Human Rights at Home and Abroad: Past, Present, and Future
Human Rights at Home and Abroad: Past, Present, and Future
Human Rights at Home and Abroad: Past, Present, and Future
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Proceedings of<br />
11th Annual Frederick Douglass Institute<br />
Undergradu<strong>at</strong>e Interdisciplinary Conference<br />
In collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with the Institute for <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Social Justice<br />
<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>Home</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Abroad</strong>:<br />
<strong>Past</strong>, <strong>Present</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Future</strong><br />
Edited by Betina Entzminger<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
Kehr Union<br />
April 14-15, 2011
Table of Contents<br />
Introduction 2<br />
Conference Program 3<br />
"Welfare in America," Janice Artman, Melissa Moschella, Laura Renninger <strong>and</strong> Marissa Warner, Bloomsburg<br />
University 7<br />
"Employee <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Nike," Ryan Brong, Maxim Golant, Demetrius Heckstall, <strong>and</strong> Nicholas Hunt, Bloomsburg<br />
University 17<br />
"Music's Role in Social Activism during the Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement <strong>and</strong> the Vietnam War," Stephanie Bullen,<br />
Bloomsburg University 26<br />
"Child Labor: A Hidden World," Sara Connor, Bloomsburg University 34<br />
"A N<strong>at</strong>ion of Immigrants . . . Well Not Recent Immigrants," Jasmine Cooper, Bloomsburg University 46<br />
"African Americans in the Workplace," Seth Eck, Brielle Felo, <strong>and</strong> Lauren McLain, Bloomsburg University 54<br />
"Gay <strong>Rights</strong>: Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> Acceptance," Morgann Goodling, Bloomsburg University 63<br />
"Immigr<strong>at</strong>ion in the Workplace," Danita Inwek <strong>and</strong> Cortney Snyder, Bloomsburg University 76<br />
"Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion," Moira Jefferson, Kutztown University 80<br />
"Distortion <strong>and</strong> Exploit<strong>at</strong>ion: The Realities of the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System," Kristin Kelly, Bloomsburg University<br />
88<br />
"A Different Kind of H<strong>at</strong>e: Internalized Homophobia <strong>and</strong> the Effects on Mental Health <strong>and</strong> Rel<strong>at</strong>ionships," Jessica<br />
Lohmann, Mansfield University 94<br />
"Sexual Abuse in Prison: Will it EVER be Considered a True Problem?,” Terrell McClure, Bloomsburg University<br />
108<br />
"Psychology Experiments: When Should They Stop?,” Danielle Miller, Bloomsburg University 119<br />
"The Passing Problem: Framing Passing as the Prevention of Trans Community Mobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion,” Taylor Roberts,<br />
Bloomsburg University 129<br />
"<strong>Human</strong> Experiment<strong>at</strong>ion: Guinea Pigs or Volunteers for a Cure,” Ashley Robertson, Bloomsburg University<br />
144<br />
"Keep Minority Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Hope Alive,” Br<strong>and</strong>i Spencer-Phoenix, Bloomsburg University 157<br />
"Beautyism in the Worplace: Disguised Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion,” Kevin Troutman, Nagy Ahmed, <strong>and</strong> Ben Richardson,<br />
Bloomsburg University 166<br />
"<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Challenges in Algeria: A Historical Perspective,” Brian White, Kutztown University 172<br />
1
Introduction<br />
The 11 th Annual Frederick Douglass Undergradu<strong>at</strong>e Interdisciplinary Conference took place on<br />
April 14 <strong>and</strong> 15, 2011 <strong>at</strong> Bloomsburg University. Our theme for this year‘s conference was ―<strong>Human</strong><br />
<strong>Rights</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>Home</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Abroad</strong>: <strong>Past</strong>, <strong>Present</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Future</strong>,‖ <strong>and</strong> the Frederick Douglass Institute was<br />
fortun<strong>at</strong>e to collabor<strong>at</strong>e with the Institute for <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Social Justice, a student group <strong>at</strong><br />
Bloomsburg University advised by Dr. Babak Mohassel. Our keynote speaker, Travis Johnson, Family<br />
Law Staff Attorney for The Door in New York City, gave a talk entitled ―All Children Are Cre<strong>at</strong>ed Equal,<br />
Too: The Dispar<strong>at</strong>e Tre<strong>at</strong>ment of Youth <strong>Rights</strong> in the United St<strong>at</strong>es‖ to an audience of about 250<br />
students, faculty, <strong>and</strong> staff. Johnson argued th<strong>at</strong> U.S. born young people who are sexually exploited are<br />
rarely viewed as victims by the courts, unlike their immigrant peers. Johnson argues th<strong>at</strong> minors, who<br />
cannot legally consent to sex with an adult, should not be charged with prostitution <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ed criminal<br />
charges.<br />
In addition, the conference fe<strong>at</strong>ured approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 50 student present<strong>at</strong>ions from Bloomsburg<br />
University, Mansfield University, Kutztown University, <strong>and</strong> West Chester University. Many other<br />
students <strong>and</strong> faculty <strong>at</strong>tended these present<strong>at</strong>ions. These proceedings contain a selection of those<br />
conference present<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
A student <strong>Present</strong><strong>at</strong>ion Students sign in <strong>at</strong> Conference Registr<strong>at</strong>ion table<br />
Notice: Student writers retain the copyright to their original work. The writing herein may not be used without the<br />
consent of the individual authors.<br />
2
Conference Organizers: Betina Entzminger, Associ<strong>at</strong>e Professor of English; Brian Johnson, Director of<br />
Bloomsburg University‘s Frederick Douglass Institute; <strong>and</strong> Babak Mohassel, Assistant Professor of<br />
Criminal Justice. Special thanks to Ashley Coleman, support staff.<br />
Thursday, April 14<br />
Session 1: 9:30-10:45<br />
11th Annual Frederick Douglass Institute<br />
Undergradu<strong>at</strong>e Interdisciplinary Conference<br />
In collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with the Institute for <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Social Justice<br />
PLEASE SEE THE STUDENT POSTER PROJECTS ON DISPLAY IN BALLROOM LOBBY<br />
ON THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF SEX AND SEXUALITY AND ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING<br />
Panel A Childhood <strong>and</strong> M<strong>at</strong>ernity in Cultures Around the World Room 409<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Conrad Quintyn, Bloomsburg University<br />
―The Alaskan Inuit: How Children Are Raised‖ by Jon<strong>at</strong>han Palumbo, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Street Youth Culture in Portl<strong>and</strong> Oregon‖ by Kevin Ward, Bloomsburg University<br />
―North Korean Childhood‖ by Nick Telepak, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Lack of Contraception <strong>and</strong> M<strong>at</strong>ernal De<strong>at</strong>h: Why Are So Many Lives <strong>at</strong> Risk‖ by Breanna Bzura,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
Panel B Medicine <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Room 410<br />
Panel Chair: Brian Johnson, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Medicine <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>: The Impact on Enforcing the Unknown <strong>Rights</strong> of Us All‖ by Ashley<br />
Robertson, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Psychology Experiments: When Should They Stop?‖ by Danielle Miller, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Medical Cannabis‖ by Kyle Slyman<br />
―Welfare in America‖ by Melissa Moschella, Janice Artman, Laura Renninger, <strong>and</strong> Marissa Warner,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
Panel C Effects of Immigr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion on the Workplace Multicultural<br />
Center<br />
(Lower Level)<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Ted Roggenbuck, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Illegal Immigr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> American Jobs‖ by Ricky Lochen, Ryan Dogherty, <strong>and</strong> Kyle Kelly, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―Immigr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> Diversity in the Workplace‖ by Cortney Snyder <strong>and</strong> Danita Inwek, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―African Americans in the Workplace‖ by Seth Eck, Brielle Felo, <strong>and</strong> Lauren McLain, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―Corpor<strong>at</strong>e Social Responsibility Str<strong>at</strong>egies‖ by Bree Washburn, Tommy Muir, Sean Duffy, <strong>and</strong> John<br />
K<strong>at</strong>ona, Bloomsburg University<br />
Session 2: 11:00-12:15<br />
“LGBT Ally Advocacy” Multicultural Center<br />
By Elena Brobyn-Novarro <strong>and</strong> Virginia Larson, Gradu<strong>at</strong>e Students in the LGBTA Resource Center<br />
3
Conference <strong>Present</strong>ers: Send a clean copy of your present<strong>at</strong>ion or paper to<br />
bentzmin@bloomu.edu by May 15, 2011 for inclusion in our electronic conference<br />
proceedings. Proceedings will be emailed to you this summer.<br />
Session 3: 12:30-1:45<br />
Panel A <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Affecting Children Room 409<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Tina Entzminger, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Child Labor: A Hidden World‖ by Sara Connor, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Child Labor in Pakistan‖ by Chuck Gilmore, Greg Maisch, Kevin Sofia, <strong>and</strong> Elyse Madonna,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―Keep Minority Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Hope Alive‖ by Br<strong>and</strong>i Spencer-Phoenix, Bloomsburg University<br />
Panel B Business Practices <strong>and</strong> American Economy Room 409<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Maggie O‘Connor, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Outsourcing Inform<strong>at</strong>ion Technology‖ by Eric Loxton, James Gittens, <strong>and</strong> Alex Barra, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―Wal-Mart <strong>and</strong> the Law‖ by Nicholas DeLuca, Jarrod Kramer, Robert Skotch, <strong>and</strong> Carson Tom,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―Transn<strong>at</strong>ional Corpor<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>‖ by Eric Frantz, Michael Rosendale, Justin Pierce, <strong>and</strong><br />
Jason Gurzau, Bloomsburg University<br />
Session 4: 2:00-3:15<br />
Panel A Music <strong>and</strong> other Media <strong>and</strong> Society Room 409<br />
Panel Chair: Taheera Entsuah, Kutztown University<br />
―Music‘s Role in Social Activism During the Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement <strong>and</strong> the Vietnam War‖ by Stephanie<br />
Bullen, Bloomsburg University<br />
―How Media Shapes Perceptions of Immigrants <strong>and</strong> Minorities‖ by Jazmine Cooper, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―Music Censorship <strong>and</strong> Public Welfare‖ by Holly L. Freese, Bloomsburg University<br />
Panel B Law Enforcement <strong>and</strong> Behavior Room 410<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Tina Entzminger, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Sexual Abuse in Prison: Will it EVER Be Considered a True Problem‖ by Terrell McClure,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―Trust the People in Blue?‖ by Kareem Norton, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Class Frustr<strong>at</strong>ion in Southeastern Pennsylvania: the 2008-09 Arson in Co<strong>at</strong>esville, PA‖ by Juliette<br />
Honsinger, West Chester University<br />
―Procrastin<strong>at</strong>ion: Wh<strong>at</strong> It Is, Wh<strong>at</strong> It Does, <strong>and</strong> How to Be<strong>at</strong> It‖ by Jake MacLean Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
Panel C Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion Based on Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion, Gender <strong>and</strong> Disability Multicultural<br />
Center<br />
(Lower Level)<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Cristina M<strong>at</strong>hews, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Deaf <strong>and</strong> Blind Employees in the Corpor<strong>at</strong>e World‖ by Lee W<strong>at</strong>ts, Angela Shirk, Alvin Jennings, <strong>and</strong><br />
Hao Yang, Bloomsburg University<br />
4
―The Glass Ceiling‖ by Tiffany S. Dietterich, Courtney Nyce, Samantha Lott, <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey Williams,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―Gay <strong>Rights</strong>: Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> Acceptance‖ by Morgann Goodling, Bloomsburg University<br />
Session 5: 3:30-4:45<br />
Panel A Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Room 409<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Lynn Pifer, Mansfield University<br />
―A Different Kind of H<strong>at</strong>e: Internalized Homophobia <strong>and</strong> the Effects on Mental Health <strong>and</strong><br />
Rel<strong>at</strong>ionships‖ by Jessica Lohman, Mansfield University<br />
―The Passing Problem: Framing Passing as the Prevention of Trans Community Mobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion‖ by Taylor<br />
Roberts, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> the Workplace‖ by Melissa Piccinich, Nina Dacey, <strong>and</strong> Rob Donahue,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
Panel B <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Challenges Room 410<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Maria Sanelli, Kutztown University<br />
―Distortion <strong>and</strong> Exploit<strong>at</strong>ion: The Realities of the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System Project‖ by Kristin Kelly,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Challenges in Algeria: A Historical Perspective‖ by Brian White, Kutztown University<br />
―Tracing the American Deb<strong>at</strong>e between <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Conserv<strong>at</strong>ionism‖ by Moira Jefferson,<br />
Kutztown University<br />
―Nike <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>Home</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Abroad</strong>‖ by Maxim Golant, Ryan Brong, Nicholas A. Hunt, <strong>and</strong><br />
Demetrius A. Heckstall<br />
Panel C Women’s <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Gay <strong>Rights</strong> Multicultural Center (Lower Level)<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Christina Francis, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Women‘s <strong>Rights</strong> in the Military‖ by Am<strong>and</strong>a Galardi, Cass English, Ian Lewis, <strong>and</strong> Irene Fiske,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―Gender Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion: A Hidden View of Sexual Harassment‖ by Briana Davis, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> the Law‖ by Jenna Evelair, Mike Pendrak, <strong>and</strong> Bethany Pisulak, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
Keynote Address<br />
7:00 p.m., Kehr Union Ballroom<br />
“All Children Are Cre<strong>at</strong>ed Equal, Too:<br />
The Dispar<strong>at</strong>e Tre<strong>at</strong>ment of Youth <strong>Rights</strong> in the United St<strong>at</strong>es”<br />
Travis Johnson, Family Law Staff Attorney with The Door in New York<br />
U.S. born young people who are sexually exploited are rarely viewed as victims by the courts,<br />
unlike their immigrant peers. Johnson argues th<strong>at</strong> minors, who cannot legally consent to sex with<br />
an adult, should not be charged with prostitution <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ed criminal charges.<br />
5
Friday, April 15<br />
Session 6: 9:00-10:00<br />
Film: Further Off the Straight <strong>and</strong> Narrow Hideaway (Lower Level)<br />
In honor of the N<strong>at</strong>ional LGBT Day of Silence, there will be no talking during the session.<br />
Session 7: 10:05-10:55<br />
Panel A Socializ<strong>at</strong>ion of the Child—Around the World Room 409<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Sue Dauria, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Amish Childhood <strong>and</strong> Adolescence‖ by N<strong>at</strong>alie Wagner, Bloomsburg University<br />
―The Child in Romania‖ by Am<strong>and</strong>a Adler, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Chinese Child Socializ<strong>at</strong>ion‖ by Kayla Vollmer, Bloomsburg University<br />
Panel B Gender Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion in the Workplace Room 410<br />
Panel Chair: Dr. Louis Rodriguez, Kutztown University<br />
―Gender Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion in Workplaces: <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>, Ethical Issues <strong>and</strong> Laws Against It‖ by Gregory<br />
Allen-Jackson, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Differences in Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against Women in the Workplace between the United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> Other<br />
Countries‖ by Jackie Broderick, Jaclyn Palumbo, <strong>and</strong> Donnie Meade, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Beautyism in the Workplace‖ by Nagy Ahmed, Kevin Troutman, <strong>and</strong> Ben Richardson, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
Session 8: 11:00-12:50<br />
Institute for <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>and</strong> Social Justice Panel Multicultural Center (Lower Level)<br />
―The Role of Sexual Exploit<strong>at</strong>ion in Power Rel<strong>at</strong>ions within Cults‖ by Shannon Bilder, Bloomsburg<br />
University.<br />
―The Case of Darfur: <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Abuses <strong>and</strong> Displacement in Sudan‖ by Steve Crossl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Br<strong>and</strong>on Brown, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Gang Members or Politicians: Haitian Gang Crime Affects <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>‖ by Ashley Acri,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
―<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Issues <strong>and</strong> Corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa‖ by Eric Bisong, Bloomsburg University<br />
―Trouble in Somalia: Displacement <strong>and</strong> <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Viol<strong>at</strong>ions‖ by Dominick Mireles, Bloomsburg<br />
University<br />
―Navig<strong>at</strong>ing Credibility in the Context of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Adjudic<strong>at</strong>ions‖ by Dr. Babak Mohassel,<br />
Bloomsburg University<br />
Session 9: 1:00-1:45<br />
Film: Displaced Lives Multicultural Center (Lower Level)<br />
6
Janice Artman, Melissa Moschella,<br />
Laura Renninger <strong>and</strong> Marissa Warner, Bloomsburg University<br />
Welfare in America<br />
Abstract<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> will become of America if welfare continues to be misused by U.S. citizens? Will people<br />
who in fact need help be able to receive welfare or will the misuse of other individuals ruin the primary<br />
purpose of welfare?<br />
This research paper discusses the primary purpose of welfare, the requirements to be qualified for<br />
welfare, the misuses of welfare programs, <strong>and</strong> finally the present <strong>and</strong> future st<strong>at</strong>e of welfare programs in<br />
America.<br />
Primary Purpose of Welfare Programs<br />
Welfare began in the 1930s during the Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression. Welfare is when a family or individual<br />
receives financial help from the government because they have little or no income to support themselves.<br />
Before welfare, some individuals were in numerous financial troubles <strong>and</strong> didn‘t have much to look upon<br />
for support. The Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression began in the 1930s while President Herbert Hoover was in office.<br />
President Hoover had a very optimistic <strong>at</strong>titude <strong>and</strong> thought the economy would sort itself out (50<br />
Interesting Facts about the Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression). This ended up not being the case, the financial markets<br />
crashed <strong>and</strong> people started naming things after President Hoover because he ended up being wrong about<br />
the economy. People would call food th<strong>at</strong> they got from the soup kitchen Hoover Stews. They would call<br />
shanty towns Hoovervilles. People even had to use newspapers as blankets, which they called Hoover<br />
Blankets. Jack rabbits th<strong>at</strong> they would use as food would be called Hoover Hogs. Hoover Wagons were<br />
named off of people using mulls to pull their cars because they couldn‘t afford to get gas or fix them.<br />
During the Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression, the unemployment r<strong>at</strong>e increased to 25% <strong>and</strong> the gross domestic profit<br />
7
dropped to 25% (50 Interesting Facts about the Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression). Many people were affected by this<br />
financial crisis <strong>and</strong> things were very horrific.<br />
Prior to the Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression, Congress supported various programs to assist the poor. One of<br />
these programs was the Civil War Pension Program. This plan provided financial support to Civil War<br />
Veterans <strong>and</strong> their families (The History of Welfare). However, not much was there to help financially<br />
support individual families <strong>and</strong> their children.<br />
In 1932, President Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office <strong>and</strong> he had a very optimistic <strong>at</strong>titude<br />
about the financial crisis <strong>and</strong> was very hopeful to the future. He wanted to try <strong>and</strong> find ways to help the<br />
people <strong>and</strong> economy. President Roosevelt established programs th<strong>at</strong> were known as the New Deal to help<br />
farmers <strong>and</strong> curve the unemployment r<strong>at</strong>e in the United St<strong>at</strong>es (The History of Welfare). The Social<br />
Security Act was amended in 1935 <strong>and</strong> this act had many programs along with it to help aid various<br />
people of the popul<strong>at</strong>ion. Along with this act was a program called Aid to Dependent Children (AFDC).<br />
The program guaranteed cash assistance to families th<strong>at</strong> didn‘t have enough money to support their<br />
children (The History of Welfare).<br />
Federal legisl<strong>at</strong>ion required the st<strong>at</strong>es to provide assistance to all eligible families. For these<br />
programs, the federal government <strong>and</strong> the st<strong>at</strong>es shared the costs <strong>and</strong> rule making. By 1994, the financial<br />
aid to families reached 14 million dollars (The History of Welfare). Americans found many ways to<br />
misuse the welfare system. In 1996, Congress passed a reform signed by President Clinton (US Welfare<br />
System - Help for US Citizens). The Federal Government now provides assistance through the Temporary<br />
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). And the welfare system is back in control of the welfare system.<br />
Welfare varies from st<strong>at</strong>e to st<strong>at</strong>e. Some types of welfare are health care, food stamps, child care<br />
assistance, unemployment, cash aid <strong>and</strong> housing assistance. Now, not everyone is able to qualify for<br />
welfare. You have to reach a certain requirement to be considered for welfare <strong>and</strong> this can help in the<br />
process to stop people from misusing welfare.<br />
8
Requirements Considered to Qualify for Welfare<br />
There are many different forms of welfare which include different requirements for each type.<br />
We will focus on the requirements considered to qualify for cash assistance; which is the most common<br />
type of welfare used today in the United St<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
There are five forms of cash assistance available to families in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. The five<br />
different types of cash assistance include the following: Temporary Assistance for Needy Families<br />
(TANF), Refugee Cash Assistance Program, General Assistance Program, Diversion Program, <strong>and</strong> St<strong>at</strong>e<br />
Blind Pension Program. In order to provide the most accur<strong>at</strong>e requirements to qualify for cash assistance,<br />
we will focus on the most frequent type of cash assistance, TANF. We then will further focus on the<br />
requirements th<strong>at</strong> must be metin Pennsylvania.<br />
TANF may be used for up to five years throughout a person‘s lifetime. It is considered to be for<br />
temporary use <strong>and</strong> money is received on a monthly basis. TANF is most commonly used among the<br />
following people: parents <strong>and</strong> their children who reside in their household, women who are pregnant, <strong>and</strong><br />
other rel<strong>at</strong>ives th<strong>at</strong> care for children in their household.<br />
There are many requirements th<strong>at</strong> must be fulfilled in order to receive TANF. The first<br />
requirement th<strong>at</strong> must be met is the person must be a resident of Pennsylvania <strong>and</strong> must be a U.S. citizen.<br />
Secondly the welfare recipient <strong>and</strong> household members receiving the cash assistance must be able to<br />
provide their own social security numbers. Thirdly, in order to receive cash assistance, the recipient<br />
receiving the welfare must either particip<strong>at</strong>e in a training program or must actively look for employment.<br />
The fourth requirement includes full particip<strong>at</strong>ion in preparing a plan with their assigned caseworker for<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> must be done to no longer receive the assistance of welfare.<br />
Another major requirement th<strong>at</strong> must be met includes the particip<strong>at</strong>ion in child support payments<br />
<strong>and</strong> p<strong>at</strong>ernity tests. If child support payments are currently not being received by a dependent child‘s<br />
parent, then payments must be determined to aide in helping the family. Also, if child support payments<br />
9
are not being received as a result of identific<strong>at</strong>ion problems of the f<strong>at</strong>her, p<strong>at</strong>ernity tests must be<br />
performed in order to determine who must make the child support payments.<br />
An additional requirement is based on the value of the recipient‘s resources. A few examples of a<br />
recipient‘s resources include: bonds/stocks, checking accounts, <strong>and</strong> savings accounts. These resources<br />
must have a value of less than $1,000. Finally, the last requirement needed to determine eligibility of<br />
TANF is the reporting of income. All income must be reported including: wages from employment,<br />
child support payments, miscellaneous winnings, unemployment benefits, Social Security payments, <strong>and</strong><br />
interest received (PA Department of Public Welfare).<br />
All of the requirements mentioned above must be completed <strong>and</strong> proper document<strong>at</strong>ion must<br />
support the inform<strong>at</strong>ion. The United St<strong>at</strong>es has tried to lower welfare fraud through this list of<br />
requirements, but U.S. citizens continue to abuse the welfare system.<br />
Misuses of Welfare Programs<br />
Welfare fraud refers to the intentional misuses of various st<strong>at</strong>e funded welfare programs by<br />
acquiring benefits th<strong>at</strong> are undeserved of the recipient. These misuses can be withholding inform<strong>at</strong>ion or<br />
providing inaccur<strong>at</strong>e or false inform<strong>at</strong>ion to receive benefits. The most common types of welfare fraud are<br />
failure to report additional income, failure to disclose inform<strong>at</strong>ion regarding household members, or<br />
supplying false inform<strong>at</strong>ion about an inability to work. Some cases have exposed people to contriving an<br />
illness or injury to receive extra benefits.<br />
A few real-life examples are from a woman named Dorothy Woods. She was jailed on 12 counts<br />
of welfare fraud <strong>and</strong> collected over $300,000 by claiming 38 non-existent children. Another woman,<br />
Barbara Williams, had collected over $239,000 in fraudulent benefits. She was jailed for eight years<br />
(Wh<strong>at</strong> Is Welfare Fraud?, 2009).<br />
In 2006, Pennsylvania conducted an 18-month audit on the Department of Public Welfare's<br />
special-allowance program. The auditors reviewed a r<strong>and</strong>om sample of 3,201 payments, of which 45% of<br />
10
those cases had issues with welfare fraud. These frauds include, a beauty school, which had altered their<br />
invoices to show $821 instead of $3, <strong>and</strong> a f<strong>at</strong>her in Philadelphia, who changed his name <strong>and</strong> social<br />
security to receive extra benefits (Mauriello, 2009).<br />
As this crime increase, the penalties also increase. The current penalty for committing welfare<br />
fraud in each U.S. st<strong>at</strong>e warrants a ―felony convention, sometimes l<strong>and</strong>ing a perpetr<strong>at</strong>or several years in<br />
prison‖. Today, many st<strong>at</strong>es are starting to offer large rewards for reporting welfare fraud (Wh<strong>at</strong> Is<br />
Welfare Fraud?, 2009).<br />
President Clinton led a Presidential Campaign to bring reform<strong>at</strong>ion to the federal welfare system.<br />
In 1996, he signed into effect the Personal Responsibility <strong>and</strong> Work Opportunity Reconcili<strong>at</strong>ion Act<br />
(PRWORA). This act of welfare reform<strong>at</strong>ion gave each st<strong>at</strong>e control over the welfare systems <strong>and</strong><br />
reduced the federal government‘s responsibilities. It introduced the Temporary Assistance to Needy<br />
Families program <strong>and</strong> Aid to Families with Dependent Children program.<br />
Clinton st<strong>at</strong>ed in response to passing the bill, ―this act gives us a chance we haven‘t had before to<br />
break the cycle of dependency th<strong>at</strong> has existed for millions <strong>and</strong> millions of our fellow citizens, exiling<br />
them from the world of work.‖ PRWORA gave st<strong>at</strong>es the ability to design their own system as long as it<br />
followed the basic federal requirements. Those requirements were to end welfare as an entitlement<br />
program, require recipients to begin working after two years of receiving benefits, placing a lifetime limit<br />
of five years on benefits paid by federal funds, enhancing the enforcement of child support, <strong>and</strong> aim to<br />
encourage two-parent families <strong>and</strong> discouraging teenage pregnancies.<br />
Each st<strong>at</strong>e now has the ability to design <strong>and</strong> fund their program individually. They can take those<br />
requirements from the federal government <strong>and</strong> apply them as necessary to the people within the st<strong>at</strong>e.<br />
This could be through the use of programs designed to help those on welfare with job training, educ<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
job placement, <strong>and</strong> support systems. St<strong>at</strong>es are then required to limit benefits after an extended period of<br />
time <strong>and</strong> most st<strong>at</strong>es are to termin<strong>at</strong>e all benefits after five years (Julie Britt, 2001).<br />
Today, sen<strong>at</strong>ors <strong>and</strong> represent<strong>at</strong>ives are working together to cre<strong>at</strong>e more reform<strong>at</strong>ion in the<br />
Welfare system. Some have introduced a fraud detection system <strong>and</strong> income eligibility verific<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
11
system th<strong>at</strong> would review all applicants for welfare funding (Farry, 2011). Others have asked for<br />
restrictions on the usage of EBT cards. This is to ensure th<strong>at</strong> money distributed to those in need use the<br />
money for necessities, not leisure activities. This would include denying EBT cards <strong>at</strong> ―adult businesses‖<br />
such as bars, t<strong>at</strong>too shops, gambling facilities, <strong>and</strong> others. It could also limit the amount of money<br />
withdrawn as cash (Durbin, 2011).<br />
Welfare reform<strong>at</strong>ion is an on-going event as new ways to manipul<strong>at</strong>e the systems arise. However,<br />
the PRWORA <strong>and</strong> other future bills are designed to help those in need <strong>and</strong> offer assistance for the basic<br />
necessities in life, not for personal entertainment.<br />
Welfare Now <strong>and</strong> in the <strong>Future</strong><br />
Welfare is a gre<strong>at</strong> aspect of our government. It provides a multitude of opportunities which were<br />
mentioned before, for people who may otherwise not be able to afford or achieve these opportunities,<br />
without the help from the government. With th<strong>at</strong> being said, there are also many misuses of the welfare<br />
system, which were also previously mentioned. Funds are being spent to provide assistance to people who<br />
need help, but also for people who just do not want to work or feel th<strong>at</strong> they can take advantage of the<br />
welfare system offered by the government. Welfare funds now <strong>and</strong> in the future are being affected by<br />
misuses <strong>and</strong> are causing many business problems to companies.<br />
According to CNS news, welfare has been the fastest growing federal government spending<br />
increasing 292% since 1989 (Lucas). In 1996, welfare spending totaled around $300 billion, while in<br />
2008 it was totaled <strong>at</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely $500<br />
billion, federal, st<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> local amounts<br />
combine (as shown in the graph). Furthermore,<br />
the breakdown of the actual amounts for 2008<br />
is as follows: federal spending alone is equal to<br />
$322.3 billion, st<strong>at</strong>e is around $128 billion,<br />
12
while local totals approxim<strong>at</strong>ely $86.8 billion. In the following years welfare spending is still on the rise.<br />
In 2010, just two years l<strong>at</strong>er, the welfare fund is up to $727.3 billion (federal: $502.3 billion, st<strong>at</strong>e:<br />
$170.8, local: $86.9). As you can see, in a twelve-year period, 1996-2008 the amount of money spent had<br />
increased about $200 billion, but looking <strong>at</strong> a more recent two-year period, 2008-2010, welfare spending<br />
has increased basically the same amount. This is an astonishing increase in government spending in such<br />
a short period of time (Government Spending Details). Since 1989 welfare spending has increase <strong>and</strong> in<br />
more recent years has increased <strong>at</strong> an alarming r<strong>at</strong>e. Will the amount of money being spent ever decline?<br />
Looking into the future of welfare is a scary thought. How much more can welfare really increase<br />
<strong>and</strong> will the government be able to afford the amount of money out-flowing? In 2014 the forecasted<br />
amount is supposed to drop to about $389 billion for federal spending with a total amount of roughly<br />
$600 billion. As shown in the graph above, welfare spending is supposed to decrease by a small amount<br />
each year starting with the year 2011 (Government Spending Details). The continuous decline will most<br />
likely not last for too long unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely. Based on historical inform<strong>at</strong>ion, the amount of money being<br />
spent on welfare programs are <strong>at</strong> an incline. It is possible for the spending to drop a slightly, but to remain<br />
<strong>at</strong> a decline is far out of reach. The misuses of welfare are the main problems <strong>and</strong> the cause of the<br />
increasing funds in welfare programs <strong>and</strong> are the basis of business problems.<br />
The misuses of welfare do not only affect government spending, but also cre<strong>at</strong>e business<br />
problems. The main problems th<strong>at</strong> arise are: employees want to work less, people are not motiv<strong>at</strong>ed, less<br />
funding for businesses <strong>and</strong> businesses are paying more. Employees want to work less to remain within the<br />
limits of the welfare to meet the required qualific<strong>at</strong>ions. Workers are not actively looking for work <strong>and</strong><br />
are not performing to the best of their ability in order to stay on welfare or be able to obtain welfare<br />
funding. Also, as welfare increases there is less funding available for businesses <strong>and</strong> lastly, the more<br />
people who are on welfare the more money businesses have to pay into unemployment taxes to fund those<br />
receiving welfare. The misuses of the welfare system are leading to the rise of many different problems<br />
<strong>and</strong> action needs to be taken.<br />
13
Conclusion<br />
Welfare programs are a wonderful <strong>at</strong>tribute th<strong>at</strong> our government has. In order for the welfare<br />
system to continue working in the proper way, misusage must be taken seriously. Individuals who<br />
actually need the help will not be able to receive the assistance of welfare if it continues as is. For optimal<br />
growth in America‘s economy, welfare spending must be decreased <strong>and</strong> workers must enter the labor<br />
force. Welfare must return to its primary purpose, requirements must be limited <strong>and</strong> fully examined, <strong>and</strong><br />
the misuses of welfare must be stopped.<br />
14
Works Cited<br />
"50 Interesting Facts about the Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression." R<strong>and</strong>om Facts | Fun Trivia | Interesting Insight. 2007.<br />
Web. 30 Apr. 2011. .<br />
Durbin, K. (2011, March 2). Bill to cut welfare fraud advances. Retrieved April 28, 2011, from The<br />
Columbian: www.columbian.com/news/2011/mar/02/bill-to-cut-welfare-fraud-advances<br />
Farry, F. (2011, April 5). Farry Supports Welfare Reform Bills in Committee. Retrieved April 28, 2011,<br />
from Pennsylvania House Republican Caucus:<br />
pahouse.gop.com/newsitems.aspx?NewsID=10949<br />
"Government Spending Chart in United St<strong>at</strong>es 1996-2016 - Federal St<strong>at</strong>e Local." Government Spending<br />
in United St<strong>at</strong>es: Federal St<strong>at</strong>e Local 2011 - Charts Tables History. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Government Spending Details: Federal St<strong>at</strong>e Local for 2008 - Charts." Government Spending in<br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es: Federal St<strong>at</strong>e Local 2011 - Charts Tables History. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Julie Britt, T. M. (2001, April 25). Innov<strong>at</strong>ions in Welfare Reform. Retrieved April 28, 2011, from The<br />
University of Vermont: www.uvm.edu/~vlrs/doc/welfare_reform<br />
Lucas, Fred. "Obama Will Spend More on Welfare in the Next Year Than Bush Spent on Entire Iraq War,<br />
Study Reveals | CNSnews.com." CNS News | CNSnews.com. Web. 26 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Mauriello, T. (2009, August 21). St<strong>at</strong>e audit uncovers welfare misuse. Retrieved April 23, 2011, from<br />
Post-Gazzette: www.post-gazzette.com/pg/09233/992361-454.stm#ixzz1lt7t58pw<br />
15
Pennsylvania Department of Public Welfare, . (November, 2010 05). TANF <strong>and</strong> Moving to<br />
Independence. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.dpw.st<strong>at</strong>e.pa.us/foradults/cashassistance/tanf<strong>and</strong>movingtoindependence/index.htm<br />
"The History of Welfare." US Welfare System - Help for US Citizens. 2011. Web. 01 May 2011.<br />
.<br />
"US Welfare System - Help for US Citizens." US Welfare System - Help for US Citizens. 2007. Web. 01<br />
May 2011. .<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> Is Welfare Fraud? (2009). Retrieved April 23, 2011, from Spam Laws:<br />
www.spamlaws.com/welfare-fraud<br />
16
Stephanie Bullen, Bloomsburg University<br />
Music’s Role in Social Activism during the Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement <strong>and</strong> the Vietnam War<br />
America has found itself socially divided on numerous occasions. Broken into fragments, people<br />
made alliances, for or against the decisions <strong>and</strong> actions of their culture, their society, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
government. Two of the most prevalent issues th<strong>at</strong> illustr<strong>at</strong>e these divides are the Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Vietnam War. The ways of the past <strong>and</strong> the possible future were not agreed upon by the n<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
<strong>and</strong> action was taken. It was in these times th<strong>at</strong> people used everything they had as a tool in their purpose.<br />
Their minds guiding them to a p<strong>at</strong>h, their feet marched them to town squares <strong>and</strong> st<strong>at</strong>e capitals, their<br />
hearts remained resilient through the devast<strong>at</strong>ing losses <strong>and</strong> glorious wins. However, it was the music th<strong>at</strong><br />
was one of the strongest instruments in the fight for a person‘s beliefs. Through radio waves, vinyls, <strong>and</strong><br />
etched into the memories of listeners, did music they capture the <strong>at</strong>tention of its audience <strong>and</strong><br />
immortalized the struggle of the decade.<br />
The picture of lynch victims Thomas Shipp <strong>and</strong> Abram Smith‘s bodies hanging lifeless from a<br />
tree with a large crowd bene<strong>at</strong>h them, inspired wh<strong>at</strong> is referred to as the first protest song. After seeing<br />
the picture, Bronx high school of Jewish heritage, Abel Meeropol, wrote a poem titled ―Strange Fruit.‖<br />
Meeropol published the song, set it to music <strong>and</strong> performed the piece throughout New York. Soon after,<br />
the song found its way to the camp of jazz singer Billie Holiday.<br />
―In terms of the songs of its day (1939) as well as in terms of wh<strong>at</strong> white America was willing to<br />
hear black America say, ―Strange Fruit‖ was far ahead of its time. Probably only Billie Holiday<br />
could have gotten away with it. (She had already been sp damaged by wh<strong>at</strong> she had gone through,<br />
there was little else for her to lose.)<br />
At first disturbed by the song <strong>and</strong> reluctant to perform it, Holiday came around <strong>and</strong> soon began<br />
to close her acts with the song. After her record label, Columbia, refused to record the song for fear of<br />
backlash, Holiday approached friend Milt Gabler <strong>and</strong> recorded the song. The single, although rarely<br />
played on the radio, became popular <strong>and</strong> sparked an outrage <strong>at</strong> the magnitude of lynchings th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
26
going on in the south. An estim<strong>at</strong>ed 4,000 people were lynched with over seventy percent of th<strong>at</strong> number<br />
being African-Americans. The uproar of wrongful de<strong>at</strong>h spotlighted the abuse African-Americans<br />
suffered <strong>at</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>s of white people. It was in this anger th<strong>at</strong> action was taken <strong>and</strong> people began to unite<br />
in order to make the changes they wanted to see.<br />
During the civil rights movement slave spirituals were brought forth from the past, revamped, <strong>and</strong><br />
merged with church hymns to suit the purpose of the times. Such an example is seen here:<br />
From Black Spiritual to Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement Freedom Song: Illustr<strong>at</strong>ive Examples<br />
Original Black Spiritual Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement Freedom Song<br />
Woke up this morning with my mind stayed<br />
on Jesus . . .<br />
Woke up this morning with my mind stayed on<br />
freedom . . .<br />
Don’t you let nobody turn you roun’ . . . Ain‘t gonna let nobody turn me roun‘ . . .<br />
Go tell it on the mountain th<strong>at</strong> Jesus Christ<br />
was born. . . .<br />
Go tell it on the mountain to let my people go. . .<br />
I shall not, I shall not be moved . . . We shall not, we shall not be moved . . .<br />
Keep your h<strong>and</strong> on the plow, hold on. . . . Keep your eyes on the prize, hold on . . .<br />
Over my head, I see Jesus in the air . . . Over my head, I see freedom in the air . . .<br />
This little light of mine, I’m gonna let it shine .<br />
. .<br />
.<br />
This little light of mine, I‘m gonna let it shine . . .<br />
Been in the storm so long . . . Been in the storm so long . . .<br />
Oh freedom . . . Oh freedom . . .<br />
27
The church hymn ―Jesus on My Mind‖ was transformed into ―Freedom on My Mind‖ <strong>and</strong> used, <strong>at</strong> first by<br />
the college activist popul<strong>at</strong>ion. From there, the song as well as its technique spread throughout the<br />
movement <strong>and</strong> became a popular occurrence throughout the movement. Activist Hollis W<strong>at</strong>kins described<br />
it the use of this music as a ―n<strong>at</strong>ural entrée into the hearts, souls, <strong>and</strong> minds of black people in presenting<br />
<strong>and</strong> offering something th<strong>at</strong> was not foreign to them" (American Experience). With these Negro spirituals<br />
<strong>and</strong> church hymns, a sense of comfort was gener<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> g<strong>at</strong>herings. The spirituals of the African slaves<br />
were belted out for all to here but only a select few to underst<strong>and</strong>. This was not the case when it came to<br />
the involvement of slave spirituals during the civil rights movement; all were to hear <strong>and</strong> know the<br />
struggle <strong>and</strong> its significance.<br />
―We Shall Overcome‖ has been regarded as the anthem of the Civil <strong>Rights</strong> movement, but there<br />
were many other tunes th<strong>at</strong> voices were lent to. Songs such as ―This Little Light of Mine‖ was popular<br />
among activists <strong>and</strong> used n<strong>at</strong>ionwide in anything, from activist meetings to protests. In some cases,<br />
certain areas had specific music th<strong>at</strong> they sung for their causes. During the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the<br />
400-500 boycotters would sing church hymns; ―Onward Christian Soldier‖ <strong>and</strong> ―Lift Him Up‖ were<br />
popular during th<strong>at</strong> particular situ<strong>at</strong>ion. Martin Luther King Jr. st<strong>at</strong>ed in his book Why We Can‘t Wait,<br />
th<strong>at</strong> civil rights activist, ―sing the freedom songs today for the same reason the slaves sang them, because<br />
we too are in bondage <strong>and</strong> the songs add hope to our determin<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> ‗We shall overcome, Black <strong>and</strong><br />
white together, We shall overcome someday. ‘‘<br />
Popular music also made its presence known during the civil rights movement. Musicians with<br />
opinions on both sides of the m<strong>at</strong>ter used their voices <strong>and</strong> their instruments to speak to their community,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the world. Music itself doesn‘t take sides, musicians do. During the civil rights musicians were on<br />
both sides of the argument. Southern singer Johnny Rebel began to release anti-desegreg<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> anti-<br />
racial equality music in the south. Rebel‘s, whose real name is Clifford Joseph Trahan, music was so<br />
popular during this time th<strong>at</strong> his album went gold. Some of his most well-known works included, "Who<br />
Likes a Nigger?," "Nigger H<strong>at</strong>in' Me," "Still Looking for a H<strong>and</strong>out," "Some Niggers Never Die (They<br />
Just Smell Th<strong>at</strong> Way)," "Stay Away from Dixie," <strong>and</strong> "Move Them Niggers North.‖ Rebel‘s music<br />
28
wasn‘t n<strong>at</strong>ionally known, but it was popular enough to garner him a gold record <strong>and</strong> an honorary<br />
membership to the Klu Klux Klan. In a recent interview for a website Rebel st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> he wasn‘t racist<br />
<strong>and</strong> had this to say about his music <strong>and</strong> views:<br />
―It wasn't any resentment. It was just a fun thing. We'd laugh...it was<br />
all fun stuff, <strong>and</strong> we just laughed <strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> stuff...I mean, when I wrote Some<br />
Niggers Never Die...I swear to God...my wife....I was making myself laugh.<br />
She'd say, "I can't believe you're saying th<strong>at</strong>!" But, you know, it was all in<br />
humor...<strong>and</strong> I...I told her I wanted to tell you this. I'm not a 'nigger<br />
h<strong>at</strong>er'. It's just their damn <strong>at</strong>titude. I'm beginning to be a racist. I'm<br />
beginning to realize th<strong>at</strong> now. Because...of th<strong>at</strong> damn <strong>at</strong>titude! You know?<br />
It's the younger blacks. Not the older blacks…I mean...God-damn!<br />
Everybody thinks we owe 'em something. And, of course, they weren't like th<strong>at</strong><br />
before the damn civil rights bill...it got started by Martin Luther King...he<br />
started all th<strong>at</strong> horse crap...making these niggers believe a bunch of horse<br />
crap...‖<br />
On the other side of the argument were those working towards the change. Billie Holiday got the<br />
ball rolling, but it was artists like Mahalia Jackson, Sam Cooke <strong>and</strong> other musicians of the time used their<br />
talent <strong>and</strong> fame to present their message, in their own way, through the radio waves. Genre was no barrier<br />
for those who were united under their fight for a singular cause. Protest song writers Phil Ochs <strong>and</strong> Joan<br />
Baez popularized a number of folk-like tunes about the government‘s mistre<strong>at</strong>ment of African-<br />
Americans. In Rhythm <strong>and</strong> Blues came the strong, powerful st<strong>at</strong>ements of Aretha Franklin‘s ―Respect‖<br />
<strong>and</strong> James Brown‘s ―Say it Loud, I‘m Black <strong>and</strong> I‘m Proud‖ declared messages of power <strong>and</strong> pride within<br />
the African-American community. Jazz lent a gre<strong>at</strong> many musicians to the cause, probably putting out the<br />
most songs <strong>at</strong>tributed to the movement than all genres. Then there were the artists whose music<br />
transcended genre confines. Ray Charles‘ music was not only listened to, but some of his hits were<br />
transformed <strong>and</strong> used during protest. Then there were Nina Simone <strong>and</strong> Bob Dylan, with songs like<br />
29
―Mississippi Goddam‖ <strong>and</strong> ―Only A Pawn in Their Game‖ the two musicians let the world know of the<br />
problems going on in the country <strong>and</strong> exactly how they felt about it.<br />
Popular musicians didn‘t end their involvement in social justice with the civil rights movement.<br />
As the fight for civil rights softened, America found itself segreg<strong>at</strong>ed over America‘s involvement in the<br />
Vietnam War. Support for the Vietnam War was in the majority of the people until around 1965. The<br />
draft r<strong>at</strong>e increased <strong>and</strong> young men in disagreement with the procedure, held demonstr<strong>at</strong>ions. From there,<br />
things only became worse in 1968, when the Viet Cong launched the Tet Offensive <strong>and</strong> the My Lai<br />
massacre. Before this, messages coming out of Vietnam gave the appearance th<strong>at</strong> South Vietnam <strong>and</strong> the<br />
American military had everything under control. This <strong>at</strong>tack proved th<strong>at</strong> more time, troops, <strong>and</strong> money<br />
would need to be put into fighting this war, a notion th<strong>at</strong> caused weakening for support of America‘s<br />
involvement in the war.<br />
Opposition for the war, although united under the same cause, was separ<strong>at</strong>ed into groups, all<br />
contending for different reasons. 1962‘s ―Where Have all the Flowers Gone?‖ by the group Peter, Paul,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mary was one of the first popular songs credited for objecting the Vietnam War. For the next three<br />
years, only th<strong>at</strong> group <strong>and</strong> Bob Dylan would release songs th<strong>at</strong> rang true towards the anti- Vietnam War<br />
movement. R. Serge st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong>, ―if you want to reach young people in this country (<strong>and</strong> revolutions are<br />
made by the young; the old make counter-revolution) then write a song‖, <strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong>‘s just wh<strong>at</strong> was done.<br />
Written by nineteen year-old P.F. Sloan, ―Eve of Destruction‖ (sang by Barry McGuire) was the first song<br />
to call out the Vietnam War <strong>and</strong> the government in an outright manner (Serge 140). Lyrics such as:<br />
‟The eastern world, it is exploding |Violence flarin‟,bullets loadin‟ |You‟re old enough to<br />
kill, but not for votin‟ | You don‟t believe in war, but wh<strong>at</strong>‟s th<strong>at</strong> gun your totin‟ | An even<br />
the Jordan River has bodies flo<strong>at</strong>in‟|But you tell me | Over <strong>and</strong> over <strong>and</strong> over again, my<br />
friend| Ah, you don‟t believe | we‟re on the eve of destruction „‟ (P.F. Sloan)<br />
Radio st<strong>at</strong>ions refused to play the song calling it, ―an aid to the enemy in Vietnam‖, but th<strong>at</strong> didn‘t stop<br />
the record from becoming number one. From there musicians didn‘t hold their tongues or their pens;<br />
songs came out back to back <strong>and</strong> on top of each other. ―I Ain‘t Marching Anymore‖, ―Draft Dodger Rag‖,<br />
30
<strong>and</strong> ―I Feel Like I‘m Fixin to Die‖, all released in 1965, rel<strong>at</strong>ed the feelings of the young men <strong>at</strong> the time,<br />
not wanting to go to war, but still c<strong>and</strong>id<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
It was <strong>at</strong> this time th<strong>at</strong> there was also a counter-movement to the anti-war demonstr<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Maybelle Carter released ―I Told Them Wh<strong>at</strong> You‘re Fighting For‖ as a song to support the troops<br />
