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orm_ch01.qxd 9/26/02 2:59 PM Page 10 10 Stability and Change in Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Hulin & Ilgen, 2000). One model (WORKER) developed for addressing withdrawal behaviors at work is grounded in the extensive literature on absenteeism, turnover, tardiness, and other withdrawal behaviors and is extremely valuable for informing us about interactions among key variables over time that neither theory nor empirical observations are likely to uncover on their own (Hanisch, Hulin, & Seitz, 1986). A recently published book, edited by Ilgen and Hulin (2000), offers a number of illustrations of ways in which computational modeling can and should be added to the growing trend toward model testing in our field. With this and other statistical model testing methods that are now available, there is a strong trend toward better integrating theory with data in industrial and organizational psychology. Strategic Human Resource Management Another major shift in thinking in the field of industrial and organizational psychology relates to the recognition that much of what we do as a field relative to scholarship and practice must be framed in terms of the business case; although this has always been true to some extent (for practitioners at least), it is increasingly recognized that our theories and models need to add value in the view of society for us to have the luxury of pursuing our scholarship. Moreover, because numerous other fields of endeavor are competing for such respect (and for the resources that follow), our contributions must do well in the marketplace for useful ideas. As a term, strategic HRM (human resource management) has been around for a relatively short period of time (Devanna, Fombrum, & Tichy, 1981; Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 1988; Wright, 1998). However, several of the concepts underlying it have a bit of a history. For example, notions of utility in personnel selection (Brogden, 1949) were created more than 50 years ago to show how and when a selection device would demonstrate value in improving the quality of the workforce over what was currently the case. Similarly, the logic of utility and cost/benefit analysis have become the basis for assessing the value of any intervention affecting the organization’s socalled human capital (see chapter by Boudreau & Ramstad in this volume). What is somewhat different, however, is that the unit of analysis is not just the pool of applicants or a personnel initiative (e.g., a new training program), but rather that of the organization. In short, the problematic of HRM is one of ensuring that the organization as a whole is well served as it attempts to succeed in the larger marketplace, including the global arena. More specifically, Wright and McMahan (1992) define strategic HRM as “the pattern of planned human resource deployments and activities intended to enable the firm to achieve its goals” (p. 298). In this regard, several contemporary writers are interested in modeling how the management of human resources can contribute to such things as matching personnel activities to business strategies, forecasting manpower needs (given certain strategic objectives), or finding ways to align personnel practices to strategy and structure (e.g., Boxall, 1998; Lepak & Snell, 1998, Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996). Still others attempt to deal with the implications of restructuring, downsizing, and mergers or acquisitions (e.g., Gratten, Hailey, Stiles, & Truss, 1999). Finally, writers in this area are attempting to address the issue of metrics and measurement systems that will reveal the HR contributions to company performance (e.g., Rogers & Wright, 1998). It is also worth noting that this trend has promoted the need for and the use of the multilevel and dynamic modeling approaches described briefly in an earlier section as the firm, its policies and practices, and employees’ reactions to these policies and practices are involved (e.g., Shaw, Delery, Jenkins, & Gupta, 1999). Taking a strategic perspective has allowed practitioners in our field to relate in meaningful ways what they do professionally to the most senior organizational leaders. Not only are they able to better empathize with their clients, but they are also capable of making a business case for what they do. When they accomplish this goal, there is a greater likelihood that the research and findings of industrial and organizational psychologists will be given the same credibility and weight as is given to the work of consultants with backgrounds in other fields such as engineering and economics. In fact, the field of industrial and organizational psychology is often referred to as an applied science. Its members are often described as scientist-practitioners. In this regard, we feel that professional practice should be based on good theories, models, and data. At the same time, however, all good theories must be grounded in organizational realities. Thus, unlike many other social sciences (e.g., economics), we hold ourselves accountable for (and take some pride in) being able to make valid predictions (rather than merely descriptions or postdictions) relative to the impact of our interventions or recommendations. Moreover, we seek to modify our models in light of prediction errors. Chapters Comprising This Handbook The remainder of this volume contains 22 chapters on specific topics in industrial and organizational psychology. The first eight chapters address the nature of work and behavior at work that typically is described as personnel psychology.
