Ch 11 - Jeff Standen

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Chapter 11 feelings and mental processes cannot capture the complexity of human nature and behaviour. Some see the behavioural model as reducing us to the status of rats (Heather, 1976). Understanding causes Is abnormal behaviour caused by learning? Just because abnormal behaviour can be changed by behaviour therapy based on conditioning, this does not necessarily mean that the behaviour was learned this way in the first place. For example, if depression is lifted by positive reinforcement, this does not necessarily mean that it was caused by an absence of positive reinforcement. For behaviourism, changing maladaptive behaviour solves all psychological problems because the behaviour is the problem. Critics say that this is like treating measles by painting out the spots - it ignores the underlying causes. Many believe that the behavioural model fails to provide an adequate explanation for psychological disorders (Davison & Neale, 1998). Treatment Behaviour therapy appears to be effective for certain disorders - for example, phobias - but not for others. Some forms of treatment have only limited, short-term benefits. For example, the effects of aversion therapy are often limited to the therapist's office and do not extend to the client's everyday life (Comer, 1998). Ethical issues In some cases, treatment is imposed on people without their consent - for example, token economies in schools, prisons and mental hospitals. Aversion therapy can cause clients pain, or at least discomfort. By today's standards, some instances of aversion therapy are unethical - for example, the 'treatment' sometimes applied to homosexuals in the 1960s - see p 147. And some of the early experiments, for example Little Albert, would be completely out of bounds in terms of today's ethical guidelines. (Summary 1 The behavioural model argues that all behaviour - D normal and abnormal - is learned in the same way There are two main processes of learning - conditioning and operant conditioning. classical The behavioural model focuses on behaviour rather than the mind. Behaviour therapy is concerned with changing abnormal behaviour. It uses techniques such as systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy and the token economy. Behaviourists claim their approach is scientific - it is based on observable behaviour and supported by evidence from laboratory experiments. Critics claim it is too narrow and simplistic - in particular, it largely omits thoughts and feelings. Activity 3 The behavioural model Obscene phone calls A 32-year-old married man made up to twenty obscene phone calls a week to young women. His therapy involved making obscene calls to young women in a nearby office. They then met him in the presence of the therapist. The client found these meetings extremely unpleasant - he felt ashamed and embarrassed. He felt no strong urge to make further obscene calls, and over the next nine months no such calls were reported by people in the neighbourhood. Adapted from Boudewyns et al., 1975 Fear of criticism A 35-year-old postman lived in fear of being criticised. The therapist created a list of anxiety-producing scenes. For example: • Mrs Smith complains you are late delivering her mail. • Your wife criticises you for forgetting to do the shopping on your way home. The client was taught to relax deeply and imagine these scenes while remaining calm. Eventually, he learned to confront these imaginary situations without becoming anxious and agitated. Gradually, his fear of criticism in real life reduced. Adapted from Davison & Neale, 1998 Questions 1 What types of behaviour therapy are being used in Items A and B? 2 With reference to Items A and B, suggest how they work. Tl66l IP ipn/pfppyppppil^fipjj^l
Unit 5 The humanistic model of abnormality KEY ISSUES 1. What are the main features of the humanistic model? 2. What type of therapy does it recommend? The main features of the humanistic model The humanistic model emerged during the 1950s and 1960s as a reaction against the psychodynamic and behavioural models. It accused both of being deterministic. It called itself 'the third force' in clinical psychology. The humanistic model presents an optimistic picture of human beings. It emphasises the essential goodness and dignity of human nature. Every human being has the potential for self-actualisation - to find fulfilment, to achieve happiness, to discover meaning in life, and to develop selfunderstanding and a sense of self-worth. Problems arise when the road to self-actualisation is blocked. Carl Rogers (1902-1987), one of the founders of humanistic psychology, argued that the potential for selfactualisation can be blocked in infancy (Rogers, 1951; 1959). Children need positive regard, particularly from their parents. They need to feel loved and accepted, needed and valued. From this, they develop a positive selfimage and a feeling of self-worth. Positive regard needs to be unconditional and non-judgemental. If parents constantly place conditions on their love, for example, 'We'll only love you if you behave, if you do well at school ...', then children will tend to judge themselves and behave in terms of standards imposed by others, rather than becoming a person in their own right. If they are constantly criticised by their parents, then children will tend to develop a negative self-image and question their worth. This will tend to block the path to self-actualisation - they will be unlikely to develop self-acceptance and a positive view of self. Rogers does not suggest that parents should uncritically accept everything a child does. Instead, he states that the act rather than the child be criticised - for example, 'That was a bad thing to do' rather than, 'You are a bad girl'. Unconditional positive regard during infancy and childhood opens the door to self-actualisation. It allows people to accept themselves, to recognise both their strengths and weaknesses; it encourages a sense of selfworth, and provides a route to self-fulfilment. |^j[7iumartistic therapy Humanistic therapy aims to provide people with an opportunity to be honest with themselves. This is seen as a starting point for self-actualisation. Rogers' client-centred therapy focuses on people as individuals who can shape their own lives. The therapist must not give advice, tell clients what to do, or interpret their behaviour. Instead, the therapist must create a warm, supporting and accepting environment which allows clients to discover themselves and search for their own, individual meanings. Therapists must show unconditional positive regard - they must be accepting and uncritical, sincere and genuine. This will encourage clients to be honest and accepting about themselves and to realise their potential for self-fulfilment and personal growth. This is the route by which they will recognise and become their true selves. I^J^Evaluation of the h umanistic model The humanistic model rejects many aspects of the psychodynamic, behavioural and biological models. It rejects the psychodynamic view as too pessimistic and the behavioural view as demeaning. It refuses to accept the classification system of psychological disorders which is based on the biological model. It rejects the view that disorders have a biological basis. And it is opposed to treatments, such as drug therapy, recommended by the biological model. The humanistic model was popular during the 1960s and early 70s, particularly in the USA. It reflected many of the ideas current at the time. The hippies' slogan 'love and peace', and their belief that if people could discover their true selves then the world would be a better place, mirrored aspects of the humanistic model. Today, the model has largely gone out of fashion with psychotherapists, but is extremely popular in the counselling industry. In its favour, the humanistic model takes an optimistic view of human nature, seeing people as essentially good. It avoids the stigma - the shame - of mental illness with its reluctance to diagnose and label psychological disorders. Instead, its starting point is the road to psychological health and wellbeing. Critics often see this focus as counterproductive, arguing that many psychological disorders require specific types of treatment and, in some cases, medical treatment. They point to research which indicates that client-centred therapy is not particularly successful in providing 'cures' for disorders (Greenberg et al., 1994). Some critics question the apparent optimism of the humanistic model. They suggest it implies that disorders result from personal failure - in particular, the failure to achieve self-actualisation. 167
Page 1 and 2: Introduction The last chapter looke
Page 3 and 4: Models of abnormality Kraepelin (18
Page 5 and 6: - M Models of abnormality diathesis
Page 7 and 8: Models of abnormality ( Unit 3 The
Page 9 and 10: Models of abnormality John Bowlby's
Page 11 and 12: The psychodynamic model The psyche
Page 13: odels of abnormality This often inv
Page 17 and 18: Consider the following 'irrational
Page 19 and 20: syndromes - psychological disorders
Page 21: c American Psychiatric Association

Ch 11 - Jeff Standen

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