fighting in Vietnam. It st<strong>at</strong>es, “I stood today for hours on a downtown city street | Carrying a sign th<strong>at</strong><br />
read “our soldiers fight for peace” | I said there is no soldier in th<strong>at</strong> l<strong>and</strong> who likes the war | Yes, son I<br />
told them wh<strong>at</strong> you‟re fighting for” singing from the point of view of a mother who held a demonstr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
for the support of her son <strong>and</strong> his comrades (Carter). There were songs glorifying the life <strong>and</strong> de<strong>at</strong>h of a<br />
soldier, such as “Ballad of the Green Beret”, sung by Staff Sergeant Barry Sadler. The song recounts the<br />
bravery <strong>and</strong> honor of soldiers, who fight in the war for the oppression of others; dying, with their last<br />
request to their wives to “put silver wings on my son‟s chest” (Sadler).<br />
Singer Merle Haggard, angered while w<strong>at</strong>ching anti-war protest in jail, released “Okie from<br />
Muskogee” <strong>and</strong> a response called “The Fightin‟ Side of Me” th<strong>at</strong> supported the soldiers <strong>and</strong> the war,<br />
while also speaking neg<strong>at</strong>ively of the hippie movement, st<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> when they talk bad of the war they‟re,<br />
“walking on the fightin‟ side of me” (Kristofferson). Kris Kristofferson‟s “Vietnam Blues”, performed by<br />
Dave Dudley, was another th<strong>at</strong> spoke against the rallies held against the Vietnam War. In a 1995<br />
documentary he recants his view, ―my <strong>at</strong>titude toward Vietnam today is 180 degrees different… killed 2<br />
million Vietnamese, as well as killing 56 thous<strong>and</strong> Americans… we did worse than th<strong>at</strong> though… I think<br />
we killed for a lot of Americans the notion th<strong>at</strong> America st<strong>and</strong>s for liberty <strong>and</strong> justice for everybody… it‘s<br />
up to anybody who does have the inform<strong>at</strong>ion, to try to pass it on‖ (Kris Kristofferson Vietnam Blues).<br />
Although the opposition came on strong with poignant lyrics <strong>and</strong> heartfelt tunes, in the end it was<br />
those in disagreement with the U.S.‘s involvement with the war in Vietnam, whose messages seemed to<br />
have the lasting effect. When recounting the era one of the songs th<strong>at</strong> support the war may be mentioned<br />
but it is the anti-war songs th<strong>at</strong> were the most popular <strong>and</strong> in tune with the emotions of society. By 1971,<br />
Freda Payne‘s ―Bring the Boys <strong>Home</strong>‖ echoed the cries of the families of the soldiers, <strong>and</strong> Edwin Starr‘s<br />
―War‖ proclaimed the people‘s definition for the term. John Lennon <strong>and</strong> Yoko Ono‘s ―Give Peace A<br />
31
Chance‖, relayed the pleas of the soldiers stuck in Vietnam, the innocent civilian caught in the crossfire,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the majority of the n<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
In the case of the Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Movement <strong>and</strong> the Vietnam War, controversial topics were the<br />
focus on the minds of the people. It was in their opinions th<strong>at</strong> they sought out musicians telling the story<br />
of the n<strong>at</strong>ion the way they saw it. Opinions, emotions, dem<strong>and</strong>s, pleas, all put to music notes in order to<br />
let their message sing through the speakers into living rooms <strong>and</strong> blaring over audiences <strong>and</strong> crowds.<br />
Music‘s involvement in social activism was a uniting force th<strong>at</strong> added its own special component to the<br />
fights of America <strong>and</strong> its people. For protest music, it‘s not just about the lyrics, or the artist, or the venue,<br />
―it‘s the experience of letting the rhythms of the music capture you, together, th<strong>at</strong> affirms the group,<br />
strengthening the will to fight <strong>and</strong> keeping the struggle going‖ (Serge 128).<br />
32
Works Cited<br />
"American Experience.Eyes on the Prize.The Story of the Movement | PBS." PBS: Public Broadcasting<br />
Service. 23 Aug. 2006. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Johnny Rebel Interview 1st <strong>and</strong> Only." The Official Johnny Rebel Website. Web. 07 Mar. 2011.<br />
.<br />
King, Martin Luther. Why We Can't Wait. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. 86. Print.<br />
―Kris Kristofferson Vietnam Blues (His Life <strong>and</strong> Work, 1993)‖. YouTub.com. 18 March 2011.<br />
biggestkrisfan. 1 January 2009. < http://www.youtube.com/w<strong>at</strong>ch?v=UYCUQ_eSa5E><br />
Serge, R. Sounds of Social Change: Studies in Popular Culture. [S.l.]: R<strong>and</strong> Mcnally, 1972. Print.<br />
Ward, Brian. "History Now. The Historians Perspective." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American<br />
History . <strong>Home</strong>. June 2006. Web. 01 May 2011.<br />
.<br />
33
Sara Connor, Bloomsburg University<br />
Child Labor: A Hidden World<br />
An estim<strong>at</strong>ed 246 million children worldwide are victims of child labor, starting <strong>at</strong> the young age<br />
of four until they are legally considered adults (Iowa Child Labor). Child labor is mostly heard of as<br />
occurring in other countries all around the world. Surprisingly, child labor is still happening in the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es. In 2008, a me<strong>at</strong> packaging company in Iowa, called Agriprocessor, was raided <strong>and</strong> caught with 57<br />
underage employees (Preston). Not only did the raid discover the underage children, but they found th<strong>at</strong><br />
the company was breaking almost every safety law Iowa has made for me<strong>at</strong> packaging plants. The<br />
employees were as young as thirteen years old <strong>and</strong> were forced to work for almost 18 hour shifts <strong>at</strong> a time<br />
(Preston). Although child labor is mostly spoken of as something th<strong>at</strong> has happened in the past, currently<br />
children all over the world are still working in extremely unhealthy conditions <strong>and</strong> being tre<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
unfairly <strong>at</strong> an age as young as four.<br />
Globally, child labor is described as anything th<strong>at</strong> causes children to miss school, puts them in<br />
unhealthy conditions, or puts them in danger (Iowa Child Labor). There are some organiz<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> try to<br />
keep track of the age of children who are working <strong>and</strong> the conditions they work in. However, in many<br />
third world countries, child labor is seen as a normal thing. Some governments do not have many child<br />
labor laws. If there is a form of restrictions, they are not strictly followed. The most common laws around<br />
the world for child labor are restrictions about wh<strong>at</strong> is allowed for different age groups. The age groups<br />
show the specific work a child is permitted to do, depending on their age. If a child is between the ages of<br />
thirteen <strong>and</strong> fifteen, one would be allowed to work ―light labor‖ (Smith). Older than th<strong>at</strong> is considered<br />
eligible for hard labor, even though they consider someone a child until the reach the age of eighteen<br />
(Smith). Although some places respect the law of children not working until they are a certain age, most<br />
around the world do not. Children are encouraged by their families to start working <strong>at</strong> a young age.<br />
Although the children could go through awful events or have serious injuries or illness, they are eager to<br />
work because it is seen honorable to be able to get a job.<br />
34
According to ―Child Labor in India‖, Africa is considered the poorest continent on earth. Each<br />
family living there needs as many members as possible to be working, which makes it the continent th<strong>at</strong><br />
abuses child labor laws the most. It has been reported th<strong>at</strong> out of all the children th<strong>at</strong> are working in the<br />
world, 32 percent of them work in Africa.(Cohen) In Tanzania, a young boy by the name of Hamisi was<br />
made an err<strong>and</strong> boy <strong>at</strong> a local mining site. Many children are sent to work in mines <strong>at</strong> an age as young as<br />
five <strong>and</strong> six years old, so they never <strong>at</strong>tend school. These children are taught th<strong>at</strong> working as soon as<br />
possible is the only way for them to be successful (Iowa Child Labor). Most stop <strong>at</strong>tending school early<br />
because they want to be able to work. Adults usually tell the children th<strong>at</strong> going to school <strong>and</strong> learning<br />
pointless things will not get them money, a house, or family in their lives (Iowa Child Labor). Hamisi left<br />
his home, school, village, <strong>and</strong> family <strong>at</strong> the age of eleven to be an err<strong>and</strong> boy (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional). One of<br />
Hamisi‘s duties was to go deep into the mines, as far as 300 meters, by rope to deliver supplies to the men<br />
digging in the mines. His title was often referred to as ―snake boy‖ because they were required to crawl<br />
along underground tunnels throughout the mine to complete deliveries (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional). The boys will<br />
usually work an eighteen hour shift, with one meal consisting of a cooked plant <strong>and</strong> buns. Hamisi st<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
―I nearly suffoc<strong>at</strong>ed inside the pits due to an inadequ<strong>at</strong>e supply of oxygen‖ (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional). Due to his lack<br />
of oxygen <strong>and</strong> lack of nutrients, he has trouble bre<strong>at</strong>hing <strong>and</strong> is suffering from malnutrition<br />
(Intern<strong>at</strong>ional). His health is declining <strong>and</strong> he cannot afford the little health services th<strong>at</strong> are around him<br />
(Intern<strong>at</strong>ional). For all the hard work, effort, <strong>and</strong> danger Hamisi goes through, he only makes about sixty<br />
cents, minimum, each day. If he is asked to perform more tasks through out the day, he can earn up to one<br />
dollar <strong>and</strong> twenty cents (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional).<br />
Hamisi‘s type of work isn‘t the only way child labor is being abused in Africa. In 2006, it was<br />
discovered th<strong>at</strong> almost half of the chocol<strong>at</strong>e in the United St<strong>at</strong>es, th<strong>at</strong> was being made in Africa, was<br />
being produced by children working in cocoa fields (Cohen). They were working in unbearable<br />
conditions where many were dying of dehydr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> he<strong>at</strong> strokes (Cohen). A reporter for an<br />
organiz<strong>at</strong>ion called The <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch, Jon<strong>at</strong>hen Cohen, st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong>, ―The cocoa fields is just the<br />
35
top of the iceberg‖. Because Africa is the place with the most child labor law abuses, some other child<br />
labor law abuses are overlooked. (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional).<br />
For example, it is estim<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> in China half of the children th<strong>at</strong> drop out of school are sent to<br />
work in factories (China). Over twenty percent of their work force is made up of children, <strong>and</strong> it is<br />
increasing more <strong>and</strong> more each year (China) Not only do these children get paid little to no money, but a<br />
lot of children get kidnapped <strong>and</strong> sold off to factories to work (China). In 1994, around forty-eight shop<br />
owners kidnapped more than one hundred children <strong>and</strong> took them across country borders to have them<br />
work for them (China). When this was discovered <strong>and</strong> the children were rescued <strong>and</strong> taken back to their<br />
homes. Some had said th<strong>at</strong> they were forced to work for <strong>at</strong> least ten hours a day with no pay (China).<br />
Many think China should increase the amount of effort they make to be sure children are staying safe<br />
(Intern<strong>at</strong>ional). If countries are going to have laws like these, they need to be able to follow through with<br />
protecting their people <strong>and</strong> trying to keep them safe.<br />
Some foreign countries are very strict with their child labor laws. In 2001, countless amounts of<br />
child labor rings were found in Russia (Johnson). The Russian Feder<strong>at</strong>ion then decided to upd<strong>at</strong>e their<br />
labor laws (Johnson). There are now specific codes th<strong>at</strong> they follow very strictly. The codes st<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> any<br />
child under the age of sixteen may not be hired to work, <strong>and</strong> if an employee is under the age of eighteen,<br />
they may not work after the sun goes down (Russia). They also st<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> any one under the age of 18 is<br />
absolutely forbidden to work somewhere th<strong>at</strong> involves ―gambling, night cabarets <strong>and</strong> clubs, spirits,<br />
tobacco, narcotic <strong>and</strong> toxic production, transport<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> sale‖ (Johnson). These are considered<br />
dangerous to their health <strong>and</strong> are forbidden. These rules are similar to some child labor laws in the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es of America.<br />
Even though it is thought of to only happen in developing countries, child labor secretly happens<br />
in the United St<strong>at</strong>es every day. It is said th<strong>at</strong> almost 4 percent of all 12- to 17-year-olds are employed<br />
illegally in the United St<strong>at</strong>es (Foster). Surprisingly, in industrialized countries, the number of children<br />
working illegally are almost even to the number of children in underdeveloped countries th<strong>at</strong> are abused<br />
through child labor (Department of Labor). Child Labor is classified in the United St<strong>at</strong>es by a federal law<br />
36
called the Fair Labor St<strong>and</strong>ards Act(FLSA)(youth <strong>and</strong> labor). The FLSA controls minimum wage, hours<br />
worked, <strong>and</strong> they make sure companies keep records of their workers. Due to the FLSA, the United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
allows children of the age sixteen <strong>and</strong> up to have a part time job as long as they are not missing any<br />
school. According to child labor laws in America, children under the age of sixteen are not allowed to<br />
work, or to get paid for working. The FLSA also makes sure children th<strong>at</strong> are working are being trained<br />
properly <strong>and</strong> working safely (Wage <strong>and</strong> Hour Division). There are many different types of child labor <strong>and</strong><br />
the only type of labor children are allowed to do younger than sixteen is dealing with agriculture, like<br />
working on a family farm.<br />
When a child works on a farm, there are a few exemptions from the FLSA. If one is sixteen or<br />
older they may do anything they would like on the farm whether it is considered dangerous or not (Farm<br />
Jobs). If one is between the ages of fourteen <strong>and</strong> fifteen, they may do anything th<strong>at</strong> is considered non-<br />
hazardous, as long as they are not missing any school (Farm Jobs). A child who is twelve or thirteen can<br />
work on a farm as long as they have their parents‘ consent. If a child is under the age of twelve one may<br />
only work on one‘s family farm <strong>and</strong> must be supervised a majority of the time (Farm Jobs).<br />
In 2008, a family in Michigan, was found having their children work on their farms picking<br />
blueberries from sun up to sun down. Since it is legal for children to work on their family farms, nothing<br />
could be done. However, the dangers of the children working were very risky for their health. The ages of<br />
the children ranged from four years to fourteen years old. According to one of the children working,<br />
Ethan, age 8, st<strong>at</strong>es, "The tractor's coming from here <strong>and</strong> the kids are right there. They could poison<br />
themselves because it's too dangerous for them". He is referring to the pesticides th<strong>at</strong> were made to apply<br />
to the fruit. They were so powerful <strong>and</strong> the children were so close to the toxins given off by them, th<strong>at</strong><br />
they were in danger, which made him nervous for his younger siblings. Although he was in the middle of<br />
the age group, he was considered a ―big kid‖ to the younger ones <strong>and</strong> he sometimes felt responsible for<br />
when they were to get sick (ABC). Many of the children told ABC News reporters th<strong>at</strong> the sun was so hot<br />
all day th<strong>at</strong> it made them feel sick, but it was their job to help their family make money. (ABC). About a<br />
month or two l<strong>at</strong>er, another family was found, in North Carolina, with the same issues. The Associ<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
37
Farmworker Opportunity Program (AFOP) said th<strong>at</strong> the children <strong>at</strong> this farm were ranging from the ages<br />
six to nine, <strong>and</strong> they had the same response when they were asked by the AFOP represent<strong>at</strong>ive why they<br />
were working so hard in the hot sun. They replied by telling him th<strong>at</strong> they wanted to help their family to<br />
make money. Some of the young boys said th<strong>at</strong> they needed to learn how to be ―the man of the house‖ for<br />
when they have their own family (ABC).<br />
In 1997, the United St<strong>at</strong>es had nearly 290,200 children from ages four to thirteen working<br />
illegally, with about 13 hundred of them having to work in very dangerous swe<strong>at</strong> shops th<strong>at</strong> were filled<br />
with labor viol<strong>at</strong>ions (Foster). From February 1998 until March 1998, just on the East coast alone, around<br />
165 children were found working illegally in the United St<strong>at</strong>es (Foster). In March of 2011, a Regal<br />
Cinema company was caught having children under the age of sixteen work for the company, allowing<br />
them to h<strong>and</strong>le dangerous equipment, <strong>and</strong> having the workers work shifts more than the legal amount of<br />
hours (Associ<strong>at</strong>ed Press). The children were being paid ―under the table‖ because they were too young to<br />
be eligible to receive working papers. According to Floyd Prozanski, getting paid ―under the table‖<br />
refers to a employer paying his employee without taking out taxes out of the paycheck or using any type<br />
of document<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> this person has worked. The types of document<strong>at</strong>ions required to have someone<br />
work legally for a company are called working papers. Working papers are legal documents th<strong>at</strong> give<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion about one self for employment. They require a parent or guardian, <strong>and</strong> the child‘s school, to<br />
sign certain papers agreeing th<strong>at</strong> the child is in a stable condition to work. The papers are also used to<br />
remind the employer of the amount of hours the child is allowed to be working, <strong>and</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> types of<br />
activities they are to do, or not to do (Department of Labor). However, working papers are only involved<br />
if everything is being done legally.<br />
On May 12, 2008, a me<strong>at</strong> packing plant in Iowa was busted for having nearly 400 illegal workers<br />
employed <strong>at</strong> their factory (Preston). The complaint charges th<strong>at</strong> the plant employed workers under the<br />
legal age of 18, including seven who were under 16, from Sept. 9, 2007, to May 12. Some workers ..<br />
worked on machinery prohibited for employees under 18, including conveyor belts, me<strong>at</strong> grinders,<br />
circular saws, power washers <strong>and</strong> power shears (Preston). A senior executive of this company claimed<br />
38
th<strong>at</strong> the minor workers had lied about their age, therefore, he figured there was no way to prove th<strong>at</strong> they<br />
knew, or did not know, about the ages of the workers (Preston). With th<strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ement, he had gotten the<br />
company in more trouble because he was proving th<strong>at</strong>, upon hiring these employees, they did not ask for<br />
legal identific<strong>at</strong>ion or documents, proving th<strong>at</strong> they were legal. Even though it was known th<strong>at</strong> the people<br />
they were hiring could be illegal, they were still forced to begin very hard work <strong>at</strong> a young age, with the<br />
employers not caring wh<strong>at</strong> it could mentally, physically, or emotionally do to these people. They are<br />
usually only concerned about the company‘s productions <strong>and</strong> not the children's well-being<br />
Children working in large factories usually end up with terrible injuries th<strong>at</strong> can sometimes be<br />
f<strong>at</strong>al (Wilhelm). The companies do not train the children in how to use the machines, <strong>and</strong> they are too<br />
young to underst<strong>and</strong> (Wilhelm). In an interview John Allett, a victim of child labor, described wh<strong>at</strong> it was<br />
like to work in the textile factories <strong>at</strong> the age of fourteen.<br />
I was an eye-witness of one. A child was working wool, th<strong>at</strong> is, to prepare the wool for<br />
the machine; but the strap caught him, as he was hardly awake, <strong>and</strong> it carried him into the<br />
machinery; <strong>and</strong> we found one limb in one place, one in another, <strong>and</strong> he was cut to bits;<br />
his whole body went it, <strong>and</strong> was mangled (Sadler)<br />
With such harmful harmful surroundings <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong>ing job, child labor can almost be considered<br />
modern day slavery.<br />
The children who work so hard so young are taught th<strong>at</strong> they are working for many justified<br />
reasons. The very first, <strong>and</strong> most common, reason is to help bring more income into their family<br />
household (Clarence). With the economy being in such poor condition right now, people are losing their<br />
jobs left <strong>and</strong> right. Many who are losing jobs are losing the little income th<strong>at</strong> they were receiving. The<br />
parents tell the children th<strong>at</strong> by helping out with money, they can make things better for their family. At<br />
the age of thirteen, many children who come from a poor household, are given the responsibility to take<br />
care of the house. A child explained to a reporter,<br />
I only bring home about a dollar a day. If I were to go to school, or miss a day of work,<br />
my family would not be able to e<strong>at</strong> for the day. They would go to bed hungry, <strong>and</strong> it<br />
39
would be my fault. I need to be able to take care of my family now, <strong>and</strong> prepare myself<br />
for taking care of my family when I am grown (Foster).<br />
With the children being home all the time in order to work, they are not sent to any type of schooling.<br />
They are told th<strong>at</strong> the educ<strong>at</strong>ion they would get <strong>at</strong> a school would not be useful in their every day lives.<br />
According to the <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch, 45 percent of children who work in the agriculture sector in the<br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es drop out of high school. (Knowledge)<br />
Children are told working for their whole lives will help to teach them self-discipline, leadership,<br />
hard work, <strong>and</strong> how to plan for <strong>and</strong> raise their own family when the time comes (Clarence). Another<br />
reason it is encouraged for children to work is social roles. In America today, it is seen th<strong>at</strong> boys have to<br />
be very manly, unemotional, <strong>and</strong> strong. They need to be the ―man of the house‖. This is known as the<br />
cowboy syndrome, where all young boys are taught th<strong>at</strong> they need to be the main providers for their<br />
families. Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, children are also sent to work when crisis strikes. If parents or guardians were to<br />
fall ill or pass away, they would then pass the responsibility on to their children to help take care of each<br />
other. One would expect the oldest child to take responsibility for the rest of the family, but in reality, it is<br />
almost impossible. If the oldest child is younger than sixteen, they are not able to get a job th<strong>at</strong> would be<br />
able to support themselves alone. One option they would have would to be for them <strong>and</strong> their siblings to<br />
go to an orphanage where they can stay together until the oldest child is eighteen. At the point, they<br />
would be able to get a reliable job th<strong>at</strong> would be able to support the expenses of the entire remaining<br />
family. Even though all of the above reasons come with good intentions, it is still breaking the law. The<br />
reason there are laws against children working such jobs is because their bodies are too underdeveloped to<br />
h<strong>and</strong>le to extreme conditions they can be put through. Many times it ends in permanent injury to the<br />
children or it can be potentially f<strong>at</strong>al (Clarence). The most depressing part of this h<strong>at</strong>eful act is th<strong>at</strong><br />
majority of the employers of underage children know the health risks, <strong>and</strong> continue with making them<br />
work anyway. The type of employers don‘t really care about the child‘s health, they only care about<br />
making a profit. Having to work so intensely can be really frightening to a child, it is likely th<strong>at</strong> they will<br />
never forget wh<strong>at</strong> they went through while working under these conditions.<br />
40
It is said th<strong>at</strong> a person‘s childhood is the ―best years‖ of their lives. If one was to miss the<br />
thrilling, fun-filled adventures of childhood, it could very well affect their adult lives (Bagadgeri). A child<br />
needs room to grow for themselves, to feel freedom <strong>and</strong> independence. If one is sent to work with so<br />
much responsibility as such a young child, they miss out on all of those things, plus more. They do not<br />
learn how to make social rel<strong>at</strong>ionships with children their own age, they are not shown compassion th<strong>at</strong><br />
most children get, <strong>and</strong> it will affect them for the rest of their lives (Bagadgeri). One result of child labor in<br />
their adult lives is not being able to ―unconditionally love‖ (Bagadgeri). They will love their families <strong>and</strong><br />
want to take care of them, but they will see no harm in doing to their children exactly wh<strong>at</strong> was done to<br />
them. If they were to not send their children to help make money for their house, it could be seen as poor<br />
parenting (Bagaderi). However, if the children are not sent away to school, it can cre<strong>at</strong>e many brain<br />
developing problems, such as illiteracy (Knowledge). For present day workers, it it really hard for people<br />
to get a job with out a college degree. Many people who have been a loyal employee to a company, are<br />
losing their jobs to young adults who are fresh out of college, because they are considered well-educ<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
If people keep losing their jobs in the same trend th<strong>at</strong> is happening now, they will struggle to hold a job<br />
th<strong>at</strong> will pay enough for them to take care of their family (knowledge). If th<strong>at</strong> isn‘t enough to convince<br />
someone not to make children work this young, there is also the fact th<strong>at</strong> children die every day from<br />
being over-worked. Each year, millions of children work in grueling <strong>and</strong> extremely dem<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
conditions which will most likely leave them with health problems th<strong>at</strong> will eventually kill them<br />
(Conditions).<br />
Child labor has gone on for far too long. Thous<strong>and</strong>s of American citizens have no idea th<strong>at</strong> young<br />
children are still working illegally, <strong>and</strong> being tre<strong>at</strong>ed unfairly, right under their noses. People are more<br />
caught up with the products they are getting, then how they came to be. Would you ever think th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
blueberries you bought could have possibly cost a young child his life? America is extremely unaware<br />
<strong>and</strong> uniformed of how cruel the tre<strong>at</strong>ment of working children can be <strong>and</strong> <strong>at</strong> how young of an age it can<br />
begin. However, there‘s hope th<strong>at</strong> it can be stopped. Organiz<strong>at</strong>ions, such as UNICEF, fundraise <strong>and</strong> hold<br />
protests to try <strong>and</strong> spread the realiz<strong>at</strong>ion of child labor <strong>and</strong> the effects it has on the world. Organiz<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
41
like this can draw more <strong>at</strong>tention to the media, <strong>and</strong> let society know th<strong>at</strong> it is still an occurring problem.<br />
The government needs to crack down <strong>and</strong> keep checking-up with different companies to make sure they<br />
are not breaking any child labor laws. Many people consider it to be hopeless to try <strong>and</strong> stop child labor<br />
because companies <strong>and</strong> employers are so sneaky about having underage employees. If people can realize<br />
how serious of an act this is, someday in the future, child labor could possibly be something th<strong>at</strong> was once<br />
only heard about.<br />
42
Works Cited<br />
ABC News. "The Blueberry Children." News: The Blotter. ABC News, 15 Aug. 2008. Web. 1 Apr.<br />
2011. .<br />
Associ<strong>at</strong>ed Press. "The<strong>at</strong>ers Fined for Labor Viol<strong>at</strong>ions." The New York Times 22 Mar. 2011, 13A<br />
sec. Print.<br />
Bagadgeri, Arvind. "Child Labour." Aid Workers Network. 5 Jan. 2009. Web. 2 Mar. 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Causes of Child Labor." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Project. N.p., 2009. Web.<br />
18 Apr. 2011. .<br />
"Child Labor." Department of Labor. Mar. 2008. Web. 5 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Child Labor in U.S. History." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Project. N.p., 2009.<br />
Web. 1 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Child Labor in China." <strong>Human</strong>s <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch. Blood Swe<strong>at</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tears: The Story of Child Labor.<br />
16 Nov. 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2011. .<br />
"Child Labor in Russia." <strong>Human</strong>s <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch. Blood Swe<strong>at</strong> <strong>and</strong> Tears: The Story of Child Labor.<br />
18 Feb. 2008. Web. 5 Apr. 2011. .<br />
Child Labor Public Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2011<br />
.<br />
Cohen, Jon<strong>at</strong>hen. "Child Labor in Afria." Blood, Swe<strong>at</strong>, & Tears: The Story of Child Labor. 18 Aug.<br />
2007. Web. 8 Apr. 2011..<br />
43
"Farm Jobs." FLSA - Child Labor.‖ N.p., 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Foster, David. ―America's Secret World of Child Labor. Associ<strong>at</strong>ed Press Writers, 1998. Web. 2 Mar.<br />
2011. .<br />
"Health Issues." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Project. N.p., 2009. Web. 19 Mar.<br />
2011..<br />
ICFTU. "Child Labor." ICFTU. N.p., 2006. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Labour Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion, "Child Labour Stories" (2005). Child Labor. Paper 6.<br />
<br />
Johnson, Walter. "Child Labor Laws in Russia." EHow. 7 Sept. 2003. Web. 3 May 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Knowledge." The P<strong>at</strong>h of Innocence. 12 Dec. 2001. Web. 9 Mar. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Preston, Julia. "Me<strong>at</strong>packer Faces Charges of Viol<strong>at</strong>ing Child Laws." New York Times. 9 Sept. 2009.<br />
Web. 9 Mar. 2011.<br />
Prozanski, Floyd. "Under-the-Table-Pay Is Unacceptable." The Deb<strong>at</strong>e Room. 17 July 2009. Web. 12<br />
Mar. 2011. .<br />
Sadler, Michael <strong>and</strong> John Allett. "Factory Accidents." Factory Accidents. 21Sept. 2001. Web. 22 Mar.<br />
2011..<br />
Smith, S. E. "Do Most Countries Have Child Labor Laws?" Wisegeek. N.p., 27 Jan. 2011. Web. 5 Apr.<br />
2011. .<br />
"U.S. Laws." University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Project. N.p., 2009. Web. 16 Mar. 2011.<br />
.<br />
44
"Wh<strong>at</strong> Is Child Labor?" University of Iowa. Child Labor Public Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Project. N.p., 2009. Web. 18<br />
Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Wilhelm, Alex. "Apple Used Child Labor Laws." TNW. N.p., 2007. Web. 9 Mar. 2011. 16 Mar. 2011.<br />
.<br />
Williams, Clarence. "Images for Child Labor." Social Change. 2004. Web. 16 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
"Youth <strong>and</strong> Labor." United St<strong>at</strong>es Department of Labor. N.p., 2010. Web. 1 Apr. 2011.<br />
.<br />
45
Jasmine Cooper, Bloomsburg University<br />
A N<strong>at</strong>ion of Immigrants… Well Not Recent Immigrants<br />
America is a country th<strong>at</strong> is renowned for its layers of different cultures, religions <strong>and</strong> ethnicities.<br />
The so called ―salad bowl‖ was a place people from all n<strong>at</strong>ions sought refuge from the chaos of their<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ion. The imagery of steps carved from gold was most appealing to all who planned the trip to the new<br />
world. America was built upon the swe<strong>at</strong> <strong>and</strong> hard labor of immigrants <strong>and</strong> has prospered to be one of the<br />
world‘s gre<strong>at</strong>est n<strong>at</strong>ions. Though the use of the ―I‖ word is often pictured with someone jumping over a<br />
boarder, unless you are 100% N<strong>at</strong>ive American, everyone in this country is an immigrant. But wh<strong>at</strong> does<br />
it mean to actually be displayed as an American. The face of an American shifted from black hair, a<br />
reddish brown complexion, to the prized blonde hair blued eyed so called ―Aryan race.‖ Today,<br />
Americans carry the pride of their n<strong>at</strong>ion‘s accomplishments <strong>and</strong> joy of being born in the ―l<strong>and</strong> of the free<br />
<strong>and</strong> home of the brave‖ as they sing before every sports game. Every morning grade schoolers st<strong>and</strong> up in<br />
class <strong>and</strong> honor their n<strong>at</strong>ion. The six o‘clock news frames the thirty minute broadcast to show the wonders<br />
of our n<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> the slums of the surrounding countries. The vain n<strong>at</strong>ion declares itself to be America<br />
though the other part of America lies just underne<strong>at</strong>h the country. Those people are actually considered<br />
South Americans. Children receive an embedded framing of the world proclaiming th<strong>at</strong> North America‘s<br />
form of democracy is superior to the other savage ways of the world. They even witness on the news as<br />
our country travels across the world to show the savages the proper way to run a country. Ethnocentrism<br />
has become so engraved in the American society th<strong>at</strong> we subconsciously look down upon the ways of the<br />
world. We feel sorry for the family th<strong>at</strong> has no television to w<strong>at</strong>ch or iPod to listen to because we find it<br />
almost impossible to function without music in our ears, or something to keep our eyes glued to for hours<br />
<strong>at</strong> a time. The Media plays a crucial role in the way the news is displayed <strong>and</strong> the rest of the world is<br />
portrayed.<br />
According to the Atlantic review, more than half of Americans believe their culture to be superior<br />
to others. (Atlantic review) With our bleached, scr<strong>at</strong>ched jeans <strong>and</strong> over-sized sunglasses wh<strong>at</strong> is there<br />
46
not to love? Family has become an optional thing of value. many Americans would much r<strong>at</strong>her go in<br />
their rooms <strong>and</strong> e<strong>at</strong> a quick microwave meal <strong>and</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ch reality shows for hours on in than e<strong>at</strong> dinner<br />
around a dining room table. Most dining rooms in American society are actually more for ostent<strong>at</strong>ion than<br />
for quality family time. In today‘s western society, someone who doesn‘t engage in the majority affairs of<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ching televisions for hours, <strong>and</strong> dressing as the media tells them to is no longer viewed as an<br />
individual or as being unique, but just fl<strong>at</strong> out weird. It‘s an absolute essential part of young American<br />
culture to have a Facebook where you can discuss Snooky‘s <strong>and</strong> J Wows‘ l<strong>at</strong>est affairs on Jersey shore or<br />
play online games for endless hours, <strong>and</strong> every girl must own a pair of 150 dollar UGG boots. Media<br />
entertainment shows like the MTV awards <strong>and</strong> the Oscars have become so popular over the years th<strong>at</strong><br />
almost every major channel broadcasts them. Sports entertainment shows have become so popular th<strong>at</strong><br />
schools have been closed for the Philly‘s parade <strong>and</strong> Super Bowl Sunday is on its way to becoming a<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ional holiday. News Media shows like E News <strong>and</strong> TMC show Americans, both young <strong>and</strong> old, ways<br />
to part their hair, wh<strong>at</strong> clothes to wear, <strong>and</strong> how to perceive others. No longer are parents role models for<br />
kids <strong>and</strong> young adults but celebrities have taken the spot of being looked up to by children all over<br />
America. If a celebrity decides to bleach one side of their head or dye the front of their bangs bright pink,<br />
you can be certain th<strong>at</strong> by the next weekend girls all around the st<strong>at</strong>es will show off th<strong>at</strong> same style.<br />
American society has become completely commercialized <strong>and</strong> if you are not down with the popular<br />
trends, you must be a foreigner. But the image displayed to other n<strong>at</strong>ions media of American children<br />
holding h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> singing ―We Are the World‖ isn‘t quite as it seems.<br />
The Media is one of the biggest influences in our everyday life. Most people wake up to the radio,<br />
or a song programmed to the alarm clock. When shopping, music is constantly played throughout the<br />
stay. When driving in a car, a radio is fully equipped <strong>and</strong> music is streaming though the speakers during<br />
the drive. Televisions have become almost as essential as bre<strong>at</strong>hing. The average American w<strong>at</strong>ches up to<br />
about 30 hours of television a week (Atlantic Review) According to USA today, the average American<br />
has more TV‘s in their house than there are people. The media is a constant pulse be<strong>at</strong>ing through our<br />
minds th<strong>at</strong> shapes our perceptions of society.<br />
47
If there were a contest on wh<strong>at</strong> country could hoard the most money, yet stay the thinnest, I‘m<br />
sure America would claim th<strong>at</strong> trophy. With E! News <strong>and</strong> Media Takeout showing the youth of the n<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
pictures of celebrities so thin, they can barely hold themselves up, there is no wonder why over 86% of<br />
women have suffered from some sort of e<strong>at</strong>ing disorder by the age of 20. (WikiAnswers) It is perhaps<br />
more entertaining for American youth <strong>and</strong> adults, to w<strong>at</strong>ch a show about celebrities going to rehab, than it<br />
is to read a book on addictions <strong>and</strong> how to prevent them. The media not only influences wh<strong>at</strong> people<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ch, it can also influence the way people tre<strong>at</strong> <strong>and</strong> feel about one another, whether the feelings are<br />
known or felt subconsciously.<br />
Nightly news st<strong>at</strong>ions like Fox <strong>and</strong> NBC are some of the Media‘s biggest ways of shaping the<br />
perception of immigrants <strong>and</strong> minorities. If a crime was committed by a person of color, their height,<br />
weight <strong>and</strong> picture will more than likely be displayed for all of America to see, however, if a white person<br />
has committed the same crime or something worse, their picture would be absent <strong>and</strong> they would be<br />
labeled as the ―perp‖ or ―offendent.‖ Fox News is notorious for taking people of colors words <strong>and</strong><br />
framing them to make them look offensive or criminal. (News One) For example when President Barrack<br />
Obama ran for the 2008 election, his Reverend was displayed as being anti-American <strong>and</strong> a black activist<br />
against white control. (News One) The news media has done such a good job of installing into the<br />
public‘s eye, the barbarianisms <strong>and</strong> criminality ways of black people th<strong>at</strong> when a South Carolina woman<br />
cried wolf, <strong>and</strong> said a black man kidnapped her children in broad daylight, the world readily believed her.<br />
(BNet) It was not until the woman‘s finger prints were found in the car th<strong>at</strong> police stopped looking for<br />
black suspects. (BNet) It seems th<strong>at</strong> the goal of the media is to install fear of minorities into the minds of<br />
white America <strong>and</strong> to convince minorities th<strong>at</strong> the only way for them to not be stereotyped into th<strong>at</strong> fear<br />
c<strong>at</strong>egory is to assimil<strong>at</strong>e into the Anglo-Saxon core culture as much as possible.<br />
If a young white child turns on the television, they will almost always find a face <strong>and</strong> fe<strong>at</strong>ures th<strong>at</strong><br />
m<strong>at</strong>ch their own. If a minority turns on the TV, they will more than likely have to flip around channels to<br />
see someone of their race. Or if a minority views someone of their culture on the television it is likely the<br />
48
person is either a criminal being arrested or acting as a criminal on a series. Entertainment weekly<br />
recently published an article arguing th<strong>at</strong> ―…the five major broadcast networks are whiter than the<br />
Caucasian percentage (66.2 percent) of the United St<strong>at</strong>es popul<strong>at</strong>ion.‖ In a small community with not<br />
much diversity, the media is not only there for entertainment purposes, but it is also a factor in which<br />
people view unfamiliar races <strong>and</strong> ethnicities minorities. If a child has been raised in a community where<br />
they are in contact with mostly people of their own race <strong>and</strong> ethnicity, their primary view of the outside<br />
world is through television. A lot of wh<strong>at</strong> the child knows about people of other races is wh<strong>at</strong> is presented<br />
to them by the media. Since there aren‘t people of other races around to shape the child‘s perception of<br />
the race, they are going to view the whole popul<strong>at</strong>ion like how the media <strong>and</strong>/parents present. If the<br />
child‘s parents have grown up in the same segreg<strong>at</strong>ed area, their perception is often highly influenced by<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> the media portrays.<br />
A white child th<strong>at</strong> has grown up in a white community, w<strong>at</strong>ching white people on television, <strong>and</strong><br />
listening to white people on the radio doesn‘t feel the major impact the media has on their life because,<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> they are seeing is viewed as normal <strong>and</strong> ordinary. In this sense, the maxim ―Majority rules‖ can be<br />
taken literally when it involves consumerism in the world. Just as lefties complain th<strong>at</strong> most writing<br />
utensils <strong>and</strong> tools are made for right h<strong>and</strong>ed people, <strong>and</strong> vegetarians complain th<strong>at</strong> it is a hassle to get a<br />
veggie burger <strong>at</strong> the commons, minorities complain they the live in a world th<strong>at</strong> is centered on the core<br />
values of the white race.<br />
One of the biggest factors of the educ<strong>at</strong>ion you receive, your income <strong>and</strong> social st<strong>at</strong>us, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
safety of your surroundings, deals a lot with your place of residence. ―<strong>Home</strong> sweet <strong>Home</strong>‖ is supposed to<br />
be a place where you can let your children play in the park. A place where you leave your door opened to<br />
let in a fresh breeze. But for many American‘s their ―home‖ isn‘t always th<strong>at</strong> sweet <strong>and</strong> welcoming.<br />
According to Nadra Kareem Nittle, a journalist for About.com, schools today are more segreg<strong>at</strong>ed now,<br />
than they were in the 1960‘s after the Supreme Court ruling in Brown vs. Board of educ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
(About.com) Not only are American schools mostly segreg<strong>at</strong>ed but the structure is completely segreg<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
49
in return. Because most whites move out of neighborhoods with heavy numbers of minorities moving in,<br />
the minorities tend to live together in areas where there aren‘t good doctors, proper educ<strong>at</strong>ion to supply<br />
better doctors, or sufficient health care. With this lack of proper care, the environment becomes littered<br />
with crime, drugs <strong>and</strong> other hazards th<strong>at</strong> make the living environment inhospitable. This crimes leads to<br />
the framed news footage which covers the after effects of this neglected society <strong>and</strong> labels it as a cultural<br />
of poverty instead of seeing th<strong>at</strong> it‘s a structural occurrence.<br />
The educ<strong>at</strong>ion system, after all, was made to assimil<strong>at</strong>e uncivilized people into the American way<br />
of life. Most of wh<strong>at</strong> is viewed on television is displayed to please the majority. Skinny jeans were made<br />
famous to convince the majority th<strong>at</strong> the anorexic look is fashionable. Make-up is displayed, even on<br />
children‘s channels, to tell the world th<strong>at</strong> beauty should be painted onto your face. Actors even show the<br />
masses the favored northern accent <strong>and</strong> other European accents, while most Asian accents are viewed as<br />
annoying <strong>and</strong> hard to underst<strong>and</strong>.<br />
The news not only portrays biased media to display fear of minorities, it also uses media to<br />
exagger<strong>at</strong>e an install fear of immigrants. The media has done a gre<strong>at</strong> job in proving the B<strong>and</strong>ura effect by<br />
sliding in small comments about how immigrants are crossing the boarders just to steal Americans jobs.<br />
Most immigrants don‘t come into America fix<strong>at</strong>ed in media affairs so they stick out like a sore thumb.<br />
The media adds insults to injury by broadcasting how thre<strong>at</strong>ening immigrants are illegally crossing the<br />
border, not paying taxes, <strong>and</strong> stealing American money by taking all of the jobs. The media also<br />
dehumanizes them by referring to them as illegal aliens who are here for neg<strong>at</strong>ive reasons. The<br />
immigrants are also looked down upon for working jobs th<strong>at</strong> Americans stray from because they view<br />
themselves as being too good for such laboring <strong>and</strong> tedious jobs. These ―aliens‖ are used as scapego<strong>at</strong>s<br />
for all of America‘s problems. For example, some people insist th<strong>at</strong> the recession is still occurring<br />
because illegal‘s come in to our country <strong>and</strong> don‘t pay taxes. Government money th<strong>at</strong> can be used for<br />
improving the educ<strong>at</strong>ion system is being wasted because the government has to fund security to block the<br />
border. (Our Dime) The news also tells stories of how the crime r<strong>at</strong>e is up in st<strong>at</strong>es where the illegal<br />
50
immigrants have fled. With the constant repetition of how these bad aliens are illegally entering our<br />
country, fear of them is circul<strong>at</strong>ing into h<strong>at</strong>e.<br />
The tragedy of 911 was a horrific day where ordinary individuals did extraordinary things to<br />
protect the lives of others. On th<strong>at</strong> day, many people came together without the worry of race, religion or<br />
ethnicity. Th<strong>at</strong> day America was truly united for the sake of saving ones fellow man. But unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
the courage <strong>and</strong> unity of th<strong>at</strong> day was short lived. President George W. Bush decided to make a rebuttal to<br />
the <strong>at</strong>tack on the world trade center in front of our n<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ions throughout the world. After the fall<br />
of the twin towers our own president said in front of the entire world th<strong>at</strong> America would be unleashing a<br />
―crusade‖ on terrorism. (Europe Cringes) Though it seems to some as just a slight reference to violence,<br />
psychologist Albert B<strong>and</strong>ura has reliable evidence th<strong>at</strong> even small dehumanizing comments can affect<br />
people‘s <strong>at</strong>titudes <strong>and</strong> judgments. Many failed to realize th<strong>at</strong> a crusade was a two hundred year war were<br />
Romans slaughter millions of Muslims to retain Christian control over the world. (Crusades) Psychologist<br />
Stanley Milgram also concluded th<strong>at</strong> mentally healthy people can be lead to partake in heinous acts when<br />
encouraged by officials. Though Americans weren‘t told directly to mistre<strong>at</strong> Muslim <strong>and</strong> immigrant<br />
Americans, Bush‘s hint of having a crusade against terrorism, according to B<strong>and</strong>ura, is enough of a push<br />
to trigger neg<strong>at</strong>ive behavior. The New York Times found an increase of h<strong>at</strong>e acts towards Arab<br />
immigrants after 911. (After 911) Other immigrants were also stereotyped <strong>and</strong> mistre<strong>at</strong>ed because they<br />
looked similar to Middle Eastern immigrants.<br />
The Media can be used for entertainment on a rainy day or it can be a tool to subliminally mold<br />
the masses into believing wh<strong>at</strong> the rulers behind the media wants us to believe in. America has become<br />
so <strong>at</strong>tached to the media th<strong>at</strong> few are aware of the hold the entertainment world has on them. Traditional<br />
values have been replaced with a non-ceasing list of wants <strong>and</strong> needs. The structure of American society<br />
is causing minorities to be stereotyped as lazy <strong>and</strong> unwilling to learn. This so called ‗culture of poverty‘ is<br />
in reality the effects of the sticky floor affect, which limits minorities from excelling beyond expect<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
America, a country th<strong>at</strong> once thrived with the pride of being unique, is now a narcissistic country<br />
51
obsessed with outward appearance <strong>and</strong> continues to condone inequality. The country th<strong>at</strong> was once a<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ion under God, th<strong>at</strong> might have be indivisible, never provided liberty <strong>and</strong> justice for all.<br />
52
Work Cited<br />
Our Dime, Dustin. "Another 600 Million Wasted on Border Control." Our Dime. WorldPress. Web.<br />
"Europe Cringes <strong>at</strong> Bush 'crusade' against Terrorists / The Christian Science Monitor - CSMonitor.com."<br />
The Christian Science Monitor - CSMonitor.com. Web. 04 Feb. 2011.<br />
.<br />
ELLIOTT, ANDREA. "After 9/11, Arab-Americans Fear Police Acts, Study Finds." New York Times.<br />
New York Times. Web<br />
<strong>at</strong>lanticreview.org/archives/871-Americas-Cultural-Superiority.html<br />
www.us<strong>at</strong>oday.com/life/television/news/2006-09-21-homes-tv_x.htm<br />
newsone.com/n<strong>at</strong>ion/casey-gane-mccalla/top-5-fake-fox-news-racist-sc<strong>and</strong>als<br />
findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_n3_v87/ai_15969316<br />
wiki.answers.com/Q/Wh<strong>at</strong>_is_the_percentage_of_anorexia<br />
53
Seth Eck, Brielle Felo, Lauren McLain, Bloomsburg University<br />
African Americans in the Workplace<br />
Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion is an ongoing problem, not only in the United St<strong>at</strong>es, but in other countries as<br />
well. Th<strong>at</strong> is why we decided to focus our present<strong>at</strong>ion on African Americans in the Workplace. The<br />
purpose of this project is to discuss how African Americans are discrimin<strong>at</strong>ed against in the workplace,<br />
<strong>and</strong> how being discrimin<strong>at</strong>ed against has affected them. African Americans were affected by the 1964<br />
Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Act <strong>and</strong> were tre<strong>at</strong>ed differently before <strong>and</strong> after its passing. Stereotyping has affected<br />
African Americans from slavery <strong>and</strong> segreg<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> still does to this day. Ever since the l<strong>at</strong>e 1990s,<br />
there have been more African Americans to get into the higher positions of a company. Their core values,<br />
customs <strong>and</strong> cultural differences have played an important role in how they have succeeded in the<br />
workplace throughout the years.<br />
The theme of the Frederick Douglass conference was, ―<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>Home</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Abroad</strong>: <strong>Past</strong>,<br />
