Adverbial Morphemes in Tactile ASL - Gallaudet University

ADVERBIAL MORPHEMES IN TACTILE AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE 

A 

PROJECT DEMONSTRATING EXCELLENCE 

Submitted to the 

GRADUATE COLLEGE OF UNION INSTITUTE AND UNIVERSITY 

by 

Steven Douglas Collins 

In partial fulfillment of the requirements 

For the degree of 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

IN 

INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES 

MAY 2004

Abstract 

This PDE discusses an aspect of linguistic use of adverbial morphemes as applied to a 

single case study of Tactile American Sign Language (TASL) as used by some American Deaf- 

Blind signers. TASL, a variation of the visual language recognized as American Sign Language 

(ASL), is not visually based. Significantly, the term TASL, while descriptive of the language 

used by deaf-blind persons, is not officially recognized among the members of this community. 

For the purposes of this study, the use of the term TASL describes not only an approach towards 

building a bridge of understanding of the cultural norms and language habits of deaf-blind 

persons, but as well, this study affords a locus for the improvement of the interpreting process for 

the American deaf-blind community. 

In ASL adverbial morphemes occur on the face and are non-manual signals that the Deaf- 

Blind signer does not see. This requires the ASL signer to make a slight modification, from these 

“invisible” non-manual morphemes to a tactile morpheme. 

The researcher presents a structural analysis of a conversation between two Deaf-Blind 

subjects with Usher’s Syndrome Type I who have used TASL for at least ten years. The study is 

based on a 50-minute videotaped conversation utilizing multiple video views of key angles for a 

detailed analysis of tactile components, non-manual signals and signing space. 

Accrued data concentrates on six fundamental features of adverbial morphemes intrinsic 

to TASL: manner/degree, time, duration, purpose, frequency, and place/position/direction. A 

total of 284 sign sequences were observed and analyzed comparing the tactile signing with the 

same message signed in visual American Sign Language.

PDE – Steven D. Collins 

Acknowledgement 

Acknowledgments 

While a graduate student majoring in interpreting, I became 

involved with the Deaf-Blind community. I wish to thank the 

Deaf-Blind community for welcoming me into their community, 

sharing their experiences, and allowing me to research their 

language. 

I wish to thank Mr. Randall Hogue and Dr. Ceil Lucas for the 

time they took to support me through this process. Additionally I 

thank Ms. Heather Johnson who was willing to pose for example 

pictures for this PDE. 

I especially want to thank the late Dr. Clayton Valli who 

was my peer on this project and who provided me with many years 

of mentoring, as well as being a good friend. 

I thank Dr. Val Dively for her insightful input on nonmanual 

signals. 

Thanks, also, to Gallaudet University for allowing me to 

use their equipment and lab resources during the collection of data 

for this project. 

Lastly, I wish to thank my family for all their support and 

encouragement in accomplishing this task. 

A big thank you is due Mr. Ed Singer who, with his 

coaching and support, I have finished this project.


Table of Contents 


1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 

1.1. Biography ........................................................................................................ 3 

1.2. Statement of the Problem............................................................................... 6 

1.3. Scope. .............................................................................................................. 7 

1.4. Social Relevance............................................................................................. 8 

2. Intellectual Context and Literature Review........................................................ 10 

2.1. Background and Recent Research.............................................................. 10 

2.2. Language Variation....................................................................................... 19 

2.3. Tactile ASL .................................................................................................... 22 

2.4. Introduction of the Terminology.................................................................. 32 

2.4.1. Deaf-Blind ........................................................................................................................32 

2.4.2. Usher’s Syndrome ..........................................................................................................33 

2.4.3. Non-manual Signals (NMS) in ASL................................................................................33 

2.4.4. Tactile ASL.......................................................................................................................34 

2.4.5. Deaf-Blind Interpreting ...................................................................................................35 

2.5. Scope ............................................................................................................. 36 

3. Methods ................................................................................................................ 38 

3.1. Logistics and the Selection of a Site........................................................... 40 

3.2. Coding and maintenance of the videotapes and database ....................... 42 

4. Findings and Interpretation................................................................................. 44 

4.1. Semantic Based Categories......................................................................... 44 

4.1.1. Manner/Degree ................................................................................................................46 

4.1.1.1. Example One (Manner/Degree) ...................................................................................46 

4.1.1.2. Example Two (Manner/Degree) ...................................................................................47 

4.1.1.3. Example Three (Manner/Degree).................................................................................48 

4.1.1.4. Example Four (Manner/Degree)...................................................................................49 

4.1.1.5. Example Five (Manner/Degree) ...................................................................................50 

4.1.1.6. Example Six (Manner/Degree) .....................................................................................51 

4.1.1.7. Summary (Manner/Degree)..........................................................................................52 

4.1.2. Time..................................................................................................................................53 

4.1.2.1. Example One (Time).....................................................................................................53 

4.1.2.2. Example Two (Time).....................................................................................................54 

4.1.2.3. Example Three (Time)..................................................................................................55 

4.1.2.4. Example Four (Time)....................................................................................................56 

4.1.2.5. Summary (Time)...........................................................................................................57 

4.1.3. Duration ...........................................................................................................................58



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

4.1.3.1. Example One (Duration)...............................................................................................58 

4.1.3.2. Example Two (Duration)...............................................................................................59 

4.1.3.3. Summary (Duration) .....................................................................................................59 

4.1.4. Frequency ........................................................................................................................60 

4.1.4.1. Example One (Frequency)............................................................................................60 

4.1.4.2. Example Two (Frequency)............................................................................................61 

4.1.4.3. Summary (Frequency)..................................................................................................61 

4.1.5. Purpose............................................................................................................................62 

4.1.5.1. Example One (Purpose) ...............................................................................................62 

4.1.5.2. Example Two (Purpose) ...............................................................................................63 

4.1.5.3. Summary (Purpose)......................................................................................................64 

4.1.6. Place/Position/Direction.................................................................................................65 

4.1.6.1. Example One (Place/Position/Direction) ......................................................................65 

4.1.6.2. Example Two (Place/Position/Direction) ......................................................................66 

4.1.6.3. Summary (Place/Position/Direction).............................................................................66 

4.2. Overall Patterns across the various adverbial types................................. 67 

5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................... 71 

A. Appendix A – References.................................................................................... 74 

B. Appendix B - Notes on Transcription Symbols................................................. 79 

B.1 General Glossing conventions .................................................................... 79 

B.2 Other Transcription symbols and conventions.......................................... 80 

C. Appendix C – Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis .................................... 82 

D. Appendix D – Transcription of Conversation Session ..................................... 97 

E. Appendix E – Consent Form ............................................................................. 119 

F. Appendix F – Informant Background Information........................................... 122 

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Introduction 

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1. Introduction 

Imagine being totally Deaf and totally blind and walking into a room where you are about 

to partake in a presentation of a subject that is of interest to you. You have engaged a fully 

certified and qualified interpreter who will act as your personal interpreter for the proceedings. 

What is the atmosphere within the room? What is the apparent level of enthusiasm of the other 

persons attending the presentation? What is the physical description of the person making the 

presentation? It has always been a matter of deep personal concern to me that many interpreters 

consider their only duty to be to deliver a verbatim translation of the words that the presenter 

says without conveying all of these other very important and interesting factors. So much 

additional "message" is contained in the facial expressions and mannerisms of the presenter as 

well as the reaction of the audience. How much of this will actually be conveyed to the Deaf- 

Blind 1 person during the session? What will be the worth of the total experience to the Deaf- 

Blind person? 

In the above scenario, one can appreciate the information that facial expressions 

communicate at the paralinguistic level. However, in American Sign Language (ASL), facial 

expressions, or what are commonly called non-manual signals (NMS), communicate much more. 

Emotions and moods are shown, but so are grammatical features such as question types, 

adverbial and descriptive features (i.e., adjectives). NMS are also used to help remove the 

ambiguity of meanings in such words as “recommend”, “propose”, or “suggest”. This linguistic 

information, if not accurately conveyed, will distort the message drastically thus impacting the 

Deaf-Blind individual in social and personal ways. 

I have an intense interest in researching and improving the quality of interpreting for 

persons that are Deaf-Blind. For the past thirteen years, I have been working with Deaf-Blind 

persons both in the capacity as an interpreter and as a researcher, studying their techniques for 

1 Throughout this PDE, there are references to Deaf, deaf, Deaf-Blind, and deaf-blind. A culture is generally 

considered distinct when it has its own unique language, values, behavioral norms, arts, educational institutions, 

political and social structures, etc. In this respect, Deaf people have a unique culture and, in this context, the use of 

the word Deaf or Deaf-Blind is used with the capital letter “D” or “B”. The word deaf is being used to refer either 

to those who are unable to hear or, refers to a context unrelated to the Deaf culture, it is used with a small letter “d”. 

Likewise, the term deaf-blind will refer to those who are deaf and blind but are not associated with the Deaf or 

Deaf-Blind cultures. 

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Introduction 

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communication. In looking back at my earlier experiences at the North Carolina School for the 

Deaf, a residence school that I attended, I realized that my Deaf-Blind friends had a significant 

influence on me. My observation is that there is very little ongoing research in this area. 

Additionally, only a small amount of work related to understanding and describing the actual 

process of deaf-blind communication is being undertaken. The process of interpreting for a 

Deaf-Blind person is somewhat different from the more conventional process of interpreting for 

a Deaf person. Although each use American Sign Language as a basis for communication, a 

Deaf-Blind person must depend on tactile reception of signing as a replacement for those aspects 

of the language that are customarily conveyed through such sight-dependent functions as facial 

expressions. 

I have spent many research hours videotaping Deaf-Blind persons and sighted Deaf 

persons in order to gather data that will demonstrate the subtle nuances of their communication. 

I regularly collaborate with linguistic experts who have an interest in this area and I have made it 

a specific professional goal of mine to research this field in depth in an attempt to evolve a 

formal approach to the linguistic process discussed in the PDE. By doing so, it is my goal to 

garner an understanding of the process to a degree that I may provide high-quality training for 

interpreters who have a desire to interpret for Deaf-Blind clients. 

In my current position as a faculty member at Gallaudet University in the Department of 

Linguistics and Interpretation, I have an excellent opportunity to carry out these research 

objectives. I plan to develop a curriculum and refine it to a specific course of study for 

interpreters, as part of their training, so that they may better serve Deaf-Blind consumers. I have 

determined that my pursuit of a Ph.D. will provide a strong research foundation that includes a 

multi-disciplined educational approach to successfully meet my goals. 

This PDE reflects on three types of learning: 1) experience, 2) learning by studying, and 

3) research. The experiences that have greatly influenced this work came primarily from being a 

part of the Deaf-Blind community as a result of living with Deaf-Blind people, and attending 

deaf-blind conferences, meetings and lectures with deaf-blind (and Deaf-Blind) people. Part of 

this experience also included having close friends in the deaf-blind community who have had a 

great influence on my life. As well, I have observed the communication difficulties that Deaf- 

Blind persons have with members of their own family and other sighted persons. These 

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Introduction 

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experiences and observations instilled in me a desire to investigate obstacles specific to the Deaf- 

Blind experience, communication-wise. More specifically, I see a need to teach interpreters how 

to better meet the linguistic needs of the Deaf-Blind community. In order to accomplish this 

interpreters must have an intimate familiarity with, and knowledge of the structure of Tactile 

American Sign Language. With this in mind, I have conducted research on aspects of the 

language used by Deaf-Blind individuals with the overall goal of applying new linguistic 

findings to the field of tactile interpreting. 

1.1. Biography 

I was born in 1959 in Asheville, North Carolina. I grew up in a very close-knit family 

with three older hearing siblings. My siblings and I are the sixth generation born away from 

England and raised in North Carolina. On my mother’s side, one family member was Deaf. She 

was my Great Aunt and her spouse was Deaf. My early education was at the North Carolina 

School for the Deaf and I considered the people there to be my “Deaf family” consisting of many 

of the significant culturally Deaf persons in my life. I am congenitally Deaf, i.e., heredity is the 

cause of my deafness and research has shown that genetics plays a role in only about 10% of 

Deaf persons. 

At the age of four, my family made the decision to move to Morganton, North Carolina in 

order for me to attend the North Carolina School for the Deaf. This move allowed me to 

commute to school each day and still remain at home with my family while I received my 

education. During my school years I gained invaluable perspective towards both hearing and 

Deaf cultures. As a day student, I interacted with teachers and peers in an environment much 

like the Deaf community. Then at home, I was able to experience hearing culture through daily 

interaction and activities with my family. I developed an awareness of the different forms and 

methods of communication and began an exciting and challenging venture in learning about 

linguistics and how language is structured differently between hearing and Deaf cultures. 

It is particularly important to note that my entire family made a significant commitment 

on my behalf in making the move to Morganton. For twenty years, my father commuted 65 

miles each way every day to his business in Asheville, North Carolina so that I could live in 

Morganton in proximity to the Deaf school. This strong commitment to give me their support 

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Introduction 

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has always had a significant impact on me. When I compare the opportunities that this opened 

up for me with the more limited opportunities of some of my friends whose families did not 

make such a commitment, I truly realize the importance of family and community pitching-in to 

help others. 

I graduated from the North Carolina School for the Deaf in 1979 with honors as the 

Salutatorian of my class. I knew by this time that I wanted to continue learning and develop the 

necessary skills that provide insight into the differences in communication between Deaf and 

hearing cultures. I was certain that I would excel in this field because of the experience I 

obtained while growing up in both cultures. I applied to and was accepted at Gallaudet 

University in Washington, DC, where I majored in Communication Arts. While at Gallaudet, I 

was a co-founder of a local chapter of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity. 

While attending Gallaudet, I developed friendships with several Deaf-Blind students and 

began to interpret for them on an informal basis. This interaction provided me with an 

opportunity to gain perspective on the differences between communication within Deaf culture 

and communication within Deaf-Blind culture. Through these friendships, I gained additional 

insight into how language is used and structured. 

After my graduation in 1984, I worked for several years as a free-lance interpreter and 

contract instructor of American Sign Language (ASL) for the College of Continuing Education 

program at Gallaudet University. When Gallaudet created a Master’s degree in the field of 

Interpretation, several of my colleagues encouraged me to enroll because of my strong 

interpersonal communication and interpreting skills. I felt this would be a great opportunity for 

me to learn about linguistics and theories of interpretation as well as to begin cross-cultural 

research in these two areas. Specifically, I continued to be intensely interested in communication 

within the Deaf-Blind community and I wanted to pursue research in this area. I enrolled and 

became the first Deaf person to receive a Master of Arts degree in Interpretation from Gallaudet 

University in June 1992. Much of my research for my Masters degree centered in this same area 

of Deaf-Blind communication. Subsequent to my graduation, I went to work as a supervisor for 

Gallaudet Interpreting Services specializing in Deaf-Blind interpreting requirements. Later, I 

joined the faculty as an Interpretation instructor in the ASL, Linguistics and Interpretation 

Department where I currently work. 

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Introduction 

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Between the time of my undergraduate education and my return to graduate education, as 

mentioned above, I worked for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as a 

clerk in the Legal Affairs division. During this time, I also started to work as a free-lance 

American Sign Language teacher at various community colleges and schools. In addition to my 

interpreting skills, I had computer skills and subsequently changed jobs to work for two different 

high-tech companies configuring and testing computer hardware and software and preparing 

them for delivery to customers. In addition, I had responsibilities for purchasing and inventory. 

While I was doing this work, I continued to teach and free-lance interpret for deaf-blind persons. 

During this period, I realized that my real vocation is to teach language and interpreting. At this 

time, I became very interested in the complex issues of Deaf-Blind culture and, particularly, the 

aspects of interpretation and communication in the deaf-blind community. 

In 1990, I decided that I would focus my professional life in the fields of linguistics, 

interpreting, and teaching. My goal would be to do research in the specific area of Deaf-Blind 

communication in order to enhance the interpreting experience for people in the Deaf-Blind 

community. I began collaborating with several others in this field and subsequently have given 

numerous workshops and presentations as well as published several professional papers on these 

subjects. As previously mentioned, I enrolled in the Master of Arts degree program in 

Interpretation at Gallaudet University and became the first Deaf student to graduate from that 

institution with a Master's Degree in Interpretation. 

Upon graduation, I went to work at the Gallaudet Interpreting Service as the supervisor of 

the interpreting program for students and as the coordinator of Deaf and hearing interpreters. I 

supervised 100 free-lance interpreters and 12 staff interpreters. I qualified for, and received, my 

certification as an interpreter from the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID). In 1995, I 

received a temporary appointment to the faculty as an instructor in the ASL, Linguistics and 

Interpretation Department. In 1997, I competed for, and received a permanent appointment to 

that department. I am currently in this faculty position doing research and teaching interpretation 

and linguistics. 

To date, I have remained active in my research area of interest, Deaf-Blind 

communication, and I continue to give regular workshops and presentations around the country. 

In addition, I was chairman of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) special task force 

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Introduction 

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for setting certification standards for Deaf interpreters (CDI Task Force). I was also an advisory 

committee member for the State of Connecticut National Interpreter Education Project. As well, 

for three years, I served as chairman of the National Coalition of Deaf and HIV (NCDH). In this 

capacity, I worked with the White House Aids Czar in the Clinton administration as an advisor 

on issues related to the education of AIDS prevention awareness within the Deaf community. 

Conventional public service communication is generally not effective for this population. 

During this period I collaborated with the author of a Time Magazine article on the subject (Van 

Biema 1994). 

In summary, I have brought my professional goals into focus specifically in the area of 

teaching and researching Linguistics, ASL, and Interpretation, especially as it pertains to the 

Deaf-Blind community. It is my goal to continue to do research to improve the interpreting 

environment in support of the Deaf-Blind community and to improve the teaching of interpreters 

who serve this community. 

1.2. Statement of the Problem 

Settings for interpreting include a variety of communicative events in which two 

individuals have a need to communicate with each other but cannot communicate directly 

because they use different languages. During my doctoral program, I gained additional insight 

into the process of providing better deaf-blind interpreting services by conducting preliminary 

investigations with a specific group of Deaf-Blind consumers' non-visual and tactile signed 

language, Tactile ASL (TASL), and their interpreters' ASL to TASL interpreting performance. 

In the field of Deaf-Blind Studies, there are several primary categories of Deaf-Blind persons 

and these include variations in degree of visual and hearing loss. For purposes of this research, 

only the terms ”blind” and “Deaf-Blind” are used and I am focusing on a specific group within 

the Deaf-Blind community, those individuals with Usher’s Syndrome Type I. Further, within 

each of these categories, it is essential to keep in mind that there will be a significant cross 

section of educational backgrounds as well as a diversity of modes of communication between 

and among individuals in the deaf-blind community. The social variations in this specific group 

affects communication styles and interpreting needs of Deaf-Blind individuals. 

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Introduction 

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To effectively interpret in a tactile signed language, an interpreter for the Deaf-Blind 

must carefully observe the manner in which information is tactually presented. This includes 

non-manual signals such as the grammatical use of space, as well as movement in time and 

space. Deaf-Blind persons who use and depend on a tactile signed language as their primary 

language cannot acquire or perceive grammatical information through visual means. The visual 

acquisition of syntactic markers on the face and shoulder in ASL must occur through the tactile 

expression of syntactic markers on the hands in TASL. 

One of the major implications that I have found in my earlier studies is that further 

research is necessary in all syntactic aspects. This doctoral program and PDE does that. Hence, 

interpreters for the Deaf-Blind will be able to express syntactic markers in their tactile 

production of TASL, rather than simply relying on the non-manual markers of ASL. As well, 

my research proves that this transformation must occur during the ASL to TASL cognitive 

interpreting process. 

1.3. Scope. 

In this PDE the focus is on a specific category of Deaf-Blind persons who have a 

condition known as Usher's Syndrome Type I. This condition generally results from a 

degeneration, over time, of the retina, resulting in most cases, in the person being nearly totally 

deaf-blind by the age of 30 to 35. In addition to this pattern of becoming blind, Deaf-Blind 

persons with Usher's Syndrome Type I are congenitally deaf from birth. In view of the fact that 

the onset of their becoming blind occurs later in life after they have acquired fluent 

communication in ASL, these individuals will make the transition from ASL, a visual language 

that involves manual, facial, and other body movements, to TASL, a non-visual and tactile 

language, as their vision diminishes. An important element of the research relates to aspects of 

ASL that become apparent in this later tactile phase of deaf-blind communication. This study is 

concerned with a specific group of individuals who identify themselves as culturally Deaf, who 

are also blind. 

This researcher found that there is a very small body of research on Tactile Sign 

Language. This appears to be due primarily to a lack of knowledge and skills associated with 

interpreter training programs, thus leading to the heart of the PDE. Research on TASL and 

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Introduction 

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interpreters requires an understanding of the linguistic features of TASL. Therefore, the 

fundamental research question for the present project is: “What is the nature of adverbial use in 

Tactile American Sign Language?” 

In previous collaborative research in which this researcher has been involved with, TASL 

and ASL sentence types were analyzed. It was found that in ASL, a sentence type mainly is 

determined by a set of certain non-manual signals. For example, ASL yes-no questions involve 

non-manual features such as the raising of eyebrows, the widening of the eyes, and the forward 

tilting of the head and/or body (Baker and Cokely 1980; Liddell 1980). In addition to providing 

grammatical cues that define sentence or phrase types, visual ASL uses non-manual signals in an 

adverbial manner; however, the deaf-blind person cannot see these signals and, consequently, 

they communicate these adverbs by using tactile signals. For example, according to Valli and 

Lucas (1995), visual ASL has “features of a sign that carry adverbial meaning [which] often are 

incorporated directly into the structure of the adjective sign or the predicate sign.” Specifically, 

the two researchers explain that, for instance, “the sign TALL 2 is a two-handed sign in which the 

active hand moves from the base to the fingertips of the passive hand. The sign can be glossed 

VERY-TALL when the sign begins well below the passive hand, brushes it, and ends above the 

fingertips, along with a marked facial expression.” This study demonstrates the consistent use of 

linguistic factors in this tactile sign language. TASL has many interesting features; my focus is 

on adverbials. 

1.4. Social Relevance 

My internship leading up to this PDE consisted of ongoing learning experiences as an 

interpreter for the Deaf-Blind and as an interpreter educator, whereas my PDE is a preliminary 

investigation of adverbs in Tactile Sign Language. This section briefly notes how my internship 

and PDE integrate a process of improvement for the field of interpreter training along with a 

fundamental socially relevant result of an improved quality of life for Deaf-Blind persons. 

Initially, I participated in classes, seminars, and other doctoral learning events that are 

necessary in relation to my program. Thereafter, I did an internship that gave me practical 

2 The use of capital letters as in TALL indicates Gloss is being used in the notation. See Appendix B for a full 

explaination of Gloss. 

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Introduction 

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benefits from these learning experiences. Moreover, this internship contributed to my designing 

and developing a solid investigation of TASL and ASL-to-TASL interpreting in the United 

States and Italy. My internship program was done while working as a Fulbright Scholar in Italy. 

As an intern, the focus of my attention was to develop and incorporate deaf-blind interpreting 

services for Deaf-Blind employees and students. This internship provided me with a fertile 

ground for research and information gathering. 

Additionally, there is a large deaf-blind community in Seattle, Washington. I did much 

of my studies while working with contacts I developed primarily in the community college and 

interpreter training areas in Seattle. With the completion of this PDE, I will be able to share my 

findings with Deaf-Blind consumers, interpreters for the Deaf-Blind, deaf-blind interpreter 

educators, and signed language linguists regarding TASL and TASL interpreting. 

My PDE is a preliminary investigation of one group of syntactic markers found in 

communication between Deaf-Blind persons. The PDE's data collection will consist of at least 

two videotaped sessions of a significant communication event between two Deaf-Blind subjects. 

I anticipate that these findings will contribute to improved TASL interpreting services and 

greater sensitivity and familiarity on the part of deaf-blind interpreter education programs 

towards the deaf-blind community. 

By conducting research, establishing a program in Italy, networking with various 

communities on a nation wide basis, and further studying of TASL, I hope to further enlighten 

those who are in the field of interpreter education that TASL and ASL are variations of a unique 

language. By providing an improved training process for interpreters who will serve the Deaf- 

Blind community, both hearing and Deaf interpreters will be able to provide a means of 

communication access to a specific group of individuals who have historically been socially 

isolated from the world. Implementation of the PDE’s research findings into interpreter training 

programs should result in more Deaf-Blind persons leading successful and fruitful lives. 

9


Intellectual Context and Literature Review 

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2. Intellectual Context and Literature Review 

2.1. Background and Recent Research 

William Stokoe is known in Deaf culture as the “Father of American Sign Language 

(ASL)”. In his studies of American Sign Language (Stokoe 1960), Stokoe applied the idea of 

minimal pairs to reveal the distinctive parts of a sign. In doing so, he discovered the existence of 

three parameters: handshape, movement and location. Eventually, additional research 

demonstrated that orientation and a non-manual component were also distinctive, and these two 

parameters were then added. Although the physical form of a sign differs from the physical form 

of a spoken word—many of the same phonological processes and principles, such as 

assimilation, epenthesis, and metathesis, are found in both spoken and signed languages (Padden 

and Perlmutter 1987; Liddell and Johnson 1989). 

Currently, there are several competing theoretical models of ASL phonology, each trying 

to best represent the hierarchical structure, the relationship between the parameters, and the 

features within each parameter (Coulter 1992). Liddell and Johnson’s (1989) model proposes 

that a sign consists of a sequence of hold and movement segments, somewhat analogous to 

consonants and vowels, and each segment contains specifications for the four parameters. 

Movements are segmented in Liddell and Johnson’s model. 

Dr. Ceil Lucas (1995) has also done studies focused on the sociolinguistics of Deaf 

communities, including issues of sociolinguistic variation within signed languages, issues of 

bilingualism and language contact, language policy and planning, and language attitudes. She 

has also researched the structure of sign language discourse and is the editor of a journal series 

entitled Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, which produces a yearly volume consisting of 

papers in all areas of sociolinguistics pertaining to Deaf communities from around the world. As 

Lucas (1995) notes, Liddell & Johnson’s model is particularly suited for describing phonological 

processes often found in variation studies. 

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The following is an example of the movement-hold notation for American Sign Language 

developed by Liddell and Johnson, as shown in Valli and Lucas (1995): “The sign WEEK as 

shown on page [37] in a simplified version of the Movement-Hold notation. 

