final report - tum

Conservation and Wise Use of Wetlands –
Global Programme
Project:
MAPUTALAND – Wise Use Management in Coastal Peatland
Swamp Forests in Maputaland, Mozambique / South Africa
Project No: WGP2 – 36 GPI 56
- FINAL REPORT -
MAPUTALAND – Wise Use Management in Coastal Peatland
Swamp Forests in Maputaland, Mozambique / South Africa

Abbreviations in the following text indicate responsible persons:
JS Jan Sliva PLG P-L Grundling
FE Fred Ellery CM Christoph Moning
DK Donovan Kotze RG Retief Grobler
PT
P.B. Taylor
1. INTRODUCTION (PLG, JS)..............................................................................................3
1.1 AIMS AND GOALS OF THE PROJECT, PROJECT PARTNERS AND ACTIVITIES ..........................3
1.1.1 Fulfilment degree of the project objectives and outputs...........................................4
1.1.2 Project partners.........................................................................................................4
1.2 DELIVERABLES WITHIN THE FIRST PHASE, OUTLOOK FOR THE NEXT PHASES .....................5
2. ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND FUNCTIONS OF CPSF (JS, CM, RG).................5
2.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................5
2.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS.................................................................................................8
2.2.1 Study area and physical environment........................................................................8
2.2.2 Investigation methods..............................................................................................15
2.3 RESULTS.......................................................................................................................20
2.3.1 Peat swamp forest ecology: Site characteristics – hydrology, peat stratigraphy and
quality, influence of human disturbance ..........................................................................20
2.3.2 Vegetation patterns of Peat Swamp Forest sites depending on human impact/
Regeneration pathways of Swamp Forests.......................................................................36
2.3.3 PSF plant communities: Results and discussion .....................................................40
2.3.4 Peat Swamp Forest Bird communities in pristine and disturbed sites....................55
2.3.5 Functioning of CPSF in the landscape....................................................................56
2.5 ANNEX CHAPTER 2..........................................................................................................58
3. ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF SWAMP FOREST IN THE GREATER ST
LUCIA WETLAND PARK, AND AN ASSESSMENT OF THE TOURISM
POTENTIAL OF THIS HABITAT (PT).............................................................................82
3.1 SURVEY AREAS AND VISITS ...................................................................................82
3.2 RESULTS - BIRDS........................................................................................................82
3.2.1 Birds associated with swamp forest ........................................................................82
3.2.2 Selected bird species of vegetated wetlands adjacent to swamp forest...................84
3.2.3 Recorded and [possible] bird species at Ozabeni (Robson & Horner 1996) .........85
3.2.4 Additional possible bird species..............................................................................85
3.3 RESULTS - MAMMALS ..............................................................................................86
3.4 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................86
4. DISTRIBUTION, MAPPING AND EVALUATION OF CPSF (FE, PLG) .................87
4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................87
4.2 METHODS USED FOR INVENTORY, MAPPING AND EVALUATION .......................................87
4.3 RESULTS..........................................................................................................................88
4.3.1 Geomorphological settings of interdune peatlands.................................................89
4.4 TENDENCIES/ SCENARIOS (E.G. THE FUTURE OF CPSF AREAS, PRESUMED THE DAMAGE
CONTINUES IN THE SAME EXTENT; AND THE CONSEQUENCES) ...............................................90
4.5 OUTLOOK FOR FURTHER WORK........................................................................................91
4.7 GENERATION OF A MAP OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST DISTRIBUTION IN MAPUTALAND USING
REMOTE SENSING DATA (FE) .................................................................................................91
4.7.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................91
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4.7.2 Methods used for inventory, mapping and evaluation............................................92
4.7.3 Results......................................................................................................................94
3.7.4 An assessment of trend ............................................................................................96
3.7.5 Outlook for further work .........................................................................................97
4.6 ANNEX CHAPTER 4..........................................................................................................97
4.6.1 Characterisation of individual peatlands of Maputaland .......................................97
4.6.2 Result maps............................................................................................................122
5 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND CURRENT UTILIZATION OF THE
KOSI BAY SWAMP FORESTS (DK, JN).........................................................................127
5.1 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND...................................................................................127
5.1.1 A brief history the Kosi Bay area and utilization of its swamp forests.................127
5.1.2 The socio-economic status of the Kosi Bay Area ..................................................131
5.2 CURRENT AND ALTERNATIVE FUTURE LAND-USE OPTIONS IN KOSI BAY’S PEAT SWAMP
FORESTS ..............................................................................................................................136
5.2.1 Rationale and objectives........................................................................................136
5.2.2 Methodology..........................................................................................................137
5.2.3 Results of the survey of individual plots................................................................137
5.2.4 The rapid visual appraisal of plots........................................................................142
5.3 AN EXAMINATION OF ALTERNATIVE LAND-USE OPTIONS...............................................143
5.3.1 Approach used in identifying alternatives.............................................................143
5.3.2 Tourism..................................................................................................................144
5.3.3 Enhanced productivity of upland gardens and field crops....................................145
5.3.4 Enhanced productivity of wetland margin gardens...............................................146
5.3.5 New commercial crops ..........................................................................................147
5.3.6 Cultivation and processing of Raphia palms.........................................................147
5.3.7 Crafts woven from wetland sedges ........................................................................148
5.3.8 Plantation forestry.................................................................................................149
5.3.9 Public works programmes.....................................................................................149
5.3.10 Other alternatives................................................................................................150
5.3.11 Summary of the features of potential alternatives to swamp forest cultivation ..150
5.3.12 Issues around control of land-use activities........................................................151
5.4 A FRAMEWORK TO ELUCIDATE AND RESOLVE CONFLICTING LAND USE OPTIONS FOR PEAT
............................................................................................................................................153
5.4.1 Application of the framework to the situation at Kosi Bay ...................................154
5.4.2 Recommendations for revision of the framework of Joosen and Clarke (2002)...157
5.5 ANNEX CHAPTER 5........................................................................................................158
6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BUILDING A COMMON FUTURE AND
PROMOTING WISE USE OF THE SWAMP FORESTS...............................................162
6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEGOTIATING A COMMON FUTURE ........................................162
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BUILDING AWARENESS ..........................................................162
6.3 RECOMMENDED BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES .........................................................163
6.4 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ...............................................................................165
6.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH..............................................................166
7. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................168
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1. Introduction (PLG, JS)
1.1 Aims and goals of the project, project partners and activities
A main goal of the MAPUTALAND project is first to determine the extent of the distribution of peat
swamp forests in Maputaland with a narrow link to IMPESA (Identification and Mapping of Peatlands
in Southern Africa) and second to determine the associated land use impacts. The long-term aim is to
suggest/ provide alternative land use practices that will benefit both local human populations and the
environment.
The project runs under the GPI (Global Peatland Initiative) focal area “Peatlands/ Poverty reduction”:
Integrated development (although with direct links to the focal area “Biodiversity conservation”).
It does also compliment the southern African objectives as set out by the South African Peatland
Group (cf. Sliva & Heinl 2002).
The project addresses the following GPI short-term objectives:
?? On the ground projects, especially in developing and transitional counties
?? Dissemination of IMCG/IPS global wise use guidelines
?? Promotion of the (CBD) Ecosystem Approach for Management of peatlands
?? Awareness and education activities
?? Evaluation of peatlands
?? Regional capacity building
Based on the above-mentioned GPI objectives, following aims have been developed for the
MAPUTALAND project:
1. Improvement of scientific based knowledge
1.1 Initiating and completion of inventory on Coastal Peatland Swamp Forest, using of LANDSAT
imagery, available aerial photographs, current map information and ground-base fieldwork
1.1.1 in South African part of Maputaland
1.1.2 in Mozambique: only general overview of current situation of CPSF (non exhaustive study;
limited field work)
1.2 Study on ecological diversity (floristic and faunistic diversity), main ecological values and
functions (incl. habitat quality) of CPSF
1.2.1 in selected CPSF sites in South Africa
1.3 Study on traditional use of CPSF by local human population and by large scale use by communal
horticulture, forestry and agriculture; evaluation and assessment of actual and potential threats;
evaluation of the short-term and long-term impacts of land use practices on CPSF
1.3.1 South Africa: comprehensive study
1.3.2 Mozambique: general study only
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2. Wise use based management – proposal of alternatives
2.1 Based on newest data (see 1.) development of alternative (wise) use forms of CPSF and/or of
areas of former CPSF (actually degraded or transformed peatlands), respecting the local needs and
cultural traditions.
3. Awareness improvement of and consideration in the education and training
3.1 Awareness rising by the narrow co-operation with, and the involvement of the local
community.
1.1.1 Fulfilment degree of the project objectives and outputs
1. Improvement of scientific based knowledge
1.1 Based on field survey, map and GIS-data evaluation as well as on the aerial photographs and
satellite data analysis (data purchased or provided by the department of Agriculture) the complete
map of the Coastal Peat Swamp Forests in South Africa and Mozambique in two categories
(pristine; degraded) was developed
1.2 The group University of Pretoria [UP] and Technical University Munich [TUM] has laid out two
field campaigns in May and September 2003. Detailed report on the (vegetation) ecology,
floristics and peatland ecology of the CPSF produced
1.3 Traditional use and the new horticultural practices and its impacts on the forests were evaluated
during the field campaign (cf. ii) and are combined with the findings of the group around D. Kotze
who is responsible for the socio-economical aspects (see 2).
2. Wise use based management – proposal of alternatives
The comprehensive survey (see final report) on the social and economical background of the forest
exploitations is laid out in the group around D. Kotze (Pietmaritzburg). The affiliation of Mr. Ngubane
(Tembe) helps and improves the in-sight knowledge on the socio-economical problems in relation to
the peat swamp forest use.
3. Awareness improvement of and consideration in the education and training
The aims of the project, as well as the importance of the swamp forest for the local community
because of its multilateral functions and values, was brought forward to the Tembe Authorities during
the meetings in May 2003. The local guides who support the field work were trained and educated in
this respect and they act well as multipliers of information for the locals. After termination of this
project phase, it is intended to produce a leaflet about the functions and values of the peat swamp
forests and the necessity of the wise use of this resource in Zulu language, and disseminate this
information within the Maputaland area (presumed funds will be found)
1.1.2 Project partners
Technische Universitaet Muenchen, Germany on behalf of IMCG, Lille, France
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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University of Natal, South Africa
Tembe Tribal Authority, KwaNganase, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, South Africa
National Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, South Africa
Ihlaphosi Enviro Services cc, South Africa
1.2 Deliverables within the first phase, outlook for the next phases
Deliverables:
1. South Africa: Peatland Swamp forest inventory maps (Mapped on 1:50 000 /inferred level); GIS
format and paper print in scale 1: 250 000.
2. Mozambique: Report on current status of Peatland Swamp Forest in Maputaland Mozambique
(approx. area and distribution; land use practices; conservational status; type and extent of actual
threats)
3. South Africa: Study on ecological functions and values of CPSF (MSc quality)
4. South Africa: Study on traditional and current land use practices in CPSF areas, with special
focus on corresponding short-term and long-term threats for the ecosystem (MSc quality)
5. South Africa: Study on principles (methods and tools) of alternative sustainable (wise) use of
CPSF and/or former CPSF sites (currently degraded peatlands) outside of conservational areas
with special emphasis on the inter-communicative planning procedure (incorporation of local
populations into the proposal making) (BSc quality)
2. Ecological diversity and functions of CPSF (JS, CM, RG)
2.1 Introduction
Coastal peat swamp forests (CPSF) are fresh water forested wetlands that are established on peat soils
adjacent to an ocean. These ecosystems require a high water table with periodic saturated conditions,
as a result of flooding, that creates a favourable hydrological regime for peat development. If the
hydrological regime would for some reason become too dry, due to natural events or anthropogenic
interference, the systems would no longer be an active mire but could still persist with normal
functioning as long as the peat layer remains intact.
Swamp forests in general are predominately located in the tropics and to a lesser extend in the
subtropics, but also occur in the temperate areas of North America and Europe (Wessels 1997). In
Africa there are several types of peat swamp forests. In Nigeria for example, they are characterized by
species such as Cleistopholis patens, Ficus congensis, Syzygium guineense, and Voacanga obtusa,
while many parts of West Africa and the Central basin of Congo are characterized by locally
dominating stands of the palm Raphia farinifera (Thompson & Hamilton 1983). In South-eastern
Africa Raphia farinifera is replaced by another palm Raphia australis, also forming locally
dominating stands in Mozambique and southwards to the most north-eastern corner of Maputaland,
South Africa. Mozambique is well known for a special type of swamp forest that can tolerate and
thrive in saline conditions – mangrove swamps. Mangroves are a common vegetation feature all along
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the Mozambique coast, forming large peat deposits and typically grow in estuaries where there is less
wave energy. They are able to form a continuous vegetation connection with fresh water swamp forest,
resulting in a gradient of salt-tolerant to salt-intolerant swamp forest communities (Thompson &
Hamilton 1983). In the Kosi Lake System (KLS) there are both fresh water swamp forest and
mangrove swamp forest, although they are distinct from one another and geographically separated.
Only the fresh water swamp forests are at risk from subsistence farming, as the saline conditions of the
mangrove swamp forests would be completely unfavourable for crop cultivation.
Swamps forests are highly threatened ecosystems in South Africa, being the second rarest forest type
in the whole country and only occur in isolated patches from the Mozambique border to just south of
the Msikaba river in the eastern Cape (Moll 1980; Wessels 1997). Roughly 3 986 ha of swamp forest
occur in Maputaland of which a great deal is still unclassified due to their remoteness and
inaccessibility. The swamp forests on the flat coastal plain of Maputaland form 75 % of all swamp
forest found in South Africa which make them very valuable for future conservation (Lubbe 1997). In
Maputaland the largest sections of swamp forest, comprising a total of 59 % of all South African
swamp forest are protected inside the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park (Wessels 1997). The largest
intact individual peat swamp forest in South Africa occurs adjacent to the Syhadla River, the main
source of fresh water for the KLS, with a total area of 880 ha (Wessels 1997). CPSF in South Africa
and especially those around Kosi Bay are under threat from various sources. In the past large areas of
swamp forest was cleared for sugarcane farming, forestry, slash and burn agriculture, and eradicating
of tsetse fly and mosquito habitat, but are now provided better protection through legislation and
alternative insect pest control practices. Although it is presently virtually impossible to erect new
commercial sugarcane farms and forestry plantations in swamp forest habitat, the lasting effect of
existing farming and forestry activities are still felt. The reason being that these activities, even when
they are some distance removed from swamp forest habitat, are responsible for lowering the water
table by removing large quantities of the available water from the catchment via evapotranspiration
and drainage.
The Tonga people of the Tembe Tribe have been living next to the KLS for centuries and use the
indigenous plants from the swamp forest for various purposes: For construction material, especially
the palm Raphia australis, whose leaf has an extremely long ragis that is light and strong and therefore
an excellent component for building canoes, ladders, roofs and even walls. There is presently less
stress on the palm as its use in house construction has subsided due to it being seen more and more as
a sign of poverty, it is also protected as one of the area’s endemic plant species that prohibits felling
any live specimens. Many of the indigenous swamp forest plants are also used as medicines, and food
resources, such as berries from Syzygium cordatum.
Slash and burn agriculture on peat soils of swamp forests do however posses the highest risk to CPSF
in the Kosi Lake System. The peat soils of the swamp forests provide the only suitable habitat for
cultivating crops (see section on soil) especially bananas (Musa) and also others, such as Colocasia
esculenta, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and manioc or as it is locally known umDumbula (Casava
edulis). Peat soils of swamp forests are favoured above other peat soils such as those from open
swamps dominate by stands of Typha capensis and Phragmites australis, because swamp forest peat
soils are typically sloped. These slopes were created by rivers and streams with which swamp forests
6

are always closely associated and make it possible for the peat soils to be more easily drained to allow
cultivation as opposed to the flat open wetlands. The need for more food and therefore more crop
cultivation is also continually escalating and intensifies due to the following reasons:
?? A general increase in population growth as health services and infrastructure have improved
over the last few decades.
?? Many miners have been retrenched as mines closed in Gauteng and the Free State, leading to
increase poverty and more mouths to feed.
?? Portuguese and Tonga speaking illegal immigrants continue to flock to the area, while the
local Tembe people do not treat them, especially fellow Thongas, with antagonism, but rather
feel obligated to help them, leading to yet more gardens being established.
?? HIV/Aids is also becoming a serious problem causing yet more poverty as the breadwinners
are commonly those most at risk to the disease. As the disease proliferates it creates the need
for yet more nutrient supplements to stay healthy for longer. These additional nutrient sources
can only be guaranteed from one source in this poverty stricken community: peat swamp
forests.
The main crop cultivated in gardens is bananas (Musa paradisiaca) and the reasons for this is varied,
yet perfectly logical. Musa paradisiaca is not native to Africa, but was introduced to Africa from
Southeast Asia, their cradle of origin and land of cultivation, approximately 2000 years ago and ever
since became an integral part of the food supply (Reader 1997). This is clearly reflected in the 250 kg
of bananas that a present day average African consumes annually in the tropical and subtropical parts
of the continent where it has been a very important staple food source for centuries (Reader 1997).
Bananas are an excellent energy food source, second only to cassava (Manihot esculentum) in calorie
yield and two to three times more productive than cereals. They have high concentrations of vitamin C
and potassium, but are unfortunately low in iron, calcium, and virtually contains no proteins or fat
(Reader 1997). It is therefore a very good food supplement for the Tembe people living around the
Kosi Lake System, because their diet that is already rich in fish consumption that contains the
nutrients that bananas lack. Musa paradisiaca is easy to cultivate and in return yields large quantities
of fruit that makes the crop a very good investment for any farmer and his family. A well maintained
banana garden in favourable conditions that may or may not be cultivated on peat are known to
produce good crops for thirty years or more (Reader 1997). Such ease of cultivation has allowed many
African farmers and their families to rely on bananas on plots typically smaller than one hectare. In
order for bananas to be grown throughout the whole year they require a more or less continuous
rainfall and temperatures always relatively high. Peat swamp forest habitats fit this description
perfectly, being located in a more or less longitudinal strip adjacent to the coastline that receives high
rainfall with warm temperatures throughout the year and the absence of frost during winter (see
section on climate 2.2.1 ). This allows a year round growing season for Musa paradisiaca as well as
other cultivated crops.
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2.2 Material and Methods
2.2.1 Study area and physical environment
Maputaland
Maputaland is located in the north-eastern corner of KwaZulu-Natal and is confined by the RSA-
Mozambique border to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, the Lebombo Mountains and Swaziland
to the west and the Mkuzi River and Lake St. Lucia to the south (Moll 1977). Maputaland forms part
of the Mozambique coastal plain and comprises a broad, flat to undulating, cretaceously uplifted,
sandy region about 60 km in width (Figures 1-3). Maputaland is also situated mostly within the
Coastal Bushveld/ Grassland Biome of Southern Africa (Low and Rebelo 1996). Many plant and
animal species reach their southernmost distribution limit here, which indicates that Maputaland can
be understood as the southern end of the tropics in Africa (Van Wyk 1994), although tropical
influences in the flora extend as far as Alexandria Forest between Port Elizabeth and East London
(Meadows 1985).
The boundaries of the Maputaland Centre are biogeographically clearly defined, except in the north,
where the line is arbitrary (Van Wyk 1994). Biogeographically Maputaland is to a large extend part of
the Maputaland coastal forest mosaic (WWF 2001), which also extends far into Mozambique (up to
Xai Xai in the north) while phytogeographically, it is part of the Indian Ocean Coastal Belt (Moll and
White 1978), which is both a regional transitional zone and a regional mosaic (White 1976a).
Maputaland is characterized by a high species richness (e.g. 2 500 plant species/ interspecific taxa (van
Wyk et al. 2001); 470 bird species including five endemics (Harisson et al. 1997)) and a high
proportion of endemic plant (9.2% of vascular plant species) and animal species (Moll 1980,
Stattersfield et al. 1998, WWF 2001). In addition many plant species are centred in the Maputaland
Centre of endemism (Davis et al. 1994). Therefore it forms floristically part of the Tongaland-
Pondaland Regional Mosaic (White 1983, Meadows 1985), a region which displays at least three foci
of high floristic endemism, namely the Maputaland Centre in the north (extending along the coast
between Richards Bay in the South and Xai-Xai in the North) and the Pondoland Centre and Albany
Centre to the south (van Wyk 1994, van Wyk et al. 2001). For its size, which is approximately 26 734
km², the Maputaland Centre is one of the most remarkable areas of biodiversity in the world. Not only
is the number of endemic species high, but also they are spread over virtually the entire taxonomic
spectrum. The total number of vascular plant species in the Maputaland Centre is at least 2 500, with a
minimum of 225 species or infraspecific taxa being endemic or near endemic to the centre
(MacDevette et al. 1989, Van Wyk 1994b). Of the more than 472 species of birds in the Maputaland
Centre (almost 60% of South Africa’s total), 4 species and approximately 43 subspecies are endemic
or near endemic. Other endemic or near-endemic species and infraspecific taxa include 14 species of
mammals (of more than 100 species recorded), mainly of subspecific rank, 23 species of reptiles (of
approximately 112 species), 3 species of frogs (of 45 species or subspecies) and 8 of 67 species of
freshwater fish (Van Wyk 1996). Even on a worldwide scale this diversity of rare animals and plants
concentrated in such a small area is unusual. Most of the endemic taxa appear to have evolved only
recently. Evidence for this does include the large number of infraspecific endemics and the young age
of most of the sandy coastal plain, perhaps less than one million years (WWF 2001). The boundaries
of the Maputaland centre also enclose the southern portion of the Southeast African coast Endemic
Bird Area (Stattersfield et al. 1998), which extends into Swaziland. Additionally to the endemic
8

species the vegetation of Maputaland is in general exceptionally diverse. This is also because of a
diverse mosaic, which consists of forests, woodlands, grasslands, swamps and coastal habitats. Moll
(1980) classified the vegetation of Maputaland into 15 major types, ranging from coast with coastal
grassland and dune forest through different types of bushveld, sandforest and swamps up to the forest
on the Lebombo Mountain Range.
Maputaland also contains the most extensive wetlands, which in turn host the best-developed peat
deposits in KwaZulu-Natal and in the whole of South Africa (Grundling et al. 1998). Lake St. Lucia
covers approximately 350 Km² and is the largest estuarine system in Africa. Lake Sibaya (60Km²) is
the largest freshwater lake in southern Africa. The largest perennial river in Maputaland, the Pongola,
was dammed in the 1960’s where it passes through the Lebombo Mountains (WWF 2001). In the 266
known peatlands of Maputaland, the thickness of peat ranges between

Mozambique
N
Ingwavuma
River
Ndumo GR
Ndumo
Tembe
Elephant
Park
Manguze
Kosi Bay
Lake
System
10 Km
Swaziland
Ingwavuma
Pongola River
Sileza
Forest
Reserve
Kosi Bay
Coastal Forest
Reserve
Lake Sibaya
Pongolapoort Dam
Lebombo Mountain NR
Mkuzi
Mkuzi River
Mkuzi GR
Sodwana Bay
Indian Ocean
Lake St. Lucia
Republic
Of
South
Africa
Figure 1. Map of the South African part of Maputaland: Game Reserves (GR), main water bodies and major
roads (after Lubbe 1997)
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Main study area: Kosi Bay Catchment Area
Topography and Landscape
Kosi Bay
Catchment area
N
40 Km
1-50 m 50-100 m >100 m
Figure 2. Map showing topography of Maputaland (after Bruton et al. 1983)
Maputaland is predominantly a flatly undulating, low-level coastal plain dominated by sand ridges
(Matthews 2001, Figure 2). It is known as the Zululand or Mozambique Coastal Plain (Hobbay 1979,
Moll 1980). The Lebombo Range in the west rises up to some 600 m and forms at the same time the
western boundary of Maputaland. The coast is topographically dominated by the north-south tending
coastal dune ridge. It rises up to an elevation of 183 m above sea level and extends from Mtunzini
northward well into Mozambique. Some of the largest coastal cordons in the world can be found here
(Hobday 1979). The land immediately behind the coastal dune ridge is flat and also characterized by
flatly undulating dunes. In between the dunes PSF can be found in the interdunal depressions. In this
zone also the big lake systems like the Kosi Lakes can be found.
Geology
The formation of the modern landscape started after the resistant volcanic rhyolite lavas that form the
Lebombo Range and underline the coastal plain where steeply tilted eastwards during the break up of
Gondwanaland 140 million years ago. At the newly formed coastline, on the seaward sloping rhyolite
base, Cretaceous marine sedimentary rock and conglomerates were laid down to form the present day
level coastal plain (Maud 1980). From the end of the Cretaceous, through the Tertiary and Quaternary,
the coastal plain was repeatedly exposed and submerged as the southern African continental margin
flexed and worldwide sea levels rose and fell. Recurring marine transgressions and regressions
11

esulted in cycles of sedimentation and erosion, with marine deposits being laid down, then eroded and
redistributed by wind and water. The result has been the formation of a series north-south aligned dune
ridges parallel to the present day coastline. The largest part of these dunes are of Pleistocene
(beginning: 1.6 million years B.P.) to recent age, most of them having formed over the past 25 000
years and thus consist of superimposed sediment strata of different ages (Maud 1980). Many of the
large dunes exceed 160 m in height, the highest being the Mapelane dune (183 m) near to the village
of St. Lucia (Goodman 1990). Thus most of the Maputaland coastal plain is covered with recent,
infertile, wind distributed sands (Figure 3).
SEA
LEVEL
WEST
Lebombo
Range
Terrace
Gravels
LEBOMBO
RHYOLITE
Red
Sands
Tertiary
Sediments
Pongola
River
Alluvium
Tertiary
Sediments
Grey Sand
Port Dunford Beds
Red Sands
CRETACEOUS
SEDIMENTS
Coastal Dune
Sand
Grey Sand
EAST
Coastal
Sandy
Limestone
Indian
Ocean
Figure 3. Schematic geological cross-section of Maputaland (not to scale) (after Bruton et al. 1980)
Because of the lack of any major mineral wealth, the development options for Maputaland are largely
limited to the rational and sustainable utilization of its renewable natural resources (mainly agricultural
output and eco-tourism industry) (Watkeys et al. 1993). Caused by the soil characteristics of
Maputaland (see paragraph below) the agricultural land is mainly restricted to peat-soils, which makes
their sustainable use especially essential for the whole of the Maputaland region.
Soil
The soil of Maputaland does mainly consist of Arenosols and Alluvials (von Harmse in Werger 1978).
It can be characterized as very sandy, leached and low in nutrients, which gives it a low agricultural
potential. The dunes of the coastal areas are mainly consisting of pure quartz sand with local
concentrations of heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, zircon and magnetite (Hobday 1979). Recent
sands are whitish, whereas older sands are reddish to brownish with higher clay content. On older
dunes with closed woody vegetation, the soils are dark greyish-brown sand with relatively high humus
content (Weisser and Cooper 1993). Typical features for the region are impermeable horizons within
the soil profile, which is due to leaching as a result of the high rainfall (Watkeys et al. 1993). In the
interdunal valleys a higher water table is found and this leads to soil being waterlogged, at least
periodically. This results in bleached, grey soil profiles (Matthews 2001) and if the soil is waterlogged
permanently peatlands can develop. The high water table of interdunal depressions is due to the
impermeable Pleistocene Port Dunford Beds (Figure 3; Maud 1980). Swamp Forests do only occur in
these depressions. Due to interactions between vegetation and hydrology peat soils could develop
here. As can be seen from the general soil situation of Maputaland (see above) the peat soils are the
12

only reasonably fertile soils in the area, which makes them highly favourable for agricultural purposes.
This explains the high land use pressure on the Swamp Forests.
Climate
Maputaland lies within a transitional zone between the tropics to the north and sub-tropical coastal
conditions to the south (Matthews 2001). In general the climate can be described as warm to hot in
summer (mean daily January maximum is 28°C) and mild to warm in the winter (22°C) as well as
humid and subtropical (Meadows 1985). The Algulhas current exerts a significant warming influence.
The mean annual temperature exceeds 21°C. Although the annual precipitation is high compared to
other South African areas, the climate diagram for Kosi Bay illustrates, that soil moisture deficit is a
problem during the winter months (Figure 4). This soil moisture deficit is increased by the sandy soils
that dominate in the Kosi Bay area (see paragraph “soil” above). Only the peat soils are moist all year
round, which additionally increases the land use pressure on the peatlands.
Figure 4. Average temperature and rainfall for Kosi Bay (Figure according to Larcher 1983 in Lubbe
1997)
The mean annual precipitation values vary from over 1000 mm at the coast to less than 600 mm short
distance inland, creating a sharp rainfall gradient between the coast and further inland and causing a
dry subtropical climate at the coast (Figure 5). 60% of the rain is falling in the summer months
between October and April, which means that there is a pronounced dry season in winter (van Wyk et
al. 2001). The subtropical climate can be regarded as providing an almost all year round growing
season (Meadows 1985). The southern boundary of the Maputaland Centre of Endemism seems to
13

follow the 18°C mean midwinter isotherm quite closely and marks a zone where the fauna and (to a
lesser extent) the flora changes from predominantly tropical to predominantly temperate (Poynton
1962 in van Wyk et al 2001).
Figure 5. Maputaland: mean annual rainfall (after Bruton et al. 1980)
Hydrology
Water table and ground water movements play an important role in relation to vegetation patterns in
most parts of Maputaland, including the Kosi Bay area, as the area is covered by deep sand. The water
table can be situated well below the surface as surveys indicated this further west (Matthews 2001).
There is no data for the Kosi Bay area available, but plenty of permanent interdunal wetlands indicate
a rather high water table in general. After rains quick fluctuations in local water levels can be
experienced for a period. Kruger (1986) measured for the Sileza Nature Reserve, which shows similar
soils as the Kosi Bay area, that vertical seepage rates are in the order of 0.1m/day. Water movements
through the sands are at an average transmissivity of 20m²/day and co-efficient of storativity of 1*10³.
Hattingh (1998 in Matthews 2001) states that permeabilities are highly variable, because the
Pleistocene sediments underlying the cover sands show extreme east-west lateral variability. In
general, the swamps and marshes are surface expressions of the groundwater table, with perched
aquifers within the dunes draining to the interdune valley floors (Grundling et al. 1998).
Kosi Lake System [KLS]
The KLS is situated in the north-eastern corner of Maputaland. It is a wetland of international
importance (RAMSAR Site: 1ZA011). Only the Lake System covers an area of 10 982 ha. The total
14

catchment has been estimated to be 500 km² (Hughes et al. 1992). It is the best-preserved large estuary
system in KwaZulu Natal. The KLS is relatively isolated, which is over 100 km north or south to any
other major estuarine system. It is an estuary-linked lake system composed of four interconnected, and
roughly circular lakes, which open to the Indian Ocean via a shallow estuary near the northern end
(Kosi Bay mouth). The lakes are separated from the ocean by a strip of forest-covered sand dunes, 600
to 2 000 m in width (Lubbe 1997). As a result of their mode of origin, the KLS presently lie on
Quaternary, or re-worked Tertiary marine sands (see paragraphs on geology and soil above). The
original beds of the KLS penetrate only as deeply as underlying Tertiary sediments, and do not reach
the Cretaceous deposits, nor the deeper underlying Stormberg-Lebombo rhyolite bedrock (see
paragraph on geology above). Based on the nature of the soils, on which they lie, the KLS is naturally
infertile, but have been variously enriched by fluvial deposits (Hart in Cowan 1995). This is why the
rivers that disembogue into the KLS have an inherent importance concerning the nutrient and
herbicide/ biocide input into the KLS. These rivers in turn are strongly influenced and lined by Swamp
Forests that grow along the river margins. PSF function as a filter for nutrients and biocides/
herbicides although the latter are only used to a small extent by local subsistence farmers. That is why
influences on PSF will also have influences on the KLS. Four coastal streams of which the Syhadla
River and Tswamanzi River are the biggest feed the KLS. The Syhadla River, which is approximately
30 km long and enters Lake Amanzimnyama in the south drains some 13 000 ha of swampy land. The
Tswamanzi River, which is approximately 15 km long, enters Lake Nhlange on its western shore. The
system was once the estuary of a much larger river, almost certainly the Ingwavuma (Hughes et al.
1992). The Syhadla River is very low in nutrients and has got a dark colour caused by fragmented and
decomposed plant material from the adjacent forests and swamps. The salinity of the lakes ranges
from salinity close to seawater in the tidal basin (Kosi mouth area) to freshwater in Lake
Amanzimnyama. The lake level seems to be rather stable with recordings varying between 1.0 and 1.7
m. A rise in water level can be detected in or after months with a high rainfall (Lubbe 1997).
Principal habitats include PSF, Phragmites beds, mangrove forest (including all 6 mangrove species of
southern Africa), coastal grassland, open woodland and palm communities like the endemic Raphia
palm forests. Numerous sandy mud banks, emergent at low tide, occur in the lower part of the system.
2.2.2 Investigation methods
Selection of investigated sites
In May and September 2003 a total of 41 days was spend in the field. During this period 16 sites were
visited (Figure 6). Most of them are belonging to the Kosi Bay System. Sites were identified in
advance by using remote sensing data delivered by the Department of Agriculture in Pretoria and by
local knowledge of the guides, Scotty Kyle (Kosi Bay Nature Reserve) and P.L. Grundling (Working
for Water), whom all contributed their extensive knowledge very beneficially to the project. The
Swamp Forests showed to be distributed over the whole area, mainly along permanent water courses.
Visited sites are shown on Figure 6. We concentrated our work on the Kosi Bay System for the
following reasons:
* Logistically it showed to be not effective to visit adjacent systems such as Lake Sibaya or Pongola
Floodplain in an extensive scale while using Kosi Bay Nature Reserve as a base.
* The Swamp Forests at the Kosi Bay area are very extensive and offer enough sites for sampling
regarding the total period planned to be spend in the field.
15

* Hydrologically it makes sense to concentrate on one catchment area in order to minimize variations
in the samples in terms of precipitation and other hydrological factors.
Working with the aid of GPS (GPS 12) and detailed maps (topographical maps South Africa 1:50 000
sheets) showed to be essential. In this context also the guides were an indispensable help because of
their detailed local knowledge. It was often necessary to contact the farming people at the sites, in
order to ask them for permit to work in their gardens and to inform them about our project as well as
asking them about their gardening practices. Again our guides helped with translation and to calm
people’s fears.
In order to describe the ecosystem of the PSF in a comprehensive way, six transects were cut into the
forest. They had a length between 80 and 200 m. Along these transects studies on vegetation, peat
stratigraphy and hydrology were done in a standardized way. Peat corings and vegetation plots were
carried out in regular intervals. Perforated plastic pipes were put into the ground every 10 to 20 m
along the transects (see detailed description below). Also the nivellement was taken with the aid of a
theodolite.
16

Figure 6. Map of the visited sites; basic maps taken from topographical map 2632 Mkuze 1:250 000
sheet and Rice Project map 1:100 000. The dark patches are indicating shallow flat-floored water
courses and depressions with permanently wet conditions. For details concerning the sites see Table
6 in the appendix of this section.
17

Peat stratigraphy, hydrology and nivellement (transects)
Peat coring has been done with the aid of a Russian Peat Sampler (Table 11 in the annex of this
section) along all six transects. This device allows the collection of samples from top to the bottom of
the peat bed. The accuracy with which a sample can be pinpointed in the profile is of the order of a
decimetre. Each core increment was inspected in the field and sub-sampled. Samples were described
in the field according to colour, moisture content (qualitative), fibre length and compared with the tenpoint
von Post humification scale (see Table 5 in the appendix). The Figures of the cross sections in
section 2.3.1 are showing the results.
Hydrological measurements have been made at all six transects. Perforated plastic pipes where put at
regular intervals into the ground and after 24 hours measuring values where taken from the water in
the pipes. These included water depth, pH, conductivity and temperature. The values were taken with
the aid of a conducting meter, a pH meter and a folding rule. The results of the hydrological studies are
also shown in the section 2.3.1 and in Table 4 in the annex.
The nivellement was taken with the aid of a theodolite, a levelling board and a 50 m-measuring tape.
Nivellement results are shown in the peat profile graphs in the section 2.3.1 and in Table 3 in the
appendix.
Vegetation survey
Peat Swamp Forest sites were sampled in 10x10 m plots in areas with relatively homogenous
vegetation. Inside each plot all the represented plant species were recorded and assigned the
appropriate Braun-Blanquet cover-abundance value (Werger 1974). During the first field campaign
(May 2003) plots were randomly placed in different Swamp Forest habitats while in the second field
campaign (September 2003) they were placed at regular intervals on transect lines bisecting a specific
Swamp Forests. The first was done to obtain a general impression of the area and identify potentially
valuable sites for further investigation, which formed part of the September excursion that included
more detail habitat data measurements, such as pH, electro-conductivity of peat water, and water
depth.
The vegetation was surveyed on a total of 65 plots. At each site date, site name and abbreviation,
location/ coordinates and categories of biotic effects were noted on plot sheets. Plot characteristics
such as fire disturbance, hydrology, pH, conductivity, presence of drain ditches, peat depth (in some
cases peat profiles) and cover of trees, shrubs, herbs and litter were noted. Subsequently the species
and their cover regarding the different layers were also recorded. The vegetation in each plot was
separately assessed in four different layers: tree (T), shrub (S), herb (H), and liana (L) layer. The
height of each layers, when present, was decided based upon the physiognomy of each plot. If the
same species occurred in every layer it would be recorded in each of the layers. Data on the habitat
were also noted and included a subjective categorical classification of the hydrology of the peat soil
surface, as either: flooded, wet, moist, or dry. The presence of drain ditches associated with gardening
activity presence was noted, and peat depth as determined with a standard clay auger.
Different PSF sites were in different land use stages and each one was consequently classified as
belonging to one of the following:
?? Pristine PSF
?? Recently disturbed PSF
18

