Job Mashapa1, Darelle van Greunen2, Alida Veldsman3 and ...

9 

A Model for Managing Information 

Communication Technology User Experience in 

Rural Contexts 

Job Mashapa 1 , Darelle van Greunen 2 , Alida Veldsman 3 and Marlien Herselman 4 

1 School of ICT 

NMMU 

Port Elizabeth, South Africa 

Job.Mashapa@nmmu.ac.za 


NMMU 

Port Elizabeth, South Africa 

Darelle.vanGreunen@nmmu.ac.za 

3 Ukhozi Business Incubator 

South Africa 

Alidav@telkomsa.net 


NMMU, Port Elizabeth, South Africa 

mherselman@csir.co.za 

Abstract 

Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) are increasingly being used 

as enablers to bring positive and sustainable development in impoverished rural 

communities. The ICT fi eld is rapidly changing. New technologies are being deployed 

and existing ones are being improved. Such dynamic trends in ICT diffusion impact 

on the user experience of the people interacting with the ICTs. The change in user 

experience should be managed to promote positive user experience and ready people 

to embrace the ICTs. Most ICTs projects in developing countries rural contexts 

have not been accepted and or well utilised by the users. The attributing cause of 

95

96 Strengthening the Role of ICT in Development 

failure has been poor management of change in user experience and lack of user 

involvement right from the onset of project initiation. The purpose of this study is 

to propose a theoretical model for managing user experience of the ICT users in the 

context of developing countries rural communities. The uniqueness of the proposed 

model lies in its user centred approach and its applicability in an environment that 

is not bound by organisational based visions and policies. A study of literature on 

the impact of ICTs in rural communities, user experience and change management 

was used to establish an initial conceptual framework through which the theoretical 

model is developed. The proposed model will be empirically validated using a case 

study to gain more insights on the model applicability. The focus of this paper is to 

investigate what is needed to establish a user centred model for managing change 

in the user experience of ICT users. An initial model is discussed followed by the 

preliminary fi ndings of a single case pilot investigation. 

Keywords: Information Communication Technologies (ICTs); Change Management; 

User Experience; Rural Context; Information Communication Technology for 

Development. 

Introduction 

In this paper ICT is defi ned as a system of devices, services and applications used to 

capture, store, process and transmit electronic information. ICT adoption has lead to 

the much noticeable discrepancies in average economic growth between the developed 

and developing countries [Pohjola 2003]. In the developed world ICT has contributed to 

economic growth by improving the quality, effectiveness and effi ciency and information 

access [Easterly and Levine 2001; Easterly 2001]. In developing countries ICT is being 

used as a tool for poverty alleviation and as a development enhancer [Yates eta al, 2010; 

Donner et al, 2008; Kenny 2002]. 

There have been some rapid changes and improvements in ICT technologies, 

diffusion and usage [Yusuf 2005]. Traditional computers were used by large organisations 

such as governments and universities for data, storage, processing and automation. 

By then the use of computers was far from changing the lifestyles of the people but 

rather oriented on a business perspective [Dahlbom and Ljungberg, 1998]. With the 

progression of time and computer penetration, personal computers were introduced 

in homes and offi ces as sources of information and communication. People began to 

understand and embrace the new technologies leading to a revolutionary wave changing 

their life styles, interaction and experiences [Sorensen and Gibson 2006]. In the current 

era, mobile ICTs have gained predominate use mainly because of the fl exibility and 

unconstrained usage with respect to time and location [Kushchu and Kuscu, 2007; Valk 

et al. 2010; Svanaes et al. 2010]. 

The rapid inception of new ICTs has not only changed business processes but also 

transformed the lifestyles of the people [Trim and Sheng 2008]. The transformation is

Part 3: A Model for Managing Information Communication Technology User Experience in Rural Contexts 97 

evident in developing countries where mobile ICTs are used to leapfrog trends in ICT 

development and bring an end to the digital divide [Valk et al. 2010]. The rural context 

in the developing communities is characterised by poverty, illiteracy, lack of information 

and overall lack of knowledge [Britz 2004]. A wide difference exists between the affl uent 

living in urban areas and the poor living in the impoverished developing context rural 

communities with respect to access to information and utilisation skills of ICTs. The 

people in rural communities are often marginalised, powerless and voiceless. They lag 

in computer skills, use, access and use of internet compared to those in the urban and 

developed societies counterparts [Donner et al. 2008]. 

