Agrinews January 2013 - Ministry of Agriculture

Volume 43, No .1 January 2013
African armyworm
invades Botswana
FODDER PRODUCTION
Weeds control

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A G R I N E W S J A N U A R Y
2013
Contents
Editorial
Weeds and their control
Honey Production gives Moloi escape route
Impact of drought in Fodder & Livestock
Production
It all starts with the soil
Southern District farmers field day
Factors that contribute to low honey production
Hiwa Moreki; dedicated bean producer
Sustaining honeybees
Fodder production
Question and Answers
Kakamane Educational tour
Word grid
Moreri Moesi
Acting Editor
Joseph Ramodisa
Reporters:
France Begensel
Keamogetse Boitshepo
Kesogofetse Tawele
Mokgarebe Motswakhumo
Esther Nkgwang
Modiegi Madumetsa
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27
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9
10
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13 2
14 2
15 2
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Keabetswe Molebatsi
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Designer:
Moreri Modipe
Head of Photography
Henry Toto
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2
Photographers:
Pius Nkunda
VISION
Attain national food security
and global competitiveness
in agricultural products
MISSION
To improve agricultural productivity
through technology development
and transfer, diversification and
commercialization, in
order to promote food security in
partnership with our stakeholders.
VALUES
FOUNDATION
PILLARS
1. BOTHO
We treat our customers in
a respectable and caring manner.
2. TEAM WORK
We recognize the need to work as
a team characterized by collective
effort, trust, understanding,
support and perseverance
irrespective of rank or gender.
3. CUSTOMER FOCUSED
Our customers are the focus
of everything we do by being
courteous, caring, compassionate,
tolerant and empathetic.
4. INNOVATIVE
We commit to employ new ideas
and being proactive in order to
match the requirements of the
future.
5. INTEGRITY
We foster a culture of transparency,
accountability and dependability.
THE MISTERY WORM
Good rains usually bring
perennial smiles to farmers,
plants and animals alike. For
farmers enough harvest, plants plenty
of water and animals enough to feedon.
However, there is always hidden
‘evils’ associated with these good
times. There is normally a surge in
pests, because it is their right to have
a share in this abundance.
If not attended to timeously, pests
can destroy the farmer’s hope. To
some arable farmers, 2013 started on
a wrong footing due to an invasion
of the African Army worm or mistery
worm. It was a panic month as the
worm threatened a coup d’état to the
arable sub-sector. This is not an ideal
way to start the year.
The worm first detected in Kweneng
South, Ngamiland and Central
district swiftly invaded other parts
of the country. The whole country
was nearly red. Agrinews thanks the
farming community and the Ministry
of Agriculture staff for ensuring that
the invasion was contained before it
stampeded a lot of fields.
Farmers worked with MoA officers to
control the spread of the worm. It is
a fact that the ministry alone could
not have managed to control it. The
editor’s note
spread of the worm was a possible
tragedy to the arable sector.
As I write this note, the worm is
under control and in some areas is
already pupating. However, we wish
to caution farmers that there might
be a secondary infestation. Therefore
be always in the look-out and report
any suspicious cases to the relevant
authorities.
No one can tell when because it
is dependant on amongst others
conducive weather conditions. At
hind sight, I can safely say we have
fought a good fight, although the
battle is not over until our crops are
in storage houses ready to feed the
nation.
After working so hard together, let
us not fight over keeping fields free
of weeds. You must aim to increase
yield per hectare and one of the ways
is keeping the fields clean. We all
know weeds do not only compete for
nutrients with crops but also house
migratory pests. Do every thing within
your power to weed your field and be
a contributor towards improving food
security in our country.
Betsho, a re se “adimeng tshwene
marapo” (lets work hard) and make
this planting season a success story.
January December 2013 2012 January December 2013 2012
1

A weed is a plant growing where it
is not wanted. Weeds compete with
crops for moisture, light and nutrients
and thus reduce crop yields and
quality. They further harbour insect
pests and diseases of crop plants and
increase production costs. Some
weeds such as Solanum sp. are toxic to
animals. The presence of weed seeds
and trash in grain reduces its value.
3.3.1. COMMON TYPES OFWEEDS
1) GRASSES
Grass seedlings emerge with a
single leaf that forms a sheath
around the stem. The following are
some of the common grass weeds.
a) CYNODON DACTYLON
(Couch grass) Motlho
DESCRIPTION
This is a perennial creeping grass
that spreads by means of rhizomes,
stolons and seeds. It is widely
found throughout the country
and is usually very difficult to
control because of its network of
rhizomes and its spreading habit.
CONTROL
Control of C. dactylon is by double
ploughing in spring. To be effective,
the ploughing should ensure deep
burial of the rhizomes. Hand
pulling of the rhizome following
ploughing and burning will also help
reduce grass infestation. Harrowing
has been found to encourage its
growth even though most stems are
removed from the field. However,
herbicides can be used to effectively
control it. Glyphosate at the rate
5-61/ha is recommended. Lower
rates (31/ha) are also effective
when combined with tillage.
b) UROCHLOA MOSAMBICENSIS
(PHOKA)
DESCRIPTION
U. mosambicensis is an upright
perennial grass weed that spreads
by stolons and seeds. The stems
are slender and glabrous with a few
Weeds and their control control
their and Weeds
hairs at the inflorescene. The leaves
are broad and expanded with both
sheaths and blades covered with
hairs. It has a long hairy ligule.
The spikelets are 3-4mm long and
have glumes tinged with red colour.
CONTROL
U. mosambicensis is most common
in the Molapo fields around the
Okavango delta. If it becomes
established, it can be very difficult
to eradicate. To control this weed,
hoe weeding is normally done at an
early stage of crop growth, during the
mid-season. Hoeing is also useful in
removing weeds that have resisted a
herbicide. Two to three weedings per
season may be necessary depending
on the weed infestation level.
Most grass weeds can be successfully
controlled by primary cultivation.
2. BROADLEAVED WEEDS
Broadleaved seedlings emerge
with a pair of seed leaves. The
leaves are generally wide branched
veins. Most broadleaved weeds are
annuals completing their life cycle
in one season. This poses a big
problem for farmers since these
weeds have a similar life cycle to
most field crops. Some of the
common broadleaved weeds are:
a) DATURA FEROX (LARGE
THORN APPLE, MOKHURE)
DESCRIPTION
Datura ferox is the most common
broadleaved weed in the fields in
the Barolong farms and occasionally
elsewhere. It is a large, bushy, erect
plant that can grow to over 1m high
and spread over 1m in diameter. It
develops a deep taproot and smooth,
green, fleshy stems branching
repeatedly. Its leaves are round
and long with a diameter of up to
20cm. When crushed, the leaves
emit an unpleasant smell. Flowers
have a white tubular corolla. Its
fruit have hardened capsules, each
about 30mm in diameter with many
large spines. Seeds are produced
in large quantities. They are black
and kidney shaped with rough coat.
CONTROL
Hand-hoeing or inter-row cultivation
at early stage of weed growth is
recommended. Two herbicides,
Gardomil and Sorgomil can be used in
maize and sorghum respectively and
should be applied at an early stage
of weed growth before the six-leaf
stage. The recommended application
rate is 3.5 1/ha for both chemicals.
b) HIBISCUS SPECIES
There are three species of Hibiscus
commonly found in Botswana.
namely: H. meeusei (Wild stockrose,
Mmabasete H), cannabis (Kenaf,
moku) and H. trionum (bladderweed)
The most common Hibiscus sp. is H.
meeusei.
