Best Fish Guide 2009-2010 - Forest and Bird

Best Fish Guide 2009-2010 

How sustainable is New Zealand seafood? 

(Ecological Assessments) 

Produced and Published by 

Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, Inc. 

PO Box 631, Level One, 90 Ghuznee Street, Wellington. 

www.forestandbird.org.nz 

November 2009

Acknowledgements 

Forest & Bird with to thank anonymous reviewers for their peer review comments on this draft. We also thank 

Peta Methias, Annabel Langbein, Martin Bosely, Margaret Brooker, Lois Daish, Kelder Haines, Dobie Blaze, 

Rohan Horner and Ray McVinnie for permission to use their recipes on the website. 

Special thanks to our Best Fish Guide Ambassador Dobie Blaze, keyboard player with Fat Freddy’s Drop. 

Editing: Kirstie Knowles, Barry Weeber and Helen Bain 

Technical Advisor: Barry Weeber 

Cover Design: Rob Deliver 

Cover fish (Tarakihi): Malcolm Francis 

Photography: 

Malcolm Francis: blue cod, blue moki, blue shark, butterfish, groper/hapuku, hoki, jack mackerel, john 

dory, kahawai, kingfish, leather jacket, moonfish, paua, porbeagle shark, red 

gurnard, red snapper, scallop, school shark, sea perch, snapper, spiny dogfish, 

tarakihi, trevally and trumpeter. 

Peter Langlands: blue warehou, cockles, elephantfish, frostfish, lookdown dory, oyster, pale ghost 

shark, queen scallops, red cod, rig/lemonfish, rubyfish and scampi. 

Ministry of Fisheries: albacore tuna, bigeye tuna, blue mackerel, pacific bluefin tuna, skipjack tuna, 

southern bluefin tuna and swordfish. 

John Holdsworth: gemfish, striped marlin and yellowfin tuna. 

Kirstie Knowles: sand flounder and rock lobster. 

Department of Conservation: kina and skate. 

Quentin Bennett: mako shark. 

Scott Macindoe: garfish. 

Jim Mikoz: yellow-eyed mullet. 

Forest & Bird: arrow squid, dark ghost shark, orange roughy, smooth oreo, packhorse lobster, 

paddle crabs, stargazer and white warehou. 

Illustrations: 

Bruce Mahalski: Best Fish Guide ecological impact icons plus alfonsino, ling and seahorse (below). 

Robbie N.Cada: grey mullet and pilchard. 

FAO: barracouta, black cardinalfish, bluenose, hake, ribaldo, southern blue whiting and 

sprat. 

CSIRO: anchovy and silver warehou. 

First published November 2004 

Revised 2005, 2007 

Recommended citation: Forest & Bird (2009) Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: How sustainable is New Zealand 

seafood? (Ecological Assessments). Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand Inc, 

Wellington. 

Disclaimer 

Every effort has been made by Forest & Bird to obtain permission to reproduce the images in 

this guide and to credit them accordingly. Where it has not been possible to contact the 

copyright holder we have included a credit. Every effort has also been made to ensure the 

accuracy of information contained in this guide. Forest & Bird welcomes any comments or 

further information on the text and images, but cannot accept any liability for any errors or 

omissions.

Contents 

Introduction 1 

New Zealand’s oceans 1 

Oceans under threat 1 

Our vision 2 

The Best Fish Guide 4 

Questions to ask 4 

Farmed seafood 5 

Best Fish Guide 2009-2010 assessment summary 6 

Fishery Facts 6 

The Best and the Worst 7 

Seafood assessment results 9 -128 

Appendix I – Best Fish Guide Wallet Card 129 

Appendix II – Table of assessment scores 130 

Acronyms 133 

Glossary of terms 134 

Glossary of fish names 138 

Note. A full list of references used to complete the ecological assessments presented in this report are 

provided in the Best Fish Guide assessment methodology: Weeber (2009) Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: How 

it works (Assessment Methodology). Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand Inc, 

Wellington.

Index to fish species assessments 

Seafood species 

Albacore tuna 

Alfonsino 

Anchovy 

Arrow squid 

Barracouta 

Bigeye tuna 

Black cardinalfish 

Blue cod 

Blue mackerel 

Blue moki 

Blue shark 

Blue warehou 

Bluenose 

Butterfish 

Cockles 

Dark ghost shark 

Eels 

Elephant fish 

Flatfish 

Frostfish 

Garfish 

Gemfish 

Grey mullet 

Groper / Hapuku / Bass 

Hake 

Hoki 

Jack mackerel 

John dory 

Kahawai 

Kina 

Kingfish 

Leatherjacket / Creamfish 

Ling 

Lookdown dory 

Mako shark 

Moonfish 

Orange Roughy 

Oreos / Deepwater dory 

Page Seafood species Page 

10 

12 

13 

14 

16 

17 

18 

19 

21 

22 

23 

25 

26 

27 

28 

30 

31 

33 

35 

37 

38 

39 

40 

42 

44 

46 

48 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

57 

58 

60 

61 

63 

Oyster 

Pacific bluefin tuna 

Packhorse lobster 

Paddle crabs 

Pale ghost shark 

Paua 

Pilchard 

Porbeagle shark 

Queen scallops 

Red cod 

Red gurnard 

Red snapper 

Ribaldo 

Rig / Lemonfish 

Rock lobster / Crayfish 

Rubyfish 

Scallops 

Scampi 

School shark 

Sea perch 

Silver warehou 

Skates 

Skipjack tuna 

Snapper 

Southern blue whiting 

Southern bluefin tuna 

Spiny dogfish 

Sprats 

Stargazer / Monkfish 

Striped marlin 

Swordfish 

Tarakihi 

Trevally 

Trumpeter 

White warehou 

Yellow fin tuna 

Yellow-eyed mullet 

65 

67 

68 

69 

70 

72 

74 

76 

77 

78 

80 

82 

83 

84 

86 

88 

90 

92 

94 

96 

98 

100 

102 

104 

106 

108 

110 

112 

113 

115 

117 

119 

121 

123 

124 

125 

127

Introduction 

New Zealand’s oceans 

New Zealand has one of the largest marine areas in the world, covering more than 1% of 

the Earth’s surface. Its marine area is also incredibly diverse, from the sub-tropical oceans 

in the north, to our temperate waters around the mainland and cool sub-Antarctic waters in 

the south. 

Many of our marine species are found nowhere else in the world. Scientists estimate that 

more than 80% of New Zealand’s biodiversity is found in our oceans, and much more is 

yet to be discovered. About 15,000 marine species are known, while it is estimated that 

another 50,000 species are yet to be discovered – new species are being found all the 

time. 

Our marine area is also a vital part of our economy, supporting out $1.5 billion fishing 

industry and our $20 billion tourism industry. 

It is also central to our national identity: most New Zealanders live near the ocean and 

have a close relationship with the marine environment. We collect kaimoana or seafood, 

swim, dive, snorkel and sail, and appreciate the variety of marine life. 

Oceans under threat 

New Zealand’s marine environment is under increasing pressure from human activities. 

Climate change, pollution, coastal development, mineral exploration and mining create 

cumulative effects that are having a detrimental impact on the health of the marine 

environment and marine life. 

Fishing operations have the most significant impact on the marine environment, both 

through the amount of fish caught and the methods used to catch it. 

Some fishing practices, such as bottom trawling and dredging, used by fisheries in 

New Zealand waters damage the marine environment. 

Over the last 50 years fishing technologies have developed to such an extent that 

the scale of fishing operations now exceeds a level that is sustainable. The UN 

estimates that 70% of the world’s fisheries are now exploited to their limits, overexploited 

or depleted. 

Many fisheries also catch significant levels of by-catch – species such as 

albatrosses, dolphins, sea lions and other non-target species. 

According to Statistics New Zealand fishing uses more energy than any other 

industry sector, increasing by 40% in the last decade. 

Forest & Bird Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: Ecological rankings 1

New Zealand prides itself on our clean, green image, and promotes its fisheries 

management as world-leading. 

Compared to some fisheries, this is partly true – New Zealand does take a comprehensive 

management approach and is recognised as being among the best. But comparing 

ourselves to countries with no management or very poor fisheries management does not 

mean that we should be proud of our situation. New Zealand is still far from living up to its 

slogan “If it’s from New Zealand, it’s sustainable.” 

Wild fisheries typically take place in open waters, with low levels of enforcement of rules 

that aim to ensure sustainability, and few observers to report any breaches or problems. 

New Zealand’s fisheries quota management system is a rights-based system that entitles 

quota holders to a “right to fish,” which encourages them to fish to the maximum level 

allowed under their quota, rather than take a more sustainable approach. 

To ensure sustainability, the QMS requires good information and a precautionary 

approach. Fisheries management in New Zealand is failing by: 

Allowing significant waste of fisheries resources. 

Having no upper size limit and allowing fish that have gathered to spawn to be 

caught, reducing the ability of fish populations to reproduce. 

Targeting the maximum (rather than an optimum or precautionary) yield. 

Lacking information about fish stocks and how sustainable catches are. 

Allowing or poorly managing levels of marine mammal and seabird deaths, 

including endangered species. 

Using destructive fishing techniques, such as bottom trawling and dredging, which 

destroy habitats and seabed life. 

Our vision 

Forest & Bird has a vision for a more sustainable fishery by 2030: 

A healthy and diverse marine environment supporting an abundance of marine life, 

where profitable fisheries operate alongside other activities. 

Adverse impacts of fishing on the marine environment have been repaired or 

mitigated, and “nursery areas” important for replenishment of populations are 

protected. 

New Zealand meets or exceeds world’s best practice in fisheries management and 

environmental practice, so it can market truly sustainable products worldwide. 


Forest & Bird hopes that making seafood consumers aware of problems behind our 

fisheries management will help them make better choices and encourage our fisheries to 

improve their practices. 


The Best Fish Guide 

The Best Fish Guide is a tool to inform seafood consumers and encourage 

environmentally sound choices of seafood. 

The guide covers an assessment of New Zealand’s wild-caught fisheries (see the section 

about farmed fisheries for more information – page 5). 

The assessment is based on six criteria, some of which are given heavier weighting than 

others: 

Criteria Weighting 

Status and sustainability of catch High 

Captures of protected or globally threatened species High 

Fishing method and impact Medium 

Fish biology and vulnerability to overfishing Medium 

Management regime appropriate to species Medium 

Management effectiveness and information levels Low 

The Best Fish Guide assessment methodology has been peer reviewed and is available 

for you to download at www.bestfishguide.org.nz. It is also available from Forest & Bird’s 

national office. 

The Best Fish Guide presents the results of its assessments in three formats: 

A detailed ecological assessment report (pages 10 - 128 of this report) 

A comprehensive online reference tool (www.bestfishguide.org.nz) 

A wallet guide that summarises fish rankings at a glance. The wallet guide ranks 

fisheries from green (best choice) to red (worst choice) (see Appendix I). 

To help you get the best taste from your Best Fish Guide we asked New Zealand chefs 

and fish fans, including Peta Methias, Annabel Langbein and Dobie Blaze, to share their 

favourite – and sustainable – fish recipes using the species identified as best choice in the 

guide. You can find them at www.bestfishguide.org.nz. 

Questions to ask 

Unfortunately many seafood retailers have poor information and labelling, making it difficult 

to make a sustainable choice. As well as using the Best Fish Guide, you can ask your 

retailer questions: 


What species is it? 

Most fish species are known by a number of different names. For example, groper is also 

known as bass and hapuku. Or it can work the other way: sometimes different species 

are known by the same name. For example fish labelled as “tuna” could be a good choice 

species like albacore tuna, or it could be a worst choice like southern bluefin tuna. 

To identify what type of fish you are buying, go to the Best Fish Guide glossary of fish 

names (www.bestfishguide.org.nz). 

Where was it caught? 

If your seafood was caught locally its ecological footprint is smaller because it doesn’t 

have to be transported so far. It is also easier to check how local fish were caught. The 

sustainability of fisheries in some regions is better than in other regions. By asking where 

the fish was caught and checking the Best Fish Guide seafood species assessments you 

can find out whether that species is caught sustainably in that locality. 

How was it caught? 

Some fishing methods (bottom trawling and dredging) have devastating impacts on 

seafloor habitats; other methods (gill/set netting, trawl fishing, long-lining) cause deaths of 

vulnerable species. By asking how your fish was caught you can avoid the high impact 

and damaging methods. 

By asking these questions you can support more sustainable fishing practices and better 

management of fisheries. 

Farmed seafood 

The Best Fish Guide does not currently assess farmed seafood because it is managed 

under a very different system from wild fisheries, and its sustainability varies according to 

very specific local factors. 

The main species farmed in New Zealand are molluscs, such as mussels and oysters, and 

fin fish, in particular salmon. Farmed molluscs generally have a lower ecological impact 

than farmed fin fish. A particular concern about fish farming is the feeding of reared fish 

with wild-caught seafood. 

Until Forest & Bird develops its farmed fish assessment methodology we encourage you to 

choose farmed seafood. 


Best Fish Guide 2009-10 assessment summary 

The 2009-2010 Best Fish Guide assessment was carried out in August 2009 using the 

latest government and published information on the biology, status and management of 

fish stocks, protected species captures, habitat damage and ecological damage caused by 

fishing methods to marine life. 

Fishery Facts 

Of New Zealand’s 75 commercial fisheries assessed: 

29 (39%) are over-fished or there has been a substantial decline in stocks 

49 (65%) cause habitat damage 

45 (60%) kill significant numbers of seabirds 

47 (63%) kill a significant number of marine mammals 

55 (73%) catch too much non-target fish 

51 (68%) cause adverse ecological effects 

42 (56%) have never had a quantitative stock assessment and the stock status is 

unknown; 

15 (20%) have had a full stock assessment in the last 10 years (some showed that 

little was known about the state of the stocks). 

7 (9%) have quantitative stock assessments which are more than 10 years old; 

18 (24%) have had only a partial stock assessment in the last 10 years. 

11 (15%) have had all stocks assessed in the last 5 years. 

24 (32%) were missing basic biological information required to manage the stock. 

75 (100%) have no management plan 

8 (11%) manage more than one species as a single species 

Every year over 1300 commercial fishing vessels fish in New Zealand waters: 

Also: 

Catching 453,145 tonnes of fish in the 2008 fishing year, with hoki making up the 

largest proportion. (This is down from 652,000 tonnes in 1998). 

Setting 10,000 km of nets; 

Setting 50 million hooks; 

Making 90,000 trawls; 

Making 90,000 dredge tows. 

On average, around 55,000 square kilometres were trawled each year in the 

middle depth and deep water fisheries between 1990 and 2005 1 (with most fishing 

in areas targeting hoki, squid, orange roughy, scampi and snapper). 

Around 1000 fur seals are killed annually in New Zealand fisheries 2 . 

1 Ministry for the Environment (2009) Environmental Report: Area swept by trawling 

(http://www.mfe.govt.nz/environmental-reporting/oceans/fishing-activity/trawling/area-swept.html) 

2 Smith M.H. and S. J. Baird (2009) Model-based estimation of New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus foresteri) 

incidental captures and strike rates for trawl fishing in New Zealand waters for the years 1994-95 to 2005-06. NZ 

Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity, No 40. 


The Best and the Worst 

New Zealand’s most ecologically sustainable fisheries are generally those with low-impact 

fishing methods, targeting species with a low vulnerability to fishing, or caught in wellmanaged 

fisheries. 

The highest-ranking fisheries representing the best seafood choices are anchovies, 

pilchards and sprats. 

Close behind, still offering a good seafood choice, are skipjack tuna, garfish, cockles and 

kina. 

Improvements 3 

A number of commercially caught species have moved up the Best Fish Guide rankings, 

including hoki, blue cod, trevally, packhorse lobster and red gurnard. 

The worst-ranking fisheries are orange roughy and porbeagle shark, followed by 

oreo/deepwater dory, southern bluefin tuna, mako shark, snapper, blue shark and black 

cardinalfish. These fish represent a poor seafood choice and should be avoided. 

Degraded 3 

Quite a few commercially caught species have moved down the Best Fish Guide rankings. 

These include skates or rays, bluenose, rock lobster, scallops, eels and both bigeye and 

yellowfin tuna. 

Below is a table illustrating some of New Zealand’s fisheries with the greatest 

environmental impact (unless otherwise stated, these numbers are based on a 3 year 

average of the latest information): 

Ecological impact Worst offending fisheries (in order of impact) Numbers killed 

per year 

Marine Mammals 

- Hector's dolphins 4 Rig/lemonfish, school shark, elephantfish, butterfish 110-150 

- NZ sea lions 5 Southern squid trawl fishery, scampi, southern blue 

whiting 

54* 

- NZ fur seals 5 

Hoki, southern blue whiting, ling 800 

- Dolphins (common, 

porpoise, bottlenose) 5 

Seabirds (2006-07) 5 

Jack mackerel, blue mackerel 55 

- Albatrosses Squid trawl, hoki trawl, tuna longline, swordfish 

longline 

1060 

- Petrels Squid trawl, hoki trawl, tuna longline 1900 

- Fishing methods Longline fisheries 1500 

3 Change in status relative to the Best Fish Guide 2007-08 assessment. 

4 Davies, N., Bian, R., Starr, P., Lallemand, P., Gilbert, D. and McKenzie, J. (2008) Risk analysis of Hector’s dolphins 

and Maui’s dolphin subpopulations to commercial set net fishing using a temporal-spatial age-structured model. 

NIWA, Wellington. 

5 Abraham, E. R. and Thompson, F. N (2009) Capture of protected species in New Zealand trawl and longline 

fisheries1998-99 to 2006-07. Dragonfly, Wellington. 


Turtles 5 

Sharks 

e.g. Tuna longline fisheries (southern bluefin 

500 

tuna, big-eye tuna, etc) 

e.g. Bottom longline fisheries – snapper, ling, 

990 

bluenose 

Trawl fisheries (e.g. squid, hoki, scampi) 1680 

Tuna longline fisheries 12 

- Basking sharks 6 Hoki, squid, barracouta 50 

- Blue sharks 7 Tuna longline fishery 76,000 

Finned sharks 

(proportion of sharks 

finned between 2002 

and 2007) 6 

Seafloor species 8 

Incidental (non-target) bycatch 

e.g. blue shark 87% 

e.g. porbeagle shark 85% 

e.g. mako shark 47% 

Bottom trawl fisheries (e.g. orange roughy and oreo) 30+ tonnes 

Scampi fishery 9 5.4 x total scampi 

catch 

Southern bluefin tuna 10 20 x total 

southern bluefin 

tuna catch 

Trawl fisheries 11 10-25% of total 

target catch 

Dredge fisheries (e.g. oysters and scallops) 12 1 - 2.5 x total 

target catch 

* New Zealand sea lion bycatch has been estimated to range from 45 to 115 sea lions over the last five 

years. 

A summary of the ecological assessment scores for each New Zealand seafood species is 

presented in Appendix II (page130). 

6 Ministry of Fisheries (2008) New Zealand National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of sharks. 

Ministry of Fisheries, Wellington. 

7 Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries (2008) Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2008: 

stock assessments and yield estimates. 157p. 

8 Anderson O. F. (2009) Fish Discards and non-target fish catch in the New Zealand orange roughy trawl fishery, 1999- 

2000 to 2004-05. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No. 39. 40p. 

9 Anderson O. F. (2007) Fish Discards and non-target fish catch in the New Zealand jack mackerel trawl fishery, 2001-02 

to 2004-05. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No. 8. 36p. 

Ballara S.L. and Anderson O.F. (2009) Fish Discards and non-target fish catch in the trawl fisheries for arrow squid 

and scampi in New Zealand waters. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No. 38. 102p. 

Anderson O. F. (2009) Fish Discards and non-target fish catch in the New Zealand orange roughy trawl fishery, 

1999-2000 to 2004-05. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No. 39. 40p. 

Anderson O. F. and Smith M. H. (2007) Fish Discards and non-target fish catch in the New Zealand hoki trawl fishery, 

1999-2000 to 2002-03. New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report, 2005/3 37p. 

10 Griggs, L.H., Baird, S. J. and Francis, M.P. (2007) Fish bycatch in New Zealand tuna longline fisheries, 2002-03 to 

2004-05. New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report 2007/18. 58p. 

11 Anderson O. F. (2007) Fish Discards and non-target fish catch in the New Zealand jack mackerel trawl fishery, 2001- 

02 to 2004-05. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No. 8. 36p. 

12 Beentjes, M.P. and Baird S.J. (2004) Review of dredge fishing technologies and practice for application in New 

Zealand. New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report 2004/37. 40p. 


Seafood assessment results 

The following pages detail the ecological assessments of each commercially caught New 

Zealand seafood species. (An index is presented at the front of this report.) 

To aid the reader, a quick reference to the key ecological concerns are illustrated with one 

of the following icons: 

Fish stock(s) increasing after period of substantial 

decline. 

Fish stock(s) over-fished or have substantially declined 

Fishery causes habitat damage 

Fishery has a seabird bycatch problem 

Fishery has a marine mammal bycatch problem 

Fishery has a non-target fish bycatch problem 

Fishery causes adverse ecological effects 


Albacore tuna 

Scientific name: Thunnus alalunga 

Other names: White tuna (canned); albacore, longfinned 

albacore, thon blanc (France), tunny (UK), 

binnaga, bincho, tombo (Japan). 

Ranking: D (Amber - Concerns) 

Description: This top predator is a highly migratory species of tuna that is mainly caught by troll and longline 

fisheries (30-50% of the catch) off the west coast of New Zealand‟s North and South Islands. The albacore catch 

steadily increased following the start of commercial fishing in the 1960s and fluctuated (between 2200 and 6600 

tonnes) in the last ten years (Lewis and Williams, 2001, p29). The albacore troll fishery is currently seeking 

environmental certification under an international body - the Marine Stewardship Council. 

Ecological concerns: The bycatch of sharks, seabirds and fur seals, declining stock trends and the absence of 

catch limits, a management plan and an updated stock assessment. Removal of this large predatory species from 

the ocean‟s food web has wide ecological implications. 

Economic value: The main market is for canned albacore, with the canning process done outside New Zealand. 

Canned albacore tuna is sold as “white tuna”, mainly in the USA. The export value is over $10 million per year. 

Best option: Troll caught tuna (e.g. West Coast of the South Island). 

ASSESSMENT OUTPUT 

Biology & risk of overfishing (score: C) 

Distribution: Albacore tuna are a highly migratory species found on the west coast of the North and South Islands between New 

Plymouth and Fiordland. It is also found on the East Coast of the North Island. 

Maximum age (years): 20 

Age at sexual maturity: 4-6 

Growth rate: Medium. 

Reproductive output: Medium. 

Age exploited: 2 

Status and sustainability of fish catches (score: C) 

Population size: Unknown - South Pacific migratory population. 

Annual catch limit: There are no catch limits set for New Zealand (it is not on the QMS) and there is no global catch limit. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 2251 tonnes in 2008. 

Stock trends: Declining. 

MSY Status: Unknown - Likely to be above BMSY. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “The current assessment indicates lower levels of stock size and 

maximum sustainable yield which appear to be more realistic than previous assessments. There is uncertainty regarding the 

sustainability of the south Pacific albacore stock and the WCPFC [Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission] Scientific 

committee recommended that catches of south Pacific albacore remain at current levels considering the current rates of fishing 

mortality on adult albacore.” (MFish 2008, p31). 

Impact of fishing method and Protected, threatened or endangered species bycatch (score: D and C) 

Fishing Method(s): Trolling on the West Coast of the South Island and longlining around the North Island. 

Habitat damage: Low. 

Bycatch: Sharks and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery and sharks are caught in the troll fishery. 

Ecological effects: Excess removal of this and other large predatory species has knock-on effects on the wider food web. 

Management and Management unit (score: C and D) 

Quota Management Species: No. 

Catch limits: No, nor is there an Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ). 

Management plan: No. The albacore troll fishery is currently seeking environmental certification under the Marine Stewardship 

Council (and international body that assesses and awards sustainable fisheries certifications). This process may lead to the 

development of a formalised plan. 


Management component: Single species 

Stock assessment: No New Zealand quantitative assessment but a 2008 assessment for the WCPFC is used. 

References: Overview of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean Tuna Fisheries (2000) A Lewis and P Williams, Oceanic Fisheries Programme, Secretariat of the 

Pacific Community, New Caledonia, August 2001; National Tuna Fishery Report (2001) New Zealand, T Murray and L Griggs, NIWA; Report from the Mid-Year 

Fishery Assessment Plenary (November 2008): stock assessments and yield estimates. Ministry of Fisheries Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to 

New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


Alfonsino 

Scientific name: Beryx splendens, D. decadactylus 

Other names: Splendid alfonsino, sudlicher kaiserbarsch 

(Germany), roodbars (Netherlands), beryx 

(France), kinmedai, kinme (Japan). 

Ranking: E (Red - Avoid) 

Description: Alfonsino is actually the name used for two deepwater species related to the red snapper. They are both 

widely dispersed in New Zealand waters and are particularly found around seamounts and deepwater reefs in waters 

200 to 800m deep. 

Ecological concerns: Management of two species as one, damage by fishing gear to seamounts, ecological impacts 

of bottom trawling, shark bycatch, limited research, lack of a management plan, unknown stock status and unknown 

sustainability of recent catch levels and current catch limits in all of the fishstocks. 

Economic value: Main market is Japan with exports of about $7 million per year. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (Score C) 

Distribution: Widely dispersed in New Zealand waters, but mainly found near seamounts off the east coast of the North Island and 

the Chatham Rise at depths of 300-600m. 



Growth rate: Moderate. 


Age exploited: 4-5 

Status and sustainability of fish catches (score D) 

Population size: Unknown. 

Annual catch limit: Set at 3000 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 2,748 tonnes in 2007-08. Catch limits have been exceeded in BYX 2 for seven of the last 

ten years. 

Stock trends: Unknown. 

MSY Status: Unknown. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For BYX 1 “is likely to be lightly fished… no stock assessment has 

been conducted.. and the state of the stock in relation to BMSY is not known.” 

For BYX 2 current catches “appears to be sustainable in the short to medium term.” 

For BYX 3 “It is not known if the recent catch levels or the current TACC [total allowable commercial catch] are sustainable.” (MFish 

2009, p43). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score E and B) 

Fishing Method(s): Mainly bottom trawling and some mid-water trawling, over hills and seamounts around the Chatham Rise. 

Habitat damage: Trawling damages fragile underwater seamounts, altering unique community complexes. 

Bycatch: Sharks and a range of non-target species, including sponges and corals. 

Ecological effects: Destruction to seafloor habitats and seamount ecosystems. 

Management and management unit (score D and E) 

Quota Management Species: Yes, since 1986. 

Catch limits: Yes. 

Management plan: No. 

Management component: Two species managed as one. 

Stock assessment: No assessments for any area except BYX 2, which has had no quantitative assessment since 1992. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake. Science Group, Ministry of 

Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 

Forest & Bird Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: Ecological rankings 12 

?

Anchovy 

Scientific name: Engraulis australis 

Other names: kokowhaawhaa, korowhaawhaa (Maori), 

Southern anchovy 


Description: This small, fast growing, but short-lived schooling fish is common in coastal waters, particularly in 

sheltered bays. It is often found in mixed schools with pilchards and sprats and occurs around the world. Jointly with 

pilchards and sprats, anchovy has the best ecological ranking of any commercial fishery in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: There are no estimates of the size of its sustainable yield, a lack of basic biological information 

on natural mortality, growth or stock structure, limited research and lack of a management plan. There is also concern 

that reducing their population could disrupt marine food chains as it is a prey item for many other fish species. 

Economic value: New Zealand and exports of under $100,000 per year. 

Best option: Anchovy are one of the best New Zealand seafood choices. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (score A) 

Distribution: Commonly found in inshore waters around the North Island and upper South Island. 


Age at sexual maturity: 1 

Growth rate: High. 

Reproductive output: High. 

Age exploited: 2 years 




Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1 tonne in 2007-08. 


MSY Status: This species has been very lightly fished, so it is thought to be at or close to its natural level. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “At the present level of minimal catches, stocks are at or close to 

their natural level. This is nominally a virgin biomass, but not necessarily a stable one. It is not currently possible to estimate a longterm 

sustainable yield for anchovy.” (MFish 2009, p46). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species capture (score B and B) 

Fishing Method(s): Lampara nets and purse seining. 


Bycatch: Some bycatch of other pelagic fish. 

Ecological effects: Reducing the anchovy population disrupts marine food chains, reducing a prey species for other species 

including larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals as has happened with anchovy fisheries elsewhere. Sometimes anchovy are 

discarded when there are no markets, making this effect unnecessary. 

Management and management unit (score E and C) 





Stock assessment: No quantitative assessments. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake, Science Group, Ministry of 



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Arrow Squid 

Scientific name: Nototodarus gouldi and Nototodarus Sloanii 

Other names: wheketere (Maori), short-finned squid, calamari 

(Australia), kalamari, teftis (Greece), kalmar 

(Germany), pota (Spain). 


Description: These two species of squid are very short lived (1 year) and range from surface depths down to 500 

metres in coastal waters around New Zealand. Arrow squid are mainly caught off the South Island and the Auckland 

Islands with most taken by mid-water trawling, with the rest caught by bottom trawling and jigging. 

Ecological concerns: Trawl caught squid, where there is a high number of threatened NZ sea lions, NZ fur seals, 

seabirds and non-target fish killed as bycatch, plus damage done to the seabed and associated species by bottom 

trawling. The Auckland Islands squid trawl fishery is of particular concern, killing hundreds of seabirds and up to 150 

sea lions per year (72 in 2009) from the main breeding colony, which is in decline. The state of stocks, absence of 

research and lack of a management plan are also concerns. In addition, two species are managed as one and there is 

an absence of basic biological information on squid and no research programme focussed on squid. 

Economic value: Most arrow squid are exported frozen to Greece (17%), Spain (15%) and Australia (12%). Exports 

vary considerably between years and were worth about $70 million in 2008, which was well below 2004 exports 

($172m). 



Distribution: Nototodarus sloanii is found off the East Coast of the South Island and the Southern Plateau, while N. gouldi occurs in 

warmer waters off the East and West coasts of the North Island, south of the sub-tropical convergence. 


Size at sexual maturity: 22-30 cm (mantle length). 


Reproductive output: Very high. 

Size exploited: Approximately 20cm (mantle length). 



Annual catch limit: Set at 127,332 tonnes every year since 1997-98 but there has been additional in-season adjustments in Squid 

1T of an additional catch of 10 to 30%. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 56,035 tonnes in 2007-08 was about two-thirds of the TACC set in all years since 1997-98. 


MSY Status: Uncertain. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “… it is not possible to estimate a long-term sustainable yield for 

squid, nor determine if recent catch levels or the current TACC [total allowable commercial catch] will allow the stock to move 

towards a size that will support the MSY [maximum sustainable yield].” (MFish, 2009, p54). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score E and E) 

Fishing Method(s): Approximately 30% are caught by bottom trawling with the rest coming from mid-water trawling and a small 

amount by squid jigging, a more environmentally friendly method which uses bright lights to attract squid to the jiggers. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling and mid-water trawl gear fished near the seafloor damages the seabed. 

Bycatch: Globally threatened NZ sea lions, which have been in decline for the last 10 years, NZ fur seals, albatross and petrels 

drown in trawl nets. The fishery also catches globally threatened basking sharks. 

Ecological effects: Damage to seafloor habitats and removal of these important prey species can affect populations of larger fish, 

seabirds and marine mammals, including the threatened NZ sea lion. 

Management and management unit (score E and E) 





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Stock assessment: No quantitative assessment. 


Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd.; NZ SeaFIC website 

2005. 


Barracouta 

Scientific name: Thyrsites atun 

Other names: maka, makaa, mangaa (Maori), couta, snoek. 


Description: Barracouta is a relatively short-lived species that is related to gemfish. It is widely distributed in the 

Southern oceans and whilst abundant in New Zealand‟s cooler waters south of Cook Strait, they also occur in our 

northern waters, ranging from shallow inshore areas to depths of 200m. Once an undesirable bycatch species, 

barracouta are now an important part of trawl fishery catches. 

Ecological concerns: The damage done to large areas of the seabed by bottom trawling, poor knowledge of stock 

boundaries, limited research, lack of a management plan and uncertainty over the sustainability of the current catch 

limit and recent catches. Bycatch of NZ fur seals, albatrosses and petrels, non-target fish plus removal of this 

important predator species on food webs are also of concern. 

Economic value: Main markets include Japan, China, Papua New Guinea, and South Africa. Total exports worth 

$28 million in 2008. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (score B) 

Distribution: Mainly found off the South, Chatham, Stewart and Snares Islands to depths of 200m. 

Maximum age (years): 10. 

Age at sexual maturity: 2-3. 

Growth rate: Moderate to fast. 

Reproductive output: High to very high. 

Age exploited: 3 (uncertain) 



Annual catch limit: Set at 32,662 tonnes in 2001-02. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 27,968 tonnes in 2007-08 were well under the peak landings of 47,000 tonnes reported in 

1977. The catch for BAR 5 has exceeded the TACC by up to 25% in three of the last four years. 

Stock trends: Unknown. A decline in Southland was indicated from trawl surveys in the 1990‟s, but surveys have since been 

cancelled. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference biomass are not available for 

any barracouta stocks and therefore it is not known if current TACCs and recent catches are sustainable or whether they are at 

levels which will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish, 2009, p62). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score E and D) 

Fishing Method: Bottom trawling. 

Habitat damage: Large areas of benthic communities are damaged by bottom trawling, including bryozoans and crabs. 

Bycatch: Non-target fish species such as silver warehou and spiny dogfish and a significant bycatch in Southland of NZ fur seals, 

white-capped (shy) albatrosses and sooty shearwaters. 

Ecological effects: Fishing for barracouta removes an important predator from food webs. 

Management and management unit (score D and C) 





Stock assessment: No quantitative assessment. Yield estimates based on average catch have not been reviewed since 1992. 


Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd.. 


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Bigeye tuna 

Scientific name: Thunnus obesus 

Other names: Ahi , Bigeye, thon obese (France), mabachi 

(Japan). 


Description: Bigeye tuna is a highly migratory species that is deeper swimming than other tuna, found off the coast of 

the North Island for much of the year. Longline fisheries for this tuna occur mainly in the West and East Coast of the 

North Island from the Bay of Plenty north. New Zealand represents only 3.5 percent of the Pacific catch, which is now 

managed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC). 

Ecological concerns: Uncertainty about the state of the stocks, declining stock trend, lack of a management plan plus 

the bycatch of sharks, seabirds and fur seals. Bigeye is internationally listed as a threatened species (vulnerable). 

Economic value: Main markets are Japan, Australia and USA. The export value in 2008 was $1.7 million. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (score C) 

Distribution: Big eye tuna are caught mainly on the east and west coast of the North Island, mainly in the Bay of Plenty. 

Maximum age (years): 11+ 







Annual catch limit: 714 tonnes in 2004. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 201 tonnes in 2006-07. 


MSY Status: Likely to be currently above BMSY, but thought to be unsustainable - effort 30% higher than sustainable levels. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: Recent [Pacific wide] catches are high relative to the estimated 

MSY both because of high recent fishing mortality and because the stock has benefited from above-average recruitment over the 

past 15 years. The WCPFC Scientific Committee recommended a minimum 30% reduction in fishing mortality from the average 

levels for 2003–2006 with the goal of returning the fishing mortality rate to FMSY. ..The SC acknowledged that projections indicate that 

the bigeye tuna stock may become overfished (biomass < BMSY, spawning biomass < SBMSY) in the future with regard to both total 

biomass and spawning biomass even with a 30% reduction in fishing mortality. Therefore, it may be necessary to recommend 

additional reductions in fishing mortality in the future if assessments indicate that fishing mortality is greater than FMSY. (MFish, 2008, 

p39). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score D and E) 

Fishing Method: Longlining around the North Island. 


Bycatch: Sharks, seabirds and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery. 


Management and management unit (score C and D) 

Quota Management Species: Yes from 2004. 




Stock assessment: No New Zealand quantitative assessment but a 2008 assessment for the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries 

Convention is used. 

References: Overview of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean Tuna Fisheries, 2000, A Lewis and P Williams, Oceanic Fisheries Programme, Secretariat of the 

Pacific Community, New Caledonia, August 2001; National Tuna Fishery Report 2001 – New Zealand, T Murray and L Griggs, NIWA; Report from the Mid-Year 

Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2008: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand 

Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


Black cardinalfish 

Scientific name: Epigonus telescopus 

Other names: akiwa (Maori), big-eye cardinalfish, cardinalfish, 

apogon (France), tenjikudai, yesemutsu 

(Japan). 


