Deformation and Metamorphism

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Date received: ……………. 

Handout 5 of 14 

(Topic 1.3.3) 

Deformation and Metamorphism 

Overturned microfolding of marble (pale layers) and phyllite (dark layers) produced by 

low-temperature regional metamorphism of Cambrian strata, Second Valley, Fleurieu 

Peninsular (Photo: Bernd Michaelsen). The geometry of these folds is related to the 

major fold in the area – the Normanville anticline that outcrops along the coast.

Regional Processes 

Deformation 

Deformation 

Key Ideas 

Compressional and tensional forces acting on 

rocks cause joints, faults, and folds. 

Intended Student Learning 

Contrast the conditions under which rocks are 

likely to break or fold. 

Explain the difference between a joint and a fault. 

Explain the difference between normal, reverse, 

and lateral faults. 

Describe forces that cause each type of faulting to 

occur. 

Explain the difference between an anticline and a 

syncline. 

Recognise, in the field, at least one of the 

deformation structures listed above. 

The sections of the Intended Student Learning that are italicised must form part of the fieldwork or practical 

materials submitted for moderation. They will not be examined in the public examination 

Topics 1.3.3 & 1.3.4 Deformation & Metamorphism Page 2 of 33

Regional Processes 

Metamorphism 

Metamorphism 

Rocks change in the solid state to become 

metamorphic rocks 

Thermal metamorphism is caused by heat from 

an igneous intrusion. 

Define the term ‘metamorphism’. 

Explain how heat, pressure, fluids, and time 

contribute to metamorphism. 

Explain the formation of a metamorphic aureole 

surrounding an igneous intrusion. 

Identify the following thermal metamorphic 

rocks, name their parent sedimentary rocks, and 

describe the textural and mineralogical changes 

that have occurred: 

Regional metamorphism is due to directed 

pressure and heat. 

Hornfels 

Marble 

Quartzite. 

Explain the difference between load pressure and 

directed pressure. 

Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the 

development of foliation by directed pressure. 

Explain the difference between cleavage and 

bedding in rocks that have been subjected to 

regional metamorphism. 

Identify the following regional metamorphic 

rocks: 

Slate 

Gneiss 

Schist. 

Describe the textures and mineralogies of the 

rocks listed above. 

Describe the progressive formation of these three 

regional metamorphic rocks from their parent 

sedimentary rock, shale. 

Explain why the changes: 

sandstone → quartzite 

limestone → marble 

may occur in both thermal and regional 

metamorphism. 


1.3 – Regional Processes 

1.3.3 – Deformation 

BENDING OR BREAKING 

Forces (or pressure) acting on rocks may cause deformation, which is likely to 

take one of two forms — bending or breaking. 

In response to the forces 

acting on it, the undeformed 

strata shown in the adjacent 

diagram may either: 

bend to form folds, 

or break to form joints. 

FACTORS AFFECTING NATURE OF DEFORMATION 

1. Pressure 

The pressure acting on a rock mass is likely to be a combination of load 

pressure, due to the weight of overlying rocks, and directed pressure caused 

by forces within Earth's crust. Load pressure acts equally in all directions, 

merely compressing the rock. By contrast, directed pressure squeezes the 

rock in only one direction. 

Deformation of rocks is caused by directed pressure but the load pressure 

affects the nature of the deformation. If the load pressure is low, directed 

pressure is likely to cause the rocks to fracture. If the load pressure is high, 

the rocks are more likely to bend under the influence of directed pressure. 

Rocks deep within the crust are therefore likely to fold, while those closer to 

the surface are more likely to break. 


2. Temperature 

Changes in temperature affect the way in which rocks behave when subjected 

to stress. At higher temperatures, folding is more likely to occur than 

breaking. This is another reason why folding usually occurs deep below 

Earth's surface, whereas breaking occurs closer to the surface. 

3. Fluids 

Fluids which are present in the pore spaces of rocks and joints, act as 

lubricants, making is easier for rock layers to slide over each other. Thus the 

presence of fluids makes it more likely that the rocks will bend rather than 

break. 

4. Time 

Solid, brittle materials normally bend rather than break if they are deformed 

very slowly. Small forces applied over very long periods of time may cause 

rocks to deform by a process called creep. This can be observed in old 

buildings, where floor boards and marble mantelpieces may sag. 