DESCRIPTION
Flowers of all three species are
similar, large with bright or pale
yellow petal and a deep red or purple
colour in the centre Hibiscus seeds
are black, rough and wedge shaped.
CONTROL
H. meeusei can be controlled by
hoeing or inter-row cultivation
when the plants are still young.
The herbicides recommended
above for D. ferox could also be
used to comtrol H. meeusei. In
dense infestations of H. meeusei,
ploughing or glyphosate application
at 31/ha before planting should
reduce the problem. These control
measures should be maintained
for several cropping seasons.
c) ACANTHOSPERNUM HISPIDUM
(STARBUR, KHONKHOROSE,
MMALENAKANA)
DESCRIPTION
A. hispidum is an erect, upright
annual, growing to about 50 cm
tall and higher under favourable
environmental
conditions.
Stems are hairy and branching.
Honey Production
Tapologo’s escape route
Article & photos: France Begensel
Many young women her age
stay home, unemployed
with nothing to do. Some
found solace in Chinese shops while
some roam the streets each day in
search of decent jobs. For her, it has
never been easy after completing her
Junior Secondary School education.
Failure to pass the examination meant
she could not further her studies at
senior school level, thus she had to
stay home.
An optimist, Tapologo Moloi has
never given up on anything she
pursued. It was only that insufficient
funds denied her a chance of
enrolling in private schools to further
her education. She then realised
that she could use her passion for
agriculture to make a living and stop
dependency on her parents.
As a student at Oodima Community
Junior Secondary School, she was
very interested in agriculture related
subjects and she fared well in them.
Moloi is quick to point out that while
at school she was involved in bee
keeping. “Even when I finished my JC
I decided to venture into bee keeping
because I had developed passion for
it and had already gained experience
on caring for bees as a business.”
Prior to starting her bee keeping
project, she attended a three weeks
course in bee farming at the rural
Training center in Sebele. She is
happy the course equiped her with
the necessary training to make it
on her own. She discloses that she
appreciates assistance her village
Agricultural Demonstrator, Boikhutso
Selei provided to her. She is now a
proud holder of two certificates in
that field.
Moloi started her production
of honey with only one box she
constructed herself. She discloses
that when she reaslised there was a
lot of material she could use to make
beehives, she aggressively started
making boxes because it was a lot
cheaper than buying. The 32 year old,
reveals she began with a single box
and currently has five of them.
Although all her bees have absconded,
Moloi does not see any reason to just
fold her arms and give up. She is now
working on the place where she will
permanently raise her bees. She has
planted a number of trees including
the honey sucker, which she says is
the bee’s favourite, in order to ensure
there will be plenty of food for her
bees.
She has ensured that she grows
plants that will be able to withstand
winter so that food will be available
all year round. Plants such as fruit
trees also play an important role in
honey production, the reason she has
planted them too. Moloi decries the
unavailability of water in her area of
production. She is of the view that
those like her, when assisted should
be given water tanks to store water.
She says that it is very expensive to
hire people to ferry water from the
village to the fields where her project
is located.
The mother of two attributes the
absconding of bees to a number of
challenges including, harrasment by
pests, bee pirate and harsh weather
conditions. She has learnt a lot in the
years she was in production and is
very optimistic that the coming years
will be prosperous for her as she
would also be funded by the Poverty
Eradication Programme to uplift her.
Moloi states that when she began
the project, she did not have any
particular market segment in her
plans. It was only aspiration to keep
bees for their honey. She decided
to sell her first harvest because it
was more than enough for home
consumption. She says she sold in the
village, Modipane and later decided
to sell at open markets in Gaborone.
“I never thought I could make such a
lot of money from honey. I have come
to realise that just one box harvest
can give P1500 and this is motivation
enough to grow.” The young lady
reveals that she has extended her
business to making candles, lip
balms, polish and other products
from bee wax. With a broad smile,
she narrates that these products are
also contributing towards her income.
Moloi encourages other youth to
venture into agricultural projects to
pull themselves out of the doldrums
of poverty, create employment for
themselves and others. Above all, she
says that Batswana should be able to
produce enough to feed themselves
and even export, as called for by
the Vision 2016 and the Millenium
Development Goals.
2
January 2013 3
January 2013

Impact of Drought in Fodder and Livestock
production
INTRODUCTION
Drought is a common
phenomenon in most
rangelands, and it requires
careful management of the range
resources to minimize ecological
and economic risks (Heitshmidt
and Vermeire, 2006). As a matter of
fact, many rangeland users are dire
optimists of rainfall expectations, and
this makes them fail to respond to
drought timely, and as such they fall
victims of unnecessary risks (Riechers
et al. 1989; Holechek, 1996; Thurow
and Taylor, 1999).
Very often, farmers are caught offguard
as they fail to sufficiently
make proper predictions based on
past precipitation (meteorological
records) and plan for the amount
of fodder to be accrued. The
precipitation that may be received
during a particular season has a direct
linkage with herbage production
(Sala and Lauenroth, 1982; Sala et
al. 1988; Mcauliffe, 2003; Neilson,
2003).
In this age and era, it is important
that rangeland users should have
access to site, season, and amount
specific precipitation probabilities
based on long-term weather records
that provide critical information that
can be used to improve drought
management decisions. Many
studies have revealed that herbage
production is driven largely by spring
precipitation (Sims et al. 1978; Sims
and Singh, 1978a, 1978b; Singh et al.
1982). Moreover, combination of the
precipitation probability information
and the actual rainfall amount
received in a particular season
can assist rangeland managers or
farmers to initiate effective drought
management tactics in early rainy
season with considerable confidence
if the situation so dictates. This paper
is designed to critically reflect the
worsening impact of drought on the
production of fodder and livestock
with a particular reference to arid
Botswana, and possible strategies
that can be employed to mitigate its
effects.
Effects of drought on livestock
production
The main effects of drought on
livestock production are normally
felt when there is a fall in forage
availability due to low rainfall; in
some areas, low rainfall causes a drop
in the availability of drinking water,
precluding the effective grazing of
certain pastures (FAO, 1985; Mogotsi
and Nyariki, 2011). Fertility levels
and the timing of conception are
attributes that are inherently related
to the nutritional status of female
animals. So, in normal rainfall years,
these animals would envisage a
highly seasonal calving pattern, most
conceptions taking place in the mid
late season (July to October) followed
by calving in the late dry season
leading up to the rains (April to June).
However, animals suffer a great
deal during drought years for lower
rate of conception, due to a tardy
and incomplete return to peak
bodyweight during the rains, and
higher rates of miscarriage and
stillbirth in the subsequent period of
pregnancy and calving due to high
level of stress experienced during the
drought process. Thus, drought in
one year will lead to lower calving
rates in the subsequent year. This fall
in the number of new calves entering
the herd may further be aggravated
by high mortality rates among young
stock.
There is also an increased death
rate with the fall in live weight and
disease susceptibility during drought.
Death rates in times of drought are
usually high among certain species
and classes of stock: cattle, horses
and sometimes donkeys become
more affected than sheep and goats
(example is the recent report from
Ngamiland). Young animals, elderly
stock and pregnant females are most
vulnerable within any particular
species (Jones, 1980). Death rates
increase as the period of drought
continues, as period of nutritional
stress lengthens and as the degree
of stress intensifies. A number of
surveys have been carried out on
stock losses during times of droughts
and data from these sources are
usually enormous.