orm_ch01.qxd 9/26/02 2:59 PM Page 11 They are followed by six chapters that address organizational psychological issues of motivation, attitudes, teams, and customer relations. From these discussions, we turn to issues of the organizational, work, and social environment that influence behavior in the present environment and over a career. In the chapter on job analysis, Sackett and Laczo (this volume) point out that many choices must be made before conducting this critical first step in the vast majority of our industrial and organizational interventions. Such choices as whether the job analysis should be general or more finegrained, focused on job activities or worker attributes, and so forth must of course align with the purpose of the job analysis. These authors also provide excellent sections on some contemporary hot topics—most notably, competency modeling, cognitive task analysis, and strategic job analysis. Motowidlo (this volume) provides a carefully crafted definition of the job performance construct—“the total expected value to the organization of the discrete behavioral episodes that an individual carries out over a standard period of time.” This definition implies that performance is behavior, not results—a distinction also made several years ago by Campbell (Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler, & Weick, 1970). The author reviews in detail Campbell’s recent theory of job performance (briefly noted earlier in this chapter) and other attempts to define elements of the performance space (e.g., contextual performance and organizational citizenship behavior). It is important to note that Motowidlo describes a model in which knowledge, skill, motivation, and habits are the direct determinants of job performance. These variables are in turn determined primarily by individual differences and by training and development opportunities. This model provides a rich theoretical framework for our field’s most important independent variables and job performance. To illustrate how much the area of recruitment has grown in the last 25 years, Rynes and Cable (this volume) point out that in the first Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Dunnette, 1976), less than one page was devoted to recruiting (Guion, 1976). Coverage in the 1991 Handbook increased to a full chapter (Rynes, 1991), and the last 10 years have seen still more research activity. In this highly informative review, Rynes and Cable make a strong case for the increasing importance of recruitment as a corporate strategy; attracting and retaining people—especially for key positions—is critical for gaining competitive advantage in our global economy. Also covered in this chapter is research on recruitment sources (e.g., Web sites), affirmative action, applicant reactions to selection procedures, vacancy characteristics (e.g., pay and benefits), and social processes related to recruitment. Finally, these authors also look to the Industrial and Organizational Psychology in the 1990s 11 future by calling for recruiting research to move beyond the individual level of analysis and instead to aggregate results to the organizational level and study cross-organizational differences in recruiting practices. Schmitt, Cortina, Ingerick, and Wiechmann (this volume) present a comprehensive model of personnel selection that has as components individual differences (e.g., ability, personality), mediators (e.g., job knowledge, motivation), performance, and individual and organizational distal outcomes (e.g., customer satisfaction, withdrawal behavior, social responsibility). It is becoming evident (and very well documented in this chapter) that declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and skill, and motivation mediate relationships between individual differences and job performance. But the authors go beyond this general observation to discuss specific links. For example, cognitive ability is the primary predictor of declarative knowledge; perceptual speed and psychomotor ability are the primary predictors of procedural knowledge and skill; and personality is the primary predictor of elements of motivation. Schmitt et al. also differentiate between components of job performance, separating task and contextual performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997), but also introducing the construct of adaptive performance (Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, & Plamondon, 2000) to the mix. These distinctions are likely to be quite important for providing differential predictions for the individual-differences/mediatorvariables/job-performance relations. Finally, the authors provide a concise, focused review of our predictor domains, including physical abilities, job experience, personality, biodata, and the interview. Fritz Drasgow (this volume) provides an illuminating review of research on human abilities—especially in relation to job performance. He first discusses the major approaches to studying intelligence: factor-analytic research, informationprocessing approaches, and neuropsychological research. The author then draws on his own work with situational judgment tests (SJTs, tests that present difficult real-world situations and ask test takers to select the most effective response in a multiple-choice form) to suggest that constructs such as social intelligence or tacit knowledge as measured by SJTs might be employed to provide incremental validity beyond general cognitive ability in predicting job performance. These constructs and related personality variables appear to predict the contextual performance (e.g., supporting and helping other individuals in the organization or the organization itself, volunteering for assignments and putting forth extra effort) component of job performance—a component shown to be important beyond task performance for contributing to overall performance (e.g., Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994).
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