efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water
efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water
efsa-opinion-chromium-food-drinking-water
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Chromium in <strong>food</strong> and <strong>drinking</strong> <strong>water</strong><br />
reviewed by Thor et al. (2011). Across the articles reviewed, a total of 1382 <strong>chromium</strong> values were<br />
reported for 856 <strong>food</strong>s. Means, standard deviations, medians, and range <strong>chromium</strong> values for the most<br />
commonly consumed <strong>food</strong>s in the USA, for which two or more analytical values were identified in the<br />
literature (23 publications), are listed in Appendix C.<br />
Another recent review on <strong>chromium</strong> in <strong>food</strong> products indicated that the largest quantities in breakfast<br />
<strong>food</strong> products occur in raw cereal products (non-roasted buckwheat (0.82 mg/kg) or brown rice bread<br />
(0.86 mg/kg)) and herbs such as garlic (0.99 mg/kg dry weight (d.w.)) or mint (1.11 mg/kg d.w.). The<br />
lowest <strong>chromium</strong> contents were observed in raw and ultra high temperature (UHT)-processed milk<br />
samples (Sykula-Zajac and Pawlak, 2012).<br />
The content of total Cr determined in 72 samples of 17 different spices and aromatic herbs of the<br />
Spanish diet ranged from not detectable to 1.42 mg/kg d.w., the highest Cr concentrations were in<br />
dried garlic samples and Cr presence was detected in 95 % of samples (Garcia et al., 2000). In some<br />
basic <strong>food</strong>s of the Spanish diet, total Cr ranged from not detected (nd) to 0.040 mg/kg in olive oils,<br />
from 0.004 to 0.079 mg/kg in sea<strong>food</strong>, from 0.007 to 0.456 mg/kg in cereals and vegetables<br />
(maximum in sweet corn), and from nd to 0.065 mg/kg in dairy products, except in curd and custard<br />
(range 0.500-0.625 mg/kg) (Lendinez et al., 2001). The total Cr content in 36 different types of three<br />
commercial brands of breakfast cereals, accounting for 85 % of the Spanish market, ranged from<br />
0.09 to 0.55 mg/kg (mean content of 0.23 mg/kg) (Mateos et al., 2003). Eleven different types of<br />
infant formulae (cow’s milk and soy protein based, number of samples, n = 104) marketed in Spain<br />
were also analysed for total Cr content (Sola-Larranaga and Navarro-Blasco, 2006). The results are<br />
expressed as µg/L according to the manufacturer’s dilution instructions. In general, the infant formulae<br />
contain a higher <strong>chromium</strong> concentration than that found in human milk (reference range: 0.20-<br />
8.18 µg/L), particularly in the case of hypoallergenic (mean 18.16 µg/L), lactose-free (11.37 µg/L),<br />
pre-term (mean 11.48 µg/L) and soya (mean 10.43 µg/L) formulae. The mean of the other types of<br />
infant formulae (adapted, type 1 and 2, functional 1 and 2, follow-up and toddler) ranged from 6.29 to<br />
9.68 µg/L. A comparison with results from various countries (Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, Spain,<br />
UK, Nigeria, USA) found in the literature between 1983 and 2005 indicated a wide variability of<br />
<strong>chromium</strong> content in infant formula with values reported in some surveys considerably higher (range<br />
1.9-174 µg/L), probably due to the limited number of samples or insufficient control of contamination<br />
in sample handling.<br />
Chromium content of various Greek <strong>food</strong>s (n = 532) indicated that in average, meat, fish and sea<strong>food</strong>,<br />
cereals and pulses were higher sources of <strong>chromium</strong> (> 0.100 mg/kg on average, range 0.02-<br />
0.45 mg/kg) than fruits, milk, oils and fats and sugar (range 0.01 - 0.28 mg/kg) (Brakatos et al., 2002).<br />
Average <strong>chromium</strong> concentrations in dairy products from sheep milk collected in eight farms in two<br />
regions of Southern Italy ranged from 0.14 (in milk) to 0.47 mg/kg d.w. (in mature cheese) (Anastasio<br />
et al., 2006). In 2010, the analysis of total Cr in the flesh and hepatopancreas of 320 cephalopod<br />
mollusks sampled in the Southern Adriatic Sea indicated that total Cr was uniformly distributed<br />
among the various families (0.38-0.43 mg/kg in the flesh) (Storelli et al., 2010). Another Italian study<br />
indicated that <strong>chromium</strong> ranges in 54 wild boar samples were 0.069-0.692 mg/kg (mean 0.133 mg/kg)<br />
in meat and < 0.012 (LOD)-0.626 mg/kg (mean 0.146 mg/kg) in liver (Danieli et al., 2012).<br />
In France, of the 1319 <strong>food</strong> samples analysed for the Second total diet study (TDS), the highest mean<br />
levels were found in the <strong>food</strong> group ‘fat and oil’ (0.810 mg/kg), followed by ‘sweeteners, honey and<br />
confectionery’ (0.574 mg/kg) and ‘ice cream’ (0.365 mg/kg) (Noël et al., 2012). For the remaining<br />
<strong>food</strong> groups, concentrations ranged from 0.056 mg/kg (drinks) to 0.299 mg/kg (meats and offal). For<br />
all groups, these concentrations were between 2.4 and 13 times (fat and oil) higher than those of the<br />
First TDS (‘sweeteners, honey and confectionery’ (0.161 mg/kg), ‘cereals and cereal products’<br />
(0.124 mg/kg) and ‘ice cream’ (0.107 mg/kg), the other groups contained less than 0.100 mg/kg on<br />
average) (Leblanc et al., 2005), which could be related to the use of stainless steel, aluminium or cast<br />
iron kitchen equipment (not used in the First TDS) and the sample grinding equipment. In a specific<br />
study of fish and other sea<strong>food</strong> from the French market (n = 159), <strong>chromium</strong> was found at an average<br />
level of 0.220 mg/kg in fish and 0.228 mg/kg in sea<strong>food</strong> (Guérin et al., 2011). Amongst fish, eel and<br />
anchovy had the highest levels of Cr (0.573 and 0.450 mg/kg, respectively) and amongst sea<strong>food</strong>,<br />
EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 32