58
30-50 6.3(0.06) 57(6.1) 29(3.5) 14(2.7) 22.7±2.71 46.1(2.88) 48.7±3.28 0.27±0.03 2.79±0.17 10.7±1.20
3 Ogate 1753 G 0 - 20 5.4(0.24) 67(1.2) 27(0.67) 6.3(0.67) 13.0±0.86 38.9(9.26) 36.7±7.84 0.97±0.08 11.2±1.03 11.7±0.33
30-50 5.9(0.09) 50(11.8) 18(2.3) 32(9.7) 16.8±4.78 50.3(5.78) 37.0±15.52 0.25±0.06 2.51±0.47 10.7±1.20
C 0 - 20 7.1(0.37) 44(8.7) 36(3.1) 20(5.8) 38.6±6.19 49.7(3.10) 76.7±8.69 0.84±0.07 11.0±0.17 13.3±1.33
30-50 7.4(0.41) 40(10.4) 31(0.67) 30(10.7) 31.6±8.17 47.4(1.03) 66.0±15.95 0.54±0.02 5.34±1.09 10.0±2.00
Addeye 1735 G 0 - 20 5.5(0.06) 36(11.9) 41(5.9) 22(5.9) 18.8±2.20 45.9(1.46) 41.3±4.98 0.45±0.11 5.65±1.79 11.7±1.45
30-50 6.1(0.23) 11(2.0) 23(2.4) 66(2.7) 34.6±1.00 57.7(1.16) 59.7±0.88 0.18±0.03 2.36±0.57 12.7±2.19
C 0 - 20 6.5(0.51) 66(6.7) 9.0(3.2) 25(5.0) 31.6±2.18 46.5(1.07) 68.0±6.08 0.54±0.09 7.51±2.08 13.7±1.67
30-50 6.8(0.47) 43(5.3) 41(0.67) 16(5.9) 23.8±0.79 42.1(2.33) 57.3±4.84 0.32±0.13 5.07±2.79 14.7±1.76
Totani 1745 G 0 - 20 6.5(0.06) 35(3.1) 33(3.5) 32(6.4) 20.6±2.08 43.8(3.21) 47.0±3.51 0.40±0.06 5.00±0.10 13.3±2.40
30-50 6.0(0.47) 44(12.7) 35(10) 20(4.8) 8.61±1.51 42.2(8.66) 22.7±7.62 0.28±0.05 3.26±0.77 11.3±1.20
C 0 - 20 6.5(0.51) 66(6.7) 9.0(3.2) 25(5.0) 31.6±2.18 46.5(1.07) 68.0±6.08 0.54±0.09 7.51±2.08 13.7±1.67
30-50 6.8(0.47) 43(5.3) 41(0.67) 16(5.9) 23.83±0.79 42.1(2.33) 57.33±4.84 0.32±0.13 5.07±2.79 14.67±1.76
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Table 3. Mean values of species richness (n° of morphospecies/m2 ) and aboveground biomass (g/m2 ) estimated from five 50 cm x 50 cm plots per glade.
Altitude G r a z i n g Species Richness Aboveground biomass
Stratum Name
Regime
Total Dicot Monocot Total Dicot Monocot
1 Shifa 2386 Seasonal 15.2 12 3.2 411 315 95.8
Arrawa 2390 Seasonal 20 14.4 5.6 316 189 127
Kella 2398 Seasonal 16.8 12 4.8 427 197 230
2 Hatcho 1884 Seasonal 18.4 12.8 5.6 332 143 188
Ordoba 1886 Permanent 12.8 5.6 7.2 565 55.8 509
Harrawa 1860 Seasonal No data No data No data No data No data No data
3 Ogate 1753 Permanent 11.2 3.2 8 436 133 303
Addeye 1735 Permanent 9.6 2.4 7.2 385 8.4 376
Totani 1745 Permanent 5.6 2.4 3.2 429 69.2 360
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 138

Total aboveground biomass ranged from 565 g m -2 in Ordoba (S-1850) to 316 g m -2 in
Arrawa (S-2400), without an association with altitude or grazing regime, however dicot biomass
was positively associated with altitude (0.79, P=0.2, N=8).
Unfortunately, our experimental design does not allow us to separate the factors of grazing
and altitude because all of the glades sampled at the lower altitudes were permanently grazed, and
all of those sampled at higher altitudes were seasonally grazed (Table 3). However, our results
support the hypotheses that species richness is greater under seasonal than under permanent grazing,
and that monocot biomass is greater where grazing is permanent than where it is seasonal.
Vegetation and soil properties
Plant species richness in the glades was negatively associated with pH, total exchangeable bases
and base saturation. Dicot aboveground biomass showed a similar pattern of associations, whereas
total aboveground biomass and monocot biomass did not show any significant correlations with soil
properties. Monocot biomass (g m-2 ) was much greater in the glades with permanent grazing than
those with seasonal grazing (permanent, mean = 160 (SE=30); seasonal , mean = 87 (SE=44)).
Discussion
The results from this study indicate that the soils found in glades are distinct from those in adjacent
forests, being more acidic and having lower base saturation. Some soil properties recorded in the
glades are consistent with a hypothesis of an anthropogenic origin. For example, the dark organic
coatings found deep in the soil profile in Arrawa could indicate historical burning and the removal of
tree vegetation on a freely drained terrain would enhance leaching and loss of cations. Alternately,
historical grazing practices should have reduced water infiltration rates thus decreasing leaching of
cations. Overall, the collective evidence suggests that the origins of the glades examined in this
study are more related to natural biophysical factors than to anthropogenic factors.
Leaching is the mobilization and transportation of soluble soil particles, such as cations and
clays, through vertical or lateral water movement through the soil. Intense leaching will impoverish
the soil of exchangeable bases (TEB), particularly under acidic conditions. Leaching can be
promoted by local topography. Either excessive drainage or waterlogging are likely to be important
to the formation of the glades in the Harenna.
Glades originate on flatter topographic units than the adjacent forest and emerge as terrace
formation at higher altitudes. In this case, a low slope angle would (1) increase the intensity of
vertical leaching and, importantly, (2) cut off the glades’ higher soil profile from lateral supplies of
leachates from upper sites. Overall, this is likely to create heavily leached patches, in accordance
with the results of this study. At lower altitudes, instead, the flat topography results in waterlogging,
due to the more gentle overall slope. It is important to gain further information about the nature
and properties of the ground water, since this affects the vegetation response to poor drainage. The
poorly drained glades studied showed more acidic and nutrient poor soils compared to adjacent
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 139

forest, and this indicates that they are affected by oligotrophic waters. The difference in pH and
nutrient status between glades and forest decreases with decreasing altitude. The water originating
from high altitude is naturally oligotrophic and it progressively charges with cations downstream.
Alongside this simple model, we must consider in this case other mechanisms resulting in water
oligotrophy, such as podzolization and drainage from acidic badrocks.
In circumstance where SOM turnover rates are reduced, such as anaerobic condition due to
water logging, low temperature due to high altitude, extremely acidic parent materials or production
of low quality OM (such as litter from coniferous trees, Erica spp., etc.), the net accumulation of
organic acids will lead to podzolization even in the tropics (FAO 2001). Hydromorphic podzols are
caused by waterlogging and have predominant lateral spread, with groundwater enriched in OM
travelling long distances (FAO 2001) and eventually emerges at lower altitudes or in depressions
in the form of black rivers (such as the Rio Negro in S. America) and lakes. pH levels are a good
indication of a cause for podzolization, favoured at pH5
(Shoji et al. 1993).
In the toposequence studied, looking at pH values, we could predict that podzolization would
occur above S-1850 and ferralitization downstream. Evidence of ferralitization is found in the high
chroma of the soil in the landscape surrounding Delo-Mena (South of the studied toposequence),
indicating enrichment of sesquioxides in the topsoil. In accordance to what described by Chauvel
et al. (1996) for the Rio Negro basin, if podzolization occurs at higher altitudes, it could generate a
deep flow of organic acids and Al that would extend into the ferralitic zone downstream; this flow
will stop in the soil at saturation or will emerge in depressions (black lakes) or streams (black rivers)
at lower altitudes (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Sketch diagram (not in scale) summarizing the elements supporting the theory of a deep
“black water” flow, and integrating them in a simplified model of the escarpment.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 140

There might be some evidence for the existence of such stream in the studied section
of the Harenna escarpment. First, is the presence of a potential source of highly acidic litter at
high altitudes, such as the Erica arborea forest belt (~3000 m a.s.l.), or of decaying roots from
the grasslands in the plateau (~4000 m a.s.l.). Second, is the report from local inhabitants of the
existence of a lake called locally “black lake” (haro gurratti) and of a river called “black river” (laga
gurratti), although their position is unclear and it is not known if they are so named for the colour
of their waters of for other geographical of historical reasons. Third, are the observed properties of
the water springing from the Tabala Sof Omar hot spring, nearby to S-1850 (~1900 m a.s.l.). Here,
there is evident flocculation of black material, phenomenon which might be analogue to the one
described by Chauvel et al. (1996) in reference to the “black mud” observed in the Rio Negro basin.
The fourth is in the black coatings and stratification patterns found in the 2m soil profile in Arrawa
(S1, 2390 m a.s.l.).
Although the parent material in the Harenna forest is predominantly trachitic and basaltic,
hence basic, several granitoids outcrops have been observed in areas of reduced vegetation. Presence
of acidic bedrock could certainly contribute locally to water oligotrophy and also explain the
occurrence of glades, or patches of reduced vegetation density, on hills and slopes as it was found in
Totani glade.
Finally, there is conspicuous hydrothermal activity in the Harenna forest, resulting in one
hot-spring and several mineral springs which properties vary greatly. More detailed knowledge on
the properties of this heterogeneous hydrological basin are needed in order to explain correctly how
it affects vegetation.
Vegetation in the glades varies with altitudinal position but also with grazing intensity.
Permanent grazing affects species composition by reducing both the number of species and the
abundance of herbs, though local perceptions are the process is reversible, at least in terracing
glades (S-2300). The establishment of (traditional) permanent settlements with permanent grazing
is favoured in poorly drained sites due to low abundance of fossorial mammals, where there is less
tunnelling and bioturbation, resulting in less superficial mud.
Human use of the glades has varied over the past century but the glades continue to be
an important grazing resource for permanent and temporary settlers in the forest. The spatial
organization of settlements is clearly shaped by the landscape, with glades playing a central role as
common grazing land.
In the Harenna, there is a network of settlements (such as Ogate, Addeye, Gabicho) established
alongside the archipelago of glades at lower altitudes, with the village/glade of Hawo and Angetu
(SW) and Delo-Mena (SE) as important socio-economic reference points. The strength of the social
network represented amongst the settlements is indicated by the presence of infrastructures (e.g.,
suspended bridge) and regional markets.
A similar network of settlements was reported to exist in glades at mid and higher altitudes in
the Harenna before the villagization (30 y bp). Historical religious and communal infrastructures can
be found in the vicinity, such as a circular stone wall surrounding the Tabala Sof Omar hot-spring.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 141

Religious and cultural values are fundamental to forest conservation in other parts of Ethiopia, and
the findings in the Harenna suggest there may be similar influences here.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on the BSc thesis at the University of Aberdeen “Origin of peri-forest grasslands
in the Harenna forest, Ethiopia” written in 2006 by Giovanni Chiodi, under the supervision of Prof.
David Robinson. Data were collected during the Twin Gardens Expedition 2006, organized jointly
with the Darwin Initiative monitoring project in the Harenna forest and the BMNP, and endorsed
by the University of Aberdeen, the Royal Geographical Society, the Gilchrist Educational Trust,
the Mount Everest Foundation, the Albert Reckitt Charitable Trust, the Frederick Soddy Trust, the
Gordon Foundation, and the Duke of Edinburgh. Team members were Giovanni Chiodi, Brigid Le
Fevre, Andrew Burns and Laura Evenstar, locally supported by Kemal Mohammed, Issa Mohammed,
Aliji Balda, Mesfin and Quasim. Expedition reports are available at the Royal Geographical Society,
London.
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Journal of Vegetation Science, 3: 345-356
Backeus, I. 1993. Ecotone versus ecocline: vegetation zonation and dynamics around a small
reservoir in Tanzania. Journal of Biogeography, 20: 209-218
Chauvel, A., Walker, I. and Lucas, Y. 1996. Sedimentation and pedogenesis in a Central Amazonian
black water basin. Biogeochemistry, 33: 77-95
FAO, 2001. Lecture Notes on the Major Soils of the World. World Soils Resources Report No 94.
FAO, Rome, Italy.
Hillman, J. C. 1988. Bale Mountains National Park Management Plan. Ethiopian Wildlife
Conservation Organisation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Nigatu, L. and Tadesse, M. 1989. An Ecological Study of the Vegetation of the Harenna Forest,
Bale, Ethiopia. SINET, 12 (1):63-93
Shoji, S., Nanzyo, M., and Dahlgren, R. A. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils-Genesis, Properties and
Utilization. Developments in Soil Science No 21. 288pp. Elsvier, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands.
USDA 1999. Soil Taxonomy- A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil
Surveys. 871pp. USDA, Washinghton, USA.
Woldu, Z., Feoli, E. and Nigatu, L. 1989. Partitioning an elevation gradient of vegetation from
southern Ethiopia by probabilistic methods. Vegetation, 81: 189-1.
Yalden, D. W. 1988 Small mammals in the Harenna Forest, Bale Mountains National Park. Sinet:
Ethiopian Journal of Science, 11(1): 41-53.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 142

Appendix 1. Attributes for soil profiles at each of the nine study glades with paired adjacent forest.
Shifa (altitude 2386 m)
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots Water Conditions Drainage Notes
Evident bioturbation (tunneling)
resulting in patches of different
structure and drainage
Crumb Occasional Dry Aerobic
Sandy Clay
Loam
Glade 13 A Clear 10YR 4/3
Aerobic
Dry and Moist
(patches)
Rare
Crumb and Massive
(patches)
>13 B 10YR 4/3 Sandy Clay
4 O Clear
10 At Diffuse 5YR 3/3
Forest
Crumb Abundant Dry Aerobic Bioturbation (tunneling)
Weakly
Aerobic
Weakly
Aerobic
Crumb Occasional Moist
Silty Clay
Loam
Silty Clay
Loam
Silty Clay
Loam
35 Bt1 Diffuse 5YR 3/2
Crumb Occasional Moist
7.5YR
3/2
>35 Bt2
Arrawa (altitude 2390 m)
Water
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots
Drainage Notes
Conditions
Silty Clay
Glade 13 At Clear 5YR 4/3
Crumb Abundant Dry Aerobic Frequent tunneling
Loam
Crumb Frequent Moist Aerobic
Silty Clay
Loam
7.5YR
4/3
77 Bt Clear
Very frequent nodules and pellets in clayley
matrix; evident stratification, thin layers of
grey clay with thicker layers with very frequent
nodules of various colour (black, yellow, red,
purple) in both coating and section;
Sandy Clay Crumb Rare Moist Weakly Aerobic
10YR
3/4
>77 Bn
Kella (altitude 2398 m)
Drainage Notes
Water
Conditions
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots
Crumb Dominant Dry Aerobic
Silty Clay
Loam
10YR
4/4
10 A Clear
Glade
Evident bioturbation
(tunneling) resulting
in patches of different
structure and drainage
Aerobic/Weakly
Aerobic
Dry/Moist
Frequent up to
35cm then rare
Crumb and Massive
(patches)
Sandy Clay
Loam
10YR
4/3
>10 Bt
Crumb Dominant Dry Aerobic
Silty Clay
Loam
7.5YR
3/2
Forest 5 A Clear
Texture changes
sensibly by adding
water: sand becomes
clay
Silty Clay Crumb/Massive Abundant Dry Aerobic
10YR
4/3
90 Bt1 Diffuse
Sandy Clay Massive Rare Moist Weakly Aerobic
10YR
3/4
>90 Bt2
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 143

Hatcho (altitude 1884 m)
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots Water Conditions Drainage Notes
Glade 19 O Clear 10R 2/1 Silty Loam Granular Dominat Moist Aerobic
14 A Clear 10R 2/1 Silty Loam Granular Abundant Moist Aerobic
20 B1 Clear 10R 2/1 Silty Loam Granular Rare Moist Very Weakly Aerobic Red mottling surrounding roots
Abundant red mottling not
>20 B2 10R 3/1 Sandy Clay Loam Massive Rare Wet Anaerobic
exclusively surrounding roots
Forest 13 O Abrupt 5YR 3/2 Loamy Sand Crumb Dominant Moist Aerobic
24 A Clear 5YR 3/3 Sandy Clay Loam Granular Abundant Moist Weakly Aerobic
20 Bw1 Sharp 7.5YR 3/2 Sandy Clay Granular Rare Moist Weakly Aerobic
Nodules and pellets, black with
shining section
Nodules and pellets, black with
shining section
>20 Bw2 10YR 4/3 Sandy Clay Massive None Moist Anaerobic
Ordoba (altitude 1886 m)
Water
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots
Drainage Notes
Conditions
Glade 10 O Clear 5YR 2/2
Silty Clay
Loam
Crumb Dominant Moist Weakly Aerobic
30 A Diffuse 5YR 2/2
Silty Clay
Crumb Frequent Moist Weakly Aerobic
Loam
Present both red mottles and bluish areas
>30 Bg/r
10YR
3/2
Silty Clay Massive Rare Wet Anaerobic suggesting a combination of both seasonal and
permanent waterlogging
Silty Clay
Loam
Crumb Dominant Moist
Silty Clay Crumb Frequent Moist
10YR
3/2
10YR
3/2
10YR
4/2
Forest 3 O
5 A
Silty Clay Crumb Frequent Moist
75 B1
Silty Clay Massive None Dry Small black “stones” present
10YR
4/3
>75 Bw
Harrawa (altitude 1860 m)
Water
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots
Drainage Notes
Conditions
Glade
10 O Clear
10YR
1/1
Silty Clay Crumb Dominant Moist Weakly Aerobic
24 A Tounged
10YR
Very Weakly
3/2
Silty Clay Crumb Frequent Moist
Aerobic
40 Bg1 Diffuse
2.5YR
Massive with
4/3
Sandy Clay Subangular Rare Moist Anaerobic Mottling
aggregates
>40 Bg/r
10YR
3/2
Clay Rare Wet Anaerobic Mottling and bluish reduced areas
Forest 3 L Clear 2YR 2/2
Silty Clay
Loam
Crumb Dominant Moist Aerobic
Sandy Clay Crumb Abundant Moist Aerobic
10 O Clear 5Y3 3/2
7.5YR
3/2
21 A Diffuse
Moist Aerobic
Very
Frequent
Crumb matrix
with small
aggregates
(stones?)
Sandy Clay
7.5YR
4/2
51 B1 Diffuse
Moist Aerobic
Frequent/
Big
Sandy Clay
7.5YR
3/2
>51 B2
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 144

Ogate (altitude 1753 m)
Water
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots
Drainage Notes
Conditions
10YR Silty Clay
7 O Clear
Crumb Dominant Dry Aerobic
Glade
2/1 Loam
Silty Clay
47 A Clear 5YR 2/2
Crumb Frequent Moist Weakly Aerobic
Loam
Crumb
10YR
Red mottling; sand texture dissolves into clayey
>47 Bg Clear
Sandy Clay (but bigger Rare Wet Anaerobic
4/2
texture by adding water
aggregates)
Forest
5 L
15 A Clear 5YR 3/3 Silty Loam Crumb Aerobic Dry
7.5YR
70 B Clear
Clay Loam Crumb Aerobic Dry
4/2
Addeye (altitude 1735 m)
Drainage Notes
Water
Conditions
Site Depth Horizon Boundary Colour Texture Structure Roots
Silty Clay Crumb Abundant Wet Anaerobic
10YR
3/1
2.5YR
4/2
10 A Diffuse
Glade
Clay Massive Rare Wet Anaerobic
47 Bg Diffuse
Stratifications of bluish, orange, yellow layers;
pale yellow porous stones with red coating
Strongly
Anaerobic
Rare Waterlogged
Massive
matrix with
small clay
aggregates
Clay
2.5YR
3/2
>47 Br
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 145

Factors Affecting Fire Extent and Frequency in the Bale Mountains National Park
Kashun Abera 1 and Anouska A. Kinahan 1 *
1 FZS-BMCP, Bale Mountains National Park, PO BOx 165, Robe, Bale, Ethiopia
*Email: anouskakinahan@fzs.org
Abstract
Although fires can have positive and negative effects on an ecosystem, uncontrolled repeated fires
can devastate the environment. There have been several large and damaging fires historically in the
Bale eco-region including inside the park, particularly in 2000 and again in 2008. For these reasons,
the development of a fire management plan has been identified as a priority activity in the 2007
BMNP General Management Plan. Before such a plan can be developed a detailed understanding of
fire extent and frequency and factors influencing fires needs to be examined. This study showed that
in more recent times fire occurrences are on the increase compared to the early 2000’s where large
fires were typically followed by low fire years and that the highest incidences of fires occur in the
late dry season. Erica shrub was the only vegetation type that appeared to be burnt preferentially,
as were Chromic Luvisol soils. We found that while accessibility was the main influencing factor
for the number of fires occurring, a combination of vegetation type and accessibility and vegetation
type and distance to settlements influenced the extent of fires. This study identified fire hotspots and
provides information which will be useful toward the development of a fire management plan.
Introduction
Fires are known to have both advantages and disadvantages on ecological processes. If managed, a
fire can help improve ecosystem functioning; conversely uncontrolled fires can devastate, degrade
and reduce the availability of natural resources (Giri and Shrestha 1999). The occurrence of wildfires
not only influences the development of the plant community, but also contributes to the species
composition of the ecosystem (Levine et al. 1999). Generally, a fire occurring in any ecosystem
has the potential to cause disastrous social, ecological, and economic impacts resulting in the loss
or transformation of habitat; which in turn affects biodiversity and triggers carbon dioxide release
and global warming (Lymberopoulos et. al. 1996). Most of the present day forest loss globally is
attributed to uncontrolled burning practices (IUCN 2000).
Over a century ago, Ethiopia’s forests were estimated to cover 40% of the country, now
however only 2.5% forest cover remains (MOA 2000). Wild fire and agriculture are thought to be
two of the major causes of this forest loss (MOA 2000). According to the Global Fire Monitoring
Center the number of fire occurrences in Ethiopia increased from 4 to 20 between the years 1990
and 1993, increasing the total area of burnt forest from 1,072 to 3,159 ha. Seven years later in 2000,
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 146

the loss of natural forests due to fire was more than 95,000 ha. The 2000 fire incidence in the Bale
eco-region is one of the worst fires in Ethiopia with extreme fires occurring also in the 2007/2008
dry season. In 2008, a total of 12,825 ha of land were burnt in the Bale Eco-region, including 10,747
ha of land burnt in the National Park (Belayneh et al. 2008).
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP), which is one of Conservation International’s 34
biodiversity hot spots, has been encountering both natural and man made fires throughout its history.
However, in recent times the influence of man made fires has posed a serious threat to the park’s
ecosystem, and particularly to the Erica forest and shrub land. Forest fires which are set by people to
collect wild honey (LeFevre and Pinard this edition) and prepare land for agriculture are particularly
damaging to the Harenna forest of BMNP (GMP 2007). As a result, developing a fire management
plan for the park has been identified as a priority activity in the GMP. In order to be able to do
this a detailed fire assessment examining fire extent and frequency as well as factors which may
influence the occurrence of fire needs to be undertaken. In this study we used remote sensing and
GIS technologies, in particular Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS), to map the
extent and frequency of fires in the BMNP. Specifically, we examined if vegetation, soil type, month,
altitudinal belt, distance to roads and/or distance to settlements influence the occurrence of fires and
area affected. It is aimed that these findings will facilitate the development of a fire management
plan for the park by identifying fire hot spots and influencing factors, thereby enabling relevant and
effective mitigation measures to be developed.
Materials and Methods
Data sources
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) level 3 burned area products and a 2.5 m
resolution SPOT Image acquired May 14th of 2008 were used for this study. In addition, ground
truthing fire data collected in the park were used to verify and calibrate the MODIS images. The
MODIS MCD45A1 product was downloaded from NASA - MODIS Fire and Thermal Anomalies
Project /University of Maryland/ website (http://modis-fire.gsfc.nasa.gov). The SPOT image was
provided by Planet Action. Nine years of MODIS data (2000-2008) were used for this study as this
was as far back as the appropriate images went for the study area. For a detailed description on the
MODIS products used see Abera and Kinahan (2009).
Image preparation
A mosaic of the four scenes comprising the park in the SPOT image was created to form one image.
This image was geometrically and radiometrically corrected to remove topographic and atmospheric
influences. The part of the image covering the park was extracted by masking the boundary of the
park. Erdas Imagine 9.1 and ArcGIS 9.2 softwares were used to undertake this data preparation
process.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 147

The MODIS MCD45A1 products came in Hierarchical data (.hdf) file formats and Sinusoidal
projection, this file format is not suitable to work on ArcGIS and Erdas Imagine softwares. The
Projection is also not compatible for our database projection. Hence the .hdf file was converted
to geotiff (.tiff) file formats and the projection was reprojected to World Geological Survey 1984
(WGS 84) datum and UTM Zone 37N projection status using the MODIS reprojection tool. Then
the subset for the area of the park was extracted from the MODIS image as we did for the SPOT
image.
Data analysis
Monthly data collected from MODIS were merged to create each fire season so that they could be
analysed independently. A fire season was defined as October-December in year t, plus January-May
in year t+1. In this study therefore we had a total of nine fire seasons - 1999/2000 (incorporating
Jan-May 2000 only), 2000/2001, 2001/2002 etc. up to 2007/2008. In order to validate MODIS
images, images from 2008 were used along with the 2 m resolution SPOT image and field data
collected in 2008. A total of 3097 GPS points of burnt areas in the park were taken between March
and April 2008. The GPS points were taken following the perimeter of a burnt area. A polygon of the
burnt areas from these GPS points was then generated using xTools Pro (vector data management
extension to ArcGIS). Using these polygons as signatures the Spot image was then classified into
burnt and non burnt areas. Corresponding MODIS images were then overlaid on the classified 2008
image and visually assessed to ensure they overlapped as well as using the MODIS quality assurance
data to ensure reliability of fire detection.
Fire frequency and extent
The total number and extent of fires were calculated by counting the number of fire polygons in
each of the MODIS fire seasons and determining the total area of each polygon, respectively. Each
fire season was then overlaid on different maps classifying vegetation and soil type, altitudinal belt
and distance buffers to roads and settlements and frequency and extent were calculated as described
above. For vegetation, a number of different vegetation types could occur in one polygon, if this was
the case one fire would be considered occurring in each of the vegetation types, consequently each
of the polygons therefore would also have a specific area burnt for each of those vegetation types
occurring in that polygon. Unlike vegetation, since the boundaries of other classes were generally
easier to define, the dominant soil, altitudinal belt and buffer were used.
When the data were normally distributed a repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine
differences between each of the classes in either frequency or extent. If data were not normally
distributed a Freidman’s repeated measure analysis was carried out.
A Bonferoni’s confidence interval procedure (Neu et al. 1974) was used to see if the frequency
of fires occurring were in proportion to the area available. This gives an indication if vegetation
or soil types etc. were burnt more, less or as expected given their respective areas available. We
then assumed that those that were burnt more than expected were brunt preferentially over other
vegetation/soil/altitudinal types and those burnt less than expected were generally avoided.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 148

Results
Fire extent and frequency
A total of 142 fire incidents were identified by MODIS Images between 1999/2000 and 2007/2008 fire
seasons, burning a cumulative total of 38,150 hectares (ha) of land in the park. The highest number
of fires occurred in 2000/2001 with 30 fire incidents and 6,615 ha of park land burned, followed
by 2007/2008 with 21 fires but covering 9,309 ha of land (Table 1). In 2002/2003 and 2003/2004,
although the numbers of fires were the same the extent of fire was almost double in 2003/2004
compared to 2002/2003; 6,129 and 3,913 ha was burnt respectively. Despite this, typically the extent
of burnt area is positively correlated to the number of fires (r= 0.83, N=9.9; P

Factors Affecting Fire Frequency and Extent
Vegetation
Woodland (N=92), montane forest (N=63), Erica shrub (N=54) and shrub land (N=40) are the
main vegetation types that were burnt the most frequently over the last nine years. However these
differences in fire frequency are not significant between the vegetation types, except for woodland
(F=33.76, N=8, P >
GL < < < < < <
GLA < < < < < < <
HEL < < < < <
MF < < < <
SHL < < <
WL
Despite woodland having the most number of fires occurring over the past nine years it is montane
forest followed by Erica shrub which have had the greatest area burnt though out the fire season
(13,075 ha and 8,125 ha respectively), which equates to 15.3% and 31.6% of their total area
remaining in 2008. Interestingly, throughout the fire seasons even though only 3,316 ha of grassland
and 895 ha of glades were burnt this was 24% and 19% of their total area available in 2000; thus the
proportion of grassland and glades burnt is higher than montane forest despite an overall larger area
of montane forest being burnt. However, these values should be treated with caution until further
detailed and more frequent land cover change analysis has been carried out as the total area available
for woodland, grassland and Erica shrub have all increased from 2000-2008 as opposed to decreased
as for all other vegetation types.
Statistical analysis shows that there is a significant difference in the actual area burnt between
the habitats (F1.8= 6.5, P

Soil type
Over 50% of the total number and extent of fires since 1999/2000 occurred in Chromic Luvisols
(N=72, 19,910 ha), with Pellic Vertisols being the second most frequent soil type burnt (N=37,
10,146 ha). There is a significant difference between the number of fires and the extent of fires
occurring in the different soil types (χ2 = 50.28, df=8, P >
Dystric Histisols < < < < < < <
Eutric Cambisols < < < <
Eutric Fluvisols < < < < < < < < < <
Eutric Luvisols < < < < < < < <
Eutric Nitisols < < <
Orthic Luvisols < < < < < < < < < <
Pellic Vertisols < >
Altitudinal belts
Most fires occurred within the 3500-4377 m a.s.l. altitudinal belt (39%, N=55), followed by
altitudinal belts 1750-2249 m a.s.l. and 3200-3500 m a.s.l. (N=25). Statistical analysis shows that
there is a significance difference in the frequency of fires in the different altitudinal belts (F61,56=
5.12; P

Distance to roads
Fires occurred mainly in areas between 3-6 km and 6-9 km from roads. However, generally both
extent and frequency of fire decreased with an increase in distance from roads. Statistical analysis
shows that there is a significant difference in the frequency of fires at different distance ranges from
road networks (F51,48 = 3.2; P

Distance to settlements
The frequency and extent of fires followed a normal distribution with the fewest number of fires
and smallest extent occurring at the closest and furthest distance to settlements. Statistical analysis
show that although there is a difference between the frequency of fires at different distances (F41,40
= 4.6; P

Discussion
Although fire can have positive impacts on ecosystems, when unmanaged or overexploited it can
have negative effects on the environment such as increasing soil erosion (Pardini et al. 2004) or
altering species composition (Levine et. al. 1999) Ethiopia has lost 87.5% of its forest within the
past century, the majority of which is as a result of wild fire (MOA 2000). Bale Mountains National
Park is a park which is frequently burnt, often to a great extent. This has led to identifying the
development of a fire management plan for the park as a key objective in the ecological management
programme of the parks GMP (OARDB 2007). As a first step in developing this fire management
plan, understanding factors influencing the occurrence of fire, and identifying fire hotspots within
the park is important. This study applied GIS and Remote Sensing Technologies to map the extent
and frequency and the possible influencing factors of fire in the park.
Between 1999-2008 a total of 142 fires burning 38,150 ha occurred in the park. The general
trend shows that large fires are generally succeeded by low fire incidence, however in more recent
years it can be seen that the number of fires is increasing continuously, with few seasons where few
fires occur preventing the area from recuperating. A continuous pattern of burning with no chance
for recovery and especially with the increased grazing (FZS unpublished data) can have detrimental
effects on vegetation. Dry seasons (January-March) account for 63.3% of fires through out the
period, with highest number of fires and burned area occurring in March and January.
The highest number of fires occurred in woodland, montane forest and Erica shrub,
respectively, however a greater extent was burnt in montane forest and Erica shrub than in woodland
habitat type. Interestingly despite the high number and large extent of fires occurring in woodland
and montane forest, woodland vegetation type is burnt as expected given its total area but lower
than expected for montane forest. Erica shrub however has been burnt more than expected given
its available area in the park. This suggests that people are showing a preference for burning Erica
vegetation type over other vegetation types in the park and perhaps an avoidance of burning in
montane forest. A recent study identified that a primary reason for burning Erica was for the purpose
of facilitating grazing (Belayneh and Yohanis 2008).
Proportionally, woodland (125.7%) followed by Erica shrub (34.3%) and grassland (24.8%)
have the total area burnt given their actual area available in 2000. Whereas this proportion has
changed to 26.5%, 31.1%, and 14.3% respectively, given their respective area in 2008. The drastic
increase in the size of woodland (hence decrease in proportion of burnt area) could be attributed to
increasing trend of new clearings for agriculture in the montane forest.
It is not surprising that Chromic Luvisols and Pellic vertisols are shown to be the dominant
soil types burnt both in number and frequency, since they are the dominant soil types for Erica
shrub and montane forest, respectively. From these it is only Chromic Luvisols that are shown
to be generally burnt more than expected given their available area. Again confirming a distinct
preference for burning in areas where Erica shrub occurs.
The highest attitudinal belt was shown to have the most and greatest extent of fires occurring
(35001-4300 m a.s.l.). However, none of the altitudinal belts appeared to be burnt more frequently
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 154

than expected given there available area. This suggests that altitude does not influence peoples’
decisions to burn. However, examining distance to roads and distance to settlements independently,
both appear to influence fire frequency but not extent, with a greater number of fires occurring closer
to the roads compared to further away. The frequency of fires occurring from distances to settlement
follows a normal distribution with fewer fires occurring close to settlements and at far distances
from settlements. The greatest numbers of fires occurred between 3-9 km from settlements.
In summary, our study found that peak fires occur in the latter half of the dry season, particularly
the end of the season. With regard to vegetation type, while other vegetation types are being burnt as
expected, only Erica shrub appears to be burnt preferentially. Although Chromic Luvisols are also
burnt preferentially we propose that this is an indirect preference since this soil type is commonly
associated with Erica shrub, we suggest it is rather vegetation type rather then soil which is selected
for. Lastly, our study further suggests that accessibility (close to roads) and distances far enough
away from settlements not to cause damage to the settlements but not too far away, are key factors
that influence fire occurrence. Taking all factors into account however, we found that accessibility
was the main influencing factor for fire incidences but a mixture of vegetation type and accessibility
as well as vegetation type and distance to settlements largely influence fire extent.
Current park law enforcement occurs in the northern Gaysay Valley part of the park only,
where only a few fires have occurred in the past nine years (Fig. 4). In the recent past and presently,
no law enforcement occurs in any other area in the park where fire hot spots occur (Fig. 4). Fire hot
spots are those areas which have high frequency and large extent of fires and have faced repeated
burning over the years. It is aimed that the information provided in this study will facilitate the
development of a fire management plan. This study suggests that while fires occur throughout the
park, scouts should be deployed in the fire hot spot areas (focusing in Erica habitats) from the
middle of the dry season (January) focusing on roads and other accessible avenues and areas around
settlements. Further it is clear that engaging the communities in and around the park will be integral
in managing the occurrence of fire in the park.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 155

Current boundary
Proposed new Boundary
Modis fire incidences (2000-
2008)
Current area patrolled
Fire hot spots
Figure 4. A map showing all fire instances over the past nine years in the BMNP and identifying fire
hot spot areas.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 157

The Status of the Ericaceous Vegetation on the Southern Slope of the Bale Mountains
Yoseph Assefa 1* , Karsten Wesche 2 and Masresha Fetene 3
*Email: yoseph1assefa@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Bale mountain range hosts several endemic species of flora and fauna, some of which are
threatened with extinction. The southern slopes of this mountain range are known for the distinct
altitudinal zonation of the Afromontane forests, and the most extensive Ericaceous vegetation on the
continent. This study on the distribution and structure of Ericaceous vegetation was conducted on
the southern slopes of the Bale Mountains, at the Harenna escarpment. The Ericaceous vegetation
north of Rira village was sampled systematically along an altitudinal gradient between 3000 m and
4200 m. Thirteen community types were identified that are distributed in the lower, central, and
upper subzone of the Ericaceous vegetation. Some of the communities occur in all subzones, while
others are restricted to one and/or two subzones.
Erica trimera is the only species that was distributed over the entire altitudinal range, while
Erica arborea was absent from the lower subzone. E. trimera showed a gradual transition in height
and life-form along the altitudinal gradient. This might be related with increase in environmental
stress at higher altitude. Schefflera volkensii is restricted to the lower subzones. Hypericum
revolutum, Myrsine melanophloeos and Discopodium penninervium are restricted to the lower and
central subzone of the Ericaceous vegetation. An analysis of the population structure of woody
species revealed that only Myrsine melanophloes showed a healthy distribution (inverted “J“ shape
distribution). The other species exhibit abnormal size class distributions that may indicate a problem
in reproduction and/or recruitment.
The Ericaceous belt of the Bale Mountains is seriously affected by progressively increasing
impact of human activities. Cattle and horses exert heavy pressure on the vegetation, especially at
the lower altitudes. The Ericaceous shrubs are cut for fuel wood and are frequently burnt by the
local people for various reasons. This has led to a reduced biodiversity in the region with possible
consequences for other ecological services including water retention capacity. Supplementary fuel
from forest plantations is urgently required to reduce pressure on the natural forest. Alternative
income-generating activities need to be introduced to reduce the pressure on the natural vegetation.
Background and Introduction
In tropical climates, diurnal variations of temperatures are much more pronounced than the seasonal
changes. Hedberg (1951) characterized the Afroalpine environment as “summer everyday and winter
every night“, referring to the pronounced diurnal changes with frosts at night time, while differences
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among seasons are usually only a few °C. While thermal seasons are thus weakly pronounced, wet
season are often clear because most tropical mountains lie outside the permanently moist tropics
(Smith 1980; Rundel 1994).
Soil temperatures of 5.9 - 7.3°C are often described to coincide with the treeline position
(Rundel 1994; Miehe and Miehe 1994); this goes back to an earlier proposal of a threshold at 7°C
mean soil temperature (Walter and Medina 1969). There is a wide range of divergent opinions on
the interactions between plant life form and microclimate. Koerner (1999, 2003) argues that the tree
life-form is disadvantageous on high mountains because the vertical stature results in close coupling
to the ambient climate and thus in more severe stress in the free air than near the ground. However,
ecophysiological research on the giant rosette plant Lobelia rhynchopetalum, which builds tree-like
life-forms in the Bale Mountains, showed that plants escape the pronounced diurnal fluctuations and
the harsh environmental stress near the ground by having an arborescent habit (Masresha Fetene et
al. 1998). A similar observation has been made on Mt. Elgon (Wesche 2002), and this has also been
noted by O. Hedberg decades ago: “When camping in the alpine belt an explorer soon discovers that
it pays better to put a sheep skin below the sleeping bag than on top of it – the cold comes from the
surface of the ground” (p. 23, Hedberg 1964).
Centuries of human land use have fundamentally altered tropical-alpine landscapes
particularly in Africa (Miehe 2000). The lower Afroalpine belt has been severely affected by fires
(Hedberg 1964), which are responsible for the patchy vegetation structure (Wesche et al. 2000).
Fires are mostly man-made, and caused a depression of the actual treeline in most mountain ranges
(Miehe and Miehe 1994; Wesche et al. 2000).
Regions above 3000 m a.s.l. including the treeline ecotone in eastern Africa are characterized
by Ericaceous vegetation (Miehe and Miehe 1994), which comprises a number of taxa with small
sclerophyllous leaves. The most prominent family is the Ericaceae, which is distributed throughout
the world. The sub-family Ericoideae is restricted to Africa, the Mediterranean and northern Europe
(Beentje 1994); Erica itself is a macrogenus with a largely artificial taxonomy. The Bale Mountains
have the most extensive Ericaceous vegetation in east Africa and the largest Afroalpine environment
of all (Hedberg 1986; Miehe and Miehe 1994). The mountains host a unique mixture of various
biogeographical elements. Important endemic mammals in the area include the giant mole rat
(Tachyoryctes macrocephalus), but also the endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), which has
its most important habitat there (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995). The flora is still not completely known,
but there are a number of endemic and / or endangered species (Hedberg 1975; Miehe and Miehe
1994).
Although the Ericaceous vegetation of the Bale Mountains is claimed to be relatively intact
(Miehe and Miehe 1994) and more spatially extensive than in other regions of eastern Africa, it
is frequently cleared by local communities to create new pastures and arable land. The growing
concern for the destruction of mountain ecosystems in general, and the importance of this particular
mountain region as a refuge for the endemic fauna and flora (Brown 1973), calls for rapid action in
conservation and management. This in turn requires baseline data on the ecology of the prominent
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 159

Ericaceous vegetation. The present study attempts to provide a description of plant communities and
an analysis of the structure of woody species in Ericaceous vegetation along the southern slopes of
the Bale Mountains.
Description of the Study Area
Floristic background
The botanical exploration of the Bale Mountains started in 1906 by Neuman and Ellenbeck (cited in
Miehe and Miehe 1994), followed by Smeds (1959), and Mooney (1963). In a series of publications
Hedberg (1951, 1964, 1975, 1986) made important analyses of the vegetation and ecology of
Afroalpine regions in Ethiopia. Weinert (1981), Weinert and Mazurek (1984) and Uhlig (1988)
also published ecological studies on the vegetation of the Bale Mountains. Research on the floristic
composition and physiognomy of the montane vegetation was conducted by Mesfin Tadesse (1986),
Friis (1986), Lisanework Negatu and Mesfin Tadesse (1989), and Uhlig (1988, 1991). However,
except for Hedberg (1986), Menassie Gashaw and Masresha Fetene (1996), and Miehe and Miehe
(1994), most of these studies were confined to the montane forest belt.
Based on its physiognomy, Friis (1986) recognized the zone between 3200 m and 3500 m
as the uppermost forest zone. This vegetation zone is relatively little disturbed by humans (Miehe
and Miehe 1994). The main constituent of this zone, Erica trimera, forms trees up to 15 m in
height. The vegetation differs considerably in physiognomy from that of higher elevations. Friis
(1986) recognizes fire as the primary reason for this physiognomic change, and altitude as a possible
additional factor.
More detailed data on the Ericaceous vegetation of Bale were provided by Miehe and Miehe
(1994), who compared and contrasted their findings globally and regionally. The giant heathers on
the southern slopes of the mountains harbor epiphytic communities that are crucial in buffering
water deifiet between montane and Afroalpine vegetation. These epiphytic mosses gradually release
the absorbed moisture; it was estimated that up to 50,000 litters per ha are absorbed in another east
African cloud forest (Pocs 1976). The cryptograms also serve as bio-indicators of environmental
conditions.
Geology and climate
The study area is located at the southern slope of the Bale Mountains, at the Harenna escarpment
between 6°45′ and 7°N and 39°45′ and 39°40′ E. The rocks are of volcanic origin. They are
predominantly trachytes but also include rhyolites, basalts and associated agglomerates and tuffs
(Weinert and Mazurek 1984). Although detailed information about glaciations is still lacking, the
current land forms in the mountains appear to have resulted from tectonic activity and glaciations. At
least two glacial periods (18,000 BP and 2,000 BP) are documented from the mountains (Bonnefille
1993).
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In contrast to the northern highlands, southern Ethiopia is within the East African climatic
domain, which is influenced during the larger part of the year by south-easterlies originating over
the Indian Ocean. As in most Ethiopian highlands, the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ),
plus altitudinal and topographic influences all affect the distribution of the precipitation in the Bale
Mountains. Annual rainfall ranges between 600-1500 (2000) mm depending on the relief and altitude
Diurnal variability in temperature in the Bale Mountains is higher than its seasonal variation.
A minimum temperature of -15°C was recorded by Hillman (1986) on the Plateau (3850 m), while
Miehe and Miehe (1994) recorded a night-time minimum temperature of -3°C in the sparsely
vegetated areas of the Ericaceous belt. Solifluction is common in the Afroalpine belt and in the
upper parts of the Ericaceous vegetation.
There is evidence of early settlements in some valleys and plains. Thus, the area has probably
been populated since ancient times, but human land use and barley production in the Ericaceous and
Afroalpine belt has increased tremendously with the construction of an-all-weather road traversing
the plateau. However, the highlands of the Bale Mountains are still less densely populated than
the Semien Mountains in northwestern Ethiopia (population densities are 23.4/km2 and 52.6/km2 ,
respectively). Barley is cultivated in Bale 600-800 m lower than in Semien, and this is due to the
transhumant mode of living in the Bale Mountains.
Vegetation Sampling
The current study covered vegetation in the Ericaceous belt of the Bale Mountains along an altitudinal
gradient ranging from 3000 to 4200 m. Transects were established in homogeneous patches of
vegetation (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974). Plots of 15 x 15 m were sampled at intervals
of 20 m lateral distance between the plots. For each plot, one sub-plot of 2 x 2 m was surveyed
for the herbaceous vegetation. All vascular plants in each plot were recorded by estimating their
cover-abundances using the 9-level scale of Braun Blanquet as modified by Van der Maarel (1979).
The size class structure of all tree and shrub species was also assessed in each plot by recording
the height and diameter at breast/stump height (DBH/DSH) of all stems > 2.5 cm were taken. For
multi-stemmed trees, each stem was recorded as individual tree. Species were identified on site with
the help of trained taxonomist and specimens s were collected for identification for using flora of
Ethiopia. Seedlings (below 1.5 m) and saplings (above 1.5 meter but below 2 meter) of juvenile
woody species were counted in a sub plot of 5 x 5 m in each quadrat; the total sample was thus 110
plots and 110 sub plots.
Data Analysis
Vegetation data were analyzed with the software package SYN-TAx 2000, using the hierarchical
clustering by distance optimization (Podani 2000). The Soerensen similarity index was used as the
distance measure and the average linkage as the cluster algorithm. Species diversity was measured
using the Shannon-Weaver index of diversity (Krebs 1989). As a proxy for the age structure of
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the woody species, the DBH (diameter at breast height) and DSH (diameter at stump height =
basal diameter) were used; measurements were classified into ten classes that range from seedling/
saplings, which have DBH/DSH of less than 2.6 cm, to adults that have DBH/DSH of 42.5 cm and
more (Lamperchet 1980).
Results and Discussions
Plant communities
A total of 84 species of vascular plants were encountered, including eight trees and shrubs. The
Ericaceous vegetation was grouped into three altitudinal subzones following previous works: Lower
subzone (3000-3400 m), Central subzone (3400-3600 m), and the Upper subzone (3600-4200 m,
see also Hedberg 1951, Miehe and Miehe 1994). Thirteen community types were identified from
the cluster analysis; cut levels were set at dissimilarity values between 0.3 and 0.7. Dissimilarity
was calculated using the cover-abundance values of the 84 species. The communities were named
according to the species with the highest cover-abundance. The distribution of the communities
varied in the lower (3000-3400 m), central (3400-3600 m), and upper (3600-4200 m) subzones of
the Ericaceous belt. Some communities occurred over the entire altitudinal range (3000-4200 m),
while others were restricted to certain subzones. Overall plant diversity showed an inverse bell
shaped pattern with altitude. The upper (Community type 10 in Table 1) and the lower (Community
type 1 in Table 1) subzone has shown the highest richness than the central one. The complete list of
communities and their respective distribution, species richness, diversity and evenness in the three
subzones is given in Table 1.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 162