JOINTS & FAULTS 

Joints and faults are formed at or near Earth's surface when sudden forces 

act (e.g. earthquakes). 

When rock fractures a joint is formed. 

A fault is created if the rocks on one side 

of the joint move relative to rocks on the 

other side 

The terms associated with faults 

are shown in the adjacent diagram. 

Learn all these terms and their 

meanings (i.e. footwall, fault scarp, 

hanging wall) 


Normal Faults 

Extensional forces (i.e. forces pulling the rocks apart) produce normal faults. 

Here, the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block. 

Reverse Faults 

Compressional forces cause reverse faults. The hanging wall moves up 

relative to the footwall. 

Lateral (Strike-slip) Faults 

Lateral faults are formed when two blocks slide horizontally past each other. 

The San Andreas Fault (discussed in more detail later in the course) is an 

example of a lateral fault. 

FOLDS 

Folds develop deep in Earth's crust over very long periods of time, usually in 

response to horizontal compressional forces. The world's great mountain 

ranges were formed due to large-scale folding of Earth’s crust. 

The diagram below shows some of the terms used to describe different types 

of folds, and parts of folds — learn all these terms. 

Visit the excellent web site on “structural geology” at: 

http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm 

and link to the sections on folding and faulting. 


(Tightly) folded rock formation at Moruya, 

NSW (photo D Vernon 2006; 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Folded_Roc 

k.jpg 

The process of forming “drag”folds (faultpropagation 

folds) like these are associated 

with faulting and can be can be viewed in 

cartoon movie at 

http://www.uib.no/people/nglhe/StructModules 

Textbook/Contraction02.swf 

Folded Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) sedimentary layers, Finnmark, northern Norway. 

(http://www.geo.uib.no/struct/Figures.html) 


The diagram above illustrates an orogeny (caused by compressional tectonics) 

in eastern North America between 543 and 440 Ma. Folding and faulting are 

associated with regional metamorphism (Source of image: http://upload 

.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/20/Taconic_orogeny.png). The diagram shows 

how orogenic processes caused the North American continent to grow 

eastwards. The Australian continent has similarly grown eastward since 543 

Ma (i.e. the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon). 


1.3 – Regional Processes 

1.3.4 – Metamorphism 

DEFINITION 

The term metamorphism encompasses processes by which rocks within 

Earth's crust are changed over a long period of time by heat, pressure and 

fluids. 

NB The processes of weathering and sedimentary rock formation are 

excluded from the definition of metamorphism, since these processes 

occur at or near Earth’s surface, rather than within the crust. 

Processes in which the rocks actually melt are defined as igneous and 

are not defined as metamorphic. 

Metamorphic changes take place in the solid state. 

FACTORS AFFECTING METAMORPHISM 

1. Temperature (below the melting point of rock) 

Minerals in sedimentary rocks (usually quartz, calcite and clays) are stable 

at low temperatures. Increasing temperature causes these minerals to 

change to different minerals (which are stable at these higher temperatures). 

Increasing temperatures also cause a change (usually a decrease) in the 

water content of the rock. 

2. Pressure 

The pressure acting on a rock mass is likely to be a combination of load 

pressure, due to the weight of overlying rocks, and directed pressure caused 

by forces within Earth's crust, such as those which cause folds and faults to 

form. Both types of pressure compress minerals, squeezing their atoms 

together to form denser minerals that are stable under higher pressures. 

Pressure can also alter the texture of a rock, resulting in an increase in grain 

size. Directed pressure results in the formation and alignment of flat (platey) 

minerals such as micas (e.g. biotite, muscovite). Micas are therefore 

characteristic of metamorphic rocks which have been affected by directed 

pressure. This texture is known as foliation. Fossils, or the pebbles in a 

conglomerate, can also become elongated by directed pressure. 


3. Fluids 

Fluids from magma bodies or from groundwater can affect the metamorphic 

process to: 

i. increase the rate of metamorphic change. 

ii. 

iii. 

4. Time 

assist recrystallisation (forming the foliations usually associated with 

metamorphic rocks). 

cause reactions between the chemicals dissolved in the fluids and the 

minerals present, that is chemical metamorphism (= metasomatism) 

that increases the likelihood of new minerals forming. 