<strong>Present</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Future</strong>.‖ Our topic rel<strong>at</strong>es to this theme due to the fact th<strong>at</strong> we discuss driscrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against<br />
African Americans, <strong>and</strong> their rights within the workplace, <strong>and</strong> out of the workplace. We discuss the<br />
history of African Americans, regarding slavery in the past, wh<strong>at</strong> they deal with within the workplace<br />
(such as the glass ceiling), <strong>and</strong> how others can help elimin<strong>at</strong>e discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against them in the future.<br />
This is an important message for college students because, while they experience new people, cultures<br />
<strong>and</strong> races in their new environment, they can remember wh<strong>at</strong> we discussed in our present<strong>at</strong>ion about<br />
discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against African Americans. Our inform<strong>at</strong>ion can also help them when they enter the work<br />
force, regarding African Americans <strong>and</strong> how they are tre<strong>at</strong>ed in the workplace.<br />
Before the cre<strong>at</strong>ion of the 1964 Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Act, the African Americans were tre<strong>at</strong>ed horribly.<br />
They were tortured; they had no freedom, had to listen to <strong>and</strong> do wh<strong>at</strong> their masters said, <strong>and</strong> had no<br />
opportunities to do anything th<strong>at</strong> they pleased, unlike the Euro-Americans. A ―Euro-American‖ (or<br />
European American) is a citizen or resident of the United St<strong>at</strong>es who has origins in any of the original<br />
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countries of Europe <strong>and</strong> is the descendant of European immigrants (European American, 2011). Years<br />
l<strong>at</strong>er, in 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her se<strong>at</strong> on a bus, <strong>and</strong> was arrested. Her actions sparked<br />
protesting <strong>and</strong> boycotting (which Martin Luther King, Jr. was in charge of). This marked the day th<strong>at</strong><br />
many historians consider to be the beginning of the civil rights movement. A year after Martin Luther<br />
King Jr. started protesting, the bus system was desegreg<strong>at</strong>ed. He then gave his famous ―I Have a Dream‖<br />
speech in front of the Lincoln Memorial to various ethnic groups in 1963, a year before the act.<br />
The act was then cre<strong>at</strong>ed, <strong>and</strong> it st<strong>at</strong>ed many important issues regarding equality. Title seven of<br />
the 1964 Civil <strong>Rights</strong> Act cre<strong>at</strong>ed the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). They<br />
enforce laws th<strong>at</strong> prohibit discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion based on race, color, religion, etc. in hiring, promoting, firing<br />
<strong>and</strong> all other terms <strong>and</strong> conditions of employment (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
After the act, a poll was taken in 2003. It asked eight questions regarding equality <strong>and</strong> civil rights.<br />
One question asked African Americans <strong>and</strong> Euro-Americans if they agreed th<strong>at</strong>, ―Civil rights have gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
improved our lifetime.‖ 25% of African Americans agreed, while 48% of Euro-Americans agreed (Carr-<br />
Ruffino, 2009). This shows the difference in opinion between the African <strong>and</strong> Euro-Americans. The last<br />
question on the poll asked how much they agreed th<strong>at</strong> ―Euro-Americans have equal job opportunities.‖<br />
17% of African Americans agreed <strong>and</strong> 55% of Euro-Americans agreed (Carr-Ruffino, 2009). This<br />
question had the biggest gap (-38%) out of all of the questions, which is sad, because this shows th<strong>at</strong><br />
African Americans still, do not feel equal regarding job opportunities.<br />
While researching for this topic, we found an article from Boston‘s Bay St<strong>at</strong>e Banner Newspaper<br />
th<strong>at</strong> was written on February 24, 2011. The article was called, ―Are Companies Excluding Jobless from<br />
Applying?‖ It st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> some companies may be weeding out job applicants just because they‘re<br />
unemployed. The EEOC is trying to figure out whether this could viol<strong>at</strong>e federal job discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion laws<br />
or not. They‘re investig<strong>at</strong>ing whether excluding the unemployed may have a gre<strong>at</strong>er effect on African<br />
Americans, Hispanic Americans <strong>and</strong> other minorities th<strong>at</strong> tend to have higher jobless r<strong>at</strong>es. Helen Norton,<br />
a professor <strong>at</strong> the University of Colorado Law School said th<strong>at</strong> employers <strong>and</strong> staffing agencies have<br />
advertised jobs with the explicit restriction th<strong>at</strong> only currently employed c<strong>and</strong>id<strong>at</strong>es would be considered.<br />
55
The jobless r<strong>at</strong>e is 15.7% among African Americans. Therefore, this problem could have a gre<strong>at</strong>er effect<br />
on them. Officials are concerned th<strong>at</strong> this practice could hamper the government‘s efforts to help millions<br />
of unemployed people get back to work (Hananel, 2011).<br />
African Americans have been stereotyped throughout time. Mostly all of African American<br />
stereotypes come from the legacy of slavery <strong>and</strong> segreg<strong>at</strong>ion. In order to justify slavery, Euro-Americans<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>ed degrading stereotypes of Africans. Stereotypes are irr<strong>at</strong>ional beliefs towards a particular group of<br />
people. Euro-Americans observed an abused slave whose rage finally consumed him <strong>and</strong> who lashed out<br />
violently. After this Euro-Americans began saying th<strong>at</strong> African American men are violent. Even to this<br />
day, the stereotype of African Americans being violent still stays with them. A cultural custom th<strong>at</strong> may<br />
perpetu<strong>at</strong>e this stereotype is African American‘s preference for using direct confront<strong>at</strong>ion to resolve a<br />
conflict. Most Euro-Americans, Asian Americans <strong>and</strong> L<strong>at</strong>ino Americans prefer more indirect methods.<br />
This is why th<strong>at</strong> their actions are often seen as hostile. They like more face-to-face convers<strong>at</strong>ion when<br />
there is a problem <strong>and</strong> most people don‘t appreci<strong>at</strong>e this. The face-to-face conflict may make others<br />
nervous <strong>and</strong> out of their comfort zone. This action to African Americans is just being truthful <strong>and</strong><br />
assertive, but others find it as anger or rage. Even though African American men have more arrest <strong>and</strong><br />
convictions, doesn‘t mean th<strong>at</strong> they are more violent. There are a lot of other ways to go to jail th<strong>at</strong> have<br />
nothing to do with violent action <strong>at</strong> all (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
Another stereotype th<strong>at</strong> is given to most African Americans is th<strong>at</strong> they are less intelligent than<br />
other people. Reality is th<strong>at</strong> school grades <strong>and</strong> scores on tests like the SAT exam depend more on<br />
socioeconomic st<strong>at</strong>us than any other factor, including ethnicity. Children th<strong>at</strong> come from low-income<br />
households, <strong>and</strong> whose parents don‘t receive a gre<strong>at</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion, will get lower grades than others. Children<br />
whose parents receive a higher educ<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> have a gre<strong>at</strong>er income, will get higher grades in school.<br />
When the socioeconomic st<strong>at</strong>us goes up, in turn so do the children‘s grades. African Americans have<br />
different learning styles th<strong>at</strong> help them improve in school. They are better <strong>at</strong> recognizing rhythms <strong>and</strong><br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns than other cultures. They are better <strong>at</strong> doing oral projects, like presenting in front of the class,<br />
56
then having to take a written test. At the same socioeconomic level African Americans have higher<br />
aspir<strong>at</strong>ions to achieve a college degree than Euro-Americans do (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
The third stereotype th<strong>at</strong> African Americans are accused of is being lazy <strong>and</strong> irresponsible. It is<br />
said th<strong>at</strong> African Americans don‘t like to get jobs. How is this true when about the same proportion of<br />
African Americans as Euro-Americans hold jobs? This must mean th<strong>at</strong> Euro Americans are lazy too.<br />
Even though they work <strong>at</strong> some of the same jobs as Euro-Americans, African American men receive only<br />
70 percent of the pay. African American women receive 62 percent of the pay as Euro-Americans. They<br />
are historically stuck doing much of the hard labor th<strong>at</strong> helped establish the U.S. economy. This has not<br />
changed, because they are still stuck doing the industrial work, <strong>and</strong> working <strong>at</strong> down sized corpor<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
African Americans must work twice as hard <strong>and</strong> must stay in a position longer than normal workers just<br />
to prove they are not lazy <strong>and</strong> incompetent, <strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong> they can h<strong>and</strong>le the next assignment. Euro-<br />
Americans believe th<strong>at</strong> African Americans are too incompetent to h<strong>and</strong>le higher-level responsibilities;<br />
this is why they have to stay <strong>at</strong> their lower level positions longer (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
The last stereotype th<strong>at</strong> African Americans are accused of is being resentful troublemakers. This<br />
stereotype is rel<strong>at</strong>ed to the violent <strong>and</strong> blaming stereotypes. Most African American communities believe<br />
in speaking up assertively. Expressing your feelings th<strong>at</strong> you are feeling, <strong>and</strong> directly confronting issues<br />
are highly valued beliefs in the African American community. Th<strong>at</strong> is why people outside their<br />
community may believe they are being rude towards them. It is actually not meant to be the way th<strong>at</strong> they<br />
interpreted their feelings. Euro-Americans <strong>and</strong> African Americans act in different definitions of ethnic<br />
prejudice. African Americans might get up in your face to argue their case. Euro-Americans might take<br />
th<strong>at</strong> the wrong way <strong>and</strong> get defensive. They might start yelling <strong>at</strong> the African American, which in turn<br />
starts an argument between the two. The argument could either be verbal or violent. Either way this could<br />
look badly for the African American, <strong>and</strong> get the troublemaker stereotype. Even though it‘s not always<br />
their fault when trouble is caused, they get the wrong image because of the stereotype (Carr-Ruffino,<br />
2009).<br />
57
America has become more <strong>and</strong> more diverse, but the same cannot be said for the corpor<strong>at</strong>e part of<br />
America. Many African Americans have moved into better paying jobs, but still hit a glass ceiling when<br />
they move into the middle management positions. African Americans have had trouble breaking through<br />
the class ceiling their entire life. There are many obstacles th<strong>at</strong> they have to go through before they will be<br />
able to break through the glass ceiling. Many African Americans feel pressured to drop their identity to fit<br />
in. They feel pressured to become almost white in order to become accepted into the workplace. They<br />
believe th<strong>at</strong> they have to change their speech, the way they dress, <strong>and</strong> their hair in order to fit into the<br />
corpor<strong>at</strong>e culture. They also have to deal with their fellow employees believing they were just an<br />
affirm<strong>at</strong>ive action hire. Affirm<strong>at</strong>ive action is an <strong>at</strong>tempt to promote equal opportunity. It is instituted in<br />
government <strong>and</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion settings to ensure th<strong>at</strong> minority groups within a society are included in all<br />
programs (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
African Americans have all these barriers in breaking through, but once they do, they usually stay<br />
there. Once an African American family breaks the cycle of poverty <strong>and</strong> get adequ<strong>at</strong>e jobs, the cycle will<br />
stay for the entire family. The children will start doing better <strong>and</strong> school, which in turn will get a better<br />
educ<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> receive a higher income once they receive an occup<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
There are not a lot of African Americans th<strong>at</strong> broke the glass ceiling, but there is still a good<br />
amount th<strong>at</strong> pushed through. African Americans have been making it to the top position of Fortune 500<br />
companies since 1995. The top position of a Fortune 500 company is a CEO. Fortune 500 companies are<br />
the 500 largest corpor<strong>at</strong>ions in the U.S. They are ranked based on revenues, profits, <strong>and</strong> market value.<br />
Some of the people th<strong>at</strong> have received the CEO positions are Franklin Raines, Kenneth Chenault,<br />
Thomas-Graham, Richard Parsons, Stanley O‘Neal, Ann M. Fudge, <strong>and</strong> Ronald Williams. They are<br />
CEO‘s of places like American Express, CNBC, Time Warner, Merrill Lynch, Young & Rubicam<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> Sears Holding. Organiz<strong>at</strong>ions such as Executive Leadership Conference (ELC) have played a<br />
role in helping these people become CEOs. Two of these people are members <strong>and</strong> the other two are<br />
supporters. ELC contains 300 of the most senior African-American corpor<strong>at</strong>e executives in Fortune 500<br />
companies. ELC is trying to have more African Americans become leaders <strong>at</strong> all levels of corpor<strong>at</strong>e<br />
58
America. It is committed to offering executives access to leadership networks <strong>and</strong> career coaching so they<br />
can receive higher jobs <strong>and</strong> better income in the workplace (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
African Americans <strong>and</strong> Euro-Americans have similar <strong>and</strong> different worldviews. They are<br />
democr<strong>at</strong>ic societies, short term decision makers, arm‘s length communic<strong>at</strong>ion styles, <strong>and</strong> they rely on<br />
direct communic<strong>at</strong>ion techniques. Based on the history of the African Americans in the United St<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
their other views are different then Euro-Americans. Since the African Americans struggled with slavery<br />
for so many years they tend to be an ―I‘m controlled‖ culture, whereas Euro Americans are ―I control.‖<br />
African Americans rely on family, <strong>and</strong> put others before themselves. They have tight-ties with family<br />
members, along with other close friends. Euro-Americans are about themselves, <strong>and</strong> have loose ties with<br />
others. African Americans are a play it safe culture, <strong>and</strong> avoid risk, unlike Euro-Americans. They tend to<br />
focus more on wh<strong>at</strong> is happening in the present. Euro- Americans deal with time by taking things step-by-<br />
step. Economically, African Americans used to be very agricultural, but they are now shifting away from<br />
th<strong>at</strong>. Euro-Americans are in a post-industrial economic society (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
African Americans core values are sharing, expressing personal style, being real <strong>and</strong> genuine,<br />
being assertive, expressing feelings, bouncing back, <strong>and</strong> not trusting. Their value of sharing represents<br />
interrel<strong>at</strong>ing, interdependence, collectivism, <strong>and</strong> spirituality. Expressing personal style represents their<br />
individuality, <strong>and</strong> they focus on shapes <strong>and</strong> p<strong>at</strong>terns. They can recognize p<strong>at</strong>terns better than other<br />
cultures. African Americans are real <strong>and</strong> genuine because they learn the truth from direct experience <strong>and</strong><br />
can see the good <strong>and</strong> the bad. They belief th<strong>at</strong> if something bad happens to you, it is because you needed<br />
it to learn <strong>and</strong> grow. They are assertive because they st<strong>and</strong> up for their personal rights. They have a strong<br />
voice <strong>and</strong> angry verbal arguments. People often see this assertiveness as violence, blaming others, or<br />
being a troublemaker. They also express their feelings openly <strong>and</strong> verbal. They use expressive <strong>and</strong> direct<br />
forms of communic<strong>at</strong>ion. They negoti<strong>at</strong>e more loudly than others <strong>and</strong> are very anim<strong>at</strong>ed. African<br />
Americans tend to do better with oral responses than written responses. Other people see this expression<br />
as either anger or violence. Another value they have is their ability to bounce back <strong>and</strong> to be resilient. The<br />
revitaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of the African American culture can be shown through the older members. They have been<br />
59
through experiences th<strong>at</strong> the younger gener<strong>at</strong>ion has not. They are also not trusting with the<br />
establishment. This means th<strong>at</strong> they are less willing to trust Euro-Americans. Some will even try to avoid<br />
working with them. Many think before they speak because their words might make someone believe in a<br />
stereotype. Even though it is hard for them to trust Euro-Americans due to their past, many are taking a<br />
slow process a building trust with them (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
African American customs in their community life are centered on the church. The church plays<br />
an important role in providing social change for their community. They are leaders in the Civil <strong>Rights</strong><br />
Movement. They are also helping the underclass break out of poverty. There customs in family life<br />
involve their extended families. Their extended family includes people who they consider non-blood<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ives. These people are essential to the family. They believe th<strong>at</strong> anyone who has played a parental<br />
role in their life is a parent. This can be their actual parents <strong>and</strong> gr<strong>and</strong>parents, along with others in the<br />
community. Their personal rel<strong>at</strong>ionships involve acquaintances <strong>and</strong> friends. There acquaintances include<br />
co-workers <strong>and</strong> casual friends. They have four rules th<strong>at</strong> they follow when communic<strong>at</strong>ing with their<br />
acquaintances. They follow role prescriptions, they are polite, they w<strong>at</strong>ch their words, <strong>and</strong> they support<br />
their community members. Their rel<strong>at</strong>ionship with friends is more intim<strong>at</strong>e than Euro-Americans. They<br />
like to discuss school, work, religion, interests, hobbies, <strong>and</strong> physical condition. They focus on,<br />
acknowledging the individual, developing intimacy, being supportive, <strong>and</strong> appreci<strong>at</strong>ing the culture. In the<br />
African American culture women are considered sexually assertive <strong>and</strong> they aren‘t less respectable<br />
because of these traits. The men are more direct when they express their sexual interest <strong>and</strong> women do not<br />
get insulted by this (Carr-Ruffino, 2009).<br />
The Urban Village Concept is centered on the concept ―It takes a village to raise a child.‖ It is a<br />
combin<strong>at</strong>ion of the African culture <strong>and</strong> American values. They believe in economic empowerment. They<br />
achieve this through networking, mentoring, <strong>and</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>ive economics. Some African Americans also<br />
celebr<strong>at</strong>e Kwanza. Kwanza is used to honor their African heritage. It takes place from December 26<br />
through January 1. It is based on seven principles. These principles are unity, self-determin<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
60
collective work <strong>and</strong> responsibility, cooper<strong>at</strong>ive economics, purpose, cre<strong>at</strong>ivity, <strong>and</strong> faith (Carr-Ruffino,<br />
2009).<br />
Affirm<strong>at</strong>ive Action was designed to end unfair workplace discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against certain groups of<br />
people who have historically experienced discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion. It opened doors to better-paying jobs for<br />
minorities <strong>and</strong> women, which made them new competitors for jobs formerly held by Euro-American men.<br />
Affirm<strong>at</strong>ive Action requires employers to take action to bring in under-represented groups of people into<br />
better jobs. This increases the chances for a minority employee to actually get one of these jobs—without<br />
having to file a complaint. If a company doesn‘t meet its diversity goals, it is not penalized, as long as<br />
management can show th<strong>at</strong> they are making a good-faith effort to cre<strong>at</strong>e a diverse workforce (Carr-<br />
Ruffino, 2009).<br />
We conducted an interview with an African American leader, to get his perspectives <strong>and</strong><br />
experiences. He st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> it was challenging to work his way into his current position. Those challenges<br />
were no different than any other group would have experienced. He did not experience a glass ceiling<br />
because others have fought for decades to ensure his rights <strong>and</strong> equality, but he still had to work hard to<br />
get to the position he is in. When asked about stereotypes, he said th<strong>at</strong> they are difficult to fight, but th<strong>at</strong><br />
every group has them. The stereotype th<strong>at</strong> he has dealt with the most has been his ―being too young.‖<br />
With Affirm<strong>at</strong>ive Action an organiz<strong>at</strong>ion cannot hire someone based purely on their ethnicity. According<br />
to this African American leader, a person must meet qualific<strong>at</strong>ions for a position. After the hiring process,<br />
if the person they choose is of a different ethnicity, it will cre<strong>at</strong>e diversity in the workplace, but the person<br />
must still have the qualific<strong>at</strong>ions necessary for the job.<br />
Overall, our findings from researching our topic have helped us, <strong>and</strong> hopefully others as well,<br />
learn more about African Americans <strong>and</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> they deal with on a daily basis in the workplace. Whether<br />
it is stereotyping or trying to break through the glass ceiling, all ethnicities have dealt with these issues,<br />
including African Americans. We now have a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of wh<strong>at</strong> African Americans <strong>and</strong> those<br />
of other ethnicities have to deal with. We hope th<strong>at</strong> when we enter the workforce, we will be able to be<br />
better employees due to our research <strong>and</strong> knowledge on the topic of discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
61
Works Cited<br />
Carr-Ruffino, Norma. Managing Diversity. 8. Custom Publishing: Custom Publishing, 2009. 80-81, 141-<br />
153, 225-264. Print.<br />
European American. Wikipedia. Retrieved April 13, 2011, from<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_American<br />
Hananel , Sam. (2011, February 24). Are Companies Excluding Jobless from Applying?. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.bayst<strong>at</strong>ebanner.com/n<strong>at</strong>l18-2011-02-24<br />
Tidwell, Dr. Michael. Interview by Lauren McLain. April 12, 2011. Print. 24 Apr 2011.<br />
62
Morgann Goodling, Bloomsburg University<br />
Gay <strong>Rights</strong>: Discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> Acceptance<br />
Many people take their basic human rights for granted. In America for instance, there is one right<br />
th<strong>at</strong> people take advantage of over <strong>and</strong> over again. This is the right for two people to be married. Millions<br />
of people around the world get married; however imagine being someone who is not able to get married.<br />
Imagine being in love with someone <strong>and</strong> wanting to spend the rest of your life being married to this<br />
person, but an unwritten rule is denying this right to you. This is a circumstance th<strong>at</strong> both gay men <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbian women in the United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the United Kingdom have to deal with. Instead of marriage<br />
governments have decided to offer civil unions or civil partnerships. With this small step towards an<br />
equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of rights for homosexuals in both the United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the United Kingdom discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
seems to be disappearing, however much discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion is still in existence. As a result of both<br />
progression <strong>and</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion the topic of gay rights has become a very controversial issue in the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the United Kingdom; although when comparing the two countries it seems as though the<br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es has made this topic more deb<strong>at</strong>able <strong>and</strong> controversial compared to the United Kingdom.<br />
This deb<strong>at</strong>e between granting <strong>and</strong> denying rights to homosexuals is not always a black <strong>and</strong> white<br />
issue for everyone. Undoubtedly, this issue for many people is considered to be a gray one because they<br />
are not exactly sure how they feel about it. Their minds are constantly changing <strong>and</strong> most are beginning to<br />
believe th<strong>at</strong> all citizens including homosexuals should be granted all rights. However, many still think th<strong>at</strong><br />
homosexuals do not deserve these rights based solely on their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. According to Chris<br />
Cuomo, ―it is difficult to get a clear sense of the st<strong>at</strong>e of American lesbian <strong>and</strong> gay politics these days<br />
(2006, p. 75), <strong>and</strong> the same goes for the United Kingdom. There are those in the gray area who do not<br />
necessarily agree with the lifestyle of homosexuality, but they do not feel th<strong>at</strong> they have the right to tell<br />
someone how to live his or her life <strong>and</strong> say wh<strong>at</strong> rights they should be granted or denied. With these<br />
citizens starting to express their opinions more publicly there is a larger amount of people who are<br />
starting to change their minds on this issue.<br />
63
Those who believe homosexuals do not deserve rights have organized h<strong>at</strong>e groups. These groups<br />
have been developed by these inhabitants in order to spread their opinions around countries <strong>and</strong> to stop<br />
any type of progression being made. They believe any kind of sexual rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between two people of<br />
the same sex is wrong <strong>and</strong> it must be stopped.<br />
In recent years a shift has occurred concerning the opinions of gay rights <strong>and</strong> because of this,<br />
―disputes over gay rights policies have occupied a prominent place on the American public agenda in<br />
recent years‖ (Brewer, 2003, p.1208). This shift looks to have caused the topic of gay rights to be very<br />
controversial in both the U.S. <strong>and</strong> the U.K. With the issue of gay rights on the rise in recent years people<br />
are now expressing their opinions on this issue more than ever. People are strongly st<strong>at</strong>ing whether they<br />
agree or disagree with the lifestyle of homosexual individuals <strong>and</strong> couples. Citizens of both countries<br />
seem to be changing their ways of thinking <strong>and</strong> believe gay men <strong>and</strong> lesbian women should be granted all<br />
of the basic human rights given to heterosexuals without discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion. Paul Brewer provides<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion about a study th<strong>at</strong> was done in order to show this change in public opinion in the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es. Brewer explains, th<strong>at</strong> from as recent as thirty years ago most people believed th<strong>at</strong> any type of<br />
sexual rel<strong>at</strong>ions between any two people of the same sex was ―always wrong‖ <strong>and</strong> because of this ―there<br />
was a small increase in hostility toward homosexuality during this period‖ (2003, p.1208). Nevertheless,<br />
Brewer then goes on to say th<strong>at</strong> a couple of years l<strong>at</strong>er, around the year 1992, the ―hostility decreased<br />
rapidly‖ <strong>and</strong> people began to accept same-sex couples (2003, p.1208). Thanks to this shift in public<br />
opinions, government officials in the Unites St<strong>at</strong>es have started to acknowledge homosexuals as deserving<br />
of the same rights th<strong>at</strong> are given to heterosexuals. Gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians have started to gain many rights th<strong>at</strong><br />
allow them to live as though heterosexuals do.<br />
One right th<strong>at</strong> homosexuals now have is the right to adopt <strong>and</strong> foster children. This advancement<br />
is seen both in the U.S. <strong>and</strong> the United Kingdom. Badgett <strong>and</strong> his accompanied authors explain a few<br />
findings in the U.S.:<br />
More than 16,000 adopted children are living with lesbian <strong>and</strong> gay parents. Gay <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbian parents are raising four percent of all adopted children in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. An<br />
64
estim<strong>at</strong>ed 14,100 foster children are living with lesbian or gay parents. Gay <strong>and</strong> lesbian<br />
parents are raising three percent of foster children in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. (2010)<br />
These four findings prove th<strong>at</strong> the United St<strong>at</strong>es is improving in the ability of homosexuals to adopt <strong>and</strong><br />
foster the many children th<strong>at</strong> need a home. The government is allowing these willing individuals to give a<br />
child or children a warm <strong>and</strong> loving home. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, even with this progression there are still<br />
―three st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> currently restrict GLB (Gay Lesbian <strong>and</strong> Bi) individuals or couples from adopting‖,<br />
according to Badgett <strong>and</strong> his fellow authors (2010). Because these three st<strong>at</strong>es are still discrimin<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
GLB individuals <strong>and</strong> couples from adopting probably means th<strong>at</strong> other st<strong>at</strong>es might be thinking the same<br />
thing <strong>and</strong> might even consider going back to their old ways of discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion. St<strong>at</strong>es compare themselves<br />
to one another in seeing how governments are being run <strong>and</strong> how it affects its citizens. St<strong>at</strong>es want to see<br />
both the good <strong>and</strong> bad aspects of the other governments to make changes to their own in order to make it<br />
better. This could mean st<strong>at</strong>es changing their own laws to make themselves a better place, so why<br />
wouldn‘t they think about changing laws/rights for homosexuals. Undoubting, with new rights being<br />
given to homosexuals th<strong>at</strong> were once denied, this had added more fuel to the fire so to speak. Gay rights<br />
become more controversial with every change made <strong>and</strong> don‘t seem to be stopping any time soon. In<br />
comparison, the United Kingdom has had problems with homosexuals being able to be parents.<br />
According to Helen Cosis Brown <strong>and</strong> Shelia Kershaw, ―the notion th<strong>at</strong> lesbians <strong>and</strong> gay men, because of<br />
their sexual preference, were unsuitable to parent‖ (2008, p. 123). Gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians had problems<br />
adopting children <strong>and</strong> being denied the ability to don<strong>at</strong>e eggs <strong>and</strong> sperm to fertility clinics. These issues<br />
have developed due to some citizens not believing th<strong>at</strong> homosexuals had the ability to parent. This was<br />
the main concern for those individuals. This idea was thought because only one sex was available to be a<br />
parent (either two moms or two dads) <strong>and</strong> not one of each sex to parent the child. In their minds this type<br />
of family was not capable of raising a child because children need both a mom <strong>and</strong> a dad <strong>and</strong> without one<br />
or the other a child would not grow up ‗normal‘. Homosexuals were denied th<strong>at</strong> ability to adopt <strong>and</strong> foster<br />
children because of their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> not their abilities to parent. Brown <strong>and</strong> Kershaw of the<br />
U.K. report:<br />
65
Prior to the Civil Partnership Act 2004 coming into force, only single people <strong>and</strong> married<br />
couples could jointly adopt a child. Now, lesbian <strong>and</strong> gay couples can demonstr<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong><br />
their partnership is an ‗enduring family rel<strong>at</strong>ionship‘ [Sec. 144(4), ACA, 2002], they have<br />
a legitim<strong>at</strong>e right to adopt a child jointly as a couple. (2008, p.127)<br />
The act allows homosexuals from all over the n<strong>at</strong>ion to parent, which proves th<strong>at</strong> the topic of gay rights is<br />
not as controversial in this n<strong>at</strong>ion as it is in the United St<strong>at</strong>es because some st<strong>at</strong>es in the still continue to<br />
deny this right to same-sex couples <strong>and</strong> homosexual individuals. As a result homosexuals are now<br />
capable of adopting <strong>and</strong> fostering children. Homosexuals from both countries have almost completely<br />
risen above the issue of gay parenting even though some discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion still exists in the United St<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
Thanks to laws/rights changing homosexual couples are now legally capable of providing children in<br />
orphanages <strong>and</strong> fostering centers the home/family, love, <strong>and</strong> support th<strong>at</strong> they deserve <strong>and</strong> have always<br />
wanted. However, this amazing triumph is not the only right th<strong>at</strong> gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians have overcome in<br />
recent years. More have followed.<br />
Another discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion making the topic of gay rights so controversial are the rights for gays <strong>and</strong><br />
lesbians to be involved in the workforce equally <strong>and</strong> the ability to serve in the armed forces equally. In the<br />
Unites St<strong>at</strong>es gay men <strong>and</strong> lesbian women are now protected from this discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion just like<br />
heterosexuals have been for many years. They cannot be turned away from a job or fired from a job based<br />
solely on their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. Many gay individuals were once unwelcome to work in certain<br />
establishments because of their sexual preference. People in charge of these establishments thought th<strong>at</strong><br />
gay individuals would corrupt their place of work <strong>and</strong> make outsiders not want to be associ<strong>at</strong>ed with th<strong>at</strong><br />
type of business. The biggest turn around th<strong>at</strong> homosexuals have seen in the work force is the right for<br />
them to serve their country in the armed forces yet, this turnaround has been consistent in keeping the<br />
topic of gay rights controversial. This turnaround was the repeal of the Don‘t Ask Don‘t Tell Policy<br />
which was set into place by the Clinton administr<strong>at</strong>ion. The policy allowed for both gay men <strong>and</strong> lesbian<br />
women to serve in any branch of the armed forces without having to disclose their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. A<br />
person was not able to make their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion known because if it became public news the<br />
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individual would be dismissed. It does not make sense th<strong>at</strong> a person would be dismissed from the armed<br />
forces because of their sexual preference when they are physically <strong>and</strong> mentally capable of serving the<br />
country. They have the same training <strong>and</strong> abilities as everyone else serving, but for one small reason they<br />
are incapable of serving their country. Recently the Don‘t Ask Don‘t Tell policy was repealed which now<br />
means th<strong>at</strong> gay men <strong>and</strong> lesbian women can openly serve in the any branch of the American Armed<br />
Forces (Berger, 2010). The United Kingdom in comparison has also in the past discrimin<strong>at</strong>ed against<br />
people based on their sexual preference.<br />
Just like the in the United St<strong>at</strong>es the United Kingdom would not hire someone if their sexual<br />
orient<strong>at</strong>ion was known prior to hiring on the other h<strong>and</strong>, this topic does not seem to be very controversial<br />
anymore. Brown <strong>and</strong> Kershaw illustr<strong>at</strong>e, ―unlike protection given to individuals on gender to racial<br />
grounds, there was no protection through legisl<strong>at</strong>ion on the grounds of sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion‖ (2008, p. 124).<br />
This quote demonstr<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> this topic was once controversial, but the n<strong>at</strong>ion has overcome this form of<br />
discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against homosexuals <strong>and</strong> has seemed to elimin<strong>at</strong>e the tension th<strong>at</strong> was once present. The<br />
United N<strong>at</strong>ions armed forces have no discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against homosexuals serving. Everyone is tre<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
equally <strong>and</strong> no law exists to deny gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians this ability. Because no law exists making it illegal<br />
for homosexuals to serve in the armed forces it reinst<strong>at</strong>es the fact th<strong>at</strong> the United St<strong>at</strong>es is more<br />
controversial. The U.S. still is having issues with homosexuals serving in the armed forces even with the<br />
repeal of the Don‘t Ask Don‘t Tell Policy. This progression has allowed both gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians the ability<br />
to benefit from the protection allowing this type of discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion from happening. Homosexuals are able<br />
to be openly gay in the workforce <strong>and</strong> in serve in the armed forces without having to worry about being<br />
dismissed just because of their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. Even though it appears th<strong>at</strong> both the United Kingdom<br />
<strong>and</strong> the United St<strong>at</strong>es are equalizing gay rights, one right is still not a reality for them.<br />
With progression in both allowing homosexuals the ability to parent <strong>and</strong> also the rights to work<br />
<strong>and</strong> serve in the armed forces without discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion, same-sex marriage is the main reason th<strong>at</strong> the topic<br />
of gay rights is incredibly controversial in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. Marriage is a very common in the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es. The Universal Declar<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> allows for anyone (who is the legal age to marry) the<br />
67
ability to be married without any form of discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion, but for some reason same-sex couples have been<br />
left out of this right. Marriage is not a realistic thing to them. The right for homosexuals to marry has not<br />
yet happened in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. This is the one basic human right th<strong>at</strong> seems to be unchanging for<br />
homosexuals in the U.S. <strong>and</strong> causing this extremely controversial topic to be never ending. It seems th<strong>at</strong><br />
no m<strong>at</strong>ter wh<strong>at</strong> is being done to overturn this provision against homosexuals the right for these couples to<br />
marry is still being denied to them. Same-sex couples do not have the option to be married based solely<br />
on their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. Richard Mohr the author of the book The Long Arc of Justice: Lesbians <strong>and</strong><br />
Gay Marriage, Equality And <strong>Rights</strong> st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> ―paradigm<strong>at</strong>ic of the denial of queer equality is the<br />
indignity of offering the consol<strong>at</strong>ion prize of ‗civil unions‘ r<strong>at</strong>her than marriage for same-sex couples‖<br />
(Cuomo, 2007, p.83). Chris Cuomo also quotes Mohr by saying, ―the full right to gay marriage as a<br />
remedy th<strong>at</strong> would establish an important freedom but also help establish dignity, by removing the<br />
indignity of th<strong>at</strong> secondary st<strong>at</strong>us, <strong>and</strong> forced complicity with legal structures th<strong>at</strong> maintain inequality‖<br />
(2007, p. 84). Some st<strong>at</strong>es in the United St<strong>at</strong>es seems to think th<strong>at</strong> by offering civil unions to same-sex<br />
couples instead of marriages th<strong>at</strong> it would silence the voices of those who believe same-sex couples<br />
should be able to be considered a legally joined couple. Did those governments really think th<strong>at</strong> this<br />
would happen? Marriage is recognized throughout the entire country <strong>and</strong> is protected by federal laws<br />
while civil unions are only protected under the laws of the st<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> they live in, which has to be a st<strong>at</strong>e<br />
th<strong>at</strong> recognizes civil unions. Another fact about civil unions is th<strong>at</strong> these couples have no way of<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ed once committing to each other. People who are married have the option of divorce, where as<br />
once two people join a civil union there is no way to elimin<strong>at</strong>e their agreement to each other. Another<br />
difference between marriages <strong>and</strong> civil unions is th<strong>at</strong> since the federal government does not recognize<br />
civil unions, same-sex couples must fill out forms as a single family <strong>and</strong> not as partners. This separ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
establishes th<strong>at</strong> some of the American people cannot come to an agreement th<strong>at</strong> everyone, including<br />
homosexuals, should have the same human rights.<br />
The United Kingdom‘s government appears to have similar beliefs he issue of same-sex marriage<br />
as the United St<strong>at</strong>es. It looks as if this basic human right is the only one th<strong>at</strong> homosexuals are still be<br />
68
denied <strong>and</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ed against. Same-sex couples only have the opportunity to be in civil partnerships<br />
<strong>and</strong> not marriage. Brown <strong>and</strong> Kershaw make it clear th<strong>at</strong> ―the legisl<strong>at</strong>ion grants legal st<strong>at</strong>us to lesbian <strong>and</strong><br />
gay partnerships, the government made it very clear th<strong>at</strong> the Act was an equality measure, <strong>and</strong> not an<br />
introduction of same-sex marriages‖ (2008, p.127). How can the government really think th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
introduction of civil partnerships is going to make the topic of gay rights stop? The denial of same-sex<br />
marriage proves th<strong>at</strong> it is not an equality measure, but discrimin<strong>at</strong>ions on wh<strong>at</strong> human rights a<br />
homosexual is able to have. Civil partnerships work similarly to civil unions in the U.S. However, civil<br />
unions do contain many differences. To begin, civil partnerships entitle the couple to the same tre<strong>at</strong>ments<br />
<strong>and</strong> benefits given to any type of married couple. Also unlike in the United St<strong>at</strong>es, same-sex couples are<br />
allowed to get a divorce just like any heterosexual couple is allowed to. In the United Kingdom civil<br />
partnerships are recognized everywhere. This means th<strong>at</strong> the couple does not have to worry about going<br />
to a certain area of the n<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> not being recognized as a legal partnership, unlike in the United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
where only certain st<strong>at</strong>es recognize civil unions. The Civil Partnership Act allows for the same tre<strong>at</strong>ment<br />
of gay <strong>and</strong> lesbian couples the same way heterosexual couples are tre<strong>at</strong>ed (Brown <strong>and</strong> Kershaw, 2008,<br />
p.127). This is good news for same-sex couples because equal tre<strong>at</strong>ment allows them to feel comfortable<br />
with themselves <strong>and</strong> able to love whoever they want <strong>and</strong> not have to worry about someone tre<strong>at</strong>ing them<br />
differently. Brown <strong>and</strong> Kershaw explain:<br />
Whilst the civil partnership is distinct from marriage, it enables lesbian <strong>and</strong> gay couples<br />
legal oblig<strong>at</strong>ion, rights <strong>and</strong> responsibilities as married couples. Amongst other things, this<br />
means th<strong>at</strong> once lesbian <strong>and</strong> gay couples have registered their partnership, as ‗civil<br />
partnerships‘ they are tre<strong>at</strong>ed in the same way as married couples for the purpose of<br />
benefits, pension rights, protection from domestic violence, as well as being legally able<br />
to inherit part of their deceased partners est<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> be recognized as their partner‘s next<br />
of kin. (2008, p.127)<br />
These st<strong>at</strong>ements provide same-sex couples with a sense of comfortably with their rel<strong>at</strong>ionship <strong>and</strong> do not<br />
have to worry about being tre<strong>at</strong>ed any differently then heterosexual couples. Even though civil<br />
69
partnerships are not marriage, civil partnerships help calm the controversy of gay rights <strong>and</strong> help to make<br />
homosexuals more equal to heterosexuals. However, conflicting ideas of wh<strong>at</strong> gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians should<br />
be able to do are still in exist.<br />
The conflicting opinions of people are the reason why controversy on this topic seems to cause<br />
the most problems with this topic. Many citizens in both United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the United Kingdom hope th<strong>at</strong><br />
sometime in the near future their governments will allow same-sex marriages to happen. If civil unions<br />
<strong>and</strong> civil partnerships are already permitted to same-sex couples with most of the same opportunities <strong>and</strong><br />
benefits, wh<strong>at</strong> does it m<strong>at</strong>ter if gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians were legally allowed to marry? This is only making<br />
another distinction between heterosexuals <strong>and</strong> homosexuals saying th<strong>at</strong> heterosexuals are the primary<br />
group granted all human rights while homosexuals are a secondary group who are only granted certain<br />
rights. Same-sex couples in the United St<strong>at</strong>es are hoping for their civil unions to be recognized n<strong>at</strong>ionally<br />
if gay marriage is nowhere in sight. Both st<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> federal governments should be more open to these<br />
couples are realize they are just like everyone else <strong>and</strong> who they love shouldn‘t make them bad <strong>and</strong><br />
unwilling to be tre<strong>at</strong>ed like every other citizen. To those who do not believe gay men <strong>and</strong> lesbian women<br />
should not be granted rights believe same-sex rel<strong>at</strong>ionships are wrong <strong>and</strong> therefore do not deserve to be<br />
tre<strong>at</strong>ed like everyone else.<br />
To some, gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians are thought to be going against the n<strong>at</strong>ural order of life. These<br />
couples are not able to have children n<strong>at</strong>urally together <strong>and</strong> therefore are going against n<strong>at</strong>ure. This is<br />
thought of as wrong to some people <strong>and</strong> because of this homosexuals should are going against wh<strong>at</strong><br />
n<strong>at</strong>ure is telling them to do. These people also believe th<strong>at</strong> since two people of the same sex cannot<br />
n<strong>at</strong>urally have children then why should they be able to get married when to them th<strong>at</strong> is wh<strong>at</strong> marriage is<br />
for. Marriage is to produce children <strong>and</strong> without same-sex couples being able o do this same-sex marriage<br />
has no purpose. With these opinions on gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians so well known it is not farfetched to be believe<br />
th<strong>at</strong> these opinions are responsible for the controversy <strong>and</strong> denial of rights/discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion. However with<br />
a recent change in opinions it has affected the recognition of gay rights. With this recent recognition of<br />
the homosexual lifestyle many support groups have began to develop <strong>and</strong> more equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of rights<br />
70
have come into existence. The supporters of gay rights have placed into act the Liberal Movement, which<br />
according to Michael LaRegina, ―calls for equal rights for homosexuals‖ (1997). This movement works<br />
towards gaining all rights for homosexual Americans th<strong>at</strong> are currently given to heterosexual Americans.<br />
Michael LaRegina also st<strong>at</strong>es, ―they (homosexuals) are being denied rights which they do not deserve, but<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her to which they are entitled as citizens <strong>and</strong> human beings‖ (1997). LaRegina recognizes th<strong>at</strong> just<br />
because a person has a homosexual lifestyle does not mean th<strong>at</strong> they do not have the right to be granted<br />
the same human rights th<strong>at</strong> people living the heterosexual lifestyle are entitled to. The United Kingdom<br />
also has many Acts <strong>and</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>ions set in place to make the equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of human rights more likely.<br />
Some examples include: the Equality Act (Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion) Regul<strong>at</strong>ions, The Fostering Services<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Minimum St<strong>and</strong>ards, <strong>and</strong> the Embryology <strong>and</strong> Fertiliz<strong>at</strong>ion Act (EFA) (Brown & Kershaw,<br />
2008, p.123-124). All of these work to make the chance of equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion more likely. They allow for<br />
homosexuals to have the rights described for them in these documents have helped with the equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of all people.<br />
The Equality Act (Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion) Regul<strong>at</strong>ions ―make it illegal to discrimin<strong>at</strong>e on the grounds<br />
of sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion in the provision of goods, facilities <strong>and</strong> services‖ (Brown &Kershaw, 2008, p.122).<br />
This act acknowledges homosexuals are being the same as everyone else <strong>and</strong> helps to insure th<strong>at</strong> they are<br />
tre<strong>at</strong>ed with the same respect. This means th<strong>at</strong> all social services such as restaurants <strong>and</strong> stores must not<br />
discrimin<strong>at</strong>e someone because of their sexuality. It helps to protect them. The Fostering Services N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Minimum St<strong>and</strong>ards allows for same-sex couples to adopt <strong>and</strong> foster children. Capable same-sex couples<br />
are able to provide a home to the children living in orphanages the home they want, need <strong>and</strong> deserve.<br />
Another act, the Embryology <strong>and</strong> Fertiliz<strong>at</strong>ion Act, permits the capability of gay men <strong>and</strong> lesbian women<br />
to don<strong>at</strong>e eggs <strong>and</strong> sperm to fertility tre<strong>at</strong>ments. This was once denied to homosexuals because there were<br />
people who believed homosexual contained tainted sperm <strong>and</strong> eggs <strong>and</strong> if they were used all of the<br />
children resulting would also be homosexual. This was not ideal to the public, but luckily the law was<br />