Description: This slow growing, long-lived (over 100 years) deepwater species is the only cardinalfish that reaches a 

marketable size. It is common off the east coast of the North Island at depths of 300 to 800m and is caught in 

association with alfonsino around seamounts and orange roughy, which has the lowest ecological ranking on the Best 

Fish Guide. 

Ecological concerns: The damage done to seamounts by bottom trawling, the bycatch of deepwater sharks, 

declining catch rates in the main fisher, the unknown state of many stocks and the unsustainability of East Coast North 

Island and Chatham Rise fisheries, where stocks have been estimated to be just 12% of the original, unfished 

population size. Limited research, lack of a management plan and the unknown sustainability of the current catch limit 

or recent catches are also of concern. 

Economic value: The main market is New Zealand with some exports to Japan and China. Total exports of $1.5million in 2008. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (score E) 

Distribution: Most abundant off the east coast of the North Island in very mobile schools up to 150m off the bottom over hills and 

rough ground and at depths of 300-800m. 



Growth rate: Slow. 

Reproductive output: Low. 

Size/age exploited: 50-60cm / 35 years. 

Status and sustainability of fish catches (score E) 

Population size: Unknown but thought to be relatively small. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1134 tonnes in 2007-08 represents the lowest catch since the fishery was developed in the 

mid-1980s. 

Stock trends: Declining catch rates in the main fishery (CDL2) to a level well below a quarter of that in the early 1990s. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For CDL2, 3 and 4: “B2009 was estimated to be 12% B0” and “Model 

projections indicate that the biomass will increase at catch levels near or below the 2007-08 level but will decline sharply at catch 

levels equal to the TACC.” For other stocks “there is no information” (MFish 2009, p72-73). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score D and D) 

Fishing Method: Bottom and mid-water trawling north of Chatham Rise where it is caught in association with Orange Roughy. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling decimates sea floor benthic species assemblages and fragile seamount habitats, bulldozing the 

sea floor destroying black coral, lace corals, colourful sponge fields, long-lived bryozoans and many other invertebrate species. 

Bycatch: Deepwater sharks and a range of deepwater species including Orange Roughy. 

Ecological effects: Impact on seamount communities and deepwater fish populations. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, since 1998 for CDL 2 to 8 and 1999 for CDL 1 and 9. 

Catch limits: Yes 



Stock assessment: The first accepted quantitative stock assessment was completed for CDL 2, 3 and 4 in 2009. An assessment 

of CDL 2 was previously attempted in 1997 and 2001. 




Blue cod 

Scientific name: Parapercis colias 

Other names: kopukopu, paakirikiri, paatutuki, raawaru 

(Maori), New Zealand cod, sand perch, 

taragisu (Japan). 


Description: Blue cod is an endemic bottom dwelling species that is relatively common throughout New Zealand but is 

most abundant south of Cook Strait. 

Ecological concerns: The unknown sustainability of current catch limits, which are significantly greater than yield 

estimates based on past average catches, the combined commercial and recreational catches plus limited research. 

The impact of trawling on long-lived, slow-growing fragile corals and sponges is also of major concern. Large and 

heavily baited pots can also damage seafloor species when dropped in deeper waters. Other concerns include shags 

being caught in pots and the lack of a management plan. 

Economic value: New Zealand markets plus exports to Australia, Malaysia, China and Taiwan of less than $1 

million in 2008. 

Best option: Blue cod caught by hand line. 



Distribution: Blue cod is a bottom dwelling species found mainly inshore off southern New Zealand and the Chatham Islands to 

depths of 150m. The main fisheries occur off Southland and the Chatham Islands with smaller but significant fisheries off Otago, 

Marlborough Sounds and Wanganui. 


Age at sexual maturity: 2-6 years - all blue cod start life as females, with some changing into males when older. 


Reproductive output: Medium to high. 

Age exploited: Enter commercial fishery at 6-12 years. 




Recorded catch: Reported landings of 2,316 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Unknown. However, a decline of over 40% in 6 years is indicated in the Marlborough Sounds from pot surveys and 

recreational fishers have suggested local depletion in parts of BCO3, BCO5 and BCO7. BCO5 productivity appears to be affected 

by dredging for oysters (Cranfield et al 2001). 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “For BCO 1,2,3,4,5 and 8 recent commercial catch levels and 

current TACCs are considered sustainable.” But “For [Marlborough Sounds] (in BCO 7) it is not known if the combined recreational 

and commercial catches are sustainable or if they are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards a size that will support the 

maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish 2009, p88) 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score B and B) 

Fishing method(s): Mostly target caught in pots but some are caught on hand lines and some as bycatch by the inshore trawl fleet 

in BCO3 and BCO7. Apart from area BCO5 there are no limits on the size of mesh used in pots – this increases the chance of small 

fish being caught. 

Habitat damage: Long-lived, slow growing soft corals, sponges and bryozoans are broken when large heavy baited pots are 

dropped on them. Trawlers also scrape and damage the seabed and associated species. 

Bycatch: Shags may drown in pots and small fish may be caught. 

Ecological effects: The combined effects of a loss of large blue cod, which are easily caught in fisheries, the bycatch caught in trawl 

fisheries and the serial depletion of blue cod may all be having a degree of adverse impacts on the wider marine ecosystem. 


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Management and management unit (score C and C) 





Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment for any areas. 


Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; Cranfield H J, G 

Carbines, K P Michael, A Dunn, D R Stotter, D J Smith (2001) Promising signs of regeneration of blue cod and oyster habitat changed by dredging in Foveaux Strait, 

southern New Zealand. NZ J of Marine and Freshwater Research, 2001, Vol. 35. 


Blue mackerel 

Scientific name: Scomber australasicus 

Other names: tawatawa, tewetewe (Maori), pacific mackerel, 

southern mackerel, maquereau (France), saba 

(Japan). 


Description: Blue mackerel is a relative of tuna and is similarly widely distributed around the Pacific, including New 

Zealand. It is often found below schools of jack mackerel and kahawai and is caught year round off the North Island 

and northern South Island, primarily by purse seine fishing. 

Ecological concerns: The little known state of fishstocks, the unknown sustainability of catch levels, declining catch 

rates on the West Coast, limited research and the lack of a management plan. Also of concern is the bycatch of 

dolphins and other fish species, plus the ecological impact of blue mackerel removal from food webs. 

Economic value: Exports worth about $10 million in 2008. Main markets are Australia, Philippines and Eastern Europe. 



Distribution: Pelagic species, widespread around the North Island and northern South Island. 







Population size: Unknown but thought to be of a moderate population size. 



Stock trends: Unknown. However, large decline in catch rates in EMA7 (West Coast of both Islands). 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Little is known about the status of blue mackerel stocks and no 

estimates of current and reference biomass, or yield, are available for any blue mackerel area. It is not known if recent catch levels are 

sustainable or at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the MSY.” (MFish, 2009, p96). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score C and D) 

Fishing method(s): Mainly purse-seining but also bottom longline, bottom pair-trawl, beach-seine, bottom trawl, driftnet (in 

international waters), dip net, Danish seine, hand line, lampara, midwater trawl, lobster pot, ring net, surface longline, set net and 

troll. 

Habitat damage: Low for purse-seine caught fish, high for bottom trawl and bottom pair-trawl caught fish 

Bycatch: Caught in association with other pelagic species including jack mackerel, kahawai, skipjack tuna and trevally. When 

caught with the jack mackerel fishery, there is a dolphin bycatch problem on the West Coast of the North Island. 

Ecological effects: This fishery has an impact on a range of pelagic fish species which play an important role in driving smaller 

baitfish species close to the sea surface where a variety of seabird species are able to feed on them. Reducing these pelagic fish 

species can in turn reduce the amount of baitfish available at the sea surface for seabirds to feed on. 



Catch limits: 


Management component: 

Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment. 




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Blue moki 

Scientific name: Latridopsis ciliaris 

Other names: moki, moki trumpeter, isuzumi, isaki (Japan). 


Description: Blue moki is a comparatively long-lived species found in shallow waters. Landings have declined since 

the mid-1990s when it was introduced to the Quota Management System (QMS). This species spawns between 

East Cape and Mahia, and is culturally important for East Cape/Cape Runaway Iwi (Maori tribes). It is caught by 

trawl or set net. 

Ecological concerns: The reduction in landings since it was introduced to the QMS, limited research, the lack of a 

management plan, the uncertainty over stock structure and the unknown status of stocks and population size. Use 

of set nets and trawlers have impacts on seabed communities and non-target fish species. The fishing methods may 

also have impacts on marine mammals. 

Economic value: The main market for blue moki is within New Zealand, with exports of under $100,000 in 2008. 

Best option: Blue moki caught in areas with minimal risk to Hector‟s dolphins (e.g. east and north coast of the North Island). 


Biology and risk of overfishing (score D) 

Distribution: Mainly found around the South Island and the entire east coast of the North Island south of Cape Runaway down to 

depths of 100m. Blue moki spawns near Cape Runaway, East Cape. 






Status and sustainability of fish catches (score C) 



Recorded catch: Reported total landings of 533 tonnes in 2007-2008, below reported annual peak landings in 1970 and 1979 of 

approximately 960 tonnes. 

Stock trends: Rebuilding? 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current and reference biomass are available. The 

current TACCs and recent catch levels are below the estimated MCY, are considered sustainable… at least in the short to medium 

term. TACs were originally set at low levels to promote stock rebuilding.” (MFish 2009, p102-103). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score E and C) 

Fishing Method(s): Trawling and set nets. 

Habitat damage: Impact of bottom trawling on sensitive seafloor species. 

Bycatch: Range of non-target fish species caught in set nets and trawl nets, plus potential impacts on marine mammals and 

seabirds, including threatened Hector‟s dolphins. 

Ecological effects: Damage to seafloor and associated species due to trawling plus removal of large fish from the system. 

Management and management unit (score D and A) 









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Blue shark 

Scientific name: Prionace glauca 

Other names: mango-pounamu, poutini (Maori), blue whaler, 

blue pointer, peau bleue, requin bleu (France), 

yoshikirizame (Japan). 


Description: Blue sharks, like most shark species, are slow growing and highly vulnerable to overfishing. A highly 

migratory species, Blue sharks are taken in large numbers in New Zealand‟s tuna longline fisheries, mainly in the 

West and East Coast of the North Island from the Bay of Plenty north. Most of the blue sharks (around 87%) are 

caught just for their highly priced fins, with the rest of the carcass dumped at sea. 

Ecological concerns: Uncertainty about the state of the stocks, the bycatch of other sharks, seabirds and fur seals, 

limited research and the lack of a quantitative stock assessment or a management plan. Removal of this predatory 

species may also have considerable negative ecological implications. 

Whilst there is no management plan for blue sharks, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 

Conservation and Management of Sharks was developed. However, there are no specific conservation actions for 

blue sharks, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. The practise of shark finning, which is 

legal in New Zealand, is also enormously wasteful. Whilst there is no management plan for blue sharks, in 2008 a 

New Zealand National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks was developed. However, there 

are no specific conservation actions for blue sharks, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. 

Economic value: The primary value is in the highly priced fins (and tail), which are exported to East Asian markets. 



Distribution: Blue sharks range and are caught in longline fisheries all around New Zealand. 


Age at sexual maturity: 8 for males and 7 to 9 for females. 






Annual catch limit: Set at 1860 tonnes in 2004. 

Recorded catch: Landings of 835 tonnes total reported catch. 

Stock trends: Uncertain, estimates of reference and current biomass are not available. At a CSIRO scientific meeting in 2007, blue 

sharks were estimated to have declined by 40% in the Tasman Sea over the last 10 years. 

MSY Status: Uncertain. Listed on IUCN red list as a near threatened species. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “There is no assessment for this stock so it is not known if the stock 

is at or above a level capable of producing the maximum sustainable yield. Furthermore, it is not known whether current catches or 

the TAC are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards the biomass that would support the maximum sustainable yield. Due 

to its biological characteristics, blue shark is possibly less vulnerable to overexploitation than mako or porbeagle sharks.” (Ministry of 

Fisheries, 2008, p156). 


Fishing method: Longlining around the North Island. 


Bycatch: Other sharks, seabirds and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery. 

Ecological effects: Removal of large predator species as bycatch in the longline fishery. The practise of shark finning – cutting off 

the high-priced fins of sharks and dumping the rest of the body at sea – is contributing to the decline of shark species 

worldwide. Shark finning is legal in New Zealand. Ministry of Fisheries figures show that from 2002-2007 more than 80% of blue 

sharks caught in New Zealand were taken just for their fins. 


Management and management unit (score D and D) 

Quota Management Species: Yes in 2004. 



Management component: Single species. 


References: National Tuna Fishery Report 2001 – New Zealand, T Murray and L Griggs, NIWA; Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 

2008: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, 

The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; New Zealand National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of sharks (October 2008), Ministry of 

Fisheries. 


Blue warehou 

Scientific name: Seriolella brama 

Other names: common warehou, warehou, okihirasu, media 

(Japan). 


Description: Blue warehou is a coastal species, unlike other warehou (silver and white warehou), common in depths 

of 20 to 200m in cooler southern waters south of Cook Strait. It is popular in fish and chip shops. The main fishing 

grounds for include Cook Strait and the West Coast of the South Island. 

Ecological concerns: Limited research, the unknown size of fishstocks, the lack of a management plan, the habitat 

damage caused by bottom trawling, non-target fish bycatch and the associated ecological impacts caused by the 

fishing methods. 

Economic value: New Zealand market plus exports of $1 million in 2008, mainly to Japan and Australia. 



Distribution: Mainly found in coastal waters around the South Island at depths of 20-200m. 



Growth rate: Moderate until maturity. 




Population size: Unknown in all areas and poorly estimated for WAR3. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1530 tonnes in 2007-08, which is a large decline compared to previous catches. In past 

years catches in WAR3 have exceeded the TACC by up to 40%. 

Stock trends: Probably declining in WAR 3 fishery and unknown in other areas. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of reference and current biomass are not available. For 

all Fishstocks, it is not known if recent landings or TACC‟s are at levels which will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will 

support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish 2008, p109). 


Fishing Method(s): Mainly caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries (eg squid), including bottom trawling for hoki. Some are caught in 

coastal set nets. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling bulldozes the sea floor, destroying soft corals, sponges and long-lived bryozoans. 

Bycatch: A range of non-target fish species are caught as bycatch in set nets and trawl nets. 

Ecological effects: Damage to seafloor and associated species due to trawling plus removal of large fish from the system. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment - an uncertain assessment was carried out in WAR3 in 1997. 




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Bluenose 

Scientific name: Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Other names: matiri (Maori), bonita, blue bream, deepsea 

trevalla, blue eye trevella (Australia), stone eye, 

Griffin‟s silver fish, minami media (Japan) 


Description: Bluenose is a long-lived, slow growing relative of 

warehou, found in the temperate waters of the southern Hemisphere. They are caught year round by trawl and 

longline, mainly around offshore reefs or drop off areas. 

Ecological concerns: The damage caused to underwater banks and canyons north of the Cook Strait by trawling, 

the bycatch of non-target fish species such as sharks and seabirds, limited research, the lack of a management plan 

and the uncertainty over stock boundaries. Also of concern is the large decline in catch rates (64% in 5 years) 

throughout the zone, the unknown state of stocks and the likelihood the stock will continue to decline at the current 

catch limits. 

Economic value: Exports of about $14 million in 2008 with main markets in United States (about 50%) and Australia. 



Distribution: Occurs around New Zealand, mainly around rocky areas at depths of 100-300m. 


Age at sexual maturity: 10+ 

Growth rate: Low. 


Age exploited:

Butterfish 

Scientific name: Odax pullus 

Other names: marari, matohe, tarao, kooaea, (Maori), 

greenbone, Bera-rui (Japan). 


Description: Butterfish is an endemic species of kelpfish found in shallow waters around the New Zealand coast. 

They are more abundant south of East Cape, especially around Cook Strait, where they are caught year round in 

set nets. 

Ecological concerns: The unknown status of stocks and population size, unknown sustainability of catch levels, 

absence of research, the lack of a management plan and the bycatch of non-target fish species. Restrictions on set 

netting introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching endangered Hector‟s dolphins. However, a 

pending court ruling may grant the fishery an exemption and raise the risk to these dolphins. 

Economic value: Butterfish is sold in New Zealand. 

Best option: Butterfish caught in areas with minimal risk to Hector‟s dolphins (e.g. east and north coast of the North Island). 



Distribution: Found in shallow waters in rocky coastal areas of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. It is most common in areas 

around Cook Strait. 

Maximum age (years): 11-15 

Age at sexual maturity: 2-4 – larger fish are males that started life as females. 





Population size: Unknown - there are no estimates of current or reference biomass. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 114 tonnes in 2007-08, mainly in the Cook Strait and around Stewart Island. Recreational 

catch is estimated to be of a similar size. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current and reference biomass are available. It is not 

known whether recent catch levels will allow the stock to move towards BMSY. Butterfish populations are susceptible to localised 

depletion.” (MFish 2009, p131). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score D and B) 

Method: Targeted set nets. 

Habitat damage: Low for set netting. 

Bycatch: Range of non-target fish caught in set nets. Set nets pose a significant risk to threatened Hector‟s dolphins. However, 

restrictions on set netting in areas where the dolphins are found, introduced in May 2008, have significantly reduced this threat. 

However, the risk of dolphin captures may still exist where butterfish fishing overlaps with dolphin areas outside these closures. 

Ecological effects: Butterfish are important kelp eating fish, so their depletion could have wider impacts on kelp forest ecosystems. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative estimates. 




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Cockles 

Scientific name: Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Other names: hinangi, huangi, huuai, huangiangi tuangi 

(Maori), NZ littleneck clam (USA), clam, venusshells, 

coque (Canada). 


Description: A relatively short-lived but widespread shellfish species, found in soft mud to silty sand habitats in 

harbours and estuaries. The main commercial harvesting areas are at Whangarei, Nelson/Marlborough and the Otago 

Peninsula. 

Ecological concerns: The impacts of mechanical harvesting and digging at Tasman and Golden Bay. Also, the past 

depletion of stocks in Whangarei harbour, gaps between surveys, the lack of a management plan, the uncertainty over 

stock size in relation to virgin biomass and BMSY in other areas. The ecological effects of removing or killing this 

shellfish on wading birds that feed on cockles is also of concern. 

Economic value: Sold in New Zealand and exported (under $1 million in 2008) to United States and Europe (France). 

Best option: Cockles collected by hand (e.g. Whangarei and Otago). 



Distribution: Widespread around New Zealand, including Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, in harbours and estuaries from 

mean high tide level down to low tide. 







Population size: Biomass was estimated to be about 35% of virgin biomass in COC1A (Whangarei). In COC3A (Otago) adult 

cockles are just below or well below 1992 levels in Waitati and Papanui Inlet. In COC7A+B (Top of South Island – Golden Bay - 

Marlborough) two of the three commercially fished areas have declined. 

Annual catch limit: Total catch limit was set at 3,206 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Recorded catch: Reported commercial harvest of approximately 1,148 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: In Whangarei (COC1), large cockles (greater than 35mm) have declined to about 5 percent of 1982 levels. In 

Whangarei harbour, cockles have declined to well below 1980s levels. For Otago areas the biomass is under 30% and 55% of 1992 

levels for juvenile cockles, and 65-90% of adult numbers. In Tasman Bay-Golden Bay the Pakawau Beach population does not 

appear to have declined (and may have increased) whereas Ferry Point and Riwaka-Tapu Bay cockle size and abundance has 

declined to 20% and 50% respectively. 

MSY Status: Depleted in Whangarei harbour. 

Fishery Assessment plenary report states: For Whangarei harbour (COC1) that, “This current TACC is higher than the estimated 

CAY (239 t) unless a smaller size (28 mm SL or shorter) at recruitment is assumed, suggesting that fishing at the level of the current 

TACC is unlikely to be sustainable in the long term.” 

For Nelson/Marlborough (COC7A and B): “At Pakawau Beach, the biomass of cockles does not appear to have declined since the 

start of the commercial fishery in 1983, and has probably increased owing to exceptional recruitment in 2000. At Ferry Point, the size 

and abundance of cockles has declined markedly since 1996. ..At Riwaka-Tapu Bay, size and abundance has also declined. 

Because of the uncertainty over the relationsip between Bcurrent and BMSY, it is not known if recent catches and current catch limits will 

allow the stock to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” 

For Otago: “In Waitati Inlet, the estimates of CAY ….are above current catch levels and recent reported landings. Furthermore, CAY 

estimates for the area of the inlet where commercial fishing currently occurs are also above current catch levels and recent reported 

landings.” (MFish, 2009, p142, 148, and 185). 


Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score D and A) 

Fishing method(s): Mechanical digging and raking of mudflats in Tasman Bay and Golden Bay, and hand harvesting in Whangarei 

harbour and Otago Peninsula. 

Habitat damage: Mechanical digging and raking kills small cockles and impacts other species living within the sediment. Minimal 

impact from hand harvesting. 

Bycatch: Impact of mechanical dredging on small shellfish and other sub-surface organisms. 

Ecological effects: Small cockles are an important part of the diet of some wading bird species. Removing or killing small cockles 

reduces the amount of food available to wading birds, including South Island and variable oystercatchers, bar-tailed godwits, and 

Caspian and white-fronted terns. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, since 2002 for four areas. 




Stock assessment: Surveys for stock assessments were carried out in Whangarei 2007, Otago 2007, and Pakawau (Golden Bay), 

Riwaka and Ferry Point in 2008. Quantitative assessments for most areas using 1991-93 information. Annual surveys are required 

for CAY assessment. 




Dark ghost shark 

Scientific name: Hydrolagus novaezealandiae 

Other names: Chimaera, pearl, pearl fish, chimére (France), 

ginbuka, ginzame (Japan). 


Description: This slow growing deepwater shark species is only found in New Zealand and is most abundant in 

waters 150 to 500m deep off the West Coast of the South Island and the Chatham Rise. It is caught almost entirely 

as bycatch in other target trawl fisheries, notably the hoki fishery, but also the silver warehou, arrow squid and 

barracouta fisheries, plus by deepwater longlining. 

Ecological concerns: The lack of basic biological data, the uncertain long-term sustainability of catch levels, the 

unknown status of the fishstocks and the impact of trawling on benthic species. As a bycatch species, it has 

associated seabird and marine mammal bycatch and disrupted ecosystem concerns. 

Whilst there is no management plan for dark ghost sharks, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


ghost sharks, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. 

Economic value: Ghost shark exports of around $2 million to Australia and shark fins are exported to Asia. 



Distribution: A deepwater species found throughout New Zealand waters, but mostly off central and southern New Zealand at 

depths of 200-400m. 

Maximum age (years): Unknown. 

Age at sexual maturity: Unknown – 52-53cm for males and 62-63 cm for females. 



Age exploited: Unknown. 




Recorded catch: Estimated landings of 1911 tonnes in 2007-08. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “[F]or all stocks, it is not known if recent catch levels or current 

TACCs are sustainable in the long term or whether they will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum 

sustainable yield.” (MFish 2009, p289). 


Fishing method: Trawling (mixture of mid-water and bottom trawling), caught as bycatch in hoki, silver warehou, arrow squid and 

barracouta fisheries, plus by deepwater longlining. 

Habitat damage: Destruction of deepwater habitats by bottom trawling. 

Bycatch: Wide range of bycatch species (see hoki, silver warehou, arrow squid, barracouta), including seabirds, marine mammals 

and non-target fish. 

Ecological effects: Broad ecological impacts as a result of seafloor damage and removal of a wide variety of non-target fish. (See 

hoki, silver warehou, arrow squid, barracouta). 

Management and management unit (score E and B) 





Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment - no estimates of current and reference biomass are available for dark ghost 

shark. 


Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; New Zealand National 

Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of sharks (October 2008), Ministry of Fisheries. 


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Eels 

Scientific name: Anguilla australis (short-finned), A. dieffenbachii 

(long-finned), A. reinhardtii (Australian longfinned) 

Other names: tuna hao, tuna heke, papakura (Maori: shortfinned); 

kuuwharuwharu, reherehe (Maori: longfinned) 

short-finned eel, long-finned eel; yellow 

eel, silver eel, (NZ); anguile australe (France) 


Description: Eels are important freshwater predators. There are two main species of New Zealand eel – the 

endemic long-finned and native short-finned eels. They are caught in baited fyke nets or traditional hinaki. Both 

species are long-lived, spending part of their life-cycle at sea and part in freshwater environments. The long-finned 

eel is listed as a threatened species by the Department of Conservation (Hitchmough (comp) 2002). A third species 

- the Australian long-finned eel - is primarily found in Northland. 

Ecological concerns: The severely overfished status of the endemic long-finned eel, declining catch rates and the 

unknown sustainability of recent catch levels, managing two species (short-finned and Australian long-finned) as one 

species in the South Island, the lack of current or reference biomass estimates and the lack of a management plan. 

Bycatch of seabirds is also of concern. 

Economic value: New Zealand and exports of about $6 million in 2008 to markets including Germany, Belgium, 

Netherlands and Italy. 



Distribution: Eels are found throughout freshwater lakes, rivers and streams plus some estuarine and coastal waters in New 

Zealand, including the Chatham Islands. 

Long-finned Short-finned 

Maximum age (years): 106 60 (uncertain) 

Age at sexual maturity (migration): 11-56+ 5-41+ (uncertain) 

Growth rate: variable unknown 

Reproductive output: Low Low 

Size/age exploited: 8-17 6-13 (uncertain) 



Annual catch limit: Set at 872 in 2007-08.. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 660 tonnes in 2007-08 the lowest catch in over 35 years. 

Stock trends: Declining catch rates in all areas for longfin eels and declines in many areas for shortfin eels. Long-finned eel now 

classified as a threatened species. “Modelling suggests longfin eels may be severely recruitment overfished” (MFish 2007, p 254). 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: Longfin: “This species is more susceptible to overexploitation than 

shortfins because of their limited geographical distribution (confined to New Zealand and offshore islands) and longevity… A key 

component to ensuring the sustainability of eels is to maintain spawner escapement, and to that end approximately 30% of available 

longfin habitat in the North Island and 34% in the South Island is either in reserves or in rarely/non-fished areas. If hydro 

development and habitat loss are included, and based on biomass estimates from several South Island rivers, it is estimated that the 

biomass of longfin eels above the minimum weight at migration is less than 20% of historical values.” 

Shortfin: “The catch per unit effort (CPUE) indices for the main commercial shortfin fisheries in the South Island generally increased 

from 2001-02 to 2005-06.. By contrast, the North Island [areas] with the largest commercial catches showed less consistent 

trends…. Caution is therefore required in managing shortfin stocks given the nature of their biology and the fact that they are 

harvested before they can spawn.” (MFish 2009, p248-249) 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score B and C) 

Fishing method: Fyke nets or hinaki. 


Habitat damage: Impact of fyke net placement only. 

Bycatch: Seabirds (shags) caught in fyke nets. 

Ecological effects: The ecological effects of fishing are uncertain but likely to be much less than the impact of land drainage and 

dams on eel habitat. Cumulatively, overfishing and habitat loss are removing this important predatory species from New Zealand‟s 

increasingly degraded freshwater systems. 

Management and management unit (score C and E) 

Quota Management Species: Yes - South Island since 2000, Chatham Island since 2003 and North Island since 2004. 



Management component: Short-finned and „other‟ (Australian long-finned) eels managed as one component. 



Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd, Hitchmough (comp) 

2002 NZ Threat Classification System Lists, Department of Conservation 


Elephant fish 

Scientific name: Callorhinchus milli 

Other names: repe, reperepe, makorepe, (Maori), silver 

trumpeter, white fillets, elephant shark (Australia), 

zoginzame, zoginbuku (Japan). 


Description: This small shark species, which is only found in New Zealand, has biological characteristics that make 

it relatively less prone to overfishing than most shark species. It is most common on the east coast of the South 

Island to depths of 200m, where it is caught mainly as bycatch off the Banks Peninsula in trawl fisheries and as a 

target species in set nets. 

Ecological concerns: The lack of a management plan, the unknown sustainability of some recent catch levels and 

catch limits and the failure to carry out a full stock assessment. Also of concern is the impact of trawling on the 

seabed and associated communities plus non-target fish bycatch of set netting. Restrictions on set netting and 

trawling introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching endangered Hector‟s dolphins. However, 

offshore fishing outside the closed areas still poses a significant risk to these dolphins. 

Whilst there is no management plan for elephant fish, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


elephant fish, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. 

Economic value: Market in New Zealand and exports of about $1m in 2008 to Australia and North America. 



Distribution: Occurs around the South Island but most common near Banks Peninsula at depths of 20-200m. 




Reproductive output: High to medium. 

Age exploited: 3+ 


Population size: Unknown. Current catches in ELE 3 and 7 well exceed the MCY estimates. 


Recorded catch: Total landings of 1,436 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Unknown but maybe increasing in ELE 3 and 5. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current and reference biomass are available.” 

For ELE 2 and 7: “It is not known if recent catch levels or the current TACC are sustainable. The state of the stock in relation to BMSY 

is unknown.” 

For ELE3: “A mixed species bottom trawl CPUE series, which is considered to be an index of stock abundance, peaked in 2000–01, 

then dropped by about 40% to 2004–05 but has since recovered to near the 2000–01 peak.” 

For ELE5: “A mixed target species bottom trawl CPUE series, which is considered to be an index of stock abundance, has shown a 

steady increasing trend since the early 1990s. Present CPUE is more than double the lowest level observed in the early 1990s.” 

For ELE 3 and 5 “The state of stock in relation to BMSY is unknown.” (MFish 2009, p214-220). 


Fishing method(s): Trawling and set nets. Most are caught as bycatch in one of the red cod trawl fisheries as well as other trawl 

fisheries. The proportion caught by set nets has declined. 

Habitat damage: Removal of benthic species and change in biodiversity from trawling. 

Bycatch: Hector‟s dolphins caught in set nets and some trawl fisheries (e.g. the red cod trawl fishery off Canterbury coast, where 

elephant fish is a bycatch species). Restrictions on set netting and trawling in areas where the dolphins are found were introduced in 

May 2008. These have significantly reduced the threat to marine mammals and other wildlife, however, captures may still exist 

where fishing overlaps with dolphin areas outside these closures. Elephant fish fisheries also have non-target fish bycatch. 

Ecological effects: Changes in seafloor communities from bottom trawling and possible impacts of marine food webs. 


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Management and management unit (score C and B) 









Flatfish 

Black flounder, yellow-belly flounder, dab/sand flounder, 

greenback flounder, brill, turbot, lemon sole and NZ sole. 

Scientific name: rhomosolea retiaria (black flounder), R. leporine 

(yellowbelly flounder), R. plebeian (dab/sand 

flounder), R. tairina (greenback flounder), Colistium 

guntheri (brill), C. nudipinnis (turbot), Pelotretis 

flaviatus (lemon sole), Peltorhamphus 

novaezealandiae (NZ sole). 

Other names: Paatikitotara (Maori: yellow-belly flounder), paatiki 

(Maori: sand flounder, greenback flounder, NZ 

sole), paatikimohoao (Maori: black flounder), 

kutuhori, paatiki rore, pakeke (Maori: NZ sole), 

patikinui (Maori: brill), paatiki nui (Maori: turbot). 


Description: These eight flatfish species grow rapidly and are caught mainly by inshore bottom trawling, with 

smaller amounts in set nets and smaller beach drag nets. Sand flounder is the most abundant species and is found 

only in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: Management of eight species as one fishstock, uncertain stock structures and sustainability 

of catch limits plus limited research (uncertain age of the fish when caught, lack of basic biological data for some of 

the species and absence of yield estimates) and the lack of a management plan. Bottom trawling causes serious 

damage to benthic species and communities, whilst set netting is associated with bycatch of endangered Hector‟s 

dolphins, other marine mammals, seabirds, sharks and other non-target fish. Flatfish fishing was made exempt from 

the May 2008 set net restrictions as the fishery is thought to pose a lower risk than other set net fisheries due to low 

net height. However, it is unclear whether this is the case given the absence of observers on vessels using this 

gear. 

Economic value: New Zealand market plus exports of $8 million, mainly to Australia, China and Spain. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (8 species) (score B) 

Distribution: Flatfish are found throughout New Zealand. 

Maximum age (years): 6-21 depending on species – brill and turbot live significantly longer than other species reaching a maximum 

age of 21 and 16 years respectively. 

Age at sexual maturity: 2+ depending on species. 

Growth rate: Rapid. 

Reproductive output: Ranging from medium to very high. 

Age exploited: 2+ depending on species. 


Population size: Unknown for all areas and species but can be highly variable. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 3,629 tonnes in 2007-08, down from previous peaks of 5,160 tonnes in 1983-84 (of which 

16% was NZ sole) and 5,086 tonnes in 1992-93. 

Stock trends: Unknown for all areas and species. 

MSY Status: Unknown for all areas and species. Eight species are managed as one fishery. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference biomass are not available. 

Flatfish populations typically consist of only one or two year classes at any time. The sizes of the populations depend heavily on the 

strength of the recruiting year classes and are therefore expected to be highly variable. For this reason TACCs were set high to allow 

fishers to take advantage of times of high abundance. Recent CPUE analyses revealed that although yellow belly flounder are short 

lived, inter-annual abundance in FLA 1 was surprisingly stable. These results suggest that a more conservative approach is 

possible.” (MFish 2009, p235) 


Fishing method(s): Inshore bottom trawling, set nets and drag nets. 


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Habitat damage: Bottom trawling damages seafloor communities and associated species. 

Bycatch: A range of non-target fish species including red cod and red gurnard plus possible bycatch of endangered Hector‟s 

dolphins, other dolphins, NZ fur seals and seabirds by set nets. 

Ecological effects: Direct adverse impacts of bottom trawling on seafloor communities and removal of these bottom-dwelling 

species (especially the removal of large fish) may cause wide disruption to marine ecosystems. 





Management component: Eight different species managed as one. 

Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessments for any species or areas but current catch limits are nearly three times 

estimated yield (MCY). 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake, Science 

Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


Frostfish 

Scientific name: Lepidopus caudatus 

Other names: tiikati, paara, hikau, para-taharangi (Maori), 

Cutlassfish 


Description: This relatively short-lived species is widely distributed around the world. In New Zealand it is normally 

found over the outer shelf in waters 200 – 500m deep. It is mainly caught as bycatch (more than 90%) in trawl 

fisheries for jack mackerel and hoki, and to a lesser extent in the arrow squid, barracouta and gemfish fisheries. 

Half are caught off the West Coast of the South Island and Taranaki Bight in mid-water trawl fisheries. 

Ecological concerns: Lack of research (including the absence of some basic biological information), the unknown 

sustainability of recent catches and the uncertainty about stock structure plus the lack of a management plan. As a 

bycatch species of other fisheries, marine mammals, non-target fish and impacts on seabed communities are also 

serious concerns. 

Economic value: Export markets include Asia. 



Distribution: Widely dispersed around New Zealand but mainly caught off the west coasts of both main islands. 


Age at sexual maturity: Unknown. 



Size/age exploited: Unknown. 




Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1392 tonnes in 2007-08. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference biomass are not available. The 

stock structure is uncertain, the fishery is variable and almost entirely a bycatch of other target fisheries. No age data or estimates of 

abundance available. It is therefore not possible to estimate yields. It is not known if recent catches are sustainable or whether they 

are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish, 2009, p261). 


Fishing method: A mixture of mid-water trawl and bottom trawl fishing. 

Habitat damage: Damage to seafloor communities when caught by bottom trawl in the hoki, gemfish and other trawl fisheries. 

Bycatch: Caught as bycatch in the hoki and jack mackerel fisheries, which include fur seal and common dolphin captures. Less than 

10% is target fished. 

Ecological effects: The effect of this fishery, combined with the hoki and jack mackerel fisheries, contribute towards multiple 

seafloor and water column community impacts. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessments. 




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Garfish 

Scientific name: Hyporhamphus ihi 

Other names: hangenge, ihe, wariwari, takeke (Maori), piper, 

half-beak, NZ garfish (US), demi-bec 

neozelandias (France), sayori (Japan) 


Description: Garfish are relatively short-lived and, whilst similar species occur around the world, this species is 

found only in New Zealand. They are common in shallow coastal waters, such as bays and harbours, when they 

school at the surface. 

Ecological concerns: The lack of some basic biological information, information on stock size and yield estimates, 

the uncertainty of some biological information, limited research, huge uncertainty about stock boundaries and 

absence of a management plan. 

Economic value: Export markets include Asia. 