“The sign WEEK begins with a hold (H), with the right hand (for right-handed signers) at 

the base of the left hand. It then moves (M) to the tip of the left hand and ends with a hold in 

that location. The change in the sign is in the location of the active hand, from base to tip of the 

passive hand.” 

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Using the Liddell and Johnson notation, the following examples are from the Learner’s 

data on Tactile American Sign Language. This example shows the adverb SHOCK with 

emphasis, showing the degree to which the person reacted to the specific situation. 

“The sign SHOCK begins with a hold (H), with the right hand (for right-handed signers) 

at the forehead. It then moves (M) to the position next to the left hand and ends with an 

extended hold in that location. The change in the sign is in the location of the active hand, from 

the head to a position next to the passive hand.” 

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A second example of the notation is seen with the adverb EVERY-TWO-WEEKS. In 

the Tactile ASL production of the sign, the signer must make it clear that the “every two weeks” 

is meant to convey the frequency aspect as well as its regularity. Since the citation form of 

EVERY-TWO-WEEKS involves two identical movements already, it was modified to have three 

movements, resulting in three distinct locations. For the visual ASL signer, the non-manual 

signal of the lip protrusion is sufficient to convey this concept. 

The sign EVERY-TWO-WEEKS begins with a hold (H), with the right hand (for righthanded 

signers) at the base of the left hand. It then moves (M) to the tip of the left hand and 

ends with a hold in that location. The change in the sign is in the location of the active hand, 

from base to tip of the passive hand. 

This notation system can very easily describe the specific features that the researcher 

finds in the data, such as prolonged hold, tenseness, extended location, and repeated movement. 

For the purposes of this paper, the researcher utilizes parts of this model when studying 

morphological variation in the Tactile ASL data. 

When people think of ASL, they usually mistakenly only think of the manual component, 

specifically, the signs articulated by the hands. However, ASL has a complex non-manual 

component that involves specific configuration and movements of: facial features (the eyes, 

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eyebrows, tongue and mouth); head movements (tilts, nods, or shakes); muscle tenseness (tense, 

lax, or neutral); and upper body positions (leans and tilts). Several ASL signs include a nonmanual 

feature in their underlying form. Many adjectives and adverbs in ASL consist of a nonmanual 

facial configuration that co-occurs while a manual predicate is being articulated (Liddell 

1980; Padden 1988). The adjectival and adverbial configurations generally use the lower face, 

e.g., clenching of the teeth, tensing of the open lips and pursing of the mouth (Bienvenu and 

Colonomos 1991). This paper examines which features of TASL function as non-manual 

adverbs in visual ASL. 

The following illustrations show six examples of non-manual components of ASL which 

function as adverbs. These figures illustrate adverbials that are inherent in the facial grammar of 

ASL. Each of the six examples is shown in two forms, with and without the NMS. 

Figure 1 

VERY–WOW 

Figure 2 

WOW 

Figure 1 shows the sign glossed 3 as VERY–WOW. The NMS is described as “puffed 

cheeks” with narrowed eyes. The NMS is an intensifier similar to the English word very. Figure 

2 shows a similar sign glossed as WOW without the puffed cheeks and widened eyes. Without 

the NMS the sign loses the intense meaning. 

3 A gloss is a symbol for a sign in ASL. Throughout this PDE, glosses are used. For a more detailed description of 

glosses and gloss conventions, see Appendix B. 

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Figure 3 

TOO–EXPENSIVE 

Figure 4 

EXPENSIVE 

Figure 3 shows the sign glossed as TOO-EXPENSIVE. Figure 3 also shows the NMS 

described as “SS” or “teeth clenched with cheeks pulled back” and the eyes are squinted. The 

NMS is an intensifier similar to the English word too. Signs accompanied by this non-manual 

component may also have a larger movement than the citation form. Figure 4 shows a similar 

sign glossed as EXPENSIVE without the intensifier. Without the NMS, the sign means simply 

“expensive”. 

Figure 5 

VERY–RAINY 

Figure 6 

RAIN 

Figure 5 shows the sign glossed as VERY-RAINY. The NMS is described as a 

“tightened facial expression”. Signs occurring with this NMS often have sharp forward 

movements. The NMS is a modifier similar to an English word ending in “y” such as in the 

English word “rainy”. This ASL sign means raining very hard. Figure 6 shows a similar sign 

glossed as RAIN without the intensifier. Without the NMS the sign loses the intense meaning. 

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Figure 7 

VERY-STORMY 

Figure 8 

STORM 

Figure 7 shows the sign glossed as VERY-STORMY. The NMS is described as “CH” 

with squinting eyes, a spread mouth and spread fingers. The NMS is also a modifier whose 

meaning here is similar to the English word very stormy. Figure 8 shows a similar sign glossed 

as STORM without the intensifier. 

Figure 9 

REALLY-GOOD 

Figure 10 

GOOD 

Figure 9 shows the sign glossed as REALLY-GOOD. The NMS is described as “SH” 

with a tilting of the head downwards, squinting eyes and a strong quick movement of the hand. 

The NMS is also an intensifier similar to the English word very or really. The sign in 

combination with the “SH” non-manual component means really good. Figure 10 is a similar 

sign glossed as GOOD without the intensifier. Without the intensifier, the added component of 

really is removed. 

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Figure 11 

VERY-CLOSE 

Figure 12 

CLOSE 

Figure 11 shows the sign glossed as VERY-CLOSE. The non-manual component is 

described as “EE” with clenched teeth and a slightly turned head. The NMS is an intensifier 

similar to the English word very. The sign and NMS in Figure 11 means that the location is not 

far away. Figure 12 is a similar sign glossed as CLOSE without the intensifier. Thus the 

location is “close by” and not “very close by”. 

In addition to providing semantic content, non-manuals also play a key role in syntax. 

ASL verbs are divided into several classes determined by their morphological properties (Fischer 

and Gough 1979; Padden 1988). These classes include ‘spatial/locative verbs’ which contain a 

classifier, ‘plain verbs’ which cannot inflect for subject or object agreement, and ‘agreement 

verbs’, which can inflect for subject and/or object agreement (Padden 1988). With agreement 

verbs, the beginning point, end point, and/or orientation of the verb changes to reflect subject 

and/or object agreement. In ASL, locations in the signing space can be associated with different 

entities and, later reference to that location is taken to be co-referential with the entity. For 

instance, after signing, B-O-B, a signer can point to a location on their left. In a sense, the 

location is now associated with Bob. If, in the articulation of the agreement verb INFORM, the 

hand starts pointing to the space to the signer’s left (the same as indicated by IX-lf), the verb is 

inflected for third person subject agreement and has the meaning “He/Bob informed me.” 

B-O-B IX-lf… 

(left) INFORM (PRO1) 

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Null arguments are missing subjects or objects which are not needed in some usages 

because either the context or a verb ending has a specific meaning that makes it clear what the 

missing subject or object would be. These null arguments i.e., deleted subjects and/or objects in 

both subject and object position, can occur with agreement verbs as in the example above and 

with plain verbs in ASL. Examining data from syntactic islands within a Government and 

Binding (GB) framework, Lillo-Martin (1986) proposed that the null arguments with plain verbs 

were licensed or, controlled, differently from those with agreement verbs. She argues that null 

arguments with agreement verbs are licensed through agreement, similar to the licensing in other 

agreement languages such as Spanish. However, null arguments with plain verbs are licensed 

through discourse in a manner similar to the discourse licensing in non-agreement languages 

such as Japanese and Chinese. Following this work, Lillo-Martin (1986) proposed this discourse 

licensing occurred through the mechanism of topic chaining. 

More recently, and of relevance to this study, Bahan (1996), proposed an alternative 

analysis, which employs the interactions of non-manual eye-gaze, and head tilts with spatial 

locations. In this proposal, agreement, (the head of the AGR phrase), licenses the null arguments 

that occur with both agreement and plain verbs. Therefore, in addition to the null argument 

being licensed through verbal agreement, it can also be licensed by ‘agreement’ that occurs by 

eye gaze and/or head tilt directed toward a specific location. In a large-scale study of 

sociolinguistic variation in ASL, Lucas et al, (2001) looked at variation that occurs with null 

arguments. Variation studies on null arguments can provide further data to be considered by the 

two very different analyses, and potentially provide support for one analysis over the other. 

Though null arguments were not a focus of this study, the fact that they may be at least partially 

licensed by eye gaze demonstrates once again that some critical elements of ASL are nonmanual. 

Furthermore, the function of eye gaze must be executed by some means that can be 

perceived tactually for users of TASL. 

The underlying word order of ASL is subject-verb-object (SVO). However, as a result of 

phrase and clause organization and the use of null arguments, other word orders are made 

possible. Word orders other than SVO tend to require non-manual grammatical markers. Nonmanuals 

also mark such structures as: topics, yes/no questions, wh-questions, rhetorical 

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statements, conditionals, and relative clauses (Liddell 1980; Coulter 1978, 1979; Baker-Shenk 

1983). At the discourse level, in addition to manual signs, there are also independent nonmanual 

configurations such as tensing of the muscles around the nose, around the mouth, eyegaze 

direction, and specific types of head nods that are used to provide turn-taking cues and 

back-channel feedback for regulating conversations (Baker 1976; Baker and Padden 1978; 

Nowell 1989). 

Clearly, non-manual signals are a pervasive component of ASL. They accompany single 

lexical items with the purpose of modifying the canonical meaning of the sign with which they 

occur. They are involved in the licensing of null arguments. Their presence allows alternate word 

orders and they are essential parts of sentence, clause and phrase types. Even at the discourse 

level, NMS are crucial for conversing in acceptable and predictable ways. The prominence of 

non-manuals in ASL strongly suggests that at least some of their functions must be carried out by 

some other means in TASL. 

2.2. Language Variation 

In 1966, William Labov and his colleagues pioneered studies in which the focus was on 

linguistic variation in relation to a multiplicity of social and cultural factors. Ethnicity, for 

example, has played a central role in current discussions of identity, and was the focus of 

Labov’s 1966 study of New York City English among Italian, Jewish, Irish and Black 

Americans. It was also the topic of Gumperz’s extensive work on cross-cultural miscommunication 

(Gumperz 1966). Labov’s work illustrated that non-linguistic factors could affect 

the use of one linguistic form over another. In his groundbreaking study, he showed that while a 

strict linguistic analysis could not account for optional “r” deletion in the speech of Lower East 

Side New Yorkers, an analysis that took into account a person’s socioeconomic background and 

their speech style, could account for this variability. Since Labov’s findings, sociolinguists have 

found many types of linguistic variation that are correlated with external, non-linguistic 

constraints. These external constraints include social and personal characteristics, such as age, 

gender, education, and ethnicity, and also characteristics of the interaction in which speech 

occurred, i.e., the formality or casualness of the situation, the context (a bar brawl versus a 

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sermon), or the status relations between participants (talking to a lawyer versus talking to a Deaf 

friend.) 

In addition to external constraints, variation studies also consider internal linguistic 

factors and take into account their possible correlations with linguistic variations. Internal 

constraints that can affect variability include the neighboring linguistic environment, the 

grammatical category of the word (adjective, noun, verb, etc.), and the position of the variable 

within the sentence or discourse. While some linguistic variation can be accounted for by 

external constraints, or internal constraints, it is often the case that variation results from a 

combination of both. 

It appears that Croneberg (1965) was the first to systematically look at variation in ASL. 

As he traveled around to different states on the east coast, and to the Carolinas and Virginia, he 

used a 134-item sign vocabulary list and asked local people for their signs. Croneberg found that 

lexical variation correlated with geographic region, which was, and still is, influenced by state 

boundaries and the location of the residential schools for the deaf. 

In the 1970’s, there were several ASL studies that looked for correlations between 

external and internal constraints, and phonological, morphological or lexical variation. For 

example, Woodward (1973 a, b: 1974), and Woodward and DeSantis (1977) examined the 

variable use of three morphological inflections and found that the inflections were used more by 

those who learned ASL before they were age six, and those who had Deaf parents. In 1975, 

Battison, Markowicz, and Woodward studied thumb extension variation within certain signs. 

They found weighted linguistic constraints including a correlation between thumb extension and 

the bending of other fingers in the sign, the extension of the middle finger in the sign, and the 

sign having a twisted movement. No relationship was found between external factors such as the 

signer’s gender, the audiological status of the signer’s parents, or if the signer learned ASL 

before they were age six. 

Woodward, Erting and Oliver (1976) looked at the varied use of a sign that had two 

forms; one form was near the face and the other in neutral space, such as RABBIT. Results 

showed that New Orleans signers used the form that was near the body more often, while 

Atlantic signers used the other form. In 1976, Woodward found lexical variation when African- 

American signers and Caucasian signers were studied. Shortly after, Woodward and DeSantis 

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(1977b) looked at variation in the use of a one-handed and an older two-handed form of the same 

sign. They report weighted internal constraints such as that of one-handed forms which have an 

outward movement as opposed to an inward movement, and are articulated at a higher facial 

location as opposed to a lower placement on the face. Woodward and DeSantis also noted 

external constraints, finding that older, southern, and African-American signers use the older 

two-handed form more often than do younger, northern and Caucasian signers. 

After this spurt of variation studies in the 1970’s, few studies appeared again until the 

1990’s. Between the 1970’s and the 1990’s, however, there has been a tremendous increase in 

our knowledge of the linguistic structure of ASL and in our understanding of the complexities 

and diversity of the language situation in the Deaf community (Padden & Humphries 1988; 

Lucas & Valli 1992; Paranis 1997). This knowledge has lead to a re-examination and concern 

about the methodologies used in sociolinguistic studies of ASL, particularly in informant and 

interviewer selection, and data collection methods (Lucas 1995; Patrick and Metzger 1996). For 

example, several of the earlier studies used written questionnaires or direct elicitation, often had 

hearing researchers conducting the interviews, made broad generalizations based on a very small 

number of informants, and used informants with varying language backgrounds, e.g., one 

informant might be a native signer while another might have learned to sign when they were 19 

years old. Recent methods now reflect contemporary efforts in using “natural” data. Data is 

videotaped and coded for further analysis, and careful attention is given to ensuring that subjects 

are representative of the group being studied (Milroy 1987 a, b; Lucas 1995). 

Lucas et al (2001) conducted a large study on ASL variation in the deaf black community 

and in the deaf white community. The ongoing analysis is based on videotaped conversational 

data from 207 White and African-American ASL signers in three age groups, in two 

socioeconomic groups, and in seven sites around the United States. In the study, three 

phonological variables and the linguistic and social constraints on participants were analyzed: 1) 

the sign DEAF which, in citation form, is produced from ear to chin and can also be produced 

from chin to ear or as a single contact on the cheek: 2) a class of signs represented by the sign 

KNOW, which, in citation form, is produced on or at the side of the forehead. The variants of 

KNOW, for example, were produced on or at the side of the forehead or were formed at lower 

locations including the cheek or even the space in front of the signer, and 3) signs produced with 

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a 1-handshape (index extended, all other fingers and thumb closed) which show a wide range of 

variation: thumb extended, all fingers extended etc. 

In all three cases, it was hypothesized that the variation would be driven by phonological 

factors such as features of the preceding or following sign. While there is some phonological 

involvement in all three cases, a Varbrul analysis with a total of 10,000 tokens has shown that 

the most significant factor is grammatical function: in the case of DEAF, whether the sign 

functions as an adjective or part of a compound, as a predicate, or as a noun – adjectives and 

compounds favoring non-citation forms, nouns being neutral, and predicates disfavoring them; 

the location study involving signs like KNOW with preposition signs favoring non-citation forms 

and noun and verbs disfavoring them; and in the 1-handshape signs, first-person pronouns 

strongly favoring non-citation forms, second-person pronouns being neutral and third-person 

pronouns, nouns, and verbs disfavoring non-citation forms. This data was also analyzed for 

variation on the presence of grammatical subjects and for lexical variation. 

2.3. Tactile ASL 

As stated earlier, it is primarily Deaf-Blind adults who have Usher Syndrome Type I who 

use Tactile ASL. These individuals typically grow up using ASL as their primary means of 

communication. Eventually, when their vision deteriorates, they start receiving ASL tactilely 

because Deaf-Blind people have increasing difficulty seeing the non-manual signals (NMS) that 

are an integral part of ASL. What we are seeing is that these non-manual signals are being 

represented manually. This manual representation of NMS is the variation that this paper 

examines, specifically as it pertains to the representation of adverbs. Variation defines the 

different ways of saying or signing the same thing where meaning remains constant. (Fasold, 

1984). That is precisely what is happening with Tactile ASL: signals that are represented nonmanually 

in ASL are being represented manually in Tactile ASL, with no change in meaning. 

Using ASL in a tactile mode may appear to be a contradiction. That is, ASL, which is described 

as a visual language, includes non-manual components which the Deaf-Blind person cannot see; 

and many ASL signers use two hands while the Deaf-Blind person usually has tactual contact 

with only one hand. Additionally, many signs use handshapes involving combinations of the 

fingers, yet the Deaf-Blind person’s hand is on the back of the signer’s hand, not in contact with 

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the fingers. Furthermore, Tactile ASL is a clear example of a dialect in a signed language, for 

two reasons: 1) we see variation at all levels of the language – phonological, morphosyntactic, 

and lexical, and 2) there is a community of users who show systematic use of the dialect. 

Opportunities for Deaf-Blind adults to interact and socialize with each other have greatly 

increased over the past 30 years. With the establishment of the American Association of the 

Deaf-Blind, Deaf-Blind adults from all over the United States have begun to convene for 

weeklong conventions and have established local chapters in various states. As state agencies 

are set up, and Deaf-Blind people learn of cities that provide quality services, they have begun to 

move to these cities, e.g., Seattle and Minneapolis. This fact, and the addition of job and 

leadership opportunities, has lead to the emergence of many Deaf-Blind communities 

(McNamara 1997). 

Padden and Humphries (1988), Lucas and Valli (1992), Patrick and Metzger (1996), and 

Parasnis (1997) discuss the wide range of language diversity that occurs in the Deaf Community. 

It is because many Deaf-Blind persons were first members of the Deaf Community, similar 

language diversity is found in the Deaf-Blind community. In fact, one of the problems that 

appeared in early research on ASL is that Deaf informants were not always ASL users. The 

same is true of research into Tactile ASL: not every Deaf-Blind person who uses tactile signing 

is a Tactile ASL user and some might use a more English-like form of signing, or one of the 

manual systems developed and used in educational settings. The focus of this review as well as 

the focus of this paper’s research study is to show that language diversity exists between Tactile 

ASL users, as opposed to other types of tactile signing, and other communication methods used 

by deaf-blind persons such as palm writing, Tadoma and others. 

While the Deaf-Blind community in the United States is growing and Tactile ASL is 

receiving increased recognition, there has not been a corresponding growth in the amount of 

information about Tactile ASL. When Tactile ASL is mentioned, it is usually in materials for 

sign language interpreters. This material is generally based on personal experiences and 

observations of the authors, most of whom are involved in the field of Deaf-Blind interpreting, 

e.g., Smith (1977, 1994); Petronio (1988); and Atwood, Clarkson and Laba, (1994). Dr. Theresa 

Smith, an anthropologist and author of Guidelines: Practical Tips for Involving and Socializing 

with Deaf-Blind People, has worked as an interpreter at international conferences in Tokyo, Paris 

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and Vienna and has been on the Coordinating Board for national conventions of the American 

Association of the Deaf-Blind since 1984. She has published a book on communicating with and 

interpreting for Deaf-Blind people and has often presented workshops as either a visiting or guest 

lecturer on interpreting for Deaf-Blind people, interpreting in legal settings, and the cultural 

aspects of interpreting and discourse. Smith states that while tactile interpreting, the interpreter 

must “pay particular attention to the manner in which grammatical information is presented, 

including: non-manual signals, the grammatical use of space, movement in time and place, and 

movement in space (arc, zigzags, bounces, etc.) to inflect and inform individual signs, phrases 

and larger chunks” (Smith 1994, p.91). Smith notes that these areas have to be ‘modified 

somewhat’ to fit the tactual mode. 

With the exception of Smith’s work, there is little information available for interpreters 

on how to modify their signing. For example, Deaf-Blind interpreting was the theme of the 

December 1997 issue of Views, the monthly publication of the Registry of Interpreters for the 

Deaf. However, while this issue contains 11 articles on Deaf-Blind Interpreting, none of the 

articles describes the linguistic features of Tactile ASL. As well, there is not one article 

suggesting what linguistic modifications should be made while tactile interpreting. 

Petronio (1986) did the first study examining linguistic features of Tactile ASL as used 

by fluent Deaf-Blind adults. This study questioned how Deaf-Blind adults are able to 

successfully use and understand ASL tactually when placing one hand on the back of the signer’s 

hand. In Petronio’s study, three skilled Deaf-Blind Tactile ASL users were videotaped as they 

retold a short story to each other tactually. They also retold the story non-tactually to two Deaf 

ASL users. Three 2-3 minute stories were designed which contained examples of three targeted 

features: 1) sequences involving non-manual ‘role-shifts’ and eye gaze, 2) examples of 

two-handed signs, and 3) examples of signs with detailed information provided by the fingers. 

Petronio’s study compared and contrasted the use of these features in the tactile and non-tactile 

story retellings. 

Additional findings show that Deaf-Blind signers use role-shift and eye-gaze in both 

tactile and non-tactile signing. In ASL, role-shift and eye gaze can be used to indicate direct 

speech: a signer’s upper body will “shift” and their eye-gaze will be directed toward a spatial 

location, e.g., to the left or to the right (Valli and Lucas 1995). Deaf receivers can visually see 

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this shift, Deaf-Blind receivers cannot. Closer examination showed that as the upper body 

shifted to the right or left, subsequently the signing space of the signs also shifted to the right or 

left. Thus, Deaf-Blind receivers were able to tactually perceive the ‘role-shift’ by the 

corresponding shift in the signing space. 

In examining two-handed signs, the data showed that the majority were easily understood 

using one-hand tactual reception because either the information on both hands were the same 

information signs (Battison 1978), or the two hands contacted each other providing the tactile 

receiver with enough information to understand the sign. There were a few instances of signs 

with two different handshapes that were difficult to tactually perceive, e.g., JUNIOR, CANDLE, 

and PEANUT BUTTER. In these cases, the Deaf-Blind signer held the sign a little longer and 

often add fingerspelling for further clarification, e.g. CANDLE-hold C-A-N-D-L-E. 

It was hypothesized that the targeted one-handed number signs, SIX and SEVEN, were 

difficult for tactual reception because the information was on the signer’s finger tips, and the 

receiver’s hand was on the back of the signer’s: in the sign for SIX, the top of the pinkie contacts 

the tip of the thumb, while in the sign for SEVEN, the top of the ring finger contacts the tip of 

the thumb. In all instances when these signs were signed, the Deaf-Blind signers held the sign 

slightly longer and the Deaf-Blind receiver shifted their receiving hand so they could feel the 

base of the signer’s knuckle and determine which finger was bent. In one specific case, the 

receiver also added their other hand to feel which of the signer’s fingers were in contact. In 

contrast to the two-handed ‘difficult’ signs, e.g., JUNIOR and CANDLE, the signer’s never 

added fingerspelling to help clarify these one-handed number signs. 

Interestingly, a study on reception of tactile signing by Reed et al. (1995) reported that 

when Deaf-Blind receivers misunderstood, the misunderstanding often occurred within the 

handshape parameter. A Deaf ASL user who had little experience communicating with Deaf- 

Blind tactile ASL users signed the test. Based on the findings in Petronio (1986), we can 

hypothesize that if a skilled Deaf-Blind Tactile ASL adult administered the receptive test, the 

confusion would have been avoided by having the Deaf-Blind signer modify or vary the 

“tactually difficult” signs by either lengthening or reiterating the sign and adding fingerspelling 

when needed. 

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A study done by Collins in 1993 included videotaping and an examination of the tactile 

signing of interpreters as they interpreted for Deaf-Blind persons. Collins found that signing 

differences occurred when the interpreter used standard ASL compared to when they interpreted 

in Tactile ASL. The study examples point to phonological, lexical, and syntactic variation. For 

instance, when an interpreter used Tactile ASL, the location parameter of some signs varied: 

DRY, PARENTS, and REASON were signed lower than they are in standard ASL. Interpreters 

also used a manual sign instead of a non-manual signal that had a similar meaning. For example, 

instead of using the non-manual nose-twitch to show affirmation, the interpreter used the manual 

sign YES. In ASL, there are some signs whose phonological form is so similar they can easily 

be confused with another sign. While using tactile ASL, there were instances when the 

interpreter resorted to fingerspelling instead of using a potentially confusing sign. For example, 

instead of using GUN, which can be confused with the sign for TWENETY–ONE, the interpreter 

fingerspelled G-U-N and, when signing the yes/no question ‘MARRIED YOU’ (Are you 

married?), one interpreter added a forward movement to the string of signs, apparently to 

indicate that the sentence was a question. 

The next study of Tactile ASL was done by O’Brien and Steffen (1996). The data from 

this study came from a one-hour videotape of two experienced Deaf-Blind Tactile ASL users 

signing fairy tales to each other. The data was examined for phonological variation and locative 

predicates. Locative predicates, also referred to as classifier verbs, spatial verbs, or verbs of 

motion and location, are verbs that contain specific points within the signing. Findings showed 

that locative predicates in Tactile ASL are used in the same manner as they are in standard ASL. 

For example, in the story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears, the Deaf-Blind signer ‘located’ 

Papa Bear on his left, close to his body, while Mama and Baby Bear were on the right, further 

from his body. After these places were ‘established’, locative predicates were signed in a 

respective location, e.g., those related to Papa Bear to the left near the signer’s body, those 

related to Mama and Baby Bear to the right, further from the signer’s body. It is significant that 

location predicates using spatial locations occurred in both tactile and standard ASL. This 

provides another case, in addition to role shifting, where Deaf-Blind receivers are not able to 

visually access the information, however they tactually perceive the information by the place 

where the signing occurs. 

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O’Brien and Steffen’s data also contained a one-handed variant of the sign BEAR, a sign 

which is normally two handed. The dropping of the second hand in this variant, is attributed to 

‘weak hand drop’, a phonological process that commonly occurs in standard ASL (Padden and 

Perlmutter 1987). The authors report that instances of phonological variation occurred, 

particularly within the location parameter type that is found in standard ASL. Weak-hand drop is 

therefore not unique to Tactile ASL. 

