Fire Station Location Study - City of Oklahoma City

OKLAHOMA CITY FIRE DEPARTMENT 

FIRE STATION LOCATION STUDY 

Submitted to: 

Fire Chief G. Keith Bryant 

Oklahoma City Fire Department 

820 N.W. 5th 

Oklahoma City, OK 73106 

(405) 297–3314 

Submitted by: 

TriData, a Division of System Planning Corporation 

1000 Wilson Blvd., 30th Floor 

Arlington, VA 22209 

(703) 351–8300 

SEPTEMBER 2006


Fire Station Location Study 

Table of Contents 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. 1 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 3 

I. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 6 

Organization of the Report ......................................................................................................... 6 

Scope of Work and Overall Methodology.................................................................................. 7 

Overview of Oklahoma City Fire Department ........................................................................... 9 

Background of City................................................................................................................... 10 

II. RISK AND DEMAND ................................................................................................ 15 

What are the major risks? ......................................................................................................... 15 

Population ................................................................................................................................. 19 

Aging Demographics ................................................................................................................ 21 

The Future: Demand and Workload Forecasts ......................................................................... 21 

Workload Forecast by Unit....................................................................................................... 25 

III. DETERMINING RESOURCE NEEDS...................................................................... 31 

Sources to Aid in Developing Criteria...................................................................................... 32 

Response Times ........................................................................................................................ 35 

Number of Stations ................................................................................................................... 44 

Number of Apparatus................................................................................................................ 51 

Inter-jurisdictional Comparisons .............................................................................................. 61 

IV. STATION AND APPARATUS DEPLOYMENT ....................................................... 67 

Current Response Times........................................................................................................... 67 

Analysis of Station and Apparatus Locations........................................................................... 76 

Recommended Moves and Additional Stations and Apparatus................................................ 80 

Summary................................................................................................................................... 95 

Fire Prevention.......................................................................................................................... 98 

Opportunities for Regional Cooperation................................................................................... 99 

V. EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES .................................................................... 102 

Overview................................................................................................................................. 102 

Ability to House EMS Units and Personnel ........................................................................... 107 

TriData, a Division of September 2006 

System Planning Corporation



APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................. 113 

APPENDIX B: CAPITAL RECOMMENDATIONS BY BUDGET YEAR ..................... 115 

APPENDIX C: REPORT MAPS.................................................................................. 116 

TriData, a Division of September 2006 




ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We wish to thank the leaders and staff members of the many Oklahoma City agencies 

that provided valuable insight for this study. They not only provided information and welcomed 

our visits to their areas, but also interacted helpfully with us throughout the study. 

Fire Chief G. Keith Bryant, and many other chiefs, officers, firefighters and managers of 

the Oklahoma City Fire Department were extremely cooperative, gracious, and forthcoming in 

relation to providing data, facilitating tours of the city, arranging station and facility visits and 

providing insight into the department. 

We would particularly like to thank Captain James Kruta who was the Project Manager 

for the department. He efficiently and effectively facilitated all of our data requests, arrangement 

of meetings, and visits, while keeping a strict, succinct schedule during our triage and follow-up 

visits. 

The men and women of the Oklahoma City government were instrumental in making this 

study a success. Without their cooperation, our ability to produce a quality product would have 

been compromised. Some of these professional included: 

City Councilman Gary Mars (retired fire chief) 

City Manager James Couch 

Assistant City Manager M.T. Berry 

Fire Chief G. Keith Bryant 

Deputy Chief David Landsbeger, Fire Operations 

Deputy Chief Pete Hurston, Fire Prevention 

Deputy Chief Tony Young, Support Services 

Battalion Chief Donald Fonzie, Communications 

Major James Blocker, Emergency Medical Services 

Major Michael Burner, Health and Safety Officer 

Major Shawn Bray, Building Service 

Lieutenant Betty Lamb, Communications 

While we received excellent input and cooperation from the city, the evaluation and 

recommendations reflected in the report are those of the TriData project team. The principal 

members of the team and their areas of responsibility are shown below, but this was a team effort 

and views were sought from multiple team members on virtually every aspect of the Oklahoma 

City Fire Department. 

TriData, a Division of 1 September 2006 




Acknowledgements 

TRIDATA STAFF 

Philip Schaenman 

Stephen Brezler 

Harold Cohen 

Daryl Sensenig 

Steven Lee 

Robin Davis 

Maria Argabright 

Teresa Copping 

Corporate Oversight 

Project Manager 

Deputy Project Manager 

Senior Research Analyst 

Station Location, Response Time, and GIS Analysis 

Inter-jurisdictional Comparisons, Station Location, GIS Analysis 

Production Coordination and Support 

Production Coordination and Support 

TriData, a Division of 2 

September 2006 




EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

This report presents the results of a detailed analysis of fire station locations, response 

times, demand forecasts, and resource deployment for Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The TriData 

Division of the System Corporation of Arlington, Virginia conducted this analysis. 

In late 2005 Oklahoma City sought proposals from outside firms to conduct a Fire Station 

Location Study. The City believed that housing, demographic and growth patterns had changed 

in the City in recent years. The scope of the study considered the satisfactoriness of the current 

station locations and deployment to meet existing demand and changes needed to meet growth. 

Our study makes 25 recommendations in four major chapters. 

• Risk and Demand 

• Determining Resource Needs 

• Station and Apparatus Deployment 

• Emergency Medical Services 

A table of the recommendations with a page reference for each is included as an 

appendix. 

CHAPTER II: RISK AND DEMAND ANALYSIS 

This Chapter describes the risk to Oklahoma City and the influences of population on 

demand for services of the fire department. 

The majority of emergency dispatches are for requests for emergency medical services. 

Fire calls make up 14 percent of the requests while requests for EMS service make up 78 percent 

and other incidents are 8 percent of the total requests for service. 

There are several areas of the city where response times exceed the nationally recognized 

standards for the time it takes for fire department resources to arrive on the scene of an 

emergency. We made several recommendations regarding the relocation of existing fire 

department resources and the locations of future stations to meet the anticipated needs of future 

service demands in Chapter IV, Station Location and Apparatus Deployment. 

CHAPTER III: DETERMINING RESOURCE NEEDS 

Making a determination of the proper levels of resources for a fire department to deploy 

requires balancing the safety concerns of citizens, risk factors and the financial situation of the 

local government. 

In making recommendations the project team considered standards of the Insurance 

Service Office (ISO), National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA), Center for Public Safety 

Excellence/Commission on Fire Accreditation International (CFAI) and The United States 





Executive Summary 

Occupational Safety and Heath Administration (OSHA). Standards of each organization are 

discussed in detail in this chapter. 

The NFPA’s Fire Protection Handbook makes staffing recommendations based on the 

number fire fighters needed for three types of building occupancies and hazards. These 

occupancies and hazards area classified as High, Medium and Low. We found the OKCFD meets 

or exceeds the NFPA guidance in all three categories. We recommend reducing the numbers and 

types of equipment dispatched for Medium and Low hazard occupancies as a means to manage 

work loads and improve response times by increasing availability of resources. 

There were 13 other cities used to make comparisons of the OKCFD. We compared 

populations, staffing, apparatus, call volume and per capita costs. Oklahoma City fares well in 

our comparisons. With the exception of cost per capita, the City falls near the average value of 

the categories listed. 

CHAPTER IV: STATION LOCATION AND APPARATUS DEPLOYMENT 

This chapter discusses the deployment of fire stations and emergency response apparatus. 

Many factors should be taken into account when determining the appropriate number of stations, 

including demand for services, population, density of demand and population, size of the 

jurisdiction, and desired response times. This chapter applies these factors to the current and 

future situation of the department. 

Actual incident data for CY04 through the first quarter of CY06 was gathered from the 

computer aided dispatch system (CAD). Data included addresses for geocoding, type of incident, 

units responding, and overall response times. 1 Geographic information system (GIS) files used 

for the analysis were provided by the city. 

Analysis of the four and eight minute response time routes from each station found there 

are several regions of the city where response times exceed those times. As the city continues to 

grow into these regions, expansion of coverage will be necessary. The chapter includes maps that 

show the current response patterns and the improvements in coverage and fractile response 

values if recommended redeployments and additional resources are made. 

Research validated a recommendation made by Oklahoma City Planning Department in a 

study of the Southwest Sector Plan. Page 35 of that report identifies a location at Council and 

SW 104 th Street that was recommended for a new fire station. 2 That region of the city is 

experiencing growth and has the potential for continued expansion. This will be the case if the 

planned extension of the Interstate Highway network occurs. 

1 Geocoding is a process by which the street address of an emergency incident is translated into latitude and 

longitude so that it can be placed onto a map. 

2 Southwest Sector Plan, Oklahoma City Planning Department, page 35 






Executive Summary 

We recommend the redeployment of existing resources such as rescue ladder companies; 

district chiefs and tankers (water tenders). We visited each fire station to determine its ability to 

house additional personnel and equipment. Mapping also identifies improved response patterns. 

Our study identified the stations where capital improvements would have to me made prior to the 

addition of additional equipment. This was not a detailed structural study of the buildings rather, 

it was a feasibility review to see which buildings could accommodate more equipment and 

personnel. 

This report can be used as a multi-year planning document for the future needs of the 

city. The fire station location recommendations are presented with priorities attached to show the 

needs as they exist today and with the expected growth of the city. 

CHAPTER V: EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES 

The Emergency Medical Services system was reviewed with respect to; the fire 

department’s role in EMS, suggested station locations for EMS transport units, and ability to 

house EMS units and personnel. We examined both quantitative and qualitative issues and 

involved stakeholders throughout the department. The complete detailed study of Emergency 

Medical Service was beyond the scope of this project, the study does make seven 

recommendations for improvement of the EMS delivery system. The core recommendations are, 

the all engine companies are upgraded to paramedic engine status, i.e. adding an Advanced Life 

Support (ALS) provider to each company. The program to complete this concept was started 

several years ago but has not been completed due to budget constraints. Another important 

recommendation was to add a contingency plan to the city’s emergency plan in the event of the 

contractual EMS provider defaulting by means of a work stoppage or other failure to deliver 

services. 






I. INTRODUCTION 

Oklahoma City and the Oklahoma City Fire Department (OCFD) requested the 

assistance of a professional consulting firm to provide a fire station location and apparatus 

deployment analysis. The focus of this study was to evaluate current station and apparatus 

locations and make recommendations to improve coverage and services. To perform the 

evaluation, the city selected TriData, a division of System Planning Corporation. 

TriData is an internationally recognized consulting firm that has undertaken over 130 

studies of this type, including studies for Fort Worth, Houston, Louisville, and many other metro 

cities. In addition, TriData works closely with the United States Fire Administration to compile 

annual fire loss statistical data and undertake topical studies on current issues affecting fire and 

emergency medical response in the United States. 

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT 

This report is organized into an introduction containing the methodology and general 

information about the project scope, then four main chapters, and finally a chapter listing a 

summary of all recommendations. While each chapter is largely a self-contained analysis reading 

the entire report aids in better understanding the whole study. The major chapters include: 

Chapter II, Risk and Demand discusses pressures that exist on the fire department to 

meet their requests for service, including an analysis of future population changes and a 

projection of demand which is important in predicting future viability of the system as well as 

the need for more or fewer resources to meet these demands. 

Chapter III, Determining Resources Needs discusses performance goals and standards 

typically used in the fire and EMS industry. The project team compares the city to these 

standards and makes recommendations on goals to be met. 

Chapter IV, Station and Apparatus Deployment presents a geographic information 

system (GIS) analysis of station locations and resource deployment. The analysis presents 

population and demand projections through 2020. Models are used to propose a new station 

configuration to meet the demand for emergency service while reducing redundancy of stations 

and apparatus coverage. 

Chapter V, Emergency Medical Services TriData was asked to evaluate several 

components of the Emergency Medical Services system including: (a) the fire department’s role 

in EMS, (b) suggested station locations for EMS transport units, (c) ability to house EMS units 

and personnel. We examined both quantitative and qualitative issues by involving stakeholders 

throughout the department and the OKC/EMSA Medical Director, Dr. John Sacra. 





I. Introduction 

SCOPE OF WORK AND OVERALL METHODOLOGY 

The review of station locations included a review of the current allocation and location of 

resources (Task I), forecast of future demands for service and population trends (Task II), and 

recommended changes to the current system (Task III). 

Needs Assessment – Demand for service is the product of demand per capita and 

population served. One needs to consider both elements in projecting demand. 

We assessed needs for fire, EMS (including ALS and BLS), and other emergency 

services using several approaches including: an analysis of trends in demand by type of call; 

projections of demand in terms of call per capita and per business (as available) and projection 

of overall demand in light of expected growth in total population and businesses; evaluation of 

the current quality of services (and hence the need to improve); discussions with local officials; 

and evaluation of the risks. We also considered the degree to which demand for service needs 

vary throughout the region and environs. 

Methodology – The methodology used for this study is based on TriData’s 24 years in 

undertaking similar projects. The study used a mixture of data analysis and personal interviews. 

This allowed the project team to develop a thorough picture of the Department. 

The study began with a kick-off conference call on March 6, 2006 between TriData staff 

and representatives from the OKC FD to discuss the study and discuss a tentative schedule for 

the first on site meeting. The kick-off conference ensured that the study plan was appropriate and 

that staff assignments are in line with the goals of the project. 

From March 14 to 17, 2006, members of the TriData team visited the city to perform a 

“triage” of goals, priorities and issues. The TriData team met with the OKC FD senior staff, 

project managers, representatives from the International Association of Fire Fighters Local #157 

and city officials from the Planning and Zoning Office and City Manager’s Office. City 

Councilman Gary Marrs; a retired Fire Chief of the Oklahoma City Fire Department and 

commander of the response to the Murrah Building bombing in 1995 was also interviewed. The 

visit also included ride-alongs with district chiefs to examine the conditions of the fire stations as 

per the scope of work. At the conclusion of the visit, a wrap-up meeting was conducted with key 

members of the OKCFD project team to discuss any issues that were identified during the visit. 

During the phase of the project, specialists from the study team undertook a series in 

depth reviews of the various functions, concentrating on the station location, station conditions 

and staffing issues. A series of data analyses were undertaken to project demand and consider 

various station location configurations, using GIS software. 

Risk Assessment (Task I and Task II) – In undertaking a risk assessment we consider 

actual past experience and potential risk for fire and EMS and other calls. We considered major 







fire risks (e.g., unsprinklered high-rises) hazardous materials risks, aging of the population, and 

concentration of people with high EMS demand. We determined whether risks are more or less 

uniformly distributed, or concentrated in particular areas. We identified (current and future) 

trends affecting fire and emergency protection—population growth, demographics, risks, 

incidents over the past decade, and crew workload. 

As part of this analysis, we used a methodology in which we project demand and 

population trends. We broke out call demand by call type, including fire, EMS, hazmat, etc. For 

this task, we have collected historical data (preferably from the CAD) for at least the past 3–5 

years. 

RESPONSE TIME ANALYSIS: We looked at response times, call volume, and types of 

incidents to determine the distribution and deployment of fire protection personnel and the 

proper types of equipment or apparatus to be used. GIS software was used to assist in making 

these decisions. 

We considered not only of the average response times of the areas served, but the 

cumulative frequency distribution of response times or fractile response times (i.e., the percent of 

calls responded to in 3 minutes, 4 minutes, 5 minutes, etc.), and the response times by area of the 

region and by type of call. Based on the demand projections and where growth is anticipated, 

TriData made recommendations on response time goals, determinations of the need for coverage 

in particular areas, the best locations for apparatus based on demand and response time goals, 

and offered specific recommendations on future delivery patterns. 

APPARATUS DEPLOYMENT: The station location analysis was tied into the apparatus 

deployment analysis and included an analysis of the number and types of units, the types of 

apparatus used, and the recommended staffing levels. Consideration was given to the level of 

service that can be provided once a unit arrives, to the safety of firefighters, EMS providers, and 

the public, and to compliance with national standards and guidelines. 

Based on the quantitative and qualitative considerations, we developed approaches for 

Oklahoma City to use in making decisions about the future. Without an unlimited budget, it was 

not possible to make decisions strictly on response time standards regardless of the cost of 

reaching those objectives. 

Prevention – Prevention programs influence demand by how often by giving them 

information on how to keep safe and when to make emergency calls. Prevention was not within 

the scope of this study; however, we needed to understand the role of the staffed units in fire and 

injury prevention as part of understanding their “busyness” and capacity to handle growth. The 

strength of the prevention program affects demand in the future, which in turn determines 

whether units get over taxed, and influences the need for relief units. So we had to consider at 

least that aspect of prevention. 







Apparatus and Equipment – Most of the analyses of the adequacy of apparatus and 

equipment were considered as part of the station location study. We addressed the types of 

apparatus needed for recommended new stations and shifting of equipment to different locations. 

OVERVIEW OF OKLAHOMA CITY FIRE DEPARTMENT 

The OKCFD is a municipal fire department that serves a city with over 530,000 residents 

and covers 621 square miles. This is one of the largest land areas in the nation, which affects 

deployment strategies. OCFD provides the city with fire suppression, wildland firefighting, 

hazardous materials mitigation, emergency medical service, technical rescue, fire prevention, fire 

investigation and public education. There are 948 employees of which 825 are uniformed. 3 

The fire chief has a safety officer, a liaison to emergency management, a civilian business 

manager and three deputy chiefs reporting directly to him. The deputy chiefs manage the 

activities of the three major bureaus: Prevention Services, Support Services, and Operational 

Services. 

The Prevention Services Bureau has three battalion chiefs supervising the Fire 

Investigation, Code Enforcement, and Public Education sections. The city makes a substantial 

commitment to public education. This is commendable given budget limitations of the past few 

years that saw reductions in staffing elsewhere in the department. 

Logistical and administrative services are provided by the Support Services Bureau, 

which includes maintenance, dispatch, human resources, a graphics office, FMIS, and facilities 

management. 

The bulk of the employees in the department are assigned to the Operations Services 

Bureau, headed by a deputy chief. The city is divided into 6 districts. A district/battalion chief 

supervises each district. Each district chief has an aide (district administrative assistant) who 

drives the battalion vehicle and act as adjunct for the chief. 

The city operates 36 engine companies out of 35 stations. Twenty of these engines are 

staffed with four personnel, one of whom is an Advanced Life Support (ALS) provider. These 20 

engines are designated as paramedic engines. The remaining 16 engine companies are staffed 

with three personnel. The department plans to upgrade these 16 engines to paramedic engines. 

Details of this program are included in Chapter V. There are 13 rescue ladders that have 

conventional aerial apparatus augmented with extrication and other rescue tools, thus the 

description “rescue ladder”. These companies are staffed with three personnel. 

Due to the hazards of ground cover or brush fires, the department also has 15 smaller 

“brush trucks” that have small (




As there are areas of the city that lack hydrant systems, the Department also operates 6 

water tenders (tankers). The tankers are independently staffed with a driver/operator. 

Station 5 is the hazardous materials response station and Station 8 houses the technical 

rescue team. Minimum staffing for each shift 213 personnel. 

BACKGROUND OF CITY 

Oklahoma City was founded when the west was still young. In 1889, President Benjamin 

Harrison authorized the opening of the Unassigned Lands, present day Oklahoma City. Settlers 

lined up at the borders, some slipping across the borders early, gaining the nickname “Sooners”. 

Over 10,000 people staked a claim in the area and by 1910, Oklahoma City was the largest city 

in the state and became its capital. Today, the city is a diverse, thriving metropolis and the 29 th 

largest city in population the United States It is home to Tinker Air Force Base and several 

Fortune 1000 and 500 companies. The city was the site of the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. 

Murrah Federal Building, the largest act of terrorism on American soil until the 9/11 attacks. 168 

people were killed and over 12,300 rescue workers and volunteers responded in the recovery 

effort. 

Size – Oklahoma City is the third largest city in the United States in terms of geographic 

area. It encompasses 621 square miles, with an urban core of over 240 square miles. It has grown 

through several annexations. The city is largely suburban and rural. The city’s urban area, like 

many other large cities, is currently experiencing a redevelopment and re-growth. 

Demographics – The city is home to a very diverse population. African-Americans and 

Hispanics account for over 25 percent of the 506,132 residents listed in the 2000 census. 

National studies have shown that African Americans, Hispanic and Native Americans tend to be 

at higher risks for fire injury and death than other groups, while Asians tend to experience lower 

risk. Figure 1 depicts the percent of the population by ethnic group from the 2000 Census. 







Figure 1: Oklahoma City Demographics 

Asian American, 

3.5% 

Other, 7.1% 

American Indian, 

3.5% 

Hispanic, 10.1% 

African American, 

15.4% 

White, 60.4% 

White African American Hispanic American Indian Asian American Other 

Source: United States Bureau of the Census, 2000 Population 

Note: Total is greater than 100 because it is possible for respondents to report Hispanic and a race. 

National studies have shown an inverse correlation between income and fire risk. 

Residents with lower income are often at higher risk for becoming victims of fire than persons 

with higher incomes. Sixteen percent of the population and 12.4 percent of families live below 

the poverty level. This is higher than the national averages of 12.4 percent and 9.2 percent, Out 

of the total population, 9.2 percent of residents 65 and older live below the poverty level. 

Age – The median age for residents is 34.0. This is slightly lower than the national 

median age of 36.2. City residents 65 years and older make up 11.5 percent of the population, 

and 14.3 percent of residents are under the age of 10. Based on national statistics, these two age 

groups are more at risk during fires than the population at large. The elderly (individuals over the 

age of 65) also tend to use the EMS system at a higher rate than the general population. 

Education 4 – Oklahoma City public schools are one of the few urban school systems in 

the county seeing a rise in enrollment. There are also many private and parochial schools in the 

4 Table DP-2. Profile of Selected Social Characteristics, 2000 Census. 







area. According to the 2000 Census, over 133,101 residents over the age of 3 were enrolled in an 

Oklahoma City school. The city also boasts many colleges and universities including Oklahoma 

City University, Oklahoma State University-Oklahoma City, and the University of Central 

Oklahoma. The University of Oklahoma is located just south of the city in the suburb of Norman. 

The area also has many community colleges and vocational schools. 

Over 80 percent of the population 26 years and older have obtained a high school 

diploma or higher. Nearly a quarter (24 percent) of the residents hold a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. Education has been related to fire risk; people with lower levels of education tend to be at 

a higher risk for fire injury or death. Those with lower education also tend to have lower income, 

another risk factor. 

Economy – The city has a varied and diverse economy. Oil and gas still play a major 

role as well as the service industry. The stockyards are the largest in the world and many of 

Fortune 500 and 1000 companies call the city home. Tinker AFB and its associated contractors, 

such as Boeing and Northrop Grumman, employ many of the cities residents. 

The city’s unemployment rate stays rather steady at around 3.3 percent though this might 

change due to a recent closing of a General Motors plant. This is lower than the national rate of 

5.4 percent. According to the 2000 Census, the median household income was $34,947. 

Although this is less the than the national median of $41,994, city residents enjoy the second 

lowest cost of living 

Transportation – Oklahoma City is a major regional hub in the Great Plains. It is 

bisected by Interstate 35, Interstate 40, and Interstate 44. Like other large cities, the city is served 

by an extensive network of major highways and freeways, however, due to a smaller population 

that is spread out most roads are less congested than most comparably sized cities. 

The city is home to several airports, including Wiley Post airport and the Will Rogers 

World Airport that processes almost 9,000 planes and 300,000 passengers a month. 5 Tinker Air 

Force Base, located in eastern Oklahoma City, is the largest air depot in the nation and the 

second largest military installation in the state. Base closures in other areas have solidified 

Tinker’s future as a major USAF installation. 

The city is also a major passenger and freight rail stop. Amtrak’s Heartland Flyer runs a 

daily service to and from Fort Worth, TX. Several freight lines, such as the Burlington Northern- 

Santa Fe and the Union Pacific, run trains in the area. Each day several thousand tons of cargos, 

including hazardous materials, run through the city’s suburbs. 

Due to the rejuvenation of the downtown area, the city is making a push towards mass 

transit. It currently runs a large bus and trolley system and the city government is reviewing a 

5 www.flyokc.com/releases Aviation Activity Report, January 2006 







study to implement light-rail in the region. City planners are also adding many pedestrian and 

bicycle paths that will make the city accessible no matter what transportation you take. 