?? Long-time recovering PSF
?? Active gardening in PSF
Most of the time the specific category was apparent, but in some cases, especially the old disturbed
recovering PSF, information was gathered from local people that have been farming in the area for
some time or from aerial photographs. It was however essential that each recorded site had to be a PSF
sometime in the past irrespective of how it looked at the time of investigation. An additional
requirement for each sampled site was that it still had to contain a distinguishable peat layer,
irrespective of its depth, to ensure that it was still a PSF or at least had the potential to become one
again in the future. Additional general notes on the nature of any visual disturbances were also
recorded and included remarks on cutting and clearing, fire, and active gardening. More than one type
of disturbance category (see above) was possible in a single site.
Knowing the species was a key factor. We compiled a herbarium of the “difficult” species. Fortunately
we were allowed to make use of the excelle nt field herbarium at near by Tembe Elephant Park. We are
also very appreciated to Wayne Mathews with his extensive knowledge about the species of the region
who helped us a full day with our herbarium species. For the confirmation of the determination of the
species we made use of the huge specimens collection at the National Botanical Institute in Pretoria
(NBI).
Ornithological survey
Ornithological studies were done parallel to the vegetation studies. Data was gained from plots that
were at the same sites as the vegetation studies. This is to compare ornithological with vegetation data.
A plot had to be homogenous in structure as birds of other habitat types should not be included. Four
structure types were used:
?? Pristine PSF
?? Long-time recovering PSF
?? Disturbed PSF along the margin, central part natural
?? PSF totally transformed to gardens
In the plots point counts were used. 22 plot samples were taken. Individuals were counted within a
radius of 70 m and within a time interval of 15 minutes. The time chosen compromised between the
need to ensure all the birds within the plot were recorded and to avoid re-recording the same individual
(Bibby et al. 1992). At least five minutes recovery time was allowed before recording. Samples were
only taken in the time between sunrise and 11:00 hr. The weather had to be more or less sunny and not
too overcast or windy as bird activity drops down under such conditions. Because it was difficult to
see birds on the point counts, particularly in dense vegetation, I relied on calls for many records. Bird
calls and songs were already known from previous experience, learned from tapes (Gibbon 1995) or
learned in situ. For the observations a pair of Leica 10x42 BA binoculars were used. Studies were
done in May and September, which is the southern hemisphere winter. This resulted in low song
activities and few western Palaearctic or intra-African migrants being present.
19

Statistical analysing methods
The data produced were manipulated to create two types of detrended correspondence analysis
(DECORANA/ DCA) ordinations (Hill and Gauch 1980) by applying PcOrd computer software (Ver.
4.27). The first DCA ordination included all the vegetation data and environmental data of all the
reléves that had species that occurred twice and more in the entire survey and possessed a total cover
abundance value of 0.5% and greater in all the reléves. All cultivated crops were excluded from the
ordination, because they were planted and cared for by man and would therefore not result in an
objective interpretation of the vegetation ecology of PSF. The second DCA ordination included all the
vegetation and environmental data of all the pristine and long-time recovering plots to generate an
interpretation of pristine PSF and long-time recovering PSF, in order to observe any difference
between the two and determine the main environmental factors that shape and maintain their
ecological functioning. The environmental data used in both ordinations excluded the more detailed
environmental data on pH, water depth, conductivity and peat stratification, because not all the
included reléves had data of this quality available.
By applying Cluster Analysis, performed in PcOrd with the Relative Euclidean as distance measure
and Ward’s Method as group linkage, resulted in two sets of reléve divisions at group membership
levels of 9 and 5 respectively for the same vegetation data sets used in the first and second DCA
ordination. The results of this classification procedure of both data sets were combined with an
Indicator Species Analysis, also in PcOrd, and Braun-Blanquet classification techniques done in
Microsoft’s Excel program to identify vegetation communities characterized by species that have the
highest Indicator Species values and are statistically significant at a p-value of 0.05 and less. The
community numbering from the Cluster Analysis is non-sequential and has been left in this way in the
discussion in order to make referencing back to the classification tables and dendograms logical.
For the statistical tests the U-test of Mann-Whitney was used. This test calculates an additional twosided
probability.
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Peat swamp forest ecology: Site characteristics – hydrology, peat stratigraphy and quality,
influence of human disturbance
In this chapter, all six investigated transects are analysed regarding to stratigraphy, hydrology and
human impacts. This is to show how these factors are related to the environmental functions of Swamp
Forests.
The peat profile graphics in this chapter are showing the peat quality, which is the humification degree
of the peat. In order to arrange the graphics readable, the von Post humification degrees were
combined to four groups, which are H2 to H3, H4 to H5, H6 to H7 and H7 to H10 (see also von Post
scale in the appendix (Table 5)). Other stratigraphical categories that can be found in the graphics are
sand that contains a high portion of organic material, pure sand, which is the main surface ground
material in the whole Kosi Bay area (see chapter 2.2) and water with a low portion of peat, which is a
result of the terrestrialization process of former open water bodies. Additional graphics are showing
20

the results of the water table measurements. In these, also peat layers that contain wood remnants are
indicated. But peat that does not contain wood remnants is not necessarily not Swamp Forest peat as
the wood remnants might have been decomposed in layers of high humification degrees or they where
not caught by the peat corer that only takes a sample of 5 cm in diameter. However if there is wood in
the peat, it indicates that Swamp Forest covered the site at the time when the particular peat developed.
For the location of the transects see Figure 6 and Table 6 in the appendix of this section.
Cele Transect
The peat body of the Cele transect is divided into two parts. The part close to the river is up to 2.10 m
deep (Figure 7). This sharp depression is most likely caused by the stream. At the southern margin (in
Figure 7 on the left side) of the more extensive part opposite of the river some small scale gardening
activities could be found. The peat in this part is obviously influenced by the ploughing activity. It is
already very decomposed (indicated with 1 in Figure 7). The local farmer stated that his family was
ploughing at this plot for more than 20 years already. The peat of the central, southern part is still well
preserved as can be seen by the low humification degree close to the surface (indicated with 2 in
Figure 7). The vegetation in this part indicates disturbance in the past but the forest recovered
eventually to a state close to natural conditions (see also chapter 2.3.2 and 2.3.3), which prevents
further peat decomposition in the combination with a high ground water level (see Figure 8). The
aerial photographs show that the area has been cleared before 1942 (Figure 9). The local farmer told us
that they did not manage to plough the whole area after clearing it, as they were not able to drain the
area adequately at that time. This also explains the low humification degree of the central southern part
(indicated with 2 in Figure 7) despite the clearing. The central part of the transect shows a low, quiet
decomposed peat layer (indicated with 3 in Figure 7). The peat close to the river (indicated with 4 in
Figure 7) is obviously influenced by the river, as highly decomposed layers (H8 to H10) alternate with
less decomposed layers (H4 to H5). Wood remnants could be found throughout the profile (see Figure
8), which indicates that this site has been Swamp Forest for a long time already.
21

Figure 7. Stratigraphy Cele transect
22

Figure 8. Hydrology and location of identifiable wood remnants in peat layers in Cele transect
23

1942 1959 2002
Figure 9. Aerial photographs Cele; The location of the transect is indicated by a black line
3
24

Matitimani Transect
The Matitimani peat profile is characterized by up to three metre deep, generally little decomposed
peat (H1 to H3). In the centre of the transect a water body containing loose peat can be found close to
the surface (Figure 10). It can be construed as a result of the terrestrialization processes. Identifiable
wood remnants could only be found in the western part of the profile (Figure 11 right side). The site is
generally wet and the ground water level exceeds in many parts the surface level (Figure 11).
Hydrologically the site is determined by flowing groundwater, which is entering the site from the
upper part of the valley. This explains, why the peat at the transect site is in general so little
decomposed although the site has been cleared at least twice in the past. This can be seen from the
series of aerial photographs in Figure 12. Also the vegetation indicates disturbance which can be seen
especially in the very wet central part of the transect. Here the trees could not build up a closed canopy
after more than 10 years. The vegetation here belongs to the typical vegetation type that can be found
at wet, long-time recovering sites (see sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2). The aerial photographs of Figure 12
are also reflecting the establishment of the Nature Reserve in 1987: While the transect area has been
cleared by 1991, the Swamp Forest could recover to a state close to natural conditions until 2002 as
this part became a part of the Nature Reserve. At the same time between 1991 and 2002 the part
outside the reserve (northern part of the valley) has been cleared until 2002. But even today these parts
are very wet as there is a stream that is flowing through the peat body (pers obs. September 2003).
Thus the site is hydrologically independent from the on-site conditions, which is also reflected by the
name of the valley (Matitimani = cold water).
Figure 10: Stratigraphy Matitimani Transect
25

Figure 11. Hydrology and location of identifiable wood remnants in peat layers in Matitimani transect
Photo 1. Most of the Swamp Forest in the Matitimani valley has been cleared during the last 10 years
26

1942 1959 1991 2002
Figure 12. Aerial photographs Matitimani; The location of the transect is indicated by a black line
27

Nkanini Transect
The Nkanini profile has got the deepest peats of all investigated transects (nearly 4 m in the centre).
Concerning the peat quality, rather decomposed peats dominate it. Furthermore the inhomogeneous
layering does indicate changing hydrological conditions during the peat building process (Figure 14).
Although the surface level shows a difference in elevation of nearly 3 m, the surface is wet all along
the transect (Figure 15). Water table fluctuations showed to be low on a short time scale (two weeks);
the average fluctuation being 0,02 m along the transect and 0,34 m at the margin (20 m from inside the
peatland to the peatland margin). This indicates inflowing water from the bordering slopes, as this
hydrological pattern can not be caused by the lower situated stream, that can be found in the northeastern
(left side in Figure 14) part of the transect. Wood remnants could be found extensively in the
whole transect, which is a sign for this site being an old Swamp Forest site (Figure 15). Albeit there
could be found evidence of fire in the past (charcoal at a peat depth of 3 m), this Swamp Forest site
has been intact until the connecting road between the town of Manguze and the border of Mozambique
has been built (see Figure 13). This example points up how the establishment of roads sets Swamp
Forest sites into a position where they are accessible for exploitation. Today the whole site is cleared
and heavily disturbed.
1942 1959
1991 2002
Figure 13. Aerial photographs Nkanini; The location of the transect is indicated by a black line
3
28

Figure 14. Stratigraphy Nkanini transect
29

Figure 15. Hydrology and location of identifiable wood remnants in peat layers in Nkanini transect
30

Mvelabus ha Transect
This transect is characterized by a very shallow and decomposed peat (H8 to H10; Figure 16). As the site has been part of the rice project, it has been partly
cleared during the 1940’s. Ploughing stopped in 1957 (local farmer pers. comm. and Figure 18). During this period and since then the peat decomposed very
much and it can also be assumed, that the peat layer lost in depth. The gardening sites can still be seen along the transect and in many places the peat has been
mixed up with sand from beneath or even with stony material from outside the area. This has also most likely accelerated the peat decomposition. As a result, the
site is rather dry (Figure 17) with a water table lying averagely 0.2 m below the surface. This means, that much of the peat remains under aerobic conditions,
which will lead to a rapid peat loss in the future. The vegetation recovered to a dry type of long-time recovering Swamp Forest (2.3.2). Characterising species
include Halleria lucida and Peddiea africana. This type of Swamp Forest is rather different from pristine Swamp Forests.
Figure 16. Stratigraphy Mvelabusha Transect
31

Figure 17. Hydrology Mvelabusha transect
1942 1962 1991 2002
Figure 18. Aerial photographs Mvelabusha; The location of the transect is indicated by a black line
32

Syadla Transect
Although this site is a gardening site, the rather deep peats (nearly 3 m) of the Syadla transect are only
little decomposed (Figure 19). The reasons for this are that gardening has only taken place since less
than four years (Mandle pers. comm. and aerial photographs: Figure 21) and that the local farmer is
planting Colocasia esculenta, which favours wet conditions. As it can be seen from Figure 20, the
water table is generally close to the surface. Only at the central part the surface is drier due drain
ditches that cause a low water table (Figure 20). The peat profile shows a gliding scale from less
decomposed peat (H4 to H5) close to the surface down to very decomposed peat (H8 to H9) close to
the bottom of the peatland. There is no irregular layering, except close to the stream, which might be
caused by the fluctuating water table of the stream that might periodically have a draining function
(Figure 19). The general stratigraphical pattern indicates a long and stable peat building process. This
thesis is also supported by wood remnants that could be found extensively in the whole profile, which
also means that this is an old PSF site (Figure 20).
Figure 19. Stratigraphy Syadla transect
Figure 20. Hydrology and location of identifiable wood remnants in peat layers in Syadla transect
33

1942 1959
1991 2002
Figure 21. Aerial photographs Syadla; The location of the transect is indicated by a black line
Tswamanzi Transect
The peat of this transect shows a very inhomogeneous layering. This seems to be caused by the stream
that meanders through the relatively narrow valley. Sand layers are alternating with little or very
decomposed peat layers (Figure 22). An interesting feature of this transect are the terrestrialized
backwaters (Figure 23, photo 2). A thick floating carpet of fine Ficus trichopoda roots covers them.
This species seems to play an important role for the terrestrialization process in Swamp Forests. There
has been nearly no vegetation found on these carpets. If there was more light available, it would be
more likely that other species like Pycreus mundii or Eriochloa meyerana would have built up floating
mats.
Wood remnants could be found throughout the peat of the transect, which means that this is an old
Swamp Forest site (Figure 23). The series of aerial photographs (Figure xxx) is showing that this site
has not been cleared at least for more than 70 years. The vegetation is distinct for pristine wet Swamp
Forests. Typical species include tall Ficus trichopoda trees, Dalbergia armata and Bersama lucens
(see also section 2.3.3).
34

Figure 22. Stratigraphy Tswamanzi transect
Figure 23. Scheme of a terrestrialized backwater at Tswamanzi transect
Photo 2. Terrestrialized backwater at Tswamanzi transect (Dracaena mannii in the foreground)
35

Figure 24. Hydrology and location of identifiable wood remnants in peat layers in Tswamanzi transect
1942 1959
1991 2002
Figure 25. Aerial photographs Tswamanzi; The location of the transect is indicated by a black line
2.3.2 Vegetation patterns of Peat Swamp Forest sites depending on human impact/ Regeneration
pathways of Swamp Forests
Pristine PSF differs clearly from impacted sites that are marked by broad changes in the vegetation.
These changes are concerning mainly the forest structure and the species composition. Figures 26 and
27 indicate the main features of the structural changes. Pristine Swamp Forest is characterized by
significantly higher tree and not significantly higher litter cover values (63.1% (p 1.86e -6 ) and 81.3%
respectively) and relatively low shrub and significantly lower herb cover values (21.5% and 59.3% (p
0.015) respectively) than the disturbed PSF categories (Figure 26). The portion of shrubs (p 3.66e -4 ),
36

trees (p 0.002) and especially liana (p 4.88e -4 ) is significantly higher compared to the other categories
(Figure 27). Due to shady and wet conditions in the herb layer in pristine forests, the relative portion
of herb species is significantly lower (p 2.38e -6 ) (Figure 27). Also nearly no weeds can be found in this
forest type. Still the large-scale diversity is high (67 species found in all pristine Swamp Forest plots)
although the average number of species per plot is low (19.9 species) (Table 1 group 6).
The gardening sites are distinguished from all other disturbance categories by low average vegetation
and litter cover values, although compared to the other categories the herb (p 4.1e -4 ) and shrub layer
cover values (p 5.4e -4 ) are significantly higher due to a higher supply of light, averagely dryer
conditions and less interspecific competition due to disturbance. The herb layer is extremely rich in
species, which also contributes to the significantly higher total number of species in gardening sites (p
3.38e -4 ; 83 species: group 3 in Table 1; Figure 27). Most of the weed species that occurred in the plots
could be found in this disturbance category. Gardening sites showed also to be the most diverse sites
on a small scale: the average number of species per plot is 27, which is the highest of all groups in
Table 1. In contrast to that, the number of shrub species is significantly lower (p 0.009) and there are
nearly no lianas (Figure 27). These only come back in long-time recovering sites where there is a
reasonable tree cover again (Figure 26 and Figure 27). The herb layer becomes less diverse from
gardening to pristine sites, while the portion of tree species increases along this gradient (Figure 26
and Figure 27).
Recently disturbed sites differ in the average number of species per plot. Wet plots have an average
number of 13,6 species while drier sites have an average number of 25,3 species per plot (Table 1
groups 7 and 5). This is because wet sites are characterized by more difficult conditions to grow at and
species that are adapted to wet conditions like Thelypteris interrupta, Typha capensis and Ludwigia
octovalvis can out compete other species and dominate much of the plots. The herb cover in the wet
sites is therefore very high and it is difficult for tree species to establish on such sites. This might be
the reason why very wet long-time recovering Swamp Forests still show a low open canopy layer as
could be observed at Matitimani transect and at Kusifungwe site (Table 6 in the appendix).
Compared to pristine Swamp Forest, the average tree layer height of long-time recovering Swamp
Forest is significantly lower (p 0.001; pristine: 14,3 m (n=15; standard deviation 2,77)/ long-time
recovering: 10,4 m (n=22; standard deviation 3,47)) and compared to pristine and recently disturbed
Swamp Forest, long-time recovering Swamp Forest is characterized by a significantly higher cover of
shrubs (p 0.009) (Figure 26), although the number of shrub species is not significantly higher (p 0.841)
than in pristine Swamp Forest (Figure 26). This is because in long-time recovering sites the Swamp
Forest trees are still growing, having more or less the same age (period since disturbance) and the
limiting factor of the competition for light with trees in the canopy layer is not as high as in pristine
sites. The species composition of Swamp Forest of this disturbance category is variable.
37

100,0
90,0
80,0
70,0
60,0
50,0
40,0
30,0
tree layer
shrub layer
herb layer
litter
20,0
10,0
0,0
pristine old recovering recently disturbed gardens
Figure 26. Average cover values (%) of vegetation layers in every disturbance category
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
% liana
% trees
% shrubs
% herbs
0%
pristine old recovering recently
disturbed
gardens
Figure 27. Relative composition of species assigned to structural vegetation types regarding the
disturbance categories
Principally there are two types of long-time recovering Swamp Forests. On the one hand there is a dry
type in which the peat is decomposed probably due to gardening techniques even mixed with nonorganic
soil as well as the water table is well below the surface (like at Mvelabusha transect; see also
previous chapter). This forest (group 12, Table 1) is characterized by species like Peddiea africana
(shrub layer), Rauvolfia caffra (tree layer), Halleria lucida (shrub layer) and Oplismenus hirtellus.
Contrariwise there is the more wet type of old disturbed/ recovering Swamp Forest. It is characterized
by species like Nephrolepis biserrata, Scleria angusta or Voacanga thouarsii (tree layer). These
species can also be found in pristine Swamp Forests at places where there has been some natural
disturbance for example due to Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), along streams or at canopy gaps.
The tree species composition of old disturbed/ recovering sites does also differ from pristine sites. In
old disturbed sites Voacanga thouarsii, Rauvolfia caffra, Keetia gueinzii or Halleria lucida can be
38

found commonly but not so much in pristine sites. These species have a pioneer character and over the
time they retreat in favour of typical pristine Swamp Forest species like Ficus trichopoda.
Eventually it has to be noted that long-time recovering Swamp Forest differs clearly from pristine
Swamp Forest even if the disturbance was 60 years ago (like at Mvelabusha or Cele transect).
Table 1. Species number indexes for the systematic groups (see also section 2.3.3)
Group Nr. 1 5 7 3 2 12 4 6 13
Total number of species 51 57 66 83 66 44 17 67 69
Average number of species per plot 22.0 25.3 13.6 27.0 20.2 18.3 9.3 19.9 24.3
Standard deviation 5.5 6.7 4.2 5.5 4.1 4.5 2.9 5.9 7.3
Number of plots 5 4 7 8 13 7 3 11 7
The groups of this table can be explained as follows (see also chapter 2.3.3):
- 1: wet open disturbed sites with upcoming Swamp Forest trees (with Voacanga thouarsii, Syzygium
cordatum (both shrub layer), Cyperus prolifera, Cyperus pectinatus, Lygodium microphyllum (shrub
layer), Panicum parvifolium and Dissotis canescens as indicator species* (p

2.3.3 PSF plant communities: Results and discussion
An ordination and classification of Peat Swamp Forest containing all the species except
cultivated crops, that are present two times and more in all reléves, and have an accumulated
cover abundance value of greater than 0.5 % per reléve
The first DCA ordination (Figures 29 and 30) was performed on the vegetation data of all the species
except the cultivated crops, that are present two times and more in total in all reléves, and have an
accumulated cover abundance value of greater than 0.5 % per plot. The resultant patterns reveal the
gradients of similarity between the different reléves and species expressed on different axis. This
gradient pattern is solely generated based upon every species’ level of abundance, expressed in
percentage (Excel table 1), from each individual reléve. In this first ordination, only axis 1 meets the
statistical requirements to enable the present species and reléves to be correlated reliably, having an
eigenvalue of higher than the minimum 0.5 (0.55) and having a length of gradient longer than the
required value of 2 (3.91).
In Figures 29 and 30 the predominant environmental influences are clearly displayed as red vector
lines, combined with the distribution of reléves. The environmental factors expressed should ideally
have an r-value of greater than 0.5 in the positive or negative axis direction according to Pearson and
Kendall’s method for ordination axes correlation. Axis 1 is strongly correlated with the tree cover (rvalue
= -0.769) as a structural component to the left and recent disturbance and peat draining to the
right (r-values = 0.535 and 0.456 respectively). The presence of drain ditches and evidence of recent
disturbances that can include fire, clearing and cutting, are all associated with active gardening or
preparation for it. A high tree cover on the other hand is indicative of more pristine or well recovered
Swamp Forests as can also be observed from the relatively high pristine r-value (-0.412 for axis 1) in
more or less the same direction as tree cover (figure 29). Axis 2, which is not completely statistically
significant due to its eigenvalue just below 0.5, is strongly correlated with hydrology that has an r-
value of 0.574 and can still be used as a useful indicator to explain the relationship among different
reléves and species. The hydrology vector in the positive direction of axis 2 indicates drier conditions.
In Excel table 1 the Braun-Blanquet/ Cluster Analysis resulted in a vegetation classification with nine
vegetation communities and 23 species groups for all the species excluding cultivated crops, that are
present two times and more, and have an accumulated cover abundance value of greater than 0.5% per
reléve.
The dendogram (Figure 28) performed on the same reléves of Excel table 1 resulted in the grouping of
nine separate communities. The sooner a community is split off from the rest, the more dissimilar its
species composition is from the others. All the communities located on the same branch of the
dendogram are therefore more alike when compared with those of the other branches. The last level of
separation separates the communities most alike, while the ones at the opposite end of the final linear
line are the most dissimilar in terms of their species composition. The first split indicates the most
apparent difference between the reléves, which is variation in the structural intactness of the
communities. The left hand sided reléve group’s structure is disrupted as is evident in a poorly
developed tree canopy and a well-developed herbaceous layer. It has primarily been caused by human
induced disturbances, directly related to gardening practices. The right hand sided reléve group has a
40

etter-developed structure with an intact tree canopy cover, as is to be expected in more pristine
Swamp Forests sites. Subsequent divisions in the dendogram are bases on smaller and smaller
differences until only nine groups where left that made ecologically sense. These nine groups with
their characteristic species composition therefore formed the basis of the plant classification table
(Excel table 1).
All species except cultivated crops, that are present two times and more, and have an
accumulated cover abundance value of greater than 0.5 % per reléve
Comm. 1. Comm. 2.
Com ben H, Cyp pro H, Cyp sph
H, Lee hex H, The int H and Typ
cap H
Bri mic T, Fic tri T, Nep
bis H, Scl ang H, Ste ten H
and S, Tar par H and S and
Voa tho T
Comm. 2.
Comm. 6.
Bri mic T, Fic tri T, Ipo mau
L, Sen/Mi L and Ste ten S
Comm 2.
Comm. 4.
Rap aus T and S
Comm 1.
Comm 3.
Hyd bon H, Old cep H,
Pan bre H, Cen asi H, Rub
rig H and Pyc pol H
Comm. 1. Comm. 7.
Typ cap H, The int H
and Lud oct H
Comm. 6.
Comm. 13.
Comm 1. Comm. 5.
Voa tho S, Cyp
pro H and Dis
can H
Cyp tex H, Fui
umb H, Fic sur
H, Pha imb H,
Hug Cyp H, Spa
lea L, and Sen
Pol H
Fic tri T, Ipo mau
L, Dal arm, L Ber
luc H and S
Comm. 2. Comm. 12.
Nep bis H, Voa
tho T, Scl ang H
Ped afr S, Ste ten H, Hal
luc S, Kee gui S, Rau caf
T, Opl hir H, Rhr rho H and
Smi anc H
Mor ser T, Bra
dis H and Dra
man H
Figure 28. Dendogram, illustrating how the Cluster Analysis was performed and which communities
and their most diagnostic species were split off from the collective whole at each level of division. It
was performed for all the species (except cultivated crops) that are present two times and more, and
have an accumulated cover abundance value of greater than 0.5 % per reléve. Comm. = Community.
For the abbreviations see table 8 in the appendix of this section.
41

Figure 29. DCA ordination graph with axis 1 and axis 2 illustrating the relationships between reléves, with their respective vegetation communities, and the most
important environmental factors, for all the species (except cultivated crops), that are present two times and more, and have an accumulated cover abundance
value of greater than 0.5 % per reléve. h = herb; s = scrub, t = tree, l= liana; black dots represent species
42

Figure 30. A DCA ordination graph with axis 1 and axis 3 illustrating the relationships between reléves, with their respective vegetation communities, and the
most important environmental factors, for all the species (except cultivated crops), that are present two times and more, and have an accumulated cover
abundance value of greater than 0.5 % per reléve. h = herb; s = scrub, t = tree, l= liana; black dots represent species
43

Making use of the ordination and classification results (Figures 28-30), the nine vegetation
communities can be described as follow:
Group 1. Voacanga thouarsii (shrub) – Cyperus prolifera (herb) community: Wet and open
sites with upcoming Swamp Forest trees
This community consists out of the five reléves: CE-1, KW-1, NK-1, T-CE-2, and T-NK-1 that are a
combination of recently disturbed and long-time recovering Swamp Forest sites (Table 6 in the
appendix of this section). The plots are situated at the opposite end of the strong tree cover correlation
on axis one (Figures 29 and 30), indicating that full-grown trees are absent from the habitat and it is
therefore more open. It also indicates that any recovering that has been occurring has not resulted in
fully developed trees with a closed canopy so far. This is suggesting that this community is
somewhere in between a recently disturbed and a long-time recovering Swamp Forest. The community
is also wet (in the opposite direction of the hydrology vector), indicating marshy conditions, as is
typical habitat for the sedge Cyperus prolifera, which has the second highest statistically significant
indicator species value (p-value = 0.009, and IS-value = 34.8) (Excel table 1). At the same time the
reléves exhibit a positive correlation with recent disturbances and the presence of drain ditches
because the sites of this group are recovering from rather recently abandoned gardening practices. The
community is characterized by species group AA (Excel table 1). No mature trees are present, but
Voacanga thouarsii and Syzygium cordatum shrubs are very diagnostic, both having high indicator
species values (44.6 and 35.1 respectively) that are statistically significant as well (p-values = 0.001
and 0.01 respectively) (Excel table 1). These tree species are either still in a process of growing
towards maturity or are limited in their growth by the wet conditions to which they may not be that
well adapted. Syzygium cordatum is indeed known to grow on peripheral water logged mineral soils,
although it can also develop on stagnant mire surfaces and is therefore definitely tolerant of deep peat
(Thompson and Hamilton 1983). All other significant diagnostic species are located in the herbaceous
layer and include the fern Lygodium microphyllum, the herb Dissotis canescens, the sedge Cyperus
pectinatus, and the grass Panicum parvifolium. The community has 50 species in total, with an
average of 22 species per reléve (Table 1).
Group 5. Cyperus textiles (herb) – Fuirena umbellata (herb) community: Recently disturbed
sites dominated by Cyperus textilis
This community consists of four reléves: FOS-2, NK-4, MAL-1, and MAL-2 that form a combination
of pristine, long-time recovering, gardening and recently disturbed Swamp Forests sites (Table 6 in the
appendix of this section). As can be expected from such a group of diverse reléves, they are distributed
over quite a wide gradient in the ordination (Figures 29 and 30). All the reléves are scattered in a belt
shape towards the right of axis 1, indicating a weakly developed tree canopy differing in its scale. The
best developed tree canopy belonging to the pristine and long-time recovering reléves and the poorest
to the gardening reléve, where trees have been cleared for gardening, explaining the strong association
with recent disturbances and draining ditches (Figures 29 and 30). The reléves and species also exhibit
a preference for wetter conditions (Figures 29 and 30), with the recently disturbed and long-time
recovering plots being the driest and the gardening plots the wettest, although the change is not as
huge as in the wide gradient revealed in tree canopy structure differences. The wet conditions can also
be concluded from the occurrence of many species that favour wet conditions, such as sedges and the
presence of the hydrophilic sedge Typha capensis and fern Thelypteris interrupta in species group AC
44

(Excel table 1). The community is however characterized by species group AB (Excel table 1) The
reason for these diverse reléves being grouped together can only be explained by their shared species
composition and it is especially the sedge Cyperus textiles that is strongly present in the reléves. It also
has the highest significant indicator species value (76.6) in the community (Excel table 1). This
species as well as the other two sedges Fuirena umbellate and the unknown “Huge Cyperaceae”
species, occupy the same position in the ordination as the reléves in which they occur (Figures 29 and
30) and have statistically significant high indicator species values for the community (Excel table 1).
Other important species that occur in this community and favoured by the same environmental factors
are: both shrub and tree growth forms of Ficus sur, and two Asteraceae weeds Senecio
polyanthemoides and Crassocephalum picridiformis that are typical for recently disturbed and
gardening Swamp Forest sites (Excel table 1). The pristine site is only included because of the high
cover of Cyperus textilis. The disturbance due to the river in the pristine site is in contrast to the other
reléves of this group of natural origin. The community has a total of 57 species and an average of 25
species per reléve (Table 1).
Group 7. Typha capensis (herb) – Thelypteris interrupta (herb) community: Very wet,
recently disturbed sites
This community consists of seven reléves: KM-1, KM-2, MA-2, T-NK-5, T-MAT-3, NK-2, and T-
NK-3. They are all recently disturbed Swamp Forest sites, with the exception of T-MAT-3, which is a
long-time recovering site (Table 6 in the appendix). All the reléves are more or less clumped together,
illustrating common factors that have determined their species composition (Figures 29 and 30). The
largest gradient is in the negative direction of axis 2 that pertains to very wet conditions in the plots,
being so far situated at the bottom end the axis 2 (Figure 29). The other main orientation of the reléves
is towards the far right of axis 1 (Figures 29 and 30). Axis 1 relates to level structural intactness of the
tree canopy being either well developed or disturbed by natural environmental factors and/ or human
induced disturbances associated with gardening or preparation for gardening. The plots of this group
have been severely affected by disturbances. The structural absence of trees is in some extend due to
the limited time since cutting and clearing, but more importantly long periods of the water logged
conditions have limited tree development completely or restricted it to the presence of only a few
Ficus trichopoda, Voacanga thouarsii and Bridelia micrantha individuals in the herb and shrub layer.
The community is characterized by species group AC and includes aquatic macrophytes, such as
Typha capensis, Thelypteris interrupta, and Ludwigia octovalvis that have the highest significant
indicator species values as well (Excel table 1 in the appendix). Other diagnostic species are
Melanthera scandens, Cyperus dives, and Persicaria hydropiper. These species occupy the same
positions in the ordination as the mentioned reléves (Figures 29 and 30). The community has a total of
35 species with an average of 13 species per reléve (Table 1), which is very low. On the other hand the
vegetation cover in this community is very high which makes it difficult for trees to establish.
Group 3. Hydrocotyle bonariensis (herb) – Rubus rigidus (herb) community: Gardening sites
with permanent or at least recent disturbance and very little or no canopy layer
This community consists of eight reléves: CE-3, MANG-1, NK-3, T-CE-1, RA-3, T-SYAD-2-3, SF1-
1, and SY-1 (Table 6 in the appendix) that are combinations of active gardening and recent disturbed
sites that have been abandoned after gardening practices. In spite of the fairly similar types of land
uses in the plots, they have quite wide distribution gradients in the ordination, especially along axis 1
45