Prior to this PDE’s research on adverbial morphemes in TASL another paper influenced 

this PDE. This was research done by the Learner in conjunction with Dr. Karen Petronio (1998). 

The goal of that study was to compare Tactile ASL to standard ASL and begin to write a 

description of Tactile ASL. The primary data used in that 1998 study came from unobtrusive 

videotaping of Tactile ASL conversations that took place between 11 Deaf-Blind adults during a 

four-hour informal party. The 11 Deaf-Blind people, who knew the researchers, were asked and 

gave permission to videotape the party for linguistic purposes. The videotaping was done with a 

small hand-held camcorder with a zoom lens. While this data appears to be very natural and 

includes a number of people, one disadvantage is there were no long signing segments from any 

one person. Secondary data came from the videotaped retelling of stories by the three Deaf- 

Blind adults used in Petronio (1986). All 14 of the Deaf-Blind people involved in this study had 

Usher Syndrome Type I and used ASL before they became legally blind. As well, the 

participants regularly socialized with other Deaf-Blind adults and were comfortable and 

experienced in using Tactile ASL. 

Collins and Petronio hypothesized that variation could occur at any level of language. 

The researchers utilized the following questions to formulate and examine their hypothesis: 

 

 

Phonology: In Tactile ASL, the receiver’s hand is placed on the signer’s hand. Does 

this physical difference result in changes in any of the sign parameters: handshape, 

movement, location, and orientation? 

Morphology: Deaf-Blind persons are unable to see the non-manual adverbs and 

adjectives that accompany many predicates. How are these non-manual morphemes 

conveyed in Tactile ASL? 

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Discourse: The back-channel feedback given by addresses in visual ASL is 

inaccessible to Deaf-Blind persons. What type of back-channeling in Tactile ASL 

replaces the head nods, head tilts, and facial expressions of back-channeling of 

standard ASL? 

In regards to physical changes influencing the parameters of a sign, it was noted that the 

same type of variation occurred in the tactile data as have been found in standard ASL. 

However, in addition to signing variation resulting from phonological processes such as 

regressive and progressive assimilation, Tactile ASL has a specific variation that is sometimes 

due to: 1) the signer and receiver being physically closer to each other than they generally are in 

standard ASL, and 2) the receiver’s hand is in closer contact with the signer’s hand. For 

example, because of the physical closeness, the signing space used in Tactile ASL is generally 

smaller than that used in visual ASL. This smaller space results in the signs having smaller 

movement paths than typically occurs in standard ASL. Also, the receiver’s hand is in close 

contact with the signer’s hand, and thus the signing space shifts to the area where the hand is in 

contact. Correspondingly, the location of signs articulated in neutral space also shifts to this 

same area. In order to accommodate the receiver’s hand placement on the signer’s hand it 

appears that more variation occurred within the orientation parameter than is found in standard 

ASL. One change, unique to Tactile ASL, occurred with several signs that included body 

contact: In addition to the signer’s hands moving toward the body, the torso also, often moves 

towards the hands. This adaptation allows the receiver to maintain comfortable contact with the 

signer. However, it should be noted that this varies, as some signs with body contact occur when 

the signer’s body does not move forward. A data corpus would permit further examination of 

probable constraints within the different types of signs that include body contact. 

Questions posed in standard ASL can have a variety of word orders (Humphries, Padden, 

& O’Rourke 1985, Petronio and Lillo-Martin 1997). Wh-questions have a non-manual whquestion 

marker that includes a furrowing of the brow typically found in standard ASL, e.g., whsigns 

appeared at the beginning of wh-questions, at the end, or they appear at both the beginning 

and end. In standard ASL, under certain conditions, a wh-sign can be null (Lillo-Martin and 

Fischer, 1992). In this regard, the data on Tactile ASL appeared to differ from standard ASL: all 

the wh-questions had an overt wh-sign. This finding has a certain logic to it: since Deaf-Blind 

28



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receivers cannot see the non-manual wh-questions marker, instead they rely on the wh-sign to 

indicate that the sentence is a wh-question. Without a wh-sign, it would be easy to 

misunderstand the sentence, because the sentence is ungrammatical. As grammatical markers 

are not observed by Deaf-Blind people, this “dialect community” has a restricted set of whconstruction. 

In standard ASL, a signer looks directly to the receiver while asking a wh-question, and 

thus, the receiver knows the question is specifically for them. In the Tactile ASL data, several 

wh-questions were preceded by the sign YOU directed toward the receiver. However, YOU was 

not the subject or the object of the sentence, e.g., YOU WHAT PLANE WHAT “What kind of 

plane was it?” In these cases, it appears that the sign YOU was a substitute for the signer’s eyegaze. 

The sign YOU gets the receiver’s attention, and informs them something will be directed 

toward them. 

Yes/No questions in standard ASL occur with a non-manual syntactic marker that 

includes a brow raise and head tilt. In standard ASL, yes/no questions can optionally occur with 

a manual sign glossed as QUESTION. All of the examples of yes/no questions in the tactile 

ASL data occurred with the sign QUESTION. Thus, it appears that while the sign QUESTION 

is optional in standard ASL, in Tactile ASL, it is acting as a substitute for the q-marker and its 

use has become obligatory. 

Back-channel feedback was the last area investigated by the Collins and Petronio 1998 

study. The use of back-channel feedback in all languages allows receivers to provide feedback to 

the speaker/signer, e.g., they can indicate if they understand, agree, disagree, doubt, or are 

puzzled. In standard ASL, back-channel feedback is often given non-manually with a head nod 

or a shake; with eyebrows rising or lowering; and with nose wrinkles. The data was examined to 

determine how Deaf-Blind receivers were providing back-channel feedback to the Deaf-Blind 

signer. An unexpected unique tactile system was found. This system included a one-finger tap, 

a four finger tap, squeezes and tactile nods in which the receiver tapped, squeezed or nodded on 

the back of the signer’s hand. For instance, the one finger tap was used to show “I understand”. 

Subtle differences of meaning were expressed by varying the speed or number of repetitions of 

the tap. A squeeze was used to ask for repetition. Further study is needed to better describe this 

unique means of providing feedback. This back-channeling system is a clear example of a 

29



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change that has occurred in Tactile ASL. This is a system that has replaced the standard ASL 

non-manual back-channel system. After collecting and analyzing the data from this study, the 

findings were presented to the Deaf-Blind persons who were videotaped. Of note is the 

participant’s reaction to the back-channeling information: they were equally surprised and 

unaware that they were using this tactile feedback system. Yet, once they learned of this, the 

participants remarked on how extensively they use it. This system, which has unconsciously 

evolved in the Deaf-Blind community, is widespread: all of the signers used it, regardless of 

geographic location. 

Despite the limited amount of data that was analyzed in the Collins and Petronio 1998 

pilot study, the findings have provided ample evidence that language variation and language 

change occurs in Tactile ASL. Further studies of Tactile ASL have tremendous potential to 

contribute to the field of language change and language variation. The aim of the current 

research project is to create a more extensive Tactile ASL corpus that can then be used for a 

more in-depth analysis of a wider variety of variables. Having longer data samples from a 

variety of Tactile ASL signers will allow the analysis to include a description of linguistic and 

social constraints on the variables. 

The Deaf Swedish linguist, Dr. J. Mesch (2001) focused her study on turn-taking and 

questions in conversations between deaf-blind persons using tactile sign language. Her material 

consists of video tape recordings of six conversations, four with two deaf-blind persons and two 

where one was deaf and the other was deaf-blind. 

The Mesch study demonstrates that deaf-blind signers use their hands in two different 

conversation positions. In the monologue position both of the signer's hands are held under the 

hands of the listener, whereas in the dialogue position both participants hold their hands in 

identical ways: the right hand under the other person's left hand, and the left hand on top of the 

other person's right hand. The research also describes how these two positions affect two-handed 

signs, and how feedback is given in the two positions. 

Also, Mesch discusses how differences in the vertical and horizontal planes between the 

two persons are used in turn-taking regulation. In the study, four different conversational levels 

were identified in the vertical plane, i.e. places where the hands are positioned during 

conversation: 

30



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

Resting level (neutral) 

Turn level 

Hesitation level 

Turn change level 

The speaker (turn-holder) may signal that he is ready to end his turn by lowering the 

hands from the turn level to the turn change level. Alternatively, he may signal that he is not 

ready to give up his turn, but needs a moment to think before continuing by holding the hands at 

the hesitation level. 

In the horizontal plane three different turn zones were identified: 

 

 

 

Closest to the speakers are their own turn zones. 

In the middle is the joint zone. When finishing his turn, the speaker moves the hands 

to the joint zone. 

Furthest from the speaker is the other speaker’s turn zone. 

Mesch’s (2001) study also analyzes 137 questions in the material, both yes/no questions 

and wh-questions, to determine which elements in tactile sign language take over the role of 

visual interrogative facial expression. She hypothesized that yes/no questions are marked with a 

manual signal that has an extended duration of the final sign of the utterance. In her study only 

46% of the extended durations resulted from actual yes/no questions and the remainder of the 

durations were for other reasons such as a signal for turn-taking. Mesch concluded that, in 

general, if there were no interrogative signals, the context of the utterance would account for its 

interpretation as a question. 

In summary, the topics that have received special focus in the research on tactile sign 

language are as follows: 

 

 

 

 

Hand arrangements 

Turn taking 

Marking of questions 

Feedback 

31



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

Transformation of non-manual grammatical elements 

Effectiveness (how fast and accurate) – and where it fails 

All of the researchers discussed in this PDE express the need for further research in 

tactile sign language, and on deaf-blind communications in general. The rest of this paper will 

focus on adverbial morphemes in the U. S. Deaf-Blind community. At this point, this researcher 

knows of no other research on this same topic. However, European researchers might be 

researching this same topic. 

The present study examines the linguistic properties and variation found in Tactile 

American Sign Language, a variety of American Sign Language used in the Deaf-Blind 

community. This project is a continuation of the pilot study done by Collins and Petronio 

(1998). The 1998 study examined target features in a limited corpus of Tactile ASL data and 

found examples of variation on phonological, lexical, syntactic and discourse levels. The current 

study does an in-depth look at how non-manual adverbials are conveyed tactually, using a case 

study methodology. 

2.4. Introduction of the Terminology 

2.4.1. Deaf-Blind 

Prior to defining relevant terminology in this paper, two words must first be discussed: 

the terms “d/Deaf” and “b/Blind”. Naturally, these terms refer to a person who is both deaf and 

blind to certain degrees. Yet, the definition of these two terms necessarily includes factors such 

as a Deaf-Blind individual’s background, medical history and upbringing. 

Medical professionals such as ophthalmologists may view the “Deaf-Blind” from the 

medical perspective – an individual with both vision and hearing losses. In some cases, some 

vision and hearing difficulties can be corrected with aids, glasses or even surgery. In other cases, 

the damage is inevitable and so far, there is no way to reverse the effects of genetic traits or alter 

much of the physiology of vision and hearing loss. 

Members of the Deaf-Blind community view the label “Deaf-Blind” from a cultural 

perspective. The Deaf-Blind community is composed of a rich range of sight/blindness giving 

the Deaf-Blind community its character and personality (Brennan 1997). 

32



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Mark Landrenau (1995) documented varied communication styles between hearing, 

Deaf, and Deaf-Blind people, in terms of: greetings, introductions, eye contact, space, language, 

communication, conversation turn-taking, conversation maintenance, lighting, equipment, other 

devices/aids, how information is presented and valued, the value of time, and recreational 

activities. His research proved that Deaf-Blind individuals live independent and productive lives. 

Theresa Smith (2002) described how a positive self-identification and active participation 

as a vital member of the Deaf-Blind community contributes to an overall sense of well being and 

mental health of Deaf-Blind individuals. 

2.4.2. Usher’s Syndrome 

Usher’s Syndrome is a condition in which Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) occurs along with a 

significant congenital hearing loss. This condition manifests as several types and this paper 

focuses exclusively on individuals with Usher’s Syndrome Type I. This recessive genetic 

condition results in individuals who are born deaf and then, later on in life, begin to lose their 

vision due to RP which causes progressive night blindness and a progressive narrowing of the 

field of vision (tunnel vision), and then results in the loss of all usable vision. In view of the fact 

that significant effects of RP do not occur until early adulthood, many persons with Usher’s 

Syndrome Type I grow up unaware that they will have vision problems. Most of them grow up 

as members of the Deaf community, attend residential schools for the Deaf, and use ASL as their 

primary language. Later, when their vision has become significantly affected to the degree that 

they can no longer see ASL effectively, they switch to receiving ASL tactually by placing either 

one or both hands on top of the signer’s hand or hands. This population was chosen because 

their primary means of communication was visual ASL prior to their loss of sight. 

2.4.3. Non-manual Signals (NMS) in ASL 

As members of the Deaf Community, many Deaf-Blind individuals claim American Sign 

Language as their native language. In recent years, ASL and its accompanying culture have been 

the topics of much research, debate and scholastic analysis. Thanks in large part to William 

Stokoe (1960) ASL has withstood the debate and linguistic scrutiny of its status as a language. 

33



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Early on, the first linguistic researcher of American Sign Language, William Stokoe 

(1960), claimed non-manual signals were used as grammatical markers. Stokoe recognized that 

the negative side-to-side head shaking without a manual sign, clearly conveyed independent 

information. Liddell (1989) in the late 70s and early 80s demonstrated in his research that facial 

expressions and other non-manual signals provide emotive, lexical and grammatical information. 

As well, other non-manual grammatical signals take the form of changes in eyebrow movements. 

Additionally, Bridges and Metzger’s work (1996), while not exhaustive, provides a fairly 

comprehensive look at the large gamut of non-manual signals, their functions and their 

meanings. The authors categorized NMS’s into six roles: “reflections of emotional states, 

constructed action, conversation regulators, lexical, grammatical markers and modifiers such as 

adverbs”. Based on this discussion, the question can be asked: How do non-manual signals, 

which are provided visually, become incorporated into the language of those producing and 

processing tactile ASL? 

2.4.4. Tactile ASL 

According to Collins and Petronio (1998), Tactile ASL is the process wherein a Deaf- 

Blind person places his/her hand on top of another signer’s hand and receives the ASL message 

through the sense of touch. There is a limited amount of research that describes the differences 

or similarities between the structure of forms of signs used in visual and tactile ASL. Space does 

not permit a detailed discussion of the findings pertaining to phonology, syntax and discourse, 

but a full account can be found in Collins & Petronio (1998). In that work, signs were examined 

in terms of their handshape, location, movement, and orientation. 

One major finding of this 1998 work was the phonological assimilation that occurred due 

to the necessity of the signers’ proximity. Certain sign production parameters were changed due 

to the need for body contact or to the physical limitations of space. A second finding, related to 

ASL syntax, was also discussed. As previously mentioned, attention has been given to the 

sentence types produced in visual ASL and how they are translated into tactile ASL. Collins and 

Petronio describe the tactile substitutions necessary for the non-manual markers to be 

communicated clearly to the Deaf-Blind individual. 

34



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Another finding in the Collins & Petronio research was in regard to discourse. When 

individuals are communicating with one another, certain actions provide feedback to the speaker 

or listener that the communication was received, understood, agreed to or disagreed with. This 

process of back-channeling goes through phonological assimilation when tactile ASL was used. 

These variations, adaptations and assimilations that Collins and Petronio describe are 

examples of linguistic change that has occurred and is continuing to occur in the United States 

Deaf-Blind community. The authors attribute these sociolinguistic changes to the expanding 

socialization opportunities for Deaf-Blind individuals. Through various organizations Deaf- 

Blind individuals who were once isolated now have opportunities to get together, communicate 

and make language contact changes that fit their linguistic needs. 

The researchers had the opportunity to discuss adverb and adjective changes in tactile 

ASL in the 1998 work. It was mutually agreed on by both Collins & Petronio that the pilot study 

was just the beginning step of a vast journey into morphemic assimilation. The pilot study 

determined that with certain ASL non-manual adverbials and adjectival morphemes an auxiliary 

muscle tension and movement were added to a specific facial configuration such as: “oo” with 

mouth pursed to mean thin or objects with a small size; “mm” with mouth closed in a normal 

way meaning regularity; ”cha” with mouth opened means objects of a big size; and “ee” with 

mouth widened meant caution or anxiety. This paper supports the 1998 findings and expands 

upon other morphemes serving the same function; however these facial configurations are not 

the subject of this study. 

2.4.5. Deaf-Blind Interpreting 

Research states firmly that it is very important for interpreters to be familiar with 

linguistic variation. According to Frankel (2002), it is essential that an interpreter must be able 

to mediate the language as well as the variation that occurs when the modality changes from 

visual to tactile. One such communicative setting occurs when one of the interlocutors is Deaf- 

Blind as they have unique tactile language needs. Thus it is crucial that an interpreter adjusts 

their interpreting to clarify information received from non-manual signals. 

This paper’s research elucidates on the variation that occurs in a Deaf-Blind person’s use 

of non-manual signals (facial expression) that are used as adverbials. To clearly understand how 

35



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

NMS carry into tactile American Sign Language, it is first necessary to comprehend what 

happens in formal TASL discourse. 

In the 1992 pilot study the research showed that sighted individuals adjust their language 

to accommodate understanding during a Deaf-Blind interaction. The same is true for nonsighted 

individuals. Individuals who have Usher’s Syndrome Type I communicate in their 

primary language, ASL, while making adaptations to fit a tactile mode. Tactile ASL has 

phonological, lexical, and syntactic variation, specifically concerning the representation of nonmanual 

signs and their location during production. 

Furthermore, interpreting between English and ASL, two distinct languages, is a complex 

cognitive process. Research done by Cokely (1996) investigated error types when interpreting 

between these two languages. Adding a fairly unfamiliar variation of ASL to the formula when 

interpreting from English complicates the matter further. Errors will continue to occur in the 

form of miscues in movement, handshapes, orientation, and non-manual signals. Dr. Melanie 

Metzger has worked as an interpreter serving the American Deaf and hearing communities. Her 

graduate education is in linguistics with a concentration in sociolinguistics. Her research has 

addressed pronoun variation, the use of space, non-manual signals, issues in language acquisition 

and multilingual-multicultural education including issues in data collection unique to signed 

language research and the analysis of interactive interpreting. According to Bridges and Metzger 

(1996), authors of Deaf Tend Your: Non-Manual Signals in American Sign Language, the misuse 

of non-manual signals by non-native speakers clearly identifies them as much less fluent 

users of the language. 

2.5. Scope 

While it would be vastly beneficial to develop a curriculum for Deaf-Blind interpreting, 

that is outside of the scope of this research project. Before a language can truly be taught to nonnative 

speakers, the language must first be understood in its linguistic and sociolinguistic 

contexts. Tactile ASL has yet to be examined to the degree necessary for that to happen. The 

current work is one of the preliminary steps to understanding the language used by members of 

the Deaf-Blind community. This paper expands upon the initial work of Collins and Petronio 

(1998). However, the paper does not examine all of the phonological, morphological, syntactic, 

36



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

and grammatical and discourse features of tactile ASL. Rather, the way in which adverbial nonmanual 

signals in visual ASL are produced manually in TASL is isolated and analyzed. Once 

the research is completed the learner then analyzes the data for effectiveness of the isolated 

morphemes and not the effectiveness of the overall piece. Upon careful examination and 

understanding, interpreters will then be asked to incorporate the non-manual signal information 

in a tactile interpretation. This research is not meant to evaluate the quality of the interpreters’ 

work but rather to identify if any adaptations were made to incorporate the visual information. 

Tactile ASL has many interesting features to analyze in terms of variation; the learner’s focus 

hereon is adverbials. It is a perfectly reasonable narrowing of focus. 

Furthermore, the analysis here focuses on features of Tactile ASL, features which are 

linguistic in nature. One might be tempted to characterize them as paralinguistic features but this 

would be incorrect. Paralinguistic features have to do with features that may accompany 

linguistic units but are not themselves analyzable as linguistic units. Bussman (1996: 347) states 

that paralinguistic factors include “particular types of articulation and phonation (breathing, 

murmuring, whispering, or clearing one’s throat, crying, and coughing) and intonation.” Some 

linguists do not consider intonation to be a paralinguistic feature and not surprisingly, no 

mention is made of paralinguistic factors as they pertain to sign languages. However, the 

features of adverbials that I am analyzing here are of a linguistic nature: they contribute directly 

to the creation of linguistic units that have specific meanings. The features that I am describing 

do not accompany linguistic units; they are themselves linguistic units, without which the desired 

meaning cannot be realized. 

37


Methods 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

3. Methods 

This Project Demonstrating Excellence (PDE) takes the form of a qualitative linguistic 

case study of two Deaf-Blind individuals conversing in Tactile ASL. The objective of the 

research was to determine the nature of adverbial use in tactile American Sign Language. A 

pilot study was first conducted. Two Deaf-Blind individuals were matched for sex, age, vision 

loss, and involvement in the Deaf and Deaf-Blind communities. A topic was provided to the 

subjects and the resulting conversation was videotaped. Key information regarding the logistics 

of collecting data was used in the main study. This included experimenting with various 

positions to discover optimal placement of the video cameras to ensure that the subjects could be 

clearly observed. 

For the main study, again each Deaf-Blind participant in the communicative event had 

Usher’s Syndrome Type I, and were also matched for sex, age, vision loss and involvement in 

the Deaf and Deaf-Blind communities. Both subjects were males, in their 50s, native users of 

ASL and have used Tactile ASL for at least 10 years. Additionally, each of the subjects had used 

standard ASL before they used Tactile ASL, and they regularly interact and socialize with other 

Deaf-Blind adults. It was important that the participants be members of this community as this 

research investigated adverbial variation as a sociolinguistic phenomenon. 

The subjects were asked to complete a consent form expressing their willingness to 

participate in this project. In addition, answers to the questionnaire provided important 

information needed for the analysis of the session. A copy of the Consent Form used is provided 

in Appendix E. 

The videotaped sessions were approximately 50 minutes in duration, producing a sample 

of interactive natural discourse. The range of topics that were suggested prior to taping related to 

oppression, life experience as a Deaf-Blind person, and a discussion stemming from their 

experiences related to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack. The purpose of suggesting the 

topic was to elicit conversation that would likely contain adverbial use. This was based on 

experience gained in the 1998 pilot session. Pairs of signers were used because the two signers 

must be in physical contact with each other. Since tactile communication is almost always oneon-one, 

the use of group interviews would be a marked situation and likely to skew the results. 

38


Methods 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

A variety of data collection methods were considered prior to the pilot. One option was to 

use the taping method used in the 1998 pilot study but would change the environment: the 

taping would occur during a social event with naturally occurring conversations. However, this 

option has three possible drawbacks. The first is related to respect for the privacy of individuals. 

It would not be ethical to videotape persons in signed conversation when they are unaware of the 

taping activity. This would be particularly true for deaf-blind persons since they would very 

likely be totally unaware of the cameras. The second drawback is the likelihood that the 

conversation might not contain the type of desired data. A third drawback is that multiple 

cameras would be needed in order to capture unobstructed views necessary for the analysis. 

The final controlled session, as developed from the pilot, was unique in that the learner 

was able to obtain the individual subjects’ permission and they were aware of the videotaping. 

In this manner, the privacy of the individuals was maintained. During the videotaping session, 

the subjects occasionally lapsed into conversation that, in fact, did discuss information of a 

private nature. The goal of the data collection effort relates primarily to capturing certain 

formational aspects of the conversation and not to the actual content of the conversation. 

Consequently, the full videotape session will be kept confidential and only short pertinent video 

clips showing the desired results will be released as part of the study. In addition to providing 

the above-mentioned controls to insure privacy, the subjects were given the suggested topics for 

their conversation. However, the subjects were not informed of the specific observations that 

were being made. In this way, they would not be predisposed to any of the target structures. 

The duration of the sessions were approximately 50 minutes of conversation followed by 

an opportunity for the researcher to interview the subjects to collect the information on the 

questionnaire. 

Once the videotaped sessions were completed, the entire piece of discourse was 

transcribed into a glossed format. The transcript, in conjunction with video footage, was then 

analyzed to determine whether or not any assimilations or adaptations occurred with regard to 

the adverbials under study. The pool of adverbial expressions was then classified according to 

function. The transcription of the full conversation session shows the features and functions of 

the adverbials in tactile sign language. The full transcription is provided in Appendix D. 

39


Methods 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

3.1. Logistics and the Selection of a Site 

The learner has full access to the use of the Gallaudet University Interpreting Lab. The 

sessions were videotaped using five video cameras. These cameras, four of which were digital 

video, recorded in a high quality mode that allows for editing and the future possibility of 

disseminating research findings on CD-ROMS or via the Internet. Multiple cameras were 

needed for the interview sessions. If a single camera had been used, the receiver’s hand, which 

was positioned on the signer’s hand, may have blocked some of the signing. Due to the fact that 

all of the communication happens in the area where the two hands are in contact, the camera 

shots were from the waist up to ensure that all aspects of the signing space was properly captured 

on the videotape. The equipment was set up and operated automatically and no other person was 

in the room at the time of the session. Figure 13 shows the arrangement of the subjects and the 

cameras for the taping sessions. 

Figure 13. Arrangement of subjects and cameras 

40


Methods 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

(A) Long shot providing a framed view of the entire discourse not focused on 

specific detail. 

(B) Close up view of subject #1 including a view of the face, hands, and the signing 

space. 

(C) Close up view of subject #2 including a view of the face, hands, and the signing 

space. 

(D) Close up view, from the front, of the hands and signing space. 

(E) Close up view, from overhead, showing a very detailed view of the hands from 

an unobstructed angle. 

41


Methods 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

3.2. Coding and maintenance of the videotapes and 

database 

A previous study on Tactile Sign Language by Karen Petronio, Val Dively and their 

assistants used a software program called Filemaker Pro and transcription software developed in 

Germany for use in coding sign language data. This researcher decided not to follow this 

method. For the analysis of the 50-minute conversation between two deaf-blind men, a database 

was developed using a transcription format which indicates specific symbols for each utterance. 

The entire conversation was analyzed and each occurrence of an adverb in the conversation was 

entered into an Excel spreadsheet according to six categories as discussed in more detail in the 

next section. During the transcriptions the code “C” and “D” were used for the two subjects. 