Tax Base 6 – The majority (54 percent) of the city’s fiscal year 2004-2005 General Fund 

Revenue of $267,485,261 was from the city sales tax. This is broken down into a two percent 

general sales tax, a one percent public schools tax, a 0.75 percent public safety tax, and a .125 

percent zoo sales tax. Other revenue is raised through fines, franchise fees, licenses and permits, 

and service charges. The General Fund Revenue is expected to grow 3.3 percent over the next 

five years, which might not be enough to keep up with the growth in city expenditures, public 

safety consumes 55 percent of this budget each year. 

Housing 7 – Home ownership, type of residence, and structure age are all factors that 

contribute to fire risk and the need for emergency services. Older homes tend to be at higher risk 

for fire, particularly if they are not properly maintained. Some newer homes, mainly multi-unit 

structures are constructed with built-in fire protection, such as sprinklers. 

Of the city’s 228,188 housing units, 65 percent are single-family, detached homes, 

followed by multi-family dwellings with 20 or more units (8.1 percent). Over 30 percent of 

Oklahoma City’s homes were built before 1959. These homes are at a higher risk for fire if not 

properly maintained. Since 1990, about 15 percent of the areas houses were constructed and each 

year an average of 2,000 to 3,000 homes are built. 

The majority of the homes (67 percent) are valued below $99,999 and 26 percent valued 

between $100,000 and $150,000. Less than 0.1 percent of homes are valued over $1,000,000. 

Climate – Summers can be extremely hot with an average temperature of 82°F and daily 

highs above 90°F. The Great Plains can suffer from massive droughts and heat waves that place 

a strain on water and energy consumption. Average lows in the winter are below freezing and the 

city receives around nine inches of snow annually. 

Oklahoma City’s biggest threat comes from its location in Tornado Alley. Each year 

when warm air from the Gulf of Mexico meets cold air from the north violent thunderstorms are 

spawned which produce torrential, flooding rains, hail, and tornadoes. Figure 2 shows the area 

known as “tornado alley”, where tornadoes have a relatively high occurrence. 

6 Five Year Forecast 2006-2010, City of Oklahoma City 

7 Table DP-4. Profile of Selected Housing Characteristics. 2000 Census 







Figure 2: Climate Map of Tornado Activity 8 

Geography – The city is located in central Oklahoma in the Great Plain region of the 

United States. The area is relatively flat to gently rolling hills with rich, fertile soil for agriculture 

and ranching. Oklahoma City is home to several large natural lakes and man-made reservoirs. 

The North Canadian River runs through the middle of town, seven miles of which have been 

dammed up to create the Oklahoma City River, and the Canadian River runs to the south of the 

city. 

8 NOAA Storm Prediction Center, http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado 






II. RISK AND DEMAND 

A city’s risk of fire and other emergencies is affected by a variety of factors, including 

the built environment, climate, geography, and population. This chapter discusses some of the 

major risks, and then discusses the trends in demand and future demand projections. 

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR RISKS? 

All large cities have a variety of risks for fire and major emergencies and Oklahoma City 

has its share and more. 

Airport – There are two commercial airports within city limits. Will Rodgers World 

Airport is a large modern air passenger and airfreight center. As of February 2006 more than 

500,000 passengers and 10.8 million pounds of freight passed through the airport. 9 At this rate, 

an annual projection of 3 million passengers and almost 130 million pounds of freight can be 

expected. A smaller facility, Wiley Post Airport serves general aviation and air taxi services. 

Wiley Post does not have scheduled commercial flights. The Will Rodgers World Airport 

operates its own separate fire station. Fire and Rescue services were previously provided by the 

city although these services have been privatized. While the airport operates the primary ARFF 

units, the OKCFD is responsible for all calls in the terminal and any other structure fire at the 

airport. The department is also responsible for all medical calls at the airport. 

Tinker Air Force Base is also within the city limits and has ARFF and structural fire 

fighting resources of its own and has a mutual aid agreement with Oklahoma City. At 5,000 

acres it is a major USAF facility and employs more than 20,000 military and civilians personnel. 

Tinker AFB is the largest single-site employer in the state of Oklahoma and is a significant 

contributor to the local and regional economies. 10 As other bases nation-wide are closed, the 

activities at those base are being moved to other facilities. Tinker is one of the bases that are 

growing as witnessed by the addition of a US Navy air unit to tenant list. The additional air 

traffic represents a third airport within the city limits. 

High-Rises – High-rise firefighting is labor intensive even if a fire is contained by a 

sprinkler system. Even when there is minimal fire, high-rise fires often require at least a second 

alarm assignment. The logistics of high-rise firefighting include the need for personnel to use 

stairways to transport equipment, handle logistics, and provide relief for other firefighters. 

Oklahoma City also demonstrated to the nation that high-rises housing government 

offices can be terrorist targets in the center of the heartland. The Murrah Building explosion 

9 www.flyokc.com/ releases February 2006. 

10 Global Secuirty.org 





II. Risk and Demand 

demonstrated the nature of this threat and put the city in the forefront of terrorist concerns until 

9/11. 

Road Network – The city is a major regional hub in the Great Plains. Interstate 35, 

Interstate 40, Interstate 44, Interstate 235, and Interstate 240 bisect it. Like other large cities, the 

city is served by an extensive network of major highways and freeways, however due to a 

smaller population that is spread out most roads are less congested than most comparably sized 

cities. The road network is expected to expand with proposals for a “West Outer Loop Extension 

of Interstate 35 that would connect Interstates 44 and 240 in the Southwest portion of the city. 

The expansion of the road network will cause more development in the area of the city that is 

zoned for the Urban Growth Area. 

Railway – The city is also a major passenger and freight rail stop. Amtrak’s Heartland 

Flyer runs a daily service to and from Fort Worth, TX. Several freight lines, such as the 

Burlington Northern-Santa Fe and the Union Pacific, run trains in the area. Each day several 

thousand tons of cargos, including hazardous materials, run through the city and the suburbs. 

Brush Fires – The city has a large amount of undeveloped areas that are susceptible to 

ground cover (brush fires) during periods of dry weather. The spring of this year was particularly 

dry and caused a surge in the number of and severity of these fires. These fires often are laborintensive 

and time consuming but generally do not cause significant dollar losses in property. As 

the population expands in the rural service area, the potential for property damage increases as 

more and larger homes are constructed in areas are otherwise not developed and often without 

water mains. This phenomenon known as Urban-Wildland Interface will challenge the 

department to adopt new strategies to limit life and property loss. 

The department to its credit has equipped several stations with specialized brush 

firefighting equipment and water tenders (tanker). As drought conditions are cyclic there will be 

some years that are more active and some that are less. As the Northeast region of city continues 

to grow with residential development, the risk of a brush fire that does significant structural 

damage will increase. 

Hazardous Materials (Hazmat) – As a transportation hub, Oklahoma City has risks 

for a hazardous materials release resulting from product transportation accidents. Rail yards and 

interstate highways that intersect increase the possibility of truck accidents or railroad events. 

The petrochemical industry contributes to the amounts of hazardous materials being processed, 

refined, and shipped through and about the city on trucks, rail cars and pipelines. There are 

several target hazards including; 

• Magellan Oil 

• Cato Oil 

• B & M Oil 







• Harcross Chemicals 

• Estes Chemicals 

• Trigen 

• Xerox 

There are four water treatment facilities that store and use hazardous materials such as 

Chlorine as well as other industrial applications. 

Age Demographics – The median age for residents is 35 years old, just below the 

national median of 36. City residents that are 65 years old and older make up almost 11 percent 

of the population. Based on national statistics, these two age groups are more at risk during fires 

than the population at large. The elderly (individuals over the age of 65) also tend to use the 

EMS system more than the general population. 

Planning and Zoning – The area of the city east of the Interstate 35-44 corridor is 

expected to see an increase in residential and commercial construction. Currently listed as part of 

the rural area, development is anticipated in this northeast portion of the city. Much of this region 

is outside the four-minute response pattern. There is also part of the southwest area of the city, in 

the vicinity of the proposed Outer Loop Interstate that is zoned for urban growth in the 

development plan. This area is likewise beyond the four-minute response profile. 

The Oklahoma City Planning Department has identified those areas of the city where 

development is likely to occur. This is due to existing trends and zoning patterns. This data will 

assist in determining those areas of the city where response times are not adequate for the 

demand for services. 

Figure 3 shows the land use patterns in effect at this time. While subject to future 

revision, this information is useful to assist in the projection of development. 

The Northeast area of the city is part of the Rural Growth Area and has seen an increase 

in residential building permits. Also, the average value of the residential units is increasing. The 

median housing value for this area is $93,215. 11 This amount is about 16 percent higher than the 

average for the reset of the city. With more development and the increased value of the property 

the potential for increases in fire loss is evident. 

11 Population and Land Use Projections for the Fiscal Analysis Zones report for the City Of Oklahoma City, Tischler 

Bise, Inc. page 17 




Oklahoma City Fire Department II. Risk and Demand 


Figure 3: Oklahoma City Land Use Plan 







The Southwest Urban Zone is another area of projected growth based on building permit 

data. By the year 2015, a projection of an additional 8,400 more residential units and about 

20,000 more people will live in the area. 12 If the proposed Outer Loop Road to connect I-40 and 

I-44 is built, commercial development can be expected along that corridor. 

The current response times exceed the national standards in these areas of the city. If 

growth continues in areas that are underserved now, the potential for losses, both civilian and 

property, will increase. 

EMS Risks – EMS risks are often dependant on socio-economic status and age. The 

demand for service among the poor and elderly is higher than the demands from other segments 

of the population. As the population ages the demands for EMS services will increase. This 

impacts OCFD operation as first responder EMS is part of the operational profile of the 

department. 

POPULATION 

Oklahoma City is the largest city in Oklahoma. On July 1, 2005 its population was 

estimated at 531,600. The greater metropolitan area surrounding and including the city comprises 

32 percent of the state’s population. The city accounts for 15 percent of the statewide population. 

Population estimates for 2001–2020 are shown in Table 1. From 2001–2005 the city 

averaged a yearly net increase of 4869 persons. The observed growth rate was slightly less than 

one-percent annually. This can be described as low to moderate growth. Projections for the years 

2006, 2010, 2015, and 2020 were supplied by the city. 13 The annual rate of growth is predicted to 

remain very near to one-percent through 2020. Under these assumptions, the city should number 

approximately 620,500 persons in 2020. Unlike many other cities, Oklahoma City has enormous 

room for growth within the city boundaries. 

12 IBID page 20 

13 Projections created by the Planning department were chosen. The firm of Bucher, Willis, and Ratliff developed 

projections using a similar methodology. These projections were based on 2005 estimates that differed greatly from 

2005 Census Bureau estimates. For this reason, the projection series created by the Planning department was 

selected. 







Table 1: City Population, 2001–2020 14 

* = Forecast 

Year Population (July 1) 

2001 512,126 

2002 518,156 

2003 524,858 

2004 528,042 

2005 531,600 

2006 541,500 

2010 561,300* 

2015 591,000* 

2020 620,500* 

These totals, as well as those from the years between projections are shown in Figure 4. 15 

The population is expected to exceed 600,000 by 2017. This is a net increase of 6473 persons per 

year over the 11-year period. These population increases will undoubtedly increase the 

department’s workload in the future. 

Figure 4: Projected City Population, 2001–2020 

650,000 

600,000 

550,000 

500,000 

450,000 

400,000 

350,000 

300,000 

Year 

14 City Planning 

15 Linear interpolation was used to project population for years not supplied by the Planning department. 







AGING DEMOGRAPHICS 

Studies have shown that services to the elderly increase the workload for fire 

departments. A high percentage of most departments’ medical workload comes from the 

population aged 65 and over. Data from the 1990 and 2000 censuses and the net change in 

percent of the population by age range are shown in Table 2. 

Table 2: Population Age Demographics, 1990 and 2000 16 

Age 1990 2000 

Change 

1990-2000 

under 18 115,473 129,274 +0.4% 

18-45 194,948 210,157 +2.3% 

45-64 81,519 108,603 +3.1% 

65 & over 52,779 58,098 +0.4% 

Total 444,719 506,132 + 5.84% 

Note the observed change between 1990 and 2000 for the city closely followed statewide 

changes for the same time period. During this time period, the 45 to 64 year old age group grew 

by 3.1 percent. This trend is expected to continue statewide through 2010. This age group is not 

expected to produce a disproportionately higher amount of incidents. As this population segment 

ages, by the year 2020, the state is expected to have a considerably higher proportion of persons 

at least 65 years old. If this trend also occurs in the city, the department’s medical workload is 

likely to increase. 17 Increased demand for services of this type will be hypothesized and 

considered in incident projections in the following section. 

Recommendation 1: The city should continue to monitor age demographic and use this 

data to project demand. 

A population’s demographics can change over time. Anticipating these changes allows a 

provider to address the need for changes in protocol, station location, and deployment. 

THE FUTURE: DEMAND AND WORKLOAD FORECASTS 

The project team used two models to forecast future demand. This projection procedure 

was developed over the past 24 years of conducting fire department studies. The number of 

incidents in a given year can be predicted to fall between the two projections with a fairly high 

degree of likelihood. The first model assumes that per capita demand will remain constant. As a 

16 Source: 1990 and 2000 Census 100 Percent Data and U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Interim State 

Population Projections, 2005. 

17 Demographic projections for the city were unavailable. However, state population trends play a prominent role in 

the Planning department’s population projections cited earlier. For this reason, state demographic trends are seen as 

a good indicator for age demographics in the city. 







result, demand will grow or decline at the same rate as the population. Since population growth 

is predicted, this method produces increasing call totals for Oklahoma City. 

Per capita demand has often been shown to increase over time, leveling out at some 

point. This increase in demand is often termed increased utilization of services. The growth is 

often attributed to aging of the population or an increase in the community’s confidence in (or 

awareness of) fire/EMS services 

The estimated demand produced by holding per capita demand constant is often lower 

than actual demand turns out to be. The second method assumes that per capita demand will 

continue to grow as it has in recent years for the foreseeable future. Although growth can be 

negative, this method is called the increased utilization or increased per capita demand model. 

This method tends to overestimate the number of future incidents, because demand per capita is 

likely to level out at some point if not decrease. 

These models represent best and worst case scenarios (extremes are accelerating per 

capita demand, or flattening of demand). They are referred to throughout this report as low and 

high demand projections. 

Current Demand –As noted before, the Department’s long-term resource needs depend 

partially on the expected future demand for services and workloads of individual units. Demand 

is the number (and types) of calls for service—services provided by the entire fire department. 

Analysis of demand also indicates which times of day certain services are used the most, and 

allows decision-makers to consider alternative deployment and staffing methodologies. 

Demand for service varies greatly between communities for a number of reasons. For 

example, the degree of urbanization, community income level, and overall age and health of the 

population impact demand. Demand is also affected by the degree that fire and EMS services are 

publicized and to which the public is encouraged to call for service. Citizens will typically call 

for 911 services disproportionately more in a city than in rural areas with suburban communities 

somewhere in between. 

On average, the department responds to over 53,000 incidents a year, of which roughly 

78 percent are EMS incidents. 18 Fires comprise approximately 14 percent and other incidents 

make up the remaining 8 percent. Demand on individual units is sometimes affected by response 

protocols. The number of incidents is not to be confused with the number of unit responses, 

which will be discussed shortly. An emergency call may require the response of more than one 

unit, but only one incident number is generated. For example, if a fire department dispatches two 

engines and a truck to a garage fire; this is one incident with three unit responses. 

18 Incidents were broken into incident type based on CAD data supplied by the Department. Two years were 

available, 2004 and 2005, and their combined totals in each category divided by their sum for both years are defined 

as the proportion of incidents. 







Past Demand – Table 3 shows demand for services from 2001 through 2005. The final 

two years of the period show incident totals divided into three categories: fires, EMS incidents, 

and other incidents. 19 Earlier data is not available by type of call. 

Table 3: Oklahoma City Fire Department Incidents, 2001–2005 

Year Total Fire EMS Other 

2001 50,544 * * * 

2002 50,483 * * * 

2003 51,330 * * * 

2004 55,022 7,730 42,501 4,791 

2005 59,765 8,273 46,635 4,857 

Average 53,429 8,002 44,568 4,824 

* Data not available 

Total incidents displayed a clear upward trend overall. Incident totals tell half the story of 

a department’s contribution. They are an intermediate measure of workload, less detailed than 

responses or hours in service. 

Per Capita Demand – The size and relative age of the population along with past 

demand are elements required to project a department’s demand for services. Demand per capita 

- the number of incidents requiring response divided by the size of the population - was analyzed 

in order to predict future demand. The trend in per capita demand is shown in Table 4. Note that 

demand is shown in terms of calls per thousand population to keep the data in integers and more 

understandable. 

Table 4: Fire Department per capita demand, 2001–2005 

Year 

Incidents per 1000 

persons 

2001 98.7 

2002 97.4 

2003 97.8 

2004 104.2 

2005 112.4 

The apparent trend is toward moderate growth in calls per capita. This trend will be used 

to determine future demand. The trend in per capita is growing faster than the total population 

and has a large impact on demand. 

After calculating past incident demand, the trend was analyzed to determine the expected 

future trends. Several mathematical measures were considered for each incident category. These 

19 Incident totals by type were calculated from CAD data that was only available for 2004 and 2005. 







measures include the mean of yearly per capita increases, the geometric mean of yearly per 

capita increases, and a least squares fit linear regression model applied to per capita demand. 

Yearly per capita increase in incidents was chosen to represent growth in demand quantified. 

This value, 3.4 percent, will be called the observed growth rate. 

Recommendation 2: Monitor yearly per capita demand by category and re-analyze data 

every five years. This is an important step in targeting prevention efforts. A baseline trend with 

incidents proportioned by major type should be established. 20 Sustained movement against 

expectations should be identified and analyzed for cause and potential effect on workload. 

Demand Projections – The demand model considers demand increases due to both 

population increase and changes in per capita demand. The two methods discussed below 

produce high and low boundaries into which a future year’s incident totals can be expected to 

fall. The first method for estimating the number of incidents in a future year is to assume the 

current per capita demand for service will remain constant. In this case, demand grows in 

proportion to population growth. In most cases, per capita demand has been shown to increase 

over time, thus the demand predicted with this method will often fall short of the true value. 

The second projection method assumes that per capita demand can be described by the 

historic trend. The number of incidents projected in this fashion tends to be above the true value 

since demand fluctuates and per capita demand levels off eventually. The growth rate was 

slowed by a factor of one-half after seven years, because demand per capital is unlikely to 

continue to grow at the observed rate for the entire fifteen-year period. Using these two models, 

upper and lower boundaries are produced. The number of incidents in a given year is likely to 

fall between the two projections. 

Using population projections supplied by the city and the observed per capita demand 

growth rates discussed above, high and low projections through the year 2020 were created, as 

shown in Table 5. The low demand projection grows only as a result of projected population 

increases but has been supplemented by a one-time increase, which reflects the unlikelihood of 

zero growth in per capita demand. The best-case scenario projects the department’s call totals to 

remain below 75,000 through 2020. On the other hand, high demand could produce incident 

totals above 75,000 as soon as 2011. Figure 5 (on the following page) illustrates the upper and 

lower boundaries for total incidents. 21 

20 Projecting incident totals by type leads to a more detailed projection; however, incident totals split by type were 

only available for Oklahoma City for 2004 and 2005. A longer data history is necessary to predict incidents using 

this method. 

21 As a consequence of the projection method, high and low boundaries converge shortly after the initial year. To 

prevent this occurrence, totals from 2007 were replaced with the average of 2006 and 2008 to produce a smooth 

boundary. 







Table 5: Upper and Lower Projected Incident Levels, 2006–2020 

Year 

High 

Boundary 

Low 

Boundary 

2006 65,068 62,938 

2007 66,784 64,598 

2008 68,500 66,258 

2009 71,453 66,852 

2010 74,529 67,447 

2011 77,866 68,161 

2012 81,344 68,875 

2013 83,578 69,588 

2014 85,864 70,302 

2015 88,203 71,016 

2016 90,591 71,725 

2017 93,034 72,434 

2018 95,534 73,143 

2019 98,092 73,852 

2020 100,710 74,561 

Figure 5: Upper and Lower Incident Levels, 2001–2020 

120,000 

100,000 

80,000 

60,000 

40,000 

High Boundary 

Low Boundary 

Incident s 

20,000 

- 

Year 

WORKLOAD FORECAST BY UNIT 

In order to assess the likely impact of increased population and demand for service on the 

workload of stations and units, we start with the forecast of incidents discussed in Chapter III. 







Relying on the historic ratio of responses to incidents to estimate total unit responses, and 

allocating unit responses based on their historic proportion by station and unit we developed two 

forecasts of unit activity. 

Low Growth Scenario – The first forecast of unit workload, shown in Table 6, is based 

on the low growth projection of incidents. This projection assumes no changes in response 

protocol or incident proportions. In other words, the department’s workload will grow, but the 

proportion of structure fires, vehicle accidents, hazardous materials incidents, etc., will remain at 

2005 levels. This is probably the best-case scenario for total unit responses. Unit responses in 

2005 are shown as a baseline. The forecast begins in 2006 and presents five-year increments 

through 2020. 

Two response thresholds were considered significant for the purposes of this study. We 

used a threshold of 3,000 responses per year as an indication that a unit’s activity level is high 

enough to be unavailable for a significant share of the responses in its first-due district. It is not a 

firm rule, just a flag of the level where reduced availability often becomes a major factor in 

degradation of response times. In the year 2005, a single unit was over the 3,000 call threshold. 

By 2020 the best-case scenario projects the number of units expected to have workload above 

that threshold to be at 6. Each of these units is an engine, and all except one is already above 

2,500 responses. Depending on the average amount of time in service, units at this level may be 

unavailable about a quarter of the time. 22 The second threshold, 4,000 incidents will be discussed 

under the high growth scenario. 

Although several units are likely to be above the 3,000 call threshold by 2020 and two are 

now, the system as a whole can absorb many more calls than at present without overloading most 

units in the near future. The busiest units in the system are E17, E24, E25, and E9. It may be 

necessary to place additional units in these response areas to prevent degradation in the quality of 

service that may result from the forecasted high response totals that these units are likely to 

encounter at the end of the projection period (Table 6). 

Table 6: Low Growth Impact on Engine Company Responses, 2005–2020 

Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

E1 2,160 2,275 2,438 2,567 2,695 E27 573 603 647 681 715 

E10 2,044 2,153 2,307 2,429 2,550 E28 625 658 705 743 780 

E11 1,531 1,612 1,728 1,819 1,910 E3 1,581 1,665 1,784 1,879 1,972 

E12 2,199 2,316 2,482 2,613 2,743 E30 1,992 2,098 2,248 2,367 2,485 

E13 1,083 1,140 1,222 1,287 1,351 E31 1,924 2,026 2,171 2,286 2,400 

E14 1,932 2,035 2,180 2,296 2,410 E32 249 262 281 296 311 

E15 2,415 2,543 2,725 2,870 3,013 E33 1,265 1,332 1,428 1,503 1,578 

22 Using the time in-service in conjunction with responses produces another measure of workload called unit hour 

utilization, the result of the time out on a call. 







Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

E16 1,962 2,066 2,214 2,331 2,448 E34 2,188 2,304 2,469 2,600 2,730 

E17 2,745 2,891 3,098 3,262 3,425 E35 1,086 1,144 1,226 1,290 1,355 

E18 1,530 1,611 1,727 1,818 1,909 E36 469 494 529 557 585 

E19 2,656 2,797 2,997 3,156 3,314 E37 1,241 1,307 1,401 1,475 1,548 

E2 849 894 958 1,009 1,059 E4 1,506 1,586 1,700 1,790 1,879 

E20 807 850 911 959 1,007 E5 1,583 1,667 1,786 1,881 1,975 

E21 2,232 2,351 2,519 2,652 2,785 E51 554 583 625 658 691 

E22 1,888 1,988 2,131 2,243 2,355 E6 1,379 1,452 1,556 1,639 1,720 

E23 1,913 2,015 2,159 2,273 2,387 E7 2,113 2,225 2,385 2,511 2,636 

E24 2,950 3,107 3,329 3,505 3,680 E8 1,678 1,767 1,894 1,994 2,093 

E25 3,192 3,361 3,602 3,793 3,982 E9 2,862 3,014 3,230 3,401 3,571 

Table 7 shows the low growth forecasts for companies other than engines in the same 15- 

year time span. In 2005, there were only six units, BP-23, BP-33, BP-4, RL-14, RL-16, and RL- 

25 that exceed 1,000 calls per year. Only one of these units, BP-23 is projected to surpass 1500 

calls per year under the low growth impact projections. 

