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and the potential for growth is still substantial in many places. Estimates indicate that it accounts for at least 5% of the combined Gross National Products (GNPs) of all countries, although wide variations exist. For example, in the early 1990s tourism was estimated to contribute about 43% of the Caribbean region’s combined GNP (Miller and Auyong, 1991). Since the late 1970s, a range of textbooks and assessment reports have discussed the close interrelationships between tourism and the environment (e.g., Edington and Edington, 1986; Briassoulis and Van der Straaten, 1992; Nelson et al., 1993). A common conclusion is that the viability and sustainability of the tourism sector is often undermined by (i) a lack of consideration of the external effects of sectoral activities on environmental and amenity values that underpin tourism and (ii) the adverse effects of tourism and tourism development itself. Thus, whilst coastal tourism can be threatened by other developments in the coastal zone, tourist activities themselves may also give rise to conflicts. Activities that could jeopardise tourism in coastal areas include aquaculture, agriculture, industry and oil and gas exploitation. These activities often compete for the same space and resources as those desired by tourists. Moreover, they may cause damage to coastal and marine habitats and thereby degrade the basic resource upon which tourism depends to thrive and grow (e.g., Dulvy et al., 1995). In addition, eutrophication and microbial pollution caused by the disposal of untreated waste into coastal waters can affect the quality of seafood and bathing water and thus pose risks to human health. Gastroenteritis is the most common of the diseases that can be contracted (Andreadakis, 1997; Pruss, 1998), but cholera and typhoid can also be developed after the consumption of contaminated seafood (Desenclos, 1996). Environmental degradation caused by tourist development is perhaps most clearly observed in coral settings. A case study by Hawkins and Roberts (1994) examined the impacts of expanding coastal tourism on coral reefs along the Red Sea coast of Egypt. Activities are in progress to support an almost twelvefold increase in the number of visitors to this area over the period 1990–2005, 55% of which is likely to occur in the two popular resorts Hurghada and Sharm-el-Sheikh. Present development in Hurghada has already damaged inshore reefs to the extent that what remains is of little interest to divers and snorkellers, who are now directed to offshore reefs. The massive expansion plans are likely to increase current problems of infilling, sedimentation, eutrophication, overfishing and trampling in both Hurghada and Sharmel-Sheikh unless current regulations are enforced and restrictions on tourism growth are imposed (Hawkins and Roberts, 1994). One example of tourism-related pollution is connected with the use of tributyltin as an anti-fouling agent in paints that, in spite of increasingly strict legislation to control their usage, are still applied to protect vessel hulls, including those of recreational craft. Tributyltin is amongst the most toxic compounds introduced into the marine environment. It causes reproductive disorders in many gastropod species such as whelks, of which the females develop male characteristics—a mechanism referred to as imposex (Demora and Pelletier, 1997). Alternative anti-fouling paints are currently under development and a total ban on the use of tributyltin is expected before 2010 (Ten Hallers-Tjabbes, 1997). However, the problem of imposex will not be solved overnight, since large concentrations of tributyltin have accumulated in marine sediments, especially in port areas and near shipping routes. Meanwhile, key questions about toxicological mechanisms, particularly in mammals, remain unanswered (Demora and Pelletier, 1997). In summary, tourism can be an important source of income for many coastal countries but great care must be taken in tourism planning and management to avoid “killing the goose that lays the golden eggs”. In most coastal nations there are increasing demands for coastal sites for tourism development; policymakers are facing a major challenge in meeting demands whilst protecting the quality of the environment (Knight et al., 1997; White et al., 1997). A bitter lesson learnt by several Mediterranean and Asian coastal nations is that once the quality of the environment declines, tourism revenues also drop. Once the reputation of an area has been damaged, it is extremely difficult to convince people to return. 2.3.2. Fisheries About 950 million people worldwide depend on fish as their primary source of protein, whilst the fishing industry directly or indirectly employs some 200 million people (WRI, 1996). Amongst the 40 countries that rank highest in per-capita consumption of marine sources of protein, all but one are developing countries. In 1995, total global fish production reached a 6
level of 112.9 million metric tons, 75% of which were marine landings, 6.3% marine aquaculture, 6.4% inland catch and 12.2% inland aquaculture. Of total global fish production, 81.9 million tonnes were used for human consumption; the remainder was reduced to fishmeal and oil (Grainger, 1997). Three decades ago, Gulland (1971) estimated that the maximum sustainable yield for traditionally exploited marine species would be about 100 million tonnes per year. Despite fisheries also turning to non-traditional species, marine capture has been fairly stable between 78 and 86 million tonnes since 1986 (although an upward trend can be seen as of 1994), whilst marine aquaculture has increased from 3 to more than 7 million tonnes over the same period (Grainger, 1997). Caught but not included in the statistics are species of low commercial value and juvenile species. This unwanted bycatch has been estimated at between 18 and 39 million tonnes per year (Alverson et al., 1994). An important sign that marine fish are currently being overexploited is the increasing catch of mature and senescent fish and the decreasing catch of undeveloped and developing fish. This suggests that fewer fish are being born than are caught (Grainger and Garcia, 1996). This trend reflects the intensification of fisheries since 1950 and the increase in the proportion of marine fish subject to declines in productivity. It also underlines the fact that the growing total tonnage of fish production over this period gives a misleading picture of the state of world fisheries and a false sense of security (Grainger and Garcia, 1996). However, projections by individual nations, especially China, suggest that marine fish landings will continue to increase significantly. Continued overexploitation and declining productivity could result in demands for marine fish exceeding annual production, with the consequent effect of increased prices and reduced availability of marine protein to many people in developing countries. In addition to overexploitation, part of the explanation for the stress on marine fish stocks lies in the loss of coastal fisheries habitats as a result of marine pollution and their conversion to aquaculture or other productive land. These habitats form the breeding, nursery and feeding grounds for many fish and crustaceans that are currently exploited. In countries such as Thailand and the Philippines, it is estimated that more than 70% of the mangrove area has been cleared and replaced by shrimp ponds (WRI, 1996). The socio-economic impacts of coastal aquaculture developments that require major alteration of coastal ecosystems can be far-reaching. Apart from the direct loss of mangrove and other valuable coastal systems, coastal aquaculture can have a number of other adverse consequences on coastal systems. Reported impacts include land subsidence, acidification of soils and estuarine waters, salinisation of groundwater and agricultural lands and the subsequent loss of economic and environmental goods and services upon which coastal communities rely (WRI, 1996). Coastal aquaculture has led to drops in agricultural productivity and farm incomes, reduced water supplies, loss of income from fishing and forestry and increasing hazard of coastal flooding. One of the more recent socio-economic problems resulting from large-scale aquaculture development is the growing frequency of disease outbreaks, including algae blooms known as red tides, which can cause mass fish kills, resulting in major losses of income and threats to public health (WRI, 1996). 2.3.3. Nature conservation As discussed in Section 2.1, coastal zones provide a range of environmental goods and services that are essential to human social and economic well-being. Although each ecosystem function provides different goods and services, its performance is often strongly connected to that of other functions. Development in coastal zones is traditionally triggered by the many economic opportunities provided by the user and production functions. However, often there has been little awareness that regulation functions provide the essential conditions for the full performance of these user and production functions. It is often not recognised that there are limits to the extent to which natural coastal systems allow for the exploitation of resources produced in coastal zones or that radical changes to these systems may adversely affect the availability or regeneration of these resources. One of the main reasons for the ongoing loss of natural habitat due to human activities is the fact that the importance of nature and a healthy environment to human well-being is not fully reflected in economic planning and decision-making. It is difficult to attach a monetary 7
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