Perception, Knowledge and Aesthetics of biodiversity - Etech-Center ...

International Year of Biodiversity

Perception, knowledge and aesthetics of 

biodiversity 

International Greening Education Event 2010 

29. October 2010 

Prof. Dr. Petra Lindemann-Matthies and FSR Dorothee Benkowitz 

University of Education, Karlsruhe

Structure of the talk 

Perception of plant diversity 

Aesthetic preferences for single species 

Relationship between perception and aesthetic preferences 

Influence of education on aesthetic preferences 

Species richness and human aesthetic well-being 

Relationship between species richness of a plant community 

and its attractiveness to humans









How many species are there on Earth? 

Mean estimation Actual number Factor 

overestimation 

381 Mill. ± 1.3x10 9 1 - 50 Mill. > 7.6 

Dunning 1997. The missing awareness, part 2: teaching students what a billion people 

looks like. Conservation Biology 11

Estimates of 600 university students 



381 Mill. ± 1.3x10 9 1 - 50 Mill. > 7.6 

Widely inaccurate ideas of number of species („many“) 



Estimates of 600 university students 



381 Mill. ± 1.3x10 9 1 - 50 Mill. > 7.6 

Widely inaccurate ideas of number of species („many“) 

Assumption: Loss of biodiversity might not be perceived 

as a serious problem 



Estimation of plant species richness 

World Switzerland 

Alpine 

meadow 

Lawn Spruce 

forest 

100 x 100 m 

Beech 

forest 

200 adults und 200 grammar school students in Switzerland 

Lindemann-Matthies & Bose 2008. How many species are there? Public understanding 

and awareness of biodiversity in Switzerland. Human Ecology 36



Alpine 

meadow 

Lawn Spruce 

forest 

Beech 

forest 

Minimum 200 100 10 1 2 2 

Maximum 1 x 10 15 4 x 10 9 1 x 10 9 2 x 10 9 1 x 10 6 1 x 10 8 

Median 3000000 94000 120 20 50 70 

Actual number 285000 3000 < 100 < 10 < 20 < 40 

Overestimation 

(median/real) 

10.5 31.3 1.2 2.0 2.5 1.8 





Alpine 

meadow 

Lawn Spruce 

forest 

Beech 

forest 

Minimum 200 100 10 1 2 2 

Maximum 1 x 10 15 4 x 10 9 1 x 10 9 2 x 10 9 1 x 10 6 1 x 10 8 

Median 3000000 94000 120 20 50 70 

Actual number 285000 3000 < 100 < 10 < 20 < 40 

Overestimation 

(median/real) 

Perception very different from reality 

10.5 31.3 1.2 2.0 2.5 1.8 

Loss might not be perceived as a serious problem at all 



Responses to the loss of biodiversity 

Conceptions of the number of species present 

Awareness of the seriousness of the threat of extinction 

Knowledge about species 

Relationship with species

Responses to the loss of biodiversity 

Conceptions of the number of species present 

Awareness of the seriousness of the threat of extinction 

Knowledge about species 

Relationship with species

“Without knowledge of and relationships with the 

fellow beings who share our home place, we simply 

do not notice what happens to them.” 

Weilbacher 1993. Renaissance of the naturalist. The Journal of Environmental 

Education 25

Why conservationists should heed Pokémon 

Test: 109 children from the UK (age 4 – 11 years) 

Raichu, Pikachu, Hitokage Zenigame, Pikachu, Mini Ryuu 

10 pictures each (at random from 150) 10 pictures each (at random from 150) 

Balmford et al. 2002. Why conservationists should heed Pokémon. Science 295

Why conservationists should heed Pokémon 

Result: 

Raichu, Pikachu, Hitokage Zenigame, Pikachu, Mini Ryuu 

78% recognized 53% recognized 


Conclusions of authors 

Knowledge of local organisms is poor 

Children can remember species / species names 

80% of the 150 artifical „species“ correctly identified 

Complicated names of „species“ were remembered 

Producers of pokémons know much better than the 

educational system how to raise interest in „species“ 


Lack of knowledge about local organisms: new 

phenomenon or old lamentation? 