Table 7: Low Growth Impact, Non-Engine Companies, 2005–2020 

Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

206 6 6 7 7 7 C3 403 424 455 479 503 

212 3 3 3 4 4 C4 308 324 348 366 384 

301 1 1 1 1 1 C5 351 370 396 417 438 

317 3 3 3 4 4 C6 357 376 403 424 445 

401 1 1 1 1 1 DEPCH 22 23 25 26 27 

402 1 1 1 1 1 F125 2 2 2 2 2 

406 1 1 1 1 1 F531 1 1 1 1 1 

600 1 1 1 1 1 F533 273 287 308 324 341 

607 3 3 3 4 4 F721 390 411 440 463 487 

609 3 3 3 4 4 F722 397 418 448 472 495 

611 1 1 1 1 1 HM5 300 316 339 356 374 

614 5 5 6 6 6 HM55 32 34 36 38 40 

623 1 1 1 1 1 HT24 1 1 1 1 1 

329D 33 35 37 39 41 R8 806 849 910 958 1,006 

AIR1 465 490 525 553 580 RL1 692 729 781 822 863 

AR401 199 210 225 236 248 RL14 1,079 1,136 1,218 1,282 1,346 

AR402 172 181 194 204 215 RL15 923 972 1,042 1,097 1,152 

AR403 196 206 221 233 245 RL16 1,009 1,063 1,139 1,199 1,259 

AR404 6 6 7 7 7 RL18 727 766 820 864 907 

AR405 27 28 30 32 34 RL22 734 773 828 872 916 

AR406 23 24 26 27 29 RL25 1,078 1,135 1,217 1,281 1,345 

BP13 861 907 972 1,023 1,074 RL30 812 855 916 965 1,013 







Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Unit 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

BP15 452 476 510 537 564 RL31 866 912 977 1,029 1,080 

BP2 810 853 914 962 1,011 RL34 668 703 754 794 833 

BP20 609 641 687 724 760 RL6 589 620 665 700 735 

BP23 1,234 1,300 1,393 1,466 1,539 RL7 829 873 936 985 1,034 

BP25 404 425 456 480 504 RL9 910 958 1,027 1,081 1,135 

BP27 564 594 636 670 704 TK27 133 140 150 158 166 

BP28 644 678 727 765 803 TK33 76 80 86 90 95 

BP3 853 898 963 1,014 1,064 TK34 52 55 59 62 65 

BP32 219 231 247 260 273 TK35 64 67 72 76 80 

BP33 1,065 1,122 1,202 1,265 1,329 TK36 96 101 108 114 120 

BP35 688 725 776 818 858 TK37 54 57 61 64 67 

BP36 462 487 521 549 576 TP27 1 1 1 1 1 

BP37 568 598 641 675 709 TP28 1 1 1 1 1 

BP4 1,009 1,063 1,139 1,199 1,259 TP33 1 1 1 1 1 

C1 567 597 640 674 707 TP34 22 23 25 26 27 

C2 437 460 493 519 545 TPR22 29 31 33 34 36 

High Growth Scenario – The complement to the best case scenario, the upper boundary 

forecast for unit workload, is shown in Table 8. This projection series again assumes response 

protocols and incident type proportions will remain at 2005 levels. A better projection, used in 

other cities, projects demand by type of call and then studies the results. We had to modify this 

study approach because data by type of call was not available. The present method still gives an 

idea of what can be expected if a lid is put on demand via prevention or other methods. The 

increased utilization of services model discussed in the Demand Analysis section is applied to 

this fixed ratio of incidents to responses. These unit response totals are therefore a good deal 

higher. They represent the worst-case scenario for department workload. Note that six units are 

projected to surpass 3,000 calls by 2010 vs. four in the low growth scenario, and four units 

would surpass the extremely high use threshold at 4,000 incidents by 2015 and six by 2020. 

Table 8: High Growth Impact on Engine Company Responses, 2005–2020 

Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

E1 2,160 2,352 2,694 3,188 3,640 E27 573 624 715 846 966 

E10 2,044 2,225 2,549 3,017 3,444 E28 625 680 779 922 1,053 

E11 1,531 1,667 1,909 2,259 2,580 E3 1,581 1,721 1,972 2,333 2,664 

E12 2,199 2,394 2,742 3,245 3,706 E30 1,992 2,169 2,484 2,940 3,357 

E13 1,083 1,179 1,351 1,598 1,825 E31 1,924 2,095 2,399 2,839 3,242 

E14 1,932 2,103 2,409 2,851 3,256 E32 249 271 311 367 420 

E15 2,415 2,629 3,012 3,564 4,069 E33 1,265 1,377 1,577 1,867 2,132 

E16 1,962 2,136 2,447 2,896 3,306 E34 2,188 2,382 2,728 3,229 3,687 

E17 2,745 2,989 3,423 4,051 4,626 E35 1,086 1,182 1,354 1,603 1,830 







Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

E18 1,530 1,666 1,908 2,258 2,578 E36 469 511 585 692 790 

E19 2,656 2,892 3,312 3,920 4,476 E37 1,241 1,351 1,548 1,832 2,091 

E2 849 924 1,059 1,253 1,431 E4 1,506 1,640 1,878 2,223 2,538 

E20 807 879 1,006 1,191 1,360 E5 1,583 1,723 1,974 2,336 2,668 

E21 2,232 2,430 2,783 3,294 3,761 E51 554 603 691 818 934 

E22 1,888 2,056 2,354 2,786 3,181 E6 1,379 1,501 1,720 2,035 2,324 

E23 1,913 2,083 2,386 2,823 3,224 E7 2,113 2,300 2,635 3,118 3,561 

E24 2,950 3,212 3,679 4,354 4,971 E8 1,678 1,827 2,093 2,476 2,828 

E25 3,192 3,475 3,981 4,711 5,379 E9 2,862 3,116 3,569 4,224 4,823 

As with the low growth projections we also looked at non-engine company responses 

using this higher growth profile. Table 9 shows the results. Using this projection, there will be 

eight units that surpass 1,500 calls per year and three that exceed 1,400 calls per year by 2020. 

Table 9: High Growth Impact, Non-Engine Companies, 2005–2020 

Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

206 6 7 7 9 10 C3 403 439 503 595 679 

212 3 3 4 4 5 C4 308 335 384 455 519 

301 1 1 1 1 2 C5 351 382 438 518 591 

317 3 3 4 4 5 C6 357 389 445 527 602 

401 1 1 1 1 2 DEPCH 22 24 27 32 37 

402 1 1 1 1 2 F125 2 2 2 3 3 

406 1 1 1 1 2 F531 1 1 1 1 2 

600 1 1 1 1 2 F533 273 297 340 403 460 

607 3 3 4 4 5 F721 390 425 486 576 657 

609 3 3 4 4 5 F722 397 432 495 586 669 

611 1 1 1 1 2 HM5 300 327 374 443 506 

614 5 5 6 7 8 HM55 32 35 40 47 54 

623 1 1 1 1 2 HT24 1 1 1 1 2 

329D 33 36 41 49 56 R8 806 878 1,005 1,190 1,358 

AIR1 465 506 580 686 784 RL1 692 753 863 1,021 1,166 

AR401 199 217 248 294 335 RL14 1,079 1,175 1,346 1,592 1,818 

AR402 172 187 214 254 290 RL15 923 1,005 1,151 1,362 1,555 

AR403 196 213 244 289 330 RL16 1,009 1,099 1,258 1,489 1,700 

AR404 6 7 7 9 10 RL18 727 792 907 1,073 1,225 

AR405 27 29 34 40 45 RL22 734 799 915 1,083 1,237 

AR406 23 25 29 34 39 RL25 1,078 1,174 1,344 1,591 1,817 

BP13 861 937 1,074 1,271 1,451 RL30 812 884 1,013 1,198 1,368 

BP15 452 492 564 667 762 RL31 866 943 1,080 1,278 1,459 

BP2 810 882 1,010 1,195 1,365 RL34 668 727 833 986 1,126 







Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 Year 2005 2006 2010 2015 2020 

BP20 609 663 759 899 1,026 RL6 589 641 734 869 993 

BP23 1,234 1,343 1,539 1,821 2,079 RL7 829 903 1,034 1,223 1,397 

BP25 404 440 504 596 681 RL9 910 991 1,135 1,343 1,533 

BP27 564 614 703 832 950 TK27 133 145 166 196 224 

BP28 644 701 803 950 1,085 TK33 76 83 95 112 128 

BP3 853 929 1,064 1,259 1,437 TK34 52 57 65 77 88 

BP32 219 238 273 323 369 TK35 64 70 80 94 108 

BP33 1,065 1,159 1,328 1,572 1,795 TK36 96 105 120 142 162 

BP35 688 749 858 1,015 1,159 TK37 54 59 67 80 91 

BP36 462 503 576 682 779 TP27 1 1 1 1 2 

BP37 568 618 708 838 957 TP28 1 1 1 1 2 

BP4 1,009 1,099 1,258 1,489 1,700 TP33 1 1 1 1 2 

C1 567 617 707 837 955 TP34 22 24 27 32 37 

C2 437 476 545 645 736 TPR22 29 32 36 43 49 

The high growth scenario, not surprisingly, shows a department that will be much busier 

than it is today. 18 engine companies are projected to be above the 3,000 response threshold by 

2020, with several above the 4,000 response threshold. At this level units are frequently 

unavailable to meet calls for service and neighboring units must be deployed to neighboring 

territories, sharply increasing response time. Often the neighboring unit will be very busy, too. 

Response times degrade even farther as more distant units are called to respond, or gaps in 

coverage occur. This cascading effect can drastically slow response times to much of the city. 

E15, E19, E24, E25, and E9 are projected to be above the extremely high threshold under the 

high growth scenario. The city will likely have to consider staffing an additional unit in each of 

these engines’ first run areas if the scenarios materialize. 






III. DETERMINING RESOURCE NEEDS 

When, where, and how much are the common questions asked by administrators, city or 

county council, and citizens when it comes to determining the resources government should 

provide. Determining the proper level of fire department resources involves asking the same 

questions while balancing the safety concerns of citizens and the financial situation of the local 

government. 

Of the ‘when, where, and how’ questions “where” the number and location of fire 

stations is the biggest question and has the most impact on other decisions. Some of the areas it 

can impact include: how many units are needed, how big should they be, and when should the 

units be deployed. All of these impact overall cost. Poorly placed fire stations, apparatus, and 

personnel often results in more resources than are needed to provide the desired level of service. 

The availability of land to build on impacts the cost and the size of a new station, which can also 

impact the types of apparatus that can be located at that station. 

Deciding how many emergency response resources to deploy, and where, is not an exact 

science. There are no perfect deployment models. The ultimate decision is based on a 

combination of risk analysis, professional judgment, and the city’s willingness to accept more or 

less risk. Accepting more risk generally means that fewer resources are deployed, though 

deploying more resources is no guarantee that loss will be less, especially in the short term. 

Obviously, there are many pieces to consider, but there are some good sources to draw on 

to help make the decisions. In this chapter we review some of the available sources, including the 

Insurance Services Office (ISO), the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA), the Center For 

Public Safety Excellence/Commission on Fire Accreditation International (CFAI), the 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and comparable departments across the 

nation. The purpose of this review is to outline standards to be used later in the report for 

answering the following questions: 

• What should the department’s minimum crew size and overall staffing level be? 

• Are there opportunities for more effective and/or more efficient use of department 

resources? 

• Are department stations located optimally throughout the city considering the various 

services offered by the department? 

• How does the level of risk in Oklahoma City compare to other jurisdictions 

nationwide? 

• How do the services provided by the department correspond to those provided by 

similar jurisdictions? 





III. Determining Resource Needs 

SOURCES TO AID IN DEVELOPING CRITERIA 

A number of sources have developed criteria that are widely used in decision-making or 

deployment of resources. Ultimately is it judgment, not following any other source to determine 

what is best for Oklahoma City. Most of the so-called standards are not based on extensive 

research but are written by committees with limited data available. . 

Insurance Services Office (ISO) – The ISO is a national insurance engineering service 

organization that assigns a public protection classification (PPC) to jurisdictions based on fire 

department services. Insurance companies typically establish insurance rates for individual 

occupancies or groups of occupancies based on the PPC. PPCs are established using the ISO’s 

Fire Suppression Rating Schedule (FSRS). Once widely used by fire departments to evaluate 

system performance, the FSRS’s use is somewhat limited in that it only evaluates fire protection 

(not EMS, which most fire departments now provide to some degree). Also, the FSRS does not 

consider efficiency (e.g., how many resources are deployed in comparison to the number of 

actual calls). Though not as widely used now, ISO ratings are still appropriate to consider as part 

of a more comprehensive system performance review. Combined with other assessments, ISO 

standards are useful, but not by themselves. 

ISO RATING: To analyze a community’s fire protection, the ISO uses a grading system 

of 1 to 10. A community protection factor of one is the highest possible grade with insurance 

rates likely to be lowest for the community (ratings increase by 1 for every 10 credits, e.g., Class 

1 = 90.00+ credits, Class 2 = 80.00-89.99, Class 3 = 70.00-79.99, etc.). A community with a 

Class 10 rating means that there essentially is no recognized fire protection system or availability 

of water for fire suppression. Only a very small number of communities with very effective 

water distribution systems and mostly career fire departments are able to achieve a rating of one. 

Oklahoma City was last evaluated by the ISO in 1994 and currently holds a #3 rating. 

In 2000, the nation’s largest home insurance carrier, State Farm, announced it would 

cease to use the ISO PPC as the basis for its home insurance rates, and would use its own internal 

data to determine rates. While the exact effects of this are yet to be seen, for economic reasons it 

is unlikely that State Farm’s rates will be much different than those determined by the ISO 

method. In addition, most insurance carriers band groups of ratings together for efficiency; thus, 

there may be no difference in treatment of a Class 1 versus a Class 4. Therefore, depending on 

the rating system used by individual insurance carriers in Oklahoma City, there may be little or 

no fiscal advantage to property owners by being in a certain PPC. 







According to a report issued by the ICMA in 2002: 

In its practical application, the rating schedule is a tool used for assessing 

the insurance rate charged in a specific community on a specific property. 

Generally, the better the rating schedule classification, the lower the 

insurance premium charged. Although one cannot say with certainty what 

the effect of an improved rating schedule classification might be in a 

specific community, improvements in the classification in communities 

with between 10 and 5 tend to result in lower insurance premiums for 

residential properties. Improvements when the community has ratings 

better than five can result in lower premiums on commercial and industrial 

properties but will usually have a negligible effect on premiums for 

residential properties. 23 

ISO ratings are somewhat limited in their application because they are related mostly to 

the performance of the water system and water pressure to deal with a large-scale fire, rather 

than the every day house fire (40 percent of the rating is based on water availability for fire 

suppression). As noted in the ISO’s Fire Suppression Rating Schedule, “The Schedule is a fire 

insurance rating tool, and is not intended to analyze all aspects of a comprehensive public fire 

protection program. It should not be used for purposes other than insurance rating”. 24 A 

community may have an excellent fire department and communications system, but it may have 

a higher numerical rating if the water distribution system is not constructed to ISO standards. 

The three components evaluated by ISO in making a final determination of rates are: 

• Fire department: number of engines, training, personnel, procedures, etc. (50 percent). 

Equipment accounts for 26 percent, personnel for 15 percent, and training for the 

remaining 9 percent. 

• Water supply (40 percent). 

• Emergency dispatching and communications (10 percent). 

A review of the Fire Suppression Rating Schedule can be useful to city decision-makers 

when trying to develop an understanding of the components evaluated by ISO engineers as part 

of their community survey process and as a tool in developing a comprehensive analysis of their 

fire department. A brief overview of the rating system is given below. 

Fire Department – Fifty percent of the overall grading is based on the number of engine 

companies and the amount of water a community needs to fight a fire. ISO reviews the 

distribution of fire companies throughout the area and checks that the fire department tests its 

23 International City/County Management Association, Managing Fire and Rescue Services, 777 N. Capitol Street, 

N.E., Washington, DC, 2002, p. 293. 

24 Fire Suppression Rating Schedule, Edition 02-03, ISO Properties, Inc., 2003 







pumps regularly and inventories each engine company's nozzles, hoses, breathing apparatus, and 

other equipment. ISO also reviews the fire company records to determine: 

• The types and extent of training provided to fire company personnel, 

• The number of people who participate in training, 

• The number of firefighters responding to emergencies, and 

• The maintenance and testing of the fire department's equipment. 

Water Supply – Forty percent of the grading is based on the community's water supply. 

This part of the survey focuses on whether the community has sufficient water for fire 

suppression beyond daily maximum consumption. ISO surveys all components of the water 

supply system, including pumps, storage, and filtration. Observations of the tests at 

representative locations in the community are used to determine the rate of flow the water mains 

provide. Finally, the distribution of fire hydrants is examined to ensure that no location is more 

than 1,000 feet from the closest hydrant. 

Under the guidelines established by ISO, a community is eligible for Class 8 or better 

rating if the municipal water supply is capable of delivering at least 250-gallons per minute 

(gpm) for a period of at least two hours. The 250-gallon per minute flow is in addition to the 

daily maximum rate of consumption. 

Dispatch and Communications – Ten percent of the overall grading is based on how 

well the fire department receives and dispatches fire alarms. Field representatives evaluate the 

communications center looking at the number of operators at the center, telephone service 

(includes the number of telephone lines coming into the center), and the listing of emergency 

numbers in the telephone book. Field representatives also look at the dispatch circuits and how 

the center notifies firefighters about the location of the emergency. 

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) – The NFPA is an international, 

nonprofit organization dedicated to reducing the worldwide burden of fire and other hazards on 

the quality of life by developing and advocating scientifically based consensus codes and 

standards, research, training, and education. The NFPA recommendations are standards and 

guidelines developed by committees of chief officers, volunteer representatives, union officials, 

and industry representatives. Although the NFPA’s standards are not legally binding, they are 

often codified into local ordinances, and it is important to consider NFPA standards whether or 

not they are adopted locally since NFPA standards sometimes become the de facto standard for 

evaluating different levels of fire and emergency service protection. 

Center for Public Safety Excellence/Commission on Fire Accreditation 

International (CFAI) – Another highly influential group, the CFAI consists of representatives 

from the International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) and the International City/County 

Management Association (ICMA). The CFAI and the accreditation process were designed to 







establish industry-wide performance measures for overall organizational performance and the 

establishment of the standard for a jurisdiction is purely voluntary. While a small fraction of fire 

departments across the nation (about 100) have gone through the accreditation process and others 

are working toward that goal, most departments are focusing on the creation of a “Standards of 

Response Coverage” document (one of four items required for accreditation). The standard of 

coverage concept has become proven so useful that the CFAI expanded the original 44-page 

chapter into a 190+ page “how-to” manual. 

The CFAI does not make many explicit recommendations on standards for fire/EMS 

departments to adopt. Rather, it encourages a thorough assessment of risks in the community, 

public expectations and the resources needed to meet expectations given the risks. The creation 

of written standards should then be based on that assessment. Part of the methodology for setting 

standards includes looking at what other, similar communities are doing. 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) – OSHA develops 

regulations to protect workers from occupational injuries and illnesses. While there are many 

regulations that apply to firefighting operations, one of the most critical is 29 CFR 1910.134, 

which addresses requirements for respiratory protection in IDLH (immediately dangerous to life 

and health) atmospheres, including structural firefighting. In such cases, personnel are required 

to work in teams of two, with two personnel operating inside the IDLH and two personnel 

standing by outside the IDLH in the event the entry team becomes incapacitated. This regulation 

is most commonly referred to as the “Two-in/Two-out” rule. 

RESPONSE TIMES 

Response time is one of the most common performance measures used by the fire service 

because it is understood by citizens, easy to compute, and useful in the evaluation of end results. 

It is the way most citizens evaluate the level of service provided; though, response time itself 

really is not a measure of the quality of service, though it does reflect the timeliness of service, 

an attribute desired by citizens. 

While demand for services and individual unit workloads dictate how many stations and 

apparatus are needed in a community (discussed later in this chapter), response times dictate 

where specific resources should be placed. There is, however, no single set of nationally 

accepted response time standards. 

Measurement Methodology – To determine overall response time, the clock starts 

when an individual calls 911 (or alternate emergency number) and stops when the first 

emergency provider arrives at patient’s side or the scene of the incident. 

Several caveats should be kept in mind. First, response times are subject to a variety of 

measurement errors and only measure one aspect of overall system performance. For example, 

response times are distorted when units report their arrival on scene either early or late. Second, 







response times are frequently not comparable across fire-rescue systems because of the differing 

manners in which they are calculated. Not all departments track vertical response times (that is, 

the time from arrival on scene to patient contact), so their total response times likely would be 

lower than the total response times of a department that does track them. 

Many fire/EMS departments report average response times while others report fractile 

response times. 25 Average response times have been increasingly less used by the emergency 

service industry because small numbers of very short or long responses—often recorded in 

error—can distort the results. Also, the public is interested in how fast a system responds in most 

cases (fractile) rather than usually (average). More and more departments are adopting the 90 th 

percentile for reporting response times (mostly due to NFPA 1710’s use of this measure). 

A fractile response time of x at the 90 th percentile means that units respond in x minutes, 

or less, 90 percent of the time. The remainder beyond the compliance fractile (90 th percentile in 

this case) is the operational tolerance for the system, meaning the system is designed with the 

understanding that 10 percent of the calls will have response times that exceed the target. 

Although it is possible to design a system that may ensure rapid response close to 100 percent of 

the time, it is generally not cost-effective. 

Response times here are defined to include four components, that are further illustrated in 

Figure 6. 

Call Processing and Dispatch – This time begins when the call taker/dispatcher answers 

the 911 call and ends when the first unit is dispatched. 

Turnout – This is the time elapsed from dispatch to departure from the station (or other 

location); it comprises activities such as donning protective gear and boarding the apparatus. 

Travel – This period begins with departure from the station and ends when the unit 

advises that they are on the scene. It does not include the time to actually reach the fire or patient 

after arrival at the street location of the incident. 

Vertical – This is the amount of time from arrival at the scene to arrival at the side of the 

patient or the site of the fire. It may include going up a high-rise (and hence the term vertical 

response) or traveling within a hospital, golf course, factory, or other expansive site to get to the 

site of a fire or the side of a patient. 

Figure 6 illustrates the public conception of response times. The illustration shows the 

progression from the receipt of the emergency call and includes turnout and travel times, both on 

the streets and then vertical if necessary. 

25 Fractile measurement reports the percentage of calls responded to in x minutes. 







Figure 6: Components of Total Response Time 

Response Time 

(lay public conception) 

911 call Units Apparatus First unit Arrival at 

received dispatched en route on scene patient/fire 

Call Processing – Begins when 

the emergency call is answered 

and ends when emergency 

responders are dispatched to the 

identified address of the call. 

Additional activities and 

information gathering may take 

place after notification of 

responders, but this is not included 

in call processing time. 

Turnout – Begins when 

emergency responders are 

notified and ends when 

appropriate emergency 

apparatus actually leaves the 

station en route to the location 

of the emergency. 

Travel (Drive) – Begins 

when the first appropriate 

emergency apparatus 

actually leaves the station 

and ends when the first 

appropriate apparatus 

arrives at the scene of the 

emergency. 

Vertical – Begins when 

the first appropriate 

apparatus arrives at the 

scene of the emergency 

and ends when personnel 

arrive at the patient’s side 

or the fire location. 

Most departments do not record the vertical response time component. OCFD currently 

records a “with patient” time for EMS calls. During FY 2005 42 percent (24,919) of all incidents 

with a OCFD unit arriving on-scene had a “with patient” time recorded. While this is better data 

than is available in most departments, there is room for improvement. Given the number of highrises, 

large facilities (i.e. malls, hospitals, schools), and large open areas (parks) in Oklahoma 

City, this component has the potential to be significant. In FY 2005, vertical response time 

averaged 1:44 in Oklahoma City. (Response times are discussed in more detail in Chapter IV.) 

