019 Punctuation

Punctuation
Punctuation rules
What follows is a list of all the major punctuation rules you have studied in this text, beginning with those
involving the punctuation of clauses.
Punctuating independent clauses
Between every two independent (or main) clauses there must be punctuation, either to separate them into
two sentences or to join them in one sentence. The first rule tells us how to join or separate independent
clauses.
Punctuation Rule 1
Independent Clauses
To separate or join independent (main) clauses, use the following:
1. period, question mark, or exclamation point—to separate independent clauses
2. semicolon—to join independent clauses
3. comma + coordinating conjunction—to join independent clauses
The following sentences illustrate this rule.
Separated with period
Several cars turned onto the expressway. Jim’s car was one of them.
Joined with semicolon
Several cars turned onto the expressway; Jim’s car was one of them.
Joined with comma and conjunction
Several cars turned onto the expressway, and Jim’s car was one of them.
Notice that there is an independent clause on each side of the punctuation.
Punctuating introductory clauses and phrases
You have now dealt with many introductory clauses and phrases. Here is a general rule to help you punctuate them.
Punctuation Rule 2
Introductory Clauses and Phrases
All dependent adjective and adverb clauses, verbal phrases, and appositives that begin a sentence must be
separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. The following sentences show how this rule works.
Introductory clause
Because he was married before he turned twenty, William Shakespeare faced the dual problems
of family and career at an early age.
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Introductory verbal phrase
Married before he turned twenty, William Shakespeare faced the dual problems of family and
career at an early age.
Introductory appositive
A married man before he turned twenty, William Shakespeare faced the dual problems of
family and career at an early age.
Punctuating “extra” clauses and phrases
This rule deals with adjective and adverb clauses and phrases that contain extra information.
Punctuation Rule 3
Extra Adjective and Adverb Clauses and Phrases
Adjective and adverb clauses, verbal phrases, and appositives that contain extra information must be
separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.
Necessary and extra adjective verbal phrases were discussed at length in Chapter 14 (pages 170—171), and
adjective clauses were considered in Chapter 16 (pages 212—219). You may recall that extra adjective clauses or
verbal phrases can be removed from a sentence without changing its meaning. They provide information that may
be interesting and helpful but is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Extra adjective clause
Stanley, who was working in a factory at the time, wrote several short novels during the
early 1970s.
Extra verbal phrase
Stanley, working in a factory at the time, wrote several short novels during the early 1970s.
Appositives can also be identified as extra or necessary. Extra appositives are not essential to the meaning of the
sentence.
Extra appositive
Stanley, a factory worker at the time, wrote several short novels during the early 1970s.
Extra adverb clauses are usually introduced by tip-off words like.
Extra adverb clause
Stanley wrote several short novels during the early 1970s, although he was working in a
factory at the time.
Punctuating interrupters and lists
The next three rules deal with interrupters, lists, and coordinate adjectives.
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Punctuation Rule 4
Interrupters
Separate interrupter words, phrases, and clauses from the rest of the sentence with commas. These
interrupters include the following:
1
besides therefore by the way
consequently as a result of course
furthermore yes for example
however no on the one hand
moreover well on the other hand
nevertheless oh
meanwhile
names and titles of people spoken to
I believe
I suppose
not
such as
2
3
I think
it seems to me
according to
but
Keep in mind that interrupters can occur in three positions. The following sentences illustrate these patterns.
Interrupter at beginning
According to reporters, several citizens have mysteriously disappeared from the capital.
Interrupter in middle
Several citizens, according to reporters, have mysteriously disappeared from the capital.
Interrupter at end
Several citizens have mysteriously disappeared from the capital, according to reporters.
Interrupters in Group 2 are not punctuated as interrupters when they appear at the beginning of the sentence.
“I believe” as an interrupter
Several citizens, I believe, have mysteriously disappeared from the capital.
“I believe” at the beginning of a sentence
I believe several citizens have mysteriously disappeared from the capital.
Punctuation Rule 5
Lists
Separate with a comma each item in a list of three or more. Do not separate items in a list of two.
This rule is easily applied, as the following examples show.
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List of two items
An earthquake rocked the mountains of Peru and Chile.
List of three items
An earthquake rocked the mountains of Peru, Chile, and Bolivia.
Note the comma used with and in the last example above.
A variation of the list rule involves adjectives that could be joined by and but are not. These are called coordinate
adjectives.
Punctuation Rule 6
Coordinate Adjectives
Use a comma to join adjectives that could be joined by the coordinating conjunction and.
Compare the following sentences.
Office politics is a serious and dangerous game.
Office politics is a serious, dangerous game.
Note that both of the sentences above are correct.
Punctuating direct quotations
The rule below sums up the necessary steps.
Punctuation Rule 7
Direct Quotations
1. Place quotation marks around the speaker’s exact words.
2. Use commas to punctuate the he said statement, if any, as an interrupter.
3. Capitalize the first letter of the speaker’s words, no matter where the first letter appears.
4. Use a question mark instead of a comma or a period to show a question by the speaker or the writer.
Use an exclamation point in the same way to indicate an exclamation.
5. Use one set of quotation marks for the words of one speaker, unless those words are interrupted by
the writer’s comments. Use new quotation marks to show a change of speakers.
The following sentence illustrates the final effects of applying these steps.
The sales manager said, “We should take advantage of each of these opportunities.”
Notice that the comma and the period appear before the quotation marks.