(Figures 29 and 30), but also with reference to axis 2 (Figure 29). This is because the reléves have a
rather inhomogeneous character. All the reléves are grouped towards the positive side of axis 1, but
with some having a few trees present while others are totally absent of any trees and even shrubs,
resulting in a wide structural gradient. They do however all share influences of recent disturbances and
drain ditches (Figures 29 and 30). With respect to hydrology the plots also show a varied response.
RA-3 is an open disturbance site inside a Raphia australis Swamp Forest that is characteristically dry,
while the other plots are also relatively dry due to draining that has taken place to enable crop
cultivation (Figure 29). Reléve NK-3 is at the opposite end of the spectrum has the wettest condition in
the community (Figure 29). The community is characterized by species group AD and has the highest
biodiversity of all the communities (Excel table 1). The reason being that many species are pioneers
that include several weeds that thrive in the continuous gaps created by gardening and associated
disturbances that include frequent clearing by means of burning and cutting. Herbs of the following
species characterize the community: Hydrocotyle bonariensis, Rubus rigidus, Panicum brevifolium,
Pteridium aquelinum, Oldenlandia cephalotes, and Centella asiatica. These species have the highest
indicator species values and statistically significant p-values (Excel table 1). Most of the weeds are
members of the Asteraceae family. Some typical species are: Bidens pilosa, Sonchus oleraceus,
Helichrysum aureonitens, and Ageratum houstonianum. These species also clearly occupy the same
distribution patterns in the ordination as the reléves belonging to the community. The community has a
total of 78 species and an average of 29 species per reléve (Table 1), which is very high compared to
the other groups.
Group 2. Nephrolepis biserrata (herb) – Voacanga thouarsii (tree) community: Long-time
recovering Swamp Forest
The community is the largest of all the communities, containing 13 reléves: CE-2, SY-3, MAZ-1,
KUSI-1, SF2-1, SF2-2, T-SF2-1, SY-2, KUSI-2, T-NK-2, T-CE-5, T-CE-3, and T-CE-4 (Table 6 in
the appendix). They are predominantly a combination of pristine and long-time recovering Swamp
Forest sites, containing two recently disturbed sits as well. In the case of the latter, the disturbance was
not too intense to change the vegetation in a drastic way from those of pristine and long-time
recovering Swamp Forest sites. It typically involves clearing and burning of the light fires to remove
the herb layer as an initial step in gardening preparation, while the tree canopy and most of the shrub
layer still remains intact. The communities described from here on are all more pristine Swamp
Forests and sites that have been recovering for quite a while to closely resemble pristine Swamp
Forests. This is evident from the ordination in which the reléves are all located to the left hand side
(negative side) of axis 1, indicating a well-developed tree canopy (Figures 29 and 30). The
communities are nevertheless spread out in a band-like fashion parallel to axis 1, depicting a relative
high degree of heterogeneity in the structural composition of the community. Following the same
trend as in the previous communities there is much less dissimilarity in the hydrological regime of the
plots, tending to be more or less moist (Figure 29). The community can also not be considered as a
genuinely pristine PSF, due to most of the reléves being orientated towards the long-time recovering
environmental vector, although statistically the association is weak. The community is characterized
by species group AH and can be portrayed as a relatively general Swamp Forest community, because
its diagnostic species with the highest significant indicator species values have wide distributions
ranges, being abundant in several other less disturbed communities (Excel table 1). These species
include: the fern Nephrolepis biserrata, the very common Swamp Forest sedge Scleria angusta and
46

the tree species Voacanga thouarsii and Keetia gueinzii, all typical Swamp Forest species. Other
important species associated with the community are: the tree Schefflera umbellifera, the fern
Lygodium microphyllum and the liana Rhoicissus rhomboidea (Excel table 1 in the appendix). Because
this community has a better developed tree layer, lianas that require a well-developed tree structure for
attachment also become more common. Lianas are therefore quite susceptible to disturbances that
negatively impact on the tree structure, presenting them to be a potentially useful indicator of just how
pristine a PSF is. The community has a total of 63 species, being the second largest in terms of
biodiversity, with an average of 21 species per reléve (Table 1).
Group 12. Peddiea africana (shrub) – Stenochlaena tenuifolia (herb) community: Dry type of
long-time recovering Swamp Forest
This community consists out of seven reléves: KW-2, SYD-3, SF1-2, T-SF2-2, T-SF2-3, T-SF2-4, and
T-SF-5. These reléves are primarily all PSF sites that have been in the process of recovering from
human related gardening disturbances for an extensive period already. A small minority (SYD-3 and
SF1-2) has been recovering for a much shorter period of time from recent disturbances that are
indicated by evidence of burning and cutting. These disturbances have not been too severe though,
leaving the tree structure partly intact, resulting in a species and structural composition that closely
resembles that of the long time recovering Swamp Forest sites. From the ordination it is clear that
most of the reléves exhibit a strong affinity with the ‘long-term recovering’ vector (Figure 29). The
differences in the structural makeup of the plots are also reflected in the distribution pattern of the
reléves with regards to axis 1 (Figures 29 and 30), indicating that they have canopy development of
variable state.
More than 70 % of the plots of this community are located at the site Mvelabusha, in which a peat
profile was constructed (see section 2.3.1), indicating a very shallow remaining peat layer following
the abandonment of gardening 47 years ago. This resulted in a loss of the quantity of water that could
be retained in the peat and therefore the system, making it a great deal drier. Dry conditions are also
reflected by the position of the reléves in the ordination. Most of the reléves are orientated along the
positive direction of axis 2 (Figure 29). The community is characterized by species group AJ (Excel
table 1). It contains among others the following important significant and diagnostic species: the shrub
Peddiea africana, the fern Stenochlaena tenuifolia, the tree Rauvolfia caffra and the liana Smilax
anceps. The species also most typically prefer drier conditions as indicated by their similar orientation
as the majority of the reléves in the ordination (Figures 29 and 30). The trees are typically shorter than
in other structurally intact Swamp Forests and fewer sedges are present, most likely due to the drier
conditions. The species composition of this community is differing considerably from that of pristine
sites. Species that can tolerate waterlogged soils for long periods like Ficus trichopoda are much less
abundant. On the other hand species having a wide ecological amplitude but that can only take moist
conditions are much more abundant (e.g. Halleria lucida). It can be confidently assumed that this
community will keep its separate identity from the more pristine Swamp Forest communities. The
community has a total of 41 species with an average of 19 species per reléve (Table 1).
Group 4. Raphia australis (tree) – Raphia australis (shrub) community: Raphia Swamp
Forest
This community was sampled least of all the communities and therefore contains the fewest reléves.
The community is undoubtedly the most characteristic of all the PSF due to the dominant presence of
47

the rare endemic palm Raphia australis. It consists of the following reléves: FOS-1, RA-2, RA-1
(Excel table 1), being all pristine Swamp Forest sites. These extensive stands of Raphia australis
Swamp Forest, the only ones in South Africa, are located on the western shore of lake Amanzimnyama
and are protected inside the Kosi Bay Coastal Forest Reserve. The community has a virtually uniform
structural canopy development, with all the reléves distributed closely together on the negative side of
axis 1 (Figures 29 and 30). The community is by far the driest of all the Swamp Forest communities,
being orientated high up along the positive direction of axis 2 (Figure 29). The community is
characterized by species group AM (Excel table 1). The only statistically significant diagnostic species
is Raphia australis in its tree and shrub category (Excel table 1). Raphia australis and other important
species in the community, such as the fern Nephrolepis biserrata and the small tree Macaranga
capensis (Excel table 1) all prefer drier peat conditions (Figure 29). Raphia australis palms are
commonly found in homogenous plots, that all seem to have members of the species that are of the
same age. The reason for this is that they are monocarpic palms that die after fruiting. Within a
localized area all the fruit are distributed at the same time and germinate close to one another. They
therefore commonly form stands of cohorts. Each separate Raphia australis stand is therefore at the
same developmental stage, and consequently, as they die off together and fall over, they create new
gaps in the existing vegetation. When these palms are half way through their life cycle and
approximately ten metres high, their canopy is very dense and very little light penetrates the
underlying strata. As a result there is also very little undergrowth in the shrub and herb layers. When
they are fully developed they can be up to 14 metres and even higher. At this height, the canopy is
much more open and therefore many more species are present in the herb and shrub layers. The
community has a total of 16 species and an average of 9 species per reléve (Table 1), making it the
species-poorest community of all the Swamp Forest communities.
Group 6. Ficus trichopoda (tree) – Ipomoea mauritiana (liana) community: Pristine Swamp
Forest
This community consists of 11 reléves: FOS-3, T-SYAD-2-4, T-CE-4, MAL-3, SW-1, SW-3, SW-2,
T-TSW-2, SYD-2, T-TSW-1, and T-TSW-3 (Table 6 in the appendix). The majority of them are
pristine Swamp Forest sites and those that are not are long-time recovering Swamp Forest sites that
closely resemble pristine sites. The reléves are in totality, structurally very rich developed with little
evidence of disturbances, although there is yet again quite a high level of diversity in the degree of tree
canopy closure as displayed in the reléves’ ordination distribution along axis 1 (Figures 29 and 30).
The community has a moist to wet hydrological regime, much wetter than any of the other Swamp
Forest communities thus far (Figure 29). This community is typically located next to rivers and
streams draining into the KLS and is therefore subject to occasional flooding. The community is
characterized by species group AO (Excel table 1). The most distinctive species characterizing the
community is the tree Ficus trichopoda, containing the highest indicator species value (38.6) in the
community with a p-value of 0.001 (Excel table 1). The tree grows on the riparian zone of the rivers
and streams, where it is able to thrive in this periodically flooded environment by means of specialized
morphological structures, such as prop and buttress roots that anchor these trees and prevent the peat
from eroding away at the same time. Other statistically significant diagnostic species within the
community are the ferns Microsorium punctatum and Polypodium lycopodioides, the lianas Ipomoea
mauritiana, Dalbergia armata, Petopentia natalensis, and Asparagus falcatus (Excel table 1). The
sedge Scleria angusta and the fern Stenochlaena tenuifolia, although occurring diagnostically in other
48

drier communities, are also well represented in this community, indicating that they can successfully
grow under different hydrological regimes (Excel table 1). While another common Swamp Forest
herb, the fern Nephrolepis biserrata, is virtually absent from the community, possibly because it
cannot tolerate wetter conditions with periodic flooding, as is evident from its preference of drier
conditions in the ordination (Figure 29). There are a total of seven species classified as belonging to
the liana layer within species group AO, the highest of any Swamp Forest community (Excel table 1).
This indicates a well-developed tree structure having experienced little disturbances. The absence of
weed species, that are so typical of community 3 (gardening sites), is also a good indicator for pristine
conditions as is the distribution of the community’s reléves along the pristine environmental vector in
the ordination (Figure 29). There is a total of 66 species; making it one of the most biodiversity rich,
structurally intact Swamp Forest communities. The community contains an average of 21 species per
reléve (Table 1).
Group 13. Morella serrata (tree) – Brachylaena discolor (herb) community: Indifferent
group; open Swamp Forest structurally determined
This community consists of the following seven reléves: MA-1, SYD-1, T-MAT-1, T-MAT-2, T-
MAT-4, T-SYAD-2-1, and T-SYAD-2-2. The plots of this community consist out of two totally
opposite types of disturbance categories: gardening and pristine Swamp Forest sites. The reason why
these two completely different types of Swamp Forest plots can be grouped together in the same
community is because both share the same level of structural richness, caused by the presence of a
well-developed tree layer in both cases (Figures 29 and 30). The gardening that is conducted at plots
SYD-1, T-SYAD-2-1, and T-SYAD-2-2, occur underneath a high tree layer that has only been
partially removed to provide space for cultivation. The fact that these three gardening reléves are
orientated a bit more to the disturbed side of axis 1 is due to the presence of drain ditches, necessary
for keeping the peat soils dry for crop cultivation (Figure 29). These drier conditions of the gardening
reléves are also clearly distinguished in their orientation towards the dry direction of the hydrology
environmental vector (Figure 29). The more pristine reléves on the other hand are again much wetter
(Figure 29). The community is characterized by species group AR (Excel table 1). The species
composition of the community almost seems to be separated into two parts: Those occurring in the
gardening section and those occurring in the pristine section. This is totally logical, because the
different environmental influences are favouring different species to dominate. Even with respect to
the tree layer, which is well developed in both categories, the species composition differs. In the
pristine reléves (MA-1, T-MAT-1, T-MAT-2, and T-MAT-4) the tree species Morella serrata has the
highest significant indicator value, but it is totally absent from the three gardening reléves (Excel table
1). The pioneer weed species Brachylaena discolor is the diagnostic species with the highest
significant indicator species value in the gardening reléves, being again absent from the pristine
reléves (Excel table 1). The tree species that the community do share as a whole occur in other species
groups and include most predominantly Ficus trichopoda, followed by Voacanga thouarsii and then
Syzygium cordatum (Excel table 1). It is from the resultant common structure based on the coalescence
of these tree species as well as the joined presence of other species, like the ferns Stenochlaena
tenuifolia and Thelypteris interrupta (Excel table 1), that these diverse reléves are grouped together as
a single community. The community has a total of 67 species (Table 1). This high biodiversity in only
seven reléves can be contributed to the fact that three of the plots are sites that are actively disturbed
by gardening. This creates conditions for various pioneer species, such as Brachylaena discolor and
49

Trema orientalis and weeds like Crassocephalum crepidiodes to become established and proliferate. It
is also reflected in the average number of species per reléve. In total the community has 28 species per
reléve, while separately the four pristine reléves average 20 and the three gardening reléves average 38
species per reléve. Finally it has to be emphasized that the structure in the plots of this group is
determined by man’s activity. As the group is only determined by structure and is also the last one to
be split in the dendogram (Figure 28) it is consisting of the ‘remaining’ reléves of the grouping in the
ordination. Therefore this group does not describe a community that could be compared with the
previous ones at the same level.
An ordination and classification of pristine and long-time recovering PSF sites
The second ordination (Figures 31 and 32) and classification (Excel table 2) was done on all the
reléves that showed no evidence of recent disturbances, but were perceived to be pristine or have been
in a process of recovering for a long period of time, up to the point where they were structurally
similar to pristine Swamp Forest sites. The DCA ordination contains the vegetation data of these
reléves and the same environmental variables as in the first ordination. With reference to the
ordination, axis 1 has a high eigenvalue of 0.668 with an appropriate gradient length of 4.445, while
axis 2’s eigenvalue is only marginally lower than the required 0.5 at 0.423 with a gradient length of
3.483. Meaningful correlations can therefore be deduced along axis 1 and 2, especially axis 1, while
axis 3’s eigenvalue is too far below 0.5 to have any statistically significant bearing. The prevalent
environmental factors are designated as red vector lines, pointing in the direction in which their
influence is asserted (Figure 31). These vector lines are correlated with the significant axes in order to
determine their influence in specific directions. In the direction of axis 1 (both negative and positive)
Pearson and Kendall’s r-value is higher than the recommended 0.5 for the environmental factors: tree
cover (0.576) and herb cover (-0.518). Axis 2 only has drain ditches higher than 0.5 (0.539), while
long-time recovering, pristine, and hydrology are just below being significant with values of 0.485, -
0.485, and 0.464 respectively and can still be used as a good indication of trends in these vector
directions. The most apparent observation in the second ordination is the vertically spread out
distribution of the reléves and species (Figure 31), which is completely opposite to the first ordination
(Figures 29 and 30). This indicates that the structural development of the different communities are
much more similar than in the first ordination. The main differences are between pristine and longtime
recovering Swamp Forest sites and are determined by the differences in the hydrological regimes,
and the presence of drain ditches associated with abandoned gardening locations in this context
(Figure 31).
50

Figure 31. A DCA ordination graph with axis 1 and axis 2 illustrating the relationships between reléves, with their respective vegetation communities, and the
most important environmental factors, for all the species from pristine and long-time recovering reléves. h = herb; s = scrub, t = tree, l= liana; black dots represent
species
51

All species from pristine and long-time recovering Swamp Forest reléves
Comm. 1 Comm. 4
Des ads H, Kee gue H, Tar
pav S, Mor ser H and Voa
tho T
Fic tri T, Dal arm L Ipo
mau L, Ber luc S, whi
Ast H, Mic pun L and Pol
lyc L
Comm. 1 Comm. 2
Com ben H and Sen/Mi H
Comm. 2
Rap aus T, Rap
aus H, and Rap
aus S
Comm. 3
Sen/Mi H, Lee hex H
and Com ben H
Comm. 3
Sen/Mi H and
Lee hex H
Comm. 7
Ste ten H, Ped afr S,
Hal luc S, and Syz
cor T
Figure 32. A dendogram, illustrating how the Cluster Analysis was performed and which communities
and their most diagnostic species were split off from the collective whole at each level of division,
based on the species data from all the pristine and long-time recovering PSF reléves.
The Braun-Blanquet/ Cluster Analysis vegetation classification performed on the vegetation data of
all the pristine and long-time recovering reléves resulted in five vegetation communities with nine
species groups as represented in Table xxx in the appendix. Utilizing the ordination and classification
results simultaneously the five vegetation communities that can be described as follow:
Group 1. Scleria angusta (herb) – Nephrolepis biserrata (herb) Swamp forest Community:
Long-time recovering Swamp Forest
This community is the biggest of the five Swamp Forest communities and consists of 13 reléves: CE-
2, MAZ-1, RA-1, SF2-2, SY-3, T-CE-3, KUSIF-1, KUSIF-2, MAL-3, SF2-1, T-CE-5, T-SF2-1 and
T-SF2-5. The community is made up of eight long-time recovering and five pristine Swamp Forest
sites. Structurally wise the community is fairly homogenous. Plot T-CE-5 is the most open due to
52

disturbance years before, while plot RA-1 possesses clearly a much stronger tree canopy structure
(Figure 31). In the general sense the communities’ reléves are grouped around the central point of the
ordination graph with a tendency to be more dispersed towards the upper middle part of the ordination
(Figure 31). The community seen as a whole tends to be more dry than wet with the exceptions of a
few plots, exhibiting evidence of previous gardening exploitation as can be concluded from the
majority of the reléves being orientated towards the drain ditches environmental vector (Figure 31).
On a wide-ranging scale the community can be viewed as long-time recovering Swamp Forest, but
with several exceptions, indicating a more wide ranging PSF ecosystem that embraces numerous
general tendencies as seen from the ordination (Figure 31). As a result the communities characteristic
species are those that have a wide distribution in PSF extending into many communities and have a
wide ecological amplitude, but reach their most abundant quantity in this particular community. This
is especially true for Scleria angusta, which occurs in more reléves than any other species (Excel table
2). The community is characterized by species group AA. The only two statistically significant
character species in the community are the sedge Scleria angusta and the fern Nephrolepis biserrata
(Excel table 2). Other diagnostic species are the trees Apodytes dimidiata, Schefflera umbellifera, and
Cassonia sphaerocephala, while the tree Voacanga thouarsii is also very dominant but not diagnostic
to the community (Excel table 2). The community has a total of 64 species, with an average of 21
species per reléve, making it the richest community in terms of plant biodiversity (Excel table 2).
Group 2. Raphia australis (tree) – Raphia australis (herb) Swamp forest Community: Raphia
Swamp Forest
This community only contains two reléves; FOS-1 and RA-2, both pristine Swamp Forest sites. It is
very similar to the Raphia australis (tree) – Raphia australis (shrub) Swamp Forest Community
described in the previous section. Both reléves possess the best-developed tree canopy of all the
reléves and also show somewhat drier conditions, especially reléve RA-2 (Figure 31). The community
is characterized by species group AB, with Raphia australis (tree) and Raphia australis (herb) as the
only significant species with a high indicator species value in the community (Excel table 2). Raphia
australis occupy the same area in the ordination as the community’s two reléves, indicating their
importance to it. The community has a total of 11 species with an average of eight species per reléve.
More data would be needed to describe this community properly.
Group 3. Leersia hexandra (herb) – Senecio deltoideus/ Mikania natalensis (herb) Swamp
Forest Community: Slightly disturbed Swamp Forest with dense herb cover
The community is composed of nine reléves: FOS-3, NK-4, T-CE-4, T-CE-6, T-MAT-3, MA-1, T-
MAT-1, T-MAT-2, and T-MAT-4. These plots are predominantly a combination of pristine plots;
including all the plots from the Matitimani transect; with only one plot (NK-4) being a long-time
recovering Swamp Forest site. In the ordination they exhibit a great deal of variation in both the
structural herb/ tree canopy direction along axis 1 and in terms of hydrology (Figure 31). The general
inclination of the reléves is however to be stretched out towards the bottom left from the centre of the
axes, indicating generally high herb cover values. There is also a sharply expressed differentiation in
the hydrology of the reléves, with a clear trend towards wet conditions, but to different extends
(Figure 31). The community is characterized by species group AC (Excel table 2). The herb species
complex Senecio deltoideus/ Mikania natalensis that could not be separately identified in the field and
the grass Leersia hexandra were the only species with a statistically significant high indicator species
value (Excel table 2). Other important diagnostic species include: the fern Thelypteris interrupta, and
53

the sedges Cyperus prolifera, Typha capensis, and Cyperus textilis that indicate wet and open
conditions. Important non-diagnostic tree species in the community are Voacanga thouarsii and Ficus
trichopoda (Excel table 2). The community has a total of 44 species with an average of 18 species per
reléve. The causes of disturbance that in turn created open structures, which allow a dense herb layer
to grow are various. Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus porcus), floods or even old disturbances are some of
them.
Group 7. Stenochlaena tenuifolia (herb) – Peddiea africana (shrub) Swamp Forest
Community: Dry type of long-time recovering Swamp Forest
This community consists of five reléves: KW-1, KW-2, T-SF2-2, T-SF2-3, and T-SF2-4. These are all
long-time recovering Swamp Forest sites that are orientated in a clearly defined single cluster towards
the upper left hand part of the ordination (Figure 31). Again the structural heterogeneity of the
community is not too great, with a more or less equally well-developed herb layer and tree canopy.
The gradient does point towards a slightly denser and more complete herb layer than tree canopy,
especially in reléve KW-1. The community is however much drier than any other of the other
communities, especially reléve T-SF2-3, and does also indicate the presence of drain ditches (Figure
31). The community is characterized by species group AE and is very similar to the Peddiea africana
(shrub) – Stenochlaena tenuifolia (herb) Swamp Forest Community described in the section above
(Excel table 2). The fern Stenochlaena tenuifolia and the shrubs Peddiea africana and Halleria lucida
are the only significant species with high indicator species values in the entire community (Excel table
2). The two shrubs are typical plant species of dry long-time recovering Swamp Forest, dominating in
habitats where peat decomposition due to draining has taken place. Other important diagnostic species
include: the trees Syzygium cordatum and Rauvolfia caffra, the shrub Keetia gueinzii, the grasses
Panicum parvifolium and Oplismenus hirtellus, as well as the herb Smilax anceps (Excel table 2). The
community has a total of 42 species with an average of 19 species per reléve.
Group 4. Ficus trichopoda (tree) – Ipomoea mauritiana (liana) Swamp forest Community:
Pristine and wet Swamp Forest
This community is quite distinct from the rest and split of first from the other four communities in the
cluster analysis, as is illustrated in the dendogram (Figure 31). It consists of nine reléves: FOS-3, SW-
1, SW-2, SW-3, SYD-2, T-SY2-4, T-TSW-1, T-TSW-2, and T-TSW-3, all of which are pristine
Swamp Forest sites, with the exception of SW-2, which is an old disturbed recovering site. The
community is very similar to the Ficus trichopoda (tree) – Ipomoea mauritiana (liana) Swamp Forest
community described from the first ordination and classification (Figure 31 as well as Excel table 2).
The community is located at the opposite end of the ordination than the Stenochlaena tenuifolia (herb)
– Peddiea africana (shrub) Swamp Forest community (Figure 31). From the ordination it is evident
that the reléves are structurally homogenous with an equally well-developed herb layer and tree
canopy. The reléves are all orientated in the pristine direction (even SW-2), and they are all wet to
very wet in a clearly expressed gradient (Figure 31). This community is strongly associated with
riverine habitats, situated directly on riverbanks. The only noticeable anthropogenic disturbance that
does occur in this type of ecosystem is the selective harvesting of plants for medicinal purposes. But
at none of the investigated sites was this practice ever perceived as taking place in an unsustainable
manner. Species group AG characterizes the community (Excel table 2). The most plainly visible
species, which dominates the community, is the tree Ficus trichopoda that characteristically seems to
be fixed to the bodies of flowing water. This species also possesses the highest significant indicator
54

species value (61.3, with p-value = 0.001) and is joined by two other species with significant indicator
species values: the unknown white Asteraceae weed and the woody liana Dalbergia armata (Excel
table 2). Other important diagnostic species include: Bersama lucens (tree and shrub) and the lianas
Ipomoea mauritiana, Asparagus falcatus, and Petopentia natalensis. Epiphytic ferns that grow in the
liana layer are Microsorium punctatum and Polypodium lycopodioides. Scleria angusta, though not a
diagnostic species to the community, is also very common (Excel table 2). As in the case of the Ficus
trichopoda (tree) – Ipomoea mauritiana (liana) Swamp Forest community described in the previous
section, the lianas are very dominant in this community. This indicates a low disturbance level, which
is also reflected by the ‘pristine’ vector in the ordination (Figure 31). The community has a total of 59
species, with an average of 19 species per reléve (Excel table 2).
A dendogram, which is the graphical representation of the Cluster Analysis of the relevant reléves,
illustrates how the five different vegetation communities are related to one another in terms of their
shared species composition (Figure 32). It is evident from it that community 4 is distinctly different
from the other communities as it is separated at the very first level of division (Figure 32). It is
understandable from the classification table, which illustrates that the Ficus trichopoda (tree) –
Ipomoea mauritiana (liana) Swamp Forest community’s characteristic species group AG shares few
species with the other communities, while in turn the characteristic species groups of the other
communities are poorly represented in community 4 (Excel table 2).
2.3.4 Peat Swamp Forest Bird communities in pristine and disturbed sites
68 species have been identified in all plots. Table 2 is summarizing the results. Most species (total and
average) could be found in disturbed and converted sites, although at converted sites, species numbers
did vary very much (standard deviation 47%). Pristine sites showed to be poor in species (38% below
the average of all categories). Relative diversity is highest in recovering and converted sites.
Table 2. Bird species indexes regarding the PSF categories
Total number of
species
Average number
of species per plot
Pristine PSF
Recovering PSF
Disturbed PSF
along margin,
central part natural
PSF totally
converted
18 28 31 37
6.7 (n=3) 8.3 (n=9) 12.5 (n=4) 10 (n=6)
Standard deviation 0.58 2.1 2.4 4.7
Total species
number/ average
species number
2.7 3.4 2.4 3.7
The ordination of the bird data did not result in a characteristic pattern of various groups. The
distribution of the plots in the ordination is mainly determined by the species assemblages that vary
very much even within the same category. This variation of the species assemblages causes a pattern,
in which the plots of all categories are scattered all over the ordination graph.
Just six species were only found in pristine site plots: Palm-nut Vulture (Gyphierax angolensis),
55

African Palm Swift (Cypsiurus parvus), Yellow-streaked Greenbul (Phyllastrephus flavostriatus),
Narina Trogon (Apaloderma narina), Half-collared Kingfisher (Alcedo semitorquata), and Chin-spot
Batis (Batis molitor). The latter is considered to be a PSF visitor from adjacent Sand Forests. Palmnut
Vulture and African Palm Swift are depending on Raphia Palms (Raphia australis) for foraging
(Vulture) and breeding (Swift). Yellow-streaked Bulbul and Narina Trogon are depending on pristine
forests and can also be found in adjacent Sand Forests. The Half-collared Kingfisher is a bird of wood
or forest fringed, clear streams and is not necessarily depending on PSF. Most of the 18 species found
in pristine sites can also be found in disturbed PSF types and even in other habitats like Sand Forest.
On disturbed sites they are joined by species like Waxbills and Kingfishers that prefer forest margins
and open landscapes. There were no species found to indicate pristine PSF. Nevertheless there are
species that occur on disturbed sites but that would disappear when all forest would be destroyed
because they are depending in some way on pristine forests. These would include species like Whiteeared
Barbet (Stactolaema leucotis), Narina Trogon (Apaloderma narina), Trumpeter (Ceratogymna
bucinator) and Crowned Hornbill (Tockus alboterminatus). On disturbed sites they can typically be
found foraging on fruiting trees like Ficus trichopoda. Nevertheless they are depending on nesting
holes in old trees that they only can find in old forest structures. Thus they are considered to be
threatened in areas undergoing forest clearing, such as southern Mozambique (Parker 1999).
Table 9 in the appendix of this chapter gives an overview about the species found during the
investigation period in PSF sites.
2.3.5 Functioning of CPSF in the landscape
Before the interference of man, all the sampled swamp forest sites were pristine swamp forests,
growing on peat with a characteristic vegetation composition. Without the external influences of
humans, which are especially effective in changing the structural organization of peat swamp forest,
the existing communities’ species composition were probably depended upon the nature of their
hydrological regime. As hydrology was the main non-anthropogenic factor that consistently correlated
with reléve and species orientation in both the ordinations (Figures 28-32). Hydrology can be related
to distance of the communities from streams and rivers. These bodies of flowing water do not only
cause a directly proportional relationship between wetness and distance as the accessibility to water
via rooting systems decreases with distance away from the streams and rivers. But they also act as a
force in shaping the topography of the peat swamp forest environment. This result in slopes on both
sides of stream and rivers that may be gradual or steep and which indirectly result in drier conditions
away from the water bodies as the slopes drain more easier. Ficus trichopoda trees typically grows
adjacent to the streams while other tree species such as Syzygium cordatum, Voacanga thouarsii, and
Bridelia micrantha dominated in drier conditions, but also cover a wide gradient of conditions in
between, especially Voacanga thouarsii and also other species such as the sedge Scleria angusta.
Other typical herbaceous species such as Cyperus textilis, Stenochlaena tenuifolia, and Nephrolepis
bisserrata seem to different in dominance also depending on the hydrology, with Stenochlaena
tenuifolia, and especially Nephrolepis bisserrata preferring drier conditions, while Cyperus textilis are
located in wetter environments.
A great deal of the differences in species composition of the communities must however be
contributed to the influence of man. Clearing and cutting, burning and gardening practices inside the
peat swamp forest have directly led to a changed vegetation composition, in a much greater extend
than any natural acting environmental factor. As mentioned earlier, tree canopy cover in particular is
56

influenced by human activities that thin them out in most cases through tree loss, although sometimes
some of them are purposefully left in place to generate shade for more comfortable working
conditions (community 13 in Excel table 1). Especially were farming with Colocasia esculenta is
undertaken, as this requires less sunlight and can grow in both waterlogged and relative dry
conditions, in full sunlight or in the shade. They requiring only the clearing of the herb and shrub
layer for creating space for cultivation, this includes some of the trees whose dead trunks are then
used to construct fences to keep out the ever-troublesome Bush Pigs (Potamochoerus pocrus). These
problematic pests have developed an affinity for crop species, especially Colocasia esculenta, much
to the dismay of the local farmers.
To conserve and protect pristine peat swamp forest ecosystems and their functioning, human impacts
will have to be regulated, or at least wisely utilized in such a way as to minimize their effect
especially on the decomposition of swamp forest peat. Vegetation species change is one thing but peat
loss is quite another. The peat in swamp forest ecosystems is the essentia l element for ensuring the
normal functioning of surrounding terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to which swamp forests are
mutually linked. All the water that gets collected in the KLS catchment travel at one time or the other
through streams and rivers that bisect peat swamp forest ecosystems. It is here where the peat plays a
crucial role in filtering particles and adsorbing certain positively charged ions from the water by
means of the slight negative charge present on the long polymer organic chains of the peat. Peat also
changes the water chemistry in other ways, by releasing certain organic compounds such as humic
and fluvic acids into the water, which gives it a characteristic brownish-black colour. This change of
colour is so prominent in lake Amanzimnyama whose name literally means black water. The total
effect of the peat is enhance, because water does not merely flow over the peat surface, but through it
as well, causing the water to be in contact with a much larger surface area of peat (Clymo 1983). It is
therefore not the mere presence of peat that is important but also the amount and volume, not only for
changing and treating the water, but also for retaining water before it’s released. Peat act as a sponge
and therefore helps in supplying water in times of scarcity, which is important both for the
surrounding natural ecosystem and also for humans depending on clean drinking water and irrigation
water for crops. The peat and swamp forest vegetation also acts as a buffer to help prevent the
enormous amounts of surrounding silica sand from being deposited in the lake system, which would
theoretically be able to eventually fill it up completely.
The change in water chemistry that leave peat swamp forests, effects both fish, water birds, aquatic
vegetation, and all other living organisms with which it will be in contact. It results in a nutrient poor
aquatic ecosystem with very clean water that limits plant growth, having a direct influence on the rest
of the aquatic ecosystem and for those terrestrial organisms that depend on them. If peat swamp forest
were therefore to become drastically reduced or disappear all together the effect would be far
reaching, stretching way beyond the peat swamp forests ecosystems themselves. Having said this, the
peat soils still provide the only real viable habitat for agricultural purposes due to its water
retainability and moderate fertility. Making it the only hope for many desperate subsistence farmers.
The management focus should therefore not be the total exclusion of peat swamp forest for gardening,
but rather to implement wise use management practices that would ensure the long-term sustainability
of this vital ecosystem. Key areas of focus should be on the education of the community, teaching
them to follow certain guidelines that would benefit both them and the swamp forest. This would
include advice on where, why and how to go about draining an area in order to prevent certain areas
57

from laying unnecessary dry and thereby accelerating peat decomposition. Implying that uncultivated
areas must be kept wet for as long and often as possible, ditches should not be too deep, nor dissect
the whole cultivation are, but be limited only to areas where the saturation is of such a nature that crop
species such as Musa paradisiaca can not survive. Total draining is not essential, but only for the top
few centimetres of saturated peat soils. Commercial cultivation for large profits instead of subsistence
farming for maintaining a more basic livelihood, must be strongly discouraged at all times. Not only
will it result in a much more rapid depletion of peat, but due to commercial farming requiring a
greater size, it would also prevent several other subsistence farmers from occupying a small space of
land. The main focus should be orientated towards the preservation of the peat, due to the fact that it
performs several essential functions and accumulates at such a slow rate that in essence it cannot be
considered as a renewable resource. All the sites visited where gardening has been taking place for a
long period of time, were at locations where the slopes where moderate and the peat quite wet
throughout, ensuring the long-term survival of this precious resource. Precious not only to the
surrounding environment, but also to the people that so heavily depend upon them.
2.5 Annex Chapter 2
Table 3. Nivellement transects
position on
transect [m]
Relative height
(highest point = 0)
Matitimani transect
0,0 -1,90
16,9 -3,35
23,7 -3,75
33,4 -3,60
51,6 -3,20
64,3 -3,30
71,5 -3,15
83,3 -3,00
96,9 -1,90
109,9 0,00
Nkanini transect
0,0 -3,34
1,0 -4,89
12,6 -5,05
28,4 -4,89
47,1 -4,69
68,2 -4,26
58

88,8 -3,63
112,2 -3,07
133,8 -2,67
156,3 -2,20
176,9 -1,40
188,4 0,00
Syadla transect
0,0 0,00
4,4 -0,70
9,4 -1,06
12,0 -1,13
25,5 -1,22
42,1 -1,29
59,6 -1,39
79,6 -0,69
94,2 -0,88
97,9 river
Tswamanzi transect
0,0 0,00
5,6 -0,93
15,0 -0,94
25,0 -0,74
35,0 -0,67
45,1 -1,26
55,0 -1,11
65,0 -1,02
75,0 -0,93
78,0 -0,41
Mvelabusha transect
0,0 -1,57
10,0 -1,62
20,0 -1,58
30,0 -1,56
40,0 -1,37
50,0 -1,15
60,0 -0,87
70,0 -0,87
80,0 -0,78
90,0 -0,68
100,0 -0,61
59

110,0 -0,56
120,0 -0,25
130,0 -0,10
140,0 0,00
150,0 -0,03
160,0 -0,01
170,0 -0,21
Cele transect
0,0 -0,52
10,0 -0,96
20,0 -1,30
30,0 -1,24
40,0 -1,21
50,0 -1,08
60,0 -1,05
70,0 -0,87
80,0 -0,79
90,0 -0,58
100,0 -0,35
110,0 -0,29
120,0 -0,18
130,0 -0,33
140,0 -0,48
150,0 -0,64
160,0 -0,61
170,0 -0,61
180,0 -0,18
190,0 0,00
Table 4. Water parameter transects
Nr.
Position on transect
[m]
Relative position of
water Table
regarding to surface
level [m]
ph
Conductivity
[µS/cm]
Temp [°C]
Matitimani transect
1.1 15,0 -0,54 4,90 270 19,4
1.2 17,0 -0,10 5,97 180 18,9
1.3 27,0 -0,03 5,40 140 18,6
1.4 35,0 -0,04 6,56 180 18,7
1.5 51,0 -0,10 5,66 130 18,8
60

1.6 64,0 -0,07 5,73 140 18,6
1.7 71,5 -0,10 6,29 150 18,6
1.8 87,0 -0,01 6,52 211 18,1
Nkanini transect
2.1 3,3 0,00 6,32 300 20,5
2.2 32,7 0,00 6,70 300 20,3
2.3 54,1 0,00 6,85 390 19,9
2.4 68,2 -0,18 6,65 400 19,7
2.5 114,5 0,05 5,72 390 20,7
2.6 165,9 -0,48 6,36 240 21,4
Syadla Transect
3.1 4,3 -0,21 6,58 372 19,7
3.2 12,0 -0,10 6,75 422 19,7
3.3 25,5 -0,06 6,60 392 19,8
3.4 42,1 -0,27 6,70 385 21,1
3.5 59,6 0,00 6,80 363 18,8
3.6 91,6 -0,05 5,95 650 18,6
river 100,0 6,92 248 18,8
Tswamanzi transect
4.1 5,8 -0,10 5,74 234 20,3
4.2 20,0 -0,05 6,93 413 18,8
4.3 37,0 -0,01 6,71 346 19,1
4.4 59,0 -0,06 6,25 316 19,8
4.5 68,0 -0,04 5,95 323 19,2
4.6 72,0 -0,04 5,45 555
4.7 78,0
river 6,93 272 19,3
Mvelabusha transect
5.1 6,0 -0,10 6,40 305 19,2
5.2 20,0 -0,11 5,98 367 18,8
5.3 40,0 -0,01 5,41 339 19,7
5.4 60,0 -0,24 5,77 166 19,7
5.5 80,0 -0,32 6,06 108 19,3
5.6 100,0 -0,14 5,57 234 19,9
5.7 120,0 -0,32 5,34 240 19,6
5.8 150,0 -0,62 5,80 137 19,6
5.9 170,0 0,00 5,22 430 20,2
Cele transect
61

6.1 10,0 -0,18 5,73 162 20,8
6.2 30,0 -0,06 5,85 157 19,6
6.3 60,0 0,00 5,64 225 18,5
6.4 90,0 0,00 5,38 219 18,3
6.5 115,0 0,00 5,68 294 18,8
6.6 140,0 -0,03 5,70 225 18,9
6.7 160,0 0,00 6,29 351 19,0
6.8 180,0 -0,19 6,48 625 18,5
river 168,0 0,00 6,22 215 18,3
Table 5. The ten-point von Post humification scale (after von Past and Granlund 1926)
Table 6. List of investigated plots
Number in Figure 6
Site name
Abbreviation
Gardening
Recently disturbed (fire/ gardening)
Long-time recovering
Pristine
Coordinates South
Coordinates East
1 Cele CE-1 x 26° 52' 07" 32° 46' 03"
1 Cele CE-2 x 26° 52' 14" 32° 46' 06"
1 Cele CE-3 x 26° 52' 30" 32° 46' 17"
2 KuMashayinyoni KM-1 x 26° 58' 26" 32° 46' 23"
2 KuMashayinyoni KM-2 x 26° 58' 04" 32° 45' 54"
62

