Articles and Readings Exercise Feedback – Child Development

Articles and Readings Exercise Feedback – Child Development
MODULE ONE: USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS
Action Research for School Improvement
Emily F. Calhoun
March 2002, Volume 59, Number 6
Questions
1. Define action research. What positive functions does it serve?
Action research is defined as a systematic study of a problem or issue by a teacher or other
practitioner, with the goal of bringing about more productive outcomes for students. The positive
functions of action research are as follows:
• Problem solving
• Broaden perspectives of adults’ relationships with children
• Foster learning communities
• Make schools and communities more humane
2. What steps are included in the Schoolwide Action Research Matrix? What ethical guidelines
should educators follow when they act as researchers?
The Schoolwide Action Research Matrix has a collective focus, the identification of the student
learning goal, and six steps: (1) current student information; (2) external information about
learners; (3) student performance goals; (4) internal information about the learning environment;
(5) External information out the learning environment; (6) student performance goals.
Educators should use the following ethical guidelines:
• Be cautious about conclusions, look for general trends instead of isolated occurrences
• Administer tests and interpret data only if you have adequate training
• Be sensitive to students’ perceptions and feelings
• Keep supervisors informed of research initiatives
• Maintain confidentiality
3. Calhoun expresses the positive outcome action research can have on a school’s faculty and
administration, bringing them together with a common purpose to problem solve and for attaining
individual and collective goals. What phrase does she use to describe this phenomenon?
The phrase she uses to describe the community that can be created through action research is
professional learning communities.
MODULE ONE: USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS
Lessons from Research That Changed Education
Gordon Cawelti

February 2003, Volume 60, Number 5
Questions
1. What is a control group? What was the outcome for the children who were not in the control
group for the two studies that used control groups?
A control group is a group of participants in a research study who do not receive the treatment
under investigation. The children in the Perry Preschool study who were in the experimental
group had greater success while in preschool, better academic performance upon entry into
school, and better attitudes toward school. They later were discovered to be less likely to drop out
of school and more apt to enroll in postsecondary education. The students in Tennessee’s Project
STAR who were in the experimental group that had small class sizes scored higher on the
Stanford Achievement Tests in reading and mathematics.
2. If the Kenneth and Mamie Clark research study were performed today, which standard under
the Ethical Protection of Children would be violated?
The Clark’s study took place before the Ethical Protection of Children was established; however,
if the study were performed today, it would probably violate the do no harm standard. The
children in the study were forced to confront their negative self-images.
3. Explain how current interest in brain research might support Cawelti’s claim that, “… great
research, like great art, will always need room for variations, new approaches, initial trials, and
later refinement.”
Because brain research is a relatively new field in education, some of the meaning of the data
gathered may be unclear, but that should not keep researchers from sharing their findings and
applying innovative approaches that can be refined later.
MODULE ONE: USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS
A Reader’s Guide to Scientifically Based Research
Robert E. Slavin
February 2003, Volume 60, Number 5
Questions
1. Define validity. According to the article, why is the federal government concerned with the
validity of research today?
Validity is defined as the extent to which a data collection technique or method actually assess
what the researcher intends for it to assess. The federal government is concerned with the validity
of research today because they are providing money for such research.

2. What is the difference between scientifically based and rigorously evaluated? What should one
take into account when considering using the results of research findings in the classroom?
A program can be scientifically based if it incorporates the results of rigorous experimental
studies. Rigorously evaluated implies that the program being implemented has itself been subject
to evaluation. One should ask the following questions when evaluating research studies:
• Does the research match your primary concern?
• Did the data appear in a reputable journal?
• Did the data have high validity and reliability?
• Were the conclusions supported by the data?
• Were the results substantial and consistent with other data?
• Could researchers’ biases have influenced their decisions?
• Do the conclusions seem plausible in light of your own experiences?
• Are the results generalizable to your population?
3. What are quasi-experimental studies? What do you think Slavin would think about them as
compared to randomized experiments?
Quasi-experimental studies are research studies in which one or more experimental treatments are
used but in which random assignments to groups are not possible. Slavin appears to prefer
randomized experiments because they eliminate selection bias.
MODULE TWO: BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
A Partnership for School Readiness
Gregory D. Freeman and Janet L. King
April 2003, Volume 60, Number 7
Questions
1. In Lafayette County, what percentage of the population lives below the poverty level? What
advice could you offer expectant mothers living in these economic circumstances?
21.3 percent of the population lives below the poverty level in Lafayette County. The following
tactics could be taken when one has the opportunity to work with prospective parents:
• Advise women to review their health before becoming pregnant
• Remind sexually active women to take care of their health in case pregnancy occurs
• Encourage pregnant women to seek medical care
• Advise pregnant women to avoid teratogens
• Encourage pregnant women to relax and avoid stressful situations
• Recommend to pregnant women that they share their thoughts or concerns regarding their
pregnancy
• Counsel fathers to verbalize their experiences or concerns
• Advise new parents about appropriate care when their babies have been exposed to teratogens
• Intervene when mothers continue to engage in substance abuse after the birth
2. Why has there been an increased need for childcare or preschool day care in the United States?
The increased number of childcare or preschool day care providers corresponds with an increased
number of women participating in the labor force.

3. What training was offered to the day care workers? What additional recommendations could
you provide to enhance caregivers’ sensitivity to newborn infants?
The staff was offered training in curriculum, classroom management, student assessment, and
kindergarten readiness. You should do the following to ensure that caregivers meet infants’
needs:
• Talk about infants’ perceptual and sensory abilities
• Point out the physiological states of new babies
• Encourage them to watch infants’ responses to stimuli
• Determine what stimuli infants find soothing and model sensitive interactions with infants
• Ensure caregivers know how to care for the physical needs of the baby
• Offer early and continued support to parents of fragile infants
MODULE TWO: BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
Putting Early Academics in Their Place
Marilou Hyson
April 2003, Volume 60, Number 7
Questions
1. How have states and school districts changed the structure and goals of kindergarten according
to the author? What advantage, if any, does this have on academic success?
States and school districts have been implementing more full day kindergartens and emphasized
standards based academic content focusing on early literacy skills. Children enrolled in highly
academic preschools have gained no advantage in overall cognitive abilities and appear to be less
creative and have less positive attitudes toward school.
2. What guidelines does the author suggest to ensure that academics find their right place in early
childhood curricula? How does drawing upon students’ prior knowledge individualize instruction
at the preschool level?
The author makes the following recommendations:
• Select academic content that connects with young children’s abilities and interests
• Promote parent-teacher-child relationships, social and emotional competence and positive
approaches to learning
• Provide well prepared teachers and continuing professional development
• Use instructional strategies which build on young children’s interests and learning styles
• Use age appropriate assessment practices, such as systematic observations and other
assessments, in children’s everyday activities and interactions