Table 1. The distribution, species richness, diversity index (H), and evenness of the thirteen community types in the lower, central and upper subzones
of the Ericaceous vegetation (+ indicates presence and - is absence, numbers are maximum values).
Pi
ln
Pi
H ’ k
= − ∑
i = 1
Distribution Diversity
LOWER CENTRAL UPPER
Community types
3000-3400 3400-3600 3600-4200 N Richness H Evenness
1 Erica trimera-Hagenia abyssinica-Hypericum revolutum + + - 17 45 2.23 0.96
2 Erica trimera-Polystichum sp.-Hypericum revolutum + + - 13 33 2.11 0.95
3 Erica trimera-Hypericum revolutum-Alchemilla abyssinica + + - 13 32 2.36 0.97
4 Erica trimera-Cynoglossum amplifolium-Discopodium penninervium - + - 8 31 2.43 0.99
5 Schefflera volkensii-Erica trimera-Discopodium penninervium + - - 5 34 2.54 0.97
6 Senecio fresenii-Alchemilla abyssinica-Cynoglossum amplifolium + + - 2 20 2.47 0.99
7 Erica trimera-Luzula johnstonii-Geranium arabicum + + - 9 37 1.89 0.94
8 Lotus discolor-Polystichum sp.-Schefflera volkensii + - - 2 15 2.31 0.96
9 Haplocarpha rueppellii-Alchemilla microbetula-Alchemilla pedata + + + 12 39 2.11 0.95
10 Alchemilla fischeri-Luzula abyssinica-Cineraria abyssinica + + + 15 48 2.21 0.97
11 Festuca richardii-Dryopteris inaequalis-Alchemilla haumanii - + + 3 20 2.42 0.97
12 Alchemilla pedata-Asplenium aethiopicum-Alchemilla abyssinica - + - 9 35 2.29 0.97
13 Satureja paradoxa-Asplenium aethiopicum-Geranium arabicum - - + 2 7 0.81 0.42
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 163

Successional trends
Changes in the stand structure of the vegetation caused by frequent fires are more apparent along
the northwestern slopes of the Bale Mountains due to their proximity to towns (Masresha Fetene
et al. 2005), but there are also clear trends on the southern slopes. Frequent fires and heavy grazing
pressure have apparently induced transitions in the plant community composition: the usual sequence
is from the Erica trimera-Helichrysum citrispinum community to the Euphorbia dumalis-Kniphofia
foliosa community (Masresha Fetene et al. 2005) This successional series may be unique to the Bale
Mountains because comparably intense land use is not known for other Afroalpine regions of East
Africa.
Abundance of Ericaceous species
In terms of frequency, seven (out of eight) tree/shrub species showed a clear variation in abundance
with altitude (see Table 2). The eighth species, Pittosporum viridiflorum, was recorded in one plot
only. Trends for Erica trimera and Hypericum revolutum resembled each other, except that H.
revolutum was absent in the upper part of the Ericaceous belt.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
DP EA ET HA HR RM SV
Upper part of
Ericaceous
vegetation
Central part of
Ericaceous
vegetation
Lower part of
Ericaceous
vegetation
Figure 1. Frequency of the seven treeline species D. penninervium (DP), Erica arborea (EA), E.
trimera (ET), H. abyssinica (HA), H. revolutum (HR) S. volkensii and R. melanophloes (RM) at
upper, central, and lower part of the Ericaceous vegetation.
At the lower Ericaceous subzone the frequency of E. trimera was lower than the other
upper montane species because of the competitive strength of the other montane woodland species
(Miehe and Miehe 1994). However, the heather is an important component of all three subzones
of the Ericaceous belt and no other species including E. arborea showed such a wide altitudinal
distribution. Erica arborea occurred in all three subzones, but was not found lower than 3200 m,
while M. melanophloeos. Hypericum revolutum and D. penninervium were constituents of both the
lower and central subzone but not of the upper subzone. Schefflera volkensii is restricted to the lower
part of the Ericaceous belt.
The average percent cover of E. trimera at the upper, lower and central subzones of the
Ericaceous belt was 50, 55, and 45%, respectively. Hagenia abyssinica shows a bimodal distribution
with an average cover-abundance of 30 and 20% in the lower and upper subzones, respectively; but
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 164

it was absent from the central subzone. Hypericum revolutum and Myrsine melanophloeos showed
a similar distribution. General density of tree species showed a similar trend as the frequency and
cover. Hagenia abyssinica attained its highest density (i.e. no. of stems / ha) in the lower subzone,
while M. melanophloeos had its peak in the central subzone.
Table 2. Height, DBH , and total number of stems for five treeline species at the lower (1), central
(2), and upper (3) subzones of the Ericaceous belt in the Harenna escarpment, Bale Mountains (for
DBH and height mean ± 1 standard deviation).
Species Subzones DBH Height n (no. of stems)
D. penninervum 1 2.23 ±1.90 119
2 1.75 ±1.28
3 -- -- -
E. arborea 1 - 1.62 ±1.20 106
2 4.04 1.12 ±0.80
3 -- 0.95 -
E. trimera 1 23.34 ± 7.44 10.19 ±2.20 255
2 12.32 ±12.38 5.30 ±4.53
3 10.00 ±8.20 2.08 ±1.98
H. revolutum 1 26.75 ±8.83 13.60 ±3.37 96
2 16.74 ±10.11 7.37 ±5.86
3 -- --
M. melanophloeos 1 25.02 ±9.49 16.50 ± 6.87 91
2 14.34 ±7.81 8.96 ±6.60
3 -- --
Population structure of trees/shrubs
The height of treeline species decreased with increasing altitude (Table 2). The most notable change
was observed for E. trimera. The regression analysis showed a strong inverse relation between
altitude and plant height (R2 = 0.60). This could be attributed to increase in the environmental struss
such as decrease in temperature (8. Height=54.81-1.42E-0.2altitude).
Although E. trimera is found in all three subzones, it shows variation along the altitudinal gradient.
In the lower (Fig. 1a) and central (Fig. 1b) subzones the size class 7 and 8 are not represented,
while classes 4, 7, 8, 9 are absent in the upper subzones. There might be various reasons for their
absence. A socio-economic study in the area (IBC pers. comm.) has revealed that fuel wood is the
main source of energy for the local communities. Erica trimera and E. arborea are the third most
preferred species only surpassed by M. melanophloeos and Schefflera volkensii. The small twigs of
Erica are the most preferred species for cooking staple foods that require a medium but steady heat
source. Logs are used for constructing huts and fences around farm yards. In addition, Erica spp. are
also highly preferred species for cattle fodder, and construction of bee hives.
Hagenia abyssinica has a more or less ‘J’ shaped-distribution in the lower subzone. However,
it was totally absent in the first, second, fifth, seventh, eighth, and ninth diameter class (Fig. 1d).
Those diameter classes are economically needed both for logging and timber production. The species
is known to be the preferred species for timber production due to its durability and resistance to
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 165

splitting. The higher DBH classes were found in inaccessible sites that are protected from anthropozoogenic
impact. The absence of the first DBH class in the lower subzone could be related to the
species’ reproductive biology, as seeds need light and warm soil for germination (Lange et al. 1997);
grazing pressure may also have some impact. The relatively high incidence of class-1 in the upper
subzone (Fig. 1e), and H. abyssinica‘s complete absence from the central subzone, indicates the
potential of the species to grow in higher altitudes than the current treeline (i.e. above 3600 m asl.).
Hypericum revolutum shows an irregular size class distribution in the lower subzone (Fig.
1f). In the central subzone the higher diameter classes are completely absent (Fig. 1g). This species
is preferentially used for construction of pillars for traditional huts (because of its straight stem); its
numerous branches make it ideal for constructing walls. The species is not represented at all in the
upper subzone.
Myrsine melanophloeos shows an inverted ‘J- shaped distribution (Fig. 1h and 1i). The density
of the species decreases with increasing diameter indicating good regeneration and reproduction.
The limited palatability of the species contributes to survival of saplings and explains the high
density in the first DBH class. The absence of individuals in class 2, 7, 8 in the lower subzone and
3, 7, 8, 10 in the central zone might indicate selective removal of individuals. Farmers prefer the
species for fire wood because it gives high heat, less smoke and a persistent flame.
Schefflera volkensii shows an unhealthy size class distribution being represented only in four
DBH classes (3, 4, 6 and 10) in the lower subzone (Fig. 1j). It is the second most preferred species
by the locals for fuel, because the wood burns slowly but persistently and is often used to maintain
the fire over night. The absence of the species in the central and upper subzone might be due to its
altitudinal limit, i.e. due to some physiological constraint.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 166

Figure 2. Population structure of the dominant tree/shrub species in lower (left column), central
(middle column) and upper subzones (right column) of the Ericaceous vegetation.( DBH classes: 1:

The Ericaceous belt of the Bale Mountains is the zone most seriously affected by progressively
increasing human activities. Cattle and horses exert heavy pressure on the vegetation, especially at
the lower altitudes. The Ericaceous shrubs are cut for fuel wood and are frequently burnt by the
local people for various reasons (Abera and Kinahan this edition). This leads to destruction of the
vegetation, disappearance of the fauna and flora, and hence reduction in the biodiversity of the
region. Moreover, the Bale Mountains are the water catchment area for eight major rivers and the
source of a large number of smaller streams; so possible consequences of changes in the water
retention capacity might have far-reaching consequences.
The woody species are the main sources of energy and construction in the region. As fuel
wood is consumed every day, supplementary fuel from plantation forests is urgently required to
reduce pressure on the natural forest. Unfortunately hardly any forests were planted in the region
so far.
The number of unemployed people is steadily increasing, and cutting and removing trees is
becoming more and more important as a job. Thus, alternative income-generating activities need
to be introduced. Though local people have full access to the forest (there is not much control by
governmental or national park officials), they have not developed an attitude of ownership. This
would require changes in the existing forest and land use policy (Tadesse et al. this edition). At
present, farmers are complaining about the shortage of grazing land, and this resulted in uncontrolled
expansion of grazing into the lower subzone of the Ericaceous belt.
Effective conservation of this fragile ecosystem requires reliable data on the ecology of
the habitats. More data are needed on the relative importance of abiotic conditions (e.g. thermal
conditions with respect to global change) and anthropo-zoogenic impact; studies on these issues
should include records on permanent plots. Creation of awareness among the local population,
plus their participation in the management, and a clear commitment by the relevant parts of the
government are also essential (Tadesse et al. this edition).
Acknowledgements
Financial support for the study from Volkswagen-Foundation, and the Ministry for International
Cooperation, both Germany, are gratefully acknowledged. We thank the staff of the National
Herbarium, Addis Ababa for their assistance in plant identification.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 170

Bale Mountain Lakes: Ecosystems Under Pressure of Global Change?
Hilde Eggermont 1,2 , Melaku Wondafrash 3 , Kay Van Damme 1 , Luc Lens 4 , and Mohammed Umer 5
1 Limnology Unit, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
2 Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Freshwater Biology, Vautierstraat, 1000 Brussel,
Belgium
3 National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 3434, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
4 Terrestrial Ecology Unit, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
5 Department of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Introduction
In mountain regions, there are few human settlements and little agricultural activity. These are cold
environments hostile to human occupation, widely regarded as places where the air is clean, water
is pure and ecosystems are pristine. Yet, nowadays, mountain regions are no longer untouched.
Pollutants (e.g., acids, fly ash particles and persistent organics pollutants or POPs) from urban
centers and from industrial activity far from the mountains themselves are carried to such regions by
the atmosphere and the concentrations of pollutants can be enhanced by the mountain environment
itself causing damage to sensitive terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Fernandez et al. 2005). Now,
climate change brings an added threat, especially as temperature is increasing more rapidly in
mountain regions than in the lowlands (Diaz and Bradley 1997). In mountain lakes, global warming
not only threatens biodiversity directly, for example by causing a reduction in the habitats available
for cold stenothermic taxa, but also indirectly by modifying the behaviour of pollutants and in some
cases by remobilising previously deposited pollutants. The hydrochemical characteristics, simple
food webs and relatively low biodiversity of (remote) mountain lakes are believed to make them
excellent early-warning systems for global environmental change (e.g., Psenner and Schmidt 1992;
Sommaruga-Wögrath et al. 1997; Skjelkvale and Wright 1998; Battarbee et al. 2002).
Environmental change in many tropical alpine habitats remains poorly resolved due to an
absence of proximate and sustained observations (Panizzo et al. 2007). In contrast to long-term
monitoring records (including documentary evidence) from alpine regions in temperate latitudes
(e.g., Psenner and Schmidt 1992; Koinig et al. 1998, 2002; Lotter and Bigler 2000; Battarbee
et al. 2002), there is a paucity of similar datasets in tropical alpine regions in Africa. As alpine
environments like the East African Highlands are hotspots of biodiversity and highly sensitive to
climatic changes occurring on a global scale, high quality paleoenvironmental records from African
lakes are especially important (Umer et al. 2007; Russell et al. 2009; Tiercelin et al. 2008; Eggermont
et al. 2010).
The Bale Mountains of south-central Ethiopia form the largest continuous area above 3000
m in Africa, supporting the most extensive area of Afroalpine and subalpine Ericaceous vegetation
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 171

on the continent (Miehe and Miehe 1994). They have a distinctive endemic fauna and flora resulting
from their combination of area, isolation and climatic history (Kingdon 1990). The sediments
of some of the lakes in the area record provide an appropriate archive to assess how the aquatic
biota has responded to ecological changes over the past ~400 years. As such, paleo-ecological
data from the Bale Mountains can contribute to our understanding of the ecosystem’s integrity and
resilience to global change effects, and guide effective conservation practices. Previous research
on the Bale Mountain lakes is very scarce. Löffler (1978) visited some 15 lakes and pools to obtain
paleolimnological information and to learn about the zoogeographical relationships with the East
African high mountain lakes (i.e. Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and the Rwenzoris). Unfortunately,
presented data are incomplete and taxonomic resolution is low (mostly up to genus level only).
Moreover, geographic coordinates are lacking complicating monitoring work in a region dotted
with numerous waterbodies. Subsequent studies (Umer et al. 2007; Tiercelin et al. 2008) focused on
the Late Pleistocene and Holocene climate and vegetation history, using a 16700-year record from
Garba Guracha (3917 m a.s.l.). In these studies, however, time resolution over the last centuries
is low preventing assessment of recent trends of environmental change and associated ecosystem
response.
In sum, given increased pressure on the Bale Mountain lakes, there is an urgent need to (1)
document the physical and chemical properties of these (still relatively) undamaged lakes to assess
their vulnerability to global change, (2) document the poorly known biodiversity of aquatic algae,
insects and micro-crustacea in the unique setting of the Bale Mountain lakes and pools to have
a baseline against which to compare future changes; and (3) document the response of the Bale
Mountain’s aquatic biota to global change effects over the past ~400 years. A better understanding
of aquatic ecosystem resilience to (future) environmental change is of wider benefit as changes
in mountain lake ecosystems can forewarn impending change in areas far beyond the mountains
themselves. Here, we will outline our project strategy, and present some preliminary field data.
More data will become available shortly (particularly on the paleorecord and biological surveys),
and will be presented as a series of peer-reviewed papers.
Study Area
The Bale Mountain massif, situated between 6°30’-7°20’ N and 39° -40°30’ E, consists of Miocene
basalt and trachyte lavas overlying Mesozoic marine sediments (Mohr 1971; Gobena et al. 1996,
1998). Boulder spreads and till ridges indicate the former presence of a 30 km² ice cap around the
4400 m peak of Tullu Dimtu, and valley glaciers on the north. Tullu Dimtu and Mt Batu (4340
m), the highest peaks in southern Ethiopia, rise above a high plateau, situated at altitudes of 4000
to 4200 m and with an area of approximately 500 km². Until recently, the plateau was sparsely
populated by humans, but vegetation disturbance by cutting, burning and domestic stock grazing
has increased in the last 30 years (Miehe and Miehe 1994). Air temperatures in the study area have
a wide diurnal range but relatively slight seasonal variation (Löffler 1978). Frost is a common
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occurrence above 4000 m. Rainfall is highly seasonal on the northern slopes of the mountains, with
most of the mean annual rainfall occurring between July and September. Annual precipitation rises
with altitude from 925 mm at Goba (2720 m) to 1086 mm at Chorchora (3500 m) and 1061 mm
at Koromi (3850 m), but is markedly lower at the highest altitudes (852 mm at Konteh, 4050 m).
Mean annual rainfall on the southern slopes is less (848 mm at Rira, 3000 m) but is more evenly
distributed through the year (Miehe and Miehe 1994; Umer et al. 2007). At present, no permanent
snow can be discovered, but precipitation in the form of hail may occur. The Bale Mountains, like
other tropical mountains, exhibit discrete vegetation belts distributed across the altitudinal gradient
(Hedberg 1951, 1955; Friis 1986; Uhlig and Uhlig 1991; Miehe and Miehe 1994). Differences in
rainfall seasonality between the northern and southern slopes give rise to a corresponding difference
in their vegetation (for details, see Umer et al. 2007). According to Messerli et al. (1976), the Bale
Mountains represent the largest area in Ethiopia glaciated during the Pleistocene, occupying all of
the plateau, with the snowline as low as 3600 to 3800 m.
Material and Methods
In January 2009 (dry season) and May 2010 (short wet season), we surveyed virtually all (12)
permanent lakes situated between 3900 and 4200 m on the Sanetti Plateau. In order to maximize use
of collected materials and field data in a variety of studies, lakes were explored following a fixed
procedure, which includes:
1. General characterization of topography and vegetation in the drainage basin.
2. Determination of lake bathymetry by depth measurements (i.e. GPS and echo-sounding)
along cross-lake transects. We also mapped wet season and dry season shorelines as to
estimate seasonal water loss.
3. Recovery of continuous depth profiles of temperature, conductivity (salinity), pH and oxygen
at the principal sampling station, as to determine the stratification and thus temperature
regime. Transparency was measured using a secchi desk.
4. Collection of water samples in lakes and inflowing rivers to determine their general water
chemistry including anions, cations, dissolved organic carbon, nutrients and pigment
concentration (for sampling and analysis protocols, see Eggermont et al. 2007)
5. Collection of an intact surface-sediment samples for analysis of various climate-proxy
indicators (fossil chironomids, cladocera and ostracods; fossil diatoms; algal pigments;
geochemistry; biomarkers and pollen) along environmental gradients
6. Sampling of the modern (living) aquatic algae, insects and micro-crustacea in littoral,
pelagic, benthic, epibenthic and epiphytic habitats.
7. Recovery of a short sediment core (~50 cm) of recent sediments in Garba Guracha for a
multi-proxy reconstruction (i.e. reconstructions using various biological, geochemical and
sedimentological indicators) of the ecological and limnological response to climate change.
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Preliminary Results
All the lakes and ponds are situated well above the timber line, which is marked by Hagenia-
Hypercicum (2800 – 3200 m in the southwest, and 3300 – 3500 m in the northeast exposition).
On mountains north of the Bale range, such as Mt. Bada (4139 m), Mt. Abuye Meda (4305 m),
Mt. Choke (4070 m), Mt. Guna (4231 m), Abuna Josef (4190 m) and the Semien range (4548
m), lakes are either absent (Semien) or do not occur at altitudes above the timberline. Although
Garba Guracha, which is located in a side valley of the Togona River, is the only typical morainic
lake under investigation, there is no doubt that almost all of the lake and pond basins have been
influenced, if not formed, by glacial activity. Many basins have been completely filled up or filled to
such a degree that only very shallow and temporal water bodies remain.
A summary of selected physical and chemical data on the study sites is presented in Table
1. In brief, our Bale Mts study sites are located between 3917 and 4141 m elevation. They are all
permanent (i.e. they also hold water during the dry season), and fairly shallow (average water depth
of 29,1 cm during the dry season and 51,4 cm during the wet season ), except for Garba Guracha
which is distinctly deeper (5,2 m during the dry season, and 6,0 m during the wet season). High
water marks along the shoreline and GPS mapping of wet and dry season shorelines indicate that
water level can vary considerably between seasons (up to 1m), especially in the larger lakes like
Garba Guracha and Hara Laki (called Hora Orgona by Löffler 1978). Water bodies look visibly very
different during wet and dry season. More specifically, macrophytes are far less common and water
transparency is considerably lower during the dry season (often with large amounts of suspended
sediments). This is presumably due to the combination of wind-driven sediment disturbance during
the dry season, and the higher number of waterfowl during that time increasing nutrient content and
algal productivity. Several chemical parameters (such as total phosphorus,
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Table 1. List of the sampled waterbodies, with indication of some basic limnological and chemical parameters. Abbreviations include: LAT (latitude),
LONG (longitude), ELEV (elevation), 1 (dry season values), 2 (wet season values), K25 (specific conductance at 25°C), SWTemp (surface water
temperature), SECCHI (secchi depth), TP (total phosphorus), TN (total nitrogen), Chla (Chlorophyl a), # Taxa (number of Cladocera taxa per lake found
after quick scanning).
max ph ph K25 K25
N° Lake Name Location LONG LAT ELEV Depth (1) Depth (2) Depth (1) (2) (1) (2)
N E m asl cm cm cm µS/cm µS/cm
1 Kidney Lake Togona valley 06°51.107’ 39°52.411’ 4123 30.0 55.0 55.0 8.20 9.56 76.8 85.0
2 Central Lake Togona valley 06°51.249’ 39°52.884’ 4121 40.0 70.0 80.0 7.95 8.10 57.5 43.0
3 Hara Lucas Togona valley 06°51.498’ 39°53.054’ 4101 20.0 45.0 50.0 7.16 8.07 47.3 47.0
4 Hara Lakota 1 (twin pond 1) Togona valley 06°52.952’ 39°53.459’ 4031 30.0 45.0 50.0 7.09 7.84 34.1 26.0
5 Hara Lakota 2 (twin pond 2) Togona valley 06°53.060’ 39°53.532’ 4029 40.0 70.0 80.0 7.25 7.83 41.1 37.0
6 Togona Lake Togona valley 06°53.095’ 39°53.720’ 3967 30.0 60.0 60.0 7.26 7.67 30.2 22.0
7 Garba Guracha Togona valley 06°52.812’ 39°52.245’ 3917 520.0 600.0 620.0 7.57 7.53 63.0 58.0
8 Koromi Lake Togona valley 06°53.561’ 39°54.458’ 3948 30.0 60.0 70.0 7.80 7.82 17.0 17.0
9 Crane Lake Togona valley 06°51.285’ 39°53.580’ 4047 20.0 30.0 30.0 9.40 7.85 42.5 47.0
10 Hara Laki Mireta valley 06°50.182’ 39°50.789’ 4099 20.0 50.0 120.0 8.73 7.70 2410.0 912.0
11 Kuware Lake Mireta valley 06° 50.377’ 39°52.110’ 4141 40.0 55.0 80.0 7.98 8.23 131.0 128.0
12 Dimtu Lake Mireta valley 06°49.787’ 39°51.552’ 4092 20.0 25.0 100.0 8.84 9.09 457.0 263.0
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Table 1 continued. List of the sampled waterbodies, with indication of some basic limnological and chemical parameters. Abbreviations include: LAT
(latitude), LONG (longitude), ELEV (elevation), 1 (dry season values), 2 (wet season values), K25 (specific conductance at 25°C), SWTemp (surface
water temperature), SECCHI (secchi depth), TP (total phosphorus), TN (total nitrogen), Chla (Chlorophyl a), # Taxa (number of Cladocera taxa per
lake found after quick scanning).
SWTemp SWTemp O2 O2 SECChI SECChI
Chla Chla
N° Lake Name
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) TP (1) TP (2) TN (1) TN (2) (1) (2)
°C °C mg/L mg/L cm cm µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/l µg/l
1 Kidney Lake 2.71 16.27 7.62 8.15 bottom bottom 93.53 83.06 1466.8 686.3 1.41 0.20
2 Central Lake 11.71 7.39 8.01 7.11 20.0 bottom 92.60 20.10 1084.4 298.1 0.98 0.11
3 Hara Lucas 2.60 7.21 6.94 7.04 bottom bottom 82.38 23.94 1430.4 429.7 1.23 0.27
4 Hara Lakota 1 (twin pond 1) 10.61 12.36 7.04 6.65 bottom bottom 131.93 19.48 1706.4 407.5 3.68 1.23
5 Hara Lakota 2 (twin pond 2) 11.90 11.85 8.44 7.11 20.0 bottom 68.44 22.24 1217.5 496.3 4.23 0.34
6 Togona Lake 8.50 11.40 7.42 6.28 bottom bottom 52.34 9.04 906.4 263.3 n.a. 0.61
7 Garba Guracha 9.87 14.35 5.56 7.21 350.0 350.0 43.98 28.99 474.9 486.6 6.11 1.83
8 Koromi Lake 7.80 11.83 7.90 6.61 30.0 bottom 88.88 22.70 836.4 203.8 0.75 0.25
9 Crane Lake 13.20 8.13 10.23 7.89 bottom bottom 209.98 68.32 1147.4 680.8 17.63 0.56
10 Hara Laki 8.90 9.17 8.32 6.56 10.0 bottom 92.91 37.44 2275.2 1339.3 5.59 0.29
11 Kuware Lake 5.40 13.13 7.00 7.81 10.0 45.0 108.40 102.39 1569.1 1052.3 5.55 0.34
12 Dimtu Lake 6.56 9.86 8.08 9.57 5.0 bottom 174.36 77.83 2688.5 1561.2 0.55 0.25
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total nitrogen, chlorophyll a, conductivity and pH) show considerable variation between seasons
(i.e. they are all distinctly lower during the wet season except for pH which is higher). The lakes
are naturally eutropic (average TP of 103.3 µg/L in the dry season and 43.0 µg/L in the wet season;
average TN of 1400.3 µg/L in the wet season and 658.8 µg/L in the dry season), and they appear
to be at the boundary between P and N limitation (average mass TN/TP of 13.55 during the dry
season, and 15.33 during the wet weason; Guilford and Hecky 2000; Sterner 2008). Within the
area of investigation, basalt (often olivine-basalt) is predominant and likely responsible for the low
conductivity of most the lakes (surface-water conductivity ranging from 17 to 457 µS/cm in the dry
season, and 17 to 263 µS/cm in the wet season). In at least one case (Hara Laki), alkaline trachyte
contributes to the considerably elevated conductivities (2410 µS/cm during the dry season, and
912 µS/cm during the wet season). All lakes have a neutral to mildly basic pH (ranging from 7.09
to 9.40 in the dry season, and 7.53 to 9.56 in the wet season), and well-oxygenated bottom waters.
They can all be classified as continuous warm polymictic (sensu Eggermont et al. 2007). Surfacewater
temperatures at the time of sampling ranged from 2.6°C to 13.2°C during the dry season, and
7.2 and 16.3°C during the wet season. Surface-water temperatures are highly dependent on the time
of sampling, but for lakes visited at basically the same hour (Hara Lucas, Hara Lakota, Koromi
Lake, Hara Laki, and Dimtu Lake), they are always higher during the wet season. We also noticed
nighttime freezing on several occasions. Based on the available data (more water chemistry data as
well as vegetation monitoring data will become available shortly), we can already conclude that the
Bale Mountain lakes have distinctly different properties during wet and dry seasons (i.e. seasonal
variations within one lake are often as large as variations among lakes). The only exception is Garba
Guracha, the only lake with a water depth exceeding 2m (the lake is hence more buffered against
environmental fluctuations).
Preliminary surveys of the plankton by Löffler demonstrated a large similarity between
lakes. He found that virtually no phytoplankton or rotifers were present in any of the lakes and
ponds. He also noted that the zooplankton was strikingly uniform and was comprised exclusively of
paleartic species (like Daphnia obtusa, Arctodiaptomus (Rhabdiaptomus) n. sp., and Megacyclops
viridis). The benthic Cladocera (mainly genera Macrothrix, Leydigia, Alona, Alonella, Chydorus),
benthic copepods (with the exception of Paracyclops fimbratus) and ostracods, on the other hand,
were found to belong to African subspecies/species or genera. In-depth study of the Bale Mountain
Daphnia populations by Kotov and Taylor (2010), however, revealed misidentification and showed
‘Daphnia obtusa’ to be an endemic obtusa-like species (called Daphnia izpodvala) whose closest
affinity is to the North American Daphnia puleata. Moreover, since the other Cladocera species
were not identified to the species level, zoogeographical interpretations made earlier (emphasizing
the palearctic character of Bale’s plankton and the continuous distribution of many of the species
along the African mountain “backbone”) may not be totally correct. Our biological analyses are
still in progress, but a quick screening of a small selection of samples revealed at least 12 species
with various biogeographical affinities (Alona affinis, Alona guttata, Alona cf. rectangula, Alona
costata species complex, Alona intermedia, Alonella excisa, Chydorus sphaericus species complex,
Chydorus parvus, Daphnia izpodvala, Leydigia sp., Macrothrix hirsuticornis species complex,
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 177

Simocephalus brehmi ). Unlike Löffler, we found the species composition, diversity and abundance
to differ among sites (freshwater lakes with well-developed macrophyt beds were found to be the
most diverse) and seasons (dry season typified by a lower species number and presence of resting
eggs). Interestingly, the plankton was found to exhibit very heavy pigmentation, likely induced as
an adaptation to harmful uV-B waves.
Basically all paleolimnological analyses on the Garba Guracha short cores are still ongoing.
Results will become available shortly.
Environmental Implications
Mountains provide life-sustaining water for most regions of the world. The critical function of
mountains as seasonal of longer-term water storage implies that climatic and other environmental
changes in the world’s mountains will have a large impact, not only on those immediate regions,
but for a much greater area as well. In essence, mountain regions provide a discreet quantifiable
domain where relatively small perturbations in global processes, can cascade down to produce large
changes in most or all of the myriad interdependent mountain systems, from its hydrological cycle
to its complex fauna and flora, and the people that depend on those resources. Since our study will
throw light on aquatic ecosystem health and resilience of Bale Mountain lakes to global change
effects, it will strengthen the capacity of researchers, park managers, other government agents and
local people to protect native species and natural resources.
In economic terms, the Bale Mountains has the potential to attract large numbers of people
in search of opportunities for recreation and tourism (Admasu et al. this edition). By guiding
conservation practices and ecotourism, our study can help to maintain the region’s biodiversity,
beauty and economic value.
Acknowledgements
This research was sponsored by the Fund for Scientific Research (Flanders, Belgium, project
G0528.07), the Leopold III fund for Nature Exploration, and the Belgian Science Policy Action 1.
Fieldwork was conducted under Ethiopia Wildlife Authority permit. We thank all people involved
in the fieldwork, in particular the staff from Frankfurt Zoological Society – Bale Mountains
Conservation Project.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 180

Direct Consumptive Use Value of Ecosystem Goods and Services in the Bale
Mountains Eco-region, Ethiopia
Charlene Watson 1* , E.J. Milner-Gulland 2 and Susana Mourato 1
1 Department of Geography & Environment, and Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change
and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London,
WC2A 2AE, United Kingdom.
2Centre for Environmental Policy, Division of Biology, Imperial College London,
Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, Ascot, Berkshire, SL5 7PY, United Kingdom.
*Email: c.watson2@lse.ac.uk
Abstract
The Bale Mountains Eco-Region supports diverse ecosystem goods and services on which rural
communities are highly dependent for their wellbeing. Environmental contributions to the household
production of crops, livestock and forest products are not adequately represented in policy; hence
the Eco-Region is being steadily degraded. We assess the economic importance of ecosystem
goods and services supporting agro-pastoral livelihoods. The direct consumptive use accruing to
households annually is US$ 1157 from crop production, US$ 228 from livestock production, and
US$ 407 from forest products. Household production decisions are opportunistic but also motivated
by reaching a subsistence level of wellbeing. The mean annual direct consumptive use value is US$
1791 irrespective of the household’s principal livelihood sources. Under current management, the
annual direct consumptive use value is US$ 366,439,518 across the Eco-Region’s rural population.
This suggests that these communities, heavily reliant on the environment for their livelihoods,
will be severely impacted by declining resource quality. The underlying economic incentives and
household dynamics of rural communities, in the context of local ecological conditions, need to be
considered if conservation strategies are to be consistent with rural development goals.
Introduction
The rise in global population and wealth has not only increased the demand for ecosystem goods and
services, but also necessitated that this demand is met from increasingly degraded ecosystems. In
pursuit of higher levels of welfare, short-term demands are commonly met through the conversion
of natural ecosystems into human managed land-uses causing the loss of biodiversity. The loss of
multiple components of biodiversity providing services fundamental to long-term human welfare, is
predicted to exacerbate poverty levels and reduce food security globally (MA 2005). Thus, ecosystem
conservation should be regarded as a tool to meet international development goals.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 181

Ecosystems are typically degraded and over exploited as a result of the common property
characteristics of their goods and services (Hardin 1968). Despite being valuable assets and
contributing to a country’s economy, ecosystem benefits are not adequately represented in markets.
This market failure now threatens global economic performance and a sustainable level of human
wellbeing (HM Treasury 2006). With many rural livelihoods heavily dependent on natural resources
(Bishop 1999) and therefore vulnerable to changes in access regimes, natural resource policy and
management strategies must adequately incorporate ecosystem values to avoid creating wealth
inequity or conflicts with poverty reduction strategies (Vedeld et al. 2004; OECD 2006). The
application of economic valuation can assess dependence on ecosystem goods and services, drawing
attention to the potential welfare losses of resource degradation. It also leads to better informed,
transparent resource management, with mechanisms to capture economic values, provide incentives
to conserve the resource base, or compensate for livelihood opportunities forgone.
Livelihoods are the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living (Forsyth
et al. 1998). In developing countries, rural livelihoods are largely agro-pastoral, complemented
by natural product harvesting. The contribution of ecosystem goods and services to livelihoods
are numerous and diverse but the valuation of environmental benefits is rare. Undertaken within
a sustainable livelihood context, few existing studies have conducted economic analysis of
crops (Dovie et al. 2003), livestock (Scoones 1990; Davies 2007), or their relative contributions
(Shackleton et al. 2001; Dovie et al. 2005). Motivated by the potentially substantial contribution
of forest products to rural households (Neumann and Hirsch 2000; Vedeld et al. 2004), a number
of studies have assessed this value. Potential forest incomes range from US$ 5 per hectare in the
Brazilian Amazon to US$ 422 in the Peruvian Amazon (Godoy and Lubowski 1992; Lampietti and
Dixon 1995). Other demand-led studies focus on specific goods; Mander et al. (2006) estimate the
marketed and non-marketed value of medicinal plants in Ethiopia close to US$ 50,000,000. While
forest product studies reporting possible per hectare values are of use in demonstrating ecosystem
value and as precursors for adding value to forest products, studies focusing on derived economic
values are more directly applicable to decision-making as a starting point from which to assess the
relative reliance on livelihood sources. In rural South Africa, annual income deriving from agropastoralism
and secondary woodland resources was found to be US$ 1660 per household with 27%
from crops, 40% from livestock, and 34% from woodland resources including, fuelwood, grass,
medicinal plants, construction materials and edible plants (Dovie et al. 2005). A Tanzanian study
finds similar contribution from crops (26%) and livestock (53%), but a high contribution from nonagricultural
income that excludes forest products (21%) and a much lower overall household income
of US$ 203 (Dercon 1998). A review undertaken by Vedeld et al. (2004) reports agriculture, including
livestock, as generating 37% of income, forests 22%, and off-farm activities 38%, confirming that
crop production, agriculture and forest production are principal rural livelihood sources. However,
the observed range in economic value (US$ 1.3 to US$ 3,460) between 54 cases over 17 countries,
illustrates the influence of the national environment and policy context on livelihood strategies.
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As more literature seeks to explore the poverty and environment link (Bucknall et al. 2000;
IUCN 2005; Ash and Jenkins 2007), Ethiopia provides an interesting case study to assess the value
of ecosystem goods and services accruing directly to rural populations, the direct consumptive
use value. With a population of 75 million in 2007 (IMF 2007), 85% live in rural areas and 78%
on less than US$ 2 per day (UNDP 2007). With the majority of Ethiopia’s 1,221,900 km2 land
area falling into one of two biodiversity hotspots (GEF 2006), the need to balance development
and conservation goals is clear. Understanding the economic incentives of natural resource use
and underlying economic dependence of rural households on ecosystem goods and services will
prove crucial for conservation efforts, sustainable development and poverty reduction. The only
study exploring economic dependence on forest resources in Ethiopia which we are aware of is
Mamo et al. (2007), who assessed the intra-community economic dependence on forest resources
using income as a proxy for dependence. They found forest incomes contribute 39% of household
income, agriculture, including livestock, contributes 40%, and forest income is most important for
the poorest households. These findings reinforce the contention that degradation of ecosystems will
have negative welfare consequences and highlights the possibility that costs may not be evenly
distributed. It does not, however, consider the inter-community differences in value derived from
ecosystem goods and services. Here we use primary data from the Bale Mountain Eco-region,
southern Ethiopia, to assess the direct consumptive value of ecosystem goods and services deriving
to rural communities, and to investigate differences between communities within the same policy
and management context.
Description of Study Area
Location
The Bale Mountains Eco-region forms part of the Bale-Arsi massif in the south-eastern Ethiopian
Highlands. In the Oromia Regional State, it covers 22,176 km2 with a population estimated
at 1,276,062 in 2001 (ABRDP 2004). There is large topographic variation over the Eco-region
with a central afro-alpine plateau at 4000 m a.s.l. falling rapidly to the south, with moist tropical
forest between 3700 and 1500 m a.s.l., and to the north of which habitats comprise of woodlands,
grasslands and wetlands between 3000 and 3500 m a.s.l. Containing the largest area of Afroalpine
habitat on the continent and the second largest moist tropical forest in Ethiopia, the habitats of the
Bale Mountains host a number of rare and endemic species (Asefa this edition). It belongs to one of
34 global biodiversity hotspots (Williams et al. 2005). The Eco-region also encompasses the Bale
Mountains National Park that, although established since 1971, has never been legally constituted
and access is largely unregulated (see Tadesse et al. this edition).
Policy context
Management of natural resources in the Bale Mountains has a history shared across wider Ethiopia.
Until the 1990s, civil war and political instability sidelined natural resource conservation and
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ecosystems were degraded through rebel force occupation and return of displaced communities into
neglected National Parks and sanctuaries. The end of political suppression initiated countrywide
economic reform focussed on poverty alleviation through improved agricultural productivity
(Abrar et al. 2004). Exacerbating the environmental impact of political instability, this agricultural
development-led industrialisation saw large-scale conversion of Ethiopia’s natural forests to
agricultural land for small productivity gains (Pender and Gebremedhin 2006). The government
ban on private ownership of land further compounded effects with uncertainty of land tenure
disincentivising a largely rural population to maintain ecosystem quality, and farmers to invest
in productivity improvements decreasing land requirements. The Bale Mountains Eco-region
exemplifies this history, providing a substantial array of ecosystem goods and services, the economic
values of which have either not been protected or not reflected in historical management decisions.
This misallocation of resources and a rising population has resulted in widespread exploitation,
with rural communities deforesting to procure land for crops and livestock grazing (BESMP 2006;
OARDB 2007).
Livelihoods
Primarily agro-pastoral, the Bale Mountains communities are dependent on the ecosystem for their
livelihoods. All household members are involved in crop cultivation through distinct land plots or
home gardens. Livestock rearing, the original subsistence system in Bale, serves a variety of purposes
including meat and milk products, manure, draught power, transport and skins. Livestock are also
important for social status, playing a role in marriage, dispute settlement and ritual performances
(BMDC 2003). Households also engage in the harvesting of forest products including firewood,
materials for construction, and where local conditions allow, forest honey and coffee. This study
defines forest products as the array of natural products that can be harvested from natural areas and
includes products that are not explicitly found in forested areas.
Economic value
This study takes a utilitarian definition of value where preferences are held for different market and
non-market goods, and trade-offs made between goods in the pursuit of maximum wellbeing reveal
the values held for each good (Freeman 2003). In a monetary metric, this translates to the consumer’s
willingness-to-pay for a particular benefit, or in some cases willingness-to-accept compensation
for a loss. Under this anthropocentric approach, environmental values can be classified within the
framework of total economic value (Pearce and Warford 1993) and within this framework the Bale
Mountains Eco-region provides many ecosystem goods and services (Table 1).
These values extend to many beneficiaries in multiple forms and there is no clear boundary
for economic valuation in the Bale Mountains Eco-region. This study concentrates on the annual
direct consumptive use value derived by the local communities, recognising that other sources
of value are likely to be considerable. Reliant on the ecosystem for their livelihoods, these local
communities will first experience the rising costs of ecosystem degradation and are also those most
heavily impacted by future policy change and management in the region.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 184

Table 1. Ecosystem goods and services contributing to TEV in the Bale Mountains Eco-region
Methods
Total Economic Value
use Values Non-use Values
Direct use Indirect use Option For others Existence
Domestic Water
Forest Products
L i v e s t o c k
Rangelands
Medicinal Plants
Cropland
Ground water
recharge
Flood control
Drought control
C a r b o n
Sequestration
Soil formation &
Maintenance
Pharmaceuticals
Genetic library
Habitats
Biodiversity
Species
Habitats
T r a d i t i o n a l
livelihoods
Culture & heritage
Prevention of
irreversible change
Endemic species
Habitat types &
landscapes
Ritual or spiritual
connections
Fuelwood collection Waste assimilation
C o n s t r u c t i o n
Materials
Honey Production
Water purification
Pest & Disease
Control
Coffee Production Pollination
Recreation Storm protection
Tourism Shade
Research
Education
Wind shelter
Market valuation
The economic value of the ecosystem contribution to household production was quantified through
market-value methods (OECD 2002). The use of market prices is widely acceptable and understood,
producing a conservative estimate of value due to the exclusion of consumer surplus in market
prices. Household produce in Bale is both consumed at home and sold, and all products are available
in competitive, unrestricted markets. Prices are, therefore, assumed to be market driven and
imperfections minimal; prices reflect the full opportunity cost of production inputs (Bishop 1999).
By accounting for human production inputs we can infer the value of the environmental input, or the
direct consumptive use value, accrued through the key livelihood sources.
Crop produce is primarily consumed within the household with excess and cash crops sold
locally. The Bale Mountains Ecosystem provides water, sunlight, pollinators, and wind shelter for
crop growth and rich soils providing nutrients and regulating water flow. As land is state owned no
capital costs are associated with its use, but market price of crop yields does include environmental
and human inputs. Assessing the difference between the total value of crop yield and the costs of
equipment, fertiliser, seeds and household labour, we can infer the value of the environmental input.
The environment also supports the health and reproduction of household’s domestic livestock.
In particular, through access to commonly owned grazing areas and rivers. Without data on the
grazing requirements of livestock a simple commercial approach is taken giving a lower bound
estimate of the value conferred by ecosystem goods and services. Only the sale of live animals
and home consumption is considered. Sources of value such as draught power and transport are
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excluded from the analysis. The market price of livestock includes costs of production including;
household labour, equipment, additional feed and medicine. The private cost of livestock grazing
on land is zero and the benefits of livestock accrue to owners each year until an animal declines in
health and is consumed by the household, sold, or perishes through old age or wildlife predation.
Subtracting the costs of human inputs from the value of the marketed outputs, we can estimate a
lower bound value of the environmental inputs of livestock production.
Forest products are available as a result of the plant and animal diversity of the Bale
Mountains ecosystem and the services supporting them. Capital input is primarily household labour
to harvest products. The value from the environment can be inferred from the current market value
of the specific forest product gathered minus the cost of labour inputs.
Data collection
Research was undertaken in four villages (kebeles) over three districts (woredas), representing
different altitudes and communities both inside and outside the Bale Mountains National Park
(Fig. 1, Table 2). Data were collected through structured household questionnaires (de Vaus 2002)
between April and July 2007 with households defined as ‘the people that normally eat and sleep
under the same roof’ (Rowland and Gatward 2003). Annual crop yields, livestock sales, and the
harvested forest products, both commercially traded and consumed, were gathered alongside
demographic data. Respondents were principally household heads, sought due to their envisaged
knowledge about the household economy, and respondents participated voluntarily with assurances
of anonymity. questionnaires and focus groups were verbally administered in Oromo by trained
enumerators. Every third household was approached and the nearest neighbour substituted if
occupants were absent or unwilling to participate. In total, 195 households (Table 1) completed the
questionnaire which was tailored to the study area through pre-pilot and pilot stages to add clarity,
aid understanding, and reduce political and cultural sensitivities.
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Figure 1. Map of the Bale Mountains Eco-region (shaded areas) showing survey sites (see Table 2),
the polygon denotes the National Park.
Table 2. Survey Sites (refer to Figure 1)
Kebele, Woreda masl♦ Population † Total number of
households †
Number of
households
Surveyed
1 Chiri, Delo Mena 1389 8368 1389 45 3.2
2 Rira, Goba 2902 1495 220 50 22.7
3 Fassil, Goba 2885 1578 255 50 19.6
4 Hora-Soba, Dinsho 3161 6056 760 50 6.6
♦ masl=metres above sea level
† Data from Rural and Woreda Development Offices in Hora Soba, Delo Mena and Goba
Percentage of
households
sampled
Complementary focus groups provided a qualitative understanding of resource-use and day-today
concerns of the Eco-region populace. These explored the inputs of crop and livestock production
including labour, access to markets and employment opportunities. Market prices were collated from
Goba market, the most accessible by all survey sites, and where values were not available, local
market values or household selling prices were substituted. Data were analysed through descriptive
statistics and univariate statistics, including ANOVA and ordinary least squares regression.
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Results
Socio-demographics
The sample population (the total number of people reported as living within households, summed
over all survey sites) was predominantly Oromo, the politically dominant ethnicity in the country.
It was also young and un-schooled, with over 60% under the age of 18 and less than 50% having
completed, or currently undertaking, any education. Average household size was 7.38 ± 0.25
individuals. Focus groups revealed that rural job opportunities were extremely limited and, when
available, male dominated with meagre wages. Crop and livestock management were the primary
day-to-day activities with few households involved in trading or service provision. With minimal
alternative wage earning opportunities, household labour inputs in crop production, livestock rearing
and forest product harvesting were assumed negligible.
Crop production
Crops were grown by 96% of households with Maize, tef (a robust cereal crop) and fruits dominating
low altitude agriculture and barley and root crops dominating at higher altitudes. Seed inputs were
low, or averted by collection from previous years; purchased seed varied between 0.33 and 25
Ethiopian Birr (ETB) per kilogram (US$1 = ETB9.0745 at time of study). Fertiliser application
was either absent, minimal due to lack of finance, or manure based. The use of livestock manure
was reported in two study kebeles and diammonium phosphate (costing 4 ETB/kg) use for barley
crops reported rarely in a single kebele. Equipment costs were also minimal with livestock used for
ploughing and farm tools made from forest products. High levels of precipitation preclude the need
for irrigation schemes and 93% of households stated rain as the source of crop water. As the level
of inputs to secure production is minimal, the direct consumptive use value deriving from crops is
estimated as the market value of household crop yield. Mean household crop value was found to be
10,507 ± 658 ETB per annum (median = 8,109). The range of crop values were large from 0 to over
44,000 ETB and significant differences were found between study sites (Fig. 2a; F(3,181) = 7.78, p
< 0.001).
Livestock production
Cattle, horses, donkeys, mules, sheep and goats, were kept by 99% of households for destructive
(skins, selling and meat), and non-destructive (transport, ploughing, reproduction, milk) purposes.
Livestock inputs were minimal with medicinal costs constrained to, at most, annual cattle
vaccinations (0.30 ETB per animal) and ill livestock often slaughtered rather than treated. Additional
feed provision was reported in 81% of livestock owning households but was largely a product or
by-product of agriculture. Only oil-seed cake and salt were purchased at low cost (2.20 ETB and 0.8
ETB per kg, respectively). Assessment of the marketed livestock products revealed a mean livestock
value of 2,065 ± 148 ETB (median = 1,668) ranging from 0 to 9,020 ETB (Fig. 2b; F(3,180) = 2.45,
p = 0.0652).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 188