3 Kusifungwe KUSIF-1 x 26° 56' 06" 32° 50' 35"
3 Kusifungwe KUSIF-2 x 26° 56' 14" 32° 50' 26"
4 Kwazibi KW-1 x 27° 06' 44" 32° 45' 56"
4 Kwazibi KW-2 x 27° 06' 46" 32° 45' 56"
5 Matitimani MA-1 x 26° 57' 38" 32° 49' 01"
5 Matitimani MA-2 x 26° 57' 35" 32° 49' 03"
6 Malangeni MAL-1 x 27° 04' 40" 32° 46' 56"
6 Malangeni MAL-2 x 27° 04' 40" 32° 46' 57"
6 Malangeni MAL-3 x 27° 04' 31" 32° 46' 59"
7 Mazambane MAZ-1 x 26° 56' 46" 32° 49' 50"
8 Nkanini NK-1 x 26° 56' 46" 32° 49' 50"
8 Nkanini NK-2 x 26° 57' 05" 32° 46' 38"
8 Nkanini NK-3 x 26° 56' 50" 32° 46' 37"
8 Nkanini NK-4 x 26° 56' 47" 32° 46' 34"
9 Raphia RA-1 x 27° 01' 20" 32° 48' 34"
9 Raphia RA-2 x 27° 01' 26" 32° 48' 50"
9 Raphia RA-3 x 27° 01' 37" 32° 49' 05"
10 Mvelabusha SF-1-1 x 27° 07' 38" 32° 42' 03"
10 Mvelabusha SF-1-2 x 27° 07' 36" 32° 42' 04"
11 Mvelabusha SF-2-1 x 27° 07' 50" 32° 43' 05"
11 Mvelabusha SF-2-2 x
12 Swamanzi SW-1 x 26° 58' 08" 32° 48' 44"
12 Swamanzi SW-2 x 26° 57' 59" 32° 48' 08"
12 Swamanzi SW-3 x 26° 58' 09" 32° 48' 26"
13 Syadla SY-1 x 27° 03' 21" 32° 48' 06"
13 Syadla SY-2 x 27° 03' 21" 32° 48' 06"
13 Syadla SY-3 x 27° 03' 30" 32° 48' 03"
13 Syadla SYD-1 x 27° 03' 27" 32° 48' 20"
13 Syadla SYD-2 x 27° 03' 27" 32° 48' 20"
13 Syadla SYD-3 x 27° 03' 25" 32° 48' 23"
15
15
15
Syadla (Fish Owl
Site)
Syadla (Fish Owl
Site)
Syadla (Fish Owl
Site)
May 6 10 9 10
FOS-1
FOS-2
FOS-3
63
x
x
x
27° 02' 45" 32° 48' 43"
16 iManguze MANG-1 x 26° 59' 29" 32° 44' 01"
1 Cele Trans-CE-1 x 26° 52' 16" 32° 46' 09"
1 Cele Trans-CE-2 x
1 Cele Trans-CE-3 x
1 Cele Trans-CE-4 x

1 Cele Trans-CE-5 x
1 Cele Trans-CE-6 x 26° 52' 16" 32° 46' 09"
5
5
5
5
Matitimani
Matitimani
Matitimani
Matitimani
Trans-MAT-
1
Trans-MAT-
2
Trans-MAT-
3
Trans-MAT-
4
x
x
x
x
26° 57' 39" 32° 49' 02"
26° 57' 40" 32° 48' 58"
8 Nkanini Trans-NK-1 x 26° 57' 05" 32° 46' 40"
8 Nkanini Trans-NK-2 x
8 Nkanini Trans-NK-3 x
8 Nkanini Trans-NK-5 x 26° 57' 05" 32° 46' 33"
10 Mvelabusha Trans-SF2-1 x 27° 07' 53" 32° 43' 06"
10 Mvelabusha Trans-SF2-2 x
10 Mvelabusha Trans-SF2-3 x
10 Mvelabusha Trans-SF2-4 x
10 Mvelabusha Trans-SF2-5 x
14
14
14
14
12
12
12
Syadla
Syadla
Syadla
Syadla
Tswamanzi
Tswamanzi
Tswamanzi
Trans-
SYAD-2-1
Trans-
SYAD-2-2
Trans-
SYAD-2-3
Trans-
SYAD-2-4
Trans-TSW-
1
Trans-TSW-
2
Trans-TSW-
3
x
x
September 3 7 9 11
Total 9 17 18 21
Plot number
total
x
65
x
x
x
x
27° 03' 27" 32° 48' 18"
27° 03' 29" 32° 48' 20"
26° 58' 08" 32° 48' 14"
64

Table 7. Complete list of plant species found at all investigated sites (143 species in total).
Nomenclature followed was generally that of Ward and Weisser (1991) except for some recent name
changes.
Ageratum houstonianum Eriosema squarrosum Pereskia aculeata
Albizia adianthifolia Erythrina lysistemon Persicaria hydropiper
Allophylus cf dregeanus Erythroxylum emarginatum Persicaria spec.
Allophylus melanocarpus Ficus sur Petopentia natalensis
Ananas comosus Ficus trichopoda Phaulopsis imbricata
Aneilema aequinoctiale Fuirena umbellata Phoenix reclinata
Anthericum spec. Gomphocarpus physocarpus Phragmites australis
Antidesma venosum Halleria lucida Podocarpus falcatus
Apodytes dimidiata Helichrysum aureonitens Polypodium lycopodioides
Arundo donax Helichrysum tongense Psilotum nudum
Asparagus falcatus Hewittia malabarica Psychotria capensis
Asystasia gangetica Hibiscus surattensis Pteridium aquelinum
Bersama lucens Hibiscus tiliaceus Pycreus nitidus
Bidens pilosa Hibiscus trionum Pycreus polystachyos
Brachylaena discolor Hydrocotyle bonariensis Rapanea melanophloeos
Bridelia micrantha Ilex mitis Raphia australis
Burchellia bubalina Imperata cylindrica Rauvolfia caffra
Casearia gladiiformis Ingofera spec. Rhipsalis baccifera
Cassonia arenicola Ipomoea batatas Rhoicissus rhomboidea
Cassonia sphaerocephala Ipomoea mauritiana Rhus chirindensis
Cassytha spec. Isoglossa spec. Rhus nebulosa
Cavacoa aurea Keetia gueinzii Rhus pyroides
Centella asiatica Kraussia floribunda Rhynchospora corymbosa
Chlorophytum krookianum Lactuca dregeana Rubus rigidus
Cirsium spec. Leersia hexandra Saccharum officinale
Cissampelos torulosa Lepidium spec. Sacciolepis curvata
Cladium mariscus Ludwigia octovalvis Schefflera umbellifera
Clematis brachiata cf Ludwigia spec. Scleria angusta
Colocasia esculenta Lulube plant Scolopia stolzii
Commelina benghalensis/
Commelina erecta
Lycopersicon esculentum
65
Senecio deltoideus
Conyza canadensis Lygodium microphyllum Senecio polyanthemoides
Crassocephalum crepidiodes Macaranga capensis Setaria megaphylla
Crassocephalum picridiformis Mangifera indica Smilax anceps
Crocosmia aurea Manihot esculenta Sonchus oleraceus cf
Cucumis zeyheri Melanthera scandens Stenochlaena tenuifolia
Cyperus alternifolius Microsorium punctatum Syzygium cordatum
Cyperus dives Mikania natalensis Syzygium guineense
Cyperus papyrus Mimusops obovata Tabernaemontana ventricosa

Cyperus pectinatus Morella serrata Tacazzea apiculata
Cyperus prolifer Musa spp. Tarenna pavettoides
Cyperus sphaerospermus Neonotonia wightii Thelypteris interrupta
Dalbergia armata Nephrolepis biserrata Trema orientalis
Desmodium adscendens Oldenlandia cephalotes Trichopteryx dregaena
Desmodium salicifolium Oplismenus hirtellus Triumfetta pentandra
Digitaria eriantha Panicum brevifolium Typha capensis
Dissotis canescens Panicum parvifolium Urera trinervis cf
Dracaena mannii Paspalum urvillei Voacanga thouarsii
Erigeron cf daggera Peddiea africana Zehneria scabra
Boldly written = endemic or near-endemic to the Maputaland Centre (according to Van Wyk 1996)
Table 8. Abbreviations for plant names used in the text and tables.
Species Abbreviation Species Abbreviation
Ageratum houstonianum Age hou Kraussia floribunda Kra flo
Albizia adianthifolia Alb adi Lactuca dregeana Lac drg
Allophylus dregeanus All dre Leersia hexandra Lee hex
Allophylus cf melanocarpus All mel Lepidium spec. Lep spe
Ananas comosus Ana com Ludwigia octovalvis Lud oct
Aneilema aequinoctiale Ane aeq Lycopersicon esculentum Lyc esc
Anthericum spec. Ant spe Lygodium microphyllum Lig mic
Antidesma venosum Ant ven Macaranga capensis Mac cap
Apodytes dimidiata Apo dim Mangifera indica Man ind
Asparagus falcatus Asp fal Manihot esculenta Man esc
Asystasia gangetica Asy gan Melanthera scandens Mel sca
Bersama lucens cf Ber luc Microsorium punctatum Mic pun
Bidens pilosa Bid pil Mikania natalensis Mik nat
big leafed climber/ Tacazzea
apiculata
big lea Mimusops obovata Mim obo
Boere pumpkin Boe pum Musa spp. Mus spp
Brachylaena discolor Bra dis Myrica serrata Myr ser
Bridelia micrantha Bri mic Neonotonia wightii Neon wig
Burchellia bubalina Bur bub Nephrolepis biserrata Nep bis
Casearia gladiiformis Cas glad Oldenlandia cephalotes Old cep
Cassonia arenicola Cas are Oplismenus hirtellus Opl hir
Cassonia sphaerocephala Cas sph Panicum brevifolium Pan bre
Cassytha spec. Cas spe Panicum parvifolium Pan par
Cavacoa aurea Cav aur Paspalum urvillei Pas urv
Centella asiatica Cen asi Peddiea africana Ped afr
Chlorophytum krookianum Chl kro Pereskia aculeata Per acu
Cirsium spec. Cir spe Persicaria hydropiper Per hyd
Cissampelos torulosa Cis tor Petopentia natalensis Pet nat
Cladium mariscus Cla mar Phaulopsis imbricata Pha imb
66

Clematis brachiata Cle bra Phoenix reclinata Pho rec
Colocasia esculenta Col esc Phragmites australis Phr aus
Commelina benghalensis/
Commelina erecta
Com ben/ Com ere
Podocarpus falcatus
Pod fal
Conyza canadensis Con can Polypodium lycopodioides Pol lyc
Crassocephalum crepidiodes Cra cre Psilotum nudum Psi nud
Crassocephalum picridiformis Cra pic Psychotria capensis Psy cap
Crocosmia aurea Cro aur Pteridium aquilinum Pte aqu
Cucumis zeyheri Cuc zey Pycreus nitidus Pyc nit
Cyperus alternifolius Cyp alt Pycreus polystachyos Pyc pol
Cyperus dives Cyp div Rapanea melanophloeos Rap mel
Cyperus papyrus Cyp pap Raphia australis Rap aus
Cyperus pectinatus Cyp pec Rauvolfia caffra Rau caf
Cyperus prolifer Cyp pro Rhipsalis baccifera Rhi bac
Cyperus sphaerospermus Cyp sph Rhoicissus rhomboidea Rho rho
Delbergia armata Del arm Rhus cf nebulosa Rhu neb
Desmodium adscendens Des ads Rhus chirindensis Rhu chi
Desmodium salicifolium Des sal Rhus pyroides Rhu pyr
Digitaria eriantha Dig eri Rhynchospora corymbosa Rhy cor
Dissotis canescens Dis can Rubus rigidus Rub rig
Dracaena mannii Dra man Saccharum officinale Sac off
Erigeron cf daggera Eri dag Sacciolepis curvata Sac cur
Eriosema squarrosum Eri sq Schefflera umbellifera Sch umb
Erythrina lysistemon Ery ly Scleria angusta Scl ang
Erythroxylum emarginatum Ery em Scolopia stolzii Sco stol
Ficus sur
Fic su
Senecio deltoideus/ Mikania
natalensis
Se/Mik
Ficus trichopoda Fic tr Senecio polyanthemoides Sen pol
Fuirena umbellata Fui umb Setaria megaphylla Set meg
Gomphocarpus physocarpus Gom phy Smilax anceps Smi anc
Halleria lucida Hal luc Sonchus oleraceus cf Son ole
Helichrysum aureonitens Hel aur Stenochlaena tenuifolia Ste ten
Helichrysum tongense Hel ton Syzygium cordatum Syz cor
Hewittia malabarica Hew mal Syzygium guineense Syz gui
Hibiscus surattensis Hib sur Tabernaemontana ventricosa Tab ven
Hibiscus tiliaceus Hib til Tarenna pavettoides Tar pav
Hibiscus trionum Hib tri Thelypteris interrupta The int
Hydrocotyle bonariensis Hyd bon Typha capensis Typ cap
Ilex mitis Ile mit Trema orientalis Tre ori
Ingofera spec. Ing spe Trichopteryx dregaena Tri der
Ipomoea batatas Ipo bat Triumfetta pentandra Tri pen
Ipomoea mauritiana Ipo mau Urera trinervis cf Ure tri
67

Isoglossa spec. Iso spe Voacanga thouarsii Voa tho
Keetia gueinzii Kee gue Zehneria scabra Zeh sca
Kraussia floribunda
Kra flo
Table 9. Bird species found in PSF during the investigation periods; red data status taken from Barnes
et al. (2000); the list is supplemented with data of Taylor (2004, unpubl.) whom did an ornithological
survey on PSF birds in the St. Lucia wetland park in December 2003
Status: A: found regularly inside PSF; B: found occasionally inside PSF; C: generally only along PSF margin
Abundance: c = common; u = uncommon; l = localised; lc= locally common
Species Status Abundance Red data status
Green-backed Heron C u
Long-tailed Cormorant C c
African Darter C u
Grey Heron C u
Black-headed Heron C u
Purple Heron C c
Goliath Heron C lc
Great Egret C c
Little Egret C c
Cattle Egret C c
Squacco Heron C l
Green-backed Heron C u
Woolly-necked Stork B u Near-threatened
Hamerkop C lc
Hadeda Ibis B c
Palm-nut Vulture A c
African Fish Eagle B c
African Crowned Eagle B l Near-threatened
Long-crested Eagle C lc
Southern Banded Snake Eagle C u Valnurable
Ayres' Hawk Eagle B l Near-threatened
Gymnogene C u
Yellow-billed Kite C c
Cuckoo Hawk C u
Steppe Buzzard C c
Lizard Buzzard C lc
Black Sparrowhawk C u
Shikra C u
Gabar Goshawk C u
Little Sparrowhawk C u
African Goshawk C u
Crested Guineafowl C u
68

Natal Francolin C u
Crested Francolin C c
Coqui Francolin C c
African Finfoot C u Vulnerable
Red-knobbed Coot C c
Common Moorhen C c
African Purple Swamphen C l
Black Crake C c
African Jacana C c
Lesser Jacana C u
African Rail C l
Red-chested Flufftail C c
Green Sandpiper C u
Water Thick-Knee C u
Lemon Dove B u
Red-eyed Dove A c
Cape Turtle Dove B c
Laughing Dove B c
African Green Pigeon A lc
Emerald-spotted Wood Dove B c
Tambourine Dove B c
Brown-headed Parrot C u
Purple-crested Turaco A u; l
Livingstone's Turaco A c
Red-chested Cuckoo A c
Klaas's Cuckoo B c
Emerald Cuckoo B u
Dideric Cuckoo C c
Burchell's Coucal C c
Green Malkoha B u
Pel's Fishing Owl A u Vulnerable
African Wood Owl C c
Swamp Nightjar C l Vulnerable
African Palm Swift B l
Narina Trogon A c
Speckled Mousebird C c
Giant Kingfisher C c
Pied Kingfisher C c
Half-collared Kingfisher A lc Near-threatened
Malachite Kingfisher C c
African Pygmy Kingfisher C u
Brown-hooded Kingfisher B c
69

Striped Kingfisher C u
Little Bee-Eater C u to c
Blue-cheeked Bee-eater C u
Broad-billed Roller C u
Trumpeter Hornbill A c
Crowned Hornbill A c
Red-billed Wood Hoopoe A c
Greater Honeyguide C u
Scaly-throated Honeyguide A c
Lesser Honeyguide A c
Brown-backed Honeybird B u
Black-collared Barbet C c
White-eared Barbet A c
Crested Barbet C u
Yellow-rumped Tinkerbird A c
Golden-tailed Woodpecker A c to u
Black Saw Wing C c
European Swallow C c
Red-breasted Swallow C u
Lesser Striped Swallow C c
House Martin C u
Grey-rumped Swallow C u
Brown-throated Martin C u
Black Cuckooshrike A c to u
Fork-tailed Drongo C c
Square-tailed Drongo A c
Black-headed Oriole A c
Southern Black Tit C c
Dark-capped Bulbul A c
Terrestrial Brownbulbul B c
Yellow-streaked Greenbul A lc
Sombre Greenbul A c
Yellow-bellied Greenbul A c
Eastern Nicator B c
Kurrichane Thrush C u
Red-capped Robin-Chat A c
White-browed Robin-Chat C u
Brown Scrub-Robin B c
White-browed Scrub-Robin C u
Willow Warbler C c
Lesser Swamp Warbler C lc
Little Rush Warbler B c
70

Broad-tailed Warbler C u Near-threatened
Dark-capped Yellow Warbler C u
Green-backed Camaroptera A c
Yellow-breasted Apalis B c
Rudd's Apalis B c Near-threatened
Neddicky C c
Tawny-flanked Prinia C c
Black-throated Wattle-eye A u Near-threatened
Ashy Flycatcher B u
Dusky Flycatcher B c
Grey Tit-Flycatcher C c
Blue-mantled Crested Flycatcher B lc
African Paradise Flycatcher A c
Cape White-eye A c
African Yellow White-Eye A c
Chin-spot Batis B u
Woodward's Batis B c Near-threatened
Southern Boubou A c
Black-crowned Tchagra C c
Brown-crowned Tchagra C u
Grey-headed Bush Shrike B u
Gorgeous Bush Shrike B lc
Olive Bush Shrike C u
Fiscal Shrike C c
Black-backed Puffback B c
Black-bellied Starling A c
Eastern Olive Sunbird A c
Purple-banded Sunbird A c
Collared Sunbird B c to u
Scarlet-chested Sunbird C u
Yellow-throated Petronia C lc
Thick-billed Weaver B u
Dark-backed Weaver A c
Southern brown-throated Weaver C lc
Lesser Masked Weaver C lc
Spectacled Weaver C c
Southern Red Bishop C lc
Fan-tailed Widowbird C c
Pin-tailed Wydah C u
Red-billed Firefinch C u to lc
Common Waxbill C c
Grey Waxbill C c
71

Blue Waxbill C c
Bronze Manakin C c
Red-backed Manakin C c
Yellow-fronted Canary C c
Total number of species: 162 (35 category A species)
Table 10. Occurrence of bird specie s on point counts; numbers are representing individuals
CE-1
CE-2
CE-T
KM-1
KUS-1
KUS-2
KW
MAL
MAT cult
MAT-T
MVE
NK-1
NK-4
NK-T
RA-2
SF-1
SF-2
SW-1
SW-2
SY (1/2)
SYD
TSW-T
African Palm Swift 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
African Green
Pigeon
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
African Paradise
Flycatcher
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0
African Yellow
White-eye
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 5 0 0
Ashy Flycatcher 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
Ayre's Hawk Eagle 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Black-backed
Puffback
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0
Black
Cuckooshrike
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Black Crake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Black-bellied
Starling
0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0
Black-crowned
Tchagra
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Black-shouldered
Kite
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Blue Waxbill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brown-headed
Parrot
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bronze Manakin 0 3 10 10 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Burchell's Coucal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cape White-eye 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0
Chin-spot Batis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
Collared Sunbird 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Common Waxbill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Crested Barbet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Crested
Guineafowl
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Crowned Hornbill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
72

Dark-backed
Weaver
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0
Dark-capped
Bulbul
0 6 0 4 3 0 5 2 2 0 2 0 3 3 3 15 1 0 0 3 0 0
Dark-capped
Yellow Warbler
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dusky Flycatcher 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eastern Olive
Sunbird
4 1 2 2 5 2 1 4 0 1 2 2 2 0 0 1 2 2 1 2 1 0
Emerald-spotted
Wood Dove
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gorgeous Bush
Shrike
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Golden-rumped
Tinkerbird
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 1
Golden-tailed
Woodpecker
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Green-backed
Camaroptera
0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 1
Grey Waxbill 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Half-collared
Kingfisher
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Hadeda Ibis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kurrichane Thrush 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lesser Honeyguide 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lesser Masked
Weaver
0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Little Rush Warbler 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Little Egret 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Livingstone's
Turaco
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Long-crested Eagle 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Narina Trogon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Palm-nut Vulture 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pin-tailed Wydah 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Purple-backed
Sunbird
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Purple-crested
Turaco
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Red-backed
Manakin
0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Red-billed Woodhoopoe
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
73

Red-capped Robin
Chat
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Red-eyed Dove 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Southern Black Tit 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Southern Brownthroated
Weaver
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sombre Greenbul 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0
Southern Boubou 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Square-tailed
Drongo
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 0 2 5 2
Striped Kingfisher 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tawny-flanked
Prinia
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Thick-billed
Weaver
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trumpeter Hornbill 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 3 0
White-eared Barbet 1 0 2 0 4 0 2 8 2 1 0 4 2 4 0 1 1 0 0 0 10 0
Yellow-bellied
Greenbul
Yellow-breasted
Apalis
Yellow-fronted
Canary
Yellow-streaked
Greenbul
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
PSF totally transformed to gardens
Recovering PSF
Disturbed PSF along margin, central part natural
Pristine PSF
74

Table 11. Plates Chapter 2
Aim and goals of the field study
a: project participants visiting a gardening site
during the May workshop (from left to right): Dr.
Donovan Kotze, Peat-Louis Grundling, Prof. George
Bredenkamp, Prof Fred Ellery, Dr. Jan Sliva (front),
Retief Grobler and Japhet Ngubane
b: vegetation ecology field staff (left to right):
Patrick Tembe, Christoph Moning, Retief Grobler,
Dr. Jan Sliva and Senso Hobe
c: Awareness improvement; Patrick Tembe (right)
explains the project to a local chief at Cele
Study area and physical environment
75

d: monotypic stand of the endemic Raphia australis
palm
e: Maputaland is dominated by sandy, infertile soils
(after a fire in a grassland the sandy soil can clearly
be seen)
Investigation methods
f: peat coring equipment (from bottom to top):
Russian peat corer, Clay corer and extension rods
g: plastic pipes for hydrological investigations
h: estimating the vegetation cover: tree canopy at
Mvelabusha transect
i: cut transect marked with danger tape at
Mvelabusha transect
76

j: peat coring with the Russian peat corer k: levelling board
l: doing a nivellement in the swamp forest
(Matitimani transect)
Peat swamp forest ecology
m: deep drain ditches accelerate peat decomposition;
here near Manguze
77

Regeneration potential of peat swamp forests
n: Raphia australis seedlings on a disturbed site o: dry old recovering swamp forest at Mvelabusha
p: recently disturbed swamp forest at Syadla transect q: Gardening site at Syadla transect: many of the
forest trees are still remaining and support a high
recovering potential
r: pristine swamp forest at Tswamanzi transect s: Banana plantation at Syadla transect: one of the
biggest in the area
78

t: a recently disturbed site at Nkanini transect;
Cyperus textilis and Typha capensis dominate the
site
Some important species
u: Ficus trichopoda v: Ficus trichopoda typical growth form
w: Tarenna parvettoides x: Stenochlaena tenuifolia
79

y: Keetia gueinzii z: Nephrolepis biserrata
aa: Morella serrata
ab: Peddiea africana
ac: Rauvolfia caffra
ad: Rhoicissus rhomboidea
80

ae: Rapanea melanophloeos
af: Bridelia micrantha
ag: Syzygium cordatum fresh leafs
ah: Voacanga thouarsii (left) and Bridelia micrantha
(right)
ai: the Palm-nut Vulture is confined to stands of
Raphia palms; both species has its distribution
stronghold in southern Africa in the Kosi Bay area
81

3. ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF SWAMP FOREST IN THE
GREATER ST LUCIA WETLAND PARK, AND AN ASSESSMENT OF
THE TOURISM POTENTIAL OF THIS HABITAT (PT)
3.1 SURVEY AREAS AND VISITS
All surveys were made within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park. The Mfabeni wetland (see Taylor &
Grundling 2003) lies immediately south of Lake Bhangazi (South), beginning at approximately
28°07’N, 32°31’E. It is bordered by swamp forest on its western side, and this swamp forest extends
in patches south to Lake St Lucia, at about 28°13’S, 32°20’E. Surveys of the wetland and swamp
forest were made from December 3 to 5 and December 14-16 2003, during a period of severe drought
in the region. Additional survey visits were made to the Mfabeni wetland in November-December
2002, when the area was less dry, and in July 2003.
As part of a nationwide ornithological survey of wetland birds and their habitats (Taylor 1997), visits
were made to wetlands in the Ozabeni section of the wetland park in December 1995 and January
1996, when above-average rainfall was recorded in the region. During these wetland surveys, note
were also made of birds in adjacent patches of swamp forest, particularly along the Mbazwana stream
(approximately 27°34’S 32°34,E). The Ozabeni swamp forest patches were also visited briefly in July
1999.
3.2 RESULTS - BIRDS
3.2.1 Birds associated with swamp forest
The following bird species were recorded during the surveys.
No. = ‘Roberts’ Number (Maclean 1993)
Area: OZ = Ozabeni, MF = Mfabeni
Status: PM = Palaearctic migrant (nonbreeding birds present during the austral summer); IAM = intra-African
migrant, present and breeding during austral summer.
No. Species Area Status
074 Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus OZ Occasional at forested streams
081 Hamerkop Scopus umbretta MF Resident; one active nest found
094 Hadeda Ibis Bostrychia hagedash MF, OZ Widespread and common
126 Yellow-billed Kite Milvus migrans MF, OZ IAM, widespread and common
128 Cuckoo Hawk Aviceda cuculoides OZ Occasional at forest edge
139 Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis MF, OZ Sparse but regular
141 Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus MF, OZ Occasionally seen over forest
144 Southern Banded Snake Eagle Circaetus fasciolatus MF Resident but scarce
148 African Fish Eagle Haliaetus vocifer MF ,OZ Often perches in large trees
149 Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo MF, OZ PM, common in summer
82

154 Lizard Buzzard Kaupifalco monogrammicus OZ 1 at forest edge, July 1999
157 Little Sparrowhawk Accipiter minullus MF Occasional at forest edges
161 Gabar Goshawk Micronisus gabar OZ 1 at forest edge, July 1999
169 Gymnogene Polyboroides typus MF, OZ Regular, singles and pairs
265 Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus OZ PM, rare; 1 at forested river, Jan 1996
298 Water Dikkop Burhinus vermiculatus MF Occasional at forest edge
352 Red-eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata MF, OZ Common throughout
356 Namaqua Dove Oena capensis MF Vagrant; 1 drank at stream, Dec 2003
359 Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria MF, OZ Common throughout
361 Green Pigeon Treron calva MF, OZ Often feeds in forest trees
370 Livingstone’s Loerie Tauraco livingstonii MF, OZ Regular in small numbers
371 Purple-crested Loerie Tauraco porphyreolophus MF, OZ Regular in small numbers
377 Red-chested Cuckoo Cuculus solitarius MF, OZ IAM, common
384 Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus MF, OZ Uncommon resident/IAM
385 Klaas’s Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas MF, OZ Common resident/IAM
386 Didric Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius MF, OZ Common IAM (and resident?)
391 Burchell’s Coucal Centropus burchelli MF, OZ A few in secondary growth
394 Wood Owl Strix woodfordii OZ Jul 1999 only; probably overlooked
403 Pel’s Fishing Owl Scotopelia peli OZ, (MF) 1 pair OZ; presence suspected MF
424 Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus MF, OZ Often at forest edges
427 Narina Trogon Apaloderma narina OZ Resident, uncommon; probably at MF
430 Half-collared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata MF, OZ Scarce resident on rivers
432 Pygmy Kingfisher Ispidina picta MF, OZ Occasional at forest edge
435 Brown-hooded Kingfisher Halcyon albiventris MF, OZ Frequently seen at forest edges
440 Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus MF, OZ PM; frequent, forages over forest
450 Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus glaucurus MF, OZ IAM; sparse, usually in dead trees
455 Trumpeter Hornbill Bycanistes bucinator MF, OZ Common throughout
460 Crowned Hornbill Tockus alboterminatus MF, OZ Common throughout
464 Black-collared Barbet Lybius torquatus MF, OZ Frequent (more often in open areas)
466 White-eared Barbet Stactolaema leucotis MF, OZ Common
471 Golden-rumped Tinkerbarbet Pogoniulus bilineatus MF, OZ Common throughout
475 Scaly-throated Honeyguide Indicator variegatus OZ Very occasional
476 Lesser Honeyguide Indicator minor MF, OZ Fairly common throughout
518 European Swallow Hirundo rustica MF, OZ PM; abundant over all habitats
524 Red-breasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa MF IAM; small numbers feed over forest
527 Lesser Striped Swallow Hirundo abyssinica MF, OZ Feeds over forest; fewer at OZ
530 House Martin Delichon urbica MF, OZ PM; occasional over forest
531 Grey-rumped Swallow Pseudohirundo griseopyga OZ Occasional over forest
533 Brown-throated Martin Riparia paludicola MF Occasional over forest
536 Black saw-wing Swallow Psalidoprocne holomelas MF, OZ Quite common at forest edges
541 Fork-tailed Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis MF, OZ Occasional at forest edges
542 Square-tailed Drongo Dicrurus ludwigii MF, OZ Common in all forests
545 Black-headed Oriole Oriolus larvatus MF, OZ Small numbers frequently seen
568 Black-eyed Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus MF, OZ Abundant throughout
572 Sombre Bulbul Andropadus importunus MF, OZ Common throughout
83

574 Yellow-bellied Bulbul Chlorocichla flaviventris MF, OZ Abundant throughout
600 Natal Robin Cossypha natalensis MF, OZ Frequent to common
643 Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus MF, OZ PM; occasional at forest edges
648 Yellow-breasted Apalis Apalis flavida MF, OZ Common throughout
649 Rudd’s Apalis Apalis ruddi MF, OZ Frequent to locally common
657 Bleating Warbler Camaroptera brachyura MF, OZ Common throughout
690 Dusky Flycatcher Muscicapa adusta OZ, MF Occasional at forest edge
691 Bluegrey Flycatcher Muscicapa caerulescens OZ Occasional
693 Fantailed Flycatcher Myioparus plumbeus OZ Uncommon; seen Dec 1995
704 Woodward’s Batis Batis fratrum MF, OZ Occasional (most are in dry forest)
705 Wattle-eyed Flycatcher Platysteira peltata OZ, (MF?) Small numbers OZ, probably also MF
708 Blue-mantled Flycatcher Trochocercus albonotatus OZ, MF Sparse to locally frequent
710 Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis MF, OZ Common throughout
732 Fiscal Shrike Lanius collaris MF, OZ Occasional at forest edges
736 Southern Boubou Laniarius ferrugineus MF, OZ Commonest in secondary growth
740 Puffback Dryoscopus cubla MF, OZ Very common throughout
768 Black-bellied Starling Lamprotornis corruscus MF, OZ Common to abundant in flocks
780 Purple-banded Sunbird Nectarinia bifasciata MF, OZ Occasional at forest edge
790 Olive Sunbird Nectarinia olivacea MF, OZ Frequent to locally common
791 Scarlet-chested Sunbird Nectarinia senegalensis MF, OZ Sometimes seen at forest edge
793 Collared Sunbird Anthreptes collaris MF, OZ Frequent, especially at forest edges
796 Cape White-eye Zosterops pallidus MF, OZ Frequent
797 Yellow White-eye Zosterops senegalensis MF, OZ ?frequent (hard to separate from 796)
807 Thick-billed Weaver Amblyospiza albifrons MF, OZ Often feeds in forest and at edges
808 Forest Weaver Ploceus bicolor MF, OZ Frequent to common
810 Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis MF, OZ Frequent to common
811 Spotted-backed Weaver Ploceus cucullatus MF, OZ Frequent to common
Total: 82 species recorded
3.2.2 Selected bird species of vegetated wetlands adjacent to swamp forest
These species are listed because of their scarcity or their interest from a birding aspect.
No. Species Area Status
065 Purple Heron Ardea purpurea MF, OZ Infrequent, solitary
210 African Rail Rallus caerulescens MF, OZ Rarely seen; commoner than supposed
213 Black Crake Amaurornis flavirostris OZ,MF Widespread but rarely seen
215 Baillon’s Crake Porzana pusilla OZ, MF Uncommon, rarely seen
217 Red-chested Flufftail Sarothrura rufa MF, OZ Common but rarely seen
222 White-winged Flufftail Sarothrura ayresi MF Critically endangered (Barnes 2000)
223 Purple Gallinule Porphrio porphyrio OZ Localised
84

286 Ethiopian Snipe Gallinago nigripennis MF, OZ Not uncommon; status uncertain
407 Natal Nightjar Careimulgus natalensis MF, OZ Grassland; common; SA range very
small
820 Cuckoo Finch Anomalospiza imberbis MF Apparently rare; 1 on 15 Dec 2003
3.2.3 Recorded and [possible] bird species at Ozabeni (Robson & Horner 1996)
No. Species Status
[147 Palm-nut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis Possibly a very scarce visitor; needs Raphia australis
palms]
158 Black Sparrowhawk Accipiter melanoleucus Occurs sparsely in swamp forest
160 African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro Occurs in “all wooded habitats”
[204 Crested Guineafowl Guttera pucherani Normally in dry forest only]
[229 African Finfoot Podica senegalensis Rare along forested rivers (Sodwana Bay only)]
350 Rameron Pigeon Columba arquatrix Uncommon winter visitor to riverine forest
[378 Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus Dune forest only]
387 Green Coucal Ceuthmochares aereus Dune forest, extending into swamp forest
438 European Bee-eater Merops apiaster PM; irregular, forages over forest and woodland
469 Red-fronted Tinkerbarbet Pogoniulus pusillus Occurs in all woodland
483 Golden-tailed Woodpecker Campethera abingoni May occur in all forest
538 Black Cuckoo-shrike Campephaga flava Occurs irregularly in forest and woodland habitats
[540 Grey Cuckoo-shrike Coracina caesia Rare; dune forest only]
554 Southern Black Tit Parus niger A woodland species, possibly also at forest edge
[569 Terrestrial Bulbul Phyllastrephus terrestris Dry forest; needs undergrowth or thickets]
[575 Yellow-spotted Nicator Nicator chloris Dry forest and thickets]
[616 Brown Robin Erythropygia signata Edges of dry forest only]
[747 Gorgeous Bush Shrike Telophorus quadricolor Dune forest and dense woodland/thickets]
[750 Olive Bush Shrike Telophorus olivaceus Dune forest and thickly-wooded areas]
[835 Green Twinspot Mandingoa nitidula Dune forest only]
[848 Grey Waxbill Estrilda perreini Dune forest, scrub and thickets only]
858 Red-backed Manikin Spermestes bicolor Dune forest and mois t thickets
Of these 21 species, only 9 are likely to occur in swamp forest.
3.2.4 Additional possible bird species
Information from Cyrus & Robson (1980), Harrison et al. (1997) and KZNNCS (2000).
No. Species Status
076 Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax Possible in riverine forest
105 African Black Duck Anas sparsa Possible on rivers
129 Bat Hawk Machieramphus alcinus Rarely recorded in the area (Cyrus & Robson 1980)
85

204 Crested Guineafowl Guttera pucherani Normally in dry forest only
421 Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus Infrequent visitor over floodplain woodland
474 Greater Honeyguide Indicator indicator Infrequent; usually in open woodland
789 Grey Sunbird Nectarinia veroxii Dune forest and scrub; may enter swamp forest
3.3 RESULTS - MAMMALS
During the December 2003 surveys, notes were also made on the mammals seen in and adjacent to the
swamp forest patches at Mfabeni. Within the forest, fresh tracks, wallows and other signs of White
Rhinoceros Ceratotherium simium, Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius and Buffalo Syncerus
caffer were found, and all three species were seen in within the forest or in grassland immediately
adjacent to the forest. It is possible that, because of the drought conditions and the lack of water in the
area, these animals used the swamp forest and its streams more extensively than they normally would,
but they all probably use the forest regularly, especially when lying up during the heat of the day.
Other mammals recorded in the swamp forest were Thick-tailed Bushbaby Otolemur crassicaudatus,
Samango Monkey Circopithecus mitis, Vervet Monkey Circopithecus aethiops, Red Duiker and
various bat species, including a fruit-bat (possibly Wahlberg’s Epauletted Fruit-bat Epomophorus
wahlbergi). At the forest edge Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus, Common Reedbuck Redunca
arundinum and Common Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus were regularly seen. Blue Duiker
Philantomba monticola and Red Squirrel Paraxerus palliatus occurred in dry forest immediately
adjacent to a large patch of swamp forest, while Leopard Panthera pardus and Large-spotted Genet
Genetta tigrina were also seen in this dry forest. Water Mongoose Atilax paludinosus occurred in
marshy areas adjacent to swamp forest. Bush pig Potamochoerus porcus occurs in the swamp forest
but was not seen.
3.4 CONCLUSIONS
The surveys, although brief and not covering the entire year, indicate that a good variety of bird
species occurs in Maputaland swamp forests. The 82 species recorded include some of great interest
to birders because the birds may be difficult to see in view of their scarcity or their restricted
distribution locally or nationally. Such species include Southern Banded Snake Eagle, Pel’s Fishing
Owl, Half-collared Kingfisher, Narina Trogon, Blue-grey Flycatcher, Fan-tailed Flycatcher, Wattleeyed
Flycatcher and Woodward’s Batis.
The number and variety of bird species are indicative of the richness of this forest habitat and,
although swamp forest does not contain all the bird species found in drier forest types in Maputaland,
it has sufficient species to give it considerable potential for organized birding tours and guided walks.
Furthermore, there are interesting mammal species to be found in the habitat, although care has to be
taken with the larger and more dangerous mammals - which is why guided walks are advisable within
the forest habitat. However, much can also be seen by walking outside the forest patches, though
adjacent grassland and short-vegetated wetland areas, when the variety of butterflies and flowers can
also be appreciated. Walking within the swamp forest itself is an experience not to be missed,
especially when the trees are large and of impressive growth form, and a swamp forest component
would be a very valuable addition to any birding, or any general wildlife/natural history trail or tour.
86