As children arrive at school with a variety of experiences from their home environment, teachers
can individualize learning experiences by asking students to connect what they already know to
what is being explored at school.
3. The author mentions a variety of causes that may influence a students’ ability to learn. List
those causes and identify which may be nature or nurture, or both nature and nurture, issues.
The influences and their causes are as follows:
• Cognitive development – nature or nurture
• Health- nature or nurture
• Unidentified disabilities- probably nature
• Family concerns- nurture
• Social and emotional difficulties- nature or nurture
MODULE TWO: BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
On the Mind of a Child: A Conversation with Sally Shaywitz
Marcia D’Arcangelo
April 2003, Volume 60, Number 7
Questions
1. What three brain systems are used when one reads and what reading tasks do they correspond
to? Is reading considered a canalized skill?
The parts of the brain that are active during reading are the front of the brain, called the inferior
frontal gyrus or Broca’s area. The inferior frontal gyrus, or Broca’s area, is responsible for the
articulation of spoken language. The second area is in the back of the brain and is called the
parieto-temporal region. The parieto-temporal region is involved in analyzing and sounding out
the parts of words. The last component of the brain involved in reading is the occipito-temporal
region, also known as the visual word form area. The occipito-temporal region is the area where
all information relating to words and sounds comes together so readers can identify and read
words instantly. Reading is not a canalized skill. It is an ability modified by experiences.
2. What two compensating measures do readers use to make up for disruptions in the back of the
brain? In addition to practicing the remedial methods Shaywitz recommends, how can educators
acknowledge both the genetic and environmental influences in children’s lives to ensure
optimism with respect to student potential?
Readers try to compensate for non-activating systems in the back left side of the brain by
subvocalizing and using compensatory pathways in the front of both sides of the brain and in the
back right side of the brain. Teachers should keep the following four points in mind to ensure that
an optimistic outlook is maintained regarding the interplay of nature and nurture:
• Expect and make allowances for individual differences
• Remember that environmental factors influence almost every aspect of development
• Intervene when students struggle
• Encourage children to make choices that cultivate their talents and remediate their
weaknesses

3. When should remediation occur according to Shaywitz? Why? When should it occur according
to your text?
According to Shaywitz, children with reading problems should get help as soon as possible.
When one attempts to correct a reading problem in third or fourth grade, one must undo certain
pathways the child has developed. The text contends that one should not wait for children who
lag behind their peers to catch up in academic and social skills. Because these skills build
cumulatively over time, children experiencing delays will fall farther and farther behind and may
eventually see themselves as incapable.
MODULE THREE: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Advice for the Sleep-Deprived
Pat Wolfe
April 2005, Volume 62, Number 7
Questions
1. What does this article suggest as the recommended amount of sleep for adolescents. Should
any school age students be allowed to sleep during the day? Explain your answer.
The article suggests adolescent students need 9 hours and 15 minutes to function well and remain
alert. Infants and toddlers should be provided with time to sleep during the day. Adolescents
should not be provided with time to sleep during the day because it can disrupt the normal sleep
cycle. Students with chronic health issues might also need rest during the day.
2. What is the circadian timing system? What two factors account for changes in adolescent sleep
patterns?
The circadian timing system is a biological clock that influences when and how long the body
sleeps. The first factor affecting shifts in sleep patterns occur due to changes in the brain’s
biological timing system. The Circadian timing system operates by secreting melatonin, a
hormone. The farther along adolescent students are into puberty, the later at night melatonin is
secreted. Adolescents, therefore, do not get sleepy as early and do not wake until later. The
second factor affecting sleep patterns has to do with the amount of time adolescents need to sleep.
Teens need 9 hours and 15 minutes of sleep each night to function well.
3. What issues are associated with chronic problems sleeping? What tips does the author suggest
to assist adolescents in getting a good night’s rest?
Pronounced sleep disturbances in students may be due to the following:
• Serious health problems
• Excessive stress
• Use of street drugs
• Side effects from medication
• Nightmares due to victimization
• Certain disabilities
The author suggests that adolescent students avoid the following:
• Nicotine and caffeine after noon
• Heavy studying or computer games before bed

• Sleeping more than three hours late on the weekends
• Bright light in the evening
MODULE THREE: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Healthy and Ready to Learn
David Satcher
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. Define obesity. How many children are overweight in the U.S.?
Obesity is defined as a condition in which a person weighs at least twenty percent more than what
is optimal for his/her health. Over nine million children today are overweight.
2. Why do children have a greater chance of overcoming obesity than adults have? What
problems are caused by obesity?
Interventions tend to work better for children than adults because children continue to grow in
height, and they have less of a history of poor eating habits. The following problems are
associated with obesity:
• Diabetes
• High blood pressure high cholesterol
• Asthma
• Arthritis
• Gallbladder disease
• Depression
• Anxiety
3. List the five recommendations in the article which promote student health. Are there other
eating disorders that could be helped by following these five recommendations?
The five recommendations are as follows:
• Form a school health advisory council
• Develop a comprehensive wellness policy
• Integrate physical activity and nutrition education into the regular school day
• Incorporate nutrition education, healthy snacks, and physical activity into after school
programs
• Encourage faculty and staff to model healthy lifestyles
Children who have other eating disorders could also be positively affected by these
recommendations. Such disorders might include anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
MODULE THREE: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
A Coordinated School Health Plan
Pat Cooper
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1

Questions
1. What framework helped the District by defining what their students needed? What are the
components of that framework starting from the most fundamental needs?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs provided the framework for the District. The steps in the Hierarchy
are as follows:
• Physiological well-being
• Safety
• Love and belonging
• A sense of competence and recognition
2. How many of the students in McComb District are eligible for free or reduced lunch? How
many live below the federal poverty line? What do we know about the nutrition of these
populations?
85 percent of the students are eligible for free or reduced lunch. More than 30 percent were living
below the federal poverty line. We know that students who come from homes with few financial
resources often do not have access to proper nutrition. Poor nutrition often leads to poor academic
performance. In the case of iron deficiency, the most common nutritional deficiency worldwide,
poor nutrition can be associated with developmental delays and behavioral disturbances.
3. The community constituents identified failures in meeting the needs of the children. A high
proportion of those comments dealt with what two issues? What can you do to address behaviors
that might compromise these two areas?
Community constituents identified students’ mental health and their physical health as concerns.
One can do the following to address health-compromising behaviors:
• Provide healthy options for free time
• Ask adolescents to keep their long term goals in mind
• Prevent problems by having clear school policies and providing students with strategies to
resist peer pressure or address other counter productive behaviors
• Implement proven programs designed for one’s specific population
• Encourage adolescents to protect themselves
• Counsel adolescents who have infectious disease to abstain from sex or to use precautions
MODULE FOUR: FAMILY, CULTURE, AND COMMUNITY
The Power of Positive Identity
Emma Violand-Sanchez and Julia Hainer Violand
September 2006, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. What form of acculturation does the author encourage? What problem can occur with
assimilation?
The authors want schools and teachers to strike a balance between the students’ native culture and
community and the dominant culture found at school. This balance would at best be described as
bicultural orientation, but could also be selective adoption. Assimilation, according to the authors,
can leave ethnic students alienated from both cultures.