From the pilot study, various past studies on the structure of ASL, and from recent 

studies on ASL variation there are a variety of features that have been identified as target 

features/variables for study. This paper focuses exclusively on adverbs. Information on these 

features was entered into the database along with information on the linguistic environment in 

which they appear, their grammatical category, their phonological form, and other information 

that was determined to be relevant, or potentially relevant. This is in addition to considering 

usual social constraints such as age, gender, educational background, audiological status of 

parents and siblings, and the age at which ASL was acquired. The following information was 

obtained from the Deaf-Blind informants: 

 

 

 

 

 

The age at which they used Tactile ASL for the first time 

The age at which they started using Tactile ASL as their primary receptive means of 

communication. 

The age at which they first became aware of the process of Tactile ASL. 

Their degree of involvement in the Deaf-Blind community. 

How often do they interact with other Tactile ASL users? 

This information was included in the database for later study and research concerning variability. 

The purpose for analyzing the data was to account for and describe variation that occurs 

between Tactile ASL and standard ASL. The analysis involved a quantitative and qualitative 

42


Methods 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

analysis of specific variables. The data also analyzed how often, when and where the variability 

occurred, specifically in the use of adverbial forms. This resulted in a description of the form of 

and the use of variability, and an analysis and description of linguistic and social constraints. 

The reason the learner uses semantically based categories in this analysis is because the variation 

in form observed has direct bearing on the meaning of the adverbials. As I will show, specific 

phonological features such as hold, lengthening, and tenseness help produce adverbial meaning 

in the TASL forms. Clearly, the categorization of adverbials based on semantic category is both 

conventional (see for example, Klima and Bellugi 1979, Liddell 1980; Baker and Cokely 1980; 

Padden 1988; Bienvenu and Colonomos 1991; and Bridges and Metzger 1996), and theoretically 

supportable. In addition, or perhaps because of these two factors, if the learner were to attempt a 

phonetically-based categorization of visual ASL adverbials, this would constitute a dissertation 

topic in its own right. This is so because it would be a new area that counters conventions in the 

literature with an attempt to reclassify and analyze the visual nature of these linguistic forms. 

This question is beyond the scope of this paper’s research questions. It would make an 

interesting topic for a future project. 

43


Findings and Interpretations 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

4. Findings and Interpretation 

It is important to keep in mind that this paper investigates Tactile ASL as a variety of 

ASL, the visual sign language of the North American Deaf community. The source of the data 

was a videotaped conversation between two Deaf-Blind men. Section 3 discussed the 

methodology utilized in establishing the parameters of the research of the conversation and 

recording of the results. 

4.1. Semantic Based Categories 

Initially it was suggested to the subjects that they have a conversation about the 

September 11 th terrorist attack. However, the two subjects had very little detailed knowledge of 

this event and their conversation changed to topics including assistive devices for Deaf-Blind 

people, guide dogs, work, and current football standings. The videotaped session consisted of a 

50-minute Tactile ASL conversation. This conversation was transcribed and analyzed for 

adverbs and adverbials. The analysis showed a total of 284 adverb/adverbial tokens. The 284 

target units were then classified according to the meaning they contributed to the discourse. This 

paper discusses both single-sign adverbs and multi-sign phrases as adverbials. The target units 

yielded the following six semantic-based categories: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Manner/Degree 

Time 

Duration 

Frequency 

Purpose 

Place/Position/Direction 

Each category is described below along with several examples of each taken from the 

transcription of the session. Analysis provides a comparison of Visual ASL and Tactile ASL. 

This comparison is crucial, as it serves to demonstrate the unique structure of Tactile ASL and 

the specific nature of the variation. For each selected example, a table is provided containing the 

following essential elements: 

44



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A gloss taken from the transcription. The target adverb is shown in bold text. 

Appendix B provides a detailed description of the glossing conventions and the 

transcription symbols. 

An English transcription of the conversation segment. 

A discussion of how the target adverb is signed in visual ASL. 

A discussion of how the target adverb is signed in Tactile ASL. 

An analysis of the variation in the signing between the two. 

Comments as required or applicable to the parameters of the research objectives. 

Specific features occurred consistently, depending on the adverbial. Each adverbial and 

its features will be described and discussed. 

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4.1.1. Manner/Degree 

Adverbials of manner or degree answer these questions: How? In what manner? To 

what degree? The following are several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of 

the subjects’ videotaped conversation: 

4.1.1.1. Example One (Manner/Degree) 

Gloss from Transcription: 

English Translation: 

PRO1 LOOK-AT (man) SHOCK (emph) 

I looked at him and was very shocked. 

Visual ASL: 

The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in 

which the eyebrow is raised with a widening of the eyes. 

Tactile ASL: 

In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual prolongs the final hold 

segment with a tense feeling in the hands. The path for the tactile version is 

also longer. 

Analysis of Variation: 

In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial 

expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for SHOCK 

does not need to have a prolonged hold in the final segment. In the Tactile 

ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the 

non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes the prolonged hold segment with 

a tensing of the hands and longer path to convey the same information. 

Comments: 

This is an example of the adverb SHOCK with emphasis, which shows the 

degree to which the person reacted to the specific situation. 

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4.1.1.2. Example Two (Manner/Degree) 


HEY/ WITH (emph) // COME WITH KEYBOARD YES+++ OVER 6- 

THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED YES++ MEAN ALONE++++++ 

[WELL]//BRAILLE ALONE+++++ 3-THOUSAND 7-HUNDRED // 


When the Braille device comes with a keyboard the cost is $6,500. If it is only 

the Braille device, it costs $3,700. 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign WITH with a facial 

expression in which the eyebrows are raised with a widening of the eyes. 


In the production of the sign WITH, the Deaf-Blind individual prolongs the 

final hold segment with a tense feeling in the hands. 



expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for WITH does 

not need to be prolonged in a hold of the segment. In the Tactile ASL 

production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the nontactile 

portion of the sign and substitutes the prolonged hold segment with a 

tensing of the hands to convey the same information. 

Comments: 

In this example, the adverb WITH is in the category of Manner/Degree in that 

its use is in the context of differentiating the Braille device with the other 

keyboard or without the other keyboard. 

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4.1.1.3. Example Three (Manner/Degree) 


CL:3 bent “securely mounted box on the CL:B ‘door jamb’ “ MORE++ T-I-N 

CL:C “securely mounted box on the CL:B ‘door jamb’” STRONG (emph) /// 


The box is mounted on the doorjamb with tin. It is really secure. 



which the eyebrows are lowered and the sign is made with a slightly tense and 

quick movement. 


In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual signs STRONG 

(emph) with a quick tense movement and holds the final segment. 



expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for STRONG 

does not need to be prolonged in a hold of the segment. In the Tactile ASL 


portion of the sign and substitutes with a prolonged hold segment. In 

addition, the movement of STRONG has tense emphasis to indicate that it is 

holding quite securely. 

Comments: 

This is an example of the adverb STRONG, which shows the degree to which 

the tin box is attached to the doorjamb. 

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4.1.1.4. Example Four (Manner/Degree) 


YOU CL:C “fire alarm mounted on CL:B ‘ceiling’ “ FINISH(that’s all) NONE 

CL:II “cord coming down” ? 


Is the fire alarm attached to the ceiling a wireless device that does not need a 

wire running down from it? 


In visual ASL, the sign for NONE does not need to be used. The signer uses a 

non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in which the 

eyebrow is lowered and there is a squinting of the eyes while moving the head 

back and forth in a motion that indicates “no”. In addition, the visual ASL sign 

would indicate “does not have” at the end. 


In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual signs NONE by 

prolonging the hold segments. Additionally, the movement of the sign NONE 

is done with a tenseness that places emphasis on the holds. 



expression is an important component of the sign. There is a specific sign for 

“does not have”. The sign does not need to have a prolonged hold segment. In 

the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to 

observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes the prolonged hold 

segment. In addition, the movement of NONE has a tense emphasis to 

indicate that it is holding. The other component of the sign that is different is 

that a Tactile ASL signer adds a specific sign indicating a question. Whereas, 

a visual ASL signer has conveyed this with a non-manual facial expression. 

Comments: 

This is an example of the adverb NONE showing degree in the sense that it is 

emphasizing that there is no wire coming from the wireless alarm. 

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4.1.1.5. Example Five (Manner/Degree) 


INTERESTING(emph) IX(second one/doorbell) DOOR++++ CL:C 

“mounted box on the CL:B ‘flat surface’ “ // NONE CORD(from CL:B “down 

the wall”) 


It is very interesting that there is no cord coming down from the wall. 


The signer uses a non-tactile facial expression of mouthing with pursed lips 

while signing INTERESTING. 


The Deaf-Blind individual signs INTERESTING with a movement away 

from the chest in an extended distance. This movement is then followed by a 

prolonged hold. 



expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for 

INTERESTING does not need to have a prolonged hold segment. In the 

Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to 

observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes the longer and slower 

movement away from the chest as well as a prolonged hold segment. In 

addition, the movement of INTERESTING has tense emphasis to the sign. 

Comments: 

INTERESTING (EMPH) is an adverb of manner/degree in that it expresses 

the signer’s degree of interest and/or understanding of the subject being 

discussed. 

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4.1.1.6. Example Six (Manner/Degree) 


PHONE YES++ ONLY PLUG-INTO(phone) CONNECT PHONE CL:Ob 

“cord runs from phone over to tty) PLUG-INTO(tty) TTY FINISH(that’s all) 

? 


There is a phone plugged into the TTY. There is a cord running between the 

TTY and the phone. Is that all? 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression of 

the mouthing of “SS” and a widening of the eyes and a raising of the eyebrows 

without actually signing FINISH. 


The Deaf-Blind individual signs FINISH with a hand movement with a 

tensing of the hand and a final hold segment. As a question the movement of 

FINISH is signed with a movement forward in the direction of the other 

person to show it is a question. 



expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for FINISH does 

not need to be prolonged in a hold of the segment. In the Tactile ASL 


portion of the sign and substitutes a tensing of the hand during the sign 

along with a final hold segment. In addition, the movement of FINISH 

includes the push forward to show it is a question. This push in the Tactile 

ASL sign is equivalent to the raised eyebrow in the visual ASL sign. 

Comments: 

This example demonstrates that “finish” is posed as a question and involves a 

push movement forward for the Tactile ASL as opposed to the raising of the 

eyebrow or the necessity of adding a question sign at the end of the sentence. 

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4.1.1.7. Summary (Manner/Degree) 

This series of examples of adverbs of the type manner or degree show that one of the 

features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of a sign is the use of an extended 

final hold segment often accompanied by a tensing of the hand during this hold. 

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4.1.2. Time 

Adverbials of time answer one question: When? Following are four examples of this 

usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects’ video-taped conversation: 

4.1.2.1. Example One (Time) 



Two years ago … 


TWO^YEAR PAST / TWO 

The signer uses a non-manual production of the sign with a facial expression of 

the head moving from up to down accompanied by a downward eye gaze. The 

signer would not add the additional TWO at the end of the sign. 


In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual adds an additional 

TWO at the end of the sentence 



expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the 

signer to repeat the additional TWO at the end of the sentence. In the Tactile 

ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the 

non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes a second occurrence of TWO at 

the end of the sentence to clarify the fact that this is an adverb specifying time. 

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4.1.2.2. Example Two (Time) 


WHEN PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY YOU[held] /// YOU WALK-OVER-TO (the 

phone) CL:Y “pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down” #OR 

#WHAT WELL? 


When I call you, do you go over to the TTY, pick up the handset and set it [on 

the TTY], or what? 


In visual ASL, the sign for WHEN in “when I call you” is expressed with an 

upwards tilt of the head and a raising of the eyebrows. It is not explicitly 

signed. 


In Tactile ASL, the sign for WHEN must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- 

Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. 




signer to sign WHEN. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind 

individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and 

consequently, WHEN must be signed explicitly. 

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4.1.2.3. Example Three (Time) 


SHOW-ME PRO1 LATER / YOU CURIOUS YOU [hesitation] YOU++ 

HAVE THREE(emph) RIGHT V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L INCLUDED? // 


You can show me the Vibracall later. I am curious, you have three Vibracall 

units installed, right? 



which the head tilts upwards and there is a raising of the eyebrows. LATER is 

not explicitly signed. 


In Tactile ASL, the sign for LATER must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- 

Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. LATER is signed 

after the subject and, in this case, the hand is moved slowly. 




signer to sign LATER. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf- 

Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and 

consequently, LATER must be signed explicitly. The sign is used after the 

subject and is accentuated by having it signed slowly. 

Comments: 

The adverb LATER is functioning as an adverb showing time. 

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4.1.2.4. Example Four (Time) 


THREE THAT / PLUG-INTO CL:1 “wire goes around over the table” TABLE 

/ WHERE PUT a,b,c,… LEAVE-IN-THAT-PLACE /// NOT USE IX-lf 

(control unit?) WAVE-NO UNTIL YOU FEEL++ / SEE #IF PAGER STILL 

WORK // PUSH-BUTTON (on phone transmitter) KEEP+++ UNTIL GOOD 

PUSH-BUTTON (on phone transmitter)++ / DEAD // SAME-AS CL:C 

“mounted box on the CL:B ‘door jamb’” // PUSH-BUTTON(on doorbell 

transmitter)++++ DEAD / CHANGE(battery) IX(doorbell)++ V-O-L-T 9++++ 

// IX(phone transmitter) V-O-L-T 9 CHEAP / PAGER EXPENSIVE(emph) / 

EXPENSIVE 


I just leave the three transmitters where I put them. You don’t touch the 

control unit unless you want to test if the pager is still working. You keep the 

button pressed until you see (the battery) is good. This is similar to checking 

the doorbell battery. Use a 9-volt battery when changing the battery. A 9-volt 

battery is inexpensive while it is very expensive to replace the pager battery. 


In visual ASL, it is rarely necessary to use a sign for UNTIL in order to show 

a time frame. Conditionals like this are produced with a facial expression 

consisting of a movement of the head up and then downwards. 


In Tactile ASL, the sign for UNTIL must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- 

Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. 




signer to sign UNTIL. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind 

individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and 

consequently, UNTIL must be signed explicitly. 

Comments: 

The adverb expressing time is UNTIL. 

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4.1.2.5. Summary (Time) 

This series of examples of adverbs of the type time characterizes many of the Tactile 

ASL variations of a sign and the use of an additional signed word in order to make the context of 

time clear. Often this additional sign is produced more slowly to make it clear. 

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4.1.3. Duration 

Adverbials of duration answer the question: For how long? The following shows several 

examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects’ videotaped conversation: 

4.1.3.1. Example One (Duration) 


CL: LL “signaler” #IF PUSH-BUTTON MAKE STILL LIVE VIBRATING- 

ALARM+++ THAT 


You push the button to make sure the [battery] still has a good charge [and will 

vibrate the pager]. 



which the head tilts downwards slightly and there is a raising of the eyebrows. 

STILL does not have to be explicitly signed. 


In the production of the sign STILL must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- 

Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. STILL is signed with 

a movement of the hand followed by a hold segment and a tensing of the hand. 


In the visual ASL production of the sign STILL, the use of a non-tactile facial 


signer to sign STILL. In Tactile ASL, it is necessary for STILL to be signed. 

Additionally, the lengthening of the final hold segment with a tensing of the 

hand is used. Pragmatically speaking, visual ASL typically uses non-manuals 

to signal conditionals along the lines of “If…then…” statements in English. 

The addition of signs like IF and in this case, STILL, would be redundant in 

visual ASL. 

Comments: 

In this example STILL is an adverb of duration. 

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4.1.3.2. Example Two (Duration) 


UP-TIL-NOW NONE++++ WHY(rh) PRO1 LOOK-FOR++ MY 

FAVORITE BALTIMORE RITENOFF PRO1 BUY(from Ritenoff)+++++ 

COME(to me) ORDER (from Ritenoff) TIME PRO1 SEND-TO (Ritenoff) 

CALL-TO (Ritenoff) /// SAY O-W-N-E-R QUIT / SELL OTHER NEW O-W- 

N-E-R LOOK-AT WEAVING / THROW-OUT DON’T-KNOW HOW 

IX(new owner) THROW-OUT / NONE EMPTY // PRO1 DISAPPOINTED 

GIVE-UP WOOD BUY++++ IX(Baltimore) 


I [haven’t bought] any for a while because I was looking for my favorite 

[vendor] in Baltimore, Ritenoff, that I bought from all the time. I ordered it 

and it came to me. One time, I called them…They said the owner quit, sold 

[the business] to a new owner who took one look at the weaving [supplies] and 

threw them out. I don’t know how he did it but he threw it all out—there’s 

nothing left. I’m disappointed that I have to give up buying it in Baltimore. 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign by raising the eyebrows 

and tilting the head back slightly. Additionally, there is a movement of the 

sign UP-TIL-NOW in a small arc. 


In the production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual signs UP-TIL-NOW 

with a bigger and more pronounced movement in a larger arc. 


The primary difference in the signing of UP-TIL-NOW in this example, is 

that a Tactile ASL signer follows a far more pronounced movement in a larger 

arc. A visual ASL user signs with a smaller arc. 

4.1.3.3. Summary (Duration) 

This series of examples of adverbs of the type duration demonstrates that one of the 

features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of the sign is the use of an 

extended hold segment often accompanied by the use of a larger sign space. Duration is also 

shown in Tactile ASL by use of a specific sign such as UP-TIL-NOW, not just with the use of 

extended holds. 

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4.1.4. Frequency 

Adverbials of frequency answers the question: How often? Following are several 

examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects’ videotaped conversation: 

4.1.4.1. Example One (Frequency) 


YES // COMPANY VISIT LIKE W-SIGN-NAME++ HUSBAND #JOHN 

WATCH++ #tv W-SIGN-NAME++ CL:Vb “sit Deaf-Blind style” CHAT++ 

FOUR-HOURS #JOHN WATCH++ #tv // SOMETIMES (I) VISIT (them) 

#JOHN WATCH (his TV) PRO CHAT (with W) WELL / 

UNDERSTAND+++ 


It is confirmed that there is company who visits like W–. Her husband, John 

watches TV sometimes. W– and I will chat for four hours while John watches 

the TV. Sometimes I visit them. John watches TV and she chats. [John] 

understands. 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a nodding of the head 

up and down while the sign for SOMETIMES moves in a fast circle making it 

an adverb of frequency. 


In Tactile ASL, a Deaf-Blind individual needs a slow movement of the sign in 

a bigger circle in order to make it clear that the meaning is SOMETIMES, as 

opposed to a similarly formed sign. 


In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile nodding of 

the head and the movement of the sign in a fast circle is sufficient to convey 

the adverb SOMETIMES. A Tactile ASL signer must slow the movement 

and move in a larger circle in order to clarify the sign in the context of 

frequency. This movement compensates for the inability of a Deaf-Blind 

individual to observe the head movement. 

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4.1.4.2. Example Two (Frequency) 


WAVE-NO COMMUNITY PRO1 HAVE TWO[HOLD] / GIRL++ / HELP++ 

#SSP // EVERY-TWO-WEEKS+++ / GIRL FROM BALTIMORE // COME 

(to my house) TAKE (out) STORE++ … 


Every two weeks, the girl who is the SSP, helps me out. She is from 

Baltimore. She comes to my house and takes me to the stores… 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a reduplicated 

movement and protruding lower lip. The protruding lip indicates regularity. It 

is not necessary to sign EVERY-TWO-WEEKS three times. Furthermore, this 

is a two-handed sign. 


In Tactile ASL it is necessary to demonstrate regularity with repetition. This is 

a necessary substitute for the facial expression. Also, the non-dominant hand 

has been dropped. The dropping of the non-dominant hand results from having 

the added duty of watching for feedback. 


In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, the signer must make it clear that the 

“every two weeks” is meant to convey the frequency aspect as well as it’s 

regularity. Since the citation form of EVERY-TWO-WEEKS involves two 

identical movements already, it was modified to have three movements. For 

the visual ASL signer, the non-manual signal of the lip protrusion is sufficient 

to convey this concept. 

4.1.4.3. Summary (Frequency) 

This series of examples of adverbs of the type frequency demonstrates that one of the 

features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of a sign is the use of repeating 

signed words or phrases in order to make the meaning clear. Redundancy occurs in other places 

in TASL discourse as well to ensure comprehension. Often this additional movement is 

produced in a larger signing space 

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4.1.5. Purpose 

Adverbials of purpose answer these questions: Why? For what purpose? For what 

reason? Following are several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the 

subjects’ videotaped conversation: 

4.1.5.1. Example One (Purpose) 


YOU V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L FOR PHONE RING ONLY ? 


Do you have the Vibracall [signaler] just for indicating that the phone is 

ringing? 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign along with a facial 

expression by raising the eyebrows. FOR is not explicitly signed. 


In Tactile ASL, a Deaf-Blind individual cannot see the non-manual facial 

expression and, consequently, FOR PHONE RING ONLY is signed to 

indicate purpose (for what purpose). 




signer to sign FOR. In Tactile ASL, there must be a compensation for the 

Deaf-Blind person who is unable to observe this non-manual signal. The 

additional sign is added to show purpose. 

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4.1.5.2. Example Two (Purpose) 


YES BUY /// YOU NEED WRITE-LIST SEND (to Silent Call) TO S-I-L-E- 

N-T ASK (multiple) ABOUT MORE++ TWO E-X-T-R-A?? TWO-OR- 

THREE CONNECTED // YES FOR FLASHER THAT // WELL // CAN 

ASK- (Silent Call) REQUEST-lf (from Silent Call) S-I-L-E-N-T C-A-L-L 

COMPANY IX-lf (Silent Call) /// 


Yes, you can buy one. You should write down the questions you have about 

connecting two or more signaler systems at once in order to flash [light signals 

to your roommates]. Sure, ask the Silent Call company. 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign along with a facial 

expression of a raising of the eyebrows. FOR is not explicitly signed. 


In Tactile ASL, a Deaf-Blind individual cannot see the non-manual facial 

expression and, consequently, FOR FLASHER is signed to indicate purpose 

(for what purpose). 




signer to sign FOR. In the Tactile ASL, there must be a compensation for the 

Deaf-Blind person who is unable to observe this non-manual signal. The 

additional sign is added to show purpose. 

Comments: 

The adverb here, FOR is used to indicate purpose. The purpose is to buy a 

flasher and this is what FOR signifies. 

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4.1.5.3. Summary (Purpose) 

This series of examples of adverbs of the type purpose shows that one of the features that 

characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of the sign is the use of an additional signed 

word in order to make the context and purpose clear. In the examples shown here, the extra 

word FOR was signed. There are “extra” words because the conventional way of expressing the 

same purpose as the signer intended would not include the sign FOR. A conventional way of 

referring to the purpose of the flasher would be to use the sign POSS, a possessive pronoun sign 

that refers to the flasher’s purpose, rather than FOR. If the sign POSS were used in this example 

it would have a higher risk of being misunderstood. 

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4.1.6. Place/Position/Direction 

Adverbials of Position/Location/Direction answer these questions: Where? Which 

location? In which direction? Following are several examples of this usage as taken from the 

transcription of the subjects’ videotaped conversation: 

4.1.6.1. Example One (Place/Position/Direction) 


WHERE PHONE CL: Y “put down phone handset” WHERE WELL? /// 

[waits for response] PHONE SUPPOSE YOU SUPPOSE PRO1+++ CALL 

YOU (stressed) // PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY (I call you) HOW YOU YOU HOW 

KNOW YOU WELL? 


Where do you put the handset? If I call you…I call you with the tty…How do 

you know that I’m calling? 


The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression of 

raising the eyebrows for a question or direction. WHERE is not explicitly 

signed. 


In Tactile ASL, WHERE is signed, with emphasis, at the end of the sentence. 

It is a tense and fast movement. 




signer to sign WHERE. In the Tactile ASL, it is necessary to sign WHERE 

with the emphasis and tense movement it conveys to show that it is an adverb 

of place. 

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4.1.6.2. Example Two (Place/Position/Direction) 


K-R-O-W-N / IX-lf WILL SHOW-YOU DON’T HAVE-TO++ CL: Y “move 

handset from –lf to –rt” / LEAVE BECAUSE CONNECT #WIRE IX-lf CL: I 

“wire moved to -rt” FROM // (interrupted) B-R-A-I-L-L-E-H-P-H-O-N-E CL: 

I “wire moved to –rt” 


Krown. I’ll show you. You don’t have to move the handset from the tty. You 

just leave it there because it’s connected by a wire to the BraillePhone. 


In visual ASL, the sign FROM uses a non-manual facial expression of an eye 

gaze at the same time as the sign is indexing to the BraillePhone. It is not 

explicitly signed. 


In Tactile ASL, FROM, must be signed because a Deaf-Blind individual 

cannot observe the eye gaze non-manual facial expression. 


The primary difference in this example is the necessity of explicitly signing the 

adverb FROM in the Tactile ASL production to compensate for the inability 

of a Deaf-Blind individual to observe the facial expression and eye gaze. 

Comments: 

Here the adverb FROM is used to make clear the direction. It is accompanied 

with eye gaze to show direction. 

4.1.6.3. Summary (Place/Position/Direction) 

This series of examples of adverbs of the type place/position/direction demonstrates that 

one of the features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of the sign is the use of 

an additional signed word in order to make the context clear. Here again, we see redundancy in 

the content as a way of reducing ambiguity. 

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4.2. Overall Patterns across the various adverbial types 

The data in Section 4.1 shows examples from each of the adverb types considered. In 

each of the adverbial types, Tactile ASL has a characteristic pattern of variation differentiating it 

from the visual ASL signing pattern. In summary, the findings are as follows: 

Adverbial 

Feature: 

Prolonged 

Hold 

Specific 

or Extra 

Sign 

Tenseness 

of the 

Hand 

Extended 

Location 

Longer and 

Slower 

Movement 

Redundancy 

Manner/Degree √ √ √ √ √ 

Time 

√ 

Duration √ √ √ √ 

Frequency √ √ √ √ 

Purpose √ √ 

Place/Position/ 

Direction 

√ 

√ 

Table 1 - Summary of Findings 

In the table above (√) indicates that the feature is sometimes found in an adverbial of the 

indicated type. Whereas, this same feature is generally not present in visual ASL. The features 

observed, as shown in the table are: 

1. Prolonged Hold. The signer will introduce a final hold segment into the sign in order to 

provide clarity. 