Unprecedented sales of herds rise
sharply during drought as farmers
would want to salvage some value
from their animals before they die
and to buy food for their families.
Initially, the least essential members
of the herd are sold - male calves
and adults, elderly females and those
with a poor calving history. As the
drought continues, however, herd
productivity falls further as does
the number of non-essential stock
available for sale.
This necessitates the sale of breeding
females, a strategy which indicates a
situation of acute stress, since females
represent herd capital, crucial to the
continued maintenance and future
growth of herd numbers (FAO/OSRO,
1985). Ironically, the herder is usually
faced with little or no choice but to
liquidate his livestock capital, given
the food needs of his family, in the
context of a rapid fall in alternative of
income and ability to purchase food
(Seaman et al. 1978).
MIGRATION BY HERDS TO
OTHER GRAZING AREAS
When some areas have been
devastated by drought (and areas
remain denuded) a common strategy
by livestock owners is to take the
remainder animals to some other
grazing areas in the countryside
where they hope to find better
conditions. During trekking of
animals some unforeseen mishap
may occur, such as animals ingesting
poisonous plants and also getting
infected by some diseases (Dahl,
1979; Hogg, 1980).
For example, in the Sahel, herds are
usually moved south in drought years,
to higher rainfall zones or to areas
of higher grazing potential such as
flood retreat pastures and irrigation
schemes (FAO/OSRO, 1985), and
such disease as acute bovine
pulmonary emphysema may occur
( ABPE)(Cheeke, 1991). Conflicts
for the grazing areas are likely to
occur where there is a large inflow
of animals into an area occupied by
other herders or by farming groups.
Herd-owners would be competing
among themselves for limited pasture
and water resources. Arable farmers
in the destined areas for new grazing
may also be alarmed by animals
entering the area for fear of damages
that may ensue on their crops before
the harvest is ended; additionally, the
often substantial livestock holdings
of communities face increased
competition for grazing around the
settlement as a result of inflow of
cattle herds (Hogg, 1980).
CHANGES IN THE
DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH
Drought may bring about some
changes in the distribution of wealth
and access to income among the
affected livestock owners. This
comes about as a result of differing
capacities of producers to protect
themselves and their assets in times
of crisis. Many researchers have
asserted (O’Leary, 1980; sandford,
1977, Boeckm et al. 1974; van
Apeldorn, 1981) that droughts tend
to have stratifying effect within
communities, weaker members
becoming impoverished further
while the rich are able to minimize
their losses and even increase their
assets during such periods of stress.
On some spheres, drought can be
seen as a mechanism through which
there is a periodic “sloughing off”
of the poorest households from the
traditional pastoral sector, whereby
there would be some human
population forced out of livestock
farming serving to restore equilibrium
between man, pasture and animals
(Johnson, 1973).
Drought effects are felt differently
among farmers of different
background; depending on their
level of livestock wealth and their
access to other resources. In most
respects, owners of large livestock
suffer proportionately fewer losses
than small herd-owners (Tyc, 1976;
Campbell, 1978; Tacher, 1983). Even
when a similar proportional loss
takes place among herds of all sizes,
owners of large herds are more likely
to end the drought period with a big
enough to form a breeding nucleus,
while those with only a few animals
at the start of drought may see their
fall to zero (Tacher, 1983).
Large stockholders may also have
had the advantage of minimizing their
losses by policies of herd dispersion
and species diversification. Moreover,
to the extent that wealthy herders
also have assets in other sectors of
the economy such as trading business
or urban property. When drought
has hit their livestock they can fall
back on incomes received from
other businesses. Campbell (1978)
observed that it is the capacity of the
wealth that may transform animal
assets into less drought - vulnerable
capital which insures greater viability
in the face of drought.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT ON
THE FARMING SECTOR
The immediate effect of drought on
the farming sector is a fall in crop
production, due to inadequate and
poorly distributed rainfall (FAO/
OSRO, 1985). Farmers are faced
with an inadequate harvest to feed
their families and fulfil their other
obligations. Moreover, where crops
have been badly affected by drought,
fodder is also likely to have suffered,
although output from natural pastures
tends to be less vulnerable to drought
than crop production (Vierich and
Sheppard, 1980). Low rainfall causes
poor pasture growth and may also
lead to a decline in fodder supplies
from crop residues.
However, many researchers (van
Apeldorn, 1981) have mixed feelings
about the latter, with some writers
suggesting that even in years of
harvest failure crop residues may
be an important source of forage
for village and visiting herds, these
residues often being the only output
to be gained from fields. Insufficient
fodder around villages may lead
to losses in weight and deaths
among some stock, especially
where immigrant herds put further
pressure on limited local pastures.
While the response of most pastoral
groups to fodder shortage is to move
themselves and their herds elsewhere,
this is not an option so easily pursued
by livestock-owning farmers, due to
their lower herd number and less
familiarity with regular transhumance
(Vierich and Sheppard, 1980). In
addition, many farm households will
have insufficient labour both to take
their animals to other grazing areas
and also to continue with necessary
farming operations. A good example
of this is in Nioro area north-west
Mali, where a survey conducted
showed deaths among draft animals
(oxen, donkeys and horses) at
between 50 and 70% over the period
1983 – 84 (FAO, 1984c).
These losses were caused by
pasture shortages, exacerbated by
herds from north on their way to
southern pastures. In Botswana, the
number and proportion of work oxen
in the national herd declined as a
result of the 1978/79 drought, from
19.3% to 14.85% for herds surveyed
in the hard veld and from 17.8%
t0 13.8% for those in the sand veld
(Vierich and Sheppard, 1980). These
figures depict that there must have
been considerably higher rates of
off-take through sales of work oxen
as opposed to other cattle during the
drought, since oxen tend to have
higher rates of survival than most
other classes of stock.
DROUGHT MITIGATING
STRATEGIES
The complexity of climate change
and drought effects in agriculture
require development of integrated
approach based on choice of species,
genotypes and agronomic packages
adapted to these situations(Karrou,
2000). Both the genetic and
agronomic approaches of drought
mitigation factors play a significant
role: the input variety is the most
economical production factor since
the seed transmits the genetic yield
gain (Karrou, 2000). For example,
such forage crops as Trifolium
subterraneum, Acacia spp. and more
importantly Attriplex spp., Dolichos
lablab and some alley-cropping
systems can be cultivated in arid
and semi-arid areas of Botswana
and provide considerable fodder
continued on page 12
January 2013
January 2013
5

CONTROL
Deep ploughing is
recommended to kill the seeds
by burial continued for up from to three page or 2 more.
3. PARASITIC WEEDS
Parasitic weeds are those that derive
part or all their food requirements
from their host crops. Root-parasitic
weeds attach their roots to the roots
of their host plant and depend on the
host for nutrients, resulting in stunted
and weakened crops. The seeds of
root-parasitic weeds germinate in
response to a chemical stimulus from
the roots of a suitable host. However,
the seeds can remain dormant in the
soil for up to 20 years. Seed dispersal
is by wind, water, equipment,
or contaminated crop seed.
