The benefits of events: An annotated bibliography - Sport New ...

The benefits of events: An annotated bibliography
Prepared for Sport and Recreation New Zealand (SPARC)
By
The New Zealand Tourism Research Institute
AUT University
April 2007
www.nztri.org

Executive summary
This annotated bibliography summarises studies on the likely impacts and value of
sports events. The impacts examined were economic, socio-cultural,
environmental and health impacts.
Key themes that emerged from the literature relate were:
1. Widespread claims that events provide a community with economic
benefits are made in the absence of compelling evidence;
2. Events provide both social benefits and cost to a community, but
communities remain largely supportive of such activities;
3. Events play only a small role in macro-environmental change but can have
significant negative impacts at the local level. Large scale events can
showcase new ‘green’ technologies and practices;
4. The absence of any compelling evidence that large-scale sport events
increase physical activity and sports participation levels;
5. Whilst much is known about event impacts, there are considerable
knowledge gaps and disputes regarding appropriate methodologies.
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Table of Contents
Economic Impacts ............................................................................ 4
Summary: Economic impacts............................................................ 31
Socio-cultural Impacts ...................................................................... 33
Summary: Socio-cultural impacts ...................................................... 49
Environmental Impacts ..................................................................... 50
Summary: Environmental impacts...................................................... 59
Health Impacts............................................................................... 60
Summary: Health impacts ............................................................... 66
Appendix 1: Method......................................................................... 67
Appendix 2: Databases searched .......................................................... 68
Appendix 3: Definitions..................................................................... 69
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Economic Impacts
Andranovich, G., Burbank, M. J., & Heying, C. H. (2001). Olympic cities: Lessons
learned from mega-event politics. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(2), 113-131.
'Mega-events allow cities to focus economic development activities and
attention for competitive gain. Mega-events are a category of events so
spectacular that they are recognised around the world as a peak event,
worthy of everyone's attention.' In addition 'cities can usually leverage
event preparations to promote an impressive array of development
opportunities'. This study addresses policy opportunities and challenges in
hosting the Olympic Games in Los Angeles (1984), Atlanta (1996) and Salt
Lake City (2002). In order to understand the impacts of these large-scale
and multidimensional events, government documents, official Olympic
documents, interviews with local official, local media reports, public
opinion poll data, and other available sources were examined. The study
found that support for mega-event is premised upon the generation of
revenue for the state’s tourism industry in the short term and the provision
of a long-term boost to the city’s image. For example the 2002 Salt Lake
City games generated $1.3b in federal fund, $1.4b in tourism, expansion of
tourism business and estimated $40m legacy fund (est.). The total
economic impact for the 1996 to 2003 period was estimated to be $4.5b,
with net revenues to state and local government projected to be $75.9
million. In addition the event was hoped to brand Salt Lake City as the
‘winter sports capital’ of North America. Two reasons for engaging in a
mega-event strategy were identified. First, city leaders see the Olympic
Games in strategic terms, providing opportunities to gain regional,
national, international media exposure at relatively low cost. Second,
hosting the Olympics is expected to make significant contributions to
tourism and economic development. In order to ensure that both of these
opportunities are capitalised upon, the adoption of long time frame is
encouraged as well as the creation of public-private partnerships.
Baade, R. A., & Matheson, V. (2002). Bidding for the Olympics: Fool's gold?
Available at:
http://www.holycross.edu/departments/economics/vmatheso/research/ol
ympics.pdf
The purpose of this paper was to assess the economic impact of the 1984
and 1996 Summer Olympics. A review of the literature indicated the
evolution of standard techniques based on standard macroeconomic theory,
in which expenditure and income approaches are used to estimate the
economic impacts. In order to provide credible estimates on the economic
impacts of a mega-event, this study recommends an ex post (i.e. after the
event) model. A survey to determine expenditure by those attending the
event (complete with a question on place of residence) was identified as a
straightforward means of estimating direct expenditures in a manner that is
statistically acceptable. In both instances of the 1984 and the 1996 Summer
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Olympic Games, the economic impact was more modest than that
projected by those promoting the events. The authors conclude that the
mega-events industry is by its very nature exceptional in terms of its
infrequency and the particular and immediate demands it makes on a host
economy. Rather than fitting in, the host economy must change to
accommodate the event. Host communities need to 'be realistic about what
the Olympics offer economically'. The offers suggest that 'In the absence of
careful and controlled planning, cities that succeed in hosting the Olympics
may well only find fool’s gold for their efforts'.
