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a 

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t

Content s 

Introductlon 

Paee( 

" ) 

't-t 

lffoots of grazjne arlfuoals 

a) Eff€cts of the ani-na1 hoof 

!) nffects asdcpiated rith the oyoltng of cgaDl.c @tt€r 

o) Renoltal of nutrients ftlcm the lysten in tho 

ArdosL orop 

3-8 

8 - 12 

Effocts of agricultural. vehl-cl.e6 

15-16 

Eff€cts 

of hunan roorcation 

16 - 18 

Effects 

of tr€es a.nd. forestly 

,t8 

a) Sffects of trees 

a/ ltoot s 

14./ !a!to! 

b) lffects of forestry 

i) goil cohpactio$ anat di6tur.lance 

ii) Chan8es in the ruD-off eater 

ij-i) Reoollal of nutlieats in tl'Eber 

1A-19 

19-20 

20-4 

2t-24 

24- 28 

28-52 

Coepari8ob of 

oE th6 soi]- 

a) Iffects 

b) Renor/al 

anj-nal_6 

naterl.al 

the effects ol Brazla8 arrieals and. tree6 

on the soil 

ox l.oss of llutii€rlts frq the systeE llr 

or tihlor, in solutLon and a6 pattLculate 

52 

t5-56 

loLnow]-eilgsnent 6 

Append.ix (Draf.t Sueary) 

TabLos & &gfet€noss 

t6

Xany data are available on the effeots of Land-uae and management 

. 

on upland soils in general but few refer apeoificaUy to the Lake 

Districl; in spite of inoreasing public interest in the use of tb 

area d h g the past few decades. PearsaU '(19501, and more 

recently, Pearsall & Pennington (I 973) summarized available data 

aa soils, vegetation and land-use and pm~ided the relevant 

historical. background, 

Both publications stressed the beneficial 

effects of trees in maintaking and restoa %oil fertility and the 

effeclt of leaching of nutrients from the soil by the high 

miafalS which occurs in uplaxla amas in western Br5.W. Pearaall 

(1950) emphasized the loneterm nutrient extractive- effect of sheep- 

grazing whereas Pearsall & Pe-gbon 

m the ha- 

(1 973)' placed mom emphasis 

effeots of deforestation and the need for soil 

consemation in the M o Didrict, partiaulrsrly by re-affomataticn. 

Publicetion of Pearsail and Per-r&@on*s book stimulated the holding 

of a meeting of rapresentat ives of farmers, foresters, amenity 

organizations, conservationists, planners and -search aoientista 

in K d a l , Cumbria in October 1974 to identiQ and diacuas local 

soil pmb2erns. 

The meeting, t'Soila and ?dm in the Lake Matrict ', was 

sponsored by the Nature Conselvanoy Cowoil. One of the papers 

pmsented, mcarned with t ha eff eot s of woodland and forest in a 

historioal cmt&, ms gubEshed moerrtly (Chard, f 975). The 

present paper is an expanded version of another of the papers and 

is presented here for discussicn prior to final draft;& of a surraDary 

for the Countryside Cdssion (rlppendix bsl'm), It views soil 

as a resaurce and also as part of an ecolecal system of htemctbg 

parts. 

As a resouroe, -soil must be conserved, that is, used d soly 

so that it is maintained in a suitable o wla ion for a vafiety of 

land-uses ia the long term as well as Ln the short term.

As pa& 

of an ecological system, such as wmRUand or grazed graoshd, 

soil influences and is influenoed by otb r parts of the system fnolding 

the vegetation and thb animals whioh feed on it and, therefore' it cam& 

be viewed m~listically in isolation, 

Interantion of soil charaoteristios 

and veget ztian, topography, clFmate , land-use and managemen* ultimately 

moulds the landscape of an area, 

In pr~.ctice, each ecrological system change6 aonttnuouaw t uwarda a 

" - 

condition in mob the various parts and the rates of processes in 

the system are in an equilibrium determined by f~ictora such as olimate 

and management. 

men use or management is changed, adjustment of the 

sys,tem t o a new set of factors, input8 and outputs, my take a oonsiderable 

tim? and mey involve losa& and gains in certain parts of the system. 

he lattsr changes am not evidence of soil detedorrrtion unless they 

Wose major .Enitations on thy fit& 

purpose or qlesa they lead to soil erosion. 

. . 

use-.& the sail for some defined 

The areas of, partioubr interest in this paper Ee between the in-t;ensively 

managed arable land oP8 t& valley botf oms and the virtually sail-leas 

ana' unmnageab le high mountain t op s . They fall int o grade s 4 and 5 of 

the Agricult-1 

Land. Classification (Miaistry of' Agrioultum, Fishezies 

and Food, 1966) or classes 5 and 6 of the Soil Survey Land Use Capabiliw 

cl.assificatian (Bibby & Edackney, 969) and are classed mahly aa wo&W 

or heathland, moorland and rtxtgh land in the Second hd-Use Survey of 

Britain ( ~ ol~nm&n & &ggs, .1968), soils ~wg8 from mU-drained b m 

earths carrying krostis - Fevtuca grassland frsquently invaded heavily 

by Readtun on the lower fells to nutrient pour, af'tan peaty but mu- 

drained soils wlth Calluna and Vaaoinium or poorly aerated gleys with 

96ardw gmss2and on the higher gentle slopes, aagnant or non-#fag& 

bogs domted hy Edolinia, or Erioahorum reepeotivsly, occur on level 

araaa at most tiltit udei in the zone of ink amst, These are used

traditlonaly for rough grazing, forest~y, watcr oat- and recr*e3t%m, 

so their uao conaerna the geneml. public as well as landawnera and 

mnagers, particularly now as increased use of timber and high timber 

prices are encouraging the spread of comercia1 forestry, soci-econcmLo 

factors are favoudng changes in hill-farmhg and public pressurn on hill 

land is increasing, 

=th the above background, this paper has three mh 8ime. first, to 

sumarise the effgcts on so51 in gensral of the win types of land-use 

ad manag8mn-b found or likely to be found in the mure in the Lake 

District and to indicate tksir relevance to the soils of the area. 

Second, to compare the effects of the mjn Itznd-uses, prticularly 

CU-farmjxlg and foreatry. Third, 4s a basis for f'uture ma-h, 

to identie those aspects for mhioh relevant data are lacldng. 

Effects of arasiw animla 

Wny au-bhots, Coppmk & Cole- (I 970), Darling (1955), Hart (4 968), 

~cVeak & Loclde (1 969), Pearsall (1950), Pearsall & PeMtrgton (1931, 

Tivy (1973), tend to regard free-grazing aheep as harmtul to hill soils 

and ~e~tation anti hold the view that,by thefr selective close grazw, 

sheep suppress aL1 but the ccarsest plants such as mt-grass, Nardus 

stlicta, 8nd --rush, ' ~uncus aquarrosus, and by their treadhg they 

_I 

deatroy vegetation oover and thereby increaae the EkeEhocd of 8-dl 

eroeion. 

meep are also said to ooaplact the soil thus reduo* 

aeration, waf; ~r absorption aid dulat ion of nut dents , The culling 

of the flock is said to depbte meas of nutrients, parkioularly baaed, 

and thus to aocelerate the natural trend towards acidity h areas of high 

rainfall. 

for conv-ence 

together, 

Clearly, Pvany of these ideas apply also to hi11 cattle ao 

we mill cms'ider the ef'fecta of aheep snd oattle 

a) Ef feot s of the animal hod 

The diwct effaat of tmadbg varies with the hmf ares, the pressure 

exertea, the number of t-s, 

an@ the way in which the hoof ia appxed

to the ground per unit area and per unit tbm, the pattern of 

movement of the ani~lal w i t h an area and also the age, size 

and breed of animal. 

Available data on hoof measuremente and 

pressures exerted suggest that oattle tmad 2-4 times more 

heavily than sheep (Table 1 ) but such comparisons based on 

ext~polztion f'rom data for standing -1s must be viewed 

with great cadion bearing in mind results for standing and 

walking hbn (~ar~er et al., 1961 and p. 16). 

.r 

Moat stues of treadjng ef'feot or daily movemonk of animals 

have been carried out in lowland grassland areas and in emloaures 

where the animal may behave abnox'mally either because it is . 

stimulated to move excsssively or et a higher speed than normal 

(~amond, 1958) or because movements are wauoed *en ampLe food 

is supplied (England, 1954). . Data for individual sheep (Table 2) 

oombined with observations on the dajfy movement of upland flocks 

in hefis or home ranges of horn size (~unter, 1 962, for Cheviuta 

on mainly krostis-Pestuoa, Nardus and Molinia grassland and 

Ptoridium; 

-- 

Gmbb & Sewell, I 974, for Soay &eep on Nardus, Mrosti a 

Festuoa, Holcus and a grasslmd and Cdluna) indicate a daily 

movement of 1.2-12.9 

hi with most values falling between 2 and 5 km. 

From such data, Welch & Cdna (pers, corn) oonoludad that the 

daily movement of Brit5sh hill aheep is about 2.5-5.0 km. CDnr 

parable data for cattle cover a range of 2.3-7.8 bpi day*' 

able 2). 

Hancock (1953), quoting varkoua pub=shed data, gives 

a range of 1 .&2.8 lan daym1 for dairy cattle end he stresaes that 

an 013 pasture or rough ground cattle travel twice as Phr as on 

newpastures, From a11 the above data one may comluds that 

cattle and sheep travel apprht- 

the saw dA&ance per day. 

b 

I 

Stride lengths in ahaep and cattle are respectively abmt 15 om 

andG am rams, 197.1). 

U~ling these data and appradmate maan 

daily movements of animals, Welsh & Cumins (prs. em.) oalculated 

that sheep a d cattle perform mspeoti~ely 100,000 and 4,000 leg 

movements animal-' day-' . kssudng hoof oreas of 15 am2 and

5 

2 

60 om respectively for hill sheep and cattle they calculated 

peroentage of range trampled per year with diffemnt degrees of 

aggregation of trampling and stookjxrg, Sheep averaged from 

1 .I tramples evenly spread over the whole area d th 042 

animals ha1 to 109.5 tramples 

on i@ of the area plus 

1242 trlamples on the remaining 9% with a mean stocking rate 

for the whole area of 4.0 sheep ham'. 

cattle ran& h m 

Comparable data fur 

8% bf the area tramgled per year hth 041 

animals hat and evenly spread trampling to 1 a trampled, 1 @ 

21.9 times and 9% 2 .l+ times yearu' , here the mean stocking rate 

is 0.5 animal ha'. These calculations doMt Slowfor repeated tmsding 

of tho sme area duhg each tranple or for remcrval stook from 

the hills during the more severe weather, In most hill areas, the 

stooking rates for oattle tend to approach 0.2 -1s 

sheep fell between 0.2-1 animal ha'. 

ha -I iinqfor 

Compaction by animals is amcentrated in the top few oms of sou 

(wind & Schothorst 1 964; Edmond, 1 958 alth ougb acoaaionally,it 

extends to about 20 cms Pederer et al, 1 961 ) . Compaction nay 

be greater at s, few cms depth t kn at the soil s eace if the tap 

- few cms is highly organic and resilient (Hod +& Homrd, 1 976; 

Keen 8e Cashen, G. H, , 1 93 2). 