The two major parasitic weeds
in Botswana are (Alectra
vogellii) and Stringa asiatica.
a) Alectra vogelli (Cow
witchweed, matebele, Molelwane)
This is serious parasitic weed of
cowpeas, mungbeans, groundnuts
and other legumes grown in this
country. Under heavy infestations
total crop loss can occur. It is
more serious on cowpeas and the
recommended variety Blackeye, is
highly susceptible and should not be
grown on infested fields. It has a
wide range of wild hosts including
wild relatives of crops such as
wild cowpeas (dinawa tsa phuti).
DESCRIPTION
The weed is an erect, branched plant
that grows to about 45cm. Its stem
is dark green above the ground. The
flowers are large and yellow in colour.
It produces large quantities of tiny
seeds contained in a large capsule.
SYMPTOMS
Affected cowpea plants show
yellowing of the leaves and
stunted growth before the
parasite emerges above ground.
a) STRIGA ASIATICA (MATEBELE,
MOLELWANE, RED WITCH WEED)
This is a root parasite of sorghum,
maize millet and other grasses.
Like cowpea witchweed, it
attaches its roots to the host roots
drawing nutrients in the in the
process. Under heavy infestations,
it can cause total crop loss.
DESCRIPTION
The stems of Striga asiatica are
rough and branched growing to
about 30cm in height. flowers are
5-10 mm in diameter with a red
corolla. Seeds are minute, black
and produced in large quantities.
SYMPTOMS
Affected plants show interveinal
yellowing of the leaves and stunted
growth before or after the parasite
emerges from the soil. In a heavily
infested plant, leaf dessication
may be observed which may be
preceded by rusty brown to purplish
interveinal spots. Crop damage is
aggravated by the marginal nutrient
status of the soil and drought.
CONTROL OF PARASITIC WEEDS
i) USE OF TRAP CROPS
The use of trap crops such as field
bean sunflower and groundnut
are useful for parasitic weed
control. Trap Crops are grown in
parasite infested fields to stimulate
germination of the parasite seed but
without sustaining further growth.
This method helps to exhaust the
parasite seeds in the soil. Trap crops
should be grown for at least three
years before there can substantial
reduction in witch weed seeds.
ii)
PREVENTION
To avoid weeds spreading, clean
harvesting and tillage equipment
before moving to non-infested areas.
Destruction of parasitic weeds before
seed formation to reduce the seed
bank in the soil will help reduce
infestations in the next season.
iii)
CROP ROTATION
Rotating with legumes and
oil crops will help reduce
parasitic weed seed in the soil.
Article & photos: Kesegofetse Tawele
From time immemorial
agriculture remained a major
focus for every farmer in the
world. It is a source of livelihood to
about 70% of people in Sub Saharan
Africa. The primary aim of farmers
always centered on achieving better
yields. Arable farmers are always
concerned about increasing yield per
hectare while the focus of livestock
producers is mainly on choosing the
best breed to go with their farming
enterprises, good management,
supplementary feeding and little or
no emphasis is put on the soils.
Unfortunately each season one
sees the deterioration of soil quality
on cultivation and grazing land.
Soil erosion does not only mean
washing away of top fertile soil but
also loss of essential plant nutrients.
Veld degradation on the other hand
results in loss of plant cover due to
over grazing and trampling of top soil
IT ALL STARTS
WITH THE SOIL
by livestock and ploughing up
and down the slopes. Farmers
have to realize that the effects of
soil erosion are irreversible. The
soils washed away silt up dams.
Moreover, veld degradation
results in drop in productivity
and natural functioning of the
veld eco -system.
Utilization of agricultural
resources must occur in
harmony with nature. Therefore,
farmers have to implement
necessary measures to conserve
the precious soils like ploughing
across slopes, crop rotation,
rotational grazing and limiting
number of herd per grazing
area.
Like water, soil is very important
for the production of good crop
yield and lush grass for grazing.
In most cases,farmers try to
replace the lost soil nutrients
by purchasing fertilizers like
Nitrogen, Potassium and incur
enormous costs in the process,
whereas the problem is preventable.
It is also essential that farmers be
sensitized on the importance of
correct farming practices. That is why
the Ministry of Agriculture came up
with the concept of `operation lema
sentle’ to sensitize land users of the
importance of protecting our soils.
Most farmers usually put animals in
their field after harvesting so that they
can forage on crop residues (letlhaka).
This, however, is perilous as it
can lead to trampling of good
soil by animals which lead to soil
degradation. Moreover, this can also
result in encroachment by exotic
weeds which might be difficult to
control and hence lowered yields.
Through operation lema sentle
farmers are taught to cultivate their
fields immediately after harvest in
winter. This helps retain moisture
until the next ploughing season.
According to Mr Kabo Bowe,
Agronomist in the Ministry of
Agriculture, it is very important
for farmers to detect the depth of
moisture in order to determine if it
can support germination and crop
growth. This is done to avoid dry
farming as it can impact negatively
on the soils. He added that, though
farmers are encouraged to mechanize
not all mechanized implements are
conducive to local soils like the
moldboard plough which take moist
soil and put it on top. He says this
causes loss of moisture.
6
January 2013 January 2013
67

1
2
3
4
Photos: Pius Nkunda
Southern District Farmers Field day
5
1 Mr & Mrs Tselaesele,the Host couple
2 Paramount Chief of Bangwaketse Kgosi Malope II
recieving blankets on behalf of Mabutsane and
Khakhea villages from an official of Southern Beef Association
3 Audience gracing the occasion
4 Guest speaker, Mr Mpotsang Diphofu far left and Southern District
Beef Farmers Association Mr Tshepo Masire (right) enjoying
moment of the day
5
6
Mr Lebelo (left) of common sense investment
explaining to customers
Southern District Beef Farmers Association
annual raffle taking place
7 Former Botswana Football Association
CEO Mr Mooki manning one of the stalls
at the field day
6
7
January 2013
January 2013 January 2013
9

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
LOW HONEY PRODUCTION
&
:3975122/3912571,FAX: 3951643
Things to consider. Low honey
production is not mainly
attributable to lack of forage, but
rather a number of factors play a role.
These factors include:
• Poor management practices:
Beekeepers do not follow the right
management practices such as:
Migratory beekeeping (moving bees
from one area to another following
the blooming period),timely
harvesting resulting in loss of honey
and splitting of colonies.
• Limited access to affordable tools
and equipment
• Lack of access to potential
land
• Limited access to funding
• Poor rains (drought)
• Honey bee pests (e.g. Bee
pirate)
• Lack of policy to regulate the
industry and in some parts of the
country poor bee forage.
Botswana has diverse indigenous
plants which form the backbone
of rural beekeeping. In addition
cultivated crops ornamental flowers
and exotic plants that are cultivated
by growers in both horticulture and
dry land farms (for food or fodders)
can support beekeeping. However
the potential of natural vegetation
can be eroded by growing population,
demand in agricultural land, erratic
rainfalls and prolonged drought.
Water is collected by bees and
used primarily to dilute thick honey,
to maintain optimum humidity
within the hive, and to maintain
appropriate temperatures in the
brood area. The amount of water
required and collected by a colony is
generally correlated with the outside
air temperature and relative humidity,
strength of colony, and amount of
brood rearing in progress. However,
bees do not need a lot of water unless
if the water is for watering bee plants
that a farmer has grown to support
the natural forage. A beekeeper is
able to carry 1 liter of water to feed a
colony of bees on a daily basis during
hotter periods.
The honey bee species that we have
in the country is Apis mellifera . Apis
mellifera is native to Africa and
is known to be highly industrious
compared to other bee races i.e.