2(a) Crop Production
HH Crop Value
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Chiri (n=45) Rira (n=46) Fassil (n=44) Hora Soba
(n=50)
2(b) Livestock Rearing
HH Livestock Value
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Chiri (n=45) Rira (n=47) Fassil (n=48) Hora Soba
(n=50)
2(c) Forest Product Harvesting
HH Forest Product Value
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Chiri (n=45) Rira (n=50) Fassil (n=50) Hora Soba (n=50)
Figure 2. Mean Household Direct Consumptive Use Value (ETB) from (a) Crop Production, (b)
Livestock Rearing, and (c) Forest Product Harvesting.
Forest product harvesting
Gathering of forest products was reported in all households. As the input to secure forest products
was household labour, the cost of which is assumed negligible, direct consumptive use value equates
to the market value of harvested forest products. The overall mean value of forest products is 3,696
± 221 ETB (median = 2,680), ranging from 0 to 14,243 ETB with significant differences between
study sites (Fig. 2c; F(3,190) = 94.50, p < 0.0001). The magnitude of value from discrete forest
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 189

products varies between sites. Chiri households to the south of the park derive mean value of over
5,000 ETB from forest coffee and Rira households, within the park, over 1,400 ETB from honey.
Despite differences in value, there are similarities in forest product types. Firewood was the most
frequently reported forest product with mean annual value just under 1,500 ETB per household.
Reliance on principal livelihood types
The direct consumptive use value for each household is measured as the aggregated value of crops,
livestock, and forest products. Households with incomplete data for principal livelihood sources
were removed from the analysis. Across survey sites, mean per annum value was 16,253 ± 738
ETB (n = 176), with a median of 14,238 ETB. No significant differences were found between
surveyed kebeles (F(3,172) = 1.09, p = 0.3550) despite significant differences between crop and
forest product component values (Table 3, Fig. 3a and 3b). Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression
analysis revealed that this direct consumptive use value is positively correlated with the total number
of people residing in the household (OLS = 643.65, p = 0.002; R2 = 0.055, F statistic = 10.16, n =
176). Separate OLS revealed that survey site was a non-significant determinant of household direct
consumptive use value (OLS = -2712.45, p = 0.203; OLS = -3004.79, p = 0.161; OLS =
Chiri Rira Hora Soba
-396.14, p = 0.847; R2 = 0.019, F statistic = 1.09, n = 176).
Table 3. Composition of Annual Household Direct Consumptive Use (DCU)
Value (ETB)
S u r v e y
Site
n
Proportion of hh Value
F o r e s t
Crops Livestock
Products
household
DCu Value
(ETB)
Overall 176 0.64 0.13 0.23 16253.01
Chiri 43 0.39 0.10 0.52 15029.85
Rira 42 0.59 0.18 0.23 14738.51
Fassil 42 0.73 0.12 0.15 17743.30
Hora Soba 49 0.80 0.12 0.08 17347.16
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 190

3(a) Mean Household Annual Direct Consumptive Use Value
Household DCU (ETB)
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
Chiri (n=43) Rira (n=42) Fassil (n=42) Hora Soba (n=49)
3(b) Relative Contribution of Principal Livelihood Sources
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Chiri (n=43) Rira (n=42) Fassil (n=42) Hora Soba (n=49)
Forest Products
Livestock
Figure 3. (a) Mean Annual Household Direct Consumptive Use Value, and (b) Relative Contribution
of Principal Livelihood sources, by survey site (ETB).
Aggregate direct consumptive use value
Converting household value to US$, the mean annual direct consumptive use value is US$287 ±
16.16 per capita; a daily value of US$0.79 ± 0.04. Applying a population growth rate of 2.76% in
2001/2-2005/6 (IMF 2007) and discounting the urban population for which assumptions about the
use of ecosystem goods and services cannot be made, the rural Eco-region population is estimated at
1,277,131. Aggregating the per capita value, the direct consumptive use value for ecosystem goods
and services across the Bale Mountains Eco-region population is US$366,439,518 per annum, a
substantial contribution to the local economy (Table 4).
Table 4. Mean Direct Consumptive Use (DCU) Value (US$)
Survey Site
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 191
Crops
Annual DCu Value (uS$) Daily DCu Value (uS$)
per household per person per person
Overall 1791.06 286.92 0.79
Chiri 1656.27 187.23 0.51
Rira 1624.17 258.75 0.71
Fassil 1955.29 337.13 0.92
Hora Soba 1911.64 355.52 0.97

Discussion
This study employed market value methods to estimate direct benefits accruing to rural communities
of the Bale Mountains Eco-region. Using market prices a lower-limit estimate of the total value of
environmental contributors to production are observed and consequentially, our value estimates
are conservative. This is beneficial in light of two key study limitations; the assumption that the
opportunity costs of labour are negligible and the omission of negative environmental externalities;
the costs of environmental degradation resulting from livelihood activities. Even with no employment
prospects, an individual would have to fulfil no other useful household tasks to say that no output
is forgone in engaging in productive activity. However, with extremely limited job opportunities
preventing an accurate measure of the minimum wage rate, the assumption that labour costs approach
zero is justified. The omission of environmental externalities, in particular negative externalities,
may mean that the direct consumptive value, though an underestimate from a private perspective,
may be an overestimate from a social perspective. Negative externalities from crop cultivation and
livestock rearing are already observed in the Bale Mountains Eco-region as the destruction of natural
forest for arable and grazing land, with effects such as soil erosion, changes in vegetation, and
the disappearance of wildlife (OARDB 2007). The harvest of forest products may also necessitate
destruction of natural areas and within the National Park commercial extraction of bamboo poles and
unregulated forest coffee extraction affects natural habitats (personal observation). The sustainability
of these principal livelihood strategies has implications for future resource management. With the
Ethiopian government influencing the land use decisions of rural households through incentives,
laws, infrastructure and institutional arrangements, this gap between private and social costs should
be addressed. Despite limitations this study sufficiently allows the investigation of present resource
use from which we can infer the impact of declining benefits or restrictions on use.
Principal direct consumptive use values
Environmental conditions in the Bale Mountains are favourable for crop cultivation with multiple
crop types meeting household needs. The mean direct consumptive use value derived from crop
production is US$1157 ± 73 and differs significantly between kebeles with those at higher altitudes
deriving higher value. Topographic variability of the Bale Mountains Eco-region climatically
constrains the type of crops that can be grown by households with maize, tef and fruits grown
at lower altitudes and, barley and root crops at higher altitudes. Government development and
poverty alleviation schemes continue to promote agricultural intensification and recommendations
focus on better soil management and the use of fertiliser and improved crop varieties (Pender and
Gebremedhin 2006). While intensification might reduce the encroachment of cropland into natural
landscapes, the negative long-term environmental impacts should be assessed before fully endorsed.
Livestock rearing is a common livelihood strategy in the Bale Mountains. In contrast to
previous findings livestock were not reported as being used for insurance, investment or social capital.
Household income from livestock sales amount to US$228 ± 16 annually, but with livestock value
in other studies comprising 57% from draught power alone (Scoones 1990), and value derived yearon-year
from animal reproduction and milk, this study underestimates the private direct use value
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 192

accruing to households. Although non-significant, the differences in the direct consumptive use value
of livestock observed between kebeles is hypothesised to result from differences in grazing quality
between survey sites rather than differing economic incentives for livestock rearing. The implications
of this livestock valuation are particularly important within the National Park where the long period
of unrestricted access has resulted in livestock grazing within its boundaries. With new management
plans to exclude livestock grazing in core National Park areas, this value estimation can inform
management with respect to minimum private welfare values that may be lost through exclusion.
All households engage in the harvesting of forest products with goods gathered
opportunistically dependent on local environmental conditions. Forest coffee is only able to grow
in the lower altitude, warmer forests surrounding Chiri and extensive honey production is found
in Rira. The annual direct consumptive use value derived from marketed and non-marketed forest
products was US$ 407 ± 24 per household. This value is exclusive of medicinal plants and with
annual Ethiopian household expenditure reportedly over US$50 (Mander et al. 2006) their inclusion
may have considerably increased this value. A significant difference is found in direct consumptive
use value of forest products between kebeles. Chiri derives a much greater value from forest products
than other kebeles as a result of high forest coffee market value. Rira and Fassil also have higher
forest product values than Hora Soba which is surrounded by grassland rather than forested land.
These findings imply that proximity to forested areas and the local availability of products affect
forest product dependency. They also draw attention to the high values of forest coffee and honey
production and potential to add value to these forest products. Forest coffee and honey already have
established markets in the Bale Mountains Eco-region so the improvement of these markets is not
unfeasible; even small changes in post harvest handling could add value. This could reduce human
pressure on natural areas by lowering resource extraction and increase the income that households
receive. If community-based organisations could be successfully established for forest products
there may also be potential for organic and fair-trade certification, creating a price premium to
incentivise forest conservation.
Aggregate household direct consumptive use value
The aggregate direct consumptive use value provided by ecosystem goods and services annually
is estimated to be US$1791 ± 81 per household. Over two-thirds of this value derives from crop
production (64%), 13% from livestock production and 23% from forest product harvesting. This study
reinforces the need for valuation within the local environment and management context. Comparison
of relative values show that the Bale communities derive more value from crop production and less
from livestock than Dovie et al. (2005) found in South Africa (27% and 40% respectively), but are
consistent with a meta-analysis revealing household income from forest products at 22% of total
income (Vedeld et al. 2004). The direct consumptive use value is also found to correlate positively
with the number of people living within a household suggesting the availability of labour may factor
in production, but this conclusion is drawn tentatively as the exploration of household production
dynamics was not the research aim of this study. Environmental valuation studies undertaken in rural
areas will complement livelihood assessments and can highlight potential distributional impacts
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 193

of management decisions thus informing targeted development support on the basis of household
attributes such as, education, skills, and social status.
Despite local variations in direct use values from principal livelihood components, aggregate
household value is found not to significantly differ between kebeles. These findings suggest a
baseline level of goods and services are needed to sustain a certain level of wellbeing; a subsistence
level. Derived from the three key components, crops, livestock and forest products, household
production decisions are based on local environmental conditions, as well as access to arable land.
Where land is unsuitable for ploughing and crop growth, households may rely more heavily on
livestock production, or where access to grazing lands is limited, forest products can be relied upon
instead. Chiri exemplifies this, as the presence of forest coffee is such a substantial source of value
that households rarely report any secondary work activities after agriculture, within which they
include the harvest of forest coffee, and so Chiri derives the lowest value from both livestock and
crop production. The livelihood strategies of communities are a balance of the principal components
of direct consumptive use value according to the availability of natural resources; the divergence of
relative value is ecological rather than economically based.
In light of the significant lack of job opportunities in the Bale Mountains Eco-region, it
is possible that the economic value derived from the components assessed in this study represent
the major income of the household. If this were the case, the consistency of the estimated direct
consumptive use value over kebeles suggests that this is the economic value required for a household
to make ends meet. With the observed high rates of time preference found in Ethiopia due to lack
of saving and investment opportunities (Pender and Walker 1990; Holden et al. 1998) this would
be rational; there are no incentives for households to produce more than required to cope from
year-to-year. In keeping with our subsistence theory, income from sold produce will be used for
basic household expenses such as additional food, clothing, medical fees, school fees, household
utensils, and transport fees, as well as for social obligations such as community contributions, tax
and ceremonial expenses. This annual income amounts to US$287 ± 16.16 per person, or a daily
per capita value of US$0.79 ± 0.04. This is higher than the Ethiopia wide average GDP per capita
value of US$114 (UNDP 2007) supporting the generalisation that the Bale Mountains Eco-region
is a relatively ‘rich’ area relative to the rest of the country. While households rely on components of
direct consumptive use value according to site specific resource endowments, the finding that mean
household value does not vary significantly between survey sites allows us to confidently aggregate
direct consumptive use value. The Bale Mountains Eco-region has an estimated population of
1,277,131 rural dwellers. The annual flow of direct consumptive ecosystem goods and services is
therefore, estimated at US$366,439,518. This is a substantial value and excludes other sources of
value arising under the total economic value framework. In response to the continued decline of
managed agricultural land and natural areas, this assessment of ecosystem contribution to economic
activity helps to justify the financial resources required to ensure that conservation targets are met.
This household value can predict how changing resource access and management strategies will
affect rural livelihoods and help determine the measures to be taken to meet both development and
poverty reduction goals.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 194

Acknowledgements
This study was made possible by the Oromia Regional Government and the Bale Mountains National
Park authority, who granted fieldwork permissions. Gratitude is extended to the staff of Frankfurt
Zoological Society (FZS) and the FARM-Africa/SOS-Sahel (FARM/SOS) partnership for their
logistical support and advice. In particular Deborah Randall and Dereje Tadesse from FZS and Ben
Irwin and Luluu from FARM/SOS. Much appreciation to the translators and local liaison officers
Girma, Mohammed, Bedri, Ahmed, Hassen and Kemer, as well as the Bale Mountains communities
especially; Dinsho, Chiri, Rira, Fassil and Hora Soba for generosity with their time. Finally, thanks
to the Economic and Social Research Council that provided university fees and maintenance to
enable this study.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 196

Livestock Grazing in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia: Past, Present and
Future
Flavie Vial 1,2,3* , David W. Macdonald 2 and Daniel T. Haydon 1
1 Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow,
G11 6qq, UK
2 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, Department of Zoology, Tubney
House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Abingdon, Ox13 5qL, UK
3 Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London
London, W2 1PG
*Email: f.vial@imperial.ac.uk
Abstract
All ecosystems are subject to changes, often arising from the cumulative stresses imposed by ever
increasing human demands on ecosystem resources. Anticipating when the limits of acceptable
change might be exceeded is a conservation imperative. In this review, we discuss the Oromo
pastoralists’ land-use within the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) and how such “open access”
utilisation of the Afroalpine for livestock grazing may threaten the park’s conservation goals. We
also present past and ongoing research aimed at quantifying the environmental impact of grazing
on the functioning of the Afroalpine ecosystem, and highlight the future research priorities on this
issue, as well as the need for the park to develop management tools to respond to this large-scale
threat.
The Past
Pastoralism and land use in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia: Past, present and threats
Pastoralism is a significant socio-economic sector in East Africa. Indigenous resource tenure systems
have evolved to meet the constraints of local, often difficult, environments and to facilitate the
operation of complex spatial and temporal land use patterns (Behnke et al. 1993). The communities
in and around BMNP have traditionally herded cattle, sheep and goats sold for cash, bartered for
commodities and generally kept as a saving investment. Traditionally, the transhumance system
of Oromo pastoralists, known as the Godantu system, was a key feature of human use of the Bale
Mountains (see Chiodi and Pinard this edition). They moved their livestock seasonally in order to
exploit areas away from their permanent settlement sites. Under the Godantu system, peak livestock
numbers occurred in the Afroalpine (habitats >3,000m a.s.l.) in the wetter months, from April to
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 197

August, when livestock were moved from lower pastures where agricultural crops were being grown
(OARDB 2007). In the Harenna Forest, influxes of pastoralists from the surrounding lowland areas
were reported for 3-4 months in the dry season (December-March) (OARDB 2007). Livestock also
entered the BMNP to access the natural mineral springs, or horas, that are found in various areas of
the park and have high levels of sodium, potassium, calcium, manganese and zinc (Hillman 1986,
Chiodi and Pinard this edition).
Human settlements inside BMNP have been increasing since the park was established in the
1970s. In 1986 the estimated human population was just 2500 and 10,500 head of livestock (Hillman
1986) with three main areas inhabited: the Upper Web Valley, the western boundary, and the Harenna
escarpment. Current estimates however place the number of people living in the park permanently
and seasonally at approximately 20,000 and 40,000 respectively, bringing with them an estimated
168,300 head of livestock (OARDB 2007). The population expansion has brought a change to the
pattern and seasonality of land use in BMNP. Today, fewer pastoralists still practice the Godantu
system and the majority have settled down with their livestock. The number of permanent pastoralist
settlements in the park now represents over 50% of the number of households both in the Afroalpine
and the Harenna Forest (FZS unpublished data). The explosion in livestock numbers is both a result
of population expansion within the park and of the immigration of pastoralist communities from
the lowlands. This influx of livestock into the park is a direct result of poor land planning outside
the park, where grazing land has been ploughed up, forcing livestock higher into the mountains and
into the park to graze all year round. Such radical changes in land use patterns have been facilitated
by the open access “property” regime (no user holds rights to the resource and nobody is excluded
from it) the grazing land in BMNP falls under (see Tadesse et al. this edition). The rule that governs
resource utilisation under open access is the rule of “first capture” (or first come first served rule)
(Bromley 1997).
A crucial question in Bale therefore is how to conserve the natural resources and the biotic
elements of the environment in the face of intensified human use, given that the livelihoods of
thousands of people depends upon them. Sustainable management of the natural resources needs
to be achieved. This paper and ongoing research specifically deals with the environmental impacts
of grazing on the BMNP ecosystem and aims to quantify this impact on the resources (namely
grassland pastures; Artemisia/Helychrisum shrublands and rodents) that may require protecting.
Environmental Impacts of Grazing on Rangelands
There has been much controversy concerning the effects of livestock grazing on biodiversity and
functioning of native ecosystems (McNaughton 1979; Milchunas and Lauenroth 1993; Hiernaux
1998). The impact of grazing animals can vary greatly across different ecosystems and can depend
upon the response variable used to assess the impact (Milchunas and Lauenroth 1993). Great attention
has been focused on the many effects that herbivores have on plant communities (Huntly 1991).
Domestic livestock and wild grazers have been cohabiting in the highlands for centuries and there is
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evidence that low levels of grazing can be beneficial to vegetation growth and can maintain higher
vegetation diversity (Harper 1969). For instance, although grazers can cause the local extinction of
those species on which they preferentially feed, thereby reducing species diversity (Harper 1969;
Waser and Price 1981), grazers can potentially increase species diversity by reducing the densities
of competitively dominant keystone species where the reduced abundance of a superior competitor
allows competitively inferior species to coexist (Harper 1969; Samson, Philippi et al. 1992). With
increasing livestock grazing intensity, a shift from shrubs and perennial grasses to annual grasses and
forbs is frequently observed, and removal of perennial plants is usually associated with increased
soil erosion (Mwendera et al. 1997). Pasture land properties are also altered by livestock grazing
since the reduction of vegetation cover below a critical level can increase the impact of raindrops,
decrease soil organic matter and soil aggregrates, increase surface soil crusts and decrease water
infiltration rates (Humphreys 1991).
Exploitative competition between livestock and native ungulates and/or small mammals like
rodents often takes place and increases if diets or habitats overlap (Steen et al. 2005). If competition
for habitat and food is important, and particularly if resources are limited, rodent population growth
should decrease with increasing ungulate densities (Tokeshi 1999). Decreases in rodent populations
have been attributed to reduction in vegetation cover (Grant et al. 1982; Keesing and Crawford 2001)
resulting in an increased predation risk (Flowerdew and Ellwood 2001) and decrease in suitable food
resources (Steen et al. 2005). On the other hand, increases in rodent populations under moderate and
light grazing regimes have been attributed to grazing-induced increased plant growth and prolonged
growing season (Rhodes and Sharrow 1990; Jones and Longland 1999). Scattered observational
evidence in the literature from salt deserts to high arctic ecosystems report both increases (Jones
and Longland 1999; Keesing and Crawford 2001) and decreases in the activity or abundance of
rodents when subject to ungulate grazing (Jones and Longland 1999; Weickert et al. 2001). In some
instances, respective increases or decreases depended on the habitat type (Hanley and Page 1980;
Hewson 1982) or rodent species involved (Hanley and Page 1980; Jones and Longland 1999).
As a result it is often difficult to predict accurately how grazers will affect species diversity
in any given situation (Huntly 1991) because in many systems the influence of grazers on species
diversity depends largely on the density and activity of grazers (Harper 1969; Paine and Vadas 1969).
This suggests that several mechanisms are operating within such systems and that an experimental
approach beyond a comparison of ‘‘grazed versus ungrazed’’ is needed to test these hypotheses.
Overgrazing in BMNP
Overgrazing in Ethiopia is partly the result of the transition of transhumant and nomadic pastoralists
to a sedentary lifestyle. This transition progressively took place at a time when the pastoralists had
been prohibited for a long time from travelling large distances in search of forage as a result of
ethnic conflicts and the Derg government’s attempt to restrict the movement of the population within
the country (Jacobs and Schloeder 2001). Many significant and widespread environmental changes
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 199

took place due to overgrazing, including shrub-land expansion, an increase in undesirable woody
species, soil erosion and gullying, a decline in forage quality and quantity and species biodiversity
(Jacobs and Schloeder 1993; Coppock 1994).
The likely impacts of increasing settlement in BMNP can be anticipated by looking at the
environmental degradation in similar protected areas that have been intensively exploited by humans.
The Afroalpine habitat of the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP), in the north of Ethiopia,
offers an interesting insight into recent changes in mountain land use. With one of the densest
rural populations in Africa, the majority of habitat below the tree line (

wildlife, especially the mountain nyala and Ethiopian wolf. Nyala and other antelopes compete
directly with livestock for food and nyala are absent from areas where livestock numbers are high
(Brown 1969). The Afroalpine habitat of BMNP has a simple and visible trophic structure with
Ethiopian wolves and a diverse assemblage of raptors feeding almost exclusively upon a guild
of burrowing rodents, including 10 species endemic to Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995;
Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995). The wolf’s diet is dominated by three rodent species endemic to Bale:
the giant molerat, Tachyoryctes macrocephalus, Blick’s grass-rat, Arvicanthis blicki and the blackclawed
brush-furred rat, Lophuromys melanonyx, (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995). The rodents,
in turn, feed exclusively on forbs and grasses (Clausnitzer et al. 2003). All three rodent species are
diurnal and found at very high densities in the Afroalpine zone of Bale, reaching biomass levels
of 2,500-4,000 kg/km², rivalling that of large mammals on the Serengeti plains (Sillero-Zubiri et
al. 1995). There is evidence to suggest that cattle compete with rodents (Delany 1972), possibly
reducing the prey base of wolves and raptors in Bale. From a wildlife viewpoint, grazing is often a
form of interference competition (Happold 1995).
Historic and Recent Livestock Trends in the BMNP
Current knowledge of the extent and impact of grazing, along with the quantification of the threats
associated with it, is scarce and most management decisions have to be made with preliminary
rather than detailed or expert knowledge. While several projects in the past have been involved in
censusing livestock in BMNP, was only in the last few years that this project started to look at ways
of quantifying the impact of livestock grazing on the vegetation and rodents and modelling this
impact on higher-trophic levels (Ethiopian wolves and raptors). Such information is important for
determining what livestock carrying capacities are sustainable in the Afroalpine.
The Bale Mountains Research Project (Hillman, 1986) carried out regular surveys of wildlife
and livestock between 1983 and 1992 which were subsequently continued by the Ethiopian Wolf
Conservation Programme (EWCP) from 1996 to present. EWCP monitors every month livestock
abundance via line transect counts in Sanetti and Web Valley. Animals and people in Sanetti are
counted along the Goba-Rira road that traverses the plateau in an almost straight line for 31km
and covers three different types of wolf habitat (marginal, good and optimal). Counts in Web are
conducted along a specifically designed line-transect, a 20 km circuit that samples over 30 km2 of
optimal wolf habitat.
Marino and colleagues (2006) summarised the trends in livestock abundance in different
areas of the park (Web Valley, Western/Eastern/Central Sanetti) between 1987 and 2000 using
the EWCP transect data and Hillman’s data (1986). Livestock abundances increased consistently
throughout the monitoring period in all the study areas, with the exception of sheep and goats in
Web Valley, with the highest densities of livestock recorded during the wet season (April-October).
Highest livestock abundances were registered in the Web Valley, in optimal wolf habitat, where all
livestock types were over four times more abundant than elsewhere. The livestock transect data
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 201

collected between 2001 and 2007 is currently being analysed and will provide the park with an
interesting overview of the more recent trends in livestock numbers within BMNP.
The Present
Livestock grazing has now been recognized as the major stress on the key ecological attributes of
the Afroalpine zone, and is considered an immediate priority in the Sustainable Natural Resource
Management (SNRM) Programme in the recently ratified BMNP General Management Plan
(OARDB 2007, Nelson this edition). However, information is urgently required in order to initiate
and implement such management activities, including quantifying levels, locations and impacts of
livestock grazing. Specifically this project aims to determine the impact of livestock grazing on
Afroalpine vegetation and rodent communities and how it may affect long-term conservation goals
for the endangered Ethiopian wolves (see Sillero-Zubiri et al. this edition; Randall et al. this edition)
and the park in general.
This study comprises three main objectives:
Objective 1: Understanding spatial and temporal patterns of livestock habitat use
Livestock abundances have been estimated along 100 km of fixed line-transects throughout the
Afroalpine, for the period between July 2007 and June 2008. Livestock sightings (cattle, equids and
shoats) along those transects were recorded and densities estimated for the different times of the
year using conventional distance sampling methods (Fig. 1). Livestock movement during diurnal
grazing will be investigated using GPS and GIS technologies in three sites (Upper Web, Morebawa
and Sanetti) through the use of focal follows where one animal (horse, cow or shoat) is followed by
an observer and activity, location (with use of GPS), habitat and group size are recorded every 15
minutes. Analyses will then determine important factors associated with livestock habitat selection
such as elevation, slope, distance to water, vegetation type and distance to settlements. Ultimately, a
spatio-temporal map of livestock numbers in the park corresponding to current vegetation condition
and forage distribution will be produced which will assist with the threat monitoring framework for
the Afroalpine (as per the BMNP GMP).
Objective 2: Examining relationships between grazing pressure, vegetation biomass and
rodent density and demography
The relationship between grazing pressure, vegetation biomass and rodents are being examined in
two different ways: Firstly through the use of livestock exclosures and secondly through the use of
the natural variability in grazing intensity in the park.
Livestock exclosures will enable us to determine the recovery period of vegetation biomass
and structure, as well as rodent dynamics. Three livestock exclosures have been erected (50 x 50
m) in the Upper Web Valley. Vegetation and rodent surveys will be carried out in the exclosures
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and control sites (areas where livestock are not excluded) every six months for the duration of
the project, after which the park will take over this. In addition to the exclosures, vegetation and
rodents are currently being surveyed across 24 permanent sites in three broad vegetation types
of the Afroalpine (Alchemilla and Festuca pastures, Helichrysum and Artemisia shrublands, herbs
and drainage lines) and will be compared to corresponding grazing pressure determined by dung
counts. Data will then be analysed to assess the relationship between grazing pressure and impacts
on vegetation and rodent dynamics.
Objective 3: Broad-scale predictive modelling of the trophic interactions and dynamics
between vegetation/rodent and rodent/wolf/raptors
The field data collection will be followed by the development of spatially explicit grazing and trophic
models for the Bale ecosystem. Synthesizing the generalized linear mixed models documenting the
relationships between landscape attributes, vegetation biomass and rodent biomass, with the broadscale
vegetation biomass maps output from remote sensing will enable the estimation of a coarse
distribution of rodent biomass in the study areas. Using results from past research conducted on
the rodent-wolf functional response (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995a; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995; Tallents
2007) the relationship between rodent density and wolf demographic variables, and the location of
wolf pack territories throughout the Afroalpine will enable construction of a model linking wolf
population performance to the spatial distribution of rodent biomass. Combining the interactions
between vegetation and rodents, and rodents and wolves, into a spatially explicit trophic model
should allow us to partition vegetation biomass into that required to sustain desired abundances of
rodents and wolves, and that available for cattle grazing.
The Future
Environmental impacts of livestock grazing other than impacts on vegetation and rodents, in both
the Afroalpine and the Harenna Forest, require further investigation. Livestock grazing may also
influence the hydrological systems in the BMNP by changing water flow and quality or the water
retention properties of soil and vegetation, especially in wetlands. Monitoring of the extent of bare
ground and track formation by livestock, using remote sensing (e.g. Teshome et al. this edition),
should be promoted, especially in horas and marshlands where livestock densities are high and
trampling may have a detrimental impact on the soil and hydrology of these fragile areas and the
communities they support (Chiodi and Pinard this edition). In the Harenna Forest, historical and
current forest cover and land-use change, assessed and monitored through remote sensing should
be explored as more forest is cleared to create pastures for livestock (Teshome et al. this edition).
Livestock grazing should also be investigated in terms of economics, if the park managers are to
understand properly the social reasons underlying the current patterns of land-use and possibly
foresee future trends in the use of natural resources in and around the park (see for e.g. Watson et
al. this edition).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 203

Conclusion
The increase in livestock grazing pressure experienced by BMNP is a result of both human population
expansion in the region and the immigration of pastoralists and cattle from the lowlands where
agriculture is expanding and grazing grounds are disappearing. Domestic livestock and wild grazers
have been cohabiting in the highlands for centuries and there is evidence that low levels of grazing
can be beneficial to vegetation growth and can maintain higher vegetation diversity (Harper 1969).
However, the park management is now concerned that the high densities of cattle in some areas,
coupled with the shift from a seasonal use of pastures to permanent grazing, may severely degrade
Figure 6: Livestock densities recorded from line transects in Morebawa (Lower Web Valley) (A),
Sodota (Upper Web Valley) (B) and Sanetti (C) between July 2007 and June 2008. Sodota (B)
harbours the highest densities of livestock during the wet season (July- 07 and June-08), with
sheep and goats being the most numerous type of livestock kept. Seasonality in livestock density is
observed in Sodota (B) and to a lesser extent with cattle density in Morebawa (A). Sanetti remains
a marginal grazing area for livestock.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 204

several of the Bale ecosystem components, including the hydrological system and the stability of
major trophic webs. Outputs from this Livestock Grazing Project will indicate areas within BMNP
where vegetation biomass is insufficient to maintain acceptable trophic functioning and areas
where livestock grazing could continue without detriment to key ecological attributes. This step
is important for identifying the “condition envelope” for vegetation within which the Afroalpine
ecosystem of Bale that may be more resilient to human-induced landscape change compared to less
resilient vegetation types. This in turn, can be used both adaptively to manage human activities and
to sustain biodiversity (Salafsky et al. 2002).
Acknowledgements
We thank the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, Oromia government and Bale Mountains
National Park authorities for authorising permits allowing this research to take place and Frankfurt
Zoological Society and the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme for providing logistical support
in the field. Flavie Vial’s research is funded by WildCRU and grants from Frankfurt Zoological
Society, Glasgow Natural History Society and the Wildlife Conservation Society and is supported by
the Royal Geographical Society (with The Institute of British Geographers) with a British Airways
Travel Bursary.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 207

Traditional Beekeeping and Patterns of Host Tree Use in the Harenna Forest, Bale
Mountains National Park
Brigid Lefevre 1 and Michelle Pinard 2*
1 School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, UK
2 Institute for Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, UK
*Email: m.a.pinard@abdn.ac.uk
Introduction
Beekeeping has been practiced in the Bale region for at least eight generations but has been part
of Ethiopian culture since approximately the 4th century, as evidenced in the hieroglyphs of the
Egyptians (Fichtl and Adi 1994). Throughout Africa, beekeeping is recognised as contributing to
forest conservation as it relies on biological diversity for the provision of nectar sources and mature
trees as structural supports for hanging hives. Honey production is therefore an ecosystem service
provided by forests that enhances the sustainability of forest conservation programmes. Hanging or
suspended hives make up 99 percent of those found throughout Ethiopia; hives are hung or suspended
primarily as protection against honey badgers, Mellivora capensis (Bradbear 2004). Household use
and the production of Tej, a fermented honey wine consumed throughout Ethiopia, are identified as
the key uses of honey in the country but export and wax for candles are also important additional
sources of income (Adgaba 2002; Gebey 2002; Hartmann 2002; Bezabeh 2004).
Bee management practices in the Harenna Forest are still closely linked to traditional
methods although major social disruptions across the 20th century, including institutional change
and population movements, have meant that the succession of knowledge, generational and
community ties may have been lost or diluted. An important question for park management is
whether the contemporary beekeeping practices form a secure platform upon which sustainable
forest management can be achieved, or continued.
Methodology
This project sought to explore the practice of beekeeping in the Harenna forest. The research
endeavoured to integrate and highlight the importance of local, indigenous, traditional knowledge
of beekeeping practices. Ethnographical techniques were employed to gather local knowledge of
beekeeping and the trees used for hanging and constructing hives. Fieldwork was carried out over
a seven-week period as part of the Twin Gardens Expedition, a broader project seeking to collect
information useful for the management of the park.
Four beekeepers from the Rira area of the Harenna forest acted as guides and informants.
The researcher spent time with each informant, discussing their beekeeping practices and visiting
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 208

their hives. Hive and tree types were described using vernacular names and hive owner. At each of
the hives visited, measurements were taken including: first branch height, height to hive, hive type,
tree type, altitude and GPS coordinates.
Results and Discussion
Hive ownership
The number of hives owned by each of the four beekeepers was between 33 and 130. The ownership
of hives in the area is not dependent on economic factors (Asefa unpublished report) but does have
implications for social standing. The father of one beekeeper, for example, is known throughout the
forest by the fact that he has more than 300 bee hives. While this study documents higher numbers,
previous research determined the average number of hives owned by each household in the Harenna
forest to be about 40 (Asefa unpublished report).
Although hives are owned individually within ‘zones’, in the peak season honey gathering
is carried out communally. Groups of local men spend a couple of weeks in makeshift shelters in
the forest, working together to harvest all the honey as efficiently as possible. This is, in part, to
prevent swarms of disturbed colonies from attacking their neighbours for immediate food. ‘Zones’
are organised in a directional manner, extending to the North /South /East /West until the boundary
of the neighbours’ hives, indicated by markings on the tree, is met. Zones and trees are sometimes
shared within the family, for example, between brothers or between father and son. They can also
be inherited (Gebey 2002; Hartmann 2004).
Hive construction and tree selection for hanging hives
The preferred tree used for construction of beehives is determined by the durability of the timber,
ease of production, availability and the attractiveness of the wood to bees. Between 10 and 20 hives
can be made from a single tree. A total of 11 tree species as well as bamboo were observed in use
for hive production. Large numbers of unused hives were in evidence. Large piles of old hives,
removed for repair, as well as new hives were drying in the roofs of houses waiting to be covered.
All the beekeepers expressed an intention to increase their hive numbers.
The four informants in this study explained that trees selected for hanging hives were chosen
primarily for their architecture. This is in contrast to Fichtl and Adi (1994) and Asefa (unpublished
report) who found that trees were chosen for their flowers. In both of these previous studies, research
methods involved interviews rather than field observation; it may be that the different methodology
is responsible for the divergent results. In this study, a sixteen tree species were reportedly used to
hang beehives (Table 1).
Tall trees with branch-free stems were preferred in the lower altitudes (1500 – 1800 m a.s.l.),
low branches were on the whole uncommon but where present were often removed. The main
reason for choosing such trees was that their architecture acted as a defence against honey badgers,
which is a problem throughout East and southern Africa (Gebey 2002). Metal plates were placed
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 209

at high points on the trees to prevent badgers climbing. Although the theft of honey or hives by
another beekeeper is very rare and carries with it serious implications for standing in the community,
one beekeeper stated that it is not uncommon to keep some hives in ‘hidden’ trees for security.
An active hive was observed in a dead tree and informants explained that trees are not
chosen for their flowers as bees are considered to fly over considerable distances to collect nectar
and pollen. Informants inferred bees forage for flower rewards up to 20 km to because hives begin
to produce honey even when the trees and other plants in their surrounding neighbourhood remain
flowerless and the nearest floral resources are 20 km away.
Table 1. Notes for several tree species identified as important by the beekeepers interviewed.
HExO (Hagenia abyssinica, Rosaceae) was considered by all four beekeepers the preferred
wood for hive-making, as it is durable and the scent is attractive to bees. This is in line with
the suggestion that it is chosen for its flowers and provision of warmth. Wood from this
species was the carried furthest from where it grew for the purpose of producing hives; hexo
hives were found considerably lower than the tree itself.
SATTO (Erica arborea, Ericaceae family) is found from 2600m upwards and ‘is considered
to be both durable and attractive to bees as hives although not many hives are made from it
due to its narrow trunk’. It does not usually exceed 10 metres in height (Fichtl & Adi 1994).
The Harenna Forest is known for its ‘Erica forests’, this provides an incentive for tourism
and scientific research in the area. The flowers of SATTO are abundant and produce large
quantities of pink pollen and nectar.
DANISA (Dombeya torrida, Sterculiaceae family) was not found below 2200 m but was
abundant immediately above this point. None of the beekeepers had produced hives from its
wood but, where found, they almost always housed a hive, its straight, narrow trunk and neat
canopy being particularly suitable.
MAKKANISA (Croton macrostachys, Euphorbiaceae family) was found below 2500 m
although they were less abundant in dense forest. It is transported considerable distances
for beehives. Only one of the beekeepers did not have active beehives made from this wood
although he hung a number of hives in its branches.
ABARA (Allophyllus abyssinica, Sapindaceae family), was found widely throughout the field
area although often in isolation from others of the same type. All four beekeepers owned hives
made from its wood and two kept hives in their bows.
WALENA (Erithrina brucei, Fabaceae family), was found predominantly below 2300 m .
Apart from one participant, whose hives were at the highest altitudes, the beekeepers all used
WALENA for producing hives. Of one participant’s 68 hives, 28 were produced from the
wood of WALENA although none of the trees were found within his immediate forest area.
Its long flowering season (from November to February) is beneficial for bees and the crushed
seeds can be mixed with water and given as feed for the bees (Fichtl & Adi 1994).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 210

HOROqqA (Bersama abyssinica, Melianthaceae family). No hives were found of its wood
and only one participant kept hives in its bow.
GUDUBA (Aningeria adolfi-friederici, Sapotaceae family) Mature trees of Guduba used for
hanging hives but only one beekeeper had produced hives from its wood. This may be because
the wood is hard to cut and work with.
KORRIIBA (Polycias fulva, Araliaceae family) Exhibits a very distinctive structure of ‘whorls’
(Fichtl & Adi 1994) emulated in the main branch structure which constitute the ‘baboons seat’
providing an ideal place for hives. Attractive to bee swarms (Fichtl & Adi 1994).
DHADHATU (Milletia feruginea, Fabaceae family) Honeybees continue to forage for nectar
from this species even when leaves have fallen, therefore, the species is useful for strengthening
bee colonies during dry periods.
HARBU (Ficus sur, Moraceae family). The flowers are not visited by bees but the juice of the
ripe fruit is sucked by bees (Fichtl & Adi 1994). The species is widely used as a meeting place
or resting place along traditional routes and is not historically cut.
HADDAMA (Euphorbia abyssinica, Euphorbiaceae family). Three specimens of this tree
were found all well in excess of the maximum 10m proposed by Fichtl and Adi (1994).
Two, standing together, were planted by the grandfather of one of the beekeepers. One hive
was found to be made from its wood. It can be helpful for strengthening bee colonies and
maintaining brood rearing in the dry season. The yellow honey produced from its flowers is
said to be poisonous.
Honey gathering
The main period for harvesting honey is at the end of the dry seasons – late May to early July and in
late November - although some beekeepers will collect honey from the remaining hives during the
early stages of the dry season. Although field work was carried out from the beginning of the rainy
season, when little honey is usually produced, it was possible to witness the extraction process on a
number of occasions. The harvests were carried out using smoke from bound lichen to subdue the
bees. No protective clothing was worn and honey collectors commonly sustain many stings. Trees
were scaled quickly using a single rope; a hardened leather bag is usually used to hold the honey.
The comb was mashed into a container complete with comb-wax, pollen, propolis, larvae, bees
and any other matter that was picked up with the honey. The larvae are given to children as sweets
(Fichtl and Adi 1994). Although there are many nutritional benefits to this way of harvesting it does
result in a less marketable product, particularly as the beekeepers are not benefiting directly from
bi-products such as wax, pollen and propolis (MoA 2003; Gebey 2002). Wax is not separated and is
most commonly discarded although the wax from the honey sold to make Tej is sometimes exported
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 211

y the drink producers. Informants suggested that a lack of technology constrained the separation
of pollen, propolis and wax from the honey.
Conclusions
The indigenous population of the Harenna forest possesses extensive knowledge of tree species and
their value for beekeeping as well as other purposes. Beekeeping practices are based on traditional
approaches, although not always carried out in an ‘expert’ manner even within that framework
(Fichtl and Adi 1994). The isolation of the forest presents challenges to centralized approaches
to park management. This research, as well as that of Fichtl and Adi (1994), Asefa (unpublished
report) and Tesefaye et al. (2002) provides baseline information on forest use and practice that
may be relevant to the development of collaborative natural resource management agreements (see
Tadesse et al. this edition).
Acknowledgements
This article is based on the BSc thesis at the University of Aberdeen written in 2006 by Brigid Lefevre.
Data were collected during the Twin Gardens Expedition 2006, organized jointly with a project on
biodiversity monitoring project in the Harenna forest (funded by the Darwin Initiative), and funded
by the University of Aberdeen, the Royal Geographical Society, the Gilchrist Educational Trust,
the Mount Everest Foundation, the Albert Reckitt Charitable Trust, the Frederick Soddy Trust, the
Gordon Foundation, and the Duke of Edinburgh. Mr Addisu Asefa provided important guidance
and access to an unpublished report on his own research in the Harenna conducted in 2006. David
Burslem provided helpful comments an earlier draft of the manuscript.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 212

Value Chain Analysis for Bamboo Originating from Shedem Kebele, Bale Zone *
Arsema Andargatchew Tesfaye
Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme (BERSMP) of FARM-Africa and SOS
Sahel Ethiopia
Email: arsemaa@ethionet.et
Abstract
Ethiopia has approximately 1 million ha of natural bamboo forest, which is about 7% of the world total
and 67% of the African bamboo forest area. The Bale Mountains has the largest percentage (38.7%)
of reported highland bamboo in Ethiopia. Local communities use bamboo mainly for construction,
fences, furniture and household utensils. Shedem is a kebele in the Goba woreda, Bale zone where
a large number of people are involved in bamboo culms extraction. Due to concerns regarding the
current rate of extraction and the potential importance of bamboo as a means of livelihood, value
chain analysis was carried out in this kebele. Results show that communities in Shedem depend
highly on bamboo as a source of income. On average 47% of the annual income is estimated to be
derived from bamboo sale. It is estimated that 3,356,055–3,750,885 bamboo culms are consumed
per year from Shedem which accounts for 1.18–1.3% of all bamboo resources in the kebele. This
study suggests that despite additional utilisation of bamboo in neighbouring kebeles, current harvest
rates do not seem to be unsustainable. However, the harvesting method used, which often damages
young shoots, has led to some concerns. Results indicated that there are three independent chains for
bamboo culms bought directly from harvesters: crafts people, intermediaries and locals purchasing
for construction. Craft producers were found to derive the largest income from bamboo (6.6 ETB/
culm) followed by farmers/harvesters (1 ETB/culm). Value chain analyses revealed little or no
communication among actors thereby reducing the efficacy of bamboo resource utilization.
Introduction
Bamboo is a heavily utilised natural resource in many parts of the world. Some of its uses include
flooring, sheets, panelling, paper, and shoots being used as food in many Asian cuisines. In Ethiopia,
except for a couple of newly established private enterprises, the use of bamboo is mainly for
construction, fencing and some rudimentary furniture and household utensils (Ensermu et al. 2000;
Eastern Africa Bamboo Project 2007). Communities living in and around bamboo forests depend on
bamboo for multiple purposes ranging from household use to use as a cash crop. Therefore, bamboo
plays a very important social, economic and ecological role in Ethiopia (Ensermu et al. 2000).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 213