Recommendation 3: Continue tracking vertical response times and expand the 

program to include all call types. While this time is nearly impossible to reduce, it is important 

to assess its impact on total response time and determine whether other components should be 

reduced to compensate for the vertical response component to maintain total response time goals. 

For example, buildings with average vertical response times over two minutes and over x calls 

per year may be classified as higher priority locations and resources placed closer in order to 

reduce total response times. 

Importance of Response Times – While the speed of response is not directly indicative 

of outcome or quality, response times do affect the number of lives saved and the extent of 

property losses averted when an emergency occurs. This means that while arriving in 

3 or 4 minutes every time does not guarantee everyone will live and there will be less damage, 

more people can be helped or the fire can be put out before the entire building is consumed when 

emergency personnel arrive in 5 minutes rather than 10 or 20. 

Fire spreads quickly after ignition and the faster it is found and extinguished, the better 

the results; similar to someone suffering from life threatening symptoms, the probability of 

survival increases the quicker the patient is treated. 

Despite these general observations, current statistical models cannot realistically assess 

nor predict the quality of fire services in terms of lives saved and property losses averted. In 

place of true measures of fire rescue service outcome, response time is often used as a proxy 

measure. 







Figure 7 depicts the fire propagation curve, which shows the effect of time and 

temperature rise of a free-burning fire on the destruction of property. According to multiple 

studies, extension of the fire beyond the room of origin begins approximately 6 to 8 minutes after 

ignition, and flashover of the room of origin occurs within 10 minutes of ignition. (Flashover is 

the simultaneous ignition of all flammable material in an enclosed area. 26 ) In some modern 

rooms with low ceiling and plastics, flashover can occur in two to four minutes, according to 

studies by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 

Figure 7: Fire Propagation Curve 

Source: Fire Protection Handbook, 18th Ed., National Fire Protection Association 

Response Time Standards: Fire/Rescue Service – The most widely recognized 

standard used in response time analysis is outlined in NFPA 1710, Organization and Deployment 

of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations and Special Operations to the 

Public by Career Fire Departments. 

NFPA 1710 was established in 2001 and contains two recommendations that caught the 

attention of fire service managers and city administrators across the nation. The standard 

recommends 4-person staffing for all engine and truck companies (discussed later), and a 

5-minute dispatch-to-arrival time to be met on 90 percent of calls. The time increases to 

6-minutes when one minute is added for call processing/dispatch time, as recommended in 

NFPA 1221, Standard for the Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Emergency Services 

Communications Systems. The 5-minute period includes 1 minute for turnout time and 4 minutes 

for travel. The travel time translates to a driving distance of 2 miles from the first-due fire station 

26 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashover 







to the incident (driving at an average speed of 30 mph). Detailed data regarding response times 

for Oklahoma City are discussed in later chapters. 

Again, like all NFPA standards, NFPA 1710 may be adopted by a local jurisdiction, but 

is not mandatory. Unlike many NFPA standards, NFPA 1710 is not based on much of a research 

foundation, but rather is the majority vote reflecting experience and opinion of a committee, 

within which there was much disagreement. There is no published information on the expected 

reductions in losses or injuries as a function of increased staffing and only a little on the effect of 

increased response times. Nevertheless, despite having been formulated largely on the basis of 

expert opinions and task sequencing (what must be done and how many it takes to do it) rather 

than research, NFPA 1710 has become the de facto benchmark for the emergency response 

community. Of note, all groups have not embraced NFPA 1710, including the ICMA. 

In addition to the NFPA, the CFAI found that departments average 50 seconds for call 

processing/dispatch time. This is actually a far less stringent goal than 60 seconds 90 percent of 

the time since an average is closer to the 50 th percentile. The CFAI also found a 60-second 

average for turnout time. The CFAI baselines were developed by analyzing response records 

from multiple departments over a decade ago. The new CFAI document, Creating and 

Evaluating Standards of Response Coverage for Fire Departments, now recommends using 

fractile measurements rather than averages but does not offer recommendations on response time 

goals. 

Response Time Standards: Emergency Medical Services – One method of measuring 

and evaluating response times is to count the number of patients who survive to the point of 

being released from a hospital. Although survival is not solely a function of the timeliness of 

care, time is crucial to a critically injured or seriously ill patient. Guidelines published by Basic 

Trauma Life Support International (a widely known training institute) suggest that a trauma 

patient’s odds of survival are directly linked to the amount of time that elapses between the 

injury and definitive surgical treatment. 27 

Prevention of death and disability secondary to acute coronary syndromes is also an issue 

of time. The American Heart Association 2005 guidelines for CPR and Emergency Cardiac Care 

emphasize the importance of shortening response time to suspected cardiac arrest patients. 28 

If brain tissues are deprived of oxygen, they will begin to die within four to six minutes. 

For that reason it is imperative to begin resuscitation measures as soon as possible. A recent 

27 Campell JE. (Ed.). 2000. Basic Trauma Life Support for Paramedics and Other Advanced Providers (4 th ed). 

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. pp. 24-26. 

28 AHA. 2005. Highlights of the 2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation 

and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Currents in Emergency Cardiovascular Care, 16(4), 1-25. 







study in Ottawa, Ontario, found that defibrillation was most effective if it was provided within 

six minutes of the patient’s initial collapse. 29 , 30 

The study also found the following: 

Effectiveness decreased significantly as the interval between cardiac arrest and 

defibrillation increased between six and 11 minutes. 

After 11 minutes, the odds of patient survival were extremely poor. 

The odds of patient survival were doubled if ALS (paramedic) care was provided 

alongside BLS (layperson/police officer/EMT) defibrillation at all points prior to 11 minutes. 31 

The American College of Emergency Physicians noted that for every minute of cardiac 

arrest the chance of survival decreases up to 10 percent. EMS systems should attempt to achieve 

travel times of 3–4 minutes for medical first response and 6–8 minutes for advanced life support 

ambulance transport. 32 

Nationally, the closest thing to a response time standard for paramedic (ALS) transport 

units in an urban/suburban EMS system with automatic defibrillation-capable first responders is 

8 minutes in 90 percent of the critical (i.e., life-threatening) calls. This de facto standard is an 

amalgamation of generally accepted criteria or rules-of-thumb. No standards-making consensus 

group has ever formally defined a standard for ambulance response times. Generally, various 

EMS systems interpret the idea of a standard in two ways. Some jurisdictions view the 8-minute 

standard to mean 8 minutes and all of the 59 seconds that follow; other jurisdictions view it as 8 

minutes exactly. The latter, more stringent definition is suggested and is more consistent with the 

medical principles on which it is based. In Oklahoma City, ALS first responder services are 

provided by the engine companies and not by transport-capable medic units; therefore, the 

response time for the first arriving unit is the same as the NFPA 1710 6-minute response time. 

This form of response time measurement is called a fractile response time because it is 

stated in terms of the fraction of calls responded to within a specified time. A fractile response 

time standard specifically acknowledges that there will be some response time outliers in even 

the best-performing EMS systems. In this case, 10 percent of calls can have response times 

29 Defibrillation is a critical intervention that can be provided by paramedics using manual defibrillators, or by 

laypersons, police officers, or EMTs using automatic external defibrillators. 

30 USA Today ran a series of investigative reporting articles on EMS services across the country (July 28-30, 2003). 

The title of one article was “Six Minutes To Live or Die.” In this article, new research was cited from the Mayo 

Clinic that suggested the six-minute mark is when lives are saved or lost. 

31 Nichol G, Stiell IG, Laupacis A, Pham B, De Maio VJ, and Wells GA. 1999. “A Cumulative Meta-Analysis of the 

Effectiveness of Defibrillator-Capable Emergency Medical Services for Victims of Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest.” 

Annals of Emergency Medicine, 34 (4 pt. 1): 517-25. 

32 Pratt, F. D. & Overton, J. (2005). Ground Transport Ambulances. In Brennan, J.A. & Krohmer, J.R. [Eds.]. 

American College of Emergency Physicians Principles of Emergency Medical Services Systems, [3 rd Ed.]. Boston: 

Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 







greater than 8 minutes and the system can still meet the standard. The standard specifically does 

not use average response time as its measurement because arithmetic averages can be distorted 

by a small number of outliers. 

Factors Impacting Response Time Goals – Decisions about response time goals are 

not easy to make. Although the standards discussed above provide a framework for setting goals, 

it is ultimately up to the municipal government policymakers and the fire department to 

determine appropriate response times and service levels based on the needs of the community 

they serve. Common factors that should be taken into account include population density, call 

volume and distribution by type of call, land use, and available resources. Whether or not to 

apply new technology, such as automatic vehicle locators and traffic preemption devices, is also 

important as these can improve response times, even without building new stations. 

POPULATION DENSITY: Population density is the most basic and common measure used 

to define whether an area is urban, suburban, or rural. In many ways it determines the other 

factors listed above. That is, the more people you have in an area, the higher and more 

concentrated your call volume will be. 

The U.S. Census defines urban and rural areas on multiple levels. On a county or city 

scale, the simplified Census definition of an urban area is an area with at least 1,000 people per 

square mile. All other areas are rural. However, this definition does not have a middle ground— 

suburban. 

Suburban is a vague and somewhat subjective idea, which makes it the most difficult type 

of area to define. Suburban areas tend to be mostly residential and are generally on the edges of 

urban areas. We divide areas into urban, suburban, and rural by population as follows: 

• Urban – 2,000+ people/sq. mile or incorporated 

• Suburban – 1,000–1,999 people /sq. mile or within one mile of a city’s limits 

• Rural – under 1,000 people /sq. mile 

Oklahoma City has areas in each of the categories above. 

SUPPLEMENTAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS: A fire that smolders or burns undetected or is 

unreported for a long time may make such sufficient headway as to negate even the fastest 

response by a fire department. For example, if the fire burns 20 minutes before it is detected, 

even with a five-minute fire department response time, the damage will have been done. These 

built-in detection systems and use of simple smoke alarms can reduce time to detect, and make a 

larger difference than the drive time of emergency vehicles. Even better is built-in suppression 

systems which not only detect but extinguish or at least old fires in check. 

In Oklahoma City all new high-rise buildings (5 or more stories or 75 or more feet above 

the lowest level accessible by fire department) are required to be fit with sprinkler systems. Some 

communities have even begun requiring sprinkler systems to be installed in single-family homes. 







In 1978 San Clemente, CA, implemented the nation’s first comprehensive and mandatory 

residential sprinkler program. Only a few other communities that we are aware of have such a 

comprehensive program. They include Prince Georges County, MD; Scottsdale, AZ; 

Montgomery County, MD; and in August 2006, Frederick County, MD. With residential 

sprinklers in place, response times to fire calls in suburban and rural areas (where most new 

housing development is taking place throughout the country) can be longer than for urban areas 

where the housing stock is older and more likely to be unsprinklered. 

TRAFFIC CALMING: Many communities across the nation are installing traffic-calming 

devices (speed bumps and speed humps) to reduce vehicle speeds, mostly in residential 

neighborhoods. These devices are popular with neighborhood residents, who often demand them. 

However, each speed bump adds an estimated 10 to 12 seconds to emergency apparatus response 

times. The installation of these devices is a value judgment on the part of elected officials, who 

must weigh the satisfaction and possibly improved traffic safety to neighborhoods with the 

potential for longer emergency response times and the possible need for additional fire and EMS 

resources to compensate for the slower travel times. A study on this tradeoff undertaken for the 

Boulder, CO, City Council in 1997 showed that the likely reduction of traffic fatalities from the 

slowing of traffic was far less than the likely increase in deaths from slowing the response to 

delayed response for cardiac arrests and other emergencies. 33 

TRAFFIC SIGNAL PREEMPTION: On the positive side, traffic light preemption systems 

change the traffic lights as emergency vehicles approach, stopping civilian vehicles, and 

allowing emergency vehicles to enter intersections on a green light, thereby reducing the 

likelihood of a side-impact or head-on collision with another vehicle when having to go through 

red lights. These systems can be activated by siren or by infrared technology. When activated, 

the traffic light changes to a temporary green signal for the approaching emergency vehicle. 

Such a system is an excellent way to improve the safety of citizens and firefighters during 

emergency responses. In establishing operating procedures for such traffic devices, the 

department should restrict emergency vehicle operators from entering intersections on red lights 

because a delayed green light at an intersection with a preemption device can mean that another 

emergency vehicle is entering the intersection from the cross-road. 

AUTOMATIC VEHICLE LOCATION (AVL) AND MOBILE DATA COMPUTERS (MDCS): 

Implementation of an AVL system is beneficial because it allows dispatchers to see the actual 

location of any unit on a computer-generated map of the city. The AVL data could also be 

integrated into the CAD system to calculate the truly closest unit to any given emergency and 

make a dispatch recommendation accordingly, rather than making dispatches on the basis of the 

33 Deaths Expected From Delayed Emergency Response Due to Neighborhood Traffic Mitigation, 3 April 1997; 

submitted by Ronald Bowman to Boulder, CO City Council. 







fixed station locations. In addition to improving dispatching, AVL improves personnel safety 

because a unit that is in trouble can be quickly located. 

Additionally, an AVL system can be integrated with MDCs installed in each emergency 

response unit. With the appropriate integration of AVL, navigational, and MDC technologies, the 

AVL can provide the MDC with a visual map showing the current unit location of the unit and 

the incident location along with the most efficient route of travel. 

MDCs can be used to provide CAD data, city maps, building plans, fire-rescue pre-plans, 

hospital status, patient information, navigational directions to responding units, etc. to units 

directly in the field. MDCs can also be used to log status and file incident reports. MDCs can be 

supported by 800 MHz radio system channels, code-division multiple access (CDMA) cellular 

technology (the same technology used to access the Internet on cell phones), and other wireless 

communications technologies. 

OCFD units are currently equipped with MDCs that are used to record the en route and 

on scene times. Units are not equipped with AVL. OCFD evaluated AVL in the past and 

determined it was not cost effective. 

Recommendation 4: Consider the use of AVL in front-line units. As units spend more 

time on EMS and other types of calls, they are more likely to be in the field when a second call 

comes in, which increases the utility of AVL. An analysis of overlap of calls would be useful. 

AVL can help reduce response times, and are a lot lower cost than adding a station. Automatic 

vehicle location should be evaluated to determine its impact on response times. 

Response Time Goals – Often the best place to start when defining response time goals 

is actual response times in the areas protected, unofficial de facto goals already used by the 

department, and goals used by neighboring or comparable communities. Citizen satisfaction with 

the current level of service also can be factored in, though most citizens are not likely to know 

the quantitative results. 

Actual response times are discussed in the next chapter. The city has identified goals for 

call handling and dispatch in its Standard of Emergency Response Coverage, July 2004. Table 10 

summarizes the goals. Call processing and dispatch for OCFD is handled by the Bureau of 

Emergency Communications (BOEC). PR&F and BOEC jointly agreed to these goals and 

incorporated them into an intergovernmental agreement. 







Table 10: OCFD Call Processing and Dispatch Time Goals 

Type of Call Goal Compliance 

Urgent Fire Calls 1:00 90% 

Priority 2 Fire Calls 1:30 90% 

Non-priority Fire Calls 2:00 90% 

High priority EMS Calls 1:30 90% 

Low priority EMS Calls 2:00 90% 

As the above discussion shows, setting overall response time goals is a complex and 

difficult task. Nevertheless, without these goals making decisions on how many resources are 

needed, where to put them, and when they are needed would be left up to individual whim and 

could easily lead to exorbitant, unnecessary expenses. It is therefore critically important to 

clarify the terminology and the tradeoffs to be made. 

Based on the above and, in comparison to other like cities, we recommend the department 

adopt the response time goals shown in Table 11. These are close to best feasible practice in high 

performing departments. 

Call Type 

Fire (first due unit) 

EMS 

Call 

Priority 

Table 11: Recommended Response Time Goals 

Call 

Processing* Turnout Travel Total Compliance 

Urgent 1:00 6:00 

High 1:30 4:00 6:30 

Non-priority 2:00 

7:00 

1:00 

High 1:00 6:00 

4:00 

Low 1:30 

7:00 

Fire (Ladder) All 1:00 

* Under authority of the Bureau of Emergency Communications. 

6:00 8:00 

90% 

Recommendation 5: Adopt the response time goals listed above in Table 11. These are 

response time goals that would comply with NFPA standards, and put OCFD in the leading edge 

of practice. 

NUMBER OF STATIONS 

Once response time and other goals have been set, the process of determining how many 

stations are needed and where to place them can begin. The setting of realistic goals requires an 

iterative process. One considers what is being achieved (actual response times today) and what it 

would take to improve them. The goals might be loosened if the cost to achieve them is too high. 

Unfortunately, a major hole in the state of the art is the lack of knowledge of how much loss 

would be reduced if response times were improved by 30 seconds or a minute. We know faster is 

better to reduce losses, but not how much money or injury reduction is to be gained. So the 







whole process depends on judgment in light to alternatives and their cost. This section looks at 

criteria for determining the number and location, size, and timing for stations. 

Number and Location of Stations – How many stations a department needs to protect 

an area depends in large part on the size of the built-up area to be protected. The degree of 

sprinklerization (automatic sprinklers), automatic or mutual aid agreements, risks present, and 

type of developments to be protected all impact the placing of stations, but the sheer size of the 

area and speed limits on the street network are the prime factors, along with the desired response 

time goals. The latter are more a factor of standards and past experience than of risk, but risks to 

be protected influences placement of some stations. 

Response time goals will have the largest impact on the number of stations needed. To 

illustrate the point, if apparatus from a given station currently can get anywhere in an area within 

six minutes at 30 mph, and there were a perfect east-west, north-south street network, the area 

served by one station would be an 18-square-mile diamond-shaped area three miles in diameter 

from the center (station location) to any corner. If one wished to serve that same 18-square-mile 

area with a two-minute response, one would need nine stations instead of one because each 

station would be able to serve only two square miles. 

In addition to goals, the road network plays a sizeable role in the number of stations 

required. A perfect grid-patterned road network allows for the largest area to be reached in a 

given time, assuming uniform travel speeds on all road segments. Access to high-speed 

roadways (interstates, limited-access highways, etc.) increases the reachable area; winding, 

narrow, steep roads and traffic calming devices decrease the area reachable in a given time. 

ISO Compliance – ISO awards points for distribution of apparatus (and by proxy for 

distribution of stations). ISO reviews the distribution of engine and ladder companies and awards 

points based partially on the percent of developed area within 1.5 miles of an engine company 

and 2.5 miles of a ladder. Quints can be used to obtain points toward number of engines or 

rescue ladders needed. A quint can be counted as an engine and one-half of a ladder company, or 

as a full ladder company. 

Response Time Analysis – The analysis of actual response times compared to response 

time goals and geographic information system (GIS) modeling of response coverage provides the 

most dynamic and accurate assessment of the need for additional or fewer stations. 

To conduct a response time and GIS analysis, some basic information is needed, 

including: 

• Station locations and building ages 

• Apparatus deployment 

• Zoning and land use and related policies 

• National response time standards 







• Current and projected population 

Actual incident data for the most recent year (and additional years if possible), including 

address, type of incident, units responding, and overall response time for each incident. 

GIS layers for the area, included road network, water, station locations, risks, etc. 

A response time analysis can help determine areas where an additional station may be 

needed. The GIS analysis confirms or refutes the need and allows decision-makers to see the 

impact of alternatives. 

While this type of analysis is more location specific than a standard formula such as ISO, 

it is only as accurate as the data available. That is, if the incident data is incomplete or 

inaccurate, it is difficult to assess how the department is doing compared to the adopted goals. 

This type of analysis is also less prescriptive than the ISO standard, and more subjective; 

however, it can be tailored to a specific department or even specific area served by a department. 

Therefore, even with the possible data issues, a response time and GIS analysis provides a more 

realistic assessment of the number and placement of fire stations. 

A response time and GIS analysis was completed for Oklahoma City and is discussed in 

Chapter V, Station and Apparatus Deployment. 

Determining Station Size – Once the decision to add, consolidate, or rebuild a station 

has been made and the site(s) selected, the process moves on to determining the size of each 

station—how many units and people should it be designed to house? 

While an architect will work with the department to determine the exact size and layout 

of a new station, there are some basic factors a department should consider from the beginning: 

• How many units will need to be housed at the station during its lifetime? (Apparatus 

bays typically make up the largest portion of a fire station.) 

• How many personnel will staff the units? 

• What facilities will they need (sleeping quarters, parking, fitness facilities, etc.)? 

• Will additional units and personnel need to be housed at the station in the foreseeable 

future? 

• How many offices do we need? 

• Do we want a community space for the public? 

• How big are the available lots in the area the station will go? 

Although not done as part of this study, comparisons can be made with other departments 

and the size of their stations to get an idea of how much space will be needed. 







Determining Timing and a Capital Improvement Plan – This section describes 

methodology for creating a timeline for the relocation, closure, and construction of fire stations. 

It also presents criteria and models for making decisions about the timing of capital 

improvements. 

METHODOLOGY FOR PRIORITIZING FIRE STATION CAPITAL IMPROVEMENTS: There 

are several questions that need to be answered before deciding on the priority of a new station, or 

one which is considered for upgrade. 

Current Service Levels – How large is the current service deficiency? How fast are calls 

being handled in that area? How many calls would a new station in that area handle? To what 

extent would the addition of a station in that area correct the deficiency? 

Future Service Levels – If there is no current deficiency, when will there be a service 

deficiency in the area in the future? Is the deficiency a function of response times, workload, or 

both? 

Cost of Alternative Solutions – What alternatives to building a station exist in the 

area, e.g., expanding/renovating the current station, redeployment of current resources, 

contracting out, or co-location of a fire/EMS resource with the other service or adding a new unit 

to an existing station (which is recommended, as will be seen)? What are the costs and benefits 

of each option? 

The flowchart in Figure 8 details the methodology described above. 

When prioritizing repairs or renovations, an initial screening should be done to determine 

the long-term viability of the facility. It is important to know whether the facility will be useful 

from a system-wide operational standpoint beyond its expected useful lifecycle. If a facility will 

be unnecessary from a service delivery viewpoint before it would need replacement or major 

renovation, then it is not worth doing much repair work to it. That is, if the station will need only 

minor repairs for the next 5 years but major renovation in 6 years but the station will not be 

needed after 3 years because a new one will be opening up down the road, then it does not make 

sense to make major repairs or renovations to the building. 







Figure 8: Capital Improvements Prioritization Methodology 

No Priority 

START 

None foreseeable 

When will 

there be a service 

deficiency? 

None now 

How large is 

the current service 

deficiency? 

Small 

Low Priority 

Within 

7 years 

Medium Priority 

Medium/Large 

Within 15 years 

Low Priority 

How fast are 

calls being handled 

in that area? 

With service 

target levels 

Below service level targets 

Not much 

Yes 

To what 

extent would a new 

station correct the 

problem? 

A Lot/Some 

Are there 

alternatives 

to building a 

station? 

1000+ 

per year 

How many calls 

would a new 

station handle? 

Below 500 

per year 

Medium Priority 

No 

500-1000 per year 

High Priority 

No 

Are there 

alternatives to 

building a 

station? 

Yes 

The next consideration is how long it will take to provide a suitable replacement if one is 

needed. If a station needs to be relocated, how long will it be before the replacement station is 

ready for occupancy? It may be appropriate to only make temporary or relatively minor repairs 

until the move to the new station is completed. If the delay in opening a new station is going to 

be lengthy, more of the necessary repairs should be made in the interim. 







Feasibility of Consolidating/Closing Stations – A methodology similar to 

prioritizing the need for a new station can be applied to determining the feasibility of 

consolidating or closing existing stations (Figure 9). 

A few notes on terminology in this methodology: to close a station is to discontinue using 

the station as a base for operations of fire or EMS apparatus and take the units at that station out 

of service. Closed stations result in empty buildings that can be converted to other uses, if 

desired, rather than destroyed. Units taken out of service can be used as reserve apparatus, or to 

replace older apparatus elsewhere in the area. 

To consolidate a station is to discontinue using one or more buildings but to continue 

operating all units from the stations being consolidated. A consolidation may result in a new 

building if both stations being consolidated are in need of major repairs, if neither building is 

large enough to hold the necessary apparatus, or if a new single location would provide better 

response coverage than either existing location. 