The overall degree of compactim 

varieowith soil oharacteristics. Sandy aoils lowin orgatdo 

mkter or dry soils fn general are little compacted, whereas soils 

rich in clay, peat and moisturn are very susceptible to trampling 

darrrage (Kind & Sc.Whorst, I 9&), 

Compaotion involves not mly an inorease in bulk density but also 

a mduction of soil pore space, aeration, moisture stom@ oapacity 

and infliltration rats, destruction of matepatable soil aggmgates, 

and changes in t herma1 charaoteristics (~dmund, 1958; Fedemr et a;L, 

4961 ; GfUrd, 1969; Gmdwell, 1960; L~I, 1959; Steinbrenner, 1951 ; 

Wind & Sohothorst, 1964). Such changes may be expected to lead to 

soil biological and chemical changes but these are diff'icult to

sepamte from changes associated with the effects of feeding and 

d~ and urine deposition and seen to be small relative -to the latter 

judghg by the findings of Floate (4 972). h!oreover, as Weloh & 

Cumins (prs. cm.) point outl the frequent occurrence of frost 

in British upand areas wili tend to minimize any trend t mzrds 

o ompaot ion. 

Soil eroaion asaociated with grazing does not appeGr to have been 

studied much in Britejn although eroaion gullies, which may be partly 

an effect of the grazing animal, ere seen frequently on hill graeins. 

Thomrts (j965) describes sheet zrosion beginning from '%urmstt or 

"kunkers" used by sheep as sheltering places in the Plynlimdn and 

other moorland amas of Wales and we hzve obsorvod fans of aroded sot1 below 

%bunkerst' an grassland on the lower fells in the Southern Uplands 

of Scotland, %he Pennines and the Lake Estrict, 

Anohtier aspect 

of erosim is the slow downhill movement of soil, Thonaaa (1 959) 

mentions the movement of a prticular sheep-path two feet downhill in 

four years, but in such exaqloa dinuntanglement of the effects of Mart, 

effects of' the animal, and natural dovn-kill soil movement is dif'f'icult . 

me effect of the hoof is more pronounced an wet soils, where the animal 

tends to slip and slide mom than on dry soils, 

The sod which protects 

the soil surface ia broken more easily by cattle than by sheep because 

the former exert the groat er hoof pms sure (~abla). 

In New Zealand, &ere soil erosion is rccognised as a problem associated 

with grazed, hill-soils, Gibbs (I a) has outlined the variou,: types of 

erosion which mcur and stressed the need for assessment of permfaaible 

stocking densities on particular soil types. 

These and other oomments 

, rvhi.ch he makes,appear to be relevant to soil coneelvation in the Lake 

District, 

New Zealand work h s also shown that vegetation, e.g. 

som gmssland 

with clover, my be considerably damaged by treading, particularly 

when the soil is wet and sheep densities are high (7-50 ham' ) 

(zdmmd I 958; I 962; 963). Damage alone reduced herb&@ yield 

to as low as one eighth of the cat rol value. 

In the Lake 

Pistriot, because of much lower overall shoep densities, s~oh 

damage and also soil omp~ction are probably em11 oxoept on 

or near sheep-paths and o~e~ght resting sites on areas 

of the most palatable vegetation, A~rostis - Festuca grassland 

(~ughos et al., 1964; Hughes et al., 19E; R m s Bcweloh, 1969). 

In such places, changes in sward composition.are likely to #cur 

as a result of variation between hefiage species in resistace 

to treading (~ates, 1 935 for &ed 

grasslands on various soils; 

Ebond, 1958, 1962, 1963 for sown grasslands with clover), 

Grasses 

are mom resistant t o tmmpling t ha species such as hfyricc gale, 

~teridi& aquilinum an3 Vaccinum myrtillus which are undesirable 

to Evestook (~rama, 1971). Changes in the composition of the 

sward also occur when grazing pressure is insufficient to lead to 

severe treading damage (welch, 1974; Welch & Cummins pera. camm. ). 

Bny changes in swad coqosition produce changes in the type andor 

mount of plant remuins returned to ths soil and thus may lead to 

chavlges in soil chemical, biological and physical characte~s~ica 

(2p.3 - 12). 

From the above com~nts, the tr~edin~; wiucl Eapperlrs to ba ermtimly 

harmful. to the grazed s w~d-sail systen however, Daviea (1938) 

considemd that a small amount of trampling helps to break up 

and aerate the soil aurface and to earth up the bases of grassland 

plants. Some farmers use light trampling on a roseeded hill 

pasture in the belief that it has a firming effect similar to 

that achieved by using a roller (~eaould, 1 974). Miles (4 973),

8 

worEng oh heather moor, birch and pine wodland and jmiper 

scrub in Invmnesa-shire, f'outld much higher dansitf es of self- 

sown aeedxnga on soil bared by deer trampling than rm 

vegetation-covered soil so perhaps trampling is important 

locally in croat ion of niches for now apecies in a closd 

c o d t y , 

Crocker (13 3) coneiders th~t 

heavy grazing 

creates vaccnt niches which are occupied by less palatable 

species from within or outside the community and this applies 

also to low levels of trampling (~ddls& Greig-Smith, 19~b). 

However, Ploate et al., (I 973) and Jonez (4 967) find t kk graaea- 

olrt species are not neoessarily replaced by unpalatable species 

(FY* 8 - 12). 

Published comenta on the effect d trampling 

on vegetative reproauction of pasture species are c onflictiq, 

Davies (1 938), Pearsall (I 9501, and hwes & Wolch (1 969) state 

that treading plus grazing promotes the tillering of grasaes 

~herea~l Eamond (I ff8) noted a progressive reduction in 

tillering of ryegrass and node f omation by clover as . 

at ocking density increased from 0 to 8 aheep ha-' . 

. b Effects associated with the cycling of organic matter and 

nutrients within the animl-ve~etation-soil systm 

On ungrazed hill-land, plant material produced above and below 

ground eventually dies and, as it deoays under the influence of 

aoil bacteria, f'ungi and animals, the nutrients which it cmtains 

are relecse2 and eithzr held in the aoil or re-absorbed by 

plants, or loached out of the ndl. . This leaching is moat 

pronounced where rainfall is high, as in much of western 

Britah, and whore the plant remins produce substances suoh 

as aoids and polyphonols which promote movement of materials 

down the soil profile. Basos, are amongst the nutrients whioh 

leached out, so the plant remins, tond to became

progressively =ore acid. 

This acidity, combined with the 

lack of readily-available 

.. niltrient; and the low te~erat~s 

prevalent in hill areas ~.-e striot s the numbers and activitiaa 

of ~econposer -organisms, so deconposition proceeds slowly 

wd formation of a mat of plnnt remains and/or of peat occurs, 

The imposition of' regular grazing on the system described above 

involves defoliation, damga to the plant by trampling and 

soil compaction md hence usually lower herbage prduction 

(Bryant et al., 1972; Xdmond, .t958; Floate, 1972; h w a 

&%lch, t969) and root growkh (~chustor 1964). 

This, 

toge5her with digeation and assimilation of some material by the 

anbal, reduces the mount of organic matter retuned to the 

soii. In a paired-plot fence-line study in Scotland, Flmte 

(1972) found that imposition of grazing led to a roductiori in 

the thickness and amounk of aurface organio matter. Howard 

& Ho- (1974). working on A~rosteFes hucetum Fn the northem 

Permines, found no ohange in the amount of surface organic 

remains with grazing but sug~sted that in the absence of 

,gazing much of the dead grass is supported by the live 

veget~tion and hence waa not collected 3n their soil cores. 

If overstockhg mcurs, herbage m ill be so reduced and 

damaged that bare aoil ~ 1 appear, 1 The latter is highly 

susceptible to erosion and is also exposed to sxtmmea of 

temperature which my, on balance, be unfavourable far 

microbiological actlvity although mode rat ely high temperat urea 

favour high activity if moi~turo dae~ not become limiting. 

Grazing involves channelling sme vegetation tkroue the 

and baok to the soil in droppings and urine, The benefioid 

effects of dung and urine on soils and vegetation are wellknm 

but quantitative evidenoe of their influence on'nutrimt 

oyoling is leas well docmente&. Floats (19 72), in

laboratory incubation studies, compared the release of 

nukrients frm (A) pl--it zakeri-1 cut in October and (B) fc* 

ous produced by sheep fed the same mterials cut at monthly 

intervals Prom May to October. He found that readily 

available nitrogen (N), inchding urine N, increased from 

31.5 for A t o 52.7 kg ha-' for B for krcstia-Fesf uoa 

a d 12.0 for. A to 18.4 for 3 kg nal for Nardus in spite 

of herbage producLion decreases of 6% for A and 24% for B. 

Similar reault s were found for phosphorus (P)- 

He also 

demonstrated increased uptake of N and P fim dung and urine 

by the pasture plants, 

Clearly, gr~zing speeds up the 

nutrient circulation in the surfaca soil./vegetatiun system 

and this more rapid re-use of the small amounts of available 

nutrients present in hill soils can be interpreted aa an 

jndication of improved soil fertility, 

In his fence-line study, Floate (1972) found that grazing led 

to: 

i) Reductions in the ratios of c.rrSon (c) to N and P for phnt 

rewins and of soil to 4O cm depth. Such ratio& are 

often thought of as indicatcrr s of soil fert;iUty. 

a) Increases, in b &la total and organic P but no significant 

ohange in the concent ration of available P in the top 40 cm 

iii) mPn herease in soil pK but not in base saturation, 

Howard & Howard (1 976) recorded higher nitrogen cronteflts and 

a lower C/N ratio in the top 3.5 cm of eoil Kith grueingn 

bspi rntory actidty of the soils was higher on the ungmz#d 

area, probably as a result of conversion of herbage to faeces 

with a lower mspiratory activity (Floate, 1970). During 

& Radoliffe (1962) found th~t the top 4 cn of the duneenriched 

soil of sheep-tmcks on hills In New Zealand had is. higher C

content, a mch higher N content, and a lowor GIN mtio 

than other soil on the fill. 

The above comments refer to nutrient cyoling in unimproved 

3051s. If lime andor basic slag are applied on a grazd 

area, mrked increases in aoil fertility occur *om enhanced 

decomposition, reduction of cat formtion and improved base 

status (Shaw, 1 95 8). 

Liming and other soil am el ioration 

treatments are usually coupled with increased atooking. 

This leads to a f'u*her jncrease in the proportion of th@ 

herbage production which is chamellad through the anid 

alld a firther reduction in the mwnt of decomposing herbage 

on the soil surface loat ate, I 970, 4 972). 