The use of ICTs to fi ght poverty, improve on communication, bring knowledge 

and information access to the poor and as an enabler for socio-economic development 

is increasingly being recognised [Haines and Cassels 2004; Easterly 2001; Sachs 2005; 

Donner et al. 2008]. Information Communication Technology for Development 

(ICT4D) refers to the use of information and communication technologies to enhance 

development. ICT4D aims at the application of information and communication 

technologies to develop and empower the poor and marginalised communities [Unwin, 

2009]. The goal of ICT4D is to transform the lives of people in the “un-entered” ICT 

areas and poverty stricken rural areas. 

Multi-purpose community ICT access points have been established to provide 

information and communication access to the rural communities [Hajela, 2009]. 

These access points are referred to as telecenters. Colle [2009] defi ne a telecenter 

as a shared facility that provides public access to information and communication 

resources. The telecenters have been used for distributing information, promoting local 

entrepreneurships, cultural enrichment, improving education and health services and 

strengthening social mobilization [Davison et al, 2002; Curtain, 2004]. An improvement 

on the telecenter approach was its modifi cation into information hubs. Information 

hubs exceed beyond offering basic facilities like faxing, proving internet and phone 

services. They go an extra mile in generating information and proving information with 

the goal of enhancing and empowering a behavioral change [Haris and Rajora 2006; 

ESCAP 2006]. Mobile applications are also being developed targeting users in the poor 

and marginalized rural contexts. Examples of such are mobile banking applications and 

mobile learning applications [Hughes & Lonie, 2007; Butgereit, 2007]. 

However, most of these initiatives failed to yield the expected results. The target 

users did not fully utilize the availed resources resulting in some of the projects being 

aborted [Attwood & Braathen, 2010; Beeharry & Schneider, 1996; Benjamin, 2001; 

Robey and Boudreau 1999]. Lack of user needs assessment, poor user requirements 

elicitation and failure to manage change in the user experience of the people using the 

technologies has resulted in unexpected abortion and the failure of the projects [Heeks 

2002; Benjamin 2001]. To minimize such failures, it is therefore important that the needs 

of the users be considered in order to implement contextually relevant solutions that fi t 

the needs of the users. Meeting the needs of the users is paramount to the acceptance


and proper usage of any product [Reece, 2002]. Acceptance of the ICTs is improved 

when the users interact with the ICT with pleasure, joy and satisfaction. Such feelings 

resulting from the interaction defi ne the user experience [Sharp, Roger and Preece 2007]. 

Such an approach emphasizes the user centered perspective in managing change in the 

user experience. The next section presents a discussion on user experience. 

User Experience 

This section briefl y informs what user experience is, how it develops and why it is 

important. 

Several authors have defi ned user experience from various perspectives [Sward and 

MacArthur 2007; Hassenzahl and Tractinsky 2006; Mashapa and van Greunen 2010; 

Roto 2007; Sutcliffe 2010]. ]. It can be deduced from the defi nitions that user experience 

consists of the following aspects, the user, context and an interactive product. Thus, user 

experience goes beyond the usability of a product but an intrinsic subjective emotion 

of a person’s interaction with a product in a specifi ed context [Roto et al. 2011]. User 

experience can be positive or negative [Roto 2007]. Negative user experience is when 

users fi nd a product to be boring, diffi cult to interact with it or not fi t for the intended 

use. A positive user experience is developed when the user fi nds the product to be 

usable with pleasure and satisfaction (Sharp, Roger and Preece, 2007). A positive user 

experience and perceived usability of a product is of paramount importance for its 

acceptance and full usage [Davis 1989; Webb et al, 2003; Roto, 2007]. 

User experience development is not a once off thing, but rather a process that 

evolves over time [Roto 2011]. The main difference between individuals is the amount 

of time they spend in developing user experience. Thus it is important to manage the 

change in user experience of ICT users for the ICTs to be accepted and utilised to their 

potential benefi ts. 

Change management 

The world is in a constant state of change characterised by increase in global socioeconomic 

integration, technological advancement and the scramble for resources. An 

evolution of ICTs from traditional location fi xed computing through to mobile and 

pervasive ICTs is an example of such change which have fuelled subsequent change in 

organisations, societies and individuals. The inception of ICT is forcing organisations 

and societies to change the way people interact and how businesses operate [Oakland 

and Tanner, 2007]. It is evident that the implementation of ICTs transforms the 

livelihoods, experiences and socio-economic aspects of people [Trim and Sheng 2008]. 