Over 1500 bamboo species are found in the world, covering more than 14 million ha of land.
Of these species, Africa possesses about 43 occurring over an area of over 1.5 million ha (Kigomo
1988). Ethiopia has two bamboo species: lowland bamboo, Oxytenanthera abyssinica – comprising
85% of the total bamboo forest in the country and highland bamboo, Yushania alpina (Ensermu et al.
2000; Luso Consult 1997). It is estimated that approximately 1 million ha of natural bamboo forest
occurs in Ethiopia which is about 7% of the world’s total and 67% of total bamboo forest area in
Africa (Luso 1997; Kassahun 2003).
In a fully developed bamboo root system, which occurs within 3-7 years after seeding, new
bamboo shoots are produced every rainy season and attain full height and diameter in about 3 months
(Kassahun 2003; KEFRI 2007). Bamboos get mature, strong and ready for utilisation after 3-4 years
(Wimbush 1945; Kassahun 2003; KEFRI 2007). As mature culms grow older, they deteriorate and
eventually die and rot. The life of a bamboo plant is however sustained by the new shoots and culms
(Ensermu et al. 2000). The removal of mature culms also ensures the vigour of the plant and allows
for generation of new shoots (KEFRI 2007). On the other hand, clear cutting depresses the rate of
recovery of bamboo after cutting (Wimbush 1945 cited in Kigomo 1998).
Value chain analysis examines the activities required in order to bring a product or service
from conception, through various phases of production, delivery to final consumers and their disposal
after use (Kaplinsky and Morris 2001; Stamm 2004). Therefore, identifying each activity involved
in the chain and the associated cost of each of the activities are essential steps in value chain analysis
(Pearce and Robinson 2007). This detailed work will enable us to identify both the positive aspects
and the drawbacks of a system that is being used for a particular product.
This research undertook value chain analysis of highland bamboo in the Bale Mountains.
The Bale Mountains were selected since it is an area identified as possessing the largest natural
stand of highland bamboo in Ethiopia, covering 38.7% of the total estimated highland bamboo
area in the country (Ensermu et al. 2000). Within the mountains, Shedem kebele was selected after
initial interviews were carried out at the bamboo market in Goba town, which revealed that a large
percentage of the bamboo coming to the Goba market originates from Shedem kebele. Ultimately
this study aims:
• To identify bamboo utilisation and demand in the area;
• To carry out a value chain analysis identifying all stakeholders and their involvement in
bamboo resource extraction and utilisation;
• To determine the economic value of bamboo to different stakeholders; and
• To recommend strategies for improved management and sustainable utilisation of
bamboo in Shedem and the surrounding area.
Methodology
The Bale zone is found in the south eastern part of Ethiopia within the Oromia region. The zone has
ten woredas including Goba. Shedem is one of the 17 kebeles in Goba woreda. According to the
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data recorded by the Development Agent, the kebele covers an area of 47,237.7 ha of which 31,046
ha is estimated to be covered by forest. Of the total forest area 14,272 ha (46%) is estimated to be
bamboo forest by the Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme (BERSMP), through
interpretation of satellite images. The kebele has a total of 535 households with a total population
of 2,870.
This study focused on the community bamboo harvesters and thus point of entry was selected
to be the individual harvesters in Shedem. Further links and functions were then investigated by
departing from the harvester’s respective position, moving up and down the chain as necessary.
An effort was made to identify and incorporate all major chain actors in the sampling method.
In total 74 chain actors were interviewed. Table 1 provides an overview of the respective position of
actors in the chain and the various locations at which they operate. In Shedem, purposive sampling
was used to identify four settlement sites. Simple random sampling was then used to identify five
households in each of the settlement sites by using household list from the kebele’s Development
Agent data. All available and willing intermediaries and producers identified were interviewed while
consumers were randomly selected at the Goba and Robe bamboo markets.
Compiling cities
Bamboo area
Kebele boundary
(Shedem)
Figure 1. Map of study site. Source: Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme of
FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia
Four semi-structured questionnaires were used during the study period. The first one targets
community members at Shedem who are involved in bamboo harvesting. The remaining three target
the other chain actors (intermediaries, producers and consumers) within the value chain. To ensure
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 215

a more holistic and complete understanding of the sector, the questionnaire for the community
members incorporated livelihood questions. By extracting both qualitative as well as quantitative
data about the socio-economic assets that chain participants held, a more accurate picture of the
constraints as well as the strategy decision making process of chain participants could be drawn.
qualitative analysis was also employed in order to try and assess the degree of strength (or weakness)
in the relationships amongst chain members.
Table 7. Respondent categories
Respondents: number of cases
Location
Bamboo
harvester
Intermediary
Producer
(construction +
crafts
Consumer
Private
investor
Addis Ababa - - - - - 2
Dukem - - - - 1 -
Goba 10 9 10 10 - -
Robe - - 7 5 - -
Shedem 20 - - - - -
Total 74
Results
Bamboo utilisation
Government
programs
In the Shedem kebele, it was observed that a range of items from small things like utensils to
houses are made of bamboo. Interviews with community members revealed that most of the bamboo
harvesting and selling is done by men except for some exceptions where women and young girls are
seen harvesting. After harvest, however, there is some gender division in household bamboo related
activities – men usually build houses, fences, doors, beds, storages and beehives while women make
utensils, shelves, fire sticks and air tube for fire making.
The amount of bamboo harvested by the communities on average was found to be 615 culms
per month per household. The number of people per household ranged from 2-15 with an average
of six individuals. Harvesters occurred across all ages from 16-51, although on average people start
harvesting in their twenties and do it well into their fifties or until their children take over.
Through interviews, the different means of livelihood in Shedem were identified to include
farming, livestock rearing, coffee harvesting from nearby kebeles, beekeeping both in Shedem
and neighbouring kebeles, vegetable gardening, bamboo selling and renting of horses to bamboo
harvesters. The average annual income of the interviewed households was 7747.00 (+/- 6398) ETB
of which 3711.00 (+/-3338) ETB is derived from bamboo; i.e. on average 47% of household income.
Interviewees estimated 85–95% of the households to be dependent on bamboo.
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Amongst the interviewees, 80% of people expressed concern regarding the sustainable
harvesting of bamboo, below are the main reasons resulting in this concern:
1) Inefficient utilisation of the resources: Only one third of a culm is utilised when harvested
for sale as per the demand in the cities, resulting in two thirds usually being left to rot in the forest.
2) Damage to young culms: Current harvesting methods often damage young culms in
attempts to harvest ripe ones; due to insufficient knowledge harvesters may harvest unripe culms,
young shoots are often eaten by livestock and lastly, young boys showing off, often cut off young
culms and leave them to rot.
Using 6,000 culms per ha for highland bamboo as indicated by Ensermu et al (2000) and
47,237.7 ha of Shedem’s bamboo forest area estimated through satellite images, the total bamboo
culms in Shedem is estimated to be 283,426,200 culms. As stated previously on average 615 culms
are harvested per household per month and there are 535 households in Shedem (Jemal Kayo,
Development Agent of Shedem Kebele, pers. comm.). If we assume that 85–95% of households in
Shedem harvest bamboo, then the total annual bamboo harvested is between 3,356,055–3,750,885
culms or 1.18–1.3 % of total resource available per year.
It appears that there is seasonal variation in bamboo culm prices. During times of high
bamboo resource abundance, sellers have reduced bargaining power hence intermediaries tend to
have an advantage, and can obtain bamboo at lower than usual prices. However, when the resources
become scarce in the market a higher price is set for the culms, thus giving sellers the advantage.
Table 2 shows the seasonal variation of resource abundance and selling price.
Table 2. Seasonal fluctuation of bamboo in Goba market
Months
Season / Activities in
Shedem
Availability of bamboo
culms in Goba Market
Price of culms
January – March Harvest time Decreases Increases
April – June Dry season Increases Decreases
July – August
July – October
Sowing time
Rainy Season
Decreases Increases
Nov. – Dec. Dry season Increases Decreases
Value chain analyses
This study identified six major chain actors in the market. These are: harvesters, intermediaries,
transporters, producers, consumers, and Government tax collectors.
Bamboo harvesters
A headcount of horses and donkeys was carried out to estimate the number of bamboo
bundles coming to Goba. The number is estimated to be between 600-800 per market day, with
market occurring on Wednesdays and Saturdays. However, people from Shedem claim it could go
as high as 1000 per day during the dry season and a bit lower during harvest time. Each horse carries
2 bundles of either 48 thin culms or 24 medium culms. The thin part of the culm is what is mostly
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 217

available in the market because of its high demand. Taking the estimated ratio of 75:25 given by
intermediaries, for the two sizes and assuming the medium and thin sized culms are obtained from
the same bamboo culm, the amount of bamboo coming to Goba each market day is estimated to
be between 21,600–28,800 culms (on average 201,600 culms/month). There is another group of
communities coming from a neighbouring kebele – Adaba Gefecha. They, however, represent few in
number and only 20% of interviewees at the market site. Taking these harvesters into consideration,
the total amount of bamboo coming from Shedem is 17,280–23,040 culms per market day. The
average value of bamboo at this stage is 1 ETB/culm.
Since harvesters transport the culms from a remote resource site to a town where people can
buy and use them they are an integral part of the value chain. However, they see their lack of skill
as an obstacle to being able to add a higher economic value to bamboo.
Intermediaries
Intermediaries are people who buy the culms from the Goba market and transport them to larger
nearby towns such as Robe, Agarfa, Gasera, Jara, and Ginir to sell them at a higher price. In Robe the
average price per culm was 1.10 ETB but increased to 1.30 ETB in towns further away. According
to the intermediaries (n = 9) interviewed and the tax collector, there are about 21 individuals coming
from different towns around Goba acting as regular intermediaries.
Interviews with intermediaries revealed that the average number of bamboo culms bought
by this group ranges from 7947–9387 per person per month, hence taking these 21 intermediaries,
the amount of bamboo bought by them is 166,887–197,127 culms per month. This shows that on
average 182,007 culms (90% of the total average that comes to Goba) are bought by intermediaries.
All intermediaries interviewed acknowledged bamboo as a good source of income; however
it was usually only a secondary activity for them. The net profit reported ranged from 75 to 3200
ETB per month (an average of 835 ETB/month). This translates to an average net profit of 0.083
ETB/culm. The associated costs that have been identified are transport, tax, storage, loading and
unloading. Intermediaries identify seasonal availability and poor quality culms as major problems.
Transporters
Those buying culms to be used in Goba and Robe use horse carriages. There are a number of carriage
owners but five individuals are regular service providers and are well known among the intermediaries
and consumers. In addition to the transport services they provide, these fives are also considered to be
good at identifying the good bamboo culms both for individual buyers and intermediaries. They do
up to eight rounds of transport per market day carrying up to 25 bundles each time and charge 1 ETB/
bundle. Thus they make up to 200 birr per market day on good days. Their expenses are about 10 birr
per market day for carriage driver wages and upkeep of the horses. When they assist intermediaries
they are paid additional money (by negotiation) besides the transport fee. Intermediaries moving
bamboo further away use Isuzu trucks for transporting the culms. The price depends on the distance
travelled and ranges from 400–600 ETB per trip. Transporters confirm that their business slows down
seasonally when bamboo resources reduce during harvest, sowing and rainy seasons.
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Producers
As reported previously, bamboo is often used for construction. In Goba, particularly, many people
of all ages make a living out of constructing fences, walls and floors out of bamboo. All producers
interviewed (n = 7) said they learned the technique from a family, friend or colleague. They charge
on average about 15 ETB/meter for making walls (1 meter takes about 20 culms) and 4 ETB/meter
for fences (1 meter takes about 7 culms). Their income ranges from 200–700 ETB /month depending
on the amount of work they do each month. Thus, at this producer level, the average value of one
culm is about 1.66 ETB.
In addition to construction, bamboo is also used for craft production. In Goba market,
individuals were found selling bamboo crafts and furniture. Although living in Goba and Robe
towns, none of the craft producers interviewd (n = 10) originated from Bale. Out of these, seven
are based in Goba and use the bamboo coming from Shedem. They do not make furniture but make
products such as baskets and beehives, as they claim bamboo coming from Shedem is not suitable to
make furniture. The remaining three, are based in Robe and work with a larger group that produces
rudimentary furniture using bamboo originating from Rira. Members of these groups say they sell
their products once a week during market day and that the income is just enough for their survival.
The only process the Goba group carries out is splitting the bamboo into pieces using a sickle and
weaving them together to make the products. For bamboo originating from Shedem, the most value
is added at the producer’s stage. The average value of a culm at this stage is 6.6 ETB, accounting for
85% of the total value in that chain. However, the number of products being produced is limited as
the work is time intensive.
Table 3. Crafts made in Goba
Consumers
Type of product
Time to make
each product
Approximate number of
products made out of 6
culms of bamboo
Prices
Basket for Injera 6-7 hours 3 13 ETB/piece
Small
table
breakfast
3 hours 5 4 ETB/piece
Beehive 6 hours 3 15 ETB/piece
Basket for cloths 6 hours 3 18 ETB/piece
Consumers are people who buy bamboo culms for construction as well as the various crafts available
in the market. Those interviewed (n = 15) stated that there is a constant increase in the number of
bamboo culms that are coming to the market mainly as a result of increase in demand. Consumers
have identified three main reasons for an increase in demand for bamboo.
1) Other materials such as wood, cement, etc. are becoming more expensive and hence
people are increasingly using bamboo as structural framework for their houses, fences, etc;
2) Bamboo has a higher aesthetic value and can last for long years if processed properly
using ripe culms – fences can stay up to 10 years and houses over 20 years; and
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 219

3) It is no longer customers from only Goba and Robe buying culms, more and more
intermediaries are taking bamboo to neighbouring towns as more people become aware of the value
of bamboo.
The availability of culms in markets have increased in order to satisfy this demand increase
in cities. Also greater community awareness of income derived from bamboo has made bamboo
harvesting a more attractive livelihood option.
Consumers of products such as baskets and beehives are also increasing through time
according to the producers. Consumers to the most part, however, are not satisfied with the quality
but buy the products because they are cheaper than other wooden products.
Tax Collectors
According to the tax collector, tax collection procedures outlined herein started during the Derg
regime. The Government collects 1 ETB per bundle (0.042 ETB/culm) and it is the buyer that pays
the tax. On average, monthly income of the Government from tax is 8,467.2 ETB. However, to
reduce the tax, people have started placing more culms in a bundle – a bundle used to be made up
of 12 culms but now it is made up of 24 culms. This is affecting the Government’s income and has
become a concern that needs to be addressed.
Figure 2. Final value chain map
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 220

The above figure shows the various chains that are identified among actors. Harvesters are linked to
producers, intermediaries and direct consumers, whereas intermediaries are linked to producers and
consumers. Thus, the solid arrows show the links between the chain actors. In addition, the broken
arrows show the percentage of bamboo value at each level of the respective chain.
Discussion
The use of bamboo in Shedem, as in most parts of Ethiopia where bamboo is used, ranges from
household use to trading in order to generate income. Houses and fences in Shedem are made of
bamboo as are beds, beehives, and grain storages. It was found that 85–95% of the community relies
on bamboo business with an average of 47% of their income being derived from it. However, the
income deviation from the mean is found to be high suggesting the economic benefit derived from
bamboo in Shedem is not similar across all community members. This needs attention as some
marginalised households (elderly and female headed ones) might not be able to earn as much benefit.
It is estimated that the total annual amount of bamboo harvested in Shedem is between
3,356,055–3,750,885 culms; i.e. 1.18–1.3% of the total resource available per year. It is generally
recommended to harvest only mature bamboo culms (3–4 years of age and up) and up to 70%
of the culms on a given surface. Effective bamboo management involves systematic but selective
cutting of mature culms, thereby harvesting a crop that is valuable (KEFRI 2007). This percentage
of harvest in Shedem is quite low and sustainability is probably not a concern at this stage. However,
the fact that young culms and shoots are damaged in the harvesting sites and that the majority of the
forest area is far and hard to access, suggests a higher harvest rate in the relatively accessible sites
where the harvesting activities are currently concentrated. It should also be noted that there are other
kebeles, including Adaba Gefecha, that boarder the bamboo forest. Hence, the rate of harvest is
definitely more than what is stated above for Shedem households alone. However, since the majority
of the bamboo harvest is observed to be in Shedem kebele, this still does not cause alarm regarding
unsustainable culm removal.
In Shedem, large family sizes are seen which are generally attributed to the practice of
polygamy. Both the large family size and large age range of harvesters call for caution as it could
highly increase bamboo harvesting in the kebele with the increase in population. Fortunately, among
the interviewees 80% were literate showing high potential for various training as part of development
interventions.
There is high demand for bamboo materials and furniture in Shedem, Goba and Robe. In
Shedem people are keen to learn how to make such furniture for their own use whereas consumers
in Goba and Robe have high demand for quality furniture and other crafts to be available in markets.
The high demand shows that there could be lucrative market for bamboo if more people are trained
and current quality is improved, as well as ensuring sustainable practices.
The value chain of bamboo originating from Shedem was found to be fairly simple.
The chain actors are the farmers in Shedem who harvest bamboo for sale (value = 1ETB/culm),
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 221

intermediaries in Goba town who buy culms to sell in neighbouring towns (value = 1.1–1.3 ETB/
culm), producers in Goba who make crafts (value = 6.6 ETB/culm), house constructors (value =
1.66 ETB/culm) who use the raw bamboo for house walls, floors and fences and consumers in Goba
and the surrounding towns. As the value added on the bamboo increases, its economic value also
gets higher. The Government is only involved in tax collection and not much involvement is seen
with other organisations except for the recently started BERSM Programme.
Major problems identified in the value chain that need to be addressed are:
(1) Lack of communication between chain actors - each work separately and try to maximise
profit overlooking the quality which compromises future economic as well as environmental benefits,
maximise profit and work in a coordinated manner;
Farmers work as an individuals rather than organised groups, the latter of which could give them
more bargaining power and would ensure a more equitable share of the benefits from bamboo
resources among community members;
(2) There is lack of skill both among harvesters and producers which contributes to improper
harvesting methods, poor quality product and minimum value addition; and
(3) Government is not fully involved which has created the view that Government is there
only to collect money and not to support those involved in bamboo businesses.
Conclusion and Recommendations
There is great potential to strengthen bamboo value chains for sustainable utilisation in Shedem and its
surrounding kebele as a result of the availability of bamboo resources and the presence of BERSMP, other
NGOs working in natural resources management as well as the newly formed Bale Forest Enterprise that
can support the necessary processes for doing so. An increase in bamboo investment by the private sector
is also encouraging. Concerted actions need to be taken that fully involve all potential chain actors and the
local government. A chain that is well developed with actors that communicate with each other for better
products will result in a profitable and lasting business. And for this, the following recommendations are
suggested:
(1) It is essential to study the current exact size and condition of bamboo resources in Shedem
to fully understand the potential of the resource and establish sustainable harvest levels;
(2) Establishment of bamboo plantations will ensure reduction of pressure on the natural
forest and increase availability of bamboo resources to support community livelihoods;
(3) Appropriate training in, for example, bamboo propagation, cultivation, storage, crafts and
furniture making will help ensure proper resource management and the sustainability of community
livelihoods that depend on bamboo resources;
(4) Organising farmers as a community group will enable them to be fully and equitably
involved in the value chain, improve the quality of products and earn them more money;
(5) Support needs to be provided to communities to establish working partnership with
private investors;
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 222

(6) BERSMP and all other stakeholders (Government and non Government) need to be
involved in studies to explore alternative bamboo products;
(7) An information centre can provide the necessary information for chain actors in bamboo
as well as other natural resource based products businesses;
(8) Advocacy and marketing of bamboo products will help to improve consumer awareness
of high quality bamboo products and increase demand; and
(9) Lobbying for policy that supports the use of bamboo by community groups is required
if communities are to take part in bamboo forest management as a part of livelihood improvement.
Acknowledgements
This study was carried out for the degree of Master of Business Administration, Addis Ababa
University. The full document is available on the BERSMP website: http://www.pfmp-farmsos.org/
Publication.html. I would like to thank Dr. Krishna Murthy, my advisor, for his support. I am most
grateful to the community members of the Shedem kebele and to all the chain actors who provided
constructive information. I would also like to thank the Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management
Programme of FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia for sponsoring this study and its staff members
for giving me their utmost cooperation; especially Ato Sahelemariam Mezmur who worked with me
throughout the field research period and was a great translator. Last but not least I would like to
thank Ato Hailu Arega, natural resource team leader for the Goba Woreda Agriculture and Rural
Development Office and Ato Jemal Kayo, development agent of Shedem kebele for their undivided
attention and support during my field work in Shedem.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 224

The Distribution, Properties and Uses of Mineral Springs in the Harenna Forest
Giovanni Chiodi and Michelle Pinard*
Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Cruickshank Building,
23 St Machar Drive, Aberdeen, AB24 3UU, UK
*Email: m.a.pinard@abdn.ac.uk
Abstract
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is inhabited by Oromo pastoralists, farmers
and bee keepers, who use the mineral springs (horas) extensively in relation to livestock husbandry.
A survey was conducted in Nov-Dec 2007 to provide a preliminary account of the distribution,
properties and use of horas and hot-springs (tabalas) in the Harenna forest. A total of 47 horas and 3
tabalas were identified. Tabalas are used occasionally for healing skin and stomach illnesses and for
thanksgiving celebrations. Six horas were found to be particularly important for livestock. Horas are
used as a salt supplement for livestock and, in combination with availability of grazing, are linked to
the seasonal movement of people in the forest. The results of this survey indicate the importance of
the historical dimension to current resource use patterns and the importance of engaging with local
people to document and design relevant management initiatives.
Introduction
Mineral springs and hot-springs are common in the East African landscape, where they are associated
with tectonic activity in the Great Rift Valley. In Ethiopia their waters are generally rich in sodium
(Hillman 1988; Teklemariam et al. 1996; Demlie et al. 2007) and local pastoralists traditionally use
them to provide mineral nutrients to their livestock (Hillman 1988; Kabaija 1989). This practice
occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP), one of the most important protected areas
in Ethiopia. The BMNP is inhabited by Oromo pastoralists, farmers and bee keepers, who, in their
livestock husbandry, make extensive use of the mineral springs (“horas” in the Oromo language)
found within the park. Good quality horas, for example hora Worgona on the Sanetti plateau in
BMNP, are extremely valuable to traditional Oromo livelihoods and attract a large number of users
every year. The horas have a large influence on the seasonal movement of people and livestock
within the park and the sustainability of the practice has been questioned and remains a central issue
for conservation.
The park conservation strategy currently aims to achieve sustainable use of the natural
resources through participative processes, without neglecting the cultural value of the landscape
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components and the legitimacy, the stand-alone value and the potential for sustainability of traditional
subsistence practices. Nevertheless, current knowledge about distribution of natural resources and
their use in BMNP is limited (but see Watson et al. this edition), though knowledge should be used to
inform decisions and processes such as the redemarcation of the park’s boundary and zonation of the
BMNP into areas with different conservation status, as proposed in the new General Management
Plan (OARDB 2007, Nelson this edition).
Documented knowledge about horas in BMNP is limited to those found in the Afroalpine
area within the park. The Harenna forest has received relatively less attention from researchers over
time. The forest covers almost half of the BMNP and merges to the southwest with the Mena Angetu
National Forest Priority Area (MANFPA), a theatre of a lively socio-economy based on the use of
forest resources and agriculture. The coupling between the natural environment and human society
is, in many ways, deep and complex in the forest. The relationship is influenced by both the diversity
of resources available to people in the forest and the relative autonomy of the society. Many people
living in the forest continue to practice traditional livelihoods and their settlements are distant from
markets and areas where the park’s activities are currently concentrated.
In 2006, the presence of a hot-spring (“tabala” in the Oromo language) in the Harenna forest
was reported by Chiodi and LeFevre (2006). The hot-spring was well known to local people, but
was a novel finding for documented geographical knowledge of the park. The finding indicates that
there is hydrothermal activity in the forest and provides further motivation for a survey of horas.
This survey provides a preliminary account of the distribution, properties and use of both
horas and tabalas in the Harenna forest. Due to lack of baseline data, the survey was exploratory
and attempted to consider the horas from different perspectives, in order to examine their relevance
and identify topics for further and more specific research. In addition to considering horas as
natural resources, as components of the hydrological system and as sites of cultural value, the work
considered their roles in wildlife and landscape ecology. For example, salt-licking by wildlife is
often related to sodium deficiencies (Bechtold 1996; Matsubayashi et al. 2006; Mills and Milewski
2007), hence it is possible that that horas, assumed to be sodium rich (Hillman 1988; Teklemariam
et al. 1996; Demlie et al. 2007) would appeal to wildlife as much as to livestock. Also, the formation
of glades in the forest may be due to localized water-logging by sodium-rich waters or by the
accumulation of hydrothermal clays (Chiodi and LeFevre 2006).
The specific objectives of the study were as follows: to locate and map mineral springs
and hot-springs in the forest; to describe their physical features and their environmental setting; to
measure their main water properties (pH, electrical conductivity and temperature); to interview local
informants on their history and use, and to interview local informants on their use by wildlife.
Methods
The survey was conducted towards the end of the rainy season (November-December 2007) and
lasted for six weeks. The work plan involved an initial rapid survey to locate the sites and gather
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preliminary data. From the preliminary data, a methodology was designed for collecting more
detailed data in consideration of the features and variability of the horas identified. The second
phase was dedicated to locating more sites, crosschecking the preliminary data and systematically
collecting data from the horas that were accessible. The final week was spent crosschecking data
and conducting focused discussions with local informants on migration patterns associated with the
use of the horas.
The survey made extensive use of traditional knowledge in order to locate and characterize
the sites. Sites were located through group discussions in the villages of Rira, Hawo, Haro Gurratti,
Addeye, Gebicho and Maniate. The formation of groups was spontaneous in most cases, by gathering
of villagers at the arrival of the research team. Hence groups for discussions varied in size (from
three to more than 20 participants) and composition. Generally, only adult males participated but
at least two age groups were always represented, 30-50 years olds (adult males directly involved in
livestock husbandry) and >50 years old (elders, for a more traditional and historical perspective).
The lists of horas and tabalas in each area (village) were cross-checked and updated throughout the
survey through interviews with the many locals encountered, a process that involved all the members
of the research team. The compilation of number, name and location of sites was a dynamic process;
with this method, many new sites emerged that were not mentioned during the initial discussions.
On each site, GPS readings were taken and general features of the environment were recorded;
for example, if the spring was situated within forest or grassland and if the terrain was primarily soil
or rock. Water was sampled with three replications and tested in the field for pH (Elmetron pH-tester
TP-1), temperature and conductivity (Elmetron cc-401). Additionally, the colour of the sediments
was assessed with a Munsell colour chart, with the scope of investigating any characterization of
springs depending on colour (hence main mineral content). When present, the diameter of the gimba
was measured, and plants species used for fencing and bidiru’ were recorded. A gimba or caba is a
circular stone fence surrounding the hora and a bidiru is a wooden channel created to hold water for
the livestock to drink from. Both the gimba and bidiru are structures that protect the source from
damage by livestock and protect the livestock from falling into the spring.
Through guided discussion, two or three local guides orally provided answers to a simple
questionnaire on use, history and visitation by wildlife. One of the guides was the permanent
guide for the research team; he worked in rotation and/or in addition to one or two guides from the
village nearest to the hora. All guides were adult males aged 30-50, except in Rira, where an elder
participated. Due to the harsh terrain, it was generally not possible to employ elders for walks to the
sites.
For a final crosschecking exercise and to gather information about seasonal migration patterns
group discussions were arranged in the villages of Hawo, Haro Gurratti, Addeye and Gebicho.
These discussions were longer and more structured than the ones used for locating the sites and were
arranged with the help of local leaders, assembling groups (still very variable in size) with equal
participation of adults (30-50) and elders (over 50). Women did not take part in the discussions,
despite our effort to encourage them to participate.
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Results and Discussion
Numbers and distribution
During the survey 47 horas and 3 tabalas were found in the forest. Due to time and logistical
constraints (i.e. damage to the GPS and illness of pack horses) 40 sites were fully documented,
three were partially documented and seven (five horas and two tabalas) were impossible to reach.
Summarizing, 42 horas were visited (Fig. 1), as was one hot-spring (Tabala Sof Omar). Of the
mineral springs visited, two (Gamo Sof Omar and Haro Cerbo) were not associated with livestock
husbandry but rather had social and religious functions. Furthermore, in Rira, several mineral springs
were located close together and, therefore, are considered here as a single site. Two horas in Addeye
were filled with sediments. Those factors reduce the number of recorded horas actively used to 27.
Of those 27, six are important for livestock husbandry (hora Rasa, Dofo, Waticha, Dokke’, Habire’
and Higan), while the rest are mostly unused. Nevertheless, information is provided on the unused
horas as it may be useful for future ecological or historical research. A summary of the results is
given in the Appendix (Table 1 and Table 2).
Rira
All the horas in Rira were found in a glade named “Hora Rasa” or “Rasa Hora”. This is a grassy
valley where many springs are clustered together. There are at least 12 horas, of which eight are
active. The rest of the horas are currently filled with sediments but the gimba is still visible (Fig. 2),
a sign that they were used in the past. Near hora Hungullo, at least seven more unused horas were
identified, so closely clustered that they were not recorded individually. Horas in Hora Rasa are used
by settlers of Rira during both wet and dry season, although more intensively during the latter due to
reduced contamination by rain water. The horas in the Sanetti plateau, in particular hora Worgona,
are considered to be of better quality and are used preferentially.
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Figure 1. Map of the southern part of Bale Mountains National Park, showing the locations of the
mineral springs or horas visited and documented in this study.
Figure 2. Hora Rasa. The gimba, circular stone barricade, is used to protect the source of the spring
from damage by livestock and to protect the livestock from falling into the spring.
Ordoba
In an area of dense forest south of Rira named Ordoba, previously inhabited and farmed, the only
hot spring clearly situated within the boundaries of the BMNP is found: Tabala Sof Omar (Fig.
3). The spring is found in a rocky and waterlogged patch of forest, the gimba measures 6 m in
diameter and has a short drainage channel; the temperature of the water is about 34°C. The site is
traditionally used for healing skin diseases, but is practically unused since the settlements in the
area were abandoned. A small gorge (Gamo Sof Omar) with a stream with slightly mineralized
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water is located close to the hot spring, as are two small caves in the cliff. The site is used for Muda,
a thanksgiving celebration in which people gather together all their possessions (livestock, honey,
etc.) and give thanks to god for them. The celebration usually occurs in places of particular natural
beauty, history or with unusual properties. The hot spring is also visited by wildlife, probably as a
clay-lick due to formation of salt crusts on the cliffs. Finally, in Ordoba a small hora (hora Chakota)
of good quality (2 mS of electrical conductivity) is found but it is used little.
Figure 3. The only hot spring found within the park boundary, Tabala Sof Omar. The water in the
spring was traditionally used for healing skin diseases but is currently little used as the settlements
in the Ordoba region were abandoned.
Hawo
Among the nine horas found in Hawo (and Haro Gurratti), Dofo (Fig. 4a) and Waticha (Fig. 4b) are
by far the most important and most intensively used. Their quality is highly valued and the sites are
known and used by people living as far as Angetu and Adaba. Together with hora Dokke’ in Addeye,
these horas rank as the best in the forest according to communities. Batu Tiqo, Batu Gudo and Guge
are also used, but less intensively, while the other horas in the area are mostly unused.
4(a) 4(b)
Figure 4. Hora Dofo (a) and Hora Wachita (b) are two of the nine springs found in Hawo and are by
far the most important and intensively used springs in the Harenna. They are considered to be high
value and are used from people living as far as Angetu and Adaba.
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Addeye
All the 11 horas in Addeye area have no gimba and are found in glades showing very little or no
rockiness; this contrasts with horas in other areas, in that they generally have gimba and are found in
rocky patches. Despite the abundance of horas in the area, only hora Dokke’ is used intensively. Two
of the remaining horas (Riripha and Ataui) are filled with sediments and the rest are only rarely used.
Haro Cerbo is used only as a supply of drinking water for humans and is not involved in livestock
husbandry. Due to the relatively far distance of streams in Addeye, drinking water is taken from
excavated wells nearby the main settlement, some of which, like Haro Cerbo, have mineral waters.
Haro Cerbo use to be an important cultural site as a place of rituals and political assembly.
Gebicho
Five horas were found in Gebicho area, of which Habire’ is by far the most important. Of the
remaining, only Busoftu is used occasionally, while the others are not used. Among these, Haro
and Lensho were previously the best horas of the forest and were lately destroyed by the Gabarra, a
population hostile to the Oromo allegedly living in the forest before their arrival.
Eastern forest
The Eastern forest (east of the Goba to Dello Mena road) is only occupied during the dry season by
settlers from Dello Mena. Five horas were found in this area, of which Higan, situated in the coffee
area and visited by a large number of livestock every year, is the most important. Also found in the
coffee area is hora Sankate, which is more saline than Higan but less intensively used. The three
horas named Alachera, situated in the south-east territory of Rira, are mostly unused and clearly
visited by wildlife. In the past, they were used by people living nearby Katcha.
Unreached sites
This survey identified, but failed to reach, five more horas in Shawe Dimtu and two tabalas in
Angetu (used for healing purposes). It is therefore not clear the extent to which these horas are
valued and used by local pastoralists.
Locations relative to the proposed BMNP zonation
The 2007 General Management Plan prescribes the zonation of the BMNP into a Conservation Zone
(CZ) and a Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource Management Zone (C&SNRMZ), the
first being subject to strict limitations in terms of settlements and human activities, while settlements
and sustainable use of resources are allowed in the latter. Under this proposed scheme, thought as
flexible in terms of exact boundaries, the Harenna forest is divided into two blocks: west of the Goba
to Dello Mena road (C&SNRMZ) and east of the same road (CZ). Within the CZ access to cultural
sites and horas following agreed routes is allowed.
The results of the survey indicate that the proposed zonation is generally compatible with
the distribution and use of horas. Most of the important horas (five out of six) are located west of the
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Goba to Dello Mena road. The exception, hora Higan, is found within an area of the eastern forest
widely used for coffee harvesting.
Properties
Measurements were taken at the end of the wet season, when the horas are contaminated by
freshwater. In order to be properly interpreted, the following values of pH and conductivity should
be complemented by values obtained from sampling during the dry season, when contamination
would be less.
As expected, electrical conductivity (EC) emerged as a measure of the attractiveness of the
horas for livestock husbandry, with the most used horas being also the most saline. Hora Sankate
and hora Chakota are exceptions: the first is the most saline in this survey (3.2 mS), but its location
by the side of a river might limit its accessibility and usability; the second is perceived to be infested
by some kind of parasite, therefore it is little used despite its relatively high salinity (2.2 mS). All
of the rarely used horas have diluted water with salinity levels below 1 mS. Among the most used
horas, three have salinity between 1.5 mS and 2.0 mS (Abba Usman, Dofo and Waticha) and two
have salinity between 2.0 mS and 2.5 mS (Higan and Dokke’). The salinity of hora Worgona in
the Sanetti plateau was also tested for comparison, giving a reading of 6 mS. This confirms the
exceptional salinity of hora Worgona and explains why it is considered high quality by locals.
The large majority (32) of the active horas have pH between 6 and 8; three horas have
pH greater than 8 (Alachera), and three have pH lower than 4 (Bukure, Huluke and Ebicha). The
pronounced variation in pH, which identifies alkanine horas (pH > 8) and acidic horas (pH < 4),
underlines heterogeneity of the hydrological system that should be investigated in detail. The horas
in the forest could be used to study the properties of the different catchments, the relative water
retention times and alteration processes, as a function of variation in geology, land-cover and landuse.
The BMNP is situated within a formation of alkaline basalts with granitic inclusions (GSE
1972). Granitic rock outcrops were occasionally found in the BMNP during the survey which may
be associated with the acidic springs and have implications for the vegetation.
Use, property regime and access
Horas are used as a source of mineral supplement for livestock (cattle, sheep and goats). Water from
the horas is perceived to enhance fat, fertility and resistance to diseases. Particular types of clay,
locally called “haya”, are also used as mineral supplements. Generally, horas are fenced to prevent
the livestock contaminating the source or falling into the well, at times several metres deep. On top
of the circular stone fence (gimba) a wooden fence is generally erected. The livestock attendant
pours the water into an external wooden channel (bidiru’), where livestock are allowed to drink.
Construction of the gimba may be limited by availability of stones, as in hora Dokke’. There, cattle
are kept away from the main source, at the center of the glade, by draining the water through a long
drainage channel reaching the bidirus at the margin of the glade. In any case, the source must be
looked after by constant cleaning and draining. Dry horas that are filled with sediments, like Ataui,
can be occasionally used by excavating small wells that reach the shallow water table.
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Tabalas are used for healing purposes, especially for curing skin diseases but also for
expelling stomach parasites and for the flu.
Horas in the park are de facto common property resources with open access, maintained by
the communities that use them most frequently, generally the village located closest to it. They are
perceived as a gift of nature and every Oromo has the right to use them, independent of his origin.
Maintenance involves the construction of fences, the cleaning of the source by removing excess
mud, and the construction of bidirus and drainage channels. Access points, such as small bridges
must be maintained as well. Punishments are prescribed for users from the community that do not
take part in the maintenance activities. However, most of the maintenance operations are fairly easy
and conducted during use, without requiring specific agreements. This general maintenance is done
by most users, regardless of association with the local community. In this sense, the more a hora is
used, the more it is maintained, turning the open access of the resource into an advantage.
On the other side, use of the hora is seldom limited to the use of the spring alone but is
coupled with the use of other forest resources such as grazing, honey and coffee. Therefore, while
the use of the hora per se is recognized as an Oromo universal right, conflicts might arise due to
collateral activities involving other resources.
Seasonal migration
Generally, livestock are brought to drink at the horas every three months, and the length of the stay
depends on the origin of the users, varying from a week to four months in case of dry season migrants
from other areas. Horas affect the seasonal migration patterns of the pastoralists, although scarcity
of grazing ground during the dry season appears to be the main driver of movement. Five main
patterns of seasonal movement emerged during the discussions which can be grouped as movements
of outsiders and insiders.
Four main routes were identified for outsiders from Angetu and Dello Mena: 1) to Addeye
and hora Dokke’; 2) to Gebicho, hora Habire’; 3) to Hawo, hora Dofo and hora Waticha; and 4) to
the eastern forest and, hora Higan (Sankate and Alachera).
The main cause for seasonal migration of people from Angetu and Dello Mena into the forest
is the exhaustion of the grazing grounds in the southern areas outside the forest at the onset of the
dry season. Migrants move north into the forest seeking shade, grazing grounds and honey. The
availability of horas is considered secondarily in the choice of the place to settle, or the horas are
visited from more distant areas of the forest. Glades (“rasas” in the Oromo language) are abundant
in the Harenna forest, but their productivity is limited or exhausted during the dry season, and the
grazing shifts from grasses to trees. As long as they are productive, glades provide a buffer from
forest degradation by grazing, and places where glades are wide and abundant are preferentially
chosen for settlements. Rasas and horas must be considered in combination in order to understand
the dynamics of seasonal migrations.
Hora Dokke’ is particularly attractive due to the fine quality of its water but also because
of its proximity to rasa Challicho, a wide glade capable of hosting a large number of families with
their livestock. Addeye is appealing because of it is near hora Dokke’ as well as a number of large
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 233

glades. Similarly, Gebicho is not far from both hora Habire’ and hora Dokke’ and many large glades
are found in the area.
The area near hora Dofo and hora Waticha is subject to more intensive grazing pressure
during the dry season and shows many peculiarities. In particular, glades are usually found on steep
hills rather than on flat and waterlogged terrains and they have unclear boundaries blurred with low
density forest. This could be the result of prolonged grazing pressure and formation of artificial open
spaces, or the underlying geology as the presence of acidic soils and the granite outcrops found on
such hills might suggest. The fame of the two horas could in this case be the main driving factor
behind the colonization of the area from so many different places during the dry season.
The second main group of outsiders moving into the forest come from Adaba (West-Arsi) and
travel to Hawo, hora Dofo and Waticha. Hora Dofo and hora Waticha are regularly used by people
from the province of Adaba (West Arsi region), in particular from the villages of Wege and Gama.
They are used both in the wet and dry season, with prolonged permanence in the latter period. It is
not clear what motivates the movement but it might be the scarcity of horas in their home villages.
Three main routes were described for seasonal migration of insiders or people resident in the
forest: 1) from Rira to Sanetti, various horas and Worgona in particular; 2) from Addeye to Hawo,
hora Dofo and hora Waticha; and 3), from Haro Gurratti to Ordoba, with little use of hora Chakota.
Despite the presence of many horas in Rira, the appeal of the high altitude horas, and
Worgona in particular, is without comparison. Salinity measured in Worgona during the survey
gave readings of 6 mS, four times greater than the most saline hora in Hora Rasa. The use of high
altitude horas is driven by more than only the high water quality, but is also a part of traditional
transhumance patterns called ‘godantu’ which has cultural and spiritual relevance; use of the horas
was until recently associated with religious inaugurations and rituals, demonstrating the cultural and
spiritual significance of the practice.
The seasonal migration from Addeye to Hawo is allegedly the result of conflicts and excessive
land exploitation in Addeye during the dry season, due to the arrival of migrants from the south. The
outsiders from Dello Mena establish themselves near Addeye and, as a consequence of that, many
villagers of Addeye prefer to move north, settling in proximity of the two horas. Outsiders are not
seen positively in Addeye; they are accused of degrading the forest by overgrazing trees and causing
fires while collecting honey. This is the only case of conflict reported, while in all other cases the
coming of outsiders is peacefully accepted.
The exhaustion of the grazing grounds during the dry season is the cause of migration from
Haro Gurratti to Ordoba, where some large glades are found at higher altitude where the exhaustion
is delayed. Once these glades also become dry, grazing shifts to trees. Although hora Chakota is
no less saline than the highly valued horas of Dofo and Waticha, it is little used due to suspected
contamination by some kind of parasite; that is, cattle are perceived to become ill after drinking its
waters. People continue to use Dofo and Waticha, which are not very far from Ordoba.
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Cultural value and history
The use of horas is more than an expression of Oromo culture but a constituent part of the traditional
Oromo identity itself. According to some scholars, the name itself or Oromo (Horomo) shares the
etymological root with hora (Kassam and Megersa 1991).
In discussions with informants during the study, elders tended to complain about the decline
of Oromo traditions, including the reduced importance of livestock and horas in current livelihoods.
They complained of the poor accessibility of some horas because of reduced levels of maintenance
of the access points, and reported that the use of the hora was previously a part of religious rituals.
An increased promotion and acceptance of Islam and better education were reported as the main
causes of the decline of Oromo original culture. On the other side, there is evidence that the Muda
thanksgiving celebration is still practiced in sites of particular natural beauty, like Gamo Sof Omar.
Plastic bags containing incense, which is burned during the celebration, were found in holes in the
cliff and a pot was found in a crevasse in the wall.
The traditional Oromo cultural and political system, comprising a democratic age-set
political institution (Gada) and a hereditary religious institution (Qallu), has been almost entirely
substituted during the last century by the Ethiopian political system from one hand and by Islamism
from the other (Levine, 1974), at least in Bale. The documented celebration of muda in Gamo Sof
Omar indicates that in the people in the Harenna forest still value some aspects of traditional Oromo
world views and practices.
With their stone gimbas of unknown age, most horas (and Tabala Sof Omar) can be classified
as sites of cultural and historical value, if not as monuments. Gimbas are told to be very old, their
construction being attributed to the “grandfathers” or even to “supernatural forces”.
Historically, horas are closely associated with the tale of the Gabarra people, the legendary
“giants” living in the forest prior to the Oromo. The story goes that during the war with the Oromo,
the Gabarra destroyed many important Oromo horas to discourage their occupation of the forest.
The destruction of the hora was done by closing the source with badessa wood or with stones;
numerous big logs are found in the earth of those sites allegedly destroyed (Lensho, Ataui, etc.).
Hora Lensho and hora Haro, near Gebicho, were used the most at the time of the war with the
Gabarra, the Gabarra completely destroyed them. People unsuccessfully attempted to recover the
sites and even asked the research team if modern technology could help in the task. The Gabarra
people also built stone burials in the forest (Chiodi 2008).
There is a striking similarity between the name Gabarra, who destroyed horas and built
burials in the Harenna forest, and Gabra, the camel pastoralists of the Kenyan-Ethiopian border.
Starting from the 16th century, Oromo expanded in the Horn region assimilating the indigenous
populations under their Gada political system (Marcus 2002). The Gabra camel pastoralists are one
of these assimilated groups, currently sharing the territories of the Kenyan-Ethiopian border with
the hegemonic Borana Oromo.
The Gabra speak a language including both Oromo and non-Oromo words. They originate
from the confluence of tribes belonging to different ethnicities (Borana, Orma, Waata, Somali,
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 235

Rendille, Samburu, and Elmolo) (Kassam 1996). This composite group developed a common
identity by sharing the exploitation of the same ecological and economic niche under the hegemony
of the Borana, who established in the area the “Borana peace” (naga Borana) in the 17th century
(Ibid.).
Even if a genealogical relationship between Gabarra and Gabra is possible, it is more likely
that both names simply indicate Oromo otherness. In fact, the name Gabra derives from the words
gabaro or gebbar, used by Oromo to refer to those who are not of pure Oromo descent (Baxter et
al. 1996). The etymology of the term derives from the word garba indicating bodies of standing
water (Kassam 2006), in opposition to hora (mineral spring), from which pure Oromo (Horomo)
originated (Ibid.).
Ecology
During the survey, some direct evidence of visitation of the horas by wildlife was identified: warthogs,
forest hogs and bushbucks were found at the majority of sites, a lion was hunting cattle and horses at
hora Waticha and numerous tracks of warthogs and bushbucks were found at Gamo Sof Omar. The
questionnaire gave similar results, where warthogs, bushbucks and forest hogs we described as the
most common visitors, attracting predators such as lions and leopards. Informants also reported that
mountain nyala visit many horas in the forest, as far south as the coffee area (hora Higan).
While the use of salt licks by animals is widely reported, a specific use of mineral springs is
apparently documented only for the North American moose and white-tailed deer (Betchtold 1996).
The abundance of sodium in Ethiopian hydrothermal waters, and in BMNP in particular (Hillman
1988), could be an important resource for wildlife as documented for other cases of salt licking
(Bechtold 1996; Matsubayashi et al. 2006; Mills and Milewski 2007). The phenomenon of saltlicking
at the horas, or of preferential grazing in glades associated with horas, should be investigated
and monitored.
Horas and glades appear to be strongly associated in space: if Hora Rasa is considered to be
a single site, 25 out of the 32 sites surveyed were found in glades. Extreme rockiness and surface
water was characteristic of the five sites in the forest, while in glades the degree of rockiness varied
greatly. One possible explanation for the association is that horas fill with sediment over time giving
rise to glades, for example Riripha, Ataui, and the many dry horas in Hora Rasa.
The hypothesis derived from this research for the evolution of horas is as follows. Horas
originate in rocky patches of the forest, where hydrothermal water emerges through the cracked
rocks. Hydrothermal sediments associated with the stream tend to create a clay deposit on top of the
emerging rocks, progressively impeding the flow of water to the surface. Such clay deposits will be
waterlogged to different extents and different depths.
Waterlogging could be the main impediment to tree establishment in these clay deposits,
as it was suggested for other glades in Africa, with a similarly flat surface and sharp boundaries
(Backeus 1992). Waterlogging impedes aeration and creates acidic soil conditions. In the case of
sodium-rich environments, waterlogging would also lower the levels of sodium toxicity for plants
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 236

(Barrett-Lennard 2003). Finally, prolonged waterlogging of deposits of biotite and smectite, common
hydrothermal clays in Ethiopia (Teklemariam et al. 1996), could lead to toxic concentrations of Al3+ (FAO 2001).
Nevertheless, not all the glades in the forest seemed to be associated with mineral waters.
Water from artificial wells in Hawo and Addeye glade gave very small readings of conductivity
(0.01 mS and 0.05 mS, respectively), excluding any association with mineral waters. Horas may not
be important for the development of all types of glades in the Harenna forest.
Conclusions
This preliminary study of the horas and tabalas in the Harenna forest documents the social, cultural
and ecological importance of the horas in the park. Current patterns of use are strongly linked to
seasonality and the availability of grazing for livestock. Although the horas examined in this research
clearly fall within the park boundaries, they are viewed locally as common property resources and
are, de facto, open access. The use of the horas by local people residing outside the park appears to
influence the seasonal movements of the residents within the park but the conflicts reported appear
unrelated to the horas but related to other resources such as honey and grazing land. The sociocultural
roles of the horas are changing as reliance on livestock herding declines and the affiliation
with Islamic doctrines over traditional practices increases.
Horas are an expression of traditional ecological knowledge and of the strong coupling
between natural and anthropogenic elements in the Harenna forest. Further, they reinforce the
importance of the historical dimension to current use and the importance of engaging with the local
inhabitants to document and design relevant management initiatives.
Acknowledgements
Many people contributed to this work in various ways. Issa Hassan served as personnel and logistics
supervisor, and Aliyi Balda “Abba Jamila” was the team’s permanent guide. Ayub Suliman and Abdi
Mohammed were the interpreters and Hassan Aliyi, Taher Hussein, Kadir Gishu, and Gose Bonneya
served as guides. Husseni Batu, Mame Batu and Adam Hussein worked as the field cooks. We thank
them all for their contributions. Addisu Asefa and Mohammednur Jemal provided support throughout
our work in the Harenna and we thank the Oromia Agriculture and Rural Development Bureau
for permission to conduct work in the park. The Frankfurt Zoological Society Bale Mountains
Conservation Project provided important logistical support. J Hrdlicka constructed the map for the
publication. The work was funded by the Darwin Initiative of the UK (14-009).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 237

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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 238

Appendix
ph Colour
Salinity
(mS)
Table 1. Properties of the horas (1).
Locality of access Name* Coordinates (Lat/Long) Environment** Temp
(⁰C)
N E
1 RIRA ABBA USMAN 6⁰46’46” 39⁰42’27” Gr 14 1.575 7.4 5YR 3/1
2 RIRA HUNGULLO 6⁰46’45” 39⁰42’27” Gr 15 0.921 7.7 5YR 3/1
3 RIRA SHONA 6⁰46’43” 39⁰42’25” Gr - - - 5YR 3/2
4 RIRA DIMTU 6⁰46’43” 39⁰42’24” Gr - - - 10YR 3/2
5 RIRA GURRATTI 6⁰46’43” 39⁰42’24” Gr 23 0.094 7.8 10YR 4/1
6 RIRA GIMBA 6⁰46’42” 39⁰42’24” Gr 14 0.114 7.6 10YR 3/1
7 RIRA SORORO GUDDO 6⁰46’38” 39⁰42’23” Gr 15 0.674 7.2 10YR 2/1
8 RIRA SORORO TIqO 6⁰46’38” 39⁰42’23” Gr 15 0.775 7.1 5YR 3/1
9 RIRA HATCHO GURRATTI 6⁰46’36” 39⁰42’21” Gr 19 0.425 7.1 5YR 3/1
10 RIRA HATCHO BORA 6⁰46’36” 39⁰42’21” Gr 18 0.395 7.1 10YR 3/1
11 RIRA AL BUSHA 6⁰46’35” 39⁰42’21” G - - - 5YR 3/1
12 RIRA WACHOO 6⁰46’35” 39⁰42’21” G - - - -
13 HARO GURRATTI DOFO 6⁰43’50” 39⁰34’5” Fr 19 1.837 6.6 5Y 3/1
14 HARO GURRATTI WATIChA 6⁰43’12” 39⁰33’40” Gr 24 1.776 6.1 2.5Y 2/0
15 ORDOBA CHAKOTA 6⁰41’47” 39⁰39’19” Fr 26 2.174 6.9 2.5Y 2/0
16 HARO GURRATTI BATU TIqO 6⁰41’39” 39⁰36’15” G 22 0.289 7.0 2.5Y 3/2
17 HARO GURRATTI BATU GUDDO 6⁰41’34” 39⁰36’17” Gr 20 0.909 6.9 5Y 2/1
18 ORDOBA GAMO SOF OMAR 6⁰41’30” 39⁰40’4 Fr 19 0.379 7.4 10YR 3/2
19 ORDOBA TABALA SOF OMAR 6⁰41’30” 39⁰39’32” Fr 34 1.250 7.3 2.5Y 2/0
20 SHISHA ALACHERA 2 6⁰41’7” 39⁰45’34” Gr 24 0.087 8.5 7.5YR 4/2
21 SHISHA ALACHERA 6⁰41’7” 39⁰45’1” Gr 24 0.182 9.7 10YR 3/1
22 SHISHA ALACHERA GUDDA 6⁰41’2” 39⁰45’3” Gr 23 0.226 9.8 5YR 3/1
23 HARO GURRATTI GUGE 6⁰39’28” 39⁰36’54” G 19 0.170 6.9 2.5Y 2/0
24 HAWO GURRATTI 6⁰39’21” 39⁰34’45” G 24 0.122 6.5 2.5Y 3/0
25 HAWO BUKURE 6⁰38’18” 39⁰34’42” G 20 0.823 3.8 2.5Y 2/0
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 239

ph Colour
Salinity
(mS)
Locality of access Name* Coordinates (Lat/Long) Environment** Temp
(⁰C)
N E
26 ADDEYE HULLUKE 6⁰38’4” 39⁰39’50” G 0 0.000 3.1 10YR 2/2
27 ADDEYE DIRRIBA 6⁰37’30” 39⁰37’13” G 17 0.215 6.3 10YR 3/1
28 ADDEYE EBICHA 6⁰37’12” 39⁰37’12” G 21 0.187 3.9 10YR 2/1
29 HAWO WOLANA 6⁰36’50” 39⁰34’22” G 23 0.393 6.8 7.5YR 3/0
30 ADDEYE GELDO 6⁰36’34” 39⁰37’47” G 19 0.189 6.2 10YR 3/1
31 HAWO GASAWA 6⁰36’21” 39⁰33’19” Fr 19 0.525 7.4 5Y 3/2
32 ADDEYE HARO CERBO 6⁰36’5” 39⁰38’18” G 18 0.229 7.1 10YR 3/1
33 ADDEYE SUKE 6⁰35’35” 39⁰40’17” G 18 0.123 6.1 5Y 3/1
34 ADDEYE ORABA 6⁰34’57” 39⁰37’12” G 18 0.146 6.1 10YR 2/1
35 ADDEYE RIRIPHA 6⁰34’48” 39⁰41’51” G 20 0.505 6.3 5YR 2/1
36 ADDEYE ATAUI 6⁰34’26” 39⁰38’14” G 0 0.000 0.0 5YR 2/1
37 ADDEYE DAMBALA 6⁰33’50” 39⁰37’58” G 25 0.098 6.9 5Y 3/1
38 MANIATE hIGAN 6⁰31’22” 39⁰45’45” Gr 20 2.272 6.1 2.5Y 2/0
39 ADDEYE DOKKE 6⁰31’13” 39⁰39’51” G 23 2.220 6.3 5Y 3/1
40 MANIATE SANKATE 6⁰30’14” 39⁰45’26” Fr 20 3.207 6.2 2.5Y 2/0
41 GEBICHO BUSOFTU - - Fr 0 0.000 6.4 5Y 3/1
42 GEBICHO LENSHO - - G 0 0.000 6.5 10YR 2/2
43 GEBICHO hABIrE - - Gr 0 0.000 7.9 5YR 2/1
*Name: Italic - filled with sediments, Bold - particularly important sites
**Environment: G – Glade, F – Forest, r - very rocky
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 240