Punctuating Indirect Quotations
Indirect quotations are usually sentences with noun clauses as objects, like the following:
The manager said that she was tired. (Speaker’s exact words: I am tired.)
The speaker’s exact words have been changed (this is what makes the quotation indirect). Notice that the
noun clause containing the speaker’s words acts as the object of the verb. For this reason, indirect
quotations like the one above receive no special punctuation.
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A variation of this pattern places the he said statement (or some version of it) in the middle of the
quotation. There it acts like an interrupter. Compare the following.
A company representative announced that no more workers would be laid off this year. (A
version of he said at the beginning of the sentence.)
No more workers, a company representative announced, would be laid off this year. (A version
of he said as an interrupter.)
Using the colon, dash, and hyphen
This rule applies to three important, but less common, punctuation marks. They are the colon (:), the dash (—), and
the hyphen (-).
Punctuation Rule 8
Colon, Dash, and Hyphen
Use a colon or dash to attach a list or an explanation to the end of a sentence.
Use dashes to add a list or an explanation in the middle of a sentence.
Use a hyphen to form some compound words or to divide a word at the end of a line.
The following sentences show how these marks are used.
Colon before a list or explanation
I took this job for two reasons: advancement and money.
Dash before a list or explanation
I took this job for two reasons—advancement and money.
Dashes with an interrupting list
Two reasons—advancement and money—made me take this job.
Hyphen to form compound words
She is a well-meaning but rather self-centered person.
Hyphen to divide a word
I took this job because I needed the challenge of new responsibilities.
Using Apostrophes
The apostrophe (‘) is used to make possessive adjectives. All nouns and most pronouns form possessive
adjectives by using the apostrophe. The following rule will help your to spell these words correctly.
Punctuation Rule 9
Apostrophes in Possessive Adjectives
To form possessive adjectives:
1. Write the name of the owner or owners.
2. Add an apostrophe to the end of the word that names the owner.
3. Add an s after the apostrophe if the word that names the owner is either
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a. Singular, or
b. Plural not ending in s.
This rule is easy to apply and always produces the correct answer. The chief problem in spelling
possessive adjectives is the temptation to add the apostrophe inside the name of the owner, not after it. Be
sure to write the word that names the owner or owners first. Then add the apostrophe and, if necessary,
the s.
Using commas with conjunctions
There are three kinds of conjunctions—coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and subordinating
conjunctions. When we use all these conjunctions, we often have to use commas as well. Let us look at these three
kinds of conjunctions and see what kind of punctuation should be used with them.
Commas with coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join equals. They include and, or, but, nor, yet, for, and so. The
following information summarizes the use of commas with coordinating conjunctions:
1. Conjunction joining a list of two items in an independent clause—NO COMMAS
2. Conjunction joining a list of three or more items in an independent clause—USE
COMMAS
3. Conjunctions joining independent clauses—USE COMMAS
The most difficult situations to punctuate correctly involve conjunctions joining two verbs. Sentences where a
conjunction joins two verbs in one independent clause are often confused with sentences where a conjunction joins
two independent clauses.
Conjunction joining two verbs in one independent clause
Several men returned to the cabin and searched again for the old iron box.
Conjunction joining two independent clauses
Several men returned to the cabin, and they searched again for the old iron box.
Commas with subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions make a clause (or a phrase) dependent on another clause. Clauses beginning with a
subordinating conjunction (for example, when, while, since, although) can be noun or adverb clauses and are
punctuated according to the rules for such clauses
Commas with conjunctive adverbs
The interrupter rule (Rule 4) shows how to punctuate conjunctive adverbs— words like however, nevertheless, and
yet. When used in combination with a semicolon, these words can join independent clauses. In such cases, the
conjunctive adverb is always followed by a comma.
Cobwebs hung from the ceiling; however, the tiled floor was spotless.
Notice that both the interrupter rule and the independent clauses rule (Rule 1) are followed. The semicolon joins the
two clauses. The interrupter, appearing at the beginning of the second main clause, is punctuated with a comma
according to the interrupter pattern.
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Breaking punctuation rules
Like all rules, punctuation rules can, and sometimes should, be broken. Of course, we need to know them in order
to break them properly; therefore, we still need to learn them.
We should not break punctuation rules on a whim but only when another, more important principle is considered.
The following principles are a guide to how and when you can break the rules you have learned.
1. Do not over punctuate short sentences.
2. Add commas wherever they are needed to make an unclear sentence clear.
3. It is not necessary to separate simple interrupters that do not “feel” like interrupters.
Take these principles into account when you punctuate. A complete discussion of each principle follows.
Over punctuating short sentences
To prevent short sentences from appearing over punctuated, you can leave out commas that normally appear
1. after introductory clauses and phrases.
2. with a conjunction between independent clauses.
Adding commas for clarity
Some sentences contain combinations of words that could be read in two ways. To keep readers from misreading a
sentence, commas can be used to group phrases properly.
Consider this example:
In short, sentences must be easily read to be considered well written.
If the comma after short were removed, the beginning of the sentence would read
In short sentences…
The comma after short prevents anyone from misunderstanding the sentence.
Simple interrupters
Sometimes a simple interrupter, like however or nevertheless, just doesn’t seem to interrupt the sentence. You may
leave out the commas in such a sentence.
She is nevertheless a good student.
Placing commas before and after nevertheless would create awkward pauses where none are needed. Test sentences
like this both ways before you decide on no punctuation. Remember that commas are needed with interrupters most
of the time.
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