The change involves a transformation and replacement of the old and familiar system 

with an unfamiliar system characterised by uncertainty, fear and a threat to the security 

of the people [Vahs et al 2010]. It therefore follows that the change in ICTs should 

promote a positive user experience. For user experience to be positive it has to be 

managed in a manner which satisfi es the needs and requirements of the people. Thus


the technique for managing user experience must be centred on the target users for the 

ICTs to be accepted and utilised to the full potential benefi ts. 

Various authors have defi ned change management and proposed models for the 

implementation and guiding success in managing change [Kotter and Cohen 2002; Jick 

2003; Garvin 2000; Mento et al. 2002; Price and Chahal 2006; Hiatt 2006]. In this paper 

we adopt a change managed defi nition put forward by defi ned by Hiatt and Creasey 

[2003] as “the process, tools and techniques to manage the people-side of change to 

achieve the required business outcome.” 

Critique of the existing models can be summarised thus. Hiatt’s [2006] ADKAR 

model lacks in assessing the environment for change and evaluating the outcome and 

impact of change. Price and Chahal’s [2006] model focuses much on managing change 

from the organisation’s point of view and neglects the needs and requirements of the 

people. Kotter and Cohen’s [2002] eight steps change management model is aimed 

at strategic level activities to transform the organisation. In their model they do not 

consider managing change in human experiences. Mento et al [2002] focus on the role 

of strong leadership in implementing change in an organisation. Jick’s [2003] model 

aims at tactical implementation of major organisational change. 

Problem Identification 

ICT applications fall short on usability and do not create a positive user experience. The 

people readiness of ICT application users is lagging. There is no model for managing 

change in the user experience of ICT application users, most importantly in the rural 

contexts. Following this premise, the purpose of the overall study is to develop a model 

for managing user experience of the ICT users. 

Current approaches to user experience focus on how to develop positive user 

experience and how to evaluate user experience. Despite the fact that user experience 

researchers and practitioners accept that user experience is important for the acceptance 

of a product and that user experience evolves, at this point no work has been done on 

how to manage the transitions in the user experience of people interacting with the 

products. Available change management approaches focus on the implementation and 

guidance of change at organisational level [Kotter and Cohen 2002; Jick 2003; Garvin 

2000; Mento et al. 2002; Price and Chahal 2006]. Existing models do not cater for 

managing the feelings of the people and their experience. 

The Proposed Model 

Existing models will be used to inform the proposed model but specifi c aspects will be 

incorporated to make the model unique. The model will adopt a user centered approach 

to manage change in user experience contrary to an organisational centered approach 

to managing change. The proposed model will focus on the achievement of individual 

based change where there are no binding organisational policies, vision and objectives 

and hierarchies of command to be followed. Thus the change aims at promoting ICT 

acceptance through an individual’s affi nity to change.


The proposed model seeks to make the individuals see and feel the need for change 

for them to take action for change [Kotter & Cohen, 2002; Marshak, 2006). The model 

is implementable in a society where there are no organisational policies, watchdogs, 

authorities to force change. The model will advocate that the needs for the ICT users 

and their user experience have to be considered from the onset of the ICT projects right 

through the transition phases until accomplishment of the overall goal. In managing the 

user experience it is acknowledged that people will adapt to the ICTs at different paces, 

thus the model should accommodate individuals based on the innovation adoption 

curve [Rogers, 1995]. For the ICTs to be accepted with positive user experiences, the 

various groups of the innovation adoption curve has to be catered for and their needs 

satisfi ed. 

Based on a single case, an initial model outline is presented in Figure 1. 

Figure 1: An initial User Centred Change Management Model 

As depicted in Figure 1, the initial model infers mostly from the components of 

Awareness, Desire, Knowledge and Reinforcement (ADKAR) model [Hiatt, 2006]. 

Additional components include scanning of the present environment, formulation of 

the vision and strategy, consolidation of lessons learnt and evaluation. The next section 

describes the components of the initial model in detail.


A Scan of the Change Environment 

Elicitation of the change context 

Activity Tools / Methods Deliverable 

User requirements 

elicitation 

Needs assessment 

Discovery of the 

change climate 

Interviews , 

Questionnaires 

Environmental analysis, 

what has to change 

what are the risks of not 

changing 

Context 

analysis 

document 

A test of the wetness of waters 

Activities Tools / Method Deliverable 

Facilitate informal 

awareness of the 

change initiative 

Stir up the people 

to see the urgency 

of change 

Create a visible gap 

between current 

state and desired 

state 

Informal channels of 

communication e.g. the 

grapevine 

Informal 

assessment 

of the change 

vibe. 

Identifi cation of 

active change 

stakeholders 

and potential 

pockets of 

resistance. 