It also leads 

to hcreaeed utilisation of relatively unpalatable species 

and ult-tely 

a change in sward composition towards dminance 

by more palatable graminaceous sp~e5~9. Plate et al. 

(1 9'731, for exaple, showed f hat e Nardus sward oauld be 

changed to a palatable gms s-dominated sward using oatrolled 

intensive grazing i l ime + NP + Potaeaium (K) + awface 

seeding, but at R high cost. 

1-e sult s in Xale s . 

Jones (1 967) obtainad sindlar 

From the soil consemation viewpoint, if shesg are to be kepk 

in kigh rainfall areas, a management regime is requimd wfiich: 

- . . 

i) maintainsacontinuousproteotive coverof palatable 

hsfiage plants and asswiated plant remains 

+ 

) maintains the soil in as fertile condition and 'rPith 

as good structure as possible. 

Qhese requirements are at levst park- met by the H.F.R.O. '8 

prwosals for a t w-past ure systea involving: 

- i) imprbfrelilmt of the part of tb available pasture nhioh 

can be nost acanmically improvd, that is, that on the better 

sails already oarqing soms %matis-Festuoa orbracken

12 

d m 

use of the herbage prductioll an U s 

by heavy intedttent cGopping 

area 

iii) h~avior use of the uni~roved area especially ahrig 

the sumer (~adie, Arnatrong Bc Wxmell, q973); 

This approach allovis m h heavier overall stocking with sheep 

and some cattle. The latter are less selective in their 

grazing thm sheep an& they c ontrol and reduce the coarser 

herbage species (Fenton, 1937). In field trials, mimd 

grazing has led to a higher output of sheep flesh plus a 

bonus of some cattle flesh (i'iamop, 1965) and my therefore 

be desirable on oconornic zs well as ecological grounds. 

In the Lake District, although the H.F.R.O.'s proposals have 

not been put into practice to any sppmciable extent, 

improvement a d 'nore efficient use of the lomr altitude 

grazing3 with better soils is favoured. In particular, 

the use of herbicides such as asulam for bracken is being 

tried. Soil changes resulting from such treatment s and fion 

associated practices, such ns reseeding and stockin& with 

oatt le, are currently undescribed, 

01 Removal of nutrients from the ~yst en in the animal crop 

Several authors have calculated removal of nutrients in the 

hi11 sheep crop per unit area per year. Comparable data for 

hill cattle do not appear to be available although Dean et al;, 

(1 975) calcuated removal of' nitrogen fron a short-grass 

prairie in northern Colorado by yearling Herefod heifera 

dang June-August Tho two grazing intensities used, 0.1 1 

and 0.37' - 0.48 animals ha1, are af a similar order Qo t hose 

found on British bill grazings and they led to N removall over 

. 

-? 

the three nanf;hs of mepsct ively 59.2 kg and 4 5 -4 kg 100 ha

Crisp (1 966) collectsd informtion on the nutricnt budget 

for an 83 ha peat-c o v ~ catc,tlment ~ d on the fdmr House National 

Nature Reserve is, tk-~ northam Bomines onrJrying about 4 8 shoep 

fYm April' t o Oatobur only (Table 3). Nutrient outputs in 

sheep were sna31 in relation to a) outputs in water =d eradiqg 

peat, b) nutrient ressnes in ths pat, c) and inputs in 

precipitation. 

lhoraove r, other studies indicate that 

precipitation contains only part of the total nutriunt input 

(PP* 29 - 30)* + RZemndar ('1974) indicc?tr3d +ha+ 

-1 -1 

E3 fixation of the orfier of. at lsest 10-20 kg 100 ha yr occurs 

commonly on t undrdnoorland type sitaa in the Northern Hemisphore, 

Two out of five values for Pennine moorland mre excessively 

-f -f 

high, 3790 and 1@9 kg q 00 ha yr . 

&wes (I 966) and hwos .& Welch (I 969) calculated nutriont removal 

. 

in sheep for the whole ErIoor lIouse National Natllre Resarve of 9850 

ha stocked wieh a masdnun of 8500 sheep from April to October 

..(Tabla 4). hires (1 966) also cdoulated omparable figures for 

the Lake District, assuming a stocldng density of 2.5 han' 

a:&mq&out the year able 4). In tkc absurce of other 

conpsrable output data we havo compared these loesas with the 

nutrient input o pub liahcd in p wcipitation for the Lake Di st ric-t; 

(Table 4). 

Data for both areas emphasize the nutrient renova1 

in sheep in relation to nutrient input. Supporkin-g data are 

also available for other areas. Jmes (4 971 and pers, corn,) 

and ~oberts & James (1 972) reporting work done on a R. %ye 

catchment of 2043 ha in the Plynlinm ares of %ales, eatbated 

that 5060 kg 100 ha-lP-' of calcium (Caf was removed 

4 -1 

in tho sheep crop of c. 2.5 sheep ha yr , whereas atreamat er 

output was 2930 kg 100 ha-' and input in pooipitation was 

-1 -.1 

5mkg100ha yr . Flonte (pers.oomo.) estioatedfhat, 

t-g a high estimate of 2.5 lambs (900 kg, 0.s P) produced 

per acre of Scottish hill land, less than 20 kg 1CO hanq of 

P are removed mually from a soil nutrient pool in excess of

200000 kg 1 M) ha-'. Grant (pars. o ma. ) otllculitcd that 

1.6-72.0 kg potassium (K), 9-72 kg Ca, 5-40 kg P and 3 - 240 

kg N 100 ha-' 

was removed fro^ the Scat tish hill ooosyatcm by 

a a le of lads and cast ewes rvith recpectivcly 0,5-0.66 waea 

ha-' 

and 7% lambing success and 1-2 owes hh' and 100$6 lilmbing, 

King & fiichols on (j 964.) e st j-mated that nutrierit removal in 

sheap prducts in Scotland amounted to 22 kg Ca and 11 kg P 

103 he-' with 0.625 sheep ha-' , 

Althorn the above calmlatiuns vary in c*~?-lyticyl d-:kc umd 

and in the rhtio of weights of. -sheep cczrcase .to wool, sheep 

consistently appear to remove small anounta of nutfie~zts :but 

+,his stcltecont I'L quirb s thm~ 

qu~llif'icakions. 

1 ) As mny authors hzvo shcim, sheep are highly selecti vo grazers, 

so fiutrient rcmovnl is conccntr;:ted on the most palatable 

parks of the sward particuhrly A ~ r o s t i * w grasslad. 

The latter my comprise less than 2% 

of e mixed moor 

in the Pennin~s (hies & Welch, 1 969) with 2.2 sheep hav' 

but my support an averege of up to ~bmt 9 sheep ha-'. 

This is in the range of 5.6-18.2 ewe units ha-' found for 

similar grassland in Wales (Hughes et a1 '1964). Assuning 

9 sheep ha-', then the loss of P in sheep at Moor House is 

about 29 kg 100 hn', 

c* 5% of the input in the rain, 

vhcreas for the Lake District the P loss would be abaut 

30 kg 103 hdl, sirr&lar to that in precipitation. Fiannop 

(I 965) exprcsaed some doubts about the ~ bility of Scuttish 

hill soils to replenish the P rensoved h sheep. 

Smila~ 

aoubts my also apply for P and other nutrients in the Lake 

District for the areas of more palatable herbage,

2) A high percentage of soil nutrients is not readily 

available to plants, particulwly in the mt , acid, 

leached crganic soils of the Lake District, either 

because, nutrion Es are in resistant or~anic mztter 'in 

peat, or in soil horizons below the rooting zone, of 

herbage species. Perhaps t h rzte ~ of removal of 

nutrients in sheep ought t o be related to tho rate 

at which nutrients can be supplied to herbage plats 

from the rooting zone rather than to the total soil 

nutrient pool. 

Although Rams &kdelch (1969) gathered 

a vast amount of data on the sheep arid vegetation at Moor 

House they mere forced to state that .,..I1 

as little is 

known about other factors such as uptake of nutrienks by - 

roots at hbor House, it is at praaent inpossible to 

de-terruine whether individuu swards or vegetation types 

are declinir,~ in their stock of minerals and nutrientsn, 

3) Although levels of removal are currently low in relatio&to 

nut liont a in precipitation, this fact doea fiat necessarily apply 

during the psst few hundrod 9 ers. 

In this period not mly 

is the record of sheep densities inoomplat& but also data 

on nutrient inputs are 1mlcing. 

Composition of precipi- 

tation is known tc v~ry with the because of factors suoh 

aa changes in air pollution and d nd direction, 

We 'canncb 

therefore assess accurately the imporbance of removal of 

nutrients by animal a in the past. 

Effects of agficultuml vehicles 

Damage to soil and vegetation by wheeled and tracked ~ehiclea may be 

conaidexlable on and around well-used tracks especially where the soil 

is wet. The effects include many of those already mentioned in 

association with trampling by animls,

Pressures exerted on soils and vegetation by agricultuml tr

Bayflel,n (197J) in{ioated paco longthB o? r5-7t ott for $alLera on Scottioh 

bj.U path8. lJreso velues ar.e con6ider€tly lalt€r than tho6o for sheep 

o! cattLe (15 ".d 

45 cir !. /r. ). Further dil.oct co@lerisoo botwegD 

prE69u!,ea ex€rtod or. anoas couFactetl by grazlng aninsls anil Man i9 d.ifficuLt 

because of ilifforonoes 1n locoootion and 1n loceotorla bghavlou! ardcucrent\y 

LEpolsille because of laak of suitablo alrta fon: use of peths by 

sb66p ald oattlo or eve!6ge us6 of rhole areas ly !ran. 

The effoot of tr6.e!!ing by Mar1 dr soil anal vegotation has been mrc,b 

d.ocuDented ani. discusseA (Lid.dle, 1975, Lu11 1959, llarlen 1974; Speight, 

197tt cf atso pp. J - 8) so only ell outtine of the iJ4)e6 of chaEgps 

rehj.ch occur rcill bo given here. Chsppel1 (19fl) rorting on chalk 

gre.lalanil, foubd that as trpepllng lncreaseal th€ so1l bulk d.ensity 

i,Dcreased. anal ra.ter stability of soi.1 aggregates, soil noiature co.'ltent 

aatl !tu&!era of soil ani.uals all alecredseil. Ch€4ica1 change6 rBre not 

6iSnificant 

or cou]-l nct be testeil becaus€ of bulkfutg ctr sa!0plos but 

tenal€noies exi.sted. for increasea l-n pet'cebtag€ of ir'on in th6 rgduced 

(terrous) fotro, aEolurt of a@oniun l{ and peqc€ntage total N and. aearpaae! 