overturned <strong>and</strong> now homosexuals have this ability. Other forms of support besides acts <strong>and</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
exist.<br />
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Another form of support th<strong>at</strong> exists in the United St<strong>at</strong>es for homosexuals <strong>and</strong> gay rights is Pride<br />
Month (June). Pride Month was organized in order to celebr<strong>at</strong>e the movement <strong>and</strong> progression towards<br />
the equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of homosexuals to heterosexuals. Secretary of St<strong>at</strong>e, Hillary Rodham Clinton, spoke <strong>at</strong> a<br />
conference during Pride Month <strong>and</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> advances have been made in order to equalize rights for<br />
same-sex couples, however she also knows, ―th<strong>at</strong> there is still a lot of work to be done but th<strong>at</strong> we are<br />
moving in the right direction‖ (2010). Hillary Clinton is a very powerful <strong>and</strong> influence person in<br />
government right now <strong>and</strong> she has a big influence on people. It is refreshing to see th<strong>at</strong> not everyone<br />
currently in government agrees with the current discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion of homosexuals. However, she knows th<strong>at</strong><br />
the U.S. is on the right track to acknowledging gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians as equal American citizens <strong>and</strong> therefore<br />
they should be entitled to the same human rights. Sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion should not be the reason why certain<br />
individuals are not allowed to have rights. Wh<strong>at</strong> does it m<strong>at</strong>ter who someone loves? America is based on<br />
freedom, so why should sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion keep homosexuals from true freedom? It makes no sense but<br />
there are plenty of American citizens who believe homosexuality is wrong <strong>and</strong> with this they have<br />
organized h<strong>at</strong>e groups in order to try <strong>and</strong> stop with equality act.<br />
When it comes to the lives of homosexuals, people seem to be putting their own personal beliefs<br />
<strong>and</strong> opinions before the rights <strong>and</strong> freedoms th<strong>at</strong> should be guaranteed to all citizens in the United St<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
Even with acknowledgement of gay rights <strong>and</strong> its many supporters, many h<strong>at</strong>e groups still exist. Currently<br />
in the U.S. there are many h<strong>at</strong>e groups who try <strong>and</strong> diminish the progress th<strong>at</strong> has been made towards<br />
equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of all people. Evelyn Schl<strong>at</strong>ter, the author of 18 Anti-Gay Groups <strong>and</strong> Their Propag<strong>and</strong>a,<br />
st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong>: ―the Abiding Truth Ministries serves mainly as a launching pad for an intern<strong>at</strong>ional anti-gay<br />
campaign‖, in which founder Scott Lively believes th<strong>at</strong> homosexuality is linked to the Nazi Party (2010).<br />
Also, Evelyn Schl<strong>at</strong>ter explains th<strong>at</strong> another h<strong>at</strong>e group is the ―American Family Associ<strong>at</strong>ion‖ in which<br />
they ―seek to support traditional moral values, but in recent years it has seemed to specialize in comb<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
the homosexual agenda‖ (2010). It does not seem to m<strong>at</strong>ter the amount of progression th<strong>at</strong> is being made<br />
in the U.S., many h<strong>at</strong>e groups are continuing to exist <strong>and</strong> express their opinions <strong>and</strong> beliefs louder than<br />
ever. By these groups making their opinions <strong>and</strong> beliefs so well known it is no wonder th<strong>at</strong> gay rights in<br />
72
the U.S. have become very controversial. These conflicting opinions have caused many deb<strong>at</strong>es<br />
concerning gay rights <strong>and</strong> have most likely halted true equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of homosexuals to heterosexuals. The<br />
members of these groups want to go back to the time when homosexuals were not given the rights they<br />
are given today. In comparison, the United Kingdom does not go without any form of h<strong>at</strong>red towards<br />
homosexuals.<br />
According to Brown <strong>and</strong> Kershaw, ―One of the many problems th<strong>at</strong> lesbians <strong>and</strong> gay men faced<br />
was violence <strong>and</strong> harassment‖ (2008, p.125). This is a result of people still wanting to deny human rights<br />
to homosexuals. It is not something th<strong>at</strong> should be taken lightly. ―Nor is it unknown for young lesbians<br />
<strong>and</strong> gay men to leave home because of their parents‘ abusive or hostile <strong>at</strong>titudes towards them‖ (Brown &<br />
Kershaw, 2008, p.125). Children should not have to worry about their parents be<strong>at</strong>ing them because of<br />
their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. Parents should love their children no m<strong>at</strong>ter wh<strong>at</strong>. No child wants to live in fear<br />
th<strong>at</strong> their parents are going to abuse them because they like the same sex. It is nice to see th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
Domestic Violence, Crimes, <strong>and</strong> Victims Act helps to keep this from happening (Brown & Kershaw,<br />
2008, P.125). However, even though is act is set in place to protect these victims it does not mean th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
violence <strong>and</strong> harassment has stopped. No one knows wh<strong>at</strong> happens behind doors, but this act hopefully<br />
controls the violence better. This has caused the government to set laws into place to help protect gay men<br />
<strong>and</strong> lesbians from the horrendous acts of violence th<strong>at</strong> they are likely to experience.<br />
It is not a mystery th<strong>at</strong> the issue of gay rights has sparked a huge controversy in the United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
<strong>and</strong> the United Kingdom. This controversy has made it difficult to equalize homosexuals in both<br />
countries, but the United St<strong>at</strong>es has made this issue more controversial. The United Kingdom has more<br />
acts <strong>and</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>ions set in place to help equalize homosexuals while the United St<strong>at</strong>es has some<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ions set in place, but more deb<strong>at</strong>e on this topic exists here. Some of the acts to equalize<br />
homosexuals allow for gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians the right to adopt <strong>and</strong> foster children <strong>and</strong> the ability for them to<br />
work <strong>and</strong> serve in the armed forces without discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion based on sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. However, h<strong>at</strong>red<br />
still exists causing extreme controversy. H<strong>at</strong>e groups, violence <strong>and</strong> harassment exist making it difficult to<br />
come to an agreement on gay rights. Also, discrimin<strong>at</strong>ions, such as the denial of marriage to same-sex<br />
73
couples, exist solely because some people believe th<strong>at</strong> any type of same-sex rel<strong>at</strong>ions is wrong <strong>and</strong><br />
therefore these people should not be provided with rights th<strong>at</strong> make them equal to everyone else. There<br />
are citizens in both the United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> United Kingdom th<strong>at</strong> are letting their personal beliefs <strong>and</strong><br />
opinions in the way of allowing homosexuals human rights th<strong>at</strong> are laid out in the Universal Declar<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>. This declar<strong>at</strong>ion provides rights th<strong>at</strong> should be given to all people. Unless an agreement<br />
is formed homosexuals will be thought of as a secondary group of people not deserving of rights <strong>and</strong><br />
equality to heterosexuals who are considered to be the primary group.<br />
74
Reference Page<br />
Badgett, L.M.V., & Chambers, K., & G<strong>at</strong>es, G., & Macomber, J. E. (2010). Adoption <strong>and</strong> Foster Care by<br />
Lesbian <strong>and</strong> Gay Parents in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. Urban Institute. Retrieved April 4, 2011 from:<br />
http://www.urban.org/public<strong>at</strong>ions/411437.html<br />
Berger, J. (2010). Sen<strong>at</strong>e Repeals Ban Against Openly Gay Military Personnel. The New York Times.<br />
Retrieved April 4, 2011 from: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/12/us/politics/19cong.html<br />
Brewer, P.R. (2003). The Shifting Found<strong>at</strong>ions of Public Opinion about Gay <strong>Rights</strong>. The Journal of<br />
Politics, 65(4), 1208-12220.<br />
Brown, H.C., & Kershaw, S. (2008). The Legal Context for Social Work with Lesbians <strong>and</strong> Gay Men in<br />
the UK: Upd<strong>at</strong>ing the Educ<strong>at</strong>ional Context. Social Work Educ<strong>at</strong>ion, 27, 122-130.<br />
Doi:10.1111/j.1468-0468-0432.2004.00231.x<br />
Clinton, H. (2010). Remarks <strong>at</strong> an Event Celebr<strong>at</strong>ing Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, <strong>and</strong> Transgender (LGBT)<br />
Month. U.S. Department of St<strong>at</strong>e: Diplomacy in Action. Retrieved March 2, 2011 from:<br />
http://www.st<strong>at</strong>e.gov/secretary/rm/2010/06/143517.htm<br />
Cuomo, C. (2006). Dignity <strong>and</strong> the Right to Be Lesbian or Gay. Philosophical Studies: An Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition, 132(1), 75-85.<br />
Divorce R<strong>at</strong>es in America. Marriage 101. Retrieved April 4, 2011 from: http://marriage101.org/divorce-<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es-in-america/<br />
LaRegina, M. (1997). The Struggle for Gay <strong>Rights</strong> in America. The West: Enlightenment to <strong>Present</strong>.<br />
Retrieved March 2, 2011 from: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/laregina-gayrights.html<br />
Schl<strong>at</strong>ter, E. (2010). 18 Anti-Gay Groups <strong>and</strong> Their Propag<strong>and</strong>a. SPLC: Southern Poverty Law Center.<br />
Retrieved March 22, 2011 from: http://splccenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-<br />
issues/2010/winter/the-hard-liners<br />
75
Moira Jefferson, Kutztown University<br />
Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Since the end of the l<strong>at</strong>e 1800‘s, men brought <strong>at</strong>tention to the destruction of n<strong>at</strong>ural resources. As<br />
more people continued to conquer uninhabited wilderness, men became increasingly concerned for the<br />
exploit<strong>at</strong>ion of n<strong>at</strong>ural resources. As countries progress, preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of n<strong>at</strong>ural resources align with the<br />
issue of human rights because we depend on n<strong>at</strong>ural resources to survive. Moreover, the controversy over<br />
conserv<strong>at</strong>ion is a topic of interest when referenced to human rights mainly because it opens up the<br />
discussion of whether humans should have a h<strong>and</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong>tempting to manipul<strong>at</strong>e n<strong>at</strong>ure for optional energy<br />
sources.<br />
Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion involves the act of preserving n<strong>at</strong>ural resources such as forest <strong>and</strong> lakes<br />
(―Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion,‖ Oxford English Dictionary). The act of conserving n<strong>at</strong>ural resources did not concern<br />
many Americans until settlers began moving out west during the l<strong>at</strong>e 1800‘s. One of the first men who<br />
played a major roll in conserving America‘s n<strong>at</strong>ural beauty was John Muir. In the following years, a<br />
middle-aged man became increasingly aware of the destruction of wh<strong>at</strong> he loved so much. The middle-<br />
aged man, in 1901, became the President of the United St<strong>at</strong>es. Theodore Roosevelt implemented<br />
legisl<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> protected many l<strong>and</strong>s. Nonetheless, the importance of conserving n<strong>at</strong>ural resources, not<br />
only in America but other countries as well, includes the preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of many indigenous species <strong>and</strong><br />
benefits of the ecology. Although it may cost taxpayers to conserve n<strong>at</strong>ural resources, with the<br />
establishment of n<strong>at</strong>ional parks <strong>and</strong> non-profit found<strong>at</strong>ions, money is gener<strong>at</strong>ed into the economy. Finally,<br />
a major impact on protecting the wilderness involves preserving the n<strong>at</strong>ural beauty, which encompasses<br />
the world.<br />
When gold was discovered out west during the mid 1800‘s, many people began to settle the west<br />
for longer periods of time. However, it was not just their settling which impacted the l<strong>and</strong>, it also was the<br />
mining business, which kept towns aflo<strong>at</strong>. Mining was considered a large business th<strong>at</strong> had a ―basic<br />
80
dynamic th<strong>at</strong> encouraged rapid <strong>and</strong> thorough exploit<strong>at</strong>ion of the earth‘s resources‖ (Nash, 521). Along<br />
with large scale mining, came the transport<strong>at</strong>ion means, which also contributed to the destruction of<br />
forests. Railroads, as well as mining, depended largely on wood in order to stabilize mines <strong>and</strong> transport<br />
the goods on railroads to markets. Document<strong>at</strong>ion from ―California St<strong>at</strong>e Board of Agriculture estim<strong>at</strong>[es]<br />
in the l<strong>at</strong>e 1860s th<strong>at</strong> one-third of the st<strong>at</strong>e‘s forests had already disappeared‖ (521).<br />
During the time the Timber <strong>and</strong> Stone Act was being passed through legisl<strong>at</strong>ion, John Muir<br />
argued for the preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of the country‘s n<strong>at</strong>ural beauty. His philosophy was to ―climb the mountains<br />
<strong>and</strong> get their good tidings. N<strong>at</strong>ure‘s peace will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will<br />
blow their own freshness into you, <strong>and</strong> the storms their energy, while cares will drop off like autumn<br />
leaves‖ (Our N<strong>at</strong>ional Parks, 1). Muir <strong>and</strong> his followers also believed ―preserving the wilderness was a<br />
spiritual <strong>and</strong> psychological necessity for over-civilized residents‖ (Nash, 651). Thus, he was gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
against the destruction the lumber <strong>and</strong> mining businesses caused to n<strong>at</strong>ural resources <strong>and</strong> the profits they<br />
gained.<br />
In 1890, after coming across the Gre<strong>at</strong> Valley of California, his efforts to preserve the ―‘all one<br />
sheet of plant gold, hazy <strong>and</strong> vanishing in the distance…‘‖ persuaded President Harrison to pass the<br />
Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which classified certain domains of public l<strong>and</strong> as forest reserves (521). The<br />
most notable n<strong>at</strong>ional reserve, which Muir helped to cre<strong>at</strong>e, is known as Yosemite N<strong>at</strong>ional Park. Two<br />
years after Yosemite N<strong>at</strong>ional Park was founded, Muir established <strong>and</strong> was inaugur<strong>at</strong>ed as the first<br />
president of the Sierra Club. The mission of the Sierra Club members is to protect <strong>and</strong> promote the use of<br />
eco-friendly appliances in order to protect the loveliness of the wilderness surrounding us all. Members of<br />
the club protect, promote, <strong>and</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>e others of the destruction of the wilderness in ways, which are<br />
lawfully abiding as to not demean the club. With his ―back-to-n<strong>at</strong>ure‖ philosophies, John Muir‘s ideas<br />
<strong>and</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ions for preserving America‘s n<strong>at</strong>ural beauty gre<strong>at</strong>ly influenced millions <strong>and</strong> continue to be<br />
practiced each year.<br />
At the turn of the century, Americans elected an outdoorsman <strong>and</strong> n<strong>at</strong>uralist Theodore Roosevelt<br />
as president.. Although he had many achievements during his presidency, the ones he cherished the most<br />
81
were the ones in which he developed many conserv<strong>at</strong>ion programs. Under his presidency, Roosevelt<br />
―tripled the l<strong>and</strong> set aside for n<strong>at</strong>ional forests, bringing the total to more than 150 million acres‖ (Nash,<br />
650). While tripling the l<strong>and</strong> for n<strong>at</strong>ional forests, President Roosevelt also established ―150 n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
parks, 51 federal bird preserv<strong>at</strong>ions, 4 game preserves, 5 n<strong>at</strong>ional parks‖ <strong>and</strong> many more preserv<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
(Theodore Roosevelt Associ<strong>at</strong>ion). Roosevelt also founded the N<strong>at</strong>ional Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion Commission to<br />
take an inventory of all the n<strong>at</strong>ural resources in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. Although he was known as a master<br />
hunter, Roosevelt felt it necessary to respect the animals <strong>and</strong> develop game preserves to save animals<br />
from becoming extinct in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. His acts of conserving upset big businesses due to the fact<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Roosevelt did not feed into their briberies. R<strong>at</strong>her, he continued to protect the wilderness because he<br />
felt th<strong>at</strong> was more important than receiving money in an illegal manner. During President Roosevelt‘s<br />
presidency, many n<strong>at</strong>ural resources were preserved to save the gre<strong>at</strong>er good of the people <strong>and</strong> the n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
beauty of the United St<strong>at</strong>es. Roosevelt did not allow big business to persuade his policy setting.<br />
In the past few decades, the conserv<strong>at</strong>ion of n<strong>at</strong>ural resources has taken a back se<strong>at</strong> to other major<br />
issues. However, on April 20 th , 2010, the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico brought the topic of<br />
conserv<strong>at</strong>ion to the forefront of American minds. The main concern of the BP spill after it was capped on<br />
July 15 th , was th<strong>at</strong> the total number of oil being dumped into the Gulf of Mexico reached an astounding<br />
―4.9 million gallons with only 800,000 thus far being captured‖ (BBC News). Many men <strong>and</strong> women<br />
feared for the preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of marine wildlife endangered by the spill. Other people wondered wh<strong>at</strong> the<br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es government would do the punish BP for their mistake in the oil spill. However, recent<br />
presidents have allowed for Corpor<strong>at</strong>ocracy to occur. Corpor<strong>at</strong>ocracy is the term used to describe the<br />
federal governments primary interest in large corpor<strong>at</strong>ions, which ends up giving the corpor<strong>at</strong>ion control<br />
of the government. With the BP spill, the government allowed BP to exploit n<strong>at</strong>ural resources from the<br />
Gulf in order to avoid a free market.<br />
Alfred Webre of The Examiner st<strong>at</strong>es in his article th<strong>at</strong> ―[it is] difficult to measure because of the<br />
lack of reliable inform<strong>at</strong>ion from the U.S. government <strong>and</strong> BP‖ (Webre, 1). This comment shows th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
government remains fearful for severely punishing BP for the oil spill due to the government being paid<br />
82
y big businesses for allowing them to harm n<strong>at</strong>ural resources. Recently, the United St<strong>at</strong>es opened the<br />
Gulf of Mexico back up for more drilling of oil. Astoundingly enough, a top contender for the oil is BP<br />
whose negligence led to the disastrous spill. As the American government resorted to Corpor<strong>at</strong>ocracy, it<br />
neglects to provide for the welfare of the ecosystem.<br />
Although the government resorted to Corpor<strong>at</strong>ocracy, the larger issue <strong>at</strong> the time was the impact<br />
on human rights th<strong>at</strong> the oil spill cre<strong>at</strong>ed. When the spill occurred in mid-April, the ecosystem was<br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>ely affected by the large amounts of oil being dumped into the Gulf. With the ecosystem<br />
beginning to be extermin<strong>at</strong>ed by the oil, it posed as a huge detriment to the present <strong>and</strong> future gener<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> live off of supplies from the Gulf because the ecosystem was no longer edible or sustainable.<br />
However, the gre<strong>at</strong>er impact the spill continues to effect was the number of job losses. Every man<br />
has the human right to work in society <strong>and</strong> make a living for him <strong>and</strong> his family. Yet, when the Gulf Spill<br />
occurred, the right of work was in jeopardy due to the thre<strong>at</strong> on the ecosystem. With the BP oil spill, the<br />
rights of life all humans‘ possess were <strong>at</strong> risk due to the intern<strong>at</strong>ional corpor<strong>at</strong>ions inadequ<strong>at</strong>e emergency<br />
response.<br />
Another conserv<strong>at</strong>ion topic th<strong>at</strong> involves the justific<strong>at</strong>ion of human rights, is Josh Fox‘s<br />
documentary, Gasl<strong>and</strong>. In 2005, President Bush signed the Energy Bill, which Vice President Chaney had<br />
pushed through Congress, exempting all oil <strong>and</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural gas industries from dozens of Environmental<br />
Protection Agencies <strong>and</strong> Democr<strong>at</strong>ic laws, such as Safe Drinking W<strong>at</strong>er Act <strong>and</strong> Clean Air Act to name a<br />
few (GASLAND). Once Bush signed the Energy Bill, oil companies immedi<strong>at</strong>ely began to buy or lease<br />
l<strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong> contain large amounts of n<strong>at</strong>ural gas <strong>and</strong> use Halliburton technology to extract such gas.<br />
In the documentary, Fox travels across the United St<strong>at</strong>es divulging the truth about Hydraulic<br />
fracturing, or most notably known as, fracking. Fracking ―is a means of n<strong>at</strong>ural gas extraction employed<br />
in deep n<strong>at</strong>ural gas well drilling. Once a well is drilled, millions of gallons of w<strong>at</strong>er, s<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> proprietary<br />
chemicals are injected, under high pressure, into a well. The pressure fractures the shale <strong>and</strong> props open<br />
fissures th<strong>at</strong> enable n<strong>at</strong>ural gas to flow more freely out of the well‖ (GASLAND). During the process of<br />
fracking, n<strong>at</strong>ural gases are not only emitted into the drilled well, but also the drinking w<strong>at</strong>er aquifers<br />
83
loc<strong>at</strong>ed only a few thous<strong>and</strong> feet above the fractured spot, th<strong>at</strong> supply thous<strong>and</strong>s to millions of homes<br />
with healthy drinking w<strong>at</strong>er. Fox st<strong>at</strong>es on the Gasl<strong>and</strong> website th<strong>at</strong> over 80,000 chemicals are injected<br />
into the earth‘s crust with each fracking process <strong>and</strong> out of th<strong>at</strong> number, 65 compounds used are deemed<br />
hazardous to the human health (GASLAND). The families affected by the hazardous drilling have<br />
reported arsenic poisoning <strong>and</strong> cancer from drinking the gas-ridden tap w<strong>at</strong>er. While one particular family<br />
is capable of lighting the w<strong>at</strong>er pouring out of the kitchen faucet on fire due to the presence of high levels<br />
of gas.<br />
Josh Fox‘s depiction of the dangers n<strong>at</strong>ural gas drilling has on the environment <strong>and</strong> humans<br />
surrounding the drilling holes, does impact human rights in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. In human rights, men <strong>and</strong><br />
women are entitled to an environment th<strong>at</strong> provides an adequ<strong>at</strong>e lifestyle. However, in the thirty-seven<br />
st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> approve fracking, humans are <strong>at</strong> a gre<strong>at</strong> risk of diseases th<strong>at</strong> will eventually kill them due to the<br />
unstable environment th<strong>at</strong> possess an unlimited amount of harmful chemicals <strong>and</strong> presence of gas in the<br />
drinking w<strong>at</strong>er. Thus, those oper<strong>at</strong>ing with hydraulic fracking are not only making the dangers to humans<br />
present, but also to the environment, which ultim<strong>at</strong>ely sustains life.<br />
Not only are human rights being effected in the United St<strong>at</strong>es, but also on an intern<strong>at</strong>ional level.<br />
In the past five years, indigenous tribes in the Peruvian Amazon recklessly protest the laws pass by<br />
President Garcia, th<strong>at</strong> allows for the destruction of the Amazon‘s rainforest for oil <strong>and</strong> gas explor<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
logging <strong>and</strong> mining. Indigenous groups started to protest the destruction by blockading roads <strong>and</strong> airports,<br />
thre<strong>at</strong>ening to set fire to oil pumping st<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>and</strong> shutting down the oil pipeline th<strong>at</strong> enables oil to travel<br />
from the jungle to the Pacific Ocean. The government has been selling <strong>and</strong> leasing concessions to foreign<br />
investments for the exploit<strong>at</strong>ion of n<strong>at</strong>ural resources, which Peruvians argue, only make the elites richer<br />
while the poverty r<strong>at</strong>e continues to loom <strong>at</strong> a dangerous 40 percent (Ortega, ―Thous<strong>and</strong>s of Indigenous<br />
Peruvians…,‖ 1).<br />
Peruvians also show increasing aggrav<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> the government because the biodiversity of the<br />
Amazon, which ―scientists estim<strong>at</strong>e is home to some [10 percent of the world total] plant species <strong>and</strong> to<br />
1,816 bird species,‖ is continuously <strong>at</strong> risk for extinction (Ortega, 1). Vivienne Ortega reports th<strong>at</strong> a<br />
84
―Duke University study published [in 2008] said contract block for oil <strong>and</strong> gas explor<strong>at</strong>ion cover[s]<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 72 percent of Peru‘s rain forest‖ (―Security Forces Kill <strong>at</strong> Least…,‖ 1). Indigenous groups<br />
fear the Peruvian government will do nothing to preserve the regions l<strong>and</strong> rights of the Amazon th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
being viol<strong>at</strong>ed. It is also fearful th<strong>at</strong> thous<strong>and</strong>s of n<strong>at</strong>ural resources, such as animal <strong>and</strong> plants, will be<br />
eventually destroyed due to the mistre<strong>at</strong>ment of the l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
While the preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of the Amazon is <strong>at</strong> risk <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> rights are being infringed upon, basic<br />
human rights of the Peruvians <strong>and</strong> indigenous groups are being viol<strong>at</strong>ed as well. Indigenous tribe protests<br />
came to a boiling point on June 6, 2009, when ―22 tribesmen <strong>and</strong> nine [Peruvian] policemen‖ were killed<br />
while trying to disperse a road blockade to an oil pumping st<strong>at</strong>ion owned by Petroperu (Ortega,<br />
―Security…,‖ 1). Although it is unknown if the indigenous tribesmen did, in fact, carry any weapons or<br />
kill the policemen, their human right to live was being viol<strong>at</strong>ed, as well as, not allowing them to protect<br />
the l<strong>and</strong> for which their own families resided on for gener<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Not only are people losing the basic right to live; the way in which they sustain life, the<br />
ecosystem, is being destroyed. Without the ecosystem, indigenous tribes will be forced to move away<br />
from their own homes due to the lack of food. Also, ―indigenous peoples assert th<strong>at</strong> new laws undermine<br />
their rights <strong>and</strong> open up their ancestral l<strong>and</strong>s to priv<strong>at</strong>e companies for mining, logging, plant<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>and</strong> oil<br />
drilling without their consult<strong>at</strong>ion or consent‖ (MacLennan, ―Police Open Fire on Indigenous…,‖ 1).<br />
<strong>Human</strong> rights coalitions have asked for the Peruvian government to immedi<strong>at</strong>ely st<strong>and</strong> down after the<br />
killing incident, however, the government remains to st<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> they are only protecting their own rights.<br />
The insufficient control <strong>and</strong> protection the Peruvian government has to offer to their own citizens <strong>and</strong><br />
environment, presents a real danger for a massive uproar by those who are not receiving the justific<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
needed in order to sustain life.<br />
Recently, conserv<strong>at</strong>ion has been on the forefront of the world‘s mind as Japan was recently hit<br />
with a massive earthquake <strong>and</strong> tsunami in the beginning of March. The destruction, caused by n<strong>at</strong>ure, to<br />
Japan continues to be discovered as worldwide efforts to help clean the countryside <strong>and</strong> rescue Japanese<br />
citizens persist. The main worry Japanese officials have does not only pertain to the repair of Japan, but<br />
85
also to the m<strong>at</strong>ter of the Fukushima nuclear energy plant loc<strong>at</strong>ed along the coast. When the tsunami hit the<br />
Japanese coast, it shut down the cooling system to the plant <strong>and</strong> caused massive amounts of radi<strong>at</strong>ion to<br />
lead into the air <strong>and</strong> now the sea. According to represent<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>at</strong> ―Tokyo Electric Power Co… plutonium<br />
ha[s] been detected in soil samples th<strong>at</strong> were taken [March 22 nd ] <strong>at</strong> five spots [on] the plant [grounds]‖<br />
(AFP, ―Japan on Maximum Alert…,‖ 1). Although it is unsure when the Fukushima plant situ<strong>at</strong>ion will<br />
finally be resolved, as the radi<strong>at</strong>ion seeps deeper into the soil <strong>and</strong> sea <strong>and</strong> continues to spread, human<br />
rights will become the topic of discussion. Japanese officials greed for optional ways of providing energy<br />
has ultim<strong>at</strong>ely cre<strong>at</strong>ed wh<strong>at</strong> would have only been n<strong>at</strong>ure acting against itself, into man b<strong>at</strong>tling <strong>and</strong><br />
harming n<strong>at</strong>ure.<br />
Since the beginning of conserv<strong>at</strong>ion, the discussion of human rights has loomed right along side.<br />
In the United St<strong>at</strong>es, the legal drilling of n<strong>at</strong>ural gas has destroyed not only n<strong>at</strong>ure, but also the healthy<br />
living ecosystem many American citizens reside in. While the BP Oil Spill destroyed the ecosystem in the<br />
Gulf of Mexico th<strong>at</strong> provides for the lives of millions of people. The disruption of human rights in Peru<br />
has caused <strong>and</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional outcry to the unruly de<strong>at</strong>hs of thirty <strong>and</strong> more indigenous tribesmen<br />
<strong>at</strong>tempting to save the Peruvian Amazon from ultim<strong>at</strong>e destruction. Furthermore, the uncertainty of<br />
Japan‘s radi<strong>at</strong>ion has the world on edge as countless ecosystems futures are risk of destruction, harming<br />
the forthcoming years. Although conserv<strong>at</strong>ion may not seem an important topic of conserv<strong>at</strong>ion, the<br />
destruction of many n<strong>at</strong>ural resources does hinder the lives of all human beings in the world.<br />
86
Works Cited<br />
―BP Gears Up to Plug ‗World‘s Biggest‘ Oil Spill.‖ BBC News 3 Aug. 2010. 10 Oct. 2010<br />
.<br />
―Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion.‖ Oxford English Dictionary. Online Version Nov. 2010. KU Rohrbach Library. 30 Mar.<br />
2011 .<br />
GASLAND. 2010. Intern<strong>at</strong>ional WOW Company. 17 Mar. 2011 .<br />
―Japan on ‗Maximum Alert‘ Over Nuclear Plant.‖ BREITBART. 29 Mar. 2011. AFP. 29 Mar. 2011<br />
.<br />
MacLennan, Gregor. ―Police Open Fire on Indigenous Blockade in the Peruvian Amazon- 25 Civilians<br />
<strong>and</strong> 9 Police Dead, 150.‖ The Indigenous Portal. 7 June 2009. Mohawk Internet Technologies. 20<br />
Mar. 2011 .<br />
Muir, John. Our N<strong>at</strong>ional Parks. 1901. Sierra Club: John Muir Exhibit. 2010. Sierra Club. 1 Oct. 2010<br />
.<br />
Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Allan M. Winkler. Allen F. Davis, Charlene Mire, Peter<br />
J. Frederick, <strong>and</strong> Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People: Cre<strong>at</strong>ing a N<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> a Society.<br />
Ed. Gary B. Nash. Vol 2. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. 2 Vols.<br />
Ortega, Vivienne. ―Security Forces Kill <strong>at</strong> Least 31 Indigenous Peruvians Protecting Rainforest.‖ (We)<br />
Can Do Better. 6 June 2009. 20 Mar. 2011 .<br />
Ortega, Vivienne. ―Thous<strong>and</strong>s of Indigenous Peruvians Protest Invasion of Amazon by Oil, Mining, <strong>and</strong><br />
Agricultural Companies.‖ (We) Can Do Better. 1 June 2009. 20 Mar. 2011<br />
.<br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es. The Theodore Roosevelt Associ<strong>at</strong>ion. Conserv<strong>at</strong>ionist. By Rogina L. Jeffries. May 2010. 1<br />
Oct. 2010 .<br />
Webre, Alfred Lambremont. ―Will the BP Oil Spill Acceler<strong>at</strong>e Disclosure of Teleport<strong>at</strong>ion, Anti-Gravity<br />
<strong>and</strong> ET/UFO Presence?‖ The Examiner Se<strong>at</strong>tle 11 June 2010. 10 Oct. 2010<br />
.<br />
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Kristin Kelly, Bloomsburg University<br />
Distortion <strong>and</strong> Exploit<strong>at</strong>ion: The Realities of the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System Project<br />
Throughout history, anthropologists have been involved in military actions th<strong>at</strong> may have helped<br />
an area of people but have overall harmed them. In regards to the American Anthropological Associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(AAA) code of ethics, if an anthropologist involves themselves with any ―military actions or war efforts‖<br />
they will more than likely be viol<strong>at</strong>ing the code of ethics. After analysis of the code of ethics from the<br />
AAA, anthropologists should not be involved in any government military oper<strong>at</strong>ions, nor should their<br />
anthropological d<strong>at</strong>a be used for this purpose.<br />
During World War II anthropologists were called on by the government to help aid in studying<br />
Japanese Americans in the government project called War Reloc<strong>at</strong>ion Authority. This agency was<br />
responsible for placing Japanese Americans in reloc<strong>at</strong>ion camps where they were confined for some time.<br />
While anthropologist‘s intentions may have been to improve conditions, they also neg<strong>at</strong>ively affected the<br />
Japanese Americans in these reloc<strong>at</strong>ion camps. An article titled Engineering Internment: Anthropologists<br />
<strong>and</strong> the War Reloc<strong>at</strong>ion Authority by Orin Starn, st<strong>at</strong>es anthropologists were involved with ―Restrictions<br />
of discourse about removal, legitim<strong>at</strong>ion reloc<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> promotion of racial stereotypes about the<br />
Japanese‖ (700). Anthropologists were hired to study Japanese Americans <strong>at</strong> the camps <strong>and</strong> did not<br />
receive informed consent from these supposed informants. This is a viol<strong>at</strong>ion of informed consent which<br />
st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> ―Particip<strong>at</strong>ion must be voluntary. People must be told of the potential costs <strong>and</strong> benefits.‖<br />
Anthropologists involved in these camps were determining who should stay longer <strong>and</strong> remain under<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> caused harm to these people forced to reside here.<br />
The Japanese <strong>at</strong> these camps were American citizens therefore their dignity was harmed because<br />
the United St<strong>at</strong>es government removed them from their homes <strong>and</strong> did not tre<strong>at</strong> them as citizens with<br />
rights. It should be unquestionable as to whether or not anthropologists should be involved in war efforts<br />
<strong>and</strong> military actions. The evidence shows how wrong this can be. Starn wrote, ―Ethnographers <strong>at</strong>tempted<br />
to predict the reactions of various groups in the community to contempl<strong>at</strong>ed actions of the administr<strong>at</strong>ion‖<br />
88
(702). The inform<strong>at</strong>ion provided to the government in regards to this research could have perhaps helped<br />
them determine who should stay longer, or who should be isol<strong>at</strong>ed if deemed a leader of a supposed riot.<br />
Furthermore, if an anthropologist revealed inform<strong>at</strong>ion to the government th<strong>at</strong> they received from an<br />
informant, they would be causing harm to their informant. This is especially the case if the informant told<br />
the anthropologist out of confidentiality. Anthropologists working for government agencies such as the<br />
War Reloc<strong>at</strong>ion Authority cannot entirely be honest to their informants about wh<strong>at</strong> their intent is,<br />
however, they have a duty as an anthropologist to tell the people they are studying wh<strong>at</strong> their intentions<br />
are for their research. Regardless of the rules <strong>and</strong> expect<strong>at</strong>ions of the United St<strong>at</strong>es government,<br />
anthropologists should remember th<strong>at</strong> their duty to their informants is their sole responsibility. In the<br />
American Anthropological Associ<strong>at</strong>ion‘s st<strong>at</strong>ement on the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System Project it st<strong>at</strong>es ―HTS<br />
anthropologists work in situ<strong>at</strong>ions where it will not always be possible for them to distinguish themselves<br />
from military personnel <strong>and</strong> identify themselves as anthropologists.‖ This can also closely correl<strong>at</strong>e to<br />
anthropologists working in the reloc<strong>at</strong>ion camps because they have a duty to the government but they also<br />
have a responsibility to remain honest to their informants, <strong>and</strong> they may get caught up in both oblig<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>and</strong> give inform<strong>at</strong>ion to the government r<strong>at</strong>her than obey the requests of their informants. A more recent<br />
case of social scientists being involved in military oper<strong>at</strong>ions is taking place in Iraq <strong>and</strong> Afghanistan <strong>and</strong><br />
is known as the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System.<br />
The <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System Project (HTSP) is presently being deb<strong>at</strong>ed in regards to its intentions<br />
<strong>and</strong> the government‘s use of social scientists to aide them in studying popul<strong>at</strong>ions in Iraq <strong>and</strong><br />
Afghanistan. There are differing views on this project. In an article written by BlackAnthem, a website<br />
produced by the military, staff Sgt. Chanelcherie st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> the mission of the project is to ―Provide<br />
insight into the popul<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> its culture in order to enhance oper<strong>at</strong>ional effectiveness <strong>and</strong> reduce civilian<br />
<strong>and</strong> military conflict.‖ The military is justifying their actions in saying th<strong>at</strong> it will help the local<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions by educ<strong>at</strong>ing them <strong>and</strong> helping them remain stable. Furthermore the article reads th<strong>at</strong><br />
―specialists simply help the division assist the Iraqi populace in ways uniformed personnel can‘t.‖<br />
However, this could mean anthropologist may stray from the guidelines of the code of ethics in order to<br />
89
help in military efforts. In the st<strong>at</strong>ement released by the American Anthropological Associ<strong>at</strong>ion on the<br />
HTS Project, it says th<strong>at</strong> an anthropologist‘s inability to distinguish themselves from military personnel<br />
places a ―significant constraint on their ability to fulfill their ethical responsibility as anthropologists to<br />
disclose who they are <strong>and</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> they are doing.‖ According to the code of ethics ―anthropological<br />
researchers must be open about the purpose, potential impacts, <strong>and</strong> source of support for research projects<br />
with funders, colleagues, persons studied or providing inform<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> with relevant parties affected by<br />
the research.‖ Anthropologists working with the military to provide them inform<strong>at</strong>ion about potential<br />
thre<strong>at</strong>s from communities in Iraq or Afghanistan may not be honest to their informants about why they are<br />
collecting inform<strong>at</strong>ion from them. This inform<strong>at</strong>ion therefore could potentially harm informants, their<br />
families <strong>and</strong> communities. Their names <strong>and</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion can be released without their knowledge putting<br />
them <strong>at</strong> risk. This viol<strong>at</strong>es one of the most important rules of the AAA code of ethics, which st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> an<br />
anthropologist must ―do no harm.‖ Informed Consent must also be taken into account when studying<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions during ethnographic research.<br />
The issue with anthropologists involving themselves in the War Reloc<strong>at</strong>ion Authority is mirrored<br />
also with the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System. Many viol<strong>at</strong>ions can be seen throughout the AAA code of ethics as<br />
well as in informed consent. In an article written in The Washington Post titled, ―Rough Terrain‖ it st<strong>at</strong>es<br />
th<strong>at</strong> ―Under an experimental program in Afghanistan, teams of anthropologists <strong>and</strong> social scientists are<br />
working alongside soldiers to help win the war by winning over the Afghan people.‖ This quote tells the<br />
main idea of the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System. The idea th<strong>at</strong> by bringing in social scientists, people th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
trained to talk with <strong>and</strong> retrieve inform<strong>at</strong>ion from individuals, they are able to learn everything about an<br />
entirely different culture of people with plans to use this inform<strong>at</strong>ion to conquer these people. They want<br />
to find their weak points <strong>and</strong> use th<strong>at</strong> to cause destruction. This goes against the duties of an<br />
anthropologist. Anthropologists must follow the guidelines of the American Anthropological Associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
code of ethics. The code of ethics st<strong>at</strong>es, ―anthropological researchers must determine in advance whether<br />
their hosts/providers of inform<strong>at</strong>ion wish to remain anonymous or receive recognition, <strong>and</strong> make every<br />
effort to comply with those wishes.‖ Furthermore, the American Anthropological associ<strong>at</strong>ion‘s st<strong>at</strong>ement<br />
90
on the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> ―HTS anthropologists work in a war zone under conditions th<strong>at</strong><br />
make it difficult for those they communic<strong>at</strong>e with to give ―informed consent‖ without coercion, or for this<br />
consent to be taken <strong>at</strong> face value or freely refused. As a result, ‗voluntary informed consent‘ is<br />
comprised.‖ This can be interpreted th<strong>at</strong> anthropologist know of these hazards in working with military<br />
projects <strong>and</strong> should not particip<strong>at</strong>e because they will be viol<strong>at</strong>ing a multiplier of research ethics. A<br />
passage from the AAA code of ethics rel<strong>at</strong>es well to everything an anthropologist viol<strong>at</strong>es if they<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>e in military efforts. It reads:<br />
Anthropologists have a responsibility to be both honest <strong>and</strong> transparent<br />
with all stakeholders about the n<strong>at</strong>ure <strong>and</strong> intent of their research. They<br />
must not misrepresent their research goals, funding sources, activities, or<br />
findings. Anthropologists should never deceive the people they are<br />
studying regarding the sponsorship, goals, methods, products, or<br />
expected impacts of their work. Deliber<strong>at</strong>ely misrepresenting one‘s<br />
research goals <strong>and</strong> impact to research subjects is a clear viol<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
research ethics, as is conducting cl<strong>and</strong>estine research (3).<br />
If anthropologists are not being truthful about why they are researching their informants, they are<br />
viol<strong>at</strong>ing the code of ethics. They have put their informants in danger <strong>and</strong> if any harm is caused to their<br />
informants, they have ruined any chances of future anthropologists coming to do field work in these areas<br />
because they will no longer be trusted by the people living in this area.<br />
In conclusion, anthropologists should not involve themselves in military efforts or war actions.<br />
They are putting themselves in danger as well as their informants by releasing perhaps personal<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion about their informants to government agencies. They are also lacking honesty about the<br />
purpose of their research. In both cases during World War II <strong>and</strong> then with the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System,<br />
the government is trying to get inform<strong>at</strong>ion about these people not so th<strong>at</strong> they can help them, but so th<strong>at</strong><br />
they can control them more easily if they have inform<strong>at</strong>ion about who the leaders of the villages are <strong>and</strong><br />
91
who they associ<strong>at</strong>e themselves with. Regardless of their initial intentions, they will be viol<strong>at</strong>ing informed<br />
consent <strong>and</strong> the American Anthropological Associ<strong>at</strong>ion code of ethics.<br />
92
Works Cited<br />
"American Anthropological Associ<strong>at</strong>ion's Executive Board St<strong>at</strong>ement on the <strong>Human</strong> Terrain System<br />
Project." Editorial. Aaanet.org. 31 Oct. 2007. Web. 1 Oct. 2010.<br />
DeMellom, Sgt. Chanelcherie. "Social Science: Saving Lives in Iraq." BlackAnthem.com: Military News.<br />
24 Sept. 2010. Web. 07 Oct. 2010. .<br />
Gazeri, Vanessa M. "Rough Terrain." Washingtonpost.com - N<strong>at</strong>ion, World, Technology <strong>and</strong> Washington<br />
Area News <strong>and</strong> Headlines. 30 Aug. 2009. Web. 07 Oct. 2010.<br />
.<br />
Starn, Orin. "Engineering Internment: Anthropologists <strong>and</strong> the War Reloc<strong>at</strong>ion Authority." American<br />
Ethnologist 4th ser. 13 (1986). Rpt. in JSTOR: American Ethnologist. Vol. 13. Blackwell, 1986.<br />
700-20. Ser. 4. JSTOR. Web. 5 Oct. 2010.<br />
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Jessica Lohmann, Mansfield University<br />
A Different Kind of H<strong>at</strong>e:<br />
Internalized Homophobia <strong>and</strong> the Effects on Mental Health <strong>and</strong> Rel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper will present a brief overview of heterosexism as well as an explan<strong>at</strong>ion of internalized<br />
homophobia. Looking <strong>at</strong> how sexual identities develop <strong>and</strong> the minority stress theory it can be seen how<br />
social stigma can have a significant impact on a person‘s well-being. <strong>Past</strong> research supports the<br />
hypothesis th<strong>at</strong> internalized homophobia neg<strong>at</strong>ively affects the mental health <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionships of sexual<br />
minority adults. The current paper will specifically examine the effects of internalized homophobia on<br />
depression, suicide <strong>and</strong> substance abuse as well as self-disclosure <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship quality. It has been<br />
concluded from the research th<strong>at</strong> internalized homophobia has led to decreases in self-disclosure <strong>and</strong><br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ionship quality, in both romantic <strong>and</strong> non-romantic rel<strong>at</strong>ionships, <strong>and</strong> an increase in depression,<br />
suicide, <strong>and</strong> substance abuse.<br />
In today‘s society everyone claims to cling to their individuality <strong>and</strong> take pride in the things th<strong>at</strong><br />
set them apart from everyone else. Yet, whenever there is a difference in another person, we, as a society,<br />
feel the need to label the difference. Then we <strong>at</strong>tach neg<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>at</strong>tributes to those labels <strong>and</strong> thus<br />
stereotypes are born. Of course the process of cre<strong>at</strong>ing a stereotype is much more complic<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> they<br />
evolve over periods of time, but putting aside all of the pomp <strong>and</strong> circumstance it generally boils down to<br />
this. Wh<strong>at</strong> is most ironic about the labeling process is th<strong>at</strong> the differences society generally labels <strong>and</strong><br />
assigns those neg<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>at</strong>tributes to, are the things th<strong>at</strong> people cannot change about themselves.<br />
With the seemingly countless –isms our society has cre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> intertwined out of h<strong>at</strong>red, it is<br />
difficult to disentangle them <strong>and</strong> isol<strong>at</strong>e one th<strong>at</strong> specifically causes harm to a person. Each has a specific<br />
94
toll th<strong>at</strong> they can take depending on the coping str<strong>at</strong>egies <strong>and</strong> support systems the person has in place.<br />
This paper focuses on heterosexism <strong>and</strong> the damaging effect it can have on the lesbian, gay <strong>and</strong> bisexual<br />
(LGB) popul<strong>at</strong>ion, specifically exploring its role in the form<strong>at</strong>ion of internalized homophobia <strong>and</strong> how<br />
this can lead to the development of mental health <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship issues.<br />
Internalized homophobia is a phenomenon th<strong>at</strong> developed due to the heterosexist society we live<br />
in. Heterosexism exists in two forms, there is the ideology th<strong>at</strong> is embedded into institutional practices<br />
th<strong>at</strong> works to the disadvantage of sexual minorities (Herek, Gillis & Cogan, 2009), then there is<br />
heterosexism th<strong>at</strong> exists in individuals. Individual heterosexism takes the form of people discrimin<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
against other individuals solely because they are a part of a sexual minority group.<br />
LGB individuals are faced with heterosexist discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion on a daily basis from the time they are<br />
very young. When children are first socialized they usually absorb the concepts of sexual stigma to<br />
varying degrees, sexual stigma being a neg<strong>at</strong>ive regard, inferior st<strong>at</strong>us <strong>and</strong> powerlessness the society<br />
places on anyone with nonheterosexual behaviors, identity, rel<strong>at</strong>ionships or communities (Herek, Gillis &<br />
Cogan, 2009). In children this takes place when they learn to accept the expect<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> they will grow up<br />
to be heterosexual.<br />
The assumption th<strong>at</strong> children will grow up to be heterosexual is just one of the many assumptions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> is made based off heterosexual privilege. Heterosexual privilege is an extension of Peggy McIntosh‘s<br />
White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack. It is made up of basic everyday things th<strong>at</strong><br />
heterosexuals take advantage of <strong>and</strong> don‘t even notice, being the majority sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion, while non-<br />
heterosexuals are hyper aware of these things. Some of these things include displaying pictures of people<br />
they are d<strong>at</strong>ing in their offices of dorm rooms, talking about weekend plans with their spouse with co-<br />
workers, or greeting their partner with a kiss in a group of friends. Such privileges are not extended to<br />
gay, lesbian or bisexual individuals (Whitley & Kite, 2010), <strong>at</strong> least, not without a cost associ<strong>at</strong>ed with it.<br />
To prove th<strong>at</strong> this phenomenon exists, Martin Rochlin (1977) developed the Heterosexual Questionnaire<br />