Baade, R. A., & Matheson, V. A. (2004). The quest for the cup: Assessing the
economic impact of the World Cup. Regional Studies, 38(4), 343-354.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the boost to the US economy
from hosting the 1994 FIFA World Cup. An ex post model was used to
provide a filter through which the promises made by event
boosters/advocates can be filtered. Ex ante approaches (i.e. before the
event) 1) often confuse event turnover with impact, 2) use incorrect or
inaccurate multipliers, and 3) are influenced sample/respondent bias. The
study indicated that with over 3.5 million fans attending games during the
tournament, the 1994 World Cup was clearly an enormous popular success,
providing event organisers with large profits. The evidence suggests that a
$4 billion economic impact for the US projected by Cup boosters probably
did not materialise. On the contrary, the evidence indicates a far greater
likelihood that the World Cup had an overall negative impact on the
average host city and on the US economy overall. Host cities were
estimated to have combined losses of between $5.5 and $9.3 billion
compared to the ex ante estimates of a $4 billion boost for the host
communities. The authors encourage host communities to 'more thoroughly
evaluate booster promises of a financial windfall…before committing
substantial public resources'.
Burgan, B., & Mules, T. (2001). Reconciling cost-benefit and economic impact
assessment for event tourism. Tourism Economics, 7(4), 321-330.
This paper presents a theoretical analysis of the relationship between costbenefit
analysis (CBA) and economic impact assessment (EIA). Governments
typically justify their investment in events in terms of the economic
impacts that the events bring to their host region. However, the
justification for other types of public expenditure is usually based upon CBA
which emphasises opportunity costs as well as consumer and producer
surplus measures. In practice, it tends to be the measurement of benefits
rather than costs that causes most disagreement. The authors state that
public spending on special events is a specific example of public spending
on tourism promotion. Special events have an economic impact through the
expenditure of those visitors who would not have come had the event not
been held. Reviewing the past studies carried on events in Australia
indicates that if the owners of the means of production are the residents,
this area represents extra income that the residents of the region receive
as a result of hosting the event. The study also identifies other benefits and
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costs measured under a more standard CBA approach. For example, major
events often cause inconvenience (i.e. indirect cost) to local residents such
as noise pollution and congestion. This demonstrates the difference
between CBA and economic impact as means of measuring the benefit from
hosting an event. It is stated that CBA estimates of cost and benefit could
not be added to the economic impact to generate a value of net benefit or
net cost, as CBA only emphasizes consumer and producer surplus. 'The
spending of public money on hosting events is justified in terms of the
tourism promotion implication of the event, and the existence of market
failure, which prevents individual providers of tourist services from
capturing all of the tourist expenditure'. The authors conclude that the
economic impact approach is an appropriate methodology to evaluate
public expenditure on special events. 'A more appropriate measure of
benefit than the consumer surplus measure used in cost–benefit analysis is
the impact that the event has on regional incomes'.
Burton, R. (2003). Olympic Games host city marketing: An exploration of
expectations and outcomes. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12(1), 37-47.