Metamorphic processes are extremely slow. They take many millions of 

years. 

The table below summarises the factors affecting metamorphic change, 

giving the effect/s of each factor. 

Factor 

Effect/s of this factor 

1. Temperature Formation of new minerals. 

Recrystallisation. 

Change (usually decrease) in water content. 

2. Pressure Increase in density. 

Formation of platy minerals (i.e. micas). 

Foliation - alignment of platy minerals. 

Elongation of fossils & pebbles. 

3. Fluids Increased rate of metamorphic changes. 

Assist recrystallisation. 

Cause chemical metamorphism to occur. 

4. Time Metamorphic processes require millions of years. 


THERMAL (CONTACT) METAMORPHISM 

Thermal (= contact) metamorphism is change in rocks due to heat from a 

cooling body of magma. Here the rocks surrounding an igneous intrusion are 

affected ('cooked') by the heat from the magma. The region of metamorphic 

rocks around the intrusion is known as a metamorphic aureole. 

Rock Changes Caused by Thermal Metamorphism 

For three common sedimentary rocks, the rocks changes brought about by 

thermal metamorphism are: 

SANDSTONE → QUARTZITE 

LIMESTONE → MARBLE 

SHALE → HORNFELS 

Textural and Mineralogical Changes due to Contact Metamorphism 

Sandstone → Quartzite 

There is no change in mineralogy. The quartz grains in the sandstone are 

recrystallised. 

There is, however, a change in the texture of the rock. Sandstone consists of 

quartz grains cemented together, while quartzite consists of interlocking 

quartz grains. 


Limestone → Marble 

Again, there is no change in mineralogy. Both limestone and marble consist 

of calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO 3 ), and both rocks effervesce with acid. 

There is a change in texture. 

Whereas fossiliferous limestone 

consists of cemented remains of 

living organisms, marble has a 

crystalline texture that resembles 

sugar (i.e. saccharoidal texture). 

Shale → Hornfels 

When shale (and siltstone) undergoes thermal metamorphism, new minerals 

are formed. Shale consists largely of clay minerals with minor quartz. Clay 

minerals are stable under low temperature and pressure conditions that 

prevail at or near Earth's surface. However, under high temperature and 

pressure conditions associated with metamorphism, clay minerals change to 

feldspars and biotite. Quartz remains unchanged, since this mineral is stable 

under a wide range of temperature and pressure conditions. 

The change in mineralogy that occurs when shale changes to hornfels can 

therefore be summarised as: 

SHALE 

Clay minerals, quartz 

→ HORNFELS 

→ Biotite, feldspars, quartz 

There is also a change in 

both colour and texture of 

the rocks. Shale is normally 

light coloured, and shows 

layering, as clay minerals 

are flat. Hornfels shows no 

alignment of grains. Its texture is described as non-aligned or non-foliated. 

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 

Regional metamorphism is associated with the folding of rocks in mountain 

building (or orogenic) activity. This occurs when two continental plates 

collide, as India collided with Asia forming the Himalayas. 

Orogenesis = mountain building ( = metamorphism + folding + faulting) 


Over many millions of years, 

two continents move 

towards each other (e.g. 

India moving northwards 

and eventually colliding 

with Eurasia. Sediments 

weathered from the colliding 

continents are deposited in 

the long, narrow basin 

between them. This basin is called a geosyncline. 

When the continents eventually collide, sediments buckle and fold, forming a 

mountain range like the Alps or the Himalayas, shown in the photographs 

below. 

Mont Blanc (left) at 4808 m Mt 

Blanc is the highest peak in 

continental Europe and consists of 

granite, gneiss, schist, marble and 

sedimentary strata. (Image source: 

http://en.wikipedia.org/ 

wiki/Image:Montblanc_166186.jpg). 

Much sedimentary strata in 

the European Alps were laid 

down during the Eocene (~ 55 

Ma), about the same time as 

sediments were deposited at 

Maslin Bay. However, there 

was no orogeny at Maslin Bay where the strata remains near sea-level, 

unmetamorphosed, unfolded and essentially horizontal. 