The wetlands adjacent to the Maputaland swamp forests are also often very impressive, in terms of
their wetland vegetation types, flowers and insects, as well as the number and variety of birds that
occur there (e.g. see Taylor 1997). It is not practical to give a full list of wetland-associated birds in
this report, but the very short list provided shows some of the “specialties” of these wetlands.
Important species include the critically endangered White-winged Flufftail, which occurs regularly at
only 10 sites in southern Africa and was discovered at Mfabeni only in late 2002 (Taylor & Grundling
2003). In addition, the Natal Nightjar, which has a conservation status of Vulnerable (Barnes 2000),
occurs in South Africa only on the coastal plain of northern KZN, where it is locally common in moist
grassland.
4. Distribution, mapping and evaluation of CPSF (FE, PLG)
4.1 Introduction
Peat accumulates in Maputaland on the southern portion of the Mozambique Coastal Plain (MCP) in
different geomorphological and wetland ecological settings ranging from interdune swamp forest and
reed/sedge mires to an inland delta (the Mkuze Delta) and coastal lake-related peatlands (Grundling,
et al, 1998).
Maputaland peatlands vary in size from a few hectares up to thousands of hectares wetland (Figures
34-37 in the appendix of this section) and approximately 266 peatlands occur within the Mozambique
coastal plain in Maputaland. Peat thickness varies from 0.5 to 10 m (appendix of this section). The
Mkuze Swamp, about 8 800 ha in size, is the largest wetland containing peat with a maximum
thickness of 6 m and the Mfabeni peatland has the thickest peat profile with a maximum thickness of
10 m (appendix of this section).
During the investigation most of the wetlands in the study area were covered and close to 2 000 sites
were visited. The individual Maputaland peatlands are described in table form in Appendix y. CPSF
were found to be associated with open ended interdune systems. These systems would typically
incorporated flowing water linked to coastal lakes, floodplains or the Indian Ocean.
4.2 Methods used for inventory, mapping and evaluation
Available map sources
Evaluation and classification of satellite data
Production of inventory maps
On a regional scale, peatlands were identified and delineated with the aid of 1:50 000 maps and aerial
photographs. These sites were then verified infield. A regional map was then compiled using the
South African National Land Cover 2000 (NLC 2000) wetland data set with existing peatland maps
of the region. The existing peatland maps are based on 1: 50 000 field maps and are hosted in the
Peatland Eco-regional database housed at the Department of Agriculture, South Africa. A range of 1:
100 000 – 1: 250 000 maps from regional peatland and wetland related reports were used to
supplement the mapping data.
87

The NLC2000 developed a 1:50,000 scale land-cover dataset, which includes large, easily discernable
wetland features. An “advanced” wetland modeling process being run within the NLC2000 project
aims to provide additional, more detailed wetland information. This “advanced” wetland data is
derived from a combination of satellite image analysis and spatial terrain model analysis, and goes
beyond the scope of the standard land-cover mapping product (Landmann 2003). Wetland features
will typically occur in landscape zones associated with specific hydrological and terrain
characteristics, e.g. riparian, pans, marshes, hill slope seeps etc. Multi-season satellite imagery is used
to emphasis the wet/ dry season vegetation response differences between wetlands and the
surrounding non-wetland vegetation communities. Advanced terrain modeling processes are used to
identify those areas in the landscape that could potentially contain wetlands, irrespective of the
associated land-cover characteristics. The products of the satellite image analysis and the terrain
modeling are combined to generate a detailed map dataset showing the likely occurrence of small
wetland features in a given environment. This advanced wetland dataset is then incorporated into the
original NLC2000 Land-cover dataset to proved end-users with a detailed inventory of both current
land-cover / use and associated wetland feature occurrence (Landmann 2003).
The advanced wetland modeling is not intended to provide a definitive wetland inventory with
accurate boundary delineations, but rather a reliable indication of wetland occurrence and location
within a given catchment. Mapped wetland boundaries will be strongly influenced by local vegetation
response and condition at the time of satellite overpass, and the associated local rainfall patterns
The mapping process assumes that 90% of vegetated wetlands will have a grass-type cover, and that
these grass-covered areas are identified successfully in the initial land-cover mapping process as part
of the natural grassland category. If errors occurred in the initial natural vegetation mapping, then
these will be carried over into the satellite image analysis component of the advanced wetland
modeling
Peat was cored in field with the aid of a Russian Peat Sampler. This device allows the collection of
samples from the top to the bottom of the peat bed. Samples are then placed into labeled 120 ml
plastic bottles and sealed with airtight caps. For each peatland the main surface floral species and the
maximum thickness of the peat at each sample site are recorded. C 14 age dating and pollen analyses
were carried out on selected samples Landmann, 2003).
4.3 Results
The MCP hosts the most extensive wetlands and best developed peat deposits in South Africa .It has a
high bio-diversity with a dominant proportion of endemic species (Taylor, 1991) and is situated
mostly within the Coastal Bushveld/Grassland Biome of Southern Africa (Low and Rebelo, 1996).
The wetlands containing the peat have formed within valleys of a palaeo-dune landscape (Hobday,
1979) and are the result of a very shallow water table. The peatlands and enclosing wetlands are
groundwater fed. Perched aquifers within the sand dunes are a prominent source of water for the
wetlands. The peatlands of Maputaland are dominated by ground water and surface water inflow and
can thus be classified as fens.
The peat deposits of Maputaland are controlled by:
88

? low energy conditions, the result of a low topography (generally less than 50 m above mean
sea level).
? high rainfall (+800 mm pa) resulting in a copious perennial water supply and a consequent
oversupply of biomass.
? the topography of the underlying Pleistocene KwaMbonambi dunes. The dune topography
results in elongated interdune valleys, usually orientated parallel to the present coastline. In
these valleys peat deposits may form.
The highest concentration of swamp forests thus occur in the high rainfall areas of 900 – 1000 mm pa
plus, just inland of, and along the eastern coastal dune corridor , but important exceptions
occur towards the west such as the degraded swamp forests at Mseleni on the western edge of
Lake Sibaya (Grundling, 1994) or the tributaries of the northwards flowing Futi (Mkuzi-
North) stream, where the rainfall varies between 600 – 800 mm pa. The contribution of
coastal lakes and geohydromorphic features in the Maputaland landscape in the control of the
distribution of the CPSF must not be under estimated and needs to further investigated.
It has become evident during this study that more than 90 % of the CPSF’s are related to open ended
interdune coastal lake related systems.
4.3.1 Geomorphological settings of interdune peatlands
The costal interdune valleys are associated with coastal lakes linked to either drowned and closed
river mouths (Hobday and Orme, 1979) or to a lesser extent floodplains.
Four different geomorphological settings are distinguished by Grundling et al, (2000) and Grundling
(2002) for interdune valleys hosting peatlands in Maputaland:
?? Isolated interdune valley peatlands
Isolated interdune valley peatlands are most common in northern Maputaland and are usually
covered by reeds and sedges.
?? Interdune valley peatlands linked to coastal lakes as a result of the closure of drowned river
mouths
These peatlands are the most common type of peatland and are restricted to the Maputaland area.
They are covered by reeds and sedges and/or swamp forests (Fig. 3).
?? Interdune valley peatlands linked to coastal lakes on floodplains
This type of peatland is restricted to the floodplains of the major rivers in the area, the Mkuze and
Umfolozi Rivers, and are covered by papyrus, reeds and sedge. Some swamp forests do occur in
these settings.
?? Interdune valley peatlands linked to streams
The distribution of this type of peatland is uncommon in Maputaland and are usually covered by
swamp forests and/or reeds and sedges.
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The distribution of the swamp forest within the MCP are thus imprinted on the distribution of coastal
lakes, floodplains and estuaries. The smaller coastal lakes are distributed along the coastline behind
the main coastal dune corridor with larger systems such as Kosi Bay, Lake Sibaya and St Lucia
extending a few kilometers inland.
Barringtonia dominated swamp forests
It has been noted extensively through the whole study area that swamp forests or riverine forest that
are dominated by Barringtonia racemosa do not contain peat. Only some organic, sandy clay or dark
clay material is present. The Barringtonia racemosa only dominates parts of swamp forest peatlands
where there is concentrated surface water flow. Thus the presence of Barringtonia racemosa indicates
relatively high-energy flow zones within the peatland, typical for a clastic dominated swamp forest
wetland, not amenable to peat accumulation. Under these conditions the heavy seed pod of
Barringtonia racemosa can be transported. However, all organic material that may have accumulated
is flushed out of the system at the same time. The presence of Barringtonia racemosa is thus
regarded to be an indicator for portions of a wetland with low peat potential (Grundling, et al, 2000).
4.4 Tendencies/ scenarios (e.g. the future of CPSF areas, presumed the damage
continues in the same extent; and the consequences)
Swamp forests are targeted for a number of practical reasons for cultivation:
??Drainage due to the drainage associated with the setting of the CPSF.
The peatlands associated with closed interdune basin are difficult to drain and thus difficult to
cultivate. Since most CPSF are related to drainage lines (even those open ended interdune systems)
and are therefore drained much easier.
??Source of nutrients
The reworked dune sands comprising most of Maputaland are very nutrient poor, even more so than
the peat occurring in the area. Only 15% of the reed/papyrus and sedge dominated peatland contain
significant peat, while most swamp forests contain a relative thick (0.5 m) build up of organic
significant peat layers, with 30 % comprising significant peat layers of 0.8m and thicker (Grundling,
et al, 1998). Higher oxidation rates within swamp forest peats might contribute to this relative high
sources of nutrients in comparison with other types of peatlands in Maputaland.
??Water
Evidence of abandoned raised garden beds (described as fossil gardens by Grundling, 1996) in
seasonal wetlands on Maputaland highlights the unpredictable inundation of wetlands across
Maputaland based on variable rainfall patterns. Local groundwater tables vary as much as 3 m within
season based on rainfall events (Kyle, pers. Comm.) if and when it rains. The stable water sources
associated with swamp forests are thus another important consideration when selecting cultivation
plots.
The extent of swamp forest cultivation various from north to south and east to west across
Maputaland. Evidence suggests that swamp forests are more heavily cultivated in South Africa than in
Mozambique. Probably as a result of the civil war in Mozambique that could have resulted in
restricted access to the swamp forests in the southern part of Mozambique and lower population
densities in that country. Swamp forest cultivation in South Africa seems as much to be a traditional
activity as it is a result of increasing population pressures. Grundling (1996) describes as system of
90

otation and rest evident in the peatlands of Maputaland, based on traditional cultivation practices.
However, the current intensive cultivation practices are situated close to local development nodes
(e.g. Manguzi/Kwangwanase and Mseleni). These villages are nowadays linked with greater towns
and urban areas through and effective roadnet work, and thus to outside markets creating larger
demand for produce cultivated amongst other in CPSF’s.
Rainfall patterns dictate the distribution of the population in Maputaland and most communities were
located on the fertile floodplains of the Pongola, Mkuze and other rivers in the western parts of
Maputaland or close to the higher rainfall areas along the eastern coastal dune corridor. The higher
population densities associated with the higher rainfall thus also related in more pressures on the
swamp forests with lesser impacts on swamp forests more inland. However, the highest concentration
of CPSF is also associated with the higher eastern rainfall areas.
4.5 Outlook for further work
??Study the relationship and significance of CPSF distribution linked to interdune valleys and coastal
lakes.
??Future trends in swamp forest cultivation could be established by predicting population dynamics in
Maputaland.
??Significance in the pattern (distribution, cultivation etc) of abandoned raised cultivated beds and
population distribution/ and/or current CPSF distribution.
??Study and zone commercial forestry and related practises.
Other:
??Alternative cultivation practices outside CPSF (intensive trench gardening linked with rainwater
harvesting and water harvesting from CPSF).
??Investigate and develop CPSF and other wetland rehabilitation options:
??CEPA options
??Blocking of Drains
??Rewet degraded CPSF’s, and other peatlands/ wetlands
??Upgrade road crossings
??Landcare adjacent to CPSF (eg. Stabilise steep valley slopes)
??Cultivate and replant swamp forest species)
??Landscape abandoned raised cultivated beds
4.7 Generation of a map of Peat Swamp Forest distribution in Maputaland using
remote sensing data (FE)
4.7.1 Introduction
The Swamp Forests of Maputaland have not been well studied, although several recent
studies have been carried out in South Africa by researchers at the Universities KwaZulu-
Natal (Schoultz 2000, Goge 2003) and Pretoria (Venter 2003). As far as we are aware, no
similar studies have been conducted in Mozambique.
91

Based on these studies a picture of the character of Pristine Swamp Forests in the South
African part of Maputaland is emerging, but there is little understanding of environmental
factors that fundamentally affect their distribution, with the exception that they typically
occur on peatlands. Despite this general observation, our understanding of their distribution is
poor, as many peatlands exist that do not support Swamp Forest, and in many cases, a single
large peatland may support forested as well as herbaceous vegetation types, with no clear
indication of environmental heterogeneity at the boundary of these strikingly different
vegetation types.
An important feature of the studies on Swamp Forests that have been conducted in
Maputaland to date, is that they have focussed upon Swamp Forest in conservation areas and
which are in a pristine or semi-pristine state. However, it has become clear recently that
outside of conservation areas, as well as within some conservation areas that have not yet
been studied, Swamp Forests have been modified by humans for subsistence and – in some
cases – for more formal (semi-commercial) agriculture. This practice has arisen for many
reasons, but particularly since the conversion of Swamp Forest to agricultural land offers the
only situation in the landscape that is sufficiently fertile for crop production. It must be
remembered that the peatlands of Maputaland occur on the coastal plain on the east coast of
Africa, which comprises reworked marine sediments that produce extremely infertile soils.
A second important feature of studies on Swamp Forests in Maputaland, is that their
distribution has not been mapped to any appreciable extent. Schoultz (2000) and Venter
(2003) have mapped Swamp Forest for localised areas, namely the Mbazwane and Mfabeni
Peatlands respectively (Figure 33).
The present mapping exercise therefore represents the first attempt to map the Swamp Forests
of Maputaland as a whole, including the area from Lake St Lucia in the south as far as
Maputo Bay in the north (Figure 33).
4.7.2 Methods used for inventory, mapping and evaluation
Details of available imagery
Two Landsat 7 ETM+ satellite images were obtained covering the study area as follows:
?? Lake St Lucia northwards as far as Lake Piti in southern Mozambique (26° 37’ S).
This image was taken on 11 August 2001
?? Maputo Bay southwards as far the southern end of the Kosi Lake system in northern
KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (27° 02’ S). This image was taken on 17 October
2002
Each image comprised 7 bands, ranging from the visible through to the thermal infra-red
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Image processing and classification of satellite data
The two images were orthometrically rectified and projected to the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) Projection, Zone 36S. From this point onwards, identical techniques were
92

applied to both images.
A supervised classification was attempted using data from reference sites of known location
and vegetation cover. Such field-based data can be used as “training sites” to determine the
spectral characteristics (“signature”) of individual pixels in the satellite image, forming the
basis for mapping other pixels in the image with similar spectral characteristics. Provided
sufficient pixels of the pre-determined land cover classes are used, the supervised
classification will identify all pixels of similar spectral character. This approach failed
completely as the final output covered many forested vegetation types including Dune Forest
and Sand Forest – both of which are terrestrial (non-wetland) forest types. The reason that
this approach failed may have been due to the small number and limited spatial coverage of
the training sites.
In view of the lack of success of the supervised classification approach, an unsupervised
classification approach was used in which a multivariate statistical cluster analysis was
performed on the spectral data alone, differentiating land cover (including vegetation) types
on the basis of pixel spectral characteristics alone. The initial classification produced 10
spectral classes, of which 3 were identified as being associated with forest vegetation alone
(Swamp Forest as well as terrestrial forest types). All pixels in these 3 classes were extracted
from the image and a further unsupervised classification was performed based on the spectral
data alone. This produced 9 land cover classes, of which one class represented Pristine
Swamp Forest together with Pristine Dune, Mangrove and Sand Forest, while another
depicted Disturbed Swamp Forest. In order to improve mapping accuracy, all areas of Coastal
Forest, Mangrove Forest and Sand Forest were manually removed from the image using
masking techniques. The Dune and Sand Forest masking technique was based primarily on an
understanding of the fact that Dune and Sand Forests occur at higher elevation than Swamp
Forest, such that elevation became the primary criterion for applying the mask. Mangrove
Forests require regular inundation by sea water and hence the area of the tidal zone was used
as the criterion for masking these forests.
Production of inventory maps
Maps of Swamp Forest were produced for Mozambique and South Africa from the satellite
imagery as an overlay on a true colour composite image for the two countries. The seasonal
differences in the timing of these images accounts for differences in their general appearance,
but the accuracy of the mapping is considered reasonable, although it has not been tested
formally.
Detection of vegetation change
Vertical black and white aerial photography of a portion of the study area, taken in 1942, was
scanned using a conventional computer scanner. Photographs were overlaid onto the 2002
satellite imagery available from this study. The aerial photographs were orthometrically
rectified using features of known location visible in both images, and the boundaries of these
was mapped using on-screen digitising, to create polygons. The polygons of Swamp Forest in
1942 were superimposed onto the satellite image map of Pristine Swamp Forest in 2002, for
93

comparison. Areas were calculated for comparable patches using available software in the
GIS in which the digitising had been carried out!
4.7.3 Results
Classification of Swamp Forest
Swamp Forest vegetation was classified using an unsupervised classification approach, and it
was only possible to distinguish two classes of Swamp Forest vegetation:
?? Pristine Swamp Forest
?? Disturbed Swamp Forest
The category of Pristine Swamp Forest includes all Swamp Forest that has not been disturbed
by humans for cultivation. The category of Disturbed Swamp Forest includes all Swamp
Forest that has been disturbed for purposes of cultivation, but based on the spectral data, it
was not possible to identify the nature or extent of disturbance within the Swamp Forests.
This is unfortunate, but in order to achieve this one needs a large amount of local data on land
cover and land use at the time of the satellite imagery.
Nevertheless, as a first attempt at mapping Swamp Forest at a regional scale, the mapping is
considered to be reasonably accurate, although ground-truthing is necessary in order to
statistically test accuracy. At this stage, the map is considered to be within 80-90% accurate,
based on a large body of student research in the area, as well as personal experience of the
area by several of the researchers in the present study.
Regional scale pattern of Swamp Forest distribution
The distribution of Disturbed and Pristine Swamp Forest in South Africa and Mozambique is
depicted in Figure 34 (South Africa) and Figure 35 (Mozambique) at a scale of approximately
1:600 000 and 1:400 000 respectively. Being a GIS product, maps can be produced at any
scale, although a scale of between 1:20 000 and 1:600 000 is best as at finer scales than 1:20
000, individual pixels become clearly visible and interpretation difficult. Swamp Forest
occupies a narrow band of low-lying terrain immediately to the west of the coastal dune
cordon on the coastal plain, where it occupies basins that are frequently associated with
coastal lakess. The Swamp Forests occur in landscape positions where the land surface (of
minerogenic material) occurs below the groundwater rest level. These areas are therefore
permanently flooded, creating conditions that lead to the accumulation of peat. Peat
comprises organic material (as opposed to minerogenic material), upon which the Swamp
Forests are situated. The distribution of Swamp Forest is therefore strongly linked with
elevation and groundwater rest conditions, which are largely a product of the
geomorphological history of the coastal plain and current groundwater conditions, which in
turn are governed largely by interactions between local rainfall, groundwater flow
characteristics and sea level.
Local scale pattern of Swamp Forest distribution
Within the region as a whole, it is clear that at the local scale, Swamp Forest either occupies
entire peat basins, or alternatively occurs on the western margin of large peatlands. This
94

latter pattern can be seen in the case of the Mfabeni Swamp on the Eastern Shores of Lake St
Lucia as well as the wetlands of the Mbazwane Stream to the north of St Lucia (Figure 34).
The more localised distribution of Swamp Forest is more difficult to explain as there are
many wetlands in a similar hydrogeomorphic position in the study area that are not forested.
The systematic occurrence of Swamp Forest on the western edge of peatlands, often
immediately east of a steep ancient coastal dune, led Schoultz (2000) to hypothesise that
Swamp Forest is situated in areas that are protected from hot, dry winds that occur during
winter (“berg winds”). Berg winds blow across the coastal plain from the west and dry out
vegetation sufficiently to sustain fire. In areas where these winds blow, vegetation is
susceptible to burning. Swamp Forest that occurs on the western edge of large peatlands
immediately to the east of an ancient dune, is protected from the direct effects of these winds,
which may account for their localised distribution on the coastal plain. Alternative
hypotheses have been proposed, including that they occur in areas where there is groundwater
flow across the landscape (Venter 2003).
Current status of CPSF in Maputaland
Based on the present study, approximately 94.0 km 2 of Swamp Forest was present in the
study area at the time of the satellite imagery, with 52.8 km 2 (56%) being Pristine and 41.2
km 2 (44%) being Disturbed (Table 12). South Africa supports a much greater area of Swamp
Forest (56.9 km 2 ; 61% of the total) than Mozambique (37.1 km 2 ; 39% of the total). Despite
this situation, about 50% of South Africa’s Swamp Forest was disturbed while only about
33% of Mozambique’s Swamp Forest was disturbed. Thus, the area of Pristine Swamp Forest
in South Africa and Mozambique are fairly similar.
Table 12: Estimates of the areas of Disturbed and Pristine Swamp Forest for the entire study area as well as for
For South Africa and Mozambique.
Whole Area South Africa Mozambique
Disturbed Pristine Disturbed Pristine Disturbed Pristine
Number of pixels 45833 58655 31686 31593 14147 27062
Area (m 2 ) 41249700 52789500 28517400 28433700 12732300 24355800
Area (km 2 ) 41.2 52.8 28.5 28.4 12.7 24.4
Within both South Africa and Mozambique, disturbance of Swamp Forest is typically in close
proximity of human settlements, and it takes place from the forest margin into the forest.
These forest margin habitats (ecotones) are likely to be extremely rich and productive areas
biologically. At this stage our knowledge of these systems is poor, and it is difficult to say
what the implications of this peripheral invasion of Swamp Forest are – except possibly that
Swamp Forest margins may have species that are dependant upon them, including species
that might be rare or endangered.
Extent of the former Pristine CPSF area
An analysis of case study areas has revealed that Swamp Forest has experienced both
expansion and reduction in the South African section of the coastal plain. In areas within
close proximity to commercial forestry, Swamp Forest has experienced remarkable expansion
95

– presumably as a consequence of fire exclusion to protect commercial plantations. This is
clearly illustrated in the case of the Swamp Forest north of Lake Sibaya (Manzengwenya
Forest), where a herbaceous peatland with scattered and isolated patches of Swamp Forest
totalling 93.2 ha expanded into a single extensive area of Swamp Forest of 238.6 ha over the
period of approximately 60 years from 1942 to 2002 (Figure 36). This probably occurred as a
result of the introduction of commercial forestry in this area in the 1950's, which was
associated with the exclusion of fire.
In contrast to this, a large area of Swamp Forest (Malangeni Forest) south of the
southernmost lake in the Kosi Bay system (Lake aManzimnyama) has contracted as a
consequence of human activity. An extensive area of Swamp Forest has been reduced in size
from 969.4 ha to 790.9 ha over the period from 1942 to 2002 (Figure 37). Our sense is that
this has been primarily to support agricultural activities by local people, but this needs to be
examined more carefully, which can be achieved by systematic analyses of aerial
photography as well as interviews with local people who have resided in the area for a long
time.
Different degrees of disturbance and damage
It is not possible at this stage to comment on different degrees of disturbance or damage, as
this could not be detected in the current satellite imagery for one or more of the following
reasons:
?? The spectral characteristics of various classes of Disturbed Swamp Forest are not
sufficiently heterogeneous to enable detection;
?? The spectral data of Landsat ETM may not be appropriate to differentiate various
classes of Disturbed Swamp Forest;
?? The pixel size (30m x 30m) of Landsat ETM may be too great to detect disturbance
that is spatially heterogeneous at a very fine scale – especially when one considers
edge effects of individual pixels.
Classes of disturbance and their extent within the project area
Based on our inability to detect different classes of disturbance, it is not possible to describe
their distribution or extent in the study area.
3.7.4 An assessment of trend
Given the contrasting processes of change with respect to Swamp Forest in Maputaland, it is
difficult without further investigation to report accurately on their current status and trend. In
any given landscape, vegetation processes lead to vegetation degradation or succession.
However, due to prolonged civil war in Mozambique where people moved into cities for
protection, the situation in rural Mozambique is likely to represent a situation of limited
human-induced disturbance, which we can consider reasonably natural. In Mozambique the
ratio of Disturbed to Pristine Swamp Forest is something like 33% Disturbed to 67% Pristine.
However, the values in South Africa are 50% Disturbed to 50% Pristine. This dramatic
contrast between the situation in South Africa and Mozambique suggests that accelerated loss
of Swamp Forest is taking place in South Africa compared to Mozambique, and since this is
96

an extremely rare vegetation type in South Africa (Venter 2003), this is cause for concern –
possibly alarm!
3.7.5 Outlook for further work
This study is ongoing and there will be additional attempts to verify the present maps with
the situation on the ground. Further investigation into the rates and cause/s of vegetation
change are also planned.
For the result maps see next section.
4.6 Annex Chapter 4
4.6.1 Characterisation of individual peatlands of Maputaland
97

LEGEND TO APPENDIX
Table 13. This table describes the individual peatlands of Maputaland:
Utilisation
Peatlands form the basis for the following activities:
· Source of water (W)
· Subsistence farming (G),
· Source of biomass, e.g. reeds used as building material,
· Fodder for animals,
· Plantations (PL), and
· Conservation and tourism activities
Vegetation
The main vegetation types covering peatlands are mentioned.
Vegetation Type
Vegetation Type
R Phragmites Reeds G Grasses
P Papyrus SF Swamp Forest (e.g. Syzygium cordatum, Ficus
species)
B Bullrush (Typha capensis) RF Riparian Forest
S Sedges V Ferns
Basin factor
A factor given to take the shape of a basin into account, when estimating the volume (m 3 ) of
a peatland based on the area and one or a restricted number of peat thickness. For example:
an interdune basin with very steep slopes will have a smaller factor (1/2) than a shallow basin
with shallow slopes (3/4):
Basin Shape
Peat -
Basin
Factor
Formula:
A x t x BF = m 3
A = area; t = thickness
Deep Basin:
Basin with very steep, high angle basin
slopes/dunes
Medium Depth Basin:
Basin with steep, high angle basin slopes/dunes
Shallow Basin:
Basin with shallow angle basin slopes/dunes
Very Shallow Basin:
Relative height and angle of basin slope/
Dunes meaningless in terms of the extent of
the width of the basin
1/2 A x t x 1/2 = 1/2 m 3
2/3 A x t x 2/3 = 2/3 m 3
3/4 A x t x 3/4 = 3/4 m 3
1 A x t x 1 = 1m 3
98

Ash Content
The ash content of peatlands were classified as:
· Low, with an ash content of less than 15 %,
· Medium, with an ash content of between 16 - 30 %,
· High, with an ash content of between 31 - 50 %, and
· Inorganic, with an ash content of mores than 51 %.
“N/A” indicates that the ash content is not available.
Peat resources
Peatland thickness is based on mostly one sample site per peatland. The peatland area and
peat volume is based on the wetland area in which the peat occurs. The symbol # refers to
for example: # 570 - The area or volume of a part of a peatland that forms part of the total
peatland area or volume of (for example) peatland number 570.
Peatlands with unknown thickness (about 5 % of the total) in the Tewati Wilderness area
and Dukuduku were not taken into account in the inferred resource estimation. This
study was executed on a regional scale. Small deposits of peat in the bigger wetlands
could also have been overlooked.
99

Table 14. Peatland Characterisation
Peatland
Name/No
Muzi-Oos
31
Position
S26°55'54"
E32°36'05"
Maximum
Known Age
(BP)
Peat
Thickness
(m)
0.80
Wetland
Utilisation
Gardens,
Water
Vegatation
Cover
Are
a
(ha)
Basin
Factor
Volume
(m 3 )
X 1000
R/S #570 3/4 #570
Ash
Content
(%)
Highmedium
Elevation (a.s.l)
(m)
45
Comments
Muzi-Oos
564
S26°55'24"
E32°36'05"
Org
Sand
Gardens,
water
R/S - - - High 40
Organic
Sand
Muzi-Oos
50
S26°54'50"
E32°36'
3.50
Biomass,
gardens,
R/S 90 3/4 1 957.5 4 200 ± 50 N/A 40
Muzi-Oos
Drif 54
S26°53'30"
E32°35'45"
Sand
Gardens,
Water
R/S - - - High 30 Sand
Muzi-Oos
569
S26°56'00"
E32°35'45"
1.40
Gardens,
water
G/S 45
Muzi-Oos
104
S26°53'11"
E32°36'02"
2.70
Biomass,
water
R/S 8 2/3 144 High 30
Muzi-Oos
570
S26°56'03"
E32°35'57"
1.00
Gardens,
water
R/S 30 3/4 225 N/A 45
Muzi-Oos
572
S26°56'26"
E32°36'09"
2.00
Gardens,
water
R/S 60 2/3 720 N/A 50
Peatland
Name/No
Position
Peat
Thickness
(m)
Wetland
cover
Area
(ha)
Basin
Utilisation
Vegatation
Factor
Volume
(m 3 )
X 1000
Maximum
Known Age
(BP)
Ash
Content
(%)
Elevation (a.s.l)
(m)
Comments
100

Muzi-Oos
573
Muzi-Oos
574
MUZI-OOS
TOTAL
Muzi-Oos-
Trib. 568
Muzi-Noord
106
Muzi-Noord
108
Muzi-Noord
193
Muzi-Wes
119
Lukwakwani
85
Mloli
183
Mloli
182
Mloli-Oos 180
Gazini
171
S26°56'47"
Gardens,
1.50
E32°36'28"
Water
R/S #572 2/3 #572 N/A 50
S26°57'
Gardens,
1.90
E32°36'30"
Water
R/S #572 2/3 #572 N/A 50
3 046.5
S26°55'55"
E32°35'08"
0.70 Water R/S 1 3/4 0.525 N/A 45
S26°52'52"
Gardens,
1.70
E32°36'21"
water
R/S 14 1 238 N/A 30
S26°52'16"
Gardens,
1.20
E32°37'04"
water
R/S 20 3/4 180 Medium 30
S26°52'09"
Gardens,
High-medium-high
2.30
R/S 26 3/4 448
E32°37'41"
water
30
S27°01'55"
Gardens,
3.20
E32°29'45"
water
R/S 3 2/3 64 High 30
S27°04'30"
Gardens,
1.85
E32°31'05"
water
G/S 5 3/4 69 N/A 55
S26°54'01"
Gardens,
2.10
E32°37'29"
water
SF 8 3/4 111 N/A 30
S26°53'48"
Gardens,
1.60
E32°37'28"
water
SF #183 3/4 #183 N/A 30
S26°54'07"
Gardens,
1.80
E32°37'51"
water
SF 8 3/4 111 N/A 40
S26°52'30"
Gardens,
2.00
E32°38'36"
water
SF 10 3/4 150 N/A 45
Cele S26°52'11" 0.40 Gardens, SF #293 3/4 #293 N/A 35
Organic
Sand/Clay
101

279 E32°46'14" water
Cele
293
Cele
281
Cele
280
Ndlovu
294
KuNkanini
222
Enkathweni
Wes 250
Enkathweni
Oos 261
Sileza
461
Majiji(58) 346
Ntombeni (16)
477
Ntombeni (16)
388
Ntombeni (16)
375
Mahashe 478
S26°52'23"
Gardens,
0.70
E32°46'25"
water
SF 15 3/4 79 N/A 35
S26°52'18"
Gardens,
Sand
E32°46'33
water
SF - - - High 35 Sand
S26°51'52"
Gardens,
1.00
E32°46'52
water
SF #293 - #293 Medium 35
S26°52'23"
Gardens,
2.00
E32°45'45"
water
SF 5 3/4 75 N/A 40
S26°56'58"
Gardens,
0.80
E32°46'41"
water
SF 8 2/3 43 N/A 20
S27°00'07"
Gardens,
1.80
E32°45'29"
water
SF 4 2/3 48 Medium 30
S27°00'34"
Gardens,
1.60
E32°46'30"
water
SF 3 3/4 36 N/A 30
S27°07'41"
E32°34'55"
1.30 Water R/S 7.5 3/4 73 N/A 75
S27°08'06"
Gardens,
Lowmedium
3.40
S/G 4 2/3 85 2 140 ± 70
E32°40'
water
70
S27°06'04"
E32°39'18"
0.50 Water S/G 6 3/4 22 N/A 70
S27°06'10"
Organic
0.50 Water S/G 73 1 - High 70
E32°39'20"
Sand
S27°06'22"
Organic
0.20 Water S/G #388 1 - High 70
E32°39'23"
Sand
S27°05'51"
2.60 Water S/G/P 15 2/3 260 Low-high 70
E32°39'43"
102

Mvelabusha
Noord 484
Mvelabusha
Noord 485
Siyadla
486
Siyadla
503
Siyadla
495
Mvelabusha
Sentr 366
Mvelabusha
Sentr 393
Mvelabusha
West 397
Mvelabusha
West 398
Vasi-Noord
425
Vasi
424
Vasi
423
Vasi
422
S27°05'30"
Gardens,
0.80
E32°41'50"
water
SF 31 2/3 207 N/A 55
S27°06'58"
Gardens,
1.20
E32°42'33"
water
SF #484 2/3 #484 High 55
S27°07'15"
Gardens,
1.20
E32°42'
water
SF 4.5 1 54 N/A 40
S27°05'18"
Gardens,
1.00
E32°44'34"
water
SF 63 1/2 347 N/A 35
S27°07'55"
Gardens,
Medium-
1.20
SF #503 1/2 #503
E32°44'07"
water
High
35
S27°07'58"
Gardens,
Name: Manzengwenya
2.30
SF 12 1 276 Low 45
E32°42'05"
water
S27°08'52"
Gardens,
0.50
E32°42'41"
water
SF 20 1 100 N/A 50
S27°08'41"
Organic
0.80 Gardens G/S 12 1 96 N/A 45
E32°43'23"
Sand
S27°09'32"
Gardens,
1.20
E32°43'20"
water
SF 6 1 72 N/A 50
S27°10'35"
Plantation
3.40
E32°42'59"
G/S 4.9 2/3 111 Low 55
S27°11'22"
Plantation
SF?
high
G/S
Medium-
3.40
#422 2/3 #422
E32°42'05"
55
S27°11'22"
Planta- G/S
Ash: see
1.50
#422 2/3 #422 # 424-1 55
E32°42'15"
tion
424-3
S27°11'22"
Planta-
Mediumhigh
2.50
G/S 210 2/3 3 453
55
E32°42'20"
tion
Vasi S27°11'56" 3.80 Gardens, G/S/R #422 2/3 #422 # 424-1 55 Ash: see
103

1231 E32°41'51" water SF? 424-1
S27°14'33"
Gardens,
0.60
E32°41'01"
water
SF #637 1/2 #637 High 35
S27°27'45"
Gardens,
0.50
E32°24'50"
water
R/S - - - High 50 Organic sand
S27°34'15"
Gardens,
Organic
0.85
R/S 240 2/3 1 360 High 20
E32°24'37"
Biomass
Sand
S27°07'40"
E32°34'58"
1.30 Gardens G 70
KuMzingwane
446
Tsongwe-
Muzi 1676
Muzi-Suid
1275
SILEZA
Sileza
461
Sileza
554
Sileza
555
TEMBE
ELEPHANT
PARK
Muzi-Wes
79
Muzi-Wes
76
Muzi-Wes
117
Muzi-Wes
118
S27°07'43"
Conservation
3.00
E32°36'
G/S 7.5 3/4 169 N/A 70
S27°08'50"
Conservation
0.50
E32°35'55"
G/S - - - N/A 70 Organic Sand
Biomass,
S26°53'07"
Mediumhigh
3.10 Conservation
R/S 18 2/3 372
E32°35'
35
S26°54'35"
E32°33'15"
2.00 Biomass R/S 82.5 2/3 110 High 35
S26°58'25"
2.80 Biomass R/S 106 2/3 1979 Medium 30
E32°30'47"
S26°59'59"
Ash: see
3.50 Biomass R/S 80 2/3 1867 N/A 30
E32°30'08"
# 117
Muzi-Wes S27°01' 1.85 Biomass R/S 18 2/3 153 High 50
104