2. Define ethnic identity. How do the students in the article work toward establishing positive
ethnic identities in a predominantly English-speaking environment?
Ethnic identity is described as an awareness of being a member of a particular ethnic or cultural
group, with a willingness to adopt certain behaviors characteristic of that group. Students in the
article engaged in the following activities that helped to establish a positive ethnic identity:
• Creation of the Remix-tino concept which blends language and cultural values from both
cultures
• Participation in English language services that maintain one’s cultural identity
• Enrollment in academic programs which draw upon students’ first languages
• Assuming leadership roles in tutoring, conferences, and in the community
3. In the article, the authors recount students’ stories about teachers and students who have used
language Latino students find offensive. What are these terms and why should they be avoided?
The terms used were illegals, aliens, and undocumented. These terms should be avoided for a
variety of reasons. In addition to the fact that most students from other countries come to America
with their family and did not make the relocation decision themselves, one should consider the
following reasons for not allowing the use of these terms in the classroom:
• Latino students may be in the United States legitimately
• Negative stereotypes create a tone for the classroom that is accusatory and promotes hostility
• These terms do not foster respect for diversity
MODULE FOUR: FAMILY, CULTURE, AND COMMUNITY
The Violence You Don’t See
Grace L. Sussman
Summer 2006, Volume 63
Questions
1. Using one of the four forms of acculturation, explain how the author’s students initially
participated in the classroom.
The behavior of the students would most likely have fallen into the form of rejection. The
students did not adopt the cultural practices of their teacher because she did not establish a need
to interact.
2. How did Sussman initially embark on her journey to understand her students? How else can
educators create a supportive environment for their ethnic minority students?
Initially the author posed several questions to her students. The discussions and observations that
followed provided her with insight into her students’ lives. Educators can do the following to
create a supportive environment for their ethnic minority students:
• Seek guidance from cultural authorities
• Accept the validity of cultural viewpoints that differ from your own
• Accommodate the practices and values of children’s cultures when appropriate
• Include numerous cultural perspectives in programs and curricula
• Foster respect for diversity

• Create opportunities for children from diverse backgrounds to interact
• Recognize that students may follow practices from two or more cultures
• Find constructive ways to address cultural conflicts
3. When did students start to realize that the author cared about them? What stressors can
children living in economic poverty experience?
Students realized that their teacher cared about them because she exhibited an obvious interest in
their lives. Students living in poverty are subject to the following stressors:
• Poor nutrition and health care
• Inadequate housing and material goods
• Toxic environments
• Gaps in background knowledge
• Increased probability of disabling conditions
• Emotional stress
• Lower quality schools
• Public misconceptions
MODULE FOUR: FAMILY, CULTURE, AND COMMUNITY
Character Education: Parents as Partners
Marvin W. Berkowitz and Melinda C. Bier
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. Why is parent involvement critical to Character Education Programs? What is the best
predictor of student success in school?
Parental involvement is critical to character education programs because families have the most
profound impact on students’ development. The best predictor of student success in school is the
level of parental involvement in the child’s education.
2. Why are many parents discouraged from becoming involved in character education programs?
What other barriers might keep parents from participating in their child’s development?
According to the authors, parents often do not participate for the following reasons:
• Many parents feel incompetent
• Some parents do not feel welcome in schools
• Many secondary students do not want their parents to be involved
• Parents often do not understand that part of their parental role is to be involved in their child’s
education
Other barriers to participation include:
• Exhausting work schedules
• Lack of childcare
• Limited English skills
• Past painful memories associated with schooling.
3. What are the four parenting styles? Which styles could benefit by forming partnerships with
schools to promote character education?

The four parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. While
uninvolved and permissive parents may gain the most from involvement in character education
programs, all parents benefit when they assist their children in becoming good and productive
citizens.
MODULE FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY
Landscapes for Learning
Cathy Cochrane
September 2004, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. In the article, the students engage in several authentic activities. Define authentic activities and
describe their impact on mastery of information and writing skills.
Authentic activities are instructional activities similar to those one might encounter in the real
world. When children engage in authentic activities it enhances cognitive development, and
mastery and skills of information. When students engage in writing activities that are directed to
real people or about authentic issues, their writing improves. In the article, students who
participated in the Campus Calgary program demonstrated a marked improvement in writing
skills over those children who did not participate in the Program.
2. How are the children in the story engaged in the concept of apprenticeship?
Apprenticeship involves a mentorship relationship in which a novice student, in this case, works
with experts to learn how to accomplish complex tasks in a particular domain. In the Program,
students work with community members who are curators, artist, naturalist, writers, and
technicians. By experiencing how these experts think and problem solve, students learn the skills,
language and cognitive processes involved in various tasks.
3. What is constructivism? How does it relate to this article?
Constructivism is a theoretical perspective that maintains that learners construct knowledge and
beliefs by interpreting and integrating what they learn into a personally constructed
understanding. By providing students with experiences and encouraging them to collaborate with
experts and one another, students are more apt to actively engage and construct meaningful
interpretations of events.
MODULE FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY
The Sweet Work of Reading
Andie Cunningham and Ruth Shagoury
October 2005, Volume 63,Number 2

Questions
1. In which Piagetian stage would the children in the article be classified? How does symbolic
thinking assist them in making sense of text?
The children in the article are in Piaget’s preoperational stage. Symbolic thought is rapidly
developing at this stage that allows students to think and talk about things beyond their immediate
experience. The use of symbols allows children to think, remember, and problem solve. Class
discussions and activities are facilitated by this student ability.
2. How does language development relate to the children’s stage? What role does language play
in Andie’s classroom?
Children’s language skills are rapidly developing at this stage. Students in Andie’s class are
provided with opportunities to interact and talk about their experiences and interpretations as well
as share their home languages.
3. In the book, No Such Thing, children must take the perspectives of different characters. Why
might this be a good exercise for children in this stage?
Children in the preoperational stage typically exhibit egocentrism. Egocentrism is the inability to
view situations from another’s perspective. When teachers have students assume the perspectives
of others and allow for extensive social interaction, children begin to understand that multiple
perspectives are possible.
MODULE FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY
Uniquely Preschool
Elena Bodrova and Deborah J. Leong
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. What skills did Vygotsky believe preschool children do not automatically acquire but need for
future learning?
Vygotsky believed preschool children need the following skills for future learning:
• Oral language
• Deliberate memory
• Focused attention
• Self-regulation
2. What aspect of reciprocal teaching is used in Sangu Hwang’s classroom? What skill does it
foster? What term is associated with the support learners need that Mr. Hwang provides by
leaving the book open to the pictures?
The reading activity in Sangu Hwang’s classroom that required students to retell a story involved
summarizing. By allowing students to take control of the reading experience through
summarizing, students often become more effective readers. The support the learners need is
referred to as scaffolding. By leaving the book open which provides picture clues as to the story,
learners have the support they need to accomplish the task.