(see appendix 1), th<strong>at</strong> illustr<strong>at</strong>ed how simple questions th<strong>at</strong> some heterosexuals make towards non-<br />
heterosexuals can be seen as offensive or completely bizarre when the tables are turned. Since these<br />
95
questions are rarely if ever asked towards heterosexuals, it shows a form of heterosexual privilege. In this<br />
case it‘s referring to the privilege to talk about personal rel<strong>at</strong>ionships openly without seeming to flaunt<br />
one‘s sexuality, knowing th<strong>at</strong> one‘s sexuality will not be used to undermine achievement <strong>and</strong> the<br />
reassurance th<strong>at</strong> one‘s hiring, promotion or firing are not rel<strong>at</strong>ed to one‘s sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion (Johnson,<br />
2006).<br />
For a non-heterosexual child, this first occurrence of being excluded by heterosexual privilege<br />
often occurs the time when they are first starting to explore their sexuality. This may be in the early stages<br />
of identity confusion, the first stage in the coming out process, this can be traum<strong>at</strong>izing.<br />
Coming-out is a process th<strong>at</strong> is widely misunderstood among most heterosexuals. Most assume<br />
th<strong>at</strong> it is the defining moment when a friend or rel<strong>at</strong>ive announces th<strong>at</strong> he or she is gay, lesbian or<br />
bisexual, but this is not the case. The coming-out process is not defined by a specific moment in time, but<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her occurs over a period of years. Since the realiz<strong>at</strong>ion by psychologists th<strong>at</strong> this is in fact a lengthy<br />
process, there have been many models developed surrounding sexual identity form<strong>at</strong>ion in gay, lesbian<br />
<strong>and</strong> bisexual individuals. Some researchers even go as far as to cre<strong>at</strong>e separ<strong>at</strong>e models of development for<br />
gays <strong>and</strong> lesbians.<br />
Cass (1979) proposed six stages for sexual identity development in gay, lesbian <strong>and</strong> bisexual<br />
individuals th<strong>at</strong> serves as a model for the coming-out process. Stage 1 is labeled as the confusion stage. In<br />
this stage the individual first notices same-sex <strong>at</strong>traction <strong>and</strong> begins questioning their own sexual identity.<br />
Stage 2 is labeled as identity comparison. In this stage the individual compares their own experiences to<br />
th<strong>at</strong> of their peers, looking specifically <strong>at</strong> the sexual <strong>at</strong>tractions their peers are expressing towards others<br />
<strong>and</strong> realizing th<strong>at</strong> it is different from their own. Stage 3 is identity tolerance. This stage is defined by the<br />
individual assuming th<strong>at</strong> their experience with same-sex <strong>at</strong>traction means th<strong>at</strong> they are probably gay,<br />
lesbian or bisexual. In this stage they have not yet come to terms with this possible identity. Stage 4 is<br />
labeled as identity acceptance. In this stage the thinking th<strong>at</strong> same-sex <strong>at</strong>traction means the individual is<br />
probably gay is confirmed. The individual comes to terms with this <strong>at</strong>traction being a part of their<br />
identity. Stage 5 is identity pride. After accepting th<strong>at</strong> being gay, lesbian or bisexual is a part of the<br />
96
individual‘s identity, the individual will begin to take pride in their identity. They have not only accepted<br />
th<strong>at</strong> their sexual identity is a part of them, but th<strong>at</strong> it is a positive part of their life. The final stage is<br />
identity synthesis. This final stage is life long after the other stages have been successfully passed<br />
through. In this stage the individual‘s sexual identity is incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed into their larger identity <strong>and</strong> is not<br />
usually considered the defining characteristic of who they are. They are gay, lesbian or bisexual, but they<br />
realize th<strong>at</strong> this identity is not all of who they are; it is only part of their whole person.<br />
Internalized homophobia signifies a failure in the coming out process to ward off heterosexist stigma <strong>and</strong><br />
overcome neg<strong>at</strong>ive self-perceptions <strong>and</strong> <strong>at</strong>titudes (Morris et al., 2001). It first appears in a person, usually,<br />
during the early stages of this process <strong>and</strong> can prevent l<strong>at</strong>er stages from being successfully passed<br />
through. In some individuals, the manifest<strong>at</strong>ion of internalized homophobia can occur l<strong>at</strong>er in the coming<br />
out process, even after the acceptance of their identity <strong>and</strong> may never fully dissip<strong>at</strong>e (Meyer, 2003). This<br />
means th<strong>at</strong> gay, lesbian <strong>and</strong> bisexual individuals maintain varying degrees of residual antigay <strong>at</strong>titudes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are integr<strong>at</strong>ed into their self-perception. Gorsiorek (1988) describe this as residual, covert,<br />
internalized homophobia <strong>and</strong> said th<strong>at</strong> covert forms of internalized homophobia are more common <strong>and</strong><br />
less noticeable because these individuals will have accepted their identity, yet sabotage themselves in<br />
various ways.<br />
Since internalized homophobia can be so ingrained in a person, there are undoubtedly effects on<br />
mental health. There have been many studies conducted on mental health <strong>and</strong> how it correl<strong>at</strong>es to<br />
internalized homophobia <strong>and</strong> because of th<strong>at</strong> there have been several theories developed on wh<strong>at</strong> exactly<br />
is influencing these mental health outcomes. No theory is more convincing than the Minority Stress<br />
Theory.<br />
Meyer (2003) proposed model on minority stress <strong>and</strong> how different aspects of life can influence<br />
mental health outcomes th<strong>at</strong> can be both positive <strong>and</strong> neg<strong>at</strong>ive depending on various factors (Figure 1).<br />
Minority stress is a part of every aspect of life <strong>and</strong> plays vital role in all of life‘s stressors. The first box in<br />
Meyer‘s model Box (a) pictures circumstances in the environment. These are parts of everyone‘s life<br />
whether they are part of a minority group or not. Meyer references socioeconomic st<strong>at</strong>us <strong>and</strong> how a<br />
97
person‘s minority st<strong>at</strong>us (b) can <strong>and</strong> does play a role in these general environmental factors. Based on the<br />
environment the person is in different life stressors (c) will appear. General stressors can include things<br />
like the de<strong>at</strong>h of a family member or friend, or job loss. Once again these are things th<strong>at</strong> everyone can<br />
experience. One‘s minority st<strong>at</strong>us can affect the general life stressors in th<strong>at</strong> the job loss could be directly<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed to coming out <strong>at</strong> their place of employment <strong>and</strong> being fired because of it.<br />
Next, Meyer moves on to stressors th<strong>at</strong> are unique to minority popul<strong>at</strong>ions, those th<strong>at</strong> identify<br />
with the minority group (e), which are the distal <strong>and</strong> proximal minority stress processes. The distal<br />
stresses are things like prejudicial events such as discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion or violence targeted towards individuals<br />
in the minority group. These are the events th<strong>at</strong> occur outside the person which cause stress in their life.<br />
Proximal stresses are the stresses th<strong>at</strong> are internal, the expect<strong>at</strong>ions of rejection or discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion based on<br />
experiences the person has had, witnessed or heard about. These proximal stresses also include<br />
concealment <strong>and</strong> internalized homophobia. Here, internalized homophobia is seen as the most proximal of<br />
the minority stressors. The weight these stresses, both distal <strong>and</strong> proximal, will carry largely depends on<br />
the characteristics of the minority identity (g). When the minority identity is more prominent in the<br />
person‘s self-view the stressors will have a gre<strong>at</strong>er impact verses if the minority identity isn‘t the primary<br />
way the person identifies themselves.<br />
One of the most important counterbalances in Meyer‘s model is the coping <strong>and</strong> social support<br />
aspect (h). Being able to cope with not only every day stresses, but the minority stresses faced by LGB<br />
individuals every day <strong>and</strong> having the support from family, friends <strong>and</strong> the surrounding community is a<br />
significant factor in the mental health outcomes. If the individual has a strong system of support they are<br />
more likely to be able to cope (positive mental health outcome) with the stress than if they feel isol<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>and</strong> alone (neg<strong>at</strong>ive mental health outcome). All of these factors contribute to the mental health of the<br />
individual <strong>and</strong> Meyer‘s proposed model shows th<strong>at</strong> if all the factors are kept in balance the individual can<br />
have a positive outlook.<br />
The minority stress theory has been used in a gre<strong>at</strong> deal of studies concerning internalized<br />
homophobia <strong>and</strong> the neg<strong>at</strong>ive effects it can have on the well-being of an LGB individual. Waldo (1999)<br />
98
found various minority stress factors have been associ<strong>at</strong>ed to decreased job s<strong>at</strong>isfaction, increased<br />
psychological distress <strong>and</strong> more reported health problems. Minority stress factors have also been linked to<br />
neg<strong>at</strong>ive body image in gay men, feeling less competent <strong>and</strong> more defensiveness in lesbians, lower<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ionship quality <strong>and</strong> higher r<strong>at</strong>es of reported domestic violence among LGB couples (Rostosky,<br />
Riggle, Gray & H<strong>at</strong>ton, 2007) all of which will be discussed in depth in specific rel<strong>at</strong>ion to internalized<br />
homophobia.<br />
Much of the research on internalized homophobia <strong>and</strong> mental health has taken the minority stress<br />
perspective (Frost & Meyer, 2009). Research suggests th<strong>at</strong> the lesbian, gay <strong>and</strong> bisexual popul<strong>at</strong>ion, in<br />
comparison to the heterosexual popul<strong>at</strong>ion, has a higher r<strong>at</strong>e of mental health issues, such as depression<br />
(H<strong>at</strong>zenbuehler, 2009; Safren & Heimberg, 1999), suicide (Meyer, 2003) <strong>and</strong> substance abuse (Weber,<br />
2008; Safren & Heimberg, 1999)<br />
In sexual minority individuals, internalized homophobia can lead to self-devalu<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> poor<br />
self-regard (Lehavot & Simoni, 2011). Having a poor self-concept <strong>and</strong> low levels of self-esteem is one of<br />
the first things th<strong>at</strong> can commonly lead to depression. Herek, Gillis & Cogan (2009) said th<strong>at</strong> internalized<br />
homophobia can lead to a reduced trait self-esteem which can cause symptoms of anxiety <strong>and</strong> depression<br />
as well as reducing positive affect.<br />
H<strong>at</strong>zenbuhler (2009) proposes th<strong>at</strong> the long term stress associ<strong>at</strong>ed with internalized homophobia<br />
leads to maladaptive emotional regul<strong>at</strong>ion, which refers to the str<strong>at</strong>egies we use consciously or not, to<br />
increase, maintain or decrease our emotional responses to life events. These emotional deficits are wh<strong>at</strong><br />
he says leads to depression in sexual minority individuals with higher levels of internalized homophobia.<br />
Depression is not the only effect internalized homophobia has on mental health. There is a<br />
disturbing trend th<strong>at</strong> occurs in the lesbian, gay <strong>and</strong> bisexual popul<strong>at</strong>ion when it comes to suicide. Gibson<br />
(1989) reported th<strong>at</strong> suicide is highly prevalent in sexual minority popul<strong>at</strong>ions. A trend he, as well as<br />
other researchers has noted is th<strong>at</strong> r<strong>at</strong>es of suicide <strong>and</strong> suicide <strong>at</strong>tempt was even more prevalent in LGB<br />
youth. Garofalo et al. (1998) conducted a survey of Massachusetts high school students <strong>and</strong> found th<strong>at</strong><br />
LGB youth were three times more likely to have reported a suicide <strong>at</strong>tempt in the year prior than their<br />
99
heterosexual peers. It was concluded th<strong>at</strong> a higher risk for suicide <strong>at</strong>tempts or suicide ide<strong>at</strong>ion is not only<br />
more prevalent in LGB youth than it is in heterosexual youth, but also th<strong>at</strong> this risk starts <strong>at</strong> an earlier age<br />
in the LGB popul<strong>at</strong>ion as well. Evidence from this <strong>and</strong> other studies support the minority stress theory in<br />
saying th<strong>at</strong> LGB popul<strong>at</strong>ions are <strong>at</strong> a higher risk because of the unique stresses they face due to their<br />
sexual minority st<strong>at</strong>us (Meyer, 2003), which can be <strong>at</strong> an all-time high during their teen years.<br />
One of the other mental health issues facing sexual minority individuals is substance use <strong>and</strong><br />
abuse. For sexual minority individuals, the guilt <strong>and</strong> shame felt when struggling with internalized<br />
homophobia can be a heavy burden to bear. Without proper coping mechanisms or social support in place,<br />
anyone with a significant amount of stress is more susceptible to the use <strong>and</strong>/or abuse of alcohol <strong>and</strong><br />
drugs as a means to <strong>at</strong>tempt to cope.<br />
Cajab (2000) hypothesized th<strong>at</strong> individuals in the LGB popul<strong>at</strong>ion are more likely to turn to<br />
substance abuse because of the relief it supposedly has to offer them. Cajab st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> substance use <strong>and</strong><br />
abuse can be particularly appealing to LGB individuals because it can serve as a disconnect from the<br />
feelings of shame <strong>and</strong> anxiety, it provides acceptance in another area of their lives <strong>and</strong> drinking in bars<br />
fosters a sense of social comfort. Also st<strong>at</strong>ed was th<strong>at</strong> drinking in an unfamiliar bar or other social<br />
environment allows for anonymity where the individual may be more likely to act on feelings th<strong>at</strong> they<br />
have suppressed <strong>and</strong> denied <strong>and</strong> drinking can also cre<strong>at</strong>e blackouts about sexual activity.<br />
As seen in suicide, sexual minority youth have an earlier onset for substance use <strong>and</strong> abuse<br />
compared to their heterosexual counterparts. Sexual minority youth have higher self-reported r<strong>at</strong>es of<br />
alcohol <strong>and</strong> tobacco use as well as poly substance use.<br />
The effects of internalized homophobia seem to cre<strong>at</strong>e a domino effect in the individuals th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
struggling with it. One mental health issues leads to another <strong>and</strong> then they all have an effect on the way<br />
the individual rel<strong>at</strong>es to others. Things like concealment of one‘s identity <strong>and</strong> issues with rel<strong>at</strong>ionship<br />
quality are connected not only to the mental health effects of internalized homophobia, but also to each<br />
other.<br />
100
The concealable n<strong>at</strong>ure of sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion cre<strong>at</strong>es different interactions between the members<br />
of majority <strong>and</strong> minority groups than between the members of non-concealable majority/minority groups,<br />
for example race or ethnicity. In the case of race or ethnicity, a person‘s membership to a certain group is<br />
often immedi<strong>at</strong>ely evident, however when heterosexuals have contact with a member of a sexual<br />
minority, it can be done without the person even being aware of it. This even includes contact with friends<br />
or family, such rel<strong>at</strong>ionships th<strong>at</strong> sometimes pred<strong>at</strong>e the person‘s knowledge or acceptance of their sexual<br />
orient<strong>at</strong>ion (Johnson, 2006).<br />
Being out in a community is something th<strong>at</strong> requires a gre<strong>at</strong> deal of thought <strong>and</strong> consider<strong>at</strong>ion. In<br />
our society, with high levels of anti-gay h<strong>at</strong>e, being out <strong>and</strong> disclosing one‘s identity isn‘t only a m<strong>at</strong>ter of<br />
being comfortable with one‘s sexuality, it‘s a m<strong>at</strong>ter of safety, sometimes life or de<strong>at</strong>h. The ability to<br />
conceal one‘s sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion can seem, from the outside, to have its good points. Some people might<br />
consider it a blessing to not be walking around with a huge neon sign saying ―Oh Heeeeyyyy, I‘m<br />
gaaayyyy‖, but actually being able to conceal your sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion can actually be detrimental to one‘s<br />
mental health. Concealing one‘s identity can be seen as a coping str<strong>at</strong>egy, used to avoid the neg<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
consequences of the stigma rel<strong>at</strong>ed to it. LGB individuals may conceal their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion to keep<br />
themselves protected from wh<strong>at</strong> they view as the ―real‖ harm, such as being fired from their job of the<br />
thre<strong>at</strong> of physical violence (D‘Augelli & Grossman, 2001).<br />
Contradictory to wh<strong>at</strong> some may assume to be true Smart & Wegner (2000) described the cost of<br />
hiding one‘s stigma as very damaging. They said th<strong>at</strong> the result of concealing the stigma is a constant<br />
preoccup<strong>at</strong>ion with hiding it th<strong>at</strong> involves both conscious <strong>and</strong> unconscious cognitive processes. They<br />
even went as far as to say th<strong>at</strong> the inner experience of the person th<strong>at</strong> is hiding a concealable stigma is<br />
comparable to their own priv<strong>at</strong>e hell.<br />
Contrary to wh<strong>at</strong> Smart & Wegner say about concealing a stigma being the individual‘s priv<strong>at</strong>e<br />
hell, when an individual th<strong>at</strong> is trying to conceal their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion is in a rel<strong>at</strong>ionship, the hell isn‘t<br />
just their own.<br />
101
The dynamics between two people in a rel<strong>at</strong>ionship can be a very delic<strong>at</strong>e balance. Adding<br />
something or taking away something th<strong>at</strong> was once there has the ability to tip the scale dram<strong>at</strong>ically. This<br />
is the case in both romantic <strong>and</strong> non-romantic rel<strong>at</strong>ionships. The anxiety, shame <strong>and</strong> devalu<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
lesbian, gay <strong>and</strong> bisexual individuals as well as one‘s self is inherent to internalized homophobia <strong>and</strong> is<br />
most likely to be overtly manifested in interpersonal rel<strong>at</strong>ionships with other gay, lesbian, or bisexual<br />
individuals (Frost & Meyer, 2009).<br />
At the core of the stigma about being a member of a sexual minority group are the<br />
unsubstanti<strong>at</strong>ed ideas th<strong>at</strong> lesbian, gay <strong>and</strong> bisexual individuals are incapable of intimacy <strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong> they<br />
cannot maintain health, long-term rel<strong>at</strong>ionships (Meyer & Dean, 1998).<br />
Frost <strong>and</strong> Meyer (2009) st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> experiencing the feelings of anxiety, shame <strong>and</strong> devalu<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
internalized homophobia, in the context of sexual or other interactions is likely to decrease the quality <strong>and</strong><br />
s<strong>at</strong>isfaction of the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship. They say th<strong>at</strong> in an effort to avoid these feelings the individual will avoid<br />
deep rel<strong>at</strong>ionships with other members of their sexual minority group <strong>and</strong> instead turn to sexual<br />
encounters devoid of emotion. This inform<strong>at</strong>ion can provide a possible explan<strong>at</strong>ion as to why this is a<br />
central part of the stigma surrounding sexual minority groups.<br />
Romantic rel<strong>at</strong>ionships between same-sex individuals are cre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> maintained in a society full<br />
of stigma <strong>and</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion (Rostosky, Riggle, Gray & H<strong>at</strong>ton, 2007). Because of this there is n<strong>at</strong>urally<br />
more stress <strong>and</strong> strain placed on the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship. As in any couple, hetero- or non-heterosexual, the<br />
partners are interdependent on each other (Rostosky et al., 2007), which means th<strong>at</strong> when there is an<br />
additional stress, internalized homophobia, placed on one of the partners, it has a significant impact on the<br />
other.<br />
In a romantic rel<strong>at</strong>ionship where either partner of a same-sex couple is experiencing internalized<br />
homophobia, the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship itself serves as a reminder of one‘s sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. This can lead to<br />
problems rel<strong>at</strong>ed to ambivalence, conflicts within the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship, misunderst<strong>and</strong>ings <strong>and</strong> mism<strong>at</strong>ched<br />
goals for the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship (Mohr & Fassinges, 2006). These rel<strong>at</strong>ionship problems are also rel<strong>at</strong>ed to other<br />
previously discussed issues raised by internalized homophobia.<br />
102
Concealment of one‘s sexual identity while in a committed romantic rel<strong>at</strong>ionship can cause major<br />
issues in the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship. Concealment from family or friends can be easily misconstrued as<br />
embarrassment of one‘s partner, especially if the partners don‘t openly discuss the feelings connected to<br />
internalized homophobia. Not being fully accepting of one‘s sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion could mean th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
individual is subconsciously thinking or hoping th<strong>at</strong> it may change. This may lead them to not put as<br />
much emotional investment into the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship as their partner, or not expecting the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship to last<br />
leading to lower rel<strong>at</strong>ionship quality <strong>and</strong> s<strong>at</strong>isfaction within the rel<strong>at</strong>ionship.<br />
Internalized homophobia can infiltr<strong>at</strong>e every aspect of a sexual minority individual‘s mental<br />
health <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionships. It has been found to increase, depression, suicide <strong>at</strong>tempts <strong>and</strong> r<strong>at</strong>es of substance<br />
abuse <strong>and</strong> can also cause an individual to conceal their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> cause rel<strong>at</strong>ionship issues in<br />
both romantic <strong>and</strong> no romantic rel<strong>at</strong>ionships. The only relief in sight is for internalized homophobia to be<br />
less prevalent <strong>and</strong> for th<strong>at</strong> to happen society as a whole would have to decrease the heterosexist <strong>at</strong>titudes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> lead to internalized homophobia in the first place.<br />
Appendix A<br />
Heterosexual Questionnaire<br />
Martin Rochlin (1977) developed a set of questions for heterosexuals th<strong>at</strong> are similar to those th<strong>at</strong> gay,<br />
lesbian <strong>and</strong> bisexual individuals are often asked when talking about their sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion, but th<strong>at</strong><br />
heterosexuals are rarely asked. 3<br />
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1. Wh<strong>at</strong> do you think caused your heterosexuality?<br />
2. When <strong>and</strong> how did you first decide you were a heterosexual?<br />
3. Is it possible your heterosexuality is just a phase you may grow out of?<br />
4. Is it possible your heterosexuality stems from a neurotic fear of others of the same sex?<br />
5. Isn‘t it possible th<strong>at</strong> all you need is a good Gay lover?<br />
6. Heterosexuals have histories of failures in Gay rel<strong>at</strong>ionships. Do you think you may have turned<br />
to heterosexuality out of fear of rejection?<br />
7. If you‘ve never slept with a person of the same sex, how do you know you wouldn‘t prefer th<strong>at</strong>?<br />
8. If heterosexuality is normal, why are a disproportion<strong>at</strong>e number of mental p<strong>at</strong>ients heterosexual?<br />
9. To whom have you disclosed your heterosexual tendencies? How did they react?<br />
10. Your heterosexuality doesn‘t offend me as long as you don‘t try to force it on me. Why do you<br />
people feel compelled to seduce others into your sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion?<br />
11. If you choose to nurture children, would you want them to be heterosexual, knowing the<br />
problems they would face?<br />
12. The gre<strong>at</strong> majority of child molesters are heterosexuals. Do you really consider it safe to expose<br />
your children to heterosexual teachers?<br />
13. Why do you insist on being so obvious, <strong>and</strong> making a public spectacle of your heterosexuality?<br />
Can‘t you just be wh<strong>at</strong> you are <strong>and</strong> keep it quiet?<br />
14. How can you ever hope to become a whole person if you limit yourself to a compulsive,<br />
exclusive heterosexual object choice <strong>and</strong> remain unwilling to explore <strong>and</strong> develop your normal,<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural, healthy, God-given homosexual potential?<br />
15. Heterosexuals are noted for assigning themselves <strong>and</strong> each other to narrowly restricted,<br />
stereotyped sex-roles. Why do you cling to such unhealthy role-playing?<br />
16. Why do heterosexuals place so much emphasis on sex?<br />
17. With all the societal support marriage receives, the divorce r<strong>at</strong>e is spiraling. Why are there so few<br />
stable rel<strong>at</strong>ionships among heterosexuals?<br />
104
18. How could the human race survive if everyone were heterosexual, considering the menace of<br />
overpopul<strong>at</strong>ion?<br />
19. There seem to be very few happy heterosexuals. Techniques have been developed with which you<br />
might be able to change if you really want to. Have you considered aversion therapy?<br />
20. Do heterosexuals h<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong>/or distrust others of their own sex? Is th<strong>at</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> makes them<br />
heterosexual?<br />
(a) Circumstances<br />
in the<br />
environment<br />
(b) Minority st<strong>at</strong>us<br />
-Sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(e) Minority Identity<br />
-gay, lesbian, bisexual<br />
Figure 1. Meyer(2003) Minority Stress Model<br />
(h) Coping <strong>and</strong> Social Support (community <strong>and</strong> individual)<br />
(c) General<br />
Stressors<br />
(d) Minority Stress<br />
Process (distal)<br />
- Prejudice events<br />
(f) Minority Stress Processes<br />
(Proximal)<br />
-Expect<strong>at</strong>ions of rejection<br />
-concealment<br />
-Internalized Homophobia<br />
(i) Mental Health<br />
Outcomes<br />
-Positive<br />
-Neg<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
(g) Characteristics<br />
of Minority Identity<br />
-prominence<br />
-valence<br />
-integr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
105
References<br />
Blane, B. (2007). Coping with social stigma. Underst<strong>and</strong>ing the psychology of diversity (pp. 183-206).<br />
London: SAGE Public<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Cass, V. (1979). Homosexual identity form<strong>at</strong>ion: a theoretical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 4(3)<br />
D‘Augelli, A. R., & Grossman, A. H. (2001). Disclosure of sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion, victimiz<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> mental<br />
health among lesbian, gay, <strong>and</strong> bisexual older adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16.<br />
Frost, D & Meyer, I. (2009). Internalized homophobia <strong>and</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship quality among lesbians, gay men<br />
<strong>and</strong> bisexuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 56(1)<br />
H<strong>at</strong>zenbuhler, M. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma ―Get under the skin?‖ A psychological<br />
medi<strong>at</strong>ion framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), doi:10.1037/a0016441<br />
H<strong>at</strong>zenbuehler, M, Nolen-Hoesema, S, & Erikson, S. (2008). Minority stress predictors of HIV risk<br />
behavior, substance abuse <strong>and</strong> depressive symptoms: results from a perspective study of bereaved<br />
gay men. Health Psychology, 27(4), doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.4.455<br />
Herek, G, Gillis, J, & Cogan, J. (2009). Internalized stigma among minority adults: insight from a<br />
psychosocial perspective. Journal of counseling psychology, 56(1), doi: 10.1037/a0014672<br />
Johnson, A.G. (2006). Privilege, power <strong>and</strong> difference (2 nd ed). Boston: McGraw-Hill.<br />
Lehavot, K & Simoni, J. (2011). The impact of minority stress on mental health <strong>and</strong> substance<br />
Meyer, I. (2003). Prejudice, social stress <strong>and</strong> mental health in lesbian, gay <strong>and</strong> bisexual popul<strong>at</strong>ions:<br />
conceptual issues <strong>and</strong> research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), doi: 10.1037/0033-<br />
2909.129.5.674<br />
Meyer, I., & Dean, L. (1998). Internalized homophobia, intimacy <strong>and</strong> sexual behavior among gay <strong>and</strong><br />
bisexual men. In G. M. Herek (ed.) Stigma <strong>and</strong> sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion: Underst<strong>and</strong>ing prejudice<br />
against lesbians, gay men <strong>and</strong> bisexuals. (pp. 160-186). Thous<strong>and</strong> Oaks, CA: Sage.<br />
Smart, L., & Wegner, D. M. (2000). The hidden costs of stigma. In T. F. He<strong>at</strong>herton, R. E. Kleck, M. R.<br />
Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 220–242). New York: Guilford<br />
Press.<br />
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Whitley, B, & Kite, M. (2010). Gender <strong>and</strong> sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion. In J. Potter (Ed.), The psychology of<br />
prejudice <strong>and</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion (pp. 459-496). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.<br />
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Terrell McClure, Bloomsburg University<br />
Sexual Abuse in Prison: Will it EVER be Considered a True Problem?<br />
On August 9, 1973, Stephen Donaldson, a peace activist, was arrested for trespassing after<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ing in a pray-in <strong>at</strong> the White House. After refusing to post bond, Donaldson was sent to jail in<br />
Washington, D.C. In the days th<strong>at</strong> followed, Donaldson experienced a terror th<strong>at</strong> is far too common for<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> could easily be every inm<strong>at</strong>e in an American correctional facility. <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch explained<br />
his traum<strong>at</strong>ic experience ―Throughout Donaldson‘s horrific two night stay behind bars, he was gang-raped<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely sixty times by numerous inm<strong>at</strong>es. Upon his release Donaldson relived the appalling events,<br />
by being courageous <strong>and</strong> speaking out to the public. Donaldson was among the first survivors of jailhouse<br />
rape to come forward publicly to describe his abuse, launching a personal crusade to save other inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
from the sexual victimiz<strong>at</strong>ion. Stephen Donaldson contracted HIV through prison rape; <strong>and</strong> unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
th<strong>at</strong> was the cause of his de<strong>at</strong>h‖. If this happened to Donaldson it could happen to anyone behind bars. In<br />
prisons across the n<strong>at</strong>ion, many inm<strong>at</strong>es face parallel realities every day (Cronan, P. John <strong>and</strong> Man, D.<br />
Christopher).<br />
―Best estim<strong>at</strong>es put the annual number of prison rapes <strong>at</strong> about 140,000, which is more than half<br />
the amount of rapes of women reported to police‖. Prisoners maintain certain basic rights, which survive<br />
despite the individual being incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed. ―Respect for one‘s bodily integrity; th<strong>at</strong> is, not being assaulted<br />
is such a fundamental right‖ (Lynne Rienner). Although this is a basic right th<strong>at</strong> should be protected <strong>and</strong><br />
enforced inside prison walls, th<strong>at</strong> is not always the case. In fact, sexual abuse within prison is a deed th<strong>at</strong><br />
occurs more often than most citizens realize, yet it often goes unpunished; correspondingly this abuse<br />
causes disease, fear, mental suffering, <strong>and</strong> in the most extreme cases de<strong>at</strong>h.<br />
Most citizens don‘t know the severity of rape in prison; they may think prisoners exagger<strong>at</strong>e their<br />
stories to obtain emp<strong>at</strong>hy. But as taxpaying, law abiding, U.S. citizens who have never even been<br />
ticketed, why should we be concerned with the struggles of inm<strong>at</strong>es; if there really are any? The prisoners<br />
108
are in jail because they broke rules <strong>and</strong> couldn‘t lead an honest life; why should we trust their word now?<br />
Everyone deserves a second chance, not everyone in prison is a murderer, rapist, or child molester. There<br />
are some honest people in prison th<strong>at</strong> have made a few mistakes but are ready to make amends. Yes they<br />
are prisoners, <strong>and</strong> many people incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed need to serve life sentences for the crimes they committed,<br />
but as one general popul<strong>at</strong>ion we must remember th<strong>at</strong> an eye for an eye leaves the whole world blind.<br />
In the l<strong>and</strong> of the blind the one eyed man is king, <strong>and</strong> in many situ<strong>at</strong>ions the staff within the<br />
facilities heir the throne. Other than the victims, correctional officers should be oblig<strong>at</strong>ed to report<br />
inm<strong>at</strong>e-on-inm<strong>at</strong>e abuse. Incentives are instilled to discourage guards from reporting rape. They can be<br />
penalized if they report abuse <strong>and</strong> the claim was fraudulent. Even though the C.O. was trying to protect<br />
the inm<strong>at</strong>e‘s safety, the guard‘s job may still be <strong>at</strong> risk. In turn, many correctional officers turn the other<br />
cheek when an inm<strong>at</strong>e claims they were raped. Securing their job comes before the claims of any<br />
prisoner. Several prisoners have come forth in search of protective custody, after being raped, but many<br />
are denied because the guards are protecting their careers. (Hensley, Christopher)<br />
Prisoner classific<strong>at</strong>ion policies are applied to avoid abuse. Such policies reduce probability for a<br />
potential victim to be placed with the dangerous inm<strong>at</strong>es. ―However, overcrowding helps practical<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s overrule personal dem<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> many prisoners are placed with the dangerous inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
regardless. Another downside of the massive prison popul<strong>at</strong>ion is the lack of supervision‖. If inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
cannot be adequ<strong>at</strong>ely supervised then they are <strong>at</strong> higher risk to be raped. Obviously, rape is easiest to<br />
achieve when there no staff to witness the act. As if it wasn‘t hard already for an inm<strong>at</strong>e to get a guard to<br />
report his case, but now with the shortage of staff members is adding insult to injury.<br />
Many of the pred<strong>at</strong>ors in the prisons pretend to be friendly only to get feeble inm<strong>at</strong>es as their cell<br />
m<strong>at</strong>e. Once they are cell m<strong>at</strong>es the pred<strong>at</strong>or offers to protect the victims from all other inm<strong>at</strong>es, but in turn<br />
must do him favors. This is how a weak inm<strong>at</strong>e becomes the sexual slave of another inm<strong>at</strong>e. He is baited<br />
by someone who is thought to be a friend; when actually he is targeting the weaker inm<strong>at</strong>e upon arrival to<br />
the cell. If the weaker inm<strong>at</strong>e tries to fight or snitch, they will either be be<strong>at</strong>en severely by their cell m<strong>at</strong>e;<br />
or be thrown to the wolves.<br />
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A popular television show (Lock-Up, MSNBC) conveys to America the severity of sexual abuse<br />
in prison. They show visited Kentucky st<strong>at</strong>e penitentiary, where they interviewed longtime inm<strong>at</strong>e Fleece<br />
Johnson. Throughout the interview he explains the importance of an incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed male relieving his<br />
sexual desires. Fleece st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> ―They won‘t let us have a woman… so somebody is going to have to<br />
give up some booty‖. Inm<strong>at</strong>e fleece describes his sexual appetite for ―booty‖ <strong>and</strong> how he would do<br />
anything just to get it. Fleece told Lock-Up th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong> times ―booty was more important than food <strong>and</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er‖.<br />
If an inm<strong>at</strong>e is willing to place his sexual desires before nourishment, penal facilities must tre<strong>at</strong> abuse in<br />
prison as a punishable offense. It is common knowledge th<strong>at</strong> men may be raped in prison, but few people<br />
realize th<strong>at</strong> women are <strong>at</strong> a high risk as well. ―Female inm<strong>at</strong>es also face horrifying sexual abuse, often<br />
from the very individuals sworn to defend their safety; prison guards‖. ―A study of incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed women<br />
found r<strong>at</strong>es of sexual coercion between 6% <strong>and</strong> 27% in the facilities‖ (Cronan). This study also showed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> one fifth of the incidents could be classified as rape, <strong>and</strong> half of the perpetr<strong>at</strong>ors were women; which<br />
means the other half were staff members. Still not accounted for are the women who are scared to come<br />
forward for fear of punishment <strong>and</strong> embarrassment. Fear of rape in prison not only occurs in the male<br />
penal system but it also thrives within the female systems as well.<br />
Discreetly, victims are targeted by already incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed inm<strong>at</strong>es upon arrival to the penal facility.<br />
Age, height, weight, appeal to the inm<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> sexual preference are many of the characteristics observed<br />
of the new inm<strong>at</strong>es to mark them as c<strong>and</strong>id<strong>at</strong>es for sexual abuse.<br />
<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch‘s research has revealed a broad range of factors th<strong>at</strong><br />
correl<strong>at</strong>e with increased vulnerability to rape. These include youth, small size, <strong>and</strong><br />
physical weakness; being white, gay, or a first offender; possessing a feminine<br />
characteristics such as long hair or a high voice; being unassertive, unaggressive, shy,<br />
intellectual, not street-smart, or a passive; or having been convicted of a sexual offense<br />
against a minor (Lynne Rienner).<br />
Every prisoner is vulnerable <strong>and</strong> may become a victim of rape, but the inm<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> exhibit many of the<br />
listed qualities are <strong>at</strong> higher risk for abuse.<br />
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Prisoners refer to the new inm<strong>at</strong>es as ―fresh me<strong>at</strong>‖ <strong>and</strong> often refer to the initial rape as turning out<br />
the victim. Following the abuse, the victim loses all credibility <strong>and</strong> most importantly his ―manhood‖. The<br />
victim is now labeled as weak, inferior, <strong>and</strong> is considered a female in the eyes of all inm<strong>at</strong>es. If the victim<br />
does not retali<strong>at</strong>e he becomes a mark or marked, <strong>and</strong> is subject to rape by all inm<strong>at</strong>es. The prisoners who<br />
are unable to escape the grasp of sexual abuse find themselves being identified as inm<strong>at</strong>e‘s property.<br />
The word inm<strong>at</strong>e‘s property commonly used in prison to refer to sexually subordin<strong>at</strong>e<br />
inm<strong>at</strong>es, <strong>and</strong> it is no exagger<strong>at</strong>ion. Victims of prison rape, in the most extreme cases, are<br />
literally the slaves of the perpetr<strong>at</strong>ors. Forced to s<strong>at</strong>isfy another man‘s sexual appetites<br />
whenever he dem<strong>and</strong>s, they may also be responsible for washing his clothes, massaging<br />
his back, cooking his food, cleaning his cell, <strong>and</strong> myriad other chores. They are<br />
frequently a rented out for sex, sold, or even auctioned off to other inm<strong>at</strong>es, replic<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
the financial aspects of traditional slavery. Their most basic choices, like how to dress<br />
<strong>and</strong> whom to talk to, may be controlled by the person who owns them. Their name may<br />
be replaced by a female one. Like all forms of slavery, these situ<strong>at</strong>ions are among the<br />
most degrading <strong>and</strong> dehumanizing experiences a person can undergo (Cronan, P. John<br />
<strong>and</strong> Man, D. Christopher).<br />
While incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed, male prisoners are stripped of the most traditional means of asserting their<br />
masculinity <strong>and</strong>, consequently, turn to intimid<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> aggression‖ (Cronan, P. John <strong>and</strong> Man, D.<br />
Christopher). In a male based environment everyone wants to be the alpha male, <strong>and</strong> the p<strong>at</strong>h to obtaining<br />
this dominance is by way of sexual assault. A Texas inm<strong>at</strong>e st<strong>at</strong>ed…<br />
While incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed, the inm<strong>at</strong>es lack a female popul<strong>at</strong>ion as an object for their dominance<br />
<strong>and</strong> aggressions, so they turn to males. Prison rapists rewrite their previous conception of<br />
homosexual behaviors into an acceptable masculine role, which is highly physical <strong>and</strong><br />
powerful, <strong>and</strong> transform their male victims into surrog<strong>at</strong>es for women (Arthur J. Lurigio,<br />
Davis, C Robert <strong>and</strong> Susan Herman).<br />
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With previous forms of expressing their masculinity inaccessible, rape is in turn, the most effective way<br />
left to signify dominance over other individuals (taking their manhood).<br />
After all th<strong>at</strong> has happened to the victim, regaining their manhood would be on the brink of<br />
impossible. A Texas inm<strong>at</strong>e st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> there was only two ways to regain your manhood, one being you<br />
kill perpetr<strong>at</strong>or or two you rape someone else. Many inm<strong>at</strong>es go with the l<strong>at</strong>ter option <strong>and</strong> find a victim<br />
weaker than themselves, because it is the easier option of the two. Once the act is done other inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
realize th<strong>at</strong> the inm<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> was once a weak <strong>and</strong> feeble prey has become a pred<strong>at</strong>or as well. The once<br />
victimized inm<strong>at</strong>e then makes a st<strong>at</strong>ement th<strong>at</strong> he can take the pain as well as deliver it. (Cronan)<br />
Delivering such pain does not go unnoticed, but the guards rarely but their jobs on the line for<br />
inm<strong>at</strong>es. Many inm<strong>at</strong>es are given mere slaps on the wrists, or placed in solitary confinement for one week,<br />
two weeks, or a month never more. (Barnett, Arnold). For example, a Texas inm<strong>at</strong>e reported to <strong>Human</strong><br />
<strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch th<strong>at</strong> the correctional officers in his cell block allowed an inm<strong>at</strong>e assigned to a different cell<br />
stay with him for two days. During the two days the inm<strong>at</strong>e was raped continuously <strong>and</strong> his life was<br />
thre<strong>at</strong>ened. When the inm<strong>at</strong>e informed authorities of the acts th<strong>at</strong> took place over the two days it was<br />
logged as an alleged <strong>at</strong>tack. The perpetr<strong>at</strong>or was charged with verbal thre<strong>at</strong>ening, <strong>and</strong> escaped disciplinary<br />
action for the more serious offense.<br />
When inm<strong>at</strong>es try to regain their manhood they complete tasks they never thought they would. On<br />
the popular series Lock-Up a knowingly homosexual man was interviewed. He st<strong>at</strong>ed for him to regain<br />
his manhood he had to kill the man who initially raped him. Once he was dead the inm<strong>at</strong>e told MSNBC<br />
th<strong>at</strong> no one troubled him again about trying to take his manhood. He st<strong>at</strong>ed ―Because of me being an open<br />
homosexual I was thought to be an easy target, But after I killed th<strong>at</strong> man I wasn‘t a pushover anymore‖.<br />
When no one listens to homosexuals, the only escape route is killing the initial perpetr<strong>at</strong>or.<br />
Homosexual inm<strong>at</strong>es are the most likely to be sexually abused. Because many of the openly gay<br />
inm<strong>at</strong>es are not afraid to showcase their sexuality, correctional officers do not see their abuse as rape.<br />
Gays in prison are bashed even more in prison than outside of prison. Every sexual act they commit<br />
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guards view as consensual because they are gay. The guards assume th<strong>at</strong> the like being raped, but<br />
honestly why would anyone enjoy the physical <strong>and</strong> mental abuse of rape?<br />
Sexual abuse, for inm<strong>at</strong>es causes an ongoing neg<strong>at</strong>ive strain on their psyche. Many of the inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
who become victims frequently showcase excessive psychological abuse. Correctional facilities‘ main<br />
goal is to rehabilit<strong>at</strong>e inm<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> help mold them back into law abiding citizens. But when inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
become victims <strong>and</strong> they are not being recognized as victims they cannot be rehabilit<strong>at</strong>ed correctly.<br />
Victims told <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch th<strong>at</strong> they suffer from ―nightmares, deep depression, shame, loss of<br />
self-esteem, self-h<strong>at</strong>red, <strong>and</strong> considering or <strong>at</strong>tempting suicide‖ (Cronan). Experts believe th<strong>at</strong> the cycle of<br />
violence is perpetu<strong>at</strong>ed after a rape occurs, in turn, cre<strong>at</strong>ing a more violent person than before.<br />
Rape trauma syndrome (a variant of post-traum<strong>at</strong>ic stress disorder) has been identified by<br />
psychi<strong>at</strong>rists as a common result of rape. Diagnosed victims showed symptoms of severe depression,<br />
paranoia, f<strong>at</strong>igue, <strong>and</strong> sleep depriv<strong>at</strong>ion (Cronan). Many of the inm<strong>at</strong>es st<strong>at</strong>ed they felt worthless <strong>and</strong><br />
h<strong>at</strong>ed themselves for not preventing the assault. Experts established a generalized outline which<br />
c<strong>at</strong>egorizes the effects of rape into three forms of impact; short, intermedi<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> long-term impact.<br />
The short-term reaction to rape is characterized by a range of traum<strong>at</strong>ic symptoms, including<br />
nightmares <strong>and</strong> other forms of sleep disturbance, intense fear, worry, suspicion, major depression, <strong>and</strong><br />
impairment in social functioning. In the second stage, victims often experience depression <strong>and</strong> self-h<strong>at</strong>red,<br />
as well as social <strong>and</strong> sexual dysfunction. The long-term effects of rape, which may surface a year or more<br />
after the assault, often involve destructive or self-destructive behavior; common symptoms are anger,<br />
hyper vigilance to danger, sexual dysfunction <strong>and</strong> a diminished capacity to enjoy life. (Cronan)<br />
Victims th<strong>at</strong> are diagnosed with rape trauma syndrome often develop trust issues. (Blumstein,<br />
Alfred) If the victims are not properly diagnosed <strong>and</strong> tre<strong>at</strong>ed they will live the rest of their lives through<br />
th<strong>at</strong> traum<strong>at</strong>ic incident. One inm<strong>at</strong>e told <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch th<strong>at</strong> every night he goes to sleep he sees<br />
the face of his <strong>at</strong>tacker. He sees his face in his dreams <strong>and</strong> when he awakes in the morning. Imagine<br />
reliving the worst day of your life over <strong>and</strong> over, for many prisoners who are diagnosed with rape trauma<br />
syndrome often relive their <strong>at</strong>tacks daily.<br />
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Sexual assault r<strong>at</strong>es for men in prison extend to 14% who reported sexual victimiz<strong>at</strong>ion in a study<br />
of medium security prison (Arthur, Davis, Herman). In prison, sexual abuse is far more severe <strong>and</strong><br />
frequent which give prisoners feelings of helplessness <strong>and</strong> terror, <strong>and</strong> increased risk of suicide. It is<br />
difficult for male inm<strong>at</strong>es to report assault because of the harsh repercussions. For instance, if any inm<strong>at</strong>e<br />
tells on another inm<strong>at</strong>e for any wrong doing he is considered a snitch (Arthur, Davis, Herman); when<br />
someone in prison is br<strong>and</strong>ed a snitch th<strong>at</strong> inm<strong>at</strong>e is subject to retali<strong>at</strong>ion from all inm<strong>at</strong>es who frown<br />
upon snitches, or th<strong>at</strong> inm<strong>at</strong>e could be assaulted again. Further assault th<strong>at</strong> would lead the inm<strong>at</strong>e to<br />
believe th<strong>at</strong> the only way out of the situ<strong>at</strong>ion is to keep the wrongful act concealed.<br />
Many victims told <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch about their fears of becoming the ―Wife‖ or the ―Kid‖ of<br />
their rapists. A small portion of those victims also spoke out about being forced to partake in sexual<br />
services for a whole gang, for an extended period of time. Prison Staff members often view this as<br />
consensual because the act is not violent, but th<strong>at</strong> is not the case. Of the victims interviewed many of<br />
them said they stopped fighting because it was useless. They were not getting any help so they resigned<br />
themselves to their situ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>and</strong> stopped fighting. Although in some cases the physical force is absent,<br />
mental force is present; which is arguably just as effective if not more (Cronan).<br />
When an inm<strong>at</strong>e is controlled by mental force, close to nothing can be done to break free. After<br />
being mentally drained they have no fight left are easily sold or rented as a sexual slave. They become<br />
brainwashed slaves <strong>and</strong> a symbol of power for the owner of the sex slave (Mariner, Joanne). ―Sexual<br />
slavery is a form of slavery recognized as such under intern<strong>at</strong>ional law <strong>and</strong> prohibited under both tre<strong>at</strong>y<br />
law <strong>and</strong> customary intern<strong>at</strong>ional law. Notably, the crime of slavery does not require government<br />
involvement or St<strong>at</strong>e action, <strong>and</strong> constitutes an intern<strong>at</strong>ional crime whether committed by St<strong>at</strong>e actors or<br />
priv<strong>at</strong>e individuals‖. (Joanne)<br />
For many inm<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> are sexually assaulted; rape is the least of their worries. Sure, the inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
fear the rape, but contracting HIV is the foremost consequence th<strong>at</strong> haunts the inm<strong>at</strong>e; for it may be<br />
deadly. Victims of prison rape face a prem<strong>at</strong>ure de<strong>at</strong>h sentence because of the possibility of contracting<br />
HIV/AIDS, an inadvertent intention of the criminal justice system. Many inm<strong>at</strong>es are injuries don‘t meet<br />
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―emergency grievance criteria‖, therefore they are denied protective custody <strong>and</strong> remain subject to rape.<br />