116 E32°29'57"
MUZI-WES
TOTAL
4 481
MAPUTA
LAND
COASTAL
RESERVE
KuKalwe
317
KuKalwe
318
Ngweve
319
Kosibaai
288
Kosibaai
289
Kosibaai
287
Mtando
321
Apiesdraai
462
Matitimane
244
S26°52'45"
Gardens,
Low-
3.60
SF 11 1/2 217
E32°50'30"
water,
medium
5
S26°53'19"
Gardens,
4.30
E32°50'33"
water
SF #317 1/2 #317 4 640 ± 60 Medium 5
S26°53'
Gardens,
4.70
E32°51'23"
water
SF? 3 1/2 70 High 10
S26°53'25"
Conservation
0.50
E32°51'53"
SF - - - High 15 Organic Sand
S26°52'30"
Conservation
1.50
E32°52'40"
R/S 7 1/2 52 N/A 15
S26°53'50"
Conservation
0.50
E32°51'50"
S/G - - - High 15 Organic Sand
S26°56'48"
Conservation
0.50
E32°50'23"
SF 8 1 40 N/A 10
S26°57'13"
1.00 Water SF 4 3/4 30 High 20
E32°49'45"
S26°57'10"
Gardens,
6.10
SF 26 2/3 832 N/A 15
E32°48'56"
Water
Matitimane S26°57'30" 3.50 Gardens, SF #244 3/4 #244 N/A 15
105

233 E32°49'00" Water
Swamanzitrib.228
Swamanzitrib.236
Swamanzitrib.240
Swamanzi
241
Raffia Woud
327
Emyutshini-O
332
Emyutshini-W
331
KuShengeza
518
KuShengeza
521
Siyadla
522
Umphimbini-
N.wes 590
Umphimbiniwes
589
Umphimbini
562
S26°57'35"
Gardens,
0.40
E32°47'55"
Water
S26°57'48"
Conservation
3.25
E32°48'
S26°58'03"
Conservation
1.50
E32°48'05"
S26°58'10"
Conservation
1.65
E32°48'10"
S27°00'10"
1.30 Biomass
E32°48'40"
S27°00'44"
Gardens,
4.90
E32°47'25"
water
S27°00'49"
Gardens,
1.50
E32°47'19"
water
S27°01'25"
Gardens,
0.90
E32°47'
water
S27°03'07"
Gardens,
1.10
E32°46'54"
water
S27°04'53"
Conservation
0.65
E32°47'12"
S27°04'43"
Conservation
2.50
E32°48'15"
S27°05'10"
Gardens,
0.70
E32°48'5"
water
S27°04'42"
Conservation
0.70
E32°48'28"
SF #240 1/2 #240 N/A 15
SF #240 1/2 #240 N/A 15
SF 5 1/2 43 N/A 15
SF 3.5 2/3 38 N/A 15
Raffia
Palms
20 3/4 195 Low 5
SF 12 2/3 392 Medium 15
S/G 2 3/4 23 N/A 30
R/S 8 3/4 54 Medium 30
S/G 8 3/4 66 High 30
SF 3.5 2/3 15
Medium-
High
15
R/S 1 3/4 19 N/A 15
S/G - - - High 15
R/S 5 1/2 17 High 15
Organic
Sand
106

S27°04'55"
Conservation
1.00
E32°48'27"
R/S #562 2/3 #562 Medium 15
S27°05'37"
Conservation
1.70
E32°48'30"
R/S 0.3 2/3 5 N/A 15
S27°05'47"
Conservation
0.80
E32°48'30"
R/S #562 2/3 #562 High 15
S27°05'50"
Gardens,
0.90
E32°48'29"
water
R/S #562 2/3 #562 High 15
S27°06'45"
Conservation
1.20
E32°48'05"
R/S 0.25 1/2 2 N/A 15
S27°04'20"
Conser-
0.25
E32°45'15"
vation
R/S 15
24
Umphi.
561
Umphi.
559
Umphi.
560
Umphi.
557
Umphi.
556
Umphi.
591
UMPHIMBI-
NI TOTAL
Umphimbini
S.Oos 588
Usilahla
592
Usilahla
593
Nlangu Mire
Complex-
NMC:
583
NMC:
587
S27°06'16"
Conservation
3.50
E32°48'20"
R/S 8 2/3 187 N/A 15
S27°04'47"
E32°48'56"
2.00 Gardens S/G 2 3/4 30 High 10
S27°04'55"
Gardens,
Low-
5.30
S/G 3 1/2 79
E32°49'33"
water
high
10
S27°05'40"
Conservation
6.30+
E32°49'12"
R/S 15 2/3 630 N/A 15
S27°05'50"
Conservation
5.20
E32°48'46"
R/S 2.5 1/2 65 Medium 15
NMC: S27°06' 2.70 Conser- R/S 6 2/3 108 Medium 15
Organic
Sand
Organic
Sand
107

584 E32°49' vation
NMC:
581
NMC:
586
NMC:
579
NMC:
578
NMC:
577
NMC:
Nhlangu 575
NMC
TOTAL
KuWzndini
526
Ngxabano-
Noord 537
Ngxabano-
Suid 536
Sibayi
Mabibi
648
Mabibi
656
S27°05'55"
Conservation
2.35
E32°49'24"
R/S 7 1/2 82 Medium 15
S27°06'10"
Conservation
1.00
E32°49'32"
R/S 1.5 2/3 10 N/A 15
S27°06'20"
Conservation
4.20
E32°49'34"
R/S 2 2/3 57 Medium 15
S27°06'22"
Conservation
1.50
E32°49'40"
R/S 4 2/3 40 N/A 15
S27°06'35"
Conservation
6.25
E32°49'32"
R/S 16 1/2 500 N/A 15
Biomass,
S27°06'40"
Mediumhigh
8.65+ Conservation
R/S 40 1/2 1 730 7 000 ± 80
E32°49'05"
15
3 222
S27°07'35"
Gardens, R/S
Lowmedium
2.80
16 2/3 299
E32°47'
water SF
15 Clayey?
S27°09'15"
2.40 Water S/G 8 1/2 96 N/A 30
E32°47'15"
S27°10'
Gardens,
1.70
S/G 8.5 2/3 96 N/A 30
E32°46'38"
Water
S27°19'16"
Mediumhigh
3.20 Gardens S/P 15 2/3 320
15
E32°43'43"
S27°19'14"
Gardens,
Organic
1.00
R/S 36 3/4 270 High 15
E32°44'05"
water
Sand
108

S27°18'50"
Gardens,
1.90
E32°43'55"
water
S/G 2 2/3 25 N/A 15
S27°18'15"
Conservation
0.90
E32°44'30"
S/G 2.5 2/3 15 N/A 10
S27°18'55"
Conservation
0.50
E32°42'
S/P 5 3/4 19 N/A 30
S27°18'40"
Conservation
0.60
E32°42'30"
S/G 0.25 3/4 1 N/A 30
S27°18'40"
R/S/P
2.50 Gardens
E32°42'20"
SF
6 2/3 100 High 30
Mabibi
651
Mabibi
653
Mabibi-wes
643
Mab-w.
644
Mab-w.
642
Mab-w. 641
KwaMjiji
639
KwaMji.
638
KwaMji.
636
KuMzingwane
637
KwaNsukumbili
635
KwaNsu.
713
KwaNsu.
634
S27°18'05"
Gardens,
1.40
E32°42'
Water
S/G 1.3 1/2 87 N/A 35
S27°17'10"
E32°41'05"
0.80 Gardens R/S 1 3/4 6 N/A 20
S27°16'30"
E32°41'08"
1.60 Gardens R/S/P 8 1/2 64 High 20
S27°15'35"
E32°41'50"
1.00 Gardens R/S 13 2/3 87 N/A 40
S27°16'05"
Gardens,
2.50
E32°40'55"
water
SF 46 1/2 575 N/A 35
S27°16'27"
Garden, R/S/P
1.60
10 2/3 107 High 20
E32°40'48"
water SF
S27°16'27"
Conservation
1.80
P/B 1.5 2/3 18 N/A 15
E32°40'48"
S27°16'20"
R/S/P
2.90 Gardens
10 2/3 193 High 15
E32°40'03"
SF
Velindlovu S27°16'05" 5.30 Gardens P 45 1/2 1 192 2 820 ± 45 High 20
109

628 E32°39'05"
KwaSonto
624
S27°16'15"
E32°38'40"
KwaSonto S27°17'20"
629 E32°38'58"
KwaSonto S27°17'50"
712 E32°39'30"
KwaSonto S27°19'20"
617 E32°38'40"
KwaSonto S27°18'05"
612 E32°37'35"
KwaSonto S27°19'08"
711 E32°37'
KwaSonto S27°19'02"
611 E32°36'04"
KwaSonto S27°19'13"
600 E32°35'38"
Mseleni S27°20'45"
599 E32°34'05"
Mseleni S27°20'47"
597 E32°33'50"
Mseleni S27°21'06"
Sib-34 E32°32'50"
Mseleni S27°22'
709 E32°34'04"
Mseleni S27°21'42"
708 E32°34'30"
0.70
Gardens,
Organic
R/S 3.5 2/3 16 High 30
water
Sand
1.00
Conservation
P 3 3/4 22 N/A 30
2.00
Conservation
P 3 2/3 40 High 20 Clayey
1.20
Conservation
Sand
Organic
P 1.5 2/3 12 High 30
2.70 Gardens P/R/S 30 1/2 405 High 30
2.15
Conservation
B 2 2/3 29 High 20
0.90
Gardens,
water
B/S/P 10 1/2 45 N/A 30
2.60 Gardens
R/B
SF
30 1/2 390 High 30
2.20 Garden R/S 10 2/3 147 High 20
2.10 Gardens
P/R
SF
10 1/2 105 N/A 35
1.50
Gardens, SF,
water P/R/S
100 3/4 1 125 770 ± 50 High 15
0.60
Conservation
Sand
Organic
B - - - High 30
1.00
Conservation
S/B/P 2.5 3/4 19 N/A 20
110

Mseleni
710
Mseleni
707
KwaMboma
706
KwaMboma
705
KwaMboma
Sib-46
KwaMboma
702
KwaMboma
701
Mpini
Sib-51
KuSibayi
714
KuSibayi
Sib-53
KuSibayi
Sib-55
KuSibayi
Sib-56
KuSibayi
Sib-59
S27°21'30"
Conservation
0.50
E32°35'
S/G - - - High 20
S27°21'50"
E32°35'10"
4.50 Gardens P/R/S 2.5 1/2 56 High 20
S27°21'30"
Conservation
1.20
E32°36'35"
S/B/P 3 2/3 24 N/A 20
S27°21'20"
Conservation
B
R/P/S/
0.80
E32°36'50"
4 3/4 24 N/A 20
S27°22'30"
Conservation
5.50
E32°37'30"
P/R/S 15 1/2 412 4 120 ± 60 High 25
S27°22'20"
Conservation
2.45
E32°38'49"
P 7.5 2/3 122 N/A 20
S27°22'15"
Conservation
0.50
E32°39'30"
P - - - High 15
S27°24'05"
Conservation
1.20
E32°39'05"
SF 20 2/3 160 High 25
S27°23'07"
Conservation
High
Medium-
4.20
P 4 2/3 112
E32°40'09"
15
S27°23'56"
Conservation
0.50
E32°40'45"
R/S 1 3/4 4 Medium 15
S27°23'55"
Conser-
1.00
E32°41'05"
vation
20
S27°23'48"
Conservation
1.80
E32°41'20"
P/S 7 2/3 84 High 15
S27°25'14"
Gardens, P/R/S
1.40
E32°41'05"
water
5 2/3 47 # Sib-60 20
KuSibayi S27°25'25" 1.00 Gardens P/R/S 4 2/3 27 High 20
Organic
Sand
Organic
Sand
Ash:
# Sib 60
111

Sib-60
E32°41'02"
Shazibe
Sib-67
S27°29'08"
E32°40'08"
1.60 Water R/S 1 2/3 11 High 15
Shazibe
Sib-68
S27°29'30"
E32°40'04"
1.20 Gardens P/R/S 10 2/3 80 Medium 15
Shazibe
805
S27°30'48"
E32°39'50"
2.85 Water SF 150 1/3 1 425 Low 15
Siphudwini
1008
S27°30'59"
E32°38'00"
0.70 Gardens S/R #1008 1/2 #1008 High 15
Organic
Sand
Siphudwini
1010
S27°32'08"
E32°37'31"
1.60
SF/S/
V/P
37.5 1/2 412
Conservation
Lowmedium
15
Siphudwini
1011
S27°32'03"
E32°37'38"
3.25 Gardens SF #1008 1/2 #1008 Low 15
Siphudwini
1012
S27°31'51"
E32°38'22"
2.10 Gardens SF #1008 1/2 #1008
Mediumhigh
15
GREATER
ST LUCIA
WETLAND
PARK
Water,
Biomass
Siphudwini
S27°33'45"
E32°38'12"
2.10
Conservation
SF/S #1008 1/2 #1008 Medium 30
749
Mgobezeleni-
Oos 785
S27°32'25"
E32°39'38"
2.40 Gardens SF 16 1/2 152 1 100 ± 40
Lowmedium
10
Mgobezeleni-
Noord 801
S27°31'13"
E32°39'55"
0.40
Water,
Biomass,
G/S 7.5 3/4 22.5 Medium 10
112

Mgobezeleni-
Wes 1050
Sodwana
803
Sodwana
802
Sodwana
784
Sodwana
783
Mbazwana
Sib-70
Mbazwana
808
Mbazwana
816
Mbazwana
1044
Mkuze
Swamp 886
Mkuze
Swamp 887
Mkuze
Swamp 888
Gardens
Water,
S27°32'05"
1.50 Biomass,
E32°38'55"
Gardens
G/S 37.5 1/2 281 Low 10
S27°31'01"
Conservation
1.50
E32°40'02"
SF #784 2/3 784 Low 10
S27°31'07"
Conservation
1.00
E32°40'06"
SF #784 2/3 #784 Medium 10
S27°32'06"
Conservatiomedium
Low-
1.85
SF/S/R 70 2/3 910
E32°40'15"
10
S27°32'35"
Conservation
0.70
E32°40'25"
SF/S/R #784 2/3 # 784 Medium 10
S27°29'45"
Gardens,
1.35
E32°34'55"
water,
SF 70 2/3 630 Medium 50
S27°33'42"
Conservation
2.10
E32°35'17"
SF 45 2/3 630 Low 20
S27°36'44"
Conservation
1.10
E32°33'22"
SF 70 2/3 513 High 15
S27°34'15"
E32°33'28"
4.25 Gardens SF 25 1/2 531 Medium 30
S27°38'01"
Conservation
3.00
E32°32'38"
R/P/S 200 3/4 4 500 Low 10
S27°37'59"
Conservation
1.80
E32°32'33"
P/R/S #886 3/4 #886 # 886 10
S27°37'57"
Conservation
2.80
R/P/S #886 3/4 #886 # 886 10
E32°32'33"
Mkuze S27°37'58" 2.60 Conser- R/P/S #886 3/4 #886 # 886 10
113

Swamp 889 E32°32'30" vation
Mkuze
Swamp 890
Mkuze
Swamp 899
Mkuze
Swamp 900
Mkuze
Swamp 901
Mkuze
Swamp 902
Mkuze
Swamp 903
Mkuze
Swamp 904
Mkuze
Swamp 905
Mkuze
Swamp 906
Mkuze
Swamp 907
Mkuze
Swamp 908
Mkuze
Swamp 989
Mkuze
Swamp 991
R/P/V 664.5 3/4 2 940
Lowmedium
10
R/P/V #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
R/P/V #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
R/P/V #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
R/P/V #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
P/R # 992 3/4 # 992 # 992 10
P # 992 3/4 # 992 # 992 10
S27°39'24"
Conservation
4.40
E32°31'52"
S27°39'23"
Conservation
4.60
E32°31'48"
S27°39'23"
Conservation
4.10
E32°31'45"
S27°39'23"
Conservation
3.80
E32°31'43"
S27°41'50"
Conservation
5.50
E32°32'08"
S27°41'50"
Conservation
5.50
E32°32'06"
R/S #886 3/4 #886 # 886 10
P/S #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
B/S/P #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
R/P #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
R/P #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
R/P/V #904 3/4 #904 #904 10
S27°38'02"
Conservation
2.20
E32°32'41"
S27°39'24"
Conservation
4.60
E32°31'48"
S27°39'27"
Conservation
0.70
E32°32'08"
S27°39'25"
Conservation
1.60
E32°32'06"
S27°39'25"
Conservation
2.00
E32°32'02"
S27°39'24"
Conservation
3.80
E32°31'59"
S27°39'25"
Conservation
5.90
E32°31'56"
114

Mkuze S27°41'48"
Conservation
540 - 740
Clay
5.40
P/R 900 3/4 37 125 High 10
Swamp 992 E32°32'05"
Mkuze S27°44'45"
Conservation
130 - 150
Clay
1.30
P/V #1004 3/4 #1004 #1004 10
Swamp 998 E32°32'30"
Mkuze S27°44'44" 1.50 Conservation
150 - 350
Clay
P/V #1004 3/4 #1004 #1004 10
Swamp 999 E32°32'26"
Mkuze S27°44'42"
Conservation
120 - 280
Clay
1.20
P/R/V #1004 3/4 #1004 #1004 10
Swamp 1000 E32°32'22"
Mkuze S27°44'41"
Conservation
170 - 300
Clay
1.70
P/V #1004 3/4 #1004 #1004 10
Swamp 1001 E32°32'19"
Mkuze S27°44'44"
Conservation
170 - 300
Clay
1.70
P/R #1004 3/4 #1004 #1004 10
Swamp 1002 E32°32'15"
Mkuze S27°44'42"
Conservation
170 - 430
Clay
1.70
P/R #1004 3/4 #1004 #1004 10
Swamp 1003 E32°32'14"
Mkuze S27°44'41"
Conservatiohigh
210 - 440
Medium-
Clay
2.10
P 2000 3/4 31 500
10
Swamp 1004 E32°32'11"
Mkuze S27°47'18"
Conservation
70 - 260
Clay
0.70
R/P/V #1017 3/4 # 1017 # 1016 10
Swamp 1014 E32°32'27"
Mkuze S27°47'18" 0.70 Conservation
70 - 260
Clay
R/V/P #1017 3/4 # 1017 # 1016 10
Swamp 1015 E32°32'23"
Mkuze S27°47'22"
Conservation
115 - 250
Clay
1.15
R/P #1017 3/4 # 1017 Medium 10
Swamp 1016 E32°32'18"
Mkuze S27°47'21"
Conservation
S
150 - 240
R/P/V/
Clay
1.50
2000 3/4 22 500 # 1016 10
Swamp 1017 E32°32'10"
Mkuze S27°47'22"
Conservation
90 - 250
Clay
0.90
P/V/S # 1017 3/4 # 1017 # 1016 10
Swamp 1018 E32°32'03"
Mkuze S27°47'25" 0.70 Conser- V/P # 1017 3/4 # 1017 # 1016 10 Clay
115

Swamp 1019 E32°31'56" vation 70 - 200
Mkuze
Swamp 1020
Mkuze
Swamp 1037
Mkuze
Swamp 1038
Mkuze
Swamp 1039
Mkuze
Swamp 1040
Ozabeni
729
Ozabeni
764
Ozabeni
807
Ozabeni
838
Ozabeni
844
Ozabeni
846
Ozabeni
866
Ozabeni
871
S27°47'30"
Conservation
70 - 200
Clay
0.70
R/S # 1017 3/4 # 1017 # 1016 10
E32°31'45"
S27°50'11"
Conservation
150 - 240
Clay
0.40
P # 1038 3/4 # 1038 # 1038 10
E32°30'50"
S27°50'11"
Conservation
90 - 250
Clay
1.00
P/S 1500 3/4 11 250 N/A 10
E32°30'46"
S27°50'09"
Conservation
60 - 100
Clay
0.60
P/S # 1038 3/4 # 1038 N/A 10
E32°30'43"
S27°50'08"
Conservation
50 - 150
Clay
0.50
P/S # 1038 3/4 # 1038 # 1038 10
E32°30'40"
S27°34'57"
Conser-
0.50
S 0.8 40 25
E32°35'53"
vation
S27°35'12"
Conservation
0.50
E32°37'50"
R/S 140 3/4 690 Low 30
S27°33'84"
Conservation
0.80
E32°35'48"
G/S 1 3/4 6 High 25 Organic sand
S27°40'55"
Conservation
Sand
Organic
0.60
S 5.6 3/4 34 High 25
E32°34'25"
S27°39'22"
Conservation
1.10
E32°34'24"
S 9 3/4 74 High 25
S27°38'49"
Conservation
1.30
E32°34'23"
S 2 3/4 20 High 25
S27°36'07"
Conservation
1.00
E32°36'03"
S 1 3/4 7.5 High 25
S27°37'04"
Conservation
0.75
E32°35'43"
S 1 3/4 4 Medium 25
116

Ozabeni
872
Ozabeni
880
Ozabeni
883
Ozabeni
884
Bangazi-N
1199
Bangazi-N
780
Bangazi-N
781
Bangazi-N
1201
Bangazi-N
1202
Bangazi-N
1203
Bangazi-N
1204
Bangazi-N
1205
Bangazi-N
1206
S27°36'46"
Conservation
1.70
E32°36'21"
S 1.5 3/4 19 N/A 25
S27°37'46"
Conservatiohigh
Medium-
1.35
G/S 2 2/3 18
E32°33'28"
10
S27°38'27"
Conservation
0.80
E32°32'48"
S/SF 1.3 2/3 7 Medium 10
S27°38'15"
Conservation
1.30
E32°32'51"
G/S/SF 1.2 2/3 10 High 10 Organic Sand
S27°39'30"
Conservatiomedium
High-
4.75
R/S 1.5 2/3 47
E32°37'38"
15
S27°37'55"
Conservation
0.80
E32°37'28"
S 4.5 2/3 24 High 20
S27°38'05"
Gardens,
2.00
E32°37'45"
water
SF 4 2/3 53 Medium 20
S27°37'53"
Conservation
0.80
E32°37'45"
R/S 5 2/3 27 N/A 10
S27°37'52"
Conservation
3.20
E32°37'42"
SF 3.5 2/3 84 N/A 10
S27°37'49"
Conservation
2.30
E32°37'40"
SF #1202 2/3 #1202 N/A 10
S27°38'42"
Gardens,
0.80
E32°37'00"
water
S/R 0.5 2/3 3 N/A 15
S27°38'41"
Gardens,
Organic
2.10
SF 7.5 2/3 105 High 20
E32°36'55"
water
Sand
S27°38'40"
Gardens,
2.40
E32°37'32"
water
S/R 6.2 2/3 100 N/A 10
Bangazi-N S27°38'54" 1.50 Gardens, S/R 7.5 2/3 75 N/A 15
117

1207 E32°37'19" water
Bangazi-N
1208
Bangazi-N
1193
Bangazi-N
1194
Bangazi-N
1195
Bangazi-N
1196
Bangazi-N
1197
Bangazi-N
1199
Manzibomvu
1049
Manzibomvu
1055
Manzibomvu
1056
Manzibomvu
1057
Manzibomvu
1059
Manzibomvu
1060
S27°38'49"
Gardens,
1.70
E32°37'11"
water
S/R 0.3 2/3 3 N/A 15
S27°38'52"
Gardens,
1.40
E32°36'13"
water
SF 7 2/3 65 Medium 25
S27°39'21"
Gardens,
Medium-
6.20
SF 10 2/3 413
E32°36'42
water
high
15
S27°39'21"
Gardens,
3.00
E32°37'03"
water
SF 2.5 2/3 50 N/A 15
S27°39'21"
Gardens,
2.20
E32°37'07"
water
SF 2.5 2/3 37 N/A 15
S27°39'22"
Gardens,
1.20
E32°37'14"
water
S/R 2 2/3 16 Medium 15
S27°39'30"
Gardens,
Highmedium
4.75
R/S 2 2/3 63
E32°37'38"
water
15
S27°35'25"
Conservation
2.00
E32°26'37"
R/V 7.5 3/4 112 Medium 30
S27°35'44"
Conservation
0.50
E32°28'25"
S #1056 2/3 #1056 High 30
S27°36'21"
E32°28'25"
1.50 Gardens SF 12.5 2/3 125 High 30
S27°36'43"
E32°28'47"
1.00 Gardens SF/S 12.5 2/3 83 High 25
S27°36'41"
Conservation
0.50
E32°29'42"
S 7.5 2/3 38 High 25
S27°37'40"
Conservation
2.90
E32°30'37"
SF/P 18.7 2/3 363 Medium 15
Organic
Sand
Organic
Sand
Organic
Sand
118

Mdlanzi S27°38'26"
Gardens,
Water
2.70
P 150 2/3 2 700 High 15
1226 E32°28'07"
water
0 - 200 cm
Mdlanzi S27°38'25"
Gardens,
Water
2.70
P 60 2/3 1 500 N/A 15
1262 E32°28'55"
water
0 - 200 cm
Ntshangwe S27°39'12"
Gardens,
Organic
1.00
P 2.5 3/4 19 High 15
1229 E32°29'20"
water
Sand
Mbotsheni S28°01'10"
Conservation
Org. Sand
land
High
Wet/peat-
0.70
R/S 1 3/4 5
10
1235 E32°31'05"
Mosaic
MbotsheCni
Mbotsheni
1238
Kulaleni
1166
Kulaleni
1168
Kulaleni
1169
Kulaleni
1170
KwaDlembe
1157
KwaDlembe
1156
KwaDlembe
1152
S28°01'05" 1.00 Conser-
1236 E32°31'20"
vation
S28°00'59"
Conservation
1.00
E32°31'42"
S28°02'40"
Conser-
1.30
E32°31'15"
vation
S28°02'40"
Conservation
1.00
E32°31'28"
S28°02'49"
Conservation
0.50
E32°31'47"
S28°02'44"
Conservation
1.30
E32°31'49"
S28°04'23"
Conservation
2.25
E32°31'17"
S28°04'40"
Conservation
2.00
E32°31'25"
S28°05'52"
Conservation
1.5O
E32°31'43"
R/S 7.5 3/4 56 N/A 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
R/S 7.5 3/4 56 High 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
R/S 7.5 3/4 73 Medium 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
R/S 7.5 3/4 56 N/A 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
P/B/S 7.5 3/4 28
High
Wet/peat-
10
Org. Sand
land Mosaic
R/S 7.5 3/4 73 Medium 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
R/S/P 19 2/3 281 Medium 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
S/R 0.3 2/3 4 N/A 10
Wet/peatland
Mosaic
High
Wet/peat-
R/S 1 3/4 11
10
Org. Clay
land Mosaic
KwaDlembe S28°06'15" 2.00 Conser- R/S 1 3/4 15 N/A 10 Wet/peat-
119

1150 E32°31'42" vation land Mosaic
Sabhuku
1145
Sabhuku
1129
Bangazi-S
1163
Mfabeni
1113
Mfabeni
1114
Mfabeni
1126
Mfabeni
1125
Mfabeni
1064
Mfabeni
1124
Mfabeni
1123
Nkazana
1108
Nkazana
1066
Nkazana
1068
S28°05'28"
Conservation
Sand
Organic
0.50
SF 7.5 3/4 28 High 10
E32°30'50"
S28°06'39"
Organic
1.30 Garden SF 50 3/4 487 High 10
E32°30'38"
Sand
S28°06'27"
Conservation
Sand
Organic
0.70
R 5.6 2/3 26 High 10
E32°32'27"
S28°07'15"
Conservation
1.50
E32°30'50"
R/S/P 5 2/3 50 Medium 10
S28°07'28"
Conservation
3.25
E32°30'55"
R/S/G 120 2/3 2 600 Medium 10
S28°08'32"
Conservation
0.40
E32°32'05"
S 2.5 2/3 6 N/A 10
S28°09'02"
45 100 +
10.00 Water G/S 700 1/2 35 000
E32°31'30"
4900 - 3000
Low-high 10
S28°10'22"
Conservation
2.00
E32°30'35"
G/S/R 100 2/3 1 333 N/A 10
S28°09'10"
Conservation
V
S/R/P/
1.50
E32°32'18"
2 2/3 20 Medium 10
S28°09'27"
Conservation
Sand
Organic
1.00
S 3.5 2/3 23 High 10
E32°31'54"
S28°08'35"
Conservation
4.60
E32°30'23"
SF 60 2/3 1 840 N/A 10
S28°10'33"
Conservation
4.00
E32°30'02"
SF 160 2/3 4 266 Low-high 10
S28°11'22"
Conservation
Organic
0.50
S 12.5 2/3 41 High 10
E32°29'39"
Sand
120

Nkazana-east
964
S28°12'55"
E32°29'20"
2.40
Conservation
SF 8 2/3 128 High 10
St. Lucia
798
S28°18'25"
E32°26'55"
1.90
Conserv/
plantat.
S 0.6 3/4 5 High 15
St. Lucia
789
S28°19'10"
E32°25'48"
1.20
Conserv/
plantat.
S 8 2/3 101 High 10
St. Lucia
928
S28°21'40"
E32°25'50"
0.40
Conservation
S 1 3/4 3 N/A 10
St. Lucia
1179
S28°21'04"
E32°25'11"
0.50
Conservation
S 1 3/4 4 High 10
Organic
Sand
St. Lucia
1122
E28°22'55
S32°24'50"
0.70
Conservation
SF 3.7 2/3 17 N/A 10
St. Lucia
S28°22'35"
E32°35'30"
5.00
Clay
Conservation
R 10 Clay
St. Lucia
933
S28°23'01"
E32°24'49"
1.80
Conservation
R/S/P 10 2/3 120 High 10
Futululu
1250
S28°23'50"
E32°16'21"
4.75
Conservation
P #1251 1/2 #1251
Mediumhigh
15
Futululu
1251
S28°24'28"
E32°15'55"
6.50
Conservation
P 9 1/2 437 N/A 15
Dukuduku
1182
S28°22'35"
E32°22'22"
1.00
Conservation
SF 5 2/3 33 N/A 30
Nyalazi
959
S28°14'33"
E32°22'52"
1.00
Plantation
SF 3 2/3 20 High 40
Organic
Sand
121

4.6.2 Result maps
Figure 33: LANDSAT 7 ETM+ true colour composite image of study area
122

Figure 34. Distribution of pristine and disturbed Swamp Forest on the northern South African
coastal plain
123

Figure 35. Distribution of pristine and disturbed swamp forest on the southern Mozambique
coastal plain
124

Figure 36: Comparison of swamp forest distribution at the Manzengwenya Forest, South
Africa
125

Figure 37: Comparison of swamp forest distribution at the Malangeni Forest, South Africa
126

5 Socio-economic background and current utilization of the Kosi Bay
swamp forests (DK, JN)
5.1 Socio-economic background
5.1.1 A brief history the Kosi Bay area and utilization of its swamp forests
The Kosi Bay system is likely to have been subject to a long history of human use. Some of the
earliest and most accurate records of Stone Age Homo sapiens in Africa dating 100 000 years B.P.
have been obtained from Border Cave which is located approximately 75 kilometres west of the Kosi
Lake System. These people led a hunter-gatherer existence. More recent inhabitants moved into the
area from further north in Africa during the Iron Age, and records exist of Iron Age settlements in
Maputaland from around 400 AD, with evidence suggesting that slash and burn agriculture was
practiced by these communities. When the first Europeans observed northern Maputaland in the 16 th
centaury it was inhabited by the Thonga people, who practiced widely slash and burn agriculture as
well as relying on the area’s abundant natural resources, notably fish. More recently there has been a
movement into the area of Zulu speaking people and their influence. Today, while the home tongue of
some of the oldest residents is Thonga, for most people it is Zulu.
Although the Kosi Bay Lakes have had semi protected status through government departments from
the early 1950s, firstly through the Department of Forestry, followed by the Natal Parks Board and
then by the KwaZulu Bureau of Natural Resources (KBNR) in 1982, the area remained under the
primary control of local people (Davion 1995). The key structure through which local control was (and
continues to be) exercised is the Tembe Tribal Authority, which is headed by a chief or Inkosi, as well
as by his tribal councillors and Indunas. The Tribal Authority controlled the allocation of land, fish
trap sites and the basic way of life. The local people have for so long occupied Kosi Bay that they
experienced a wholesome people-environment balance through their ecologically-sound, traditional
harvesting practices (Kyle 1987). Kyle (1995) notes that even though people had lived around the
lakes for hundreds of years in relatively high densities (as described by Felgate: 1964) the system was
found by Begg (1978) to be one of the least spoilt in KwaZulu-Natal, and continued to supply
abundant fish and plant resources.
However, from the early 1980s, forces threatening this sound relationship between people and their
natural environment became apparent. Foremost amongst these forces was the rapid population
increase, fuelled, in part, by movement of refugees from southern Mozambique following the outbreak
of the civil war in that country in 1975. Over a 13 year period from 1975 to 1988, the Kosi Bay
population increased by 33% (Davion 1995). Increasingly, the swamp forests (considered as pristine
and environmentally sensitive), which fed into the Kosi Bay lakes, were being destroyed by local
people cultivating bananas and other cash crops in the swamp forests. Conservation officials viewed
this destruction with concern as posing a threat not only to the swamp forests but also to the overall
Kosi Bay lake system, and calls were made for the formal protection of the Kosi Bay swamp forests
(Zakrzewski 1988; Davion 1995).
This ultimately led to the Kosi Bay Nature Reserve being proclaimed by the KwaZulu government in
August 1988. This reserve is calculated to be approximately 11 000 hectares and includes almost all of
127

the Kosi Lake system and the Malangeni Swamp Forest. Following this proclamation, cultivation
within the reserve boundaries was forbidden and people were required to relocate to areas outside the
reserve (AFRA 1990; Davion 1995).
In the initial stages of the proclamation of the nature reserve, the exact amount and type of land that
was demarcated for conservation was not clear to all affected parties, and some locals were not
informed about important decisions such as erecting of game fences in areas of the reserve or the
removal of certain crops within the reserve (AFRA 1990). Aggravating the situation further was the
fact that some of the Indunas refused from the outset to co-operate with the KBNR. The end result,
therefore, was that the proclamation of the Kosi Bay reserve was largely a top-down process and
grassroots input was limited (AFRA 1990; Davion 1995). The proclamation of the reserve culminated
in the removal of locals within the demarcated boundaries. As a result, a Compensation Committee
established around 1989, extended services to try and ensure that people affected by the proclamation
of the Greater Kosi Bay Nature Reserve would be compensated. This committee was represented by
officials of the justice department, KBNR members and several members of the Tembe Tribal
Authority (AFRA 1990).
During the late 1980’s the KBNR estimated that there were approximately 158 homesteads (housing
an average population of 5 person’s per household) that were being affected. Some of these occupant
homesteads voluntarily moved out. Such movement was, to some extent, encouraged by rumours that
the government would be forcibly removing them at a future unspecified date. This movement resulted
in a disruption of the community’s organizational structure, and a feeling of living in an unstable
environment (AFRA 1990; Davion 1995). The people of Kosi Bay were offered compensation in three
forms:
?? Payment for the value of buildings, fruit trees, fields.
?? A relocation allowance for each family.
?? Transport services for relocation were provided free of charge.
Although such compensation seemed to be adequate for some, many of the locals refused such offers,
saying that they did not want the bureau’s compensation and that all they wanted was land (AFRA
1990; Zakrzewski 1988).
The Compensation Committee was seen as a positive tool by the KBNR, as they were responsible for
encouraging relocation and helping those ‘affected’, with the transition to conservation. However, the
removal of people has a serious impact on land and the current flow of benefits, in that people that are
removed from an area ultimately occupy another area that has already been inhabited. This has
resulted in the environment outside the Reserve being placed under greater pressure from activities
such as grazing and cultivation. Locals were angered at the fact that when they lived within the reserve
they were able to cultivate their fields and earn a lot of money from their crops; however, as a result of
relocation their earnings have now become minimal (AFRA 1990; Davion 1995). Presently,
approximately 1 000 people still remain living in the Reserve, on the eastern side of the Kosi Lakes.
The tensions and conflicts created by apartheid and the struggles against this system inevitably
affected natural resource conservation efforts on the ground. This has been all too true in the case of
Kosi Bay.
128