Villages using the hora
Animals
visiting the
hora***
Fence* Bidiru* Destroyed by
Gabarra**
Table 2. Properties of the horas (2).
Locality of Name Diameter of
access
gimba (m)
1 Rira ABA USMAN 4.5 So, An He N N Rira
2 Rira HUNGULLO 13.7 So, An He N N Rira
3 Rira SHONA 7 (no fence) (no bidiru) N - Rira
4 Rira DIMTU 4.6 (no fence) (no bidiru) N - Rira
5 Rira GURRATTI 4.4 (no fence) (no bidiru) N - Rira
6 Rira GIMBA 5.6 T, Gar He N N Rira
7 Rira SORORO GUDDO 7.8 (no fence) He N N Rira
8 Rira SORORO TIqO 4.9 (no fence) (no bidiru) N N Rira
9 Rira HATCHO GURRATTI 6 (no fence) (no bidiru) N N Rira
10 Rira HATCHO BORA 7.6 (no fence) He N N Rira
11 Rira AL BUSHA 8 (no fence) (no bidiru) N N Rira
12 Rira WACHOO (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) N - Rira
13 Haro Gurratti DOFO 14.7 Ha, Ar, Gag B N W, B, P Hawo
14 Haro Gurratti WATIChA 16 Sa, Ha, B B Y N, W, B, P Hawo, Gama (Adaba)
15 Ordoba CHAKOTA 4.6 (no fence) O, W, B N N, W, B, P Hawo
16 Haro Gurratti BATU TIqO (no gimba) (no fence) B Y W, B Hawo, Wege (Adaba)
17 Haro Gurratti BATU GUDDO 13.2 C, E, M (no bidiru) N W, B Hawo, Wege (Adaba)
18 Ordoba GAMO SOF OMAR (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) N Le, Li, N, W Haro Gurratti, Ordoba
19 Ordoba TABALA SOF OMAR 6 (no fence) (no bidiru) N - Rira, Hawo
20 Shisha ALACHERA 2 4.6 (no fence) (no bidiru) Y N, B Dello
21 Shisha ALACHERA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y N, B Dello
22 Shisha ALACHERA GUDDA 4.9 (no fence) (no bidiru) Y - Dello
23 Haro Gurratti GUGE (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W Addeye, Hawo, Gebicho
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 241

Villages using the hora
Animals
visiting the
hora***
Fence* Bidiru* Destroyed by
Gabarra**
Name Diameter of
gimba (m)
Locality of
access
24 Hawo GURRATTI (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Hawo
25 Hawo BUKURE (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W Hawo
26 Addeye HULLUKE (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, P Addeye
27 Addeye DIRRIBA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Ebicha, Addeye, Hawo
Ebicha, Odo Geldo,
28 Addeye EBICHA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Addeye
29 Hawo WOLANA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Hawo
30 Addeye GELDO (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y - Geldo, Addeye
31 Hawo GASAWA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) N W Hawo, Gebicho
32 Addeye HARO CERBO (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) - Addeye
33 Addeye SUKE (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Addeye
34 Addeye ORABA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P, Li Addeye
35 Addeye RIRIPHA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Addeye
36 Addeye ATAUI (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y - Addeye
Li, Le, W, Addeye, Shawe, Malca
37 Addeye DAMBALA (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y
H, B Arba
Hawo, Maniate, Hirba,
Burketu, Santikar,
38 Maniate hIGAN 4.6 Sa, U O, W N B, N Wabaro, Chirri, Ongona
Addeye, Shawe, Soddu,
39 Addeye DOKKE (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P, N Gebicho, Anole
40 Maniate SANKATE 2 (no fence) O N B Dello
41 Gebicho BUSOFTU 19x6 (no fence) Gu N W, B, P Gebicho
42 Gebicho LENSHO (no gimba) (no fence) (no bidiru) Y W, B, P Gebicho, Hawo, Addeye
43 Gebicho hABIrE 8.5 Ha, Sa, B O N W, B, P Gebicho, Kumbi
*Plant species used: An-Ansha, Ar-Aradi, B-Badessa (Sysygium guineense), C-Cironta, E-Ebicha, Gag-Gagama, Gu-Guduba (Aningeria adolfi-federici), ha-Hadessa, he-Hexo
(Hagenia abyssinica), m-Makkanisa (Croton macrostachys), O-Oda, Sa-Sakarro, So-Soramba, T-Tulla, u-Ulaga, W-Walena (Erithrina brucei).
**Destroyed by Gabarra: Y-yes, N-no
***Animal species: N-nyala, B-bushbuck; P-pig, W-warthog, Li-lion, Le-leopard
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 242

General Management Planning for the Bale Mountains National Park
Alastair Nelson
Frankfurt Zoological Society, PO Box 14935, Arusha, Tanzania
Email: nelson.alastair@gmail.com
Abstract
The General Management Plan (GMP) for the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) lays out a
vision for the development and management of the park over the next 10 years, and outlines specific
actions required to fulfil this vision over the next three years. The GMP was developed using a
logical framework approach and a variety of participatory processes, including (i) the Core Planning
Team (CPT) directed the planning process and made key decisions; (ii) technical working groups
composed of relevant national and international experts devised the main components and details of
each of the management programmes; (iii) stakeholder planning workshops and direct discussions
were conducted with individuals in private companies, NGOs, government at all levels, researchers,
tourists and international experts, and (iv) consultation took place through key informant interviews
in communities in and around BMNP. The planning process was built on previously summarised
background information and a problems and issues analysis conducted by stakeholders. Lessons
learned from the planning process and aspects of the way forward for successful implementation of
the GMP are discussed.
Introduction
With a total terrestrial land cover of 11.5%, protected areas are one of the cornerstones of the
world’s conservation efforts (WCMC 2007). Traditionally protected areas were established for
wildlife and scenic protection, were run by central governments for visitors, tourists and ecologists
and were managed in isolation of neighbouring communities, other local stakeholders or national
sectors. However, over the last 25 years the scope of protected areas has changed dramatically to
embrace ecological, cultural, and socio-economic functions and their role in national development
and poverty alleviation is increasingly recognized. The area of land under formal protection is an
indicator for Millennium Development Goal 7 (ensuring environmental sustainability) under Target
9 (integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and
reverse the loss of environmental resources) and is further encouraged under the widely endorsed
Convention on Biological Diversity (Programme of Work on Protected Areas adopted at the Seventh
Conference of the Parties). The diversity of reasons and users for which protected areas are now
established and recognised is captured by the scope of the IUCN protected area management
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 243

categories (Bishop et al. 2004). Among the many purposes of the IUCN categories is to provide a
framework for the development of a management plan tailored to national and local circumstances.
Managing protected areas in developing countries presents a number of challenges, particularly
reconciling the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem processes with the livelihoods of resource
dependent communities. This is acutely so in Ethiopia, a country with significant challenges of
conserving globally unique biodiversity whilst lifting rural communities out of poverty. Rare and
globally unique species and exceptional levels of endemism are found in both the arid areas in the
Horn of Africa and also on the mesic highland plateau, of which the Bale Mountains are a part. This
endemism has resulted in these two eco-regions being within the 34 Conservation International
Biodiversity Hotspots (Williams et al. 2005). In addition to the highland endemic biodiversity, 80%
of Ethiopia’s total population of 73 million live in the highlands - the vast majority of whom are
entirely dependent on natural resources. Consequently, 97% of the original highland vegetation has
already been lost in recent decades as a result of encroaching agriculture, grazing and settlement
by agro-pastoral communities. The last remnants of Ethiopia’s natural ecosystems, including many
globally unique species, face an uncertain future, as do impoverished communities who rely on a
secure natural resource base for their livelihoods and well being.
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in south-eastern Ethiopia is the most important
conservation area in Ethiopia (FDRE 2005) and is of exceptional cultural and socio–economic
importance to permanent and seasonal residents and millions of lowland people in the south-east of
Ethiopia and Somalia. The 2,200 km2 park contains the world’s largest expanse of Afroalpine and
protects a significant part of Ethiopia’s second largest moist tropical forest. Stretching from 4,377
m a.s.l. down to 1,500 m a.s.l. the BMNP includes Afro-alpine moorland, wetlands, Juniper and
Hagenia woodlands, Erica heath and a montane forest with cloud forest at 3,200 m a.s.l. down to
dry high canopy forest with indigenous coffee at 1,500 m a.s.l.
The Bale massif is a centre of endemism and the most important area for a number of threatened
Ethiopian endemics of all taxa. It gives rise to major rivers of regional importance and has critical
dry season water-holding capacity in the wetlands, lakes and forest. These hydrological services
support approximately 12 million downstream users in south-eastern Ethiopia, central Somalia and
parts of Kenya and the conservation of the hydrological system is a primary purpose of the BMNP.
The park also plays a central role in protecting the livelihoods of local residents and neighbouring
communities, particularly through non-timber forest products (NTFPs), grazing and fuelwood (see
Tesfaye this edition; Watson et al. this edition). The mountains themselves are of significant value
within the local Oromo culture, having both cultural and spiritual sites, but also by virtue of being
a living centre of the local culture and traditions (Chiodi and Pinard this edition). These values,
together with its outstanding scenic value, combine to offer enormous tourism potential, which
remains largely untapped (Admasu et al. this edition).
It was within this complex and critical context that the Bale Mountains National Park General
Management Plan (GMP) was formulated (OARDB 2007). The plan seeks innovative solutions
to reconcile conservation of globally unique biodiversity with sustainable livelihoods of resourcedependent
communities living within and adjacent to the national park.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 244

BMNP Management History
Since its inception, the BMNP management authority has never stretched far beyond the northern
parts of the park around the Gaysay Valley. Attempts to extend this area of influence in the late
1980’s resulted in conflicts with local communities that affect relationships to this day. In 1986 a
General Management Plan (Hillman 1986) was developed, containing a thorough review of the
knowledge of the area and guidelines on how to meet management objectives. This plan was never
implemented due to increasing civil strife as opposition to the Dergue government grew. Since
1991, the effectiveness of protection and management in the area has declined dramatically. For the
last decade less than 10% of the park has been patrolled or monitored by park management in any
meaningful fashion.
The park’s unclear legal status, coupled with a lack of human and financial resources, political
interest and technical knowledge has contributed to the decline in management effectiveness and
consequent degradation of the BMNP’s resources. As a result the BMNP has become an open access
resource, with a burgeoning human population through immigration and rapid natural population
growth and consequent unsustainable use of the park’s natural resources (see also Tadesse et al. this
edition). As a result, the unique ecological and hydrological systems of the BMNP are seriously
threatened.
Park management alone lacks the capacity to tackle these threats, and although a number of
donor project interventions have attempted to halt the degradation, there was previously no logical
approach or co-ordination to management strategies or interventions. Most interventions left no
legacy; initiatives ceased once project funding ran out and the situation on the ground has continued
to deteriorate. In response, the Ethiopian management authorities and interested donors decided to
partner in a coordinated conservation management planning process. Formulating a GMP for the
BMNP was prioritised to develop a strategy for the long-term management of the BMNP and to help
partners identify their roles and responsibilities to secure the BMNP’s future.
Function and Structure of the General Management Plan
Protected Area GMP’s are essential tools for identifying management needs, formulating strategies
for long-term management and setting priorities for resource allocation. They also outline the
roles and responsibilities for implementing personnel, partners and other stakeholders, providing
a framework for cooperation and engagement towards common goals within an agreed strategy.
When, as ever, resources are limited, GMPs allow managers to prioritise their needs and to allocate
staff, funding, equipment and materials accordingly. They provide continuity in management policy,
particularly when staff members are transferred and partners change. Finally, they operate as a
public relations document, providing a means to explain the PA’s purpose, policies and objectives,
and to solicit donor funding by clearly laying out a shared vision, management priorities and input
requirements (Thomas and Middleton 2003).
Until recently, many GMPs adopted ten year planning horizons. Lessons learnt from
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 245

implementing this approach suggest that ten year actions often become redundant as the ecological,
political and socio-economic contexts change. Now GMP planning processes either opt for shorter
(five year) planning horizons (Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 2005, ZAWA 2004) or retain ten year strategic
objectives but with shorter term (three year) rolling action plans (TANAPA 2005). The ten year-three
year planning model was chosen for the BMNP planning process as it has been adopted successfully
elsewhere in East Africa (TANAPA 2004, KWS 2006). In this model the objectives provide the
long-term vision and strategy for management and development of the PA, tackling current and
anticipated problems and threats. This framework determines what management activities and
resource inputs are needed over a two to three year timeframe to achieve the objectives. Annual
operations plans and budgets are then developed from these shorter term action plans for day-to-day
management of the park. The GMP also functions as an umbrella for other more targeted plans (e.g.
fire management plan, monitoring plan, tourism development plan), thereby ensuring that all park
developments contribute to the park’s overall management vision.
The BMNP Planning Process
To maximize the BMNP GMP’s chances for successful implementation, two planning principles
were agreed to a priori by involved stakeholders. These were: i) participative planning and ii) the
logical framework approach. These were adopted to ensure that the GMP would obtain the necessary
buy-in for implementation and contain clearly laid out actions to address the major threats to the
park. Every effort was made to adhere to these principles, which are described in more detail below,
throughout the planning process.
i. Participative planning: the plan was designed by stakeholders spanning BMNP
managers, implementation partners, local communities, local government, government ministries
and departments, tourism operators, NGOs and civil society organisations with interests or local
knowledge. Throughout the planning process, stakeholders were given the opportunity to discuss,
debate, and ultimately agree on the issues and problems faced by the BMNP and the solutions to
these issues. Consultations took place through key informant interviews in local communities (circa
500 individuals), stakeholder planning workshops (93 experts from circa 43 institutions) and direct
discussions with interested individuals, such as private companies, NGOs, government at all levels,
as well as researchers and tourists.
ii. Logical framework approach (LFA): The LFA provides an efficient, accountable and
logical rationale for planning. The main feature of the LFA is the explicit and logical linkages
established between the plan’s ten year management objectives and the management actions and
activities established in the three year action plan. The ten year strategy focuses at the impact level,
describing management objectives and management prescriptions that together seek to improve
the conservation status of the BMNP’s exceptional resource values and achieve the park purpose.
The action plan focuses at the implementation level, describing the management actions, which are
broken down into specific activities, to be delivered in the short-term to contribute to the management
objectives that will ultimately achieve the park purpose. The LFA ensure that the GMP can be
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effectively and efficiently implemented, as well as easily monitored and evaluated.
The planning process, driven by the former Oromia Agriculture and Rural Development
Bureau (OARDB) who at the time had management responsibility for the BMNP, in partnership
with the Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) and the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal
Plants Project (CSMPP), commenced in December 2005 and was completed with the ratification of
the GMP in March 2007. The process was facilitated by FZS together with a Core Planning Team
(CPT) that directed the planning process, decided on the GMP structure and guided the participation
of other stakeholders. The CPT appointed Technical Working Groups and a planning facilitator to
develop each of the five management programmes (see below). The CPT also commissioned a review
of national policies and legislation to understand the context and ensure that the proposed actions
fit within the policy environment, and coordinated a separate task force on zoning and resettlement.
Core Planning Team:
• Oromia Agriculture and Rural Development Bureau (Chair)
• Bale Mountains National Park
• Wildlife Conservation Department (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development)
• Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project (Institute of Biodiversity Conservation)
• Bale Mountains Conservation Project (Frankfurt Zoological Society)
• Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme (Farm Africa/SOS Sahel).
Exceptional Resource Values (ERVs), Park Purpose and Management Principles
Planning began by identifying the Exceptional Resource Values (Table 1) that were then used
to formulate the primary park purpose (and supplementary purposes, see below). The ERVs are
the biophysical features that are vital for maintaining the area’s functions and unique ecological
character such that it provides outstanding benefits (social, economic, aesthetic) to local, national
and international stakeholders.
Table 1. Exceptional Resource Values in the Bale Mountains National Park
Category Exceptional Resource Value Rank
Endemic, endangered and flagship species e.g. Mountain nyala, Ethiopian
wolf, Giant lobelia, African wild dog
1
Afroalpine habitat 3
Hydrological system of wetlands and rivers 4
Natural Harenna Forest 5=
Distinct altitudinal vegetational zones e.g. Afroalpine, bamboo, Erica 5=
Rodent community 7
Migratory and endemic birds 10=
Gaysay grasslands and antelope 10=
Coffee and medicinal plants 15=
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Category Exceptional Resource Value Rank
Scenic
Social
Cultural
Mountain peaks, plateau and lava flows: Chorchora, Rafu 8=
Alpine lakes and mountain streams 17=
Harenna escarpment, including Gujerale 17=
Water catchment (economic value) 2
Environmental goods and services such as NTFP, grass etc. 8=
Coffee 15=
Traditional pastoral transhumance system (Godantu) 10=
Cultural sites (e.g. Abel Kassim, Gassuray, Alija) 10=
Traditional ecological knowledge 14
The ERVs provided the foundation for jointly formulating the park’s purpose. They also
helped to identify management issues and opportunities as well as management objectives and
targets that are the basis of the five management programmes in the GMP.
The BMNP purpose:
To conserve the ecological and hydrological systems of the Bale mountains, including the Afroalpine
and montane forest habitats with their rare, diverse and endemic species, while contributing to the
social and economic wellbeing of the present and future generations of people locally in Ethiopia
and in the wider region.
Supplementary and complementary purposes of the BMNP:
• To become a showpiece for protected area management in Ethiopia, thus forging strong political commitment
and institutions from grassroots to Federal level
• To work in partnership with the local communities to support both traditional and innovative resource-use
practices of legitimate users to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources such as water, grass, honey
and non-timber forest products and livelihood security
• To promote ecologically and culturally sensitive tourism so that tourism becomes a key driving force of the
local and national economy and provides equitable and sustainable benefits
• To encourage and support ecological and sociological scientific research
• To conserve both current and future commercially important wild genetic diversity, such as medicinal plants
or arabica coffee
• To provide a link for people with their natural heritage as an environmental educational resource
• To conserve all sites of cultural and historical significance and stimulate the conservation of traditional
ecological knowledge and cultural heritage
A number of underlying principles fundamental to BMNP management were then identified.
The BMNP management principles:
• Conservation of the ERVs takes precedence in all actions
• Partnerships with stakeholders, particularly park-associated communities, are a key component of GMP
implementation
• Environmental and socio-cultural impacts of developments and park users will be minimised
• Management systems will be responsive and adaptive to changing circumstances and knowledge
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Problems and Issues
A problems and issues analysis was conducted to identify those factors threatening the ERVs and,
ultimately, the park’s purpose. These were grouped into themes which translated into management
programmes (see below). Working groups were selected to tackle each of these themes by developing
the strategies and actions in each of the five management programmes.
BmNP problems and issues by theme:
• Unsustainable human impacts
• Lack of stakeholder participation, community-park relations, livelihoods, benefit-sharing
• Unclear policy, legislation and institutional arrangements
• Weak Park operations and capacity
• Poor ecosystem management and lack of research
• Tourism underdeveloped
Proposed Zonation
The single most important cross-cutting issue for the BMNP was, and still is, the expansion of
human activities in and around the park, particularly the unsustainable use of natural resources and
forest clearing for agriculture and settlement. To secure the long-term future of the BMNP, it is
critical to strike a balance between human needs, natural resource use and the conservation of the
BMNP’s ERVs (see also Tadesse et al. this edition).
Thus, to immediately bring the expansion of human settlement and the unsustainable and
unmanaged use of natural resources under control, a management zoning scheme was developed.
This provided a framework for securing the park and protecting its resources whilst allowing the
use of these resources by communities and tourists. It was important to note that conservation of
biodiversity and ecosystem processes would remain the primary management objective, irrespective
of zone. The two designated zones with associated prescriptions are described below:
1. Conservation Zone (CZ): This zone was to comprise just over 50% of the BMNP and
was made up of areas with relatively little permanent settlement that are high in biodiversity and
important for the conservation of the ecosystem’s Principal Ecosystem Components (PECs; see EM
programme). No damaging use would be permitted, no settlement or cultivation would be allowed
and development would be strictly regulated and would need to meet with the BMNP’s environmental
impact prescriptions for energy and material use, aesthetics and waste disposal. Access by tourists
and local people would be allowed to sites of natural, scenic or cultural significance.
2. Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource Management Zone (C&SNRMZ):
At the time the GMP was developed, it was agreed by stakeholders that use of natural resources
and settlement would be restricted to designated Conservation & SNRM Zones. Sustainable use
of natural resources would be allowed under negotiated management agreements between rightful
users and park management (see SNRM programme) within this zone. Settlement, infrastructure
development and cultivation would only allowed within these SNRM agreements and would need
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to meet the BMNP’s environmental impact prescriptions (but see Tadesse et al. this edition for a
discussion of the current situation).
Overview of the BMNP General Management Plan
The GMP is organised into five management programmes. Each management programme follows the
LFA and has an overall programme purpose, guiding principles, and ten year strategic management
objectives to address the relevant problems and issues. A practical, management-orientated three
year action plan accompanies each management programme and provides the detailed actions and
activities by which the strategy will be achieved over the next three years. This action plan is designed
to be regularly rolled forward every three years throughout the implementation of the GMP, so that
actions and activities are assessed and refreshed in the light of achievements and developments
during the GMP implementation. BMNP annual operations plans would then be developed through
close consultation with the GMP and these three year action plans. Based on best practice elsewhere
in east Africa (TANAPA 2004, KWS 2006) the BMNP management departments would aim to
mirror this management programme structure and thus primary responsibility for implementing
each programme will be aligned with a given department. This allocation of responsibility helps to
build a sense of ownership and accountability for GMP implementation among all park staff.
Ecological Management (EM) Programme
This programme is based on an ecological management and monitoring approach adapted from
current international conservation planning methods and best practices (TNC CAP). Eight PECs
which together capture the unique biodiversity of the BMNP, and if conserved will secure the longterm
health of the entire ecosystem, were identified by technical experts (Table 2).
Table 2. Principal Ecosystem Components in the Bale Mountains National Park.
Principal Ecosystem Components Level of Ecological Organisation
1. Hydrological System System
2. Harenna Forest
3. Erica forest and shrub
4. Gaysay grasslands
5. Hagenia/Juniper woodland
6. Afroalpine
7. Mountain nyala
8. Ethiopian wolf
Community
Species
Threats to these PECs were then identified (and prioritised) and mitigation strategies devised.
Major cross-cutting threats arising from human population expansion and unsustainable resource
use are addressed in the SNRM programme. Other prioritised threats are addressed in the EM
programme. These include inter alia actions to reduce the threat of fire, particularly in forest areas
and the Erica shrub, and actions to reduce the threat of disease to the Ethiopian wolf and mountain
nyala. Research and monitoring activities to assess the severity of low priority, or insufficiently
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understood threats were also identified.
This programme provides the framework for management orientated monitoring and research
of the PECs, their key ecological attributes and their threats - a crucial stage in adaptive management
of the ecosystem. Information on the status of the PECs and their threats will be fed back to enable
the design and implementation of appropriate management actions in this and other programmes.
The ecosystem monitoring plan also identifies ecological indicators for monitoring the achievement
of the park purpose and is thus a key component of the overall monitoring and evaluation of GMP
implementation.
Actions were also developed to address the paucity of data and limited understanding of
ecosystem processes in the BMNP. A list of prioritised research questions was drawn up which
would be promoted within the wider research community, both nationally and internationally, and
facilitated by park management wherever possible. In addition, thresholds of potential concern,
which will trigger management action to maintain the desired state of each PEC, would be developed
during the course of the three year action plan for PEC and threat monitoring.
Sustainable Natural Resource Management (SNRM) Programme
Human settlement and cultivation inside the BMNP has been increasing since the park was established
in the 1970s and has reached unsustainable levels, with concurrent rapid resource degradation. At the
time of writing, the GMP aimed to reduce human settlement and cultivation by restricting it to the
C&SNRMZ. This would be achieved by a suite of actions, including identifying rightful residents,
restricting access of those with land rights elsewhere, using the land certification/registration scheme
to encourage voluntary resettlement out of the park and renegotiating boundaries to reflect the current
realities of rightful settlement and near-pristine areas available for protection. Negative impacts on
the ecosystem of remaining settlement and agriculture would be mitigated using restoration where
necessary in partnership with the EM programme. Similarly, land use planning both inside and
outside the park would minimise the extent and environmental impact of different land use regimes
on ecosystem health and function.
Within the C&SNRMZ, the SNRM programme aimed to convert currently unsustainable
natural resource use in the BMNP to sustainable levels through a participatory process whereby
communities would enter into joint natural resource management agreements with park management.
The process would be based on participatory forest management approaches used by Farm Africa/
SOS Sahel in Bale, Borana and elsewhere in southern Ethiopia, and by GTZ around Adaba-Dodola
in Bale.
SNRM agreements, facilitated and negotiated between park management and community
resource management groups, would specify the type and amount of resource use and would lay
out rights, roles and responsibilities as well as the methods for community monitoring, regulation
and resource protection. A key component of this programme was to build the capacity of both
communities and park management to manage, regulate and monitor these agreements through
training, experience sharing visits and a ‘learning by doing’ approach. The process of establishing
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the agreements would form institutional bodies with community and park authority representation
for long-term monitoring and evaluation of resource use. The process would also include local legal
institutions to facilitate by-law establishment and ensure that the basis of these is understood for
effective enforcement. Thus the SNRM programme was designed to strengthen the local institutional
and legal framework to support this approach.
Since the ratification of the GMP, new federal regulations have been published that prohibit
either settlement or natural resource use in the BMNP and other National Parks in Ethiopia, rendering
many of the actions in the SNRM programme unworkable. New strategies will need to be devised
to deal with the threats to the park posed by settlement, agriculture and unsustainable resource use
(Tadesse et al. this edition).
Tourism Provision and Management Programme
This programme aims to develop and manage tourism in the BMNP in a culturally and environmentally
friendly manner so that revenue generated through tourism contributes both to long-term conservation
management and to diversifying the livelihood opportunities of park-associated communities
(see also Admasu et al. this edition). Tourism is a growth area internationally and nationally and
under this programme BMNP management would work with local communities and private sector
tourism partners to provide a diverse visitor experience that takes advantage of the uniqueness of the
Bale Mountains. Tourism provision requires detailed and comprehensive planning, with technical
expertise that is outwith the scope of this GMP. Thus, for instance, improved marketing would be
carried out in collaboration with other actors with similar goals. A tourist friendly environment will
be created through training and discussion with park staff, tourism partners and local communities.
In addition, high quality interpretative centres were planned.
The primary role of the BMNP in tourism management is to develop, monitor and enforce
policies and guidelines. Tourism services will be provided by the private sector or community
groups, under agreement with park management. Prototype concession agreements and leasing
procedures were being developed so that private investors could become the implementing partners
in tourism provision, and to ensure that benefits accrue equitably to both the park and park-associated
communities.
The GMP outlined strategies to enable communities to participate and share benefits from
BMNP tourism. This included actions to improve understanding of tourists and the tourism industry
in communities prioritised for community tourism development so that they would have the ability
to participate in an informed and proactive manner. Community Tourism Development Committees
(CTDC) were to be established in target communities and capacity built to establish governance,
tourism management and benefit-sharing structures. It was hoped that the CTDCs would be able
to adopt and implement realistic community tourism developments and attempt to obtain funding
for their construction. The BMNP would work with other actors in the ecosystem, nationally and
internationally who have the technical knowledge to assist with community tourism.
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Park Operations Programme
This programme envisages a secure and efficiently run National Park, using an adaptive management
system that is a working model for PA management throughout Africa and elsewhere. Resource
protection is a key feature and this requires a number of initiatives. Park and zone boundaries would
be agreed with local communities and demarcated on the ground, after which the BMNP would be
gazetted. Infrastructure development and sufficient equipment is required for effective management,
particularly with the potential increase in staff. An efficient patrolling and scout deployment system
would be designed and implemented to expand the sphere of management influence beyond the
northern corner of the BMNP.
A priority was to implement administration and human resource management systems that
are efficient and effective and that will lead to a motivated, appropriately trained and professional
staff team. Park administration and financial systems would be modernised and streamlined, with
actions designed to implement an adaptive planning system that would monitor GMP implementation
and the changing context and adapt accordingly. Finally, inadequate financing is a key obstacle for
BMNP management and actions were drawn up that would improve understanding of the economic
and financial flows in the ecosystem and investigate innovative internal and external funding
mechanisms so that a comprehensive business plan for the BMNP could be developed.
Outreach Programme
This programme is built on a strategy of effective partnerships that enhance dialogue and participatory
management, strengthen the global image of the BMNP and facilitate livelihood development. It
was designed to increase dialogue and the mutual flow of information between the park and relevant
stakeholders by creating structures for dialogue at different levels. These include the formation of
a Management Board to oversee policy and BMNP management, (including GMP implementation)
and a Regional Steering Committee, including community representatives, to advise management
and to coordinate with other governmental and non-governmental actors in the area. These groups
would create a sense of involvement and ownership in BMNP operations. Beyond this, the
programme would use other opportunities to engage local, national and international stakeholders.
These include listing the BMNP as a World Heritage Site, using diverse media to increase awareness
and strengthening and coordinating current environmental education programmes.
The programme aims to generate a positive flow of benefits from the BMNP – including
information, ideas, education opportunities, the facilitation of development initiatives and, where
possible, revenue. A key feature is facilitating livelihood development through partnerships, whilst
reducing costs for park-resident and park-adjacent communities (one of the main issues raised
during stakeholder consultations).
Lessons Learned and the Way Forward
PA management planning is often criticised for not being inclusive, often leading to the plans not
being properly implemented by the responsible staff or partners written into the plan. This typically
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esults from a planning process that is expert or consultant driven. The BMNP planning process was
designed to be participative with the goal that planning led easily into implementation. Our approach
at participation had mixed success; it worked well with government and other NGO partners, who
supported and endorsed the final product such that is was ratified within three days of submission.
However, it has been criticised for not sufficiently or appropriately engaging with communities
or addressing their needs and concerns regarding the management of the BMNP. Community
participation in the development of the plan could have been much stronger had a clear process for
engaging at the local level been developed from the outset.
Even with wide-buy in and early ratification, implementation was initially delayed by changes
in the institutional framework central to the BMNP. Shortly after ratification the management
authority for the BMNP was moved from the Regional government to the Federal government, and
although both had been involved throughout the planning process, the change meant that the plan
needed to be re-aligned with new policy and organisational priorities. This was compounded by
simultaneous changes in senior staff within FZS, the main implementing NGO partner.
Another point worth noting is that not as much background data was required as expected
to complete the GMP. Where information was lacking, actions were developed to fill knowledge
gaps, rather than hold up the planning process. Furthermore, the adaptive nature of the plan with its
ten year strategic vision and three year rolling action plans allows for new or revised actions to be
incorporated into management activities over time.
The planning process also highlighted two other factors crucial to implementation. First,
successful management of the BMNP hinges on two key policy and legislative issues: i) formally
and transparently gazetting the park, and ii) recognising and managing, in some way, the presence
of the communities living within and using the park. Secondly, additional finances are needed for
implementation. The BMNP has always been under-resourced and hence the slow slide to poor
management. Improved financing of the park will need to come from at least five sources:
i) Increased government allocation (justified by valuation of the ecosystem goods and services:
for example recent research suggests that the annual direct consumptive use of forest products
in the Bale Mountains is $84 million). Nevertheless, it is unlikely that core budget allocation
will ever be sufficient for proper management.
ii) Increased revenue by making the park more attractive to tourism operators and tourists. This
would need to be complemented by a system of revenue retention.
iii) Payments for ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, watershed protection and
biodiversity/genetic conservation – additional studies and specialist technical expertise will
be required to explore these opportunities
iv) Improved financial flows within the park through business planning (for example improving
revenue collection, increasing efficiency of spending, and maximizing the quality of services
being paid for).
v) Securing external technical and financial assistance through partnerships with NGOs and
third party donors.
Partnerships are essential to ensure the sustainable and effective management of the BMNP
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according to its core vision and principles, including partnerships between government, civil society
and community organisations. The government is responsible for the conservation management
of the park, but, in addition to financial constraints, government lacks technical expertise in many
required fields. Protected area management in any situation is a complex undertaking, and within the
BMNP this is compounded by the presence of communities living within the park and the diverse
institutions and authorities with overlapping responsibilities across the park and wider landscape.
Partnerships are needed to access the diverse capacity required for successful management within
such a complex context. The success of participatory forest management in a number of areas in
Ethiopia has shown that community-government-NGO partnerships can work. In Bale success
hinges on incorporating international partners – both as donor organisations over the long-term (it
is likely that Bale will always need external funding, and its biodiversity and ecosystem service
values are of international significance), and as technical partners in the medium term, until the
capacity of national civil society is built to play a similar role (i.e. identifying and bringing in new
technical approaches, finding funding for new initiatives or funding gaps, and holding management
authorities accountable for their actions).
The General Management Plan for the Bale Mountains National Park provides a shared
vision and agreed actions for what needs to be done to secure the long-term future of the park. The
challenge is now in moving from successful planning to effective and efficient implementation. The
keys to success in this process are five-fold: i) an appropriate institutional framework; ii) improved
participation in decision-making and management based on trust, dialogue and mutual learning; iii)
securing the necessary finances and making sure these are used efficiently and transparently; iii)
ensuring that monitoring and evaluation take place with feedback to management, and iv) building
true partnerships based on transparency and accountability.
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People in National Parks – Joint Natural Resource Management in Bale Mountains
National Park – Why it Makes Sense to Work with Local People
Dereje Tadesse 1* , Stuart Williams 2 , and Ben Irwin 3
1 Frankfurt Zoological Society, Bale Mountains Conservation Project
2 Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme
3 FARM-Africa – SOS Sahel, Bale EcoRegion Sustainable Management Programme
*Email: derejetadesse@fzs.org
Abstract
In Ethiopia, many protected areas have people living within their boundaries and just outside their
limits, who use the resources of the protected area. Today, there is a growing consensus that in
order to successfully meet conservation objectives, in the majority of cases, those objectives need
to be addressed alongside, and in consideration of, objectives of sustainable human development.
Top down, externally imposed conservation schemes often entail huge social costs in areas where
people are directly dependent on the natural resources of the proposed conservation area for their
livelihoods.
People living inside protected areas in Ethiopia have always existed in a context of uncertainty
with regard to no legally recognized resource use-rights by the National Park authorities. It is this
context of uncertainty, the non recognition of people’s resource use rights, and the lack of Park law
enforcement to limit resource use, that has led to de facto open access resource use, and consequent
decreasing levels of any natural resource management responsibility from the local community
side. Joint Natural Resource Management (JNRM) is a means of re-addressing these issues and
unravelling these problems through recognition of rightful resource users, adopting sustainable
natural resource management practices. And in so doing, conferring upon the legitimate local users
appropriate rights, roles and responsibilities in natural resource management.
This paper discusses the need for a change in views concerning people living in National
Parks in Ethiopia, using the Bale Mountains National Park as an example. Reviewing the past
and existing situation in BMNP, the paper concludes that building a working partnership with
local communities is of critical importance to the success of the conservation programme in Bale
Mountains National Park.
Introduction
The issue of people living inside protected areas has been a much debated subject within the
conservation sector. Recent history shows that there were two fundamentally different schools of
thought. There were those professionals who see the People in Parks issue as unacceptable and an
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 257

unallowable threat to the protected area (Terborgh and Peres 2002). And there are those who see the
issue as a management reality and, potentially, an opportunity (Borrini – Feyeraben 1999; Schmidt-
Soltau and Brockington 2007; Schwartzman et al. 2000).
In reality, many protected areas have people living within their boundaries and many more
have large adjacent local populations just outside their limits, who use the resources of the protected
area. This is certainly the case in Ethiopia. It is widely acknowledged that about 70% of National
Parks in the tropics have people living within them (van Schaik, et al. 2002). Today, there is a growing
consensus that in order to successfully meet conservation objectives, in the majority of cases those
objectives need to be addressed alongside, and in consideration of, objectives of sustainable human
development.
This paper discusses the need to change views concerning people using and living in National
Parks in Ethiopia, using the Bale Mountains National Park as an example. The Bale Mountains
National Park is potentially a useful case study in Ethiopia to start proactively managing the People
in Parks and seasonal resource use issues.
Threat or Opportunity – People in Parks
In the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP), populations of Oromo pastoralists have lived in the
designated National Park area1 for many years. Their early settlement and resource use areas predate
National Park designation in 1969. Such settlement areas include well established clustered
villages such as Hawo, Gora, Darkina and Rira. Today these villages are already instituted with the
lowest government administrative structure, known as the Kebele, and social infrastructure such as
schools, clinics, etc.
Today, 40 years after the Bale Mountains National Park was designated, an even greater
number of people live inside the proposed Park area. A settlement survey conducted by BMNP in
2006/7 estimated that more than 3000 households, with an average of 7 persons per household, now
live permanently inside the Park boundaries (FZS unpublished data, see figure 1). This amounts to
more than 21,000 people. With this increase in population has come a rapid land use and livelihood
change. In the Bale area the traditional livelihood system was based around the main activities of
livestock herding and beekeeping. In the present day, rural livelihoods primarily focus upon crop
cultivation, with livestock and natural products as secondary. Other Park resource use includes
bamboo harvesting, honey collection, wild forest coffee harvesting, medicinal plant collection,
wood and timber use, and even crop agriculture. The Park area also has an increasing number of
seasonal resource users.
The number of people adjacent to the Park has also increased, which in turn creates more
pressure on the natural resources within the Park. For example the Harenna forest and increasingly
the Afroalpine Sanetti plateau are historically widely used for seasonal grazing. Traditionally the
Harenna forest was used for grazing during the three month dry season (January –March) by lowland
1 The Bale Mountains National Park has never been legally gazetted.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 258

pastoralists, as part of pastoral seasonal migration from the lowlands south of the Bale Mountains.
The Harenna forest is ideal for such practices, in that it contains natural grassland glades in the
middle of the forest (Tadesse and Garedew 2002; Giovanni and Pinard this issue). Recent studies
have shown that the number of people grazing livestock as well the number of months the area is
used for grazing in the Park has increased in the past 15 years (BMNP unpublished data). A survey
conducted in 2009 revealed that 1072 and 2034 households seasonally use the Afroalpine habitat
and Harenna forest part of the national Park, respectively, for livestock grazing (FZS unpublished
data).
Figure 1. BMNP with location of permanent settlements inside the Park
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 259

Reasons for these increases can be attributed to a number of factors, in particular population
growth and weakening of informal institutions have increased the tendency towards open access
due to lack of clear directives by the national Park authorities to regulate/formalize resource use.
However, for a large part, most of these changes can be attributed to changing land use practices.
Land use change is particularly noticeable in the former grasslands and forests of the Bale plains2 outside the National Park (see also Teshome et al. this edition). These areas have been converted
to crop agricultural land, initially by the state, and now by the growing farming family. This trend
has been accelerated by new rural land certification3 systems which only recognize individual
crop agricultural land as certifiable. As a result historical use of the Park’s resources (e.g. seasonal
grazing, forest coffee collection, beekeeping and other non-timber product harvesting) has been
replaced by extended grazing periods and a growing number of season users, placing the national
Park and surrounding forestlands under increasing pressure.
National Park Management Challenges
The increase in the number of people inhabiting and using the Park and hence an increase in the use
of Park resources, are critically linked to multiple factors, as discussed above. While a number of
these factors may be beyond the control of the National Park authority, there are however a number
of key factors that directly lie within the responsibility of the National Park and/or conservation
management sector.
The first factor is the historically unclear status and definitions of protected area policy and
establishment in Ethiopia generally, and, in Bale specifically. For example, the Bale Mountains
National Park has never been legally gazetted. As a result, Park regulatory enforcement capacity, in
terms of understanding conservation policy and operational mandate has always been weak.
A second related factor is Ethiopia’s socio-political history, characterized by frequent political
and organizational change4 and thus policy change. Changes in conservation approaches, linked to
political change, have also had significant impact on the effective operation of protected areas.
When the BMNP was designated in 1974, the new Derg government adopted strong ‘protectionist’
and exclusion management systems5 . As far as the Park management rules were concerned, people
were not allowed in the Park to live or to use Park natural resources. In reality there were already
four permanent settlements with all lowest level of government structure. In areas under effective
national Park management, constituting less than 5% of the total area, the exclusion rules were
emphatically enforced by armed Park guards in part of BMNP. This system of management has been
argued to have been effective in achieving conservation goals, particularly increases in the number
2 Vast flat plain areas to the north and west of the Bale Mountain massif
3 Land Certification was introduced in Ethiopia in early 2000
4 The Imperial Regime (pre. 1974)/ The Derg Regime (1974- 1991) / EPRDF (1991 ongoing)
5 As was being advised to them by external conservation advisors, in parallel with the trends elsewhere in the
world.
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of wild animals (Stephens et al. 2000) 6 . However, the system fell apart with the collapse of the Derg
government in 1991. The fall of Derg regime was followed by severe reprisals against protection
based conservation; local people killed local wildlife populations7 , destroyed infrastructure and
threatened to burn Park property.
Post-1991, the early protectionist enforcement efforts have been replaced by a period of
ineffective management. This has, in turn, led to hand wringing, and wildlife and conservation
policy revision and institutional re-organization. Despite debates on the importance of conservation,
biodiversity and species endemism, continued constraints8 to efficient and effective protected area
systems have prevailed. The result has been a policy and conservation action vacuum, with little
coordinated field level action taking place.
Thirdly, is the conservation sector’s inability to change or adapt to the realities and challenges
that face protected areas. And finally, over the past fifteen years the sector has been hampered
by limited human and financial resources, poor leadership, and poor management capacity. These
combined factors have limited the conservation sector’s ability to establish an effective protected
area system in Ethiopia.
As previously mentioned, the situation outside of the proposed National Park boundaries, in
terms of land use, has also been one of rapid change and population growth. As such, the pressures
on the Park’s natural resources have been increased by an effectively open access land use situation
across the whole Bale landscape. Open access meaning that, as a result of ineffective management
since 1991, the residents of the national Park have expanded their agricultural land, and Park
neighboring people practiced unregulated seasonal livestock grazing and forest coffee management
- more or less unabated and as they please.
Although there is a general awareness of land use categories in Bale; the National Park,
Regional Forest Priority Areas (forest reserves), local people have chanced expansion of new land,
and when that expansion has gone unchallenged. The national Park residents continued with sense
of insecure land use rights, they lack incentive to invest in regulated natural resource use and also
lack power to exclude other from doing so. Although no studies have been carried out in a wider
scale, it is generally thought that forest land and grazing land around the National Park has been
converted to agricultural land due to lack of effective land administration and land management
systems.
6 For example, the mountain nyala population grew at rates of >20% per annum, both due to births and immigration,
during this period.
7 The Mountain Nyala populations around Dinsho, an Ethiopian Endemic, suffered significant losses.
8 Repeated policy change, poor coordination, poor leadership and management capacity, institutional instability
and reduced staffing and budget.
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Working with Local People - Promoting and Planning for Joint Natural Resource
Management in the Bale Mountains National Park
The reality of protected areas in Ethiopia is that all designated areas are settled and or used by local
communities. Because of the reluctance of the conservation sector to face up to the realities of
protected areas in Ethiopia, the issue of People in Parks in Ethiopia has been, and remains uncertain.
Currently, the policy coming out of the Ethiopian conservation sector is that people should not be
allowed to live in and/or use resources in National Parks. As such, they are adhering to the rule that
a National Park should not have people living in or using the resources of the area (Ethiopia Wildlife
Regulation 2009). However, the reality is that the situation remains quite different and very difficult,
with local people claiming settlement and resource use rights, and local administrations and Park
authorities unable and unsure of how to address the situation of permanent and seasonal settlement
inside Ethiopia’s National Parks. Thus, the solution of how to address the issue of People in Parks
remained elusive.
By the end of the 1990s the conservation status of the Bale Mountains National Park could be
described as increasingly desperate, in terms of an inability to address settlement and unsustainable
resource use. Particularly in the Afroalpine part of the Park, seasonal grazing land users do not
take any management responsibility in turn. Fears of losing the Park’s unique biodiversity were
highlighted by an outbreak of rabies in the Ethiopian wolf population in 2004 (Randall et al. 2004),
which spread from domestic dogs reared by the seasonal grazing land users. The outbreak killed
a significant number of the estimated remaining Bale Ethiopian wolf population of around 350
(Randall et al. 2004; Randall et al. this edition) and raised concerns about the future conservation of
the population (Haydon et al 2006). It was at this time a number of key actors began to discuss the
options for improving the management of the Bale National Park, the need for urgent action and new
ideas for dealing with the People and Parks issue.
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) was the first in responding to the problem of BMNP in
2001 which withdraw from the area shortly thereafter without substantially changing the situation
on ground. However project outputs included different consultancy study reports, vehicles and
training for the Park staff. After the withdrawal of WWF project from the area, the Ethiopian Wolf
Conservation Project (EWCP) 9 and Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) 10 , working with the National
Park Authority, began to look at the options for the improved management of Bale Mountains
National Park. In 2002, funded by the Belgium Technical Cooperation (BTC), a consultant study
produced a new National Park management strategy. The new strategy unfortunately failed to secure
implementation funding as the Belgium Government’s priorities changed. FZS did however pickup
the Park technical support output of the strategy to be the basis of their on-going technical assistance
support project to the Bale Mountains National Park.
Shortly afterwards, in 2004, two natural resource management focused NGOs expressed an
interest in providing support to the Bale Mountains region. FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia
9 EWCP was established as a specialized wolf conservation programme in 1995.
10 FZS started work in Bale in 2005. The organization provides technical and financial support and capacity
building to the Bale Mountains National Park Authority.
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have experience in the implementation of participatory forest management (PFM) systems across
different forest sites in Ethiopia11 . Working with the Oromiya Regional Government, EWCP and
FZS, the result was the development of the Bale Mountains EcoRegion Sustainable Management
Programme (BERSMP). The BERSMP is designed to take an EcoRegion approach to improve the
natural resource management and natural resource based livelihoods across the entire Bale massif
area . Today BERSMP is working in partnership with the Oromia Forest Enterprise within the
BMNP buffer zone to regulate resource use through the introduction of participatory natural resource
management (PNRM).
In 2006 FZS, as part of its technical support to the Oromiya Government and Bale Mountains
National Park, led a participatory process of developing a new General Management Plan for the
Bale Mountains National Park (Nelson this edition). After an initial series of consultative studies
and workshops, five output working groups were set up and charged with developing specific
output sections of the General Management Plan. The five output themes were; Park Management;
Ecological Research; Sustainable Natural Resource Management; Tourism, and Park Outreach. The
BMNP-GMP (2007–2010) was ratified in early 2007 by the president of Oromia. Considering the
reality on the ground and to face the challenging task of people and resource use in the National
Park, the Sustainable Natural Resource Management (SNRM) programme proposed legalized
natural resource management and allowable limited settlement within certain areas of the Bale
National Park, albeit under strict rules and restrictions. The purpose of the SNRM programme was
to implement collaborative and adaptive management strategies that ensured the sustainable use
of natural resources (BMNP - GMP 2007). The General Management Plan addressed the need for
working with local people to sustain the natural resources and values of the BMNP. However this
management regime is no longer in line with the new national Park regulations proclaimed in 2009.
Why It Makes Sense to Work with Local People
As mentioned above, people have lived inside the BMNP since its establishment, albeit insignificantly
fewer numbers than there are today. They have always existed in a context of uncertainty with
regard to no legally recognized resource use-rights by the National Park management. It is this
context of uncertainty (i.e. the non recognition of people’s resource use rights, and the lack of Park
law enforcement to prohibit non-legitimate resource users) that has led to the de facto open access
resource use, and consequent lack of share in any natural resource management responsibility from
the local people. JNRM can be adopted to address these issues and unravel these problems by
recognizing rightful resource users, adopting sustainable natural resource management practices
and, in so doing, securing natural resource rights, roles, responsibilities and revenues for local
people.
Conventional fences and fines approaches to protected area management usually exclude
human settlement and resource use within the boundaries of the protected area, at least in theory.
11 Information about the FARM-Africa – SOS Sahel Ethiopia Participatory Forest Management Programme
can be found at
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Today, there is a paradigm change towards collaborative management of natural resources together
with the local community in the proximity of the protected area. This shift in approach is a move
away from preservation and exclusion, towards inclusion and sustainable use for conservation. Such
a management system is also in line with the IUCN category II, national Park, management in that
the guideline recognizes sustainable use of resources within natural ecosystems and one of the
management objectives of the IUCN category II is to take into account the needs of indigenous
people, including subsitance resource use (IUCN 1994). More importantly national names for
protected area may also vary depending on the context and the fact that people are using the national
Park does not force a change in IUCN management category or national naming conventions.
There have already been many successful attempts to integrate human and non-human
needs within conservation landscapes. For example, the philosophy of National Parks in many
western European countries is based on mixing social and conservation values (Dudley et al. 1999).
Balancing the dual aims of conservation and sustainable development led to the establishment of
Category V and Category VI protected areas where the compatibility between traditional people’s
rights, sustainable use and conservation are explicitly recognized (IUCN 1994). In areas where it has
not (yet) become widespread practice, engaging local people in protected area management requires
new skills and new attitudes amongst both conservation practitioners and local communities.
What is now needed in the BMNP are new approaches to conservation. The process of
establishing new systems begins by building respect and trust between the National Park and local
people. This process takes time but is in line with local level views and attitudes towards conservation.
In 2006, FZS (supported by FARM-Africa - SOS Sahel BERSMP) carried out a rapid survey of
community perceptions and concerns about National Park management. Two highly significant
results emerged; 72% of local people consulted supported the idea of improved management systems
for the Bale National Park; and 86% of people consulted felt that communities must be involved
in Park management (BMNP–GMP 2007). These figures indicate the high level of interest from
local communities both in the sustainable management of BMNP and in the joint management of
BMNP. In terms of seeking a mandate for proposed actions, the community consultations clearly
show the way forward, and the opportunity of community involvement. To ignore such a mandate
and opportunity, in the light of on-going conflicts and tensions between Park and communities, will
only take the problem beyond turning point.
Conversely, top down, externally imposed conservation schemes often entail huge social costs
in areas where people are directly dependent on the natural resources of the proposed conservation
area for their livelihoods (Adams and Hutton 2007). This is absolutely the case in Ethiopia. Much
of the new conservation literature includes terms which imply a simultaneous interest in the welfare
of people and nature – for example, collaborative natural resource management, joint natural
resource management, co-management, etc. Each expresses particular assumptions and meanings.
In general, such terms describe situations in which two or more stakeholders negotiate, define and
guarantee amongst themselves, a fair system of sharing in the management functions, entitlements
and responsibilities for a given territory, area, set of natural resources, (Borrini-Feyerabend et al.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 264