2. Specific or Extra Sign. The signer will introduce an extra sign that substitutes for the 

unobserved non-manual signal. 

3. Tenseness of the Hand. The signer will tense the muscles in his/her hand in a way that 

can be felt by the other person. 

4. Extended Location. The signer will expand the size of the signing space in order to 

provide the other person with an opportunity to understand the sign. 

5. Longer and Slower Movement. The signer will slow-down the production of the sign 

thus spreading it out over a longer time. 

6. Redundancy. This means the signer will repeat information that would otherwise be 

unnecessary. 

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Five of these features – prolonged hold, tenseness, extended location, longer and slower 

movement, and redundancy have to do exactly with phonetic production of the adverbials and 

very adequately capture the nature of the variation. The sixth feature, specific or extra sign, is a 

feature of a syntactic nature. In addition, the five phonetic features are identical to or similar to 

features used by other sign language researchers to describe adverbials, starting with Klima and 

Bellugi in 1979 and continuing with work by Baker and Cokely (1980), Liddell and Johnson 

(1989), Metlay and Supalla (1995), Bridges and Metzger (1996), to name a few. 

In ASL, manner is often “fused” with the verb, that is, the verb is modulated so that it 

includes information on how the action was carried out. For example, verbs describing actions 

that were performed quickly may have rapid movements, while verbs that provide temporal 

information may have reduplicated segments or circular movements. This type of modulation 

has generally been treated as a morphological process which marks aspect. In addition to 

movement modulation, non-manual signals contribute adverbial-type meaning. This non-manual 

component is one of the focal points of the current project. Non-manual signs provide an 

additional layer of meaning to adjectives, predicates and adverbials. Without the non-manual 

component, the meaning of a sign or group of signs is the canonical “uninflected” denotative 

meaning. 

The 50-minute videotaped conversation used in this PDE was analyzed to find and 

identify occurrences and distribution of the types of adverbials as described above. There were a 

total of 282 sign sequences containing a total of 284 adverbials identified and coded in the 

50-minute session. Most of the sequences contained a single adverbial. However, some of the 

sequences contained more than one adverbial. Data was summarized and presented showing the 

number of occurrences of each type of adverbial among all of the adverbials. 

Type Number of Occurrences Percentage 

Duration 28 9.96% 

Manner/Degree 105 37.37% 

Time 76 27.05% 

Frequency 4 1.42% 

Place/Position/Direction 60 21.71% 

Purpose 11 3.91% 

Table 2 - Occurrence of data by type 

68



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Table 2 shows each of the adverbial types as described above. The Number of 

Occurrences denotes the number of times the adverbial type appeared in the videotaped session. 

The Percentage box shows the percentage of this particular adverbial type present among all of 

the adverbials. By observing the percentage, one gets a sense of the relative frequency that each 

of the adverbial types occurs in a prolonged conversation. It is important to note that these 

observations apply only to the specific conversation observed. The following chart presents this 

data in the form of a pie chart. 

Percentage of Type in All 


21% 

Frequency 

1% 

Purpose 

4% 

Duration 

10% 

Manner/Degree 

37% 

Duration 

Manner/Degree 

Time 

Frequency 


Purpose 

Time 

27% 

Figure 14 - Percentage of Occurrence of Types 

In this data three adverbial types of Manner/Degree, Time, and Place/Position/Direction 

accounted for the majority of occurrences. The conversation between the two subjects that 

resulted in this data could, very easily, have ventured into a far different subject matter. They 

spent a significant amount of the conversation describing “how things work”. There was a 

discussion about various text communication devices and devices that are used for signaling such 

69



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

as doorbells and TTY 4 devices. As a result, there was a good deal of discussion of manner and 

degree of describing the performance of these devices and the positioning of these devices in the 

subjects respective homes. As well, there was a lengthily discussion about sports. The subjects 

discussed how various teams did at various points in time in the past. This produced a large 

number of adverbial samples of the type time. 

Regarding the fact that relatively few adverbs of frequency were used, it is generally 

acknowledged that ASL makes use of a rather rich inflectional system in which some temporal 

senses are marked on the verb itself rather than with a separate adverb sign. The ability of the 

language to encode some types of frequency in its morphology indicates that the presence of 

certain adverbs is either unnecessary or redundant. At least some of the aspectual markers in 

visual ASL involve non-manual signals as well as the manual component. The meaning carried 

by the non-manual signal is somewhat redundant. It does seem though, that Deaf-Blind people 

are also expressing redundancies. Along with the manual portion of the verb marked for 

frequency, there is some evidence that a specific adverb sign is also added. Due to the low 

incidence of such signs in the data, the addition or deletion of adverbs of frequency needs to be 

examined more closely. 

Although, this researcher does not have data to support this conclusion, there is a 

suspicion that any given conversation would tend to have more frequent representations of 

specific adverbial types depending on the topic and flow of the conversation. This conclusion 

acknowledges that some adverbial types would appear less frequently than others. This sample 

is, therefore, an accurate reflection of general tendencies to use or omit certain adverb types. 

That is to say, the types of adverbs that appeared less frequently in the transcribed conversation 

is itself an interesting point. 

This researcher’s intent, in future analysis, is to study in more depth the factors presented 

here. An important aspect that is demonstrated in this paper is the consistent pattern in the 

manner in which the Deaf-Blind individual incorporates one or more of the features, as 

summarized in Table 1, into their signing that introduces a tactile component into their 

conversation as a compensation for the visual NMS that they cannot observe. 

4 A TTY device is a teletypwriter device that allows for a text conversation to be conducted over a telephone line. 

They are widely used in the deaf community. 

70


Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 

This study has demonstrated that grammatical variation exists between visual ASL and 

Tactile ASL. It has, for a long time, been recognized that non-manual signals are a significant 

component of a full and rich communication in ASL. It has been demonstrated here that a 

specific class of Deaf-Blind individuals, those with Usher’s Syndrome Type I, compensate for 

their inability to observe these non-manual signals with a system of specific and consistent 

variations in their use of Tactile ASL. 

Non-manual signals are important in all areas of ASL structure including phonology, 

morphology, syntax, semantics, and discourse. For example, in morphological structure the 

signals can have independent meaning and may attach to a variety of signs. The mouth 

configuration glossed as “MM” has the meaning of regularity or normalness and can be produced 

with many different verbs such as drive, study, read, and walk. A different mouth configuration 

glossed as “TH” can be used with these same verbs, and many others, and carry a meaning of 

carelessness. Non-manual signals are, similarly, important for ASL discourse, that is, at the level 

of language above the individual sentence either in a one-way communication such as a speech 

or lecture, or in a two-way conversation where they play an important part in turn-taking or topic 

control. 

The subjects of my research, Deaf-Blind individuals with Usher’s Syndrome Type I, were 

selected because persons in this group almost always begin in early life as Deaf and sighted and 

then, later in life, the onset of blindness occurs often leaving them completely blind by mid-life. 

As a consequence of this factor, these individuals are skilled at visual ASL and are familiar with 

the non-manual signals that are a part of their language. This provides a basis for them to 

compensate for the non-manual signals with a system of “tactile non-manual signals” as they 

lose their ability to observe the visual non-manual signals. Through this adaptive pattern, the 

subjects in this study are quite capable of a full conversation and are able to understand each 

other very well in spite of the fact that they no longer can observe the non-manual signals. 

In this study, I focused on the non-manual signals associated with six types of adverbs 

used in everyday conversation: 

71



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Adverbs of manner or degree 

Adverbs of time 

Adverbs of frequency 

Adverbs of duration 

Adverbs of location or position 

Adverbs of purpose, place, or direction 

The transcripts of an extended conversation between two subjects were analyzed in detail 

and each adverb phrase in one of the above categories was compared to the way a visual ASL 

signer would sign the sequence and the way the subjects of the study altered the language to 

compensate for the lack of non-manual signals. In order to collect the data, a carefully controlled 

setup of five video cameras was used to capture each and every handshape, motion and nuance 

of the signing technique. This extensive detail was then captured in the transcripts of the 

conversation. Analysis depended both on the written transcripts and the actual videotape footage 

of the conversation. 

The findings from the analysis were significant in that they demonstrated that in almost 

all cases, the Tactile ASL signers had a specific and consistent system of compensations for each 

of the categories of adverbs observed. This is clear evidence of sociolinguistic variation. For 

example, in the case of adverbs of manner or degree, there is a specific pattern of extra 

movement of the signing hand with a marked tenseness of the hand and finger muscles. This 

motion and tenseness does not occur in the same sign produced by a visual ASL signer. In 

adverbs of time and frequency as used in TASL shows that there is a pattern of making a sign 

clear by the insertion of an additional word or repeating a word as a compensation for the nonmanual 

signal. 

As a result of many years of experience with working with Deaf-Blind persons, this 

researcher has set out to formulate and demonstrate the validity of a theory of a system of nonmanual 

signals transposed into Tactile ASL communication. The purpose of this research is to 

contribute to the effectiveness of communication for people who want to work with persons in 

the Deaf-Blind community, especially with those who have Usher’s Syndrome Type I. It is my 

72



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

belief that this dialect of ASL, that Deaf-Blind people use naturally, will provide a far superior 

means for interpreters and other sighted ASL signers to engage in conversations with Deaf-Blind 

individuals rather than asking Deaf-Blind people to decode English influenced “word-for-word” 

signing or fingerspelling of full English sentences as a means of tactile communication. 

This paper strongly recommends that interpreters who work with deaf-blind consumers 

must be aware of the linguistic forms described here. The process of interpreting should include 

the use of prolonged holds, tension in the hands and additional lexical items in order to match the 

language used by Deaf-Blind people. Additionally, professionals in the field, such as educators, 

need to include training in the Tactile ASL dialect and interpreter training programs should be 

enhanced to include this variation, as well. 

Finally, based on the findings shown here, further study of Tactile ASL communication 

should be conducted to gain insight into other linguistic adaptations used in Tactile ASL. 

Incorporating the techniques demonstrated in the findings will contribute greatly to breaking 

down the barriers to communication for Deaf-Blind persons. 

73


Appendix A - References 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

A. Appendix A – References 

References 

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MA: Boston University 

Baker, C. 1976. Eye-openers in ASL. Sixth Annual California Linguistics Association 

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Baker, C. 1976. What’s not on the other hand in ASL. In Papers from the Twelfth Regional 

Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, eds. S. Hufwene, C. Walker, & S. Streeven. 

Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 

Baker, C. & C. Padden. 1978. Focusing on the Non-manual Components of American Sign 

Language. In Understanding Language through Sign language Research, ed. P. Sipe, 59-90. 

New York, NY: Academic Press 

Baker, C. & D. Cokely. 1980. American Sign Language: A teacher’s resource text on Grammar 

and Culture. Silver Spring Md.: T.J. Publishers. Reprint, Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet 

University Press 1991. 

Baker-Shenk, C., 1983. A micro-analysis of the non-manual components of questions in 

American Sign Language. Ph.D. Diss., University of California, Berkeley. 

Battison, R. 1978. Lexical borrowing in American Sign Language: Phonological and 

Morphological restructuring. Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press. 

Bienvenu M. J. & B. Colonomos. 1991. The Face of ASL. Videotaped series. Burtonsville, 

MD: Sign Media, Inc. 

Brennan, M. 1997. Point of View Mental Health Issues of Deaf-Blind Adults. In JADARA, 

vol.30, #2&3, pp.28-35. 

Bridges B, & M Metzger, 1996. Deaf Tend Your: Non-Manual Signals in American Sign 

Language. Calliope Press 

Bussman, Hadumod. 1996. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London: 

Routledge. P. 347. 

74



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

References 

Cokely D. 1986. The Effects of Lag Time on Interpreter Errors. Sign Language Studies, 

Vol. 53. 

Collins, S. 1993. Deaf-Blind interpreting: The structure of ASL and the interpreting Process. In 

Gallaudet University Communication Forum 1993, ed. E. Wilton, 20-36. Washington, D.C.: 

Gallaudet School of Communication. 

Collins, S. & K. Petronio. 1998. What is Tactile ASL? In Pinky Extension and Eye Gaze: 

Language Use in Deaf Communities, ed. C. Lucas. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University 

Press. 

Coulter, G. 1978. Raised eyebrows and wrinkled noses: The function of facial expression in 

relative clauses and related constructions. In Proceedings of the Second National Symposium 

on Sign Language Research and Teaching, ed. Caccamise. Silver Spring, MD: National 

Association of the Deaf. 

Coulter, G. 1979. American Sign Language Typology. University of California, San Diego. 

Coulter, J. ed. 1992. Phonetics and Phonology. Volume 3, Current Issues in ASL Phonology. 

San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 

Croneberg C. 1965. The Linguistic Community. In A Dictionary of American Sign Language, 

eds. W. Stokoe, D. Casterline, and C. Croneberg. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University 

Press 

Fasold, Ralph. 1984. The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell. 

Fischer, S. & B. Gough. 1978. Verbs in American Sign Language. In Sign Language 

Studies 18:17-48. 

Fischer, S. & B. Gough. 1979. Verbs in American Sign Language. In The Signs of Language, 

eds. U. Bellgui & E. S. Klima. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 

Frankel, M. A. 2002. Deaf-blind interpreting: interpreter’s use of negation in tactile American 

Sign Language. In Sign Language Studies 2: 2, 169-181. 

Gumperz, John J. 1966. On the Ethnology of Linguistic Change. In: W. Bright (ed.), 

Sociolinguistics, pp. 27-29. The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted in: D. Cherubin (ed.), Zur 

Theorie des Sprach Wandels. Frankfort: Degrayer 1975.) 

Humphries, T., C. Padden, & T. J. O’Rourke. 1985. Videotaped series that accompanies A 

Basic Course in American Sign Language. Silver Spring, MD: T.J. Publishers, Inc. 

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

References 

Landrenau, M. 1995. Personal interview by Steven D. Collins. 

Liddell, S. 1980. American Sign Language syntax. The Hague: Mouton. 

Liddell, S. 1980. Non-Manual Signals in American Sign Language. In Proceedings of the First 

National Symposium on Sign Language Research and Teaching. 193-228. 

Liddell, S. 1989. American Sign Language: The phonological base. In Sign Language 

Studies 4: 195-227. 

Liddell, S. & R. E. Johnson. 1989. American Sign Languages: The Phonological Base. In Sign 

Language Studies, 64, 195-278. 

Lillo-Martin, D & S. Fischer. 1992. Overt and Covert wh-questions in American Sign 

Language. Paper presented at the First International Symposium on Sign Language 

Research, Salamanca, Spain. May 1992. 

Lillo-Martin, D. 1986. Two Kinds of Null Arguments in American Sign Language. In Natural 

Language and Linguistic Theory 4: 415-444. 

Lucas, C. 1995. Sociolinguistic Variation in ASL. The Case of DEAF. In Sociolinguistics in 

Deaf Communities, ed. C. Lucas, Vol. 1, 3-25. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University 

Press. 

Lucas, C. 1995. Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, ed. C. Lucas. Washington, D.C.: 

Gallaudet University Press. 

Lucas, C. & C. Valli. 1992. Language Contact in the American Deaf Community. New York, 

NY: Academic Press, Inc. 

Lucas, C., R. Bayley, & C. Valli [in collaboration with Mary Rose, Alyssa Wulf, Paul Dudis, 

Laura Sanheim, & Susan Schatz]. 2001. Sociolinguistic Variation in ASL Sociolinguistics 

in Deaf Communities, vol. 7. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press. 

McNamara, J. 1997. Deaf-Blind Interpreting. RID Views. Vol. 24, Issue 11, December 1997, 

pp. 10-11. 

Mesch, J. 2001. Tactile sign language: turn taking and questions in signed conversations of 

deaf-blind people. In International Studies on Sign Language and Communications of the 

Deaf. Vol.38. Hamburg: Signum. 

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References 

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Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum (1995) – pp. 225-284. 

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Nowell, E. 1989. Conversational Features and Gender in ASL. In The Sociolinguistics of the 

Deaf Community, ed. C. Lucas. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 

O’Brien & C. Steffen. 1996. Tactile ASL: ASL as used by Deaf-Blind Person. In Gallaudet 

University Communication Forum vol. 6, eds. L. Byers. & M. Rose, 145-158. Washington, 

D.C. 

Padden, C. 1988. Interaction of morphology and Syntax in American Sign Language. 

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Phonological Theory. In Natural Languages and Linguistic Theory. 5, 335-375. 

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References 

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78


Appendix B – Notes on Transcription symbols 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

B. Appendix B - Notes on Transcription Symbols 

Throughout this paper, glossing symbols are used to describe signs. This section 

provides a key to understanding these symbols: 

B.1 General Glossing conventions 

 

 

 

Signs glossed in English are presented in all capital letters; for example: MAN. 

Where more than one English word is needed to provide the essence of a sign’s 

meaning, the gloss takes the form of several words separated by hyphens as in: ONE- 

MORE. 

More recent ASL gloss transcriptions often include script-based representations of 

some important non-manual signals. These are generally shown as a letter or series 

of letters that are intended to represent corresponding mouth postures, head positions 

or movements, eyebrow positions and/or nose movements. A horizontal line that 

appears above the glossed sign or signs with which the non-manual signal co-occurs 

accompanies the abbreviated facial expressions. In the example below, the nonmanual 

signal t is an abbreviated convention used for topic marking in ASL. The 

topic NMS includes raised eyebrows and a slight backward and sideways tilt of the 

head. In the example below, this topic marker is held throughout the production of 

the first three signs. A somewhat literal translation appears under the ASL sentence. 

t 

MAN STAND IX-lf MY FATHER 

As for the man standing over there on the left, he is my father. 

 

Lexicalized fingerspelling is shown as a number sign (#) followed by the gloss as in: 

#JOB. Non-lexicalized fingerspelling is documented as the sign for each letter 

separated by hyphens as in: K-R-O-W-N. 

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

B.2 Other Transcription symbols and conventions 

 

 

 

General directional information about the sign is given in the form of: -lf, -rt, -high, 

etc. This means that the signs were aimed at, or positioned in, that direction or area. 

Some formational information is provided in brackets such as [osc] for oscillating 

movement, [held] for an extended hold segment. Discourse features like hesitations, 

false starts, interruptions, clarification requests, overlaps and other transcription notes 

are also shown in brackets. Signs that seem to function as discourse markers are 

noted by [dm]. Manual signals that appear to function like gestures are shown as 

[gesture]. 

Information about subjects, objects and locations that are indicated by a sign’s 

location, placement, aiming or movement is provided by comments in parentheses 

such as the bolded comments in this example: 

PRO1 OBSERVE THAT IX++ (AADB) AT A-A-D-B EXAMPLE IX++ (man at 

AADB) MAN TELL^ME 6 (moves C’s thumb to read number better)… 

 

 

 

Plus signs indicate reduplication or repetition. Unmarked glosses mean there is one 

iteration of the sign, two plus signs (++) indicate a repeated movement as in the 

example: YOU++. 

Some signs have two or more forms, one in which the transition between hold 

segments includes a simple flexion of the finger or fingers at one or more joints and 

one in which the flexion is reduplicated. The reduplicated form appears as 

“wiggling” and is signified by –wg as in the example: WANT –wg. 

Some signs are marked by emphasis, usually a sharp or accelerated movement. This 

is shown by using either ! or (emph). 

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A single slash (/) marks a short pause. These tend to be phrase boundaries or topic 

changes. A longer pause, possibly a sentence boundary is marked by a double slash 

(//). A long pause, possibly a sentence boundary or the end of a turn is marked by a 

triple slash (///). 

Signs in brackets are signed on the weak hand as in: [WELL]. WELL is the gloss 

used for the Wh-sign often glossed as WHAT. I chose this gloss to show the 

difference between WHAT, with the index finger brushed across the palm and the 

gesture-like sign with the palms up. 

Signs with a ^ between them appear to be compounded as in: LOOK^LIKE. 

The first person singular pronoun I or ME is shown as: PRO-1. 

Some signs include the index finger pointing to the right or left. This is shown as: 

IX-lf. This may be a pronoun, a determiner, or a location in space. For the purpose 

of this study, I have chosen to collapse these items under one gloss. 

Some signs have traditionally been glossed as FINISH but actually have distinct 

forms and meaning as in: FINISH (that’s all) [osc]. This sign had the meaning 

“that’s all” and has an oscillating movement. 

The use of …[overlap] is used to show that a signer has been overlapped in 

conversation and the corresponding overlap of the other person appears in the next 

line. Where “…” appears at the beginning of a line means that the signer continued 

without any more overlap. 

Classifiers are notoriously difficult to document briefly in print as in the following 

example: CL:Y “pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down”. For this 

transcription, I have indicated classifiers with the abbreviation CL: followed by a 

short notation for handshape, Y, in this case, and finally, a short description of it’s 

meaning in quotes such as “pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down”. 

81


Appendix C – Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis 

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

C. Appendix C – Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis 

Spreadsheet. 

Data from Transcription showing Adverbial Phrases in each of the selected categories. This data is in the form of an Excel 

Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 

1 TWO^YEAR PAST 

2 WITH(emph) AT A-A-D-B 

3 WITH KEYBOARD 

4 SHOCK 

5 THAT’S-ALL 

6 STILL 

7 STILL 

8 

WHEN PRO1CALL-BY- 

TTY(I call you) 

9 

FROM //(interrupted) B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H- 

O-N-E CL: “wire moved to –rt” 

10 NEXT-THING 

11 STILL 

12 FROM NATIONAL F-L-A-S-H 

13 FOR PHONE RING ONLY 

14 ON PHONE 

15 FOR PHONE+++ ALARM+++ 

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16 STILL 

17 OUTSIDE-OF-THE-DOOR++++ 

18 OUTSIDE+++ 

19 OUTSIDE-THE-DOOR 

20 OUTSIDE(emph) 

21 ON(emph) DOOR 

22 ON(emph) DOOR 

23 IX(here on the jam)++ 

24 STRONG(emph) 


26 FINISH 

27 GOOD 

28 GOOD(emph) 

29 OUTSIDE+++ 

30 BETTER 

31 IX”door on the inside” 

32 

33 LITTLE-BIT 

34 INSIDE 

35 INSIDE 

36 BETTER 

IX(here on your right of trim of the outside 

door)++++++++ 

83



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 


37 LONG(emph) 

38 

FOR CL:C “mounted box on 

the CL:B ‘door jam’” 

39 FINISH(that’s all) 

40 INSIDE 

41 LATER 

42 WHERE 

43 

UNTIL YOU 

FEEL++ 

44 STILL 

45 

UNTIL GOOD 

PUSH- 

BUTTON(on 

phone 

transmitter)++ 

46 EXPENSIVE(emph) 

47 EXPENSIVE 

48 IX(ceiling) 

49 IX(up on ceiling) 


51 INTERESTING(emph) 

52 ONLY PLUG-INTO(phone) 


54 STILL 

55 FINISH 

84



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 


56 FINISH 

57 SEPARATE[emph] 

58 FOR FLASHER 

59 FINISH 

60 THEN 

61 FOR FLASH+++ 

62 

WHEN ANY PERSON 

PUSH-DOORBELL 

63 

SAME TIME MY 

PAGER-GOES-OFF+++ 

64 SAME TIME 

65 AGAIN 

66 IN 

67 R-O-C-H-E-S-T-E-R #MICH 

68 FINISH 

69 ONLY 


71 FREE(emph) 

72 NOT-YET++ 

73 WHEN PRO1 RETIRE 

74 BETTER 

75 BIG!(emph) 

76 BIG!(emph) 

85



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 


77 BIG!(emph) 

78 WOW 

79 NEW++ 

80 AGAIN 

81 FINISH 

82 NO-MORE 

83 UP-TO-LIMIT 15 

84 FOR GUIDE-AROUND 

85 UP-TO-LIMIT 10 

86 ENOUGH 

87 ENOUGH 

88 THEN 

89 FINISH 

90 3-WEEKSÂGO 

91 BIG 

92 BIG 


94 REALLY 

95 NICE(emph) 

96 HELP WOW! 

97 AFTER PRO1 RETIRE 

86



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 


98 FROM HOME 

99 TO A-A-D-B HOMEÔFFICE 

100 NICE 

101 FINISH (that's all) 

102 THAT’S-ALL 

103 NEXT-YEAR(emph) 

104 REALLY 

105 #TOO 

106 EARLY[emph] 

107 #TOO 

108 NOW 

109 FUTURE!(emph) 

110 WOW 

111 STILL 

BECAUSE PRO1ALONE 

WANT ACCOMPANY- 

EVERYWHERE 

112 IN MY HOUSE 

113 IN MY HOUSE 

114 STILL 

115 FINISH(that’s all)[osc] 

116 IX(path far out in front of me) 

117 REALLY 

118 REALLY 

87



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

119 JUST 

120 ONLY 


121 IN YOUR #APT RIGHT 

122 BETTER 

123 BETTER 

124 YOUR #APT 

125 REALLY 

126 NEAR-FUTURE 

127 BIG(emph) 

128 WOW++++ 

129 SO-FAR 

130 

NOT- 

YET+++++++ 

131 NOT-YET 

132 NOW++ 

133 TO V-A-S-S #NORTH-CAROLINA 

134 IX(Vass) 

135 FAR!(emph) 

136 

NEAR #SOUTH-CAROLINA #SOUTH- 

CAROLINA 

137 NOT-YET 

138 ALL-ALONG 

139 UP-TIL-NOW 

88



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 


140 IX(Baltimore) 

141 NOW 

142 OTHER PLACE 

143 IN #NC 

144 

TIL SIGN-NAME-K[false 

start] [COMPUTER 

BRAILLE 

ARRIVE](cond) 

145 WITH L-A-R-R-Y 

146 FROM #PA+ 

147 NEAR PRO1 

148 NOW 

149 FOR …?… #STAIN 

150 #OFF 

151 NOW+++?? 

152 FINISH 

153 FROM THAT COMPANY 

154 

#SO THAT PRO1 CAN RUN 

POSS1 BUISNESS 

SELL(different things) 

155 NEW++++ 

156 GOOD[emph] 

157 EXPANDING[quickly] 

158 

#SO PRO1 USE POSS 

#WWW[hold for feedback]… 

89



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159 TO SELL ADVERTISE 

160 THEN 

161 NOW 

162 REALLY 

163 MONTHS-AGO[hold] 

164 3 MONTHS[hold] 

165 FROM MY FRIEND 

166 

167 THEN 

168 NOW 

169 NOW+++++ 

170 LATER 

171 GOOD[emp] 

#SO PRO1 BUY(business) F- 

R-A-N-C-H-I-S-E[hold] 

172 IN W-H-E-A-T-O-N 

173 FINE-wg 

174 NONE[emph/hold] 

175 ALL-ALONG 

176 NONE[emph] 

177 ALL-THOSE-IN-LIST 

178 NONE[emph] 

179 #ALL 

90



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180 #ALL 

181 ALL[emph] 

182 CLOSE-TO STORE 

183 NEXT-TO-BEYOND(Amhern) 

184 

EVERY-TWO- 

WEEKS- 

BEGINNING- 

AND-AND-OF- 

MONTH+++ 

185 FROM BALTIMORE 

186 

TO PRO1 #MA #MA M-E-T-R-O A-C-C-E- 

S-S[hold] 

187 FINE-wg 

188 ALL-ALONG 

189 NOW 

190 ALL-ALONG 


192 TIME 1:30 

193 2:00 TIME 

194 11 [to] 1:10 

195 AT 1:10 

196 

TO PRO1 EXPECT 

TWO-OF- 

US(appointment) 

197 FINISH 

91



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198 

THEN TWO-OF-US(you 

and I) EAT 

IX(reference?) 