„The almost total ignorance about the most common 

plants and animals, especially among the ladies, would be 

ridiculous if it were not so annoying.“ 

Guenther 1910. Der Naturschutz. Freibung i. Br.: Fehsenfeld

Knowledge about species is lost 

Pilgrim et al. 2007. Ecological knowledge is lost in wealthier communities and 

countries. Environmental Science & Technology 42

Knowledge about species is lost 

Knowledge about species no longer necessary for survival 

Pilgrim et al. 2007. Ecological knowledge is lost in wealthier communities and 

countries. Environmental Science & Technology 42

High signal value 

Urtica dioica 

Toxicodendron radicans 

> 90% of study participants

Reasons for loss of knowledge 

Increasing loss of 'wild' habitats for outdoor play and 

nature investigation activities (Louv 2006) 

Increasing parental concern: traffic danger, violence 

(Hüttenmoser 1996; Valentine & McKendrick 1997; Prezza et al. 2005; Robertson 2006) 

Increasing TV-, video consumption; children spend more 

time in the house than outside (McKendrick et al. 2000; Aitken 2001)







time in the house than outside (McKendrick et al. 2000; Aitken 2001) 

US: Children watch more than 4 hours daily TV and 

spend less than 1 hour outside (Orr 2002)







time in the house than outside (McKendrick et al. 2000; Aitken 2001) 

Decrease of nature-related activities and fieldwork in 

school (Barker et al. 2002)









Attractive plants 

Plants with large, bright-coloured flowers or leaves 

Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum) favourite garden tree 

Genetic predisposition: 

Colour might have signalled „ripe fruits“ 

Heerwagen & Orians 1993. Humans, habitats and aesthetics. In Kellert & Wilson 

(eds.) The Biophilia Hypothesis

Top 5 in Switzerland in view of 6700 children 

Cat 

Dog 

Horse 

Squirrel 

Rabbit 

Rose 

Tulip 

Daffodil 

Dandelion 

Daisy 

Lindemann-Matthies 2005. ‘Loveable’ mammals and ‘lifeless’ plants. International 

Journal of Science Education 27

Can aesthetic preferences be influenced? 

Attractiveness of an organism has been found to be the main 

reason for children and adults to protect a species! 

Ashworth et al. 1995. Conservation of endangered species: what do children think? 

Environmental Education and Information 14









6800 children (8-14 years old) were asked: 

Which plants do you recognize on your way to school? 

Write down as many as you can. 

Which animals do you recognize on your way to school? 

Write down as many as you can.

6800 children (8-14 years old) were asked: 

Which plants do you recognize on your way to school? 


Which animals do you recognize on your way to school? 


Write down the plant you think to be most attractive. 

Write down the animal you think to be most attractive.

Perception and preferences 

Relationship between 

perception of and 

preferences for species 

Appreciation of the plant group 

Proportion of children (%) 

Appreciation of the animal group 


100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

(a) Wild plants of Switzerland (b) Garden or decorative plants 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

Mean number of taxa listed per class 

(c) Wild animals of Switzerland (d) Pet or useful animals 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

r = 0.41*** r = 0.29*** 

100 

r = 0.48*** r = 0.29*** 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

Mean number of taxa listed per class 

Lindemann-Matthies 2005. ‘Loveable’ mammals and ‘lifeless’ plants. International Journal of Science 

Education 27

Educational programme 

Aim: Increase perception of local 

wild plant and animal species 

Outdoor investigation activities 

Experience nature with all senses

Experience of nature with all senses

Learning in familiar environment is effective 

"I got to know lichens. In the 

beginning I thought they were 

all chewing gum.“ 

12 year old boy after investigating a stone wall

Education can influence aesthetic preferences 

Change in appreciation of wild plants 


100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

-20 

-40 

r = 0.32*** 

-4 0 4 8 12 

Change in mean number of wild plants listed 

Aesthetic preferences for local wild plant (and animal) species increased with 

familiarity 

Lindemann-Matthies 2005. ‘Loveable’ mammals and ‘lifeless’ plants. International 

Journal of Science Education 27

Efforts of teachers were rewarded 

Preferences for local wild 

plant and animal species 

increased with number 

of lessons taught 

Change in proportion of children 

favouring wild plants (%) 


favouring wild animals (%) 

100 

75 

50 

25 

0 

-25 

-50 

-75 

-100 

0.1 1 10 100 

100 

75 

50 

25 

0 

-25 

-50 

-75 

(a) Wild plants of Switzerland (b) Decorative or garden plants 

100 

r = 0.46*** 

(c) Wild animals of Switzerland (d) Pet animals 

r = 0.20*** 

-100 

0.1 1 10 100 


favouring decorative or garden plants (%) 

Number of lessons taught (log-scale) 


favouring pet animals (%) 