Best option: Garfish is one of the best New Zealand seafood choices as the fishing methods have minimal ecological impact. 



Distribution: Inshore waters around New Zealand. 

Maximum age (years): 10? 


Growth rate: Moderate (uncertain) 


Age exploited: 2-3 (uncertain) 


Population size: Unknown 

Annual catch limit: TACC of 50 tonnes set in 2002-2003. 


Stock trends: Unknown 

MSY Status: Unknown 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current biomass are available. A fishery has 

existed for several decades, but it is not known how heavily this has exploited the stock. It is not possible to determine if recent catch 

levels will allow the stock(s) to move towards a size that would support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish 2009, p265). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score B and A) 

Fishing method(s): Beach seine and lampara net. (Garfish are sometimes also taken as a non-target catch in the pilchard fishery.) 

Habitat damage: Low due to most fish being caught by beach seine and lampara nets. 

Bycatch: Relatively low bycatch but small fish can be caught by both methods. 

Ecological effects: Low, although depletion of garfish may have impacts on associated species by altering food web dynamics. 

Management and management unit (score E and D) 









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Gemfish 

Scientific name: Rexea solandri 

Other names: maha-taharaki, maka-tikati, tiikati (Maori), silver 

kingfish, southern kingfish, silver gemfish (US), 

kagokamasu, ginsawara, shirosawara (Japan). 


Description: This relatively long-lived slender fish is found within a wide depth range of between 50 and 550m, but is 

sometimes found as deep as 800m. They are usually caught in inshore to middle-depth waters by trawling. 

Ecological concerns: A significant level of habitat and therefore ecological damage is caused by bottom trawling and a 

range of fish are caught as bycatch. New Zealand fur seal and sea bird bycatch is also associated with fisheries in which 

gemfish is caught as bycatch. Annual catches and catch rates have declined dramatically since peaking at over 8,000 

tonnes in 1985–86 due to over-fishing combined with low recruitment, poor state of the stocks (about 22% of the 

original, unfished stock size) and annual landings being in the hundreds of tonnes during the last two years. There is 

also no management plan for this species. 

Economic value: Exports of $2 million in 2008 mainly to Japan. 



Distribution: Gemfish is found throughout New Zealand coastal waters but is more common in the south at depths of 150-200m. 







Population size: All populations are about 22% of the unfished biomass which is well below BMAY (34%) 


Recorded catch: Reported landings were 662 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest catch in over 20 years. 

Stock trends: Low recruitment since the early 1990s has resulted in depleted populations could decline further if low recruitment 

continues. 

MSY Status: Populations depleted well below Fisheries Act requirement (MSY) and there is no rebuilding plan in place. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: The assessment of the southern gemfish stock has not been 

updated since 1997. Landings from SKI 7 increased from 2000 to be a level over twice the TACC in 2004–05, but have decreased 

since then. Northern [gemfish]: For all three models, projections at the current TACC levels suggest the stock may increase with 

average recruitment (long term mean from 1978 to 2000), but is likely to decline if recruitment remains at the levels seen in more 

recent years (from 1992 to 2000). (MFish 2009, p280). 


Fishing method: Target trawling off the east and north coasts of the North Island. Catches off the west and southern coasts of the 

South Island are now primarily bycatch of hoki and squid fisheries. 

Habitat damage: After scampi, gemfish trawling had the highest impact of target fisheries in the Bay of Plenty (Cryer et al 2002). 

Bottom trawling within hoki and squid fisheries results in significant damage to seafloor communities and associated species. 

Bycatch: A range of fish and invertebrate species are caught in the targeted fishery. When caught in the hoki and arrow squid 

fisheries, seabird, fur seal and deepwater shark bycatch problems are also prevalent. 

Ecological effects: Bottom trawling disturbs the seabed and changes the abundance and community structure of many bottom 

dwelling fish species and benthic species (Cryer et al, 2002). 






Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment for QMA1 and 2 in 2007, and QMA3 and 7 in 1997. 


Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; Cryer M, Hartill B and 

O‟Shea S (2002). Modification of marine benthos by trawling: toward a generalization for the deep ocean? Ecological Applications 12(6), 2002 pp1824-1839. 


Grey mullet 

Scientific name: Mugil cephalus 

Other names: hopu, hohopu, kanae, kopuwai (Maori), mullet, 

striped mullet, sea mullet (Australia), mule, 

muge cabot (France), bora (Japan). 


Description: Grey mullet is a surface dwelling, coastal species that is widespread throughout tropical and subtropical 

seas. In New Zealand it is most commonly found in northern bays, harbours, mangrove swamps and 

estuaries. They are caught year round in set nets and beach seines, but mainly from November to March when 

they gather to spawn offshore. 

Ecological concerns: That the current commercial catch limit in the main fishery is 100 tonnes above the 

maximum current yield estimate, that landings have fluctuated during the last four years raising doubts about the 

status of this stock, the lack of yield or biomass estimates for nearly all areas, the lack of a management plan and 

the apparent disparity between quota areas and likely stock boundaries. Set net fisheries can have considerable 

non-target fish bycatch. In the past this fishery has posed a serious threat to critically endangered Maui‟s dolphins. 

Restrictions on set netting introduced in May 2008 have reduced this risk, however, a pending court ruling may reopen 

some fishing areas and continue the pose an undue threat to these dolphins. 

Economic value: Main market is in New Zealand, with some exports to Asia of less than $100,000 in 2008. 

Best option: Mullet caught by beach seining. 



Distribution: A surface dwelling species mostly found in sheltered bays and harbours off northern New Zealand. 




Reproductive output: Medium to very high. 






Stock trends: Reports of serial depletion and declines in catch rates in some areas since 1990. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “GMU 1 is currently assessed using CPUE data and these 

analyses suggest that the GMU 1 fishery is composed of a number of spatially distinct substocks and tagging data suggest low to 

moderate mixing between them. CPUE analyses using data up to 2005–06 have found that the CPUE in the Kaipara Harbour, 

Manukau Harbour, and east Northland (which collectively account for over 80% of the GMU 1 catch) have increased since 2002. 

Therefore catches in these areas appear to be sustainable in the short-term. The status of GMU1 relative to BMSY is unknown.” 

(MFish, 2009, p313). 


Fishing method(s): Set nets and beach seining. 


Bycatch: A range of species are caught by set nets, including marine mammals and non-target fish species. Range of non-target 

fish caught in set nets. Set nets pose a significant risk to critically endangered Maui‟s dolphins. However, restrictions on set netting in 

areas where the dolphins are found, introduced in May 2008, have significantly reduced this threat. (Depending on the results of 

legal action to reopen closed areas, the dolphins may again be put at risk.) 

Ecological effects: Possible ecosystem impacts of removing larger fish from the population. 




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Stock assessment: Inconclusive quantitative stock assessment for West GMU1 in 1998. There is no assessment for other areas. 




Groper / Hapuku & Bass 

Scientific name: Polyprion oxygeneios (groper) and Polyprion 

americanus (Bass) 

Other names: hakuraa, kapua, kauaeroa, kawerai, kuparu, 

moeone, whaapuku, toti (Maori), sea bass, 

wrackbarsch (Germany), wreckfish (USA), hata, 

ara (Japan). 


Description: These two long-lived, slow growing species of sea bass are found around New Zealand, though Bass 

is also found in many temperate oceans around the world. Bass is more common in the north and ranges into deeper 

water (up to 800m) than grouper (up to 400m). They are mainly caught in deep underwater canyons off the East 

Coast of the North Island, Cook Strait, Kaikoura and the West Coast of the South Island. Once commonly caught 

inshore and an important coastal predator, groper have now almost disappeared from diving depths. 

Ecological concerns: The management of two species as one quota species, the uncertainty and conflict over 

stock boundaries, limited research (including a lack of information on sustainable yields and uncertainty over basic 

biological information for bass). Other concerns include the lack of a management plan, the decline in reported landings 

in recent years and the unknown sustainability of the current catch limit. Bycatch of other fish species is also of concern 

as is the loss of these ecologically important species, particularly hapuku, which is a prey species for sperm whales. 

Economic value: Export value of about $4million in 2008 mainly to Australia, Japan and United States. 



Distribution: Found around New Zealand including the Chatham Rise, but most common in deep underwater canyons over or near 

rocky areas down to 250m. 

Groper/Hapuku Bass 

Maximum age (years): 60+ 40+ 

Age at sexual maturity: 10-13 10? 

Growth rate: Slow Slow 

Reproductive output: Low Low 

Age exploited: 5 5? 


Population size: Unknown but large hapuku have almost disappeared from diving depths. 



Stock trends: Reported landings have declined from a peak of 2,698 tonnes in 1983-84 to around 1600 tonnes in recent years. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current biomass are available. Recent catches are 

less than the MCY estimates, are considered sustainable, and are probably at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size 

that will support the maximum sustainable yield. Current TACCs are larger than the MCY estimates and it is not known if they are 

sustainable or at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish 

2009, p322). 


Fishing method(s): Mainly longline and hand line, but also caught using trawl and set net. 

Habitat damage: Low for line caught fish but trawling catches and damages bottom dwelling species and associated communities. 

Bycatch: A range of bycatch fish species including tarakihi and blue cod. Deepwater sharks are also occasionally caught (e.g. seal 

shark). 

Ecological effects: Serial depletion of these species can occur, with line fishing removing large individuals. Hapuku or groper is a 

known prey species for sperm whale, so depletion may reduce the whale‟s food availability. The effects of trawling include reducing 

the diversity of fragile invertebrate species including cold water corals, sponges and bryozoans. 


?

Management and management unit (score E and E) 





Stock assessment: No quantitative assessments or yields. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake, Science 



Hake 

Scientific name: Merluccius australis 

Other names: kehe, tiikati (Maori), whiting, merluza (Spain), 

merlu (France), heiku (Japan), seehecht 

(Germany). 


Description: Hake is a relative of the hoki, found only in New Zealand. It is targeted on the Chatham Rise and in 

the sub-Antarctics, but is usually caught as bycatch by mid-water hoki trawling. Most hake is caught off the West 

Coast of the South Island with some taken from the south of the South Island and around the Chatham Islands. The 

hake trawl fishery is currently seeking environmental certification under an international body - the Marine 

Stewardship Council. 

Ecological concerns: Seabirds and marine mammals are commonly caught as bycatch in the associated hoki 

fishery (NZ fur seals, albatrosses and petrels). Other concerns include inconsistencies between quota boundaries 

and stock boundaries, the uncertainty of stock size and trends for West Coast and Sub-Antarctic populations, the 

lack of a management plan, illegal mis-reporting of catches and the rapid decline in Chatham Rise hake. 

Economic value: The main export markets are Japan, Spain, Australia and Portugal, which were worth $27 million 

in 2008. 



Distribution: Found in waters around the South Island at depths of 200-800m. 







Population size: In 2004 about 35% of unfished population size (B0) on Chatham Rise and could be between 30 and 70% on the 

West Coast of the South Island. 


Recorded catch: Recorded landings of 5930 tonnes in 2007-08, which is the lowest level in 20 years. 

Stock trends: Declining on Chatham Rise, slow decline or stable in Sub-Antarctic; unknown on West Coast. 

MSY Status: Over-fished and declining on the Chatham Rise, uncertain in the sub-Antarctics and appears to be sustainable on West 

Coast of the South Island. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For the Chatham Rise: “The 2004 model results suggested a 

decline in biomass, with biomass in 2004 at about 35% B0. Year class strengths from 1995 to 2000 are estimated to be weaker than 

average. In the projections, the model assumes average year class strength since 2001, although more small hake have been 

caught in the most recent trawl surveys, suggesting that the 2002 year class may be above average. Projections for the Chatham 

Rise stock estimated the risk of reducing the stock below 20% B0 in 2009 to be 88% with catches of 3616 t, and 28% with catches of 

1800 t. The higher assumed catch of 3616 t represents the current [Chatham Rise TACC] HAK 4 plus half the HAK 1, while the lower 

catch level of 1800 t represents the HAK 4 TACC only.” 

West coast South Island: “The assessment [2004] suffers from a lack of an independent abundance index for the stock. Hence 

these results should be treated with caution. ..This run suggested current biomass was between 30% and 70% B0. The other runs 

gave similar estimates of biomass and stock status. All the model results indicated that current catches appear to be sustainable in 

the short term.” 

For the sub-Antarctic stock: “An attempt was made in 2004 to determine the stock status of this stock [but] results should be treated 

with caution. [One] run suggested current biomass was between 30% and 70% B0…..All the model results indicated that current 

catches appear to be sustainable in the short term.” (MFish 2009, p343-344). 


Fishing method(s): Bottom and mid-water trawling. Hake are targeted around the Chatham Rise and Sub-Antarctic Islands and 

caught as bycatch in the hoki fishery elsewhere, particularly the West Coast of the South Island. 


Habitat damage: Bottom trawling reduces species diversity and transforms community structure and composition. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch in the West Coast hoki fishery, the hake fishery is associated with killing hundreds of NZ fur seals and 

hundreds of albatrosses and petrels each year. The seabirds killed include nine species of which several are globally threatened, 

including black-browed albatross, Buller's albatross and white-chinned petrel. 

Ecological effects: There is a loss of bottom-dwelling invertebrate diversity due to bottom trawl fishing. Also, the dumping of offal 

and other fish waste during fish processing at sea is likely to have a broad range of ecological impacts on marine species and food 

webs (e.g. it attracts seabirds, some of which are subsequently killed of trawl lines/warps). 




Management plan: No. The hake trawl fishery is currently seeking environmental certification under the Marine Stewardship Council 

(and international body that assesses and awards sustainable fisheries certifications). This process may lead to the development of 

a formalised plan. 


Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment for Chatham Rise and West Coast stocks in 2004 and for sub-Antarctic stocks in 

2007. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake to Pipi, Science Group, 

Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; SeaFIC 

website 2004. 


Hoki 

Scientific name: Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Other names: whiptail, blue hake, blue grenadier (NZ), 

langschwanz-seehecht (Germany), merluse 

(France), merluza azul (Spain), nasello azzurro 

(Italy), hoki de nouvelle-zelande. 


Description: Hoki is a relatively fast growing, deepwater species related to cod and hake. It generally lives 

beyond the shelf edge from 50 to 900m, but is most abundant between 300 and 600m. There are two intermixing 

biological stocks, generally referred to as the eastern and western stocks. Trawling occurs year round making 

hoki one of New Zealand‟s largest fisheries. Hoki are targeted and caught in their spawning grounds on the West 

Coast of the South Island and the Cook Strait, plus some smaller spawning areas on the east coast of the South 

Island and Pusegar Banks. When not spawning, hoki are caught in the sub-Antarctics and on the Chatham Rise 

where juveniles of both stocks are found. Despite being certified as sustainable under the international Marine 

Stewardship Council scheme, it still has significant ecological impacts. 

Ecological concerns: The bycatch of hundreds of NZ fur seals, albatrosses and petrels each year, plus bycatch 

of globally threatened basking sharks. When bottom trawling, the fishery has significant impacts on the seafloor, 

altering seabed communities. 

Also of concern is the management of two stocks as one quota management area, the slow response to past 

stock declines so that large quota cuts were needed and the failure to take precautionary action in the face of 

potential stock recovery. (Quotas are this year being increased back to 110,000 tonnes - just over the level set 

following initial cuts in 2004. This increase is based on estimated of the west coast hoki stock being just within 

target levels for the first time in many years. Additional concerns include illegal mis-reporting of catches, the 

significant catches of small fish (over 40%) on the Chatham Rise and on the West Coast, plus the lack of a 

management plan. 

Economic value: Most hoki is exported to the USA, Europe - including the UK and Belgium – Japan and Australia. Hoki exports 

were worth $103 million in 2008, down from $346 million in 2001. The Fillet ‟o‟ Fish sold at McDonalds in New Zealand is hoki. 



Distribution: The main areas where hoki are caught are off the West Coast of the South Island, the Cook Strait, Chatham Rise to 

the east of the South Island and Sub-Antarctic waters at depths of 400-800m. 


Age at sexual maturity: 3-5 years. 

Growth rate: Relatively fast. 




Population size: Following many years of poor recruitment of juvenile fish to the adult population and depletion of stocks, 

particularly on the West Coast, hoki have recently been estimated to be within or above 35-50% of their original unfished population 

size (B0). However, the western stock could be as low as 27% of that size. 

Annual catch limit: From 250,000 tonnes in 2001-02, catch limits were dramatically reduced to 100,000 tonnes in 2004-05 and to 

90,000 tonnes in 2007-08. The catch limit has just been increased this year (2009) by over 20% to 110,000 tonnes. The hoki fishery 

has recently identified an Interim Management Target of 35 – 50% B0. 

Recorded catch: Estimated catch of 89,300 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest catch in over 20 years. 

Stock trends: Rebuilding. The stocks have been serially depleted, particularly the Western stock, and are now dominated by small 

fish and young ages classes. In 2008 around 50% of the catch on the Chatham Rise was made up of juvenile fish smaller than 65 

cm. The Chatham Rise made up about 40% of the total hoki catch in 2008. Overall in the hoki fishery around 40% of the fish caught 

were less than 65cm. 

MSY Status: 2009 is the first year of suspected recovery to a level at or above MSY. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: Western Stock: “Model run 1.1: B2009 was estimated to be 36% B0; 

About as likely as not (40-60% probability) to be above the lower end of the Interim Management Target [35 – 50% B0]. Model run 


1.2: B2009 very likely to be 39% B0; Likely (60% probability) to be above the lower end of the Interim Management Target. The 

biomass of the western hoki stock is expected to increase over the next 5 years at 2007-08 western fishery catch levels.” 

Eastern stock: “Biomass in 2009 was estimated to be about 48% B0. The biomass of the eastern hoki stock is expected to increase 

slightly over the next 5 years at 2007-08 eastern fishery catch levels.” “Both stocks are projected to be within or above the 35-50% 

B0 target range by the end of the projection period.” (MFish 2009, p 367-371). 


Fishing method(s): Bottom trawling targets non-spawning aggregations (Chatham Rise and Sub-Antarctic Plateau) and mid-water 

trawling targets spawning aggregations on West Coast and Cook Strait. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling bulldozes the sea floor, destroying soft corals, sponges and long-lived bryozoans. The expanding 

use of twin rigs and double linked nets (and some triple linked nets) with a large heavy roller in between has increased the impact of 

this fishery on fragile deepwater habitats. 

Bycatch: Hundreds of NZ fur seals, albatrosses and petrels are drowned in the hoki fishery each year. The affected albatrosses and 

petrels include several globally threatened species such as black-browed and Buller's albatross and white-chinned petrel. Non-target 

fish species bycatch is also a problem and includes quota species hake, ling and silver warehou, which are caught in West Coast 

hoki fisheries. Other bycatch species include vulnerable deepwater sharks (e.g. shovelnose dogfish, seal shark and Baxter‟s 

dogfish). Globally threatened basking sharks are also caught. There is also incidental mortality of young hoki passing through the 

net meshes. 

Ecological effects: The combined effects of seafloor damage and alteration, high non-target fish bycatch, protected and threatened 

species bycatch and practices such as the dumping of offal and other fish waste during processing at sea has considerable 

ecological implications. 

Management and management unit (score B and C) 



Management plan: No, but draft prepared. 

Management component: Single species, however two stocks managed as one quota area. 

Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment for East and West stocks in 2009. 

References: European marketing and the MSC, SEAFOOD magazine, May 2004, Vol 12 no. 4, p8; Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock 

assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi, Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised 

Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; MFish Starfish web pages 2004; SeaFIC website 2004. 


Jack mackerel 

Scientific name: Trachurus declivis (Jack Mackerel), T. 

novaezelandiae (New Zealand Jack Mackerel), 

T. symmetricus murphyi (Peruvian Jack 

Mackerel). 

Other names: haature, hauture (Maori), horse mackerel, horse 

jack mackerel, slender jack mackerel, chinchard 

neozelandias (Canada), Chilean jack mackerel, 

saurel (France), maaji (Japan). 


Description: These three species of jack mackerels are managed as one species and are mainly caught in the purseseine 

target/bycatch fishery in the Bay of Plenty and off Northland‟s east coast. Trawl fisheries catch jack mackerel in 

other areas including the Taranaki Bight and Chatham Rise. Peruvian jack mackerel are a southern ranging species 

found in deepwater, whereas jack mackerel and NZ jack mackerel are northern species, forming schools in midwater 

and ranging from shallow bays and harbours to oceanic islands and reefs. 

Ecological concerns: The management of three species as one fishery, limited research, the lack of some basic 

biological data for Peruvian jack mackerel, the unknown sustainability of recent catch levels especially for western New 

Zealand (JMA7). Of significant concern is the bycatch of dolphins in the fishery west of the North Island and fur seals in 

fishery east and south of the South Island (JMA 3). Non-target fish bycatch, seabird bycatch, bottom trawl impacts on 

the seabed and ecological implications of jack mackerel removal from the food web. Other concerns include the lack of 

a management plan. 

Economic value: Export value of $51 million in 2008 with main markets in Japan, Eastern Europe and Fiji. 



Distribution: Jack mackerel and NZ jack mackerel are northern species above 45 0 S and 42 0 S respectively while Peruvian jack 

mackerel is a more southerly species from around the Stewart-Snares Shelf and the Chatham Rise. The two northern species are 

found 500m. 

Jack mackerel NZ mackerel Peruvian mackerel 

Maximum age (years): 25+ 25+ 32? 

Age at sexual maturity: 2-4 3-4 4? 

Growth rate: Moderate Moderate Moderate 

Reproductive output: Medium-high Medium-high Medium? 

Age exploited: 2-3 Unknown 2? 


Population size: Unknown. (Biomass estimates for JMA7 are uncertain.) 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 47,855 tonnes in 2007-08, the highest reported. 

Stock trends: Decline in T. declivis in JMA7. Landings have consistently been lower than the total allowable commercial catch 

since the mid-1990s. 

MSY Status: Unknown. Only a preliminary assessment for jack mackerel (T. declivis) in JMA7 in 2007. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Little is known about the resource in JMA 3, though estimated 

species proportions indicate a catch dominated by T. murphyi. 

For JMA 1 and 3 it is not known whether catches at the level of the current TACCs or recent catch levels are sustainable in the longterm. 

The status of JMA3 relative to BMSY [the biomass that would support the maximum sustainable yield] is unknown..” 

For JMA7 “Overall it cannot be determined if the TAC or current removals are sustainable for JMA 7, but it is likely that the removals 

from one component of the fishery (T. declivis) are sustainable at this time. Given increased catches in recent years continued 

monitoring of the catch composition is strongly recommended as is further work on potential abundance indices.” (MFish 2009, 

p389). 


Fishing method(s): Bottom and mid-water trawling and purse seining. 


?

Habitat damage: Low for purse seining; bottom trawling in effect bulldozes the seabed and can kill or damage bottom dwelling 

species and alter seafloor communities. 

Bycatch: Trawl fishing around Taranaki, off Waikato and Auckland catches common dolphins, dusky dolphins and pilot whales. The 

fishing area may also overlap with the range of Maui‟s dolphins, posing a possible risk to this critically endangered species. Trawling 

on the Snares shelf catches fur seals. Blue mackerel is also a bycatch species in this fishery. 

Ecological effects: Ecological implications associated with bottom trawling plus, as an important predator and prey species, 

reducing jack mackerel numbers can in turn have impacts on associated food webs. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, but only in all areas since 1995. 



Management component: All three species managed together as one. 

Stock assessment: A preliminary stock assessment for T declivis in JMA7 in 2007. No new quantitative assessment for T. 

novaezelandiae since 1993 in JMA7. No yield estimates in JMA 1 or 3 or for T. murphyi in any stock. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi, Science Group, Ministry of 

Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; Information describing 

Chilean jack mackerel (Trchurus murphyi) fisheries relating to the South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation. Doc SPRFMO-III-SWG-16; Francis, M. 

(2001) Coastal fishes of New Zealand: An identification Guide. 3 rd Edition. Reed Publishing (NZ) Ltd. 


John dory 

Scientific name: Zeus faber 

Other names: kuparu, pukeru (Maori), saint-pierre, zée 

(France), pez de san pedro (Spain), buckler 

dory (Canada), matôdai (Japan), European john 

dory (US). 


Description: John Dory are mid-water to seafloor dwelling and whilst found throughout New Zealand they are most 

common north of the Cook Strait. They are caught in mixed species trawl catches where the main target species are 

snapper and tarakihi, with some also caught by Danish seine. 

Ecological concerns: The damage done by bottom-trawling, the unknown long-term sustainability of the catch limits, 

the unknown status of stocks, population size and stock trends (uncertainty around possible declines off the West 

Coast South Island) and the uncertainty about stock boundaries in relation to quota boundaries. Limited research and 

the lack of a management plan are also of concern. 

Economic value: New Zealand market plus exports to Australia, United States and Germany with a value of about $5 

million in 2008. 

Best option: John dory caught by Danish seine rather than by trawl. Avoid fish caught using bottom trawl gear. 



Distribution: Relatively common in coastal waters off northern New Zealand, especially from the Bay of Plenty northwards. 



Growth rate: Relatively rapid. 




Population size: Unknown but likely to be relatively small. 



Stock trends: Unknown, maybe declining off the West Coast of the South Island (JDO7). 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For JDO 1 recent catch levels and the current TACC are likely to be 

sustainable at least in the short-term. It is not known if recent catch levels and the current TACC are sustainable in the long-term. For 

all other JDO stocks it is not known if the recent catch levels and current TACCs are sustainable. For all fishstocks it is unknown if 

recent catches or the current TACCs are at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the MSY 

[maximum sustainable yield].” “The JDO 7 point estimate of biomass in 2007 had declined by 40% from the long-term high in 2003, 

however, the 2007 point estimate still lies within the range of uncertainty around the previous point estimates.” (MFish 2009, p398- 

400). 


Fishing method(s): John dory is caught as bycatch in trawl and Danish seine fisheries (e.g. snapper and Tarakihi). 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling bulldozes the seabed and kills or damages bottom dwelling species. 

Bycatch: Fish bycatch associated with its capture in the snapper fisheries in the Hauraki Gulf. 

Ecological effects: Trawling reduces species diversity and abundance plus catches large individuals. 

Management and management unit (score D and B) 





Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessments completed for any area. 




?

Kahawai 

Scientific name: Arripis trutta 

Other names: koopuuhuri, kooukauka (Maori), Australian 

salmon (Australia), Saumon Australien 

(France), bangeo (Korea), oki susuki (Japan). 


Description: Kahawai are found throughout New Zealand, but are most common north of Kaikoura. They form 

schools of similar-sized fish, with juveniles found in shallow coastal waters and adults in open water, often in large 

schools from seafloor to surface waters. Most kahawai are caught in purse seine fisheries that also target skipjack 

tuna, jack mackerel and blue mackerel. A lesser proportion is caught seasonally in set net and mixed species trawl 

fisheries. Kahawai is a particularly important species for recreational and customary fisheries. 

Ecological concerns: The uncertain maximum sustainable yield, unknown status of stocks, stock structure and 

stock trends, the bycatch of non-target fish and the lack of a management plan. Limited past research and the 

ecological effects of removing this important prey species is also of concern. 

Economic value: Exports of $1.5m mainly to Australia. 

Best option: Fish caught using purse seine – avoid Kahawai caught using set net or trawl. 



Distribution: Found in inshore waters around New Zealand but most common from Kaikoura northwards. 



Growth rate: Moderate to high. 


Age exploited: 3-4. 


Population size: The KAH1 assessment shows that the stock has declined to a mid-range of 27-62% B0 (the estimated unfished 

population size) depending on assumptions, including level of non-commercial catch. 




MSY Status: While the assessment is uncertain the stock is most likely above BMSY – between 27% and 69% B0. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For KAH1: “Current assumed removals are lower than almost all 

estimates of deterministic MSY. Combining this with the result that most estimates of current biomass are well above BMSY it is unlikely 

that the stock will decline below BMSY at current assumed catch levels, given the model recruitment assumptions.” 

For all other KAH areas: “No accepted assessment is available that covers these regions. It is not known if the current catches, 

allowances or TACCs are sustainable. The status of KAH 2, 3 and 8 relative to BMSY is unknown.” (MFish 2009, p 416). 


Fishing method(s): Most are caught by purse seiners, with less taken seasonally in set-net and some in trawl fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Low impact from purse seiners and set netting; high impact from trawl fisheries on bottom dwelling species. 

Bycatch: Range of other pelagic species including skipjack tuna, kingfish, blue mackerel and jack mackerel. 

Ecological effects: Loss of large older fish, impact of bottom trawling bulldozing the seabed and ecological implications of set 

netting, which can kill unwanted fish, seabirds and marine mammals. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, from 1 October 2004. 




Stock assessment: A new quantitative assessment in 2007 for KAH1. 


Fisheries; Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, Revised Edition 1990.; Francis, M. (2001) Coastal fishes of New Zealand: An identification Guide. 3 rd 

Edition. Reed Publishing (NZ) Ltd. 


?

Kina 

Scientific name: Evechinus chloroticus 

Other names: kina ariki, kin koorako, puurau (Maori), sea urchin, 

sea egg, Oursin de Nouvelle-Zelande (France) 


Description: Kina are an important grazing species found throughout New Zealand. Most are harvested by breath-hold 

diving, with a smaller proportion being caught by targeted dredging. 

Ecological concerns: The unknown sustainability of current catch levels or limits, the risk a serial depletion of stocks 

and impacts on reef communities from changes in grazing levels, the lack of stock assessments, limited research and the 

lack of a management plan. When dredged, considerable habitat damage can occur. 

Economic value: Kina are sold in New Zealand. 

Best option: Kina collected by hand (breath-hold diving). 



Distribution: Throughout New Zealand and the Sub-Antarctic Islands. 





Age exploited: 8-9 (uncertain) 




Recorded catch: Reported catch of 762.9 tonnes for all fishstocks in 2007-08. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “For all Fishstocks it is not known if current catch levels or TACCs 

are sustainable, or if they are at levels which will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support sustainable yields.” (MFish 

2009 p424). 


Fishing method(s): Most kina are harvested by breath-hold diving with a smaller proportion being caught by target dredging. 

Habitat damage: Minimal damage from diving; dredging scrapes the seafloor killing or damaging bottom dwelling species. 

Bycatch: None from diving; dredging has a high bycatch including a range of bottom dwelling species. 

Ecological effects: Changes in kina numbers have effects on algal community assemblages. Impacts will depend on scale and 

intensity of harvesting. Dredging for kina has considerable ecological implications as it destroys seafloor communities, which affects 

associated mid-water species. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, since 2002 (South Island) and 2003 (North Island). 




Stock assessment: No stock assessments. Biomass estimates have been made for Arapawa Island (1997) and Dusky Sound and 

Chalky Inlet (1995). 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi Science Group, Ministry of 



?

Kingfish 

Scientific name: Seriola lalandi 

Other names: haku, kahu, makumaku, warehenga (Maori), 

yellowtail kingfish, northern kingfish 


Description: This relatively large fish is an important predatory fish rarely found south of Cook Strait, preferring the 

warmer waters of the north. It can form schools of up to several hundred but is mainly caught as a non-target catch of 

inshore set net, trawl and longline fisheries. Kingfish is a commonly sought after recreational fish. 

Ecological concerns: The loss of large individual fish, the unknown sustainability of the combined commercial and 

recreational catch limits, uncertainty about the stock structure, the absence of biomass and yield estimates, the 

absence of a quantitative stock assessment, limited research and the lack of a management plan. Some fishing 

methods cause damage to the seabed and have high fish bycatch. 

Economic value: About 25% of kingfish is exported (under $0.5m) to the USA and Australia with the rest going to the 

domestic New Zealand market. 

Best option: Line caught kingfish. 



Distribution: Common in coastal waters around the North Island. 


Age at sexual maturity: 4-7 (uncertain) 





Population size: Unknown, but stock relatively small. 

Annual catch limit: The maximum current yield (MCY) was set at 200 tonnes in 2007-08, the second lowest catch in over 20 years. 


Stock trends: Unknown, but there is concern from recreational fishers about current catch rates. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference biomass are not available. 

Although commercial catches are near or below MCY levels, it is not known if recent combined commercial and recreational catch 

levels are sustainable.” (MFish 2009, p436). 


Fishing method(s): Mainly taken as a non-target catch of inshore set net and longline fisheries with some trawl bycatch. 

Habitat damage: Minimal damage from lines or set nets. Trawling causes damage to seafloor habitats contacting the seabed. 

Bycatch: Range of species caught as bycatch in set net and trawl fisheries, which are often highly unselective techniques. 

Ecological effects: Removal of large fish may alter food web dynamics, whilst bottom contact trawling bulldozes the seabed, 

reducing biodiversity of bottom dwelling communities. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative assessment for any area. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi Science Group, Ministry of 

Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; Francis, M. (2001) 

Coastal fishes of New Zealand: An identification Guide. 3 rd Edition. Reed Publishing (NZ) Ltd. 


?

Leatherjacket / Creamfish 

Scientific name: Parika scaber 

Other names: kokiri, kiririi (Maori), trigger fish. 


Description: Leatherjacket or creamfish is a relatively small coastal species found throughout New Zealand, but largely 

caught off the South Island. Most of the catch is taken as bycatch in a range of trawl fisheries mainly targeting trevally, 

red gurnard and snapper but in recent years it has also been caught in some fisheries targeting squid. 

Ecological concerns: Uncertainty about the state of the stocks, the lack of a stock assessment, limited research and no 

management plan. Bycatch of sharks and seabirds in associated fisheries is also of concern, as are impacts on seafloor 

habitats when caught with bottom trawl gear. 

Economic value: The main market is domestic and Australia with exports of $660,000 in 2008. 



Distribution: Leatherjacket is distributed throughout New Zealand including the Chatham Islands. It is caught on the East Coast 

between Otago and East Cape in Southland and between Cape Farewell and Cape Foulwind on the West Coast. 

Maximum age (years): 7+? 




Age exploited: 2+? 


Population size: Uncertain. 

Annual catch limit: 1431 tonnes in 2003 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 467 tonnes in 2007-08, well below the 1300 tonnes caught in 1999-2000 fishing 

year. 

Stock trends: Uncertain. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “There are no estimates of reference or current biomass. It is not 

known whether the leatherjacket stocks are at, above or below a level that can produce MSY. (MFish, 2009, p450). 


Method: Bycatch in a range of trawl fisheries including those targeting trevally, red gurnard, snapper and squid. 

Habitat damage: Trawl fishing with bottom gear scrapes the seabed, reducing species diversity and altering habitat composition. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch species itself, this fishery is associated with the bycatch problems of other fisheries, including sharks and 

seabirds. 

Ecological effects: Damage to seafloor habitats and removal of this coastal species has knock on impacts on associated species 

and food webs. 





Management composition: Single species. 

Stock assessment: No completed quantitative stock assessment. 

References: Final Advice Paper ; Setting of Sustainability and Other Management Controls for Stocks to be Introduced into the QMS on 1 October 2003. 18 July 

2003 Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi Science Group,Ministry of Fisheries; The 

Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


?

Ling 

Scientific name: Genypterus blacodes 

Other names: hoka, hokarari, rari (Maori), ashiro, kingu 

(Japan), kingklip (South Africa). 


Description: Ling is a bottom dwelling species of the eel family, which lives at depths of 300-700m throughout New 

Zealand. It is often caught as bycatch in hoki and hake trawl fisheries, though it is also targeted with bottom longline 

and bottom trawl methods. The ling trawl and longline fishery is currently seeking environmental certification under 

an international body - the Marine Stewardship Council. 

Ecological concerns: Damage to fragile deepwater species and habitats caused by bottom trawling and the high 

level of globally threatened seabird species and NZ fur seals caught as bycatch. Also of concern is the unknown 

long-term sustainability of some current catch limits and landings, the uncertainty of stock boundaries, tthe lack of a 

management plan for the fishery and the loss of ling from diving depths. 

Economic value: The main export markets are in Asia, particularly Hong Kong and Japan plus Australia and Spain. 

Exports were worth $40 million in 2008. 



Distribution: Ling is widespread in water off the south of the North Island and off the South Island, but is mainly caught south of the 

South Island and over the Campbell Rise at 200-700m. 



Growth rate: Variable. 

Reproductive output: Medium to low. 



Population size: Unknown for LIN 1 and LIN2 (most of the North Island) and uncertain for LIN 7 (West Coast South Island). Other 

areas (LIN 3, 4, 5 and 6) are likely above BMAY. 

Annual catch limit: The catch limit was set at 21,977 tonnes in 2003-04. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 16,264 tonnes in 2007-08, the third lowest catch in 15 years. 