European and Asian bees, if managed
well it can have good returns.
What to do
The most contributing factor that
results in poor performance of
the beekeeping industry is poor
management and poor production
systems. Beekeeping is a seasonal
activity and as such each activity has
to be timely otherwise beekeepers
will loose honey. The following are
some of the interventions that can
boost the industry:
- Government to intensify training
on the management practices
- Government to facilitate on the
marketing of honey
- Beekeepers to keep highly
populated colonies for maximum
production
- Beekeepers must give time to their
projects.
- Buy the necessary equipment
- Follow the right management
practices
- Work with forest owners,
conservation areas owners and
growers who grow crops that are
pollinated by honey bees and
practice migratory beekeeping.
- Trainers of trainees ( we earlier on
had BFD for the same purpose).
- Intensify demonstrations and farm
visit.
Research
Yes, there is limited research done on
this area. Previously the Beekeeping
Section has worked with a number of
local and International Institutions. In
2000 in collaboration with University
of Pretoria embarked on identification
of Varroa mite and its distribution in
Botswana. In 2006 a research was
conducted on commercialization
of Beekeeping in Botswana. The
study was to assess and determine
appropriate beekeeping technologies
and management with a view of
enhancing honey production levels
and promoting sustainable and
competitive beekeeping industry
as well as assessing the natural
vegetation. However research done
is not enough. The Department of
Agricultural Research which is tasked
with agricultural research can assist
since the section does not have
the capacity. A forum is needed to
discuss this aspect with stakeholders
such as local institutions (UB, BCA),
Agricultural Research.
Doldrum: who to blame
The Section is working with farmers
to improve beekeeping. Farmers are
also forming associations to work
together.
This sector is growing with the
introduction of poverty eradication
programme. The programme
came with funding which was
quite a challenge to farmers. Most
beekeepers do not have the necessary
equipment and protective clothing
hence depend on officers to inspect
and harvest their colonies.
A lot of doors have been opened with
this programme. So the industry has
grown as we have people trained
on beehive and beehive stands
construction hence would be able
to open companies on sale of these
items. There is another opportunity
coming up of people who would
be supplying bee colonies to
beneficiaries. These we hope would
ease the challenge of slow stocking
of the hives. The result of this ( that
is production) is expected in the next
two years.
SERVICES
- Technical backstopping
- Training
- Demonstrations
- Technology transfer
- Capturing
10
January 2013 January 2013
January 2013

continued from page 12 5
during drought years. Moreover, the
use of adapted species and varieties,
the adoption of dry land agriculture
techniques in rain fed agriculture;
farmers can also substantially
improve and stabilize crop yields. In
fact, many researchers have revealed
in on-farm trials the importance of
minimum tillage (Kacemi, 1992),
no-till (Bouzza, 1990) and mulching
technologies. These techniques
have also proved to be reducing
evaporation, increase the interception
of rain and its infiltration and insure
the saving of water, energy and time,
guarantee a long-term increase and
increase the sequestration of carbon.
It has also been observed that
chemical fallowing (controlling of
weeds by the use of chemicals) can
allow the conservation of between
75 and 100 mm of water in the soil
(Bouzza, 1990), which can be able to
sustain some forage crops that require
minimum moisture. In Botswana for
example, some strategies employed
to thwart the effects of the dry spells
include among others storage of
crop harvests from good seasons and
supplementary feeding (Mogotsi and
Nyariki, 2011). However, the latter
strategy can only be employed by
those farmers who have the means
(whose wealth is beyond reproach).
BOTSWANA AFRICAN ARMY WORM (SEBOKO SA SEGOPA) MAP
(AS AT 22/01/2013)
#
Gantsi
#
#
NGAMILAND
#
Maun
#
#
#
#
GHANZI
#
CHOBE
Kasane
#
#
Orapa
#
#
#
#
Nata
#
#
Serowe
# #
Tutume
#
#
CENTRAL
#
#
#
Mahalapye
CONCLUSION
There are many strategies that can
be employed to mitigate the menace
effects of droughts as fore noted that
can be chosen depending on the area
affected. The bottom line is that the
livestock species has to be saved in
whatever circumstance the mitigation
strategy would be geared to.
Author: J.K. Mthetho
Department of Animal Production
Mochudi
Tel: 5777075/288
E-mail: jmthetho@gmail.com
AFRICAN ARMYWORM ( SEBOKO SA SEGOPA ) OUTBREAK MAP ( AS AT 22/01/2013 )
N
#
## # #
NORTH EAST
# Francistown
#
Tonota
##
#
#
Bobonong
# #
Selebi Phikwe
Palapye
# #
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#
# #
#
#
#
Hiwa Moreki
dedicated bean farmer
Article & Photos: France Begensel
Many small scale farmers across
the country have not embraced
the idea of specialising on one
particular crop. Only a handful have
seen the importance of that. Amongst
such farmers is Hiwa Moreki, 55, of
Mokalaneng lands in Ngwaketse East
near Magothwane village. Moreki, a
bean farmer only worked for a few
years as a driver in the Department
of Water Affairs from 1981-1985. He
then quit to focus his energies on
dryland farming.
Moreki learnt a lot by benchmarking
in Pandamatenga, Musi lands and also
visited prominent farmers like Kgosi
Daniel Mathiba, Oarabile Dingalo,
John Phirinyane and Mokwapa
Ramusu. He adds that his experiences
in farming have taught him that beans
do well in Magothwane/Nhlanhle area,
the reason he took it up.
He also reveals that legume prices at
the Botswana Agricultural marketing
Board are very ecncouraging. The
recent initiative by the Ministry of Local
Government and Rural Development
to have farmers supply primary schools
with farm produce like mealies,
watermelon and beans could also not
have come at a better time. He states
that this is motivation enough for one
to produce on a large scale.
With a 13,5 hectare field, Moreki
decided to allocate 13,3 hecters to
growing beans. He planted them in
September unlike in the previous years
where he took to the fields in November.
This, he reveals has helped him a lot as
he expects his first harvest mid January.
He also posits that planting earlier is
a blessing because by the time wild
animals come to scavenge for food
in the lands he would have already
harvested. This also helps avoid crops
suffering from heatstroke in January as
it would be very hot.
The former water affairs driver discloses
that he used the ISPAAD programme.
This he says helped him with fertilizers
and ploughing. But as for seeds he
bought them himself. He posits that
the programme has helped him a lot
and that on his own he could not have
achieved anything.
“I have planted the Black eye and
Ramonnana varieties. This is because
they do not take long to mature. And
that you harvest the Black eye twice
and the Ramonnana variety three times.”
He adds that with these varieties one
would always realise profit.
Although Moreki decries the lack of
implements in farming, he always row
plants. He says that it makes it easier
to weed, harvest and to move around.
He reveals that row planted crops
are always healthy because they do
not compete for water and nutrients.
Moreki states that he used a planter he
recently acquired and is not a model
he is familiar with. He says that this
resulted in uneven distribution and
spread of both seeds and fertilizers
but believes he would have acquinted
himself to it in the next planting season.
When harvesting is done, the crop
residue is thrashed and fed to livestock
and small stock. Nothing is thrown
away, discloses Moreki. He says he
sells these to farmers who come as far
as Gantsi and Charleshill.
As a small scale farmer, Moreki says
he has learnt a lot from his farming
experiences. He reveals that he has
acquired a 170hectare field which
he intends to use half for legume
production and the remaining part for
other crops like mealies, sorghum and
water melons.