The image above is taken from the Zugspitze (Germany’s highest mountain) across the 

Austrian Alps (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Zugspitze_panorama1.jpg). The 

Alps are a zone of active orogenic activity caused by the Africa colliding with Europe. 

The heat and pressure associated with mountain building (= orogenic 

activity) causes rocks to be regionally metamorphosed, especially where the 

heat and pressure are greatest. 


Opposite: The orogeny that created the Himalayas and the 

Tibetan Plateau was (and still is!) caused by the collision of 

India with the Eurasian Plate (Source: http://en.wikipedia 

.org/ wiki/Image:Himalaya-formation.gif) 

The image below was captured by the 

International Space Station in 2004. It shows the 

Himalayan mountain belt with the Tibetan 

Plateau in the foreground. (Source of image: 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Himalayas.jpg) 

. Four of Earth’s 8000-plus metre peaks are 

shown in this image, including Mt Everest at 

8850 m, the highest. 

The diagram below shows that when a mountain range is formed by orogenic 

activity, regional metamorphism of ever-increasing grade is associated with 

increasing severity of folding of the rocks. 


Orogenic activity, and hence regional 

metamorphism, occurs over wide areas. 

For example, rocks affected by regional 

metamorphism may be found from 

Victor Harbor to Birdwood, and 

eastwards as far as Palmer, the eastern 

boundary of the Mount Lofty Ranges. 

The adjacent map shows the main 

settled areas of South Australia 

including the Mount Lofty Ranges, 

Kangaroo Island, and the southern 

Flinders Ranges. Many of the rocks in 

this area have been affected by regional 

metamorphism. 

ROCKS FORMED BY REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 

Some examples of the rock changes that occur during regional metamorphism 

are: 

SANDSTONE → QUARTZITE 

LIMESTONE → MARBLE 

SHALE → SLATE → SCHIST → GNEISS 

→ increasing metamorphism → 

As indicated above, limestone → marble and sandstone → quartzite occur in 

both thermal and regional metamorphism. However, regional metamorphism 

of shale produces a series of metamorphic rocks. The rock that is finally 

formed depends on the degree of metamorphism. 

The progression from shale to slate to schist to gneiss is caused by increasing 

degrees of regional metamorphism. 


TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

The texture of igneous rocks is described in terms of grain/crystal size and 

arrangement. 

For sedimentary rocks, the term “texture” covers three properties: grain size, 

grain shape and sorting of grains. 

However, when describing the texture of metamorphic rocks, the alignment 

of grains is of particular importance. Metamorphic rocks are either nonaligned 

or foliated. 

Non-aligned Rocks 

The grains of non-aligned rocks show no “preferred orientation”, or layering. 

Their appearance is the same in all directions (see the pictures of quartzite, 

marble and hornfels earlier these notes). 

Non-aligned rocks are formed either: 

or 

i. when there is no directed pressure acting on the rock. 

(e.g. hornfels is formed by thermal metamorphism) 

ii. when the rock contains no platy (flat) minerals. 

(e.g. sandstone → quartzite and limestone → marble) 

These transformations may occur in both thermal and regional 

metamorphism because the mineral grains in both quartzite and marble are 

not flat and therefore cannot align in any particular direction. This is shown 

in the diagram below. 

The adjacent diagram shows a rock (e.g. 

quartzite) which has a non-aligned texture, 

i.e. it is not foliated. Even directed pressure 

associated with regional metamorphism 

cannot produce a foliated texture in this 

rock because the grains are rounded rather 

than platy. 


Foliated Rocks 

As shown in the diagrams below, the minerals in foliated rocks are arranged 

in layers, so that the rocks may tend to split into thin slices (e.g. slate), or a 

layered pattern may be visible, as in schist or gneiss. 

Foliated metamorphic rocks are formed by regional metamorphism of shale 

(or similar rocks e.g. siltstone). Foliation is due to the effect of directed 

pressure on the platy minerals present in the shale. When the metamorphic 

change from shale to slate occurs, the mica flakes become aligned 

perpendicular to the directed pressure, as shown in the diagram below. 

Three types of foliation are developed in rocks formed by regional 

metamorphism of shale, namely: 

Slaty cleavage Schistosity Gneissic layering 

The type of foliation depends on the amount of directed pressure acting on 

the shale, as shown in the diagram below. 