Stock trends: Unknown for LIN 1 and LIN2 (non-Cook Strait), declining for LIN2 (Cook Strait); uncertain for LIN 7, declining slowly 

LIN 5 and 6, and increasing for LIN 3 and 4. 

MSY Status: Unknown for LIN 1 and 2, described as "sustainable" for LIN 3 and 4 and LIN 5, 6 and 7. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For LIN1: “In the absence of a representative index of abundance, 

it is not known whether current LIN 1 catches or the TACC are sustainable. The state of the stock in relation to BMSY is unknown. 

The biological stock affinities of ling in LIN 1 are unknown..” 

For LIN 2 (Cook Strait – 40% of catch): “The model results … suggest that the stock has declined, particularly since the late 1980s. 

Based on the 2007 stock assessment current stock size is estimated to be above BMAY but is likely to continue to decline at current 

catch levels. It is not known if recent landings and the current TACCs are sustainable, or are at levels which will allow the stocks to 

move towards a size that will support the MSY [maximum sustainable yield]. 

For LIN3 and LIN4: “Based on the 2007 stock assessment current stock size is estimated to be well above BMAY and building. 

Catches at the level of the current TACC are likely to be sustainable..” 

For LIN 5 and 6 (but not Bounty Plateau): “Based on the 2007 assessment ling stocks are probably only lightly fished and current 

stock sizes are estimated to be well above BMAY. Estimates of absolute current and reference biomass are unreliable... It is likely that 

the current TACC is sustainable, as current catches appear to be having only a small impact on biomass levels.” 

For LIN7 (West Coast): “Based on the 2008 assessment, the status of the LIN 7WC stock is highly uncertain. The stock assessment 

model results did not provide reliable estimates of current biomass as a percentage of B0, but it is unlikely that this value is less than 

40%, and it could be much higher. The relatively constant catch history since 1989 and the relative constancy of the trawl catch-atage 

distributions since 1991 suggest that future catches at the current level are sustainable, at least in the medium term.” (MFish, 

2009, p466-467). 


Fishing method(s): Ling is mainly caught in targeted bottom longline and bottom trawling operations. 


?

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling bulldozes the seafloor and causes serious damage to seamounts, sea floor species and fragile 

deep-sea ecosystems. 

Bycatch: Several thousand seabirds are drowned on the longlines used in the ling fishery every year. This includes the critically 

endangered Chatham‟s albatross and other threatened species (e.g. white-chinned petrels, grey petrels, Salvin‟s albatross, fleshfooted 

shearwaters and sooty shearwaters). In September 2007, 12 critically endangered Chatham albatrosses and 22 Salvin‟s 

albatrosses were caught by a single long-line vessel on the Chatham Rise. New Zealand fur seals are also killed in the trawl fishery, 

as are a range of deepwater sharks including seal sharks. Ling is itself a non-target bycatch in the West Coast hoki fishery, which 

also has serious bycatch problems. 

Ecological effects: The combined effects of seafloor damage and alteration, high non-target fish bycatch, protected and threatened 

species bycatch and practices such as the dumping of offal and other fish waste during processing at sea has considerable 

ecological implications. 




Management plan: No. The ling trawl and longline fishery is currently seeking environmental certification under the Marine 

Stewardship Council (and international body that assesses and awards sustainable fisheries certifications). This process may lead to 

the development of a formalised plan. 


Stock assessment: Quantitative assessment for LIN 3 and 4 (2004), 5 and 6 (2003), 7 (2009), and 6 Bounty (2006) and an initial 

assessment for LIN2 (Cook Strait) (2007). 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; 

Guidebook The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; SeaFIC website 2004. 


Lookdown dory 

Scientific name: Cyttus traversi 

Other names: king dory. 


Description: An offshore, deepwater species that is widely distributed around New Zealand and caught as bycatch in 

trawl fisheries, particularly the hoki fishery. 

Ecological concerns: The absence of some basic biological information, the absence of a quantitative stock 

assessment, the unknown sustainability of recent catch levels and the absence of a management plan. The fishery 

also has direct impacts on seafloor communities as a result of trawl fishing. As lookdown dory is a bycatch of other 

fisheries, it is also associated with seabird, marine mammal and other non-target fish bycatch. 

Economic value: Lookdown dory is sold in New Zealand and Asia. 



Distribution: Lookdown dory are caught all around New Zealand with the largest catches on the East Coast of the South Island, the 

Chatham Rise and the West Coast of the South Island. 

Maximum age (years): 30+? 

Age at sexual maturity: ? 

Growth rate: Low? 


Age exploited: ? 




Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 430 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Uncertain but annual trawl survey on the Chatham Rise “show no decline in recent years”. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “There are no known sustainability concerns in the lookdown dory 

fishery. Trawl surveys indicate stable abundance in the main fishery. However, it is not known whether recent catches will allow the 

stock to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (Ministry of Fisheries, 2009, p 473) 


Fishing method: Trawling - lookdown dory is caught as bycatch in the hoki fishery and to a much smaller extent in the barracouta, 

hake, ling and scampi fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawl fishing scrapes the seabed, reducing species diversity and altering habitat composition. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch species of other fisheries, lookdown dory is associated with seabird and marine mammal bycatch problems. 

It is also associated with high non-target fish bycatch. 

Ecological effects: The combined effects of seafloor damage and alteration, high non-target fish bycatch plus seabird and marine 

mammal bycatch has considerable ecological implications. 


Quota Management Species: Yes since 2004. 





References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi , Science Group, Ministry of 



?

Mako shark 

Scientific name: Isurus oxyrinchus 

Other names: mako (Maori), mackerel shark, shortfin mako.. 


Description: Mako sharks, like most shark species, are slow growing and highly vulnerable to overfishing. They are 

related to porbeagle sharks and are listed as a vulnerable threatened species on the IUCN-Red list of threatened 

species. A highly migratory species, Mako sharks are taken in large numbers in New Zealand‟s tuna longline fisheries, 

mainly in the West and East Coast of the North Island from the Bay of Plenty north. About 75% of mako sharks caught 

are processed and the rest are dumped at sea. Mako shark are the third most common species of shark that are 

targeted for their highly priced fins, with about 47% of the reported catch recorded as finned. Jointly with snapper, 

oreo/deepwater dory and southern bluefin tuna, mako shark has the second worst ecological ranking of any commercial 

fishery in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: Limited research on mako sharks, lack of a stock assessment and uncertainty about the state of 

the stocks. The high number of juveniles in the catch is also of concern, as is the bycatch of other sharks, seabirds and 

fur seals. Where mako sharks are caught using bottom fishing methods, impacts on the seafloor and associated 

communities are also of concern. 

Whilst there is no management plan for mako sharks, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


makos, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. The practise of shark finning makos and other 

sharks continues to be legal in New Zealand, which is enormously wasteful. 

Economic value: The primary value is in the highly priced fins (and tails), which are exported to East Asian markets. 



Distribution: Mako sharks are highly migratory oceanic fish that often visit coastal areas around northern New Zealand. They are 

caught by longline vessels on the west coast of the North Island and East Coast. 

Maximum age (years): 29 males and 28 females. 

Age at sexual maturity: 7-9 years males and 19-21 years females. 



Age exploited: 2 (Much of the catch is immature.) 




Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 73 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest landings in seven years. 


MSY Status: Uncertain, but reported as „vulnerable to overexploitation‟. 



the TAC are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards the biomass that would support the maximum sustainable yield. Due 

to its biological characteristics, mako shark is vulnerable to overexploitation. (Ministry of Fisheries 2008, p50). 


Fishing method(s): Primarily pelagic longlining around the North Island, with a smaller catch caught by bottom longliners and 

trawlers. 

Habitat damage: Low except when caught by bottom trawling, which alters seafloor community structure and function. 

Bycatch: Other sharks, seabirds and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery. 

Ecological effects: Removal of a large predatory species has wide implications for oceanic food webs. The practise of shark finning 

– cutting off the high-priced fins of sharks and dumping the rest of the body at sea – is contributing to the decline of shark species 

worldwide. Shark finning is legal in New Zealand. 


?







References: Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary (November 2008) Stock assessments and yield estimates..Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; 

The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; Bishop, S.D.; Francis, M.P.; Duffy, 

C. (2006). Age, growth, maturity, longevity and natural mortality of the shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) in New Zealand waters. Marine and Freshwater 

Research 57: 143-154; New Zealand National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of sharks (October 2008), Ministry of Fisheries; 


Moonfish 

Scientific name: Lampris guttatus 

Other names: opah, spotted moonfish, nandai, akamanbo (Japan). 


Description: Moonfish are a bycatch in tuna longline fisheries on the west coast of both main islands. 

Ecological concerns: the uncertainty of some basic biological information, uncertainty about the state of the stocks, basic 

biology, the bycatch of sharks, seabirds and fur seals, and the lack of a stock assessment, or a management plan. There 

are also ecological concerns given removal of this large predator species from the food web. 

Economic value: Lookdown dory is sold in East Asia. 



Distribution: Moonfish are a widely distributed pelagic species found in both temperate and tropical waters of the World's oceans. 


Age at sexual maturity: 4-5? 

Growth rate: Medium-high. 

Reproductive output: Medium-high. 



Population size: There is no information on stock structure but Moonfish is known to have a South Pacific wide distribution. 


Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 42 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest reported landings in over 10 years. About 

70% of moonfish caught are mature. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “While moonfish appear to have moderately productive life history 

characteristics, the stock status is unknown. It is not known if recent catch levels are sustainable or whether they are at levels that 

will allow the stock(s) to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (Ministry of Fisheries, 2008, p53). 


Fishing method: Moonfish are caught mainly by pelagic longline vessels targeting tuna on the west coast of the North Island and 

East Coast, with pelagic trawling for southern blue whiting and hoki being the second main method. 


Bycatch: Sharks, seabirds and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery. 

Ecological effects: Removal of moonfish and non-target species from marine systems. 


Quota Management Species: Yes added in 2004. 





References: Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2008: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; 

The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


?

Orange Roughy 

Scientific name: Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Other names: Deepsea perch, sea perch, slimehead (NZ), red 

roughy (Australia), hoplostete orange, 

granatbarsch (Germany), pesce arancio (Italy), 

beryx de nouvelle-zelande (France), rosy 

soldierfish (Canada). 


Description: Orange Roughy is a very slow growing and long-lived (120 – 130 years) deepwater fish, making it highly vulnerable to 

fishing pressure and overfishing. It does not breed until 23-31 years old and does so once a year in large spawning aggregations, 

often around deepwater seamounts, pinnacles and canyons around New Zealand. There are nine distinct orange roughy fisheries 

within the New Zealand EEZ, each managed independently. The East and South Chatham Rise fishery is the largest and oldest 

orange roughy fishery in the world. Jointly with porbeagle shark, orange roughy has the lowest ecological ranking on the Best Fish 

Guide. 

Ecological concerns: New Zealand‟s orange roughy have suffered from years of over-fishing on the spawning 

grounds, which has decimated populations. Although quotas have been reduced in recent years, serious concerns 

remain as they may not be enough. Nothing is known about roughy recruitment and there is a mismatch between 

model projections and catch information. Most populations are now below 20% of their original unfished size with one 

reduced to just 3%. 

As well as stock concerns, orange roughy is caught by bottom trawling, which destroys sea floor species 

assemblages and fragile seamount habitats. It effectively bulldozes the sea floor demolishing black corals, lace 

corals, coral trees, colourful sponge fields and long-lived bryozoans, some aged at over 500 years old. Deepwater 

sharks and other non-target fish species are also caught, which alters marine food web dynamics. As a prey species 

for sperm whales and giant squid, orange roughy depletion has a direct impact on these deepwater species. Some 

orange roughy fisheries have also caught seabirds and marine mammals. 

Economic value: Orange Roughy is one of the most valuable export fish species, worth $57 million in 20086. 

Previously this was $200 million. Most is exported to the USA and Australia, with some to the UK where it is 

reportedly used by some fast food chains as fish fillet burgers. Orange roughy is also sold in New Zealand, for example 

as frozen fish fillets. 



Distribution: The main spawning grounds around New Zealand are the Challenger Plateau, Cook Canyon, Puysegur Bank, North 

Chatham Rise, Ritchie Bank and East Cape at depths of between 700 metres and at least 1500 metres. Most are caught on the 

Chatham Rise where the underwater terrain is rugged and consists of hill, pinnacle and canyon seascapes. 

Maximum age (years): 120-130. 

Age at sexual maturity: 23-31.5 years. 

Growth rate: Very slow. 

Reproductive output: Low. Females carry 40,000 to 60,000 eggs per kilogram of body weight, which is less than 10% of the 

average for other fish species. 

Age exploited: From about 20 years old. 


Population size: Most stocks are below 20% of their unfished population size (B0). The Challenger population is down to 3% B0. 

Annual catch limit: Set at 13,612 tonnes in 2007-08, with areas ORH7A and 7B closed. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 13,110 tonnes in 2007-08, down from a peak of 54,000 tonnes in 1988-89. 

Stock trends: Long-term decline. 

MSY Status: Most stocks are depleted well below BMSY and with minimal chance of recovery in the near future. Uncertain status for 

both Southern ORH 3B and exploratory ORH 1. Rebuilding of stocks indicated in models is not supported by catch rate information 

(e.g. ORH3B and ORH7B). 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For ORH 1, “An assessment of the Mercury-Colville box in 2001 

indicated that biomass had been reduced to 10-15% B0 (compared to an assumed BMSY of 30% B0).… In other areas of ORH 1 the 


status of the constituent stocks is unknown.… without any indication of current abundance, there is no way to determine if this level of 

fishing is in fact sustainable or if current feature limits will avoid overexploitation of localised areas.” 

For ORH 3B: NW and South Chatham Rise – “…the 2006 biomass was estimated to be below BMSY at 11% (8-16%) B0 and recent 

exploitation rates were estimated to be about four times that under a CAY policy… the probability that the stock would rebuild to 30% 

B0, or even 20% B0, within 5 years was close to zero.” 

NE Chatham Rise – “No quantitative stock assessment model. B2008 was estimated to be 13-30% B0; Likely to be below the 

Management Target [30%].” 

Puysegur – “the point estimate of biomass from this assessment [1998] is probably below BMSY, [7%] but it is uncertain”; Other areas 

– “The status of orange roughy in these areas is unknown. It is also not known whether recent catch levels or the current catch limit 

are sustainable or whether they will allow the stock(s) to move towards BMSY.” 

ORH2A, 2B and 3A: East Cape – the 2003 assessment indicated that the stock was then about 24%B0. [It] suggests that the current 

catch limit should allow the stock to rebuild.” 

East Coast North Island - “No estimates of current biomass are available..[but] biomass was likely to have reached a minimum in the 

mid 1990s [less than 20%B0]. [Currently] the stock was likely to be increasing under recent catch levels but was unable to determine 

whether the current TACC would result in a continued rebuild of the stock.” 

West Coast (ORH7B): “No estimates of current biomass are available. The current stock size is most likely below BMSY as catch 

rates have not increased over the last 5 years despite a large reduction in annual removals from the stock.” 

Challenger (ORH7A): “The 2000 assessment of this stock indicates that it is currently about one tenth of BMSY (range 7% to 14% of 

BMSY and 3% of B0” (MFish, 2009, p486, 498-499, 521-524, 530, 534-535). 


Fishing method: Bottom trawling between 750 and 1200m. 

Habitat Damage: Bottom trawling destroys sea floor species assemblages and fragile seamount habitats. It decimates black coral, 

lace corals, colourful sponge fields, long-lived bryozoans and many other invertebrate species. 

Bycatch: Includes coral trees, sponges and gorgonians which have been aged at over 500 years old. A range of non-target fish 

species are also caught including deepwater dory or oreo, Baxter‟s dogfish and basket-work eels. There is a bycatch of marine 

mammals and seabirds in some fisheries. 

Ecological effects: In addition to the ecological effects of habitat damage, Orange Roughy is a prey species of sperm whale and 

giant squid, so the commercial catch also reduces the amount of available food for species further up deep sea food chains. Fishing 

for Orange Roughy and oreos also removes a large proportion of deep sea benthic biomass, significantly altering these unique 

communities. 


Quota management species: Yes, since 1986. 


Management plan: No 


Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessments have been carried out for most areas apart from exploratory ORH 1 and 

Southern ORH 3B. Latest assessments at ORH1 (Mercury-Colville) 2001, East Cape 2003, East Coast North Island 2005, NW 

Chatham Rise 2006, East and South Chatham Rise 2009 review of previous assessments, Puysegur 1998, Challenger 2000, West 

Coast South Island 2007 

References Clark M (2001) Are deepwater fisheries sustainable? – the example of Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) in New Zealand. Fisheries research 

51:123-135; Clark MR, Anderson OF, Francis RICC, Tracey OM (2000) The effects of commercial exploitation on Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) from the 

continental slope of the Chatham Rise, NZ from 1979 to 1997. Fisheries Research 45:217-238; Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock 

assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; SeaFIC website 2004; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish 

Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


Oreo 

Scientific name: Allocyttus niger (black oreo), Neocyttus 

rhomboidalis (spiky oreo), Pseudocyttus 

maculatus (smooth oreo). 

Other names: NZ dory, black dory, smooth dory, spotted oreo, 

brown oreo, NZ smooth dory, deepwater dory, 

deepsea dory (Australia), teifsee-petersfisch 

(Germany), peterfisch (Switzerland), dore austral 

(France, Switzerland). 


Description: Oreos are deepwater fish that are long-lived (up to 150 years) and slow growing, making them highly 

vulnerable to fishing pressure and overfishing. There are three species in New Zealand, but they are all managed 

as one quota management species. They are predominantly found in deep waters off the east and south of the 

South Island and off the Chatham Islands. Jointly with snapper, mako shark and southern bluefin tuna, oreos have 

the second worst ecological ranking on the Best Fish Guide of any commercial fishery in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: Management of the three oreo species as one, a declining stock trend, uncertainty over 

stock boundaries, lack of stock assessments in some areas, unknown sustainability of catch limits and lack of a 

management plan. Attempts to improve research in the oreo fishery have been hampered by the seafood industry 

challenging and preventing the Ministry of Fisheries from commissioning research surveys. 

Also of great concern is the destructive impact of deep sea trawling on seamount habitats and high levels of non 

target fish bycatch. There is also a bycatch of marine mammals and seabirds. 

Economic value: Key markets are the USA, Australia, Germany and Switzerland, with smooth oreo being the main 

market species. Exports were worth $7.47 million in 2008. 



Distribution: Oreos occur around the south of New Zealand at depths of 600m to over 1000m. 

Black Spiky Smooth 

Maximum age (years): 153 100+ 86 

Age at sexual maturity: 27 Unknown 31 

Growth rate: Slow Slow Slow 

Reproductive output: Low-medium Low Low-medium 

Age exploited: 27? Unknown 21 


Population size: Estimates are uncertain. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 16,979 tonnes in 2007-08, down from a peak of 26,514 tonnes in 1981-82 and 21,755 in 

1996-97. 


MSY Status: Unknown for all areas except OEO 3A (black and smooth), OEO 4 (smooth), southland (OEO13A) and Pukaki (OEO6). 

Estimates are uncertain and there are conflicts between sub-areas (OEO3A), declines in CPUE inconsistent with stock sizes and 

unsustainable catches in Southland (OEO1/3A) and Pukaki (OEO6). 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: OEO 3A: Black oreos – “Model biomass levels are uncertain.” The 

“total mature biomass for 2002-2003 was estimated to be 52% of initial biomass (B0) [but] is not equal across the three sub-areas, 

with area 2 and 3 being 29% and 7% of their respective mature equilibrium virgin biomass levels. [There is] a 0% probability that 

[vulnerable biomass] would be greater than 27 %B0 (BMSY).”; Smooth oreos – “Total mature biomass for 2008-09 was estimated to be 

36% of the initial biomass (B0). The projections showed that biomass should increase at catch levels of 1400 t over the next 5 

years.” 

OEO 4: Black oreos – “The 2009 stock assessment of OEO 4 black oreo was considered unreliable.”; Smooth oreos – “the mid-year 

mature biomass in 2007-08 was 57% of mature B0. [But] there are considerable uncertainties associated with this assessment [as a] 


substantial proportions of the abundance in each acoustic survey are attributed to layer marks which are generally not fished [and] 

standardised CPUE in the larger east fishery has declined in recent years”. 

OEO1/3A Southland: Smooth oreo – The [2004] “biomass estimates are uncertain [but] the analysis suggested that the mature virgin 

biomass was probably small, less than 21,000t, and the stock is unlikely to be able to support a large fishery.” 

OEO6 Pukaki Rise: Smooth Oreo - “large stock sizes were unlikely. Particularly because the standardised CPUE has declined 

rapidly under catch levels that have been small relative to other smooth oreo fisheries..[and] median long term yield of about 550t, 

which is lower than the current catch of 1300t.; Black oreos - These biomass estimates are uncertain… The basecase results 

suggest… the stock is currently estimated to be at 44% B0 but with high uncertainty (19-80% B0). Projections suggest that mature 

biomass is as likely as not to fall below 20% B0 within the next five years if catches are maintained at the 2007-08 level. OEO6 

Bounty Plateau: Smooth Oreo – “Biomass estimates are uncertain …the basecase model [estimated] current mature biomass was 

estimated to be 33% of a virgin biomass...:; For black oreo and smooth oreo in other parts of OEO1 - “It is not known if recent catch 

levels or the current TACCs [total allowable commercial catches] are sustainable or if they are at levels that will allow the stocks to 

move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (Ministry of Fisheries, 2009, p563-564, 576, 588-589). 


Fishing method: Deepwater trawling, mainly on the south Chatham Rise, eastern Southland and Sub-Antarctic Plateau. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling decimates seabed habitats and fragile seamount species assemblages. 

Bycatch: A range of non-target species are caught including deepwater sharks such as seal shark, Baxter‟s dogfish and shovelnosed 

dogfish. Deepwater invertebrates such as soft corals, tall sponges, bryozoans, gorgonian corals and other corals are also 

caught, some of which have been aged at over 500 years. There is also a bycatch of seabirds and marine mammals. 

Ecological effects: Combined with the ecological effects of the closely associated orange roughy, the oreo fishery is responsible for 

considerable damage to seamounts, other special deepwater habitats and associated communities. 

Management and management unit (score B and E) 




Management component: Three different species managed together as one when they should be managed independently. 

Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment in OEO 3A (Black and Smooth) in 2009, OEO4 (Black -2009, and Smooth 

2007), OEO1 Southland (Smooth 2004), OEO 6 -Pukaki Rise (Black 2009 and Smooth 2006), Bounty Plateau (Smooth 2008) only. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi. Science Group, Ministry of 



Oysters 

Scientific name: Tiostrea chilensis 

Other names: tio, tio para, tio repe, tio parupaur (Maori), Dredge 

oyster, Bluff oyster, Foveaux Strait oyster, Stewart 

Island Oyster, Nelson oyster, flat oyster. 


Description: Wild caught oysters or dredge oysters are endemic to New Zealand and are found in coastal waters, often in dense 

communities. The fishery is seasonal (open from March to August), with the main commercial fishery operating in Foveaux Strait. A 

small catch is also taken when harvesting scallops in Tasman and Golden bays and a new fishery has started in Clifford and Cloudy 

Bays. 

Ecological concerns: Wild oysters are collected by dredging – a highly destructive fishing method that digs into the 

seafloor, destroying seafloor communities in it‟s path. The use of heavy box dredgers is especially damaging. 

Dredging creates considerable sedimentation, which smothers seabed communities in the areas where the fishery 

operates. In much of the Foveaux Strait, dredging has removed bryozoan reef communities, which has exposed some 

previously sheltered marine life to storm and tide action. Some oyster beds have not recovered from dredging, even 

after 50 years. 

The oyster fishery also catches a range of non-target species and has impacts on a number of fish populations, 

especially blue cod stocks. In Tasman Bay and Golden Bay, oysters have declined to low population levels and the 

fishery has been associated with a decline in fish stocks. The lack of a management plan and inadequate 

consideration of the impact of dredging in new areas (eg Clifford and Cloudy Bay) is also of concern. The presence of 

a disease in Foveaux Strait oysters in recent years, which has killed over 60% of the population, has made it difficult to 

estimate the current status of the population there. 

Economic value: Foveaux Strait oysters are sold in New Zealand, while some Nelson/Marlborough oysters are exported 

(up to a value of $10 million per year). 



Distribution: Widespread around New Zealand. 





Age exploited: 4-8 years old. 


Population size: In 2006 the recruited stock size in Foveaux Strait was estimated at about 28% B0, which is up from 10% in 1992. 

The biomass in Tasman Bay and Golden Bay continues to decline and is now at 32% of 1998 levels, with only 3% of 1998 levels in 

Golden Bay. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 826 tonnes in 2007-08 from Foveaux Strait, Tasman Bay and Golden Bay, and Clifford and 

Cloudy Bays. In Foveaux Strait current catches are less than 10% of catches in the 1980s. 

Stock trends: Uncertain in Foveaux Strait, with biomass projected to be decreasing or slowly increasing depending on level of 

Bonamia infection. Trends are also uncertain in Clifford and Cloudy Bays. In Tasman and Golden bays the stock has decreased. 

MSY Status: The Golden Bay population is well below BMSY, and other stocks are either below target levels or uncertain. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: Foveaux Strait: “Depending on the level of assumed [Bonamia] 

disease mortality, the 2009 stock assessment shows the median projected status in 2012 ranges from 30% more than the current 

level (with nil disease mortality) to 23% below the current level (assuming disease mortality of 0.2 y -1 ). For the current estimates of 

disease mortality, the model trajectories show the population size to remain about the same for a year and then continued, but slow 

rebuilding of the fishery. The decreased rate of projected rebuilding is due to relatively low numbers of pre-recruits and small oyster 

available to recruit to fishery in the short term.” 

For Tasman/Golden Bays: “Stock projections are unavailable... Catches at the level of the TACC are also likely to cause the stock 

to drop below the Hard Limit [10%B0] in the near term.” 


For Marlborough stocks: “Quantitative stock projections are unavailable.. Stocks are likely to be close to virgin biomass (B0) 

because the area has been commercially fished for only two seasons at the increased TAC.” (MFish, 2009, p 184-185, 192-194, 

200-201) 


Fishing method: Bottom dredging with a heavy metal dredger. 

Habitat damage: Dredging in effect bulldozes the sea floor, causing extensive habitat destruction, including the loss of bryozoan 

reefs from large areas of Foveaux Strait. Bryozoan reefs are not only important habitat types for species diversity, they are also 

important settlement areas for oysters and important for other commercial species (e.g. blue cod). 

Bycatch: Dredging collects everything that is large enough to be retained by the mesh. In an experiment, bottom dredging killed 19– 

36% of small oysters (Cranfield et al 1999). 

Ecological effects: Dredging causes considerable ecological damage, both directly to seafloor communities and indirectly by 

increasing sedimentation and smothering, and by altering food web dynamics. A disease (Bonamia) has repeatedly infected oysters 

in the Foveaux Strait fishery in recent years causing large-scale mortality. This is likely to have been exacerbated by the impacts of 

dredging, which has highly modified the seabed and stressed oysters. In areas where dredging stopped, blue cod and dredge oyster 

numbers increased and seafloor habitats have started to regenerate (Cranfield et al 2001). 


Quota Management Species: Yes, since 1996 for Nelson/Marlborough and 1998 for Foveaux Strait. 




Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment based on 2008 survey in Foveaux Strait and 2008 in Nelson-Marlborough, and 

2007 survey in Marlborough. 

References: Cranfield H J, Michael K P and Doonan I J, 1999 Changes in the distribution of epifaunal reefs and oysters during 130 years of dredging for oysters in 

Foveaux Strait, southern New Zealand. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 9, 461-483. Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 

2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake, Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 

Revised Edition 2007, The New Zealand Seafood Industry council Ltd.; Ministry of Fisheries 2004. H J Cranfield, G Carbines, K P Michael, A Dunn, D R Stotter, D J 

Smith (2001) Promising signs of regeneration of blue cod and oyster habitat changed by dredging in Foveaux Strait, southern New Zealand. NZ Journal of Marine 

and Freshwater Research, 2001, Vol. 35. 


Pacific bluefin tuna 

Scientific name: Thunnus orientalis 

Other names: Bluefin, Northern bluefin tuna (Australia), thon 

rouge de sud (Canada, France), 

minamimaguro (Japan). 


Description: Pacific bluefin tuna is a very large, highly migratory species that can move thousands of kilometres in a 

year. It was previously known as Northern bluefin tuna in the Pacific, but the northern bluefin is actually a different 

species (T. thynnus) that grows much bigger and is a rare visitor to New Zealand. Pacific bluefin tuna are occasionally 

caught in New Zealand, in association with southern bluefin tuna (T. maccoyii), in longline fisheries off the West Coast of 

the South Island, around Northland and in the Bay of Plenty. 

Ecological concerns: Limited research, uncertainty about stock assessments and the state of stocks (including the 

potential that they are overfished), unclear international management across different Pacific tuna management 

agreements and the lack of a management plan. The bycatch of seabirds, a range of shark species and NZ fur seals is 

also of concern, as is the removal of this important predatory species from oceanic food webs. 

Economic value: Pacific bluefin tuna are sold in Japan, USA and Canada where it is highly prized for sashimi and 

sushi. Almost all large bluefins are shipped to Japan where they can fetch very high prices. The export value of all tuna 

species combined was $42 million in 2002. 



Distribution: Pacific bluefin tuna are caught on the west coast of the South Island, around Northland and in the Bay of Plenty. 





Age exploited: 3+ 


Population size: Unknown - North and Central Pacific migratory population. 

Annual catch limit: 116 tonnes in 2004. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 13 tonnes in 2007-08, compared to 9,000 tonnes taken in the North Pacific. 

Stock trends: Uncertain but past decline in the size of the spawning population. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference biomass are not available… 

Given the conclusions of the May-June 2008 stock assessment with regard to the current level of [fishing mortality] (F) relative to 

potential target and limit reference points, and residual uncertainties associated with key model parameters, it is important that the 

current level of [fishing mortality] is not increased.” (MFish, 2008, p59) 


Fishing method: Longlining on the West Coast of the South Island and around Northland and Bay of Plenty. 


Bycatch: Seabirds, sharks and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery. 





Management plan: No, however a highly migratory species plan has been drafted by the Ministry of Fisheries. 


Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment. An assessment by the International Scientific Committee for tuna and tunalike 

species (ISC) in 2008 

References: The distribution of Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) in the south east Pacific Ocean, with emphasis on New Zealand waters, T Murray, NIWA, 

Aug 2005 NZFAR 2005/42; Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2008: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, 

Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


Packhorse lobster 

Scientific name: Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Other names: koura, papatia, pawharu (Maori), packhorse 

crayfish, crayfish, green rock lobster, Eastern 

rock lobster (Australia / US). 


Description: Found in the north and east of the North Island, Packhorse rock lobster live around rocky reefs at 

depths of 5 to 275m. They are larger and have a slightly greener colour than rock lobster (crayfish) and are mainly 

caught in the far north waters of New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: Concerns include the lack of basic biological data about the species, the absence of any 

stock assessment or directed research on this species, the unknown causes of the decline in reported catch since 

1998-99, the apparent decline within diving depth and the lack of a management plan. Catching packhorse lobster 

with cray pots may have impacts on some sensitive seabed habitats. 

Economic value: The market for Packhorse lobster includes Japan. 

Best option: Whilst assessed as a species of concern, Packhorse lobster is one of the better seafood choices in 2009. 



Distribution: Found mainly in the north of the North Island. 

Maximum age (years): Thought to be long-lived. 


Growth rate: Unknown. 

Reproductive output: Unknown. 




Annual catch limit: Set at 40.3 tonnes in 2002-03. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings are usually less than 25 tonnes each season, but was 34 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Unknown, but abundance has declined at diving depths. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: No estimates of current or reference biomass are available. “The 

status of this stock is unknown.” (MFish 2008, p94). 


Fishing method: Cray pots (often large, heavy and baited), which are dropped down to the seafloor to depths of 200m. 

Habitat damage: Minimal, but when carried out over sensitive habitats, may damage seafloor species such as soft corals. 

Bycatch: Minimal, but some octopus and shag species may be caught. 

Ecological effects: Unknown. Packhorse lobster are important generalist predators of a range of species including kina, so their 

depletion from an area may cause wider ecological impacts. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative assessment and no proposed future research. 

References: Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2008: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; 

The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; New Zealand commercial fisheries: 

The atlas of area codes and TACCs 2008/2009. Clement and Associates Limited, Nelson (2008). 


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Paddle crab 

Scientific name: Ovalipes catharus 

Other names: päpaka (Maori), swimming crab, south pacific 

crab, NZ sea crab, étrille (France), Gazami, 

menagazami (Japan). 


Description: Paddle crabs are found around New Zealand and southern Australia, where it is widely distributed in 

sandy, shallow waters. In New Zealand they are mainly caught off the east coast of the North Island, from the 

eastern Bay of Plenty northwards. 

Ecological concerns: There is limited research on paddle crabs, resulting in the unknown sustainability of recent 

catch levels, uncertainty over stock status and basic biological information. There is also no management plan and 

some concern about habitat damage caused by the fishing methods, particularly when caught as bycatch in trawl 

and dredge fisheries. 

Economic value: Paddle crabs are sold in New Zealand and Japan. 

Best option: Paddle crabs caught using cray pots. Avoid crabs caught as bycatch in trawl and dredge fisheries. 



Distribution: Widely distributed around New Zealand on sandy seabeds in shallow waters. 


Age at sexual maturity: 3-4 years (uncertain). 

Growth rate: Moderate to high. 

Reproductive output: High (uncertain). 

Age exploited: 3-4 (uncertain). 


Population size: Unknown – estimates of current and reference biomass are not available. 


Recorded catch: Total landings of 168 tonnes reported in 2007-08. 



Fishery Assessment plenary report states: For all QMAs [quota management areas] “Estimates of current and reference biomass 

are not available. Landings have fluctuated significantly in most QMAs, mainly due to market variations. Paddle crabs are abundant 

throughout most of their range and the fishery is probably only lightly exploited.” (MFish 2009, p602). 


Fishing method(s): Baited traps and pots, but also caught as bycatch in trawl and dredge fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Low for trapping and potting, except in sensitive habitats. Trawling and particularly dredging can have significant 

habitat impacts, altering seafloor communities. 

Bycatch: Minor for baited traps or pots, apart from some octopus and hagfish. Trawling, however, catches a range of seabed 

dwellers and fish species that live on or close to the seafloor. 

Ecological effects: Paddle crabs are a food source for other marine species, such as octopus. Their depletion may alter food web 

dynamics and any damage caused to seafloor habitats, may impact associated communities. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment and little directed research. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi. Science Group Ministry of 



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Pale ghost shark 

Scientific name: Hydrolagus bemisi 

Other names: Chimaera, ratfish, pearl. 


Description: As with the dark ghost shark, this species is a slow growing deepwater shark that is found throughout 

New Zealand‟s offshore waters. It has soft skin that is easily damaged. It is caught almost entirely as a bycatch of 

other target trawl fisheries operating around the Chatham Rise and in southern waters, most notably the hoki 

fishery, but also the silver warehou, arrow squid and barracouta fisheries. 

Ecological concerns: There is a lack of some basic biological data on pale ghost sharks, little directed research 

and no quantitative stock assessment (resulting in unknown sustainability of current catch limits). Also of concern is 

the possible dumping of catches in past years. Habitat damage is caused by trawling and, as a bycatch species of 

other fisheries, it is associated with seabird, marine mammal and other non-target fish bycatch. 

Whilst there is no management plan for pale ghost sharks, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


ghost sharks, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. 

Economic value: Ghost sharks are exported to Australia, with the shark fins being exported to Asia, at a value of 

around $2 million. 



Distribution: A deepwater species found throughout New Zealand waters, but mostly on the Chatham Rise and Southland/Sub- 

Antarctic at depths of 400-800m. 




Reproductive output: Likely to be low. 

Age exploited: Unknown. 


Population size: Unknown – estimates of current and reference biomass are not available. 


Recorded catch: Estimated landings of 818 tonnes in 2007-08 – it is likely that ghost sharks have been dumped and not reported in 

past years. 

Stock trends: Uncertain. Chatham Rise trawl survey indicates a decline of 80% between 1984 and 1994 (Clark et al 2000). 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current and reference biomass are available for pale ghost 

shark. For all fishstocks it is not known if recent catch levels are sustainable or at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size that 

will support the MSY [Maximum sustainable yield].” (MFish 2009, p296). 