3. List and provide an explanation of the three ways in which self-regulation can be fostered in
preschool children. Which of the three relates to sociodramatic play and what are its benefits?
The three ways in which self-regulation can be fostered are as follows:
• Scaffolding intentional play occurs when students act out specific roles and plan their play
• Modifying preschool activities might include a retelling of a story using a talking stick to take
turns with classmates
• Minimizing counterproductive activities involves reducing chaos and highly directed teacher
activities in the classroom.
Sociodramatic play and intentional play both occur when children take on roles and act out a
scenario of events. The advantages include helping children to learn how to conform to cultural
standards and expectations. Accordingly, students can gain a greater appreciation for how others
might think or feel.
MODULE SIX: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
The Age for Drama
Jeffrey D. Wilhelm
April 2006, Volume 63, Number 7
Questions
1. How do action strategies assist students in retaining information?
Action strategies tap into students’ prior knowledge while constructing new and important
conceptual and strategic understanding. By utilizing students’ prior knowledge, educators foster
more effective learning and the creation of a more integrated knowledge base. Because students’
prior knowledge is retrievable from long term memory, new information that is connected to such
memory stands a greater chance of retrieval.
2. What are schemas? How do they differ from schemes? If the interviews in the article followed
a predictable pattern, what type of schema might they be called?
Schemas are tightly integrated sets of ideas about specific objects or situations. Schemes are
Piagetian and refer to an organized group of similar actions or thought that are used repeatedly in
response to the environment. If the interviews followed a particular sequence of events they
might be referred to as a script.
3. The author claims drama is purposeful, engaging and social for tweens. Relate these three
concepts to retention. How do identity and competency relate to the dramatic activities the author
designed?
The concepts relate to retention in the following ways:
• Purpose implies that an activity has relevance in one’s life. Students who participate in
activities that they view as relevant are apt to connect what they learn with their prior
knowledge. The more integrated the knowledge, the greater likelihood of retention.

• Engaging implies that the activity is interesting to tweens. When activities are interesting,
students are more apt to pay attention. Attention is necessary for information to move to
working memory and ultimately be stored in long-term memory.
• Socially oriented activities meet tweens need for relatedness and provide opportunities for
discussion. Students are more likely to remember information they talk about.
Tweens have both cognitive and emotional needs. By engaging in exploration and meaningful
work, tweens satisfy their need to develop a sense of identity and overcome role confusion.
MODULE SIX: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Getting Into the Game
Henry Jenkins
April 2005, Volume 62, Number 7
Questions
1. What is self-regulation? What qualities inherent in electronic games are also strategies used by
self-regulated learners?
Self-regulation occurs when one directs and controls one’s own cognitive processes in order to
learn successfully. Electronic games encourage students to do the following activities which are
also strategies shared by self-regulated learners:
• Set goals for a learning activity
• Planning an effective use of time
• Maintaining attention and persistence
• Identifying appropriate strategies
• Monitoring progress toward goals and making necessary adjustments to attain those goals
• Evaluating the final knowledge gained from the activity
2. List the aspects of games that learners find intrinsically motivating.
Learners find the following aspects of games intrinsically motivating:
• Games lower the threat of failure
• Games foster a sense of engagement through immersion
• Games sequence tasks to allow for early success
• Games link learning to goals and roles
• Games create a social context that connects learners to others who share their interests
• Games are multimodal
• Games support early steps into a new domain
3. How can educators lower the threat of failure, create early success, and incorporate multiple
modes of representation?
Educators can lower the threat of failure by allowing students to redo or revise their work,
thereby providing opportunities for students to learn from their mistakes. Teaches can create early
success by making sure that students have the necessary tools to initially experience success when
first engaging in a topic. Educators should provide a variety of materials and activities for
students to maintain their attention and to appeal to individual learning styles.

MODULE SIX: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Becoming an Engaged Reader
Patricia l. Scharer, Gay Su Pinnell, Carol Lyons, and Irene Fountas
October 2005, Volume 63, Number 2
Questions
1. List the five instructional approaches used in effective reading programs that are cited in the
article. What is Automatization, and with which of the five instructional approaches would it
most likely be associated?
The five instructional approaches are as follows:
• Independent reading
• Writing workshop
• Word study
• Content area study
• Shared and performance reading
Automatization is defined as the process of becoming able to respond quickly and efficiently
while mentally processing or physically performing a task. Automatization would most likely be
associated with word study. When students become fluent in word recognition, they can devote
more working memory capacity to other more challenging aspects of reading.
2. How does a student’s knowledge base affect reading comprehension?
A knowledge base is one’s knowledge about specific topics and the world in general. Students
use their knowledge base to interpret and respond to reading material and tasks. As students’
knowledge base grows, they can interpret material and respond to tasks with greater
sophistication and efficiency.
3. The authors suggest that when students have negative experiences with regards to reading, they
are more apt to avoid reading in the future. What recommendations exist that promote selfmonitoring
and self-evaluation in order to empower students to evaluate their own progress?
Educators can do the following to encourage self-monitoring and self-evaluation:
• Teach children to ask themselves, and then answer, questions about the reading topic
• Have children set specific goals for each reading session and describe how they have met
them
• Provide specific criteria that children can use to judge their performance
• Allow children to first evaluate their own performance before providing feedback
• Have children record their reading progress through past work so they can recognize their
progress
MODULE SEVEN: INTELLIGENCE
Celebrate Strengths, Nurture Affinities: A Conversation with Mel Levine
Marge Scherer

September 2006, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. What are content affinities? How do they relate to intelligence? How do they relate to
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?
Content affinities are areas of content toward which a child is drawn. Content affinities may be
cultural, environmental, family influences and to some extent inborn in children. Educators can
draw upon content affinities to increase strengths and skills. Both Gardner and Levine believe
that by building upon the diverse abilities or interests of students, they will learn more effectively.
2. What is Levine’s view of testing in general and specifically, the use of testing to identify
problems? For what procedure is Levine an advocate to identify problems?
While Levine believes in accountability, he maintains that multiple types of evaluations are
preferable and should be given randomly and without time limits. Levine believes that educators
over rely on testing to identify problems. He believes that teachers can learn about children’s
weaknesses through observations.
3. What does Levine say about the language abilities of girls and the spatial abilities of boys?
According to your text, what are some possible explanations for these gender differences in
specific intellectual abilities?
Girls appear to be ahead of boys in elementary school in language processing which gives them
an advantage as schooling becomes increasingly verbal. Boys appear to have better spatial
abilities that, while useful in kindergarten, become less important in later years. Possible
explanations include the following:
• Hormonal differences
• Subtle anatomical differences in the brain
• Environmental factors such as the types of manipulatives with which children play
MODULE SEVEN: INTELLIGENCE
Orchestrating Multiple Intelligences
Seana Moran, Mindy Kornhaber and Howard Gardner
September 2006, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. Define distributive intelligence. How does it relate to the type of collaboration the authors
advocate?
Distributive intelligence is the idea that intelligent behavior depends upon physical, social and
cultural support mechanisms. The authors’ advocacy of collaborative endeavors relates to the
social aspect of distributive intelligence that states that when students work with others to solve
problems, they can think more intelligently.
2. According to the authors, how can rich experiences foster intelligent behavior? How does the
role of prior experiences affect intelligence according to Sternberg?