Lr1 s.eoturt of bitrato, perceotage or8anic C ard C/N tlatio. StoLla! C 

and N t!"onas l{etr folrna on sheap-paths by D:rj.!!g & naac]-iffe (1962). 

ooElosLtion of the sward. charges conaid€lably 

gn heavll.Jr tt'anpled. aleas 

(Bates 1915; Bayfi€ld., 1971 ; Chappelr, 1971i Daai,es,'19J8; Liddle & 

Br.8tgL.sdth, 1975t). This has beeo attriluted. to dlffer.enoos in tbe 

rEsistenco of diffsl9trt speoies to physical daaago (e.g. Bafoa, 1915) 

and, in tho responso of different 

er8. soll rooisture status (LiddJ-e & erei.g-SEith, 

s.trFcieg to changed soil ooDilLtlong 

19Db) or soil 

tenpeletu'€ (Liad.b a Mooft, 1978). Vogetatlolr oover usually alecr€asos 

with tmnp1ln6 (!atos, 19r5) lut veeetation dj.v€roity es.y alecr€ase 

or i-ncrease d.opendtng on trenplln8 intonsity ana initial condition of tho 

!€Betetl-on (Irtddfe, 1975; VtaLaE, 1971 and FI. 5 - 8).

Appreciable mechar~icel damage to vegetation leads to .duction in 

vegetation height (~iddle, A9751 and in the dxy weights of #daX 

parks of plants (Duffey, 1972) although Lfddle and Greig-Wth 

(19~b) indicate that low levels of trampling at, for example, 

path margins, may stimulate p roducti on. 

Any change in the t ype 

or amount of live or dead plant material in or on the soil is 

likely to lead to changes in the mLcroclimate around the soil 

surf'ace (Liddle & Moore, I 974) and in the soil biology (Chappell, 

1971; may, 49731. 

Damge to soil and vegetation by skis and wheeled vehicles my be 

oonsiderable and continual locally and include many of the. effects 

associ&ed with trampling by Man and animals (sayfield, 1973a, 1973b; 

Lull, 4959). Pressurss exerted by a family cnr amount toabouk 0.95 kg 

-2 

cm on soft ground or 1.5 kg cm2 on hard ground, that is about the 

same as p-ressuros exerted by the uheep hoof (Table 4 ), 

In the Lake Disk rid, comercinlly oqaniaed skiing, except for 

sdl amount of grass-skiing, has not gained a foothold so the 

major effect a of associated construction works (~ayfield, 1 973a3 

are not seen. Tiheeled vehicle damage, including that resulting from 

use of motor-cycles an the fells (~riends of the Lake District, 1975), 

appears to be slight. 

Effects of trees and forest= 

a) ~ffects df trees 

Forest soils exhibit peculiar charactsriatics acquired under. 

the influence af three soil-forming fautors uncommon in ather 

soils - tree roots, forest littor and apecifSc organisms 

whose edstence depends on the forest vegetation (~ilde, 1958).

TI will consider the effects of trees under only two headings, 

i) roots ii) litter. SQil org~niams are associated a.kWy with rooks 

and plant remaim and will theref ore be discussea briefly under bOth 

he acting s . 

The soil-atabuzing action of" tree rods is w11-known 

(~ournier,'1972). In many U s District woodhnda on steep 

slopes, an acornlation of soil and/or atones and moat 

advanced soil profile development occurs on the upslope side 

of tree bases or of the main swace roots, 

th~t trms 

This Sldjcatas 

am inhibit hg saw downhill sail ~ovement but 

that they are not preventing this navement entirely. 

Clearly, 

Chese observations do not iniiaate that trae roots are preventing 

soil erosion which would have occur-red in the absence of tmea. 

The distribution of tree roots in the 803.1 depends partly 

on tree specibs and partly on soil characteristics. It 

used t a be thought that certain species, for example spruces, 

wen typically shallm-rooting whereas others', for example 

pines a d many deciduous trees, =re deeprooting. This view 

has now been largely discounted and it is becdng clear th~t 

m y 

species can adapt their rooting form and depth &en 

infl~noed by soil characteristics such as shallow depth, 

stminess or a high watertable (Strtton, 1969). 

%em roots come into contact with rock they appear to 

cause appmciable physical disintegration and chemical 

mathering. 

Kla~lsing (1 956), for example, suggested that 

in a beech wood granite and diorite weathered at rates of 

respectively 1 .2 and 2.1 mm year"' . Evidence of weathering 

in forests by the action of acids leached f'rom okgao

mtedals, by carbon dioxiae produoed by the rwts and by 

the action of soil micro-organism is reviewed in Lubz 8e 

Chandler (I 946). Voigt (I 965) and Wed, Davey & Cook 

(1969) give further det~5ls; 

Ons of the mnin functions of roots is absorption of water 

and nubdents from the soil. The wcorhiaal f'unej. growing 

in and around the root tissues helps the plant h the absorptian 

of nutrients, particularly phosphorma. bhen a root dies or is 

killed by felling of the tTee the organic matter, it cantahs 

is slowly deoomposed by the joint action of ad1 baoteria, 

hgi md soil animals and the contained nutrients are released 

alowly hto the soil, The presence of root chamnels 5n soil 

re&ers the latter more permeable to air and water whereas 

organic mtter from root decomposition helps to maintain the 

hwa level throughout the soil profile. These effeota are 

par*t;icUrly important in an area such as the W Dis tr3ot 

where the high minfaI.1 tencla to Bach the soil of nutrients, 

and deep-burrowing earthworms are often abserrt beoause of hi& 

soil a-ty. 

a) Litter' 

Utter, the fallen dead branches, le~ves, flowers and frufta, 

acts as a blanket or: tho soil surPace protecting the underlStjng 

soil and the roots an& soil organisms it contaim againat 

extremes of tempemture, direot insolation, and the direct 

impact of rai~ and restrict jng eveporntion *om the soil. 

The nutdents in litter can only beoome available to plants 

by deoompositian of the litter under the influence of 

numerous dZffeerent types of soil arganisms.

Litters differ in their oomposition. 

Some, such as many 

coniferous litters and beech, have a low lime and nitrogen 

content but contain relatively high amounts of acidio 

materials, gibre and polyphenolic bornpounds , whereas 

athers, such as ash or elm, are rich in bases and n5trogen 

and low in acidic material and fibre, 

The polyphenolic 

ampounds inolude the tannins found, in large quantities 

in some tree barka. 

During senescence of the leaf or 

needle, the polyphenolic material in the cell sap interaots 

~5th the protein of the cell protoplasm by a prcxess sidbr 

to the tanning of hides, 

The presenae of tanned protein 

and of the other litter oharacteristics mentioned abovo helps 

to explain 57hy certain litters are leks digestible a d mom 

unpalatable to soil a m l a and more resistant to microbial 

attack than others (~andls~, I 954). 

Trees which prduce slow-dec mposing litters bring about 

a redistribution of nutrients in the soil prof'ile ~5th a 

concentration largely near the a oil surface. 

af nut dents may be imobili zed in plant remains. 

Large amounts 

Ovingtan 

(195973, 19621, for example, showed that, in a 55year old pine 

plantation, amounts of nutrients equivalent to 1% (~a) to 9@ 

(N) of the nutrients in the standing trees were pre~lent b the 

plant remains on the soil surface. 

During percolation of 

min-water, nutrients are leached from the remains and iron and 

aluminium are noved down the profile under the hf'luence of 

acidic mterials and polyphenols from the If tter, the process 

of podzolization, 

obvious accumulctians of 

The mourrence of podzolization and of 

nutrient-poor Litter under 

conifer and some hardwood trees are perhaps the main reasons 

why some species have acquimd the reputation as soil 

". 

degraders, however, the justification for this reputation 

remaina ccncrwersial (Page, 1968).

Although the eWect of tree litter on scil is only partially 

understood certain points nrs now clear. Th@ amounts of 

bases, polyphenola and other mterials which affect soil 

profile development vary not only betvmen species but also 

within species depen&ing on the status and type of 3021 

on which the trees are gr&g (~ork, 1942; Coulson e'c al., 

t960). This 5uplies that it my be possible to alter the 

effect of thc trees on the soil by altt!ring the soil base 

st3tus. Some species, for examplebirch, are ofken regarded 

as soil improvers (1)5&leb~, 1952; Gardiner, 1368) but this 

view has been challeqed and is still controversial (blulie, 

1956). One cause of such controversy is the tendency of 

some workers to focus thefr attention on the superficid- sail 

layera, -here some changes undoubtdly occur (0vh&oa, 1 P~J), 

rather than considering nutrient content, nutrierut; availability 

and &,her characteristicn of the &ole soil profile in relation 

to the +,me's requirements. 

Podzolization appears to be unavoidable under conifers on 

some sites inEurope. It is rapid and complete under pine on 

poor sands or under spruce on fietefiured soils wLch previously 

carried deciduous forest whereas on dho r soils it is only 

partial with inoreases in the amount of superficial plant 

remins, acidity and C/N ratio for humus rich layers 

(Faurnier, 7972). Blisck (1974) indicated a similar picture 

for Czechoslavakia where 20-4% spruce mixed w%th brmdleaved - 

trees caused no adverse effects on moist alluvial soils at 

100-200 m altitude and increusing percentages wrt: tolerated 

as altitude and rainfall Fnoroased until, at AIOO-1200 TI pum 

spruce produced no significant deterioration of brorm f orast 

soils. Productivity was roduced significantly if s too high 

percentcge of spruce waa plated partly because of soil 

degradation physically and inadequate nutrient availability 

and also because of high ht orception of precipitation by 

spruce dmng the grodg season. G e m v~orkers, in general,

also associate pcdzulixetion ~ t decrea~ed 

h tree productivity 

but Gensales morking in the Harz mowhains and Holmegwrd 

et d., in Dennark Fourld no reduction in timber vollllne prduction 

even ove-t. three generations of trees on the sane sites ;pith sli&tly 

pdzolized soils of unspecified types (~omlisr, 1972). 

Effects of fomstm 

%a main effect? of forestry include soil compaction ad 

disturbance associated with forestry operations, ohanges in 

mount and quality of run-off water, nhich has an obvious 

bearing on loss of soil nutfionts and particulate matter, 

and removal of nutrients in the tree crop. 

i) Soil corqaction and disturbance 

The mxhurn direct effect on thlj soil occurs dur5ng 

site prepamtion prior to plating when drainage oper~tions, 

ploughing and mawking sevsrely Listurb a d to sme axtent 

mix the soil, and during hamtisting when hsa.vy macbinexy 

movssinto the forest. 

pp, .t5-?6 a'bova indicate thensw 

range of pressures exertedby veUolas fi&Q to bcr used in 

fmests hovmver, as Lull (7959) points out, weight my not 

be very important as pronounced effects have been fmnd 

with small preaaures. Under met conditions, nacxoscopio 

pore space was mduced by half and infiltration rate by 8@g 

after one pass by a crawler tractor (ofpp, 1~16). 

? 0-26 of total area my be conpacted during tr~ict or logging 

but area affected can be much reduced by maximum use of 

rwds and of lcg slides or averfiead cable-mys.