75 

50 

25 

-25 

-50 

-75 

-100 

0.1 1 10 100 

100 

75 

50 

25 

-25 

-50 

-75 

-100 

0.1 1 10 100 

Number of lessons taught (log-scale) 

0 

0 

r = 0.36*** 

r = 0.22*** 

Lindemann-Matthies 2006. Investigating nature on the way to school. International Journal of Science 

Education 28

Summary 

Widely inaccurate ideas of number of species 

Knowledge of local organisms is poor, at least in highly 

industrialized countries 

Perception of biodiversity is directed towards few 

„loveable“ organisms 

Outdoor investigation activities in near-by natural places 

can increase students' perception and knowledge of species 

Link between perception and preferences => foster interest 

in and relationship with inconspicuous wild species









Nature (green trees) influences well-being 

Two groups of patients after gall 

bladder surgery 

Recovering in comparable rooms, but 

(a) view to a brick wall and (b) view to 

green trees 

Information taken from records: 

- Number of days of hospitalization 

- Number and strength of medizine 

each day 

- Complications 

- Nurses notes (other information) 

Ulrich 1984. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 224

Nature (green trees) influences well-being 

Patients with tree view had shorter postoperative hospital stays 

Took fewer strong analgesic doses and showed fewer complications 

Could leave the hospital earlier 

Ulrich 1984. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 224

Species richness influences psychological wellbeing 

Perceived stress recovery 

Transect of greenspaces 

through city of Sheffield 

Estimation of plant species 

richness in greenspaces 

300 interviews in situ 

Opinion on different statements 

(scale 1 – 4), e.g. recovery from 

stress when looking at a site 

Fuller et al. 2007. Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. 

Biology Letters 3

Species richness influences psychological wellbeing 

Perceived stress recovery 

Transect of greenspaces 

through city of Sheffield 

Estimation of plant species 

richness in greenspaces 

300 interviews in situ 

Opinion on different statements 

(scale 1 – 4), e.g. recovery from 

stress when looking at a site 

Does plant species richness influence our aesthetic well-being? 

Fuller et al. 2007. Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. 

Biology Letters 3









Aesthetic responses of the public to different diversity 

Manipulative experiments 

Field studies 

Photo surveys 

Survey in private gardens

Aesthetic responses of the public to different diversity 


Field studies 

Photo surveys 

Survey in private gardens


Selected: 67 typical grassland species 

52 herbs und 15 grasses 

1500 plants in pots 

Plants arranged as "meadows" of different diversity

Study design 

Presentation of 5 meadows at the same time 

Experiment 1: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 species 

Experiment 2: 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 species 

Same evenness 

4 species 32 species 16 species 64 species 8 species 

To differentiate between effects of species diversity and 

species identity: each day a different combination of plants 

Design similar to biodiversity experiments: Hector et al. 1999. Plant diversity and 

productivity in European grasslands. Science 286

Example of a meadow arrangement

Correlative field studies 

Canton Zurich Canton Grisons 

2 x 2 m 1 x 25 m

Study participants (n = 1500) should: 

Estimate number of plant species 

in each "meadow" 

Assess their attractiveness: 

Experiments: Ranking (1 - 5) 

Field studies: Rating (1 - 6)

Perception of plant species richness 

Experiment 1 Experiment 2 

Field study Zurich Field study Grisons 

Lindemann-Matthies et al. 2010. Experimental evidence for human preference of 

biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Biological Conservation 143

Perception of plant species richness 



People are able to 

distinguish between 

species-poor and 

species-rich plant 

communities 

They overestimate 

species richness in 

low-diversity plots 

With increasing 

true species richness, 

the deviation 

increases

Aesthetic preferences 





Aesthetic preferences 



Aesthetic appreciation 

increases 

with increasing 

plant species 

richness

Aesthetic preferences children 

Appreciation (mean rank) 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Adults 

Children 

1 2 4 8 16 

True species richness (log-scale) 

Already 6-year old children like species-rich meadows best 

=> Inherent appreciation of species richness

Effect of perceived and true species richness 

Additional effect of true species richness => unconscious effect? 