The articles’ authors believe that to promote learning across students’ intelligence profiles,
educators need to provide students with rich activities and experiences in which students can
personally engage. These types of experiences also provide information regarding students’
misunderstandings so that teachers can assist students in achieving a better understanding.
Sternberg maintained that students’ prior experiences play a critical role in how intelligently they
behave. Students who have vast experiences with a variety skills and tasks draw upon those past
experiences to complete future tasks quickly and effortlessly.
3.What are specific ability tests? What would the authors think about this type of assessment?
Specific ability tests are designed to test a specific cognitive skill or the potential to learn and
perform in a particular content domain. The authors advocate for assessment of the intelligences
that involves situations in which a students can interact with materials and teachers can observe
the interactions to determine which intelligences appear to be primary and which do not play a
significant role. Both types of assessment are consistent with a multidimensional view of
intelligence which would indicate that the Moran, Kornhaber and Gardner would support this
type of assessment; however, the authors indicate that Project Spectrums’ tasks do not segment
tasks into one intelligence or another.
MODULE SEVEN: INTELLIGENCE
The Way We Learn
Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine
September 2006, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. List what teachers and practitioners should keep in mind when considering the existing
knowledge about the nature and development of intelligence? Which components of your list are
incorporated into Caine and Caine’s authentic decision making model?
Teachers should keep the following points in mind when considering the existing knowledge
about the nature and development of intelligence:
• Maintain a healthy skepticism about the accuracy of IQ scores
• Support early intervention programs in the community
• Be open minded about the ways that students might demonstrate their intelligence
• Capitalize upon student’s individual strengths and abilities when teaching new topics
• Promote more intelligent cognitive strategies
• Give students the support they need to think more intelligently
The following points are included in Caine and Caine’s authentic decision making model:
• Capitalize upon student’s individual strengths and abilities when teaching new topics
• Promote more intelligent cognitive strategies
• Give students the support they need to think more intelligently
2. How do children from lower SES families typically perform on intelligence tests?
What aspect present in the authentic decision making model might account for low achievement
in economically disadvantaged populations?
Children in lower SES circumstances typically earn lower IQ scores and perform at lower levels
in school than children from middle SES families. Teachers and family conditions are two factors

that can contribute to this phenomenon and are addressed by the model in the article. Teachers
from middle-SES families often have lower academic expectations and therefore provide lower
SES children with less attention, fewer opportunities, and less challenging assignments. Family
conditions contribute in that children from low SES circumstances might have less assistance
from parents who themselves have little education and limited exposure to a variety of
experiences due to lack of funds or family or parental constraints on time.
3. What is veridical decision making? On what instruments is one apt to find examples of it?
Veridical decision making focuses on finding the right answer to questions that are determined by
someone else. One is apt to find them on tests or homework assignments.
MODULE EIGHT: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Affirming Identity in Multilingual Classrooms
Jim Cummins, Vicki Bismilla, Patricia Chow, Sarah Cohen, Frances Giampapa Lisa Leoni,
Perminder Sandhu, and Padma Sastri
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. Define bilingual education. How does it compare to the use of dual language identity texts?
Bilingual education is an approach to second language instruction in which students are taught
academic subject matter in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and
write in the second language. Identity texts are cognitively challenging assignments in which
students choose their topics. Students bring their identities and talents to their work and create a
product that is authored in English and the students’ original language. Dual language texts are
often multidisciplinary. While bilingual education contends that academic development must be
continued as students acquire competency in English, dual language identity texts have students
do both simultaneously and also capitalize on a student’s sense of identity.
2. What is immersion? What constructs, important to learning and motivation, have been left out
of the reforms mandated by NCLB? What effects can these omissions have on motivation to
learn?
Immersion is an approach to second language instruction in which students hear and speak that
language exclusively in the classroom. Affect, identity, respect, and human relationships are
constructs not included in NCLB’s notion of teaching English language learners. When students
feel as if their interests or concerns do not matter in the educational process, they are less apt to
become engaged.

3. What is the strongest predictor of a student’s English academic development? Do you think the
authors’ suggested methods support this premise?
Empirical data shows that students’ home language proficiency at the time of their arrival in the
English speaking country is the strongest predictor of English academic development. The
authors’ maintain that educators must use students’ existing cultural knowledge and language
abilities as resources for encouraging academic engagement. This academic engagement affirms
students’ identities and enables students to invest their identities in newly learned material. This
also supports the primacy of a learner’s home life and culture.
MODULE EIGHT: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
“If I Said Something Wrong, I Was Afraid”
Douglas B. Reeves
December 2004/January 2005, Volume 62, Number 4
Questions
1. What term describes the confusion that occurred between the Haitian boy’s behavior and the
misinterpretation by the school? How can this phenomenon negatively impact learning?
The term that describes the confusion is cultural shock. Cultural shock can negatively impact
students’ learning by interfering with adjustments to group settings, behavior, and achievement.
2. How does wait time relate to, Help Us Many Times?
Wait time is defined as the length of time a teacher pauses before responding to either a student’s
question or comment. In the section titled, Help Us Many Times, students were requesting that
teachers be patient. By allowing students to express themselves with adequate time, and
providing scaffolding when needed, teachers create a more accepting and relaxed environment.
3. What can educators do to reduce the impact of culture shock?
Teachers can do the following to reduce the impact of culture shock:
• Educate themselves about diverse sociolinguistic patterns
• Keep children’s varying conversational styles in mind as group lessons and activities are
designed
• Allow students to answer as a group or provide responses on paper
• Vary questions to match cultural practices at home
• Allow sufficient wait time
• Provide guided practice for missing skills
MODULE EIGHT: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Teaching Reading to Early Language Learners
Russell Gersten and Esther Gevea
April 2003, Volume 60, Number 7

Questions
1. What is phonology? Do the methods offered in the article incorporate the four basic
components of language?
Phonology is the sounds system of language, how words sound and are pronounced. Phonology is
one of the four basic components of language. The other three components are semantics, syntax,
and pragmatics. The programs in the article made use of all the four components of language
through the following activities:
• Encouraging students to elaborate
• Phonemic awareness
• Letter-sound correspondence
• Decoding
• Explicitly teaching difficult vocabulary
• Providing opportunities to speak in English
• Meaningful interaction with texts
• Asking questions to ensure comprehension
2. Is there an optimal time to learn a new language? What are the benefits of getting an early start
on a second language?
While early exposure to a second language that differs greatly from the speakers first language is
generally suggested, people of all ages can acquire proficiency in a second language. There are
many benefits to learning a second language early:
• On average it leads to higher achievement in reading, vocabulary, and grammar
• It sensitizes children to the multicultural nature of the world
• Elementary school children express more positive attitudes toward people who speak in their
second language
• Students are more apt to enroll in foreign language classes in high school
3. Are the methods used in this study immersion or bilingual in nature?
While teachers may clarify ideas in the native language of the speaker, the primary method of
instruction in these classrooms is immersion.
MODULE NINE: DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTENT DOMAINS
Differentiating for Tweens
Rick Wormeli
April 2006, Volume 63, Number 7
Questions
1. According to the author, why should teachers provide alternative pathways to achieving the
standards? Why are standards a focus in education today?
Educators should provide students with multiple ways to process and acquire information in order
to accommodate their unique learning styles and to provide them with a variety of strategies so
that they can select which technique best suites a particular situation. As a result of the 2001 No
Child Left Behind Act, all states must have standards for reading, writing, mathematics and