Vision And Strategy Formulation 

Gathering a guiding team 


Gather a cross 

sectional 

representation of all 

the people 

Identifi cation of 

who has the power 

, information , the 

winners and losers 

Consolidation 

of feedback 

obtained from the 

active informal 

interaction with the 

stakeholders. 

Stakeholder key 

relation mapping 

document 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Jick 2003; 

Mento et al 

2001] 

Contributing 

Authors 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Kotter and 

Cohen 2002]


Defi ning the desired outcome 

Activities Tools / Method Deliverable 

Analyzing alternatives 

to solve the current 

problem and need 

of change. The 

desired outcome must 

fi t the needs and 

requirements of the 

stakeholders. 

Crafting the change strategy 

Current state to 

desired state gap 

analysis 

Vision statement 

Activities Tools/ Methods Deliverable 

Drafting a change 

implementation. 

Setting milestones and 

evaluation metrics for 

each stage. 

Defi ning short term 

wins. 

Setting timelines. 

Stakeholder 

interviews focus 

groups and 

consultation of the 

users. 

Awareness 

Implementation 

strategy 

document 

Formal communication of the change initiative 


Formal communication 

on what is to be changed, 

who is to be affected, what 

is changing and what is 

remaining unchanged 

Awareness of the potential 

benefi ts of using the ICTs 

Meetings, seminars 

and workshops 

Seminars, 

workshops, emails, 

road shows, posters, 

television and 

radio awareness 

campaigns. 

User 

awareness 

document 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Price and 

Chahal 2006, 

Kotter and 

Cohen 2002; 

Jick 2003] 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Price and 

Chahal 2006; 


Cohen 2003; 

Jick 2003; 

Mento et al 

2001] 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Hiatt 2006; 


Cohen 2002]


Desire 

Create an affi nity for people to embrace change 

Activity Tools / Methods Deliverable Contributing 

Authors 

Make the people see, feel Motivation by telling 

and change to embrace success stories of ICT 

[Hiatt 2006; 

the ICTs 

adoption. 


Eliminate pockets of 

Cohen 

resistance hindering 

people from accepting 

The ICTs 

Seminars, workshops 

2002; Jick 

2003] 

Impart Knowledge 

Pass on knowledge on how to use the ICTs and the benefi ts of adopting ICT 

Activity Tools / Methods Deliverable Contributing Authors 

Training the 

people 

Seminars and workshops. 

[Hiatt 2006; Kotter 

and Cohen 2002] 

Ability 

Let the people demonstrate that they have the ability to transform knowledge 

into action 

Activity Tools / Methods Deliverable Contributing 

Authors 

Evaluation of the 

accomplishment of 

short term goals 

Eliminate pockets of 

resistance hindering 

people from accepting 

The ICTs 

Observe the people 

interact with the ICTs with 

intention of improving 

their user experience. 

Seminars, workshops 

Reinforcement 

Make the user experience last 


Strengthen continuous 

improvement of 

user experience 

development 

Enshrine an engaging user 

experience by training and 

retraining the people for 

the change to last. 

[Hiatt 2006; 


Cohen 2002] 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Hiatt 2006; 


Cohen 2002; 

Jick 2003]


Consolidation of Lessons Learnt 

Track Any Lessons Learnt For Improvement On Next Projects 

Activity 

Compare what is on hand with 

the initial plan. Determining 

any variances. Identify why it 

happened that way Formulate what 

has to be done next to rectify the 

discrepancy. 

Tools / 

Methods 

Comparison of 

intended plan 

with what is on 

hand. 

Evaluation 

Impact and outcome assessment 

Deliverable 

Lessons 

learnt 

document 


Mapping 

transitional 

state to desired 

outcome. 

Evaluate the 

level of the user 

experience of the 

ICT users. 

Checkpoint. Are we still 

within the stated vision? 

User testing , 

observations, User 

inquiry 

Transitional state 

versus desired 

state variance 

document 

Impact assessment 

document 

and outcome 

assessment 

document 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Mento et al 

2001] 

Contributing 

Authors 

[Mento et al 

200; Kotter and 

Cohen 2002; 

Price and 

Chahal 2006] 

NB: It is important to note that the stages are not sequential as explained 

Research Methodology 

User experience development can be likened to a journey. The change in user experience 

development is an iterative process [Roto 2011]. Thus to there is a need for an 

appropriate research design and methodology to capture and manage the change phases 

in user experience. Based on the nature of user experience (which has been defi ned to 

be subjective), the authors propose to adopt an interpretivist paradigm to determine 

how to manage change in user experience. The authors propose a qualitative research 

approach employing an inductive logic of reasoning to draw meaning on the fi ndings. 