Kang #
KGALAGADI
Tsabong
#
KWENENG
#
# # KGATLENG
#
#
Molepolole
Mochudi
#
#
#
Jwaneng #
#
#
# #
# #
#
# ##
# # #
# # # # # #
SOUTHERN
# # # # GABORONE
Kanye # # Ramotswa
# #
# SOUTH EAST
#
#
#
# Lobatse
# #
# #
# #
#
# #
Legend
# Confirmed African Army Worm Outbreak
# Unconfirmed African Army Worm Outbreak
# Major village
Major river
Main road
District boundary
Compiled by Ministry of Agriculture Gaborone, Botswana
12 6
13
6
January 2013 January 2013

Sustaining Honeybees
Article:: Joseph Ramodisa
Photos: Johnson Kgakatsi
The big lesson in beekeeping in this
country is this, the way we treat the
natural world has repercussions
way beyond the immediately obvious.
Our destruction of rainforests and other
habitats in the name of development
has triggered irreversible, cumulative
cycles of species loss, soil erosion and
climate change.
This could be seen as a clear sign why
honey production remains a concern,
lack of forage, water and availability of
active colonies.
Malau Gabaipone a honeybee keeper
at Motshegaletau says lack of forage and
water around beekeeping projects to
be the major challenges in production.
He said
with lack of perennial forage vegetation,
honey producer will be forced to feed
their colonies with
sugar, the practice
he described as
affecting the
quality of honey
in this country.
“Testing
of honey is
already here
in order to
keep it in
competitive
q u a l i t y
standards,” he said. “We, as honey
producers we are dedicated to
producing an organic honey.”
In order to produce quality standards
of honey, Gabaipone said National
Food Technology Research Centre and
Botswana Bureau of Standards (BOBS)
must be within their vicinity for easy
access of their service since they are
the one with technical knowhow when
it comes to food safety.
Gabaipone said their dedication
will be cut short by the fact that the
environmental condition around many
beekeeping projects does not allow the
perennial growth of good flowering
plant species.
In an effort to confront these obstacles,
Gabaipone usually grow maize crop
for his colonies of 16 hives to collect
pollen and nectar. At the same, he said
these bees help in speeding pollination
of maize.
He prefers to use a hybrid 403 of maize
which he described as even better than
sunflower when it comes to pollen and
nectar, products that bees depend on
for their maintenance and production.
Without addressing all these, it
seems to Gabaipone that beekeeping
in this country especially the small
scale beekeeping will not sustain in
its present form. We need to re-think
our management methods from top
to bottom, or face an unprecedented
decline in honey production.
Concerning the availability of active
colonies, Gabaipone, calls for
agricultural research to come with
traits of bees that are productive in
order to improve the honey in this
country. However, Gabaipone
concluded that, honey will forever
depend more on the weather than
any other single factor. Though the
government is supportive in this
sector, he said bees are suffering
from unprecedented levels of
forage and water in and around
apicultural projects.
W h e n
clarifying on lack of research and
productive bees’ traits to improve
the honey production, Margerat
Yellow-and-black-bees
Mutekela from the bee keeping section
in the Ministry of Agriculture said
the honey bees’ species that is found
this country is Apis mellifera which
is native to Africa and is known to be
highly industrious compared to other
bee races. “If managed well it can have
good returns,” she said.
She acknowledged that indeed
there is a limited research in this
area of agricultural sector but
in 2006 a research was
conducted on commercialization of
Beekeeping in Botswana. T h e
study, she explained, was to assess
and determine appropriate beekeeping
technologies and management with a
view of enhancing honey production
levels and promoting sustainable and
competitive beekeeping industry.
In order to attain the sustainability of
this sector, Mutekela said there is a
need to form a forum that can discuss
this aspect with stakeholders such
as University of Botswana, Botswana
College of Agriculture and Agricultural
Research.
The remedy, as well as the blame, for
the current state of beekeeping lies
with beekeepers themselves, due
to poor management practices. She
complained that Beekeepers do not
follow the right management practices
such as migratory beekeeping and
timely harvesting hence resulting in
loss of honey and splitting of colonies.
FODDER PRODUCTION
Legumes provide both pods and leaves consumed by animal as
fodder due to their characteristics the domesticated are, Siratro,
Leucaena locapala, Stylosanthes guianensis, Dolichos lablab.
also a major component of production
inputs to run machineries with costs.
Fodder production it is task of
producing crops that are specifically
planted to produce feed for livestock.
The crops are usually not grazed or
browsed at the field they are harvested
and processed to during dry season.
The crops respond positively to the
standard recommend management
practices such as good seedbed
preparation, planted in time when
soil moisture is adequate and proper
weeding. Increased quantity (biomass)
and quality when timely harvested
whole the plant including utilization
of residues such husks if properly dried
and stored in well ventilated structures
( fodder bans).
There are major two components of
fodder rations
ENERGY CROPS PROVIDERS
Most of crops belong to family
gramineae like maize, millet, sugar
cane; sorghum can be used, by being
harvested during flowering stage and
slowly dried and stored while still
maintaining greenish color. Top leaves
of groundnuts, jugo beans can also be
processed the same way and be added
as one package. The other methods to
preserve the above crops are by cutting
them when still fresh and make silage
out them.
Grasses species such as Cenchrus
ciliaris, Digitria eratnha Napier,aClhoris
guyana and many others can be planted
and grazed as standing hay (in the field),
or dried baled as Hay. Other exotic
species such as Silk, Sudan halipense
sorghums are common in the country
and can be propagated as fodder, not
excluding many others. Amongst the
above stated exotic species Napier is
preferred to do silage or cut and curry
because of it gives higher yield per ha
(can be harvested in every 6months
and give up to 7tones per ha).
Other plants which provide production
feeds are sunflower, groundnuts,
Jatropha, Neem; Moringa fed as
cakes after oil has been extracted
and plants such as especially for oil
filtered for various purposes, eatable,
cosmetics, the most that can benefit
livestock industry is when the same oil
combined with alcohol like menthol or
ethanol to produce bio-fuel to run farm
machineries.
We all understand that factor for
production is vital in achieving great
goals in agriculture. They include
Land, machineries/equipment, and
manpower and technology transfer. The
continuous land utility in production
need replenished nutrients by chemical
fertilizers which are much costly; fuel is
Therefore reduction of costs is one
fundamental phenomenon safest to
agricultural investment that increases
food to our increasing population. The
costs of variable inputs of production
such as fertilizers, fuel, and pesticides
become a barrier towards wide
production to be self sufficient in
agricultural products which are the
most basic needs of human existence.
It is important to nature care the
land, pest using natural resources and
organic materials in the sense of costs
reduction. I have in previous shared
with all of you about some tree species
such Moringa and Jatropha currently
I have discovered NEEM which could
boast agriculture in many ways which
survive very well in our climatic
condition
These trees need to be incorporated
in our agricultural practices to aid in
organic operation such fertilizers, pest
control and reductions of costs by
utilizing other natural resources wisely
and profitably.
PRODUCTION FEED CROPS
Legumes are crops that have significant
contribution in fodder production,* as
a major of source protein provider;
with vital contribution to agric-socio
economic values.
(1) Amongst those that are domestically
planted, build soils structure through
their tap roots that penetrate soils
breaking the soil particles further to
reset soil aggregates. They utilize
14 15
deeper nutrients and water which other
plants are unable reach, to breakeven
competition among plants in the same
areas.