Figure 9: Consolidation/Closure Feasibility Methodology 

START 

How much 

overlap exists in 

current 

station/unit 

coverage 

(based on 

response time 

goals)? 




NUMBER OF APPARATUS 

Number and Location of Apparatus – Unless a department considers alternative 

deployment methods such as system status management—used primarily in EMS—apparatus 

locations will be determined in conjunction with stations. The number and type of units, on the 

other hand, is determined by demand and response goals. 

BASED ON RISKS: The deployment of apparatus is related to the locations of fire stations 

in the community. The number of and types of apparatus that are required is based on that risk is 

tied to the staffing of those units. Apparatus and personnel response complements based on risk 

level are discussed below in the section on staffing. 

NATIONAL STANDARDS: Aside from the response complement based on risk levels, the 

NFPA does not make recommendations on the number of front-line apparatus a department 

should have. The NFPA does, however, make recommendations on the number of reserve 

apparatus. 

The NFPA also offers a suggested ratio of eight to one in terms of front-line to reserve 

engine and ladder apparatus. ISO recommends a ratio of reserve to front-line apparatus of either 

1:4 or 1:3, depending on the type of apparatus and the frequency with which it is used. 

WORKLOADS: Determining how busy units are is important for establishing their 

availability for the next call and because it provides insight on how much capacity various units 

have to handle more work, or whether additional units are needed. One needs to consider both 

the number of calls (demand) and the time spent on calls (workload) (number of calls x average 

time per call)—the unit’s workload. (Workload here is emergency workload only, not all the 

training and other tasks undertaken at the station, nor the documentation for emergency 

responses.) 

Through CAD systems, fire departments are able to keep detailed records about service 

times; these data are useful in determining the availability of a specific unit or station. Again, the 

concept of workload is not merely a count of how many calls to which a unit was dispatched. 

One unit can have fewer responses than another but remains on the scene longer on average (e.g. 

more working incidents), and so has a greater workload. Evaluating workload is important when 

looking at the overlaps in coverage to an area that may be required to achieve the response time 

goals adopted by the city/department and is part of the CFAI self-assessment process. An 

analysis of workload also can indicate whether a new station should be built or new apparatus 

purchased—or if current stations should be closed or units moved. 

A fire/EMS system must incorporate the necessary redundancies based on whether 

adjacent stations or units are likely to be available for emergency response. Below are guidelines 

developed by TriData that outline the redundancy levels needed to meet response time goals 







according to response levels and are based on our experience with workloads and how they 

affect availability. 

1. Very Low (4,000 responses/yr) – Overlapping calls may occur hourly, 

regardless of the time of day. The closest station/unit is likely to be unavailable thus 

requiring the response of adjacent stations/units. Frequent transfers or move-ups are 

required for the delivery system to meet demand. Stations/units must be located with 

redundancy (back-up units) to achieve stated travel time objectives established by the 

community. This footprint is usually found in very densely populated urban areas and 

is especially evident in EMS services located in urban areas with very high demand 

for service. (Overlap can be achieved with additional stations or additional units in 

existing stations.) 

The 3,000–3,200 response level (very high category above) is the point at which units are 

often considered “busy” and their availability needs to be evaluated. This is a rough rule of 

thumb, not a fixed standard. At this point, response times often will begin getting longer from 







frequent call overlap (calls to the same first-due area arriving back-to-back). 34 As units become 

busier, the chances for overlap or simultaneous alarms increase, and second-due units begin to 

answer more calls. This causes a domino effect where unit B is dispatched to a call in unit A’s 

area because unit A is already engaged, causing unit B to be unavailable for the next call in its 

own area. Unit C must then respond to unit B or unit A’s area, and so forth. 

Again, the 3,000-response threshold is just a rule of thumb. How much time a unit is 

unavailable due to being involved with another incident is better assessment of the impact of 

workloads on availability and response times. This is the second factor in workload, known as 

unit hour utilization (UHU). 

UNIT HOUR UTILIZATION: UHU is a calculation that estimates the amount of time a unit 

is occupied on emergency calls as a percentage of the total amount of hours a unit is staffed and 

available for response (a unit staffed full-time is available 8,760 hours per year). In other words, 

UHU measures the percentage of on-duty time consumed by emergency service field activities. 

A high UHU means lower availability for calls. Poor availability negatively impacts response 

times. 

The specific formula used to calculate the UHU for each unit is: 

UHU= 

(number of calls) x (average call duration in hours) 

8,760 hours per year 

UHU measures the percent of a unit’s time in service that is spent running calls. There is 

other time that is not accounted for, however, which includes time for training, maintenance, and 

other preparedness-related functions. Public education efforts also are not included in the UHU 

calculation. In other words, when units are not engaged in emergency response, it does not mean 

they are not working. 

UHU is used more in relation to EMS units than fire suppression units; although, 

evaluation of UHUs is useful to different extents in both cases. 

While there is consensus within the industry on the importance of utilization rates and 

how to measure them, the interpretation of how indicative utilization rates are of overall system 

efficiency is debatable. Most believe that a UHU between 35 and 45 percent for EMS is good for 

economic efficiency. (This is more common with private ambulance providers.) If a UHU is 

greater than 45 percent, units often are not available and response times suffer. If a UHU is 

below 35 percent, units may not be well utilized, but response times may be high too often. 

34 A “first-due” ‘area is a certain geographic area of the overall fire department response jurisdiction that is assigned 

to a particular fire station and the units that are assigned to them. Generally, it is best to dispatch the closest unit or 

company to any particular type of incident. Companies may be assigned to incidents outside of their first-due area, 

such as a second-due area, as the need arises because of the normal first-due unit being out-of-service or other 

circumstances. 







Many communities choose to aim for a UHU in the 15–25 percent range to improve or maintain 

good response times. If a unit has a UHU of 40 percent, it will not be available for the next call 

40 percent of the time. This is, of course, an average over the course of the day. 

There are no guidelines on UHU levels for fire units; however, many larger departments 

recently evaluated by TriData experience engine and truck UHUs between 5 and 15 percent. If a 

unit is out of its station on a call more than 10 percent of the time, then it is unlikely to meet 

response time goals of 90 percent of calls in 4-minute travel times, since a second further away 

station will have to respond. Thus UHU of 5.15 percent is consistent with a goal of being there 

about 90 percent of the time. 

In order to develop an effective resource deployment plan, units must be available to 

respond to incidents most of the time. No amount of resource placement planning will improve 

system wide response times if the responding units are not available. 

REPLACEMENT SCORING SYSTEM: Some fire departments (primarily on the East Coast) 

use a scoring system developed by the American Public Works Association Fleet Service 

Committee for assessing fire apparatus for replacement, or a scoring system similar to it. 35 

Examples of its use may be found in many Virginia jurisdictions e.g. (Chesapeake, Hampton, 

Newport News, Virginia Beach, and York County). The scoring system considers the variables 

of age, mileage, maintenance costs, and operating conditions. A replacement score is calculated 

for each vehicle based on the sum of its scores for age, usage, and condition. Data for the 

calculations usually are obtained from computerized vehicle maintenance records and work 

orders. 

Assigning one point for each month beyond the date on which it was purchased scores 

the age of the vehicle. The usage score assigns one point for each 1,000 miles traveled or 3.5 

points for each 100 hours of use, whichever is higher. The condition of the vehicle is scored on a 

scale of zero, two, or four for each aspect, in accordance with criteria for each of the categories, 

including the body, interior, installed functional apparatus, maintenance/repair cost, and mission. 

The sum of the scores for each category is then multiplied by a factor of 12 to obtain the overall 

vehicle score. If the overall score exceeds the point limit established for the respective vehicle 

category, the vehicle is recommended for replacement or disposal. The categories and associated 

maximum scores are listed in Table 12. Other factors such as vehicle downtime can be included 

in such a system. 

The critical component in any service-life-assessment system is the absolute requirement 

that a vehicle must be able to safely and reliably perform in a manner consistent with the 

vehicle’s designated purpose, regardless of mileage or hours of use. 

35 American Public Works Association (2003). Fleet Service Committee. http://www.apwa.net 







Table 12: Maximum Vehicle Points Before 

Disposal/Replacement is Recommended (APWA System) 

Vehicle Category 

Maximum Vehicle 

Points 

Sedans, station wagons, and jeeps 162 

Heavy duty trucks and towed equipment 192 

Special purpose equipment such as boats and trailers 192 

Light-duty trucks 196 

Medium- to heavy-duty trucks (including ambulances) 220 

Fire apparatus 225 

Specifications – Finally, once the number and type of apparatus and replacement 

programs are determined, the department must develop specifications for each piece of 

apparatus. 

APPLICABLE STANDARDS FOR FIRE APPARATUS: There are several federal regulations, 

fire service consensus standards, and fire insurance standards that have influenced the design of 

modern fire apparatus. The federal standards include requirements mandated by the National 

Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act and the Clean Air Act. The fire service consensus 

standards consist of NFPA Standards 1201, 1500, and 1901. The fire insurance standard is that 

developed by the ISO, while the CFAI also has references to fire apparatus design and 

procurement in their assessment manual. 

NATIONAL TRAFFIC AND MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY ACT OF 1966: This Act mandated 

that all manufacturers adhere to specific safety standards when designing and constructing motor 

vehicles. The Clean Air Act has emission control standards that affect engine performance, 

which led to incorporation of electronic controls on diesel engines. 

NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION STANDARD 1201, DEVELOPING FIRE 

PROTECTION SERVICES FOR THE PUBLIC (1994): This standard includes sections on 

procurement and maintenance of fire apparatus. They require (a) inventory control of all fire 

apparatus and equipment owned and operated by a fire department; (b) implementation of 

forecasting methods to project apparatus service-life expectancies and replacement needs; (c) 

development of written fire apparatus bid specifications in accordance with NFPA standards; (d) 

implementation of routine inspection and preventive maintenance programs; and (e) 

implementation of service testing for fire pumpers and aerial devices. 

NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION STANDARD 1500, FIRE DEPARTMENT 

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAM (1992): Chapter 4, Vehicles and Equipment, 

addresses (a) fire apparatus design requirements; (b) training and certification of fire apparatus 

operators: (c) safe driving and operating practices for fire apparatus; (d) safety practices for 







firefighters riding fire apparatus; and (e) regular inspection and preventive maintenance and 

repair of fire apparatus. 

NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION STANDARD 1901, AUTOMOTIVE FIRE 

APPARATUS (1996): This standard outlines design requirements for (a) pumper fire apparatus; 

(b) initial attack fire apparatus; (c) mobile water supply fire apparatus; (d) aerial fire apparatus; 

(e) special service fire apparatus; (f) chassis and vehicle components; (g) low voltage electrical 

systems and warning devices; (h) driving and crew areas; (i) body, compartments, and equipment 

mounting; (j) fire pump and associated equipment; (k) water transfer pump and associated 

equipment; (l) water tanks; (m) aerial devices; (n) foam proportioning systems; (o) compressed 

air foam systems; (p) line voltage electrical system; (q) command and communications; (r) air 

systems; and (s) winches. 

INSURANCE SERVICES OFFICE: Requirements for fire apparatus are addressed in the ISO 

fire department resources criterion. Based on the results of Basic Fire Flow calculations, one 

computes the minimum number of engine companies and pump capacities needed to meet 

estimated fire suppression requirements. Depending on the total number of buildings that are at 

least 3 stories or 35 feet in height, the need for ladder or service companies is also determined. 

CENTER FOR PUBLIC SAFETY EXCELLENCE/COMMISSION ON FIRE ACCREDITATION 

INTERNATIONAL (CFAI): Assessment Manual, Chapter VI, Physical Resources, Criterion 6B, 

apparatus and resources says that “Rating for this criterion is based on the performance 

indicators of (a) apparatus location in accordance with established standards of coverage for the 

community; (b) appropriateness of apparatus types for services provided; (c) existence of an 

apparatus replacement schedule; and (d) existence of a program for writing apparatus 

replacement specifications so that fire apparatus are designed and purchased to be adequate to 

meet the agency’s goal and objectives.” 

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS: Performance specification is the process of stating the 

requirements for apparatus procurement in terms of what the vehicles do rather than the way to 

get there. Most, if not all, apparatus manufacturers today indicate that if the purchaser specifies 

performance requirements rather than requirements for specific components, the manufacturer 

can engineer the apparatus to conform. For example, if the department were to specify a 1,250 

gpm. pumper and its road performance requirements, the manufacturer would figure out the 

appropriate engine, transmission, and the driveline combination to accomplish the goal. The 

manufacturer would ensure that the horsepower and torque provided would be sufficient to meet 

the needs of the apparatus. This in turn would save the department money and time by 

eliminating unnecessary over-sizing of the engine and related equipment for the apparatus. 

In using performance-based specifications, consideration must be given to how the 

configuration will perform as it ages, after routine wear of the apparatus. In other words, one 

needs to state how long the vehicle is expected to last and still provide the desired performance. 







Perhaps the most desirable specification combines a performance specifications format 

with a general design format (e.g., four doors, bench seat). Including minimum performance 

standards in the specification for various components and systems is a good way to ensure proper 

36 37 38 

performance. 

Complement Based on Risk – The number of firefighters needed per engine or truck 

(ladder) company is a subject of hot debate in the fire world. The NFPA has much influence in 

this area as well. The fundamental issues in determining unit staffing include: 

• The ability to start operations with the first arriving unit; 

• The ability to rapidly amass critical staffing for incidents of various sizes and types of 

hazards; 

• Firefighter safety, and; 

• Productivity of a unit and the system of units. 

Oklahoma City considers minimum staffing for its fire apparatus to be three personnel, 

except for paramedic engines that have four personnel. This minimum staffing level is below the 

level specified in NFPA standards (except of paramedic engines.) NFPA Standard 1500, Fire 

Department Occupational Safety and Health Program says that “…a minimum acceptable fire 

company staffing level should be four members responding or arriving with each engine and 

each ladder company responding to any type of fire.” NFPA 1710 also suggests that fire 

suppression units be staffed with a minimum of four personnel. Many cities still operate 

successfully with 3 person staffing, (e.g. Arlington, Texas) provided that enough personnel 

quickly arrive on scene. 

While the staffing of the unit affects its efficiency, a more important criterion is how fast 

the total team can be assembled for a given incident regardless of the number of vehicles on 

which they ride. The National Fire Protection Handbook, 18 th Edition, Typical Initial Attack 

Response Capability Assuming Interior Attack and Operations Response Capability (Table 10- 

2A), makes staffing recommendations based on the number of firefighters arriving on the scene 

of a fire depending upon the type of occupancy (low-, medium-, and high-hazard occupancy). 

The NFPA staffing recommendations by the type of hazard areas follows: 

• HIGH-HAZARD OCCUPANCIES (schools, hospitals, nursing homes, explosive plants, 

refineries, high-rise buildings, and other high-risk or large fire potential occupancies): 

At least four pumpers, two ladder trucks (or combination apparatus with equivalent 

36 Senter, Edward L. (1998, July). Evaluating Fire Apparatus Design Changes in the Norfolk Department of Fire 

and Paramedical Services. Emmitsburg, MD: National Fire Academy, Executive Fire Officer Program. 

37 Norfolk Fire and Paramedical Services. (1993). Vehicle study. Norfolk, VA. 

38 Capital Safety Systems. (1991). Calvert County, Maryland Emergency Apparatus Assessment & Analysis, Calvert 

County, MD 







capabilities), two chief officers, and other specialized apparatus as may be needed to 

cope with the combustible involved; not fewer than 24 firefighters and two chief 

officers. 

• MEDIUM-HAZARD OCCUPANCIES (apartments, offices, mercantile and industrial 

occupancies not normally requiring extensive rescue or firefighting forces): At least 

three pumpers, one ladder truck (or combination apparatus with equivalent 

capabilities), one chief officer, and other specialized apparatus as may be needed or 

available; not fewer than 16 firefighters and one chief officer. 

• LOW-HAZARD OCCUPANCIES (one-, two-, or three-family dwellings and scattered 

small businesses and industrial occupancies): At least two pumpers, one ladder truck 

(or combination apparatus with equivalent capabilities), one chief officer, and other 

specialized apparatus as may be needed or available; not fewer than 12 firefighters 

and one chief officer. 

The recommendations and guidelines outlined in the NFPA Handbook should be 

considered, but are not necessarily the final word as the NFPA guidelines do not address how 

fire departments will also be able to comply with the OSHA mandated “Two-in/Two-out” rule 

(discussed below). Also, the NFPA guidelines do not address OSHA’s requirement that a rapid 

intervention team/crew (RIT/RIC) be on-scene at a working fire. 

Table 13 shows the OCFD’s response complement to a structure fire based on risk versus 

the NFPA guidelines outlined above. 

Table 13: Current Oklahoma City Structure Fire Response Complement vs. NFPA Guidelines 

Type of Occupancy OCFD Response Complement NFPA Guidelines 

High-Hazard 

(High-rises in Oklahoma 

City) 

Total 

Medium-Hazard 

Total 

4 Engines 

2 Ladder Trucks (Rescue 

Ladder) 

2 District chiefs + Support Units 

24 Firefighters 

2 Chief Officers 

4 Engines 

2 Ladder Trucks 



2625 26 

4 Engines 


Ladder) 

2 District chiefs + Support Units 



3 Engines 

1 Ladder Truck 


1 Chief Officer 

26 17 








Low-Hazard 

Total 

3 Engines 

1 Ladder Truck (Rescue ladder) 

2 Chiefs 


2 District chiefs+ Support Units 

2 Engines 




20 13 

Due to variables in engine company staffing i.e., the OCFD paramedic engine companies 

are staffed with four personnel instead of three, the staffing figures for OCFD may differ slightly 

for a given response. These figures represent an average if half of the engines are staffed with 

three and the other half with four fire fighters. As Oklahoma City has a sizeable rural (nonhydrant) 

area, these responses are supplemented with tanker and brush trucks as needed. 

CONCLUSION: Oklahoma City meets or exceeds NFPA guidelines for all three types of 

occupancy listings. In the Medium and Low Hazard Occupancy, OCFD sends almost 50% more 

equipment and personnel than the NFPA recommends. 

Recommendation 6: Consider reducing the weight of response (number of and types of 

units) that respond to medium and low hazard alarms. 

Table 14 illustrates the proposed weight of response for the department. The response 

complement for high-hazards is appropriate and would not change. The addition of tankers or 

brush vehicles would likewise not change. 

Table 14: Proposed Oklahoma City Structure Fire Response Complement vs. NFPA Guidelines 


High-Hazard 

(High-rises in Oklahoma 

City) 

Total 

Medium-Hazard 

Total 

4 Engines 


Ladder) 

2 District chiefs + Support units 



4 Engines 

2 Ladder Trucks 



2625 26 

3 Engines 


1 Chief Officer +Support units 



3 Engines 




17 17 








Low-Hazard 

Total 

3 Engines 


1 Chief Officer + Support Units 



2 Engines 




17 13 

There are several advantages to reducing the weight of responses. 

• Reduced workloads for busy units. 

• Reduced fuel costs and vehicle maintenance costs. 

• Reduced response times in high activity periods. By reducing the numbers of 

apparatus on certain types of calls, more companies will remain available for service. 

This will reduce response times. 

• Improved safety. By reducing the weight of response the potential for motor vehicle 

accidents involving fire apparatus will be reduced. 

• Increased time for non-emergency activities such as Fire Prevention and Public 

Education. 

These reductions in the weight of response would still keep Oklahoma City at or above 

the NFPA recommendations. 

Standards and Laws – Additional standards for staffing are related to OSHA’s 

regulations for firefighter safety. 

OSHA: Firefighting is a dangerous and physical labor-intensive occupation. Although 

technologically the tools and equipment used by firefighters have changed dramatically over the 

years, the basic goals have remained almost unchanged: to preserve life and protect property by 

successfully extinguishing fires—and not get hurt in the process. To accomplish this, firefighters 

must be able to quickly and efficiently gain access to a fire and apply an extinguishing agent 

(typically water, but increasingly foam and other agents are gaining popularity). This requires 

emergency responders to operate in dangerous environments where they are at high risk for 

serious injury or death. 

To protect the heath, safety, and welfare of firefighters, the federal government enacted 

regulations to ensure that firefighters operate in and around structure fires safely. Enacted by the 

Department of Labor and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 29 CFR 

1910.134, also known as “Two-in/Two-out,” mandates that there must be a minimum of four 

personnel on the scene of a structural fire before personnel can initiate interior operations. Two 

firefighters must remain on the exterior of the structure, properly equipped with full turnout gear 

and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) to act as a RIC in the event the firefighters 







operating inside the structure become incapacitated or trapped. Although OSHA allows one RIC 

member to have an additional role such as incident commander or safety officer, as long as 

rescue activities can be performed without jeopardizing the safety of other firefighters, a pump 

operator cannot make up part of the RIC unless the apparatus is in a positive water source, which 

allows the pump to be unstaffed for a period. 

INTER-JURISDICTIONAL COMPARISONS 

In order to put a department’s performance in perspective, it is helpful to compare the 

department with other departments that share similar characteristics. In so doing, a department 

can find benchmarks by which to measure its own performance. When these comparisons differ 

drastically, further evaluation is required. 

Jurisdictional comparisons are not easy to interpret as there are many variables. No two 

jurisdictions are exactly the same size, with the exact same population, and with identical 

governmental organization or services. However, many jurisdictions do share similar qualities. 

While these comparisons cannot be as considered directly indicative of the department’s 

performance, they are of value. They allow helpful in assessing a department in relation to the 

performance of its peers, identifying departmental strengths, and suggesting areas for 

improvement. 

Oklahoma City is a difficult city to make comparisons with because of its size; the city 

has the third largest land area of any city. There are many cities with similar populations, but 

few that share comparable land areas and populations. Fourteen cities have been identified for 

comparison, including Jacksonville, FL. Jacksonville is the city whose land area is most 

comparable to Oklahoma City. A variety of cities offer a basis for comparison by population. In 

the comparison below, averages exclude Oklahoma City. 

Community Comparison – Table 15 shows the population and land areas of each city 

used in this comparison. The populations do not take into account visitors or day-time working 

populations, but instead cover only in-city residents. Oklahoma City, as well as many of the 

other cities in the comparison, has a large metropolitan area. Jacksonville, Indianapolis and 

Oklahoma City are the three largest cities by land area used in this comparison. Oklahoma City 

has the lowest population density and the largest first-due station area of the comparison group. 

The city maintains a population-protected per station that is below average when compared with 

similar cities, because of the large area. 







City 

Table 15: Comparison of Populations Served per Station 

Population 

(2003 Census 

Estimate) 

Land Area 

(Square Miles 

Protected) 

Square Miles/ 

Station 

Population 

Served/ 


Population/ 

Square Mile 

Indianapolis, IN 783,438 361.0 13.9 30,132 2,170 

Tucson, AZ 507,658 195.0 9.8 25,383 2,603 

Albuquerque, NM 471,586 181.0 8.2 21,436 2,605 

El Paso, TX 584,113 250.5 8.1 18,842 2,332 

Denver, CO 557,478 153.0 4.9 17,983 3,644 

Omaha, NE 404,267 116.0 5.0 17,577 3,485 

Milwaukee, WI 586,941 96.0 2.7 16,304 6,114 

Austin, TX 672,011 252.0 5.9 15,628 2,667 

Fort Worth, TX 585,122 293.0 7.5 15,003 1,997 

Oklahoma City, OK 523,303 607.0 17.3 14,952 862 

Jacksonville, FL 773,781 758.0 13.5 13,818 1,021 

Tulsa, OK 387,807 183.0 6.3 13,373 2,119 

Kansas City, MO 442,768 314.0 9.2 13,023 1,410 

Memphis, TN 645,978 279.0 5.1 11,745 2,315 

Average 569,458 264.0 7.7 17,711 2,652 

Apparatus Comparison – In terms of type and distribution of apparatus, the department 

compares well. The city was an engine to truck ratio of 2.8, which is significantly lower than the 

average. The city also has a higher engine to 10,000 citizen ratio, at 0.69, the fourth highest ratio 

of cities included in this comparison. This ratio is slightly above the 0.62 average as shown in . 

Table 1. 