1. Slaty cleavage 

NB: Until now you have thought of cleavage as a 

property of minerals. However, slaty cleavage is a 

diagnostic property of fine-grained, regionally 

metamorphosed rocks. 

Slate contains layers of microscopic mica crystals. 

Weaknesses, or cleavage planes, exist between 

these layers. 

2. Schistosity 

Like slaty cleavage, schistosity is caused by directed pressure acting 

on platy minerals. To produce a schistosity, heat and directed 

pressure must be more intense, causing the growth of visible mica 

flakes. These align themselves in layers, again perpendicular to the 

directed pressure. 

3. Gneissic layering 

Increasing heat and pressure cause 

the minerals to flow, producing a 

rock with variously coloured layers 

called a gneiss. 

(Remember, gneiss is layered or 

striped). The composition and 

structure of a gneiss are shown in 

the adjacent diagram. 

Cleavage and Bedding 

The direction of the directed pressure that caused shale to become slate or 

schist or gneiss generally differs from that of the original bedding planes, as 

shown in the diagram below. 


Both the original bedding planes and the 

cleavage directions formed during 

metamorphism are likely to be planes of 

weakness in the rocks. 

Slate typically has at least two planes of 

weakness — one due to the original 

bedding and the other due to slaty 

cleavage, perpendicular to the directed 

pressure during orogenesis. 

In a schist, the sedimentary layers 

(bedding planes) do not usually form 

planes of weakness. However, they may 

be indicated by layers of crystals of 

metamorphic minerals, as shown in the 

adjacent diagram. 

SUMMARY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

The table below contains the names of all the metamorphic rocks listed in the 

SSABSA syllabus, together with the name of the parent rock, the type of 

metamorphism and the mineralogy. 

Metamorphic rock 'Parent' rock 

Types(s) of 

metamorphism 

Mineralogy 

Marble Limestone Thermal or regional Calcite (CaCO 3 ) 

Quartzite Sandstone Thermal or regional Quartz (SiO 2 ) 

Hornfels Shale Thermal Feldspars, quartz, 

biotite 

Slate Shale Regional Quartz, muscovite, 

chlorite* 

Schist Shale Regional Quartz, muscovite, 

biotite, garnet. 

Gneiss Shale Regional Quartz, orthoclase, 

biotite, garnet. 

* Chlorite (a green mica) is not listed in the SSABSA syllabus. 


EXERCISES 

DEFORMATION 

1. Draw diagrams to show two of the deforming effects which forces can 

have on rocks. 

Deforming effect 1: Deforming effect 2: 

2. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the difference between load pressure 

and directed pressure acting on rocks. 

Load Pressure 

Directed Pressure 


3. Use the table below to summarise the effects of four factors that affect 

the nature of the deformation caused by pressure acting on rocks. 

Factor 

Effect of this factor 

4. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the difference between a joint and a 

fault. 

A joint 

A fault 

5. On the adjacent diagram of a fault label: 

a. the hanging wall. 

b. the footwall. 

c. the fault scarp. 


The adjacent diagram shows a sequence of 

horizontal sedimentary strata containing a 

joint. 

The directions of the forces acting on the 

strata are also shown. 

6 a. In the adjacent space, 

draw a second diagram 

showing the type of fault 

which would be produced 

by these forces. 

b. Name the type of fault 

you have drawn. 

7 a. Draw a diagram showing 

the type of fault produced 

by compressional forces 

acting on rock strata. 

Include the directions of 

these forces on your 

diagram. 

b. Name the type of fault 

you have drawn: 

……………………fault 

8 a. Describe the type of 

forces which produce a 

lateral fault. 

b. Draw a block diagram of 

a lateral fault, including 

the direction of 

movement on both sides 

of the fault. 

c. Name an example of a 

lateral fault. 


9. Label the adjacent 

diagram, which 

shows the different 

parts of a fold. 

10. Name the structure shown in each of the following diagrams. 


METAMORPHISM 

1. Define the term metamorphism. 

2. Are weathering and the formation of sedimentary rocks examples of 

metamorphic change? Explain your answer. 

3. In what way do igneous processes differ from metamorphism? 

4. In which of the three states of matter do metamorphic changes take 

place? 