2004) or conservation and livelihood target.
In this paper joint natural resource management (JNRM) is used as a broad term to describe
systems in which communities (resource user groups) and a state agency (Bale Mountains National
Park Authority, in this case), work together; to define rights of resource users, and ways of sharing
management responsibilities. JNRM is thus a community - Government partnership that aims to
achieve a set of mutually compatible conservation and livelihood targets.
There are a number of steps and procedures that need to be followed during the development
and establishment of JNRM systems, at any specific site. These steps have their own sequential phases
or stages. They include preparing for the partnership phase, negotiation phase and implementation
phase, or the investigation, negotiation, and implementation stages (Borrini-Feyerabend et al. 2004;
FARM-Africa–SOS Sahel 2006).
During the preparation for the partnership or investigation phase, baseline social and
ecological data are gathered with local communities using participatory learning and action (PLA)
tools. Thus, natural resource management based communication is initiated between the community
and Park authority. The purpose of the communication is to understand resource users (stakeholders)
and uses (livelihoods) and government conservation targets and priorities. This mutual understanding
is the basic foundation on which to build JNRM.
The negotiation phase is the period when key issues are discussed and agreed. Rules and
regulations are formulated and documented, and natural resource management plans agreed and
signed. During the negotiation phase the details of JNRM become both concrete and tangible. All
parties in the negotiation have to find an agreement that answers different questions for each one of
the strategic objectives of sustainable natural resource management, while striving to achieve the
conservation and livelihood targets that underpin the purpose of the partnership.
The implementation phase is the time when the agreed natural resource management plans
are put into practice and management responsibility is exercised by each stakeholder. A critical
part of implementation is learning from the experience of implementation through monitoring.
Adjustment of natural resource management plans based on the information from monitoring data
enables the JNRM system to strengthen over time through joint learning – by – doing and adaptive
management. It is this learning from participatory monitoring that will help in the future the joint
decision of either to continue with regulated resource use or find alternative solutions.
The adoption of JNRM systems in the Bale Mountains National Park is clearly a step
forwards from the prevailing situation of management dysfunction and conflict. In particular, it is
an alternative to some current arguments for de jure exclusion of communities from the Park, whilst
ignoring the de facto reality of communities living in and using the Park.
However, JNRM should not be seen as a panacea for all the complex and interlinked
problems and challenges faced in Park / People management: it does not provide a quick fix for
sustainable natural resource management complexities, but rather provides a way of moving forward
in dealing with those complexities. JNRM is also not guaranteed to work in all circumstances. If
poorly implemented it is obviously more likely to fail. The chances of establishing success will be
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enhanced, particularly in ecosystems that are fragile and prone to degradation, if the framework of the
livelihoods and conservation targets are strictly adhered to. In this, projections of population growth
– with simultaneous increasing demands for resources and land – only add to the complexities.
Basing JNRM on Indigenous Knowledge
A key lost opportunity in Bale has been the near disappearance of customary resource use and
management systems. For example, seasonal grazing in Harenna forest occurred for three months
as part of the customary Godantuu pastoralism system. The natural resource use of customary
pastoralists was regulated by their traditional institutions (Abba Arda) and there is an institutional
memory within the community including rules like announcement of date of opening and closing
for seasonal livestock grazing. Abba Arda regulates the use area and use patterns of grazing in
order to avoid degradation of particular areas, and to enable particular groups to control their
grazing territory (Tadesse and Gezahgn 2002). Through time, mainly because of the lack of formal
institutional support, the customary institutions and management systems have all but disappeared.
They have been replaced by the present day weak informal institutions, leading to free for all that
now dominates the current seasonal grazing area. People now graze in the Harenna forest for longer
periods and livestock move less. These practices are clearly having a negative impact on the structure
and composition of grazing resources and forest vegetation in the long-term. Reviving and using
customary resource management systems represents a key opportunity to base new JNRM systems
on the solid foundations of local indigenous knowledge (Boku and Irwin 2002).
In Bale there is the opportunity and need to work closely with the rightful resource users to
strengthen their traditional system, to undertake participatory monitoring to understand and manage
the impacts of resource use, and to find management solutions from within the community.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The reality in the BMNP is that people live in and around the Park and that these people use the natural
resources from within the Park to support their livelihoods (see Watson et al. this edition). Currently
they do this both without regulation by the Park Authorities, and also without taking management
responsibility. In other words, the resources are used as de facto open access resources, and levels of
resource mining and degradation are increasing annually. In part, this can be attributed to the lack of
a mechanism to undertake participatory management and monitoring of the Park’s natural resource
use. And, in part, this can be attributed to all the reasons that protected area effectiveness in Ethiopia
has been failing for the past 15 years.
Building a good relationship and a working partnership with local communities is therefore
of critical importance to the success of the conservation programme in Bale Mountains National
Park. A key challenge is to find ways in which community needs can be better integrated with the
needs of wildlife, biodiversity and the wider environment, to conserve biodiversity and sustain
ecosystem services. From this, we reflect and recommend the following:
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 266

• The redefinition of protected areas including zonation within the areas (cf ‘zones of special
use’ after Terborgh, 2002). The redefinition must be i) appropriate for the Ethiopia policy
and regulatory context as well as realities on the ground, and ii) arrived at in a consolatory,
participatory way. It must not attempt to conform to criteria that exist elsewhere (e.g., the
IUCN protected area categories provide management guidance but naming conventions
and regulations for National Parks should be country-specific) but must be functional for
Ethiopia. It should be noted that different zones within any one area can be sub-categorized
as well.
• The process to achieve (and maintain) both conservation and livelihood targets within any
given area demands trade-offs. There is no doubt that forcing people out of areas and abusing
their rights does not work. Further, allowing humans to use resources in an unmanaged way
leads only to environmental collapse, as history has amply demonstrated. Agreeing on and
implementing these trade-offs is the key here.
• For the BMNP – or any Protected Area in Ethiopia – to be effectively managed and for
it to realize its conservation and livelihood goals, all partners will have to be adaptive. In
order to be so, partners must be receptive to a dialogue that is based on mutual respect and
understanding of all stakeholders interest. Partners will also have to incorporate the lessons
that are being learnt, not only from within Ethiopia, but from elsewhere around the world.
• As human populations and the demands on natural resource requirements grow, the joint
management agreements made in Bale – and indeed elsewhere – will be severely challenged.
They will only survive if everyone involved – local communities, local and regional
authorities and federal organizations - stand together without taking time. This is because
we must also recognize that we as conservationists work in a marginalized sector. Similarly,
if the Bale Mountains, its people and its natural resources are to survive any future political
hiatuses, then everyone needs to be working together towards a common goal.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 268

Risk of Disease Transmission Between Domestic Livestock and Wild Ungulates in
the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia
Fekadu Shiferaw 1,2* and Karen Laurenson 3,4
1 Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, PO Box Addis Ababa, Ethiopian
2 National Animal Health Research Centre, P.O. Box 15341, Addis Ababa, Ethiopian
3 Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, EH25
9RG, UK
4 Frankfurt Zoological Society, PO Box 14935, Arusha, Tanzania
*Email: fdesta@yahoo.com
Abstract
Epidemiological and ecological studies were carried out in 1999-2000 to assess the potential for
disease transmission between wild and domestic ungulates in the Bale Mountains National Park
(BMNP), with a particular focus on the endangered mountain nyala. Serological analysis carried
out of cattle, sheep and wildlife revealed that none had been clearly exposed to the major ungulate
disease of rinderpeste, peste de petite ruminants and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and thus
these diseases appeared to be well controlled in livestock. However helminth infection was common
in both livestock and mountain nyala with nematode eggs found in 50% (n=300) of sheep and
39% (n=94) of mountain nyala faeces. Prevalence of nematode eggs was significantly lower (18%,
n=313) in cattle faeces than either sheep or mountain nyala. Experimental transmission of infective
larvae cultured from mountain nyala faeces to nematode-free sheep was successful and Haemonchus
contortus, Trichostrongylus columbriformes, and Oesophagostomum species were identified. There
was considerable human-associated activity on the Gaysay grasslands of the BMNP from both
grazing domestic livestock and traffic of livestock, people and vehicles. Overall, 5409 people, 5856
livestock and 475 vehicles were estimated to cross the area each week, with foot traffic highest on
Tuesday market days. Eight percent of grazing ungulates in the area were observed to be mixed
species groups, but wild species were found to avoid the road area are during daytime. At night
time, the following wildlife densities were estimated from transects: mountain nyala (8.9 km-2 ),
grey duiker (3.35 km-2 ), reedbuck (4.5 km-2 ) and warthogs (2.9 km-2 ). Overall, direct and indirect
transmission of pathogens between domestic and wild ungulates is both possible and likely, but it
is impossible to completely remove the risk of transmission given the co-existence of these groups
inside and outside the BMNP. Thus focusing disease control efforts on domestic livestock is likely
to be the most successful strategy overall to minimise this risk to endangered wild species such as
mountain nyala, whilst law enforcement and land use planning will assist with minimizing contact
and as well as human-wildlife conflict.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 269

Introduction
Worldwide, the expansion both in range and density of domestic livestock with their human owners,
along with habitat loss and modification, has multiple and complex consequences for infectious
disease transmission between wildlife and domestic hosts. From a wildlife perspective, disease
outbreaks in larger populations, or the implementation of disease control measures which alter
mortality rates in keystone species, can cause profound ecosystem perturbation. For example, the
control of rinderpest virus in its cattle reservoir around the Serengeti Ecosystem in Tanzania, and thus
removal of spillover infections in wildebeest and buffalo, has caused alterations in vegetation and
predator and prey dynamics, with substantial knock-on changes in prey and predator populations,
vegetation and fire (Mduma et al. 2001; Holdo et al. 2009)
In small or endangered populations, disease can be an important factor contributing to species
extinction and generalist pathogens with reservoirs in domestic hosts, which can infect a wide range
of species, pose the greatest threat to endangered species (Haydon et al. 2002). Examples from
Ethiopia include the multiple outbreaks and severe mortality due to rabies and canine distemper in
the endangered Ethiopian wolf in the Bale Mountains National Park (Gordon 2010, Randall et al.
2006). In the Mago National Park area, the generalist pathogen anthrax has been regularly reported,
causing mortality in at least 21 wildlife species, including more than 2000 lesser kudus (Shiferaw et
al. 2002), as well as mortality in Swayne’s hartebeest at Senkele sanctuary (Shiferaw unpub data).
Moreover, even when the effects of pathogens are sublethal or reduce reproductive rates, effects
that are common with helminth macroparasites, such effects at the individual level can interact with
other factors such as climate or food availability. Such effects may therefore still have an impact
on populations or ecosystem dynamics and thus implications for the conservation of endangered
species (McCallum et al. 1999).
The mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) is endemic to Ethiopia and restricted to the Arsi
and Bale massifs to the east of the Rift Valley (Malcolm and Evangelista this edition). The species is
classified as endangered by IUCN, due to its small overall total population (Bale Mountains: around
3700 animals: 95% CI: 2506 – 7135, Atickem et al. 2011, with smaller populations elsewhere,
Malcolm and Evangelista this edition), combined with a decline in both range and population
size over recent decades. The Bale Mountains are the main stronghold for the species and six
subpopulations have been identified. Some 800-1500 animals primarily use the northern woodlands
and Gaysay grasslands of the National Park in grasslands whereas the other subpopulations occur
in forests also used by livestock grazing (Mamo et al. 2008, Mamo and Pinard this edition; BMNP
2010). Even in the BMNP, the mountain nyala is not free from human or livestock influence, as
encroachment into the park has regularly occurred and people, vehicles and livestock regularly
transit the Gaysay grasslands on their way to Dinsho town. Moreover, the small Gaysay grassland
(~ 40km2 ) and northern woodlands in this northern extension of the park have a ‘hard edge’ as they
are surrounded by human settlement on three sides.
Mountain nyala may thus be directly disturbed by humans and their activities and are also
at risk of disease transmission from generalist pathogens of livestock. This paper examines some
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 270

aspects of these factors, including pathogen and species overlap, to try and assess the potential
for disease transmission and disturbance of mountain nyala in the northern section of the Bale
Mountains National Park.
Methods
Study area
The study took place in and around the northern section of Bale Mountains National Park, Oromia
NRS in Ethiopia between 1999 and 2000. Mountain nyala are predominantly found in the woodlands
of the northern section of the park and surrounds where Juniper, Hagenia and Hypericum spp.
predominate and also on the open Gaysay grasslands with broad valleys and swampy grassland.
Parasitology
Potential parasites of mountain nyala were identified through faecal analysis and from examining the
parasites of domestic livestock and their potential for transmission. Faecal samples were collected
per rectum from cattle (313) and sheep (300) in Gojera, Soba, Gofingira, Karari and Dinsho kebeles
and preserved in 10% formalin. In addition, 94 fresh faecal samples were collected from mountain
nyala either in the Gaysay or park headquarters areas. The prevalence of parasites eggs and their
density in faeces was then estimated using the Modified McMaster Method as described by MAFF
(1986). In addition, ova culture was carried out by culturing moist faecal samples on a petridish at
room temperature for 21 days. Infective larvae were then recovered using the Baermann Technique
and identified at the genus level at the genus level by the method described by Hansen et al. (1994),
using 10x10 magnification.
Sheep postmortem
An experimental transmission was undertaken to test whether mountain nyala nematodes were
infective to sheep and cattle. A six-month old sheep and a nine-month old calf were treated with
albendazole (5mg/kg Exiptolr, Erfar Pharmaceuticals) to clear all existing nematode infections and
then housed without access to grazing. After 10 days no helminth ova were observed in faeces and
the two subjects were subsequently drenched twice with infective larvae derived from oviculture
from mountain nyala. Larvae collected from the mountain nyala faeces were counted and an aliquot
of 30,000 ml containing 450 larvae was drenched in the first administration. When no ova were
detected in the faeces after 60 days, a second infection was administered after 60 days of 5400 larvae
in 30 ml. Faecal samples were examined from days 30-45 for the presence of nematode eggs, as
above.
Virology
A total of 363 and 470 blood samples were taken from jugular vein of sheep and cattle respectively
from Gojera, Soba, Gofingera, Karari, Dinsho and Kotera villages around the northern Gaysay
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 271

grasslands of BMNP. Seven mountain nyala and two Menelik’s bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus
menelikii) were chemically immobilised using etorphine and acepromazine (Immobilon – Novartis
Animal Health, Herts., UK) in combination with xylazine (Rompun – Bayer) and reversed with
antidotes diprenorphine (Revivonä C-Vet, Suffolk, UK) by darting from the air using a helicopter.
Two warthogs (Phacoeherus aethiopicus) were sampled after net capture.
Sheep and cattle samples were tested for antibodies to peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and
rinderpest (RP) respectively, by competitive ELISA. Cattle samples were also tested for contagious
bovine plueropneumonia (CBBP) by CFT. All samples were tested at NAHRC and the recommended
standard methodologies of CFT were followed (Campbell, 1953). Wildlife samples were all tested
for rinderpest, with mountain nyala and bushbuck samples also tested for PPR and CBBP antibodies.
Wildlife and livestock distribution and disturbance in the Gaysay grasslands
Observations were made from two vantage points on the Gaysay grasslands to sample potential
overlap and thus disease transmission, between wildlife and livestock. One set of 17 observations
periods were conducted from a small hillock at the west end of Gaysay area that had a visibility
of 360°. Another vantage point, Oufe, with 180° visibility, was chosen on the ridge on east side of
Gaysay, along the Gofingera track and looking over the Aleba area in the east and north east part
of the grasslands and five periods of observations carried out. Using a map, binoculars and a check
sheet, the position of all animal groups that were visible within the park were recorded. The distance
between groups was estimated from triangulation on the map. Animals that were more than 50 m
apart were assigned to separate groups.
The number of vehicles, people and domestic animals using the transport routes through
the Gaysay grasslands of the BMNP to Dinsho were estimated by observing traffic at the only
two bridges (one road, one foot) over the Web River. Traffic counted during three hour blocks
of 0630-0930, 0931-1230, 1231-1530, 1531-1830, with each block sampled for a complete day.
Observations were carried out all days of the week, including non-market days and market days
(Tuesdays, principal weekly market in Dinsho, and Saturday, small Dinsho market). In total 29 nonmarket
and 9 market days were sampled at the footbridge leading to the north and 25 non-market
and 8 market days sampled at the main road bridge, a total of 38 and 33 days respectively. The mean
weekly total was estimated by summing the average number of traffic per relevant day of the week.
Transects
Transects were driven during the day and in the early evening along the main trunk road across
across the Gaysay grasslands and the size and composition of all groups of wild and domestic
animals within 300 m of the road were recorded. All animals within 50 m were considered as one
group, but were recorded as a separate group if greater than 50 m to the nearest animal. A global
positioning system (GPS) was used to record perpendicular road location. Perpendicular distance
from the group of animals to the centre of the road, closest distance between animals within group
and distance to next group from outermost animal in each group were estimated. Vegetation was
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 272

ecorded as “point vegetation” for the exact position of animal and “area vegetation” for the area
around animals (group) with a radius of 50 m. Four types of vegetation were recorded (a) farmland,
with a vegetation height of 0-20 cm, taken as open density (b) grassland with a height of 20-50 cm
taken as low density (c) bush with height of 50-100 cm taken as medium density and (d) woodland,
>100 cm height as high density. Density estimates were obtained from night transects, using line
transect analysis (DISTANCE 4.0). Comparisons of sightings distributions were analysed using
Splus.
Results
Parasitology
Nematode eggs were detected in the faeces of cattle (n=300) and sheep (n= 313) with a prevalence
of 18% and 50% respectively. The lower prevalence of nematode eggs in cattle faeces the either sheep (χ2 =69.1, p

Virology
All 363 sheep serum samples were negative for peste des petites ruminants antibodies. Just 3.2%
(n=470) of cattle serum samples were seropositive for contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBBP),
but are not likely to represent real exposure to infection as outbreaks of this disease spread rapidly,
with case morbidity rates approaching 90% and case mortality rates as high as 50% (Blood et al.
1983). Thus outbreaks of CBBP are unlikely to be undetected, all titres were very low and although
vaccination had not occurred in the area for over 8 years, these could represent residual titres postvaccination.
Similarly, 10.2% (n=470) of cattle sampled were seropositive to rinderpest antibodies,
and probably arose form vaccination of the older cattle sampled, that last occurred 8 years previously
before widespread vaccination campaigns ceased. All wild animals tested for rinderpest, pest des
petites ruminants and contagious bovinepleuropneumonia antibodies were negative.
Wildlife and livestock distribution and disturbance in the Gaysay grasslands
Potential direct contact - Livestock were observed inside the park boundary during the sampling
period in 1999-2000, but were generally within 1km of the boundary. During 17 observation periods
at the western Gaysay vantage point, a total of 275 ungulate sightings were noted, with 222 sightings
of domestic livestock, 48 sightings of wild ungulates and 5 sightings of mixed domestic/wild
ungulate groups, all but one of which involved cattle (Table 1). Of the 48 wildlife-only sightings, 43
were of single species and three sightings were of groups of either mountain nyala and warthogs or
mountain nyala and reedbucks within 50m of each other. During the 5 observation periods at Oufe,
2 mixed domestic/wild ungulate groups were observed out of the 51 animal or group sightings, both
of which involved a warthog.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 274

Table 1: Composition of 326 ungulate groups observed from two vantage points on the Gaysay
grasslands, BMNP in 1999-2000. C=Cattle, T=Transport (Horses, donkeys, mules) S/G= Sheep
or Goats, MN= Mountain Nyala, WH= warthog, RB= reedbuck. Mixed species group are listed
by species composition e.g. C-MN = Cattle and Mountain Nyala. Groups in light shade represent
wildlife-only groups and those in dark shade represent domestic livestock/wildlife groupings
Species
Observation point A
(n=17 observation periods)
Observation point B (Oufe)
(n=5 observation periods)
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 275
Total
Cattle 48% 15.7% 42.9%
Transport 13.5% 13.7% 13.5%
Sheep/ Goats 1.5% 0 1.2%
Mountain nyala 2.5% 39.2% 8.3%
Warthog 4.4% 6 3.9% 4.3%
Reedbuck 9.5% 5.9% 8.9%
C-T 9.8% 3.9% 8.9%
C-S 5.8% 0 4.9%
C-MN 0.4% 0 0.3%
C-WH 0.7% 0 0.6%
C-RB 0.4% 0 0.3%
T-WH 0 2.0% 0.3%
MN-WH 0.4% 2.0% 0.6%
MN-RB 0.7% 11.8% 2.5%
C-S-T 2.2% 0 1.8%
C-T-WH 0 2.0% 0.3%
C-RB-WH 0.4% 0 0.3%
Total Groups
sighted
275 51 3
Overall, seven (2.1%, n=326) of ungulate sightings observations on the Gaysay grasslands in
northern BMNP in 1999-2000, were of mixed ‘groups’ of wildlife and domestic livestock species,
that is where wildlife and domestic livestock were observed within 50m of each other. In all but one
of these mixed ‘groups’, cattle were the domestic species, and sheep and goats were observed in
only 8% of sightings. In addition, although wildlife did not often intermingle with livestock, overlap
of grazing areas did occur and groups were frequently within 200m of each other. In addition,
livestock and wildlife grazing groups were observed to use the same areas, but at different times of
day, season or on subsequent days.
Disturbance - The number of people on foot and livestock crossing the park, going to or from
Dinsho, varied with the day of the week, depending on whether it was a market (Tuesday, principal
market in Dinsho; Saturday, small market) or non-market day (Table 2). On Tuesday market days an
average of 2744 people and 2633 livestock crossed the park, whereas on Saturday this average was
771 people and 788 livestock and on non-market days 379 people and 464 livestock crossed the park.
Thus foot traffic was around 7 times greater on Tuesdays than non-market days and livestock traffic
around 5.7 times greater. Overall, 5410 people, 5856 livestock and 475 vehicles were estimated to
cross the BMNP Gaysay grassland each week, with twice as much foot traffic over the main road
bridge as from the more footbridge leading from the area to the north of the park.

Table 2. Average daily volume of livestock and people traffic crossing the Gaysay grasslands of the
BMNP in 1999-2000, taking into account market (Tuesday and Saturday) and other days.
People
Days Main Road Footbridge Daily total Days/week Weekly total
Tuesdays 1882.6 861 2743.6 1 2743.6
Saturdays 379 392 771 1 771
Other days 239.9 139 378.9 5 1894.5
Weekly total 3461.1 1948 7 5409.1
Livestock
Days Main Road Footbridge Daily total Days/week Weekly total
Tuesdays 1946.9 686 2632.9 1 2632.9
Saturdays 464 324 788 1 788
Other days 341 146 487 5 2435
Weekly total 4115.9 1740 7 5855.9
Use also varied with time of day with usage lowest early in the morning and peaking later
in the morning or early afternoon on most days but with peaks in late morning and late afternoon
on the principal market day Tuesday. On average, 67.7 vehicles crossed the Gaysay grasslands each
day, with use highest late in the afternoon after Tuesday markets (Fig. 1).
Mean # vehicles per hour
10
8
6
4
2
0
0631-
0930
0931-
1230
1231-
1530
Time Period
1531-
1830
Tuesday
Saturday
Other day
Figure 1. Mean number of vehicles per hour using the Web Bridge on the trunk road over the
Gaysay grasslands of BMNP, in 1999-2000.
Response of wildlife to main road - Day and night transects were driven along the road to assess how
activities along the road might affect the distribution of wild ungulates and, where possible, assess
wildlife densities on the Gaysay grasslands. Mean sighting distance from the road was greater for
all species in the daytime than at night (Table 3 Mountain nyala (p

Table 3. Distance from road at which ungulate species were observed on the Gaysay grassland
during night and daytime transects.
Species
Mean (SE) distance from road (m)
Day Night
Mountain Nyala 156 (29) 66 (3)
Reedbuck 212 (30) 52 (2)
Warthog 179 (75) 18 (2)
All species combined 141 (4.2) 50 (1.4)
As these wild ungulates showed a clear aversion to the road during the daytime, the
assumptions of the distance sampling analytical technique were violated and it could not be used for
density estimation. However, as aversion to the road were less extreme at night, with none exhibited
by warthog, night sightings, from the 17 transects and 595 ungulate group sightings could be used
to estimate ungulate densities.
Mountain nyala were estimated to occur at a density of 8.9 km-2 (95% CI 4.3-18.3), grey
duiker at 3.35 km-2 (1.3-8.3), reedbuck at 4.5 km-2 (2.25-13.3) and warthogs at 2.9 km-2 (0.8 - 10.2),
but there were insufficient sightings to estimate bushbuck density. Average group size were 4.0 for
mountain nyala, 1.25 for grey duiker, 1.9 for Bohor reedbuck, 1.3 for warthogs and 2.4 bushbuck.
Using a figure of 51.4 km2 of available habitat, this estimates 458 mountain nyala for Gaysay/
Gassury, within a range of 222-940.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study examined some aspects of pathogen transmission between domestic animals and
livestock in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia and demonstrated for the first time that mountain nyalasheep
helminths transmission can occur. Overall, it has shown that transmission of disease between
domestic and wild species is both possible and likely in the Bale Mountains in Ethiopia for a number
of reasons. First, both domestic sheep and cattle in the area can carry high parasite loads. All pastures
used by domestic animals will therefore have high parasite infestations from domestic stock and are
potential sources of helminth infection for wild species.
Second, the experimental transmission of nematodes (H. contortus, T. colubriformis and
Oesophagostomum spp.) to sheep from mountain nyala in this study demonstrates the potential for
cross transmission of helminths amongst wildlife and domestic species. Similar transmission has
been recorded between antelopes and sheep (e.g. Preston et al. 1979, from Thomson’s gazelles)
and strongylate species in Antilopinae are generally considered to be capable of infecting sheep
and goats. Fewer parasites species may be capable of maintaining infections in cattle, perhaps due
to differences in immune response development. Other research suggests that such shared parasites
generally impact more on wild species where communal grazing occurs, where antelopes have
acquired predominantly ovine helminth species from domestic ruminant reservoirs (Dunn 1968).
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 277

Moreover, whereas domestic animals may be treated with anthelminthics to control parasite burdens
and their effect, wild species may be affected by increased loads. It is however impossible from this
preliminary work, to draw further conclusions on the (bi)directionality of parasite transmission,
which species might be involved, or which species might be most affected in and around the BMNP.
Nevertheless this result is valuable in demonstrating that such transmission could present a real rather
than purely hypothetical risk. Moreover, whilst mountain nyala are predominantly browsers, they
do feed on grass, particularly in the early wet season at exactly the time when helminth larvae may
emerge after a period of dormancy. and although widespread mortality is very unlikely, sublethal
effects of helminthes can have effects at both individual and population level and thus should be
considered in the future.
Third, this study has demonstrated that contact between wildlife and domestic animals
on the Gaysay grassland was and is both possible and probable. However, the risk of disease
transmission between these groups varies with both host and pathogen ecology, particularly by the
degree of separation of the two groups of host. The general avoidance behaviour of the two groups
of hosts is an important factor that will lower the chance of direct pathogen transmission. Wild
and domestic species did appear generally to avoid each other and rarely grazed sympatrically.
However, some mixed species groups were observed and the same land was used by the groups
at different times. Pathogen species and the mode of transmission also affects the risk of disease
transmission; pathogens with indirect transmission routes through the environment, wind, fomites
or vectors, or with intermediate stages such as helminths, are much more likely to be transmitted that
those requiring direct contact. In any scenario, an outbreak of an aerosolly transmitted and highly
pathogenic agent, such as CBPP would pose a grave risk to susceptible wildlife species. Fortunately
in recent years, extensive vaccination campaigns in domestic livestock have controlled many of the
most devastating viral infections, for example rinderpest is now thought to have been eradicated,
thus reducing the likelihood of such an event.
There is also evidence from this study that human activities disturb wild ungulates in this
area. A huge number of livestock and people cross the Gaysay grasslands on a weekly basis. Wild
ungulates clearly kept away from the road to avoid this disturbance, thus the continual increase in
people and livestock traffic in the park is of concern from a disturbance perspectives and well as
increasing the potential for disease transmission. The number of people and livestock using the
main bridge has apparently already increased since the mid 1980s, when Hillman (1986) recorded
an average of 1676 people and 1531 livestock crossing this bridge on market days, compared to
1882 people (12% increase) people and 1946 livestock (27% increase) in 1999-2000. It is possible
that transit rates have increased even more in the decade since this study was carried out and the
near completion of upgrade and asphalting of the major trunk road through the Gaysay grasslands is
likely to increase vehicle traffic in the further.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 278

Transmission risk
Clearly, disease transmission between wild and domestic stock will be minimised if domestic stock
do not encroach the park and this is the primary management measure that must be adopted from
a disease control perspective. Indeed, since this study took place, law enforcement efforts and
cooperation between local communities in the Gaysay area and park authorities have increased and
thus by 2010, domestic stock were only rarely found grazing inside the park in this area, although
large numbers still transit, particularly on market days. The decrease is grazing on the Gaysay
grasslands will have reduced the probability of disease transmission in the high wildlife density of
Gaysay.
Nevertheless, a number of factors mean that contact and transmission risk can now never
be completely removed in the Bale Mountains. First, as this study has shown livestock still traffic
through the park in the Gaysay area and this has increased since the 1980s. Second, despite a
decrease in wildlife grazing inside the Gaysay area, the last decade has seen a significant increase
in livestock numbers in other areas of the BMNP, such as the Web Valley (Vial 2011) or Harenna
forest (BMNP unpublished data), where mountain nyala, warthog or other wild ungulates are also
recorded, at varying densities. Third, there is a high density of humans and their livestock in the
area immediately around the park and both wildlife and livestock co-exist in many of the woodland
or forest areas around the northern park extension either in common land, hunting concessions or
in new participatory forest management areas. Fourth, even where laws are respected and enforced,
livestock graze right up to the park boundary, resulting in a hard edge and close wildlife-livestock
proximity. Some pathogens, particularly viruses, such as foot and mouth disease, are transmitted by
fomites or aerosol and thus can spread without direct contact and over long distances. Finally, wild
ungulates also often leave the park area where there is a hard edge at night, as we frequently saw
mountain nyala and warthog in particular leaving the park at Dinsho after nightfall. Mountain nyala
are also known to eat farmers’ crops in this area. Thus overall, even if all laws are respected and
there is no grazing of domestic animals inside BMNP, the co-existence of wildlife and livestock in
the Bale Mountains will persist.
Management recommendations
Overall, although we have demonstrated the potential for ungulate disease transmission in the Bale
Mountains, we consider the current probability of a major outbreak, with significant wildlife mortality,
to be relatively low. The current major diseases of livestock, which have high pathogenicity, are
generally controlled in livestock in this area of Ethiopia. Nevertheless all efforts should be made to
minimise the chance of a major outbreak occurring and we recommend the following.
Effort should be focused on improving disease control and surveillance in domestic animals,
through national or international schemes. Thus the diseases posing the highest risk to wildlife should
be controlled in their domestic hosts and if outbreaks did occur in livestock, these can be quickly
detected and control measures put in place. This will require long term human and institutional
capacity building and fostering links with national and international organisations.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 279

The separation of domestic and wild ungulates should be maintained wherever possible. This
will also minimise grazing competition between these groups. In the BMNP, this will primarily be
enacted through law enforcement, but if seasonal grazing is allowed in some areas of the park under
management agreements, key habitat areas for wild ungulates should be excluded from grazing
agreements. Outside the park, in hunting concessions, forest priority areas, participatory forest
management areas, or even kebele land, potential disease transmission to and from wildlife should
be used as a factor in landuse planning and livestock owners should be encouraged to designate
domestic animal grazing grounds in areas least used by wildlife. Good land use planning might also
help to minimise conflict from crop destruction by wildlife.
Contingency disease control tools and plans for outbreaks of ungulate disease, in particular,
in mountain nyala should be developed. As no mountain nyala are held in captivity, it will be
challenging to develop vaccine or treatment control tools for the future, but this should be considered
in long term plans. The feasibility of other methods of control considered, although financially and
logistically realistic options are likely to be rare.
Mountain nyala occur in six subpopulations and conservation efforts must be increased in
all subpopulations across the species range and particularly those that are not contiguous with the
BMNP population. Thus if a catastrophic event occurred, metapopulation management could allow
for reintroductions between subpopulations.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Wellcome Trust for financing the study and MSc for Fekadu Shiferaw and
the Institute of Zoology for offering an MSc placement. Wildlife sampling was conducted with the
technical and financial assistance of Dr. Richard Kock of the Pan African Rinderpest Control PACE,
OAU_IBAR. Technician Dinku Degu kindly assisted with the collection of the livestock samples.
The work was conducted with the permission and assistance of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Organization and the Ethiopian National Animal Health Research Centre, the University of
Edinburgh and the Bale Mountains National Park. We are grateful for Scott Newey for carrying out
the distance sampling analysis.
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Tourism and Protected Areas: Tourism Development in the Bale Mountains National
Park
Biniyam Admasu 1 , Addisu Asefa 2 and Anouska A. Kinahan 1*
1 Frankfurt Zoological Society, Bale Mountains Conservation Project, PO Box 165, Robe, Ethiopia
2 Bale Mountains National Park, PO Box 107, Goba, Ethiopia
*Email: anouskakinahan@fzs.org
Abstract
Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries globally and is a very important industry providing
over 50% of the GDP in 49 of the least developed countries and many local benefits such as
employment and improved infrastructure. As the demand for appreciative, experience and learning
tourism increases, and with increasing awareness of social injustices and environmental protection,
more people are looking towards low impact tourism and/or community-based tourism development
initiatives. The Ethiopian government is increasingly placing eco-tourism development on the
national agenda. Since the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is one of the most important
protected areas in the country, BMNP is likely to be a key player in realising these initiatives. BMNP’s
unique natural heritage and outstanding beauty and diverse attractions have great tourism potential.
However, the presence of some critical challenges and constraints, such as poor accessibility, poor
infrastructure and lack of marketing and available funds, all currently inhibit BMNP from fulfilling
its tourism potential. Despite this, with the development of a new General Management Plan,
strategies for developing new partnerships and better funding and marketing will be positive steps
towards realising BMNP’s environmental and cultural tourism value.
Introduction
A tourist is defined as ‘any person visiting a country other than that which is his/her usual place of
residence, for any reason other than following an occupation remunerated from within the country
visited’ (United Nations 1963). Today, tourism is one of the fastest growing industries globally
(Telfer 2006). This increase in global tourism can be attributed to a number of factors. Advances
in health care mean that people live longer and hence the proportion of the global population able
to travel is larger. Furthermore, a general increase in income, particularly in developed countries,
affords people the opportunity to travel more than before and access to information technology and
increasing travel options are further factors encouraging people to travel more widely and frequently
(Eagles et al. 2002).
Domestic tourism accounts for 80% of all tourism activity (Neto 2002). International tourism
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however continues to rise and in 1999 it became the industry that had the highest value of export goods
and services worldwide, exceeding that of other industries such as automotive products, chemicals,
and computer and office equipment (WTO 2001). In 49 of the least developed countries, tourism
accounts for more than 50% of the GDP. In 1989 Africa had 13.8 million arrivals and US$4.5 billion
receipts; in 1998 this increased to 24.9 million arrivals and US$9.6 billion receipts (WTO 2001).
Tourism can also generate local tax revenues, open new foreign exchange markets and diversify
local economies through employment and the creation of small business opportunities (Eagles et
al. 2002). As a result, tourism development is usually accompanied by improved infrastructure,
telecommunications and other public utilities which can lead to improved living conditions for local
people (Neto 2002). Further, in developing countries it is one of the few sectors that often provide
employment opportunities for women and unskilled workers, thus contributing to the empowerment
of women and poverty alleviation (Neto 2002). Incurring all these benefits, however, depends on the
levels of tourism which, in turn, can depend on a number of factors.
Countries to visit can vary in popularity according to tastes, political instability, natural
disasters and, importantly, the extent of tourism is largely dependant on global economic stability.
This can make it a volatile industry and, thus, high risk for countries whose economy places a high
dependency on the tourist industry. Nonetheless, tourism is often identified as the most promising
industry for the economic development of less developed countries (Eagles et al. 2002).
Tourism in Protected Areas
Eco-tourism is fast becoming a popular form of tourism world-wide. As the average global literacy
and education levels rise so does the demand for appreciative (nature or cultural), experience and
learning tourism (Eagles et. al. 2002). In addition, there is growing concern about social injustices
and environmental protection and tourists are becoming more aware of the necessity for low impact
and culturally/environmentally sensitive tourism and often want to support local conservation or
community development initiatives (Eagles et. al. 2002).
Eco-tourism can be defined as “……a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism
that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature; and which is ethically managed
to be low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented (control, benefits, and scale). It typically
occurs in natural areas and should contribute to the conservation or preservation of such areas”
(Fennell 1999). This definition of eco-tourism suggests that protected areas can be key players in
developing this industry. In the IUCN categories of Protected Areas, tourism and recreation are
likely to be key management objectives in all categories except 1a (strict nature reserve). In Costa
Rica for example, more than 25% of the country is covered by national parks, wildlife refuges
and biological reserves and in 1999 the country had 1.03 million tourists of which 66% visited a
protected area. With tourist receipts for the country currently reaching above US$1billion, national
parks are now a critical component of its eco-tourism industry (Brown 2001).
Eco-tourism can also play an important role in the conservation of protected areas by, for
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example, increasing funding for protected area management (Boo 1992). Gorilla tourism was so
profitable in Rwanda the income generated helped fund conservation activities for a number of
protected areas in the country (Lindberg 1998). Increasing livelihood and business opportunities
of local communities inhabiting tourism destination areas can be an incentive for them to protect
their environmental resources and, coupled with environmental education, can advocate changes in
conservation attitudes and behaviours (Sharpley 2006). However, despite these and other benefits,
eco-tourism can also have negative impacts on the ecosystem including environmental degradation
and pollution and/or changes in social, cultural and custom habits of the community (Musa 2006).
Tourism in Ethiopia
Currently Ethiopia is known for its tourist value from a cultural and historical perspective, with
most tourists visiting the ancient churches and cultural sites in the north of the country. However,
the tourism sector is still largely underdeveloped and underexploited compared to its African
counterparts. In fact Ethiopia still remains among the lowest tourism beneficiaries in Africa,
receiving only 0.58% of the continent’s tourist arrivals in 2003 (Ethiopian Ministry of Culture
and Tourism 2006). Despite this, Ethiopia has seen an increasing influx of tourists over the years
with the country’s tourism receipts reaching ETB 1.2 billion and contributing to 17% of its export
revenues in 2005. This represents 108% growth from 2000 and 18% growth from 2004 (Ethiopian
Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2006, OARDB 2007), making it the third biggest foreign currency
earning industry in Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian Ministry of Culture and Tourism (2006),
this increase in tourism in the country is as a result of peace and stability and the various attempts the
country has made to change its negative image. In the Ethiopian Governments Plan for Accelerated
and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), tourism development has been prioritised.
Further, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP 2004) indicates that Ethiopia
has a large potential for tourism revenue generation from most protected areas (Ethiopian Tourism
Commission 2002; Muramira and Wood 2003). In fact the federal Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Authority (EWCA) has recently been moved and is now housed under the Ministry of Culture and
Tourism (MoCT) demonstrating Ethiopia’s new recognition of the role protected areas can play in
developing eco-tourism.
Ethiopia is a country with huge scope to develop its eco-tourism industry. The country
houses nine national parks, 12 wildlife reserves and two wildlife sanctuaries. These protected areas
encompass the largest expanse of Afroalpine on the continent as well as remnant areas of rare montane
forest, while also providing spectacular scenic values in the highlands and harbouring many unique
and endemic species. The Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) is the only UNESCO natural
World Heritage Site in Ethiopia and the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) has recently been
included on the WHS tentative list. SMNP has approximately 7,000 international tourists a year
and generates ETB 1.5 million per annum (SMNP GMP 2010), in contrast to other protected areas
in the country, including the Bale Mountains National Park, where eco-tourism remains largely
underdeveloped.
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Tourism in the Bale Mountains National Park
The Bale Mountains National Park is located 440 km south of Addis Ababa or approximately an
eight hour drive. The Bale Mountains, with BMNP at its heart, are a unique natural heritage with
outstanding beauty, diverse attractions and great tourism potential. Despite its wildlife, trekking,
scenic and other attractions, lack of tourism infrastructure, planning and marketing currently inhibit
BMNP from fulfilling its tourism potential. In 2004, scheduled domestic flights into Goba were
stopped, making the only access to the park by road (which is poor quality), using private or hired
vehicles or local buses. Further, there is only one lodge in the entire park, located at the headquarters,
which is poorly equipped and maintained. There is no hot water or functional showers and despite
a kitchen being available there are no cooking facilities, tourists must bring their own stoves and
cooking equipment. Although there are designated camp sites for those who come to the park to
trek, these are sites only with no facilities and tourists must bring all their own camping and cooking
equipment, making it difficult for those who travel from Addis by public transport. It is assumed as a
result of this poor accessibility and poor infrastructure, tourist numbers are far less than its potential.
Business Planning - A Market and Customer Analysis
In 2010, as part of the BMNP Business Plan development, a detailed analysis was carried out on
the market and customer trends in tourism to BMNP as well as a detailed financial and benefit
assessment. Below summarises these findings but further details can be found in the BMNP BP
2010.
Figure 1 shows the nationalities and their residence of tourists coming to the BMNP over
the past 3 years. It can be seen that the highest percentage of visitors are international tourists living
abroad, followed by international visitors residing in Ethiopia, with the proportion of Ethiopians
visiting being the second lowest compared to Ethiopians living abroad. Figure 1 shows that while
the proportion of international tourists in on the increase, both the percentage of foreigners living in
Ethiopia and Ethiopian nationals coming to the park are decreasing. Data shows that the majority
of visitors to the park are from Europe (76%) followed by Africa (20%), Americas (8%) and the
remaining coming from Australia, Middle east and Asia (3%, 3% and