199 BIG[emph] 

200 BIG[emph] 

201 BACK 

202 BACK-THERE(rt) 

203 DOWN-HALLWAY(on right) 

204 IX(up far right) 

205 IX(path snakes) 

206 …#ALL(whole apt) 

207 IX-to left 

208 FOUR-HOURS 

209 SOMETIMES 

210 STILL 

211 SOME 

212 BEHIND![emph] 

213 BEHIND![emph] 

214 FINISH 

215 STILL[emph] 

216 AWESOME 

217 WOW 

92



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218 YESTERDAY 

219 PAST SUNDAY 

220 NOW 

221 FINISH++ 

222 HEAVY-COMPETITION[emph] 

223 BIG-LEAD 

224 STRONG[emph] 

225 WOW![emph]++ 

226 GOOD 

227 WOW++ 

228 REALLY 

229 BACKWARDS 

230 BAD 

231 HUGE-IMPROVEMENT[emph] 

232 IMPROVE[emp] 

233 NOW 

234 WOW!+++ 

235 

TREND-DOWN-UP-DOWN-AND- 

UP-DRAMATICALLY 

236 LOUSY 

237 ALL-ALONG 

238 FROM OAKLAND 

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239 CLOSE+++(to others in division 

240 YESTERDAY 

241 YESTERDAY 

242 STILL 

243 FAR-AHEAD(against team a) 

244 FAR-AHEAD(against team b) 

245 FAR-AHEAD(against team c) 

246 FAR-AHEAD(against team d) 


248 LAST-YEAR 

249 ONE-WEEK-AGO 

250 ONE-WEEK-AGO 

251 TRAVEL-DOWN-FAR 

252 MORE++ 

253 YESTERDAY 

254 OUTSTANDING[emph] 

255 WOW!+++ 

256 NEW[emph] 

257 WOW!++++ 

258 STRONG 

259 LAST-YEAR 

94



________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 


281 

NEXT- 

YEAR[unattended] 

282 NEXT-YEAR 

96


Appendix D – Transcription of Conversation Session 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

D. Appendix D – Transcription of Conversation Session 

Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D – 50 

Minutes 

D: OK GO-AHEAD HOW-MUCH WORTH KNOW YOU 

C: BRAILLE PRICE 3 THOUSAND 7 HUNDRED DETERMINER Quantity – tells how 

many dollars 

D: 3 [checking for clarification] N/A 

C: 3 THOUSAND[signed in D’s palm] 7 HUNDRED DETERMINER Quantity – tells 

how many dollars 

D: DROPPED-IN-PRICE 

C: YES++++++ 

D: TWO^YEAR PAST TWO – DETERMINER. However, the whole phrase is an 

adverbial TWO^YEAR PAST – Tells When (time) // PRO1 OBSERVE THAT 

IX++(AADB) AT A-A-D-B Adverbial of PLACE EXAMPLE IX++(man at AADB) 

MAN TELL^ME 6 [moves C’s thumb to read number better]… [overlap] // 

C: [dm: Uh-huh] 

D: …THOUSAND FIVE-HUNDRED+++++ DETERMINER Quantity// YOU 

DROPPED-IN-PRICE WIDE-EYED 

C: HEY/ WITH(emph) MANNER It comes how? // COME WITH KEYBOARD 

MANNER It comes how? YES+++ OVER 6-THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED Determiner 

YES++ MEAN ALONE++++++ MANNER [WELL]// BRAILLE ALONE+++++ 

MANNER 3-THOUSAND 7-HUNDRED // Determiner 

D: NO++++ / PRO1 REMEMBER IX(man at AABD) MAN PRO1 ASK(man) 

HOW^MUCH PRICE BOX ONE CL:CbCb “small thin tty” NAME++ K-R-O-W-N 

BRAILLE T-T-Y PRO1 ASK(man) SCREEN? GOOD? 6 [twists wrist to reposition C] 

6+++++++ THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED Determiner 

// PRO1 LOOK-AT(man) SHOCK DEGREE/EXTENT How shocked? 

// PRO1 TELL(man) PRO1 FEEL++++/++ ONE-MORE ADD LIKE S-P-E-E-D 

CONTROL LIST-OF-SPECIFIC-THINGS PRO1 WILL THINK-ABOUT BUY(tty) 

BUT WELL-NOT-SURE /// YOU 3-THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED YOU PRO1 

CURIOUS YOU++ 3-THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED DOLLARS THINK #IF YOUR 

BRAILLE MUST PAY-FOR WITH OTHER COMPUTER QUESTION-wg NONE 

C: NONE Adv MANNER/DEGREE 

D: THAT ONLY-ONE? Adj.? Adv? MANNER/DEGREE?? 

C: ONLY-ONE / ONLY-ONE Adv-Frequency 

MONITOR-SCREEN BRAILLE++ THAT’S-ALL Adv Time. 

D: WHERE PHONE CL:Y“put down phone handset” WHERE WELL? /// [waits for 

response] PHONE SUPPOSE YOU SUPPOSE PRO1+++ CALL YOU(stressed) // 

PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) HOW YOU YOU HOW KNOW YOU WELL? 

97



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C: 3 // KEYBOARD CL:1”plug in back of keyboard”/ PUT-IN(back of braille display) 

BRAILLE PUT-IN(put in back of braille display)YES++ // 2 / / PUT-IN(back of braille 

display) / PUT-IN(back of keyboard) YES++++++++ 

D: WAVE SUPPOSE PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) // MEAN PHONE RING CL:Y 

“phone handset taken off hook and placed down” #WHERE WELL? 

C: makes a point to repeat the information on how to connect the phone line. I noticed 

also that he holds the final segments longer than a sighted person might. 

C: OH-I-SEE HOLD-ON[dm] PRO-1+++ 2 GET NEW C-BR-(false start) UMM 

PHONE(false start?) B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H-O-N-E TWO / IX-lf IX-rt CL:Y“put down 

phone handset on -rt” K-R-O-W-N CL:Y“put down phone handset on -rt”YES+++ 

Note: it seems clear that C is using YES+++… to indicate assertion. Whereas sighted 

Deaf use a non-manual head nod for assertion, C uses the manual sign YES to show it. 

C: SEPARATE verb? #IF PRO-1 CL:(remove cord from tty-lf) CL:(insert cord into ttyrt) 

PHONE(handset) LEAVE -lf IX-lf+++ / CL:Y“phone handset on -rt” LEAVE –lf / 

IX-rt EMPTY STILL WORK++ Adv. Duration 

STILL WORK++ Adv. Duration 

D: YOU MEAN CL:Y “handset [Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] 

CL:? “cord runs from ?? and plugs into the Krown” K-R-O-W-N FINISH(that’s all)? 

C: YES+ 

D: WHEN PRO1CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) Adverb - Time YOU [held] /// YOU 

WALK-OVER-TO(the phone) CL:Y “pick up the handset from the cradle and set it 

down” #OR #WHAT WELL? 

C: K-R-O-W-N / IX-lf WILL^SHOW-you DON’T^HAVE-TO++ CL:Y“move handset 

from –lf to –rt”/ LEAVE BECAUSE Conj? CONNECT #WIRE IX-lf CL: “wire moved 

to –rt” FROM //(interrupted) B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H-O-N-E CL: “wire moved to –rt” 

Adverbial - Location 

D: OH-I-SEE 

C: B-RA-I-L-L-E- P-H-O-N-E 

D: WAVE[dm] BRAILLE?[emph meaning ‘Braille-what?’ asking for clarification] 

C: WAVE[dm] B-R-A-I-L-L-E[overlap] 

D: B-R-A-I-L-L-E[overlap]… NEXT-THING Adverb - Time IX-(C’s hand)[dm asking 

for repetition of the next word C had spelled] 

C: /// THOUGHT^DISAPPEAR /// THOUGHT-DISAPPEAR WAIT-A-MINUTE 

D: T- H- YOU SAY BRAILLE NEXT-THING… 

C: [interrupts]WAVE-HEY B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H-O-N-E(slower)… [overlap] 

D: #OH #OH THAT 

C: …PHONE+++ CL:Y“phone handset on top of machine -lf”IX-lf+++++ 

LEAVE(emph) / Just looks like emphasis. PRO-1 ICL:(remove cord from tty-lf) 

ICL:(insert cord into tty-rt) // PHONE(false start) IX-lf ALARM TYPE STILL / 

[overlap] Adv. Duration 

D: OH-I-SEE(emph)++ 

C: …YOU HAVE LEAVE –lf LEAVE-lf WITH 2 WELL 

98



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D: HOW YOU KNOW PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) / WHERE YOU FEEL BOX 

RING HOW YOU FEEL 

C: PAGER++++ SHAKE VIBRATE[overlap] 

D: [dm gesture “tell me more”] 

C: V-I-B-R-A-T-O-R / 

D: OH -I-SEE++++++ 

C: NAME++ S-I-L-E-N-T-C-A-L-L /// 

D: YES+++ YOU BUY [false start] PAGER IX-pager FROM NATIONAL F-L-A-S-H 

Adv. Location THAT++ YOU 

C: WAVE-NO / OLD IX-high-lf R-R-(city sign name) R-R-(city sign name) #MICH // 

NAME++ COMPANY S-I-L-E-N-T-C-A-L-L 

D: YES+++++ 

C: NAME V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L /// 

D: YES++ REMEMBER YES++++ 

C: 8-HUNDRED++ LOWERED 4-HUNDRED++++ LESS 4-HUNDRED++ MAYBE 

Modal/Aux PRO-1 GET++ BREAK SEND-AWAY GET++ NEW++ 

D: YOU V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L FOR PHONE RING ONLY Adverbial – Purpose 

QUESTION 

C: PHONE++ AND DOOR++^BUTTON DOOR++ … 

D: [false start] 

C: …FIRE 

D: PRO1 CL:II “cord” CL:II “cord” IX-down(tty) / NONE CL:II “cord” 

C: NONE+++++ 

D: REALLY / MEAN VIBRACALL HOW YOU EXPLAIN PRO1 ONE MORE 

ABOUT V-I-B-R-A / C-A-L-L // MEAN THAT PAGER CL:Cc “pager unit put on 

pants” /// YOU UMM OTHER CL:LL “small box” CL:C “box mounted on the CL: 

‘door’” ON DOOR // OTHER [interrupted]… 

C: OTHER 

D: …CL: “small box mounted” ON PHONE Adverbial - Location 

C: YES++++ RIGHT(interrupted) 

D: NONE WIRE / NONE 

C: WAVE-ATTENTION PHONE++ CL:FF[false start] CL:1“box outline” CL:1“wire 

runs over to jack and plugs in” J-A-C-K-S // THIS Pronoun 

FOR PHONE+++ ALARM+++ CL:1“box outline”/// [moves under D’s hands] CL:1“box 

outline-lf” FINISH / CL:o “cord runs over to jack-rt” J-A-C-K-S 

D: YES++ 

C: CL: LL”signer” #IF PUSH-BUTTON MAKE STILL Adverb – Duration LIVE 

VIBRATING-ALARM+++ THAT 

D: WHAT ABOUT DOOR+++ 

C: YES++ CL:BB“flat surface of the inside of the door” CL: C“signaling box mounted 

on the inside of the door” CL:o“small clip? on top of the signaling box” CL:C“clamped 

onto the edge of the door” FINISH(that’s all) YES+++ 

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D: WIRE 

C: WAVE-NO NONE+++++ 

D: REALLY? 

C: YES++++ // BETTER // CL:C“signal box on the door”AND / CL:C“clamped onto the 

edge of the door”ALARM—[interrupted] 

D: INSIDE DOOR // KNOW DOOR++ OUTSIDE-OF-THE-DOOR++++ Adverbial – 

Location Note: (subject combines the signs OUTSIDE with the CL for the door) 

C: OUTSIDE+++ Adverbial - Location 

D: OUTSIDE-THE-DOOR Adverbial - Location PUT(next to the door) verb 

DOORBELL++ // OR[gesture] PUT(inside next to the door) PUT-THERE QUESTIONwg 

C: OUTSIDE(emph) Adverbial - Location / PRO-1++ CL:BB“door frame on right and 

left” / DOOR / CL: “door surface in front of me”/ CL:B-lf “door jam on my left” CL:C-rt 

“box mounted on the door jam on the left” // DOOR CL: “door surface in front of me” 

CL:B-lf “door jam on my left”/ CL: “large door surface in front of me”/ CL:B-lf “door 

jam on my left”/ DOOR CL: “door surface in front of me” CL:B-lf “door jam on my 

left”/ CL:C-rt “box mounted on the door jam on the left”// YES++ // TAPE(mounted on 

the door jam) 

V-E-L-C-R-O—WAVE-NO CL:C “mounted box”FINISH(ok then) TAPE(mounted on 

the door jam) S—[false start] T-I-N CL:C “mounted signal box”SCREW++++ 

BECAUSE HOT / WHY-rhq DOOR—[interrupted] 

D: ON(emph) DOOR Adverbial - Location // #OR / CL:B-lf “door” CL:c-lf “flat wire 

goes up the left side of the door, across the top, and down the right side” CL:C-rt “signal 

box mounted on the left” ON(emph) DOOR Adverbial - Location 

C: DOOR / WAVE-NO++++ CL:B-lf “door jam on my left” CL:C “the board that goes 

down” S-I-D-E CL:C “the board that goes down”/ DOOR CL:B-rt “the edge of the door 

meeting the jam, and the door swings open out to the right”++++ // D-O-O-R CL:B-rt 

“the edge of the door meeting the CL:B ‘jam’, and the door swings open out to the right” 

CL:c “mounted box on the CL:B ‘door jam’” IX(here, on the jam)+++ // CL:B-lf “door 

jam extends out far to the left” BUILDING CL:BB “walls extend out to the left and 

right” / CL:BB “doorway is here”/ DOOR / CL:C “mounted box on the CL:B ‘door 

jam’” IX(here on the jam)++ Adverbial - Location CL:C “mounted box high up on the 

CL:B ‘door jam’” HIGH CL:C “mounted box high up on the CL:B ‘door jam’”… 

C: …CL:3bent “securely This is a CL. We said we weren’t doing Cls mounted box on the 

CL:B ‘door jam’” 1-HUNDRED Det MORE++ 

T-I-N CL:C “securely This is a CL. mounted box on the CL:B ‘door jam’” 

STRONG(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree /// 

D: YOU MEAN [takes C’s other hand for clarity] CL:BB “walls extend out to the left 

and right” / CL:BB “doorway is here”/ DOOR(opens to the right) CL:c “mounted box on 

the CL:B ‘door jam’” 

C: YES+++(back channel) 

D: HOLD-ON HOW PEOPLE PUSH-DOORBELL[held] / YOU PAGER 

100



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C: SIGNAL-RECEIVED STRONG(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree UMM LIMIT 

100 M-I-L-E—NO-WAIT 100 F-E-E-T // FINISH Degree LIMIT 100 Det. F-E-E-T 

WELL(discourse marker) ?? // …[overlap] 

D: YOU[overlap]… 

C: …GOOD Adverbial – Manner WORK++ GOOD(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

/// Let me explain why these two are different… GOOD tells how it worked but 

GOOD[emph] tells to what degree it worked GOOD. There’s an added element with the 

[emph] 

D: YES++YOU [hesitation] SUPPOSE++++ YOU YOUR DOOR++ CL:C “Doorbell 

signaler mounted outside” … 

C: YES++ 

D: …OUTSIDE+++ Adverb – Location YOU DOOR CL:C “Doorbell signaler mounted 

there” RIGHT? 

C: YES++++ 

D: RAIN+++ CL:B “rain run down onto the signaler” WHICH HURT WELL? 

C: PRO1+++ CL:BBbent “roof over the entance”// YOU CAN COVER MAYBE 

BETTER WARN++ BECAUSE Conj.? HAVE H-O-L-E CL:F “thin gap” [made on D’s 

CL:B ‘wall’” A-I-R CL:5 “wind blowing through hole” CL WEATHER RAIN++ 

MAYBE / BETTER Modal CL: Bbent “small roof to shelter the box”ALSO Conj - ? A- 

W-N-I-N-G SMALL CL:Bbent “awning draped over CL:Bbent ‘place where box is’” // 

BETTER Degree 

D: REASON PRO1 ASK-FAVOR YOU BECAUSE MINE++++ CL:BB “walls come in 

from both sides with doorway coming in” TWO DOOR++ CL:B “door to the outside” 

CL:B “door on the inside” … 

C: YES+++ 

D: … IX”door on the inside” CL:B “inside door” WOOD DOOR CL:B “inside door 

opens in to the right”++ CL:B “outside door” I-R-O-N … 

C: YES+++ 

D: B-A-R-S CL:4 “iron bars coming down” WITH GLASS CL:B “surface of glass on 

the door” CL:BB “outside door opening out to the right” CL:BB “inside door opening in 

to the right” … 

C: YES 

D: …HAVE MINE DOORBELL(on your right of the outside door) OUTSIDE-THE- 

DOOR // CL: B “outside door” CL:B “inside door” IX(here on your right of trim of the 

outside door)++++++++ // RAIN++ CL:5 “rain runs down the trim and across the 

doorbell” HURT QUESTION 

101



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C: GOOD QUESTION ABOUT RAIN++ YES++ HAVE CL:01 “small gap” LITTLE- 

BIT Degree YES++ CL:F “thin gap” [made on D’s CL:B ‘wall’ and Cb ‘about 1 inch 

wide’” CL:4 “rain can go into the gap” INSIDE Adverb – Location 

CL:01 “small gap” SMALL++ RAIN INSIDE Adverb – Location YES++++ // 

BETTER Degree COVER-OVER A-W-N-I-N-G SMALL+++ CL:Bbent “awning draped 

over CL:Bbent ‘place where box is’”// (takes D’s rt-hand, D’s hand represents the box. 

C’s rt-hand represents awning.) PUT(over the box, to shelter it.) WELL 

D: INTERESTING // YOU CURIOUS V-I-B-R-A C-A-L-L YOU [false start and 

hesitation] INSIDE B-A-T-T-E-R-Y #OR WHAT 

C: B-A-T-T-E-R-Y B-A-T-T-E-R-Y SPECIAL POSS++(Silent Call) S-I-L-E-N-T 

C-A-L-L POSS++(Silent Call) SPECIAL LONG(emph) Adverb – Extent DON’T USE 

V-O-L-T 9+++++ WAVE-NO // V-O-L-T 9 FOR CL:C “mounted box on the CL:B 

‘door jam’”DOOR++ CL:C “box mounted on wall” PHONE+++ CL:Lbent “phone 

signaler”/ TWO FINISH(that’s all) Adverb – Manner/Degree // PAGER++ … 

C: PRO1 HAVE++ PRO1 PAGER IX(left)++ SUITCASE HAVE INSIDE Adverb – 

Location IX(left) WHERE POSS1 SUITCASE (looking around) 

D: SHOW-ME PRO1 LATER Adverb – Time YOU CURIOUS YOU [hesitation] 

YOU++ HAVE THREE[emph] RIGHT V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L INCLUDED? // 

THREE++ / FIRST PAGER SECOND-IN-LIST DOOR CL: C “door signaler attached to 

the CL:B ‘wall’” / THIRD-IN-LIST PHONE CL:C “phone signaler with CL:Lb “wire 

coming from signaler” TO K-R-O-W-N THEN …?… RIGHT? 

C: ONE CALLED J-A-C-K-S CL:X “plug into jack” 

D: [interrupts] THAT #OK WHAT IX-“the thing just referred to” 

C: THAT / CL:CCbaby “small box-like object” CL: 1“plug into CL:B ‘flat surface’” 

PHONE ++++ CL: 1“plug into CL:B ‘flat surface’” /// 

D: YOU MEAN PHONE / CL:BB “box-shape of phone” PHONE-DIAL 

CL: 1“plugs into back of phone” 

C: WAVE-NO++++ J-A-C-K-S W-A-L-L CL:BB “wall surface” W-A-L-L-S CL:BB 

“wall surface” CORNER CALLED J-A-C-K-S 

D: YES++[tap on C’s leg] YES+++ 

C: THREE THAT / PLUG-INTO CL:1 “wire goes around over to the table” TABLE / 

WHERE Adverb – Location PUTa,b,c,… Locative Verb LEAVE-IN-THAT-PLACE 

Locative Verb /// NOT USE IX-lf(control unit?) WAVE-NO UNTIL YOU FEEL++ 

Adverbial - Duration / SEE #IF PAGER STILL Adverb - Duration WORK // PUSH- 

BUTTON(on phone transmitter) KEEP+++ UNTIL GOOD PUSH-BUTTON(on phone 

transmitter)++ Adverbial - Duration / DEAD // SAME-AS CL:C “mounted box on the 

CL:B ‘door jam’”// PUSH-BUTTON(on doorbell transmitter)++++ DEAD / 

CHANGE(battery) IX(doorbell)++ V-O-L-T 9++++ // IX(phone transmitter) V-O-L-T 

9++ CHEAP / PAGER EXPENSIVE(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree / EXPENSIVE 

Transcriber Note: I see when D and C want to emphasize certain things, the last segment 

of the sign is held for a longer time. For example see: D: CL: 1“plugs into back of 

phone” or C: EXPENSIVE(emph) 

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D: YES++ MASS YOU THREE LIST-OF-THREE THIS(first) PAGER / THIS(second) 

DOOR++ / THIS(Third) PHONE PLUS CL:CbCb “small box” ALL-TOGETHER 

FOUR? 

C: TWO / IX(D’s finger) IX(ceiling) Adverb - Location W-A-L-L WAVE- 

NO[simultaneous with shaking D’s hand side-to-side] C-E-I-L-I-N-G BREAK // C-E-I- 

L-I-N-G / CL:CC “fire alarm” IX(up on ceiling) Adverb - Location CL:BB “fire alarm 

mounted on ceiling” FIRE ALARM // WAVE PUSH-BUTTON(on D’s index, middle, 

ring, and little fingers)++++ verb - Location / SHOW-YOU // FOUR(emph) PUSH- 

BUTTON(on D’s index,middle, ring, little fingers) verb – Location, Loc, Loc, Loc / 

UMM PUSH-BUTTON(first button)++++verb - Location FIRE / PUSH- 

BUTTON(second) verb - Location DOOR / PUSH-BUTTON(third) verb - Location / 

PHONE PUSH-BUTTON(fourth)++ verb - Location WELL(doubtful) NECESSARY 

WELL E-X-T-R-A 

D: YOU #OK YOU CL:C “fire alarm mounted on CL:B ‘ceiling’” HAVE 

C: NO++++ NONE+++… 

D: NONE!? 

C: YES TWO(emph)++ BATTERY CL:HH “2 batteries lying side by side” // BUT 

BROKE / BROKE / PAGER ALARM MEAN WAITING-LONG-TIME W-A-[false 

start] NO-WAIT V-R IX(VR) FORGET FORGET FORGET NEED NEW CL:C “fire 

alarm” S-A-F-E 

D: YOU CL:C “fire alarm mounted on CL:B ‘ceiling’” FINISH(that’s all) Adverb – 

Manner/Degree NONE CL:II “cord coming down” 

C: NONE++ 

D: INTERESTING(emph) Adverb – Manner/Degree IX(second one/doorbell) 

DOOR++++ CL:C “mounted box on the CL:B ‘flat surface”// NONE CORD(from CL:B 

“down the wall”) 

C: NONE++++ 

D: PHONE YES++ ONLY PLUG-INTO(phone) Adverb – Manner/Degree CONNECT 

PHONE CL:Ob “cord runs from phone over to tty) PLUG-INTO(tty) TTY FINISH(that’s 

all) ? Adverb – Time. 