B h s (Xersonal com~unication) has pointed out that 

evidence of effects of compaction on f'oraat pr~~uctfon is 

scanty* 

Youngberg (1959) examined the growth of Douglm 

fir seedlings in soils cornacted by tmctors during 

lomng, 

Growth was aignific&tly less on coqaoted soils 

coqsrutd with that on the apparently undisturbed soils of 

clear felled arsa, probably because of poor aeration and 

low nitrogen in the former soils. Porest soils in 

general are light a d e: aily comgacted (~ull, 1959) but 

they are usually little disturbed for long per5ods and are 

therefore able to mcwer frw severe compaction or 

disturbance w ith the aid of mtural biological and physical 

processes. 

fi) &awes in the --off 

water 

In British plantations, 1&5kc:/i of the incident precipitation 

fails to reach the ground because of interception by the 

tree canopy and only 0.w-0.32"/0 of the t &a1 flows down 

tho atems of trees (Ovh&on, 1954). Trees therofom 

reduce considerably the amout of water available for soil 

leaching and also the direct impact of rain rn the soil. 

Appreciable quantities of water which have been taken up 

by the roots are lost via the leaves as traspimtion. 

As a result. of interoeption plus trznfipimtiorq tree s 

8speciUy conifers, tend to dry out the soil. This is 

seen ,best in the shrinkage of peat soib aftor aff'orentation 

(~inns, 1968). Trees also reduce run-off wter to only 

28-5% of incident preoipitat ion, conifers tending t o give 

lower f5-s than hardwoods (Ovingt on, t 962). 

Compafisons of' total evaporation from forest and grassland 

or of water yield from f 0-st 

givon variable msult s 

and grcsslund catchments have 

u utter, I 968). This variEtbility

25 

is associated hith variability in the pattern of rainf'a.ll 

and in the ev~porztion of intercepted ~ at~r (~ubter, 1972; 

Stewart & Oliver, 1972). Evaporation is likely to be 

fastest and hence possibly greater during the warmer 

conas. In low-growhg vegetation, t nnspiration and 

evaporation are of sirrjlar magnitude but evspara.tion of 

interoepted water fr~m for< st is gruater than transpimtiion 

loss (~ufter, 19681, up to five tines greater under windy 

conditions because af the aercdynar;jc roughness of the tree 

oanopy (Ruttar, 1972). 

In watershed studies at Cmeeta, USA (~oover, 19441, 

clearfelling of mixed hardwoods increased run-off 

by nearly 53% wid m-off as a p ercentage of incident 

rainfall from to 59$ (c. 41 -6% according to ITi3bert, 

1967). D~ta from ot ht r sites sunnariaed by Hibbert (1967) 

indicate incmases in run-of"E of the same mJer or less 

seer clea~felling forest. At Coweta, eetablisbnt 

and growth of pines for 36-1 7 years on two catchments 

reduced streamflow to 2 6 below the value expected for a 

hrdwood st snd {Swank & Dqlasa, .1974), 

fieparation of an area for planting of trees ort~n involves 

drainage operations. Fron studies by Pafntor ot al., (1974) 

on catchaents with variable soils (peaty pdzols, pe&t, 

boulder clay, sand) on Plynljmon in riel~s and at Cmlburn 

in north-west England the se operations can led to a 

1000-fold incr~ase in los~ 

of particulate matter and 

presumbly also in nutrients. A similar b& sndler 

ef'fect occurs mhen an are:. is clearfelled (~omlan et .al., 

19&; Likens et al., 19?0), although Packer (q 967) 

conoludes that clearfelling itself is virt-

. . 

harmless and it is the subsequent logging operations 

~ i c h increase sail erosion and strer:n turbidity (~rness, 

1967; Packer, 1967). Likens et al., (1970) studied 

effects of clear-felling an am. of a e d har&mods ~12th 

sms pine and fir in north-east USA. Their eqerimental 

area had a continental type of climate but in sane respeots 

resembled parts of tho Lake District . Altitude ranged 

f'rm 229-1 006 m, rainfiill was about ? 23 cm cnd the soil 

was acid podzolic glacial till overlying acid metafnarphic 

rock. The =in results wem as follows : 

I , hual run-off of wzter increased by 39% in the first yea 

and 2% in the second year afiw clearfelling over the 

values expected if the forest had not been cuk. 

Particulate matter in streamv'ratcr incr~zsed from about 

25 kg to 100 kg ha-', with an increase in inorganic 

particulate matter from about a half t o t hree-quarters 

of tho total. 

Concentrations of a11 rn j or ions, except ammonium, sulphat e 

and bicarbonate, ftl the stremwater increased five months 

nrter deforestation, Nitrate shm ed a 41 -fold and 56-fold 

horease in the first 2nd second years rcspctively afier 

clear-felling. 

4. The incroase ii cat ions was explained by a change in the 

nitrogen cycle jn the forest system, In the un3isturbd 

. . 

system, any nitmte produced during decomposition of plant 

rewins was conserved by uptake by plerrt s but *en the 

vegetation tvss removed, nitrate plus associated cations were 

readily washed out of the aoil. 

Wdrogen ions replace& the 

cations in bErth the deomposhg organic natte~ and on 

inorganic material 3.

5. Sulphate in st rean-wat ar decreased bec2use ~f increased 

run-off and eliaimtion of sulphate generation within the 

syst8D. 

6, Sremmaker tenperaturea were higher aftar deforestation 

0 0 

and varied 3 -4 C diurnally in smer ompamd with virkual 

constancy prior to felling. 

The mnzgement pr:~ctices used by =ens 

ot al. , provention of 

regrowth of all vegetation afier clearfelling by use of 

herbicide, no cunatruction and use of forest roads and no 

removal of felled trees fiorc their site, were very different 

frm norm1 forestry opcrat ions in IT, S.A. and ix Europe so 

their results are likely to he of limit ad applicability 

generally. 

Soppor (1 975) has placed then in the cwtexb 

of results f'rm numerous other catckment studies in North 

America and canaluded that sediment and turbidity problems 

can be minindaed by careful siting and const metion of Logging 

rwds, stream tenporature changes can be avoiba by leaving 

a narrow strip of trees or brush alongside strew: and 

nutrient losses following clea~cutting are snaU to negligible 

if rapid revegetation of the site occurs, The iqortunce 

of a contkuous vegetation cover 2nd its associakd litter layer 

in retaining nutrients on a site hsts been stressed by Thorns 

Bc G~iga1 (I 976) for evergreen mountain laurel in Tennessee, 

Tam et d., (197b) also reviewed the effecta of forest 

operations with particular relevance to Europe. They provide 

evidenoe that nitrate - 1V increases up to &fold in water fiwn 

clear-cut areas parkicularly on the more fertile soils, 

Addition of N fertilizers, particulmly armaonim nitrate, can 

lead to large tnore&ses in N content of atrear~water and 

ground water. The fate of added nitrogen on c1ea.r-felling 

is debatable but the scanty available avidence suggests that

the soil. pXua vegetation will be able to retdn moet of it 

on site. Sopper (1975) oonoluded that use ofN fertilizers 

leads to only temporary increases in the N cmtent of run-off 

wtter, Phosphorus and other elements [Ire lost in drainage 

water f rm poat lands particularly aft ur fertilization with 

soluble phosphates am et al., I 974). The latter zuthors 

also express concorn th2t increased fertilizer use could lead to 

marked chcnges in soil and wator acidity, 

iii) Removal of nutrients in tirabor 

m n g the past 80 years or so, and particularly during the 

past 20 yecra, numerous dutc have been coUscted on the amounts 

of organic mtter and nutrients in the various parts of tmes 

of a various species grow5ng under a ~ d range e of site conditions 

(@in& on, 1 962; Rede, 1 956; Rodin & Bazilevich, I 967). 

Ovjngtonls (1959a, 1959b) study of Scots pine is one example of 

this type of work (?able 5). He felled a soriss of sam2le 

trees of different ages all growing on virtually the same soil 

type and in the sane area and measured the wights and chelnical 

composition of their cmp~nent pa*s. 

roots, needle fzll and on the soil, 

He also gathered data. on 

He ws then able to estimte 

the rates of accumula.tion of nutrients in different parts of 

the tree and in plant remains as v~ell as changes in the soil with 

time. 

For comparison with the tree aata, we have assembled data on 

inputs of nutrients in precipitation (~abla 5). These are 

of the same order ns values &ven in Table 3 for Moor House 

and published data for othsr pwts of Britain, (~gner& 

Eriksson, 1958/.t959; Madgvfick & Ovington 1959).

Of the average mnwl upkke of nutrients over the 55 yaws, 

a high percentage passes into the leaves and rlltimatoly 

Peturns to the soil surface in dead needles, branohm md 

cones. Soae nutrient uptake is mtaimd in the tree crm 

and roots (not sho~m inTable 5). Only a sraall percentage, 

ofken less than 16, is retahed in the trunks. 

Clewly, 

avemgc annual nukrtent lossea fion the nystem in tree trunks 

alone, vrhich can be regarded as losses from the soil, are very 

law a d could be accounted for approximat- by nutrient iJlpurt 

in p~cipitation. However, precipitation auppliea only part 

ofth6 nutrient input, 

Droplets and fine dust prticlsa 

(aerosols) originating from dusty roads, sea spray and other 

sources a180 contain nutrients and they enter the systerr. even 

during dry weather. 

The size of this input at Thetford is 

unknown but Nhite (1969) estinated annul aerosol inputs 

t o a deciduous woodland near Grunge-ove r Sands to be I 2520 kg 

100 ha-' Na, 630 kg I00 ha-' K, &20 kg 100 ha-' Ca and 12 kg 

103 hav' P, The N input in Table 5 is alro a, minimum value as 

ztmospheric N is fixed biologically by micro-organisms in soil 

and on leaves or ~s atuospheric ammi-trzpped 

in acidic 

plant residue s. Ovingt an (1 $2) indicated that M fixat ion 

in fore st rmy be ab out two-f our times t h6 amount s of N in 

precipitathn qu&ed in Table 5, but Jones et al,, (1974), 

basing their calcul~tions on nitrogen fixation masu~nents in 

b Douglas fir canopy and soil in the southern Lake District ad 

tree data from Ovingtonrs studies in sou'sherm Endand plantation 

(summized in Ov%n.&on, 1962), estbated t ota3. N fhati on of 

-1 

757-4974 kg 400 h 3 yr with 58-E$ of tho fixation occurring 

in the tree canopy. Alexander (197b) gives a range of &3500 

kg N 100 hi1 yr1 fixed in -- 

Detula, Plnua and Fcea forest soils 

on tundra-type sites in the Northern Bomisphere. Brows et al., 

(1969) recorded up to 4900 kg N 103 ha-' yr' fixed in various 

moderately acid fore at soils in kuebeo.

'flcathcring of Ixinelal soil mil rock provides sax nutrients 

but relevant data on rates of noztht;xting per unit ama under 

ficlc conditions are unavailable. 