Fishing method: Trawling - caught as bycatch in hoki, silver warehou, arrow squid and barracouta fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Trawling, especially bottom trawling for hoki, which bulldozes the sea floor destroying soft corals, sponges, longlived 

bryozoans and other associated seafloor communities. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch species, pale ghost shark associated with the capture of a range of other species, including seabirds, fur 

seals and non-target fish. 

Ecological effects: Broad ecological impacts as a result of seafloor damage and removal of a wide variety of non-target catch. (See 

hoki, silver warehou, arrow squid, barracouta). 







Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment for any area and little directed research. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 1: Alfonsino to Hake. Science Group Science 

Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; New 

Zealand National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of sharks (October 2008), Ministry of Fisheries. 


Paua 

Scientific name: Haliotis iris (black-footed paua) and Haliotis 

australis (yellow-footed paua) 

Other names: kararuri, hihiwa, karahiwa, karariwha, koeo, 

korohiwa, kororiwha, marariwha, marari, 

hauwai, inaka, wharangi (Maori), abalone, 

black-foot paua (H. iris), yellow-foot paua, 

queen paua (H. australis). 


Description: Paua is a large sea-snail that lives in shallow coastal waters, usually in large groups on rocky reefs, and feeds of 

algae. There are two species in New Zealand (black-footed and yellow-footed paua), but it is black-footed paua that is most 

abundant, with virtually the entire commercial fishery targeting it. Paua is taken by hand, mainly by commercial fishers. The attractive 

shell also has some commercial value. Most wild paua are taken from the South Island, Chatham Islands, Stewart Island and the 

southern coast of the North Island. 

Ecological concerns: The depleted state and unsustainable current catch levels in a number of areas, for example, 

declining stocks around Stewart Island (area 5B) and parts of Southland (area 5A), the potential for serial depletion 

and small-scale recruitment failure and the lack of a management plan. As paua is a highly sought after resource, a 

black market for paua has led to widespread illegal harvesting. Paua is an important algal grazer within marine 

ecosystems, so depletion raises wider ecological concerns. 

Economic value: 80% is exported to the western Pacific Rim, including Singapore, Hong Kong and Australia. Total 

exports were worth $46 million in 2008. 

Best option: Make sure you only buy paua from a reputable retailer to avoid eating illegal caught fish. Paua caught off the West 

Coast of the South Island are currently the most sustainable. 



Distribution: Paua is found around the whole coastline. Most of the commercial catch is from the Wairarapa coast southwards, with 

most of the catch from waters around the South Island, Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands. 


Age at sexual maturity: 4-6 (uncertain). 

Growth rate: Slow but variable. 


Size exploited: Minimum shell length of 125mm for black-footed paua and 80mm for the smaller species, yellow-footed paua. 


Population size: Paua populations around Stewart Island (area 5B), the Otago coast (area 5D) and the top of the South Island (area 

7) are below the reference biomass levels. Population size is unknown or uncertain in other areas. 

Annual catch limit: Set at 1,058.50 tonnes in 2004-05. 

Recorded catch: Reported catch was 1,045.69 tonnes in 2007-08. (There is thought to be considerable (up to 1000 tonnes) illegal 

and non-reported paua harvesting.) 

Stock trends: Probably rebuilding in area 7, declining or unknown in all other areas. 

MSY Status: Declining or slowly rebuilding. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: PAU4: “the results suggest that the current catch level is 

sustainable, but with considerable uncertainty [and] require this assessment to be treated with great caution.” 

PAU5A: At face value these results suggest that the current TACC and recent catches are not sustainable. However, the results 

suggest that catches at current levels within Dusky, Chalky and South coast areas ..will result in further depletion within these areas.” 

PAU 5B: “The assessment suggests that both spawning and recruited biomass are below the target levels...[Future projections of] 

recruited biomass shows a tendency to decrease.” 

PAU5D: “The stock assessment results were equivocal…the future direction of recruited biomass was uncertain…It is not known if 

recent catch levels and the current TACCs [total allowable commercial catches] is sustainable, or if they are at levels which will allow 

the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” 


PAU 7: “The assessment shows a depleted stock.... Assessment results suggest that the current catch level is sustainable and the 

stock is likely to increase over three years. The list of cautions discussed above under “other factors” should be read in conjunction 

with this statement. Potential problems with the model are likely to cause model results to be optimistic.” 

PAU 2 and 3: “There are no estimates of reference or current biomass for PAU 2 and 3. “ 

For PAU6: “The current TACC of 1 tonne is sustainable.” (MFish, 2009, 611, 622, 633-634, 644, 657-658, and 670) 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score A and A) 

Fishing method: Paua is collected by hand by free divers using a knife. Underwater breathing apparatus is not allowed. 

Habitat damage: Minimal. Other marine species may be damaged when paua are cut from rocks. 

Ecological effects: Removal of this important algal grazer from sub-tidal communities may alter algal community structure and 

modify food web dynamics. However, impacts will depend on scale and intensity of harvesting. 

Management and management unit (score C and E) 



Management plan: No 

Management component: Two species managed as one. However, most commercial fisheries target one species only. 

Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessments in PAU 4 (2004), 5A (2006), 5B (2007), 5D (2006) and 7 (2008). Uncertainties 

in models are likely to cause the model results to be optimistic. The assessments do not estimate unfished stock size (B0). 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: Hoki to Pipi. Science Group, Ministry of 



Pilchard 

Scientific name: Sardinops sagax 

Other names: mohimohi (Maori), sardine, pillie, Australian 

sardine (Australia), maiwashi (Japan). 


Description: Only recently identified as a separate species, the NZ pilchard is a small (up to 25cm), short-lived, but 

relatively fast growing fish found in mid to surface coastal waters. It is widely distributed around New Zealand, but 

found in heavy concentrations in sheltered bays such as the Hauraki Gulf and Tasman Bay, sometimes in mixed 

schools with sprat and anchovy. Pilchards are mainly targeted throughout the year by purse seiners, but also beach 

seine and lampara nets. In 1995 some populations were severely impacted by a natural mass mortality, thought to 

have been caused by a virus. Jointly with anchovy and sprats, pilchard has the highest ecological ranking of any 

New Zealand commercial fishery and is therefore one of the best fish choices. 

Ecological concerns: There is an absence of research on pilchards and the lack of a stock assessment, meaning 

that the sustainability of the current catch levels is unknown. There is also no management plan and concern that 

reducing their population could disrupt marine food chains as it is a prey item for many other fish species, seabirds 

and some marine mammals. 

Economic value: Exports of $140,000 to Asia with some locally available pilchards in New Zealand. 

Best option: Try to choose pilchards caught by purse seine rather than beach seine, as this fishing method is a more selective and 

does not contact the seafloor. 



Distribution: Widespread in inshore waters around the North Island and northern South Island. 


Age at sexual maturity: 2 years. 

Growth rate: Relatively fast growing. 





Annual catch limit: A catch limit was introduced at 2,485 tonnes in 2001-02. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 716 tonnes in 2007-08, less than half the previous year‟s landings. 

Stock trends: Annual landings have fluctuated from between 25 tonnes to 1,491 tonnes in the last 16 years. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current biomass are available. Recent catches 

from northeast North Island, and the TACC for PIL1 [northern North Island] are higher than the 660t MCY [maximum current yield] 

estimate. However, the MCY estimate is considered unreliable. It is not known if the current catches or TACCs are sustainable.” 

(MFish, 2009, p.675). 


Fishing method(s): Mainly purse seine, but also beach seine and lampara nets. 

Habitat damage: Low impact from fishing methods, especially when caught by purse seine. 

Bycatch: Sometimes catches other pelagic fish, such as anchovy, jack mackerel (in north) and sprats (in south). 

Ecological effects: Reducing the pilchard population disrupts marine food chains, reducing a prey species for other marine life 

including larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. This disruption to food webs has occurred in similar fisheries overseas. 







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Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment and no current directed research. 

References: Pilchard biology and fisheries in New Zealand, and a review of pilchard biology, fisheries and research in the main world fisheries, LJ Paul et al, NZ 

Fisheries Assessment report 2001/37, NIWA, July 2001; Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 2: 

Hoki to Pipi. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood 

Industry Council Ltd. 


Porbeagle shark 

Scientific name: Lamna nasus 

Other names: Porbeagle, porpoise shark 


Description: Pobeagle sharks, like most shark species, are slow growing and highly vulnerable to overfishing. They 

are related to mako sharks and are listed as a vulnerable threatened species on the IUCN-Red list of threatened 

species. Porbeagle sharks are highly migratory and are mainly caught as bycatch in a range of tuna longline 

fisheries on the west coast of both main Islands. They are also caught as bycatch in some mid-water and bottom 

trawl fisheries. Most of the porbeagle sharks landed (around 85%) are caught just for their highly priced fins, with the 

rest of the carcass dumped at sea. Jointly with orange roughy, porbeagle shark has the lowest ecological ranking on 

the Best Fish Guide. 

Ecological concerns: there is limited research on porbeagle sharks and no stock assessment. As a result there is 

uncertainty about the state of the stocks and the sustainability of catch limits. The fisheries associated with the 

porbeagle shark catches also catch other sharks, seabirds and fur seals. When caught as bycatch in bottom trawl 

fisheries, seafloor habitats are also damaged. 

Whilst there is no management plan for porbeagle sharks, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


porbeagle sharks, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. The practise of shark finning 

porbeagles and other sharks continues to be legal in New Zealand, which is enormously wasteful. 

Economic value: The primary value is in the highly priced fins (and tails), which are exported to East Asia. 



Distribution: Porbeagle sharks are a widespread oceanic species, found around most of New Zealand. 


Age at sexual maturity: Males mature at 8-11 years and females at 15-18 years. 







Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 42 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest reported landings in nearly 10 years. 


MSY Status: Unknown, but numerous trends a „cause for concern‟. Listed as vulnerable on the IUCN-Red list of threatened species. 



the TAC are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards the biomass that would support the maximum sustainable yield. 

However, declining catches over a period when effort has increased rapidly, low CPUE in recent years, combined with the low 

productivity of the species and a history of fishery collapses in the North Atlantic, are all cause for concern.” (Ministry of Fisheries, 

2008, p64). 


Method: longlining around the North Island, and bottom trawling. 

Habitat damage: Low for longlining but high for bottom trawling. 

Bycatch: Sharks, seabirds and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline and trawl fishery. 

Ecological effects: Removal of large predator species as bycatch in the longline and trawl fishery. 




Quota Management Species: Yes, added in 2004. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet, Science Group, 

Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; New Zealand 

National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of sharks (October 2008), Ministry of Fisheries. 



Scientific name: Chlamys delicatula 

Other names: tipa (Maori), southern queen, NZ gem scallop, NZ 

gem shellfish 


Description: This is the smaller of two scallop species in New Zealand. It is found mainly in southern waters from 

South Canterbury and Stewart Island to the Sub-Antarctic Islands. As with the more common scallops (Pecten 

novaezealandiae), they are found on the seafloor in sandy or muddy habitats. Queen scallops are a deeper species, 

found in waters up to 400m. They are harvested by dredging. 

Ecological concerns: Dredging is a highly destructive fishing method that digs into and is dragged along the 

seafloor. It results in a high bycatch of many non-target species, including invertebrates, and dramatically alters 

seabed ecology and associated species assemblages. Also of concern is the absence of directed research, 

unknown sustainability of current catch levels, absence of population size or yield estimates and the lack of a 

management plan. 

Economic value: The market for queen scallops includes New Zealand and Europe. 



Distribution: From South Canterbury to Stewart Island and around offshore islands from the Snares to as far south as Macquarie 

Island, Australia. 





Age exploited: 8? 



Annual catch limit: The catch limit was set at 380 tonnes in 2002. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 9.5 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Unknown and there are no yield estimates. 

MSY Status: Depleted in some areas, uncertain in others. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “A relative biomass estimate for the areas fished within QSC 3 is 

available from a 2004 survey. [But] this survey was not standardized and .. there are no previous estimates for relative biomass to 

provide comparison.” (MFish 2009, p698). 


Fishing method: Dredging. 

Habitat damage: Dredging bulldozes the seabed and removes a range of fragile invertebrate species including bryozoans and 

sponges. 

Bycatch: Non-target shellfish species and invertebrate species including bryozoans and sponges. 

Ecological effects: Dredging dramatically alters seabed ecology and associated species assemblages. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, since 2002 in FMA 3 and 5. 




Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessments. A non-standardised relative biomass is available from a 2004 survey. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet. Science Group, 



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Red cod 

Scientific name: Pseudophycis bachus 

Other names: hoka (Maori), NZ cod, moride rouge, julienette 

(Can, France), akadara, benidara (Japan). 


Description: This fast growing, but short-lived species is found throughout New Zealand, but is more common in 

southern waters at depths of 100 to 300m. They are mainly targeted by trawlers at depths of 30-200m in the 

Canterbury Bight and off Westland, but are also caught as bycatch in deepwater fisheries off the south of the South 

Island. 

Ecological concerns: Globally threatened Hector‟s dolphins have been caught in the east coast South Island trawl 

fishery. Restrictions on trawling introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching these dolphins. However, 

dolphins outside closed areas are still at risk and a pending court ruling may reopen areas to trawling. Trawling 

also catches non-target fish and, when fished at the bottom or using bottom trawl gear, causes considerable 

damage to deepwater seabed habitats and ecosystems. Also of concern is the absence of directed research on red 

cod, the unknown or uncertain sustainability of current catch limits and the lack of updated assessments and a red 

cod management plan. 

Economic value: Red cod is sold in New Zealand and is exported to Australia, Canada, Japan, and United States, with 

a value of over $9 million in 2008. 

Best option: Red cod that are caught in areas other than the east coast South Island trawl fishery and fish that are not caught by 

bottom trawling. 



Distribution: Found throughout New Zealand in shallow coastal water to waters over 700m depth. They are most common in around 

the South Island at depths of 100-300m. 

Maximum age (years): 7 (uncertain). 


Growth rate: Relatively fast growing. 




Population size: Unknown – variable, with good recruitment in colder El Nino climatic conditions. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 6457 tonnes in 2003-04, the second lowest catch in 6 years. 

Stock trends: Unknown as stock size undergoes high natural variability. East Coast South Island (RCO3) biomass index was at its 

lowest recorded level. West Coast South Island (RCO7) index was around its highest level, but with high uncertainty. For both 

RCO3 and RCO7 “there is a strong correlation between recruitment and environmental variables with a periodic 14 month time lag.” 

However, its predictive power of the environment-abundance model was more accurate for RCO7. (MFish 2007, p712-713). 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: RCO 1 and RCO 2: “it is not known if the current TACCs [total 

allowable commercial catches] and recent catch levels are sustainable or if they are at levels that will allow the stocks to move 

towards a size that will support the MSY [maximum sustainable yield].” 

RCO3: … “a constant catch at the level of the current TACC is unlikely to be attainable or sustainable in most years. Catches and 

the winter East Coast South Island survey biomass index in 2006–07 were at their lowest recorded levels. These low catch and biomass 

estimates are likely a function of a depressed population, rather than from recruitment failure.” … 

RCO7: “Recent quantitative stock projections are unavailable, and the previous assessment is too outdated to be informative for 

such a short lived species. The 2009 survey biomass estimate is the highest in the series but it also has the highest CV.” (MFish 

2009, p700-711). 


Fishing method: Trawling, mainly bottom trawling 


?

Habitat damage: Trawling damages deepwater marine communities and species. 

Bycatch: Inshore trawling for red cod poses a risk to threatened Hector‟s dolphins. Restrictions on trawling in areas where the 

dolphins are found, introduced by the Ministry of Fisheries in May 2008, have significantly reduced this threat. However, the risk of 

dolphin captures may still exist where red cod fishing continues to overlap with dolphin areas outside these closures. Non-target fish 

species caught include stargazer, red gurnard, elephant fish, rig and school shark. 

Ecological effects: Changes in seafloor communities from bottom trawling and possible impacts on marine food web dynamics due 

to impacts on ecosystems, plus species diversity and abundance. 






Stock assessment: Quantitative assessment for RCO 3 and 7 in 1999, but nothing for other areas. These assessments are too old 

to be accepted. No current directed research. 




Red gurnard 

Scientific name: Chelidonichthys kumu 

Other names: kumukumu, puuwhaiau (Maori), gurnard, 

latchet (Asia), grondin rouge (France), houbou 

(Japan) 


Description: This distinctive fish is widespread around New Zealand on sand and sandy shell seabeds. It is a major 

bycatch in inshore trawl fisheries for red cod, flatfish and jack mackerel, and is directly targeted in some areas 

including by longline and set net. 

Ecological concerns: Globally threatened Hector‟s dolphins have been caught in the associated red cod east coast 

South Island trawl fishery. Restrictions on trawling introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching these 

dolphins. However, dolphins outside closed areas are still at risk and a pending court ruling may reopen areas to 

trawling. Trawling also catches non-target fish and, when fished at the bottom or using bottom trawl gear, causes 

considerable damage to seabed habitats and ecosystems. Also of concern is the absence of recent directed research 

on red gurnard and lack of current stock assessments, the inclusion of several stocks in one quota management area 

and the lack of a management plan. 

Economic value: Export value of about $1 million mainly to Japan. 

Best option: Red gurnard caught by longline or by trawling in areas where there is minimal risk to Hector‟s dolphins (e.g. east coast 

North Island). 



Distribution: Widespread around New Zealand on sand and sandy shell seabeds to a depth of 150m. 



Growth rate: Variable. 




Population size: Unknown for all stocks. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 3,344 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest in eight years. 

Stock trends: Unknown for most areas. GUR3 likely to have increased since the mid-1990s. Catches are well below the limits 

except GUR3. 

MSY Status: Unknown apart from estimates for GUR 1 - in 1999 status was at 80%B0 for GUR1W and 59% B0 for GUR1E. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference absolute biomass are not 

available for any gurnard stock.... The current TACCs [total allowable commercial catches] were based on a period of highest ever 

catches, and these levels have not been reached in recent years.” 

GUR1: Stable or increasing CPUE trends in conjunction with a 20 year period of reasonably constant annual landings suggest that 

recent catches in GUR 1 are sustainable. As annual landings have remained at or a little over half the 2287t TACC it is not known 

whether the TACC is sustainable.” 

GUR2: CPUE analyses suggest that GUR2 abundance remained fairly stable between 1989/90 and 2004/05. Reported landings 

were also reasonably stable during this period... These results suggest that catches in this time period and the TACC are probably 

sustainable, at least in the short-term. 

GUR3: “Recent catches and the TACC are probably sustainable, at least in the short-term.” [Stock was] “at apparent low levels in 

the mid-1990s. Stock size appears to have increased substantially since then… Two independent CPUE series and the trawl survey 

corroborate that stock size for GUR 3 has increased since the late 1990‟s.” 

GUR 7: “The West Coast South Island trawl survey relative biomass index declined from 1995 to 2000 and has increased steadily 

from 2003 to the highest level in the series in 2009, the 2009 estimate is preliminary. Recent catches and the TACC are probably 

sustainable, at least in the short-term.” 


GUR 8: “It is not known if recent catch levels and the current TACCs [total allowable commercial catches] are sustainable.“ (MFish 

2009 p730-734). 


Fishing method: Mainly trawling, but also longline and set net. 

Habitat damage: Trawling for red gurnard uses bottom trawl gear, which damages seafloor habitats and communities. 

Bycatch: Trawling and set netting for gurnard poses a risk to threatened Hector‟s dolphins, particularly in the east coast South 

Island trawl fishery, where they have been killed. Restrictions on trawling in areas where the dolphins are found, introduced by the 

Ministry of Fisheries in May 2008, have significantly reduced this threat. However, fishing in areas outside these colures still poses 

some risk of catching the dolphins. Non-target fish species caught include stargazer, red gurnard, elephant fish, rig and school shark. 

Ecological effects: Changes in seafloor communities from bottom trawling and possible impacts on marine food web dynamics due 

to impacts on ecosystems, plus species diversity. 






Stock assessment: The only quantitative stock assessment is in QMA 1 in 1999. This assessment is too old to be accepted by the 

MFish stock assessment working group. 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet. Science Group 

Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council 

Ltd. 


Red snapper 

Scientific name: Centroberyx affinis 

Other names: kaorea (Maori), golden snapper, red fish 

(Australia and US). 


Description: Red snapper is a schooling fish, related to alfonsino, found around the coast of northern New Zealand 

from depths of 10 to 400m. It is mostly caught as a bycatch in the longline fishery for snapper (an unrelated species 

despite the name) off the East Coast of Northland, in the tarakihi trawl fishery around Northland. It is also caught in 

the set net fishery for snapper and trevally in the Bay of Plenty. 

Ecological concerns: Little is known about the biology of red snapper and there is considerable uncertainty about 

whether separate stocks exist, stock boundaries and the state of the stocks due to the lack of a stock assessment. 

Also of concern is the bycatch of sharks and seabirds in longline fisheries, impacts on seabed ecology from trawling, 

non target fish bycatch and the lack of a management plan. 

Economic value: Red snapper are mainly sold on the domestic market. 



Distribution: Red snapper are widespread around the coast northern of New Zealand and are found at depths of 10 to 400m. Thy 

are caught mainly around Northland and in the Bay of Plenty. 


Age at sexual maturity: ? 

Growth rate: Low? 

Reproductive output: Low? 



Population size: Unknown. There is also no research to determine if there are separate biological stocks. 


Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 87 tonnes in 2007-08, the highest catch in five years but well below the peak 

catch of 211 tonnes. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “The reference or current biomass is not known for any red snapper 

stock. It is not known if the recent catch levels are sustainable. The status of RSN 1, 2 and 10 relative to BMSY is unknown.” (Ministry 

of Fisheries 2009, p738). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score D and C) 

Fishing method: longline fishery off the East Coast of Northland, trawl fishery around Northland and set net fishery in the Bay of 

Plenty. 

Habitat damage: Low for longline and set net fisheries, high for bottom trawling. 

Bycatch: Sharks and seabirds are caught in the longline fishery and a variety of non-target fish are caught by trawl and set net 

fisheries. 

Ecological effects: Wasteful removal of non-target species from the marine ecosystem and damage to bottom dwelling species and 

habitats caused by trawling. 







References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2005: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet Science Group, 



?

Ribaldo 

Scientific name: Mora moro 

Other names: Deepsea cod, googly-eyed cod, white cod, mora 


Description: This deep-sea relative of red cod occurs around New Zealand and southern Australia at depths of 200 to 

1,300m. It is most common between 500m and 1,000m and is caught on bottom longlines and as a bycatch of 

deepwater trawling and longlining. In recent years, most of the catch comes from longlining for ling, but historically, from 

the late 1970s to 1990, it was a bycatch from target trawling for hoki, orange roughy and ling. 

Ecological concerns: The bycatch of seabirds in the longline fishery, the bycatch of NZ fur seals and seabirds 

associated with trawl caught ribald and the impact of bottom trawling on seabed communities. Also of concern is the 

absence of directed research and a quantitative stock assessment, the lack of basic biological information on ribaldo, 

the unknown sustainability of recent catches and the commercial catch limit plus the lack of a management plan. 

Economic value: Ribaldo are sold in New Zealand and Australia. 



Distribution: Occurs around New Zealand and is moderately common around the South Island at depths of 200–1,300m. It is most 

common between 500–1,000m. 

Maximum age (years): 60+. 


Growth rate: Unknown. 






Recorded catch: Reported landings of 992 tonnes for 2007-08, which was the lowest in 14 years. 

Stock trends: Unknown - total reported landings have increased since 1982-83 but are now half the peak catch of 1996-97. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: No estimates of current or reference biomass are available. “It is not 

known if recent catches are sustainable in the long term or whether catches at the level of the current TACCs will allow the stocks to 

move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish, 2009, p743). 


Fishing method(s): Trawl and longline – most catch since 1990 is bycatch from ling longlining. 

Habitat damage: Minimal impact from longlining. When caught by bottom trawl, deepwater habitats and associated communities are 

damaged. 

Bycatch: Same bycatch as in the ling longline fishery - vulnerable seabirds and deepwater shark species. (See ling for more 

information on bycatch species associated with ribaldo catches.) When caught in the orange roughy and hoki fisheries, a wider range 

of species are caught as bycatch, including NZ fur seals and seafloor invertebrates. 

Ecological effects: As a bycatch species in the ling fishery, this fish is associated with impacts on vulnerable seabird species and 

removal of a range of non-target fish from marine food webs. When caught by trawling, it is associated with significant alterations to 

deepwater ecosystem and species diversity. 










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Rig / Lemonfish 

Scientific name: Mustelus lenticulatus 

Other names: Pioke, Makoo (Maori), Lemonfish, spotted 

dogfish, smoothhound, spotted estuary smoothhound, 

gummy shark, hoshizame (Japan). 


Description: This small species of shark is a popular “fish and chip” fish, which has moderately fast growth and 

reproductive rates that make it less prone to overfishing than most shark species. Rig is found around New Zealand, 

usually in waters no more than 200m deep. It is caught in very long bottom set nets and in trawl nets, with a 

proportion also caught as bycatch in other targeted trawl fisheries. 

Ecological concerns: The rig fishery is notorious for posing a significant threat to globally threatened Hector‟s and 

Maui‟s dolphins, where they have been caught and killed in nets (especially set nets). Set nets and inshore trawling 

are also responsible for the bycatch of other dolphins, fur seals and seabirds. Restrictions on set netting and trawling 

introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching these endangered dolphins and other bycatch species. 

However, offshore fishing outside the closed areas still poses a significant risk plus, pending the decision of a high 

court challenge, the risk may return if regulations are dropped. 

Other concerns with the rig fishery include the limited research on it, the lack of quantitative stock assessments, 

unknown sustainability of some catch levels and limits (with declines in some stocks) and the lack of a 

comprehensive management plan. There are also concerns about seabed damage caused by trawling. 

Economic value: Rig is sold in New Zealand and Australia, with exports of about $2.5 m. 



Distribution: Common in coastal waters, especially shallow bays around New Zealand with adults out to 200m. 

Maximum age (years): 20 (uncertain). 


Growth rate: Moderately fast. 




Population size: Unknown - no estimates of current and reference biomass are available. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1313 tonnes in 2007-08 are the second lowest in nearly 20 years and are well under half the 

annual landings reported in the early 1980s, which peaked at 3,826 tonnes in 1983. 

Stock trends: Uncertain, but declines in catches in SPO 1 West (north west North Island), SPO7 (West coast and top of the South 

Island), and SPO 8 (south west North Island). The SPO 7 (Tasman Bay/Golden Bay) catch rates have declined by over 70% in the 

last 15 years, while a decline of over 50% was recorded in the West Coast South Island trawl survey between 1995 and 2005. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: No estimates of current or reference biomass are available. SPO 1: 

“reported landings have consistently declined since 1991–92. Patterns in relative abundance suggest that recent catch levels are 

probably sustainable in the short term…. However, it is unknown whether the current TACC is sustainable. 

SPO2: Apart from “a sharp drop [in the set net index] in the final one or two years.. indices are stable and have been for 14 years, 

the current TACC is thought to be sustainable. However, it is unknown whether the current catch, which is on average (past 4 years) 

23% over the TACC, is sustainable.” 

For SPO 3 “Recent catch levels are thought to be sustainable in the short-term, but it is not known if the TACC is sustainable 

because catches have averaged about 1/3 below the TACC since 2000–01.” 

For SPO7: [I]n 2006 based on a stock assessment, that SPO 7 was below BMSY and that neither current catches nor the TACC were 

sustainable. Based on this assessment, the TACC was reduced for 2006–07 to 221 t.” 

SPO8: All recorded landings have been less than the TACC. Recent catch levels are probably sustainable in the short-term. 

However, it is unknown whether the current TACC is sustainable. (MFish, 2009, p759-760) 



Fishing method(s): Trawling and bottom set nets, as well as bycatch in other trawl fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling damages seafloor habitats and associated communities. 

Bycatch: Globally threatened Maui‟s and Hector‟s dolphins are caught in set net fisheries, which also catch other marine mammals, 

seabirds and non-target fish. Trawling also poses a risk to these endangered dolphins. Restrictions on set netting and trawling in 

areas where the dolphins are found were introduced in May 2008. These have significantly reduced the threat to marine mammals 

and other wildlife, however, captures may still exist where fishing overlaps with dolphin areas outside these closures. Juvenile rig are 

also caught in harbours. 

Ecological effects: Changes to species diversity and disruption of ecological systems. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment. A preliminary assessment exists for SPO7. 




Rock lobster 

Scientific name: Jasus edwardsii 

Other names: koura, matapara, matapuku (Maori), crayfish, red 

crayfish, red rock lobster, spiny rock lobster, 

southern rock lobster (Australia / US), langouste 

(France), ise-ebi (Japan). 


Description: Rock lobster is found throughout New Zealand coastal waters living in and around rocky reefs at depths 

of 5 to 275m. Rock lobster are caught year round and the fishery is New Zealand‟s third largest seafood export earner. 

In addition to an annual quota, there are size restrictions in place to protect juveniles and egg carrying females. 

Ecological concerns: The depleted state of some stocks, the Gisborne stock in particular, which is half of the legally 

required population size, and the unknown status of some other stocks. While some stocks are recovering, they are 

still well below original levels. Also of concern is the increasing uncertainty of annual catch levels in the medium-term 

and the lack of a management plan. Cray potting is a relatively harmless fishing method, but it can have impacts on 

marine mammals, seabirds and sensitive seabed habitats. 

Economic value: Over 90% is exported "live" to Asian markets (Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong). Exports were worth 

$127 million in 2006. 

Best option: The best option is to buy rock lobster that have not been caught from the Gisborne area or from the 

southern South Island region. 



Distribution: Rock lobster is found along most rocky coastlines in New Zealand, but is more abundant around the south of the South 

Island and the Chatham Islands. 

Maximum age (years): Thought to be long-lived (40+). 


Growth rate: Thought to be slow growing. 




Population size: Stocks are well below estimated 1950s population levels. Several stocks have high exploitation rates, which 

means they rely on few year classes and are susceptible to periods of low recruitment (possibly recruitment overfished). 

Annual catch limit: Set at 2,766.3 tonnes in 2002-03. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 2 981.0tonnes in 2008-09. 

Stock trends: Variable – declines in northern and central New Zealand over the last 10 years but steady increases in southern 

South Island (CRA 7 and 8) over the last 10 years. CRA 3 (Gisborne area) is estimated at half BMSY. 

MSY Status: Depleted stocks in most areas in particular CRA3, CRA 7 and 8. There is no reference to unfished stock size (B0) or 

sustainable yield (BMSY) in the assessments. CRA 3 and 4 are below 30% of the 1950s stock size. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: Northland (CRA1): “The 2002 model results suggest that … levels 

of catch appear to be sustainable… However, the projections showed increasing uncertainty on an annual basis and should not be 

considered reliable much beyond two to three years.” 

Auckland-Bay of Plenty (CRA 2): “The 2002 model result suggested that 2001-02 stock abundance was higher than in the 1979–88 

reference period. The 2001-02 levels of catch ….appeared to be sustainable… However, in this stock, the projections should be 

considered less reliable than for CRA 1, because the uncertainty of future recruitment has more short-term effect on projected 

biomass.” 

Gisborne (CRA 3): “Current biomass was estimated to be roughly half BMSY, suggested a depleted stock compared with the 

estimated Bmsy. Current fishing mortality is approximately 27% higher than FMSY. Projections made for five years with the 2007 levels 

of catch… produced a median 25% decrease in model biomass.” 

Wairarapa-Wellington (CRA 4) The 2005 model results suggest that stock abundance in 2005-06 was higher than the 1979-88 

reference period. 2006 levels of catch produced a median 6% reduction in model biomass over three years to a level that usually 

remained higher than the reference levels. 


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Marlborough-Canterbury (CRA5): “The 2003 model result suggest that 2002-03 vulnerable biomass is higher than in the 1979-88 

reference period…. With the 2002-03 assumed levels of catch, model projections at the end of the 5-year projection period showed a 

median biomass smaller than the 2002 03 biomass, but still well above the reference levels. These projections showed increasing 

uncertainty on an annual basis and should not be considered reliable beyond two to three years” 

Chatham Islands (CRA 6) stock assessment “has not been updated since 1996. The status of the stock is uncertain.” 

CRA 7 and 8: The 2006 model results the “CPUE was well above the target set for the rebuilt stock. (Ministry of Fisheries 2008, p92- 

94). 


Fishing method: Cray pots (often large, heavy and baited), which are dropped down to the seafloor to depths of 200m. 

Habitat damage: Minimal, but when carried out over sensitive habitats, may damage seafloor species. Long-lived, slow growing soft 

corals are broken when large heavy baited pots are dropped onto them in the deep waters of Fiordland. 

Bycatch: Globally threatened Chatham Island shags, Hector‟s dolphins and sperm whales are known to drown when they get 

entangled on pot lines, for instance near Kaikoura. 

Ecological effects: Rock lobster is a generalist predator, so their depletion affects a range of species including kina. Fishing in 

sensitive areas may also alter seafloor community composition and diversity, 

Management and management unit (score B and A) 



Management plan: No, but since 1992 there has been very good management forums operating in different regions, where the 

commercial and recreational fishers are working on the state of the fishery. There is mixed success, with some forums failing to 

protect stocks (e.g. Gisborne area). 


Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessments for all areas except CRA 9, with some assessments in other areas being 5 or 

more years old – CRA 1 and CRA 2 (2002); CRA 3 (2008), CRA 4 (2005), CRA 5 (2003), CRA 6 (1996), CRA 7 and 8 (2006). 

References: Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2008: stock assessments and yield estimates. Sullivan (Comp), Science Group, 

Ministry of Fisheries; MFish Starfish web pages 2004; SeaFIC website 2004; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The 

New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


Rubyfish 

Scientific name: Plagiogeneion rubiginosum 

Other names: Rock salmon (South Africa) 


Description: This very long-lived (90 years or more), slow growing fish is found from mid-to-deepwater, where they 

school over the seafloor and off deepwater banks and reefs. Normally a southern ocean species, in New Zealand 

rubyfish prefer the warmer northern and central waters and are most common at depths of 200 to 400m. Rubyfish are 

caught throughout the year, mainly as bycatch in trawl fisheries for alfonsino, gemfish, barracouta, hoki and jack 

mackerel. There is also a developing target trawl fishery. At least a third of recent annual catches were from targeted 

mid-water trawling fished close to the bottom. 

Ecological concerns: The lack of some basic biological information about rubyfish, the absence of directed research, 

the lack of a quantitative stock assessment and, as a result, the unknown sustainability of recent catch levels. Also of 

concern is the recent decline in landings off the east coast of the North Island and the lack of a management plan. 

Non-target fish bycatch (including marine mammals and seabirds) and trawl impact on seabed communities are also of 

concern. 

Economic value: Rubyfish are exported to Europe and Asia. 



Distribution: Rubyfish are found in the southern oceans from South Africa to Australasia. Here, they are found in sub-tropical waters 

around northern and central New Zealand at depths ranging from 50 to 800m, but absent from the southern Chatham Rise and Campbell 

Plateau. 


Age at sexual maturity: 7 (uncertain) 










The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: No estimates of current or reference biomass are available. 

RBY1: In 2002…the stock [was assessed as] lightly fished [and] it seems likely that the stock is above BMSY. Based on the low 

catches through to 2004–05 - RBY 1 was likely to remain near the unexploited level at that time. 

RBY2: Most of the current RBY catch comes from QMA 2. It is not known whether the level of recent commercial catches in this 

QMA is sustainable. The status of RBY 2 relative to BMSY is unknown. RBY others: For most other areas it is not known if recent 

catches are sustainable. ..The status of other RBY stocks relative to BMSY is unknown. (MFish, 2009, p772). 


Fishing method: Mainly caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries (alfonsino, gemfish, barracouta, hoki and jack mackerel) and targeted 

by mid-water trawling where the gear is usually fished close to the bottom. 

Habitat damage: Trawling on seamount features, close to or on the seabed, can cause significant damage to habitats and 

associated communities. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch species, rubyfish are associated with a range of non-target fish, including quota management system species 

(e.g. tarakihi, silver warehou, gemfish and ling) and the captures of seabirds and marine mammals. (See alfonsino, gemfish, 

barracouta, hoki and jack mackerel fisheries for associated bycatch.) 

Ecological effects: Disruption to marine webs by the removal of a wide range of fish species, and destruction of deep water 

ecosystems and species when fishing occurs on or close to the seafloor. 


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Scallops 

Scientific name: Pecten novaezealandiae 

Other names: kuakua, pure, tipai, tupa (Maori), coquille saintjacques 

de Nouvelle-Zealande (France), hotatega 

(Japan). 