C: YOU[false start] WAVE UMM / PHONE WAVE-NO TOUCH(phone) NONE++ 

P-H-O-N-E CL:1 “cord runs over to the wall jack” PLUG-IN-JACK W-A-L-L 

W-A-L-L CL:1 “cord runs down and under then into the wall jack” // CL:BB “wall” 

CL:C “jack mounted on the wall” W-A-L-L PLUG-IN-JACK // CL:Ob “cord from the 

wall jack runs over to CL:LL ‘small control box’” TABLE // SMALL CL:L drawing 

outline on D’s hand “signaler box is about this big / PUSH-BUTTON(in the middle of 

signaler box)” ALARM-RING VIBRATION FEEL S-A-F-E STILL Adverb – Duration 

ALIVE BATTERY /// 

D: PRO1 CURIOUS YOU-[false start] …?… YOU KNOW PRO1 HAVE TWO HOUSE 

MATE++++ LIVE IN MY HOUSE … 

C: YES++[shake] 

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D: …THREE-OF-US / #OK / OK-THEN TWO-OF-THEM DEAF // CAN SEE TWO- 

OF-THEM // PRO1 DEAF^BLIND MEAN PRO1 SUPPOSE PRO1 BUY V-I-B-R-A 

C-A-L-L FINISH Adverb – Time / SET-UP(in different places) FINISH Adverb – Time / 

PUT-ON-PAGER / SUPPOSE CL”1 “person comes up to CL: B “door” PUSH- 

DOORBELL++++ WILL TWO-OF-THEM KNOW LIGHT FLASH++++ QUESTION 

C: NONE++ 

D: NONE / MEAN MUST BUY TWO SEPARATE[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree 

(So, you mean I’d have to buy two separate systems) 

C: YES BUY /// YOU NEED WRITE-LIST SEND(to Silent Call) TO 

S-I-L-E-N-T ASK(multiple) ABOUT MORE++ TWO E-X-T-R-A?? TWO-OR-THREE 

CONNECTED // YES FOR FLASHER THAT // WELL // CAN ASK-lf(silent call) 

REQUEST-lf(from silent call) S-I-L-E-N-T C-A-L-L COMPANY IX-lf(Silent Call) /// 

D: OH-I-SEE+++ PRO1 WANT TO UH PRO1 WANT SET-UP SYSTEM[emph] SET- 

UP(in different places)+++ FINISH Adverb – Time THEN Adverb – Time UH ONE 

FOR FLASH+++ OTHER WHEN ANY PERSON PUSH-DOORBELL Adverbial – 

Time LIGHT FLASH+++ SAME TIME MY PAGER-GOES-OFF+++ Adverbial – Time 

SAME TIME Adverbial – Time WANT-wg++++[overlap] 

C: YES++++++[overlapping with D] +++++ ASK-lf(Silent Call) IX-lf(Silent Call) 

CAN(emph) 

D: YOU NAME COMAPANY AGAIN Adverb – Freq YOU 

C: S- SILENT C-A-L-L 

D: IN / WHERE? 

C: R-O-C-H-E-S-T-E-R #MICH Adverbial – Location 

D: YES THAT WHERE LEADER #DOG PROGRAM IX-front/ctr (Rochester MI) 

C: YES++++++++[overlapping] 

D: OH-I-SEE+++++[overlapping] 

C: / PRO1 SLEEP / UMM /// REMEMBER STUCK 

D: YOU KNOW K-E-I-T-H M-C-G-R-E-G-O-R YOU?… 

C: YES++++++ 

D: KNOW YOU? 

C: WAVE-NO 

D: K-E-[hesitates, lowers hand] …THINK K-E-I-T-H… 

C: [overlap ‘nodding++++++’backchannel] 

D: …-M-C-G-R-E-G-O-R // IX(Keith) MAN[false start] HEARING MAN WHO TRAIN 

DEAF^BLIND PEOPLE WITH #DOG LEADER #DOGS 

C: YES+++++ 

D: YOU FINISH Adverb - Time MEET K-E-I-T-H? 

C: NO++++++ 

D: IX-rt(Keith) GO GO TO A-A-B-D MEETING GO GO GO 

104



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C: YES++ / PRO1 J-A-N-E NAME J-A-N-E-T J-A-N-E-T IX-high/center(Janet) 

DONATE(to me)+++ WORTH TEN THOUSAND PRO1 NO+++ V-R WILL NOT 

PAY(me) PRO1++ MONEY NO+++ PRO1 GIVE-UP NO+++ PRO1 GIVE-UP // TEN 

THOUSAND BUT NEW-YORK BIG FREE // WELL 

D: NO++ YOU MEAN LEADER #DOG MEAN YOU? 

C: YES++ NEW-YORK++ FREE / WHY(rh) … 

D: NO++[C drops attention] 

C: …MONEY DONATE-alt hands(to the db)+++ MONEY A-LOT IX-high center(New 

York) 

D: NO++ IN #MICH FREE // FREE YES++++++[overlap] 

C: YES+++[overlap] #MICH YES++++ 

D: YES++ FREE ONLY Adverbial – Manner/Degree YOU PAY-OUT-OF-POCKET 

FLIGHT FINISH(that’s all) Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

C: YES++++[unattended to] 

D: TO SLEEP FOOD TRAINING PLUS #DO INCLUDE FREE(emph) Adverb – 

Manner/Degree 

C: YES++++ PRO1 MONEY WELL / PRO1 MONEY WELL[overlapping] 

D: …YOU FINISH #DOG WELL?[overlapping] 

C: PRO1 NO+++ NOT-YET++ Adverb – Time / YOU++? 

D: PRO1 YES++ WHEN PRO1 RETIRE Adverb – Time PRO1 WILL BUY(dog) 

YES+++ 

C: BUY P-O-N-Y 

D: NO++++ HA-HA+++ 

C: TRAIN++++ P-O-N-Y 

D: YES+++++++ BUT DEFECATE+++ IN HOUSE OUTRAGED PRO1 

C: TEACH(the pony)++ BETTER Adverbial – Manner/Degree C-L-Y-D-E-S-D-A-L-E 

D: IX-C’s hand(what did you sign)? 

C: C-L-Y-D-E-S-D-A-L-E 

D: WHO THAT IX-clydesdale ? 

C: BIG!(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree BROWN REMEMBER HORSE+++++ 

KNOW BIG!(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

D: #OH! OH+++++ 

C: THAT NAME C-L-Y-D-E-S-D-A-L-E BIG!(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

[overlapppng]… WOW Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

D: …#HA-HA+++++++[overlapping]/ PRO1+++ WILL // YOU KNOW H-A-R-R-Y A- 

N-D-E-R-S-O-N HAVE NEW++ If this means more than just new it’s - Adverbial – 

Manner/Degree GUIDE DOG 

C: AGAIN Adverb – Freq // OLD[overlap]… 

D: WELL FINISH[overlap] 

C: …R-O-C-K-Y? 

D: OLD / FINISH Adverbial – Time RETIRE QUOTE RETIRE[overlap]… 

C: YES+++++++[overlap] 

105



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D: …BUT H-A-R-R-Y KEEP(Rocky) 

H-A-R-R-Y / R-O-C-K-Y STAY BUT BECOME YOUR GUIDE NO-MORE Adverbial 

– Duration // THEN[false start] #SO HARRY IX-lf-ctr(Harry) / YOU KNOW ROCKY 

OLD^11 OLD^11++++++ 

C: DON’T-KNOW / GOOD UP-TO-LIMIT 15 Adverbial – Duration UP-TO-LIMIT 15 

tells to what degree/. BIG! tells to what degree. 

D: [hesitation] FOR GUIDE-AROUND UP-TO-LIMIT 10… Adverbial – Duration 

C: OH-I-SEE 

D: … AGE^11 12 13 ?[false start] UM START UM QUOTE OLD[signed slowly] 

START FORGET FORGET FORGET 

C: YES++++++ 

D: …#SO PHOOEY ENOUGH Adverbial – Manner/Degree ADD-ON 11 ENOUGH 

Adverbial – Manner/Degree THEN Adverbial – Time GO GET TRAINING GET NEW 

#DOG // PRO1 FINISH Adverbial – Time MEET 3-WEEKSÂGO Adverbial – Time // 

PRO1 PET(dog) (it)LICK(my hand) // BIG BIG Adverbial – Manner/Degree / THIS- 

HIGH / STRONG(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree / NICE / TWO BLOOD++ MESH 

TWO-IN-LIST G-O-L-D…G-O-L-D #OR G-O-L-D-E-N O-L[false start] FORGET 

STARTS-WITH-R GOLD R-SOMETHING… 

C: [touches hand to interrupt] R-… 

D: GOLD G-O-L-D-E-N R-E-T-R-I-E-V-E-R[overlap]… 

C: YES++++[overlap] 

D: MATCH WITH YELLOW L-A-B YELLOW L-A-B[overlap] 

C: WOW[overlap] 

C: NO(“head shake”) 

D: REALLY NICE(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree PRO1 LOOK-AT-dwn lf(dog) // 

H-A-R-R-Y EXPLAIN+++ HOW^MUCH THAT #DOG HELP IX(Harry) WOW! 

LONG-LIST / PRO1 LOOK-AT(dog) PRO1 MULL-OVER PRO1 WILL GO TO 

#MICH AFTER PRO1 RETIRE Adverbial – Time PRO1 WILL^GO(to Mich) #DOG 

BECAUSE PRO1 WILL^MAYBE COMMUTE-BACK-AND-FORTH NEED #DOG 

TO HELP PRO1 WALK FROM HOME Adverbial – Place TO A-A-D-B 

HOMEÔFFICE Adverbial – Place HELP++ J-A-M-I-E WITH CALL-BY- 

TTY(different places)+++ WELLÎ-DON’T-KNOW // PRO1 THINK NICE Adverbial – 

Manner/Degree PRO1 ?? #DOG GUIDE-AROUND GO-DOWN-UNDER SUBWAY 

WELL 

C: TRAIN TRAIN TRAIN(response) 

D: THREE THREE-WEEKS FINISH (That’s all) Adverbial – Manner/Degree / 

THREE[overlap]… 

C: YES+++++[overlap] 

D: …THREE-WEEKS / THREE THREE-WEEKS Adverbial -TimeTHAT’S-ALL 

Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

C: WHEN RETIRE YOU 

D: I-DON’T-KNOW(emph) 

106



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C: NEXT-YEAR(emph) Adverbial – Time 

D: NO++ REALLY Adverbial – Manner/Degree PRO1 CAN(emp?) BECOME E-L-I-G- 

I-B-L-E NEXT-YEAR BUT PRO1 NOT READY // MAYBE FOUR MORE YEAR 

FOUR / YEAR / FOUR 

C: WELL UM 

D: BECAUSE PRO1 DON’T WANT TO RETIRE #TOO Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

EARLY[emph] Adverbial – Manner/Degree YOUNG #OR #TOO Adverbial – 

Manner/Degree OLD WELL-DOUBT NOW Adverbial – Time PRO1 59+++++ [checks 

for clarification] 

C: YES++[unattended]++++[attended] 59[affirms understanding]++ 

D: PRO1 PREDICT PRO1 RETIRE 6[hold] 3 #or 6-4 

C: FUTURE!(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree WOW Adverbial – Manner/Degree // 

PRO1 … 

D: WELL 3 / 4 

C: PRO1 69 69 69 

D: YES++++ KNOW^THAT YOU #SEPT 6++++ 1933 

C: YES+++++++ 

D: WELL 

C: 9-6-33 BORN 9-6-33 9-6-33(slower) Adverbial – Time 

D: YES++++ // YOU / YOU NO-MATTER / YOU DON’T-WANT #DOG / YOU 

DON’T-WANT #DOG 

C: PRO1 STILL Adverbial – Time MULL-OVER BECAUSE Adverbial – Purpose 

PRO1[overlap]… 

D: WHY[overlap] 

C: …ALONE WANT ACCOMPANY-EVERYWHERE [overlap] … 

D: YES++++++++[overlap] 

C: …#DOG MULL-OVER 

D: PRO1 THINK #DOG WILL HELP YOU SOCIALIZE PLAY[continuous] / YOU 

KNOW^THAT PRO1 HAVE TWO #DOG IN MY HOUSE Adverbial – Location PRO1 

HAVE TWO[hold] [checks for understanding] 

C: TWO(held long) [signaling understanding] 

D: WIFE POSS-lf(wife) M-O-N-I-C-A’S 

C: OH-I-SEE 

D: IX-lf(Monica) LIVE IN MY HOUSE Adverbial – Place 

C: OH-I-SEE STILL Adverb – Time 

D: YES++++ BUT NOT TWO-OF-US TOGETHER NO+++++ TWO-OF-US BECOME 

GOOD FRIENDS FINISH(that’s all)[osc] Adverb – Manner/Degree // 

NO-MATTER[overlap]… 

C: YES+++++(unattended to) 

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D: IX-lf(Monica) HAVE TWO #DOGS // HAVE MINE ENJOY SIT READ READ- 

BRAILLE[interative?] #DOG …?… CL:V-bent “dog comes and sits on my lap” POSS 

HEAD CL:S “head draped over my leg” PRO1 PET(dog)++++ …?… PLAY WITH 

Adverb – Manner/Degree DOG PRO1 GET THROW #BALL CL:CC “ball” THROW(lf) 

IX(path out from me) #DOG CL:Vbent “animal running along path” CL:C>O “mouth 

closes to grab ball, pick it up and return to me” PRO1 GET THROW(rt) IX(path far out 

in front of me) Adverb – Place #DOG IX(path out around) PICK-UP / IX(path back to 

me) PLAY[iterative] IX(dog) REALLY Adverb – Manner/Degree ENJOY #DOG 

REALLY Adverb – Manner/Degree CAN KEEP YOU KEEP YOU AND[emph] Adverb 

– Manner/Degree GOOD FOR YOU Adverb – Purpose 

C: CHATTING COMMUNICATION YES++ IMPORTANT COMMUNICATION / 

YES++++ 

D: YOU PRO1 UNDERSTAND THAT YOUR #APT ALLOW YOU TO HAVE 

ROOMMATE… [overlap] 

C: …[tapping yes] #IF #DOG WORK++ LANDLORD LAW WILL [?I don’t have a 

good gloss for this sign] MUST ALLOW(emph) verb /// NONE JUST Adverbial – 

Manner/Degree PET NO++ ONLY Adverbial – Manner/Degree WORK #DOG 

ALLOWED // BECAUSE LAW(emp) A-D-A WOW++++ DM 

D: YES+++++++ PRO1 PRO1 [false start] / PRO1 THINK YOU+++ CAN’T HAVE 

ROOMMATE+++++ IN YOUR #APT RIGHT Adverbial – Place 

C: YES++++++++ 

D: CAN[emph] YOU CAN? 

C: #IF CATHOLIC PRO1 CAN(emph) // DISCUSS-BACK-FORTH CAN(emph) /// 

WE’LL-SEE WELL [overlap] 

D: YOU NEED YOU ONE ROOMMATE YOU NEED++ 

C: (taps ‘yes’) YES++++ // HELP-ME++ [false start]DEAF / HEARING / WHATEVER 

NOT BLIND WAVE-NO++++ // PROBLEM BETTER Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

PRO DRIVE / SEE DRIVE / BETTER Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

D: YES+++++ HOW-MANY ROOM YOUR #APT 

C: PRO1++ REALLY Adverbial – Manner/Degree BED[ROOM] TWO(hold long) / 

PRO1^HAVE TWO-INTO-ONE // CHANGE S-H-O-P / S-H-O-P PRO1 MAKE 

CHAIR++ // S-T-O-O-L-S WEAVING SELL++ ENJOY PRO1 WELL(dm) /// START 

NEAR-FUTURE Adverbial – Time START BUSINESS BUT NEED MOVE-TO 

BIG(emph) Adverbial – Manner/Degree // DON’T-KNOW WHO-KNOWS DON’T- 

KNOW / MULL-OVER / DON’T-KNOW++ Adverb – Frequency 

D: YES+++++++++ HOW YOU YOU++ #IF YOU ROOMMATE MOVE-front(your 

house)[hold] // MEAN YOU CLOSE[hold] S-H-O-P MOVE(shop from there to other 

place) ALLOW OTHER ROOMMATE MOVE(where shop is) #OK? 

C: MAYBE HAVE-TO BUT NEED WORK WEAVING WELL(dm) //[checks for 

feedback] HAVE? MONEY+++ INCREASE+++++ [checks for feedback]… 

D: YES+++ 

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C: …LIKE(emph) PRO1 // GOOD MONEY 600 600 700 700 CHAIR WORTH 

WOW++++ Adverbial – Manner/Degree 

D: YES YOU MAKE LIVING SELL++ SO-FAR Adverbial – Duration 

C: WAVE / NOT-YET+++++++ Adverb – Time START NOT-YET Adverb – Time / 

NOW++ Adverb – Time PRO1 START / IX(store in NC)++ SEND E-M-A-I-L PRO1 

WAIT FOR E-M-A-I-L SEND(to store in NC) TO V-A-S-S #NORTH-CAROLINA 

IX(Vass) Adverbial Place FAMOUS BIG STORE / WEAVING / PRO1 #WWW 

EXPLAIN WITH K-E-N-T IX(Kent) WHAT #WWW EXPLAIN // LIKE LIKE LIKE 

Adverbial – Frequency PUT-IN-LIST PRO1 SEND(to Kent) // BRING-TO-ME / PRO1 

MAKE+++ MAKE(different ones) FAMOUS V-A-S-S FAR!(emph) Adverb – 

Manner/Degree NEAR #SOUTH-CAROLINA #SOUTH-CAROLINA Adverbial – Place 

D: YOU YOU [false start] WEAVE++ NOT-YET Adverb – Time START WEAVE++ 

ALL-ALONG Adverb – Duration 

C: UP-TIL-NOW Adverb – Time (Duration) NONE++++ WHY(rh) PRO1 LOOK- 

FOR++ MY FAVORITE BALTIMORE RITENOFF PRO1 BUY(from Ritenoff)+++++ 

COME(to me) GO-THERE(Ritenoff) TIME PRO1 SEND-TO(Ritenoff) CALL- 

TO(Ritenoff) /// SAY O-W-N-E-R QUIT / SELL OTHER NEW O-W-N-E-R LOOK-AT 

WEAVING / THROW-OUT DON’T-KNOW HOW IX(new owner) THROW-OUT / 

NONE EMPTY // PRO1 DISAPPOINTED GIVE-UP WOOD BUY++++ IX(Baltimore) 

Adverb – Place 

D: NOW Adverb – Time WHERE YOU MEAN MEAN LOOK-FOR OTHER PLACE? 

C: THAT NAME V-A-S-S #NC[interrupts] 

D: V-WHAT? [asks for clarification] 

C: V-A-S-S #N[interrupted] 

D: IN #NC Adverbial – Place 

C: #NC YES+++ / NAME FAMOUS B-A-S-K-E-T W-A-R-E-H-O-U-S-E 

C: PRO1 CHAIR[multiple]+++++ WOMAN O-W-N NAME S-U-Z-A-N-N-E 

M-O-O- R-E IX(Suzanne) // PRO1[interrupted] 

D: YOU PRO1 CURIOUS WHAT KIND YOU HAVE WEAVE / LIKE CHAIR 

SECOND-IN-LIST TABLE WELL ? 

C: DIFFERENT++ YES++++ CHAIR IX[multiple] DIFFERENT+++ YES+++ 

C: PRO1 HAVE 6+++++ HIGH S-T-O-O-L-S PUT(on stools) WEAVING / WAIT TIL 

SIGN-NAME-K[false start] [COMPUTER BRAILLE ARRIVE](cond) Adverbial – 

Duration START ORDER(from NC) GET CL:Cb “strips of caning” C-A-N-I-N-G-S 

GET++++(from NC) WEAVING[multiple] /// PRO1 (Larry)BRING(to me) WITH L-A- 

R-R-Y Adverbial – Place // YOU DON’T-KNOW IX(Larry) CONTINUE[interrupted] L- 

[interrupted] 

D: WHO++ 

109



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 



C: LARRY / YOU DON’T-KNOW / FROM #PA+ Adverbial – Place / LIVE NEAR 

PRO1 Adverbial – Place NOW Adverbial – Time MOVE-AWAY THAT IX(Larry) 

HELP(me) STORY GET PAINT TELL PRO1 PAINT PRETTY C-H-E-R-R-Y 

IX(Larry) IX(pointed to that one) / #OK / PRO1 BRING(home) / …?… CL:B “dip brush 

in stain” CL:B “paint surface” WATER WONDER / CL:B “dip brush in stain” CL:B 

“paint surface” / SMELL(stain) WONDER PHOOEY-ON-IT CL:C “put lid on can” 

CL:S “pounded the lid down” / IX-lf(Kent) CALL-ON #KENT COME-OVER(to the 

shop) SAY NO++ IX-dwn(paint) FOR …?… #STAIN RUB #OFF / PAINT FULL L-A- 

R-R-Y DUMB[emph] L-A-R-R-Y NOT THINK 

L-A-R-R-Y[overlap] 

D: [overlap]#HA-HA // #HA-HA-HA 

C: WANT PAINT? PRO1 DONATE(to you) 

D: NO++++ PRO1 START SMALL BUSINESS++++ PRO1 HAVE SETUP SMALL 

CALLED INTERNET I-N-T-E-R-N-E-T BUSINESS+++++ NOW+++?? Adverb – Time 

[false start] SIGN WITH ONE COMPANY NAME QUOTE Q-U-I-X-T-A-R[held for 

feedback] 

C: YES[shake]++++ 

D: IX(Quixtar) HAVE? FINISH Adverb – Time BUY A FRANCHISE FROM THAT 

COMPANY Adverbial – Place #SO THAT Adverbial – Purpose PRO1 CAN RUN 

POSS1 BUISNESS SELL(different things) DIFFERENT++++++ THINGS LIKE WELL 

LIKE S-E-A-R-S PRO1 CAN SELL #REF MICROWAVE 

C: ADVERTISE WELL? 

D: YES++++++++++++ PRO1 PRO1 NOW PRO1 IX(the business) KNOW IX(the 

business?)+ NEW++++ Adverb – Manner/Degree BUSINESS GOOD[emph] Adverb – 

Manner/Degree EXPANDING[quickly] Adverb – Manner/Degree // PRO1++++ SIGN 

TO BUY F-R-A-N-C-H-I-S-E #SO PRO1 USE POSS #WWW[hold for feedback]… 

Adverbial – Purpose 


D: TO SELL ADVERTISE[false start?] ORDER ORDER ORDER ORDER THEN 

Adverb – Time PRO1 SIGN++ WITH POSS1 9+++++ ASSISTANT PRO1 TRY 

TEACH(assistants)++ HOW TO RUN+++ BUSINESS+++ DO-THINGS NOW Adverb 

– Time PRO1 GIVE TRAINING LEARN(various things)+++++++++ PRO1 REALLY 

Adverb – Manner/Degree ENJOY PRO1 JOIN THAT BUSINESS WORLD ] 3- 

MONTHS-AGO[hold] Adverbial – Time // 3 MONTHS[hold] ] Adverbial – Time 


D: PRO1 LEARN FROM MY FRIEND Adverbial – Purpose IX(friend) EXPLAIN / 

PRO1 LOOK-AT(idea) FASCINATED PRO1 DECIDE JOIN #SO PRO1 

BUY(business) F-R-A-N-C-H-I-S-E[hold] 

C: YES++ 

D: THEN Adverb – Time NOW Adverb – Time SAME[false start] PRO1 SATISFIED 

THAT SMALL BUSINESS NOW+++++ Adverb – Time // PRO1 MAYBE EXPLAIN 

YOU LATER Adverb – Time WELL 

110



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 



C: GOOD[emp] Adverb – Manner/Degree YES++++ TAKE-CARE BUSINESS ENJOY 

/ LOOKING-AROUND-BORED WELL 

D: YES+++++++++[overlap] 

C: YES++[overlap] 

D: YOU YOU++ THINK YOU WILL YOU STAY IN W-H-E-A-T-O-N? Adverbial – 

Place 

C: YES+++[unattended]++++ / MONEY FINE-wg Adverb – Manner/Degree GET- 

GOVERNMENT-INCOME PAY NONE WELL 

D: PAY NONE[emph/hold]? Adverb – Manner/Degree ALL-ALONG Adverb – 

Duration YOU 

C: PAY NONE[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree ELECTRIC WATER ALL-THOSE-IN- 

LIST Adverb – Purpose NONE[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree 

D: #ALL Adverb – Manner/Degree FREE / #ALL[overlap] Adverb – Duration 

C: YES++[overlap] ALL[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree FREE YES++++++ 

D: YOU BETTER STAY 

C: YES+++++ MULL-OVER POSSIBLE CLOSE-TO STORE Adverbial – Place GOOD 

M-A-L-L IX-lf / YOU KNOW WHERE MY M-A-L-L IX-lf 

D: NAME++ 

C: C-[false start] WOODS? P-L-A-Z-A M-A-L-L WOODS? W-H-E-A-T-O-N / 

PRO1++++ MY++++ #APT CL:1 “road near the apt” /[overlap]… 

D: YES+++++++ 

C: …A-M-H-E-R-N CL:1 “road near the apt” NEXT-TO-BEYOND(Amhern) Adverbial 

– Place IX- …?… M-A-L-L IX+++ 

D: YES YOU LIVE IX ALONE+++ 

C: WAVE-NO COMMUNITY PRO1 HAVE TWO[hold] / GIRL++ / HELP++ #SSP // 

EVERY-TWO-WEEKS-BEGINNING-AND-AND-OF-MONTH+++ Adverbial – 

Frequency / GIRL FROM BALTIMORE Adverbial – Place // COME(to my house) 

TAKE(out) STORE++ …?… DOCTOR TO PRO1 #MA #MA M-E-T-R-O A-C-C-E-S- 

S[hold] 

D: YES++++ 

C: FINE-wg Adverb – Manner/Degree PRO1 LIKE #MA 

D: YES++[overlap] 

C: (metro)PROVIDE(to me)[overlap] [interrupted] 

D: YOU CHARGED[unattended]…YOU START USE #MA ALL-ALONG Adverb – 

Duration NOW Adverb – Time 

C: ALL-ALONG Adverb – Duration GOOD[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree 

D: HOW THERE-AND-BACK …?… 

C: K-E-N-T[overlap] 

D: WELL[overlap] 

C: …DROP-OFF / PRO1 HOME #MA / TIME 1:30 Adverb – Time #OR 2:00 TIME 

Adverb – Time IX(Kent) B-I-S-R-T-A NO-WAIT-SEC B-I-S-T-R-N WAVE-NO B-I- 

S-T-R-N… 

111



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D: YES+++ 

C: IX(Kent?) MEET ME EAT++ 

C: …YOU PRO1 IX(Kent) EAT++ MEET[overlap]… 

D: YES+++[unattended] 

C: …YOU …?… #OK 

D: HAVE MEETING …?… 11 [to] 1:10 PRO1 APPOINTMENT AT 1:10 Adverb – 

Time TO PRO1 EXPECT TWO-OF-US(appointment) Adverb – Time FINISH Adverb – 

Time THEN TWO-OF-US(you and I) EAT IX WELL // ANYWAY YOU++ 

YOUR[hesitation] /// FORGOT // YOUR #APT BASEMENT RIGHT? 

C: NONE+++++ BIG[emph] …?… FLOOR[big] …?… FLOOR BIG[emph] Adverb – 

Manner/Degree 

D: YES++ / HOW^MANY ROOMS YOUR #APT? 