Table 16: Comparison of Engine Companies per 10,000 Population 

City Engines Trucks Quints 

Engines/ 

10,000 pop E: T Ratio 

Memphis, TN 55 31 0 0.85 1.8 

Kansas City, MO 33 12 0 0.75 2.8 

Tulsa, OK 28 4 10 0.72 7.0 

Oklahoma City, OK 36 13 0 0.69 2.8 

Jacksonville, FL 50 12 0 0.65 4.2 

Milwaukee, WI 37 16 0 0.63 2.3 

Fort Worth, TX 35 4 10 0.60 8.8 

Austin, TX 40 9 4 0.60 4.4 

Omaha, NE 23 9 0 0.57 2.6 

El Paso, TX 31 7 6 0.53 4.4 

Denver, CO 28 15 0 0.50 1.9 

Albuquerque, NM 22 5 0 0.47 4.4 

Tucson, AZ 21 13 3 0.41 1.6 

Indianapolis, IN 25 14 0 0.32 1.8 

Average 33 12 3 0.58 3.7 

Staffing – While the department ranks fifth in total staffing and sixth in the number of 

uniformed firefighters per capita, the percentage of uniform firefighters in relation to total 

department personnel is significantly lower. Uniformed staffing ratios averaged 95%, while 

OKCFD’s staffing ratio was 87%. 

In this comparison, six departments have a higher level of minimum duty staffing per 

10,000 citizens. The number of uniformed personnel per 10,000 citizens (15.3) is slightly higher 

than the average (15.27) Further, there is no significant difference between the number of 

personnel on-duty between the sample cities (Table 17). 


Total Staffing 

Table 17: Staffing Comparison 

Uniformed FF 

(career) 

Uniformed 

Personnel/ 

10,000 pop. 

Min On-Duty 

Staffing 

Min On- Duty 

Staff/ 

10,000 pop. 

Kansas City, MO 950 900 20.3 300 6.8 

Tulsa, OK 724 694 17.9 209 5.4 

Milwaukee, WI 1090 1013 17.3 260 4.4 

Omaha, NE 671 658 16.3 173 4.3 

Oklahoma City, OK 948 825 15.5 213 4.0 

Jacksonville, FL 1217 1129 14.6 300 3.9 

Fort Worth, TX 859 817 14.0 216 3.7 

Tucson, AZ 646 590 11.6 184 3.6 

Denver, CO 958 914 16.4 186 3.3 

Austin, TX 1110 1053 15.7 222 3.3 









Uniformed FF 

(career) 

Uniformed 

Personnel/ 

10,000 pop. 

Min On-Duty 

Staffing 

Min On- Duty 

Staff/ 

10,000 pop. 

Indianapolis, IN 751 751 9.6 250 3.2 

Albuquerque, NM 681 660 14.0 143 3.0 

Average 878 834 15.2 222 4.1 

Table 18 describes the minimum on duty staffing in several other cities. The ratio of 4:1 

is the average of all of the cities and for Oklahoma City. With the 213 uniformed staff members 

that the Oklahoma City Fire Department requires as minimum staffing, the department staffs 

most of its apparatus with three firefighters. Twenty of the 36 engine companies in Oklahoma 

City are Paramedic Engine Companies that have a four-person crew at all times. The remaining 

engines have three-person crews. Two-thirds of the cities in the comparison staff all engine 

companies with four. 

NFPA 1710 recommends staffing levels of at least four firefighters on every engine 

company and four firefighters on every company performing truck operations. The Oklahoma 

City Fire Department’s staffing level are below this NFPA staffing recommendation on nonparamedic 

engine companies. Proponents of NFPA 1710 believe that this potentially limits the 

effectiveness of first-arriving companies on the fire ground. It may also create an unsafe work 

environment, requiring demanding tasks to be shared by fewer individuals, limiting the ability of 

first-responding crews to simultaneously perform all necessary life-saving and fire suppression 

tasks on the fire ground, and reducing the amount of time and/or frequency that fire crews may 

spend in rehab or recuperation areas during extended incidents. 


Table 18: Unit Staffing Comparison 

Min On-Duty 

staffing 

Minimum 

Engine 

Staffing 

Minimum 

Truck Staffing 

Kansas City, MO 300 4 4 

Milwaukee, WI 260 4 5 

Omaha, NE 173 4 4 

Fort Worth, TX 216 4 4 

Tucson, AZ 184 4 4 

Denver, CO 186 4 4 

Austin, TX 222 4 3 

Albuquerque, NM 143 4 3 

Tulsa, OK 209 3 3 

Oklahoma City, OK 213 3 3 

Jacksonville, FL 300 3 4 

Indianapolis, IN 250 3 3 

Average 222 4 4 







Call Statistics – In 2005, the OKCFD ran 61,484 calls, with more than 80 percent, 

being EMS related. Compared with the size of Oklahoma City’s population, this call volume is 

slightly lower than average. The department runs 1,174.9 calls per 10,000 citizens, while the 

group average is 1,333 calls per 10,000 citizens. The city is slightly lower than average in fire 

calls per 10,000 citizens and the same in EMS calls per 10,000 citizens. 

The city’s percentages by call type are very comparable to most other cities. Over the 

past decade, stronger building and fire codes, safer materials, smoke detectors led to a decrease 

in the number of fire suppression calls. Residential and industrial sprinkler systems, and 

enhanced 911 systems also enable fire departments to respond and mitigate fire suppression 

incidents in a faster and more efficient manner, but that nothing to do with the number of calls. 

During this same period, an aging population and other factors have led to an upsurge of EMS 

related calls. These calls are expected to continue to increase in the coming decades, requiring 

departments to continually evaluate their service levels (Table 19). 


Table 19: Call Volumes per 10,000 Citizens 

Total Incidents 

Fire Calls/ 

10,000 pop. 

EMS Calls/ 

10,000 pop. 

All Calls/ 

10,000 pop. 

Memphis, TN 118,565 418.4 1417.0 1835.4 

Milwaukee, WI 93,755 269.4 1328.0 1597.3 

Jacksonville, FL 121,604 424.6 1147.0 1571.6 

Albuquerque, NM 72,628 261.8 1278.3 1540.1 

Denver, CO 78,340 482.5 922.7 1405.3 

Tucson, AZ 68,543 202.5 1147.7 1350.2 

Tulsa, OK 50,902 67.3 1039.0 1312.6 

Fort Worth, TX 73,542 535.6 721.2 1256.9 

Oklahoma City, OK 61,484 230.4 944.5 1174.9 

Indianapolis, IN 81,893 636.5 408.9 1045.3 

Austin, TX 64,771 271.1 692.7 963.8 

Omaha, NE 31,972 198.9 591.9 790.9 

Average 77,865 342.6 972.2 1,333.6 

Operating Costs – At $88.6 million, Oklahoma City has the fourth largest operating 

budget and the second highest cost per capita in the comparison group (Table 20). The average 

cost per capita is $26.58 per capita above the mean. 

Some variables to consider include whether fire code enforcement, vehicle maintenance, 

building maintenance, information systems, and other ancillary services are included in the cities 

fire departments budget. In OKC, costs for all of these services are charged to the fire department 

budget. 








Population 

(2003 Census 

Estimate) 

Table 20: Cost per Capita Comparison 


Uniformed 

Personnel 

/10,000 pop 

All Calls 

/10,000 pop 

Operating 

Budget 

FY 2006 

Cost per 

Capita 

Oklahoma City, OK 523,303 948 15.5 1174.9 $88,526,524 $169.28 

Memphis, TN 645,978 1823 24.3 1835.4 $116,400,000 $180.19 

Tulsa, OK 387,807 724 17.9 1312.6 $61,489,000 $158.56 

Denver, CO 557,478 958 16.4 1405.3 $88,300,000 $158.39 

Omaha, NE 404,267 671 16.3 790.9 $63,000,000 $155.84 

Milwaukee, WI 586,941 1090 17.3 1597.3 $88,404,023 $150.62 

Fort Worth, TX 585,122 859 14.0 1256.9 $84,143,287 $143.80 

Austin, TX 672,011 1110 15.7 963.8 $95,800,000 $142.56 

Jacksonville, FL 773,781 1217 14.6 1571.6 $109,000,000 $140.87 

Tucson, AZ 507,658 646 11.6 1350.2 $68,594,850 $135.12 

Albuquerque, NM 471,586 681 14.0 1540.1 $61,000,000 $129.35 

Indianapolis, IN 783,438 751 9.6 1045.3 $58,258,171 $74.36 

Average 579,642 957 15.6 1,333.6 $81,308,121 $142.70 

Overall, the department receives good marks in comparability. Given the size of the land 

area covered, the number of fire apparatus serving the community seems appropriate and is very 

similar to other departments in the comparison. Though this comparison does not include the 

specific service areas of each station, it is important to be mindful of station placement in 

relation to the more densely populated areas of the city. Since the population density overall is 

low, it is important to consider factors related to increased response time because of distance 

traveled from a station for a particular call. 

The department’s call volume, overall operating budget and cost per capita is comparable 

to cities of similar size for fire department services is comparable to similar departments. This 

includes Jacksonville, FL, a jurisdiction of similar size. 






IV. STATION AND APPARATUS DEPLOYMENT 

This chapter discusses the deployment of fire stations and emergency response apparatus 

at present and going into the future. As discussed in the previous chapters, many factors should 

be considered when determining the appropriate number of stations, including demand for 

services, population, density of demand and population, size of the jurisdiction, and desired 

response times. 

For the analysis, project team members gathered information related to station station 

locations, including: 

• Current station locations and ages 

• Current apparatus deployment 

• Current zoning, land use and related policies 

• National response time standards (see Chapter IV) 

• Current OCFD response time standards (see Chapter IV) 

• Current and projected population (see Chapter III) 

• Current and projected demand and workload (see Chapter III) 

Incident data for CY04 and CY06 was gathered from the computer aided dispatch system 

(CAD). The data included addresses for geocoding, type of incident, units responding, and 

overall response times. 39 Geographic information system (GIS) files used for the analysis were 

provided by the city. 

CURRENT RESPONSE TIMES 

The first step in the deployment analysis is a review of department-wide response times. 

As discussed in Chapter IV, response time is the total amount of time elapsing between an 

individual calling 911 and emergency service personnel arriving at the scene. Response time can 

be broken down into multiple segments for analysis. 

The CAD data from CY05 was used to evaluate each segment of response times. Invalid 

entries (e.g. did not have a time recorded) or obvious errors (e.g. unit arrived before the call 

came in) were excluded from the dataset. To eliminate outliers, response times that were more 

than three standard deviations from the mean were excluded (Assuming that the travel times 

have an approximately normal distribution, three standard deviations equates to 99.7 percent of 

incidents.) 

39 Geocoding is a process by which the street address of an emergency incident is translated into latitude and 

longitude so that it can be placed onto a map. 





IV. Station and Apparatus Deployment 

Call Processing & Dispatch – Call processing time normally includes both call 

processing (taking down necessary information) and dispatch (notifying the appropriate units). 

Some CAD systems track each time segment separately; most do not. Both are tracked separately 

in Oklahoma City. 

In Oklahoma City, when an individual calls 911, the call is initially answered at the 

Bureau of Emergency Communications (BOEC). Once the call taker determines that the 

emergency is fire or medical related the call is transferred to a fire/EMS dispatcher. Fire dispatch 

personnel then gather necessary information from the caller and dispatch units. All of this time is 

included in the call processing times discussed below. 

In CY05, call processing times for OCFD averaged 0:34 with a 90 th percentile time of 

1:16 for all call types and priorities. Table 21 shows the 90 th percentile call processing time for 

CY05 by type of call. The 90 th percentile time for EMS calls are slightly higher than those for 

fire calls. The 90 th percentile for EMS call processing times is almost 1 minute higher than 

NFPA’s recommended goal, while the 90 th percentile for fire is nearly 30 seconds higher than the 

recommended goal. How EMS calls are dispatched are discussed in Chapter V. 

Table 21: OCFD Call Processing Time by Call Type 

Type 

90 th Percentile 

Oklahoma City 

Goal 

EMS 01:20 00:30 

Fire 00:59 00:30 

Some variation can be expected by time of day to correspond with heavier or lighter call 

volumes. Figure 10 depicts the variation in 90 th percentile call processing time by time of day. 

Despite the variation in call levels, call processing time is relatively steady throughout the day 

ranging from 1:20 between 12 A.M. and 2 A.M. to 1:11 between 6 P.M. and 8 P.M.; a variance of 

nine seconds. This indicates that call-processing performance is very good. 







Figure 10: 90 th Percentile Call Processing Time by Time of Day, CY05 

0:01:30 

90th Percentile Call Processing 

0:01:20 

0:01:10 

0:01:00 

0:00:50 

0:00:40 

0:00:30 

0:01:20 

Midnight- 

1:59am 

0:01:19 

2:00- 

3:59am 

0:01:12 

4:00- 

5:59am 

0:01:17 

6:00- 

7:59am 

0:01:18 

8:00- 

9:59am 

0:01:17 

10:00- 

11:59am 

0:01:16 

Noon- 

1:59pm 

0:01:18 

2:00- 

3:59pm 

0:01:15 

4:00- 

5:59pm 

0:01:11 

6:00- 

7:59pm 

0:01:14 

8:00- 

9:59pm 

0:01:16 

10:00- 

11:59pm 

Dispatch time in Oklahoma City averages 0:34 and has a 90 th percentile time of 1:07. 

Table 22 shows the 90 th percentile dispatch time by type of call for CY05. The 90 th percentile for 

EMS calls is almost 30 seconds faster than the 90 th percentile time for fire calls; however, both 

are higher than the recommended goal of 30 seconds. They are inline with the current goal for 

the dispatch center, with fire being higher than the goal by 34 seconds, and EMS calls exceeding 

the goal by only 6 seconds. 

Table 22: OCFD Dispatch Time by Call Type 

Type 

90 th Percentile 

Oklahoma City 

Goal 

EMS 01:06 01:00 

Fire 01:34 01:00 

As with call processing, dispatch times can be expected to vary depending on the time of 

day. Figure 11 shows the 90 th percentile dispatch times based on time of day. Again, despite the 

variation in call volume, dispatch time is steady throughout the day ranging from 1:14 between 2 

P.M. and 4 P.M. to 1:04 between 4 A.M. and 6 A.M.; a variance of 10 seconds. 







Figure 11: 90 th Percentile Dispatch Time by Time of Day, CY05 

0:01:30 

90th Percentile Dispatch 

0:01:20 

0:01:10 

0:01:00 

0:00:50 

0:00:40 

0:00:30 

0:01:11 

Midnight- 

1:59am 

0:01:08 

2:00- 

3:59am 

0:01:04 

4:00- 

5:59am 

0:01:05 

6:00- 

7:59am 

0:01:13 

8:00- 

9:59am 

0:01:13 

10:00- 

11:59am 

0:01:12 

Noon- 

1:59pm 

0:01:14 

2:00- 

3:59pm 

0:01:11 

4:00- 

5:59pm 

0:01:08 

6:00- 

7:59pm 

0:01:08 

8:00- 

9:59pm 

0:01:08 

10:00- 

11:59pm 

The overall call processing and dispatch time averages 1:10 with a 90 th percentile time of 

2:06. This is over a minute higher than the recommended 90 th percentile time of one minute. It is 

not until dropping to the 50 th percentile levels that call processing and dispatch times fall under 

one minute. Table 23 shows the overall times at various percentile levels. 

Percentile 

Table 23: Overall Call Processing & Dispatch Times 

Call Processing 

Time Dispatch Time Overall Time 

90 th Percentile 0:01:16 0:01:10 0:02:08 

80 th Percentile 0:00:55 0:00:52 0:01:39 

70 th Percentile 0:00:41 0:00:41 0:01:22 

60 th Percentile 0:00:30 0:00:34 0:01:10 

50 th Percentile 0:00:22 0:00:27 0:00:59 

Recommendation 7: Review the call processing and dispatch process to determine 

whether any changes can be made to improve call processing and dispatch times. Areas to 

consider include staffing levels in the dispatch center, the amount of information gathered before 

dispatching the first unit, and turnover rates in dispatch staff and resulting lack of experience. A 

full review of the dispatch center was beyond the scope of this study; therefore, staffing and 

turnover was not reviewed. These are common issues within dispatch centers. 







Turnout & Travel – Turnout time is measured from when the alarm is received by 

personnel to when the apparatus begins driving to the incident scene. Travel (drive) time is the 

time it takes to travel from the station, or wherever the unit is, to the emergency incident. Station 

and apparatus placement has the biggest impact on travel time. (Apparatus are not always in the 

station when dispatched to an incident.) Additional factors influencing travel time include traffic, 

weather, traffic limiting devices (stop lights, speed bumps, etc.), and driver familiarity with the 

area. Traffic congestion and weather are beyond the department and city’s control; however, 

traffic limiting devices and driver knowledge are not. Turnout time is not recorded separately 

from travel time in Oklahoma City. The times discussed below are for both turnout and travel 

(from the time the unit is dispatched until it arrives at the incident). The average turnout and 

travel time in Oklahoma City in CY05 was 4:34 with a 90 th percentile time of 7:03, slightly over 

two minutes higher than the recommended time of five minutes as discussed in Chapter IV (one 

minute for turnout, and four minutes for travel). 

When examining the turnout and travel times by call type, the times remain similar to the 

overall results. The 90 th percentile EMS, fire, and other incident turnout times are 6:43, 8:10, and 

8:11 respectively, nearly 2 minutes over the recommended time for EMS calls, and over three 

minutes higher for fire calls. The variance in time between EMS and fire calls could be due to 

fire calls requiring the donning of protective equipment, therefore taking more time to turnout. 

When looking at only priority 1 and priority 2 calls, the times are only slightly affected (EMS 

time 6:45, fire time 7:56). In other words, the more urgent calls do not change response behavior. 

Turnout and travel times vary considerably by time of day. Station design and personnel 

duties (e.g. inspections) also play a role. Figure 12 shows turnout times by time of day during 

CY05. There is significant (1:19) variation from the peak to the low. This can be expected since 

personnel are generally asleep between midnight and 6 A.M., and travel is more difficult due to 

reduced visibility, though traffic may be less. Turnout and travel times during the rest of the day 

exceed the recommended five-minutes for turnout and travel by almost two minutes. 

The city’s land mass must always be considered. Travel times in several areas may be 

consistently longer due to response district size. These variables were considered when making 

our recommendations. 







Figure 12: Turnout & Travel Times by Time of Day, CY05 

0:10:00 

90th Percentile Turnout & Travel Time 

0:09:00 

0:08:00 

0:07:00 

0:06:00 

0:05:00 

0:04:00 

0:07:32 

Midnight- 

1:59am 

0:08:05 

2:00- 

3:59am 

0:07:45 

4:00- 

5:59am 

0:07:03 

6:00- 

7:59am 

0:06:57 

8:00- 

9:59am 

0:06:47 

10:00- 

11:59am 

0:06:50 

Noon- 

1:59pm 

0:06:55 

2:00- 

3:59pm 

0:06:59 

4:00- 

5:59pm 

0:06:46 

6:00- 

7:59pm 

0:06:49 

8:00- 

9:59pm 

0:07:03 

10:00- 

11:59pm 

Figure 13 shows the variation in turnout and travel times by call type for 2005. EMS 

times generally reflect those showed in Figure 12 peaking between 2 A.M. and 4 A.M. and having 

the fastest time between 6 P.M. and 8 P.M. Fire calls have consistently higher response times than 

EMS calls. There are two major peaks in fire turnout and travel times; between 2 A.M. and 4 

A.M., and 2 P.M. and 4 P.M. The lowest times for fire calls are between 8 P.M. and 10 P.M. (7:36). 

The difference in times between EMS and fire calls could be caused by first due units not being 

available because of high EMS call volumes. The result would be that the second or third due 

units are responding. 







Figure 13: Turnout & Travel Times by Time of Day and Call Type, CY05 

0:10:00 

OCFD EMS Fire Other 

0:09:00 

0:08:00 

0:07:00 

0:06:00 

0:05:00 

0:04:00 

0:07:16 

0:08:35 

0:08:39 

Midnight- 

1:59am 

0:07:51 

0:09:02 

0:08:57 

2:00- 

3:59am 

0:07:35 

0:08:29 

0:08:10 

4:00- 

5:59am 

0:06:52 

0:07:39 

0:07:50 

6:00- 

7:59am 

0:06:43 

0:07:54 

0:08:16 

8:00- 

9:59am 

0:06:26 

0:07:44 

0:07:48 

10:00- 

11:59am 

0:06:24 

0:08:19 

0:08:29 

Noon- 

1:59pm 

0:06:25 

0:08:39 

0:07:38 

2:00- 

3:59pm 

0:06:26 

0:08:11 

0:09:20 

4:00- 

5:59pm 

0:06:20 

0:07:59 

0:07:57 

6:00- 

7:59pm 

0:06:31 

0:07:36 

0:07:48 

8:00- 

9:59pm 

0:06:44 

0:07:38 

0:07:42 

10:00- 

11:59pm 

When looking at only priority 1 and 2 calls by time of day, EMS times remain largely the 

same; however, fire response times drop a good deal at certain points of the day. Figure 14 

shows the changes in fire times by time of day for all priorities and for only priority 1 and 2 

calls. There is an average decrease in turnout and travel time of 19 seconds over the course of the 

day, quite small. The largest decrease occurs between 2 A.M. and 4 A.M. (1:03), and the response 

time actually increases slightly between 10 P.M. and Midnight (0:13). While considering only 

priority 1 and 2 calls does improve fire turnout and travel times, they still remain two to three 

minutes higher than the recommended five minutes. 







Figure 14: Priority 1&2 vs. Overall Fire Turnout & Travel Times by Time of Day, CY05 

0:10:00 

Fire 

P1&2 Fire 

0:09:00 

0:08:00 

0:07:00 

0:08:12 

0:07:59 

0:07:58 

0:07:19 

0:07:37 

0:07:03 

0:08:08 

0:08:30 

0:08:11 

0:07:33 

0:07:35 

0:07:51 

0:06:00 

0:05:00 

0:04:00 

0:08:35 

Midnight- 

1:59am 

0:09:02 

2:00- 

3:59am 

0:08:29 

4:00- 

5:59am 

0:07:39 

6:00- 

7:59am 

0:07:54 

8:00- 

9:59am 

0:07:44 

10:00- 

11:59am 

0:08:19 

Noon- 

1:59pm 

0:08:39 

2:00- 

3:59pm 

0:08:11 

4:00- 

5:59pm 

0:07:59 

6:00- 

7:59pm 

0:07:36 

8:00- 

9:59pm 

0:07:38 

10:00- 

11:59pm 

Table 24 shows the 90 th percentile turnout and travel times for EMS, fire, and other calls 

by all priority levels as well as only priority 1 and 2 calls. EMS calls remain about the same 

regardless of priority. Fire times, however, improve by 14 seconds when only looking at priority 

1 and 2 calls. Other call times increase for priority 1 and 2, this is largely due to only a few other 

type incidents being such a high priority. 

Table 24: 90 th Percentile Turnout & Travel Time by Call Type and Priority 

Call Type All Priorities Priority 1 & 2 Difference 

EMS 0:06:43 0:06:45 + 0:00:02 

Fire 0:08:10 0:07:56 - 0:00:14 

Other 0:07:41 0:08:22 + 0:00:41 

It is easier and less costly to improve call processing and turnout times than travel 

response time. Travel time is typically much more difficult and the most expensive to improve, 

(requiring new stations, new roads, traffic signal interruption devices, etc. Reduction in call 

processing, dispatch, and turnout time also permits longer travel times without increasing total 

response times. The critical time is to dispatch the first unit; further call processing can occur 

simultaneously (i.e., talking more to the caller to obtain details). 







Total Response Time – For mathematical reasons, one cannot simply add the 90 th 

percentile time components of response time to reach the total 90 th percentile response time, one 

needs to compute the total directly. In CY05, total response times for OCFD averaged 05:47 for 

the first arriving unit to all calls with a 90 th percentile total response time of 08:35. Total 

response times are above current and recommended goals by 02:35. 

Table 25 shows the 90 th , 80 th , 70 th , and 60 th percentile total response times in CY05 

incidents by call type. There is a nearly two minute difference in total response time between 

EMS calls and fire calls at the 90 th percentile level; however, that decreases at the 80 th percentile 

level, which is still quite a good level to achieve. The total response times are over the 

recommended goal of 6 minutes at the 90 th percentile level, and do not fall below 6 minutes until 

the 60 th percentile level. The difference between fire and EMS response times could be attributed 

to fire apparatus having extended travel times or, there being more apparatus available for EMS 

calls. 