science, and must assess their students in grades 3-8 to establish if students are making adequate
yearly progress in meeting state developed standards.
2. How can teachers best provide students with feedback on their writing? What other
developmentally appropriate suggestions can you make for assisting tweens with their writing?
Teachers should do the following to ensure learning and motivation when students write:
• Prompt feedback
• Short assignments
• Timely return on work
• A focus on one or two areas
Other suggestions to assist students in their writing endeavors include:
• Provide continuing instruction in grammar, punctuation and spelling
• Introduce persuasive and argumentative forms of writing
• Suggest a specific audience for whom to write
• Encourage adolescents to use local dialects in creative writing projects
3. What are the effects of having students read high interest fiction and non-fiction? Why do you
think the article’s author would support that idea?
When students are interested in what they are reading they read more energetically and
persistently, use more sophisticated metacognitive strategies, and remember more content. Rick
Wormeli would support this idea because he maintains that what is novel compels students and
appeals to their sense of curiosity.
MODULE NINE: DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTENT DOMAINS
Teaching the Art of Writing
Beth Olshansky
Summer 2006, Volume 63
Questions
1. What are the two programs described by the author and which subgroup of children
particularly benefit from these processes? What effect has an increased focus on standards based
subjects, such as writing, had on art education?
The two programs are Image-Making and Picture Writing. The subgroup that has benefited
academically from these particular processes are those identified by NCLB as needing assistance,
Title 1 students and students receiving special education services. Because teachers spend more
time on subjects that are assessed, less time is spent on subjects such as art that are not assessed.
2. What are authentic writing tasks? In what way are Linda Ball’s second graders engaging in
authentic writing tasks?
Authentic writing tasks are those in which students are writing for a real audience as opposed to
writing only for their teacher. Linda Ball’s second graders publish the books they write.
3. In what other ways can educators promote writing?

Educators can promote writing in the following ways:
• Provide tools and materials for writing as soon as students are old enough to use them
• Present authentic writing tasks and provide choice as to writing topics
• Scaffold children’s writing efforts
• Include writing assignments in all areas of the curriculum
MODULE NINE: DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTENT DOMAINS
The Old Way of Reading and the New
Valerie Ruth Kirschenbaum
May 2006, Volume 63, Number 8
Questions
1. What does the author compel educators to do to improve student engagement and interest?
What else can teachers do to promote reading?
Valerie Ruth Kirschenbaum advocates for designer writing that includes adding color, a variety of
fonts, and eye catching imagery. Teachers can also do the following to promote reading:
• Help parents of young children acquire effective storybook reading skills
• Use meaningful and engaging activities to teach basic reading skills
• Identify and address reading problems early
• Use high interest works of fiction and non-fiction
• Conduct group discussion about stories and novels
• Have children use a variety of media to interpret what they read
• Encourage reading outside of school
2. What parallel does the author draw between the advertising industry and her
recommendations? How does the goal of advertising relate to reading?
The author reminds the reader that since the late 19 th century, when color became available for
advertising purposes, the industry recognized the increased effectiveness of colorful advertising.
The author maintains that by using visually engaging materials, students will also be drawn to the
material. One goal of advertising is to have one’s audience remember the product. By utilizing
visually stimulating material, the author maintains students are more apt to attend to the readings
that can result in a more memorable reading experience.
3. What could be accomplished by having the students use technology to design instructional
materials?
If students designed the materials the following can occur:
• Engagement in an authentic task which has an audience other than the teacher
• Increased retention of information due to interaction with the text
• Involvement in the learning process which can result in increased self-regulation
MODULE TEN: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Resolving the Confidence Crisis
Terri Apter

April 2006, Volume 63, Number 7
Questions
1. Relate Erikson’s notion of industry to Terri Apter’s view of how tweens gain self-confidence.
Erikson maintains that middle childhood is a period when students gain confidence by completing
challenging tasks proficiently. Students at this age also compare their abilities with their peers
that can lead to a loss of confidence. The author suggests that when students are provided with
challenging tasks and given the proper support, they develop the self-confidence they need and
learn to overcome difficulties by being persistent. The two theories are very similar.
2. Define conduct disorder. What does the author suggest might be at the root of such behavior
for tweens?
Conduct disorder occurs when students display a chronic pattern of misbehavior and show little if
any guilt or shame about their misconduct. Although conduct disorder refers to on-going
misbehavior as opposed to simply a few episodes, Apter writes that boys during their tween years
who are under pressure to succeed in school may try to mask their feelings of inadequacy by
acting out. The long term consequences of such behavior can result in missing out on an
education and the rewards such education later provides.
3. What does Apter maintain can happen to children who receive praise without exerting effort?
How does this tie into Erikson’s theory of identity versus role confusion?
Praise and recognition for successes that are not earned can actually undermine students’ selfconfidence
and limit their intellectual growth by convincing students intelligence is a stable factor
as opposed to that which can improve with effort and persistence. According to Erikson, students
wrestle with their identity during the adolescent years. By providing students with challenging
tasks and offering support when needed, students will learn that it is through their efforts that
success can be attained. This positive self-image will assist students during this period of identity
building.
MODULE TEN: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Safe Schools for the Roller Coaster Years
Linda Inlay
April 2005, Volume 62, Number 7
Questions
1. How does creating an environment of safety, according to Inlay, improve reflective behavior?
How else can educators assist students with their emotional growth?
When students are afraid that their actions will anger or disappoint an authority figure in their
lives, they may feel the need to lie. According to the author when students feel secure, they use
the cerebral cortex and reflect on their actions. Students are less apt to repeat mistakes if they
reflect upon why they made those poor choices. Educators can do the following to assist students
with their emotional development:
• Respond when students are experiencing distress
• Create an atmosphere of warmth, acceptance, and trust
• Encourage students to express their feelings

• Use a research based curriculum to foster emotional development
• Offer age-appropriate outlets for emotional expression
• Discuss emotions experienced by characters in literature or history
• Ask students to guess what emotions people may feel in particular scenarios
• Take cultural differences into account
• Help children keep anxiety to a manageable level
• Model appropriate ways of dealing with emotions
2. Define relatedness. How does the River School provide opportunities for relatedness?
Relatedness is the fundamental need to feel socially connected, loved and respected. The River
School provides opportunities through their small listening groups and events which unite the
various grade levels.
3. How does the River School address students’ needs to contribute? How can students in
Erikson’s fifth stage development benefit from such activities?
The River School addresses students’ needs to contribute by providing opportunities to peer
mediate, speak at conferences, participate in panel parenting classes, hosting visitors and
mentoring struggling younger students. The climate that develops through such activities is one of
respect. Students in Erikson’s fifth stage of development are attempting to define themselves.
When these students receive positive responses from others in their environment, they will most
likely experience increased self-confidence and higher self-esteem.
MODULE TEN: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Learning throughout the Day
George Johnson, Rachel Poliner, and Susan Bonaiuto
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. What is empathy? How did students demonstrate it in the sixth grade English class?
Empathy is the capacity to experience the same feelings as another person, especially when the
feeling is pain or distress. The teacher in the sixth grade English class begins her class by
presenting a challenge that her dog Stella is experiencing. The challenges are typical trials one
might encounter as a sixth grader. The students discuss how Stella should deal with her dilemma
and what options exist.
2. Explain the purpose of mentor groups. How do mentor groups benefit both parties involved?
Mentor groups occur when one faculty member in the high school stays with the same group of
students for several years. Mentor groups were created as a response to students’ responses that
they wished they had formed a significant relationship with a teacher during their high school
experience. Students benefit from such relationships because their mentor can provide guidance
during times when students often lack the necessary experience to make informed decisions. The
mentors benefit through their association with students. By listening to students’ concerns and
challenges, mentors can continually adjust their curriculum and instructional methods to ensure
they remains relevant to students’ lives.