C: LIVING-ROOM BIG[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree CL:5 “large area on the left” 

COMPUTER CL:Cb “desk with computer spans length of wall on left” CL:5 “area in 

center” CL:Vb “sofa is left of center”? …?… CL:Vb “chair one here close right of center, 

one here further right of center” IX(further than the chair) #TV #TV BACK Adverb – 

Place #WALL(on right) FOOD TABLE BACK-THERE(rt) Adverb – Place IX(up ahead 

of table” KITCHEN DOWN-HALLWAY(on right) Adverb – Place / IX(up far right) 

Adverb – Place BED[ROOM] IX(path snakes) Adverb – Place [interrupted] 

#TV[unattended] 

D: YES+++[shake] CLEAN(all around)+++ YOURSELF[overlap]… 

C: YES++++[unattended overlap] 

D: …#ALL(whole apt) Adverb – Manner/Degree YOU // [overlap]… 

C: YES+++++++ BATHROOM TWO / BATHROOM TWO / BATH TWO[hold] 

D: OH-I-SEE+++ 

C: BATH TWO 

D: YES+++ 

C: IX-to left / IX-up and to right MY PRIVATE IXthumb-right / IX-to left Adverb – 

Location GENERAL IX-lf 

D: YES++ / YOU HAVE #TV RIGHT #TV #TV #TV[overlap] 

C: YES++++[overlap] 

D: FOR? SOME FRIEND COME(to your house) TO INTERPRET WELL-HOW YOU 

C: YES // COMPANY VISIT LIKE W-SIGN-NAME++ KNOW W-SIGN-NAME++ 

HUSBAND #JOHN WATCH++ #TV W-SIGN-NAME++ CL:Vb “sit DeafBlind style” 

CHAT++ FOUR-HOURS Adverb – Duration #JOHN WATCH++ #TV // SOMETIMES 

Adverb – Frequency (I)VISIT(them) #JOHN WATCH(his TV) PRO CHAT(with W) 

WELL / UNDERSTAND+++ 

D: YES++++ / YOU YOU STILL Adverb – Duration WATCH SOME Adverb – 

Manner/Degree COME(to your house) INTERPRET FOOTBALL GAME / 

BASKETBALL GAME YOU 

C: BEHIND![emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree PRO1 BEHIND![emph] Adverb – 

Manner/Degree / NONE COMPUTER WELL! / BEH—[interrupted] 

112



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D: WANT PRO1 INFORM-YOU+++ 

C: IX(Jim) J-I-M MEASURE TOLD-ME PRESS-KEY A-L-T C-T-L “I” / COME-UP- 

ON-SCREEN FINISH Adverb – Time STAY-THERE …?… ROCKING R-O-C-K-E-R- 

S ROCKING THEN IX-up right U-S-A-T-O-D-A-Y N-E-W-S 

D: OH-I-SEE++ 

C: YOU #WWW PRO1 NOT-HAVE-TO NOT-NECESSARY PRO1 WONDER …?… 

D: YES YES PRO1+++ STILL[emph] Adverb – Duration READ++ #WWW 

AWESOME Adverb – Manner/Degree LOVE-IT WOW Adverb – Manner/Degree PRO1 

READ-THROUGH-A-LOT-OF-THINGS Verb [dm gesture] YESTERDAY Adverb – 

Time M-I-A-M-I DEFEAT CHICAGO BEARS / WELL/OR PAST SUNDAY Adverb – 

Time GREEN-B-A-Y BEAT M-I-N-N // UMM NOW Adverb – Time FIRST-PLACE 

ONE-AND-THREE // NEXT-BELOW PHILADELPHIA IX 25 / KNOW^THAT TWO/ 

8+++ DIFFERENT++ N-F-C HAVE 4 GROUPS(under AFC) OTHER A— 


C: [taps to interrupt]++++ YES++ KNOW^THAT FINISH++ Adverb – Time 

D: YOU KNOW? 

C: YES+++ NOT-KNOW / KNOW++ GROUP SEPARATE++ NEW++ YES++ BUT— 


D: BUT WHO FIRST-PLACE / DON’T-KNOW YOU? 

C: FIRST-PLACE DON’T-KNOW 

D: YOU WANT PRO1 SPELL-OFF(to you) 

C: YES++++ / 

D: M— 

C: GREEN-B-A-Y 

D: START WITH N-F-C 

C: YES+++ 

D: CL:1,4 “four competing for first place” FIRST-OF-FOUR PHILADELPHIA / 

SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW-YORK G[IANTS] / THIRD-OF-FOUR D-A-L-L-A-S / 

FOURTH-OF FOUR WASHINGTON 

C: YES++ 

D: FIRST-OF-FOUR PHILADELPHIA 10-AND-3 / NEW-YORK SECOND-OF-FOUR 7-AND-6 / THAT[dm] / D-A-L-L-A-S 

AND WASHINGTON CL: “thumb down/ lost” 

5-AND-8[held] 5-AND-8 / 

C: SAME 5-AND-8 5-AND-8 

D: YES D-A-L-L-AS[overlap]… 

C: 5-AND-8++ 5-AND-8++ [overlap] 

D: …AND WASHINGTON SAME[overlap] 

C: SAME[overlap] PHOOEY [finger snap gesture “darn it”] 

D: WELL 

C: …HEAVY-COMPETITION[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree BIG-LEAD Adverb – 

Manner/Degree WELL THANKSGIVING[overlap]… 

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D: [dm gesture “yeah that’s them”] YOU WASHINGTON D-A-L-L-A-S STINK PHOOEY(on Dallas) PHILADELPHIA LEAD 

STRONG[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree PHILADELPHIA WOW![emph]++ Adverb – Manner/Degree //10-AND-3 GOOD 

Adverb – Manner/Degree PASSING / RUSHING / DEFENSE / INCLUDE WOW++ Adverb – Manner/Degree BUT name?? 

THROWN-OUT FOR THREE…TWO-OR-THREE TWO-OR-THREE [Transcription note: could not see this sign on video] 

KNOW M-C-N-A-B-B 

C: YES[shake]+++ 

D: …THAT WHO SPRAIN IX(leg) A-N-K-L-E SPRAIN / [dm gesture “so that’s that] FOUR-IN-COMPETITION [dm gesture 

“now as for the other…”] NORTH CALLED 

N-F-C NORTH FIRST-OF-FOUR G[REEN]-B-A-Y 10-AND-3 / SECOND-OF-FOUR 

CHICAGO 3-AND-10? / THIRD-OF-FOUR DETROIT 3-AND-10 / 

C: WOW?[shake]+++ 

D: FOURTH-OF-FOUR #MINN 3-AND-10 // REALLY Adverb – Manner/Degree 

DOWNHILL DIVISION-BETWEEN-FIRST-AND-SECOND-OF-OF-FOUR // FIRST- 

OF-FOUR 10-AND-3 NEXT-ONE-DOWN 3 BACKWARDS 3-AND-10 / 3-AND- 

10(third place team)3-AND-10(fourth place team) 

C: WOW[shake]+++ 

D: BAD Adverb – Manner/DegreeWELL // MOVING-ONTO N-F-C SOUTH++ 

IX(South Division) FOUR-IN-COMPETITION FIRST-OF-FOUR #T[ampa]B[ay] 

SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW-ORLEANS / THIRD-OF-FOUR ATLANTA FOURTH- 

…FOURTH-OF-FOUR C-A-R-O-L-I-N-A #“C” // FIRST-OF-FOUR #T[ampa]B[ay] 

HUGE-IMPROVEMENT[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree 10-AND-3 / 10-AND- 

3[overlap] 

C: YES[shake] / 

D: SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW-ORLEANS 9-AND-4 NEW-ORLEANS 9-AND-4 

FOURTH-OF-FOUR ATLANTA 8-4-AND-1/ 

D: 8-4-AND-1 TIE …?… THINK ONE TIE YES++++ FOURTH-OF-FOUR 

#C[AROLINA] / WAIT // [hand drops] 5-AND-8 

C: YES[shake]+++ 

D: UMM #T[AMPA]-B[AY] IMPROVE[emp] Adverb – Manner/Degree BETTER 

DEFENSE WHOLE #T[AMPA]-B[AY] BETTER IX(TB) // KNOW^THAT NOW 

Adverb – Time IX(GB) GREEN-B-A-Y(spaceX) #T[AMPA]-B[AY](spaceY) 

PHILADELPHIA(spaceZ) SAME(zxy) 10-AND-3 [dm gesture “ok now over here”] 

WEST+++ FIRST-OF-FOUR++ #S[an]-F[rancisco]++ 9-AND-4 / SECOND-OF-FOUR 

THIRD-OF-FOUR S-T-A-L-L DOWN-HILL 5-AND-8 / THIRD-OF-FOUR++++ 

ARIZONA 5-AND-8 FOURTH-OF-FOUR SEATTLE S-E-A-T-T-L-E 4-AND-9 

C: WOW[overlap] 

D: SEATTLE FINISH NOW MEAN PHILADELPHIA FIRST-PLACE #GBAY #SF 

REMEMBER YOU 

C: YES++++[shake] 

D: #OK [dm gesture: that’s that now let’s go over here”] A-F-C EAST FOUR-IN-COMPETITION FIRST-AND-SECOND- 

OF-FOUR ENGLAND NEW ENGLAND 

M-I-A-M-I LEAD 8-AND-5[held] 

C: YES[shake] 

D: 8-5 // MOVING-DOWN(to third of four) NEW-YORK G[false start] J-E-T-S 

7-AND-6 / FOURTH-OF-FOUR BUFFALO 6-AND-7 

C: YES[shake] 

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D: FIRST-AND-SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW ENGLAND M-I-A-M-I TIE 8-AND-5 #OK 

// [gesture “moving over here”] N-[false start?]A-F-C North FIRST-OF-FOUR 

SECOND-OF-FOUR PITTSBURGH / THIRD-OF-FOUR CLEVELAND BALTIMORE 

SECOND-AND-THIRD-OF-FOUR++ TIE CLEVELAND AND BALTIMORE TIE 

C: B-R-O-W-N-S? 

D: IX-[false start] YES++++++++++ // THIRD-OF-FOUR LAST #CINN STINK 

WOW!+++ Adverb – Manner/Degree / PITTSBURGH 7[repeats hold] 7-AND-5 

“S”[teelers] 

C: YES++ 

D: SECOND-AND-THIRD-OF-FOUR BALTIMORE AND CLEVELAND TIE 

7-AND-6 / FOURTH-OF-FOUR #MINN FOURTH-OF-FOUR 0?-AND12 

C: WOW+++ 

D: WELL 

C: #CINN TREND-DOWN-UP-DOWN-AND-UP-DRAMATICALLY 

D: NO++ #CINN LOUSY ??If it describes the team it’s an adj. If it describes how they 

play it’s an adv. ALL-ALONG Adverb – Duration // DON’T-KNOW WELL[overlap] 

C: YES+++++[overlap] 

D: MOVING-ON-TO-low A-F-C SOUTH FOUR-OF-FOUR FIRST-OF-FOUR++ FIRST-AND-SECOND-OF-FOUR // TWO 

TIE I?? T-E-N-N? 8-AND-5 8-AND-5 

THIRD-OF-FOUR J? J? 5-AND-8 / FOURTH-OF-FOUR HOUSTON++++ NEW++ 

TEAM YOU KNOW HOUSTON+++[overlap] 

C: YES[shake] 

D: 4-AND-9 / NOT-BAD IX(Houston?) MOVING-ON-TO-rt A-F-C WEST+++ 

FIRST-PLACE OAKLAND++++ 

C: WHAT-ARE-YOU-SIGNING?[touches D’s signing hand for clarification] 

D: OAKLAND++++[simultaneously] [feels C’s hand signing the same, makes 

adjustment by extending pinky on C’s hand] 

C: OAKLAND++++[simultaneously] 

D: MEAN O-A-K-L-A-N-D[overlap] 

C: OH-I-SEE++++ 

D: SAY SIGN OAKLAND+++ PRO1 FOLLOW DEAF PEOPLE FROM OAKLAND[overlap] Adverb – Location 

C: OH-I-SEE++++ / OAKLAND++ 

D: SIGN OAKLAND++++ / WELL ANYWAY ??? FIRST-PLACE OAKLAND 9- 

AND-4 NEXT-ONE-IN-LIST SECOND-AND-THIRD-OF-FOUR++++++ D-E-N-V-E- 

R AND #SC NO-WAIT WRONG ME / 9-AND-4 NEXT-ONE-IN-LIST #SD #SD 8- 

AND-5 

C: YES++[shake]++ 

D: NEXT-ONE-IN-LIST-THIRD-OF-FOUR D-E-N-V-E-R 7-AND-6[held] 

C:YES[shake]++ 

D: FOURTH-OF-FOUR #KC #KC #KC 7-AND-6 

C:YES[shake]+++ 

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 



D: …?… …. TWO EAST NEWÊNGLAND #MINN FIRST-PLACE 8-AND-5 // 

IX(REFERENCE?) PITTSBURGH CLOSE+++(to others in division?) Adverb – 

Location // MOVING-DOWN I? AND D-E-N-V-E-R TIE MOVING-(to the West Div.) 

OAKLAND WELL …?… YOU 

C: YES+++ PRO1 CURIOUS V-U-V[false start] NO-WAIT C-A-C-C BASKETBALL 

PRO1 DON’T-KNOW A-C-C BASKETBALL 

D: YES+++ YESTERDAY [hesitation] Adverb – Time YESTERDAY Adverb – Time 

PRO1 SEE[unique form] …?… 


D: FIRST ARIZONA 7-AND-0 

C: WOW[shake]++ 

D: SECOND-PLACE A-L-A-B-A-M-A 

C: YES[shake]++ 

D: THIRD-PLACE D-U-K-E 


D: YOU KNOW D-U-K-E? 


D: 7-[hesitates] THINK 7-AND-0 7-AND-0 D-U-K-E STILL Adverb – Duration 

GOOD[emph] FAR-AHEAD(against team a) Adverb – Manner/Degree FAR- 

AHEAD(against team b) Adverb – Manner/Degree … 

D:… FAR-AHEAD(against team c) Adverb – Manner/Degree FAR-AHEAD(against 

team d) Adverb – Manner/Degree CREAMING-OPPONENT++ GOOD[emph] Adverb – 

Manner/Degree IX- [interrupted] 

C: LAST-YEAR Adverb – Time CHAMPION I-N-D-I-A-N-A RIGHT? 

D: WAVE-NO #MD[overlap] 

C: WHAT-DID-YOU-SIGN 

D: …#MD #MD… 

C: #MD 

D: #MD #MD / BEAT #IND 

C: YES++++ FORGOT AWFUL Either adj or adv depending what it modifies (the team 

or their playing WOW! 

D: YOU FORGOT YOU[overlap] 

C: #MD[overlap] / #MD #MD THAT++ WON #MD / THINK SAME #IND[overlap] 

D: YES++++ / NO+++ / #MD CATCH-UP #IND FOR CHAMPION GAME IX 

C: YES[shake]+++++ 

D: #MD BEAT #IND 


D: SPAN-OF-TIME FUNNY THAT ONE-WEEK-AGO Adverb – Time #IND 

CRUSHED #MD ONE-WEEK-AGO Adverb – Time 


D: FUNNY WELL / #MD TRAVEL-DOWN-FAR Adverb – Place 

C: WOW[shake]++++ 

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 



D: PRO1 THINK 18++++ #MD #MD IS MORE++ Adverb – Manner/Degree 

18+++++++++++ PRO1 IX PRO1 PREDICT YESTERDAY Adverb – Time FIRST 

ARIZONA++ OUTSTANDING[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree WOW!+++ Adverb – 

Manner/Degree // PRO1 PREDICT ARIZONA WILL GET N-C-A-A CHAMPION 

INFORM(you) // [punch on the leg] // YES+++ 

C: MEAN ARIZONA A-R-I-Z-O-N-A? 

D: YES++++++ 

C: NEW[emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree WOW!++++ Adverb – Manner/Degree 

D: YES+++++ SAME STRONG Adverb – Manner/Degree LAST-YEAR Adverb – Time 

2-YEARS-AGO Adverb – Time 3-YEARS-AGO Adverb – Time ARIZONA STRONG 

STRONG STRONG Adverb – Manner/Degree ALL-ALONG Adverb – Duration YES++ 

GOOD C-O-A-C-H [held] 

C: YES++++ 

D: NAME++ L—U—K—E C-O-L-S-O-N ONE #OF GOOD MOST C-O-A-C-H-E-S IN 

U-S-A Adverb – Place INFORM(you) GOOD IX(Colson) NO-MATTER FIRST 

ARIZONA SECOND #ALA ALABAMA THIRD D-U-K-E …?… 


D: …FOURTH+++ UMM PRO1 FORGOT FOUR WELL CAN’T REMEMBER // 

REMEMBER++ FOUR / FIFTH UMM REMEMBER++ NOTRE-DAME+++ 

HOT![emph] Adverb – Manner/Degree DEFEAT(a,b,c) THREE GOOD TEAM LAST- 

WEEK Adverb – Time NOTRE-DAME DEFEAT #MD / DEFEAT UMM [Transcription 

Note: cannot see the sign from the video] SUNDAY WEEK-END Adverb – Time THAT 

TIME Adverb – Time [Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] WAS 

NUMBER TWO NOTRE-DAME BEAT(them) 

C: WOW+++ 

D: NOTRE-DAME MOVE-UP-THROUGH-RANKS MOVE-UP-THROUGH-RANKS- 

TO NUMBER 10++++++++++++++ Adverbial – Location // PRO1 REMEMBER 

[Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] THIRD D-U-K-E / MOVE- 

FURTHER-DOWN 7+++++++ #IND / 

C: YES[shake]+ 

D: #IND // MOVE-FURTHER-DOWN / 10++ NOTRE-DAME / MOVE-FURTHER- 

DOWN MY+++ FAVORITE+++ M-A-R-Q-U-E-T-T-E[overlap]… 


D: …NUMBER 16+++++++++++ 


D: MOVE-FURTHER-DOWN #MD #MD NUMBER 18++++++++++ WELL 

C: #UVA #UVA? 

D: NO NONE++++++++ 

C: DOWNHILL 

D: NOT ON TOP 25 Adverb – Location NOT ON 25 Adverb – Location NOT-YET 

Adverb – Time 

C: READ #UVA #VA T-E-C-H FOOTBALL WEAK 

117



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 



D: YES++ UMM WIN #VA TECH CRUSH #UVA RIGHT? TWO-WEEKS-AGO 

Adverb – Time 

C: YES++ 

D: YES+++ 

C: WELL 

D: HOLD-ON-A-SEC BUT #UVA GOOD YEAR IX(UVA) WAIT FOR NEW HEAD 

C-O-A-C-H / YOU KNOW THAT / YOU KNOW #UVA HAVE NEW HEAD 

COACH? 

C: YES++ / DON’T-KNOW OLD NAME W-A-L-S-H[overlap] 

D: RETIRED[overlap] 

C: LONG-TIME-AGO Adverb – Time YES++++++[overlap] 

D: FINISH 

C: YES++++ 

D: THEN Adverb – Time / YOU MAN NAME+++ STRANGE LAST NAME++ A-S- 

[false start] UMM FUNNY NAME #AL S-T-U-P-P-O-H S-T-O-H THINK IX(coach) 

LONG-AGO PLAY FOR #UVA UNDER W-A-L-S-H LONG-AGO IX(coach) LONG- 

AGO AROUND 1980 Adverb – Time AROUND [false start] IX(coach) LEFT / PLAY 

FOOTBALL / LATER Adverb – Time BECOME HEAD C-O-A-C-H #NY JETS #BUT 

FOUND-OUT IX(Walsh) W-A-L-S-H RETIRED IX(Stroh) A-S-T-R-O-H S-T-R-O- 

H…WELL-WHATEVER VOLUNTEER BACK START BUILDING THEN Adverb – 

Time #UVA IX LOOK GOOD YES++ Adverb – Manner/Degree 

C: NEXT-YEAR[unattended] Adverb – Time NEXT-YEAR Adverb – Time Adverb – Frequency 

D: WHAT OTHER S-P-O-R-T-S YOU KNOW? 

C: UMM UMM B-I-G E[AST] 

D: [taps leg for clarification] 

C: B-I-G E[AST] U-V[false start] #UT #UVA-TECH B-I-G E[AST] 

D: HEY IX DON’T-KNOW / IX[term Big E] NAME WELL? 

C: B-[false start] NAME W-E-L-S-H MEAN B-I-G E[AST] FIRST SECOND 

D: HOLD-ON B-I-G EAST[emph] YES++++++++[overlap] 

C: YES++++++[overlap] 

D: BASKETBALL #OR FOOTBALL WHICH YOU? 

C: BOTH [taps for attention] / TIME RUN-OUT [checks watch] 12:10 12:10 

D: IX[thumb] YES+++ 

118


Appendix E – Consent Form 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

E. Appendix E – Consent Form 

Union Institute & University 

440 E. McMillan Street 

Cincinnati, Ohio 45206-1925 

513.861.6400 / 800.486.3116 

TDD 800.486.9968 / Fax 513.861.0779 

DOCTORAL PROGRAM 

INFORMED CONSENT FORM 

RESEARCH WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 

Date: 

Study Of: Tactile Sign Language Linguistic Aspect of Adverbial Morphemes. 

Dear Research Participant: 

I am conducting a study of linguistics aspect of Tactile Sign Language as part of my Ph.D. 

program in Communication at the Doctoral Program of Union Institute & University. Your 

participation in this research project will increase our understanding of the cultural aspects of 

linguistics in Tactile American Sign Language and will help in the future by making a 

contribution to the Deaf-Blind and interpreting communities. 

During this research study, you will be observed. Your involvement will require about ninety 

minutes of your time. After the research is completed, I will forward to you by mail a summary 

of my findings and implications. 

I am not aware of any risks involved in participation of this project. In fact, it should be an 

enjoyable experience for you. You will be identified by number and not by name. All responses 

will be confidential, and your name will not be used in any report regarding this research. You 

are free to decline to participate or to withdraw at any time. 

119



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

If you have any questions about this study, please contact me at (2026515450). Please leave a 

message if I am not immediately available. Thank you. 

Sincerely, 

Steven D. Collins 

I,___________________________________________), consent to participate in the 

(participant- name) 

study of Tactile Sign Language, conducted by Steven D. Collins 

I understand that I may refuse to participate or withdraw from this study at any time. I 

understand that all responses will be confidential. I understand that I may direct questions about 

this project to Steven D. Collins. 

Participant’s Name and Signature 

___________________________ 

Date 

120



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Union Institute & University 

440 E. McMillan Street 

Cincinnati, Ohio 45206-1925 

513.861.6400 / 800.486.3116 

TDD 800.486.9968 / Fax 513.861.0779 

DOCTORAL PROGRAM 

INFORMED CONSENT FORM 

RESEARCH WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 

Consent Form 

Steven D. Collins and Union Institute and University 

I hereby give permission for the videotapes or digital media and written information obtained 

during this interview to be used for research purposes. I understand that I can withdraw from 

participation at any time with no penalty. I understand that this information may be included in 

research publications and presentations and that the videotapes or digital media may be shown 

during presentations about the project. In addition, selected segments of the videotapes/digital 

media will be used in the preparation of comprehensive videotapes or digital media about the 

project, or training materials that will be based on research findings. I understand that neither I 

nor anyone I mention during this interview will be identified by name in any publication or 

presentation. 

(name print) 

(signature) 

(date) 

121


Appendix F – Informant Background Information 

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

F. Appendix F – Informant Background Information 

Informant Background Information 

Name: _________________________________________________ 

Address: ______________________________________________ 

City: _______________________ State: _______________Zip: _________________ 

Phone No. : _______________________________________________ 

(area code) 

Education information 

1. When you were in elementary school, were you at: 

a. Deaf Institute 

b. Hearing school 

i. With interpreter 

ii. Without interpreter 

c. Mainstream program 



iii. Only with special group 

d. None 

e. Other: _____________________ 

2. When you were in elementary school, which communication did you use: 

a. Oral 

b. Contact Sign (PSE) 

c. Sign English 

d. ASL 

e. Other: __________________ 

122



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

3. When you were in middle school, were you at: 









d. None 

e. Other: _____________________ 

4. When you were in High School, were you at: 









d. None 

e. Other: _____________________ 

5. Were you attend any college? Yes/No 

a. If yes, Which degree do you get? 

i. Associate of Art 

ii. Bachelor of Art 

iii. Bachelor of Science 

iv. Masters of Art 

v. Doctorate 

6. If you were graduate from a college, What major were you in? 

a. ___________________________ 

Personal Information 

7. When you were born, which category were you identify? 

a. Deaf 

b. Hard of hearing 

c. Hearing 

123



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

8. If you born hearing, what age did you lose your hearing? 

a. 0 – 5 

b. 5-10 

c. 10-15 

d. 15-30 

e. 30-35 

f. 35-40 

g. 40-45 

h. 45-50 

i. 50-60 

j. 60-over 

9. What vision do you have when you born? 

a. Sighted 

b. Visual impairment 

c. Blind 

d. Unknown 

10. If you were born sighted, what age did you identify that you have visual problem? 

a. 0 – 5 

b. 5-10 

c. 10-15 

d. 15-30 

e. 30-35 

f. 35-40 

g. 40-45 

h. 45-50 

i. 50-60 

j. 60-over 

11. How do you find out you have visual problem? 

a. By doctor 

b. By friend 

c. By family members 

12. What kind of visual problem do you have? 

a. Ushers Syndrome 

i. Type: ______ 

b. Optical Atrophy 

c. Other: ___________________ 

124



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

13. Do you feel you are part of Deaf community? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

14. Do you feel you are reject by Deaf Community because of DeafBlind? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

15. Are you culturally part of DeafBlind community? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

16. Do you consider yourself a culturally deafblind person? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

Family History 

17. Do you have Deaf or DeafBlind relatives? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

18. Does your family sign? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

19. Does your family accept your visual problem? 

a. Yes 

b. No 

20. How long does your family accept you, if any? 

a. Years: _____________ 

Communication 

21. At what age do you learn sign? 

a. Age: ___________ 

22. At what age do you start to use tactile? 

a. Age: __________ 

23. How often do you use tactile currently? 

a. At all the time 

b. Sometimes 

c. Night Only 

125



_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 

24. How often do you communicate with another deafblind people who depend on tactile? 

a. Daily 

b. Once in a while 

c. Night only 

126

Adverbial Morphemes in Tactile ASL - Gallaudet University

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