Influence of individual species on appreciation 

Leucanthemum vulgare (positiv) 

Papaver rhoeas (positiv) 

Linaria vulgaris (positiv) 

Lolium perenne (negativ) 

=> Species richness more important than species identity

Favourite meadows 

Presentation of all plants used in 

experiments (800 plants, 54 

species) in Botanical Garden 

Zurich 

150 visitors were invited to create 

an attractive meadow (25 pots)

Influence of individual species on appreciation 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Mean = 17.2 species 

1 - 5 6 - 10 11 - 15 16 - 20 21 - 25 

Number of plant species 

Assemblages (%) 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Mean = 34.2% 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Proportion of flowering plants per assembled meadow (%) 

Lindemann-Matthies & Bose 2007. Species richness, structural diversity and species composition in 

meadows created by visitors of a botanical garden in Switzerland. Landscape and Urban Planning 79

Meadows were 

Species-rich and rich in 

structural diversity 

Green matrix ... 

With some colourful flowers 

Lindemann-Matthies & Bose 2007. Species richness, structural diversity and species composition in 

meadows created by visitors of a botanical garden in Switzerland. Landscape and Urban Planning 79

Summary 

Species richness of a community is powerful indicator of its 

aesthetic appeal to people 

No influence of socio-demographic factors on people’s 

aesthetic valuation of plant communities 

Presence of some species had slight additional influence 

Argument for the conservation of species-rich communities 

in agricultural land and settlement areas

Summary

Summary

Summary

Question 

Does schoolgarden work increase children‘s perception and 

appreciation of biodiversity?

Outline 

1. School gardening and the CBD 

2. School gardening as an access to 

biodiversity 

3. Issue of research 

4. Design 

5. Results 

6. Summary 

7. Conclusion

1. School gardening and CBD 

CBD – Education and 

Information 

Better biodiversity 

education would meet one 

of the goals set out in the 

Convention (UNEP 2000)

1. School gardening and CBD 

CBD – Education and 

Information 

Better biodiversity 

education would meet one 

of the goals set out in the 

Convention (UNEP 2000) 

Vision of the German 

national strategy: Raising 

people’s appreciation of 

biological diversity (BMU 2008)

Integration in the Educational System 

Affiliation with the UN-Decade 

„Education for Sustainable 

Development“ (BMU 2008)




Development“ (BMU 2008) 

One appropriate action: 

promotion of school gardens (ib.)




Development“ (BMU 2008) 

One appropriate action: 

promotion of school gardens (ib.) 

Perception and appreciation of species-richness should be 

promoted in childhood (Kahn 2002, Lindemann-Matthies 1999)

Results of previous studies: 

Hands-on experience with nature … 

… fosters the readiness to act ecosensitive 

(Lude 2001, Bögeholz 1999)




(Lude 2001, Bögeholz 1999) 

… raises the perception and knowledge of plant species 

(Pohl & Schrenk 2005, Lindemann-Matthies 1999, 2010)






(Pohl & Schrenk 2005, Lindemann-Matthies 1999, 2010) 

Without instruction knowledge of species is very limited 

(Jäkel & Schaer 2004, Hesse 2002)






(Pohl & Schrenk 2005, Lindemann-Matthies 1999, 2010) 

Without instruction knowledge of species is very limited 

(Jäkel & Schaer 2004, Hesse 2002) 

After regular work in school gardens over a period of only 

four years children were able to specify up to 75 plants 

(Schwier 2001)

Consequences: 

Childhood is an appropriate 

starting point in the search 

for long-term solutions to 

species loss and habitat 

degradation (Kahn 2002)

Consequences: 

Childhood is an appropriate 

starting point in the search 

for long-term solutions to 

species loss and habitat 

degradation (Kahn 2002) 

Children need opportunities to assume responsibility for 

environmental areas where they can have a direct impact 

on it (Helldén 1997)

2. School gardening as an access to 

biodiversity

Number of plant species in school gardens 

School garden Number of 

Species 

(Inngauer 2008) 

Area (m 2 ) Plant Family 

Garden A 76 214 35 

Garden B 111 136 43 

Garden C - flowerbed 90 421 37 

Garden C - herbary 52 212 27 

University Garden 336 1450 76 

Aggregated 406 / 83

School garden as authentic learning environment 

Learning as an… 

• active 

• self-regulated 

• constructive 

• emotional 

• situational 

•social 

…process 

(Reinmann & Mandl 2006)

3. Issue of research 

Does school gardening produce an effect on the 

perception and appreciation of plant biodiversity?