This study attempts to review the various organisations involved in the host
city Olympic bidding process and correlate investments and actual
performance. The study highlighted the risks and rewards associated with
hosting the Olympics. Historical evidence from the past Olympic
organisations revealed that cost overruns, large operating budgets, and
construction delays are common risks for host cities. These are usually
utilised 'in the absence of quantifiable metrics'. The study concluded that
'bidding cities will generally factor in the value of global media attention,
infusion of infrastructure, sponsor investments and the promise of longterm
image benefits when proposing to host the Olympic'. Not every host
city/nation 'achieves a break-even position'. Therefore, 'it appears difficult
to justify hosting the Games solely on a financial ROI basis'. The authors
suggest that to answer the question of whether the community was better
off for having hosted the Olympics may remain a discussion driven more by
qualitative observations than by quantitative facts.
Cashman, R. (2002). Impact of the Games on Olympic host cities. Barcelona,
Spain: Centre d’Estudis Olímpics, Universitat Autonoma De Barcelona.
Cashman argues that 'It is virtually impossible to know the true cost to a
city of hosting an Olympic Games because there is no accepted way of
assessing expenditure'. Benefits for hosting the event are described as
'vague', 'inflated’, ‘uncosted' and 'without assessment'. Government and
business are keen to host mega events because they are seen as a way of
'enhancing the global status of the city (and country) leading to business
opportunities, tourism and general promotion of the city globally'. These
legacy issues (i.e. facilities, benefits from global exposure) offer an
additional return on the investment for the host city and country.
Inadequate attention has been paid to planning for the post-Games period
and the legacy of an Olympic Games. “There is a growing belief that an
Olympic Games should leave a host community and the city environment
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etter rather than worse off”. Bid cities tend to focus on winning the bid,
planning for the Games and staging a successful Games rather than
considering what happens after the Games. More attention needs to be paid
to whether there can be some ongoing return and community benefit from
Olympic precincts and venues. Facilities without a significant post-Games
use...can become...a burden to the taxpayers'.
Chalip, L., & Costa, C. A. (2005). Sport event tourism and the destination brand:
Towards a general theory. Sport in Society, 8(2), 218-237.
This study describes the general principles for incorporating events into a
destination branding strategy. Sporting events have the potential to build
the brand of their host destination. The main argument of this study is that
sporting events must be strategically incorporated into a destination’s
overall marketing plan. Incorporating a sport event into destination
branding requires that the event be complementary with other events in
the host community. Events are often poorly used in destination branding
because the means and bases for building events into destination branding
strategies are poorly understood. 'The effect of individual events needs to
be considered with reference to the overall event portfolio and with
reference to the destination’s mix of products and services, particularly
other sport products and services'. Destination marketers must carefully
plan an events portfolio, with a mix of sporting and cultural events, which
are appropriately suited for the specific destination. Destination markets
should be completely reliant upon sport events for their branding -
'Destination marketers can cross-leverage sport elements at the
destination, but the contribution of sport events to the destination’s brand
will be greatest when their brand relevance is not constrained only to
sport'. The more varied the array of sport and cultural events in the
portfolio, the greater the reach. The challenge therefore is to develop a
portfolio of events that support the desired branding for the host
community. The challenge in this regard is to accurately identify how
different target markets perceive each event, so that the events cobranding
potential with the host community can be evaluated.
Coates, D., & Humphreys, B. R. (2006). Proximity benefits and voting on stadium
and arena subsidies. Journal of Urban Economics, 59(2), 285-299.
This paper examines the role that residential proximity plays in voting on
stadium and arena subsidies. 'The net benefits of stadiums and arenas may
be highly localised in areas near these facilities'. The research question is
whether and how residents’ proximity to professional sports facilities
influences the likelihood of voting for subsidies. The findings show that
voter proximity leads to voter preferences for the subsidies in both
researched areas, i.e. voters living closer to facilities tend to favour
subsidies more than their counterparts living farther away. The possible
implications for future research can be multi-fold. For example, the
proximity benefits can be highlighted to push for hosting mega-events. And
on the other hand, if a public vote for the final decision has to be held
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egarding forthcoming mega-events, the vote outcome must be analysed
carefully with the role of voters’ proximity taken into account.
Connell, J., & Page, S. J. (2005). Evaluating the economic and spatial effects of
an event: The case of the World Medical and Health Games. Tourism
Geographies, 7(1), 63-85.