(2) Have the ability to fix atmospheric
N2 through the Rhyzobia species
that ultimately become available to
other plants which give other crops
advantage to grow vigorously at same
time cut costs of artificial nitrogen
fertilizer to the soils.
(3) Other legumes enhance high forage
and have broad leaves that mulch the
soils resulting in reduction of water
evaporation hence conserve soil
moisture for plants sustainability. The
above characteristics symbolized the
crops to be highly nutritious feed and
be regarded as production feed.
Legumes provide both pods and leaves
consumed animal as fodder due to
their characteristics the domesticated
are, Siratro, Leucaena locapala,
Stylosanthes guianensis, Dolichos
lablab. Dolichos lablab is among
others the best and common legume
produced in the country and fed to
cattle, goats, ostrich, poultry, goats,
donkeys and sheep. It has shown the
best results recognized and enjoyed by
the farmers one advantage with lablab
yields more than other legumes, it is
SPECIES USES agriculture COMMENTS
Moringa tree Seeds produces Oil combined with menthol or
-Eatable and Bio fuel
ethanol produce Bio fuel (diesel)
-Cake after extraction of The trees present at Mahalapye,
oil is good for fodder Letlhakane, and Maun
-Leaves wet & dried leaves
increase weight gain and milk
-Water purifier
-Fertilizer ( Plant enhancer)
-Pest control
Jatropha Seeds produces Mentholated produces diesel
-Oil for lubricant
to run machineries
Cake after extraction of oil is Are present in Tonota
good for fodder
Neem Seeds produces Add menthol or Ethanol end
(Azadirachta indica) -Oil Bio fuel product diesel
-Cake after extraction of oil seen in Serowe
is good for fodder
-Fertilizer ( Plant enhancer)
-Pest control
SUNFLOWER - Seeds Produces eatable oil. The plants are planted arable
-Husks used as fodder around the country.
- Cake after extraction of
oil is good for fodder
palatable that herding of these animals
become a relief to farmers because they
do range and come back to homestead
to look for lablab.
They are wild legumes such as
Dichrostachys ceneria (moselesele),
Acacia tortilis (Mosu), Acacia
erubescenes (Moloto) which can be
collected and nicely stored to be used
as Fodder especially to small stock.
Fodder production in Botswana is
recognized insignificantly despite the
adverse conditions that act negatively
towards productivity of livestock
and Small stock which 80% farming
communities are basically depend on
continued on next page
January 2013 January 2013

continued from page 15
...both social and economically.
All crops grown are suitable for fodder
but not all farmers take notice of
that. Main crops such as graminae
and leguminous family like Maize,
sorghum, millet cowpeas, groundnuts,
jugobeans, are widely grown in
country but it is common that after
grain harvest the whole Stover products
is left standing in the fields and utilized
by cattle and untimely. Farmers should
be encouraged to take an advantage
of making hay out of that to avoid
starvation during dry season and fetch
more cash.
To cut failed crops while still green and
dry them without losing green color
indicates valuable nutrition then can
be chaffed and sacked, or bailed to
feed livestock during dry seasons will
be an advantage.
Growing the recommended fodder
species is very vital for:-
• Drought resistance
• Tolerance to most soils of Botswana
Question
&
During growing seasons, and in an
event of poor crop performance and low
germination percentage, the contributing
factors are in most cases according to
traditional farmers, lack of soil moisture
content and poor quality seeds. But
the fact of the matter is that there are
many contributing factors such as Soil
compaction which farmers may not
be aware of. Agrinews reporter Joseph
Ramodisa is having a conversation
with Dr Flora Pule-Meulenberg, from
the Department of Crop Science and
Production at Botswana College of
Agriculture about soil compaction.
Q. What is Soil Compaction?
A. According to the Soil Science Society
of America (1996), soil compaction
is “the process by which soil grains
are rearranged to decrease void space
and bring them into closer contact
with one another, thereby increasing
the bulk density”.In very simple terms,
soil compaction is the destruction of
the physical characteristics of a soil or
the physical degradation of the soil.In
soil compaction, the first property of
the soil to be destroyed is its structure.
Soil structure refers to the spatial
arrangement of the soil constituents
and aggregates. Once the structure is
destroyed, the pore space deteriorates
and hence the capacity of the soil to
retain moisture as well as its ability
to circulate air becomes limited. The
type of pores that transports air and
warmth around the soil profile, (called
macropores) are the same ones that
make it possible for water infiltration, be
• Ability to spread naturally
• Vigor of growth and growth rhythm
fully expanded leaves developed
at the rate of every nine to ten days
in summer 11days in spring and 14
to 12 in autumn with senescence
highest in the summer growing
seasons and slowest (Wilson &t
Mannetje 1978)
• Suitable for hay and silage the
grass makes reasonable quality hay
when cut in the early flowering
stage, yielding up to 2500kg/ha
per cut with a protein content
of 6-10 percent of dry matter.
Old grass, after the seed has
harvested, can give low-quality
roughage for drought feeding with
supplements. This old grass will
have protein content of 4-6 percent
(Shankarnarayan 1977) while a
mature animal require 7% protein
for maintenance for survival.
The grasses are economic hence are
best forage grasses found natural in
semi-arid, subtropical and tropics
areas, and Botswana is the exemplary
grasses habitat of many species.
To make hay from the grass is convenient
and save starting from December to
March when grass nutrients is high and
when there is plenty of sunshine.
Tools required - Framing box (form)
Scythe, Rake, Wire or string.
Cut the grass in the morning with
a sharp scythe when half of it has
flowered. Make sure the grass is spread
by tuning it once using a rake and leave
it overnight for it to dry smoothly.
Start bailing the dried grass the second
day after cutting, by fill the dried grass
in box with dimensions of 90cm length,
60cm width and 60cm depth and pack
it tightly in the box by trampling on
many times then tie compacted grass
with wire or string lift the box to
release the bale if well packed is about
15kg and it estimated that 2 men can
make 60 bales day. (APRRD www.dar.
gov.bw)
Answer: SOIL COMPACTION
it from rainfall or irrigation. Therefore, a
compacted soil will likely have problems
of water erosion due to increased
surface runoff. The physical degradation
of the soil will lead to the deterioration
of some chemical properties. Because
compacted soils do not have much
air circulation, microorganisms that
are responsible for organic matter
decomposition and other important soil
processes cannot survive. This leads to
poor fertility of soils since organic matter
is an important source of nutrients such
as NPS. Another consequence of that
scenario is that only anaerobic microbes
will thrive, resulting in conditions
that promote toxically high levels of
micronutrients (iron, zinc, manganese
and copper) for plant growth. Ultimately
for arable systems, soil compaction
will lead to yield reduction through
limiting fertility including interferences
with moisture and nutrients.
Q. Where Does It Occur?
A. Soil compaction can occur in
natural ecosystems as a result of animals
trampling on wet soils, for example
at watering points, human beings
through construction (building, roads,
pavements etc). For arable agriculture,
compaction is caused by vehicles
such as tractors, cars and their use at a
particular moisture content.Ploughing
or tilling a soil continuously with a
mouldboard can lead to a compacted
layer below the tillage depth in soils
that are high in clay content. Soils
that are high in clay content and
low in organic matter compact very
easily. For arable soils, as a rule of
to be continued in the next issue
thumb, the heavier the equipment used,
the higher the level of compaction.