Wference a betnean inputs 

and outputs of nutrients for a site .my be taken only as a rough 

guide to wecthring rates because of the coaplexity of eaoh 

system, the usu~lly lob; pmcision in wtjaaulls~~ent of system 

cqononts a:!the existence of long-tern trends in sone 

oompments. 

None of the most relevant available input and 

output dzta for a.fforested catchments, four quoted in Likens 

et al., (1967) and one in Jmes (19?1), include estincltr;.? of dl 

possible nutrient inputs and outputs. 

Although prduction of coqloto nutrient balance sheets for 

forests is difficult, car,sidemtiofi of av&luble data above as 

EL whole leads to the conclusion that managed fomst systcns tend to 

accumlnte nutrients and do not deplete the soil of nutrients 

excessively as swestetl by hmie (1956) who under-rated the 

importance of the various nutricnt inputs to the fomst. 

Rennie prduced some cseful dnt~ 

on average nutrient uptakes 

by trees nnd parts of tmes over 50 and. -100 ycar3 and we have 

wed these on a ndified besis to outimte re~oval a? nutrients 

in tree stens during forestry operatiorla (Table 6). Bede 

used published data on yield,- nutriont caposition and dIY 

weights of trees in European forests as a bcsis for his 

calaulz-klons, the data coming fro^ 42 originG1 st~ies 

includhg 

trees in growtl-1 clcsses I - V on prcdoclinmtly acid s d y 

soils and soao base-rich soils, 

Data vmre grouped into p,ines 

(two species), other conif~rs (the aPec$es) and hardwoods 

(ei&t species). 

Rennie did not explain fUZy why he 

sepamted off pin8 data fror, oth:..r data, but he implied that 

this was because loa nutrient denand mas expected for this 

group

Our estjm~tes of nutrient removal (Table 6) exclude brush 

timber of less thm 7 cm in diameter. If brush tiahor ras 

removed frm thc aite, the values given would have to be 

inoreased by about 37-5s ((~a), 54-615 (K) and 69-8% 

{P). 

Figures produced by otbr aubhors for individual nutrients 

for othclr sites (~vington, 1962) &en differ nw3erLcally h r n 

those given in Tables 5 and G but &l agree in stressing the low 

percentage of nutriont u?take removed in timber, 

Itennie did 

not provide data on N removal so rough estimes of loss jn 

trunk tiber wen) obtained *am K or Ca loss and the r

stressed, nutrients are ruuoved fim circulztion for many 

years in the woody parts ot' tmes and this hobilization my 

have a mjor effect on the nutrient stztus of the site, 

Renniet~ (4956) datA for tote.1 uptake exclude nutrients in 

foliage and roots of thinninp and in litter buk support; our 

statements above. 

Ef f emnce s bet wean nutrient cycling in coniferous and deciduous 

f omst s include nutrient return in litter. 

Litte~fall on a 

dry weight bc:sis is -l5-16% gruater in coniferous forests than 

isi deciduous forests and mineral oontent of conifer litter is 

about 35-36% of that in deciduous litter excluding Fagaceae 

ray & Gorh, 1364). ~utrients in conifir litterfall per 

unit area, excluding N, are th~refore about 41% OF those for 

deciduous $ree~. For sites grmhg cmkfsrs, the advantage 

of' law nutrient demand is off set by p Mutt ion of large 

quantities of nutrient-poor and slowly decomposing litter 

which ~ay affect soil characteristics in undesirable way~(~.at 

but which, navertheless, my help to retain nutrients on a site 

(Thorns Grigal, 1976). The reverso is true 

for many deciduous trees with otkur litters occupying an 

internesate position. 

Compariam of the effects of ~raeina animls and tmas an the scil 

The main differences and similuxitius in tho ecological effects of 

grazing and forestry fsll into two main classes, a) effects on the 

soil and b) renova1 or loss of nutrients frm the systerrl in aniraals 

or timber, in solutf on and as particulate material. 

a) Effects on the soil 

Soil coqaction an4ior disturbance by anids, &n and vehicles 

.v- IOC;E- on path$ and r=ds tath bath EXL far+ 

*and 

foxcstry but this does nat appozr to be a major proBlen

over large areas largely because of the low intensity or 

frequency of use and because affected meas tend to recover 

naturally (pp, 3 - 8 & 23 - &). Both uses also lead to 

changes in vegetation which reflect back on the soil 

(pp. 8 - 12 12 19 - 23). Data are not avajl&le which 

allow a comparison of chan~s in soils and vegetation for the 

two uses in the Lake District. 

Evapotranapimtion is higher for foest than for non-forwst 

areas (~ouglasa, 1967; 

OvFngt on, A 968; Ilutter, I 9681, largely 

because of the higher evaporation in forests, trampifition 

ten&g 

to be the sane b forests and grassland in the Bdtish 

climate (~ter, 1968). This leads to a drier soil and lower 

run-off for fornuts than for non-forest. 

The tree canopy 

together with the layer of' plant remains on the soil surface, 

help to protect the soil *om 

the direct impact of W all and 

from climatic extremes thus f avhg root growth and activiS&. 

In corrtrad, on grazed non-forest areas, management tends to 

reduce the protective influmoo of vegetation and plant refiaba 

by encouraghg grazing of tho award and reducing the amount 

of p h t ramins on the soil stirface. 

Tree roots undoubtedly bind tho soil on slqes better than the 

roots of hsrbcgo Species. It is well-bow for. exmple, 

that gullying cnn be halted if trees can be planted around 

the rin of the gully. 

Whether it is necessary to plant trees 

h a particular area to prokect the soil against erosive 

influences mst ulthately depend on the a&es 

of erosion and 

soil fomtim under normal climate and the frequency, severity 

and erosive influence of olimatic extrenzes. In comercid. 

foreats, the times of planting and tuber extraction are Uely 

to be the crikical periods f o soil ~ erosim whereas on a grazed 

ares erosion potential changes gradually reaching a critical 

point only when hi& 

qotbntial coincides with extreme o-te.

)4 

In gener:r1, t!€e roots extond- to d. greator soil depth 

tbs.n ao rcots of herbagc species (Douglass, 1967; tutter, 1968). 

fhis iryfies that Bore Eator ana nutriedts are potentLo.lly 

aveilcblc to trces than to herba6e spccier. In 3Jdition, 

trees alpoer to be ablc to orploit nutrior* s in the 

under]J.ing rock by ct vely etroo-r-6ing physical blcak up 

aril cheidca]- weathexing jn the rootin8 zone ( ?p. 19 - ?9). 

erazed upland pd3tur"cs, unLikc forest 

accurulate a l-arge store of nutrients 

systens, do not 

in the stanaing vogetation 

so their nutli.ent cycl-ing tonals to be faster than that in 

woodlands, palticularry where aost of thei! pri!',ary prcductioo 

is d.iverted into thc grizing criDa I ( pp. B - 1Z). 

Both 

for€sts ana Brassf.anas retuE) Iargs qua.btit:es of org&rlic natter 

and nutriontr to the soil su!f.!ce :j.rrnu€ll-Jr and tlds return 

tends to coLmteract th( leuching Lffect 

of high rainfrll 

larticulail-y in forests where nutrients t6nd. tc be brou8ht up fron 

ihe deope r soil- or rock. Data given jlr lray & cor*ra$ (1964) 

s.rld. Rodin & Bazilevich 

(1967) togethe! suggest that ailowtd 

of Litter-faL1 n@y be silrj.lar for both lanrl-uses in & given 

clillatic zobo. The rates of decoi0positlon of J.eafy pLolt 

l€Eains anC of releaso of tho containeal nutrients 

appecr to be 

high]-Jr rarlabl€ b1l6 of the salre ordor in forest and Erqssl.lnal 

(Laiter & Cft\gi, 1967t l,ii,koLa, ,195{). Lj-Edn6, fortilizer. 

adalitions a$d. incr€asetl stockirlg orr hil,l 

pastur€s encoulsge 

fast€r nutrient cycling r*lelEas the very slow alecoryosltion of 

woodJr&"lerial iI1 foresis tends to r€ aral cycli-n€. 

Both hil]-farrdng and. forestry can proiluoo changes ijl tho soi-1, 

srrch as decruases i.11 the o!€ianic aatter o! nutrieBt cort 6nt 

and irl availab],e nutricnts, w]rich nay be i-nter?teted as 

aeterioratio!. 

Ho1,lever, utleBs these changes lead to lates of 

erosion gree.ter than the rate of soil 

$ecessarily 

of !l3-j or ix+ort.nnce. 

for:Ft ion they arc nob

) Removal or loss of nutrients from the systom in animals or 

timber, in solution and as particulate matefial 

From Tnble 6, sheep production involves far less renoval 

of nutrients from the hill than forzstry, even for N which 

is muck more abundcmt in animal tissues than in plant 

matorial, 

Data given by King & Nicholean (*19&) for Ca 

and P removal in pines (af'ter Rennie, -1 956) and in a sheep 

crop (their o m estimates, p, 14 above) supports this 

0 onolusf on. The same c onclusi an would be reached from 

our estimates, even if the stocking density ma increased 

to 10 ha' , which mi&% be found under very intensive 

farming or on small favoured grazing areas with muck lower 

ovorall st ocking densities . 

Any major disturbance to both systems such as plougEng, 

burning, road-making, fertilizing, tends to result in a change 

in loss of soil or nutrients in the-run-off Water. This 

change is particularly marked during site preparation and at 

felling the in forestn (pp, 24.-281, an sspect which may 

exaggerate the difference in nutrient loss/removal between 

forests and grazed areas, 

Vie oonolude from the evidence assembles above that the 

vegetation, and to some e ~sn the soil characteristics 

of an upland area, may be changed to meet the requirements 

of s chosen land-use, but any change must be mde smoothly 

and a continuous vegetation cover must be maintained as 

'far as possible to avdd soil and nutrient Loss.

Some evidence suggests that natural inputs to the f o ~ s t 

are greater than those to the gmzod system (Davies, 1969; 

Mindernan & Leeflang, 1 968) but outputs, other than the 

crop,iire si.nilar for both land-uses (pp. 12 - 15 & 23 - 32, 

. . Roberts & Jams, 1972) the ecosystems are undisturbed. 

This is reflected in the greater accmuktion of nutrients 

in the f omst than in the ~ r~zed system (pp. 28 - 32). 

1% gratefully ecknavdedp the advice md informtian madily given by 

Dr. 'dl. 0. Binns of the Foroskry Comrdssion, Dr. M. J, noate of the 

IUll Farming hsearch Organization and cur oalleagues in the Institute 

of 'Terrzstfial Ecolw in particular, Dr. D. P. Ball, hks. c. Cumins, 

Mr. A, 3. P. Gore, Dr. 0. W, Heal, Professor F. T. Last, X%ss P. M. 

Latter, Dr. J. E, Satchell, and Mr. D, iklch,

pendix: The effects of land use and manawntent on upland ecosystems, 

with particular reference to soils in the Lake District, 

Merle~vod Research and Development Paper No. 68. 