Description: This is the larger and shallower distributed of two scallop species in New Zealand. It is found on the 

seafloor in sandy or muddy habitats of sheltered bays, from the low tide mark down to about 50m water depth. The 

main commercial fisheries are in the Nelson-Marlborough region, with other fisheries off Northland, Coromandel 

Peninsula and around the Chatham Islands. They are harvested before they spawn by dredging. The scallop dredge 

fishery in the Nelson-Marlborough region is currently seeking environmental certification under an international body - 

the Marine Stewardship Council. 

Ecological concerns: Dredging is a highly destructive fishing method that digs into and is dragged along the seafloor. 

It results in a high bycatch of many non-target species, including fish and invertebrates. It causes incidental damage to 

scallops (as much as 50% of those not caught) and dramatically alters seabed ecology and associated species 

assemblages, including high biodiversity habitat (eg Spirits Bay and Tom Bowling Bay). Also of concern is the unknown 

sustainability of current catch levels and limits, variations in stock sizes depending on survey timing and fishing 

season plus the absence of a management plan. 

Economic value: Most are exported to France, with an export value of over $2.3 million in 2008, down from $14.6 million in 2001. 

Coromandel scallops are sold in New Zealand. 



Distribution: These scallops are an endemic species found all around New Zealand, but especially in bays 10–50 m deep. 



Growth rate: Relatively high but variable between areas and years, and generally decreasing with depth. 


Age exploited: 1.5-3.5 


Population size: Scallop populations sizes are naturally variable between areas and years. 

Annual catch limit: Annual catch limits are variable between areas and years, with a minimum TACC set for Northland and 

Coromandel. Total catch limit was 895 tonnes meat weight. 

Recorded catch: The total catch in 2007-08 was 196 tonnes meat weight with about 50% coming from top of the South Island. 

Stock trends: Recovering Coromandel and some Northland fisheries, apart from the Far North and Bream Bay (which has declined 

85% in one year). In the southern fisheries there has been little recovery, with Tasman Bay reaching its lowest level in 10 years at 

1% of 1998 levels. 

MSY Status: Latest published data suggest a recovery in the Northern fisheries after substantial declines in the late 1990‟s and early 

2000‟s. The southern fishery has shown variable changes with Tasman Bay reaching 3% of it 2002 levels. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: For the Chatham Islands (SCA4), “It is not known if current TACCs 

[total allowable commercial catches] and catch levels are sustainable or will allow the stock to move towards a size that will support 

the MSY [maximum sustainable yield]”. 

For the Nelson/Marlborough (SCA7): “There has been a substantial decline in the biomass of scallops in both Golden Bay and 

Tasman Bay since about 2002; current biomass is extremely low in Tasman Bay…. In contrast, biomass in the Marlborough Sounds 

has remained relatively stable over the same period. Recent SCA 7 landings have been low, and Tasman Bay has been completely 

closed to commercial harvesting since 2006… It is thought now that the current practise of „rotational‟ fishing on its own is probably 

not a sufficient strategy for the sustainable management of this fishery.” 

For northern stocks: Northland – “A substantial increase in biomass was observed between 2003 and 2006, which resulted in the 

2006 biomass estimate being the highest recorded for Northland. However, the 2007 survey results suggest the biomass in Bream 

Bay and Mangawhai/Pakiri has declined markedly since 2006, and, consequently, the overall fishery biomass is far lower in 2007 

than in recent years.” 


Coromandel – “biomass estimates around the turn of the century (2000) were consistently at or near the lowest on record and it 

seems reasonable to conclude that the population was, for unknown reasons, at a very low ebb. In contrast, following reasonable 

increases in biomass, catch rate, and condition of scallops in 2003 and, especially, 2004, the biomass in 2005… was the highest on 

record. The 2007 survey results show there has been a decline in the overall biomass since 2006, although the biomass estimate is 

still high compared with historical records.” (Brown and Horn 2007. Ministry of Fisheries, 2009, p779-780, 790-791, and 799). 


Fishing method: Dredging at depths of 10–50 m (85 m at the Chatham Islands). 

Habitat damage: Dredging bulldozes the seabed and removes a range of non-target species including horse mussels, bryozoans 

and sponges. It also kills up to 50% of the scallops that are not caught. The sponge garden area of high biodiversity in Spirits Bay 

and Tom Bowling Bay was destroyed by scallop dredging in the 1990‟s. 

Bycatch: Non-target shellfish species and other invertebrates, plus occasional benthic fish (e.g., stargazers). 

Ecological effects: Dredging dramatically alters seabed ecology, reduces habitat variability and species diversity, and removes 

sensitive species such as horse mussels. 


Quota Management Species: Yes, for all areas since 2004. 


Management plan: No, but most stocks are supposed to be managed on a “current annual yield” basis (ie, catch limits are varied in 

accordance with survey results each year), however, surveys are not always annual. In 2009, the Southern Scallop Enhancement 

Company applied for environmental certification under the Marine Stewardship Council (and international body that assesses and 

awards sustainable fisheries certifications). This process may lead to the development of a formalised plan. 


Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment based on annual surveys for most areas apart from Chatham Islands (2005). 

References: Survey of scallops and oysters in Golden Bay, Tasman Bay, and the Marlborough Sounds, May 2007. Brown S and Horn P L June 2007. NIWA. An 

appraisal of an in-season depletion method of estimating biomass and yield in the Coromandel scallop fishery, M Cryer, NZ Fisheries Assessment Report 2001/8, 

NIWA, April 2001; Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet., Science 



Scampi 

Scientific name: Metanephrops challengeri 

Other names: kourarangi (Maori), NZ scampi, kaisersgranat 

(Germany), langoustine-de-NZ (France), akaza-ebi 

(Japan). 


Description: This is the largest prawn-like species found in New Zealand waters, although it is actually a small lobster. 

It is found all around New Zealand at depths of 200 to 750m. The commercial fishery is now under the quota 

management system after some controversy over allocation of quota. It is caught using specialised deepwater bottom 

trawls, with fine mesh nets. 

Ecological concerns: due to the fishing method, there is a high level of bycatch of fish, invertebrates, marine mammal 

and seabirds. There is also considerable destruction to seabed habitats, species and associated marine life. Also of 

concern is the unknown sustainability of recent catch levels and limits in all of the larger quota management areas, the 

uncertainty about stock boundaries, and the absence of a management plan. 

Economic value: Export value of $11.825 million in 2004. 



Distribution: Scampi are widely distributed around New Zealand at depths of 200-750m on the continental slope. 

Maximum age (years): 15 (approx.) 



Reproductive output: Low to moderate (females carry only a few tens to a very few hundred eggs). 



Population size: Unknown other than for areas subject to underwater photographic surveys in the Bay of Plenty. 

Annual catch limit: Total catch limit of 1,291 tonnes set in 2004-05. 


Stock trends: Declining catch rates in SCI1, SCI2, SCI3, SCI4A, and SCI6A was substantially under-caught. Scampi 1, 2 and 3 had 

the lowest catches for over 15 years. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: There are no agreed biomass estimates. “There are no stock 

assessments or yield estimates for any scampi stock. It is not known if recent catches and current catch limits for any scampi stock 

are sustainable in the long term or will allow the stock to move towards a size which will support the maximum sustainable yield.” 

(MFish 2009, p814). 


Fishing method: Bottom trawling with fine mesh gear. 

Habitat damage: Trawling for scampi has significant adverse impacts on seafloor habitats as it scrapes the seabed, impacting a 

range of non-target species. In the Bay of Plenty, over 1,100 km 2 is swept by trawlers each year, which is one of the smaller scampi 

fisheries (Cryer et al, 2002). 

Bycatch: There is a high level of a range of quota and non-quota species caught in scampi trawls (up to five times the target catch). 

Around the Auckland Islands, threatened NZ sea lions are occasionally caught as well as observed captures of globally threatened 

black-browed, Salvin‟s and white-capped (shy) albatrosses, plus sooty and flesh-footed shearwaters. 

Ecological effects: Scampi trawling causes significant disruption to seabed species assemblages, reduces deepwater biodiversity 

and modifies the structure of marine communities. 


Quota Management Species: Introduced on 1 October in 2004. 





Stock assessment: No completed quantitative assessment. 


Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd.; Cryer, Hartill 

& O‟Shea 2002. Ecological Applications 12:1824–1839. 


School shark 

Scientific name: Galeorhinus galeus 

Other names: makohuarau (Maori), grey shark, greyboy, tope, 

flake, milandre (France), eirakubuka, mejirozame 

(Japan). 


Description: School shark, is a long-lived and slow growing species that is late to mature. This means the fishery has low overall 

productivity and, as with most other sharks, the species is highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. Like rig, it is sold as a “fish and chip” 

option. It is widespread throughout the coastal waters of New Zealand, but is particularly abundant in the north at depths of at least 

200m. It is caught throughout the year, mainly by set netting. 

Ecological concerns: The school sharks fishery poses a threat to globally endangered Hector‟s and Maui‟s dolphins, 

which may be caught and killed in nets (particularly set nets) and risks catching other marine mammals, seabirds and 

non-target fish. Trawling for schools shark may also impact seabed habitats. Restrictions on set netting and trawling 

introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching endangered dolphins and other bycatch species. However, 

offshore fishing outside the closed areas still poses a significant risk plus, pending the decision of a high court 

challenge, the risk may return if regulations are dropped. 

Other concerns include the uncertainty about basic biological information on school sharks, the absence of quantitative 

stock assessments and consequently the unknown sustainability of current catch levels and limits. Lack of information 

on the size and sex composition of the catch and the lack of a management plan are additional concerns. 

Whilst there is no management plan for school sharks, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


school sharks, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. 

Economic value: School shark is sold for the New Zealand fish and chip market and is exported to main markets in 

Australia, fetching $6.15m in 2008. 



Distribution: Found throughout New Zealand coastal waters, although it is more common in the north. Prefers the shallower waters 

of the continental shelf, but is known to at least 200m. 


Age at sexual maturity: 12-17+ 








Stock trends: Unknown. Catches have been steadily increasing following historical declines in catch. However, there is a lack of 

information on sex and size composition of catches. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current or reference biomass are not available. 

School shark TACs were originally set at half the 1983 catch because of apparently declining catch rates and concern about the 

undoubtedly low productivity of the species. However, catches and actual TACCs have steadily increased since 1986–87. CPUE 

indices are characterised by high uncertainty, but there are no indications that current catches are not sustainable in the short-term. 

However, it is not known whether recent catch levels or the current TACCs are sustainable in the long-term. The status of SCH 1, 2, 

3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 relative to BMSY is unknown.” (MFish 2009, p832-0833). 


Fishing method(s): Set netting, trawling and lining, with some also caught by tuna longliners well offshore. 

Habitat damage: Trawling damages seafloor habitats. 


Bycatch: Juvenile school sharks are caught in harbour set nets and there is a risk of catching endangered Hector‟s dolphins, other 

marine mammals, seabirds and non-target fish. Restrictions on set netting and trawling in areas where Hector‟s dolphins are found 

were introduced in May 2008. These have significantly reduced the threat to marine mammals and other wildlife, however, captures 

may still exist outside these closures. 

Ecological effects: Changes to bottom dwelling species diversity as a result of trawling and alteration of coastal food web 

dynamics due to removal of this predatory species from the population. 


Quota management species: Yes since 1986 









Sea perch 

Scientific name: Helicolenus percoides 

Other names: matuawhapuku, pohuikaroa, puaihakua (Maori), 

jock stewart, scarpee, deepsea perch, ocean 

perch. 


Description: Sea perch is a relatively slow growing, long-lived fish (up to 45 years) that is related to scorpionfish. It 

is widely distributed around New Zealand, ranging from just a few metres water depth to very deep waters (1200m). 

It is mostly caught as bycatch in red cod and hoki trawl fisheries off the east coast of the South Island, including the 

Chatham Rise. A small targeted catch comes from some central and southern line fisheries, including the groper 

fishery and a small bycatch comes from bottom longlining. 

Ecological concerns: The lack of a quantitative stock assessment, the unknown sustainability of current catch 

levels (particularly given it is a long-lived species) and the lack of a management plan. Also of concern are the 

destructive impacts of bottom trawling on fragile deepwater habitats and species and the capture of non-target fish, 

seabirds and marine mammals associated with other fisheries. 

Economic value: Sea perch are sold in New Zealand and exported to Australia, Japan and Korea at a value of 

$1million. 



Distribution: Sea perch occurs widely around New Zealand at depths of just a few metres to 1,200m, but is most common around 

the South Island. 


Age at sexual maturity: 5-7. 

Growth rate: Relatively slow. 


Size/age exploited: 20-30cm or 5-20 years old. 




Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1,2457 tonnes in 2007-08, around 75% as bycatch in trawl fisheries - the second lowest 

catch in 10 years. 

Stock trends: Unknown, but between 1998/1999 and 2002/03, CPUE in SPE3 (off eastern South Island) declined in a range of 

fisheries. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current or reference biomass are available. For all 

fishstocks, it is not known if recent catch levels are sustainable.” (MFish 2009, p852). 


Fishing method(s): Sea perch is caught as a bycatch species by trawl and line vessels (mainly in red cod, hoki, barracouta and 

flatfish fisheries). 

Habitat damage: When caught as part of bottom trawling, there are impacts on sea floor habitats and bottom dwelling species. 

Bycatch: Sea perch is associated with the bycatch of red cod, hoki, barracouta and flatfish fisheries. The bycatch in these fisheries 

includes marine mammals, seabirds and a wide range of non-target fish species (see bycatch report for these fisheries for more 

information). 

Ecological effects: Due to the broad range of non-target bycatch associated with sea perch catches, there is likely to be multiple 

disturbances to marine food web dynamics. There is also disturbance to bottom dwelling species and diversity as a result of bottom 

trawling. 





?







Silver warehou 

Scientific name: Seriolella punctata 

Other names: warehou hiriwa (Maori), spotted warehou. 


Description: Like the white warehou, silver warehou are a deeper ranging warehou species than the blue warehou, living 

off the continental shelf edge and its upper slope. It is mostly caught from the Chatham Rise (their major spawning 

ground), Canterbury Bight, southeast of Stewart Island and the west coast of the South Island at depths of 200-800m. 

Ecological concerns: The absence of a quantitative stock assessment, resulting in the unknown sustainability of current 

catch levels and limits, the lack of current or reference biomass estimates and the uncertainty about stock boundaries. 

Also of concern is the overfishing of current catch limits, problems associated with the past mis-reporting of silver warehou 

as white warehou and the lack of a management plan. Trawling impacts on seabed habitats and communities is also of 

concern, as is seabird, marine mammal and non-target fish bycatch associated the fisheries in which this species is 

caught. 

Economic value: Export value of about $23 million, with the main market being Japan. 



Distribution: Found mainly on the Chatham Rise (with the major spawning are on the western Chatham Rise), outer Canterbury 

Bight, South Island west coast and the shelf south east of Stewart Island at depths of 200-800m. 



Growth rate: Relatively fast to mature. 




Population size: Unknown – no estimates of reference current absolute biomass are available. 



Stock trends: Unknown – recent catch rates in SWA1 (all waters off the North Island, West Coast and top of the South Island) is 

about half historic average levels. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current or reference biomass are available.” 

SWA1: “Catch curve analyses indicate that the average exploitation rate on silver warehou in the WCSI hoki fishery is probably less 

than the natural mortality rate, indicating that the stock is not being overfished. Annual catches have averaged 1480 t …and catches 

at this level are likely sustainable in the short to medium term. However, it is not known whether catches at the level of the TACC 

(3000 tonnes) are sustainable. The state of the stock in relation to BMSY is unknown. 

SWA3 and 4: “The sustainability of current TACCs and recent catch levels for these Fishstocks is not known, and it is not known if 

they will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish 2009, p860-861). 

Impact of fishing method and protected, threatened and endangered species captures (score D and D) 

Fishing method: Trawling – caught as a bycatch in hoki, arrow squid, barracouta and jack mackerel fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Impact of trawling on bottom dwelling species and associated communities. 

Bycatch: As silver warehou is caught in other target fisheries, it is associated with a wide range of non target catch, including marine 

mammals, seabirds and non-target fish. (See hoki, arrow squid, barracouta and jack mackerel for more information.) 

Ecological effects: Alteration of seafloor species and associated diversity due to trawling, plus removal of a range of fish from the 

system. 







?





Skates 

Scientific name: Zearaja nasutus (Rough skate), Dipturus 

innominatus (Smooth skate). 

Other names: manumanu, pakaurua, uku, waewae, whai (Maori), 

barndoor skate (NZ), suei, gangiei (Japan), gaori 

(Korea). 


Description: Skates are very closely related to sharks and are members of the cartilaginous fishes group (they have 

no bones). They are very distinctive, with flattened, wing-like bodies, and occur all around New Zealand from coastal 

waters to depths of about 200m. There are two species of skate commonly caught in our commercial fisheries – 

rough skate and smooth skate, the latter more common in deeper waters, living longer and growing larger. They are 

caught as a bycatch species in trawl nets and on lines across a number of fisheries in multiple management areas, 

each as a separate quota management species. The largest of these, extending from the coast of Fiordland out and 

round to just north of Kaikoura and including the Chatham Islands (QMA 3), accounts for more landings than all 

others combined. 

Ecological concerns: The limited research on skates and absence of basic biological information on each skate 

species, the unknown sustainability of recent catch levels in QMA 3 or the total quota area, the lack of a quantitative 

stock assessment and the lack of a management plan. Also of concern are the impacts on deepwater habitats as a 

result of trawling and the bycatch of marine mammals, seabirds and non-target fish in other fisheries where skates 

are caught as bycatch. 

Whilst there is no management plan for skates, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the Conservation 

and Management of Sharks was developed. However, there are no specific conservation actions for skates, nor is 

there any difference in its management from the status quo. Skates are finned at sea. 

Economic value: Exports of around $0.6 m to Asia and Europe, especially France and Italy. 



Distribution: Both of these endemic species occur all around New Zealand. Rough skate is more common in coastal waters while 

smooth skate is usually found in deeper waters, both extending to 200m water depth. 

Rough Smooth 

Maximum age (years): 9 28+ 

Age at sexual maturity: 4-6 8-13 

Growth rate: Unknown Unknown 

Reproductive output: High Medium 

Size/age exploited: Unknown Unknown 



Annual catch limit: A total quota of 1989 tonnes for rough skate and 867 tonnes for smooth skates in 2003-04. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 1,699 tonnes of rough skate and 715 tonnes of smooth skate in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Unknown, but biomass indices declined significantly since 1991 on West Coast South Island for smooth skate. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current and reference biomass are available. 

Relative biomass estimates from West Coast South Island trawl surveys 7 revealed strong decline for smooth skate. It is not known if 

recent catch levels or the TACC are sustainable.” (MFish 2009, p871) 


Fishing method(s): Trawling and on lines. Skates are caught as bycatch in a range of fisheries including hoki. 

Habitat damage: Trawling damages deepwater habitats and associated seafloor communities. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch of other fisheries, skates are associated with the captures of non-target fish, seabirds and marine mammals. 

Forest & Bird Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: Ecological rankings 

100 

?

Ecological effects: The primary effects are those caused by trawling – damage to seabed species assemblages, loss of large adult 

skates and disruption to deepwater food webs. 





Management component: Whilst recognised as separate species, these to skates (smooth and rough skate) are largely managed 

as a single species. 


References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 1997: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet. Science Group, 




101

Skipjack tuna 

Scientific name: Katsuwonus pelamis 

Other names: skipjack, bonite (France), tunny (UK), 

katsuo (Japan). 


Description: This top predator is a highly migratory species of tuna found worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters, usually 

preferring the warmer surface waters. New Zealand is the southern limit of the skipjack tuna migration route (which is well known for 

being very long) where they visit the northeast from December to May, or in later months from New Plymouth to Cape Farewell. 

Skipjack are predominantly caught by purse seine vessels operating North of New Plymouth and Hawkes Bay. The New Zealand 

catch is a small part of the Pacific fishery, which is now managed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission 

(WCPFC). 

Ecological concerns: Uncertainty about the state of the stocks, the bycatch of sharks, the bycatch of yellowfin and 

bigeye tuna in the Pacific fishery, plus the lack of a stock assessment, catch limits or a management plan. 

Economic value: The main market is for canning outside New Zealand, primarily in Indonesia and Thailand. The 

export value of skipjack tuna is about $10 million. 

Best option: Skipjack is the most ecologically sustainable tuna species on the Best Fish Guide. If possible, try to 

avoid skipjack caught in association with catches of yellowfin and bigeye tuna, which are overfished. 



Distribution: Skipjack tuna are caught on the west and east coasts of the North Islands, mainly north of New Plymouth and Hawkes 

Bay. 






Status and sustainability of fish catches (score B) 


Annual catch limit: It is not part of the quota management system (QMS) and no catch limits are set for New Zealand. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings in 2007-08 of 11,834 tonnes inside the zone with another 15,678 tonnes caught 

by New Zealand flagged vessels on the high seas. 

Stock trends: Uncertain but model results suggest that in recent years the skipjack population has been considerably higher (about 

20%) than the overall average level for the assessed period. 

MSY Status: Uncertain but likely to above BMSY. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “There are currently no concerns relating to the current status of 

this stock though there are concerns that any increases in fishing effort on this stock could adversely [effect] bigeye and yellowfin 

tuna. New Zealand catches represent 1.5% of the total catch. The stock is presently above the level necessary to produce the 

maximum sustainable yield. Current catches from the stock are likely to be sustainable. Current catches will move the stock towards 

a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (MFish 2008, p102-103). 


Fishing method: Predominantly purse seine fishery around the North Island with some troll caught fish. 


Bycatch: .Sometimes skipjack are caught with over-fished bigeye and yellowfin tuna, which is a concern in the Pacific fishery. 

Ecological effects: Excess removal of this and other large predatory species (e.g.tuna) has knock-on effects on the wider food web. 


Quota Management Species: No. 

Catch limits: No, nor is there a catch limit or Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ). 


102



Stock assessment: A South Pacific assessment in 2008. 


Pacific Community, New Caledonia, August 2001; National Tuna Fishery Report 2001 – New Zealand, T Murray and L Griggs, NIWA; Langley A, Hampton J and 

Ogura M 2005. Stock Assessment of skipjack tuna in the western and central Pacific Ocean. SC-1 SA-WP-4. First meeting of the WCPFC-Scientific Committee, 

Noumea, New Caledonia. Report from the Md-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of 



103

Snapper 

Scientific name: Pagrus auratus 

Other names: tamure, kourea (Maori), sea bream, bream, 

schnapper, NZ golden snapper, brim, porgy (US), 

dorade (France), madai, goushyuumadai (Japan), 

cham dom (Korea). 


Description: A slow growing, long-lived (up to 60 years) member of the sea bream family, snapper is one of largest 

and most valuable coastal fisheries in New Zealand. It is common around the North Island and upper South Island 

and is mainly caught by bottom longlining or trawling operations, generally at depths of 10-100 metres. Jointly with 

oreos/deepwater dory, mako shark and southern bluefin tuna, snapper have the second worst ecological ranking on 

the Best Fish Guide of any commercial fishery in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: The depleted status of the stocks (primarily as a result of historical depletion), the 

management of two stocks as one, the uncertainty in stock assessments for some areas and the lack of a 

management plan. As snapper are also a common target for recreational fishing, a sector in which there is limited to 

no assessment of catch, the impacts of the combined recreational and commercial catches are also of concern. 

The impacts of bottom trawling, the bycatch of seabirds in the longline fishery (including the globally threatened black 

petrel) and the possible bycatch of the critically endangered Maui‟s dolphin in the trawl fishery are other concerns. 

Restrictions on trawling introduced in May 2008 have reduced the risk of catching Maui‟s dolphins. However, offshore 

fishing outside the closed areas still poses a risk plus, pending the decision of a high court challenge, the risk may 

return to inshore coastal waters if regulations are dropped. 

Economic value: Japan is the single largest export market (around 50%), while Australia and Taiwan take some 30% 

between them. The export value of snapper was about $32 million in 2008. 



Distribution: Mainly in the warmer coastal waters of the northern North Island and the Bay of Plenty, but ranges to the north of the 

South Island. 




Reproductive output: Low to high. 



Population size: Depleted in most areas. 



Stock trends: All stocks appear to be increasing. However, SNA8 (Kapiti coast to Cape Reinga in the North) projections assume a 

level of recruitment higher than that observed in recent years and may not reach the legally required BMSY level for up to 60 years. 

The SNA1 stock (Northland to eastern Bay of Plenty) assessment has not been updated since 2000. 

MSY Status: The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) for snapper is assumed to be 20% of the unfished stock size (B0). This is 

unrealistically low. All stocks are likely below this legally required level. 

SNA 1 was about 18% B0 in 2000 and SNA 8 was between 8 and 12% B0. SNA2 stock (east coast North Island from Kapiti to 

eastern Bay of Plenty) was probably below the recruited biomass that supports the maximum sustainable yield. SNA7 (West Coast 

and top of the South Island) is thought to be rebuilding after being depleted to very low levels. 

Fishery Assessment plenary report states: SNA1 was last assessed in 2000: East Northland –the base case indicates that 

recruited biomass is at about BMSY reference point and is expected to exceed BMSY at the end of the twenty year projection period. 

Hauraki Gulf/Bay of Plenty – indicates that the current recruited biomass (2000) is less than the BMSY reference point but is expected 

to increase over the next twenty years under the current TACC and estimated levels of recreational and unreported catch. It is 

expected to exceed BMSY at the end of the projection period.” 


104

SNA2: “As there are no indices of biomass, model estimates [2002] must be treated with caution. For almost all [model] runs, the 

current biomass was estimated to be near to or somewhat below BMSY but was projected to increase towards BMSY by 2006 at the 

current catch level (436t).” 

SNA 7: “Current catch levels are below the expected level of productivity predicted by the assessment model which suggests that the 

stock should be rebuilding. This prediction has not been corroborated by catches or other information external to the model. … the 

model was depicting the 2001 SNA 7 biomass at an unrealistically high level (100-200% BMSY) and [the MFish Working Group] 

rejected the results of the assessment.” 

SNA8: “The 2005 stock assessment indicated that current biomass (2004–05) was between 8% and 12% B0 and the biomass was 

predicted to slowly increase at the TACC level of 1500 t. However, from 1 October 2005 the TACC was reduced to 1300 t to ensure 

a faster rebuild of the stock. At this TACC level the predicted rebuild to BMSY (20% B0) occurred after 2018 in all cases...” (MFish 

2009 p904-905). 


Fishing method(s): Bottom longlining, bottom trawling and some set netting. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling damages seafloor habitats and leads to a loss in biodiversity. (Thrush et al 1998) 

Bycatch: Seabirds are caught as by-kill on longlines, including flesh-footed shearwaters and globally threatened black petrels. while 

trawling and set netting catch a range of non target fish species. Snapper fisheries may also risk possible bycatch of critically 

endangered Maui‟s dolphins. Restrictions on set netting and trawling in areas where the dolphins are found were introduced in May 

2008, which has significantly reduced the threat to these dolphins plus other marine mammals and wildlife. However, captures may 

still exist where trawl fishing overlaps with dolphins areas outside the closed areas. 

Ecological effects: Modification and damage to seafloor habitats, associated species and food webs. 

Management and management unit (score B and C) 




Management component: Single species. Whilst most stocks are managed separately, there are two distinct stocks managed as 

one. 

Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessments in all areas except QMA 2 and 3. However, SNA1 was last carried out in 2000, 

SNA2 and 7 in 2002, and SNA8 in 2005. The results of SNA7 was rejected by the stock assessment working group. 


Ministry of Fisheries; SeaFIC website 2004; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry 

Council Ltd; S. F. Thrush, J. E. Hewitt, V. J. Cummings, P. K. Dayton, M. Cryer, S. J. Turner, G. A. Funnell, R. G. Budd, C. J. Milburn, M. R. Wilkinson (1998) 

Disturbance of the marine benthic habitat by commercial fishing: impacts at the scale of the fishery. Ecological Applications: Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 866-879. 


105

Southern blue whiting 

Scientific name: Micromesistius australis 

Other names: Southern poutassou, merlan bleu austral 

(France, Canada), merlu (Italy), blauer 

wittling (Germany), minamidara (Japan). 


Description: This deepwater cod species is only found in waters around the Sub-Antarctic Islands, where it schools 

near the seabed at depths of 450 to 650m. It is therefore targeted and caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries operating in 

this region, particularly during its spawning season in August to early October. The southern blue whiting trawl fishery 

is currently seeking environmental certification under an international body - the Marine Stewardship Council. 

Ecological concerns: The recorded and projected declines in biomass for two stocks (Campbell and Bounty‟s), the 

unknown sustainability of current catch limits in the two other stocks and the lack of a management plan. Of particular 

concern is the increasing trend of threatened NZ sea lion captures in this fishery, which has relatively low observer 

coverage. Also, the impact of bottom trawling, the very high bycatch of NZ fur seals (the highest of any NZ fishery), 

especially around the Bounty Islands and the deaths of seabirds are of serious concern. 

Economic value: The southern blue whiting fishery has an export value of about $22.7 million (2008), with the main 

markets in Japan, Bulgaria, Australia and China. This fish is also used to make crabsticks or surimi. 



Distribution: Restricted to Sub-Antarctic waters. This species is abundant south of New Zealand on the Campbell Plateau, Pukaki 

Rise and Bounty Platform at depths of 300-650m. 




Reproductive output: Medium to low. 



Population size: Highly uncertain or unknown for the Pukaki and Auckland Island stocks, depleted for the other two areas. 



Stock trends: The Bounty Platform stock and Campbell Island stocks have had good recruitment and are rebuilding. The biomass of 

the Pukaki Rise stock is thought to be stable, while the sustainability of current catch limits in the Auckland Islands stock is unknown. 

MSY Status: Of the four stocks, Bounty Platform and Campbell Island stocks are depleted, with the Campbell Island stock estimated 

to be below BMAY in 2007. The biomass of the Pukaki Rise stock is thought to be stable, while the sustainability of current catch limits 

in the Auckland Islands stock is unknown. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: Campbell Islands stock: “For the base case the B2006 was estimated 

to be 78,000t corresponding to 30% B0 [BMAY is 34%]. The assessment is much more optimistic that the equivalent stock 

assessment presented in 2006, particularly in the projections, as stock size is not predicted to decrease with future catches of 20,000 

tonnes (current TACC).”; 

Bounty Platform stock: “A survey carried out by the fishing industry in August 2007 indicated that there has been a very large 

increase in biomass in this stock since 2004… Without a formal stock assessment it is not possible to quantify the size of the stock 

and to determine a current annual yield (CAY) for the fishery… Another survey in August 2008 confirmed that the 2002 year class is 

very strong and biomass was likely to be over 100,000 t. Using the results of the 2008 survey to estimate conservative estimates of 

CAY… gave estimates of CAY of 13,500 t to 22,000 t. The TACC was increased from 1 April 2009 to 15.000 t.” 

Pukaki Stock “this stock has only been lightly exploited since 1993 and likely to be above the level that will support the MAY”; 

Auckland Islands stock “it is unknown if recent catches are sustainable or if they will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will 

support the MSY [maximum sustainable yield]” (MFish, 2007, p891). 


Fishing method: Trawling, mainly by foreign chartered vessels. 


106

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling bulldozes the seafloor and causes serious damage bottom dwelling species and fragile deepwater 

ecosystems. 

Bycatch: The southern blue whiting fishery has the highest captures of NZ fur seals of any fishery, especially around the Bounty 

Islands. It also captures seabirds, other fish species and, increasingly, globally threatened NZ sea lions. 

Ecological effects: Trawling impacts on bottom dwelling species and associated communities. Also, the removal of young southern 

blue whiting, which are an important food for globally threatened yellow-eyed penguin and forms the bulk of the food of globally 

threatened black-browed albatross (Diomedea melanophrys impavida) during the chick-rearing period (Cherel et al 1999). 

Management and management unit (score C and A) 

Quota Management Species: Yes, since 1999 (1 November). 


Management plan: No. The southern blue whiting trawl fishery is currently seeking environmental certification under the Marine 

Stewardship Council (and international body that assesses and awards sustainable fisheries certifications). This process may lead to 

the development of a formalised plan. 


Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessments for all areas except Auckland Islands. For example, Campbell Islands (2008), 

Bounty Platform (2004), Pukaki Rise (2002). Industry surveys in 2007 and 2008 have yet to be fully assessed. 


Ministry of Fisheries; SeaFIC website 2004; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry 

Council Ltd; Albatross predation of juvenile southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis) on the Campbell Plateau Cherel, Waugh and Hanchet, 1999 New 

Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 1999 Volume 33. 


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Southern bluefin tuna 

Scientific name: Thunnus maccoyii 

Other names: Bluefin, southern bluefin, thon rouge de sud 

(Canada, France), atun del sur (Spain), 

minamimaguro, indo-maguro (Japan). 


Description: Southern bluefin tuna is a long-lived migratory species, found throughout the Southern Hemisphere, 

which can move thousands of kilometres in a year. It is a highly sought after tuna species, due to its flesh being of high 

oil and low moisture content. Iin 1996 it‟s depleted status resulted in it being ranked by the International Union for the 

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as critically endangered. Southern bluefin tuna breed in the Indian Ocean off western 

Australia, arriving in New Zealand in prime condition at around the age of 5 years old, where they are caught off the 

east coast by longlining and trolling. Jointly with mako shark, snapper and oreo/deepwater dory, southern bluefin tuna 

has the second worst ecological ranking on the Best Fish Guide of any commercial fishery in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: Southern bluefin stocks are severely over-fished – the breeding population is severely depleted 

and there is a high level of unreported and illegal catch (up to 30% of the reported catch). The lack of a management 

plan and the bycatch of seabirds, NZ fur seals, a range of shark species and the huge non-target fish bycatch are also 

of concern. 

Economic value: Southern bluefin tuna are exported to Japan, the USA and Canada where it is highly prized for sashimi 

and sushi. Almost all large bluefins are shipped to Japan where they can fetch very high prices. An individual 444 pound 

bluefin sold for a record US$173,000 in Tokyo in 2001. The export value of southern blue fin tuna was $7million in 2008. 



Distribution: Breeds south of Java (Indonesia) on the west coast of Australia. Distributed in the southern oceans between 10 o S and 

50 o S, including New Zealand waters. 







Population size: Southern bluefin tuna are severely depleted - well under 10% of the 1960 population size and possibly as low as 

3%. In 1996 the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed this species as Critically Endangered, the highest 

threat category. 

Annual catch limit: The annual New Zealand catch limit has been set at 413 tonnes in 2004-05 out of a global “limit” of 11,620 

tonnes set by the Convention on the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT). This includes voluntary commitments from 

Korea and Taiwan to reduces catches by a combined 280 tonnes. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 378 tonnes in 2008. Estimated global catches reported in 2007 (11 540 t) were the lowest 

for over 50 years. In 2005 a high level of unreported or illegal catch was identified, principally by Japanese fishers, which went back 

over 20 years. There is also concerns about the reporting of aquaculture farming by Australian fishers. 

Stock trends: Declined to historically low size and it is unclear whether the stock is now stable or declining (it is not rebuilding). 

MSY Status: Well below the level necessary to produce the maximum sustainable yield and expected to suffer from further declines 

in spawning stock biomass in the coming years. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “At the 2008 CCSBT-SAG meeting the operating model was run 

under a number of scenarios that are generally similar to those evaluated in 2006. The scenarios indicate that spawning stock 

biomass is still at a very low level (generally below 10% of pre-exploitation spawning stock biomass, a level at which recruitment may 

be at risk of further decline). This is well below the 1980 level and below the level that could produce maximum sustainable yield. 

Rebuilding the spawning stock biomass would almost certainly increase sustainable yield and provide security against unforeseen 

environmental events. Presently, however, there is no sign of spawning stock biomass rebuilding. Consistent with the poor 

recruitment from 1999 to 2002, a gap in the size (and presumably age) composition is apparent. By inference this gap will lead to a 

further decline in spawning stock biomass in coming years.” (MFish 2009, p114) 


108


Fishing method(s): Pelagic longlining, with approximately 500,000 baited hooks set in New Zealand per year. The small number of 

Japanese chartered vessels and New Zealand vessels are required to use some seabird bycatch mitigation measures. 

Habitat damage: None. 

Bycatch: Seabirds, including globally threatened species of albatross and petrel, are killed as well as non-target fish (including blue 

sharks) and some marine turtles. Albatross species recorded killed in the fishery include Antipodean, Buller‟s, Salvin‟s, Gibson‟s, 

Campbell, Chatham, black-browed and white-capped. Grey petrels are also caught. The numbers of fish bycatch species can be up 

to 20 times the target tuna catch. 