Selected hypotheses: 

School gardening … 

1. … raises the perception of plant species



1. … raises the perception of plant species 

2. … fosters the aesthetic valuation of species-richness




2. … fosters the aesthetic valuation of species-richness 

3. … increases the knowledge of plant species





3. … increases the knowledge of plant species 

4. Factors other than school education are important to 

achieve knowledge of species (e.g. parents, media)





3. … increases the knowledge of plant species 

4. Factors other than school education are important to 

achieve knowledge of species (e.g. parents, media) 

5. Taxonomic knowledge positively influences the 

estimation of plant species richness in a meadow

4. Design 

The „meadow experiment“ 

Meadow-like arrays of different diversity: 

(49 flowerpots per box) 

8 2 16 4

8-species-meadow 

A 18 Alopecurus pratensis 

8 Dactylis glomerata 

4 Arrhenatherum elatius 

4 Veronica chamaedrys 

3 Trifolium pratense 

3 Leucanthemum vulgare 

5 Lychnis flos-cuculi 

4 Vicia cracca

Methods 

Structured one-to-one interviews 

Standardised questionnaires with open and closed-ended 

questions 

Child-oriented activities (meadow experiment, sorting of 

plants according to likeness or development stage) 

Videotaping 

Transcription (VIDEOGRAPH, IPN 2008) 

Data interpretation (SPSS 18)

Study participants 

n = 136 urban rural 

with* 66 55 11 37 29 

without* 70 56 14 43 27 

Primary school children with/without *school garden experience

Study design 

March / May 2007 

14 months 

May / July 2008 

Test group Control group 

Pretest 

+ teacher 

School gardening 

+ protocol 

Posttest 

+ teachers 

+ parents 

Pretest 

+ teacher 

Classroom instruction 

+ protocol 

Posttest 

+ teachers 

+ parents

The meadow experiment 

4 species 

11 species

5. Results 

Perception of species (posttest) 

N = 136 

* school garden experience

Standard deviation of the difference 

N = 136 

* school garden 

experience

Favourite meadow 

N = 136 

Effects: choice of pretest***, number of bloomers***, cv growth hight***, SG*** 

r 2 = 0.5

Favourite meadow – without garden experience 

N = 70 

Effects: choice in the pretest***, number of bloomers***, cv growth height***, SG*** 

r 2 = 0.5

Favourite meadow – with garden experience 

N = 66 

Effects: choice in pretest***, bloomers***, cv of growth height***, time spend 

in SG**, diversity in the SG*** r 2 = 0.87

Favourite meadow – boys and girls 

Children with school garden experience 

N = 66

Reasons for their choice 

Other: growth height, grass … 

N = 136

10.11.2010

Appreciation of the meadows 

☺ 

 

 

N = 136 

Effects: number of species***, number of bloomers**, growth height*** 

16-species-mark * SG: p < .035* 

*school garden 

experience

Reasons for the evaluation of the 16 speciesmeadow 

SG * diversity p < .06 

* school garden experience 

N = 61

Knowledge of plant species (posttest) 

Knowledge * SG p < .015* 

N = 136 

* school 

garden 

experience 

Effects: precognition***, plant details***, parents*, SG**, books about plants* 

r 2 = 0.7

Knowledge of plant species and estimate 

Estimate of the 16 species * knowledge of plants p < .025* 

N = 136

6. Summary 

1. School gardening has a slight positive influence on the 

perception of plant diversity

6. Summary 


perception of plant diversity 

2. School gardening fosters the aesthetic appreciation of 

species richness (p < 0.001)

6. Summary 


perception of plant diversity 

2. School gardening fosters the aesthetic appreciation of 

species richness (p < 0.001) 

Most children preferred species-rich arrangements 

Test group scored significantly higher in preference for 

the species-rich arrangements than control group 

Test group explained their preference with species 

richness

3. School gardening fosters taxonomic knowledge 

(significant difference between test and control 

group)



group) 

4. Factors other than school play a significant role in 

fostering knowledge of plant names (parents, books 

about plants)



group) 

4. Factors other than school play a significant role in 

fostering knowledge of plant names (parents, books 

about plants) 

5. With increasing taxonomic knowledge, deviation 

between real and estimated number of plant species 

decreases (8 and 16 species-meadows)

7. Conclusion 

With time, school-garden work can foster the perception 

and appreciation of plant diversity.

7. Conclusion 

With time, school-garden work can foster the perception 

and appreciation of plant diversity. 

We need to engage 

children in constructivist 

environmental education to 

maximize their exploration 

of and interaction with the 

nature that still exists within 

their purview. 

(Kahn 2002)

Thank you for your attention!

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