Q. To minimize soil compaction what
should farmers do?
A. There are several ways in which
farmers could limit soil compaction.
Tilling wet soils should be avoided
at all times. This leads to formation of
puddles (seretse!) and when they dry
they form clods (magwete!) that are
hard for seedling to break through.
Compaction has also been shown to
increase with vehicle weight. Especially
for commercial farmers, increasing tyre
size has been shown to not compensate
for increased axle load and it spreads
compaction over a greater volume
of the soil. It is a good practice not to
carry very large loads on wet soils and
to maintain proper tyre pressure. If it
is necessary to drive on wet soil, it is
better to stay on the same tracks to avoid
compacting a larger area or volume of
soil. Regarding the use of a mouldboard
plough, formation of a plough pan
(compacted layer) will lead to decreased
water percolation to the subsoil and
may be avoided by deep ripping the
soil once every four to five years.
Q. What are the potential concerns
about soil compaction?
A. In summary, the main concerns about
soil compaction include loss of moisture
holding capacity, decreased rooting
zone, loss of C, N, and P sources, changes
in soil pH, changes in soil bulk density
and increased erosion due to increased
runoff as a result of limited infiltration.
Kakamane educational tour - Serowe
Article & Photos: Felix Mothatego
Agricultural specialists, interested
parties and farmers from Serowe
village and surrounding areas
discussed modern farming technology
during educational tour at Kakamane
fields, recently.
The Department of Crop Production
organized this event which attracted
incredible people out there. We were
blown away by level of commitment
and community we found along the way.
Small scale farmers appreciated that
nowadays ploughing is mechanized,
and tractor ploughs as much as
30 times as a man with donkeys.
They also saw reality of what goes on
at sustainable small farms, and the
need to better connect as farmers.
The agricultural demonstrator,
Gaopotlake Gabalebatse said they
focused on the use and maintenance of
tractor/farming implements, seed bed
preparation, and fertilizer application.
He said farmers are not producing
enough yields because they do not
use modern technology. Some have
agricultural implements but lack
information and experience.
As such, they encouraged farmers to
exchange information and get assistance
from demonstrators.
“I think you have seen that most of them
do not know how to calibrate a planter.”
One of the farmers, Rasebolai Kgamane
said he has implements but does not
know how to use them.
He said he is happy to have got
information on plant population, use of
a planter and fertilizer application.
The host farmer, Keataretse Monamo
said she will improve her knowledge
by being present when a tractor
operator is ploughing and sowing.
She has learnt a lot about
moisture conservation, use
of fertilizer and pesticides.
She challenged fellow farmers who have
not been using modern technology to try it.
For his part, Baitirele Mothaleemang said
it is unfortunate that even government
tractors ploughing for farmers do not
come with all necessary implements.
He said as a consequence. farmers
prefer broadcasting seeds because they
want to sow before moisture evaporates.
Unlike many farmers, Mothaleemang
will be on his third year row planting
and has been happy with harvest since
he started it.
This event was undoubtedly important
because it helped small scale farmers
and general public realize there is so
much out there on how to produce
food.
January 2013 January 2013
17

Word Grid
WORD
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Mosupologo mongwe le
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Btv
Thulaganyo e, e tsena metsotso ele
masome a mararo morago ga nako
ya bosupa. Fa o na le kakgelo kgotsa
kgakololo mo thulaganyong e, re kopa
o re leletse mo megaleng ee latelang
3689143, 3689113, 3689116, 3689115
kgotsa o re kwalele mo email ya
tsatemothuo@gov.bw
January 2013 January 2013

BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
Background Information
Bambara groundnut is an indigenous legume of Africa
which originated from the Sahelian region of present day
West Africa. Through migration, people brought the crop
to southern Africa many years ago. In Botswana, Bambara
groundnut is known as jugobean or ditloo. It is related to
cowpea. Thus, botanically it is called Vigna subterranean
(L.) Verdc. In Botswana, it is found in various landraces
and farmers grow it in mixed/intercropped/sole cropped
systems mainly for consumption and sale. On average,
farmers get yields of about 200 kg/ha. In 2008, the two
most promising varieties namely Keledi (MA -15A) and
Mokgalo (N-100) were released.
Plant Characteristics
Bambara groundnut is a herbaceous annual legume with
compact well-developed tap root with many short lateral
stems on which the leaves are borne. The released varieties
are bunchy type and are self-pollinated. The crop forms
pods below the soil surface or just above the ground
and majority contain one seed. The pod colours of the
released varieties are creamish for Keledi and purplish for
Mokgalo. Seed colours are cream with a v-shaped purple
colour surrounding a white eye for Keledi and completely
purple with a white eye for Mokgalo
Growth and Development
Seed germination takes 7-15 days. Flowering starts 30 to
45 days after sowing and may continue until the plant
matures. Pod and seed development take place about
30 to 40 days after fertilization. Maturity varies with
landraces and seasons and may go up to 180 days. The
released varieties mature between 130-150 days
Mokgalo tend to flower, pod and mature earlier than
Keledi. The crop is a typical short-day plant, that is, long
days may delay/prevent flowering and podding.
Soil and Fertilizer Requirements
The crop is adapted to a wide range of soils, but
welldrained soils, sandy loams with pH of 5.0-6.5., soils
rich in phosphorus and potassium are most suitable.
Yield potential is reduced when grown in sandy clay
loams,. It performs well in poor soils with low nutrients.
But in soils with abundant nitrogen, the crop grows
vegetatively while in calcareous soils, it grows poorly.
Chemical fertilizer recommendations in Botswana are
lacking because the crop does not give significant
responses.
Climatic Requirements
Bambara groundnut requires warm temperatures of 20
to 280C and does not tolerate freezing temperatures at
any stage of growth. It is most suited for hot dry areas
and thrives well in marginal rainfall conditions too dry
for sorghum, maize and groundnut. However, for better
performance, the crop requires an average rainfall of
about 600 to 700mm during the growing period. Too
much rain at harvest time may result in yield losses.
Planting
Plant seeds in a deeply ploughed field with a fine seedbed.
Planting should be done around October/ November
after good rains. The seed rate for the released varieties
is 50 kg/ha but can vary with seed size and according to
literature it varies for small or big seeds from 25-75 kg/
ha. Seeds for planting should be treated with fungicide
and planted at a depth of 2.5-3.0 cm in heavy soils and
5.0 – 7.5 cm in sandy soils. Hand hoe or planters with
correct plates can be used to plant seeds. Recommended
spacing for the released varieties is 75 cm inter-rows by
20 cm within rows in order to get 67,000 plants/ha.
Yields and Nutrition
Yields depend on variety and environmental conditions.
Recommended variety yields ranged from 0.1-3.6 t/ha
under rain fed. But elsewhere under irrigation, a yield of
4.2 t/ha, has been reported. Mokgalo tend to out yield
Keledi when they are grown under similar conditions.
Seeds are nutritious and provide a balanced diet.
They contain sufficient quantities of protein (16-25%),
carbohydrates (50-69%), oil (6-12%) and minerals such as
calcium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron and
sodium. Haulm can be used to feed livestock. Due to its
ability to fix nitrogen, Bambara groundnut is useful in crop
rotation.
The Director Department of Agricultural Research Private Bag 0033, Gaborone. Phone: 267-366-8100 Fax: 267-3928965
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