AFRA (1990) and Zakrzewski (1988) draw attention to the tensions that existed between the KwaZulu
government and the Tembe Tribal Authority even before the KBNR was formed. Under the apartheid
system, the KBNR existed as the nature conservation arm of the KwaZulu government, and so by
association they were “off to a bad start”.
With the dismantling of apartheid and the merging of KwaZulu with the rest of Natal, the KBNR
merged with the Natal Parks Board, which had previously been responsible for nature conservation in
those areas of Natal outside of KwaZulu. The merger took several years to complete, with the new
organization initially known as KZN Nature Conservation Services (NCS) then changing its name to
Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife. Despite all these changes, many local people still see the nature conservation
authority in the same generally negative light as before. Overall, the issues surrounding conservation,
conflict and local development remain much the same as they did a decade or so ago (Ridl 2003 Pers
comm. School of Law, University of Natal, Durban).
The local communities at Kosi Bay have erected tourist amenities within the Reserve, which the
government sees as illegal, but to the local communities it is a source of income and survival
(Herringto 2003). To quote again Dr. Scotty from the 2003 50/50 TV programme:
“…on the spectacular Kwa Dapha/ Banga Nek Peninsular between Third Lake and the sea, land is
being cleared at an alarming rate. Members of the community who want to get involved in tourism are
taking the initiative by staking their claims with the local chief before the big investors move in. In the
absence of Environmental Impact Assessments or EIA’s, many illegal developments are also shooting
up as word gets around that this will reinforce their land claims, much to the alarm of KZN
Wildlife…”
Regarding control of swamp forest cultivation in the Reserve, this has been aggravated by the fact that
enforcement has not been consistent. There have been times (particularly during a period after the
1994 elections) when no actions have been taken against people illegally cultivating in the Reserve
and then other times, such as recently, where several people have been arrested and prosecuted for
illegally cultivating in the Reserve. This is likely to lead to even greater resentment than if regulations
were strictly and consistently enforced.
During 2003, there was a march by the locals on the offices of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in order to
have their message heard that Nature Conservation and the community are not working coherently. Or
in other words, these people feel that Nature Conservation Authorities are not consulting with them
and as a result the communities want the park authorities to ‘leave their land’. The problem at Kosi
Bay has become so drastic that not only have the locals engaged in protesting, but these people have
resorted to removing fences on the border of the park as well as going within the reserve and chopping
down clumps of swamp forest, they have also threatened and intimidated park staff (Herrington 2003).
Their grievances stem partly from poverty, along with employment expectations that have not been
fulfilled and which were promised through much talked about tourism developments. To quote Dr.
Scotty Kyle (employee of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife) during a recent 50/50 television broadcast (see
Herrington 2003):
129

“Expectations have been raised in the past few years that tourism/ conservation can bring in a lot of
employment and benefits to the region, but the reality is, that probably, the ecotourism employment
potential of this area is so low, it’s really got no chance of saturating the local market for employment.
We need some alternative outside that can sap up those thousands of people who are hungry, who
need food.”
It is quite evident that they are also frustrated with restrictions placed on them in the interests of
conservation on what they claim is their own land. What it essentially reveals is that these
communities feel that they are getting an inferior deal and the park authorities are taking advantage of
them especially because a great proportion of them are illiterate and uneducated. They feel that they
have a right to utilize ‘their’ land to its full potential and that dealing with the issue of poverty is more
important than that of conservation. So, ultimately, one can say that, what went wrong in Kosi Bay,
was a result of a lack of communication between the development and conservation enterprises with
the Kosi Bay communities (Herrington 2003). To quote again Dr. Scotty from the same 50/50
programme:
“There’s a very difficult problem in the area just now, highlighted by that march a couple of weeks
ago and we obviously need to address serious communication problems, because there’s a lot of
people here who don’t understand what we’re trying to do in this area. What we are paid by the
government to do in this area.”
The complexity of the situation is revealed further in the words of Paul Ngubane, one of the leaders of
the recently held march where written demands were presented to Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife:
“The NCS (Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife) and the march committee kick-started negotiation process,
immediately after the march hence the involvement of the Tembe Tribal Authority and the Greater St
Lucia Wetlands Park Authority. Accordingly certain agreements were reached albeit eclipsed by the
lack of a strategic approach to the resolution of the conflict, from all parties. The negotiations
breakdown was a result of that condition. The parties deadlocked on the technical process, which was
essentially, the refusal by the Government bodies to respond to the committee’s demands in writing
and insisting on talks. The deadlock demonstrated a high degree of lack of confidence of the parties.
The committee regarded the Tribal Authority as an obstacle precisely because of the lack of
confidence and because of its ambiguity on the conservation conflict” (Ngubane 2003).
Clearly, there is dire need for a commonly agreed upon process and structure for resolving the
conflicts and organizational difficulties that exist both between community structures and conservation
bodies as well as within the respective structures themselves. In the Kosi Bay community, for
example, there are different factions, which make finding a common solution more difficult (James
2003. Pers. comm. Greater St Lucia Wetland Park Authority, St Lucia). Without an agreed upon
process and structure from which to work, exercising control over resource use is going to become
increasingly difficult.
130

5.1.2 The socio-economic status of the Kosi Bay Area
Background
The former homeland of KwaZulu is divided into 26 magisterial districts. These districts are further
disaggregated into a number of wards. The Kosi Bay Nature Reserve is located in the Tembe ward,
which is recognized as one of the largest wards in KwaZulu Natal (Davion 1995).
In the early 19 th century many South Africans saw Kosi Bay and surrounding areas as one of the
wealthiest regions in the country. This wealth was seen with regard to natural resources and aesthetic
beauty, despite the fact that it was considered an area of underdevelopment. However, during the 20 th
century, the region’s socio-economic status seemed to have declined dramatically, resulting in parts of
Maputaland being considered as areas of socio-economic crisis. This was due to harsh environmental
conditions and natural disasters in the form of droughts and floods as well as the additional process of
underdevelopment (AFRA 1990).
In the past, migration of locals out of the Kosi Bay area brought with it many negative social and
economic effects. Migrancy divests the region of actively capable people. The decrease in labour has
directly affected agricultural output and has contributed to a transformation from self-sufficiency to a
dependence on migrant income, and over-refined food from trading stores. The most significant effect
of migrancy was the fact that male migration was most common, and as a result of this, family
structures were altered, thus creating female -headed households (AFRA 1990; Zakrzewski 1988).
Studies carried out in the 1970’s and early 1980’s amongst two Kosi Bay communities indicated that
communities were in extreme poverty. The study revealed that all households engaged in cultivation,
however, none were self-sufficient. It was found that during this period households in the Ingwavuma
district were predominantly dependant on migrancy income (Webster 1986). The decline in the South
African economy during the 1980’s led to a high percentage of unemployment. This had a devastating
impact on the people living in the Kosi bay area, so much so that the unemployment rate in the area as
of 1987 was 52% for men and 89% for women.
Present Socio-Economic Status of people in the Kosi Bay area (data source: National Census)
Socio-economic status is taken to refer to a household’s access to productive wealth, information,
knowledge and participation in social organizations. The statistics below, based on data derived from
Statistics South Africa, National Census (1996 and 2001) are for the Tembe Ward, which encompasses
Kosi Bay.
The statistics indicate that the birth rate in the area has decreased from the year 1996 to 2001. The age
group of 15 to 34 is the most prominent in the population.
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Age
Persons 1996 2001
%
change
0 to 4 1351 1203 -10.95
5 to 14 2756 2877 4.39
15 to 34 3612 3600 -0.33
35 to 64 1632 1755 7.54
Over 65 586 723 23.38
Figure 38. Age classes Maputaland
Although there seems to be a slight increase in completed education levels, especially that of higher
education levels, education levels remain fairly low.
Highest education levels attained by over 20 year olds
Persons 1996 2001
No
schooling
%
change
2211 2295 3.80
Some
primary
Complete
primary
673 792 17.68
253 207 -18.18
Secondary 684 852 24.56
Grade 12 373 492 31.90
Higher 50 186 272.00
Figure 39. Highest education levels attained by over 20 year olds
Although the number of people employed has increased from 1996 to 2001, the number of people
unemployed has also increased during this period. There has been an improvement in the category of
people not economically active.
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Labour force
Persons 1996 2001
%
change
Employed 665 897 34.89
Unemployed 1384 1449 4.70
Not
economically
active
Total labour
force
3489 3048 -12.64
5538 2346 -57.64
Figure 40. Labor Force
The area has experienced a decline in the agricultural industry from 1996 to 2001. However, there has
been a prominent boom in community-based industries, as well as financial services and the wholesale
industry.
Industry
Persons 1996 2001
%
change
Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing 14 9 -35.71
Community/Social/Personal 276 411 48.91
Construction 22 18 -18.18
Electricity/Gas/Water 0 3 -
Financial/Insurance/Real
Estate/Business
24 48 100.00
Manufacturing 9 9 0.00
Mining/Quarrying 11 9 -18.18
Other - 0 -
Private households 130 102 -21.54
Transport/Storage/Communication 12 30 150.00
Undetermined 130 216 66.15
Wholesale/Retail 50 111 122.00
Figure 41. Industry
From 1996 to 2001 there has been a rapid increase in technical occupations, there has also been an
increase in the number of clerical and service worker positions occupied.
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Occupation
Persons 1996 2001
%
change
Craft/Trade 78 18 -76.92
Elementary 176 168 -4.55
Legislators/Senior
officials
Unspecified/Not
economically
classified
Plant/Machine
operators
12 36 200.00
- 0 -
21 21 0.00
Professionals 154 51 -66.88
Service workers 70 108 54.29
Agricultural/Fishery 12 6 -50.00
Technicians 35 231 560.00
Undetermined - 255 -
Clerks 33 81 145.45
Figure 42. Occupation
A great proportion of the population does not have an annual household income. Approximately 50%
of the households in the area receive annual incomes in the region of R4801 – R9600.
Annual household income (2001)
Households 2001
None 870
R1 - 4800 246
R4801 - 9600 471
R9601 - 19200 213
R19201 -
38400
R38401 -
76800
R76801 -
153600
R153601 -
307200
195
75
33
6
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R307201 -
614400
R614401 -
1228800
R1228801 -
2457600
Over
R2457600
0
6
6
0
Figure 43. Annual household income (2001)
From 1996 to 2001 there has been an increase in the number of households that do not have
sanitation facilities. However, some households by the year 2001 were able to obtain flush and
chemical toilets as well as flush septic tanks.
It is evident that there has been a drastic increase in the number of formal dwellings from 1996 to
2001 and there has been a subsequent decrease in traditional dwellings. There has also been a slight
increase in informal dwellings.
Dwelling type
Households 1996 2001
%
change
Formal 543 1395 156.91
Informal 6 84 1,300.00
Traditional 1008 639 -36.61
Other 6 3 -50.00
Total
households
1571 2121 35.01
Figure 44. Dwelling types
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Sanitation
Households 1996 2001
%
change
Flush toilet 15 132 780.00
Flush septic
tank
Chemical
toilet
- 66 -
- 435 -
VIP - 162 -
Pit latrine 785 300 -61.78
Bucket
latrine
0 3 -
None 773 1029 33.12
Figure 45. Sanitation
5.2 Current and alternative future land-use options in Kosi Bay’s Peat Swamp Forests
5.2.1 Rationale and objectives
The swamp forests associated with Kosi Bay are coming under increasing pressure from local farmers,
as highlighted in 5.1 and 5.3. From an environmental and biodiversity point of view this is seen as a
considerable threat to the swamp forests. How then is this to be addressed? By beginning with the
people who are seen as “the problem”. Simply put, unless we see the situation from the perspective of
the people using the system and understand how they make their particular land-use choices and what
they are “doing on the ground”, we are going to be ill-equipped to promote any conservation or wise
use of Kosi Bay’s swamp forests. An investigation of local people’s utilization of the swamp forests
was therefore undertaken with the following specific objectives.
?? Undertake a field based survey of current utilization of CPSFs within existing cultivated
swamp forest plots (based on a questionnaire survey of farmers and a rapid visual description
of individual agricultural plots)
?? Undertake a qualitative appraisal of the contribution of swamp forest resources to the
livelihoods of local people
?? Examine alternative land-use options to that of CPSF cultivation
?? Recommend best Management Practices and alternatives, with reference to the above research
findings and to established guidelines developed internationally for the wise use of peatlands
Section 5.1 dealing with “Historical background and socio-economic context of the CPSFs of Kosi
Bay” provides the context for this investigation, which is also closely aligned with a later section
dealing with land tenure issues and the operations of major landholders (5.3).
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5.2.2 Methodology
Eight different swamp forest areas, from Cele and Kukalwe in the north, Mashayinyoni, Nkanini,
Ngozini and Manguze in the central area, to Syadla and Malangeni in the south, were purposively
selective to include a variety of different management and socio-economic contexts. Although areas
inside the Nature Reserve were included, the focus was primarily on areas outside the reserve,
including communities known to be relatively poor and communities known to be “better off”. In each
area, semi-structured interviews were conducted with users encountered within their swamp forest
plots, 33 individual farmers in total. The information gathered during these interviews included:
?? Size of the field
?? Length of time the field has been cultivated
?? Other fields owned by the user
?? Production practices (e.g. use of fallow periods)
?? Types of crops grown and a visual estimate of their cover in the plot
?? Contribution of the food produced in the swamp forest field to the needs of the household
?? Extent of sale of crops produced from the field and types of crops sold
?? Problems encountered in production
?? Natural resources used from the swamp forest (e.g. Raphia palm fronds)
?? Other general issues relating to use and access to swamp forests
Notes were also taken of the biophysical features of the site and the extent of artificial drainage
present in the plots and, based on this, a visual estimate was undertaken of the extent of hydrological
modification of each plot. Two local guides, Patrick Tembe and Senzo Hobe, carried out translation
during the interviews.
Of relevance to exploring alternatives to cultivation of the swamp forests is to understand better the
cultivation that is taking place outside of the swamp forests - what constraints are present, how are
individual farmers addressing these, and what can be done to improve production. While resources did
not allow this to be formally investigated in this study, it was addressed informally through openended
interviews with a few key informant farmers, and Department of Agriculture personnel and by
observations in the field during the course of the survey.
5.2.3 Results of the survey of individual plots
The questionnaire survey
The plots samples were found to vary in size from less than 0.01 ha to 3 ha, but with most plots falling
within 0.1-1.0 ha range (see Figure 46). As would be expected, plots used for household food
production tend to be smaller than those geared primarily for production for the market. Households
vary greatly according to the scale and mode of production. At one end of the scale are those
cultivating less than a 0.1 ha, primarily for home consumption. These farmers tend to be women, often
working on their own. Next are those farmers cultivating medium-sized areas (usually 0.10-0.50 ha
hectares) where, in most cases food produced is for both home consumption and sale. Next are farmers
cultivating 0.51-1.00 ha, where, although production for household consumption is significant,
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production is generally geared more for sale. Although some of these households employ additional
labour, plots are worked primarily by household members, despite their larger size. Here it is common
to find husband and wife teams working for several full days a week on their plots. Finally, we find a
few larger-scale farmers cultivating more than a hectare, mainly for commercial purposes. Bananas are
the most favoured crop amongst these farmers, who are mainly males using paid labour.
Percentage frequency
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.00 ha
Plot size classes (ha)
Figure 46. Size class distribution of cultivated plots (n=33) in the swamp forests of Kosi Bay
The length of time areas have been cultivated varies considerably from some fields that were
established less than two years ago, to areas, which have been cultivated by the same family for
several generations.
Fallowing of croplands is widely practiced particularly on the wetland margins (51% of the farmers
indicating that they practice some form of fallow, although for some farmers this is for only a small
proportion of time relative to the time cultivated). Several farmers indicated that fallowing is not
required in the wetter peat dominated areas because of the high fertility of these areas, while others
indicated that although they understand the benefits of resting the land, they do not have enough land
in which to do so.
The most widely grown crops within swamp forest plots are bananas and madumbes (Colocasia
esculenta) followed by sweet potatoes, cassava and sugar cane (see Table 15). Bananas and madumbes
make up the bulk of the crop cover, followed by sweet potatoes (Figure 47). For the larger scale
producers (see Section 5.3), not included in this survey, bananas would occupy a still larger
proportion.
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Table 15. Frequency of occurrence of different crop types and natural resources amongst the 33 plots
described
Crop types in cultivated swamp forest
Crop type
Avocados*
Bananas
Beans*
Beatroot*
Cabbage*
Carrots*
Cassava*
Cucurbits
Green pepper*
Ground nuts*
Lettuce
Madumbes
Maize*
Mangoes
Onions*
Pepper*
Spinach
Sugarcane
Sweet potatoes
Tomatoes
Percentage
frequency
3
79
3
6
42
9
64
27
3
9
21
79
27
9
48
3
36
52
70
33
Natural resources obtained from
untransformed swamp forest
Natural resource type
Berries
Fruit, other
Mangoes (naturalized trees)
Medicinal plants
Sedges
Reeds
Wood
Percentage
frequency
3
3
15
6
6
9
48
* These crops are confined almost entirely to wetland margin plots and to the uppermost drier portions
of swamp forest plots, and are largely absent from within the peatland swamp forests.
Onions
cabbages
cassava
madumbes
bananas
sugarcane
sweet potatoes
Figure 47. Proportional cover of the most frequently occurring crops, based on the visual estimate of
cover from the 33 plots
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Location of the crops within the garden varies according to crop type. Madumbes, in particular,
together with bananas and sometimes sugar cane, occur in the wettest portions of the garden, with the
other crops such as cassava being confined to the drier fringes or on significantly raised beds within
these areas (see table 15). Crops such as onions and maize were notably absent from the wetter areas.
Newly established plots are typically planted to madumbes, followed shortly by bananas. The two will
continue to be grown together but as the bananas become progressively more established over the next
few years, the amount of madumbes grown is reduced, and in some cases phased out entirely within
the plot.
Almost all households reported that their wetland gardens contributed significantly to the household’s
food supply. Although this could not be quantified, many farmers spoke of the critical contribution
that the two primary root crops, madumbes and sweet potatoes make to the household’s food security.
Some mentioned how vital these areas are to providing nourishment especially to the children in the
household. The nutrition value of madumbes is high, with the corms having small starch grains
making them easily digestible and very suitable for infants (Shanley 1966). Madumbes, together with
sweet potatoes, provide an important source of diversity (in terms of dietary elements such as minerals
and trace elements) to local people’s primary staple food, which is maize meal. The swamp forest
plots also provide an important source of green leaf material from cucurbits and spinach, both widely
cultivated in the swamp forest plots.
Of the farmers interviewed, 73% indicated that they sold at least some of their produce. The level to
which these farmers sell their produce varies considerably amongst the farmers. These range from
those focused on household food production (but with some sale of excess taking place) to plots that
are geared primarily for the production of crops for sale. In an area where formal employment
opportunities are very limited, the income derived by medium- and larger-scale swamp forest farmers
may be substantial from the perspective of the individual household. Sale of produce is confined
almost entirely to four crops: bananas (55% of households selling), madumbes (52%), sugar cane
(18%) and sweet potatoes (12%).
Problems encountered by the farmers in the production of their crops included the following.
?? Many farmers (27%) reported damage to crops by Bushpigs in particular and also monkeys,
particularly those with plots in the Reserve or in close proximity of the Reserve.
?? Excessive waterlogging, particularly in the year 2000, was reported by 21% of the farmers.
?? Stealing of produce from the field was cited as a problem by 18% of the farmers.
?? Interference by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife was reported by all farmers cultivating within the
proclaimed Nature Reserve (i.e. 18% of the interviewed farmers) as a major problem for them.
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?? Soil fertility was reported by 15% of the farmers, particularly those with fields confined mainly to
the margins. Fertility of the wetter peatland areas was reported to be generally good.
?? Pests, particularly during summer, were cited by 15% of the farmers.
Other less frequently cited problems included: difficulties in marketing of produce, damage by rats,
damage by mole rats, expense of having to buy manure (for wetland margin areas), the difficulty of
clearing forest to establish plots, and health problems of individual farmers, which limits the strength
that they have for working in the fields.
The interviews with individual farmers did not probe deeply into the underlying factors influencing
their cultivating in the swamp forest. However, the following would appear to be some of the
important factors, with their relative importance varying from household to household.
?? Food for the family
?? A source of income
?? A means of “holding/re-gaining claim” to land
?? As a “political statement” (e.g. concerning denied access to land)
?? Social function, where gardens are grouped closely and the individual farmers interact with one
another
The extent of use of natural resources from the forest amongst the farmers interviewed was found to
be relatively low, with the most widely being wood used for building and fencing (see table 15). Much
higher levels of use of the natural vegetation have been recorded for wetlands such as Mbongolwane,
KwaZulu-Natal, where 70% of local people utilize the wetland for sedges or reeds and 36% for
livestock grazing. Thus, the contribution of swamp forest to local people’s livelihoods is primarily
through the conversion of these areas to agricultural fields. The value that the swamp forests have to
local farmers an intact state is fairly limited. It must be noted, however, that the survey did not include
other occupations, notably traditional healers and medicinal plant gatherers, for whom intact swamp
forest may be much more important.
Patterns emerge in the areas sampled in terms of the types of users and their different socio-economic
circumstances in the different areas sampled. In the lower Nkanini area, swamp forest garden plots are
worked primarily by middle-aged to elderly woman. They do so on their own or with varying level of
assistance from other members of the family, usually her daughter/s. They appear to be relatively poor
families, with the main source of income often from a single pension. In the upper Nkanini area,
wetland gardens are held by households that are generally more well off and who employ individuals
to work in their fields. The owners of these gardens generally have alternative sources of income (e.g.
own a shop). Although being involved in planning the farming operations, many do not get involved in
the physical work in the field, but this does not apply to all. Plots vary from small to large. In the
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lower Syadla area, wetland gardens are worked mainly by young to middle aged (both males and
females). Often at least two members of the family are actively involved. While paid assistants may
undertake temporary work, family members undertake most of the work. These families appear to be
relatively poor, and individual members walk significant distances (for some a round trip of over 20
km) to work in their fields each day, which are situated inside the Nature Reserve. Plots tend to be
intermediate to large and geared for production for sale. In the Manguze area, farmers appear to be
mainly women producing food for household consumption in small plots, with some limited selling of
excess taking place.
5.2.4 The rapid visual appraisal of plots
Based on the survey, it can be seen that the majority of the plots are having at least a moderately high
impact on the hydrology of the plot area as a result of the artificial drains and/or raised beds (Figure
48). The cumulative impacts of the collective plots are discussed in Section 2.3.1.
Percentage frequency
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hydrological modification
No drains or raised
beds
Low level of
modification
Moderately high
level of
modification
Very high level of
modification
Figure 48. Level of hydrological modification of surveyed swamp forest plots (n=30) based on a
subjective visual appraisal of the extent of artificial drains and raised beds in the plot, ranging from
those with none to those with considerable modification
During the survey, very few signs of active erosion were observed in the plots visited. Farmers also
did not report erosion as a problem. The peatland swamp forests occur in relatively low energy
environments where erosion forces tend not to be very high. Owing to the very high infiltration rates
of the sandy soils, surface runoff from the surrounding slopes is relatively low. It should be cautioned,
however, that the risks of erosion taking place in very high flood events (e.g. a 1 in a 100 year event)
are not known and may be significant.
As discussed in more detail in Section 2.3, the drainage and cultivation of a swamp forest area has
three main environmental impacts:
?? Removal of indigenous trees and other vegetation, leading to the complete destruction of habitat
for both fauna and flora and a reduction in vegetation cover.
?? The gradual loss of the upper layers of peat as a result of the loss of most of the peat forming
processes, together with accelerated breakdown of the peat formed under historical conditions.
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?? The above two impacts result in a secondary impact on the hydrology of the swamp forest system,
which has potential consequences for the hydrology and state of the overall lake system,
depending on the scale of swamp forest destruction.
It would appear, however, as reported in Section 2.3, that the swamp forest is fairly resilient - if
agricultural fields are abandoned and drains blocked the forest species re-establish fairly rapidly, and
the original peat forming processes are resumed. In many respects the traditional low external-input
agricultural practices found in the swamp forests have a high level of environmental sustainability.
Biocides or artificial fertilizers are used sparingly or not at all, cultivation is totally by hand, external
energy requirements (and associated CO 2 emissions) are very low, and levels of soil erosion appear to
be low. This contrasts with many mainstream commercial agricultural farms, which are characterized
by a high level of external energy input associated with mechanized operations and high levels of
artificial fertilizer and biocide application. The value of these traditional methods needs to be
emphasized and encouraged.
Nevertheless, the current scale of agricultural activity taking place in the Kosi Bay swamp forests is so
great (see Section 4) that even with low impact traditional methods, the cumulative impact of the
multitude of individual plots is considerable. Many of the swamp forest tongues lying outside the
Nature Reserve have been almost totally transformed to agricultural lands (see Plates 1i and 1j, table
17 in the appendix of this section). No space is therefore left to allow the agricultural plots to rest
while cultivation takes place elsewhere and no rejuvenation of the peat can take place, as was
traditional practice.
5.3 An examination of alternative land-use options
5.3.1 Approach used in identifying alternatives
In examining alternatives to swamp forest cultivation it is important to begin by reviewing the results
of the survey. The survey indicates that in its intact natural state, the swamp forest is currently not of
great direct value to local people. Although many households use it for wood, only some of the
households obtain other swamp forest resources. Furthermore, as more and more households use
modern materials such as cement blocks for building, the requirement for wood is declining. Wood
can also be obtained from outside the swamp forest (i.e. it can be substituted). Thus, at best, the direct
contribution to the livelihoods of local households by natural swamp forest is modest for some
households and small for the remaining households. Furthermore, swamp forests are seen to harbour
Bushpigs and monkeys that cause crop damage. Bushpigs are particularly destructive – some farmers
reporting loosing more than half of their madumbe crop to Bushpigs. In the words of one of the
farmers “We feed the pigs!“
The modest direct contribution of swamp forests to local livelihoods contrasts markedly with some
other wetland types found in South Africa, particularly some of the herbaceous wetland types
dominated by grasses, reeds and sedges. These wetlands often provide multiple direct benefits
including livestock grazing, especially during critical dry periods when cattle have little alternative
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grazing lands. These herbaceous wetlands may also supply unique and highly sought after craft plants
such as incema, and reeds for construction purposes (see Kotze et al. 2002). All of these are difficult
to substitute with resources from outside of the wetland. Where a natural wetland provides a high level
of multiple direct benefits to local people, there is a strong local incentive not to transform too much
of the wetland to agricultural land. Unfortunately, however, this does not apply to the Kosi Bay
swamp forests, where the direct benefits of converting the swamp forest to agricultural land are
generally far in excess of the modest benefits currently being derived directly from natural swamp
forest. The challenge, therefore, is to find alternative ways through which value can be added to
natural swamp forests for local people. Based on the investigation reported on in Section 5.2.3 and
discussions with Department of Agriculture staff and other stakeholders, the following potential
alternatives to CPSF cultivation were identified.
?? Tourism, particularly that linked closely to a “swamp forest experience”
?? Enhanced productivity of upland household gardens
?? Enhanced productivity of upland field crops
?? Enhanced productivity of wetland margin gardens
?? New commercial crops (e.g. geraniums for essential oil production) in upland areas
?? Cultivation of Raphia palm in degraded swamp forest
?? Craft production from sedges
?? Forestry plantations in upland areas
Each of these potential options is examined individually in Section 5.4.1-5.4.9, but nevertheless
recognizing that the solution is likely to lie with a blend of several different alternatives. The
assumption implicit in all of these alternatives is that if local people are assisted in gaining benefits
from alternative land-uses to that of cultivating in the swamp forests then this will serve as a “carrot”
to draw farmers out of the swamp forests. But several key issues around resource use will need to be
addressed in parallel for this assumption to hold. For example, mechanisms to control resource use
require strengthening so the use of a “carrot” can be supported by a “stick” (see Section 5.4.7).
5.3.2 Tourism
Tourism has been hailed as a promising means of adding value to the natural areas contained within
GSWP, and is considered as pivotal in the economic development of the Maputaland Region.
Furthermore, Kosi Bay is described as the crown jewel of the GSWP. Tourism therefore deserves
attention as one of the most promising alternatives to swamp forest cultivation at Kosi Bay. However,
for tourism to achieve this, several issues relevant to Kosi Bay need to be addressed.
Firstly, people currently engaged in swamp forest cultivation may not look favourably on putting
down their hoes for some occupation in the tourism sector and may not have the capacity to perform in
this new role. For many farmers, farming is a way of life with which they are familiar and they may be
uncomfortable entering a new and unfamiliar occupation. It is important to recognize, however, that as
time passes to the next generation it is likely to become easier to attract people into the tourism sector
compared with agriculture. Many of the farmers are from the older generations, with the younger
generations having less interest in participating in agriculture.
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Secondly, the new tourism enterprises will need to involve a significant number of local people and
mechanisms must be present to ensure that the agricultural lands that are abandoned for tourism will
not become occupied by others, either outsiders moving into the area or local people (see Section
5.4.11).
In order to reinforce the positive feedback effect of tourism in maintaining the integrity of the swamp
forest, direct links are required such as through the development of a swamp forest trail. To have the
desired effect this trail would need to be as extensive as possible, effectively linked to as many tourist
nodes as possible and be built using the maximum amount of local materials and labour and involving
local people in maintenance and tour guiding. To this end, construction of the boardwalk could make
extensive use of Raphia, with the novelty of walking on a boardwalk made from the midribs of leaves.
If enough swamp forest could be preserved, this could be marketed as the premier swamp forest trail
in South Africa.
It must, however, be remembered that tourism is certainly not without its own array of environmental
impacts, particularly if not carefully managed. In short, therefore, tourism is not about to come and
save the swamp forest. And while it has the potential to make a positive contribution, it will need to be
carefully managed. Thus far, tourism has failed to deliver the promised social and environmental
benefits. This is not simply because local people have been denied access to tourism enterprise
opportunities. There has been considerable investment in training and infrastrutural development in
support of community based tourism ventures, but these enterprises have generally performed poorly
(Ridl 2003. Pers. comm. School of Law, University of Natal, Durban).
“Currently in South Africa, and particularly KwaZulu-Natal, the environmental and conservation
tourism sector is being enthusiastically promoted as one of the key mechanisms to catalyse rural local
economic development. However, there is increasing concern that the impact of tourism on local
communities is not always beneficial and can include a range of negative livelihood consequences,
false and uneven economic growth, loss of resources, cultural pollution, and increased vulnerability.
One of the key areas of concern is the dispossession and loss of rights, particularly land rights for
rural communities.” (Sapsford 2003).
When considering tourism, it is important to examine the notion that nature-based tourism can pay for
conservation. This was widely touted by the lobby opposing the mining of the St Lucia dunes. Here,
the argument was put forward that the revenue generated from tourism would more than match that of
the proposed mining. As highlighted in Section 5.1, expectations are unrealistically high of the
revenue that can be generated from tourism, and particularly the amount of revenue, which will reach
local people.
5.3.3 Enhanced productivity of upland gardens and field crops
Cultivation outside of swamp forests is faced with substantial constraints. The Kosi Bay area is
characterized by sandy soils of low nutrient status, low soil organic matter contents and poor water
holding capacity (see section 2.2.1). Soils are therefore infertile and susceptible to dry periods.
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Farmers spoke particularly of the poor maize yields. Some of the other field crops, especially nitrogen
fixing crops such as groundnuts, perform better. Furthermore, despite the difficulties encountered,
some successful household vegetable gardens were encountered with a variety of different vegetables.
Most of these appeared to be well maintained through hand irrigation and the application of manure. It
appears that a lot of opportunity exists for improving the production from existing upland gardens and
increasing the number of households with their own household garden. Key mechanisms for achieving
this would be through:
?? Harvesting of water from the roofs of buildings
?? Use of grey water generated by the household
?? Increasing soil organic content through increased incorporation of crop residues and other organic
material into the soil, trench gardening, etc.
?? Use of nutrients generated by the household through application of composted household waste.
Correct application procedures for cattle manure can also improve productivity. Currently, it is
common practice amongst the Kosi Bay farmers interviewed who apply cattle manure to leave the
manure on the soil surface exposed to sun and heat. This exposure results in increased loss of nitrogen
through volatilisation, leading to reduced nitrogen content of the manure. This can be countered by
storing the manure in a shady, cooler location and digging the manure into the soil immediately
following application.
However, overall there are no quick fixes to promoting household gardens. Valley Trust, for example,
which is an NGO with a well established programme promoting sustainable agricultural production
amongst poor households in the Valley of a Thousand Hills, near Durban, observe that it can take
many years to facilitate improvements in the sustainability and productivity of households’
agricultural systems (Haigh and Mbelu 2003. Pers. comm. Social Plant Use Programme, Valley Trust;
Adey Pers comm. Rural Sociology Group, Wageningen University).
It is also important to highlight that improved productivity of homestead gardens will generally only
be a potential substitute for subsistence production and the sale of some excess production. It is
unlikely to allow for substantial production for sale owing to the finite amount of water and nutrients
that are generated and collected from a homestead.
The potential to increase the productivity of field crops (currently mainly maize) is somewhat more
limited than that of the small household gardens. The water and nutrients generated by households is
unlikely to be sufficient to be used over more than a small area immediately adjacent to the
homestead.
Many farmers already grow groundnuts, which are nitrogen fixing and therefore assist in addressing,
to some extent, the fertility problem. Nevertheless, there is likely to be scope for further addressing
soil fertility constraints (e.g. through mechanisms to promote the accumulation of soil organic matter).
5.3.4 Enhanced productivity of wetland margin gardens
The inherent fertility of wetland margin soils would tend to lie between that of the surrounding slopes
and that of the CPSF. Soil organic matter is likely to be higher and water in closer proximity than the
146