3. What can educators do to assist students who do not benefit from SEL programs due to
emotional more severe emotional problems? What happens academically to students with serious
emotional problems?
Educators can do the following to assist students with emotional problems:
• Show an interest in their well-being
• Teach social skills
• Provide extra structure for students who have high levels of anxiety
• Set reasonable limits for behavior
• Give students a sense that they have some control
• Be alert for signs that students may be hurting themselves or contemplating suicide
Academically, fewer than half of students with severe emotional problems graduate from high
school.
MODULE ELEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF SELF AND SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING
Social Justice in the Classroom
Jacqueline Grennon Brooks and Eustace G. Thompson
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. Who suffers most when the curriculum completely negates diverse social or cultural
perspectives? How can educators communicate respect and appreciation for diverse groups?
Excluding the social curriculum does the most harm to students of low socioeconomic status.
These students depend upon educators to bridge their cultural capital to that of the mainstream
culture. Educators can do the following to communicate respect and appreciation for diversity:
• Understand the traditions, values and priorities of various cultural groups
• Acknowledge the importance of students’ languages or dialects
• Treat all children as equal members of the classroom
• View historical and current events through various cultural perspectives
• Create cooperative learning opportunities where children from diverse backgrounds must
collaborate
2. According to the authors, why do teachers avoid responding to comments that deal with issues
of social justice? Why might adolescents become more socially involved with their own ethnic
group even if they have previously socialized with diverse groups of students in elementary
school? How does this adolescent shift in affiliation relate to students’ feelings about social
justice?
Teachers avoid dealing with issues of social justice in the classroom as these issues are often
controversial and because there has been an increased focus on following the established
curriculum since the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The self-imposed segregation, in which
many adolescent students engage, reflects their desire to affiliate with peers who have an
understanding of the discrimination that they experience. As students become more aware of
social justice issues, they are more apt to seek friends who understand their plight.

3. What three basic tenets of constructivism were used to address students in the article? How
else can teachers encourage social perspective taking?
The three basic tenets are valuing student’s views, continuing to relate information to the lesson
at hand and posing problems for students to consider. Teachers can also assist their students by
asking students to share their perspectives and interpretations, speculate about characters’
thoughts and actions in literature, and consider the perspectives of others that they do not know.
MODULE ELEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF SELF AND SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING
The Socially Intelligent Leader
Daniel Goleman
September 2006, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. What is social cognition? How would the author respond to people who might suggest that
implementing social-emotional learning programs takes away from academics?
Social cognition is the process of thinking about how other people are apt to think, act, and react
and choosing one’s own interpersonal behaviors accordingly. The author would maintain that
humans perform at their best when they experience high motivation and manageable stress.
Programs that assist students in their social and emotional development can impact the amount of
motivation students express by increasing their sense of self-confidence and by helping students
with stress management.
2. According to the social information processing perspective, what steps do students go through
when they encounter and respond to a situation? According to social neuroscience, what
mechanisms assist humans in creating an internal simulation of what others are thinking?
Students go through the following steps when they encounter and respond to a situation:
• Attention and storage in memory
• Interpretation
• Clarification of goals
• Response search
• Response decision
• Response enactment
According to neuroscience, the mechanisms that assist people in creating an internal simulation of
what others are thinking are mirror neurons.
3. According to Goleman, who in a school environment can set the tone for the entire school
community? In addition to modeling interpersonal skills, how else can school leadership foster
effective interpersonal skills?
Goleman believes that the powerful person in a school is the Principal. School leadership can
foster effective interpersonal skills in the following ways:
• Teach specific social skills and social problem solving strategies
• Label appropriate behaviors as they occur and provide concrete guidelines for behavior
• Plan cooperative activities

• Provide opportunities for children and adolescents to make a difference in their communities
• Develop a peer mediation program and seek intervention for aggressive students
MODULE ELEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF SELF AND SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING
Broadening the World of Early Adolescents
Donna Marie San Antonio
April 2006, Volume 63, Number 7
Questions
1. How can the stressful situation of adolescence actually provide opportunities for cognitive and
interpersonal growth? How does this relate to identity development?
Both Freud and Erikson saw periods of stress as growth producing when the stress is short in
duration and the person has the ability to master his or her new environment. These periods can
bolster self-efficacy and also add to an individual’s repertoire of cognitive and interpersonal
skills. In order to develop a self-constructed idea of who one is, one must explore options.
Although the period of exploration and search for self may be stressful, without it adolescents run
the risk of identity foreclosure or identity diffusion.
2. What do early adolescents worry about when they go to new schools? How does this focus
affect a student’s sense of self?
Students worried about losing old friends, being unable to make new friends, not making a good
impression on others, and being the object of ridicule. Relationships with peers are important to
an adolescent’s sense of self in the following ways:
• They communicate messages about strengths, weaknesses and worth
• They provide information about how one measures up socially and academically
• Popular peers provide esteem to their friends
3. List the two common school structures that can negatively impact students’ social integration.
In early adolescence, how can peer affiliation and conformity affect students’ academic futures?
Two common school structures which can have a negative impact on students’ social integration
are selective curricular activities and ability grouping. In early adolescence, students experience
an increased sense of concern for how others will judge them. This can lead students to imitate
both the positive and negative choices of their peers.
MODULE TWELVE: DEVELOPMENT OF MOTIVATION AND SELF-REGULATION
Relationships Matter
Deborah Stipek
September 2006, Volume 64, Number 1
Questions
1. According to the author, why do many students drop out of school? How can teachers support
students at risk?

The author stated that students who dropped out of school frequently said that they felt no one
cared about them. Teachers can do the following to support students at risk:
• Make the curriculum relevant to their lives and needs
• Use students’ strengths to promote high self-efficacy
• Provide extra support for academic success
• Communicate optimism regarding chances for success
• Show students that they are personally responsible for their success
• Involve students in extracurricular activities
• Involve students in school policy and management decisions
2. What is learned helplessness? According to the author, what types of students do teachers
typically favor? Which students do teachers least favor? How does this affect low achieving
students?
Learned helplessness is a general belief that one is incapable of accomplishing a task and has
little or no control over the environment. At risk students often exhibit learned helplessness due to
past failures. Teachers typically favor high achieving students and have the worse relationships
with students who struggle academically. Low achieving students who fail to develop meaningful
relationships with teachers frequently drop out of school.
3. What do small class size, advisory groups, and block scheduling have in common according to
Stipek? How does this relate to motivation?
Small class size, advisory groups, and block scheduling allow for greater interaction between
teachers and their students. When caring teachers take an interest in their students, students may
be extrinsically motivated to learn. While extrinsic motivation might not be optimal over a long
period of time, sometimes it can spur students to initially engage in a task which can eventually
lead to success. The success students experience might then lead to intrinsic satisfaction.
MODULE TWELVE: DEVELOPMENT OF MOTIVATION AND SELF-REGULATION
Special Topic: Learning with Laptops
Mike Muir, Bette Manchester and Jim Moulton
Summer 2005, Volume 63
Questions
1. How do teachers in the Maine Learning Technology Initiative provide feedback effectively to
students? What effect does timely feedback have on students?
Teacher in the Initiative respond to students’ electronically submitted work. Students may also
conduct an electronic conversation about what they are learning. When teachers provide regular
feedback about the progress students are achieving, students acquire a greater sense of selfefficacy
that they can master new skills and achieve at higher levels.
2. Why does diversity with regard to motivation exist? What effect did the laptops have on the
academic performance of the student who was previously disengaged and the student who was
nearly illiterate?