The research strategy to be used is a case study within which simple cyclic iterations 

will be followed. The purpose of the case study is to refi ne the initial theoretical model. 

The case studies will be conducted in selected rural communities in a typical developing


country context. The data collecting methods to be used will include literature study, 

user observations, interviews and questionnaires. 

Pilot Study Details and Findings 

A pilot investigation was carried out to test the applicability of the initial model. The 

investigation was based on an existing ICT community centre located in the South African 

rural area in the Limpopo Province. The centre consists of ten networked computers, a 

server, printers and scanners. Currently the centre provides services such as typing, fax, 

phone, photocopying and access to computers to all community members. The majority 

of the people in the community do not have computer skills and are unaware of the full 

capabilities of the available resources. Thus the ICT resources are being underutilized. 

During the November – December 2010 period we visited the community centre and 

offered basic computer training skills in Microsoft offi ce 2007 suite applications, email, 

internet and potential uses of the computer resources they are having. In scanning the 

current environment phase of change management we found that the people in the 

area have resources that are underutilising. We therefore set a vision that by the end 

of the training, each of the training attendees should have identifi ed an ICT based 

sociopreneuership project. 

Through change management success stories, we made the training participants 

aware of other projects utilising the ICT centres to generate income. This increased a 

sense of urgency and created a desire to participate in changing and empowering the 

lives. The pockets of resistance identifi ed were that the training participants lacked 

confi dence in making the initiative real. They lacked the skills and cited that they did not 

have enough resources for the start up. From the training, we noted that the participants 

demonstrated different capabilities. We identifi ed that some were good at teaching 

others during the training, some proved to be technical and they wanted to do hardware 

repair and maintenance while others demonstrated interest in fi lming, video editing and 

providing ICT services to the community. 

Two participants were selected to be trained at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan 

University. The objective of the training was to empower these selected individuals to 

be able to train others in the community (train the trainer initiative). Thus these trainers 

are now the change mentors in the community. They will then demonstrate that they 

have the ability to make change happen. Thus from the pilot investigation we applied 

the model to scan the environment and formulate the objective and strategy. We applied 

the ADKAR elements [Haitt, 2006]. From the scanning of the environment we noted 

the underutilisation of resources. We made the people aware of what they can do with 

the available resources, and created a desire that they make maximum usage of the 

ICTs. Through the training seminar, knowledge was imparted to the participants and 

they were given a practical opportunity to demonstrate the ability to implement what 

they learnt.


Research Significance and Future Work 

The South African government and various stakeholders are investing in rural 

development through the use of ICTs. While these developments are the hype, there 

is noticeably, a greater failure rate of the projects [Heeks, 2002; Beeharry & Schneider, 

1996; Benjamin, 2001; Robey and Boudreau 1999]. 

The proposed model will unmistakably benefi t ICT projects’ implementation in 

the developing countries rural context. The model aims to guide on managing the 

change in user experience which results in a positive user experience and an overall 

acceptance and adoption of the ICTs. Another contribution of the research will be in 

strategies and techniques used to determine the user experience of the rural ICT users. 

These strategies may be used by future researchers in implementing and managing user 

experience of the ICT users. 

The initial model has not been tested. To refi ne the model we will evaluate the 

impact and outcome of the change initiative. We need to examine how the people are 

utilizing the available resources. Thus future work includes implementing reinforcement 

of change, consolidation of lessons learnt and an impact and outcome assessment. The 

model still has to be applied in multiple rural communities implementing ICTs to not 

only refi ne the model but to show its applicability. Expert based opinions will be used 

to validate the credibility of the model. 

The challenges faced include that we had limited time to interact with the ICT 

users in the community and get feedback on their experiences with ICT usage. Another 

challenge is that we piloted the components of the model in a centre that was already 

established, thus we could not monitor change during the ICT implementation. There 

was a language barrier which was overcome by asking the participants to do translations 

when required. 

Conclusion 

The purpose of this paper was to explore the components of a model for managing 

user experience change as a result of using ICTs in a typical rural context. The initial 

model components are based on an understanding that change management has to 

be context specifi c, people centred and based on individual’s willingness to change. 

The current context of change has to be scanned before the ICTs are implemented. 

User requirements should be considered from the onset of the project and their user 

experience managed throughout and after the implementation of the ICTs. Such an 

approach promotes acceptance and usage of the ICTs. We applied the initial model in 

a pilot study and the provisional fi ndings indicated the model to be applicable in the 

rural context. 

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