In turn, the rapes continue, <strong>and</strong> the victim‘s likelihood of contracting HIV is severely heightened (Arthur,<br />
Davis, Herman)<br />
―In 1997 approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 18,000 inm<strong>at</strong>es were infected with the HIV/AIDS virus, making.<br />
Between 1991 <strong>and</strong> 1993 one in three de<strong>at</strong>hs were <strong>at</strong>tributed to AIDS-rel<strong>at</strong>ed causes, compared to one in<br />
ten outside the penitentiary‖ (Cronan). Making the situ<strong>at</strong>ion worse is the lack of prevent<strong>at</strong>ive measures.<br />
There is close to nothing being done to educ<strong>at</strong>e prisoners of the harsh realities of the spread of<br />
HIV/AIDS. The penal facilities are aware of the abuse going on yet refuse to implement reduction devices<br />
such as condoms, <strong>and</strong> clean needles.<br />
Implementing such devices could help elimin<strong>at</strong>e the virus from within U.S. prisons. If the inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
were aware of the extent to which the deadly virus is spreading, then maybe they would be less likely to<br />
rape a potential victim. Educ<strong>at</strong>ed people would not knowingly infect themselves with a deadly virus, <strong>and</strong><br />
if condoms were available it would prevent the disease from further spreading. Condoms may or may not<br />
persuade inm<strong>at</strong>es to rape, but if you can‘t prevent the inevitable <strong>at</strong> least you can protect the victims.<br />
Simply adding such prevent<strong>at</strong>ive measure could help decrease the r<strong>at</strong>es of HIV/AIDS rel<strong>at</strong>ed de<strong>at</strong>hs.<br />
Brutal rapes th<strong>at</strong> occur within prison can take their toll on any man, physically <strong>and</strong> mentally. If<br />
the victim is does not contract a disease <strong>and</strong> die from th<strong>at</strong>, or is ―shanked‖ (stabbed) in retali<strong>at</strong>ion for<br />
snitching, then suicide is next on the list. <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch conducted a survey which relayed a<br />
shocking result. The survey showed th<strong>at</strong>, out of the nineteen willing inm<strong>at</strong>es surveyed, all have tried to<br />
commit suicide <strong>and</strong> many more considered it as an option (Mariner, Joanne). Still not accounted for are<br />
the rapes th<strong>at</strong> are not reported. Several inm<strong>at</strong>es are too embarrassed to come forth so the incident never<br />
gets documented. If the situ<strong>at</strong>ion is not addressed the bottled up anger can be a ticking time bomb.<br />
Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, <strong>at</strong> the end of th<strong>at</strong> short fuse is suicide.<br />
Suicide ranks third as cause of de<strong>at</strong>h in prison; the origin of the suicides are expected to be caused<br />
by some form of abuse. ―From 1984 to 1993, the r<strong>at</strong>e of prison suicide was more than 50 percent higher<br />
than the n<strong>at</strong>ional average outside of prison‖ (Cronan). Although the d<strong>at</strong>a is old the numbers are still<br />
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significant. Since 1943 prison popul<strong>at</strong>ion has grown more than 62% in the United St<strong>at</strong>es (Blumstein,<br />
Alfred). The steadily increasing prison popul<strong>at</strong>ions increase the risk for inm<strong>at</strong>es to be viol<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
Suicides are far too common in the U.S. penal system, considering the harsh reality of it, one is<br />
too many. These rapes not only have a primary effect which is <strong>at</strong>tached to the victim, the rapes also have<br />
a secondary effect directly tied to loved ones. Take in to consider<strong>at</strong>ion the story of Rodney Hulin…<br />
My name is Rodney Hulin <strong>and</strong> I work <strong>at</strong> a retirement home here in Beaumont, Texas. I<br />
am here today because of my son. He would be here himself if he could . . . . But he<br />
can‘t because he died in [an adult prison]. . . . [At age seventeen], my son was raped <strong>and</strong><br />
sodomized by an inm<strong>at</strong>e. The doctor found two tears in his rectum <strong>and</strong> ordered an HIV<br />
test, since up to a third of the 2,200 inm<strong>at</strong>es there were HIV positive. Fearing for his<br />
safety, he requested to be placed in protective custody, but his request was denied<br />
because, as the warden put it, Rodney‘s abuses didn‘t meet the emergency grievance<br />
criteria. For the next several months, my son was repe<strong>at</strong>edly be<strong>at</strong>en by the older inm<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
forced to perform oral sex, robbed, <strong>and</strong> be<strong>at</strong>en again. Each time, his requests for<br />
protection were denied by the warden. The abuses, meanwhile, continued. On the night of<br />
January 26, 1996 seventy-five days after my son entered Clemens Rodney <strong>at</strong>tempted<br />
suicide by hanging himself in his cell. He could no longer st<strong>and</strong> to live in continual terror.<br />
It was too much for him to h<strong>and</strong>le. He laid in a coma for the next four months until he<br />
died (Cronan).<br />
For many incarcer<strong>at</strong>ed teens the trauma caused by rape is too much to bear <strong>and</strong> consequently many take<br />
their own lives.<br />
―Sexual abuse in prison is one of America‘s oldest, darkest, <strong>and</strong> yet most open, secrets, It is the<br />
rare convict who will never engage in homosexual acts, in the vast majority of cases, mutual <strong>at</strong>traction or<br />
affection does not drive prison sexual rel<strong>at</strong>ionships; r<strong>at</strong>her most sexual acts in prison are the coerced<br />
products of dominance, intimid<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> terror (a Texas inm<strong>at</strong>e)‖.<br />
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Even though the exact extent of prisoner-on-prisoner rape remains unknown, the thre<strong>at</strong> of sexual abuse is<br />
a reality of life in prison.<br />
How many victims must die before America steps up <strong>and</strong> puts an end to sexual abuse in prison?<br />
Sexual abuse in prison has been toler<strong>at</strong>ed long enough. It is shunned within our community but we care<br />
less when it happens to a criminal? We as humans should never celebr<strong>at</strong>e the harm or the de<strong>at</strong>h of another<br />
living being. Whether a prisoner dies from disease, abuse, or suicide enough is enough. For the inm<strong>at</strong>es<br />
who take their own lives we can only imagine how hard life must have been if dying was an option. We<br />
can only learn from the stories of the victims th<strong>at</strong> have passed <strong>and</strong> hope to change things in the future.<br />
Change classific<strong>at</strong>ion policies so th<strong>at</strong> victims are not easily targeted, change policies so th<strong>at</strong> condoms are<br />
allowed <strong>and</strong> cleans needles are obtainable (t<strong>at</strong>toos only). Everyone is protected by the 14 th amendment,<br />
<strong>and</strong> shall not fall victim to cruel <strong>and</strong> unusual punishment. Yet, in prisons across the U.S the r<strong>at</strong>e of abuse<br />
in continuously rising. If we begin to protect our inm<strong>at</strong>es from abuse while on the inside, they will not be<br />
as emotionally <strong>and</strong> mentally drained. We need to rise <strong>and</strong> take action now, not wait until the shoe is on<br />
the other foot.<br />
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Work Cited<br />
Arthur J. Lurigio, Davis, C Robert <strong>and</strong> Susan Herman. Victims of Crime. Los Angeles: Sage Public<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
2007.<br />
Barnett, Arnold. Oper<strong>at</strong>ions Research. 1st ed. Vol. 35. Informs, Jan. - Feb., 1987. 18-34. Web.<br />
Blumstein, Alfred. "Prison Popul<strong>at</strong>ions: A System out of Control?" Crime <strong>and</strong> Justice. . 10. 1988. 231-66.<br />
Cronan, P. John <strong>and</strong> Man, D. Christopher "Forecasting Sexual Abuse in Prison: The Prison Subculture of<br />
Masculinity as a Backdrop for "Deliber<strong>at</strong>e Indifference"" The Journal of Criminal Law <strong>and</strong><br />
Criminology. 92., 1973-. 127-86.JSTOR. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.<br />
Hensley, Christopher. Prison Sex: Practice <strong>and</strong> Policy. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.<br />
Jacobs, James B. "The Prisoners' <strong>Rights</strong> Movement <strong>and</strong> Its Impacts." , Crime <strong>and</strong> Justice 1960-802<br />
(1980): 429-70. JSTOR. Web. 27 Feb. 2011.<br />
Mariner, Joanne. No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons. New York: <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> W<strong>at</strong>ch, 2001. 54-100.<br />
"Prison - Prisoners' <strong>Rights</strong>." Http://law.jrank.org. Web. 3 Mar. 2011.<br />
Simon, Rita J., <strong>and</strong> He<strong>at</strong>her Ahn-Redding. The Crimes Women Commit: the Punishments They Receive.<br />
Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2005.<br />
Travis, Jeremy, <strong>and</strong> Visher, A. Christy. " Transitions from Prison to Community: Underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
Individual P<strong>at</strong>hways ." Annual Review of Sociology 29 (2003): 89-113. JSTOR. Web. 27 Feb.<br />
2011.<br />
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Danielle Miller, Bloomsburg University<br />
Psychology Experiments: When Should They Stop?<br />
Some Psychologists perform experiments without thought to their effects on the subject. One of<br />
these experimenters is Psychologist John Money. He convinced a couple to have their son get a sex<br />
change after a circumcision incident. After Bruce was turned into a girl, she was named Brenda <strong>and</strong> was<br />
raised, dressed, <strong>and</strong> tre<strong>at</strong>ed as a girl. Many psychological experiments have been performed in the past<br />
<strong>and</strong> are still being performed today. Some experiments are helpful to an individual while other<br />
experiments can hurt the p<strong>at</strong>ient‘s mental health. Experiments th<strong>at</strong> cause lasting emotional <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
stress to a subject, such as the one above, should not be carried out because they can lead to low self-<br />
esteem, depression, <strong>and</strong> suicide.<br />
According to Morton Hunt, the first psychological experiment was conducted in the seventh<br />
century B.C. by the King of Egypt. The King wanted to know if his people were the first civiliz<strong>at</strong>ion to be<br />
on the earth, so he initi<strong>at</strong>ed an experiment done on children <strong>and</strong> how they were raised. The King had<br />
children put in isol<strong>at</strong>ion from infancy <strong>and</strong> gave them no instruction of language. He was certain th<strong>at</strong><br />
wh<strong>at</strong>ever language the children grew up to speak was the language of the first civiliz<strong>at</strong>ion on earth (Hunt<br />
1993, p.1). Even though the King‘s logic was somewh<strong>at</strong> correct in th<strong>at</strong> language is made in the mind<br />
(epsychlopedia), the morality of putting young children in solitude <strong>and</strong> not conversing with them was<br />
wrong. This shows th<strong>at</strong> the earliest people to record their findings had an interest in the human mind. And<br />
tried to find out how the mind works by performing experiments. Psychologists have determined th<strong>at</strong><br />
children who have had no affection from the people in their lives grow up to be antisocial, have learning<br />
disabilities, <strong>and</strong> having extreme reactions to touch. There was also a case where two little girls lived<br />
together in total isol<strong>at</strong>ion without parents. When these girls were found they spoke their own language<br />
making it hard to help the children.<br />
In Psychology the main goal when performing experiment<strong>at</strong>ions is to figure out wh<strong>at</strong> is going on<br />
in the other person‘s mind. When becoming a psychologist a person already has a curiosity for how other<br />
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people are thinking. Many experiments are performed for a psychologist‘s own purposes in helping<br />
reduce their curiosity. Many psychology experiments are performed in the wake of n<strong>at</strong>ural <strong>and</strong> human-<br />
made disasters. There were many experiments performed after the holocaust, Abu Ghraib, <strong>and</strong> 9/11 in<br />
trying to figure out how people could do horrible crimes like th<strong>at</strong>. After the holocaust psychologists were<br />
looking <strong>at</strong> why multiple people would kill their friends, neighbors, <strong>and</strong> sometimes even their own family.<br />
The people were said to have done this in order to save their own lives by conforming to peer <strong>and</strong><br />
government pressure. There are also experiments done after the n<strong>at</strong>ural disasters such as hurricanes <strong>and</strong><br />
earthquakes to find a way to best deal with the loss of loved ones <strong>and</strong> possessions. These experiments<br />
were not always for the best for the subjects. Some were temporarily stressed <strong>and</strong> for some it changed<br />
their lives forever.<br />
In response to Abu Ghraib, Philip G. Zimbardo conducted an experiment called the Stanford<br />
Prison experiment. This experiment had 24 male college students from North America who were living<br />
around Stanford <strong>at</strong> the time of the experiment. The 24 males were split into two groups. One of these<br />
groups was guards <strong>and</strong> the other was inm<strong>at</strong>es. When the inm<strong>at</strong>es first arrived they were stripped <strong>and</strong><br />
deloused. The men had to wear nylon stockings covering their hair <strong>and</strong> they wore smocks with only their<br />
identific<strong>at</strong>ion number on them. On the first day, the boys acted normally casually putting themselves into<br />
the roles they were given. After th<strong>at</strong> first day, the boys started to behave as though they were really<br />
inm<strong>at</strong>es. The guards started to give out punishments <strong>and</strong> sending them to solitary confinement. As the<br />
days went on the prisoners rioted <strong>and</strong> the guards punished them by taking away their clothes <strong>and</strong><br />
m<strong>at</strong>tresses. After the riot the guards became more brutal in their quest to assert their authority over the<br />
prisoners. The first inm<strong>at</strong>e was released less than 36 hours after the experiment had begun. He was said to<br />
be showing slight emotional disturbances such as crying uncontrollably <strong>and</strong> severe rage (Zimbardo, 1999-<br />
2009).<br />
This experiment was supposed to last two weeks, but after the sixth day, the inm<strong>at</strong>es became so<br />
subservient <strong>and</strong> the guards had escal<strong>at</strong>ed to abusing the inm<strong>at</strong>es in the middle of the night th<strong>at</strong> the study<br />
was ended early. It took so long for Zimbardo to end the experiment because he was drawn so far into it.<br />
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Th<strong>at</strong> was a real problem because as the psychologist they have to be able to say <strong>at</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> time the subjects<br />
had enough. Th<strong>at</strong> the experiment did not have to go any farther than it already had even if the<br />
experimenter did not get the results th<strong>at</strong> he/she wanted. Zimbardo observed th<strong>at</strong> out of the 50 outsiders<br />
who had witnessed the experiment, only one had objected to wh<strong>at</strong> he was doing, saying th<strong>at</strong> it was<br />
immoral (Zimbardo, 1999-2009).<br />
The humili<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> these students went through, Zimbardo says ―was so th<strong>at</strong> we would be better<br />
equipped to behave morally in future real-life situ<strong>at</strong>ions‖ (Zimbardo, 1999-2009). Even though we would<br />
be better equipped to h<strong>and</strong>le a situ<strong>at</strong>ion like this, it was not right to do this to the students. The experiment<br />
was harmful <strong>and</strong> degrading to the subjects <strong>and</strong> should not have been performed, it was morally wrong<br />
even if was for the ―gre<strong>at</strong>er good‖. Wh<strong>at</strong> does the ―gre<strong>at</strong>er good‖ even mean for who is it good the<br />
experimenters or the subject? It is supposed to benefit the world just like learning from our mistakes yet<br />
we still keep making the same mistakes over <strong>and</strong> over again. Zimbardo should have stopped the<br />
experiment the minute he saw how it was affecting the subjects.<br />
Psychologist Stanley Milgram was well known for his experiment <strong>at</strong> Yale University on<br />
obedience. This experiment consisted of three people: the subject, the confeder<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> the scientist. The<br />
subject <strong>and</strong> the confeder<strong>at</strong>e were both placed in an area to wait for the scientist. When the scientist came<br />
out, he had the two men draw slips of paper both saying ―teacher‖. The drawing was rigged so th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
confeder<strong>at</strong>e would say th<strong>at</strong> he was the learner. The scientist then took the two men to a room th<strong>at</strong> had the<br />
shock wires. The scientist strapped the learner in <strong>and</strong> then gave the teacher a sample of the shock. Right<br />
before the scientist <strong>and</strong> the teacher left to go to the other room, the confeder<strong>at</strong>e stopped them, saying th<strong>at</strong><br />
he was recently to the doctors <strong>and</strong> the doctor had diagnosed him with heart problems. He then quickly<br />
reassured them th<strong>at</strong> after consulting with his doctor he had been deemed physically fit to particip<strong>at</strong>e in the<br />
experiment. The scientist <strong>and</strong> the teacher then left the room. In the next room the scientist told the teacher<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> to do (Experiment-Resources.com2008).<br />
The teacher had to verbally give the learner a list of paired words. After the list was read the<br />
teacher had to go back through <strong>and</strong> say the first word of each pair <strong>and</strong> then give four possible answers.<br />
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The learner was then to press a button indic<strong>at</strong>ing which word he wanted. The first couple rounds went<br />
fine <strong>and</strong> then the learner missed one. At th<strong>at</strong> point in time the teacher had to give the first shock. The next<br />
couple rounds went the same way <strong>and</strong> each time the teacher had to increase the voltage of each shock.<br />
After a couple of rounds the learner started to complain th<strong>at</strong> the shocks were too much <strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong> he wanted<br />
out. When the teacher looked to the scientist for guidance, the scientist told him ―please continue‖<br />
(Experiment- Resources.com, 2008).<br />
Most of the subjects did continue; very few of them stopped <strong>at</strong> this point. Not one of the<br />
participants had stopped giving shocks before 300 volts given. The rounds kept going <strong>and</strong> after a little<br />
while the confeder<strong>at</strong>e stops responding. The teacher once again asks the scientist if he should stop, <strong>and</strong><br />
the scientist tells him ―the experiment requires th<strong>at</strong> you continue‖ (Wikipedia). Still <strong>at</strong> this point people<br />
kept going; st<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> wh<strong>at</strong>ever happened to the other person was the scientist‘s fault or laughed<br />
nervously.<br />
When all four verbal prods: please continue, the experiment requires th<strong>at</strong> you continue, it is<br />
absolutely essential th<strong>at</strong> you continue, <strong>and</strong> you have no other choice you must continue (Wikipedia). If<br />
the subject still wanted to quit after they were given successively or the teacher presses the 450 volts of<br />
shock three times the experiment was stopped. The scientist asked him how he was <strong>and</strong> the men mostly<br />
showed concern for the other person. The confeder<strong>at</strong>e then enters the room <strong>and</strong> explains to the subject<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> was going on. Wh<strong>at</strong> the person did not know was th<strong>at</strong> the minute they had left the room the<br />
confeder<strong>at</strong>e got out of his ―constraints.‖ He then got out a machine th<strong>at</strong> had prerecorded answers on it,<br />
<strong>and</strong> after a certain number of voltage increases the confeder<strong>at</strong>e would bang on the wall (Wikipedia).<br />
This experiment shows the impact th<strong>at</strong> an ―authority figure‖ has over people. Th<strong>at</strong> even though<br />
the people wanted to stop the scientist convinced them th<strong>at</strong> it was vital for them to continue. Wh<strong>at</strong> we<br />
learned from this experiment can be used when teaching people even young children who to trust <strong>and</strong><br />
who to follow directions from. Even though we learned this the way the experiment was conducted was<br />
wrong. The stress th<strong>at</strong> this caused on the participants in thinking th<strong>at</strong> they had actually killed or severely<br />
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harmed someone was high <strong>and</strong> even though it was temporary. There had always been the chance th<strong>at</strong> the<br />
effects could have been long term.<br />
In researching Stanley Milgram I came across another of his lesser known experiments. In this<br />
experiment he had a group of first year gradu<strong>at</strong>e students conduct an experiment. The experiment<br />
consisted of the students going on the subway <strong>and</strong> asking a passenger for their se<strong>at</strong>. Dr. Stanley Milgram<br />
was trying to explore the set of rules th<strong>at</strong> we as human beings set but do not write down or verbalize. Our<br />
sets of unwritten rules, like walking on the right side of the hallway, th<strong>at</strong> are usually taught by<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ion from gener<strong>at</strong>ion to gener<strong>at</strong>ion. The Milgram‘s students did not want to particip<strong>at</strong>e in the<br />
experiment until one student named Ira Goodman volunteered to particip<strong>at</strong>e with a partner (Luo, 2004).<br />
The students performing the experiment thirty years l<strong>at</strong>er say th<strong>at</strong> they can still feel the anxiety<br />
from the experiment. A couple of weeks before the article was published a pair of reporters replic<strong>at</strong>ed the<br />
experiment. A surprising 13 out of 15 gave up their se<strong>at</strong>s <strong>and</strong> one of the answers they got was, ―a<br />
construction worker sneered to a male reporter, ―If you were a women, then…‖ he got up anyway‖ (Luo,<br />
2004). This experiment was unethical because of the strain put on the students one student remembers the<br />
feeling of wanting to vomit. While other students remember feeling faint but all the students th<strong>at</strong><br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> the reporters felt the sense th<strong>at</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> they were doing was wrong. Dr. Milgram did not<br />
even get useful inform<strong>at</strong>ion from this experiment in no way can we use wh<strong>at</strong> he learned to better our<br />
world. Though I do know wh<strong>at</strong> it feels like to go against these unwritten rules. Even just walking down<br />
the wrong side of the hall <strong>and</strong> making the people move over makes me feel anxious <strong>and</strong> upset (Luo,<br />
2004).<br />
Though some experiments are not always morally right we can take away positive inform<strong>at</strong>ion in<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> we learned. We can put these findings into good use by being able to prevent guards <strong>at</strong> prisons from<br />
exerting unnecessary humili<strong>at</strong>ion on inm<strong>at</strong>es. We also use the knowledge from Asch‘s experiment to help<br />
children when their peers are pressuring them into doing drugs. We also have the knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of obedience in which Milgram focused on in his electric shock obedience experiment.<br />
Even with the good things we learn from these immoral experiments it leaves the question. Is it ok for<br />
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psychologists to cause emotional damage in a person for better knowledge of wh<strong>at</strong> is happening in the<br />
world?<br />
In researching the Milgram experiment I came across other experiments done where a person was<br />
in a distressing situ<strong>at</strong>ion. The experiments th<strong>at</strong> were done were more ethical. In one of these experiments<br />
an actor pretends to be sick or hurt in some way. They lie somewhere where they will be noticed <strong>and</strong> in<br />
high trafficked areas. There are cameras hidden around the scene <strong>and</strong> someone is w<strong>at</strong>ching the<br />
proceedings from a nearby building. They wait until someone steps forward to help the person. When<br />
someone does step forward they come out of the buildings <strong>and</strong> confront the person. They explain wh<strong>at</strong> is<br />
happening <strong>and</strong> ask why they got involved (YouTube- Byst<strong>and</strong>er effect). There are many experiments<br />
conducted like this one. There is one where an infant is locked in a car on a hot day, another where a dog<br />
is trapped in a hot car, on where a young child is approached by a stranger while <strong>at</strong> a play ground asking<br />
them to help find his dog, <strong>and</strong> one where a child is abducted. In these experiments not many people stop<br />
to help the person or dog. This is referred to as the byst<strong>and</strong>er effect where when a lot of people are around<br />
you believe th<strong>at</strong> someone else will help.<br />
This was not the case when a young girl was approached by a stranger <strong>at</strong> a park when her nanny<br />
leaves to use the restroom. Every time the stranger came to talk to the little girl a parent from nearby<br />
would step in <strong>and</strong> ask the man to leave the girl alone <strong>and</strong> thre<strong>at</strong>ening to call the police. They then changed<br />
the scenario a little instead of the man being a stranger the man knows the little girl who lives down the<br />
street from him. Even then there was only one parent th<strong>at</strong> let the little girl walk away but when questioned<br />
she said she kept w<strong>at</strong>ching to see where they were going (YouTube-wh<strong>at</strong> would you do?). These are the<br />
type of experiments th<strong>at</strong> are ethical there is no psychological harm on the unknowing subjects. We can<br />
also use the inform<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> was acquired when we are teaching children wh<strong>at</strong> they should do when they<br />
are in th<strong>at</strong> type of situ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
As adults we can use the inform<strong>at</strong>ion ourselves. For example in the experiment with the baby<br />
being locked in the car crying it took close to ten minutes for one person to stop <strong>and</strong> call 911. When one<br />
person stopped the other people who had been walking by would stop <strong>and</strong> help ask whose car it was. Th<strong>at</strong><br />
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we should not just walk by <strong>and</strong> believe someone else will help; we should take action <strong>and</strong> help the person<br />
th<strong>at</strong> is in the situ<strong>at</strong>ion. We should teach our children, youth, <strong>and</strong> even adults th<strong>at</strong> it is ok to not conform to<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> other people are doing.<br />
Another study which was done by Solomon Asch is called a study of conformity. This study can<br />
be viewed as an experiment derived from wh<strong>at</strong> happened with the holocaust <strong>and</strong> how one person got so<br />
many people to kill. In Asch‘s study, a group of five or six men are brought into a room. All the subjects<br />
are confeder<strong>at</strong>es except one person who is sitting <strong>at</strong> the last chair around the table. The instructor came in,<br />
set up poster boards with lines on them <strong>and</strong> explains wh<strong>at</strong> they have to do. The task is simple: each<br />
person had to indic<strong>at</strong>e which two lines were the same lengths. The first four times during the experiment<br />
the confeder<strong>at</strong>e‘s st<strong>at</strong>e the right lines but the next time around the all say the wrong answer. At this point<br />
in time the subject says the right answer <strong>and</strong> usually gives the other people strange looks. After a few<br />
times with the confeder<strong>at</strong>es giving the wrong answer the subject conforms to wh<strong>at</strong> the others are saying.<br />
This experiment showed how easy <strong>and</strong> fast it was for someone to conform to a group (Age-of-the-sage<br />
(n.d.).<br />
By the end of the holocaust if you were not helping Hitler you were against him so many people<br />
did wh<strong>at</strong> they were told in fear of being killed. This experiment also went along way with the<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of peer pressure <strong>and</strong> how groups convince people to do things against their will. This<br />
experiment is not totally bad <strong>and</strong> the effects were not severe just slight stress when the confeder<strong>at</strong>es gave<br />
different answers th<strong>at</strong> were not right. It shows how easy it is for one person to conform to a group, but if<br />
just one more person opposes wh<strong>at</strong> the confeder<strong>at</strong>es say then the subject is more likely to give the right<br />
answer. The opposing confeder<strong>at</strong>e does not even have to give the correct answer just a different one.<br />
The ethical experiments can be used in place of the unethical ones. With ethical studies we can<br />
still use them to underst<strong>and</strong> how the human mind works. We can also use them to better help <strong>and</strong><br />
underst<strong>and</strong> our world. Doing this without harming a person is wh<strong>at</strong> should be done not just getting the<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion any way possible. Completing ethical experiment<strong>at</strong>ions may bring up the subject of money<br />
<strong>and</strong> how much these experiments will cost. The cost of these experiments might be a little more costly, all<br />
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the time <strong>and</strong> prepar<strong>at</strong>ion to come up with studies where the mind will stay healthy. If a doctor or professor<br />
wants to conduct an experiment they should want to leave the person the way they were before the<br />
experiment. There should be no question between the cost of the experiment <strong>and</strong> the health of the<br />
participant.<br />
Little Brenda‘s parents tre<strong>at</strong>ed her as though she was born a girl, though she acted much like a<br />
boy destroying all the dolls th<strong>at</strong> were given to her. Brenda‘s brother Brian once st<strong>at</strong>ed “the only<br />
difference between my brother Bruce <strong>and</strong> me is th<strong>at</strong> he had long hair while mine was short. In everything<br />
else we were equal." When Brenda (Bruce) hit puberty she was administered the female hormone,<br />
estrogen. As Brenda grew older the details of her genetically male body started to become defined such as<br />
the muscular neck, male voice, <strong>and</strong> broad shoulders (Goiar, 2005-2011).<br />
Dr. Money published an article on the experiment showing his success in making a biologically<br />
male a female. In this article Money st<strong>at</strong>es ―"Brenda" had been a resounding success, "the child's behavior<br />
is so distinctly feminine like a little girl of her age, which differs completely different from behavior of<br />
his twin brother Brian". This article turned into a published book which influenced medical advances<br />
during th<strong>at</strong> time. Which is not good since the medical field was oper<strong>at</strong>ing on false inform<strong>at</strong>ion. This can<br />
seriously harm other/more p<strong>at</strong>ients th<strong>at</strong> could have been helped in a different more correct form of<br />
tre<strong>at</strong>ment(Goiar, 2005-2011).<br />
Despite all of Brenda‘s male fe<strong>at</strong>ures Dr. John Money tried to convince the parents to have a<br />
vaginal area surgically cre<strong>at</strong>ed for her. Around this time Brenda began objecting to see Dr. Money,<br />
thre<strong>at</strong>ening to commit suicide. Brenda had already <strong>at</strong>tempted suicide three times, one such time was on an<br />
over dose of pills leaving her in a coma. Brenda‘s situ<strong>at</strong>ion was hard on the whole family including her<br />
twin brother who would go to therapy sessions with her. In these therapy sessions Dr. Money would have<br />
Brenda st<strong>and</strong> naked while showing her sexually explicit images. Other times he would have Brenda on<br />
her h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> knees with her brother st<strong>and</strong>ing behind her with his crotch touching her backside. Dr.<br />
Money called these types of therapy sessions sexually stimul<strong>at</strong>ing (Goiar, 2005-2011).<br />
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At the age of 15 Brenda (Bruce) was finally told wh<strong>at</strong> had happened when she was younger.<br />
Bruce stopped using the name Brenda <strong>and</strong> adopted the name David, had surgery done to remove the<br />
breasts th<strong>at</strong> he had acquired when using hormones, <strong>and</strong> had his genitals replaced through multiple<br />
surgeries. David ended up getting married <strong>and</strong> because he could not have any children of his own he<br />
became the adoptive f<strong>at</strong>her of three children. After the de<strong>at</strong>h of David‘s twin brother Brian, which was<br />
caused by an overdose of antidepressant medic<strong>at</strong>ion, David fell into depression <strong>and</strong> he lost his job.<br />
David‘s wife soon after asked for a separ<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> same day. After all the emotional turmoil, David<br />
committed suicide <strong>at</strong> the age of 38 (Goiar, 2005-2011). After all th<strong>at</strong> David had gone through, the sex<br />
change, the teasing in school, his therapy sessions, <strong>and</strong> the loss of those who kept him strong, his <strong>at</strong>tempts<br />
<strong>at</strong> suicide finally worked.<br />
These psychologically distressing experiments are just the tip of the iceberg. There have been<br />
many more conducted <strong>and</strong> some of them may not have been documented. Like the ones th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
conducted in insane asylums with the types of therapy done on the p<strong>at</strong>ients, <strong>and</strong> the studies th<strong>at</strong> do not<br />
give us any useful inform<strong>at</strong>ion. Even though we do learn how to act if these were ―real life‖ situ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>and</strong><br />
why people do certain acts. The effects th<strong>at</strong> individuals obtained from the studies were too gre<strong>at</strong> to justify<br />
the use of the experiments.<br />
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References<br />
Age-of-the-sage. (n.d.). Solomon Asch experiment (1958) a study of conformity. Retrieved from<br />
www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/social_conformity.html.<br />
Discovering Psychology (2001). History of Psychology. Retrieved from<br />
www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/history/history_nonflash.html.<br />
Epsychlopedia. (n.d.). History of Psychology. Retrieved from<br />
http://library.thinkquest.org/C005870?history.index.php?id=historyp1<br />
Experiment-Resources.com(2008). Stanley Milgram experiment. Retrieved from Expeirment Resources:<br />
http://www.experiment-resources.com/stanley-milgram-experiment.html<br />
Goiar, C. (2005-2011). Who is David Reimer? The original Harry Benjamin syndrome site. Retrieved<br />
from http://shb-info.org/reimer3.html.<br />
Hunt, Morton (1993). The Story of Psychology. New York: Double Day<br />
Luo, Michael (2004, September 14). Revisiting a Social Experiment, And the Fear Th<strong>at</strong> Goes With It.<br />
The New York Times p.1.<br />
Wikipedia. (n.d.) Milgram experiment. Retrieved from<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> would you do? (n.d.). YouTube -A young girl in danger. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.youtube.com/w<strong>at</strong>ch?v=BFz-Yyw7uQI&fe<strong>at</strong>ure=rel<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
The byst<strong>and</strong>er effect.(n.d.). YouTube. Retrieved from<br />
http://www.youtube.com/w<strong>at</strong>ch?v=OSsPfbup0ac&fe<strong>at</strong>ure=rel<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
Zimbardo, P. G. (1999-2009). A simul<strong>at</strong>ion study of the psychology of imprisonment conducted <strong>at</strong><br />
Stanford University. Retrieved from http://www.prisonexp.org/<br />
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Taylor Roberts, Bloomsburg University<br />
The Passing Problem<br />
Framing Passing as the Prevention of Trans Community Mobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Community has been defined by sociologists in terms of a common system of values <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
morals, distal proximity, <strong>and</strong> shared use of language, as well as other visible characteristics of individuals<br />
who adhere to the st<strong>and</strong>ards of the community. Because of the adoption of new forms of technology,<br />
these factors for community building are changing, but they still remain an important basis for<br />
community form<strong>at</strong>ion. The transgender community is a community th<strong>at</strong> has recently began to form <strong>and</strong> is<br />
therefore still realizing the implic<strong>at</strong>ions of imposing its values on members of the community. In this<br />
paper, I will assess the ways in which the enforcement of a binary interpret<strong>at</strong>ion of gender from forces<br />
inside <strong>and</strong> outside of the transgender community has neg<strong>at</strong>ively affected the form<strong>at</strong>ion of the inclusive<br />
transgender community necessary for mobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> rights acquisition.<br />
Language <strong>and</strong> Definitions<br />
There is a boundless amount of language used by gender radicals to define themselves, <strong>and</strong> even<br />
within the community not all of the terms are fully realized. There are as many genders on this planet as<br />
there are people, <strong>and</strong> therefore there is an extensive set of vocabulary used to try to define the theoretical<br />
concept th<strong>at</strong> is each individual person‘s gender. Transgender is an umbrella term th<strong>at</strong> includes all people<br />
who transgress gender roles. Those who are transgender I will refer to as transgenderists or simply trans.<br />
Within the c<strong>at</strong>egory of transgender, there is a vast array of identities which have been adopted.<br />
Transsexual is a common term for a transgendered individual who either desires or has achieved a<br />
physical sex transform<strong>at</strong>ion. On a flyer for the Gender Identity Project th<strong>at</strong> was used in 1997, they include<br />
the following identific<strong>at</strong>ions, all of which fall under the umbrella of<br />
transgender: ―fem queen, male to female transsexual [MTF], female to male transsexual [FTM], drag<br />
queen, drag king, male of transexual experience, female of transexual experience, gender non-conformist,<br />
cross-dresser, etc. etc.‖ (Valentine 2007). There are gender radicals who reject the binary entirely. They<br />
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describe themselves as gender queer <strong>and</strong> live their lives in the gray area between woman <strong>and</strong> man<br />
(Gherovici 2010). Cissgender <strong>and</strong> cisssexual are terms th<strong>at</strong> refer to people who have not experienced<br />
dissonance between their physical sex <strong>and</strong> their subconscious gender; in other words, people who are not<br />
transgender or transsexual (Serano 2007). The main focus of this paper will be on the enforcement of<br />
passing. Passing is the ability to be perceived as the gender which one is <strong>at</strong>tempting to be recognized as<br />
without being read or detected as a transgenderist.<br />
Gender as a Construct<br />
Because most people believe th<strong>at</strong> there are only ‗men‘ <strong>and</strong> ‗women,‘ transgendered<br />
people need to live as one or the other in order to avoid verbal <strong>and</strong> physical harassment.<br />
In transgendered communities, this is known as the need to pass. Passing is about<br />
presenting yourself as a ‗real‘ woman or a ‗real‘ man- th<strong>at</strong> is, an individual whose<br />
‗original‘ sex is never suspected. Passing means hiding th<strong>at</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> you are transsexual<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or transgendered (Namaste 2000).<br />
Among gender scholars it is generally accepted th<strong>at</strong> gender is not a biologically determined<br />
<strong>at</strong>tribute, but r<strong>at</strong>her a pervasive social construct th<strong>at</strong> extends into all areas of our lives. By thoroughly<br />
examining gender as a construct, one becomes more perceptive of the ways in which gender<br />
transgressions are policed by society. Any person who is not perceived publicly as either a man or a<br />
woman inevitably poses a challenge to the current system of gender which we live under, <strong>and</strong> is therefore<br />
subject to gender policing (Gagne et al. 1997). Although it is commonly known in the<br />
trans community th<strong>at</strong> gender is not an unchanging definite, gender is so seldom challenged th<strong>at</strong> it can still<br />
feel like a reality. The construction of the gender binary as a n<strong>at</strong>ural occurrence is so strong a presence in<br />
the lives of transgenderists <strong>and</strong> cissexuals alike th<strong>at</strong> trans individuals often find it more plausible th<strong>at</strong> they<br />
have been born with the wrong genitalia, than th<strong>at</strong> gender is indeed a fluid social construct <strong>and</strong> not a<br />
biology based constant (Gagne et al. 1997)<br />
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Those individuals who do not enact the gender th<strong>at</strong> has been prescribed to them are often<br />
challenging to the structure of social order (Gagne et al. 1997). The pressure of being the poster-child for<br />
gender transgressions can be overwhelming to transgenderists who just want to live as a member of their<br />
intended gender. It is often more convenient to make the effort to pass than to constantly defend ones<br />
gender identity. ―Sexed bodies (male or female) are not the basis of gender identities (men or women);<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her, our binary conception of gender produces these sexed bodies‖ (Namaste 2000). By enforcing the<br />
gender binary on transgendered individuals, the body of a transgenderist is often altered to emul<strong>at</strong>e the<br />
primary <strong>and</strong> secondary sex characteristics of the gender which they identify with.<br />
Trans Erasure<br />
Trans erasure refers to the societal capacity to completely remove transgenderists from social,<br />
political, <strong>and</strong> legisl<strong>at</strong>ive dialogue. Trans erasure denies the existence of trangenderists as anything besides<br />
freaks, perverts, <strong>and</strong>/or comic social actors. The successfulness of trans erasure is dependent not only on<br />
the lack of acceptance for gender deviance in society, but also the silence of transgendered individuals<br />
about their past <strong>and</strong> their experiences. Transgenderists are expected to<br />
keep silent about their other-gendered history <strong>and</strong> their transgendered st<strong>at</strong>us, particularly post-oper<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
transsexuals (Bornstein 1994).<br />
The highest purpose of the transsexual is to erase him/herself, to fade into the ‗normal‘<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion as soon as possible. Part of this process is known as constructing a plausible story-<br />
learning to lie effectively about one‘s past… Authentic experience is replaced by a particular<br />
kind of story, one th<strong>at</strong> supports the old constructed positions (Gherovici 2010).<br />
To this end, some transgenderists not only hide their transgendered histories from cissexuals, but hide<br />
from other trans people in order to maintain anonymity.<br />
See, when we walk into a restaurant <strong>and</strong> we see another transsexual person, we look<br />
The other way, we pretend we don‘t exist. There‘s no sly smile, no secret wink, signal, or<br />
h<strong>and</strong>shake. Not yet. We still quake in solitude <strong>at</strong> the prospect of recognition… (Bornstein<br />
1994).<br />
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The fear of exposure leads some transgenderists to shy away from community building (Roen 2002).<br />
There is a common assumption th<strong>at</strong> if one transgendered person (who might otherwise pass) is<br />
accompanied by a detectable transgenderist, th<strong>at</strong> they are more likely to be read as transgender as well.<br />
For this reason, non-passable transgenderists are often seen as a liability (Gagne et al. 1997). ―Two or<br />
more transexxuals together, goes the myth, can be read more easily as transsexual- so they don‘t pass‖<br />
(Bornstein 1994).<br />
There are transgenderists who are beginning to express discontent <strong>at</strong> the culturally imposed<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard of silence. K<strong>at</strong>e Bornstein, a famous transsexual gender radical asserts th<strong>at</strong> the best way for trans<br />
people to liber<strong>at</strong>e themselves is to open up dialogue amongst themselves; to start asking sincere<br />
questions, <strong>and</strong> intently listening to each other (Bornstein 1994). Bornstein often particip<strong>at</strong>es in talk-shows<br />
where she is criminalized <strong>and</strong> ridiculed for being a transsexual, but finds th<strong>at</strong> these outlets are the best<br />
way to educ<strong>at</strong>e masses of people about the plight of transgendered people. Of one talk-show<br />
experience she said, ―I was a freak all right, but I was only a freak to the degree th<strong>at</strong> I remained silent.<br />
When I spoke, I had a chance to educ<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>and</strong>, paradoxically, I became less of a freak‖ (Bornstein 1994).<br />
Emotional Impact of Trans Erasure<br />
The societal st<strong>and</strong>ard of silence imposed on transgenderists deeply effects the emotional lives of<br />
trans people. Trans people are told by society th<strong>at</strong> they should not exist, or worse, th<strong>at</strong> they already are<br />
non-existent. In a study by Schrock <strong>and</strong> colleagues, they found th<strong>at</strong> suicide was more commonly<br />
discussed in transgender support groups than transgender politics (Schrock et al. 2004). These kinds of<br />
emotional reactions to societal oppression <strong>and</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion are common throughout the trans<br />
community. In the journal article entitled Coming Out <strong>and</strong> Crossing Over, the sample included many<br />
transgenderists th<strong>at</strong> b<strong>at</strong>tled with drug <strong>and</strong> alcohol addictions as a reaction to the pain of being forced to<br />
enact a gender th<strong>at</strong> they did not rel<strong>at</strong>e to (Gagne et al. 1997). A small portion of the sample even reported<br />
th<strong>at</strong> they had mutil<strong>at</strong>ed their genitals in their youth in a puerile <strong>at</strong>tempt to change their gender (Gagne et<br />
al. 1997). Because most of the participants in Schrock‘s study had contempl<strong>at</strong>ed or <strong>at</strong>tempted suicide, it<br />
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goes without saying th<strong>at</strong> collective action <strong>and</strong> political mobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion was nearly impossible (Schrock et al.<br />
2004).<br />
Like many transgendered people, they felt a debilit<strong>at</strong>ing blend of shame, alien<strong>at</strong>ion, fear,<br />
powerlessness, <strong>and</strong> inauthenticity. Even if political opportunities abounded, such feelings<br />
could stifle activism. Emotional pain took priority over social change (Schrock et al. 2004).<br />
In conjunction with her opinions about trans erasure, K<strong>at</strong>e Bornstein wrote an entire book which <strong>at</strong>tempts<br />
to dissuade young gender deviants from committing acts of violence against<br />
themselves (Hello Cruel World.) Bornstein encourages youth to do anything it takes to stay alive just one<br />
more day, <strong>and</strong> then repe<strong>at</strong>. ―So you have some choices: you can get real good <strong>at</strong> hiding, or you can get<br />
be<strong>at</strong> up. You can commit suicide-or you learn how to laugh‖ (Bornstein 1994).<br />
Coming Out<br />
Coming out is a nerve-wracking <strong>and</strong> intimid<strong>at</strong>ing experience. For transgenderists, this experience<br />
differs immensely from th<strong>at</strong> of sexual minorities because their transitions are public <strong>and</strong> permanent; they<br />
cannot restrict their transition from being known to a many people <strong>at</strong> a time (Gagne et al. 1997).<br />
―Lesbians, gay men, <strong>and</strong> bisexuals can selectively come out, whereas transgenderists, because of changes<br />
in gender or biological appearance, are often forced out of the closet, cre<strong>at</strong>ing awkward or even dangerous<br />
situ<strong>at</strong>ions‖ (Gagne et al. 1997). After the initial steps of physical transition, it is nearly impossible to hide<br />
ones intentions to transition. This can lead to many different kinds of discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> oppression,<br />
including workplace discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion. Gagne <strong>and</strong> colleagues studied a group of transsexuals <strong>and</strong> found th<strong>at</strong>,<br />
―although there were a few people who were permitted to transition on the job, it was more common for<br />
transsexuals to be fired, demoted, pressured to quit, <strong>and</strong> harassed by other workers‖ (Gagne et al. 1997).<br />
Even though some workplaces are more accepting than those Gagne refers to, there are some issues th<strong>at</strong><br />
inevitably need to be faced by employers when a worker transitions. One specific issue is th<strong>at</strong> of gendered<br />
space <strong>and</strong> the availability of restrooms.<br />
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Gendered Space <strong>and</strong> Restroom Availability<br />
―…There [has] never been a single instance in my life when I… walked into a public restroom-<br />
women‘s or men‘s- by habit; my entire life I have been excruci<strong>at</strong>ingly aware of any gendered space th<strong>at</strong> I<br />
enter‖ (Serano 2007). The discussion of restroom availability is often stifled, despite the fact th<strong>at</strong> it is a<br />
concern th<strong>at</strong> trans people must deal with every time they enter a public space. Gendered spaces like<br />
restrooms cre<strong>at</strong>e barriers to gender queer <strong>and</strong> trans identified people‘s safety because of the constant<br />
thre<strong>at</strong> of violence, harassment, <strong>and</strong> even police interference leading to arrest (Chess et al. 2008).<br />
Genderqueer <strong>and</strong> trans-identified folks have been <strong>at</strong>tacked in public restrooms simply<br />
because their appearance thre<strong>at</strong>ens gender norms <strong>and</strong> expect<strong>at</strong>ions. This issue of b<strong>at</strong>hroom<br />
violence is consistently delegitimized in both queer <strong>and</strong> non-queer spaces as not important or<br />
sexy enough to be a ‗real‘ issue. In many gay activist circles, there seems to be a pervasive<br />
sentiment th<strong>at</strong> no one (read: no straight people) will take us seriously if we start talking<br />
about b<strong>at</strong>hrooms. Additionally, there is a tremendous cultural shame around the violence<br />
itself- either you should have been able to protect yourself or you must have deserved it or<br />
both (Chess et al. 2008).<br />
Medicaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of Transsexuality<br />
The medicaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of transsexuality has impacted the form<strong>at</strong>ion of a transgender community. By<br />
framing transsexuality as a disorder, transsexuals are faced with the expect<strong>at</strong>ion of seeking a cure.<br />
However, the cure for transsexuality is considered to be physically becoming either a man or a woman<br />
<strong>and</strong> living under the binary system of gender th<strong>at</strong> is comfortable for our society. In therapy sessions,<br />
transsexuals are often encouraged to deny their transsexuality by cre<strong>at</strong>ing stories about their lives before<br />
their transition th<strong>at</strong> indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> they have always been their current gender. ―Transsexuality is the only<br />
condition for which the therapy is to lie‖ (Bornstein, 62). Transsexuality is also the only diagnosable<br />
mental disorder th<strong>at</strong> is curable only through cosmetic surgery. Medical procedures undergone by<br />
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members of the trans community can include electrolysis, breast binding, mastectomy, plastic surgery,<br />
voice therapy, <strong>and</strong> hormone therapy (Namaste 2000).<br />
“First You Die, <strong>and</strong> Then You Get Their Attention” (Bornstein 1994)<br />
―Do a web search. Google will give you 9,080 hits for ‗transgender murder‘‖ (Muscio 2002).<br />