Ecological effects: This fishery is directly responsible for driving both the target tuna species and some species of albatross 

towards extinction. Due to the excess removal of this species and the removal of other large predatory species, the fishery has 

knock-on effects on food web dynamics. 

Management and management unit (score B and D) 

Quota Management Species: Yes, in 2004. 

Catch limits: Yes, as a proportion of the „global limit‟ set by the CCSBT. 



Stock assessment: Quantitative stock assessment in 2008 and 2009 by CCSBT. Assessments have been affected by the high 

level of unreported or illegal catch identified in 2005, principally by Japanese fishers, which went back over 20 years. 

References: Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; 

SeaFIC website 2004; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


109

Spiny dogfish 

Scientific name: Squalus acanthias 

Other names: koinga, kaaraerae, mako-huarau, mangoo-hapuu, 

mango-pekepeke (Maori), spurdog, spineback, 

spiky dog fish, spiky, southern spiny dogfish, 

spotted spiny dogfish, rock salmon (UK), gob 

sang eo (Korea). 


Description: Like rig, this small shark species has moderately fast growth and reproductive rates that make it less 

prone to overfishing than most shark species. It lives near the seafloor, in deeper waters than rig (100 – 700m), 

occuring almost worldwide in cool temperate waters. In New Zealand they are most commonly found off the south and 

east coasts of the South Island. It is mainly caught as bycatch in several deepwater trawl fisheries plus by inshore 

trawlers, set netters and longliners. 

Ecological concerns: The limited research on this species, the absence of a quantitative stock assessment, which 

results in the unknown sustainability of current catch limits, the uncertainty about stock boundaries and the absence of 

a management plan. Also of concern is the impact of trawling on seabed habitats and, due to the association with 

other fisheries where it is caught, seabird, marine mammal and other fish bycatch. 

Whilst there is no management plan for spiny dogfish, in 2008 a New Zealand National Plan of Action for the 


spiny dogfsh, nor is there any difference in its management from the status quo. 

Economic value: Spiny dogfish is sold in New Zealand and is exported, mainly to Western Europe and China with a 

value of $2.4 million in 2008. 



Distribution: Most common off the south and east coasts of the South Island at depths of 100-700m, but also occurs on the 

Chatham Rise and northern Campbell Plateau. 




Reproductive output: Medium – female fish produce 1 to 19 live young per litter with a gestation period of 24 months.. 

Age exploited: 4 (uncertain) 


Population size: No estimates of current or reference biomass. 

Annual catch limit: A catch limit was set at 12,660 in 2004-05. 

Recorded catch: Reported landings of 6293 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest since being under quota management. 

Stock trends: There was an upward trend in reported catches between 1980-81 and 2001-02. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Although reported commercial catches of spiny dogfish were 

observed to increase in all major FMAs during the 1990s, the extent to which these increases can be attributed to changes in 

reporting practice (i.e., more accurate reporting of discards in recent times) is uncertain. Trawl surveys, on the other hand, indicate 

that there was a general increase in the abundance of spiny dogfish, particularly around the South Island, in the mid 1990s. It is 

unknown whether current catch limits are sustainable.” (MFish 2009 p937). 


Fishing method: Trawling, set netting and longlining. It is mainly caught as bycatch in a range of trawl fisheries including hoki, 

barracouta and red cod. 

Habitat damage: When caught by bottom trawl, or from mid-water trawls close to the seafloor, bottom dwelling species and habitats 

are damaged. 

Bycatch: Spiny dogfish is caught in association with other fisheries where there seabirds, marine mammals and a range of nontarget 

fish are caught as bycatch. (See hoki, barracouta and red cod for more information.) 


110 

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Ecological effects: As with most sharks, spiny dogfish is an important predator so excess removal from marine systems is likely to 

alter food web dynamics. (In conjunction with the removal of other non-target fish, this is almost certainly the case.) Up to 80% of 

spiny dogfish have been discarded in some areas, making its removal utterly wasteful. 


Quota Management Species: Yes from 2004. 




Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment and limited research. 





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Sprats 

Scientific name: Sprattus antipodum (sprat), S. muelleri (stout 

sprat) 

Other names: kupae, marakuha, patete (Maori), New 

Zealand herring, sardine, sprotte (Germany), 

espadin (Spain), iwashi, supuratto (Japan) 


Description: Sprats, also commonly referred to as sardines or New Zealand herring, actually incorporate two different species of 

sprat. They are a small, fast growing schooling fish found in coastal waters, particularly in sheltered bays. They are often used (long 

with anchovy and pilchards) by recreational fishers as baitfish and are caught commercially in a minor and intermittent fishery. They 

are a schooling fish, most commonly found around the South Island, sometimes in mixed schools with anchovy and pilchards. Jointly 

with anchovy and pilchard, sprats have the highest ecological ranking of any commercial fishery in New Zealand. 

Ecological concerns: The lack of basic biological information on both species, the lack of a quantitative stock 

assessment, the impact of trawling on seafloor species and the lack of a management plan. There is also some concern 

about the impact of fishing this species on predatory species further up the food chain, such as marine mammals, 

seabirds and larger fish. However, these concerns have not yet been assessed. 

Economic value: The market for sprats includes New Zealand. 

Best option: Try to choose sprats caught by purse seine or beach seine. 


Biology and risk of overfishing (both species) (score A) 

Distribution: Open water and common in inshore waters around the South Island and in localized shoals around the North Island. 









Recorded catch: 1 tonne in 2007-08. During the 1990s reported catches ranged from less than 1 tonne to 7 tonnes. 



The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: No estimates of current biomass are available. At the present level 

of minimal catches, stocks are at or close to their natural level. This is nominally a virgin biomass, but not necessarily a stable one. It 

is probably not possible to estimate a long-term sustainable yield for sprats.” (MFish 2009 p940). 


Method: Mainly purse seine but also set net and beach seine. 

Habitat damage: Impact of bottom trawling on seafloor habitats and species diversity. 

Bycatch: Associated with pilchard in the south, and purse seine bycatch species. 

Ecological effects: This is an important food species for larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. “Excessive localised 

harvesting may disrupt ecosystems.” (MFish 2009, p 940) 










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Stargazer / monkfish 

Scientific name: Kathetostoma giganteum 

Other names: kourepoua, moamoa, ngu (Maori), giant 

stargazer, bulldog, sterngucker (Germany), 

miishimaokoze (Japan). 


Description: Stargazer or monkfish is actually one of a few species of stargazer in New Zealand. It (the giant 

stargazer) is widespread in New Zealand coastal waters between 50 and 500m, living on or partially buried in soft 

sediments on the seabed. It is caught year round, mainly around the South Island, where it is most common, as a 

bycatch in domestic trawl fisheries targeting red cod, tarakihi, flatfish, barracouta and scampi. It is also caught as 

bycatch in some deepwater fisheries. 

Ecological concerns: The absence of quantitative stock assessments for any areas, uncertainty over stock 

boundaries, unknown sustainability of some catch levels and limits and the lack of a management plan. Also of concern 

is the habitat destruction caused by bottom trawling plus the non-target fish, seabirds and marine mammal bycatch 

associated with other fisheries in which it is caught. 

Economic value: Stargazer is sold in New Zealand and had an export value of about $4 million in 2008, mainly sold to 

Japan, Latvia and Germany. 



Distribution: Moderately common in shelf waters around southern New Zealand at depths of 50 to 500m. 







Population size: Largely unknown. There has been a preliminary estimate off the West Coast and top of the South Island (STA7) 

which gave a spawning stock estimate of 29 to 51% B0 for the base case assessment, and within the East Coast North Island area 

(STA 2) the exploitation rate was estimated to be very high with “long term yields…of the order of 50-60 tonnes”. 



Stock trends: Unknown, but STA 7 stock has declined by around 29 to 51% since 1990. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current or reference biomass are available.” 

STA1 (Raglan to eastern Bay of Plenty): “Recent catches have exceeded [the TACC]. It is not known if recent catch levels and 

current TACC are sustainable. The status of STA 1 relative to BMSY is unknown.” 

STA2 (East coast North Island): “Recent relative abundance indices from both the ECNI inshore trawl survey and the ECNI scampi 

trawl survey are lower than those in 1993. The 1997 assessment suggested that the exploitation rate was very high, but ..[a]n upper 

bound of 80% for the catch/biomass ratio…was considered unrealistically high… Landings have been slightly above the TACC in 

recent years. It is not known whether recent catches and the current TACC are sustainable. The status …relative to BMSY is 

unknown.” 

STA 3 (East coast South Island): “The reinstated ECSI trawl survey returned a biomass estimate that was slightly above the 5 

indices observed in the early 1990s. This biomass estimate was also consistent with the CPUE series developed for the bottom trawl 

fishery targeted at red cod, stargazer and Barracouta…. On this basis, [it was] concluded that current catches have been 

sustainable over the 18 years of the CPUE series, although it is not known if the TACC is sustainable, given that the average 

catches over this period have been about 15% below the TACC. Relative biomass indices for stargazer from the annual trawl survey 

of the western end of the Chatham Rise have remained stable. It is not known if recent catch levels and the current TACC are 

sustainable in the long-term. The status of STA 3 relative to BMSY is unknown. 

STA 4 (Chatham Rise): “if fishing is overly concentrated in those areas where stargazer can be targeted, such as close to the 

Chatham Islands, there are concerns that local depletion may occur. Recent catches have been substantially less than the TACC; 


113

the stock appears to have been lightly fished and is still likely to be in the fishing down phase. It is not known if catches at the level of 

the current TACC would be sustainable. The status of STA 4 relative to BMSY is unknown.” 

STA 5 (Southern waters, including Subantarctic Islands and Fiordland): The current “TAC is at the level of recent catches, and is 

probably sustainable. The status of STA 5 relative to BMSY is unknown.” 

STA7 (West Coast & top of the South Island): The WCSI trawl survey indices have increased from a low observed in 2003 to the 

highest in the series in 2009 (preliminary estimate). The results of the quantitative stock assessment suggested that stock biomass 

during the 2004–05 fishing year was unlikely to be below the biomass required to support the maximum sustainable yield. . The 

range of model results for STA 7 west coast stock assessment suggests that, given the assumptions about recruitment, the stock 

size on average should increase under current catch levels and suggests that the stock size is likely to be above BMSY.” 

STA 8 (Lower west coast North Island, inc. Taranaki): “It is not known if recent catch levels and current TACC are sustainable. The 

status of STA 8 relative to BMSY is unknown.” (MFish 2009, p963-964). 


Fishing method: Trawling. Stargazer is a bycatch in red cod, tarakihi, flatfish, barracouta and scampi fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling bulldozes the seabed, destroying and altering bottom habitats and species assemblages. 

Bycatch: Stargazer is associated with the bycatch problems of the fisheries in which it is caught, which includes captures of nontarget 

fish, seabirds and marine mammals. (See red cod, flatfish, barracouta and scampi for more information.) 

Ecological effects: The combined effects of seafloor damage and alteration (especially for the scampi fishery) plus non-target 

bycatch has considerable ecological implications on seabed and wider marine systems. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment except for a preliminary assessments in STA2 (1997) and STA7 (2008). 




114

Striped marlin 

Scientific name: Tetrapturus audax 

Other names: takaketonga (Maori), marlin. 


Description: Striped marlin is a highly migratory species (HMS) of broadbill fish and an important oceanic predator. 

The management responsibility for this species, as with other Western Pacific HMS, lies with an international body – 

the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries commission (WCPFC). However, the Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for 

upholding WCPFC rules in New Zealand waters. 

Between 1987 and 1991 there was a moratorium on landing any broadbill species (marlin and swordfish) in the area 

between Mokau and East Cape (Auckland Fisheries Management Area) due to concerns about depleted stocks. In 

1991, the moratorium was replaced with a memorandum of understanding (MOU) between recreational and 

commercial fishers, to allow for the commercial take of swordbill. Since 1995, there is a requirement to report all 

catches of billfish. The MOU was last singed in 1996. 

As a result of the agreement on billfish, striped marlin is principally a recreational only fish (about 65% tagged and 

released to aid research), with any commercial captures the result of accidental capture in the tuna surface longline 

fishery in northern waters. 

Ecological concerns: Uncertainty about the stock assessment plus the state of the stocks and catch limits. Commercial captures of 

marlin are associated with the bycatch of sharks, seabirds and fur seals. One of the key concerns is the ecological impacts of 

removing this key predator species from oceanic food webs. 

Economic value: Marlin is sold in East Asia. 



Distribution: Striped marlin are caught mainly around the North Islands, north of 42oS. 


Age at sexual maturity: 1-2? 






Annual catch limit: None set. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual commercial catch of 17 tonnes in 2007, most of which was discarded, and 2 tonnes taken 

by New Zealand vessels outside the zone. 

Stock trends: Uncertain, but likely declining. 

MSY Status: Uncertain but may be below BMSY. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Several of the plausible model scenarios investigated indicate that 

current levels of fishing mortality may approximate or exceed the reference level FMSY and current spawning biomass levels may 

approximate or be below the biomass based reference point BMSY. On the basis of this preliminary assessment, it is recommended 

as a precautionary measure that there should be no increase in fishing mortality (i.e. fishing effort) on striped marlin in the 

southwestern Pacific, particularly …the Tasman Sea...” (Ministry of Fisheries, 2008, p120-121). 


Fishing method: Pelagic / Surface longlining for tuna around the North Island. 


Bycatch: Sharks, New Zealand fur seals and seabirds are caught in the longline fishery. 

Ecological effects: Removal of some of these important large predators may impact oceanic food web dynamics, including other 

species caught as bycatch in the longline fishery. 


Quota Management Species: No – due to an MOU with recreational fishers, marlin cannot be targeted by commercial fishers.. 


115 

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Management plan: No. However, a highly migratory species plan has been drafted by the Ministry of Fisheries. 

Stock assessment: A stock assessment in 2006 by the WCPFC Scientific Committee, with collaboration by Australia and the 

Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). 

References: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2005: stock assessments and yield estimates. Part 3: Porae to Yellow-eyed Mullet. Science Group, 

Ministry of Fisheries; Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, Revised Edition 1990, NZ Fishing Industry Board. 


116

Swordfish 

Scientific name: Xiphias gladius 

Other names: broadbill, broadbill swordfish, paea, 

espadon (France), mekajiki (Japan). 


Description: Swordfish is a highly migratory species (HMS) of broadbill fish and an important oceanic predator found 

worldwide in temperate, tropical and subtropical seas. The management responsibility for this species, as with other 

Western Pacific HMS, lies with an international body – the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries commission 

(WCPFC). However, the Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for upholding WCPFC rules in New Zealand waters, with 

catch limits set under the quota management system. They are targeted and caught as a bycatch in the northern 

bigeye and southern bluefin tuna longline fisheries. 

Ecological concerns: Uncertainty about the stock assessments, catch limits and state of the stocks, plus the potential 

for serial depletion of large swordfish. There is also concern about the bycatch of sharks, seabirds, fur seals and sea 

turtles. In November 2006, a single surface longline vessel targeting swordfish around the Kermadec Islands caught 51 

threatened antipodean albatrosses, 7 white-chinned petrels and 2 sea turtles. Another key concerns is the ecological 

impacts of removing this key predator species from oceanic food webs. 

Economic value: Main markets are Japan, Australia and USA. The export value of all tuna species combined was $42 million in 

2002. 



Distribution: Swordfish are found worldwide in temperate, subtropical and tropical waters. They are present in New Zealand year 

round from the Kermadecs to Foveaux Strait. 








Annual catch limit: Catch limit of 885 tonnes in 2004. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 402 tonnes in 2006-07. The average sex ratio of swordfish caught in the 

longline fishery over the last 20 years was 3 times as many females compared to males. 

Stock trends: Uncertain. There was a decline in CPUE from 2000 to 2004, which is consistent with the decline in Australia, but the 

recent assessment suggests an increase in the stock. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Swordfish taken in New Zealand are part of a larger regional 

stock.” The [2008 WCPFC] assessment undertaken for swordfish in the southwestern Pacific region indicated an increase in stock 

abundance in recent years and the model projections predict further increases at current levels of fishing mortality. Plausible 

assessment results indicate that overfishing is not occurring and that the stock is not in an overfished state. However, due to the 

uncertainty in the assessment, the SC recommended that there be no further increase in catch or effort in order to keep the stock 

above its associated reference points… It is not currently possible to estimate a long-term sustainable yield for swordfish, or to 

determine if recent catch levels will allow the stock(s) to move towards a size that would support a MSY.” (MFish 2009, p128). 


Method: Pelagic / surface longlining - they are caught on the west and east coast of the North Island, plus around the Kermadecs. 


Bycatch: Seabirds, sharks, New Zealand fur seals and turtles are caught in the longline fishery. In November 2006, a single surface 

longline vessel targeting swordfish around the Kermadec Islands caught 51 threatened antipodean albatrosses, 7 white-chinned 

petrels and 2 sea turtles. 

Ecological effects: Removal of these important large predators (Southern bluefin and sharks) impacts oceanic food web dynamics. 


117 

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Stock assessment: A preliminary assessment in 2008 by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) (Kolody 

et al 2008). 


Pacific Community, New Caledonia, August 2001; National Tuna Fishery Report 2001 – New Zealand, T Murray and L Griggs, NIWA; Kolody, D., Campbell, R., 

Davies, N. (2008). A Multifan-CL Stock Assessment of South-Western-Central Pacific Swordfish 1952-2007. Working Paper SA-WP-6 to WCPFC SC4, held 11-22 

August 2008, Port Moresby PNG. 89 p.. Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2009: stock assessments and yield estimates. Science 



118

Tarakihi 

Scientific name: Nemadactylus macropterus 

Other names: Ocean bream, silver bream, morwong 

(Australia), shimakurodai, tarakii (Japan) 


Description: Tarakihi is a long-lived relative of red moki that is common around New Zealand, but mostly found south 

of East Cape and around the South Island. They are associated with shallow reefs as juveniles but then school over 

open seafloors as adults from 50 to 250m water depth. 

Ecological concerns: Tarakihi is caught by trawling, so there is some concern about habitat damage if trawl gear 

touches the seafloor. Trawling also catches a range of other fish. Other concerns include the limited amount of some 

basic biological information, the absence of quantitative stock assessments, the uncertainty over stock boundaries and 

the lack of a management plan for Tarakihi. 

Economic value: Tarakihi are sold in New Zealand, Japan and Australia and had an export value of $0.5 million in 

2008. 

Best option: Try to avoid Tarakihi caught in association with red cod off the East coast of the South Island or caught in association 

with gemfish. 



Distribution: Occurs around New Zealand but mostly in the cooler waters south of East Cape and around the South Island. 







Population size: Unknown for eastern New Zealand stocks (TAR 2, 3, and 4). For TAR7 an assessment in 2008 had a base case 

estimate of 42-68% unfished stock size. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 5429 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest catch in 10 years. 

Stock trends: Unknown for eastern New Zealand stocks (TAR 2, 3, and 4). Unchanged / stable for all other areas. 

MSY Status: Unknown. Western New Zealand stocks are thought to be close to or above BMSY. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: TAR1 (Raglan to eastern Bay of Plenty): “The [CPUE] indices 

remain stable suggesting that current catches and the TACC for TAR 1 are sustainable. In 2002 the Inshore WG concluded that TAR 

1 was likely to be above BMSY. There is no evidence from the CPUE analyses to suggest any major changes in abundance since this 

time.” 

TAR2 (East coast North Island): “The state of the TAR 2 stock in relation to BMSY is not known. Long periods of sustained catches 

around 1 600t to 1 700t indicate a flat yield curve for the stock, and suggest that the stock is probably close to BMSY.” 

TAR3 (East coast South Island): “The state of the stock in relation to BMSY is unknown. Abundance appeared to reach its lowest 

historical level over 2003-04 to 2005-06, at about 70% of the long-term average, having declined steadily from a peak in 1999-00. 

Abundance may be increasing back to average levels again, although a decline was again noted in 2007-08. “ 

TAR4 (Chatham Rise): “the fishery around the Chatham Islands has generally been lightly fished and the stock can probably 

support higher catch levels for the next few years.“ 

TAR 7 (West coast South Island): “The range of model results for TAR 7 west coast stock assessment suggests that, given the 

assumptions about recruitment, the stock size on average should increase under current catch levels and suggests that the stock 

size is Likely to be above BMSY.” 

TAR 8 (Lower west coast North Island, inc. Taranaki): “Overall, landings from the North and South Islands have remained relatively 

stable, since at least the late 1960s, despite changes in effort and methods of fishing. Given the long, stable catch history of this 

fishery, current catch levels and TACCs are thought to be sustainable.” (MFish 2007, p966). 


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Fishing method: Bottom trawling. Tarakihi is also a bycatch in the red cod and barracouta trawl fisheries around the South Island 

Habitat damage: Trawling for tarakihi scrapes the seabed, impacting a range of non-target species. In the Bay of Plenty, the impact 

of tarakhihi trawling was considered along with scampi, hoki and gemfish trawling (Cryer et al, 2002). 

Bycatch: Other fish species. 

Ecological effects: Trawling alters species diversity and habitat composition, and may disturb coastal food web dynamics. 






Stock assessment: No quantitative stock assessment apart from a preliminary assessment of TAR7 in 2008. 


Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; Cryer, Hartill 

& O‟Shea 2002. Ecological Applications 12:1824–1839. 


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Trevally 

Scientific name: Pseudocaranx dentex 

Other names: araara, kopapa, komutumutu, raumarie 

(Maori), blue gill, jack fish, silver trevally 

(Australia / UK), carangue (France), 

Minamishimaaji (Japan). 


Description: Trevally is a long-lived species (up to 45 years) that lives near the seabed when young, but schools as 

adults in the open water, where they feed on krill and other plankton. It is common around many parts of the North 

Island and the top half of the south Island and most abundant at depths of around 80m. It is caught year round, 

mainly around the North Island in conjunction with the snapper trawl fishery. It is also caught by purse seiners in the 

Bay of Plenty and in set nets. 

Ecological concerns: The over-catch of Trevally off the east coast of the North Island, the absence of a 

quantitative stock assessment, the uncertainty of the stock status and the lack of a management plan. 

Trawling catches non-target fish and, when fished at the bottom or using bottom trawl gear, may cause considerable 

damage to seabed habitats and ecosystems. The fishery may also risk captures of critically endangered Maui‟s 

dolphins off the west coast of the North Island. Restrictions on trawling and set netting introduced in May 2008 have 

reduced the risk of catching these dolphins. However, dolphins outside closed areas are still at risk and a pending 

court ruling, the risk of catching these dolphins may once again increase. 

Economic value: The main markets for Trevally are in New Zealand, Japan, UK and the Middle East. It had an export 

value of $3.2 million in 2008. 

Best option: Trevally caught of western New Zealand appear healthier, but avoid fish caught using bottom trawl or set net. Purse 

seine caught trevally is the best option. 



Distribution: Common around the North Island and northern South Island, with most trevally found along the north east and north 

west coasts of the North Island at a depth of 80m. 



Growth rate: Moderate to low. 




Population size: Uncertain, though the population off western New Zealand (TRE7) has been estimated to be relatively healthy. 


Recorded catch: Reported landings of 2875 tonnes in 2007-08, the lowest catch in nearly 20 years. 

Stock trends: Uncertain. Although an assessment of TRE7 shows a fluctuating stock size since 1980 and there are concerns about 

declines in TRE1 (Cape Rienga to eastern Bay of Plenty) catches. 

MSY Status: Uncertain, apart from an assessment of TRE7, which indicates the current stock is just above BMSY (28% B0). 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states TRE1 (Cape Rienga to eastern Bay of Plenty): “Recent catches 

reported for TRE 1 are less than the estimated MCY levels and below the TACC. Reduced proportions of older age classes in the 

single bottom trawl catch between 1999-00 and 2006-07 combined with the strong drops in landings in 2006-07 and 2007-08 may 

indicate that stock abundance is declining at current catch levels.” 

TRE 2 (Eastern North Island to Kapiti): “It is not known if recent catches are sustainable.” 

TRE 7 (Western New Zealand - North & South Islands): “Relatively large proportions of fish >10 years, including a healthy 20+ age 

group (as evidenced by the age structure of the commercial catch) suggest that TRE 7 have not been heavily exploited….Model 

projections indicate that the biomass of TRE 7 stock is About as Likely as Not to remain stable over the next 5 years and the 

probability of the stock going below BMSY in 2013 is estimated at 0% (M=0.1) and 38% (M=0.087)”. (Ministry of Fisheries, 2009, p999 

- 1002). 


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Fishing method(s): Bottom trawl, purse seine and set net. Trevally is also caught as a bycatch in snapper, red gurnard, kahawai 

and john dory fisheries. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling damages the seabed, reducing bottom dwelling species diversity and altering habitat composition. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch species itself, a range of other fish species are caught as bycatch, including other commercial species 

(snapper, red gurnard, kahawai, john dory) as well as non-target species. There is also a risk of catching seabirds and marine 

mammals, including potential bycatch of critically endangered Maui‟s dolphins. 

Ecological effects: Impacts of bottom trawling on bottom dwelling species and habitats plus ecological implications of set netting, 

which can kill unwanted fish, seabirds and marine mammals. 

Management and management unit (score C and A) 





Stock assessment: A revised quantitative assessment in TRE7 in 2009 and a preliminary assessment for TRE 1 in 2006, which 

was not accepted.. 




122

Trumpeter 

Scientific name: Latris lineata 

Other names: porae, koekohe, kohikohi (Maori), striped 

trumpeter, okiisaki (Japan). 


Description: This moki relative occurs in the cool, temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere from the Indian 

Ocean to South America. In New Zealand it is found from the Bay of Plenty southwards to the Auckland Islands, but is 

mainly caught on the east coast of both main islands, ranging from 20 to 200m water depth. There is little targeted 

fishing for trumpeter - it is mainly caught s a bycatch fish in line fisheries, with some caught in trawl and set nets. 

Ecological concerns: The absence of basic biological information about Trumpeter, the lack of a quantitative stock 

assessment and the unknown sustainability of recent catch levels. Also, the uncertainty over stock boundaries and the 

potential for localised depletion of some populations, plus the lack of a management plan. As a bycatch species itself, 

trumpeter fishing is also associated with other non-target fish bycatch. 

Economic value: Trumpeter is sold in New Zealand. 



Distribution: Occurs from the Bay of Plenty southwards to the Auckland Islands, but is seldom common. 



Growth rate: Likely to be moderate. 






Recorded catch: Estimated landings of 101 tonnes in 2007-08. 

Stock trends: Unknown. (There is a risk for localised population to be quickly fished out.) 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “No estimates of current and reference biomass are available. It is 

not known if recent catch levels are sustainable.” (Ministry of Fisheries, 2009, p1019). 


Fishing method(s): Mostly caught as bycatch in coastal line-fisheries, with some caught in trawl nets and set nets. 

Habitat damage: Unknown. 

Bycatch: A range of fish species also caught as bycatch in fisheries where trumpeter is caught. 

Ecological effects: Unknown. 








Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd; MFish Final 

Position Paper for the 1998-99 Sustainability Round. 


123 

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White warehou 

Scientific name: Seriolella caerulea 

Other names: Deepsea wharehou 


Description: White warehou is the deepest ranging of the three warehou species in New Zealand and is common in 

southeastern waters and on the Campbell Plateau in the Subantarctics. It is mostly taken as a bycatch in bottom trawl 

fisheries for hoki and silver warehou. 

Ecological concerns: The absence of some basic biological information about white warehou, the absence of a 

quantitative stock assessment, the unknown stock size, the uncertainty over stock boundaries and the unknown 

sustainability of recent catch levels. There are also concerns about past mis-reporting of white warehou as silver 

warehou catches, plus there is no management plan. Bottom trawling causes considerable damage to seafloor 

communities and, due to white warehou being a bycatch species of other fisheries, it is also associated with the 

bycatch of seabirds, marine mammals and other non-target fish. 

Economic value: White warehou is sold in New Zealand and Asia. 



Distribution: Most common off south east New Zealand and on the Campbell Plateau. 




Reproductive output: Moderate. 







Status: Unknown. 

Fishery Assessment plenary report states: “It is not known whether recent catches are sustainable or if they are at levels that will 

allow the stock to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” (Ministry of Fisheries, 2009 p1030). 


Fishing method: Trawling, especially bottom trawling. White warehou is caught as bycatch in the hoki and silver warehou fisheries 

and to a lesser extent the hake, ling and scampi fisheries. Only 8% of the catch is from targeted fishing. 

Habitat damage: Bottom trawling scrapes the seabed, reducing species diversity and altering habitat composition. 

Bycatch: As a bycatch species in a range of middle-depth fisheries, it is associated with non-target fish, marine mammal and 

seabird captures. (See hoki and silver warehou for more information.) 

Ecological effects: Trawling destroys bottom dwelling species assemblages and habitat composition. Wider ecological effects on 

food webs are largely due to the captures of non-target wildlife in the fisheries it is associated with. 

Management and management unit (score E and A) 


Catch limits : Yes. 


Management component: Single species. However, there is a problem in that quota areas do not match possible spawning areas. 





124 

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Yellowfin tuna 

Scientific name: Thunnus albacares 

Other names: Yellowfin, thon juane (France), Ahi, Shibi, 

kiwada (Japan) 


Description: Yellowfin tuna is a migratory species, found mainly in the warm ocean waters of northern New Zealand 

and moving south in summer to East Cape. Like many tuna, it is an important oceanic predator, regulating the 

abundance of other marine species. They are caught as a bycatch in the northern bigeye and southern bluefin tuna 

longline fisheries on the west and east coast of the North Island. The New Zealand catch is a very small part (0.03%) of 

the Pacific fishery, which is now managed by an international body – the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries 

Commission (WCPFC). 

Ecological concerns: The lack of a stock assessment, catch limits and a management plan, therefore the high 

uncertainty about the state of the stocks. Other concerns include declining catch rates, the bycatch of sharks, seabirds 

and fur seals, plus and ecological impact of removing this top predator species on wider oceanic food webs. 

Economic value: The export value of yellowfin tuna was $150,000 in 2008, with the main markets in Japan, Australia 

and the USA. 



Distribution: Yellowfin tuna are caught on the west coast and east coast of the North Island. 








Annual catch limit: Catch limit of 263 tonnes set in 2004. 

Recorded catch: Latest reported annual landings of 17 tonnes in 2006-07 within the EEZ, which is minor compared to Western and 

Central Pacific catches of over 400,000 tonnes. 

Stock trends: Declining stock size and catches, which are unlikely to be sustainable. 

MSY Status: The yellowfin stock is likely to be above BMSY, but are still considered to be fully exploited with a high possibility (47 – 

73%) of being overfished. At current catch levels, the stock is likely to move below BMSY. 

The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: From the 2007 WCPO assessment: “the possibility of overfishing is 

still relatively high (47%). The reference points that predict the status of the stock under equilibrium conditions are B/ BMSY (1.10) and 

SB/SBMSY (1.12), which indicate that the long-term average biomass would remain slightly above the level capable of producing MSY 

at 2002−2005 average fishing mortality…. The WCPO yellowfin tuna fishery can be considered to be fully exploited. Both the 2006 

and 2007 assessments indicate that there is a high probability that overfishing is occurring (73% for the base case 2006 assessment 

and 47% for the base case 2007 assessment). In order to reduce the likelihood of overfishing, and if the Commission wishes to 

maintain average biomass at levels greater than 5% above BMSY, reductions in the fishing mortality rate would be required. The 

stock size is presently above the level necessary to produce the maximum sustainable yield. Current catches from the stock are not 

sustainable. Current catches will move the stock towards and then below a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield.” 

(MFish, 2008, p155-156). 


Fishing method: Pelagic longlining around the North Island. 


Bycatch: Seabirds, sharks and New Zealand fur seals are caught in the longline fishery. 



125






Stock assessment: A completed quantitative stock assessment for the Western and Central Pacific Conservation (WCPO) 

Fisheries Scientific Committee (2007). 


Pacific Community, New Caledonia, August 2001; National Tuna Fishery Report 2001 – New Zealand, T Murray and L Griggs, NIWA; Hampton, J., Langley, A and 

Kleiber, P. (2006). Stock assessment of yellowfin tuna in the western and central Pacific Ocean, including an assessment of management options. WCPFC-SC2- 

2006/SA WP-1. . Second meeting of the WCPFC-Scientific Committee, 7-18 August 2006, Philippines. (www.wcpfc.org/); Anon. 2007. Commission or the 

Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean: Scientific Committee Summary report. Western and 

Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. 244pp. Report from the Mid-Year Fishery Assessment Plenary, November 2009: 

stock assessments and yield estimates. Science Group, Ministry of Fisheries; The Guidebook to New Zealand Commercial Fish Species, 2007 Revised Edition, The 

New Zealand Seafood Industry Council Ltd. 


126

Yellow-eyed mullet 

Scientific name: Aldrichetta forsteri 

Other names: aua, kaataha, kataka, makawhiti (Maori), 

herring, yelloweye mullet (Australia) 


Description: This relatively short-lived surface dwelling, coastal species is found throughout New Zealand, but is most 

abundant in northern waters. It is smaller and more slender than grey mullet, forming schools in shallow coastal waters, 

harbours and estuaries. It is caught using set nets or by beach seining. 

Ecological concerns: The absence of some basic biological information on yellow-eyed mullet, the absence of a 

quantitative stock assessment and so the unknown stock size and sustainability of recent catch levels (especially in 

combination with non-commercial take of this species). There is also concern about the uncertainty over stock 

boundaries and the likelihood of sub-stocks being managed together within quota areas, plus the absence of a 

management plan. Set net fisheries can have considerable non-target fish bycatch. In the past this fishery has posed a 

serious threat to critically endangered Maui‟s dolphins. Set netting also risks capture of other marine mammals and 

seabirds. Restrictions on set netting off the west coast of the North Island introduced in 2003 and again in May 2008 

have reduced this risk, but set netting still poses a threat outside these areas. Pending a high court ruling on a 

challenge to the restrictions, the risk to Maui‟s dolphins may return. 

Economic value: Yellow-eyed mullet are sold in New Zealand and Australia. 

Best option: Mullet caught by beach seining. 



Distribution: Most common in northern New Zealand waters in sheltered bays, harbours and estuaries. 









Recorded catch: Reported commercial landings of 17 tonnes in 2007-08 with a similar non-commercial catch. 

Stock trends: Unknown, but may be subject to localised depletion. 


The Ministry of Fisheries assessment plenary report states: “Estimates of current and reference biomass are not available. It is 

not known if recent catch levels are sustainable or at levels that will allow the stock to move towards a size which will support the 

MSY.” (MFish 2009 p1036). 


Fishing method(s): Mainly set nets and beach seine nets. 


Bycatch: The small mesh nets used may increase fishing pressure on grey mullet and a range of other shallow water species. There 

is also a potential bycatch of seabirds, dolphins and other marine mammals in the set net fishery. However, restrictions on set netting 

in areas where the endangered Maui‟s and Hector‟s dolphins are found, introduced in May 2008, have significantly reduced this 

threat. (Depending on the results of legal action to reopen closed areas, the dolphins may again be put at risk.) 

Ecological effects: The localised nature of the fishery in some harbours means there could be a risk of serial depletion in some 

places. 




127 

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128

Appendix I 

Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: Wallet Card 

Hard copies of the Best Fish Guide wallet card are available from Forest & Bird and numerous nationwide 

outlets. For example, Kelly Tarlton’s Underwater Aquarium (Auckland), Portabello Marine Laboratory 

(Dunedin), Burger Wisconsin (nationwide) plus libraries, health food shops, cafes and other retail outlets. 

It is also available to download as a pdf from our web site: www.bestfishguide.org.nz. 


129

Appendix II 

Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: Ecological Assessment Scores 

Using the Best Fish Guide Assessment Methodology New Zealand fish are given an overall rank, from A 

(highest ecological sustainability) to E (lowest ecological sustainability). This is derived by awarding a score 

of 1 to 5 (ranks A to E) to six different assessment criteria, (some weighted more heavily than others). The 

sum of these scores provides the overall assessment score and rank. 

For more information on the assessment methodology, please download the Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: 

How it works (Assessment Methodology) from www.bestfishguide.org.nz. 

Table: Best Fish Guide 2009-2010: Ecological assessment scores for New Zealand’s wild caught 

seafood species, showing individual scores for each criterion, the multipliers applied – high 

importance (x3) to low importance (x1) – and the overall score and rank. 