By studying the case of the 2003 World Medical and Health Games, a
medium-sized event held in the City of Stirling, this paper demonstrates
that the economic benefits associated with events are not necessarily
distributed evenly in time and space involved, i.e. there are always winners
and losers geographically. A business survey (postal survey) was used to
assess the impacts of the event on business sectors in the region. 'There is a
close geographical association with location of businesses and the benefits
from hosting of the [event]. Event tourists may not be the same as other
tourists - 'The structured and focused manner with which event participants
engage in activities reflects their time–space budgets which are constrained
due to the formal event organisation which can often leave little time for
the pursuit of tourist activities'. The authors note that in order to maximise
the geographic distribution of spending, 'deliberate spatial strategies need
to be planned for directing tourist spending opportunities. Simply locating
visitors in accommodation in outlying areas as a means of spreading the
opportunities is insufficient'. Attention needs to be paid to the imbalance of
the benefits events might bring to businesses in different areas within a
region.
Crompton, J. L. (2006). Economic impact studies: Instruments for political
shenanigans? Journal of Travel Research, 45(1), 67-82.
This article is a critique of research into the benefits of events on local
economies. The authors argue that economic impact studies that see the
council/government as the investor are 'flawed conceptually because the
money invested does not belong to the council; rather, it belongs to the
city’s residents. ‘It is the return that residents receive that is important,
rather than only that proportion of the total return that filters back to the
council'. Impact studies tend to discuss the issues from the interested
parties’ perspective rather than from a truth pursuer’s viewpoint -
'Economic impact analyses have an obvious political mission. They
invariably are commissioned by tourism entities and usually are driven by a
desire to demonstrate their sponsors’ positive contribution to the economic
prosperity of the jurisdiction that subsidises their programs or projects'.
The legitimacy of economic impact studies is 'predicated on the studies’
being undertaken with integrity'. Examples of 'mischievous procedure
include 1) inclusion of local residents; 2) inappropriate aggregation and
inclusion of time-switchers; 3) abuse of multipliers; 4) ignoring
displacement and opportunity costs, 5) ignoring the costs borne by the local
community; 6) expanding the project scope; 7) exaggerating visitor
numbers; and, 8) the inclusion of consumer surplus. 'The media, general
public, city council, and other relevant public organisations are unlikely to
be aware of the underlying assumptions, subtleties, and potential error
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sources associated with economic-impact studies'. For those organisations
taking the ethical/accurate approach to determining economic impacts, it
is important 'to recognise the political reality of being compared to others
who [report] misleading economic impacts'.
Daniels, M. J. (2004). Beyond input-output analysis: Using occupation-based
modeling to estimate wages generated by a sport tourism event. Journal of
Travel Research, 43(1), 75-82.
This paper introduces a relatively new way of estimating the impact of
sport tourism events - the generation of wages. According to the author,
the occupation-based modelling is viewed as an effective extension of the
traditional and commonly accepted input-output approach. Shortcomings
and criticisms of the input-output analyses are highlighted and discussed,
based on which the eight-stage occupation-based modelling is suggested.
'Occupation-based modelling allows for a thorough understanding of the
specific types of jobs and resulting wage income that accompany a change
in final demand to an economy due to a tourism initiative'. The author
then demonstrates the application of the model by using the National
Softball Association’s games as example. The article concludes that the
new approach is an extension, rather than a replacement of the existing
input-output approach. There are great potential for broader applications
of the model in analysing the employment and wages generated by sports
events.
Daniels, M. J. (2007). Central place theory and sport tourism impacts. Annals of
Tourism Research, 34(2), 332-347.