90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
International International International Local Local International Local Local
2007 2008 2009
Figure 1. Graph showing the percentage of tourists and their origin coming to BMNP over the past
3 years.
Historical trends show that although still relatively low, the numbers of tourists coming to BMNP
annually is steadily increasing (OARDB 2007, BMNP unpublished data). Currently there are about
80 (10 regular) Addis based tour operators bringing visitors to Bale and the survey revealed that
most tourists receive their information about Bale from either the internet or travel books such as
the rough guide or lonely planet.
In 2009, a second survey was carried out on tourists in Dodola engaging in a trekking holiday.
This survey asked if they had heard about BMNP, would they like to visit and if so what is stopping
them. Results showed that 100% of respondents had heard of BMNP, 92% said they would like to
visit BMNP and of these 50% had already been to or intended to go to BMNP after Dodola, 33%
stated that they did not have enough time, and 8% said that nothing was stopping them (a further 8%
had no answer). These results suggest that linking up with Dodola trekking may be a good market
to tap into and that once the road from Addis Ababa is fully tarred (and if flights return), then due
to the drastically decreased time to get to BMNP, it is likely more visitors will come. A survey also
revealed that tourists considered the current entrance fee of $5 per 48 hours between too little to fair
and most would be willing to pay twice that ($10) and some even up to $30 (FZS unpublished data).
A financial analysis
Figure 2 shows the availability of funds from all sources (government and external) for each park
management programme over the past 5 years. It can be seen that out of all of the programmes,
tourism has received the lowest (3%) funds. A historic analysis (BMNP BP 2010) shows that over
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the past 5 years tourism activities have received no funds from the government but from external
sources only, namely the BMNP longstanding partners, - the Frankfurt Zoological Society and the
Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme.
Figure 2. Pie chart showing the % allocation of funds to each of the management programmes over
the past 5 years.
In 2008, revenue generated from tourism entrance fees (ETB 157,168) almost equalled the
park budget allocated by the government, excluding salary costs (ETB 165,010). Given that it is
assumed that the park is failing to capture at least 50% of gate fees and that there are limited records
for bed nights and other fee charging services at the Dinsho lodge, it is likely that excluding park
staff salaries, current revenue generated from tourism to the park exceeds that of the budget provided
by the government over the past five years. An activity-based costing for the implementation of the
tourism provision and management programme has shown that a total amount of ETB 3,750,889
or ETB 2,302,312 are required for the optimal and critical 5 year implementation plan of this
programme, or on average ETB 750,178 and ETB 460,462 per year, respectively (Table 1). Gap
analyses show that even under the new much improved federal Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Authority budget, a large gap will still remain between the funds required and funds available for
implementing the tourism provision and management programme of the BMNP GMP.
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Table 1. Five year optimal and critical funds required for implementing the Tourism Provision and
Management Programme of the BMNP GMP.
Activity Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5
Objective 1: Diverse and ecologically and culturally sensitive tourism provision developed in BMNP in partnership with local communities, the private sector and government
1.1: A strong image for Ethiopia and the Bale
Mountains National Park built on the global
tourism market through the development and
implementation of a BMNP marketing plan
1.2: A detailed strategic tourism provision
development plan for BMNP drawn up,
100,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 100,000 7,000 7,000 7,000 7,000
implemented and regularly updated
1.3: A tourism -friendly environment in and
around the Bale Mountains developed and
200,000 100,000 0 0 0 200,000 50,000 0 0 0
maintained 430,000 1,027,500 30,250 33,275 36,603 205,000 416,500 18,150 19,965 21,962
Sub total 730,000 1,137,500 40,250 43,275 46,603 505,000 473,500 25,150 26,965 28,962
Objective 2: Efficient, effective and responsive tourism management systems that provide and enhanced visitor experience
2.1: BMNP tourism department has the capacity
to deliver and manage an exceptional tourism
experience
2.2: Tourism provision monitored, evaluated and
appropriate actions to mitigate negative impacts
10,000 11,000 12,100 13,310 14,641 5,000 5,500 6,050 6,655 7,321
or enhance provision, developed 34,000 4,700 5,420 41,162 6,928 34,000 4,700 5,420 41,162 6,928
Sub total 44,000 15,700 17,520 54,472 21,569 39,000 10,200 11,470 47,817 14,249
Objective 3: Community participation and benefit sharing opportunties in BMNP tourism developed and established as core part of the BMNP tourism service provison and
management
3.1: Tourism, with its potential and pitfalls,
understood by local communities
3.2: Community Tourism Development
Committees established and managing tourism in
50,000 20,000
partnership with BMNP 500,000 500,000 350,000 150,000 50,000 400,000 400,000 200,000 80,000 20,000
Sub total 500,000 550,000 350,000 150,000 50,000 400,000 420,000 200,000 80,000 20,000
Total 1,274,000 1,703,200 407,770 247,747 118,172 944,000 903,700 236,620 154,782 63,210
Tourism Provision and Management 5-year Activity Plan
In 2007, a General Management Plan was developed for the BMNP (OARDB 2007; Nelson this
edition). In this, tourism provision and management was identified as one of five management
programmes and a 3-year activity plan was developed. In 2010, this activity plan was reviewed
and adapted and a new five year activity plan was identified. Below summarises the main activities
carried out to date in this programme and some of the main activities, costs and major investments
needed for this programme over the next five years.
The main objectives of this programme as identified in the BMNP GMP are:
• Diverse and ecologically and culturally sensitive tourism provision developed in BMNP in
partnership with local communities, the private sector and government
• Efficient, effective and responsive tourism management systems that provide and enhance visitor
experience
• Community participation and benefit sharing opportunities in BMNP tourism developed and
established as a core part of the BMNP tourism service provision and management
Although the park does not receive government budget for the development or implementation
of this programme it does however have one tourism expert and small ad hoc funding for the
maintenance of the lodge (the only accommodation available to tourists in the entire park). Apart from
the lodge and the reception area in the headquarters there is no other tourist infrastructure available
in the park. Implementation of this programme is underway, however, funded predominately by the
Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) who has also provided a national tourism technical advisor to
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assist with implementation of the tourism programme. In addition new partnerships have been and
continue to be formed with the Farm Africa/SOS Sahel Bale Eco-region Sustainable Management
Project, TESFA and ESTA in helping BMNP to develop its tourism potential and to increase benefits
to communities through tourism.
Objective 1: Diverse and ecologically and culturally sensitive tourism provision developed in
BMNP in partnership with local communities, the private sector and government
Background: To date, a corporate image for the BMNP has been developed using one of its flagship
species, the Mountain nyala, which is used on all materials, signs and publications concerned with
the BMNP. Plans for a new interpretation centre are underway but the building design still needs to
be agreed. A tourism expert has been seconded to identify the tourism products and service potential
of the BMNP. Partnerships developed with ESTA has resulted in investment brokers promoting
BMNP as a potential site to private lodge investors. Training has been provided to the Nyala
Guides Association in basic tourism service provision and in flora and fauna identification. Plans
are underway to develop a number of community associations such as cooking associations and a
woman’s local craft and curios association.
Activities and Resources Required: The main activity needed to achieve this objective is to
develop a tourism strategic and marketing plan. An international consultant tourism development
expert should be hired to develop this. This plan will also aid in developing niche based tourism.
Other large investments needed for this programme are to produce interpretative materials for the
interpretation centre to be built under the GMPs outreach programme, and to increase tourism
infrastructure by placing basic facilities at campsites throughout the park and building some basic
mountain huts. Lastly, further training as needed will be provided to the service providers. Optimal
and critical funding needed to achieve these activities over the five years have been identified as
ETB 1,997,628 and ETB 1,059,577, respectively.
Objective 2: Efficient, effective and responsive tourism management systems that provide and
enhanced visitor experience, devised and maintained
Background: Up until recently few to no records of tourists visiting the BMNP were available
apart from receipts. A visitor registration book has been implemented along with trip evaluation
questionnaires. Some customer care training has been provided to BMNP staff working in tourism
and park regulations have been drawn up for tourists. A private concession agreement has been
developed for the privatization of Dinsho Lodge. A tourism database has been developed whereby
data from tourist records and visitor feedback questionnaires can be stored and analyzed.
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Activities and Resources Required: In addition to the questionnaires, personal interviews with
tourists assessing their experience should be conducted twice a year. Further concession and lease
agreements and opportunities need to be identified and disseminated among stakeholders and private
individuals. Most of the resources needed to achieve this objective will come from external expertise
needed for other objectives such as a tourism development consultant. Given that the costs for these
experts have been taken into account in other programmes the optimal and critical funding needed
to achieve these activities (excluding consulting fees) over the next five years have been identified
as ETB 153,261 and ETB 122,736, respectively.
Objective 3: Community participation and benefit sharing opportunities in BMNP tourism
developed and established as core part of the BMNP tourism service provision and management
Background: To date few activities associated with this objective have been carried out apart from
training and some equipment provision to local service providers.
Activities and Resources Required: Training as per a need assessment is to be provided to the
communities in recognising potential opportunities that may be obtained from tourism in the area,
as well as training in tourism awareness and service provision. The potential for community-park
partnerships in concession and business opportunities needs to be examined and implemented
accordingly. This objective would need to second an expert in community tourism to help develop
a strategic plan and to implement the plan in order to achieve this objective. Optimal and critical
funding needed to achieve these activities over the five years have been identified as ETB 1,600,000
and ETB 1,120,000, respectively.
The top five investments needed for the tourism programme have been identified as:
i) Develop a tourism and marketing plan
ii) Establish campsite facilities
iii) Establish mountain huts
iv) Develop materials for the interpretative center
v) Develop avi-tourism.
A Benefit Analysis
Tourism in the park is a significant contributor to poverty alleviation with three community
associations – guides, horse lenders and porters – providing services to tourists when they come to
the park as well as ad hoc temporary employment to other community members such as cooks. It is
estimated that the income for guides and horse assistants is approximately ETB 258,300 per annum
(Öbf 2009). Many local businesses also benefit from tourists coming to the BMNP such as coffee
shops, restaurants, and local hotels.
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An increase in tourism investment into the park would mean a greater demand for local staff
and service provision by communities. Increasing the number of lodges would directly increase
benefits through employment as well as temporary benefits ranging from local building contractors
to catering suppliers for example. Tourism could open up other opportunities for community small
business development such as community managed tourism facilities and selling goods such as
curios and souvenirs. The following section describes some of the financial strategies proposed in
the BMNP Business Plan to improve benefits both to the park and the surrounding communities as
a result of tourism.
Financial Strategies
Income derived from tourism in the BMNP is well below that of its potential and there are many
strategies that could be developed with which to increase revenue from recreational services and
to be more cost effective. Currently the BMNP is tapping into the low end poor service provision
market. There is only one lodge, which is poorly equipped, where tourists can stay with other options
being designated campsites with no facilities. Income is derived from park entrance fees and lodge
fees which include bed nights and miscellaneous services such as payments for sauna and kitchen
usage. In addition to increased income from gate fees, tourism is a great opportunity whereby nonconsumptive
benefits to communities can be improved. The BMNP Business Plan identifies some
strategies whereby income to the park from gate fees and tourism can be increased and benefits to
the communities improved.
Attaching a community levy on park entrance fees
Community levies are one-off fees or taxes paid by tourists on top of their park entrance fees which
go directly into a Community Development Fund (CDF). In South Africa nearly all parks apply a
mandatory community levy on top of park entrance fees. Typically this fee is between US$5-10. In
KZN, community levies from tourism raise about US$750,000 p.a., which is distributed to different
CDFs by local boards (Buckley and Sommer 2001). These funds are then used for different things
decided by the communities, such as schools or in one instance the local communities used their
money to purchase a concession to build a lodge in the Imfolozi Game Reserve, KZN South Africa.
A recent survey carried out with randomly selected tourists visiting the BMNP in January
2009 showed that 78% of tourists questioned said they would pay a voluntary community levy if
the option was available. Their willingness to pay ranged from US$5-$50, with the majority willing
to pay a one-off US$5 community levy. This is in line with levies charged by South African Parks.
Given current tourist numbers to BMNP (1500 p.a.) and assuming 78% of tourists would opt to
purchase a voluntary levy at ETB 50, this scheme has the potential to generate up to almost ETB
5,000,000 over the next five years. However, this number also has great potential to increase if
tourism numbers increase as expected (due to tourism development initiatives currently on going in
the park) or should the levy become mandatory in the future.
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Promoting community association trading schemes
Promoting community association trading schemes whereby associations are set up by the
communities to sell tourism information such as trekking maps and curios such as BMNP t-shirts
and caps to tourists could be an ideal way in which community benefits (particular for marginalised
groups) from the park are further enhanced. By facilitating production and providing premises to
these local associations, the park could generate funds through concession fees. Although it is clear
income generated to the park from this scheme would be low, the community benefits derived from
such a scheme (particularly for marginalised groups) and the cost savings and benefits in marketing
and PR for the park are unquestionable.
Developing niche based tourism
The development of specialist tourism such as avi-tourism and/or mountain bike tourism has great
potential in the BMNP. Community benefits would be enhanced through training and hence creating
opportunities for specialist guides from the communities, developing small business opportunities
(for example mountain bike repair or bike hiring) and other benefits associated with increases in
tourist numbers. The park would benefit from the income generated from park entrance fees and
other associated fees as well as promoting the park through niche based tourism markets. A number
of enquires to date have been made regarding specialist birding and mountain biking opportunities.
Entry fees diversification and more effective collection
It is thought that a large amount (up to 50%) of income potential is lost every year in gate fees, due
to inadequate staffing. This is largely attributed to the inadequate number and location of gate fee
collectors at park entrance points. It is suggested that in addition to the park Hq, gate fees should
also be collected at Angesu check point. Similarly while there is one gate fee collector located at
the HQ presently, this is insufficient and a second one is necessary to be able to man the gate for the
required times needed to capture all revenue. Thus, this strategy proposes employing an additional
three gate fee collectors resulting in a total of four full time gate fee collectors at the park.
Taking current very low (and underestimated) number of tourists, current entrance fees and
the salary costs of four gate fee collectors, it can be seen that such a strategy would be highly
profitable and in fact would exceed government budget allocations (excluding salaries) received
in 2008. Hence annual income from entrance fees could provide a very significant part of the park
budget for management programmes with even relatively few tourists; i.e. less than 1000 visiting
the park p.a.
Privitisation of dinsho lodge and other lodge concessions
Dinsho lodge is the only lodge currently available in the park. It is currently owned and managed
by the park authorities. This means that valuable human and financial resources are being spent on
running the lodge which has shown to be a non profitable activity for the park. Managing the lodge
uses up 13% of the park’s staffing availability, approximately 19% of the parks total budget and runs
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at a loss of approximately ETB 10,000 per year. Despite this, tourists still complain heavily about
the poor quality of service provision.
It is evident, therefore, that this is not an effective or efficient use of the park’s available
resources. This strategy proposes privatising the lodge, thereby allowing for the more effective
reallocation of human (such as scouts being used for resource protection not guarding the lodge) and
financial resources while also generating a small income through concession fees.
Conclusion
It is clear that tourism development, in particular eco-tourism development, in Ethiopia is an important
agenda on national development strategies. Placing the federal Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Authority under the MoCT emphasises the countries recognition of the key role protected areas can
have in national tourism strategies. The BMNP, as one of the most important protected areas in the
country, has a key part in increasing eco-tourism in Ethiopia. Although currently severely under
developed, eco-tourism in BMNP has a bright future. With the development of the BMNP General
Management Plan and Business Plan, it is the goal that tourism be developed in the park providing
economic benefits both to government and communities as well as providing funds for the protection
of the park’s resources, while at the same time having a low negative environmental and cultural
impact. However, it is imperative that for the success of these tourism initiatives, careful planning
and risk assessments are carried out and that all stakeholders from government to community levels
are involved in the planning and implementing process.
Although much work is still needed, the creation of partnerships between the BMNP and
other institutions, the nomination of BMNP as a world heritage site and the new website (www.
balemountains.org) are all critical steps in helping Bale realize its true tourism potential.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the BMNP management office for the tourism data used.
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Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Culture and Tourism: Addis Ababa.
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<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 294

Can Carbon Contribute to Conservation Financing? A Technical and Economic
Feasibility Analysis of REDD in the Bale Mountains National Park
Anouska A. Kinahan 1* and Charlene Watson 2
1 FZS-BMCP, Bale Mountains National Park, PO BOx 165, Robe, Bale, Ethiopia
2 Department of Geography & Environment, and Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change
and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London,
WC2A 2AE, United Kingdom
*Email: anouskakinahan@fzs.org
Abstract
As the costs for conservation increase there is a corresponding decrease in the funds available. This
has meant that many protected areas need to examine options for generating income for sustainable
financing. Increasingly payment for ecosystem services and markets are becoming a popular theme
for protected area managers to start examining. Within these markets, carbon is among the most
developed. REDD projects generate carbon credits by averting carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions into
2
the atmosphere through the reduction or prevention of deforestation and degradation that otherwise
would occur in the absence of such a project, making REDD initiatives directly in line with
conservation objectives. There are many technical issues surrounding the implementation of REDD
in National Parks for example additionality and leakage. This study shows that in fact technically
and economically, REDD is a feasible option for the Bale Mountains National Park. It shows how
it can address all the relevant technical issues and has the potential to generate sufficient funds to
meet the optimal and critical costs of GMP implementation while also taking into account revenue
sharing with relevant stakeholders including the communities.
Introduction
Protected area financing
Over the years Protected Area (PA) financing has become a key concern in global biodiversity and
conservation debates. The 5th IUCN World Parks Congress (2003), the 7th Meeting of the Convention
on Biological Diversity (COP7)(2004), and an international meeting on biodiversity science and
governance, hosted by UNESCO and the government of France (2005), all identified the lack of
funding as a primary obstacle in achieving conservation goals. Further, the decline and lack of
financing in developing countries greatly limits the actual, or potential, contribution that PAs make
to poverty reduction and sustainable development (Emerton et al. 2006), not least traditional goals of
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conservation and sustainable use of natural resources (Scherl, et al. 2004) Currently, approximately
12% of the global land surface is protected (Emerton et al. 2006). This is a huge increase in PAs
over the past four decades, with 2.4 million km2 being protected in 1962 and 20 million km2 in 2004
(Emerton et al. 2006). Both international and domestic funding has struggled to keep up with this
increase in PAs and the relative global investment in biodiversity conservation has declined.
Moore et al. (2004) found that $364/km2 and $574/km2 is needed for the effective management
of Afro-montane forest and Alpine moorland respectively. In 2004 the Ethiopian government was
providing approximately $30,000 including salaries ($8500 excluding) resulting in $13/km2 and $4/
km2 respectively for park management to the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP). In 2008 this
increased to a total of approximately $50,000 including salaries ($18,000 excluding) resulting in $23/
km2 and $8/km2 respectively for park management. In 2009, the newly established federal Ethiopian
Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) took over the management of the park, and although it
is thought that approximately ETB 1,000,000 (approximately $77,000) excluding salaries will be
provided to the park for its management, equating to approximately $35/km2 , this is still below the
recommended amount. A detailed gap analysis was carried out for the BMNP (Kinahan 2010), and
revealed that even with new improved government funds there still remains a large gap between
the funds needed and the funds available, with an 84% and 77% funding gap between optimal and
critical requirements respectively or a 54% and 34% (optimal and critical) taking current external
funds into account as well.
In order to try and reduce these gaps PA managers globally, including the BMNP, are now
developing Business and Financial Management Plans. The emergence of markets and payments
for ecosystem services is becoming an increasingly important potential financial strategy for PAs
worldwide.
Payment for ecosystem services and carbon trading
Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are market mechanisms that can help finance conservation
efforts. They also have the potential to deliver socio-economic co-benefits. They are voluntary
schemes where well-defined ecosystem services are ‘bought’ from a ‘provider’ who secures the
supply of the ecosystem service such as clean water, soil protection, or carbon storage. PES are
becoming an increasingly popular strategy to examine as a means of meeting conservation financing
needs. Within these, the carbon markets are unequivocally the most advanced and most investigated.
Carbon markets use baseline-and-credit schemes whereby credits are generated by either
sequestering additional amounts of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere or by preventing their
release into the atmosphere compared to a reference, or business-as-usual scenario. One potential
way to achieve this that is directly in line with conservation management actions is through avoided
deforestation projects or REDD projects (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation).
REDD projects generate carbon credits by averting carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions into the
2
atmosphere through the reduction or prevention of deforestation and degradation that otherwise
would occur in the absence of such a project. REDD is a means to realise the financial value for
the carbon stored in forests particularly for developing countries where the majority of intact forest
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emains. The more recently coined REDD+ goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and
includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest
carbon stocks, which brings new and significant opportunities to PAs worldwide and in particular to
PAs in developing countries where conservation funding is usually very low.
Forest carbon is present in five main carbon pools; living above ground biomass (AGB),
living below ground biomass, dead organic matter as wood, dead organic matter as litter and soil
organic matter (IPCC 2003). AGB plays a significant role in the carbon cycle, acting as a carbon
sink (through photosynthesis) and as a source (through deforestation and decomposition; FAO
2003). AGB in the form of; leaves, twigs, branches, main bole and the bark of trees, accounts for
the greatest fraction of total living biomass in a forest (Brown 1997; FAO 2003). With biomass
composed of 50% carbon (Brown 1997) and deforestation accounting for close to one-fifth of global
carbon emissions (IPCC 2007), avoiding deforestation presents significant global greenhouse gas
emissions abatement potential.
Although REDD projects are not eligible for compliance (regulated) markets, such as those
of the Kyoto Protocol, they are eligible for trading in non-compliance, so-called voluntary carbon
markets (VCM). This study examined the feasibility of a REDD/REDD+ carbon project in the
BMNP as a means of securing conservation financing while also providing community benefits. In
this paper we present a REDD model whereby all the needs of a catholic approach to conservation
are considered: financing, climate change mitigation, environmental protection, poverty reduction
and sustainable development as well as addressing the many market and technical concerns of
avoided deforestation projects such as additionality and leakage. Here we present our baseline/
reference scenarios as well as overall project technical considerations. From herein we use the term
REDD to infer both REDD and REDD+.
The Harenna forest
The Harenna Forest is the second largest moist tropical forest in Ethiopia, 87,737 hectares (ha) of
which falls within the current park boundary. Five altitudinal belts (extending between 3500 m to 1500
m above sea level) are recognised in the forest, each defined by differences in vegetation structure.
Approximately 10,000 people are currently living in the forest and are clearing forest for settlements
and agriculture (FZS 2007 unpublished data). Thousands more people depend on the forest resources
for their livelihoods through coffee harvesting, honey production, fuel and livestock grazing. Such
activities have resulted in a rate of deforestation of 160 ha per annum between 1973 and 2000, which
has increased in recent times (2000-2005) to a current loss of 1505 ha per annum (Teshome and
Kinahan 2008; Teshome et al. this edition). The principal drivers and agents of deforestation in the
Harenna forest have been identified as human settlement and agricultural expansion. In addition,
firewood for fuel is extracted by local people (Watson et al. this edition) as well as commercial
loggers and forest destroyed to access bamboo harvesting (Tesfaye this edition). Less so, but still
important, the forest is impacted by fire (Abera and Kinahan this edition) and overgrazing from
livestock (Vial et al. this edition). Deforestation contributes to global warming by releasing CO into 2
the atmosphere through the removal of above ground biomass and loss of soil carbon.
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Technical Feasibility Analysis
Additionality
To generate emissions reductions, carbon projects must meet the requirement of additionality; carbon
savings must be shown to result from project activities specifically and would not have happened
in its absence. A land cover study has shown that between 1973-2000 the rate of deforestation
in the Harenna forest was 160 ha per year, this deforestation rate increased to 1505 ha per year
between 2000-2005 (Teshome and Kinahan 2008). Our reference scenario clearly shows that rates
of deforestation are high and are increasing at an alarming rate. Should current rates and trends
of deforestation continue it is likely that the forest within the park boundaries will be destroyed
in about 70 years. In addition a historic funding analysis of the park (Kinahan 2010) shows that
over the past five years funding for effective BMNP management has been significantly lower then
the funds required with little increase in the funds available over the years. Thus, this project can
demonstrate that in the absence of a REDD initiative, although conserving the forest and the Park,
as well as protecting resources for community livelihoods, would remain a key priority, the rate of
deforestation is likely to continue to increase due to increases in drivers of deforestation and lack of
funds to conserve the forest.
Although other income-generating initiatives are also included in the parks Business and
Financial Management Plan, such as developing eco-tourism and community revenue schemes,
the income generated would be significantly lower than that obtained through carbon financing
(Kinahan 2010). However, it should be noted that carbon financing would not prevent the concurrent
implementation of these schemes if capacity and resources became available.
Leakage
Leakage effects are the result of shifting the threat of deforestation to another geographical area
(Sohngen and Brown, 2004). Thus, leakage may result in fewer, or no, actual emission reductions
being generated by the project activities. In order to avoid leakage in REDD projects it is necessary
to acknowledge and address the original drivers of deforestation (see Chomitz et al. 2007; Tomich et
al. 2005). Our study has identified anthropogenic factors as the key drivers of deforestation, thus we
aim to tackle the underlying causes through integration, participation and sustainable development
rather then total prevention without regard for livelihoods, thereby reducing potential leakage.
We aim to reduce current rates deforestation by merging the BMNP REDD project with
Oromia Forest and Wildlife’s (OFWE) REDD project in forest areas in Bale outside the National
Park to create a large, approximately 700,000 ha, project area. In doing so, the project will
implement a wide range of strategies over the large area, in line with regional and federal policies,
to ensure leakage is minimized and the carbon stores are protected. Mitigation strategies will include
total resource protection and conservation in areas such as the park, livelihood enhancement,
participatory forest management, alternative fuel sources, sustainable natural resource management,
possible reforestation and promoting land certification and registration, for communities outside the
protected area.
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Benefits
The implementation of such a project, in particular an integrated project with the greater Bale
region, has the potential to really address the numerous issues associated with PAs and takes a very
catholic approach to conservation: it integrates issues of conservation, development, wider policies
and social objectives. This project would bring about a number of environmental, socio-economic,
capacity and global benefits, which are necessary requirements for any REDD project.
Environmental
Preventing current rates of deforestation would significantly reduce carbon emissions into the
atmosphere, thereby helping to mitigate global climate change. Added benefits include the protection
of unique biodiversity, watersheds, reduction of soil erosion, and enhancement of resources such as
wild coffee, bamboo and honey at the local level.
Socio-economic
This project would directly lead to economic improvement of surrounding communities by
providing financial incentives for the sustainable use of the forest, through community-EWCA-
OFWE finance sharing schemes. In addition, by also diversifying livelihoods and sustainable use
of the forest, the project can further incentivise the protection of the forest. We also aim to employ
community scouts to assist in the protection and monitoring of resources. Hence, local benefits
include sustainable use of resources, developing alternative livelihoods, government-community
participatory conservation, contributing to poverty alleviation and building institutional capacity.
All of which have been integral in discussions regarding PA financing.
Capacity
This project will also build knowledge at grassroots, local, academic and local and national
government level. It will provide training for new business initiatives such as alternative fuel
production as well as carbon and climate change research and monitoring capacity. Through exhibits
and an interpretative center at the park, the project will also increase local and global awareness of
climate change issues.
Global
The project has the potential to provide a strategic replicable framework for other PAs in the country
as well as globally, whereby lessons learnt will be disseminated. And finally, as a REDD model for
other National Parks, this project would increase awareness and provide a template of lessons learned
for placing carbon conservation and financing on global protected area conservation agendas.
Economic Feasibility Assessment
Despite being able to address the majority of key issues associated with forestry carbon, the
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 299

fundamental factor determining its progress and implementation is the economic feasibility of the
project. From the parks perspective, the project will be feasible if it can generate enough income
to cover the costs of forest conservation while also providing some community benefits. Ideally
however, the project will generate enough income to meet the basic funding requirements while also
generating a profit that can be used to fund other park management areas.
Carbon content calculation
Carbon content was estimated from biomass calculations (Brown 1997; Brown and Lugo 1992;
Hariah et al. 2001), (see Watson et al. 2008 for a detailed description).Once above ground biomass
was determined, carbon content was calculated by assuming that the carbon concentration of
biomass varies minimally between trees and tree components and that 50% of biomass is carbon
(FAO, 2003). On carbon markets, carbon emission reductions are traded in units of carbon dioxide
equivalents. Therefore, to translate carbon stock into CO we multiplied the tonnes of carbon per
2
hectare by the ratio of the molecular weight of carbon dioxide to that of carbon (i.e. 44/12) giving
tCO /ha. 2
Teshome et al. (this edition) showed that the rate of deforestation in the Harenna forest was
1505 ha between 2000-2005 Although, this scenario will change as the new boundary of the park
is agreed between stakeholders, more recent data is analysed and from anticipated standardisation
of REDD methodologies in the near future, we used this rate as our basis for our project feasibility
assessment. Taking this rate of deforestation and the above carbon content calculations each year
1,147,813 tCO are emitted from the Harenna forest within the park boundary.
2
Financial feasibility
The financial feasibility of this project for the park was calculated using different models comprised
of different percentages of avoided deforestation, assuming 1505 ha was 100%. For example 5%
avoided deforestation would imply that 75 ha of forest were prevented from being deforested per
year. Each avoided deforestation scenario was then modelled with three different prices per ton of
carbon, $4, $6, and $20. The average price for carbon credits generated from Avoided Deforestation
in 2008 was $6.3 per tCO e, ranging from $4 -$28 per tCO e (2009 Carbon Market Finance),
2 2
however, this price per tCO e has dramatically decreased in 2010 (Ecosystem Market Place 2010).
2
A detailed costing of forest conservation and project development were carried out in Kinahan
(2009, 2010). The minimum costs needed to be covered by the project were project transaction
costs taking into account 30% buffer costs, enforcement, monitoring and community and livelihood
development costs. Once these costs were met only then was the remaining income modelled for
revenue sharing. For the purpose of this analysis we modelled an equal tri-party revenue share
(EWCA, OFWE and communities). However it should be noted that this is hypothetical only and in
reality, the details of how such revenue is to be shared has not yet been finalised.
Figure 1 shows that excluding revenue sharing, the park must avoid approximately 12%
deforestation at $4 per tCO 7% at $6 per tCO or any amount at $20 per tCO in order to breakeven
2, 2 2
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 300

or meet the minimum costs necessary for project implementation.
Annual Income (USD$)
2,000,000
1,800,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
$4 $6 $20 COST
Breakeven Point $6
Breakeven Point $4
75 151 226 301 376
Area conserved per year (ha)
Figure 1. Figure showing the total area of forest need to be conserved per annum
depending on price received per ton of carbon, in order for the park to break even financially
(including 10% discount rate and 30% buffer costs)
A financial forecast over the project lifespan was also carried out. Here we assumed a 20 year
project lifespan. Typically if the forecast shows negative equity or a decrease in profits over the years
then it is usually deemed an unfeasible business opportunity. However in the case of carbon REDD
projects, payment is usually periodically and so income is not typically received on an annual basis.
Thus, in this instance it made more sense to examine the cumulative total. Keeping in mind that
the main aim of this REDD project is to meet the costs of forest conservation while also providing
income from revenue sharing, our forecast model showed that to achieve these objectives over
the 20 year project life span, a minimum of 25%, 15% and less than 5% of avoided deforestation
would be necessary per year at $4, $6 and $20 per ton of carbon dioxide respectively. Modelling
the different scenarios shows that at 15% avoided deforestation (226 ha per year) receiving $20 per
tCO , would result in a cumulative profit (i.e. once costs have been met over project lifetime) for
2
the BMNP and the other stakeholders of over $6 million each (Table 1) or 25% AD at $6 per tCO2, resulting in ETB 2.2m profit per stakeholder Taking into account the funds for forest protection
and the profit to the park following revenue sharing, both these scenarios (15%/$20 and 25%/$6)
could actually meet the annual funding requirements of optimal and critical GMP implementation
respectively, as costed in the BMNP Business Plan (Kinahan 2010).
Market analysis and competitive advantage
In 2008, the voluntary carbon market almost doubled from 2007 with $705 million worth of GHG
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 301

eing traded, but then showed a 26% decrease between 2008 and 2009 (Ecosystem Market Place
2010). Forestry and Landuse projects comprised approximately 11% of the voluntary market, of
these, Asia and US dominated the market with Africa only comprising

Table 1. Financial forecast for 20 year REDD project lifespan including 10% discount rate on dollar value, 10% inflation for operational costs at the
minimum scenario whereby cost of forest conservation can be met and considering a 30% buffer cost at 15% avoided deforestation at $20 per ton
CO . Net profit revenue sharing was considered to be split equally between the 3 stakeholders.
2
Mitigation and Monitoring Project
Sales
Expenses
Total income to
15% AD @
Total
Total costs
BMNP
$20 per ton Transaction
Operational Profit before 66% revenue (trans+op Net BMNP (operational
Year CO2 costs Gross Profit Enforcement Monitoring Livelihood costs revenue share share cost +rev share) Profit costs +profit)
1 2,408,301 214,922 2,193,379 62,000 7000 7000 76,000 2,117,379 1,411,586 1,702,508 705,793 781,793
2 2,189,365 2,189,365 68,200 7,700 7,700 83,600 2,105,765 1,403,843 1,487,443 701,922 785,522
3 1,990,331 1,990,331 75,020 8,470 8,470 91,960 1,898,371 1,265,581 1,357,541 632,790 724,750
4 1,809,392 1,809,392 82,522 9,317 9,317 101,156 1,708,236 1,138,824 1,239,980 569,412 670,568
5 1,644,902 1,644,902 90,774 10,249 10,249 111,272 1,533,630 1,022,420 1,133,692 511,210 622,482
6 1,495,365 1,495,365 99,852 11,274 11,274 122,399 1,372,967 915,311 1,037,710 457,656 580,054
7 1,359,423 1,359,423 109,837 12,401 12,401 134,639 1,224,784 816,523 951,162 408,261 542,900
8 1,235,839 1,235,839 120,820 13,641 13,641 148,102 1,087,737 725,158 873,260 362,579 510,681
9 1,123,490 1,123,490 132,903 15,005 15,005 162,913 960,577 640,385 803,298 320,192 483,105
10 1,021,355 1,021,355 146,193 16,506 16,506 179,204 842,151 561,434 740,638 280,717 459,921
11 928,504 928,504 160,812 18,156 18,156 197,124 731,380 487,587 684,711 243,793 440,918
12 844,095 844,095 176,893 19,972 19,972 216,837 627,258 418,172 635,009 209,086 425,923
13 767,359 767,359 194,583 21,969 21,969 238,521 528,838 352,559 591,079 176,279 414,800
14 697,599 697,599 214,041 24,166 24,166 262,373 435,226 290,151 552,524 145,075 407,448
15 634,181 634,181 235,445 26,582 26,582 288,610 345,571 230,381 518,991 115,190 403,800
16 576,528 576,528 258,989 29,241 29,241 317,471 259,057 172,705 490,176 86,352 403,823
17 524,116 524,116 284,888 32,165 32,165 349,218 174,899 116,599 465,817 58,300 407,517
18 476,470 476,470 313,377 35,381 35,381 384,140 92,330 61,553 445,693 30,777 414,916
19 433,154 433,154 344,715 38,919 38,919 422,554 10,600 7,067 429,621 3,533 426,087
20 393,776 393,776 379,186 42,811 42,811 464,809 -71,033 -47,355 417,454 -23,678 441,132
Culmative total 4,352,900 17,985,724 11,990,483 16,558,305 5,995,241 10,348,141
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 303