Criteria Scores 

Criterion importance High Medium Low 

Species 

MFish species 

code 

Status & 

sustainability of 

catches 

Protected or 

threatened 

species bycatch 


130 

Fishing method 

Biology & risk of 

overfishing 

Management Unit 

Management & 

research 

Overall 

score 

Albacore ALB 3 3 4 3 4 3 43 D 

Alfonsino BYX 4 2 5 3 5 4 48 E 

Anchovy ANC 4 2 2 1 3 5 35 D 

Arrow Squid SQU 4 5 5 1 5 5 54 E 

Barracouta BAR 4 4 5 2 3 4 48 E 

Overall 

Rank 

Bigeye Tuna BIG 4 5 4 3 4 3 52 E 

Black cardinal 

fish 

CDL 5 4 4 5 3 4 55 E 

Blue cod BCO 4 2 2 3 3 3 37 D 

Blue mackerel EMA 4 4 3 3 3 3 45 E 

Blue moki MOK 3 3 5 4 1 4 42 D 

Blue shark BWS 4 5 4 4 4 4 55 E 

Blue warehou WAR 4 3 5 3 3 4 47 E 

Bluenose BNS 5 5 4 4 2 4 54 E 

Butterfish BUT 4 2 4 3 4 4 44 D 

Cockles COC 4 1 4 2 3 3 36 D 

Dark ghost 

shark 

GSH 4 3 5 4 2 5 48 E 

Eels EEL 5 3 2 5 5 3 51 E 

Elephantfish ELE 4 5 4 3 2 3 48 E 

Flatfish FLA 4 4 5 2 5 4 52 E 

Frostfish FRO 4 3 5 2 3 5 46 E 

Garfish GAR 4 1 2 2 4 5 36 D 

Gemfish SKI 5 3 5 4 2 3 49 E 

Grey mullet GMU 4 2 4 2 4 3 41 D 

Groper / Hapuku HPB 4 2 4 4 5 5 49 E



Species 


code 

Status & 


catches 

Protected or 

threatened 



131 



overfishing 


Management & 

research 

Overall 

score 

Hake HAK 3 4 5 3 3 3 46 E 

Hoki HOK 3 5 5 3 3 2 48 E 

Jack mackerel JMA 3 5 5 3 5 4 54 E 

John dory JDO 4 2 5 2 2 4 40 D 

Kahawai KAH 4 1 2 3 4 4 37 D 

Kina SUR 4 1 2 3 3 5 36 D 

Kingfish KIN 4 2 4 3 3 4 42 D 

Leather jacket LEA 4 2 5 2 4 5 45 E 

Ling LIN 3 5 5 3 3 3 49 E 

Lookdown dory LDO 4 3 5 3 4 5 50 E 

Overall 

Rank 

Mako shark MAK 4 5 4 4 4 5 56 E 

Moonfish 

MO 

O 

4 5 4 2 4 5 52 E 

Orange roughy ORH 5 4 5 5 4 3 58 E 

Oreos OEO 4 4 5 5 5 2 56 E 

Oyster OYS 5 2 5 4 4 3 50 E 

Pacific bluefin 

tuna 

TOR 3 5 4 4 4 4 52 E 

Packhorse 

lobster 

PHC 4 2 2 4 2 5 39 D 

Paddle crabs PAD 4 2 4 2 4 5 43 D 

Pale ghost shark GSP 4 3 5 4 3 5 50 E 

Paua PAU 5 1 1 5 5 3 43 D 

Pilchards PIL 4 2 2 1 3 5 35 D 

Porbeagle shark POS 4 5 4 5 4 5 58 E 


QSC 

C 

4 2 5 3 4 4 46 E 

Red Cod RCO 3 4 5 2 2 4 43 D 

Red Gurnard GUR 3 3 5 2 2 4 40 D 

Red snapper RSN 4 3 4 4 4 5 50 E 

Ribaldo RIB 4 3 4 4 2 5 46 E 

Rig RIG 4 5 4 4 3 4 53 E 

Rock lobster CRA 5 3 2 4 1 2 40 D 

Rubyfish RBY 4 3 5 5 3 4 51 E 

Scallops SCA 4 4 5 2 3 3 47 E 

Scampi SCI 4 5 5 4 2 3 52 E 

School shark SCH 4 5 4 4 2 4 51 E 

Sea perch SPE 5 3 5 4 3 4 52 E 

Silver warehou SWA 4 4 4 2 3 4 46 E



Species 


code 

Status & 


catches 

Protected or 

threatened 



132 



overfishing 


Management & 

research 

Overall 

score 

Skates SKA 4 3 5 4 5 4 53 E 

Skipjack tuna SKJ 2 3 2 3 4 3 36 D 

Overall 

Rank 

Snapper SNA 5 5 5 4 3 2 56 E 

Southern blue 

whiting 

SBW 3 5 4 4 1 3 45 E 

Southern bluefin 

tuna 

SBT 5 5 4 4 4 2 56 E 

Spiny dogfish SPD 4 4 5 4 2 4 50 E 

Sprats SPR 4 2 2 1 3 5 35 D 

Stargazer STA 4 3 5 3 2 4 45 E 

Striped marlin STM 4 5 4 3 4 4 53 E 

Swordfish 

SW 

O 

4 5 4 3 4 3 52 E 

Tarakihi TAR 3 4 5 3 2 3 44 D 

Trevally TRE 3 2 5 4 1 3 38 D 

Trumpeter TRU 4 3 4 3 3 5 46 E 

White warehou 

WW 

A 

4 4 5 3 1 5 47 E 

Yellow fin tuna YFN 4 5 4 3 4 3 52 E 

Yellow-eyed 

mullet 

YEM 4 2 4 1 3 4 38 D

Acronyms 

ACAP – Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. 

– The unfished, initial, or virgin recruited biomass for a stock. 

B0 

BMSY – The recruited biomass that supports the maximum sustainable yield. 

BMAY – The recruited biomass that will support the maximum average yield. 

BMCY – The recruited biomass that supports the maximum constant yield. 

CAY – Current annual yield - this is the estimate of the maximum sustainable catch for the current year 

in reference to a level of fishing mortality which has an acceptable level of risk. 

CITES – Convention on Trade in Endangered Species. 

CMS – Convention on Migratory Species. 

DoC – Department of Conservation. 

ITQ – Individual Transferable Quota - quota share of the TACC. ITQs are property rights to a fishery 

granted in perpetuity which can be traded. 

ESY – Ecologically sustainable yield – the yield an ecosystem can sustain without shifting to an 

undesirable state. 

F – Fishing mortality rate is that part of the total mortality rate applying to the fish population that is 

caused by fishing. 

M – Natural mortality on a fish stock. 

MAY – Maximum Average Yield - which is the long-term current annual yield and equivalent to MSY. 

MCY – Maximum constant yield - the maximum constant catch that is sustainable with acceptable levels 

of risk at probable levels of future biomass for a fish stock. 

MFish – Ministry of Fisheries. 

MEY – Maximum Economic Yield - the greatest difference between the costs of inputs and the values of 

outputs (catch). This is the sustained catch that produces the maximum economic value this is 

usually at a catch below MSY. 

MSY – Maximum sustainable yield, in relation to any stock, means the greatest yield that can be 

achieved over time while maintaining the stock's productive capacity, having regard to the 

population dynamics of the stock and any environmental factors that influence the stock 

(section 2, Fisheries Act 1996). 

OSY – Optimum sustainable yield is the yield which considers factors in addition to maximum 

sustainable yield, for instance, effects on other species in the ecosystem and of other human 

uses of the ecosystem. 

TACC – Total Allowable Commercial Catch - this is the TAC minus an allowance for customary Maori 

fisheries, recreational fisheries and other mortality on a stock caused by fishing. The TACC is 

established under section 20 of the Fisheries Act 1996. 

TAC – Total Allowable Catch of any fish stock this includes the TACC plus an allowance for noncommercial 

catches including customary Maori catch and other mortality caused by fishing. The 

TAC is established under section 13 or 14 of the Fisheries Act 96. 

Von B k – This is the Brody growth co-efficient and defines the growth rate toward the maximum. This is 

from the standard Von Bertalanffy model (1938) which describes the growth in fish length. 

Lt=l [1-e -k(t-to) ] where l is the maximum body size and to is the shift in the growth curve to allow 

for nonzero body length at age zero. 


133

Glossary of Terms 

Aquaculture - Aquatic species, such as fish and shellfish, in salt, brackish, or freshwater. Farming implies 

private ownership and enhancement of production by stocking, feeding, providing protection from 

predators and other management measures. 

Beach-seine - A large enclosing net, brought out by boats and dragged to the (sandy) shore. Also a net 

used to encircle fish in shallow water; usually operated by two people wading out from shore, the net 

has lead weights to keep the bottom on the sea floor and floats to keep the top of the net at or near 

the surface. The seine may be set from a boat but hauled in from the land. Also called shore seine, 

drag seine, draw net, haul seine, yard seine and sweep net. 

Benthic species or benthos – Animals or plants living on the bottom of the ocean or lake. 

Biological diversity - The variability among living organisms, including diversity within species, between 

species, and of ecosystems (Section 2 of the Fisheries Act 1996). The Convention on Biological 

Diversity also defines this as: the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter 

alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they 

are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.' 

Biomass - An aggregate weight, at a particular time, of fish (or other organisms) in a stock or in a fishery. 

Bottom trawl net - A net designed to trawl along the seabed and catch fish found close to the bottom, such 

as Orange Roughy and oreos. 

Bottom pair-trawl - A net designed to trawl along the seabed and catch fish found close to the bottom but 

towed between two similar trawlers. 

Bycatch - Those species killed in a fishery targeted on other species or a different size range of the same 

species and includes that part of the catch that has no commercial value and is discarded. 

Catch - The total number or weight of fish and other marine life, including bycatch, taken by fishing from an 

area over a period of time, as opposed to landings, which do not reflect the amount of discards. 

Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Living Marine Resources (CCAMLR) - Established by 

treaty in 1980, the CCAMLR is unique among fisheries agreements in that the conservation 

measures adopted by the Commission must include a fishery's impact on the entire ecosystem, 

rather than on just the targeted species. This ecosystem approach aims to prevent a decrease in the 

size of harvested populations to levels that threaten their stable recruitment, and to minimize the risk 

of changes in the marine ecosystem that are not potentially reversible over two or three decades. 

The meetings of the Commission are held annually in Hobart, Australia, with representatives of the 

23 CCAMLR member states. 

Continental shelf - The continental shelf is a gradually sloping undersea shelf of land that extends beyond 

shore of the continent. The nature of this geologic "shelf" is home to a great diversity of fish and 

shellfish species. 

Copepods - A large group (approximately 6,000 species) of tiny shrimp-like crustaceans. They are an 

important food source for many larger animals, including fish, seabirds, and baleen whales. 

Coral reefs – Reefs built up over hundreds of years by colonies of small animals, called coral polyps, and 

their skeletons of calcium carbonate. Coral reefs cover less than 1% of the ocean area but are home 

to one-third of all marine fish species. 

Crustacean - The aquatic equivalent of insects, also from the phylum Arthropoda. Found in both fresh and 

salt water, crustaceans are invertebrates and characteristically have a segmented body and 

exoskeleton, with limbs that are paired and jointed. Lobsters, crabs, shrimp and barnacles are 

examples of crustaceans. 

Danish seine - A method of seining with a large net but the catch is landed on the vessel. Can be a single or 

two boats net where an area of water of about 2 square kilometres is swept as two encircling ropes 

leading to a trawl-like net are retrieved by the vessel(s). Fish within the ropes are herded into the net 

during hauling. 

Demersal species - Fish found on or near the bottom of the ocean, for example Orange Roughy. 

Depleted fishery - A fishery where the population has been reduced to less than that which would support 

the maximum sustainable yield. 


134

Developed fishery - A fishery operating at or near the level of the maximum sustainable yield, subject to 

other environmental constraints. 

Developing fishery - A fishery in which experimental or feasibility fishing is being undertaken to determine 

whether the resource can support a viable fishery. 

Dip-net - A net used for transferring the catch of a deep-sea seine after it has been brought alongside. It is 

operated either entirely by hand or partly by hand and partly by mechanical power. Other names are 

scoop, brailer, spoon net, brail net, and hand brailer. 

Dragnet – a small net pulled by two or more people which is dragged along the bottom. 

Driftnet - A gillnet weighted at the bottom and supported by floats at the top which drifts with the tide or 

current. Large driftnets used to be in excess of 50 km on the high seas and in New Zealand EEZ 

can be no longer than 1km. 

EEZ - Exclusive Economic Zone - the zone out to 200 nautical miles offshore established pursuant to 

international agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. 

Fishing effort - The amount of fishing activity undertaken. It is usually measured by the total time spent 

fishing combined with the quantity of gear used, for example the catch per thousand hooks or the 

catch per trawl. 

Fecundity - The level or rate of egg or offspring production. Fecundity may change with the size and age of 

a species. 

Finning - The practice of cutting off the fins of sharks and discarding the shark’s body overboard. Asia is the 

primary market for shark fins, which are used to make shark fin soup. The US Congress banned 

shark-finning in all US waters in 2000. Shark finning is legal in New Zealand. 

Fishery - Can be defined in many ways though, in general terms, it is the take or removal of a species from 

the aquatic environment using some type of fishing technology. The emphasis is on the human 

aspects of fishing and all the activities it involves. 

Food chain - The sequence of organisms through which energy and materials are transferred (in the form of 

food) or the linear progression of feeding levels in which one organism is the food source for the 

next. 

Food web - The complex, interlocking series of individual food chains in an ecosystem, i.e. all the predatorprey 

relationships. 

Fyke net – A long bag net distended by hoops, into which fish can pass easily, without being able to return. 

Globally threatened species - A species that is globally threatened with biological extinction under the 

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria. 

Growth over-fishing - When the losses due to natural and fishing mortality exceed the gains due to 

recruitment and growth during the same period. This is usually reflected by a reduction in the size of 

the fish being harvested. 

High-grading - The practice of discarding at sea all or a portion of a vessel's legal catch in order to obtain a 

higher or larger grade of fish that brings higher prices. It may occur in both quota and nonquota 

fisheries. 

Hinaki – A traditional Maori woven eel net trap made from supplejack and flax. 

Invertebrate - Animals without a backbone (e.g. jellyfish, octopus, sponges, bryozoans). In fishery 

management terms, invertebrate usually refers to shellfish, such as lobsters, shrimp, oysters and 

scallops. 

Jig - A multi-barbed hook used mainly to catch squid. 

Lampara net - Similar to, but much smaller than, a purse seine with no pursing action. This net is generally 

used for catching artificial light attracted schools of small fish such as anchovy and pilchard. There is 

a central spoon-shaped section and two lateral wings and the net is usually operated from a small 

boat. The rapid retrieval of the lead line does close the bottom of the net but it is not a true purse. 

Landings - Commercial landings are defined as the quantity of fish and shellfish brought ashore for sale. 

The term also applies to the amount caught for personal use by recreational fishermen. This 

measurement does not include the amount of bycatch incidentally caught and discarded dead at 

sea. 

Maximum sustainable yield - The maximum amount of a species that can be taken without diminishing the 

future take. 


135

Metric tonne - Often the unit of measurement for commercial and recreational landings, a metric tonne is 

equal to 1000 kilograms, 0.984 long tons, 1.1023 short tons, or 2204.6 pounds. 

Mid-water trawl - A trawl designed catch species in mid-water eg hoki and southern blue whiting. These 

trawl nets can have 60 metre headline heights (top to bottom on net) and opening over 150m wide. 

Nautical mile - One nautical mile is the equivalent of 1.15 statute miles. 

Overcapitalization - This occurs when there is more fishing capacity (ie, more boats, gear or investment in 

equipment) than is needed to catch the available amount of fish in an economically efficient and 

sustainable manner. Overcapitalization poses a threat to fish populations because it can easily lead 

to overfishing. 

Overfishing - Overfishing exists when the rate of fishing is greater than the level required to meet the 

management goal or maximum sustainable yield. In other words, overfishing occurs when a 

population of fish is caught faster than it can replenish itself through reproduction. (Roberts et al.) 

Pelagic - An ancient Greek word for the open ocean or high seas, the area comprising most of the Earth's 

surface. 

Pelagic species - Species found near the surface of the sea and not on or near the seabed, for example 

tuna and kahawai. 

Plankton - Small plant and animal species that spend at least part of their time on the sea surface. They rely 

in large part on ocean currents for distribution and transportation. As eggs and larvae, many marine 

species, such as cod and Dungeness crabs, are planktonic for part of their life cycle. The plankton 

provide food for many commercially important fish and form the basis of ocean food webs. Some of 

the largest marine creatures, such as whale sharks and blue whales, eat plankton. Zooplankton are 

animals and phytoplankton are plants. 

Population - A group of interbreeding organisms that represents the level of organization at which 

speciation begins. In other words, a population is a group within a species that shares common 

ecological and genetic features compared to other individuals of that species. 

Precautionary principle - A proactive method of dealing with the environment that places the burden of 

proof on those whose activities could harm the environment rather than on the public. It is the 

opposite of the wait-and-see principle; acting before scientific proof of deleterious effects is applying 

a precautionary approach. 

Purse seine - A floating net designed to surround fish and can be closed at the bottom, or “pursed” by 

means of a free-running line attached to the bottom of the net. The net may be of up to 1 km length 

and 300 m depth and is used to encircle surface schooling fish such as kahawai, trevally and 

skipjack tuna. During retrieval the bottom of the net is closed or pursed by drawing a purse line 

through a series of rings to prevent the fish escaping. 

Recruit - A fish entering the period in its life history when it is exposed to fishing. Related phrases include 

pre-recruits, age or length at recruitment, recruitment failure. 

Recruitment - Recruitment is the general replacement of fish to a stock or population. In fisheries it is the 

time when a fish grow to a size they become liable to be caught in fishing gear. 

Recruitment failure - The failure of the fish stock to be replaced by recruits. 

Recruitment over-fishing - Occurs when the spawning stock has been reduced to a level at which 

recruitment of young fish entering the exploited component of the fishery is significantly reduced. 

Ring net - A modified lampara net with purse rings operated by two vessels. 

Seamount - Underwater volcanic mountain, ridges and plateaus that rise up several kilometres from the sea 

floor, but do not reach the surface of the sea. 

Seine - A type of fishing net that encircles a school of fish. 

Set - To prepare and cast a net; one “set” is typically defined as the interval from the time the net is cast to 

the time the net is hauled in. 

Set net - A type of gill net that has been intentionally set, staked or anchored or otherwise fixed in stationary 

position, as opposed to drift nets. 

Stock - The technical definition of a stock is an interbreeding sub-population of a species, reproductively 

isolated to some extent from other populations. Used as a unit for fishery management, however, 

"stock" refers to a specific population or group of populations of one or more species. 

Territorial Sea - This is sea within 12 nautical miles from low-water line along the coast. 


136

Trammel net - Type of gill net with three panels suspended from a common surface line and attached to a 

single bottom line. The two outside panels are of a larger mesh than the inside panel. 

Trawl - Net with a wide mouth tapering to a small, pointed end, usually called the cod end. Trawls are towed 

behind a vessel at any depth in the water column. 

Trolls - Lines with lures or baited hooks that are drawn through the water from a vessel while in motion. 


137

Glossary of Fish Names 

Fish Name 

BFG name 


138 

Scientific Name 

Abalone Paua Haliotis iris 

Ahi Bigeye Tuna Thunnus obesus 

Ahi Yellow fin tuna Thunnus albacares 

Akiwa Black cardinal fish Epigonus telescopus 

Albacore Tuna Albacore Tuna Thunnus alalunga 

Alfonsino Alfonsino Beryx splendens, D. decadactylus 

Anchovy Anchovy Engraulis australis 

Anguile australe Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Araara Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Arāra Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Arrow Squid Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Ashiro Ling Genypterus blacodes 

Aua Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Australian long-finned eel Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Australian salmon Kahawai Arripis trutta 

Barndoor skate Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Barracouta Barracouta Thyrsites atun 

Bass Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Beryx Alfonsino Beryx splendens, D. decadactylus 

Beryx de nouvelle-zelande Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Big-eye cardinalfish Black cardinal fish Epigonus telescopus 

Bigeye Tuna Bigeye Tuna Thunnus obesus 

Black cardinal fish Black cardinal fish Epigonus telescopus 

Black dory Oreos Allocyttus niger 

Black Flounder Flatfish Rhombosolea retiaria


BFG name 


139 


Black Oreo Oreos Allocyttus niger 

Black-footed paua Paua Haliotis iris 

Blauer wittling Southern blue whiting Micromesistius australis 

Blue bream Bluenose Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Blue cod Blue cod Parapercis colias 

Blue grenadier Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Blue hake Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Blue mackerel Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus 

Blue moki Blue moki Latridopsis ciliaris 

Blue Pointer Blue shark Prionace glauca 

Blue shark Blue shark Prionace glauca 

Blue warehou Blue warehou Seriolella brama 

Blue whaler Blue shark Prionace glauca 

Bluefin Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis 

Bluefin Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii 

Bluenose Bluenose Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Bluff oyster Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Bonita Bluenose Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Bream Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Brill Flatfish Colistium guntheri 

Brim Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Broadbill Swordfish Xiphias gladius 

Broadbill swordfish Swordfish Xiphias gladius 

Brown oreo Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 

Pseudocyttus maculatus 

Bulldog Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum 

Butterfish Butterfish Odax pullus 

Calamari Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Chimera Dark ghost shark Hydrolagus novaezealandiae


BFG name 


140 


Chimera Pale ghost shark Hydrolagus bemisi 

Chinchard neozelandias Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae, T. 

symmetricus murphyi 

Clam Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Cockles Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Common warehou Blue warehou Seriolella brama 

Coque Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Coquille saint-jacques de 

Nouvelle-Zealande 

Scallops Pecten novaezealandiae 

Couta Barracouta Thyrsites atun 

Crayfish Packhorse lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Crayfish Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Creamfish Leather jacket Parika scaber 

Cutlassfish Frostfish Lepidopus caudatus 

Dab Flatfish Rhombosolea plebeia 

Dark ghost shark Dark ghost shark Hydrolagus novaezealandiae 

Deepsea cod Ribaldo Mora moro 

Deepsea dory Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


Deepsea perch Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Deepsea perch Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Deepsea trevalla Bluenose Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Deepsea warehou White warehou Seriolella caerulea 

Demi-bec neozelandias Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Dore austral Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


Eels Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Elephant shark Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli 

Elephantfish Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli


BFG name 


141 


Flake School shark Galeorhinus galeus 

Flat oyster Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Flatfish Flatfish 

Foveaux Strait Oyster Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Frostfish Frostfish Lepidopus caudatus 

Gangiei Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Gaori Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Garfish Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Gemfish Gemfish Rexea solandri 

Giant stargazer Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum 

Golden snapper Red snapper Centroberyx affinis 

Googly-eyed cod, Ribaldo Mora moro 

Goushyuumadai Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Granatbarsch Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Green rock lobster Packhorse lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Greenback flounder Flatfish Rhombosolea tapirina 

Greenbone Butterfish Odax pullus 

Grey boy School shark Galeorhinus galeus 

Grey mullet Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Grey shark School shark Galeorhinus galeus 

Grondin rouget Red Gurnard Chelidonichthys kumu 

Groper Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Gummy shark Rig/lemonfish Mustelus lenticulatus 

Haature Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae, T. 


Haiku Hake Merluccius australis 

Hake Hake Merluccius australis 

Haku Kingfish Seriola lalandi


BFG name 


142 


Hakuraa Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Half-beak Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Hangenge Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Hapuka Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Hauture Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae, T. 


Hauwai Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Herring Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Hihiwa Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Hikau Frostfish Lepidopus caudatus 

Hinangi Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Hohopu Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Hoka Ling Genypterus blacodes 

Hoka Red Cod Pseudophycis bachus 

Hokarari Ling Genypterus blacodes 

Hoki Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Hoplostete orange Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Hopu Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Horse mackerel Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae, T. 


Huangi Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Huangiangi Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Huuai Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Ihe Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Inaka Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Jack fish Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Jack mackerel Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae, T. 

symmetricus murphyi


BFG name 


143 


Jock Stewart Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

John dory John dory Zeus faber 

Julienette Red Cod Pseudophycis bachus 

Kaaraerae Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Kaataha Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Kahawai Kahawai Arripis trutta 

Kahu Kingfish Seriola lalandi 

Kaisersgranat Scampi Metanephrops challengeri 

Kalamari Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Kalmar Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Kanae Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Kaorea Red snapper Centroberyx affinis 

Kapua Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Karahiwa Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Karahiwa Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Kararuri Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Kataka Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Kauaeroa Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Kawerai Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Kehe Hake Merluccius australis 

Kin koorako Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

Kina Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

Kina ariki Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

King dory Lookdown dory Cyttus traversi 

Kingfish Kingfish Seriola lalandi 

Kingklip Ling Genypterus blacodes 

Kingu Ling Genypterus blacodes


BFG name 


144 


Koekohe Trumpeter Latris lineata 

Koeo Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Kohikohi Trumpeter Latris lineata 

Koinga Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Kokowhaawhaa Anchovy Engraulis australis 

Komutumutu Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Kooeaea Butterfish Odax pullus 

Koopuuhuri Kahawai Arripis trutta 

Kooukauka Kahawai Arripis trutta 

Kopapa Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Kopukopu Blue cod Parapercis colias 

Kopuwai Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Korohiwa Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Kororiwha Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Korowhaawhaa Anchovy Engraulis australis 

Koura Packhorse lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Koura Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Kourea Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Kourepoua Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum 

Kuakua Scallops Pecten novaezealandiae 

Kumukumu Red Gurnard Chelidonichthys kumu 

Kupae Sprats Sprattus antipodum, Sprattus muelleri 

Kuparu Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Kuparu John dory Zeus faber 

Kutuhori Flatfish Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae 

Kuuwharuwharu Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Langoustine-de-NZ Scampi Metanephrops challengeri


BFG name 


145 


Langschwanz-Seehecht Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Latchet Red Gurnard Chelidonichthys kumu 

Leather jacket Leather jacket Parika scaber 

Lemonfish Rig/lemonfish Mustelus lenticulatus 

Ling Ling Genypterus blacodes 

Longfinned albacore Albacore Tuna Thunnus alalunga 

Long-finned eel Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachia + 

Lookdown dory Lookdown dory Cyttus traversi 

Mackerel shark Mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus 

Madai Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Maha-taharaki Gemfish Rexea solandri 

Maka Barracouta Thyrsites atun 

Makaa Barracouta Thyrsites atun 

Maka-tikati Gemfish Rexea solandri 

Makawhiti Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Mako Mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus 

Mako shark Mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus 

Makohuarau School shark Galeorhinus galeus 

Mako-huarau Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Makorepe Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli 

Makumaku Kingfish Seriola lalandi 

Mangaa Barracouta Thyrsites atun 

Mangoo-hapuu Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Mango-pekepeke Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Mango-pounamu Blue shark Prionace glauca 

Manumanu Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Marakuha Sprats Sprattus antipodum, Sprattus muelleri 

Marare Butterfish Odax pullus


BFG name 


146 


Marari Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Mararī Butterfish Odax pullus 

Marariwha Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Marlin Striped marlin Tetrapturus audax 

Matapara Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Matapuku Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Matiri Bluenose Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Matohe Butterfish Odax pullus 

Matuawhapuku Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Merlan bleu austral Southern blue whiting Micromesistius australis 

Merluse Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Merluza Hake Merluccius australis 

Merluza azul Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Minamimaguro Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis 

Minamimaguro Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii 

Moamoa Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum 

Moeone Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Mohimohi Pilchards Sardinops sagax 

Moki Blue moki Latridopsis ciliaris 

Moki trumpeter Blue moki Latridopsis ciliaris 

Monkfish Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum 

Moonfish Moonfish Lampris guttatus 

Mora Ribaldo Mora moro 

Morwong Tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus 

Nasello azzurro Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

Nelson oyster Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

New Zealand cod Blue cod Parapercis colias 

Ngu Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum


BFG name 


147 


Northern Kingfish Kingfish Seriola lalandi 

NZ cod Red Cod Pseudophycis bachus 

NZ dory Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


NZ gem scallop Queen scallops Chlamys delicatula 

NZ gem shellfish Queen scallops Chlamys delicatula 

NZ golden snapper Snapper Pagrus auratus 

NZ Herring Sprats Sprattus antipodum, Sprattus muelleri 

NZ Jack Mackerel Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae + 

NZ littleneck clam Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

NZ sea crab Paddle crabs Ovalipes catharus 

NZ smooth dory Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

NZ sole Flatfish Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae 

Ocean bream Tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus 

Ocean perch Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Opah Moonfish Lampris guttatus 

Orange roughy Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Oreos Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


Oursin de Nouvelle- 

Zelande 

Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

Oyster Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Paakirikiri Blue cod Parapercis colias 

Paara Frostfish Lepidopus caudatus 

Paatiki Flatfish 

Paatiki nui Flatfish Colistium nudipinnis 

Paatiki rori Flatfish Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae 

Paatikimohoao Flatfish Rhombosolea retiaria 

Paatikitotara Flatfish Rhombosolea leporina 

Paatutuki Blue cod Parapercis colias


BFG name 


148 


Pacific bluefin tuna Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis 

Pacific mackerel Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus 

Packhorse lobster Packhorse lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Paddle crabs Paddle crabs Ovalipes catharus 

Paea Swordfish Xiphias gladius 

Pakaurua Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Pakeke Flatfish Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae 

Pale ghost shark Pale ghost shark Hydrolagus bemisi 

Päpaka Paddle crabs Ovalipes catharus 

Papakura Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Papatia Packhorse lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Para-taharangi Frostfish Lepidopus caudatus 

Patete Sprats Sprattus antipodum, Sprattus muelleri 

Patikinui Flatfish Colistium guntheri 

Paua Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Pawharu Packhorse lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi 

Pearl Dark ghost shark Hydrolagus novaezealandiae 

Pearl Pale ghost shark Hydrolagus bemisi 

Peruvian Jack Mackerel Jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, T. novaezelandiae, T. 


Pesce arancio Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Peterfisch Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


Pilchards Pilchards Sardinops sagax 

Pillie Pilchards Sardinops sagax 

Piper Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Pohuikaroa Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Porae Trumpeter Latris lineata 

Porbeagle Porbeagle shark Lamna nasus


BFG name 


149 


Porbeagle shark Porbeagle shark Lamna nasus 

Porpoise shark Porbeagle shark Lamna nasus 

Pota Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Poutini Blue shark Prionace glauca 

Puaihakua Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Pukeru John dory Zeus faber 

Pure Scallops Pecten novaezealandiae 

Puurau Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

Puuwhaiau Red Gurnard Chelidonichthys kumu 

Queen paua Paua Haliotis australis 

Queen scallops Queen scallops Chlamys delicatula 

Raawaru Blue cod Parapercis colias 

Rari Ling Genypterus blacodes 

Rattail Pale ghost shark Hydrolagus bemisi 

Raumarie Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Red Cod Red Cod Pseudophycis bachus 

Red Gurnard Red Gurnard Chelidonichthys kumu 

Red rock lobster Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Red roughy Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Red snapper Red snapper Centroberyx affinis 

Reherehe Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Repe Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli 

Reperepe Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli 

Ribaldo Ribaldo Mora moro 

Rig Rig/lemonfish Mustelus lenticulatus 

Rock lobster Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Rock salmon Rubyfish Plagiogeneion rubiginosum 

Rock salmon Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias


BFG name 


150 


Roodbars Alfonsino Beryx splendens, D. decadactylus 

Rosy soldierfish Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Rough skate Skates Zearaja nasutus 

Rubyfish Rubyfish Plagiogeneion rubiginosum 

Saint-pierre John dory Zeus faber 

Sand Flounder Flatfish Rhombosolea plebeia 

Sand perch Blue cod Parapercis colias 

Sardine Pilchards Sardinops sagax 

Sardine Sprats Sprattus antipodum, Sprattus muelleri 

Scallops Scallops Pecten novaezealandiae 

Scampi Scampi Metanephrops challengeri 

Scaree Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Schnapper Snapper Pagrus auratus 

School shark School shark Galeorhinus galeus 

Sea bass Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Sea bream Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Sea egg Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

Sea mullet Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Sea perch Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Sea perch Sea perch Helicolenus percoides 

Sea Urchin Kina Evechinus chloroticus 

Seehecht Hake Merluccius australis 

Shibi Yellow fin tuna Thunnus albacares 

Shortfin mako Mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus 

Short-finned eel Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Short-finned squid Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Silver bream Tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus


BFG name 


151 


Silver eel Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Silver kingfish Gemfish Rexea solandri 

Silver trumpeter Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli 

Silver warehou Silver warehou Seriolella punctata 

Skates Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Skipjack tuna Skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis 

Slimehead Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus 

Smooth dory Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Smooth Oreo Oreos Pseudocyttus maculatus 

Smooth skate Skates Dipturus innominatus 

Snapper Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Snoek Barracouta Thyrsites atun 

South pacific crab Paddle crabs Ovalipes catharus 

Southern anchovy Anchovy Engraulis australis 

Southern blue whiting Southern blue whiting Micromesistius australis 

Southern bluefin tuna Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii 

Southern kingfish Gemfish Rexea solandri 

Southern mackerel Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus 

Southern poutassou Southern blue whiting Micromesistius australis 

Southern queen Queen scallops Chlamys delicatula 

Southern spiny dogfish Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Spikey dogfish Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Spikey Oreo Oreos Neocyttus rhomboidalis 

Spineback Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Spiny dogfish Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Spiny rock lobster Rock lobster Jasus edwardsii 

Splendid alfonsino Alfonsino Beryx splendens, D. decadactylus 

Spotted estuary smooth- Rig/lemonfish Mustelus lenticulatus


hound 

BFG name 


152 


Spotted oreo Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


Spotted spiny dogfish Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Spotted warehou Silver warehou Seriolella punctata 

Spotten dogfish Rig/lemonfish Mustelus lenticulatus 

Sprats Sprats Sprattus antipodum, Sprattus muelleri 

Spurdog Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias 

Stargazer Stargazer Kathetostoma giganteum 

Stone eye Bluenose Hyperoglyphe antarctica 

Striped marlin Striped marlin Tetrapturus audax 

Striped mullet Grey mullet Mugil cephalus 

Striped trumpeter Trumpeter Latris lineata 

Sudlicher kaiserbarsch Alfonsino Beryx splendens, D. decadactylus 

Suei Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Swimming crab Paddle crabs Ovalipes catharus 

Swordfish Swordfish Xiphias gladius 

Takaketonga Striped marlin Tetrapturus audax 

Takeke Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Tamure Snapper Pagrus auratus 

Tarakihi Tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus 

Tarao Butterfish Odax pullus 

Tawatawa Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus 

Teifsee-petersfisch Oreos Allocyttus niger, Neocyttus rhomboidalis, 


Tewetewe Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus 

Tftis Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Thon rouge de sud Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis 

Thon rouge de sud Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii


BFG name 


153 


Tiikati Frostfish Lepidopus caudatus 

Tiikati Gemfish Rexea solandri 

Tiikati Hake Merluccius australis 

Tio Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Tio para Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Tio repe Oyster Ostrea chilensis 

Tipa Queen scallops Chlamys delicatula 

Tipai Scallops Pecten novaezealandiae 

Tope School shark Galeorhinus galeus 

Toti Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Trevally Trevally Pseudocaranx dentex 

Trigger fish Leather jacket Parika scaber 

Trumpeter Trumpeter Latris lineata 

Tuangi Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Tuna hao Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Tuna heke Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Tupa Scallops Pecten novaezealandiae 

Turbot Flatfish Colistium nudipinnis 

Uku Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Venus shells Cockles Austrovenus stutchburyi 

Waewae Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus 

Warehenga Kingfish Seriola lalandi 

Warehou Blue warehou Seriolella brama 

Wariwari Garfish Hyporhamphus ihi 

Whaapuku Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Whai Skates Zearaja nasutus, Dipturus innominatus


BFG name 


154 


Wharangi Paua Haliotis iris, H. australis 

Wheketere Arrow Squid Nototodarus sloanii, Nototodarus gouldi 

Whiptail, Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae 

White cod Ribaldo Mora moro 

White fillets Elephantfish Callorhinchus milli 

White tuna Albacore Tuna Thunnus alalunga 

White warehou White warehou Seriolella caerulea 

Whiting Hake Merluccius australis 

Wrackbarsch Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Wreckfish Groper Polyprion oxygeneios, Polyprion 

americanus 

Yellow eel Eels Anguilla australis , A. dieffenbachii, 

A.reinhardtii 

Yellow fin tuna Yellow fin tuna Thunnus albacares 

Yellow-belly flounder Flatfish Rhombosolea leporina 

Yelloweye mullet Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Yellow-eyed mullet Yellow-eyed mullet Aldrichetta forsteri 

Yellow-footed paua Paua Haliotis australis 

Yellowtail Kingfish Kingfish Seriola lalandi

Best Fish Guide 2009-2010 - Forest and Bird

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