The issue of violence against transgenderists is arguably the most pressing dilemma facing the trans<br />
community, because it is not just a political m<strong>at</strong>ter, but literally a m<strong>at</strong>ter of life or de<strong>at</strong>h. Violence is a<br />
very real thre<strong>at</strong> to those who do not have the ability, or do not wish to pass, <strong>and</strong> especially to those who<br />
successfully pass upon first glance, but are l<strong>at</strong>er detected as transgendered. Violence enacted against<br />
transgendered people is often an <strong>at</strong>tempt to police the gender present<strong>at</strong>ion of the victim (Namaste 2000).<br />
There is privilege associ<strong>at</strong>ed with having a gender. When one is genderless, refuses to pass, or cannot<br />
pass as a specific gender, they are denied this privilege. Those who do not adhere to the expect<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
one gender are often humili<strong>at</strong>ed, mocked, sexualized, or otherwise victimized (Bornstein 1994).<br />
If a transsexual does not ‗pass,‘ cissexuals often use it as an excuse to deny th<strong>at</strong> person the<br />
common decency of having their self-identified gender acknowledged or respected. Sometimes<br />
cissexuals even use these situ<strong>at</strong>ions as if they were an invit<strong>at</strong>ion to openly humili<strong>at</strong>e or abuse<br />
transsexual (Serano 2007).<br />
When FTMs are assaulted, for instance, rape is a routine part of the violence they endure.<br />
This suggests th<strong>at</strong> gender functions not merely as a cue to identify potential victims. FTMs<br />
who are raped are told, through the act of sexual assault, th<strong>at</strong> they are ‗really‘ women, <strong>and</strong><br />
will be tre<strong>at</strong>ed as such. Biology is destiny (Namaste 2000).<br />
In transgender support groups, it is common for members to use humor as a defense mechanism against<br />
fear <strong>and</strong> anger r<strong>at</strong>her than stoking those emotions in order to mobilize (Schrock et al. 2004). Group<br />
members even discussed physical harassment <strong>and</strong> violence as a joke (Schrock et al. 2004). Passing is<br />
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another tactic which transgenderists use to make themselves less vulnerable to transphobic violence,<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her than mobilizing to cre<strong>at</strong>e a less violent sphere in which transgenderists can peacefully exist.<br />
Benefits of a Transgender Community<br />
―We are all longing to go home to some place we have never been- a place, half-remembered, <strong>and</strong><br />
half-envisioned we can only c<strong>at</strong>ch glimpses of from time to time. Community.‖ (Bornstein 1994).<br />
Because transgenderists are not represented in the media in an accur<strong>at</strong>e or rel<strong>at</strong>able way, most<br />
trans people develop their perspectives in solitude (Bornstein 1994). By finding peers whom they could<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>e to because of shared experience, members who were new to the trans community were able to<br />
allevi<strong>at</strong>e their feelings of isol<strong>at</strong>ion (Gagne et al. 1997). Many transgendered people find a new sense of<br />
self-recognition when they become aware of the existence of a transgendered community: This<br />
community gives them safe space to experiment with potential identities (Gagne et al. 1997).<br />
Transgendered individuals seek out the valid<strong>at</strong>ion of both significant others <strong>and</strong> a community of similar<br />
people in order to find stability in their identity (Gagne et al. 1997).<br />
Many transgenderists find their first experience in a support group of transgendered people to be<br />
highly gr<strong>at</strong>ifying. It is common for new participants to report a feeling of freedom <strong>and</strong><br />
complete acceptance within the group unlike any they had previously known (Gagne et al. 1997).<br />
―Interacting with other differently-gendered people allowed newcomers to feel like they were born into a<br />
new kind of family where it was safe to be themselves‖ (Schrock et al. 2004). S<strong>and</strong>ra, a participant in a<br />
study of community building among transgendered individuals, said this of her first experience <strong>at</strong>tending<br />
a community support group:<br />
I told [the support group] my story. I was honest with myself <strong>and</strong> with the people in the<br />
room, <strong>and</strong> it was very cleansing. I felt really good…. I was amazed, it was like I broke<br />
through a shell; an underground society th<strong>at</strong> had before been out of reach. And all of a<br />
sudden there I was in touch with it. It was right in front of me. It‘s almost like I had come<br />
home (Schrock et al. 2004).<br />
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Her emotional reaction to sharing her story with people she could rel<strong>at</strong>e to can be <strong>at</strong>tributed to the<br />
feeling of relief th<strong>at</strong> comes with authenticity. The validity of our gender identities, or the feeling th<strong>at</strong> we<br />
are seen as valid in our gender expression, comes from recognition by others who will interpret us as<br />
―authentic social actors‖ (Gagne et al. 1997).<br />
Transgender communities provide different contributions to the lives of different classific<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of transgenderists. For the variety of subc<strong>at</strong>egories of male-to-female transgenderists there is a different<br />
goal achieved by <strong>at</strong>tending trans community groups. For example, transsexuals may <strong>at</strong>tend meetings to<br />
receive the support <strong>and</strong> knowledge th<strong>at</strong> they need to learn how to pass as a woman in society. Cross-<br />
dressers on the other h<strong>and</strong>, may use the group as a social outlet th<strong>at</strong> provides them with opportunities to<br />
get out <strong>and</strong> be seen (Gagne et al. 1997). Individuals in the group who consider themselves gender radicals<br />
may use the group as a c<strong>at</strong>alyst for revolutionary movement (Gagne et al. 1997). Although new members<br />
to trans support groups were not often interested in trans activism, their particip<strong>at</strong>ion in these groups<br />
occasionally primed them for interest in social movements (Schrock et al. 2004).<br />
Barriers to Community Building<br />
The desire to pass as a legitim<strong>at</strong>e social actor is the biggest barrier to the form<strong>at</strong>ion of a<br />
transgender community. The unspoken st<strong>and</strong>ard amongst members of transgender support groups is the<br />
ability to pass undetected as a transgenderist. This st<strong>and</strong>ard is upheld in a variety of ways, from teaching<br />
<strong>and</strong> encouraging members to pass more effectively, to excluding any individuals of transgender<br />
subc<strong>at</strong>egories th<strong>at</strong> do not conform to the trans communities‘ st<strong>and</strong>ard of passability. Because of the<br />
communities‘ orient<strong>at</strong>ion towards cre<strong>at</strong>ing passable transgenderists, particularly transsexuals, many leave<br />
community oriented groups as soon as they achieve the goal of passability.<br />
New members to the trans community often start out defining their gender in terms which are<br />
challenging <strong>and</strong> disturbing to the current binary system of gender. However, when they are told by<br />
members of their transgender in-group th<strong>at</strong> they are not doing gender correctly, they ―often end up<br />
redefining their identities in ways th<strong>at</strong> conform to hegemonic belief systems <strong>and</strong> institutional dem<strong>and</strong>s‖<br />
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(Gagne et al., 479). New members occasionally admit to feeling forced to enact one gender or another<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her than existing between the poles, because they fear being pegged as illegitim<strong>at</strong>e social actors by<br />
members of their in- <strong>and</strong> out-groups (Roen 2002). For this reason, there are individuals who live the<br />
entirety of their young lives as members of a false gender before making the brave decision to transition,<br />
only to be forced to become members of another false-gender for their remaining years (Bornstein 1994).<br />
The cultural imposition of passing upon transgenderists is not of use to transgenderists themselves, but is<br />
intended to allow the rest of society to remain comfortable with their perceptions about the meaning of<br />
gender. ―… Through the m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>e of passing, the culture uses transsexuals to reinforce the bi-polar gender<br />
system, as transsexuals strive for recognition within their new gender, <strong>and</strong> thus the privilege <strong>and</strong> chains of<br />
their new gender‖ (Bornstein 1994).<br />
Within the trans community, there are subc<strong>at</strong>egories th<strong>at</strong> perpetu<strong>at</strong>e in-group tension <strong>and</strong> a<br />
general lack of respect for those who do not or cannot completely adhere to the expect<strong>at</strong>ions of the<br />
community. There are very few groups th<strong>at</strong> c<strong>at</strong>er to the entirety of the transgender community, <strong>and</strong> most<br />
groups are still divided along the lines of gender (Bornstein 1994). A good portion of transgender support<br />
groups are available solely to transsexual women, which leaves transsexual men <strong>and</strong> other non-<br />
transsexual gender deviants out to dry (Roen 2002). In these types of groups it is common for passing to<br />
be the main topic of discussion. These groups dedic<strong>at</strong>e much of their time <strong>and</strong> resources to teaching born<br />
males how to perfect their public present<strong>at</strong>ion as women, thus further excluding those who may<br />
technically be included in the community, by making them feel devalued because they do not wish to pass<br />
as women (Schrock et al. 2004). Sources within the community often <strong>at</strong>tempt to impose a rigid hierarchy<br />
based on the c<strong>at</strong>egoriz<strong>at</strong>ion of individuals into sections based on their gender identity <strong>and</strong> their ability to<br />
pass as their intended gender (Bornstein 1994). This hierarchy places those who can successfully pass as<br />
women above those who cannot or do not <strong>at</strong>tempt to, <strong>and</strong> both of these subc<strong>at</strong>egories above those<br />
<strong>at</strong>tempting (successfully or unsuccessfully) to pass as men, leaving gender queers <strong>and</strong> similar<br />
subc<strong>at</strong>egories <strong>at</strong> the bottom of the community imposed structural hierarchy.<br />
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In trans support groups it is not uncommon for the topic of sex to be completely ignored.<br />
Because of the communities‘ general fear of stigm<strong>at</strong>iz<strong>at</strong>ion, trans groups will often distance themselves<br />
from other sexual or gender deviants th<strong>at</strong> are considered by society to be perverted (Schrock et al. 2004).<br />
However, by denying affili<strong>at</strong>ion with these so-called ‗perverts,‘ the trans community is hindering its<br />
ability to cre<strong>at</strong>e a larger social movement by excluding transsexual prostitutes <strong>and</strong> sexual minorities<br />
(Schrock et al. 2004). This also leaves trans identified sexual minorities vulnerable to criticism, even<br />
within groups of like-minded peers. These exclusionary tactics are used in an <strong>at</strong>tempt to obtain validity<br />
from society as a whole. In Schrock et al.‘s research, the authors quote Leslie Feinberg, famous trans<br />
activist:<br />
A timid denial th<strong>at</strong> ‗we‘re not all like th<strong>at</strong>‘ only serves to weaken the entire fightback movement.<br />
We can never throw enough people overboard to win approval from our enemies. Should we try<br />
to argue th<strong>at</strong> we‘re as ‗normal‘ as those who organize against our civil rights? Forget it! I am<br />
queer <strong>and</strong> proud of it (Schrock et al. 2004).<br />
By minimizing the exclusionary tactics of some transgender support groups, trans members may feel<br />
more supported by their community <strong>and</strong> thus, more likely to involve themselves in political action (Roen<br />
2002).<br />
Framing Passing as the Problem<br />
The system th<strong>at</strong> our society has accepted; th<strong>at</strong> of a gender binary, dem<strong>and</strong>s th<strong>at</strong> individuals who<br />
are not comfortable in their prescribed gender, ―present themselves in ways th<strong>at</strong> convince others<br />
th<strong>at</strong> they are, in fact, members of the sex c<strong>at</strong>egory suggested by their gender‖ (Gagne et al. 1997). Thus,<br />
there is a strong orient<strong>at</strong>ion towards passing.<br />
―Given the limited range of identities available to them, it is interesting, but not surprising, th<strong>at</strong><br />
the overwhelming majority of transgendered individuals adhere to traditional conceptualiz<strong>at</strong>ions of sex<br />
<strong>and</strong> gender‖ (Gagne et al. 1997). Gender, even within communities th<strong>at</strong> question the concept, is still so<br />
pervasive th<strong>at</strong> a community based on gender deviance is still subject to gender policing by members of<br />
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the community. One participant of Roen‘s study described her opinion on the importance of passing in the<br />
community context.<br />
When you‘re sitting in a room full of people in dresses who are trying to look stunning-trying to<br />
look nice- <strong>and</strong> there‘s this bony person sitting there with a balding head… you kind of think ‗My<br />
God, wh<strong>at</strong> are you doing?‘ [laughter] ‗Wanna take you out <strong>and</strong> shoot you!‘ [laughter] because<br />
you know amongst yourselves th<strong>at</strong> you are trying to maintain a st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>and</strong> she‘s not pulling it<br />
(Roen 2002).<br />
In this instance, a refusal or inability to pass is seen as a detriment to the community. However, I assert<br />
th<strong>at</strong> imposing the passing st<strong>and</strong>ard is in itself far more detrimental to the form<strong>at</strong>ion of community.<br />
According to some transgenderists, passing as the ‗other sex‘ is the ultim<strong>at</strong>e sell-out. Here,<br />
passing is portrayed as complicit with norm<strong>at</strong>ive gendering <strong>and</strong> therefore as contrary to the<br />
gender-transgressive ethic of transgender politics (Roen 2002).<br />
Those who adhere to this viewpoint see passing as an extension of cissexual privilege which we must<br />
renounce in order to mobilize as a community. ―In this case, passing becomes the outward manifest<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of shame <strong>and</strong> capitul<strong>at</strong>ion. Passing becomes silence. Passing becomes invisibility. Passing becomes lies.<br />
Passing becomes self-denial‖ (Bornstein 1994). By accepting gender as a fluid concept r<strong>at</strong>her than a rigid<br />
c<strong>at</strong>egoriz<strong>at</strong>ion which dict<strong>at</strong>es our lives, the trans community may be able to overcome its strong<br />
orient<strong>at</strong>ion towards passing <strong>and</strong> become more inclusive to those who do not wish to obtain this cissexual<br />
privilege.<br />
Conclusion<br />
By rejecting cissexual privilege <strong>and</strong> elimin<strong>at</strong>ing their strong proclivity towards passing, the trans<br />
community is able to free themselves to affili<strong>at</strong>e with larger social movements.<br />
The concept of transgenderism recognizes th<strong>at</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against women, gay persons,<br />
<strong>and</strong> transsexual individuals, as well as other groups th<strong>at</strong> are typically perceived as independent<br />
from one another, springs from the same source, the privileging of the masculine <strong>and</strong><br />
subordin<strong>at</strong>ion of the feminine (Flynn 2001).<br />
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According to this quote, trans activism fits perfectly into the gre<strong>at</strong>er social movement which fights against<br />
those who revile femininity. ―I argue th<strong>at</strong> trans litig<strong>at</strong>ion should be considered an integral component of<br />
feminist <strong>and</strong> gay rights advocacy‖ (Flynn 2001). Instead of excluding <strong>and</strong> dismissing different individuals<br />
<strong>and</strong> subc<strong>at</strong>egories from the community, the trans community has been granted the opportunity to affili<strong>at</strong>e<br />
itself with other groups th<strong>at</strong> are fighting for the same things; basic civil rights for all regardless of their<br />
sex, sexual orient<strong>at</strong>ion, gender, or gender identity.<br />
141
Works Cited<br />
Bornstein, K<strong>at</strong>e. 1994. Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women, <strong>and</strong> the Rest of Us. New York:<br />
Vintage Books.<br />
Douglas Shrock, Daphne Holden, Lori Reid. February 2004. Cre<strong>at</strong>ing Emotional Resonance:<br />
Interpersonal Emotion Work <strong>and</strong> Motiv<strong>at</strong>ional Framing in a Transgender Community.<br />
Social Problems. Vol. 51. pp. 61-81.<br />
Flynn, Taylor. March 2001. “Transforming” the Deb<strong>at</strong>e: Why We Need to Include Transgender<br />
<strong>Rights</strong> in the Struggles for Sex <strong>and</strong> Sexual Orient<strong>at</strong>ion Equality. Columbia Law Review.<br />
Vol. 101. pp. 392-420.<br />
Gherovici, P<strong>at</strong>ricia. 2010. Please Select Your Gender: From the Invention of Hysteria to the<br />
Democr<strong>at</strong>izing of Transgenderism. New York <strong>and</strong> London: Routledge.<br />
Muscio, Inga. 2002. Cunt: A Declarion of Independence. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.<br />
Namaste, Viviane K. 2000. Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual <strong>and</strong> Transgendered<br />
People. Chicago <strong>and</strong> London: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
P<strong>at</strong>ricia Gagne, Richard Tewksbury, <strong>and</strong> Deanna McGaughey. August 1997. Coming out <strong>and</strong><br />
Crossing over: Identity Form<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> Proclam<strong>at</strong>ion in a Transgender Community.<br />
Gender <strong>and</strong> Society. Vol. 11. pp.478-508.<br />
Roen, K<strong>at</strong>rina. Winter 2002. “Either/Or” <strong>and</strong> “Both/Neither”: Discursive Tensions in<br />
Transgender Politics. Signs. Vol. 27. pp. 501-522.<br />
Serano, Julia. 2007. Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism <strong>and</strong> the Scapego<strong>at</strong>ing of<br />
Femininity. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.<br />
Sloop, John M. 2004. Disciplining Gender: Rhetorics of Sex Identity in Contemporary U.S.<br />
Culture. Amherst <strong>and</strong> Boston: University of Massachusetts Press.<br />
Simone Chess, Alison Kafer, Jessi Quizar, <strong>and</strong> M<strong>at</strong>tie Udora Richardson. 2008. Calling All<br />
Restroom Revolutionaries! Sycamore, M<strong>at</strong>tilda Bernstein. Th<strong>at</strong>‟s Revolting!: Queer<br />
Str<strong>at</strong>egies for Resisting Assimil<strong>at</strong>ion. 216-229. Brooklyn: Soft Skull Press.<br />
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Valentine, David. 2007. Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a C<strong>at</strong>egory. Durham <strong>and</strong><br />
London: Duke University Press.<br />
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Ashley Robertson, Bloomsburg University<br />
<strong>Human</strong> Experiment<strong>at</strong>ion: Guinea Pigs or Volunteers for a Cure?<br />
L<strong>at</strong>e in the month of August, most individuals prepare for the start of a new school year. The<br />
beginning of the school year is usually a reminder th<strong>at</strong> an annual visit to the doctor is necessary to receive<br />
a physical. For some, this yearly checkup can cause fear because most associ<strong>at</strong>e this visit as an<br />
opportunity to receive many shots. How do doctors know wh<strong>at</strong> kind of shots to give? How are vaccines<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>ed? Wh<strong>at</strong> is the reliability of any vaccine on the human body? <strong>Human</strong> testing, an underestim<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
<strong>and</strong> often controversial subject is the answer to these questions.<br />
<strong>Human</strong> testing is often neglected because most individuals think th<strong>at</strong> the only medical testing is<br />
on animals. Why would scientists want to use a human test subject <strong>and</strong> risk their life? Isn‘t th<strong>at</strong> unjust?<br />
Although human <strong>and</strong> animal bodies share some of the same properties, the way the bodies react to certain<br />
medic<strong>at</strong>ions or even other products differs. The medical knowledge th<strong>at</strong> is obtained from human testing<br />
experiments can improve society‘s overall health. Therefore scientists <strong>and</strong> their participants who<br />
successfully conduct human testing should follow the Nuremburg Code as well as cre<strong>at</strong>ing a new o<strong>at</strong>h<br />
th<strong>at</strong> protect the rights of their subjects during experiment<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Some of the human testing experiments can be intense or mundane, ranging on wh<strong>at</strong> researchers<br />
want to conclude. For example, medical researchers want to test vaccines <strong>and</strong> see the effects on the<br />
human body, or, cosmetic researchers could want to test out qualities of shampoos <strong>and</strong> their effects on the<br />
scalp. Since the spectrum of experiments can vary, the guidelines should be concrete no m<strong>at</strong>ter wh<strong>at</strong> the<br />
experiment consists of to ensure the quality of the experiment <strong>and</strong> safety of the test subject.<br />
<strong>Human</strong> testing is a privilege scientists are able to experience. Their experiments are cre<strong>at</strong>ed to<br />
better society as a whole. Making sure th<strong>at</strong> their test subjects are healthy before, during, <strong>and</strong> after the<br />
experiment is just as important as the results th<strong>at</strong> are concluded. In the past, the government felt as if this<br />
aspect was not important.<br />
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In June, 2003, the U.S. military revealed th<strong>at</strong> it had been conducting unusual experiments on<br />
American soldiers in the 1960's. The Pentagon recently declassified a set of reports on programs<br />
known as Project 112 <strong>and</strong> Project SHAD (shipboard hazard <strong>and</strong> defense). These programs had<br />
been carried out between 1961 <strong>and</strong> 1970 <strong>and</strong> were designed to identify American military<br />
vulnerability to chemical <strong>and</strong> biological weaponry. During the tests, large numbers of soldiers —<br />
who were unaware th<strong>at</strong> they were being used — were exposed to toxic substances <strong>and</strong> suffered<br />
consequences to their health. (Military Admits Experiments on Soldiers, 2003, Nutrition Health<br />
Review: The Consumer's Medical Journal)<br />
This current st<strong>at</strong>ement released from the government is very important. Not only were they viol<strong>at</strong>ing the<br />
human rights of their own soldiers who served for this country, but waited to tell the public for over forty<br />
years! The test subjects were not volunteers <strong>and</strong> were not aware of the experiment. The government just<br />
decided to test these military weapons <strong>and</strong> hope for the best. Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, the government has the<br />
ability to do these cruel things to its own citizens <strong>and</strong> get away with it. This should not sit well with<br />
anyone in the United St<strong>at</strong>es. The Washington Post reported th<strong>at</strong> efforts from legisl<strong>at</strong>ion have been made<br />
prior to this event in 1997, but the results of making human rights more important in human testing failed.<br />
An incident from uranium miners was released st<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> the miners were used to test for the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es nuclear arsenal. Years l<strong>at</strong>er, approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 600 workers developed lung cancer. This number is<br />
very high <strong>and</strong> since this was such a controversy, legisl<strong>at</strong>ion proposed th<strong>at</strong> they, ―would give the 600<br />
miners or their survivors a total of $50 million over 15 years‖ (Strobel, 1997). This is also costing the<br />
government tons of money to try <strong>and</strong> heal the wounds th<strong>at</strong> cannot be repaired with money. Can money<br />
really be the solution? Could this really be used compared to the pain, chemotherapies, <strong>and</strong> de<strong>at</strong>h these<br />
workers have to suffer from the government‘s error? This sort of an apology cannot give back the lives<br />
these workers once lived. The Nuremberg Code <strong>and</strong> a new experiment<strong>at</strong>ion o<strong>at</strong>h would be appropri<strong>at</strong>e to<br />
help protect these workers so th<strong>at</strong> the government will not be able to viol<strong>at</strong>e another 600 people‘s human<br />
rights.<br />
145
Although the government has power over many things in this country, this should not give them<br />
the right to viol<strong>at</strong>e human rights <strong>and</strong> put their own people in poor health. Anyone for th<strong>at</strong> m<strong>at</strong>ter should<br />
not be able to harm humans in or outside of human testing. So why not take out human testing altogether?<br />
If human testing was stopped, people would not be in these types of unfortun<strong>at</strong>e situ<strong>at</strong>ions. Most people<br />
do not think of the opportunity scientists have to experiment on real human subjects. <strong>Human</strong> testing<br />
should be something to be looked <strong>at</strong> as a way to promote interest in learning more about the human body,<br />
not destroy it. Keeping things a secret to avoid human rights trouble is not the best way to promote this<br />
kind of opportunity. If the Nuremberg Code <strong>and</strong> a new experimenter o<strong>at</strong>h were cre<strong>at</strong>ed, this would<br />
prevent these maladaptive ways to experiment, promote safer human testing, <strong>and</strong> also make the public<br />
aware of the experiments th<strong>at</strong> are being conducted. <strong>Human</strong> experiment<strong>at</strong>ion should lead to success stories,<br />
not tragic, secretive ones.<br />
The enforcement of a new o<strong>at</strong>h <strong>and</strong> the Nuremberg Code seem reassuring, but others have cre<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
an o<strong>at</strong>h to prevent human testing as a whole. Jacob Sullivan (2008) reports in his article:<br />
the Declar<strong>at</strong>ion of Helsinki, first adopted in 1964 <strong>and</strong> amended five times since, prohibits<br />
experiment<strong>at</strong>ion on humans. The declar<strong>at</strong>ion draws clear lines for acceptable medical research<br />
involving human subjects, such as vaccines. The document was cre<strong>at</strong>ed in order to outlaw the<br />
kind of brutal, inhumane experiment<strong>at</strong>ion performed on human subjects by Nazi doctors. (Should<br />
doctors change the Hippocr<strong>at</strong>ic O<strong>at</strong>h?)<br />
Attempts in the past have been made, such as those efforts from Helsinki, <strong>and</strong> had little to no effect. The<br />
only reason this ‗document‘ exists is from research done over the internet. It is not reliable in current<br />
times because this declar<strong>at</strong>ion is unknown to the public. If this ‗document‘ were to be in effect, it would<br />
affect today‘s human testing experiments. The ‗Declar<strong>at</strong>ion of Helsinki‘ st<strong>at</strong>es prohibiting human<br />
experiment<strong>at</strong>ion. This would stop so many discoveries th<strong>at</strong> were founded during the l<strong>at</strong>e sixties <strong>and</strong><br />
beyond th<strong>at</strong> society would not have the modern technologies <strong>and</strong> medicines to save lives today. This<br />
would include modern day cancer technologies such as chemotherapies, as well as other methods to make<br />
chemotherapy less harsh on p<strong>at</strong>ients through human testing.<br />
146
The Nuremberg Code was cre<strong>at</strong>ed in World War II when Nazi soldiers were put on trial for<br />
human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> the destruction of human rights <strong>and</strong> human ethics. The soldiers tested many<br />
things including: ―limits of human endurance to high altitudes <strong>and</strong> freezing temper<strong>at</strong>ures. Medically<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed experiments included inocul<strong>at</strong>ion of prisoners with infectious disease p<strong>at</strong>hogens <strong>and</strong> tests of new<br />
antibiotics. Various mutil<strong>at</strong>ing bone, muscle, <strong>and</strong> nerve experiments were also performed on non-<br />
consenting prisoner subjects‖ (Michalczyk, 1994, p.184-185). Since the subjects were not consulted<br />
about the experiments, <strong>and</strong> many were in the concentr<strong>at</strong>ion camps in Germany <strong>and</strong> were already forced to<br />
endure many horrible tortures, the Nazi soldier trials are the reason the Nuremberg Code was cre<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
This code consists of guidelines scientists <strong>and</strong> doctors should follow when conducting a successful<br />
experiment when humans are the test subjects.<br />
The Nuremberg Trials provided progress in human testing because the world was able to learn<br />
from the Nazi soldier‘s abuses. The ten guidelines were cre<strong>at</strong>ed after the trial to be taken seriously <strong>and</strong><br />
effectively for scientists, researchers, <strong>and</strong> doctors who would be interested in using human test subjects.<br />
The first part of the Code speaks of protecting the test subject from any sort of harm, the Nuremberg Code<br />
st<strong>at</strong>es:<br />
The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means th<strong>at</strong> the person<br />
involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situ<strong>at</strong>ed as to be able to<br />
exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit,<br />
duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; <strong>and</strong> should have sufficient<br />
knowledge <strong>and</strong> comprehension of the elements of the subject m<strong>at</strong>ter involved as to enable him to<br />
make an underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> enlightened decision. This l<strong>at</strong>ter element requires th<strong>at</strong> before the<br />
acceptance of an affirm<strong>at</strong>ive decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to<br />
him the n<strong>at</strong>ure, dur<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong> purpose of the experiment; the method <strong>and</strong> means by which it is to<br />
be conducted; all inconveniences <strong>and</strong> hazards reasonable to be expected; <strong>and</strong> the effects upon his<br />
health or person which may possibly come from his particip<strong>at</strong>ion in the experiment.<br />
The duty <strong>and</strong> responsibility for ascertaining the quality of the consent rests upon each individual<br />
147
who initi<strong>at</strong>es, directs or engages in the experiment. It is a personal duty <strong>and</strong> responsibility which<br />
may not be deleg<strong>at</strong>ed to another with impunity. (p. 181-182)<br />
Since this is the most detailed of the guidelines cre<strong>at</strong>ed in this code, the main importance is to protect the<br />
subject‘s human rights, not to neglect or abuse them. The majority of the code does contain inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
about technicalities of the subject‘s health <strong>and</strong> well being. This Code st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> the test subjects must<br />
consent to every part of the experiment, so the test subjects in the experiment are completely voluntary<br />
<strong>and</strong> not forced into anything they are not comfortable with. Since the Nuremberg Trials, most people<br />
assume th<strong>at</strong> human test subjects are protected, which they are not. Test subjects can have privacy rights<br />
broken, cannot be fully informed of the full experiment <strong>and</strong> its intentions, <strong>and</strong> can be manipul<strong>at</strong>ed in<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ing in experiments th<strong>at</strong> they did not originally volunteer to particip<strong>at</strong>e in, which are viol<strong>at</strong>ing a<br />
human‘s rights. These Codes are designed to specify important aspects to make sure th<strong>at</strong> the Nuremberg<br />
Code will prevent past issues <strong>and</strong> abuses of human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The Nuremberg Code contains many important aspects to protect the test subject with their<br />
consent of the experiment, <strong>and</strong> also requires the actual experiment to have a legitim<strong>at</strong>e outcome th<strong>at</strong><br />
benefits science or medicine. <strong>Human</strong> testing can be beneficial to society‘s health because the experiments<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are conducted can reveal valuable inform<strong>at</strong>ion about the human body. Where would society be<br />
without chemotherapy for cancer p<strong>at</strong>ients? How would individuals survive without the vaccines th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
provided to promote immune health? All these questions <strong>and</strong> many more can be answered by human<br />
testing. From this testing, the human race can benefit medically <strong>and</strong> can further advance studies th<strong>at</strong> may<br />
result in cures. Besides advancing medically, society can get a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the body through<br />
human testing. They can be aware of the experiments th<strong>at</strong> are being conducted to also improve their<br />
lifestyle. For example, a growing problem in today‘s society is obesity, <strong>and</strong> through human testing,<br />
researchers can g<strong>at</strong>her d<strong>at</strong>a for diet <strong>and</strong> exercise plans th<strong>at</strong> can benefit the popul<strong>at</strong>ion. If human testing is<br />
less controversial it will lead to more scientific <strong>and</strong> medical curiosities. These curiosities will continue as<br />
a domino effect once more research is found, resulting in more efficient experiments to better society‘s<br />
148
health. Scientists can also cre<strong>at</strong>e more experiments to improve the medical field. This will help the<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion‘s health.<br />
The Nuremberg Code is meant for all humans who are involved in human testing. Wh<strong>at</strong> about the<br />
almost developed humans in the womb? Would these terms still apply? Drawing embryonic fluids from<br />
an expecting mother can predict disabilities or diseases an infant. Since the embryonic fluid is being used<br />
for research, do doctors have a right to invade the mother, as well as the embryonic sac of the infant to<br />
draw fluid? This also can be similar to the deb<strong>at</strong>e about abortions whether or not the child is alive <strong>and</strong> has<br />
the right to live since they are entitled to their human rights. Shafer (1983) adds, (from a critique of Hans<br />
Jonas), ―those who are least able to give voluntary <strong>and</strong> informed consent should be the last chosen as<br />
subjects for hazardous research,‖ (p. 79) <strong>and</strong> from this kind of viewpoint, can conclude th<strong>at</strong> scientists do<br />
not have the right to test infants. Scientists would be viol<strong>at</strong>ing the baby‘s human rights because they are<br />
being used as a hazardous type of research. Since the parents are the ones who ultim<strong>at</strong>ely make the<br />
decision <strong>and</strong> are allowing doctors <strong>and</strong> scientists to test embryonic fluids, they are giving their consent to<br />
scientists to test their infant for any abnormalities.<br />
Therefore, the baby <strong>and</strong> mother‘s rights would be protected if the guidelines of the Nuremberg<br />
Code are being followed properly. A poll was taken th<strong>at</strong> asked a sample of parents if they would choose<br />
to abort if certain types of illnesses <strong>and</strong> disabilities for their future infant were discovered during<br />
pregnancy. Rabino (2003) concluded this research by st<strong>at</strong>ing the percentages of parents th<strong>at</strong> thought<br />
abortion was ethical; ―82% be severely mentally retarded, 76% die of a disease by age four, 62% develop<br />
a severe childhood disease, or 43% die of a disease as a young adult (p. 376). These are the top four<br />
reasons parents thought abortions were ethical if they found out if their child would fit into any of these<br />
c<strong>at</strong>egories. Research by ―Wertz <strong>and</strong> Fletcher (1995)…someone who knowingly brings a child into the<br />
world with a serious genetic disorder is "not fair to the child," (Rabino, 2003, p.376). So, although this<br />
type of human testing seems to be viewed neg<strong>at</strong>ively, to most parents, it can be a helpful tool to ensure<br />
their future child is going to live a healthy long life.<br />
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Another important part of human testing would be the actual experiment. The Nuremberg Code<br />
also includes details about how experiments should be carried out which is st<strong>at</strong>ed in many parts of the<br />
Code:<br />
The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by<br />
other methods or means of study, <strong>and</strong> not r<strong>and</strong>om <strong>and</strong> unnecessary in n<strong>at</strong>ure…should be so<br />
designed <strong>and</strong> based on the results of animal experiment<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>and</strong> a knowledge of the n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
history of the disease or other problem under study th<strong>at</strong> the anticip<strong>at</strong>ed results will justify the<br />
performance of the experiment… <strong>and</strong> should be conducted only by scientifically qualified<br />
persons. The highest degree of skill <strong>and</strong> care should be required through all stages of the<br />
experiment of those who conduct or engage in the experiment. (p. 181-182)<br />
The reason to conduct human testing has to be legitim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> have purpose. It seems like common sense,<br />
but this needs to address everything about the experiment <strong>and</strong> its participants involved in human testing.<br />
Scientists cannot r<strong>and</strong>omly decide to make a r<strong>and</strong>om vaccine <strong>and</strong> start testing on volunteers. There needs<br />
to be clear focus <strong>and</strong> reasoning for the experiment th<strong>at</strong> wants to be performed. Also, the professionals th<strong>at</strong><br />
are conducting the experiment need to be legitim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> qualified for the success of the experiment. An<br />
everyday person cannot decide th<strong>at</strong> they want to act like a scientist <strong>and</strong> start playing with dangerous<br />
equipment. The professionals with degrees in science <strong>and</strong> medicine are the ones to dict<strong>at</strong>e the researching<br />
topics th<strong>at</strong> need to be conducted. The specialists involved in the experiment also need to be careful in<br />
their procedures so th<strong>at</strong> the right results are collected safely, without any intentional harm <strong>and</strong> viol<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Although the Nuremberg Code is presented as just a set of guidelines, there is still a question as<br />
to how the public knows th<strong>at</strong> these guidelines will be in effect with every experiment involving human<br />
test subjects? The answer is: the public will never know since these are not enforced like they should be.<br />
Since it is only a code, <strong>and</strong> not a law, technically it can be broken. The parts of the codes presented seem<br />
to temporarily protect the rights of the subjects, not permanently protect human subjects. The idea of<br />
making the Nuremburg Code m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ory for all human testing experiments would seem more just in<br />
modern times. In addition to the Nuremberg Code being used effectively, an o<strong>at</strong>h should be cre<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
150
similarly to the Hippocr<strong>at</strong>ic O<strong>at</strong>h to ensure the professionals are going to fulfill their requirements for the<br />
experiment.<br />
Since the Nuremberg Code, like the Declar<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong>, is not a legal document, it acts<br />
as a reference of guidelines th<strong>at</strong> should be considered if human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion needs to be conducted for<br />
research. The Nuremberg Code should be m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ory for all human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion projects for the<br />
protection <strong>and</strong> well being of any human test subject. In addition to the Nuremberg Code, a new o<strong>at</strong>h,<br />
similar to the Hippocr<strong>at</strong>ic O<strong>at</strong>h, should be specified for experimenters to take since they can potentially<br />
risk someone‘s life, even with the subject‘s consent. The Hippocr<strong>at</strong>ic O<strong>at</strong>h is also a set of rules doctors<br />
have to swear by to cre<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> maintain a professional career in the medical field. Some of the ideas th<strong>at</strong><br />
are expressed include p<strong>at</strong>ient confidentiality, nonsexual rel<strong>at</strong>ionships with p<strong>at</strong>ients, <strong>and</strong> the overall well-<br />
being of a p<strong>at</strong>ient. If a specific o<strong>at</strong>h was cre<strong>at</strong>ed (<strong>and</strong> enforced with the Nuremburg Code) for scientists<br />
<strong>and</strong> participants to take, the medicine field would have a gre<strong>at</strong>er success in research. This new o<strong>at</strong>h<br />
should contain the protection of p<strong>at</strong>ients‘ privacy, health, <strong>and</strong> emotional st<strong>at</strong>e. The new o<strong>at</strong>h should also<br />
be more specific about long term effects of experiments. Experiments should not cause long term<br />
problems, or if they might, can be taken away immedi<strong>at</strong>ely. Test subjects <strong>and</strong> the experimenters must<br />
maintain a professional rel<strong>at</strong>ionship <strong>at</strong> all times, as well as be informed of every step in the experiment.<br />
All people who are qualified should be made to swear by this o<strong>at</strong>h <strong>and</strong> enforce it, with knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the Nuremberg Code. This would mean th<strong>at</strong> no torture or manipul<strong>at</strong>ion of any sort is to<br />
be conducted for the result of an experiment. Also, the outcome of the experiment is to better society, so<br />
any <strong>at</strong>tempt to ruin a subject‘s personal life, or cause psychological problems is also forbidden. The<br />
professionals in experiments are having the opportunity to better the popul<strong>at</strong>ion, so they should tre<strong>at</strong> their<br />
subjects as human beings with their specific needs, not by textbook <strong>and</strong> chart definitions. Topics like<br />
human testing are still controversial, but with the enforcement of a new o<strong>at</strong>h <strong>and</strong> Nuremberg Code, these<br />
topics would not be so controversial since everyone is protected.<br />
If these guidelines were to be taken seriously, the outcome of the experiment itself would<br />
improve. Having test subjects who are willing to proceed <strong>and</strong> have trust in researchers th<strong>at</strong> their rights are<br />
151
protected with an experiment makes everything else run smoothly. Some may ask, even with the safety of<br />
the test subject, <strong>and</strong> their consent, why would someone want to be a part of experimental tests? Many<br />
individuals have a n<strong>at</strong>ural curiosity <strong>and</strong> want to be a part of the discovery of new technologies th<strong>at</strong> could<br />
potentially save thous<strong>and</strong>s of individuals. Plus, most test subjects are paid for their particip<strong>at</strong>ion. The<br />
benefits of an individual as a test subject can vary. Test subject want to volunteer to experiment<strong>at</strong>ion to<br />
help further research for the benefit of saving lives. Other participants can particip<strong>at</strong>e just to receive<br />
payment. Although many people agree with human testing, many can still view volunteers of the<br />
experiments as guinea pigs th<strong>at</strong> are letting scientists take over their bodies for no good reason.<br />
Experiments are conducted every day to help promote better health to the public. Scientists <strong>and</strong><br />
medical professionals are always eager to learn more <strong>and</strong> research, but throughout history, scientists were<br />
hesitant to particip<strong>at</strong>e in human testing because they wanted to avoid the controversies <strong>and</strong> legal troubles<br />
they may face. The ability to g<strong>at</strong>her inform<strong>at</strong>ion from a human subject was ideal, but many scientists<br />
could not find participants who wanted to volunteer. Also, scientists <strong>and</strong> medical professionals did not<br />
know the outcomes of their experiments <strong>and</strong> did not want to put anyone in danger. Wh<strong>at</strong> was their<br />
solution? They decided to take their experiments <strong>and</strong> perform them on their own bodies. They are<br />
classified as the ‗guinea-pig scientists‘. Technically, since they are performing dangerous experiments,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the result is unknown, they are viol<strong>at</strong>ing their own human rights. Knowing the risks th<strong>at</strong> could<br />
potentially kill them, they decided to proceed anyway. The risk of the experiments was very high since<br />
most were injecting themselves with vaccines, illnesses, <strong>and</strong> strange substances including bugs! These<br />
scientists wanted to know if their hypotheses were accepted or rejected right away.<br />
Although human testing can be an efficient way to conclude if an experiment succeeds or fails,<br />
scientists testing on themselves can be seen as a less thre<strong>at</strong>ening way to harm the public through human<br />
experiment<strong>at</strong>ion. Mel Boring <strong>and</strong> Leslie Dendy explain in their book Guinea Pig Scientists:<br />
It is clear th<strong>at</strong> guinea pig scientists are still with us, still curious <strong>and</strong> determined <strong>and</strong> concerned<br />
for others. They are the bold ‗test pilots‘ in the world of human body science. With more science<br />
152
working in the world now than ever before, new self-experiments are starting all the time. There<br />
are still many questions left to answer <strong>and</strong> many stories yet to be written. (2005, p. 176)<br />
The benefits from self-experiment<strong>at</strong>ion can put others in better safety, but the Nuremberg Code <strong>and</strong> new<br />
experiment<strong>at</strong>ion o<strong>at</strong>h should be m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ory for these brave scientists as well. They are human <strong>and</strong> should<br />
be protected in every aspect. Also, scientists should choose whether they would like to have volunteer<br />
subjects or choose to conduct the experiments on their own bodies. It should depend on the d<strong>at</strong>a they want<br />
to collect to better determine the outcome of their specific experiment.<br />
For example, ―Koichiro Fujita of the Tokyo Medical <strong>and</strong> Dental University, has been swallowing<br />
tapeworm eggs off <strong>and</strong> on since 1996, hoping th<strong>at</strong> the worms living in his intestine will make his allergies<br />
better‖ (Boring & Dendy, 2005, p. 176). After Koichiro studied in third world countries <strong>and</strong> helped in<br />
removing infectious parasites <strong>and</strong> worms from the local people, he discovered th<strong>at</strong> they were more<br />
susceptible to gain allergies. These allergies could be to different types of foods <strong>and</strong> other substances, but<br />
he found it intriguing to know th<strong>at</strong> allergies were increasing for the people he had removed the parasites<br />
<strong>and</strong> worms from. Even though the worms are supposed to decrease the body‘s immune system, he<br />
hypothesized th<strong>at</strong> if he were to inject himself with these types of tape worms, his allergies would<br />
decrease. Scientists who are in a rush to know answers can find a better way to experiment. With the help<br />
of the Nuremberg Code <strong>and</strong> a new experiment<strong>at</strong>ion o<strong>at</strong>h, scientists can be less afraid <strong>and</strong> choose to use<br />
volunteer human test subjects instead of themselves.<br />
The right criteria for conducting a human experiment should be cre<strong>at</strong>ed by making the<br />
Nuremburg Code <strong>and</strong> researcher o<strong>at</strong>h m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ory, as well as making sure the test subject is safe <strong>and</strong> aware<br />
of the experiment; so why is all of this important? Well, by making these criteria a reality, many things in<br />
the future can improve. If these guidelines were enforced, there would be less controversy over whether<br />
human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion is ethical <strong>and</strong> would not viol<strong>at</strong>e human rights. Attempts are starting to be made to<br />
lessen controversy from organiz<strong>at</strong>ions like the Department of Veterans Affairs, who also care for p<strong>at</strong>ient<br />
rights by continually: ―working to ensure the highest st<strong>and</strong>ards of human subjects' protections in all of its<br />
research activities‖ (Burris, Feussner, Lavori & McGlynn, 2002, V-11). Organiz<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong>tempts like these<br />
153
can also help in the subject‘s well being. The safety of test subjects would make the public less critical<br />
about human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion because the causes are completely different from those of the past (from the<br />
Nazi experiments). Also, this would cre<strong>at</strong>e a safer environment for future scientists <strong>and</strong> researchers to<br />
make sure th<strong>at</strong> everything is running correctly <strong>and</strong> no legal actions can be made by any mistakes th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
made. Most problems involving human testing arise when researchers are exposed to having secret<br />
research experiments. By making the guidelines m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ory, these fears can be avoided so researchers do<br />
not conduct experiments in a harmful or unsafe way.<br />
Many other organiz<strong>at</strong>ions have considered these types of events <strong>and</strong> in result, have discussed<br />
ways th<strong>at</strong> they can contribute to keep test subjects in good health. The Bulletin of the World Health<br />
Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion st<strong>at</strong>es:<br />
Global challenges raised by biomedical advances require global responses. Some intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
organiz<strong>at</strong>ions have made significant efforts over the last few years to establish common st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
th<strong>at</strong> can be regarded as the beginning of an intern<strong>at</strong>ional biomedical law. One of the main fe<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
of this new legal discipline is the integr<strong>at</strong>ion of its principles into a human rights framework. This<br />
str<strong>at</strong>egy seems the most appropri<strong>at</strong>e, given the role of ‗‗universal ethics‘‘ th<strong>at</strong> human rights play<br />
in our world of philosophical pluralism. (Adorno, 2002, p. 959)<br />
The people in this organiz<strong>at</strong>ion have found it important for human rights to be incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed in their<br />
studies. Their main focus is on human testing rel<strong>at</strong>ed to genetic type testing <strong>and</strong> cloning. These scientists<br />
are thinking outside of just the results of the experiment <strong>and</strong> are making sure th<strong>at</strong> everyone involved will<br />
be in good health <strong>and</strong> therefore receive positive results. This biomedical law idea was proposed in 2002<br />
from the Bulletin of the World Health Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion, but since then has not been researched to see if their<br />
efforts were strong enough. Cloning <strong>and</strong> genetic testing can be seen as invasive <strong>and</strong> as viol<strong>at</strong>ing human<br />
rights. But wh<strong>at</strong> if these scientists are given volunteers? Does this mean th<strong>at</strong> they need to be ‗more ethical<br />
<strong>and</strong> moral‘ <strong>and</strong> turn them down? The organiz<strong>at</strong>ion who wants to cre<strong>at</strong>e the universal biomedical law<br />
st<strong>at</strong>es: ―In spite of all its weaknesses, however, the current human rights system is the only mechanism<br />
154
available to protect people. This is why the integr<strong>at</strong>ion of some principles rel<strong>at</strong>ing to biomedicine into a<br />
human rights framework seems fully justified‖ (Adorno, 2002, p. 960). This shows the importance of<br />
specific guidelines then need to be added to human rights. By the m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ory guidelines provided by the<br />
Nuremberg Code <strong>and</strong> a new experiment<strong>at</strong>ion o<strong>at</strong>h, this organiz<strong>at</strong>ion can have their <strong>at</strong>tempts become a<br />