Factors Affecting Metamorphism 

1. In the table below, list four factors which affect metamorphic change, 

and describe the effect/s of each factor. 

1. 

Factor 

Effect/s of this factor 

2. 

3. 

4. 

2. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the difference between conglomerate 

and meta-conglomerate. 

Conglomerate 

Meta-conglomerate 


Thermal Metamorphism 

1. What is thermal metamorphism? 

2. What is a metamorphic aureole? 

3. Some examples of igneous intrusions are shown in the diagrams below. 

Shade in the metamorphic aureoles in each case. 


4. What can you say about the relative amounts of heat energy produced by 

the batholith and the dyke shown in the diagrams above? 

5. Compare the degree of metamorphic change you would expect in the 

rocks around the dyke with that around the batholith. 

6. How would the size of the metamorphic aureole around the dyke 

compare with the metamorphic aureole around the batholith? 

7. Collect specimens of the sedimentary rock shale and the metamorphic 

rock hornfels, which is formed by thermal metamorphism of shale. Use 

the table below to compare their properties. 

Feature 

Shale 

Rock type 

Hornfels 

Colour 

Texture 

'Hardness' 

Density 

Mineralogy 

Layering present? 


8. Collect specimens of the sedimentary rock limestone and the 

metamorphic rock marble, which is formed by both thermal and regional 

metamorphism of limestone. Use the table below to compare their 

properties. 

Feature 

Limestone 

Rock type 

Marble 

Colour 

Texture 

'Hardness' 

Density 

Mineralogy(try some 

acid on each) 

9. Collect specimens of the sedimentary rock sandstone and the 

metamorphic rock quartzite, which is formed by both thermal and 

regional metamorphism of sandstone. Use the table below to compare 

their properties. 

Feature 

Sandstone 

Rock type 

Quartzite 

Colour 

Texture 

'Hardness' 

Density 

Mineralogy 


Regional Metamorphism 

1. Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the processes which give rise to 

regional metamorphism. 

Stage 1: 

Stage 2: 

2. What factors cause the changes in the rocks? 

3. The diagram below shows part of a mountain range which has been 

formed by orogenic activity. Indicate on the diagram where you would 

expect to find various grades of metamorphism, ranging from low-grade 

to high-grade. 


4. The diagram below shows a fold mountain range in which different 

degrees of orogenic activity have occurred. 

Write the names of the rock types formed by metamorphism of shale in 

the appropriate blocks. 

5. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the difference between non-aligned 

and foliated rocks. 

Non-aligned rocks: 

Foliated rocks: 

6. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, the cause of foliation in rocks. 


7. a. Give the words that are used to describe the textures of three rocks 

formed by regional metamorphism of shale. 

Name of rock 

Word used for texture 

b. Draw diagrams showing each of the textures you named in part a. 

8. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, the difference between cleavage and 

bedding in rocks that have been subject to regional metamorphism. 

Cleavage: 

Bedding: 


9. Collect a specimen of the ‘parent’ (sedimentary) rock shale, and also 

specimens of slate, schist and gneiss — rocks formed by increasing 

degrees of regional metamorphism of shale. 

Record the characteristics of each rock type in the table below. 

Feature 

Rock type 

Shale Slate Schist Gneiss 

Colour 

Approximate 

grain size (mm) 

Layers present? 

Name of texture 

Labelled sketch 

of rock, showing 

texture. 

10. The diagrams below represent photomicrographs showing some 

examples of textures present in metamorphic rocks. 

Foliated/non 

aligned 

Foliated/non 

aligned 

Foliated/non 

aligned 

Foliated/non 

aligned 

a. By crossing out the incorrect words, indicate which of the diagrams 

show a non-aligned texture and which show some form of foliation. 

b 

Name the likely rock types, choosing from the following names: 

Quartzite, marble, schist, gneiss 


11. Summarise the characteristics of the different textures of metamorphic 

rocks by completing the table below. 

Non-aligned 

Texture Description/sketch Rock examples 

Types of 

foliation 

1 .................... 

2 .................... 

3 .................... 

12. Explain why the changes: 

sandstone → quartzite limestone → marble 

may occur in both thermal and regional metamorphism.

Deformation and Metamorphism

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