K. L. Bocock and J. K. Adamson 

Swnmam- and conclusiana 

These notes, based an a paper by Bocock and Adamson, summarise the 

main effects of land-use and management on upland ecosyste~s in the 

Lake District, with particular referunoe to soils. 

Most of the 

relevant data used were oollscted out side the Lake District . Unless 

we have indicated reserv~tions about the applicability of bta to 

Iake District conditi.4, the reader may assume that we have considered 

and accepted its zpplicability. 

Particular enphasis is placed on the effects of hill-farming, forestry 

and recreation. Any or all of these may occG on a water catand 

the lakter use has few special features, so it will be covered 

in discussion of the other uses. 

1 

The altitudinal zone, which is of partioular interest here, lies 

between the intensively managed coantul plain$ ' and valley b ott oms 

with deep, predominantly fertile soils and the viTtu8ll.y soil-less 

and unmanageable high mountain t opa, Soils range from well-drainedJ 

b rovm earths carrying &ras tis-Feat ucn grassland, frequently invaded 

by Reridium, on the lower fells, to nutrient-poor, often peaty, but well- 

- 

drened soils with Calluna and vaccinium, or poorly. aerzted gleys with 

Nardus grassland,on the higher gentlo slopes. 

Stagnant, or nun- 

stagnant bogs, dominated respectively by Eriophcrum and MoUia, occur 

on level arezs at most altitudes in the zone of interest, 

The &in effects of the grazing animal include treading of the soil 

and vegetation, defoliation of' the vegetation, and removal of nutrients 

from the ecological system in the animal crop,

The effect of tre-g varies with age, size, and. breed of animal 

involved, more specifically with hoof area, the pressure exerked 

on each hoof, the nursber of times, and the viay in which the hoof 

is applied to the ground per unit area and per unit time, and the pattarn 

of moveaent of the &Lima1 within an wea. 

The fm data available for hill breeds and conditions and -extra- 

polation from data for lowlands, indicate that cattle tmad twefour 

thos more he-lviu than sheep, and their stride ad 

am;& are respectively three and four times @eater. 

truvel about the same distance per day, around 2-5 km. 

hoof contact 

Sheep and cattle 

Such data 

suggest that, with the level. of stocking camonly found in MU1 mas, 

0.2-1.0 sheep ha-' or 0.2 cattle ha', -h of the pasture is tmmpled 

several times per year, Because of vegetation variation, food 

selection, and tho chara.cteristil?s of diurnal and sensorial movement 

of animis, trampling is ooncentrated on areas of more patdtable 

vegetation, 9.g. 

w-Festuca, or on muoh-used paths. 

Trampling muse soil ompaction and aisturbance and damage to the 

vegotztion but may also be beneficial by areatkg new sites for 

ea%ablishment of seedlings, by f idng seeda h the soil and by 

prom&% 

tillering. 

Soil oornpaction is conoentrated in the top few cms., of soil and i s 

gmatesh, on soils rich in clay, organic matter and moisture and lea&, 

on the aell-dra5nad sandy and stony soils, It brdsto changes in 

soil characteristics such as aeration, root pene$rabiEty, infiltrp tian 

rate, and thermal ~h~ractexistics, all of Mch cm affect soil 

- fertility and vegetation composition or performance. 

rn 

Small agficultural vehicles exert;' similar pressures to those oaloulated 

for animnls and their passage has simil-r ef i'ect s to those of animal 

tmmpling, but is concentr~ted more on established tmcka,

Soil coqaction does not appear to be a mjor proLlem in graeed 

hill and upland areas bec~use of low at mldng rates, infrequent 

use of agricu1tur:~l vehicles, recovery of conpacted so51 under the 

influence of the frequent mhter frosts and, in the aase of animals, 

by the swamping of trampling effects by the beneficial effects of dung 

and urine depositf on. 

Soil disturbance occurs on much-used tracks, particularly on soils 

rich in clay, organic mtter and moisture, on steep slopes where 

animls -bend to slip a d slide and for cattie rather than for the 

lighterst spping sheep. Any disturbed soil is suscefli ble to erosion 

aa can be seen on hill paths in wet weather, Hollows cPeaked on 

hill-aaes by sheep action are focal points for sheet ereaim. 

However, the extent to which the varying rates of erosion in the 

Lake Rstrict in the past and present can be attrihted to the 

effect' of aiimls is unclear, 

TraqLin~ and defoliation by grazing may result lt ditmge to, and hence 

in redwed produot ion by, plants, 

Ao plants differ in their sensi.blvi* 

to cLam?,ke and t o changed sail conditions resulting from trampling, 

grczing animals can elloourage changes in the vegetation composition vrhich 

my lead ultimately to soil changes associated with changes in the type 

and anount of ~ 1~n-k ramins redcbing the auil surface. 

On hill-land ungrazed by domest icuked atlimals , plant materia.1 eva&uaf ly 

dies and f oms prt of the, surfwe mat of plant remiins. 

The type of 

decomposition which this mt undergoes under the influence of the high 

rainfp-U and lon temperatures of upland areas, encoureges high acidity 

and 20wnutrrient availzbility in the upper soil, 

Gracing charnels 

an increased proportion of the herbage through the animal and so reduoea 

the supply to the'mt. 

The effeots of a reduced mt and of deposited 

dung and urino change the chemical characttfistics of the upper soil, 

increasing nutrient availability and turmover. 

Thi a, together with 

select iva f eedjllg by animls~ particularly by sheep, encourages changes 

in the vegetation,

Assessment of the importance of the various practices. and factors 

associt~ted with gr zing and which ixlf lucnco veget:iti.on 

and ultimately 

the soil ht~s not been carried out in the Lake Xntrict, but eviddnce 

from other upland rtre~ts suggssk thht intensity, tiaing, and 1oc::tion 

of grazing nrld use of fertilizers and herbicides are of prime impfiance. 

A complete assessment of the importance of removal of nutfient s in the 

aim1 crop cannot be mhuo for the Lake District: because of l ~ck of data 

on inputs of ni-trogen from variouv types of fixation, inputs of dl1 

nutrients in asroxols and froan rock weathering, and outputs of all nlrtrjeats 

in run-off. 

However, available data, ooupled with data from other 

sreas, suggests that removal in mirmls is likd~ to bo very anall 

in mlbtion to the total nutrient reserve in the eoil and to input 

in precipitation, 

Fhosphorus input in procipitatim and output in 

bmls are appraximteb equal, so, for this element, remural in 

animals may lead to an overall loss frm the system mhen all inputs 

and outputs a1.e aooounted for. 

Trampling of soil and vegetation is the main effect on soil associated 

dth recreation. 

Detailed cF,.znges are lik~ly to be s ~ l a to r those 

caused by animal trarrrpling, although few data have beon oollected in 

the Lake District, and data are not available gonemlly which a11mf 

detailed comparisons of the effeats of trampling by Man and by animls, 

;. Trampling aamage ia not considt,red t o be a EEL jor problem except on 

well-used footpaths, particul2rly an steep slopes, on v:& 

amas, and on tha higher altitude ridges, 

pe~ty 

Use of vehicles on 

unsurfaced tracks znd paths has similar effects to those produced 

by Mani s trampling end, currently, rarely produc~s significant d-e 

in the Lake Distdct. 

The win effeots of treos and forestry m the soil include those 

associated viith tme mots, plant remains, soil disturbance during 

forestry operations, influences on run-off iiatcr quality and, rcnovd. 

of nutrients from the system in timber.

Tho soil b'cabilizing effect of tree roots is of particular importanoe 

on steep slopes. The zone of soil around tree roots is a site of 

active miners1 eathe he ring. The importace of the latter effect far 

forest in t:w 1,a.k~ District is unclear. The presence of root channels 

in aoil rer,dt.rs the latter more permeable to ~vatcx, wh:,reas rod 

decomposition adds humus and rat rients slowly throughout the soil profile, 

Plant renains on the soil surf~ce buffer the soil against the effects 

of clim'ie, part,icul&rly direct insolation and extremes of air temperature 

and rainfall, 

The rats and type of deompmftion of plant remains 

influences tho chemical and physical properties of the underlying soil, 

Conifer litter, like _Ca_lLun.n and Erica on moorland, has the rep*tian 

of causing physical, chemical and biological deterioration of soil, 

'%ilst these effects mmzia sonewhat controversial, and incomplete3y 

understoca it is clr;a,r that they vary with soil type, site characteristics 

and tree species. 

Flelevan'c locsl data a= fen arid indicate tendencies 

towards acidity, low n~trierrt cvczilability and podzolization in many 

upland soils but no clearly developed podzol profiles. 

Evidence from 

elset~here indicates that trees, even conifers, will grow well on 

aimilur soils to thona f3md in the Lake District without causing 

serious aoil degr~cation, although they m y cause the tendencie s 

indio~ted 2bove. 

The maJdmum dj-rcct eflcct of forerrtry operations on the soil occurs 

during site preparation cnd haroastir~g, both of tvbich involve use of 

heavy machinery ~:hich coqacts and disturbs soil, partly because of 

its om weight, and partly because of its use in ploughing, drt;bing 

or logging. 

Excegt for light cross-country vehicles and heavy trucks, 

such as timber lorries which can exert pmssurt2s ori the soil of up to 

-2 

about 8 kg ~ rn-~, vehicle pnssurus fall in the range 0.2-4.6 kg om , 

aboat the sme as t h static ~ pressures exerted by anim~ls. One 

-2 

application of about 0.2 kg cn! can reduce soil pore space by 

and 1&2@ 

of an area can be affected by vehicl~ a during tractor losing. 

Data from other aro:ta suggest a that soil cornp~ction by forestry is not 

a major problem, but that mrked vegeti-tion changes occur after ploughing, 

draining and ro~~liing. Theso chkng~s xi11 ultdtely reflect back 

on the soil.

Fo=sts have an appreciable influenoe an the hydrology of a site, 

including soil moisture st:it us md run- off. Frm spirtj.tion mtes in 

forest and grasslarid are of approximately the sa2.e ardor but forest3 

intercept up to half, but more commonly around 2@40;6 of precipilation, 

of'ten several tines the interception for grassland, Intercepted water 

is evaporated so the soil tends to be drier and less let~ched under 

forest than under dense grzssland. 

Site preparation leads to a 103s of particulate matter and nutrients in 

run-off, which may continue for several years after planting of the 

fo~st. Rcdnaking also incmases soil en& nutrient loss frcm the site 

temporarily. 

Felling, o specially clear-f elling, leads to hcreuse s in a Oi1 leachf ng, 

in run-off, 

run-off. 

and in the amounts of particulate mtsr5al and nutrients in 

Soil and nutrient loss is only slight if loming is 

carried out carefully, a h d if rapid regrowth of herbaceous vegetation 

occurs. 

Feliiiing lezds to increases of several OC in mean soil and 

at ream temperature and in the diurnal temperature mn ge. 

Tehperatul-e 

ohanges will have an appreciable effect on the numbers and activities 

of fauna, flora and microflora of these habitats. 