Diversity in motivation is mostly due to differences in students’ environments and past
experiences. The laptops had a positive effect on both students. Technology is highly engaging
and affords students with choices regarding their interests. Technology also assists students with
poor writing skills by providing work processing capabilities.
3. Why does project learning have wide appeal for students? What type of motivation does
project learning elicit?
Project learning enables educators to address diverse learning styles, multiple intelligences, and a
variety of student interests. The type of motivation that is created through such projects is
intrinsic as students often find satisfaction in the task itself.
MODULE TWELVE: DEVELOPMENT OF MOTIVATION AND SELF-REGULATION
Unconditional Teaching
Alfie Kohn
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. Would the approval that high achieving students receive from some teachers be labeled as
extrinsic or intrinsic? What is the drawback to this type of reinforcement?
The reinforcement they receive would be extrinsic, much like grades. The drawback to this type
of motivation is that it can create a focus on the reward, teacher approval in this case, instead of
on the task, successfully learning a skill for its own sake.
2. What does the author think about time-out strategies for governing behavior in the classroom?
How can educators promote moral development and behavior?
Kohn believes that time out methods to control behavior undermine students’ moral development,
potentially alienates students from teachers, and do little to establish a supportive environment for
learning. Teachers can do the following to promote moral development and behavior:
• Clarify which behaviors are acceptable and which are not
• Help students to understand the reasons behind various standards for behaviors
• Engage students in discussions about moral issues
• Challenge students’ moral reasoning with slightly more advanced moral thinking
• Get students actively involved in community service
3. Define justice orientation and care orientation. Does the author’s stance defy what research
claims about gender and these two types of orientation?
Justice orientation focuses on individual rights in moral decision making. A care orientation
focuses on nurturance and concern for others in moral decision making. The author is a male and
appears to have a care orientation. As both justice and care orientations are frequently seen in
both males and females, the author’s stance does not defy what research states about gender and
these two types of orientation.

MODULE THIRTEEN: PEERS, SCHOOLS, AND SOCIETY
The Modern Multi-Age Classroom
Paula Carter
September 2005, Volume 63, Number 1
Questions
1. What is the zone of proximal development and how does it work in the multi-age classroom?
With regard to teacher expectations, what two strategies do the teachers in the article use that help
them keep a realistic, yet optimistic view, on what their students can accomplish?
The zone of proximal development is the range of task that one cannot perform independently but
can perform with the help and guidance of others. Older students in the multi-age classroom often
assist younger students in their zone of proximal development, providing the support they need to
accomplish tasks successfully. The teachers in this article manage to maintain high, yet realistic,
expectations for their students by understanding students’ backgrounds and home environments
and by collaborating with each other to maximize their students’ academic success.
2. What social phenomenon occurred ninety years ago and is now occurring again in the United
States? Taking this phenomenon into account, why might the relationships in the multi-age
classroom develop into friendships?
Mass immigration occurred ninety years ago with many of the same issues and trials that today’s
immigrant population experience. Students in the classroom cited in the article share several
commonalities. They are apt to develop friendships because such relationships are often founded
on the following aspects:
• Sharing the common experience of the multi-age classroom
• Addressing one another’s needs and sharing similar concerns
• Assisting each other by providing emotional support
3. How do older children in the multi-age classroom mentor for younger children? What are the
functions of peer relationships?
Older children mentor younger children in the multi-age classroom by showing them how the
classroom operates, coaching them, and providing emotional support for them. Peer relationships
are a priority for children and serve the following functions:
• Peers provide emotional support
• Peers serve as partners for practicing social skills
• Peers socialize one another
• Peers contribute to one’s sense of identity
• Peers help each other make sense of events in their lives
MODULE THIRTEEN: PEERS, SCHOOLS, AND SOCIETY
Building a MicroSociety
Sheryl Dunton
May 2006, Volume 63, Number 8

Questions
1. Define community of learners. How does the MicroSociety model capitalize on the idea of a
community of learners?
A community of learners is a classroom in which teachers and students actively and
collaboratively work to help another learn. This model capitalizes on the concept of a community
of learners as the students actually create a model community. By simulating society and how the
various components of society work together, students understand how their actions and the
actions of others affect the community as a whole.
2. Which academic discipline has been a focus for Talbot during the last several years? Why is
this focus justifiable?
The discipline that has been a focus is technology. A focus on technology is justifiable because
computer technology is changing the way society communicates, makes decisions, spends money,
and enjoys entertainment. Members of the MicroSociety must keep their businesses and
institutions up to date, and such an effort involves making sure that technology skills are current.
3. How has a lack of adequate resources lead to opportunities for the school? How does this
opportunity assist with the social development of children at Talbot?
A lack of resources at Talbot lead to partnerships with corporations, a non-profit organization,
and community members. These partnerships assist students in their social development because
students acquire skills, beliefs, and attitudes through interaction with other individuals and
institutions in their society. By having multiple partners who express their views about how
society operates, students gain a real world perspective that they might not have otherwise
attained had they been limited in their interactions to only school personnel.
MODULE THIRTEEN: PEERS, SCHOOLS, AND SOCIETY
The Battle Over Commercialized Schools
Alex Molnar and David Garcia
April 2006, Volume 63, Number 7
Questions
1. List the many reasons schools engage in commercial endeavors with marketers. How might
allowing businesses to market their wares in a school be incompatible with the purpose of
schooling?
Schools engage in commercialism for the following reasons:
• As a source of additional revenue
• As incentive measures to boost performance and attendance
• To acquire equipment such as televisions
The purpose of schooling is to nurture students by providing appropriate instruction, adequate
physical activity, good nutrition, affectionate care, clear rules, and appropriate discipline. Several
of the commercial activities may be inconsistent with good nutrition and expose children, who are
vulnerable, to marketing that manipulates them.

2. What is Channel One News and what does it claim to provide for students? How can we teach
children critical viewing skills?
Channel One News is a daily 12-minute news program designed for school age students. The
program claims to contribute to students’ civic education and its creators provide television
equipment to schools which air the program. Educators can help students become critical viewers
by helping them understand the purpose and persuasion techniques of commercials. Educators
can also assist students in becoming more aware of stereotypes and negative portrayals of various
groups featured on television shows.
3. What three suggestions do the authors make for school leaders? Why should educators involve
students in the marketing and commercialism decision-making process?
The three suggestions the authors make for school leaders who are considering commercialism in
their schools are as follows:
• Understand the relative costs and benefits of partnerships with corporate interests
• Become more discriminating and informed about the effects of schoolhouse commercialism
• Learn to say no to commercialism if it is incompatible with the long-term interest of students
Educators can involve students in the decision making process as they are stakeholders and part
of the school community. By including students, educators also encourage students to take an
active role in decisions that ultimately will affect them.