upslope areas. The agricultural potential of these areas is likely to be enhanced through composting
and irrigation from shallow wells, either by hand or with a treadle pump. The use of hand pumps over
shallow boreholes located upslope from the wetland margin would also warrant investigation.
Compared with the swamp forests, which are essentially “self irrigating”, irrigation of the wetland
margins requires extra work. However, the advantage is that wetness can be better controlled, thereby
overcoming the problem of waterlogging, reported as problematic by several farmers in the survey
(see Section 5.3). Department of Agriculture could potentially play a critical role here, with a key area
of support in terms of advice and resources for treadle pumps and fencing. Community gardens are
generally taken as the most effective means for Department of Agriculture to reach as many individual
households as possible, as well as optimising the benefits of infrastructure such as fences and treadle
pumps. One of the “down-sides” of community gardens are the added resources required to develop
and maintain the organizational structures (e.g. conflict resolution mechanisms) to keep the group
working effectively together.
As in the case of upland gardens, these gardens are also likely to benefit from the greater cultivation of
nitrogen fixing crops and mechanisms to increase soil organic content.
5.3.5 New commercial crops
Department of Agriculture are currently examining the potential new crops for the Maputaland area.
One of the potentially most promising are geraniums for the production of essential oils, and another
possibility is organically produced mangoes. The general area is well suited for mangoes, which
already occur widely. After all, Manguze takes its name from the abundantly growing mangoes of the
area. Other possibilities include black pepper (which grows well under reasonably shady conditions)
and vanilla (Osborne 2003. Pers. comm., Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs,
Cedara, KwaZulu-Natal). The promotion of potential new crops is likely to be more difficult than in
other more fertile areas of Maputaland such as around the Pongola floodplain, where the inherent
fertility of the soils are much higher. Thus, it is likely to prove difficult to find new crops that will be
able to be produced on the poor sandy soils of Kosi Bay but it is nevertheless worth investigating
(Osborne 2003. Pers. Comm., Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, Cedara,
KwaZulu-Natal).
Potential also exists for increasing production through the introduction of new varieties of existing
crops. Department of Agriculture, for example, have promising new varieties of sweet potatoes which
they are starting to promote more widely in the province (Osborne 2003. Pers. Comm., Department of
Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, Cedara, KwaZulu-Natal).
5.3.6 Cultivation and processing of Raphia palms
The leaves of the Raphia palm (Raphia australis) are amongst the longest in the world, measuring up
to 10 m in length. As highlighted in Section 5.3, this plant has a great variety of different uses,
particularly for building. It also grows quickly and easily from seed, provided that the soils are well
supplied with water (Pooley 1993). Thus, it has the potential to be grown and harvested for income
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generation. From a hydrogeomorphological perspective, it is far more desirable than any of the known
crops, which can be viably grown in the swamp forests in that it has the following features:
?? It is tolerant of prolonged waterlogging and therefore does not require any artificial drainage
?? Its root system effectively binds stream banks
?? It does not require disturbance of the soil to plant or harvest
?? The dead fronds are harvested, leaving the rest of the plant fairly intact and undisturbed
?? It would support a much greater diversity of indigenous plants than any of the alternatives
It should be noted, however, that from a biodiversity point of view it would not be desirable to have
extensive areas of other types of swamp forest converted to Raphia, as this would reduce the diversity
of types contained within the collective swamp forests of Kosi Bay. Neverthele ss, conversion of other
swamp forest types to Raphia would be preferable to no swamp forest at all. Thus, propagation and
planting of Raphia could be responsibly promoted provided that it takes place only in degraded swamp
forest and its extent is controlled. This would be well suited as a project to be supported by the statefunded
Working for Wetlands Programme.
It should also be added that harvesting of Raphia would need to be well controlled. People cutting
leaves often cut living leaves and burn undergrowth in order to obtain easier access to the dead leaves.
Several fires have been started in this manner (Kyle 1995). Prevention of such practices would make
harvesting very sustainable.
No matter how extensively and sustainably Raphia could theoretically be grown and harvested, in
order for Raphia to be a viable alternative, the issue of markets for Raphia products will need to be
addressed. The current market for Raphia is fairly limited. While some of the tourist camps have used
Raphia in their construction, most is for domestic use. Thus, markets need to be developed. Promoting
the use of Raphia in tourist camps, lodges and boardwalks within the Kosi area, is likely to have the
greatest potential. Raphia requires replacing after a period. While the cost of the materials is low the
labour requirement for maintenance would be high. This makes the option very attractive from a
poverty alleviation point of view. Thus, if markets could be secured and degraded swamp forest
rehabilitated then this would add value to the intact swamp forest.
5.3.7 Crafts woven from wetland sedges
Cyperus alternifolius occurs in some swamp forest areas, particularly where the forest is disturbed and
the tree canopy is broken. It is able to continue growing vigorously even under partial shade. The
culms of the plant are used for weaving mats, which have the potential for use in roller blinds, screens
and cladding. It is one of the tallest growing sedges and therefore the culms can be woven into wide
mats. This is an asset for products such as roller blinds, which are required at particular widths.
This plant can also be readily cultivated. But, as in the case of Raphia, extensive conversion to favour
this species would compromise the biological integrity of the swamp forest. Cyperus alternifolius is
not found in any abundance within undisturbed swamp forest, and currently Cyperus alternifolius is
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not widely used. Thus, while promoting new markets is likely to have some potential, the potential of
this alternative use is unlikely to be high.
5.3.8 Plantation forestry
Sappi are intending to expand the area of Maputaland falling under their out growers’ programme for
small-scale timber producers, termed Project Grow. Some of the major banana growers are already
making the transition to plantation forestry (see Section 5.3). Because of the financial returns, a good
market for timber and backup support from the timber industry, timber production is a potentially very
promising alternative from an economic point of view.
The downside of plantation forestry is the potentially substantial environmental impact on the general
area and specifically on the integrity of the Kosi Bay system. Extensive plantation forestry around the
Kosi Lakes is likely to lead to a lowering of the water table and the desiccation of the CPSF, which
would have significant secondary impacts such as the increased incidence of ground fires. Peat fires
have already occurred in the peatlands adjacent to KuShenga Lake, the levels of which have been
dropped as a result of pumping water to supply Manguze town. These likely environmental impacts
are recognized by Sappi, who are therefore focusing the development of new plantations in the Project
Grow programme away from Kosi Bay, west of the main tar road (Van Loggerenberg 2003. Pers
comm., Sappi). This is some distance from Kosi Bay, which would limit its potential as an alternative
for individual swamp forest farmers with land rights close to Kosi Bay. Therefore, plantation forestry
probably has the potential to act as an alternative for a few of the major banana producers in the
swamp forest but it would have very limited potential beyond this.
Furthermore, entry into plantation forestry tends to be by farmers who already have reasonable
financial means and power in the community. It is difficult for the poorest of the poor to enter unless
as menial labour. In addition, the labour requirement for timber is lower than that existing cultivation.
5.3.9 Public works programmes
One of the Government’s strategies for addressing poverty in South Africa is through public works
programmes, such as the Working for Water programme. Already operating widely across South
Africa, the scale of public works programmes is to be increased, and in the foreseeable future they are
likely to remain one of the key means of alleviating poverty in South Africa.
For Kosi Bay, the following types of works programmes should be examined.
?? Those with an environmental focus, notably the Working for Wetlands and Working for Water
programmes, particularly given that the main focus of the Working for Wetlands programme
is the rehabilitation of degraded wetlands.
?? The upgrading and maintenance of roads (which has potential benefits to both the local
community and for tourism)
?? Tourism-orientated infrastructure (e.g. a cultural centre or a forest boardwalk)
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?? Other public works programmes, such as those dealing with and building of schools, crèches
and community centres
The programmes that are geared around environmental issues and nature based tourism have the
greatest potential to try and maximize the “pull effect” that they have on swamp forest farmers owing
to the more direct link that they could potentially have with swamp forests.
While it may be argued that these programmes are not highly self-sustaining because they are
dependent on direct government support, the level of government support is high. Commitment from
government for funding of Working for Wetlands is assured for the next three years at the very least,
and in all likelihood longer than that.
5.3.10 Other alternatives
The eight alternative “land uses” described above is by no means an exhaustive list. During the
participatory process advocated in Section 6 for developing a way forward, other potential alternatives
are likely to emerge in addition to the few further possibilities listed below.
?? Honey production, with the swamp forest trees providing an important source of nectar.
?? A variety of crafts based on natural, synthetic and recycled materials, which as far as possible
reflect the local Maputaland culture as well as having appeal for a contemporary market (e.g. fish
traps adapted as lampshades)
?? Small businesses supplying a variety of products to meet local needs (e.g. locally brewed beer,
locally made coffins and locally manufactured security gates). This results in capital being
circulated more in the local economy rather than being lost rapidly to outside businesses (i.e. the
economy is as localized as possible).
5.3.11 Summary of the features of potential alternatives to swamp forest cultivation
Table 16. Summary of the features of potential alternatives to swamp forest cultivation
Alternative
land-use option
Market and
backup
Potential
negative
Ease of
entry for
Potential
“pull effect”
Attractiveness
for “better-
support environment the poor off” farmers 2
al impacts 1
Tourism Moderate Moderate Moderate 3 Moderate Very high 4
Upland
cultivation
Wetland margin
cultivation
Moderately
poor
Moderately
poor
Low Very high 5 Low Moderate
Moderate Very high 5 Low Moderate
New crops Poor Unknown Unknown 5 Unknown Unknown
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Raphia Poor Low High 5 Unknown Moderate
Crafts from
sedges
Plantation
forestry
Works
programmes
Poor Low Very high Low Low
Good High Low High Low
Good Low Very high Moderate 6 Very high 7
1 For all land-uses, it is assumed that there will be a reasonable level of control over land-use activities
2 The assumption is that markets are secured for the particular product
3 Although there is scope for a variety of skills within tourism, a reasonable skills and capacity level is
required for most operations, requiring training, development and mentoring
4 Although some of the existing tourism operations are illegal and may need to be closed, much
potential exists to expand existing tourism operations at Kosi Bay and enhance the marketing of Kosi
Bay as a tourist destination.
5 The assumption is that there is assured access to land
6 Provided that they would be able to secure work as contractors through the standard tendering process
7 This is entirely dependent on continued government support
5.3.12 Issues around control of land-use activities
Currently, the Kosi Bay swamp forests include portions inside the Kosi Bay Nature Reserve
proclaimed in 1987, where the controlling authority is Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, and those portions
lying outside the Reserve. Here the Tribal Authority has primary control over the allocation of land
but they are having very little restraining effect on the destruction of swamp forests. While CBNRM
programmes have the potential for enhancing control of swamp forest use, throughout southern Africa,
CBNRM systems have generally failed to deliver the benefits envisaged. The hard truth is that if we
want some swamp forest to survive then, for the immediate future at least, areas of forest have to be
set aside for formal protection. To be successful, this will require the buy-in and support of all
stakeholders. The tremendous challenge is to ensure that just compensation has been provided to all
those households that have foregone their rights to cultivate in the forest. And, just as importantly,
there must be public consensus from all key stakeholders that this has taken place. This will then
provide a sound basis on which to move forward with regulation.
As described in Section 5.1, following proclamation of the Kosi Bay Nature Reserve, a lengthy
compensation process took place. However, this was in the politically very turbulent times during the
apartheid era, when even if households had been more than compensated for their foregone rights of
use, consensus from all stakeholders was not going to be achieved. It is not surprising, therefore, that
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the issue of access by local people to cultivation of swamp forests within the Reserve boundary has
remained highly contested. The end result is that the regulatory authority, Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal
Wildlife now have the very difficult task of continuing to exclude users who do not recognize their
legitimacy. Furthermore, KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife therefore also has little credibility in calling for
more restrained use of the swamp forest outside of the Reserve.
The “Building Broader Support for Protected Areas” stream at the World Parks Congress, 2003 passed
a recommendation on poverty and protected areas. It advocates a number of guiding principles for
protected area agencies and practitioners, including the following:
?? Protected areas should strive to contribute to poverty reduction at the local level, and at the very
minimum must not contribute to or exacerbate poverty
?? Where negative social, cultural and economic impacts occur, affected communities should be
fairly and fully compensated.
?? Biodiversity should be conserved both for its value as a local livelihoods resource and as a
national and global public good
Some conventional protected area approaches have tended to exclude people and/ or prohibit most
kinds of resource use within certain categories of protected areas, without providing alternatives to
meeting livelihood needs of local people. Many participants at the congress presented an alternative
view that sees sustainable resource use and management as a realistic alternative, which would
contribute to both poverty reduction and biodiversity conservation.
A more participatory, community based approach to the management of the Kosi Bay Nature Reserve,
in line with the above sentiments, is required. It is acknowledged, however, that this is by no means an
easy option. More than a decade has now passed since “old style”, “fortress conservation” of protected
areas has been replaced in many areas by Community Based Natural Resource Management
(CBNRM), whereby local communities are empowered as the custodians, owners and beneficiaries of
the wetland resources (Hulme and Murphre 2001). Much hope was placed in this new paradigm for
benefiting both local people and the conservation of biodiversity. However, although there have been
some successes, the overriding consensus is that CBNRM is failing dismally to deliver the originally
intended results of conservation and development (Murombedzi 1999; Breen et al., undated).
There are many difficulties in implementing CBNRM because, for example traditional institutions and
belief systems are rapidly being lost in many rural areas. In Lake Malawi, for example, CBNRM
programmes have failed to address the increasing threat that fishing is having on the on the Lake’s
unique cichlid fishes (Hara 2000). As indicated by Wells and Brandon (1992) linking conservation and
development objectives is extremely difficult, and Adams (2001) cites some East African examples
showing how conservation objectives can, over time, readily become de-emphasised in relation to
revenue generation and development.
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In South Africa’s communal areas, the issue of environmental management is very complex. It is
influenced by factors such as ownership, responsibility and trust. During the apartheid regime people
where removed forcefully to go and stay elsewhere in small stands. They lost the land, which
previously they thought was theirs. Those conditions to a certain extent eroded responsibility, trust,
and sense of ownership (Silima 2003. Pers. comm. Mondi Wetlands Project, Pretoria). Apartheid
fostered mistrust between people and the government, highlighted poignantly in the case of Kosi Bay.
After the forced removal it was rare to find people with existing social ties, same interest and
objectives of grouping themselves to care for the environment. Presently in a democratic South Africa
we are living on the era were the slogan is “people shall govern” and some people misunderstood the
meaning of the word “rights”, forgetting that rights come with responsibility. Some people think they
have rights of practicing activities anywhere without considering their effect on the environment
(Silima 2003. Pers. comm. Mondi Wetlands Project, Pretoria). Wetlands are gradually becoming the
victim of such understanding and are thus subjected to poor land-use. Parallel authorities also
characterize a democratic South Africa. We have traditional tribal authorities, local political councils
and government departments all exercising powers and initiating different projects in the same areas
(Claridge 2000). This can be demonstrated by, for example, the tribal authorities allocating plots of
cultivation in wetlands, while conservation bodies are trying to promote their conservation.
When planning the way forward the stakeholders will have to think very carefully about the
relationship between offering alternatives to existing swamp forest cultivation and improving control
of the cultivation, in order that the two work synergistically. In other words, how do we juggle the
carrot and stick without dropping them? For example, some mechanisms may be required to make
support for farmers with upland gardens conditional upon their following Best Management Practices
when using the swamp forest.
5.4 A framework to elucidate and resolve conflicting land use options for peat
A framework is required to assist in reconciling the conflicting uses made of the peat swamp forests.
The framework of Joosen and Clarke (2002) has specific relevance to the situation. Thus, the
framework was applied to Kosi Bay as a means of revealing specific issues that would need to be
addressed. The application of the framework also served as an opportunity to provide comment on the
applicability of the framework to a “Developing World” situation. It should be noted that the
application of the framework to Kosi Bay was to existing interventions (i.e. the current cultivation of
the swamp forests described in Section 5.3) rather than to proposed future interventions. In addition,
the framework was not applied in a multi-stakeholder context but rather applied by the authors as a
way of exploring the issues and potential solutions.
The framework developed by Joosen and Clarke (2002) consists of a series of questions (e.g. do all
decision makers and participants have the same basic understanding of peatlands, and their characters,
extent and functions?). If these questions are addressed satisfactorily, Joosen and Clarke (2002)
contend then this framework should result in conflicts being resolved or options chosen with:
?? A knowledge of the relevant information on mires and peatlands and their functions;
?? An understanding of relevant values;
?? A knowledge of the type of conflict or choice being faced;
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?? Respect for the different points of view involved;
?? A knowledge of the effect of the intervention on the proposed function and on other functions;
?? An awareness of the guidance principles which will govern the intervention; and
?? A knowledge of the legal, regulatory and business framework within which the intervention will
be carried out.
While such a framework cannot remove vested interest or emotion from choices, it can provide a
rational basis for deciding between different options.
5.4.1 Application of the framework to the situation at Kosi Bay
For each of the questions of Joosen and Clarke (2002) which can be posed in relation to any proposed
intervention in a peatland (including the option to preserve), and which are listed below, a response is
provided in relation to the situation at Kosi Bay.
Are all decision makers and participants in the conflict or choice using terms with the same meaning,
and have they a basic knowledge of peatlands and their characteristics, extent and functions?
No. There is a fundamental lack of knowledge amongst wetland users and local leadership concerning
peatlands. Further adding to the difficulty of the stakeholders reaching a common understanding is a
language barrier - many of the stakeholders cannot speak English.
Do those concerned understand the nature and categories of conflict 1 and why people have different
positions with respect to values?
There is generally a very poor understanding amongst the different stakeholders of each other’s
positions. This is highlighted by a comment by one of the farmers “Why is KZN Wildlife so
concerned with protecting Kosi Bay when there is hardly any wildlife (i.e. large wild animals) in the
Reserve?”. Even within the conservation and scientific communities there are divergent views
concerning the hydrological importance of swamp forests to the integrity of the Kosi Bay Lakes.
Do those concerned understand the different types of conflicts or choices, which arise and have they
identified the type of conflict, which arises in this particular case?
1 Joosen and Calrke (2002) distinguish the following different categories of conflict:
?? Conflicts arising from different understandings. For example where there are different levels
of knowledge
?? Conflicts arising from different judgements of which means will achieve a given end.
?? Conflicts arising from different preferences
?? Conflicts between different rights
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No. A key problem is that levels of conflict are so intense that the different stakeholders are
preoccupied with dealing mainly with day-to-day hostility, which continues to “bubble over” rather
than being able to examine (in a climate of trust and calmness) the issues and types of conflicts.
Is the proposed intervention positive for human beings and is the function to be provided essential and
non-substitutable?
In the short/ medium term it is certainly very positive in that the intervention (i.e. cultivation of the
swamp forest) is providing a key source of food and income to local people, many of whom appear to
be some of the poorest members of the community. However, currently, the crop production function
that the peat is supporting is largely non-substitutable. Only if viable alternatives can be developed
(e.g. through enhanced upland and wetland margin crop production) would it be substitutable.
Will the proposed intervention ensure a continuous supply of the function (for example, peat for
energy) and are the peatlands abundant?
No. Based on the high level of hydrological alteration in plots, together with the considerable extent of
the plots, current use practices are likely to lead to the eventual depletion of the supply of peat for
agricultural production and other purposes. With the application of Best Management Practices and a
considerable reduction in the extent of cultivation, the supply could be ensured for considerably longer
into the future. But currently it is not possible to quantify this given that the specific rate of peat
accretion under different intensities of hydrological modification and types of use are not known.
Although Maputaland is the richest source of peat in South Africa, peat is by no means abundant, with
peatlands covering less than 5% of the land area in the region.
Will the proposed intervention negatively affect other functions, and if so are the negatively affected
functions essential, are they abundant or are they substitutable?
The relative impacts of the current use are likely to vary considerably depending on the particular
function.
?? It will definitely have considerable negative impacts on biodiversity, particularly considering the
high cumulative impacts on swamp forests in South Africa.
?? It will impact negatively on the hydrological functions of the swamp forest plot areas, which
further impacts negatively on biodiversity. The magnitude and possible impacts on the Kosi Bay
Lakes are not known, as described previously.
?? It impacts negatively on natural resources supplied by the swamp forests. However, as discussed
in Section 6.3, if the extent is controlled and Best Management Practices are followed then this
impact and the impacts described above will be reduced. If the extent of cultivation is
considerable, particularly if it occurs in the Reserve, it will also impact negatively on the area’s
tourism potential.
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Does the proposed intervention interfere with fundamental human rights, is it intended to satisfy needs
or wants, will the benefits be evenly distributed, and is it the best available means to achieve the
desired end?
By nature, the interventions arise directly out of individual households acting on their economic and
food security needs (which could be described as their basic human rights). This use does, however,
interfere to some extent with the resources available to current generations and if it continues unchecked
will certainly interfere considerably in the rights of future generations to have access to the
peat resource, which would have been depleted.
The “desired end” has not been defined, but if we take it as sustainable use, as defined by the Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands as “human use of a wetland (or other natural systems) that yields the
greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining the potential to meet the needs
and aspirations of future generations” then the answer is “no” given the above.
Is the proposal clear and publicly communicated; will it produce greater advantage than not
intervening; will a decision be based on the best available information, take into account effects on
other entities, be limited to the minimum necessary, be adapted to the characteristics of the peatland
and respect ecological processes and habitats?
The answer to all of the above questions is generally no because interventions take place on an ad hoc
basis.
Are the answers to the last set of questions relevant to the specific time and place of the proposed
intervention?
Except for the first question in the set, which relates to a single proposal and is therefore not relevant,
all of the remaining questions in the set are considered relevant.
Do international law or international co-operative instruments affect the proposed intervention?
Yes. Given that the Kosi Bay system is a designated Wetland Site of International Significance
according to the Ramsar Convention and it also falls within a World Heritage Site.
Do public policy, national legislation, land-use planning and environmental licensing regulate the
proposed intervention? Are property rights protected and is there provision for rehabilitation of the
peatland after use. Does the country have a policy to protect areas of environmental importance and
are there programmes of education and awareness?
In theory there is much national policy and legislation for supporting the protection of wetlands,
notably the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, the National environmental Management Act
and the National Water Act. However, particularly in rural communal areas, these acts have little
bearing on what is happening on the ground (see Kotze 2002). The country also has policy (the White
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Paper on conservation of Biodiversity) and legislation designed to protect and ensure the sustainable
utilization of the countries biodiversity. This applies particularly to protected areas, but also has
application beyond the protected area borders, although again at present it is not likely to have great
influence on utilization practices on the ground.
For those plots outside of the Reserve, tenure is moderately secure. In as far as some farmers rest
portions of their land, some provision for the rehabilitation of peat is provided for but not
rehabilitation of the area back to its natural vegetation.
Does the enterprise which will be responsible for the proposed intervention base its activities on
commercial strategy, has it a good record of corporate governance, does it employ cost-benefit
analysis in assessing proposals, has it in place and environmental management system, does it use the
best available technology to minimize environmental impact, and does it exploit product
diversification and alternatives which would reduce intervention in peatlands?
The interventions do not take place through a single enterprise with a commercial strategy. Costbenefit
analysis and environmental management systems do not formally exist and the best available
technology is not being applied. Also, government departments potentially able to promote better
environmental practice are not working with the swamp forest farmers. Furthermore, the farmers are
not grouped into an organization through which their activities could be influenced.
Alternatives to reduce pressure on the peatlands have, as yet, not been pursued, although this is
addressed explicitly in this project, and it is hoped that this will lead to an improved situation.
Do those concerned appreciate the importance of dialogue; that there is no single set of concepts or
principles, which can govern every situation; and it is not possible to reduce all complexities to simple
principles or single measures?
The stakeholders appear to appreciate generally the principle of open dialogue. However, as
discussed, there is no forum in place in which different stakeholders can put their values, governing
principles and needs on the table.
5.4.2 Recommendations for revision of the framework of Joosen and Clarke (2002)
The framework consists of 13 different questions, some of which consist of up to four different “subquestions”.
This makes it rather complex, particularly when communicating to a diversity of
stakeholders from a variety of different cultures and with a range of different literacy levels. Thus, it is
recommend that some of the existing questions be consolidated into a more streamlined set of
questions.
The questions are focused on interventions by a single entity consisting of a commercially oriented
enterprise, which generally does not fit the “developing world” situation such as that found at Kosi
Bay. This involves many (several hundred) individuals each undertaking their own independent
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developments, some of which are commercially driven, but for many the motive is mainly food
production for subsistence purposes. Thus, it is recommended that the questions be revised to make
more explicit reference to:
?? Multi-user systems
?? Common property situations
?? Livelihood issues
5.5 Annex Chapter 5
Table 17. Plates Chapter 5
Plates 1a-n: Cultivated swamp forest
a. Newly cleared swamp forest, with a few
madumbes already being cultivated
b. Recently cleared (2 years ago) plot extensively
cultivated to madumbes, and with widely spaced
banana trees
c. Moderately high level of hydrological
modification, with recently planted madumbes in
left foreground
d. Raised beds with sweet potatoes
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e. High level of hydrological modification,
resulting from extensive raised beds and drainage
channels
f. “I have been cultivating this plot for more than
50 years“ says this Kosi Bay plot holder
g. Small-scale plot holders who spoke of the
great importance of their plots for the food
security of their families
h. A plot extending from the margin of the wetland
(see left foreground planted to onions) into the
swamp forest in the background
i. An extensively cleared swamp forest area with
only a few very small forest patches remaining
j. A swamp forest area that has been cleared
entirely, and is now planted predominantly to
bananas
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k.
l. An isolated tree that has been left in a plot, and
has been recently wind-blown
m. A log fence designed to exclude bushpigs n. A moderately drained area, also showing
madumbes in a drainage channel and good ground
cover provided by wild rice grass (Leersia
Plate 2a-d: Cultivation in uplands
hexandra).
a. An upland household garden with a variety of
vegetable for household consumption
b. An upland household garden with onions
growing vigorously under irrigation and manure
application
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c. An upland field being prepared for groundnuts d. An upland field planted to sweet potatoes
Plate 3a-f: Cultivation on the wetland margin
a. Sweet potatoes planted on raised beds
extending from upland down to the wetland
margin
b. Raised beds on the wetland margin planted to
sweet potatoes
c. A plot holder with her onions in a wetland
margin plot
d. An extensive wetland margin plot planted
mainly to onions
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e. A wetland margin plot with cassava on the
upslope portion and madumbes on the down
slope portion
f. A wetland margin plot with lattice seedlings and
onions
6 Recommendations for building a common future and promoting wise use
of the swamp forests
6.1 Recommendations for negotiating a common future
It is critical when working together to harmonize different objectives that all individual parties
recognize that the best way to achieve what you need is to help others achieve what they need.
The focus is on developing a common understanding by having all parties lay their values, needs and
problems on the table at the start of the exercise. Parties are then exposed to all possible solutions to a
problem before attempting to select one to implement (Calero and Oskam 1983; Rogers and Bestbier
1999). This is expanded on further in a useful framework for goal setting in multi-party systems
provided by Rogers and Bestbier (1999: pp. 40-43). This style of negotiating contrasts with the
adversarial approach that appears to have characterized the negotiating process at Kosi Bay thus far.
6.2 Recommendations for building awareness
Based on discussions held with farmers during the course of the survey, it is clear that there is a need
for raising awareness and building understanding around the process of peat formation and how this
affected by different land-use options. Any awareness programme would also need to include
information on how local people may benefit directly or indirectly from the various functions of intact
peat forest (e.g. water purification, organic matter accumulation, etc.). It is going to be important raise
awareness that it is the waterlogged (swampy) conditions and organic matter produced by the swamp
forest trees, which build the peat. And it is the peat, which provides the sustenance for the crops.
Destroy the peat forming processes and you destroy the fundamental basis for your agricultural
production! This link is generally not clear to the swamp forest farmer because of the long time
periods over which peat accumulates and the large amounts of peat now available. In many cases, the
peat soils have been built up over thousands of years, and in most swamp forests the peat is usually at
least a meter or two deep, sometimes more. So that even if a farmer is depleting the peat at a rate of a
few centimetres a year, there will still be some productive soil remaining even after two generations of
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cultivation for the farmer to pass on to his/ her grandchildren. Thus, what we are asking swamp forest
farmers to do is to think four or five generations ahead, which does a tall order for someone often have
to deal with the day-to-day survival of their family.
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands provides a suite of different guidelines for promoting the wise
use of wetlands. These are likely to be useful for the Kosi Bay situation, in particular the guidelines for
promoting the following.
?? A plan of action for promoting the active participation of local communities, so as to ensure that
the programme is not predominantly top-down, without the meaningful contribution by
landowners/holders (see Ramsar Convention Bureau, 2000a)
?? A communication, education and public awareness programme, which targets those
stakeholders, sectors and users influencing (both directly and indirectly) the state of health
of the catchment’s wetlands (see Ramsar Convention Bureau, 2000b)
6.3 Recommended Best Management Practices
At both a provincial and national level, government departments have clearly been avoiding the issue
of the uncontrolled cultivation of wetlands by small-scale farmers that is taking place widely in South
Africa. There is understandably a hesitancy to interfere (albeit for sound environmental reasons) in the
livelihoods of the rural poor, who have suffered so long from previous unjust and disruptive
government interference. But at the same time government has made little effort to encourage Best
Management Practices. Working with these farmers could been seen as supporting cultivation of
wetlands which is “illegal” in the sense that permission from the necessary authorities has not been
obtained (Kotze 2002). So the farmers are left to their own devices. This reflects very much the
situation concerning swamp forest cultivation in communal lands outside Kosi Bay Nature Reserve.
What are provided below are Best Management Practices for swamp forest cultivation that could be
used by extension workers in improving the sustainability of swamp forest utilization, which would
have primary application outside of the formally protected areas. The GSWPA has recently sanctioned
a community garden in a swamp forest in the KwaDapa area, where these BMPs would also have
application.
Existing disturbed areas should be use in preference to undisturbed areas.
Preliminary observations suggest that the swamp forests are generally able to recover much of their
vegetation structure and species composition, provided that the substrate and hydrology have not been
irreparably altered. However, as the process of swamp forest disturbance and recovery are better
understood, as yet un-described impacts may be revealed. Thus, in the meantime until a better
understanding is gained, it would be wise to adopt a precautionary approach and continue to use only
those areas previously cultivated, in as far as this is practicable.
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Minimize the level of drainage
The issue of drainage is linked with that of the choice of crop type – the lower the tolerance of the
crop to waterlogging the greater the extent to which drainage will be required in order to cultivate the
crop in the peatland. Crops grown in the peatland should therefore be as tolerant of waterlogging as
possible. Raised beds should be avoided as far as possible as they subject the peat to very high levels
of aeration. This results from three factors:
?? The peat is raised above the water table and is no longer saturated.
?? The spaces between sods (piled up to make the bed) allow air to move into the soil more readily
?? The channels between the beds increase the removal efficiency of water from the site.
Sweet potatoes do not have a high level of tolerance to waterlogging and within CPSF are
characteristically grown on beds raised very high (often > 30 cm) above the original peat surface,
exposing the peat to a high level of desiccation.
Crops with the highest tolerance to waterlogging, namely madumbes, are already being produced
extensively at Kosi Bay. The cultivation of madumbes is preferred over cultivation of sweet potatoes,
which should be confined to the wetland margins.
The bananas grown at Kosi Bay appear to have an intermediate level of tolerance to waterlogging.
Bananas should be grown as much as possible on mounds built up through incorporation of weed and
crop residues rather than lowering the water table through drainage or through creation of raised beds
and planting on these.
Thompson and Hamilton (1983) warn against the dangers of “over-draining” peatlands.
“Although the process if reclamation is often simple, quite complex precautions must often be taken to
keep the land in a stable condition. The problem known as “black death” was first encountered in
Rwanda (Berg 1950). During drying out, water evaporated from the surface is replaced by water
drawn from the water table. If the drains have been scoured too deep, after five or six years a
“perched” water table develops; further drying then takes place extremely rapidly from below and the
swamp degenerates into a dusty desert. Once a peaty soil is completely dry, texture cannot be
recovered by re-wetting. To avoid the “black death” problem, water tables are maintained at 50 cm
depth.”
Leave the wettest (or other sensitive) areas under natural vegetation
The wetter the area, the greater the level of drainage required for the cultivation of a given crop and
therefore the greater the impact on the peat resource and the wetland. Certain areas of swamp forest
may also be considered particularly sensitive for biodiversity reasons (e.g. the presence of a breeding
Red Data species such as Pel’s Fishing Owl [Scotopelia peli]) (see Section 2).
Minimize the frequency of disturbance
Perennial crops such as bananas are the most preferred and annual root crops, which require
disturbance for planting and harvesting, are probably the least preferred from this perspective.
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Allowing crop lands to rest/lie fallow
The benefits of including rest/ fallow periods would apply particularly to areas subject to relatively
high levels of drainage and/ or frequent disturbance. The greater the proportion of time that the area is
rested, the greater will be the level of peat regeneration. Even short rests of a few years would be
favourable for peat regeneration provided that the overall proportion of time rested was not very low
relative to the time under cultivation. From a biodiversity point of view, the period of each individual
rest would be much more critical. The longer the rest period, the more favourable it will be, in that
species or features adapted to later successional stages of recovery of the forest would require several
years, possibly decades or more, for conditions to become favourable for their establishment and
perpetuation.
For fallow periods to be most effective, drains should be plugged and filled with crop/weed residues
(see following two items).
Plugging of any artificial drains during fallow periods
At present, when a wetland plot is rested, the artificial drains are usually left, as they were when the
area was being cultivated. Although the drains tend to become shallower and less effective with time,
as vegetation becomes established and sediment is trapped and accumulated, they continue to dry out
the area long after crops have stopped being cultivated. In some cases, erosion may, over time, enlarge
the channels further increasing their draining effect, although this does not appear to be occurring
widely at Kosi Bay. The plugging of drains (e.g. with low earth walls running across the drains)
renders them largely ineffective, therefore greatly speeding up the recovery of the peatland.
Maximize the incorporation of crop/weed residues into the peat
Rather than burning or discarding crop/ weed residues, these should be accumulated in wet
depressions, plugged drains and other areas subject to prolonged waterlogging, where the
decomposition of organic material will be retarded.
It must be emphasized that even under optimal conditions, peat accumulates at a very slow rate so peat
cannot be expected to recover in a few years from what was formed over centuries and depleted over
decades.
Seek opportunities for leaving tall canopy tress
By growing crops with a reasonable shade tolerance (e.g. madumbes), it is possible to maintain tall
canopy trees in the area being cultivated. In this way, at least some of the structure, composition and
functioning of the forest is maintained. It should be noted, however, that where a continuous canopy is
broken, leaving the trees much more isolated than before, these trees, in their isolation, are far more
susceptible to being blown over by heavy winds.
6.4 Summary of recommendations
Clearly, there is no one quick-fix solution in sight to addressing the destruction of swamp forest. The
situation is as complex as it is contentious, and the only hope will be an integrated solution
encompassing the following.
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?? Build effective institutions for achieving reconciliation amongst the different stakeholders, vision
building and consensus on a way forward, which is likely to require outside mediation owing to
the tremendous mistrust that exists amongst the different stakeholders.
?? Revisit and resolve the compensation issue, as much it is going to be a difficult and complex
undertaking which some may feel is a futile dredging up of the past. This will obviously need to
be closely linked with the land claims process that will hopefully be given a nationally high
priority for resolution.
?? Raise awareness and understanding amongst swamp forest users about how peat is formed and
how, in turn, it can be destroyed by particular land-use activities.
?? Promote Best Management Practices for cultivation amongst farmers in the swamp forests, whic h
builds on their enhanced understanding. Examples may include: minimizing the severity of
drainage by confining crops (e.g. sweet potatoes) which require reasonably well drained soils to
the edge of the swamp forest; and resting portions of plots and blocking drains and filling them
with organic matter to assist in the recovery of the peat.
?? Assess the feasibility of different alternatives to swamp forest cultivation, identify those, which
are most promising, and undertake pilot projects to promote these alternatives.
?? Tourism initiatives already being developed need to be closely and sensitively linked with the
swamp forests. New tourism developments at Kosi Bay will be taking place soon (B James 2003.
Pers. comm. Greater St Lucia Wetland Park Authority, St Lucia).
?? Ensure effective protection of designated swamp forest areas and regulation of potentially harmful
activities in these areas. Strong and consistent enforcement with the support of the local leadership
as well as the support of the regional, provincial and national authorities.
?? Provide effective extension support for improving agricultural production outside of the swamp
forest areas (e.g. through enhanced use of nitrogen-fixing crops which help address the problem of
low fertility in the sandy upland soils).
?? Undertake further research in direct support of promoting wise use of swamp forests (see Section
6.5.)
6.5 Recommendations for further research
It is important to highlight that the socio-economic component of this study is by no means an
exhaustive. The questionnaire survey of farmers in their plots was not intensive, and represents
probably no more than 5% of the total number of farmers cultivating in the wetland. Furthermore the
questionnaire did not probe issues around land tenure and control of land-use nor did it probe issues
around the household’s poverty status/vulnerability. Nevertheless, the interviewed farmers were drawn
166

from a wide a variety of socio-economic contexts and geographical areas around the Kosi Lakes, and
it has yielded useful insights regarding on-the-ground utilization of the wetland and resources it
provides, which have provided the basis for reasonably informed recommendations, as well as
highlighting issues requiring further investigation. Even so, further surveying would add to the breadth
of the sample. An important location not covered in the survey is KwaDapa, where the authorities
have sanctioned a community garden in the reserve. Probably more useful than a further more
comprehensive overall survey would be more participatory research integral to designing a way
forward (see following section).
The research project also did not examine the relationship between the Nature Reserve management
staff and the local community, this is investigated by Ravion (1995). While many of the issues remain
much the same as then, new dynamics have developed, for which a better understanding would be
useful.
Participatory Action Research on the social and institutional issues surrounding management
Probably the most urgent research need is for supporting the development and implementation of a
co-management system through an Action Research approach. This approach is useful of assessing
the process of learning and helping to understand the meaning of certain social changes after an
intervention (de Jager 2002). This involves a sequence of steps, including problem diagnosis, action
interventions and reflective learning (Lau 1998). This is then followed by exiting from the study and
extraction of general lessons. In simple terms the stakeholders identify key issues requiring action, do
something to resolve them, see how successful their efforts were, and if not satisfied, tries again
(O’Brien 1998). Through an action learning approach and with reference to the conceptual
framework, the interaction of the researcher/ NGO worker with the case study is described as well as
description of the outcomes of these interactions, the learning that arose from these interactions and
how these learning’s influenced future interactions.
A suggested framework for guiding the research is that of Community Action Research as described
by Senge and Schamer (2001). This embodies the principles of Action Research, in that it is designed
to produce practical knowledge that is useful to people in the everyday conduct of their lives and it
values “knowing-in-action”. In addition, it is characterized by the following.
?? It fosters relationships and collaboration among diverse organizations and those working with
them.
?? It creates settings for collective reflection that enable people from different organizations to “see
themselves in one another”
?? It aims explicitly to leverage progress in individual organizations
It is recognized from the outset that the issues addressed by the study will be complex. The framework
of Senge and Schamer (2001) should be referred to in trying to better make sense of this complexity.
Senge and Schamer (2001) recognize three different types of complexity, which need to be accounted
for.
?? Dynamic complexity, which refers to the extent to which cause and effect are distant in space and
time
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?? Behavioural complexity, which refers to the diversity of mental models, values, aims and political
interests of the players
?? Generative complexity, which arises out of the tension between the ‘current reality’ and ‘emerging
realities’
It is suggested also that Participatory Action Research (PAR) methods be used for interacting with
local people. This method derives some of its rationale from both Participatory Rural Appraisal and
Rapid Rural Appraisal. The emphasis of PAR is on participation, capability building and ownership of
knowledge and empowerment. It works directly with local and development capacities to bring visible
organizational structures, effective local advocacy and a durable change in power relations (Chambers
1994). Furthermore, it will be important to draw on the experiences and the extensive body of
literature on “People and Parks” and Conservation and the Rural Poor (see for example, Shackleton et
al. 1999).
Impacts of different land-use practices on peat accretion rates
Hydrological impacts of different land-use scenarios
Hydrological modelling will be required to predict the consequences of different scenarios of peat
accretion and land cover on the volumes and timing of fresh water feeding the lakes.
Investigation of the practicability of different potential alternatives to swamp forest cultivation
In Section 5.4, several potential alternatives to swamp forest cultivation were discussed. The
feasibility of these were not, however, assessed in any detail. It is important that this be done before
any pilot projects be embarked upon.
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