success. Not only would their plan become a reality, it will make scientists less afraid to want to conduct<br />
experiments to avoid any legal trouble with human rights.<br />
<strong>Human</strong> experiment<strong>at</strong>ion, the underestim<strong>at</strong>ed, controversial, <strong>and</strong> life saving method to better<br />
public health can now be conducted safely. The Nuremberg code <strong>and</strong> the introduction of a new<br />
experiment<strong>at</strong>ion o<strong>at</strong>h should be taken by the scientist or medical professional <strong>and</strong> the test subjects.<br />
<strong>Human</strong> rights will become a bigger part of experiment<strong>at</strong>ion to ensure the safety of everyone involved in<br />
human testing. For those who still believe human experiment<strong>at</strong>ion should be stop altogether since it<br />
viol<strong>at</strong>es human rights, they have to consider th<strong>at</strong>,<br />
there will still be a need for human experiments. The public dem<strong>and</strong>s cures for cancer, heart<br />
disease, AIDS, spinal cord injuries, <strong>and</strong> other afflictions. We want vaccines for the new infectious<br />
diseases th<strong>at</strong> keep emerging. Thous<strong>and</strong>s of clinical trials are under way each year. Many ‗guinea<br />
pigs‘ will continue to be p<strong>at</strong>ients who volunteer, hoping for a cure, but sometimes brave scientists<br />
will lead the way <strong>and</strong> be tested first‖ (Boring & Dendy, 2005, p. 3).<br />
<strong>Human</strong> experiment<strong>at</strong>ion‘s involvement with the Nuremberg code <strong>and</strong> new experiment<strong>at</strong>ion o<strong>at</strong>h will<br />
promote the positive <strong>at</strong>titudes <strong>and</strong> health of society. Test subjects will not be viewed as tortured guinea<br />
pigs, but volunteers for a cure.<br />
155
References<br />
Andorno, R. Biomedicine <strong>and</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional human rights law: in search of a global consensus.<br />
Bulletin of the World Health Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion (2002), 80 (12) pp. 959-963.<br />
Boring, M., Dendy, L. (2005). Guinea pig scientists. New York, NY: Henry Holt<br />
Feussner, J.R., Burris, J.F., McGlynn, G., Lavori, P.W. (2002). Enhancing protections for human<br />
participants in clinical <strong>and</strong> health services research: a continuing process. Medical Care, 40<br />
(9). pp. V4-V11.<br />
Michalczyk, J.J. (1994). Medicine, ethics, <strong>and</strong> the third Reich: historical <strong>and</strong> contemporary issues.<br />
Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward.<br />
Military Admits Experiments on Soldiers. (2003). Nutrition Health Review: The Consumer's Medical<br />
Journal, 14 (87). Retrieved (April 2011) from:<br />
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=6&hid=8&sid=c5eee4c6-48f4-43f1-bb93-<br />
cf884337d101%40sessionmgr14&bd<strong>at</strong>a=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=awh&<br />
AN=12512992<br />
Rabino, I. (2003). Genetic testing <strong>and</strong> its implic<strong>at</strong>ions: human genetics researchers grapple with<br />
ethical issues. Science, Technology, & <strong>Human</strong> Values 28,(3). pp. 365-402.<br />
Schafer, A. (1983). Group experiment<strong>at</strong>ion with human subjects: a critique of the views of Hans<br />
Jonas. Journal of Medical Ethics, 9(2). pp. 76-79.<br />
Silverman, Jacob. (2008, July 31) "Should doctors change the Hippocr<strong>at</strong>ic O<strong>at</strong>h?" Retrieved (April<br />
2011) from: http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/healthcare-providers/hippocr<strong>at</strong>ic-<br />
o<strong>at</strong>h.htm<br />
Strobel, W.P., (1997, March, 29). Rules set to protect human subjects;<br />
secret experiments stirred indign<strong>at</strong>ion. The Washington Times. Part A; NATION; Pg. A2.<br />
Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10,<br />
Vol. 2, pp. 181-182. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949.<br />
156
Br<strong>and</strong>i Spencer- Phoenix, Bloomsburg University<br />
Keep Minority Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Hope Alive<br />
In some classrooms it is very easy to spot the students of a minority race. Often you can count the<br />
minority students with one h<strong>and</strong>. A few people might explain th<strong>at</strong> it was during college or during one of<br />
their secondary educ<strong>at</strong>ion levels the first time they had a class with a minority student. Since many<br />
students of the majority race did not encounter many minority students there are often assumptions <strong>and</strong><br />
stereotypes used as common knowledge. Common minority stereotypes are th<strong>at</strong> they are lazy, dumb, <strong>and</strong><br />
unemployed. Are these stereotypes cre<strong>at</strong>ed in response to the high drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es amongst minorities?<br />
These high drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es have to decrease considering th<strong>at</strong> by 2023, the census bureau suggest, more<br />
than half of all children will be minorities (CNN 2008). Minorities will soon be the majority. These drop-<br />
out r<strong>at</strong>es can hurt the United St<strong>at</strong>es‘ economy in the long run. Keeping minorities in school is not an easy<br />
task. We must establish school pride. If minorities‘ schools had better teachers, increased parent<br />
involvement, adequ<strong>at</strong>e schools, more after school programs, <strong>and</strong> more motiv<strong>at</strong>ion they would be more<br />
likely to stay in school <strong>and</strong> the minorities‘ drop-out r<strong>at</strong>e will decrease. The time is now! Let‘s fix the<br />
problem! Considering th<strong>at</strong> by 2023, the census bureau st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> more than half of all children will be<br />
minorities (CNN 2008).<br />
In the year 2042 minorities are expected to become the majority in the United St<strong>at</strong>es (CNN 2008).<br />
Hispanics <strong>and</strong> African Americans are the two minorities expected to make the biggest increase in<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The Hispanic popul<strong>at</strong>ion is projected to nearly triple, from 46.7 million to 132.8 million, from<br />
2008 through 2050, the bureau said. Its share of the total U.S. popul<strong>at</strong>ion is expected to double<br />
from 15 to 30 percent. "Thus, one in three U.S. residents would be Hispanic," the Census Bureau<br />
said in a news release (CNN 2008).<br />
157
In the next four decades the majority of people in our country will no longer resemble our founding<br />
f<strong>at</strong>hers. The African-American popul<strong>at</strong>ion is expected to increase from 41.1 million to 65.7 million by<br />
2050, going from 14 percent of the U.S. popul<strong>at</strong>ion to 15 percent (CNN 2008).<br />
At the same time, African American unemployment r<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> underemployments r<strong>at</strong>es remain<br />
high. Underemployment r<strong>at</strong>es includes those who are unemployed, part time workers, <strong>and</strong> people who<br />
make as low as poverty levels. According to the ninth edition of Racial <strong>and</strong> Ethnic Rel<strong>at</strong>ion text book,<br />
from 1970 until present day poverty r<strong>at</strong>es for African American women heading households with children<br />
under the age of 18 remain above 40 percent <strong>and</strong> increased one percent in a recent survey (Feagin 2008).<br />
Those women grow up <strong>and</strong> have kids <strong>and</strong> these kids have kids <strong>and</strong> then the poverty cycles continue. Also,<br />
the ninth edition of Racial <strong>and</strong> Ethnic Rel<strong>at</strong>ion text book, st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> one-fourth of all African American,<br />
<strong>and</strong> one-third of all African American children fell below the poverty line in 2008. Most African<br />
Americans are classified as either middle class or poor. One factor th<strong>at</strong> contributes to why African<br />
Americans have lower incomes is based on educ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Unemployment r<strong>at</strong>es amongst Puerto Ricans are also said to be one of the highest throughout<br />
eastern cities (Feagin 2008). Most Puerto Rican immigrants come to the United St<strong>at</strong>es with a trade or a<br />
skill, but often these trades <strong>and</strong> skills are unused. Puerto Ricans find work often in lower-paid blue-collar<br />
<strong>and</strong> service jobs. There is also a claim th<strong>at</strong> due to discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion in the workplaces <strong>and</strong> inadequ<strong>at</strong>e<br />
schooling facilities those minorities are left in poverty. We must decrease our poverty r<strong>at</strong>es in United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es by starting with our young first. A gre<strong>at</strong> way is to improve our school districts throughout the<br />
country.<br />
Educ<strong>at</strong>ion is cumul<strong>at</strong>ive. Everything you learn in early years becomes advanced <strong>and</strong> used<br />
throughout your educ<strong>at</strong>ional career. According to Alliance for our Educ<strong>at</strong>ion 2009 Fact Sheet,<br />
Most dropouts are already on the p<strong>at</strong>h to failure in the middle grades <strong>and</strong> engage in behaviors th<strong>at</strong><br />
strongly correl<strong>at</strong>e to dropping out in high school. Various researchers have identified specific risk<br />
factors, such as low <strong>at</strong>tendance or a failing grade, which can identify future dropouts—in some<br />
cases as early as sixth grade (Fact Sheet 2009).<br />
158
Most six graders are between the ages of eleven <strong>and</strong> twelve. Before they even reach adolescence<br />
some teachers can predict whether their minority students are on the verge of dropping out of school. Are<br />
we failing our young minorities?<br />
The 1989 movie ―Lean on Me,‖ based on a true story, was about a principle who <strong>at</strong>tempted to<br />
improve the test scores of one of the worst schools in the st<strong>at</strong>e of New Jersey. Joe Clark was<br />
working <strong>at</strong> an elementary school before he took the position as principal of East Side High. East<br />
Side High was supposed to be an inner city multicultural high school, but instead Clark walked<br />
into a world of crime, drugs, <strong>and</strong> walls full of graffiti. He was questioned about his many tactics<br />
for improving the school. His first str<strong>at</strong>egy was to kick out all of the kids who had no chance of<br />
gradu<strong>at</strong>ing. He believed th<strong>at</strong> it was important to expel all of the unfit kids because they were<br />
preventing other students who had potential from learning. Clark expelled 300 minority students<br />
whom he claimed were "educ<strong>at</strong>ionally hopeless <strong>and</strong> overage underachievers, parasites, hoodlums,<br />
<strong>and</strong> drug pushers" (Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Digest, 1989). After expelling these students the next step was to<br />
secure the other students. Although putting chains on the doors was a fire hazard, Clark put<br />
chains on the doors to keep his students in <strong>and</strong> keep the ones th<strong>at</strong> were expelled out. Clark‘s<br />
second step was to get his students to develop school pride. He made all students learn the school<br />
song <strong>and</strong> those who had detentions paint the school‘s walls th<strong>at</strong> were covered with graffiti.<br />
Towards the end of the movie under Clark‘s leadership the students‘ test scores more than<br />
doubled, but in reality the students‘ test scores did not change. In fact, students <strong>at</strong> Eastside High<br />
had the lowest test scores in the st<strong>at</strong>e of New Jersey between the years of 1986 to 1988.<br />
It was unfortun<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> he kicked 300 hundred students out of school, but I believe th<strong>at</strong> he did the right<br />
thing. It is important for the students to learn. I believe when students have school pride they enjoy going<br />
to school every day. I witnessed he effectiveness in having school pride. I develop closer rel<strong>at</strong>ionships to<br />
all my teachers. Since I knew all my teachers I was no longer ashamed to ask questions.<br />
159
Neg<strong>at</strong>ive impacts are often the result of racially segreg<strong>at</strong>ed schools such as low retention r<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
poor reading levels, high student teacher r<strong>at</strong>ios, less qualified teachers, <strong>and</strong> lower expect<strong>at</strong>ions. In most<br />
cases children of color usually do better when <strong>at</strong>tending a majority white school. It is not because other<br />
children of color are incapable of doing well; it is just because they do not have the best resources. Most<br />
of these schools which majority minority students <strong>at</strong>tend usually lack good media <strong>and</strong> Internet centers,<br />
newer <strong>and</strong> more computers, newer buildings, <strong>and</strong> more classes for advance students (Feagin 2008).<br />
Despite the Brown vs. Broad of Educ<strong>at</strong>ion case, segreg<strong>at</strong>ed schools still exist. Four out of ten black <strong>and</strong><br />
L<strong>at</strong>ino children were <strong>at</strong> extremely segreg<strong>at</strong>ed schools which 90 to 100 percent were children of color<br />
(Feagin 2008). A large majority of these students are not prepared for college. Many minority parents<br />
complain about underfunded <strong>and</strong> discrimin<strong>at</strong>ory educ<strong>at</strong>ional systems. Minorities th<strong>at</strong> live in poor<br />
neighborhoods do not have any or little political influence over the politicians who control the<br />
government money necessary for cre<strong>at</strong>ing equal school opportunities. According to the ninth edition of<br />
Racial <strong>and</strong> Ethnic Rel<strong>at</strong>ions text book, as the country becomes more diverse, this lack of skills will<br />
become even more of a disadvantage in social <strong>and</strong> political interactions, <strong>and</strong> in getting jobs with globally<br />
focused companies <strong>and</strong> government agencies (Feagin 2008). According to the ninth edition of Racial <strong>and</strong><br />
Ethnic Rel<strong>at</strong>ion text book, as the country becomes more diverse, this lack of skills will become even more<br />
of a disadvantage in social <strong>and</strong> political interactions, <strong>and</strong> in getting jobs with globally focused companies<br />
<strong>and</strong> government agencies (Feagin 2008).<br />
Many Hispanics students drop-out because they have difficulties with the English language. If<br />
you cannot speak English in the United St<strong>at</strong>es it can be quite hard for a person to underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> finish<br />
school. English is a necessity for all subjects. Comprehensive skill is relevant no m<strong>at</strong>ter wh<strong>at</strong> level of<br />
educ<strong>at</strong>ion you are in. Writing is also important. Since, most of these students are brought up not knowing<br />
how to speak proper English they usually do not know how to write gramm<strong>at</strong>ically correct. These<br />
students often score lower than average on the SAT‘s, making it hard for them to get into college.<br />
However, SAT scores generally rise with two things: the income <strong>and</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion levels of their parents—a<br />
fact borne out in the 2010 College Board profile report (Abdul-Alim 2010).<br />
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White students, for instance, scored an average of 530, 555, <strong>and</strong> 508 on reading, m<strong>at</strong>h, <strong>and</strong><br />
writing portions of the SAT, whereas Black students scored 426, 436, <strong>and</strong> 408; Mexican or<br />
Mexican American students scored 451, 451, <strong>and</strong> 451; Hispanic, Other Hispanic, L<strong>at</strong>ino or L<strong>at</strong>in<br />
American students scored 449, 446, <strong>and</strong> 449; <strong>and</strong> American Indian or Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ives scored 484,<br />
479, <strong>and</strong> 474, respectively (Abdul-Alim 2010).<br />
These st<strong>at</strong>istics show th<strong>at</strong> minority students‘ test scores are worse than white students‘ test scores.<br />
Since minority test scores are usually the lowest many people might be oppose to bettering<br />
educ<strong>at</strong>ion for minority. People might wonder why these students cannot help themselves. All these<br />
minority students have to do is apply themselves by studying harder. Some might believe in a well-known<br />
theory called social Darwinism. In terms of intellect only the well- educ<strong>at</strong>ed succeeds <strong>and</strong> become<br />
financially successful. This is not a communist n<strong>at</strong>ion. Why should wealth have to be shared? Not<br />
everyone can become successful.<br />
Others may not think there is anything wrong with inner city schools. The problem is these<br />
children are not gr<strong>at</strong>eful to receive free educ<strong>at</strong>ion. How can you complain about something th<strong>at</strong> is free?<br />
Others may think th<strong>at</strong> minorities make excuses for themselves. The poem, ―Invictus‖ by William Ernest<br />
Henley, st<strong>at</strong>es ―I am the master of my f<strong>at</strong>e… I am the captain of my soul.‖ In other words, you make the<br />
decision for your own life. If you want something you need to work hard <strong>and</strong> earn it. History should not<br />
be an excuse of why you cannot do better economically.<br />
Some people just do not care, while others are unaware about the injustices in the inner city<br />
schools. Some people wonder why help these underprivileged children if they have a history of failing.<br />
There are st<strong>at</strong>istics to prove it! New York City Public Schools in 2007, black students scored an average<br />
of 30 points lower than white students in m<strong>at</strong>h <strong>and</strong> reading. The majority (55 percent) of black eighth-<br />
graders in New York City <strong>and</strong> 48 percent of Hispanic eighth-graders haven't reached basic proficiency in<br />
m<strong>at</strong>h, <strong>and</strong> about half haven't achieved basic proficiency in reading (Harris).<br />
Why should we care about these inner city schools when we do not live in the inner city? We<br />
cannot teach these inner city parents how to raise their kids. It is best th<strong>at</strong> we mind our own business.<br />
161
None the less it is important th<strong>at</strong> we decrease the high drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es amongst minorities. If we<br />
were to decrease these high drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es amongst minorities there would be more professional people.<br />
The number of people who suffers from poverty would also be decreased. Lastly, we would have a<br />
smarter America.<br />
The first step in decreasing minority drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es is to develop <strong>and</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>e better teachers. I<br />
believe th<strong>at</strong> my teachers th<strong>at</strong> worked <strong>at</strong> my high school were a few of the best teachers in the world<br />
because they had close rel<strong>at</strong>ionships with the students. Going to school knowing you had teachers who<br />
cared meant a lot to me. There were times in my life where I wanted to quit, but always had a teacher to<br />
influence me to do better. My teachers impacted my life so much I decided th<strong>at</strong> I wanted to major in<br />
Educ<strong>at</strong>ion to become a teacher. I <strong>at</strong>tended a boarding school in Philadelphia. This school was best<br />
described as ―not the best school, but a school where a lot of the students had potential.‖ I came to the<br />
conclusion th<strong>at</strong> most of the inner city schools‘ students probably share th<strong>at</strong> same concept. During an<br />
academic school year we are around our teachers <strong>and</strong> peers more than we are around our parents. School<br />
is a big part of all of our lives. Just one person coming into the classroom with a neg<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>at</strong>titude can<br />
affect many people. Neg<strong>at</strong>ive energy is contagious. You can always notice when a person does not care. It<br />
is important th<strong>at</strong> our teachers come to school with positive <strong>at</strong>titudes. If teachers develop unity with their<br />
students than students would began to develop trust in their teachers. Students would try to achieve the<br />
higher expect<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> teachers set because they would truly believe th<strong>at</strong> teachers actually care.<br />
It is important th<strong>at</strong> the teachers <strong>and</strong> students develop unity. Teachers should get to know the<br />
students <strong>and</strong> vice versa the students should get to know the teachers. You tend to have respect for a<br />
person you care <strong>and</strong> have personal ties to. I believe th<strong>at</strong> schools should have clean up days. During these<br />
clean up days the students <strong>and</strong> teachers would get together <strong>and</strong> clean, paint lockers, <strong>and</strong> plant gardens<br />
outside the school‘s grounds. During these days teachers would be interacting with students <strong>and</strong> getting to<br />
know more about them. When a teacher knows wh<strong>at</strong> students are interested they would be able to rel<strong>at</strong>e<br />
their academic curriculum towards their students‘ interest. Rel<strong>at</strong>ing the academic curriculum to students<br />
would allow students to be more interested in school.<br />
162
Students should have more adequ<strong>at</strong>e schools. George Bush‘s, No Child Left Behind Act made<br />
school more responsible for their student test scores. Initially, No Child Left Behind Act was established<br />
to help improve the performance of America's elementary <strong>and</strong> secondary schools while <strong>at</strong> the same time<br />
ensuring th<strong>at</strong> no child is trapped in a failing school.<br />
The NCLB Act, which reauthorizes the ESEA, incorpor<strong>at</strong>es the principles <strong>and</strong> str<strong>at</strong>egies<br />
proposed by President Bush. These include increased accountability for St<strong>at</strong>es, school<br />
districts, <strong>and</strong> schools; gre<strong>at</strong>er choice for parents <strong>and</strong> students, particularly those <strong>at</strong>tending<br />
low-performing schools; more flexibility for St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>and</strong> local educ<strong>at</strong>ional agencies<br />
(LEAs) in the use of Federal educ<strong>at</strong>ion dollars; <strong>and</strong> a stronger emphasis on reading,<br />
especially for our youngest children (U.S Department of Educ<strong>at</strong>ion 2008).<br />
The No Child Left Behind Act was designed for 3 rd through 8 th graders to test if these students are<br />
proficient in m<strong>at</strong>h <strong>and</strong> reading. Schools who do fail to meet the requirements can be subject to<br />
improvement, corrective action, <strong>and</strong> restructuring measure (U.S Department of Educ<strong>at</strong>ion 2008). The test<br />
results are grouped by race, ethnicity, <strong>and</strong> class. One of my teachers agreed with the No Child Left<br />
Behind Act because it made school accountable. Marianne <strong>and</strong> David McGr<strong>at</strong>h disagree with my teacher<br />
suggesting they st<strong>at</strong>ed in their editorial th<strong>at</strong> ―There swirls a madness of high stakes testing m<strong>and</strong><strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
President Bush's No Child Left Behind Act, which has been more like the electro-shocking of the<br />
students, teachers <strong>and</strong> schools, r<strong>at</strong>her than a measure for improving educ<strong>at</strong>ion in cities like Chicago<br />
(2004).‖ I personally like the No Child Left Behind Act. I just wish th<strong>at</strong> it was enforced more.<br />
I believe th<strong>at</strong> all schools should have some sort of after school program. After school programs is<br />
a good way of keeping our students out of trouble. Also, some after school programs better the physical<br />
life of others.<br />
Copious research compiled by the Afterschool Alliance shows th<strong>at</strong> quality programs improve<br />
student achievement. These kids are more likely to go to school, be engaged in their regular<br />
lessons, <strong>and</strong> earn better test scores <strong>and</strong> grades. Take, for example, Citizen Schools where average<br />
163
gradu<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es are about 20 percent higher for participants than similar peersn (Amy<br />
Buffenbarger 2011).<br />
Some after school programs such as tutoring should promote academic excellence. Other after school<br />
programs should promote life skills, such as cooking <strong>and</strong> sewing.<br />
Another step in getting the drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es to decrease is bettering the involvement of parents in<br />
students‘ educ<strong>at</strong>ion. School should not depend on students to send report cards <strong>and</strong> notices home. The<br />
schools should personally email, call, or mail notices home th<strong>at</strong> is rel<strong>at</strong>ed to meetings <strong>and</strong> report cards.<br />
When the parents get more involved with the schools the parents will gain trust <strong>and</strong> have higher<br />
expect<strong>at</strong>ions in their children‘s educ<strong>at</strong>ion. When students realize th<strong>at</strong> their parents care they would feel<br />
more motiv<strong>at</strong>ed to reach their parent‘s higher expect<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
We should want our children to have better educ<strong>at</strong>ion. It is not fair th<strong>at</strong> we short change students<br />
of the minority. Wh<strong>at</strong> make things worse is th<strong>at</strong> children of a minority are not short change by just<br />
economics, but also by themselves <strong>and</strong> their parents. It is time th<strong>at</strong> we encourage academic excellence,<br />
sports, after school activities. It is time th<strong>at</strong> we get the parents more involved <strong>and</strong> make them responsible<br />
for their children educ<strong>at</strong>ion. These drop-out r<strong>at</strong>es can hurt the United St<strong>at</strong>es‘ economy in the long run. It<br />
is time to make a sm<strong>at</strong>ter America!<br />
164
References<br />
Abdul-Alim Jamaal, (2010) SAT Takers Grow More Diverse, Scores Stagn<strong>at</strong>e<br />
http://diverseeduc<strong>at</strong>ion.com/article/14124/<br />
Alliance for Excellent Educ<strong>at</strong>ion, (2009) High School Dropouts in America,<br />
cited Educ<strong>at</strong>ion Digest, 1989<br />
http://course1.winona.edu/pjohnson/h140/lean.htm<br />
Buffenbarger Amy (2011), After-School Programs Prove Key to Closing Gaps,<br />
http://neapriorityschools.org/2011/03/14/after-school-programs-prove-key-to-closing-gaps/<br />
Cable News Network, (2008) Minorities expected to be majority in 2050,<br />
http://articles.cnn.com/2008-08-13/us/census.minorities_1_hispanic-popul<strong>at</strong>ion-census-bureau-<br />
white-popul<strong>at</strong>ion/2?_s=PM:US<br />
Feagin Joe <strong>and</strong> Clairece, (2008), Racial <strong>and</strong> Ethnic Rel<strong>at</strong>ion:ninth edition, Uppersaddle<br />
Harris Alis, (2009) No Excuses, http://www.worldmag.com/articles/15852<br />
U.S. Department of Educ<strong>at</strong>ion (2010) One Hundred Seventh Congress of the United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es of America, http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/beginning.html<br />
McGr<strong>at</strong>h. David <strong>and</strong> Mariannen, (2004) Why George Bush's No Child Left Behind Act is a<br />
failure, http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/mcgr<strong>at</strong>h/child.htm<br />
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Brian White, Kutztown University<br />
<strong>Human</strong> <strong>Rights</strong> Challenges in Algeria: A Historical Perspective<br />
France <strong>and</strong> Algeria have had a close, complex <strong>and</strong> tense rel<strong>at</strong>ionship since the 1830 invasion of<br />
Algeria. Throughout the history of Algerian coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion the French used violence, discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>and</strong><br />
torture to gain the upper h<strong>and</strong> against the Arab popul<strong>at</strong>ion. This history of hostility along with the<br />
Algerian people‘s desire for independence began the Algerian War of 1954-62. During the war,<br />
specifically during the B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers in 1957, the French increased their use of torture <strong>and</strong><br />
discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion, while those on the Algerian side made use of bombings on French settlers known as<br />
Pieds-Noirs. It was the way in which both sides h<strong>and</strong>led the war, mainly by viol<strong>at</strong>ing the fundamental<br />
human rights of the French <strong>and</strong> Algerian citizens th<strong>at</strong> led to the cre<strong>at</strong>ion of the Fifth Republic <strong>and</strong> the<br />
current anti-immigr<strong>at</strong>ion sentiment among some of the French public. The purpose of this paper is to<br />
highlight the use of torture by the French army during the Algerian War, specifically during the B<strong>at</strong>tle of<br />
Algiers, <strong>and</strong> to show how those actions <strong>and</strong> the actions taken by the Front de Libér<strong>at</strong>ion N<strong>at</strong>ionale known<br />
as the FLN have had a continuous <strong>and</strong> lasting impact on the French people.<br />
To discuss the background of French <strong>and</strong> Algerian rel<strong>at</strong>ions, Algeria was conquered fully by<br />
1848. Instead of being tre<strong>at</strong>ed as another colony Algeria was incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed as an integral part of France.<br />
By the 1860‘s Algeria was fully incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed, split into departments, <strong>and</strong> given represent<strong>at</strong>ion in the<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Assembly. 1 This series of events made Algeria effectively equal to the rest of France. In reality<br />
th<strong>at</strong> could not have been any further from the truth. The Pieds-Noirs were tre<strong>at</strong>ed vastly superior to the<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ive Arab popul<strong>at</strong>ion. The French government went on to viol<strong>at</strong>e the rights of the Arab popul<strong>at</strong>ion by<br />
refusing to educ<strong>at</strong>e them, exploiting their farm l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> forests <strong>and</strong> allowing the popul<strong>at</strong>ion to fall into<br />
1 David Prochaska, Making Algeria French; Colonialism in Bone, 1870-1920. (New York: Cambridge University<br />
Press, 1990), 2.<br />
172
deep poverty. 2 Many historians agree th<strong>at</strong> the French were guilty of ―depersonaliz<strong>at</strong>ion, decultur<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
forced resettlement, <strong>and</strong> some cases of genocide.‖ 3 This suggests th<strong>at</strong> the tre<strong>at</strong>ment of the Arabs in the<br />
Algerian War was little different than wh<strong>at</strong> the French had been doing all along. By 1954 Arab Algerians<br />
had been through enough unfair tre<strong>at</strong>ment by the French government <strong>and</strong> decided it was time to take a<br />
st<strong>and</strong>. During the war the Algerian FLN would take comm<strong>and</strong> of gaining an Algeria free from France by<br />
using terrorism <strong>and</strong> other means.<br />
The FLN routinely used terrorism against the Pieds-Noirs in major cities in Algeria <strong>and</strong> in<br />
France. The main areas targeted were popular bars, cafeterias, <strong>and</strong> cafes th<strong>at</strong> were frequented by large<br />
numbers of European settlers. 4 The FLN used the bombings to further their cause of gaining a free<br />
Algeria. They were also used to gain support of the n<strong>at</strong>ive Muslim Algerians by showing them th<strong>at</strong> a<br />
fight against the French could be won. In addition the terrorist bombings used by the FLN were used to<br />
force the Algerian police <strong>and</strong> the French army to respond with the use of force <strong>and</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>er control. 5 This<br />
made the Algerians crave independence even more because there was now a physical force th<strong>at</strong> was<br />
repressing them <strong>and</strong> taking away their rights instead of just French policy <strong>and</strong> the politicians who enacted<br />
it.<br />
One of the most prominent examples of <strong>at</strong>tacks against human rights occurred during the B<strong>at</strong>tle<br />
of Algiers. The b<strong>at</strong>tle occurred between January <strong>and</strong> October of 1957. The b<strong>at</strong>tle is usually thought to<br />
have begun when three female FLN members planted bombs in two popular European bars, <strong>and</strong> a travel<br />
center. Because of these <strong>and</strong> other <strong>at</strong>tacks against white civilians, specifically the Pieds-Noirs, the French<br />
military was called in to take over police duties in Algiers. In addition to policing Algiers, on January 7,<br />
1954 the Resident Minister of Algeria gave General Jacques Massu absolute power over civilian <strong>and</strong><br />
2 Ibid., 3.<br />
3 Ibid., 4.<br />
4 Kim Hendrickson <strong>and</strong> Abbey Lustgarten, ―B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers: A Case Study.‖ Disc 3. B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers, Criterion<br />
Collection. DVD. Directed by Kim Hendrickson <strong>and</strong> Abbey Lustgarten. 2004.<br />
5 Ibid.<br />
173
military m<strong>at</strong>ters in Algiers. 6 This gave Massu the power to set up segreg<strong>at</strong>ed zones in the city to keep the<br />
Arab popul<strong>at</strong>ion contained in one area. He also was able to place any person deemed dangerous to public<br />
security under arrest. This generally included all of the Arab inhabitants of the city because any one of<br />
them could have been involved with the FLN. Massu also had the authority to search <strong>and</strong> remove people<br />
from their homes any time day or night. 7 Almost immedi<strong>at</strong>ely after taking comm<strong>and</strong> a policy of r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
arrest <strong>and</strong> hostile interrog<strong>at</strong>ion of prisoners was initi<strong>at</strong>ed. Torture was used as a means to discover both<br />
the membership of the FLN <strong>and</strong> to discover the loc<strong>at</strong>ions of bombs <strong>and</strong> bomb makers who were sc<strong>at</strong>tered<br />
throughout the city. 8 This was the r<strong>at</strong>ionale behind the use of torture by the military. The French military<br />
used the ―ticking bomb‖ scenario to valid<strong>at</strong>e the use of forceful interrog<strong>at</strong>ion. 9<br />
The B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers marked the most intense period of French military action during the<br />
Algerian War of Independence. During this ten month period the French military involve itself in more<br />
torture <strong>and</strong> sent more Algerians to internment camps than during any other time in the war. The military<br />
used their power in a manner th<strong>at</strong> viol<strong>at</strong>ed the fundamental human rights of the Algerian popul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Tens of thous<strong>and</strong>s of suspected rebels were arrested <strong>and</strong> tortured while thous<strong>and</strong>s more were sent to<br />
camps to await the same f<strong>at</strong>e. Of the many thous<strong>and</strong>s of people r<strong>and</strong>omly taken from their homes few<br />
were actually connected with the FLN. 10 By some accounts made by military officers only three or five<br />
out of every hundred prisoners were symp<strong>at</strong>hizers of the FLN <strong>and</strong> out of th<strong>at</strong> number even less were<br />
responsible for making or setting the bombs the French military claimed to be looking for. 11 While the<br />
military was searching for this small portion of the popul<strong>at</strong>ion thous<strong>and</strong>s of innocent people were falsely<br />
arrested <strong>and</strong> needlessly tortured. The exact number of Algerians who were tortured throughout the entire<br />
war is unknown but if a similar r<strong>at</strong>e of torture occurred throughout the rest of the war to the amount th<strong>at</strong><br />
occurred during the B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers the number would easily be in the hundreds of thous<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
6 P<strong>at</strong>rick Rotman, ―L‘ennemi Intime: Ét<strong>at</strong>s D‘armes.‖ Disc 3. B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers, Criterion Collection. DVD.<br />
Directed by P<strong>at</strong>rick Rotman. 2002.<br />
7 Ibid.<br />
8 Ibid.<br />
9 Ibid.<br />
10 Ibid.<br />
11 Ibid.<br />
174
As previously mentioned many Algerians were taken to internment camps to await interrog<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>and</strong> to be separ<strong>at</strong>ed from the rest of the city‘s popul<strong>at</strong>ion. During the ten month span of the b<strong>at</strong>tle<br />
Algerian police records show th<strong>at</strong> about 24,000 people were taken from the city <strong>and</strong> placed in various<br />
camps. 12 The main camp was <strong>at</strong> Beni-Messous, with various others spread throughout the area around<br />
Algiers. The man in charge of the main camp was Ceccaldi-Raynaud <strong>and</strong> by his account in one day 1,000<br />
people were brought to the camp in the span of a few hours <strong>and</strong> there was only enough room left for<br />
300. 13 This led to massive overcrowding which would have made the conditions in the camps highly<br />
unsanitary <strong>and</strong> dangerous to those who were forced to live in them. There are no records to show how<br />
many people died just from living in the camps or the torture they received in the camps, but from records<br />
kept by Secretary General of the Police, Paul Teitgen, it is know th<strong>at</strong> of the 24,000 arrested <strong>and</strong> interred<br />
as many as 4,000 simply disappeared. 14 Many people th<strong>at</strong> disappeared were known to have been killed by<br />
having their feet set in cement <strong>and</strong> then being thrown out of helicopters <strong>and</strong> planes into the ocean. Those<br />
who were killed or had their bodies disposed of this way were l<strong>at</strong>er known as Bigeard‘s shrimp after<br />
Colonel Bigeard who ordered it done. 15<br />
Throughout the war <strong>and</strong> specifically during the B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers, many high ranking members of<br />
the French military resigned because of the use of torture. Included in those who resigned were head of<br />
Algerian police Teitgen <strong>and</strong> Ceccaldi-Raynoud. 16 In Teitgen‘s letter of resign<strong>at</strong>ion he clearly st<strong>at</strong>ed how<br />
he <strong>and</strong> many others felt:<br />
12 Ibid.<br />
13 Ibid.<br />
14 Ibid.<br />
15 Ibid.<br />
16 Ibid.<br />
I‘ve been convinced for three months now th<strong>at</strong> acting anonymously <strong>and</strong> without<br />
responsibility can only lead to war crimes…I wouldn‘t dare make such a st<strong>at</strong>ement were<br />
it not for a recent visit to the Paul-Cazelles <strong>and</strong> Beni-Messous camps, where I recognized,<br />
175
on certain prisoners, signs of abuse <strong>and</strong> torture like I personally suffered 14 years ago <strong>at</strong><br />
the h<strong>and</strong>s of the Gestapo in Nancy. 17<br />
Many of the French troops who fought in Algeria had also fought in World War II <strong>and</strong> had seen<br />
the acts perpetr<strong>at</strong>ed by the Germans or had experienced torture by them first h<strong>and</strong> like Teitgen had. Even<br />
with this experience the French army was still willing to do the same to the Algerians. Throughout the<br />
war the French denied the used of torture because they had to. One of the many reasons they did this was<br />
because France had already signed the Geneva Convention <strong>and</strong> r<strong>at</strong>ified it in 1951. By admitting to using<br />
torture France would have been in viol<strong>at</strong>ion of Article 3 Section 2 (a)(c)(d). These st<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> in a case of<br />
conflict with territory under member control th<strong>at</strong> the following acts would be prohibited:<br />
(a) Violence to life <strong>and</strong> person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutil<strong>at</strong>ion, cruel<br />
tre<strong>at</strong>ment <strong>and</strong> torture;<br />
(c) Outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humili<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> degrading tre<strong>at</strong>ment;<br />
(d) The passing of sentences <strong>and</strong> the carrying out of executions without previous<br />
judgment pronounce by a regularly constituted court, affording all judicial guarantees<br />
which are recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples. 18<br />
During the war the French army repe<strong>at</strong>edly <strong>and</strong> knowingly viol<strong>at</strong>ed these laws th<strong>at</strong> were cre<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
to guard the human rights of all people. This would have put France in a tumultuous situ<strong>at</strong>ion with the<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional community <strong>and</strong> is one of the many reasons why the Fourth Republic was replaced by the<br />
Fifth Republic.<br />
The Fourth Republic had been weak since its cre<strong>at</strong>ion in 1946. It had a history of cabinet<br />
instability with twenty-four cabinets serving in the twelve years of its rule. 19 This constant change of<br />
17 Ibid.<br />
18 Jewish Virtual Library. The Fourth Geneva Convention (August 12, 1949).<br />
www.Jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/<strong>Human</strong>_<strong>Rights</strong>/geneva1.html (accessed April 1, 2011).<br />
19 John D. Huber <strong>and</strong> Cecilia Martinez-Gallardo, ―Cabinet Instability <strong>and</strong> the Accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of Experience: The<br />
French Fourth <strong>and</strong> Fifth Republics in Compar<strong>at</strong>ive Perspective,‖ British Journal of Political Science 34 no. 1<br />
(January 2004): 27.<br />
176
personnel made it very difficult to effectively rule especially in the colonies. The form of government the<br />
Fourth Republic brought was incapable of making any decisions on how the war would be h<strong>and</strong>led. 20 By<br />
1956 the Assembly held a vote to grant special power th<strong>at</strong> would allow the government to do wh<strong>at</strong>ever it<br />
felt necessary to win the war in Algeria <strong>and</strong> keep it as a part of France. When the action passed, France<br />
not only increased pressure on Algeria by using torture, but also increased repression inside France as<br />
well by restricting the press <strong>and</strong> increasing arrests of those disagreeing with the government actions. 21<br />
Committees for peace <strong>and</strong> against torture were cre<strong>at</strong>ed as a direct result of actions being taken in the<br />
Algerian War <strong>and</strong> were supported by many parties including the French Communist Party. 22 The mass<br />
public distrust of the Fourth Republic is wh<strong>at</strong> caused the May 1958 Crisis th<strong>at</strong> led to Charles de Gaulle<br />
taking power <strong>and</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>ing the Fifth Republic. In the initial stages however de Gaulle‘s government was<br />
no better <strong>at</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling the situ<strong>at</strong>ion than the previous one. 23 The Algerian War brought about a change in<br />
government, <strong>and</strong> would have continuing impact along with the new government in shaping how both<br />
French <strong>and</strong> Arab immigrants from Algeria would be tre<strong>at</strong>ed in the future.<br />
The end of the Algerian War came on March 18, 1962 when a cease-fire was signed between<br />
France <strong>and</strong> the FLN. The tre<strong>at</strong>y process called the Évian Accords not only ended the war but allowed for<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion between both countries. Before the war Algeria had been part of France <strong>and</strong> the popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
autom<strong>at</strong>ically had French citizenship. After the war Algerians were no longer citizens but they still had<br />
the option to freely travel into France for work although they would not have the same rights. In<br />
referendums France approved the Accords with 91% of the popul<strong>at</strong>ion while Algeria passed the Accords<br />
with 99.7% in favor. 24<br />
20 Ibid., 28.<br />
21 Danièle Joly, The French Communist Party <strong>and</strong> the Algerian War. (New York: St. Martin‘s Press, 1991), 110.<br />
22 Ibid., 122-123.<br />
23 Christopher Harrison, ―French Attitudes to Empire <strong>and</strong> the Algerian War,‖ African Affairs 82 no. 326 (January<br />
1983): 77.<br />
24 “Proclam<strong>at</strong>ion des Résult<strong>at</strong>s du Référendum d’Autodétermin<strong>at</strong>ion du 1er juillet 1962,” Journal Officiel de l’Ét<strong>at</strong><br />
Algérien (July 6, 1962).<br />
177
One of the major problems after the war was the st<strong>at</strong>us of the Pieds-Noirs. They were of<br />
European origin but by 1962 the Pieds-Noirs had been removed by multiple gener<strong>at</strong>ions from any<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ives living in France. The Pieds-Noirs were now outcasts in their home country of Algeria which led<br />
an estim<strong>at</strong>ed 800,000 to 900,000 of the 1,000,000 Europeans to leave the country after the war <strong>and</strong> head<br />
to France. 25 Those th<strong>at</strong> left made up the better part of Algeria‘s skilled work force <strong>and</strong> nearly all of those<br />
who owned or ran businesses. 26 The mass exodus of the Pieds-Noirs left a massive gap in Algeria‘s<br />
economy <strong>and</strong> in many of its major cities <strong>and</strong> towns. It was said th<strong>at</strong> in some cities such as Oran, ―one<br />
[could] walk long distances past shuttered shops… [<strong>and</strong>] vacant property under the protection of the<br />
government.‖ 27 Because large parts of the cities were inhabited by the Pieds-Noirs the economic loss was<br />
substantial <strong>and</strong> France had to prop up Algeria‘s economy by giving it about $700,000 a day for the<br />
remainder of 1962 until Algeria‘s economy had recovered enough to sustain itself. 28 The Pieds-Noirs left<br />
because they no longer belonged in their own country with a popul<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> now resented their presence.<br />
They also left because of violence against them such as the massacre in Oran where an estim<strong>at</strong>ed 3,000<br />
Europeans were killed. Many of the Pieds-Noirs left everything they had <strong>and</strong> went to France because<br />
being unwanted in France was exponentially safer than being unwanted in Algeria.<br />
In addition to being outcasts in Algeria the 900,000 Pieds-Noirs who took the bo<strong>at</strong>s to France<br />
were disliked there as well. In the eyes of the French people they were unwanted immigrants who would<br />
take jobs <strong>and</strong> overcrowd the already full cities. This was true initially because for many weeks many of<br />
the arriving Pieds-Noirs slept in the streets of the cities or barns in small towns. 29 Most had no rel<strong>at</strong>ives<br />
living in France, had nowhere to go, <strong>and</strong> had no way of getting immedi<strong>at</strong>e work. Although there was<br />
some hostility initially to their ―return‖ to France they were eventually accepted back into society because<br />
25 Neville Barbour, ―Algeria, the Taste of Independence,‖ The World Today 19 no. 5 (May 1963): 185.<br />
26 Ibid.<br />
27 Ibid.<br />
28 Ibid., 186.<br />
29 Ibid., 184.<br />
178
of their European background. 30 At the same time there was also a large number of Arab Algerians<br />
entering France. The Muslim Algerians who were coming to France were coming both for work <strong>and</strong><br />
because many had fought on the French side during the war <strong>and</strong> were now viewed with hostility in<br />
Algeria. This mass influx of people both European <strong>and</strong> Muslim had a lasting impact on the public‘s view<br />
on immigr<strong>at</strong>ion up to the present day.<br />
Since decoloniz<strong>at</strong>ion began France has been bombarded with returning European settlers <strong>and</strong><br />
people of North African heritage mainly from Algeria, Tunisia, <strong>and</strong> Morocco. This has cre<strong>at</strong>ed an<br />
<strong>at</strong>mosphere of hostility both from the French towards the immigrants, <strong>and</strong> from the immigrants towards<br />
the French. Since Algerians <strong>and</strong> other North African immigrants began entering France in large numbers<br />
there have been welfare programs to help them adapt. Early on this meant stripping them of their culture<br />
but l<strong>at</strong>er on <strong>at</strong>tempts to provide better housing <strong>and</strong> job training have also been implemented. 31 Eventually<br />
efforts to take away the immigrants culture were stopped but conditions for them did not improve. Many<br />
North African <strong>and</strong> Muslim immigrants live in poor communities with inadequ<strong>at</strong>e housing, oppressive<br />
policing, <strong>and</strong> racial discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion. 32 It was increased immigr<strong>at</strong>ion after the end of the Algerian War th<strong>at</strong><br />
led to the French public not accepting immigrants into French society. The government‘s inability to<br />
improve conditions in immigrant communities has also lead to a tense situ<strong>at</strong>ion between the French <strong>and</strong><br />
immigrants entering into the country. It also contributed to the rioting of Muslim immigrants in Paris <strong>and</strong><br />
throughout France in 2005.<br />
Increased immigr<strong>at</strong>ion has also led to the rise of the extreme right in French politics. One note<br />
worthy party in France is the Front N<strong>at</strong>ional known as the FN which was founded on October 5, 1972 by<br />
Jean-Marie Le Pen. The policies th<strong>at</strong> Le Pen wanted to enact during his leadership of the FN were giving<br />
―true‖ French citizens the best in social security <strong>and</strong> health benefits, <strong>and</strong> excluding <strong>and</strong> even deporting<br />
30 Richard Alba <strong>and</strong> Roxane Silberman, ―Decoloniz<strong>at</strong>ion Immigr<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>and</strong> the Social Origins of the Second<br />
Gener<strong>at</strong>ion: The Case of North Africans in France,‖ Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Migr<strong>at</strong>ion Review 36 no. 4 (2002): 1170.<br />
31 Dilip Subramanian, ―Riots <strong>and</strong> the Immigrant Community,‖ Economic <strong>and</strong> Political Weekly 40 no. 49 (December<br />
2005): 5156.<br />
32 Ibid.<br />
179
some immigrants. 33 In 2002 enough of the French public felt similarly to Le Pen about immigr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
issues th<strong>at</strong> he was able to gain 17% of the vote in the first round of the French Presidential elections. 34<br />
After this victory in the first round of voting, the majority of French citizens took to protesting <strong>and</strong><br />
demonstr<strong>at</strong>ing against Le Pen. 35 Protests along with <strong>at</strong>tacks from his competitor Jacques Chirac caused<br />
Chirac who was the current President of France to win the election, with Le Pen gaining only 17.9% of<br />
the vote. 36 Even though Le Pen did not win the election it showed th<strong>at</strong> he was a viable c<strong>and</strong>id<strong>at</strong>e <strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong><br />
there was a large enough portion of the popul<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> would elect him into office if the correct<br />
conditions were there.<br />
The Algerian War especially the period known as the B<strong>at</strong>tle of Algiers brought about the<br />
widespread use of torture <strong>and</strong> along with it discrimin<strong>at</strong>ion against the Muslim popul<strong>at</strong>ion of Algeria. The<br />
use of torture by the French was in response to the use of Terrorism by the FLN in an <strong>at</strong>tempt to stop the<br />
bombings <strong>and</strong> end the war. The cycle of torture to comb<strong>at</strong> terrorism prolonged the war <strong>and</strong> th<strong>at</strong> along<br />
with the Fourth Republic‘s inability to rule effectively led to the failure of the government <strong>and</strong> brought<br />
about the cre<strong>at</strong>ion of the Fifth Republic. When France finally allowed Algeria to be an independent<br />
country it shifted the power away from the Pieds-Noirs which forced them to reloc<strong>at</strong>e to France. With<br />
their move to France along with large numbers of Muslims <strong>and</strong> other North African immigrants tensions<br />
grew between those of European ancestry <strong>and</strong> those of Muslim ancestry. These differences allow the<br />
French government to tre<strong>at</strong> the Arab immigrants with less respect than the rest of the French popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
which caused many riots in the last ten years about the place of immigrants in French society. The<br />
immigr<strong>at</strong>ion caused by the end of the Algerian War has also left an impact on French politics <strong>and</strong> has led<br />
to the reemergence of the extreme n<strong>at</strong>ionalists.<br />
33 Richard J. Golsan, ―The Le Pen Moment,‖ SubStance 32 no.1 (2003): 129.<br />
34 Ibid.<br />
35 Ibid., 132.<br />
36 Ibid., 134.<br />
180
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181