Fertilizers and herbicides used in fomstry, affect the quality of the 

run-off water only slightly and temporarily, if they are applied 

carefully. However, theywill have aom effect on the soil by 

altoring biolo&ic*.l zctiviky or the type and amount of plant remains 

reackdng the soil surfme. 

Forest systems, in contrast with non-forest systems, accumulate a large 

nutrient capital in the trees themsulves and in the plant remains on, 

and in, the soil, Factors which favour,this build up include evergreen 

oor~dition of mny forest trees, resistance to decmpoaition of litter, 

exploitation of n greater soil volume by tme root3 than by roots of 

pssland and moorland plmt s , except pe rfiapa Yteridium, greater t rapphg 

of aerosols &d possibly greater minerel weathering under fo~st than 

under non-f ore st.

Wy a few gpercenk of the nutrient uptake of trees, often less than 1C$, 

is retained in the trunk, and this is approximtely the same as nutrient 

amountc in preaipitation, 

to 4 ~ 9 of ~ those 2 in trunks of 1;he min trees. 

Brush timber contains nutrients equivalent 

Timbt-1~ extraction 

therefore removes only a smil fraction of the annual nutrient kcom 

to a site, but, nevertheless, removes muck nore - for some nutrient: 

mom than ten times more - than that removed h the minal crop, 

To summarize the above, the ckzractefistics of soils under different 

land uses and rnanagernerrts often differ mrkedly as a result of the use 

or mnagemnt. 

ahen use and ~nagement are altered, soil changes occur 

as natural adjustmeats of the ecosystem t o the factors applied. 

These 

changes rarely load to severe deterioration in soil quality, or to soil 

erosion, unless changes hax been made suddenly and without ca,wf'ul 

planning.

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.fl 

Nmm 

qqdq E^ q.s-R- 

. . . .|{\.Cj' !_+.@ .F 

RA 

i i IT o.l'-. .*Yf: rrr'. g$t' 

[EjE-[_ G^F^g-+ ^go 

ddJJ d 6; N' c,i .. -. 

-o\o\ 

39s9:in S3s-rFa$ -qe 

:$.5s 

:. rt: 

,:: ii t{'- ^ 

u?.-) 1'--: b0 

;EjjESx 

F;dnn qd4 

*.":qc 

g.d.* 

H '^ h l,* L-- 

itql.t i- a-l 

3_1€Es.!^F_ 

!o 

= x9 

^ at x* 

d! E 

6n 

ff ; 

G 

*.5 e^ 

; fr .E.E l"* 

^g € 

.9 gggE'gss 

66d6ddd 

df; Rp 

-i 

E;FE.-s{{ 5R 

?E 

t-a !o 

-6o 

.i€ g, 

5l 

+doo 

6ca R ! 

Fq o o 

..t (\, q qr 

'0., g 8 

.,! 

+00.d 

rE 6 g 

3(Jd 

a.->d 

9a r{ d 

.B ;q o H 

orjc' 

{lddo 

gdrdP 

" 9_:9 S 

d 

f- 

q 

.c 

E 

I 

l- l'- 

I 

bo ::o dl FrO >'o 

€ 

'PP 

so Eo r'1 od) ao Eo 

o-< o,q -l F{ d o.4 Q,q 

cno do .,1..{.r't d

a 

F 

..i^8. 

E -J 

EE 

'E 

oo 

o -c4 

4 lrr 'a otl 

t- l{ o a 

lEv Er Fv 

b 

+JE 

! A-a !-C !r ti 

qooooorio 

-r @.1 @ r.r ')rl o 

c.r rJ\ - !.\ cO or .+\o m 

c! q a\J mr ^-\- c\r c! 

----_--___\,-- 

Nd 

8 

t', 

ir, 

9 

660 

B 

8 

E 

. -----.-^-..-.-\ 

dd 

6 cJ LDo) 

r{ Fi OEI{ 

oot 

E O.p 

.t 6! d 44J 

boF !0d g?a-1 

F u0 E o id rd g o 

OC Oo dCOo 

co Gl ca Yl :C {s 4ol 

rrJ 

66 

EgE ,P 

.d '. r-{ -C 

SSd " r-l 

8.ts,e B g 

5t.l!:d 

I 

hb""E e 

> o o+Er E{ 

BdaE 

,dd 

d.ld 

r-{ 

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! E ]l 6E ; 

g + 

(J E 9, +o oo,, F +o 

t 5i oo qrot{ o oo 

A n 5 od 

o, 

Xtro -C u,l 

o a .4q o o rlr o co qr 

io 

q 

.i{ 9 

h

€ 

I ,& 

.d o, 

l._^ 

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n 

r'--J_'*_--r 

(\@ 

r.\ Ln r- F- 

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9qq 

d\\ 

6 llEt e 

oc 

I 9d d 

O o. 

.oo 

g 

. O.a .a 

O NF E 

rd 

?9 

I 

rd- it I 

q0 

d rdE 

.5 

g 

€_g p E [P 

e3 

gt tg 8fr fte 

H3 93 8tB 

cJ, o+ a o! 

Ep >o iq4 o>bl

fa!16 J. Part of the nutriont bueget for the BJ ha Rough Sile 

catchnent at Moor House, rood.ified afte! Criep (1%6). 

(kg 1@he year ' ). 

Na 

K 

N 

Prcî -i +r+; ^h 

SoiL reservo 1 

510@ 

3a7 

175t60 

896 

i79240 

57 

81500 

820 

50160 

Stl.eao uate! 

452L 

Feat erosj-ob 28 

Strean fauna O.14 

896 

M 

o'47 

5375 

48' 

o.09 

40 

o.5t 

294 

1\53 

5,58 

sh€6p (o.22 ha-1) 0.19 

1 .90 

1.18 

5.Jo 

lotal output 4552 

1'to5 

585o 

87 

1768 

'* EstiEeted frcn Crispts peat nutfient content de,ta anal an averts'gq 

peat depth of 1.5 n (Xaryeea weIch, 1969).

TabLe 4 Input of nutrierlts in lrocipitotion aod output of 

[utrie]tts in sbeep al14 $'ool_ in the Lak€ listrict 

on the lrbole Moor Houso N.N.R. (kg .1OO ha-1yr-1) 

a_lld. 

Ir€.ke Dj,strict 

precipitatioJ lgc-{/t+a f,o-1,rD 23-1@ 577-15@ 

sheep2 1J.B 27.8 8.1| 57.9 

]r!o,9l liouse 

heeipftationf to: A96 57 82o 

Sheep[ f.1 23.a i.2 49.o 

1. Range of arailabl-e alata, after At]en €t al- (1968), Sutcljffe & 

cal:rick (1911), Iltdts (1969), lrldte et al (19/). 

2. After feffes (1966). Stookin8 dobsity 2.5 ha'1 . 

J. nrter Criep (1966). 

)r. .Af'ter Rawes & Welch (1969). SbockiDg d.onsity 2.2 ha'1 .

Table 5 hrt of the nutrj-ent bud.got for a plarrtation of Sryear 

old Soots pin6 at Thetfotd (t.g too t1t-ly"-1 ;. 

NaKCAPN 

Precipitationl 197c,51@ 19G540 65c',-12cn 21-1tx) 577-15|J.._ 

Uptake by trees2 40 t51r+ t+13o 751' BnB 

riltter fa112 78 2556 4i52 5'14 6J62 

tross i.rl stelra 

(ttt:ur:.rlgs up 

to 55 years) 9 a78 J82 4 292 

loss i,n steraa 

(tfri:rnirgs up 

to 55 years alra 

cle.-r 

fe116d- stglca 

at 55 ycars) 18 2 6oL 58 45t 

l. lan8e of availallo data for the lake Dtstrict, of'ter AJLen et al- 

(t950), sutc:-irre & carrj.ok (19U ), nhite (1969) "rd' 

ltrhite st al 

. (1e71). 

2, .t'f]a Ovturgton (1959a, 195%).

E 

o 

o!1 

-f\ \o \ 

N>S 

o 

g.J.a 

=F8E 3 ts 1 ,'b 

!.\ r^ r\o \o \o u\ f 

P63 

_\>ix 

\oerd 

r-{ 

p 

.E 

3 

g 

a 

r{E 

id 

Ro 

s8R ?- s. J , 

a -> 

OD 

+io 

C 

>o 

.rl 

'rr ti 

"Ase 

.-:* 

dF3 

s n 

S S 

o 

I 

d 

'd 

h 

>, .o 

cq 

@t 

60 

d,P 

+6 

ci 

9Z 

ooJr'..\.o(oo 

6-jO|.-(\.ca) 

v-6rNm 

-Nr..\ 

H 

t 

g 

.@o 

F-:o 

\no 

O]J 

or 

f4 

tr 

ta\ 

,tt 13 

q\o^ 

?t 

a-r 

N 

trCF, 

cJOO 

D-+ 

'r|.P 

e^!d 

cttutu.lJF 

O Oo.d rd !1 u 

'x 

-9 h 9,^ 9, * " .l 

+OOOTIOo.orL 

'rr 'J1 (OoO >.r. 

o f{\ n r-.1 o 

,r{ @ l{\ }\ o, . o 

o-rJo-6N'< 

9dJr\l{.ô.rn..l 

P{AOJ:.AA 

; 

b 

qJvf 

o\cF4 

vF4c! 

Or 

-c(i({d 

::

ISFXRE}, CL S 

Alsxaniler, V. (197f). 

A sJ.nthesis of the I3P Tundra Sio[[e 

circulqro1&r stud.y of ldtrog6n fixation. 

aJ]al Deconposition i-a lundra. 

In Sol-1 orAat]-isns 

(Holding, A. J., Hea]., 0. I;, 

Ma-c1o6n, S, f, Jr., & Flanagan, P. rl., Ed.s.), 10!-121 . 

5t oci.iol,n: 

lundra Bionc Steering Cooxrittee. 

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. content of r€,inwater. 

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r. tcor. E, 4> (-2vr'. 

Bates, s. H. (19r5). Iho 

traaks al]d gater€ys. 

ve8etation of footpaths, 

J. Bcor, ?2, 470-487 , 

sialetralks, cart 

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J. appl, Eool. 10, 6t5-6\4. 

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.A€ric. Res. Coun. Soif surv., Teob. Mono8r'. No. 1. 

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(1968). SoEe effects of tree grov|th on Ipat. Pioc, 

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Blair, S. 0. 

of 

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soims' J, s.. (19?1). shoep belijviour und.€r u.rtl:Ierd.ed. conditions 

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crl 

Bray, J. R. & qolharo, E. (1964). Litter pxoduction in for:eets of ih€ 

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3x. J, Aniirr. Belld\,2, 119-12a. 

A new technique for rrtrging behaviour stud_ies. 

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N.Z' J1. ac?ic. .-':s. !'- 319-128' 

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J, .Anin. Bohav. 2,55-6A. 

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Sî rr

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rho 

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a

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