Conclusion
Feasibility analyses show that a BMNP REDD project is both technically and financial feasible.
It has been demonstrated that this project can deal with the many potential technical concerns
surrounding Protected Areas and carbon financing specifically, such as additionality, leakage and
community benefits. The economic analyses also shows that not only has such a project the ability
to meet the costs needed to conserve the forest but also has the potential to generate significant funds
for other park management programmes and even has the potential to generate optimal and critical
funding requirements for GMP implementation depending on the scenario, as well as being able to
generate substantial revenue share. Lastly, a market assessment has shown that historically there
is an increasing market for REDD projects (albeit a sudden decrease in the previous year) and an
integrated park and Eco-region REDD project would be highly competitive both in the market place
and for pricing. As a result of the overwhelming positive potential outcomes from these analyses,
EWCA and OFWE are now under serous discussions with support from FZS and FA/SOS on how
to further develop and implement such an integrated REDD project.
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Ensuring the Long-term Conservation of Ecosystems: The Role of Monitoring
Databases
Grant Hopcraft
Serengeti GIS and Database Center, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Box 14935, Arusha, Tanzania.
Email: granthopcraft@fzs.org
Abstract
Compiling and using information about protected areas is critical to long-term conservation
management. Information provides institutional memory, which enables protected areas to critically
investigate processes and answer management questions independently. Furthermore, routine
collection of information about a protected area highlights priorities and facilitates the wise use
of resources. In addition, information collected by protected areas contributes to understanding
regional processes and ultimately supports conservation efforts in the political arena by providing a
factual backbone on which assertions and decisions are made. Ideally, a monitoring program for a
protected area should reflect the objectives established in the General Management Plan (which also
documents the threats the protected area faces). Data can be expensive and tedious to collect; it is
important to carefully balance the costs and effort involved in collecting data against its relevance.
Forming links to other databases avoids the expense of duplication and strengthens the database’s
utility through information sharing. Furthermore, devising ways to include historical data makes
new databases immediately useful and additionally strengthens a database. Cataloguing data sources
(i.e. metadata) is exceptionally important, as it can save time with editing and can provide indices
of data quality. Maintaining links with the original source of the data also facilitates long-term
collaborations with other institutions. The Internet provides the largest resource of freely available
data and is fundamental for acquiring useful information for park management. Maintaining the
flow of information between field staff, managers and donors is important since it boosts morale,
provides solidarity, and assists in raising additional funds. There is a tendency for over ambitious
projects to become unmanageable and lead to failure. For a database to work it must start very
simply and develop with the protected area, growing to fill the niche as it is required.
What is a Database?
The word “data” generally compels peoples’ eyes to glaze with images of long strings of numbers
and statistics, but this should not be the case. Data is simply information and a database is only a
way of storing and managing that information. A computerized database enables normal people to
retrieve and analyze information with powers of recall that are usually reserved for geniuses. In a
nutshell, a database enables a user to quickly and efficiently query large and often cumbersome data
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sets, extract relevant bits of information, and generate reports.
In the case of national parks, data may be as simple as the size of the park, or the number
of visitors coming to the park. The information can become as complex as needed. For example,
a park warden may want to analyze the relationship between the financial support the park’s
community outreach program provides villages and number of people violating park regulations.
Providing the data were collected and entered properly, a database would make this analysis easy
and straightforward, and would provide a powerful tool for assessing the effectiveness of community
outreach program. Furthermore, depending on the design of a database, reporting and routine
summaries can be totally automated.
There are many database software programs available on the market today that vary in price,
efficiency, and user-friendliness. The most common one for small databases is Microsoft Access,
which is readily available. There are several larger commercial databases that are more complex
but also more powerful such as Microsoft SqL, FoxPro, DB2, Oracle, Ingres, and PostgreSqL.
MySqL is a free database that can be downloaded from the Internet. It is a very powerful system
which is widely used, making it an attractive database for low budget organizations.
Why Monitor?
Collecting information can at times be long and tedious, so what benefits are gained by monitoring?
In actual fact there are many. The collection of data, especially over a long time, gives a park what’s
called institutional memory. In other words, it provides a source of knowledge that will long outlast
any of the rangers, managers, or researchers. Many ecological processes occur on scales that are
well beyond human lifetimes (Sinclair et al. 2000; Sinclair et al. 2007) and cataloguing the state of
an ecosystem over long periods of time enables us to understand these dynamics. A database allows
us to recall these occurrences and learn from these events, even though we personally may never
have experienced them. Therefore, we are building on our knowledge over time, rather than forcing
each generation to re-learn it.
Managers in protected areas are constantly presented with choices. Where should we place
tourist lodges? Which villages should we support this year? Are we being efficient in catching
poachers? Experience allows managers to make good choices, but often a manager is forced to
make a decision on something with which they have little or no experience. In other words, they are
forced to guess, and in some cases they have the luxury of making an educated guess (Walters 1986).
For park management, there are no clear answers to most questions, however we can learn from
our previous choices provided we have documented them. For instance, a recent article analyzing
the anti-poaching effort in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania for the last 40 years shows that
small increases in the number of rangers patrolling resulted in disproportionately more poachers
being caught than you would expect (Hilborn et al. 2006). This tells us about the efficiency of antipoaching
patrols and provides useful information as to where to concentrate resources. Having
access to information means that managers can answer questions with greater confidence.
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Unfortunately, financial resources for national parks are limited. There is rarely enough money
to do everything, so we are forced to prioritize our activities. In general, we prioritize activities based
on threats and benefits they pose, or how critical they are to conservation. By collecting information
about the park, we can prioritize activities more easily and use limited financial resources
wisely. For example, there are plans to re-introduce black rhino into the Serengeti Ecosystem but
the question remains as to where to release them? Ideally a rhino reintroduction program aims
to maximize the chances of successfully establishing a breeding population while minimizing the
risk of having animals poached. Researchers were able to answer this question by using historic
data sets without having to waste resources on a trial and error approach. Analyzing the historic
rhino distributions from the 1970’s researchers created a habitat suitability model. Current data on
poaching pressure was mapped for the entire ecosystem and overlaid with the habitat suitability
model, enabling researchers to pin-point potential reintroduction areas that were both safe and good
rhino habitat (Metzger et al. 2007). By collecting information we are able to prioritize park activities
better which means using limited financial resources with greater efficiency.
Globally our protected areas are coming under increasing pressure. Although we are busy
exploring the outer limits of our solar system, the irony is that we barely know what’s happening
on our own planet. We know as much about our ecosystems as a 6 year old would know about
an engine of a vehicle: we know that the brakes slow us down, the accelerators speed us up, that
driving too fast is little scary, and when we hit potholes it goes bump. But we know precious little
about internal combustion, torque, gears, and crankshafts. We like to think of protected areas as
beautiful places where we can see wildlife and get away from the hustle and bustle, but in the big
picture national parks serve as baselines from which we can measure our ecological footprint. The
collection of information from national parks shows us what is happening in areas of our world
where we have little impact (Sinclair et al. 2000; Sinclair et al. 2002). More to the point, they
show us what we are doing to the rest of the world and how things would look in our absence.
Furthermore, by combining knowledge from many different ecosystems we start to understand our
how planet’s engine works.
Conservation is politics. It’s a bitter pill for most hard-line naturalists to swallow, but the two
are inextricably linked. How many national parks operate in complete isolation from governments
and the people living around it? The answer is none. In some cases, surrounding communities
view national parks as a burden and a source of crop raiding and problem animals, while in other
cases communities view them as beneficial by supplying clean water and business opportunities.
As conservationists we are committed to keeping national parks intact as well as providing useful
social services, but when push comes to shove, how can we show this? The answer is that we need
information to prove it, which means we need to collect the information. Information leads to
knowledge, and knowledge is power which translates to political swing, and with political swing
parks are protected. For example, perhaps the most influential document about the Serengeti was
one of the very first biological surveys of the ecosystem by W. H. Pearsall in 1956 which lead to the
re-alignment of the park boundaries to include virtually the entire extent of the wildebeest migration
and as a result the conservation of the ecosystem (Pearsall 1959).
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What to Monitor?
The question of what to monitor is very subjective and will differ between protected areas. For
instance, a park such as the Bale Mountains National Park that is surrounded by cultivation may
want to monitor land-use changes on the park’s perimeter. This may not be an issue for parks that
are remote with little human presence, like the Tatshenshini National Park in northern Canada.
The monitoring program for a park should reflect the major management concerns and threats,
which are ideally laid out in a park’s General Management Plan. Obviously this requires some
insight into the ecology of the park, as well as foresight as to what the major threats are likely
to become in the future. In any case, having a clear set of questions that reflect the management
concerns for the park is imperative. Knowing the questions means you can collect the relevant
information to answer them.
What Types of Data to Collect?
Data are like donuts – they come in all different shapes and flavours. Data do not necessarily
have to be numbers; they could be words, pictures, or map locations. A statement such as “This
is the most boring paper I have ever read” is data. To be precise, this is called descriptive data.
Descriptive data is information that is contained in a statement or sentence (an alpha-numeric string)
and explains the state of something. A noun, such as a name and post box, could be considered
descriptive data. If an editor wanted an overview of this article using descriptive data they would be
forced to read through everyone’s views and comments, which could take a long time. However, if
an editor was really interested they could ask the readers a simple question: “Is this the most boring
paper you have ever read?” There are two possible outcomes to this question: you could answer
yes or no. This is called binomial data. Binomial data are information that can be contained by
one of two terms such as yes or no, 1 or 0, high or low. Perhaps the editor is not satisfied with this
information, because it gives no indication as to the content of this paper. The question could be rephrased
to “What term best describes the content of this paper: Scientific, Artistic, Historic, Legal,
or Sheer Drivel”. Now there are 5 possible outcomes. This is called categorical data. Categorical
data are information that can be clustered into similar groups like “blue, green, yellow and red” or a
date like June 15, 2005. In some cases your categorical data could be ranked such as “very boring,
mildly boring, OK, mildly entertaining, and exceptionally entertaining” or with a numbering system
like 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Now imagine a situation where the editor wants to know how many people
actually read this paper. By surveying the potential readers the editor may find one person read the
entire paper as opposed to 354,762 people. This would tell them something about its value. This
is called integer data. Integer data are generally whole number counts. In other words, we could
not count 74.8 people, as having a valid opinion from 0.8 of a person is impossible. However, an
average could end with a decimal place. For instance, on average 74.8 percent of the readers think
this paragraph is long enough. This is continuous data. Continuous data are data that carry decimal
places and can be measured to infinitesimally precise values.
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A lot of data we collect in protected areas has a spatial reference. For instance we could count
the number of Ethiopian wolf pups at a den that has a specific location. This is called geographic
data since it describes an event occurring at an explicit position on the earth’s surface. Essentially,
geographical data are any information that can be assigned a unique x and Y coordinate. Geographic
data can be complicated as there are many different descriptions of the earths surface (projections
and datums), however if you are collecting geographic data choose one system and stick with it.
Latitudes and longitudes measured in degrees, minutes, and decimals are the most universal metric
and can be converted to any other projection easily. Most protected areas use this system. If you are
interested in knowing more about geographic data a good overview is compiled in the lecture notes
posted on the Geographer’s Craft website through the University of Colorado (http://www.colorado.
edu/geography/gcraft/contents.html).
Knowing the different types of data is important because as data becomes more detailed it
also becomes increasingly more complicated and expensive to collect (Figure 1). This raises the
question, how do you know at which scale to collect your data?
Which Scale to Collect Data?
Knowing the appropriate level of detail to collect data can be troublesome. Data can be infinitely
precise and as researchers and managers we can be naively drawn to its allure, a bit like a dizzy moth
to a light bulb, but it’s a dangerous game.
To illustrate this point, the Serengeti Ecological Monitoring Program (which is part of the
Serengeti National Park General Management Plan) depends on understanding the relationship
between fires and changes in the vegetation communities. Using long-term data on wildebeest
numbers, fire events and photo points, researchers where able to re-create the complex dynamics
of Acacia forest regeneration (Dublin et al. 1990). The data required were elephant and wildebeest
censuses conducted once every 2 to 5 years for about 40 years, estimates of percent of the area
burnt each year, and a collection of photos taken from the same points every 10 years (roughly).
Now imagine a similar situation where the same data were measured at a finer scale: wildebeest
were counted 10 times a year for 40 years (400 censuses), fires were measured every month for 40
years (480 times), and diameter at breast height for 10,000 trees was measured every year. The
resulting amount of data would be vast, the effort involved in collecting and editing the data would
be immense, and the motivation required in order to analyze such a data set would be heroic. In fact,
chances are that if the data are too complex they will never get used. And if we did analyze it, we
would probably find very similar results to the very simple data collected.
Under the first data collection scheme we would be collecting less detailed data, in a broader
area, on a longer time schedule, and with much less effort. The second scheme, however, would
provide very detailed data, in a very localized geographic area, on a very short time schedule, and
with a huge amount of effort. Therefore, scale can operate both spatially from localized effects to
regional effects, as well as temporally from frequent measures to rare measures. We can think about
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scale as a balance where one side represents intensive, expensive, and highly detailed data while the
other side has cheap, superficial, broad data. Choosing the appropriate level of scale is a matter of
balancing how much effort you can afford to invest against the level of detail you require to answer
the question (Fig. 1). In general the finer the scale, the more time consuming and expensive the
monitoring is going to be. And remember that over-ambitious projects tend to fail. It’s the simple
ones that work.
Figure 1. The data balance. Your data collection method should balance the limitations faced by
time, effort, money and resources against the level of detail required to answer the question. If
you are unsure, then always start with cheapest and lowest effort option.
Finally, it is important not to lose yourself in details when collecting data. Think about what
is really necessary and what is realistic in terms of time, effort and money. Conversely, you do not
want to run the risk of losing the intricacies and mechanisms of a potentially important result by
collecting data that is too broad.
What is Everyone Else Collecting?
The most important aspect to remember when designing databases is to not let yourself be
overwhelmed by the potentially daunting task. Most conservationists have very basic knowledge
about databases and therefore it makes sense to keep it as simple as possible. For example, the
Serengeti Database is simply a collection of folders that are organized by subject (you can do this
even in Windows Explorer) (Fig. 2). The name of each folder is brief description of what it contains.
Each folder starts with a metadata file which describes in detail the data, their origin, and a contact
person (see discussion on metadata in the following section). The data within the folders are stored
as Excel or Access spreadsheets, photos, GIS layers, satellite images, PDFs of papers, GPS points,
etc. This is by far the easiest way to organize the data for a protected area and in many cases it is
perfectly sufficient for an overview. It is also incredibly easy to manage and navigate.
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Figure 2. The Serengeti Database is organized in a simple folder structure that allows users
to quickly navigate to the data they are interested in. A folder structure like this makes data
management very easy.
In some cases, a fully relational database maybe required, such as the Ranger Based
Monitoring Program for the Serengeti which is designed in Access or the Tanzania Wildlife Census
Database designed in mySqL. A relational database allows a user to enter raw data, analyze and
query it, as well as generate automated reports.
Before you start designing a database, it is worth looking to see what other people are
collecting. Remember that it took humans several million years to invent the wheel so there really
is no sense in trying to re-invent it. The same can be said for databases. There are many databases
being used in African conservation, and it is possible that you may be able to borrow one and modify
an existing one to suit your own needs. The Serengeti Ranger Based Monitoring Program database
was modified from a database designed by TRAFFIC monitoring the illegal trade in ivory. Looking
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through existing databases not only provides ideas about what data to collect, it also gives you ideas
about how to collect it, and in fact whether it is even worth collecting in the first place. Furthermore,
you can save yourself a lot of time by linking databases. In other words, if someone else is collecting
data that you also require, you can integrate their database (with their permission obviously) into your
database and save yourself the time required to re-measure everything. Furthermore, if many people
are collecting similar information it only adds to the power of knowledge and makes comparisons
much easier. Some databases that you may want to have a look at are listed in Appendix 1.
Historical Data
Data can come from very different sources, and sometimes one has to be imaginative in order
to collect it. In fact information is being collected every day through quite routine procedures.
Journals, logbooks, bills, receipts, waivers, visitor books, photos, field notes, ledgers, all provide
information of different sorts. In some cases this information was collected long before computers
came into existence. Accessing this historic information and importing it into a database can give
you huge insights into long-term trends.
Photos have proven to be incredibly useful for retrieving old data. Take, for example, the
case of long-term vegetation monitoring in the Serengeti. The word “Serengeti” immediately evokes
images of far-reaching endless plains, which is exactly what the word means in Maasai, however
over two-thirds of the park is woodland. Understanding the processes of how these woodlands
persist with fires and elephants became a critical question, especially as elephants were blamed
for the destruction of large extents of woodland in the 1970’s. Clearly the first step was to look at
how the woodlands had changed over time, but recreating historic vegetation patterns was virtually
impossible. Professor Tony Sinclair decided the only way to do this was to search through stacks
of old hunting journals and books written by people who visited the area before it was a park, such
as Martin and Osa Johnson. Sinclair and his collaborators were able to relocate the exact locations
where several of these old photographs were taken based on distinctive features in the landscape.
By measuring the density of trees from these vantage points over sequential years, they were able
to determine that the Serengeti woodlands fluctuate on roughly a 90 year cycle, and that elephants
and fires together control the density of trees, and not elephants alone (Fig. 3) (Dublin et al. 1990).
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Figure 3. Escapement values for Acacia gerardii for different height classes during three different
scenarios of elephant density and fire prevalence (reproduced from (Dublin et al. 1990))
Professor Craig Packer did a similar trick using tourist pictures of lions in the Ngorongoro
Crater. A lion’s whisker spot pattern is a bit like a human fingerprint in that it is unique between
individuals and it does not change over time. With an article in National Geographic, Packer
solicited the support of park visitors and compiled an astounding collection of historic lion photos
from the Crater. From this collection he was able to identify individual lions and recreate lineages,
population estimates, and trends over time based solely on tourist photos (Fig. 4) (Packer et al.
1991).
Figure 4. Population size and composition of Ngorongoro Crater lions recreated from historic
photos (reproduced from (Packer et al. 1991))
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The moral of these stories are that we shouldn’t throw the baby out with the bath water when
we start collecting information. Good databases find a way to include historic data, and build on
previous knowledge. Sometimes with a bit of investment, quantifying old descriptive data can give
a database a huge head-start.
Metadata
Metadata is data about data, which may initially strike you as totally absurd. Metadata provides
information about the data’s accuracy, its shortcomings, or even who to contact regarding it. If
we use data blindly, we run the risk of making decisions based on very sketchy grounds and with
unknown assumptions. Using data without metadata is a bit like taking medication without reading
the label on the bottle: it can be exciting at first but more often than not it only leads to more
problems.
Each data set should have its own metadata file associated with it, even as a simple text
document stored in the same folder as the data on your computer. Some things that could be included
in metadata files are: (1) the source of the data; (2) a contact person or organization; (3) how the
was data collected; (4) a description of the data; (5) date that it was acquired; (6) date that it was
last modified; (7) who modified it last; (8) why was it modified; (9) possible sources of error; (10)
improvement suggestions; (11) missing data; (12) who has used the data; (13) contacts for people
who have used the data (i.e. collaborators); (14) associated files or databases; and (15) for GIS layers
always remember to provide which datum and projection the layers are stored in. See Appendix 2
for a text based metadata file. The Serengeti Database has a copy of this metadata file associated
with every data folder.
Data for Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
Modern computing has revolutionized mapping and turned it into a tool that non-professionals can
use. GIS enables users to overlay different types of spatial data and analyze it for relationships with
the simple click of a button. For instance, overlaying the locations where animals have been seen
with vegetation patterns gives us indicators of habitat selection. Seasonal movements of migrants
can be analyzed based on rainfall isoclines generated by spatial interpolation. Satellite images of
fire scars can be compared on a yearly basis to identify areas that are repeatedly burnt. A free and
very simple GIS tool for park managers called TerraLook is offered through the Protected Areas
Archive hosted by NASA. In addition they will provide Aster images for the area you are interested
in, as part of their free service (see Appendix 3).
Building a GIS database is very similar to building a house. The foundations consist of
routinely used information layers, called base layers. Layers such as hydrology, geology, soils,
contours, vegetation, boundaries, roads, and infrastructure are all base layers. By adding new layers
such as fire scars, poaching events, or Ethiopian wolf observations on top of this framework you
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uild up your GIS database. Clearly the shape of GIS database depends on the requirements of
the park. For instance, a national park may be interested in monitoring changes in land use in
the surrounding areas, which can be visualized by importing information from a remote sensing
platform such as LandSat or Aster. This may not be a concern for other parks, where monitoring
disease events and epidemics may be a larger concern.
There are many different sources of GIS information that can be used for building your base
layers. Digitizing contours and hydrology from existing published topographical maps is labour
intensive, especially for large areas, but in some cases may be the only option. Remember that
the data is as only good as its source – the data from a digitized 1:50,000 topographical map will
not give the same accuracy as the data from a 1:1000 map. Alternatively, some base layers can
be downloaded free of charge from the internet. For instance, contours can be generated from the
Shuttle Radar Topology Mission (SRTM), rather than digitizing them all from topographical maps. A
coarse resolution vegetation map for Africa can be downloaded free of charge from the Global Land
Cover Facility. Google Earth allows you view satellite images of the earth for free as does NASA’s
WorldWind program. The FAO offers data on rivers, geomorphology, agriculture, vegetation, roads,
villages and general infrastructure at their AfriCover website. In addition, the FAO also offer a
Soils and Terrain (SOTER) layer for the entire African continent. The MODIS platform offers daily
information on active fires across Africa, and will even send you an email with the location of fires
in your area. For a list of useful websites and sources of spatial data see Appendix 3.
Editing and maintaining base layers is very important, but can be exceptionally time
consuming. In some cases simply having the base layer may not be sufficient and you may find
you want to classify it further based on some criteria. For instance, the Serengeti Database required
classifying all rivers into ephemeral, seasonal and permanent rather than just leaving them as rivers
as this was not informative enough. Remember when you are editing layers that it is imperative to
maintain sequential versions of the data as you proceed. Overwriting the previous versions can be
disastrous. What happens if you suddenly discover that your edits are wrong? Having a previous
version will save you a lot of time, heartache and gray hairs.
Collecting Data: Ranger Based Monitoring Systems
If you really want to understand an area, there is nothing better than exploring it on foot. The people
who understand an ecosystem the best are the ones who look under the stones, climb the hills, and
interact with the communities and cultures living around it. Generally, these are also the people who
are fully aware of the threats a protected area faces. However, the reality is that only a select few are
privileged enough to be able to do this. For the most part, managers are transferred out of the field
to office positions where they are forced to make decisions remotely.
Keeping managers in touch with events in the field allows them to react quickly and with
certainty. Having a stream of information coming in from field rangers literally means that head
knows what the eyes are seeing, and the park operates in a cohesive and coordinated manner. A
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anger based monitoring system is a structured system of cataloguing important events that rangers
are seeing in the field. There are a number of ways of collecting this information. CyberTracker
offers a very nifty icon driven palm pilot that rangers simply record what they see as they proceed
on patrol. Garmin also offers a GPS-radio combination (called the Rino) that allows rangers to
report events to a radio control room, which automatically records the GPS location and time of the
observation. Both these options are fairly expensive and for the 800USD that these units typically
cost you can buy an astounding number of pencils and patrol forms. Beware of falling into the
techno-trap.
In the Serengeti, rangers collect information on daily patrol forms. Each patrol is issued a
GPS unit with extra rechargeable batteries and a set of maps (the Garmin 72 is the easiest-to-use
and most affordable GPS unit). The patrol form is printed in a carbon-copy booklet with tear-out
triplicate sheets so that a copy of the patrol form can submitted as part of the monthly reports from
the ranger post. The most common events are recorded with a check, which means that the data are
simple to collect but fairly crude – they only indicate presence or absence. Important data, such as
information about poachers’ camps, are collected as categorical and continuous fields, and therefore
provide more detail. The park is divided into a series of grids identified with an alpha-numeric
and the patrol identifies which grids they searched each day (e.g. A3, B3 and B4). This is an easy
back-up system in case GPS’s fail or batteries die. In addition, detailed information is also collected
during an interview with arrested poachers. This information is designed to provide insights into
why people poach in the park. The information suggests that poaching is a means of making money
especially for young men living near the park as there are few alternative options (Loibooki et al.
2002). Appendix 4 has a sample ranger patrol form and poacher interview form.
Interviews are notoriously messy data, which begs the question of data verification. A
poacher could simply lie all the way through an interview and provide you with false information.
One simple trick while conducting interviews is to ask the same question twice but in slightly
different contexts. For example, when a poacher is arrested with animal carcasses the rangers
count the carcasses of each species. During the interview a few hours later, the poacher is asked
how many carcasses they had. Any discrepancy gives you a crude indicator of the data’s accuracy.
Asking questions to which you already know the answer provides some indication of the informant’s
reliability.
Maintaining the Flow of Data
A ranger based monitoring system provides the structure for collecting data, but there is no point in
amassing it if it is not going to be used. The flow of information is just as important as collecting it.
In fact, the information stream should be thought of as a busy multi-lane super highway.
Information coming in from the field rangers should be analyzed and reported to the
managers, but it should not end there. For a field patrol to see reports with maps, trends, and names
of outstanding rangers provides a flattering sense of recognition and a huge moral boost. And
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the flattery doesn’t end there: donors go weak in the knees to see progress reports with interesting
analyses and their logos pasted on it. Showing actions and promising developments of money well
spent is the easiest way into a benefactor’s pockets. Reporting also provides an important feedback
loop; measuring, analyzing, making a decision, taking action, and re-measuring. Feedback loops
are also a good way of cleaning your data. If you are constantly using your data and querying it, you
will be verifying it as you proceed.
Establishing reporting schedules and outlines greatly assists in kick starting a database into
action. For instance, having a simple one page monthly report from the ecology department means
that by the end of each month the rainfall data must be entered. A more detailed quarterly report
ensures that trends are analyzed, summary statistics are calculated, and activities are prioritized.
In the annual report, threats are highlighted based on the information collected, future actions are
recommended, and a budget is proposed. Insisting on reports has the added benefit that people learn
how to maintain the data and have the opportunity to review their work.
Sometimes people lose interest in collecting or summarizing data, especially if it is tedious.
Often the best incentives are individual recognition for outstanding work. Everyone enjoys praise
particularly when they have gone an extra mile. And chances are, people will be willing to go
the extra mile again if their efforts have been recognized. Small useful gifts such as rechargeable
torches, leathermans, thermos flasks, or solar panels for top rangers provide a sense of pride and
achievement. It also builds commitment and a feeling of reciprocity.
Here are some simple ideas that get information flowing: (1) Compile a searchable list of
publications in a reference managing software package (such as EndNote or Reference Manager)
that pertain to the park. Put it onto a CD along with the digital copies of the articles, books, progress
reports, and gray literature for distribution. This is the easiest way to provide people with information.
(2) Compile GIS base layer information on a CD for distribution to collaborators. The CD can be
distributed for free, or in exchange for additional information. Trading is a great way of increasing
your data pool. (3) Design a website with contacts of collaborators, sources of information, free
downloads, training materials and donor sites (for example look at www.serengetidata.org).
Conclusion
Designing and implementing a database can be a daunting task, however the best databases are the
ones that have the capacity to grow. Clearly, compiling a large comprehensive database is far too
much for any one person to do and therefore collaboration is imperative. Starting simply with the
contacts of collaborators and stakeholders is probably the best launching point. Data swapping,
linking databases, and historical data (particularly in the form of photos and field notes) can be an
excellent way to add to a database with minimal effort, and it also encourages support and awareness.
The database should grow to fill its requirements, and should be closely linked to the threats facing
the park, as well as its objectives outlined in the General Management Plan. Collecting additional
data should be determined primarily by the level of detail required to answer the questions, the
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spatial and temporal extent of the processes you want to measure, and the time, effort, and resources
that can be dedicated to collect the data. Information that is used on routine basis, such as base GIS
layers and published literature should be made easily accessible on CDs or downloadable over the
Internet as it encourages people to work in the park and to contribute to the data pool. Reporting is
an imperative and often overlooked component of a database because it promotes communication
between departments through feedback loops. Good reporting also provides motivation to continue
collecting data and by using the data it is constantly getting checked and cleaned. Compiling data
most importantly provides sound scientific principles to understanding ecosystems processes,
prioritizing future activities for a park, and ensuring the long-term conservation of protected areas.
References
Dublin, H. T., Sinclair, A. R. E. and McGlade, J.1990. Elephants and fire as causes of multiple stable
states in the Serengeti-Mara Tanzania woodlands. Journal of Animal Ecology, 59:1147-1164.
Hilborn, R., Arcese, P., Borner, M., Hando, J., Hopcraft, G., Loibooki, M., Mduma, S., and A. R. E.
Sinclair. 2006. Effective enforcement in a conservation area. Science, 34:1266.
Loibooki, M., Hofer, H. Campbell, K. L. I. and East, M. L.2002. Bushmeat hunting by communities
adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: the importance of livestock ownership
and alternative sources of protein and income. Environmental Conservation, 29:391-398.
Metzger, K. L., Sinclair, A. R. E., Campbell, K. L. I. Hilborn, R.. Hopcraft, J. G. C ., Mduma, S. A.
R. and Reich, R. M.2007. Using historical data to establish baselines for conservation: The
black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) of the Serengeti as a case study. Biological Conservation:
139:358-374.
Packer, C., Pusey, A. E., Rowley, H., Gilbert, D. A., Martenson, J., and Obrien, S. J. 1991. Case
Study of a Population Bottleneck Lions of the Ngorongoro Crater Tanzania. Conservation
Biology, 5:219-230.
Pearsall, W. H. 1959. Report on an ecological survey of the Serengeti. Oryx, 4:71-136.
Sinclair, A. R. E., Ludwig, D. and Clark, C. W. 2000. Conservation in the real world. Science,
289:1875-1875.
Sinclair, A. R. E., Mduma, S. A. R. and Arcese, P. 2002. Protected areas as biodiversity benchmarks
for human impact: agriculture and the Serengeti avifauna. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 269:2401-2405.
Sinclair, A. R. E., Mduma, S. A. R., Hopcraft, J. G. C.. Fryxell, J. M., Hilborn, R. A. Y. and Thirgood,
S. 2007. Long-Term Ecosystem Dynamics in the Serengeti: Lessons for Conservation.
Conservation Biology, 21:580-590.
Walters, C. J. 1986. Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. New York, Macmillan.
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 319

Appendix 1: Some existing databases used in African Conservation
management Information System (mIST)
Description: A spatial Management Information System (MIST) that provides park managers with
up-to-date information for their planning, decision-making and evaluation. It is designed to facilitate
the horizontal information flow, data integrity and use of meta-data. It was developed by GTZ for
the Ugandan Wildlife Authority. For more information: http://www.uwa.or.ug/IS.htm
Serengeti ranger Based monitoring Program
Description: An Access database that catalogues the spatial location of events witnessed by field
rangers on a daily basis. Events include the locations of poacher camps, rare and endangered species,
disease and carcass reports, snare-lines and weapons confiscated, poacher and trespasser arrests.
The raw data is collected using GPS and standardized patrol forms. Automated reports are designed
to give managers a quick over view of illegal events occurring in the park on a monthly basis. For
more information: http://www.serengetidata.org
Survey Information System at TAWIrI (SISTA)
Description: A mySqL database designed for wildlife census data for all Tanzanian protected areas.
The database allows a user to enter data, then estimates wildlife populations by species and by area,
as well as generating reports and maps for the census. For more information: http://www.tawiri.org
Grumeti reserves Database
Description: An Access database designed to house information on poaching events, poacher
interviews, photo library, court cases, and aspects of ecological monitoring. It is a pencil-paperand-GPS
driven data collection scheme that is designed to have information flow from foot
patrols to managers and back. For more information: http://www.grumetireserves.com/ or info@
grumetireserves.com/
World Species List – Ethiopia
Description: A taxa database for all plants, animals and microbes recorded for Ethiopia. This website
automatically searches other many existing databases by country or region and produces the results.
It is a very useful site for getting compiling records and distributions. For more information: http://
species.enviroweb.org/countries/oooet.html
Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE)
Description: A CITES database designed to collect information on the illegal killing of elephants
across Africa and to measure these trends over time. MIKE also aims to determine the factors
causing or associated with such changes. Data is collected from field patrol units, is processed at
national levels and submitted into an international database. For more information: http://www.
cites.org/eng/prog/MIKE/index.shtml
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IUCN Red Listed Species
Description: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species provides taxonomic, conservation status
and distribution information on taxa that have been globally identified as being in risk of extinction.
For more information: http://www.redlist.org/
IUCN African Elephant Database
Description: The African Elephant Database (AED) aims to monitor and report the continentwide
status of elephant populations. It is a collaborative effort between conservation agencies
and researchers in the 37 states that make up the present range of the African elephant. For more
information: http://www.iucn.org/afesg/aed/
African Mammals Databank
Description: The African Mammals Databank is a GIS-based databank on the distribution and
conservation of all the big and medium-sized mammals over the whole African continent. It
was designed to collect, store, organize and pre-analyze data for distribution to institutions and
individuals worldwide. Its scope is to provide national and international authorities, organizations,
and projects with a set of baseline data to be used in the analysis and implementation of conservation
and management actions in Africa. For more information: http://www.gisbau.uniroma1.it/amd.php
World Bird Database (BirdLife International)
Description: This is a fully relational database that covers sites, species and Endemic Bird Areas
around the world. The database architecture provides some 120 tables covering in excess of 1,400
data fields. Data are being added continually, and certain tables already hold in excess of 250,000
records. It is designed to provide information and management tools for analyses and reports on the
breadth of its scientific knowledge. For more information: http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/
CyberTracker
Description: CyberTracker software enables field workers to create their own data entry template,
or screen sequence, and use it on a Windows Mobile PocketPC or PalmOS handheld computer
connected with a GPS to gather and map an unlimited amount of data. It is icon driven, which means
field data can be collected by non-literate users. For more information: http://www.cybertracker.
co.za
Tanzania Bird Atlas
Description: A database designed to house information on distributions, breeding status and
populations trends of all birds in Tanzania. The database relies on volunteers sending in their
observations to a central location. For more information: http://tanzaniabirdatlas.com
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Community Based Organizations Database
Description: This database designed by the African Conservation Center gives details of over 100
community based organizations already involved in managing natural resources with details of their
activities and how to contact them. For more information: http://www.conservationafrica.org/
World Database on Protected Areas
Description: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) provides the most comprehensive
dataset on protected areas worldwide and is managed by UNEP-WCMC in partnership with the
IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) and the World Database on Protected
Areas Consortium. The WDPA is a fully relational database containing information on the status,
environment and management of individual protected areas. The WDPA allows you to search
protected areas data by site name, country, and international program or convention. For more
information: http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/
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Appendix 2: Metadata form
A digital copy of this form can be kept with each data file, and updated with new versions of the data.
Name of File:
Source of Data (institute):
Person to contact:
How was data collected:
Description of data:
Projection:
Datum:
Date Acquired:
Modifications:
Description of
Modification
1.
2.
3.
Date
Modified
Data missing:
Who has used data:
Contact of people who have used data:
Associated files and databases:
By Whom Reason
Sources of
Error
Improvement
Suggestions
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Appendix 3: Sources of (a) GIS base layer data, (b) useful tools, and (c)
useful websites available on the internet
GIS Data
Shuttle radar Topology mission (SrTm)
Description: The objective of this project is to produce digital topographic data for all land areas
between 60° north and 56° south latitude, with data points located every 30 meters. The absolute
vertical accuracy of the elevation data is 16 meters at 90% confidence. This data can be used to
generate contours and 3D models for large areas very quickly and efficiently. For more information:
http://srtm.usgs.gov/index.html
AfriCover
Description: FAO Africover has produced a digital georeferenced database on land cover (based on
Landsat data, scale 1:200,000). It also contains several additional layers such as roads, water bodies,
cities/towns, etc. Access to the public domain data set is provided for non-commercial purposes free
of charge. For more information: http://www.africover.org/
MODIS Active Web Fire Mapper
Description: Displays and easily downloads active fires for areas you specify on a daily basis. You
can also register on the website and have the locations of fires sent to you via email everyday. or more
information: http://maps.geog.umd.edu/
SOTER (Soils and Terrain maps for Africa)
Description: Soil and Terrain Resources Information from the FAO provides information on all
aspects of soils. They also provide global and continental models to simulate food production
potentials, climatic change, river flow simulation, livestock distribution, research priorities, land
constraint and general land management advice. They provide harmonized norms for soil mapping,
soil classification, soil analysis and interpretation of soil resources information. For more information:
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/soter.stm
Global Land Cover Facility
Description: The Global Land Cover Facility develops and distributes remotely sensed satellite data
and products concerned with land cover from the local to global scales. They distribute MODIS,
LandSat, and Aster images as well as offering data on CDs. For more information: http://glcf.umiacs.
umd.edu
Africa Remote Sensing Data Bank
Description: The Africa Remote Sensing Data Bank has information on weather data, topographic
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and climate data, AVHRR NDVI data, digital maps, and GIS shape files. The African Remote
Sensing Data Bank was set up by ICIPE Insect Informatics Unit to capture and archive climatic and
environmental data. The data are generated from ground observation or remote sensing sources
and find application in various disciplines, including modeling and simulation, ecosystem analysis,
geostatistics, natural resource management and agricultural planning. For more information: http://
informatics.icipe.org/databank/
Southern Africa Development Center (SADC) Natural Resources Database
Description: The SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit’s Geospatial Data Clearinghouse is a
searchable catalog, based on metadata, for geospatial data on the SADC region. The project aims to
make metadata and spatial data accessible to the community in accordance with policies determined
within the institutional framework and to the technical standards agreed. One of their services are to
process and supply satellite imagery freely to users in SADC countries. For more information: http://
www.sadc-fanr.org.zw/rrsu/clrnghse/
Protected Areas Archive
Description: The Protected Area Archive (PAA) makes satellite images easily available by bundling
image collections of areas of interest (often, but not always, Protected Areas) with a simple and
intuitive tool to utilize the data called TerraLook. No knowledge of remote sensing or image
processing is assumed. The data are free, and no high-speed Internet connection is required. While
designed largely for biodiversity and conservation managers, the PAA is of use in a wide variety of
disciplines including development planners (esp. in developing countries), education, urban studies,
disaster planners and response, and others. For more information: http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/paa.
asp
Tropical Rain Forest Information Center
Description: The Tropical Rain Forest Information Center is a NASA Earth Science Information
Partner (ESIP). Their mission is to provide NASA data, products and information services to the
science, resource management, and policy and education communities. This includes Landsat and
other high resolution satellite remote sensing data as well as digital deforestation maps and databases
to a range of users through web-based Geographic Information Systems. They also provide scientific
information on the current state of the world’s tropical forests, and value-added expert services. For
more information: http://www.trfic.msu.edu/
useful tools
Google Earth
Description: Google Earth is a free viewing package that combines satellite imagery, maps, and
Google’s powerful search engines to allow you to explore geographic information from around the
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world. It is a very useful package for quick views of landscapes, and also has the capacity to export
images and overlay GPS information. For more information: http://earth.google.com/
World Wind
Description: World Wind is a NASA software package that lets you zoom from satellite altitude
into any place on Earth. It uses Landsat satellite imagery and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
data, to give allow you to view the earth’s terrain in 3D. It is very similar to Google Earth. For more
information: http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/
Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS)
Description: Commonly referred to as GRASS, this is a free Geographic Information System (GIS)
used for geospatial data management and analysis, image processing, graphics/maps production,
spatial modeling, and visualization. GRASS is currently used in academic and commercial settings
around the world, as well as by many governmental agencies and environmental consulting
companies. For more information: http://grass.itc.it/
ESRI Conservation Program (ArcView Product Donations)
Description: The ESRI Conservation Program is the non-profit support arm of the Environmental
Systems Research Institute (ESRI). Their aim is to create and develop spatial analysis, computer
mapping and geographic information systems (GIS) capability among thousands of non-profit
organizations and individual projects of all sizes and types worldwide by donating computer
technology and training for groups just beginning to work on geographic problems, as well as cutting
edge of conservation biology and spatial sciences for advanced groups. For more information: http://
www.conservationgis.org/
ESrI Extensions
Description: Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) posts useful extensions and tools
for all their programs including ArcView for free on the internet. These tools are simple add-ins,
that automate many routine tasks you may need to do while working with GIS layers. For more
information: www.esri.com/downloads
useful Websites
http://www.npoc.nl/EN-version/index.html
This website provides information about satellites, satellite data, availability of imagery, applications
in remote sensing and exchange of data. It also serves as a national point of contact for spatial
data. They provide assistance with the selection of data, information about satellite data and their
applications, as well as derived satellite image products.
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http://www.mentorsoftwareinc.com
Mentor is a software company that sells referencing and conversion software including Tralaine,
which converts between projections and coordinate systems. They also have free extensions and
programs for things like projecting TIFF images (GeoTIFFExaminer).
http://software.geocomm.com/coorconv/
This is the GeoCommunity homepage for coordinating and sharing software, data, questions, and all
types of issues relating to spatial data.
http://www.gsdi.org/
The GSDI Association is an inclusive organization of agencies, firms, and individuals from around
the world. The purpose of the organization is to promote international cooperation and collaboration
in support of local, national and international spatial data infrastructure developments that will
allow nations to better address social, economic, and environmental issues of pressing importance.
They also have grants, discussion groups, conferences which makes this site a good place to source
information and contacts.
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Appendix 4: Sample Patrol Form and Arrest Forms
SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK
DAILY PATROL REPORT
Serial Number DPR
Ranger Post Start Date End Date Km Foot Patrol
Zone Start Time End Time Km Vehicle Patrol
Grids Searched Start GPS S End GPS S Vehicle Reg.
Prepared by: E E
Name Date Signature PARTICIPANTS
POACHERS
Poachers Seen
Poachers Arrested
Poachers Escaped
SUMMARY OF POACHED
ANIMALS
Wildebeest
Zebra
T/ Gazelle
G/ Gazelle
Impala
Topi
Kongoni
Buffalo
Eland
Warthog
Hippo
Elephant
Reed Buck
Water Buck
Bush Buck
Giraffe
Klipspringer
Dikdik
Duiker
Oribi
Ostrich
Hyena
Jackal
Lion
Leopard
Other
SIGNS OF ILLEGAL ACTIVITY
Snares (#)
Footprints (# people)
Pit Traps (#)
Fish Traps / Hooks (#)
Signs of Grazing Y N
Lumbering Y N
Firewood Y N
Poles Y N
Mining Y N
CONFISCATED WEAPONS &
EQUIPMENT
Snares
Bows
Arrows
Spears
Guns
Ammunition
Knives
Pangas
Axes
Rope
Fish Nets / Hooks
Vehicles
Bicycles
Donkeys
Dogs
OTHER OFFENDERS
Offence
Number Seen
Number Arrested
Number Escaped
1 5
2 6
3 7
4 8
OFFENDERS ARRESTED
Name Offense
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
GRAZERS
Grazers Seen
Grazers Arrested
Grazers Escaped
Cattle
Sheep / Goats
Donkeys
Dogs
POACHER CAMP
GPS (S) GPS (E)
1 Active Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned
0-1 month 1-6 months 6+ months
2 Active Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned
0-1 month 1-6 months 6+ month
3 Active Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned
0-1 month 1-6 months 6+ month
ENDANGERED SPECIES Rhino Roan Wilddog
GPS S
E Total Number Adult Sub-Ad Juv
Condition: Good Fair Poor Male
Observation: Direct Tracks Feces Carcass Female
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
DISEASE / CARCASSES
Species No.
GPS (S)
GPS (E)
Condition: Good Fair Poor
Adult Sub-Ad. Juv.
Male
Female
Species No.
GPS (S)
GPS (E)
Condition: Good Fair Poor
Adult Sub-Ad. Juv.
Male
Female

Individual Arrest Form Index No.
Location National Park
Date Number of Patrol Form
Name of Patrol leader / rank __________________________________________
Name of “poacher” Age___Occupation________________________Maleo Female o
Number of: Wives/husband children dependants Number in household
Village Ward District
GPS S:
E:
How were they captured þ
by vehicle o or on foot o
o Open area
o In bush
o In thick bush
o In riverine vegetation
o in a camp
o near a camp
o no camp
Elsewhere
how were they seen:
What is he/she getting or doing þ
Wildlife o Honey o Grazing livestock o
Birds o Fuelwood o Timber o
Fish o Medicine o Building poles o
Ritual o Mining o Thatch grass o
Water o Others
Wildlife / Trees species or type (Number)
Type and number of weapons:
Where do you get your weapons o make them yourself
o purchase (how much )
o borrowed
(where from )
Why are you entering the park (hunting, fishing, cutting trees, mining, carrying, others)
I hunting / fishing / cutting trees / or a porter, for what reason:
Food o Money o Trade o Tradition o others:
If money, for what reason (taxes, contributions, debt, medicine, clothes, poverty, )
If for trade, where are you selling (village, district, elsewhere )
If for food, why do you have a problem with food
Numbers of Livestock, (are they your own or do they belong to the household):
cattle goats sheep chicken / ducks donkeys others
How many years have you been in the village Farm or Field (yes / no / acres)
How many days have you been in the park How many people came with you
What would you need to stop you entering the park
Have any park officials visited your village (if so who)
Are you aware of the laws relating to hunting / tree cutting (if yes what do you think of them)
Police: IR number
Court: CC / EC number
or fine was paid (yes / no / how much)
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Sample arreSt Form Form No.
post National park
Date time arrested
patrol leader title
POACHER’S DETAILS
Name__________________________________ Age______ Occupation________________
Sex: □ male □ female
Marital Status________________ No. of children________ No. of dependants___________
Size of household __________
Village_____________________ Ward_________________ District___________________
Region____________________
ARRESTING DETAILS
Location of Arrest: GPS ________________________________
Name of Area:_____________________________
Method of Arrest: □ by car □ on foot □ tracking □ ambush
Estimated Chasing Time: ______________
Description of Area of Arrest: □ plains □ open wood land □ close wood land □ riverine
□ at camp □ near camp □ no camp □ others: ______________
Methods of Detection: □ direct observation □ informants □ foot prints □ smoke □ gunshot
□ torch □ traps □use of vultures □ dogs/donkeys
Methods of Poaching: □ traps (snares, pitfalls,…) □ use of guns □ use of spear & arrows
Reasons for Entering the Park: □ poaching for animals □ poaching for birds □ fishing □ worship
□ fetching water □ honey gathering □ firewood collection
□ medicine □ mining □ grazing □ lumbering □ building poles
□ others: ________________________________
Species caught with: animals: _______________ No: ____ ; ________________ No:_____;
animals: _______________ No:___; ________________ No:_______;
birds: No: _______ fish: No:_______ trees: No:__________
Species admitted : animals: _______________ No: _______; ________________ No:_________ ;
animals: _______________ No:_______; ________________ No:________;
birds: No: ________ fish: No:________ trees: No:_________
Species looking for: ___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
Type of weapons: _____________ No:___ ____________ No:___ __________ No:___
Where Weapon comes from: □ bought (where: ______________ price: _______ ) □ self made
□ borrow
Purpose of Poaching: □ subsistence □ commercial □ religious reasons □ others _____________
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If for Commercial Market: □ in your village □ another village in your district □ outside the district
If for Subsistence: why is food in shortage: ____________________________________________________
________
Duration of Stay in the park: ______________ No. in the group:_______________
Do you know park laws & regulations: □ no □ yes
Have you ever been compounded or charged: □ no □ yes (how often: ______________)
Location of the Camps:______________________________
Routes of Entering the Park: _____________________________
Economic position: □ goats: ____ □ sheep:____ □ cattle: ____ □ donkeys: ____ □ chicken: ____ □
others:___________
How many years have you been living in the village : _________
How many acres of land do you own: _____________
OFFICIAL USE ONLY:
How many time has person been arrested: _______
Police IR No: _______________ ______________ _____________
Case No: ________
Witnesses names: _______________________ _________________________ ___________________
_______________
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BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK PARTNERS
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Authority (EWCA)
The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) is a governmental organization mandated
to ensure the development, conservation and sustainable utilization of Ethiopia’s wildlife resources.
Like other governmental institutions in Ethiopia, EWCA carried out a study using two kinds of
performance management tools; a Business Process Reenginering (BPR) process and a Balanced
Score Card (BSC). It is from this study that EWCA emerged as an authority with a new arrangement
transferring it from under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) to under
the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MoCT). Three years on, EWCA together with the MoCT has
now revised its BPR and BSC documents.
EWCA’s Vision
To be one of the top five best African countries in 2020 as a wildlife tourism destination.
EWCA’s Mission Statements
i) To sustainably develop and conserve Ethiopian wildlife resources, scientifically through
active participation of community and other stakeholders
ii) To bring ecological, economic and social benefits to Ethiopians, as well as the global
community and pass to the next generation as a heritage.
EWCA’s three main strategic themes (ST) and expected results (R) are-:
1) ST: Wildlife conservation and development
R: Beautiful and attractive PAs.
2) ST: Active participation and benefit sharing of the community
R: Community partnership increased
3) ST: Wildlife market development and sustainable Utilization.
R: Market share and revenue increased
A number of objectives under the strategic themes were developed to assist in meeting these results.
EWCA’s Objectives
• Increase customer satisfaction
• Increase the benefit sharing of PAs to the local community
• Build a good image of the country
• Increase tourist satisfaction
• Improve effective resource utilization
• Maximize budget sources
• Increase revenue generated from wildlife utilization.
• Reduce illegal activities inside and outside of protected areas
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• Improve research work on wildlife
• Rehabilitate and restore degraded areas of protected areas
• Maximize infrastructure in the protected areas.
• Improve community awareness and skills
• Enhance community and stake holder participation
• Establish and promote wildlife market oriented mechanisms
• Improve the service delivery system
• Establish a database of wildlife
• Improve mainstreaming of cross cutting issues (Gender, youth) in EWCA
• Strengthen monitoring, feedback and evaluation systems
• Benchmark from best practice.
• Improve the knowledge, skills and change the attitude of leaders and experts
• Improve capacity for information communication and other modern technology
Specific key objectives pertinent to the BMNP include the re-demarcation and gazettement of
the park by 2012; rehabilitation of degraded areas, reduction of human-wildlife conflict and to
increase the populations of endemic and endangered wildlife species.
Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural
History Society
Establishment:
• Established in 1966 as Social Club
• Emperor Haile Silassie used to be the first Patron
• Evolved into a full-fledged Local Conservation Organization in early nineties
• One of the oldest non-governmental organizations in Ethiopia
• Operates at national level (not region-specific)
• A membership-based Society
• Used to be registered under Ministry of Justice
• Re-registered by the Agency for Charities and Associations as ETHIOPIAN RESIDENTS
CHARITY
Focus Areas:
• Awareness creation/boosting
• Education on Protection of Environment
• Production and dissemination of promotional publications
• Conservation of biodiversity – Threatened species
• Research and dissemination of results
• Rehabilitation of degraded areas
• Monitoring of wetland habitats – Waterfowl Census
• Monitoring of Key Biodiversity Sites – Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
• Local Community Engagements in Conservation - SSGs
• Recently embarked on Eco-tourism
• Center of excellence for Ornithology
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Governance and Employees
• General Assembly – All members
• Office Bearers of the General Assembly (3)
• Board of Management (7) – Volunteers
• Secretariat to run the day-to-day activities
• Executive Director
• Other salaried employees (22)
• Structure of Employees
• Sex ratio: 4 Females and 19 males
• High level professionals (BSc, BA, MSc) – 11
• Medium level professionals (Diploma) – 4
• Non-professionals (< 12th grade ) – 8
Partnerships
• BirdLife Partner in Ethiopia
• One of the 12 full partners of BirdLife International in Africa
• Member of Eastern Africa Environmental Network (EAEN)
• Member of Horn of Africa Regional Environmental Network (HoA-REN)
• Member of Central Rift Valley Working Group
• Member of the Middle East –North Africa Migratory Birds Flyway Working Group
• Works closely with relevant Government Institutions
• Works in close collaboration with all like-minded conservation non-state actors
Assets
• Reputable image within the public domain
• Dedicated staff members - work under high pressures and harsh conditions
• Guided by a Strategic Plan developed and updated every five years
• Operational Manuals and working documents in place
– Financial Manual
– Administration manual
– Membership Policy and Strategy
• Preparation of other operational documents is underway
– Membership Action Plan
– Communication Policy
– Advocacy Policy
– Fundraising policy
• Resource Centre in place with best collections on ornithology and biodiversity
conservation
• <strong>Special</strong>ized in project development and management
• Capable of implementing regional projects that involve multi-stakeholders
• A hub for avifauna of Ethiopia
• Has experience in Environmental Education and production of Environment-related
promotional publications
• Flexibility to assume different responsibilities is the unique feature of the Society
Major Challenges
• Lack of Appropriate Office Premises
• Funding for sustaining core staff members and activities of the Society
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• Development Partners (donors) are not usually comfortable to pay for overhead costs
• Experienced Staff turnover (leave the Society for better opportunities)
Active Projects
• Forests for Food: the Debre Birhan Land Restoration and Food Security Project
• Community - Based Wetland Management for Sustainable Livelihoods and Biodiversity
Conservation
• Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park Site Support Group (SSG) Project
• The Ethiopian Sustainable Tourism Alliance (ESTA) Project
• Trees for cities project
• Saving the Threatened Endemic Birds of Southern Ethiopia: Birdfair Project
Frankfurt Zoological Society
Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) is a German NGO that supports more than 80 conservation
projects worldwide. For the last 150 years, FZS has been working to protect the diversity of species
and ecosystems in partnership with and for people. FZS works in Africa, South America, South
East Asia and Europe. In Ethiopia FZS currently has two Afro-Alpine projects; the Bale Mountains
Conservation Project (FZS-BMCP) and the Afro-Alpine Ecosystem Conservation Project (FZS-
AECP).
FZS-BMCP was set up in 2005, to provide park support to the BMNP in all aspects of the park
management - from eco-tourism development, outreach, sustainable natural resource use, park
operations and ecological management. In March 2007 a 10-year General Management Plan for
the park was ratified by the president of the Oromia region. FZS-BMCP is currently working in
partnership with the BMNP and other authorities towards implementing this GMP.
FZS-BMCP’s goals are: (i) to see the BMNP gazetted and listed as a natural world heritage site; (ii)
to ensure all the tools are in place enabling the efficient management of the park; and (iii) to ensure
the long term conservation of the unique biodiversity and beauty of the park, while also addressing
the needs of communities.
FZS-BMCP is financially support by the EU Afro-montane Conservation Project 2009-2013
To find out more about FZS-BMCP and other FZS projects visit www.fzs.org
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Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Project
The overall goal of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) is the conservation of
the Ethiopian wolf and its Afroalpine habitat, while ensuring the social and economic well being of
local communities. The Ethiopian wolf is the rarest canid in the world. The most pressing threats
to wolves are: (i) loss and fragmentation of the Afroalpine habitat to high-altitude subsistence
agriculture and overgrazing; road construction and sheep farming; (ii) diseases - particularly rabies,
transmitted by domestic dogs, which decimated populations in 1991 and 2003 and subsequent years;
(iii) conflicts with humans - poisoning and persecution in reprisal for livestock losses as well as road
kills; and (iv) hybridisation with domestic dogs.
We promote sustainable solutions for the conservation of Ethiopian wolves by understanding,
predicting and addressing particular aspects of the most serious threats affecting their populations-
threats that ultimately enhance the inherent vulnerability of these small and isolated populations, all
at risk of genetic loss and inbreeding, and the negative effects of demographic and environmental
stochasticity. Our working strategy is centered on the following objectives:
• To assess, address and counteract threats to the survival of Ethiopian wolves.
• To secure the conservation of Afroalpine biodiversity and ecological processes.
• To strengthen Ethiopia’s environmental sector, particularly biodiversity conservation.
For more information about Ethiopian wolves and the project http://www.ethiopianwolf.org
Biodiversity Monitoring in the Forest Ecosystems of Bale
Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (University of Aberdeen, funded by
the Darwin Initiative)
This project aimed to strengthen the capacity of researchers, government agents, and local people
to conserve native forest species of plants and animals in BMNP by developing and implementing
a biodiversity monitoring programme, focused primarily on the forest ecosystems. The project
developed protocols for monitoring forest structure and function and forest bird communities.
The project collected baseline data and contributed to a database to serve the continuation of the
monitoring programme. Other outputs included publications on the status of the Harenna forest,
a review of the traditional management practices found in the forest and booklets, posters and
pamphlets to disseminate lessons learned from the project. The University of Aberdeen, the
main UK-based implementing agency, worked with park staff and FZS to develop and implement
monitoring protocols in the Harenna. The project started in September 2005 and ended in December
2008.
More details can be found on our project website www.abdn.ac.uk/bale
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Sustainable Development of the Protected Area
System of Ethiopia (SDPASE)
The SDPASE was created in response to the bad state of the protected area system of Ethiopia,
especially in the 1990s and early 2000s. In response, the Government of Ethiopia has formed new
policies and passed new legislation. In 2007 a new Authority under the Ministry of Culture and
Tourism, the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), was created. EWCA implements
the SDPASE-project”, commissioned by the Ethiopian Government and the United Nations
Development Programme. The funding comes from the Global Environment Facility. GIZ IS is the
implementing partner for the first four–year phase of the project.
The project aims at effectively safeguarding Ethiopia’s biodiversity, ecosystems and ecological
processes from human-induced pressures. It promotes a sustainable Protected Area System that
contributes significantly to economic development, both locally and nationally. The project
mainstreams the Protected Areas within the development context in Ethiopia. It strengthens
institutional capacity, increases the cost efficiency and secures sustainable financing for the country’s
Protected Area System.
The project develops the capacity of stakeholders within the Protected Area System of Ethiopia.
This system shall contribute significantly to the achievement of the goals of the Growth and
Transformation Plan, and meet the Millennium Development Goals.
The project has been instrumental in training up to now around 600 federal and regional parks staff,
it is advising EWCA on the implementation of its programmes, and it is supporting the parks and
EWCA with material and other forms of support.
BMNP Collaborating Institutions
Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Farm Africa/SOS Sahel, Ethiopia
Ghent University, Belgium
Imperial College London, UK
Jimma University, Ethiopia
Macaulay Institute &Aberdeen University, UK
Mada Walabu University, Ethiopia
MELCA Mahiber, Ethiopia
National Herbarium of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprises (OFWE), Ethiopia
National Soil Laboratory, Ethiopia
University of Basel, Switherland
University of Glasgow, UK
University of Pretoria, South Africa
University of Cape Town, South Africa
Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, UK
Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Ethiopia
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 337

ETHIOPIAN WILDLIFE & NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Working for Conservation and Sustainable Development.
P. O. Box 13303, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel. 251- (0)116 636792/511737; Fax 251- (0)116 186879
E-mail: ewnhs.ble@ethionet.et, Website: www.ewnhs.org.et
BECOME A MEMBER OF EWNHS
As BirdLife’s Partner in Ethiopia, EWNHS shares and is striving to meet the four core conservation
objectives of BirdLife International Partnership: Saving species, protecting sites, conserving
habitats and empowering and improving the livelihoods people.
Never in the history of the human race have there been so many people and the demand for natural
resources been so high. As a consequence, the need for the wise and sustainable utilization of the
environment is urgent. To ensure that the environment maintains its capacity to support not only us,
but our future generations as well, will require a concerted effort from all.
Mother Nature needs your assistance. Add your voice to the conservation of Ethiopian nature. A
little help from you can help save species, sites and habitats and improve livelihoods of site adjacent
impoverished people. YOU CAN REALLY MAKE A DIFFERENCE BY ACTING NOW
AND ADDING YOur VOICE! By joining the Society as a member, you can contribute towards
conservation of Ethiopia’s biodiversity and environment, while at the same time receiving great
benefits. As a member, you will have the honor to promote the objectives of the Society, sensitize
friends and all your contacts about the threats to biodiversity, natural resources and the environment of
Ethiopia, and assist in fund-raising and establishing contact with relevant conservation collaborators.
By unity and harmony, we can make a splendid difference!
Contact us through our addresses captioned for more details on how to become a member. Annual
membership fees or donatation can be paid through the following bank account.
Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society, Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Andinet Branch
Account Number: 1858/ 0171812282000
Swift Code: CBETETAA
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 338

I. Personal details
Ethiopian Wildlife & Natural History Society
Membership Registration Form
1. Dr/ Mr/Mrs/Ms: ________ 2. Full Name:_____________________________________
3. Sex (M/F) : ____________ 4. Date of Birth (dd-mm-yy)*: _______________
5. Place of Birth*:___________ 6. Nationality: ___________________
7. Qualification (Dip, BA, MA, BSc, MSc, etc.): ______________________
8. Field of Study: _______________________________________
9. Occupation: _________________________________________
10. Organization: ________________________________________
11. Position: ______________________________
II. Contact Address
12. Country: __________________________ 13. State: ______________________
14. City/Town: _________________________ 15. Subcity: ___________________
16. Kebelle: ___________________________ 17. H. No*: ____________________
18. P. O. Box: _________________________ 19. Tel (Office): ________________
20. Tel (Home): ________________________ 21. Mobile: ___________________
22. Fax: ______________________________
24. Website: ___________________________
* Optional
23. E-Mail: ___________________
III. membership Category
Please tick the membership category that most suits you:
Membership Category Subscription Fee
1. Ordinary Member Birr 60.00
2. Family Member (Ethiopians) Birr 125.00
3. Elementary School Students (Grades 1-6) Birr 5.00
4. Secondary School Students (Grades 7-12) Birr 10.00
5. Colleges and University Students Birr 15.00
6. Nature/Wildlife Clubs, Schools & CBOs Birr 45.00
7. Institutions (NGOs, GOs, Colleges and Universities) Birr 100.00
8. Corporate members (profit making organizations) Birr 500.00
9. Supporting Members (Resident Expatriates and
Ethiopians by Birth) US$ 20.00
10. Life Members (Resident Ethiopians) Birr 1500.00
11. Life Members (Resident Expatriates) Birr 2500.00
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 339

IV. For membership Categories No. 6-8 only:
I, the undersigned, confirm my Institution’s interest and commitment to be a member of the Ethiopian Wildlife
and Natural History Society and pledge to fulfill the membership requirements, including the payment of the
annual membership fee.
________________________________
Membership authorized by
Position _______________________ Signature ___________________
V. Mode of Payment for all Membership Categories
I wish to pay:
1. by cash on the date of the General Annual Meetings
2. directly at the EWNHS Office
3. by cash to a collector assigned by EWNHS
4. as bank transfer to a dedicated bank account of EWNHS
5. as postal money order
Date of Application: _____________________ Signature: ____________________________
(For Membership Categories other than 6, 7 and 8)
E-mail: ewnhs.ble@ethionet.et
P. O. Box 13303, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia).
Tel. 251- (0)116 636792/511737; Fax 251- (0)116 186879
E-mail: ewnhs.ble@ethionet.et, Website: www.ewnhs.org.e
<strong>Walia</strong>-<strong>Special</strong> <strong>Edition</strong> on the Bale Mountains 340

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