Table 25: CY05 60 th , 80 th, and 90 th Percentile Total Response Time by Call Type 

Call Type EMS Fire 

60th Percentile 0:05:36 0:06:08 

70th Percentile 0:06:08 0:06:53 

80th Percentile 0:06:52 0:07:57 

90th Percentile 0:08:12 0:09:58 

Actual response times in Oklahoma City are compared to NFPA standards and the study 

team’s recommended goals in Table 26. 

Table 26: Oklahoma City Response Times, CY05 vs. Standards and Goals 

Time Segment 

Current 90 th 

Percentile 

Current OCFD 

Goal 

Reduction 

Needed 

Recommended 

Goal 

Reduction 

Needed 

Call Processing 0:01:16 n/a n/a 0:00:30 0:00:46 

Dispatch 0:01:10 0:01:00 0:00:10 0:00:30 0:00:40 

Call Processing + Dispatch 0:02:08 n/a n/a 0:01:00 0:01:08 

Turnout + Travel 0:07:03 0:05:00 X 0:00:44 0:05:00 0:02:03 

Total 0:08:35 0:06:00 Y 0:01:05 0:06:00 0:02:35 

X 

The 5 minute goal for OCFD is at the 80 th percentile level (current 80 th percentile response time – 5:44) 

Y 

The 6 minute total response time goal is at the 80 th percentile level (current 80 th percentile response time – 7:05) 







Total response times are over two minutes (2:35) higher than the recommended time of 

six minutes all calls. These total response times are high and the department should take steps to 

reduce the times and improve 90 th percentile compliance. That being said, the department is 

doing a very good job providing service, meeting the six-minute response time goal at the 60 th 

percentile level. Focus should be placed on reducing call processing and dispatch times to get the 

overall total response time closer to the 90 th percentile compliance level, unless the city is willing 

to accept the current level of performance as a norm. 

ANALYSIS OF STATION AND APPARATUS LOCATIONS 

This section provides an in-depth look at station and apparatus placement. The goal is to 

determine what areas, if any, are in need of additional or fewer resources. Engine coverage is 

discussed by region while rescue ladder, hazmat, and battalion chief coverage is discussed 

citywide. 

This study focused on the following points for each station: 

• Station Location 

• Date of construction 

• Number of personnel assigned 

• Availability of additional space for more personnel 

• Availability of additional space for more apparatus 

• Special issues that impact response times 

Excluded was an engineering structural analysis of each station. 

Figure 15 on the next page, shows the fire districts and current fire station locations. Note 

that there is no Station 26. Tables 27–32 are descriptions of the stations organized by fire district. 




Oklahoma City Fire Department IV. Station and Apparatus Deployment 


Figure 15: Fire Districts and Fire Station Locations 2006 








Number 

Table 27: Characteristics of Stations in District 601 

Constructed 

Current 

Personnel 

Room for 

Additional 

Personnel? 

Room for 

Additional 

Apparatus? 

Special Issues 

1 1977 53 Yes No None 



6 1997 24 Yes Yes None 


10 1973 15 No No None 


Number 

Constructed 

Table 28: Characteristics of Stations District 602 

Current 

Personnel 

Room for 

Additional 

Personnel? 

Room for 

Additional 

Apparatus? 







27 1987 23 No No None 


Number 

Constructed 


Current 

Personnel 

Room for 

Additional 

Personnel? 

Room for 

Additional 

Apparatus? 


7 1982 11 No No None 



23 1974 21 No Yes None 

28 1983 21 No Yes None 









Number 

Constructed 


Current 

Personnel 

Room for 

Additional 

Personnel? 

Room for 

Additional 

Apparatus? 


3 1978 17 Yes Yes Radio 

Coverage 

15 1970 30 Yes No None 

30 1968 36 No No None 

32 1978 17 No Yes None 




Number 

Constructed 


Current 

Personnel 

Room for 

Additional 

Personnel? 

Room for 

Additional 

Apparatus? 


9 1968 27 No No None 


21 1960? 15 No Yes Poor Physical 

Condition 

25 1991 39 No Yes None 



Number 

Constructed 


Current 

Personnel 

Room for 

Additional 

Personnel? 

Room for 

Additional 

Apparatus? 






31 1973 36 Yes Yes Limited parking 


In the course of evaluating station relocations, consideration must given to the finding 

that nine of the buildings will not accommodate more apparatus and that eight of buildings are at 

their practical limits for personnel. 







RECOMMENDED MOVES AND ADDITIONAL STATIONS AND APPARATUS 

We conducted a GIS analysis of response time reach of each station for the four and eight 

minute response times. As the city continues to grow it will become necessary to expand the 

number of fire stations to maintain desired coverage. . The current coverage for four minute 

response times is illustrated in Figure 16. There are large portions of the city especially the 

Northeast and Southwest quadrants, where response times far exceed the four-minute goal. 

In addition to the need for construction of some new stations and the associated increases 

in staffing, we found opportunities to move existing companies for greater coverage, especially 

from the downtown area to locations where current response times surpass the four minute level. 

In the downtown area there are overlaps in coverage that are sufficient and allow these resources 

to be redeployed. The coverage still will be adequate for most calls in the areas from which they 

are moved. The recommendations are listed in priorities based on current and projected 

development and the projections for demand. Capital funding will have to be planned in advance 

and these recommendations should be incorporated into any master planning process. 

Overall, we recommend five new stations, closing two existing stations and movement of 

several pieces of apparatus. 

Bricktown - Station 6 is in poor condition and resides on land that is to be sold to the 

University of Oklahoma. The engine and rescue ladder will provide better service from other 

locations. Engine 6 would be moved to a location in the Northeast portion of the City and the 

Rescue Ladder would be moved to the new station for Engine 51. 

Station 1 houses two engine companies, Engine 1 and Engine 51. Engine 51 is the third 

slowest company in the City. Only Engines 36 and 32 have fewer annual responses. If the growth 

projections shown in Table 6 are used as a baseline, and if Engine 1 absorbed all of Engine 51’s 

responses (which is unlikely), Engine 1 would still not exceed the 3000 response per threshold 

for several years. If the dispatch recommendations regarding the weight of response 

(Recommendation #6) are adopted, Engine 1 may not exceed the 3000 call level until after 2010. 

Current legislation calls for a new station to be built in Bricktown. Funding for the station 

is tied to the legislation. The proposed building should be a minimum of a three-bay structure 

with drive through bays and have accommodations for 10-14 personnel per shift. A building of 

this size will provide flexibility for any future redeployments or additions of apparatus. This 

includes the ability to house an ambulance. 

Figure 18 shows a 4-minute response map showing the projected coverage areas after 

Engine 51 is moved. Stations 5, 7, 8, 10 and 51 (Bricktown) will provide the redundancy needed 

to assure back-up response into Station 1’s area. 

Recommendation 8: Priority #1 –Construct a new fire station at the intersection of 

Reno Avenue and Lincoln Avenue in the “Bricktown” district. Move Engine 51 from Station 1 







and upgrade this company to paramedic engine status. Move the rescue ladder from Station 6 to 

this new station. 

Northeast – The northeast area of the city is expanding with newer, larger homes being 

built at a fast pace. This area relies on Stations 2 and 27 for fire and EMS first response. Jones, 

Oklahoma also borders this area, but its fire department a volunteer department and the City 

should not depend heavily on mutual aid. The addition of a northeast company will help alleviate 

the response time challenge. 

The tanker from Station 21 should also be moved to the new Station 6. Engine 6 should 

be upgraded to paramedic engine status. With the number of engine companies now located 

downtown the response times or workloads will not be compromised in the downtown area. 

Given the existing growth and development patterns compared to the response time deficiencies; 

this move is the second priority. 

Recommendation 9: Priority #2 - Relocate Engine 6 from North 10th Street to a new 

station at the Northwest corner of Henney and Memorial Roads. The tanker from Station 21 

should also be moved to this station. Funding for this project should be included in Fiscal Year 

2008 and construction to begin as soon as possible. 

Location “B” in Figure 17 shows the location of the new Station 6. 






Figure 16: Current 4-Minute Travel Time 






Figure 17: Proposed Location of the New Northeast Station 







Current access to the Kilpatrick Turnpike in the northeast portion of the city is limited. 

As part of the capital project to construct a new fire station, highway access to the Turnpike 

should be included because the closest access to the turnpike is now in Station 2’s area. This will 

provide access from both directions and reduce response times to incidents on the turnpike. 

Response times on the turnpike to the city boundary will not improve if this step is not 

taken. There are no obvious obstacles to placing a station near this location. Station design, and 

the amount of property needed to accommodate the new station is beyond the scope of this study. 

Recommendation 10: When the new Northeast station is built, provide emergency 

vehicle access to the Turnpike. This will allow access from two directions and improve 

response times. 

Southwest – Consider adding a new station at the Northwest corner of Council and SW 

104 th Street and close Engine 4 and move Engine 4 to this location. This area is an Urban Growth 

Area defined by the City. If the planned outer loop highway is constructed, linking the Kilpatrick 

Turnpike with Interstates 44 and 240, growth and development will surely follow. The City 

should consider acquiring land now for use as a fire station, rather than waiting for the growth to 

occur and drive property costs up. 

The Oklahoma City Planning Department conducted a study of growth for the Southwest 

portion of the City. The “Southwest Sector Plan” prepared in March of 2006 examined 3.5 and 5 

minute response patterns in this portion of the City. 40 The funds for land acquisition, design and 

construction should be included in the FY 2009 Budget. The suggested location is indicated as 

“C” in Figure 18. 

Recommendation 11: Priority #3 – Relocate Station 4 from Reno and Santa Fe to a 

location on the Northwest corner of Council and SW 104th Street. This Engine Company 

should be upgraded to Paramedic Engine status. 

By closing Station 4 and moving Engine 4 to the new location, no gaps in the 4 or 8 

minute response times appear. If the current number of annual responses are divided among the 

surrounding companies, (Engines, 8, 7, 1, 51 [Bricktown] and 23) none of these companies 

should exceed the 3000 annual response levels for many years. The recommended changes to the 

weight of responses will also help slow the rate of growth in responses. 

STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS: Given the growth in population and housing trends and, 

the demand research discussed earlier, there are other areas of the city where the response time 

will exceed the four and eight minutes. Current and anticipated growth will require new 

companies to be added to keep response times within accepted limits. The new stations address 

near future as opposed to immediate needs than the moves of the existing companies. Creating 

40 Southwest Sector Plan, Oklahoma City Planning Department, page 35. 







new companies also has a higher cost due to the increases in personnel costs. Land acquisition at 

this time is advisable as a means to reduce future capital costs. 

Southwest – The extreme southwest sections of Oklahoma City lie between the smaller 

cities of Mustang, Yukon and Tuttle. Between 2000-2005, Mustang and Tuttle experienced a 20 

percent increase and Yukon a 5 percent increase in population. This projected population growth 

will likely lead to a population increase in the adjoining areas of the city. 41 

With growth projections in mind another Engine Company will be need in the far 

Southwest part of town. 

Recommendation 12: Priority #4 – Construct and staff a new station with a Paramedic 

Engine Company in the area of Richland and 59th Street. 

This location is indicated as “D” on Figure 18. While demand for service does not make 

this project as high a priority as the first three stations nonetheless, the City should acquire 

property for a station in this area. Funding for construction, apparatus and new personnel to staff 

the equipment should be included in the FY 2011 Budget. 

Alternatively, protection could be enhanced by consolidating the Mustang Fire 

Department into the OKCFD. A full discussion of this is beyond the scope of this report. 

Southeast – The federal military Base Alignment, Relocation and Closure (BRAC) has 

designated Tinker Air Force Base and Will Rogers Field Air National Guard Station as areas for 

realignment and growth. 42 As such, activities will be brought to these bases. As more military 

and civilian employees will work in this area, housing and development needs may increase. 

Further, these locations may be terminal career points for retiring military and civilian personnel. 

In the same area of the City an issue is the Urban-Wildland interface. Brush fire 

challenges are already experienced in this area. The city should consider adding a new station 

near Douglas and 149 th Street. 

Recommendation 13: Priority #5 – Add a new station with a paramedic engine and 

tanker at Douglas and 149 th Street. 

This location is indicated as “E” in Figure 18. As with the new station location in 

Recommendation #12, the current demand makes this location a lower priority than 

Recommendations #8, #9 and #11. Funding for this project be in the FY 2013 Budget, but 

possibility earlier if growth and demand are accurate. 

With the implementation of recommendations 8 through 13 above, the four minute 

response time coverage would be as shown in Figure 18. 

41 http://www.city-data.com/city/Mustang-Oklahoma.html 

42 http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/tinker.htm 






Figure 18: Proposed 4 Minute Travel with new Station locations 







Relocations and Unit Additions – The analysis of current resource deployment also 

found that there is overlap with rescue ladder coverage and district chief coverage. We make 

several recommendations to more efficiently deploy these resources. . 

RESCUE LADDERS: The current rescue ladder coverage pattern shows that the rescue 

ladders are concentrated in the central part of the city. As the city expands outward there is a 

need to have the rescue ladder coverage expand as well. The need is illustrated in Figure 19. 

There are large areas of the city where the response time for the rescue ladders exceeds 8 

minutes. 

There is a need to achieve eight-minute response time coverage for the eastern side of 

the city. Figure 19 shows that the closest rescue ladder (Ladder 16) has an extended response 

time east of Station 13. Figure 20 shows how an additional rescue ladder will help bridge this 

gap. This move also enhances additional heavy rescue coverage along the current and future 

planned I-240. 

The review of the Station 28 indicates that there is not enough room to add another 

company to the existing building so, this move will require a capital improvement project to add 

space for apparatus and personnel. Given the gaps in coverage as illustrated in Figure 19 above, 

this move is necessary. Funding for this project should be included in the FY 2010 Budget. 

Recommendation 14: Add a rescue ladder to Station 28 and make necessary additions 

to the building to accommodate additional apparatus and personnel 

In the far Southwest area of the City another gap in Rescue Ladder coverage exists. By 

relocating an existing rescue ladder company, more effective response coverage would occur. 

Moving the rescue ladder from Station 31 to Station 20 can do this. By doing so, this company 

would provide coverage for both areas .The eight-minute response pattern depicted in 19 

supports this point. 

Based on the review of the building at Station 20, this will require a capital improvement 

project to add space for equipment and personnel. As part of other deployments, this move is 

reduce response times for ladder companies. This project should be funded in the 2010 budget 

Recommendation 15: Move the rescue ladder from Station 31 to Station 20 and make 

necessary additions to the building to accommodate additional apparatus and personnel. 

. 






Figure 19: Current Rescue Ladder Locations and Eight Minute Travel times 






Figure 20: Proposed Rescue Ladder Location and Eight-Minute Travel 







DISTRICT CHIEFS: A similar pattern of overlap in the District chief coverage exists with 

several District chiefs too close together and in some areas too far apart. Figure 21 illustrates the 

current locations of District chief in Blue. Presently, all six district chiefs are concentrated in the 

central city area. This provides much over lap downtown at the cost of increasing response times 

to the outlying areas of the city. Response times to the outlying areas of the City could be 

improved by relocating some of the chiefs. These moves would improve operations by providing 

the Command function on scene earlier in the incident in the outlying areas. 

Changes in district chief boundaries will require capital improvement projects to add 

space for offices, vehicles and quarters. Figure 22 illustrates the new locations for the District 

chiefs. 

Recommendation 16: Move District Chief 602 from Station 18 to Station 2 and Move 

District Chief 603 from Station 7 to Station 23. 

By realigning the stations for the District chiefs, their response times will improve. These 

recommendations would not change the boundaries of the existing districts. 






Figure 21: Current Location of District Chiefs 






Figure 22: Proposed Location of District Chiefs 







TANKERS: Wildland/Urban interface and the risk of brushfires require the city to pay 

special attention to the availability of water supplies. Many areas outside the central city lack 

access to water for fire suppression. The department must strategically place equipment to shuttle 

water and deliver water to remote sites. 

The above recommendations include the addition and movement of tankers in specific 

areas of the city. Figure 23 shows the proposed locations of Tankers. 






Figure 23: Proposed Location of Tankers 







SUMMARY 

The analysis of response times and demands for service coupled with expected 

development of the City led us to several conclusions: 

• Large portions of the city exceed the areas of four and eight minute response time 

reach for fire and ALS units. At this time, much of this area is undeveloped. 

Residential and commercial growth is predicted to occur in these areas. 

• There are overlaps in coverage in the downtown area. Response times are within four 

and eight minute profiles and workloads are not excessive (see Figure 24). 

• The Northeast and Southwest quadrants of the city continue to grow and current 

zoning will not slow this growth. Planned expansion of the Interstate Highway 

network will only add to this growth. 

• Opportunities exist to move some existing companies from downtown to outlying 

growth areas. The costs would be for capital outlays to construct new buildings, 

which is vastly less than adding new stations, personnel and equipment. 

• Locations have been identified for future companies to be established. These 

locations can be incorporated into a 5 year or 10 year planning process to include 

some land acquisition now and plans for capital funding. 






Figure 24: Proposed Four and Eight-Minute Travel Times for current and proposed Stations 







Summary of Deployment Changes – Table 33 summarizes the deployment changes by 

station. Personnel are listed by shift and reflect authorized staffing, not actual. Paramedic engines 

companies are shown staffed with 5 personnel assigned to them and operate with 4 personnel, 

while rescue ladders and non-paramedic engines are staffed with 4 to assure operating with 3 

personnel. There are several recommendations for upgrades of existing engine companies to 

become paramedic engine companies in the next chapter. Those upgrades are listed in this table. 

This table represents the effect of all of the recommendations TriData has offered in this study. 

The location and storage of reserve equipment was not listed in this table. 


Table 33: Summary of Proposed Deployment Plan 

Equipment 

1 Engine, Rescue Ladder, Air Unit, 

EMS Supervisor. District chief 

2 Engine, District Chief and Brush 

Truck 

Minimum 

Personnel 

Per Shift 

Changes 

14 Move Engine 51 to new station in 

Bricktown 

6 District chief moved here from Station 

18 

3 Engine and Brush Truck 5 Upgrade to paramedic engine 

4 Engine and Brush Truck 5 Moved to new station at Council and 

104 th Street 

5 Engine and Haz-Mat 10 None 

6 Engine and Tanker 6 Moved to Henny and Memorial Street 

Tanker added from Station 21 added. 

Upgrade engine to paramedic engine 

Rescue ladder moved to new station 

in Bricktown 

7 Engine and Rescue Ladder 5 Rescue ladder and District chief 

Moved to Station 23 

8 Engine, Rescue Ladder, Dive Units 9 None 

9 Engine and Rescue Ladder 9 None 

10 Engine 5 None 

11 Engine and Command Post Vehicle 4 None 

12 Engine and Light Unit 5 None 

13 Engine and Brush Truck 5 Upgrade to paramedic engine 

14 Engine and Rescue ladder 9 None 

15 Engine, Rescue Ladder and Brush 

10 None 

Truck 

16 Engine and Rescue Ladder 9 None 

17 Engine 5 None 

18 Engine, Rescue Ladder and Foam 

Trailer 

10 District Chief Moved to Station 2 

20 Engine Rescue Ladder and Brush 

Truck 

8 Rescue Ladder moved from Station 

31 

21 Engine 5 Tanker moved to Station 6 








Equipment 

22 Engine, Rescue Ladder and Turnpike 

Rescue 

23 Engine, District Chief and Brush 

Truck 

Minimum 

Personnel 

Per Shift 

9 None 

24 Engine, and Light Tower 5 None 

25 Engine, Rescue Ladder District chief 

and Brush Truck 

Changes 

7 District chief moved here from 

Station 7 

11 None 

27 Engine, Brush Truck and Tanker 6 None 

28 Engine, Rescue Ladder and Brush 

Truck 

29 Engine, Brush and Tanker 5 None 

30 Engine, Rescue and District chief 11 None 

9 Add a new Rescue ladder Company 

31 Engine, District Chief 6 Rescue ladder moved to Station 20 

32 Engine and Brush Truck 5 None 

33 Engine Brush Truck and Tanker 6 Upgrade to paramedic engine 

34 Engine, Rescue Ladder and Tanker 10 None 



37 Engine, Brush Truck and Tanker 6 Upgrade to paramedic engine 

51-“A” 

New 

6-“B” 

New 

4-“C” 

New 

“D” 

New 

“E” 

New 

Engine and Rescue Ladder 8 New Station (projected) Engine 51 

from Station 1 and Rescue ladder 

from Station 6 

Engine and Tanker 5 New Station (projected) Engine from 

Station 6 and Tanker from Station 21 

Engine and Brush Truck 4 New Station (projected) Engine from 

Station 4 

Engine 4 New Station (proposed) 

Engine 4 New Station (proposed) 

FIRE PREVENTION 

The Prevention Services Bureau is led by a deputy chief and is subdivided into Fire 

Investigation, Code Enforcement and Public Education sections. A Battalion Chief leads each 

section of the Bureau. There are a total of 37 people assigned to the Prevention Services Bureau 

all of them are captains, majors or chief officers. Thirteen positions are assigned to Public 

Education, a significant number and this commitment public fire safety is one of the strengths of 

the department. 







The Fire Prevention Services have an extensive emergency-planning program for 

business. A comprehensive smoke alarm program is another major program of this office. A fire 

safety trailer is another form of outreach from Fire Prevention. 

One of the goals of department is to reduce the fire fatality rate in to below the national 

average. The current rate is four deaths per 100,000 population. In the Fiscal Year 04-05, there 

were 24 fire fatalities in the city. 43[1] 

The Operations Division performs limited building inspections on existing commercial, 

public assembly and other target hazards. These inspections are recorded on a single page form. 

These inspections are conducted on an in-service basis, i.e. the company remains available for 

dispatch to emergency responses. These inspections are for routine fire code compliance. Items 

such as exit signage, exit access, and fire extinguisher maintenance are evaluated. More technical 

aspects such as the adequacy of sprinkler coverage or effectiveness of separations are referred to 

the Fire Prevention Office. The intent of this plan is for each business to be inspected by 

suppression companies once in a three year time span. Other high-risk occupancies such as 

hospitals and nursing homes are inspected once a year. 

OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION 

There are at least 18 small municipalities or unincorporated areas that operate within or 

near the city borders. Their characteristics are summarized in Table 34 and Table 35. The 

histories of these cities vary but many incorporated as a way to separate from the “big city.” 

These communities serve populations between 2,400 and 54,000 and provide a variety of 

services. Thirteen communities provide fire protection and EMS first response, two do not 

operate fire departments and three unincorporated areas receive fire and EMS services from the 

Oklahoma City Fire Department. 

Regionalization of fire and EMS service was discussed by as recently as September of 

2005. An overview revealed that regionalization would yield savings to taxpayers. Increased 

efficiency was not directly studied but based on an economy of scale, an increase is likely. The 

mayor and some council members strongly support efforts at regionalization. 

Several small communities have realized the advantages of consolidating fire and EMS 

services with larger departments. They realized that these smaller departments were costly, 

provided service duplication and served as starting points for employees to gain experience until 

they could achieve employment with a larger, better paying department. Other areas realized that 

their volunteer fire and EMS service could not keep up with response and training demands. 

43[1] Oklahoma City Budget for FY 2005-2006 page 253 







Recently, the city discussed the consolidation of the Bethany Fire Department (also 

serving Woodlawn Park) with the OKCFD. This consideration was short-lived as Bethany FD 

employees led a successful grassroots effort to derail the merger. A different approach may yield 

better outcomes. This approach includes a joint management/labor work group involving both 

cities followed by a joint effort at citizen mobilization. Internal efforts should focus on Bethany 

personnel being absorbed into the department without the loss of pay, rank or seniority. 

Community outreach should stress the advantages of being served by a larger municipal fire 

department. 

Currently, the city provides services to the city of Valleybrook and the unincorporated 

areas of Lake Aluma, Sportsman’s Club and Stockyards, all of which are within city limits. 

Bethany (and Woodlawn Park), Warr Acres, The Village, Nichols Hills, Forrest Park and 

Mustang are contained within the OKC city limits and provide their own fire and EMS 

protection (Table 34). 

Table 34: Fire Departments with OKC City Limits 

Department Population Fire Personnel 

Annual Personnel 

Costs 

Bethany 20,300 25 $1,296,000 

Warr Acres 9551 17 $828,000 

The Village 10,000 17 $840,000 

Nichols Hills 4,020 14 $1,009,092 

Forrest Park 1,100 Volunteer ? 

Mustang 10,500 11 Career/ 

25 Volunteer 

$963,611 

Dell City, Midwest City, Spencer, Moore, Jones, and Yukon border OKC and provide 

their own fire and EMS services (Table 35). 

Table 35: Fire Departments Bordering OKC 

Department Population Fire Personnel 

Annual Personnel 

Costs 

Dell City 22,000 26 $1,128,000 

Midwest City 54,000 89 $4,908,000 

Spencer 4,000 7 $180,000 

Moore 41,000 54 $3,144,000 

Jones 2,611 Part-Time/Volunteer $6,108 

Yukon 21,000 12 $470,000 

The current eight-minute response maps shown in Figure 24 indicate that OCFD could 

cover all or some of these cities with the response profile. 

Total Coverage – Bethany, Warr Acres, The Village, Nichols Hill, Forrest Park 







Partial Coverage – Dell City (70 percent), Midwest City (15 percent), Jones (30 

percent), and Mustang (20 percent) 

Planned additional Oklahoma City stations will further increase this coverage. This data 

does not include coverage if OCFD would incorporate the city’s stations and personnel. 

There are many variables including social, technological, economic, environmental and 

political that affect the decision to pursue full or partial merger. Any attempts to accomplish this 

should be based on a plan involving the cities, the departments, the communities, fire department 

leadership and labor organizations. A full discussion of these opportunities is beyond the scope 

of this report. 

Recommendation 17: Formally consider the strengths and weaknesses of incorporating 

smaller departments, in and near the city limits, into the department. This should include 

personnel, stations, apparatus, communications centers and other assets. Our study suggests that 

there are duplications of coverage and there is potential for economy of scale if OKCFD 

provides service to several of theses communities. 






V. EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES 

TriData was asked to evaluate several components of the Emergency Medical Services 

system including: (a) the fire department’s role in EMS, (b) suggested station locations for EMS 

transport units, (c) ability to house EMS units and personnel. We examined both quantitative and 

qualitative issues by involving stakeholders throughout the department. 

OVERVIEW 

Emergency Medical Services (EMS) is provided by two agencies, the Oklahoma City 

Fire Department (OCFD) and EMSA, a “public trust” agency that oversees the provision of EMS 

care and transportation to the city. 

Oklahoma City Fire Department – The OCFD provides first responder EMS from 36 

fire stations, with 20 engine companies able to provide advanced life support care with the rest 

providing basic life support. Each ALS engine responds with at least one paramedic and three 

EMT-Bs, while BLS suppression units respond with at least three EMT-Bs. The 20 paramedic 

engines are assigned to the higher call volume areas. 

OCFD first response units are dispatched from a newly opened city public safety 

communications center. Calls are received by a 911 police communications operator who 

transmits requests for EMS to an EMSA operator. Using the Clawson Medical Priority Dispatch 

(MPD) program, certain emergencies are forwarded to fire dispatch for assignment of a first 

responder unit. There is a mechanism for immediate, simultaneous routing of emergencies to 

EMSA and fire dispatch but it is not always used. 

The fire department and EMSA have acknowledged that there are instances where the 

first responder requests from EMSA to the fire department were delayed. This could create a lifethreatening 

situation. A change in dispatching methods could alleviate the situation. Switching 

MPD to the PSAP 911 operator will result in rapid, simultaneous forwarding of emergencies to 

the appropriate agency. Recent research supports this to decrease dispatch times. 44 

Recommendation 18: Move the MPD function to the PSAP 911 operators. This will 

result in quicker relaying of calls to all appropriate dispatch functions. 

Emergency Medical Services Authority (EMSA) – The Emergency Medical Services 

Authority (EMSA) was established in Tulsa in 1977 to provide high quality ambulance service, 

to acquire and maintain physical properties, to charge and collect user fees, to oversee operations 

and to fulfill administrative duties on behalf of the communities it represents. 

44 Jameson, A. (2006). Differences in EMS Response Time Based Upon Dispatch Procedure. Presented at the 2006 

Society of Academic Emergency Medicine Annual Meeting (May 18-21, 2006). San Francisco, CA. 




Oklahoma City Fire Department V. Emergency Medical Services 


Figure 25: Paramedic Engine Station Locations (and their four to six minute coverage areas) 






V. Emergency Medical Services 

EMSA was invited to extend its role into Oklahoma City in 1990. The EMSA service 

area is currently divided into the Western and Eastern Divisions. The Western Division includes 

Oklahoma City, Edmond, Valley Brook, and Lake Aluma. The Eastern Division comprises 

Tulsa, Bixby, Sand Springs, and Jenks. 

The Authority administers the system, manages contractual agreements, maintains patient 

records, handles billing and collections, purchases goods and services, markets the ambulance 

service, deals with financial matters and makes policy recommendations to the Board of 

Trustees. A competitive process is utilized every five years to select a private contractor to staff 

the ambulances. Paramedics Plus is the current holder of the contract to provide emergency 

medical services and dispatch personnel, and to oversee operations. This arrangement provides 

the communities control of the system and equipment while receiving the benefits of competitive 

bidding. 45 

EMSA is required to respond to 90 percent of emergency calls within 8:59 in the city’s 

core and 12:59 in the rural zones. A minimum of seven advanced life support units must be inservice. 

To meet peak demand, up to 12 units are placed in service. Each ALS unit is staffed by 

at least one EMT-P and one EMT-B. 

EMSA is managed by a staff hired by the authority to oversee operations and 

administration. Medical direction is provided by Dr. John Sacra, an emergency physician who 

oversees EMSA’s OKC and Tulsa operations and serves as medical director of OCFD. 

Paramedics Plus – Paramedics Plus is a private entity owned by the East Texas Medical 

Center in Tyler, TX. Paramedics Plus provides emergency services, personnel and equipment 

based on a community’s specific needs. Currently Paramedics Plus serves Tulsa and Oklahoma 

City through Emergency Medical Services Authority (EMSA), the exclusive emergency medical 

services provider for more than 1.1 million people in Central and Northeast Oklahoma. They 

have 62 ambulances, and handle 72,580 transports annually in Oklahoma. 

Paramedics Plus provides qualified personnel to EMSA and is responsible for salary, 

benefits and all other remuneration to employees. Personnel working in Tulsa or OKC are hired 

using a cooperative process between Paramedics Plus and EMSA. 

Challenges – Several EMS challenges were identified by the fire chief and other 

members. These items appeared consistent throughout the department. 

The initial ALS plan included upgrading all engine companies to advanced life support 

level. Starting in 1997, 20 companies have been upgraded, but staffing challenges have 

prohibited expansion. There are 21 members who have expressed a desire to attend paramedic 

training but staffing to backfill positions is unavailable. 

45 City Manager. (2001). City Manager’s Report (August 28, 2001). Oklahoma City, OK, 2. 







In October, 2006, the city will determine if the contract with EMSA and Paramedics Plus 

will be renewed. There is a window of opportunity for the fire department to take a greater EMS 

role. The continuing question is “what role should the OCFD have in EMS delivery?” 

EMSA receives a $4.0 million annual subsidy from the city. They also collect fees on a 

per call basis and have a subscription option for citizens to avoid co-payments. The fire 

department provides first responders that are not reimbursed by either cash or credit for in-kind 

services. 

It is difficult for the fire department to recruit trained paramedics. Attempts at nationwide 

recruiting yielded disappointing results. 

Medical Direction – TriData conducted an extensive interview with EMSA’s medical 

director, Dr. John Sacra. Dr. Sacra is the full-time medical director for both EMSA locations, but 

is independent from the EMSA authority. He is appointed by a joint medical control board 

comprised of representatives from all stakeholder organizations. Although his paycheck is from 

EMSA, the funding is from all sources. 

Dr. Sacra believes that the current EMS system is excellent, citing that OKC has the third 

highest cardiac arrest save rate in the country. He believes that OCFD and EMSA’s use of 

identical protocols, common equipment and joint medical direction has led to this success. 

Another basis for success is the integrated continuous quality improvement (CQI) 

program. All transport units collect electronic patient care data that allows for 100 percent 

review of EMS reports to assure protocol compliance. EMSA uses Physio-Control’s 

Medusa/Lifenet EMS software for electronic data collection. He is concerned that the fire 

department will choose a different software program, thereby compromising data sharing and 

data integration. We noted that the fire department has other data needs as well, especially 

fulfillment of the NFIRS reporting requirements. 

Recommendation 19: The OCFD should choose a reporting software package that is 

able to manipulate data in a manner that makes it compatible with EMSA’s software. 

Dr. Sacra mentioned that the medical director was not included on the OCFD command 

chart. The medical director is part of the EMS leadership team in all provider organizations. To 

recognize this distinction, the medical director should be acknowledged as a key staff member. 

Recommendation 20: The OCFD should consider formally recognizing the medical 

director as a member of the FD command staff. This could be done without any change in 

duties or compensation. 

Dr. Sacra also remarked on the role of the fire department in EMS. He fully supports the 

first responder role and further recommends that the outlying engine companies become ALS 

engines. 







Placing ALS capabilities in outlying areas is not an immediate priority. At this time, so 

few calls are generated in these outlying areas, placing units there that they may serve little 

purpose. The outlying stations should be upgraded as demand levels increase. At this point, 

EMSA stands to gain most from this upgrade as they are under less pressure to respond quickly 

to outlying areas. Our interview with Councilman (and former OKC fire chief) Gary Marr 

revealed that for every minute increase in EMSA’s mean response time, they save on average 

$1M in costs. 

Dr. Sacra is concerned with skill proficiency levels of ALS providers. Training too many 

paramedics will lead to skill decay based on numbers of emergency responses. This is of concern 

to many medical directors and warrants consideration. TriData examined OCFD skill proficiency 

by examining three variables: endotracheal intubation success rates, IV success rates and IO 

success rates. These rates were compared to other EMS jurisdictions throughout the country. 

Table 36 shows the results. 

Procedure 

Table 36: EMS Skill Proficiency for OCFD 

Attempts 

Attempts 

Successful 

Attempts 

Unsuccessful 

Percent 

Attempts 

Successful 

IV 4045 3259 776 81% 

Endotracheal Intubation (ET) 281 231 50 82% 

IO 3 2 1 67% 

OCFD’s ET success rate is slightly lower than other EMS systems. One reason may be 

that OCFD paramedics often can only make one intubation attempt before arrival of EMSA. 

EMSA’s proficiency data was not accessible. 

rates are another skill that can be evaluated. OCFD’s IV Therapy success rate is 81 

percent which is comparable to other EMS agencies. For example, our recent study of Portland, 

OR FD revealed a success rate of 75 percent. Comparing success rates revealed that OCFD’s had 

a higher success rate. 

A comparison of proficiency between OCFD and other jurisdictions in ET Intubation is 

shown in Table 37. 







Table 37: ET Intubation Comparisons 

Source Attempts Success % Success 

Nova Scotia 46 112 103 94.3% 

Cady, C & Pirrallo, R. 47 2144 1969 91.6% 

Colwell, C.B., Et.al. 48 124 120 96.7% 

Garza, Et. al. 49 1066 909 85.3% 

Wang, Et al. 50 783 680 86.8% 

Deakin, Et. al. 51 52 35 71.2% 

Gerich, Et. al. 52 383 373 97.4% 

McGuire, Et. al. 53 263 223 84.8% 

El Dorado County EMS 54 63 57 90.0% 

Overall 4990 4469 88.68% 

Oklahoma City FD 281 251 82.0% 

(p





Table 38: Station and Personnel Facilities 

Room For 

Medic Unit 

Personnel 

Facilities 

General Condition 

30-E, RL, DC No No Good No 

34-PE, RL, T Yes Yes Good Yes 

32-E,B Yes No Good No 

3-E, B Yes Yes OK-Back-in only, standing 

water 

15-PE,RL, B No Yes OK-Drainage Issues No 

37-E, B, T Yes Yes Good Yes 

21-PE, B (unstaffed) Yes No Poor-Many issues, beyond 

renovation 

19-PE, AU Yes Yes Fair-Water issues, copper 

piping, others 

25-PE, T, B, BC Yes No Fair No 

9-PE, LR No No Good No 

35-E, B, LR Yes Yes Good Yes 

2- E , B Yes Yes Good Yes 

11-E & Command Unit Yes Yes Good needs cosmetic 

repairs 

12-E. Reserve B, light 

Tower 

18-E, RL, DC, Reserve B, 

foam trailer 

22-E, RL, Turnpike Rescue 

Vehicle 

Fully Medic 

Ready 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes Yes Good Yes 

Yes Yes Shared complex with the Yes 

Police Dept. 


27-E, T, B No No Good No 

20-E, B Yes Yes Good Yes 

31-PE,RL, DC Yes Yes Good but limited parking Yes 

33-E, T, B Yes Yes Good Yes 

14-E, RL Yes Yes Good Yes 

17-PE Yes Yes Original construction date Yes 

not reported 

24-PE,light tower Yes Yes Good Yes 

2-E, RL, R Rescue, Air unit, Yes Yes Good Yes 

EMS Supervisor DC 

1- 2 E, RL, AU, EMS No Yes No 

Supervisor, DC Reserve 

Apparatus 

4-E, B No Yes Size is very restrictive No 

5-E, Haz-Mat & reserve No Yes Good No 

hazmat 

6-E, RL No Yes No drive through bays, No 

building condition poor 

8-E, Rescue Dive Rescue 

Boat 









Room For 

Medic Unit 

Personnel 

Facilities 

General Condition 

10-E No No Fair No 

7-E, RL, DC No No No drive through bays No 

13-E, B Yes Yes Small bunkroom Yes 

16-E, RL, Yes Yes Good Yes 

23-E, B Yes No Good No 

28-E, B Yes No Company must use bottled 

water 

36-E,B , T Yes Yes Good Yes 

Fully Medic 

Ready 

No 

OCFD and EMS Transportation – Without an intense evaluation process, (which was 

beyond the scope of this study) it is impossible to determine whether it would be beneficial for 

the fire department to take over all aspects of EMS. It is readily apparent that OCFD’s first 

responder ALS program is a major contributor to excellent EMS care. Recent studies have 

determined that Oklahoma City has one of the highest rates of successful resuscitation from outof-hospital 

cardiac arrest. 55 

If necessary, the OCFD could house an EMS transport unit and board crews at 24 

stations. Figure 26 shows the suggested locations of EMS transport units and shows the sixminute 

and eight-minute projected response times from these stations. This map excludes 

Stations 4 and 6 and adds the proposed northeast (A) and southwest (B) stations (as 

recommended in an earlier chapter. 

During our meeting with IAFF Local 157 President Mike Anderson, we discussed the 

cultural change that would occur if the fire department started providing EMS transportation. All 

personnel would be part of the system. It appeared that labor officials were ready to accept this 

responsibility. Responses from field personnel were mixed. Most understood the need to be 

involved with EMS, but providing full service needed more consideration. 

Contingency Plan – Whenever a municipal agency depends on private contractors to 

provide public safety, it is reasonable and prudent to have a contingency plan to cover 

unexpected lapses or termination of services. This is equally important to CBRNE types of plans 

since a sudden loss of EMS transport services are equivalent to industrial sabotage. The chances 

of this scenario are as likely as the chances of a terrorist incident. 

55 Sayre, M.R., Hallstrom, A., R. Rea, T. D., et al. (2006). Cardiac arrest survival rates depend on paramedic 

experience [ABS]. Academic Emergency Medicine, 13(5), supplement 1, 55-56. 






Figure 26: Locations for EMS Transport Units 







We were unable to find evidence of a formal contingency or fail-safe plan for EMS 

service should the above occur. Oklahoma City went through a recent scare, when Paramedics 

Plus was threatened with an employee job action. The matter was resolved without service 

interruption, but this scare should emphasize the need for a contingency plan. 

Recommendation 21: The OCFD, EMSA, and Oklahoma City Emergency 

Management should create or update EMS contingency plans for disruption of service 

secondary to contractor default. Consider making this plan an annex to the OKC Emergency 

Plan. 

Observations – The OCFD has 21 Firefighter EMT-Bs interested in obtaining 

paramedic certification. The department has the finances and education resources but lack the 

staffing to backfill for these positions. There are currently 18 persons assigned as drivers fro the 

district/battalion chiefs. By assigning these personnel back to engine or truck companies, backfill 

would be available. Eighteen new paramedics would allow 3 or 4 engine companies to upgrade 

to paramedic engine level. 

Recommendation 22: Consider temporarily reassigning the district/battalion chief 

administrative assistants (DAA’s) to engine or truck companies and detail as many as possible 

to paramedic training. This reassignment could be temporary until all engine companies are 

upgraded to paramedic engine. 

When determining which Engine companies to first upgrade, we used the number of total 

calls, the number of medical responses and the number of medical responses where patient 

contact occurred. 

Based on these variables, we recommend that Engines 3, 33, 35, 13 and 37 be upgraded 

respectively. 

Recommendation 23: After training additional paramedics, upgrade Engines 3, 33, 35, 

13 and 37 respectively. As additional paramedics are available the remaining stations can be 

upgraded. An alternative is to equip the remaining companies with ALS equipment and upgrade 

them as personnel are available. 

Recommendation 24: Continue the goal of upgrading all engine companies to 

paramedic engines. All new engine companies should be staffed as Paramedic Engines. 

Figure 27 is an illustration of the proposed Paramedic Engine Company locations. 






Figure 27: Paramedic Engine Company Locations 






APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 

Number Recommendation Page 

1 The city should continue to monitor age demographics. 21 

2 Monitor yearly per capita demand by category and analyze data every five 24 

years. 

3 Continue tracking vertical response times and expand the program to 

include all call types. 

37 

4 Reconsider the use of AVL in front-line units. As units spend more time on 

EMS and other types of calls, they are more likely to be in the field when a 

second call comes in, which increases the utility of AVL. 

5 Adopt the response time goals listed above in Table 11. These are response 

time goals and would comply with NFPA standards. 

6 Oklahoma City Fire Department should consider reducing the weight of 

response (number of and types of units) that respond to medium and low 

hazard alarms. 

7 Review the call processing and dispatch process to determine whether any 

changes can be made to improve call processing and dispatch times. 

8 Priority #1 –Construct a new fire station at the intersection of Reno Avenue 

and Lincoln Avenue in the “Bricktown” district. 

9 Priority #2 – Relocate Station 6 from is current location to a location on the 

Northwest corner of Henney and Memorial Streets. Redeploy the Tanker 

from Station 21 to the new Station 6 

10 When funding the construction of the new Station 6 provide emergency 

vehicle access to the Turnpike for units from the new station. 

11 Priority #3 – Relocate Station 4 from its current location to a location on the 84 

Northwest corner of Council and 104 th Street. 

12 Priority #4 – Construct and deploy a new Paramedic Engine Company in 85 

the area of Richland and 59 th Street. 

13 Priority #5 – Construct and deploy a new Paramedic Engine Company and 85 

Tanker at Douglas and 149 th Street. 

14 Place a new rescue ladder company at Station 28. 87 

15 Move the rescue ladder from Station 31 to Station 20. 87 

16 Move District Chief 602 from Station 18 to Station 2.and Move District 90 

Chief 603 from Station 7 to Station 23 

17 The OCFD should formally consider the strengths and weaknesses of 

incorporating smaller departments, in and near the city limits, into the 

department. 

101 

18 Move the MPD function to the PSAP 911 operators. 102 

19 The OCFD should choose a reporting software package that is able to 105 

manipulate data in a manner that makes it compatible with EMSA’s 

43 

44 

59 

70 

82 

803 

84 






Appendix A 

Number Recommendation Page 

software. 

20 The OCFD should consider formally recognizing Dr. Sacra as a member of 

the OCFD Command staff. 

105 

21 The OCFD, EMSA and Oklahoma City Emergency Management should 111 

create or update EMS contingency plans for disruption of service secondary 

to contractor default. Consider making this plan an annex to the OKC 

Emergency Plan. 

22 Consider reassigning the district/battalion chief drivers to engine or truck 111 

companies and detail as many as possible to paramedic training. 

23 After training additional paramedics, upgrade Engines 3, 33, 35, 13 and 37 111 

respectively. 

24 Continue the goal of upgrading all engine companies to paramedic engines. 113 






APPENDIX B: CAPITAL RECOMMENDATIONS BY BUDGET YEAR 

Budget 

Year Number Recommendation Page 

FY 2008 8 Priority #1 –Construct a new fire station at the intersection of Reno Avenue 

and Lincoln Avenue in the “Bricktown” district. 

80 

FY 2008 9 Priority #2 – Relocate Station 6 from is current location to a location on the 

Northwest corner of Henney and Memorial Streets. Redeploy the Tanker 

from Station 21 to the new Station 6 

FY 2009 11 Priority #3 – Relocate Station 4 from its current location to a location on 

the Northwest corner of Council and 104 th Street. 

81 

85 

FY 2010 14 Deploy a new Rescue ladder Company at Station 28. 87 

FY 2011 12 Priority #4 – Construct and deploy a new Paramedic Engine Company in 

the area of Richland and 59 th Street 

FY 2013 13 Priority #5 – Construct and deploy a new Paramedic Engine Company and 

Tanker at Douglas and 149 th Street. 

85 

85 






APPENDIX C: REPORT MAPS 

Figure 1: Current Fire Stations ................................................................................................... 117 

Figure 2: Fire Districts................................................................................................................ 118 

Figure 3: Current 4 Minute Travel.............................................................................................. 119 

Figure 4: District 601 4 Minute Travel....................................................................................... 120 






Figure 10: Current Rescue Ladder Location And 8 Minute Travel............................................ 126 

Figure 11: District 601 8 Minute Travel..................................................................................... 127 






Figure 17: Proposed 4 Minute Travel ......................................................................................... 133 

Figure 18: Proposed District 601 4 Minute Travel ..................................................................... 134 






Figure 24: Proposed Ladder Rescue Location And 8 Minute Travel ......................................... 140 







Figure 31: Proposed 4 And 8 Minute Travel .............................................................................. 147 

Figure 32: Current Location Of District Chiefs.......................................................................... 148 

Figure 33: Proposed Location Of District Chiefs ....................................................................... 149 

Figure 34: Current Tanker Locations.......................................................................................... 150 

Figure 35: Proposed Tanker Locations....................................................................................... 151 

Figure 36: Current Location Of Paramedic Engines................................................................... 152 

Figure 37: Proposed Paramedic Engine Upgrades...................................................................... 153 

Figure 38: Locations for EMS Transport Units .......................................................................... 154 

Figure 39: Location Of The New Northeast Station................................................................... 155 

Figure 40: Total Call Density 2005 ............................................................................................ 156 

Figure 41: Fire Call Density 2005 .............................................................................................. 157 

Figure 42: EMS Call Density 2005............................................................................................. 158 

Figure 43: Summary Of Changes ............................................................................................... 159 




Oklahoma City Fire Department Appendix C 


Figure 1: Current Fire Stations 






Figure 2: Fire Districts 






Figure 3: Current 4 Minute Travel 






Figure 4: District 601 4 Minute Travel 




































Figure 10: Current Rescue Ladder Location And 8 Minute Travel 










































Figure 17: Proposed 4 Minute Travel 






Figure 18: Proposed District 601 4 Minute Travel 




































Figure 24: Proposed Ladder Rescue Location And 8 Minute Travel 










































Figure 31: Proposed 4 And 8 Minute Travel 






Figure 32: Current Location Of District Chiefs 






Figure 33: Proposed Location Of District Chiefs 






Figure 34: Current Tanker Locations 






Figure 35: Proposed Tanker Locations 






Figure 36: Current Location Of Paramedic Engines 






Figure 37: Proposed Paramedic Engine Upgrades 






Figure 38: Locations for EMS Transport Units 






Figure 39: Location Of The New Northeast Station 






Figure 40: Total Call Density 2005 






Figure 41: Fire Call Density 2005 






Figure 42: EMS Call Density 2005 






Figure 43: Summary Of Changes

Fire Station Location Study - City of Oklahoma City

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