'Metropolitan areas continue to dominate as principal centres of tourism
activity'. When two politically distinct destinations co-host an event, 'the
location higher on the central place theory hierarchy stands to realize more
economic benefits from the event, unless specific measures are taken to
equalize the outcomes' The aim of this paper is to apply central place
theory to demonstrate how different areas co-hosting the same sports
events receive different economic outcomes. Data collected from the
National Softball Association’s games was analysed, concluding that in this
particular case, the smaller county where most of the activities took place
experienced a reverse false excursionist effect. At the same time the larger
country gained nearly double the economic benefits from the event. 'In
order for hinterland places to successfully host sport tourism events, they
must band together and cooperatively market their goods, attractions, and
services'. To protect their interest, they need to work closely with the
urban counterpart to make sure to achieve an equal share of cost and
benefits'. The authors conclude that there has generally been a failure 'to
ensure that all affected areas realise an equitable share of an event’s costs
and benefits'.
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Daniels, M. J., Norman, W. C., & Henry, M. S. (2004). Estimating income effects of
a sport tourism event. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(1), 180-199.
The widely accepted input-output models to measuring economic impacts
are problematic because the results do not reveal the distribution effects
of tourist spending across different household-income segments. In other
words, input output models do not make clear the extent to which different
household groups are benefiting. To address this issue, this paper presents
four models to estimate the income effects of sport tourism events. By
analysing data from a large road race in the south-eastern USA, it is
demonstrated that the aggregated occupation-based model offered the
most promise for future applications. 'Occupation and wage data can also
be used as leverage when proposing sport tourism as a means of creating
new employment in a community or supplementing the income of the
underemployed'. The authors conclude that 'The application of occupation
and wage data offers a means of demonstrating how the income of
individuals working in tourism-related industries is affected by increases in
final demand'.
Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., & Spurr, R. (2005). Estimating the mpacts of special events
on an economy. Journal of Travel Research, 43(4), 351-359.
The authors criticise the general four assumptions of the Input-Output (I-
O)model, and argue that the I-O model only measures the positive
economic impacts brought on by an event, and not the potential negative
impacts. I-O economic analyses are likely to lead to over-estimates of the
final impact on overall economic activity. 'Given the widespread use of
multipliers from I-O models in event impact assessment, there is a strong
presumption that, worldwide, there is likely to be excessive funding being
devoted to subsidising events and that the funds being used are probably
being misallocated'. Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models have
been widely used as frameworks for exploring the economic impacts of
policy initiatives and in many other broad areas, but have only recently
been introduced as frameworks for estimating tourism economic impacts.
CGE models represent an example of current best practice in assessing
economy-wide impacts of changes in expenditure within an economy.
Proponents of CGE modelling point out that those economy-wide,
interactive effects should be taken into account in determining the impacts
of increased tourism expenditure on a destination. 'Tourism researchers
seem to be relatively unaware of this extensive and evolving CGE modelling
literature with its potential to inform impact analysis and policy making in
their own field'. The assumptions of the CGE model are that all main final
demand components are endogenous, capital and land are given
exogenously, price-induced substitution effects occur, government budget
deficits are fixed, and state employment can be regarded as fixed (zero
elasticity) or flexible (perfectly elastic). The authors also distinguish
between impacts and benefits - 'Economic impacts are not the same thing
as the net economic benefits from an event, though they are often assumed
to be the same. When an event leads to an increase in GDP, the net benefit
or welfare gain will often be substantially less than the change in the value
10

of gross output, as measured by GDP'. The comparison of an events
benefits using the I-O approach and the CGE approach yielded the following
differences:
1) The CGE simulations reveal that the net impact of an event in one
state can have a negative effect on the economic activity in other
states. I-O modelling projects a much greater impact on real output
and gross product in both the event host state and Australia as a
whole, as compared to CGE modelling;
2) The projected increase in employment using the CGE model is less
than I-O estimates for both the event’s host state and the nation.
The I-O model projects increased employment in the rest of Australia
(exclusive of the host state), whereas the CGE model projects
relatively large job losses in the rest of Australia; and
3) The CGE model projects reduced output and employment in
several industries in the event’s host state, including some industries
that might be regarded as closely associated with tourism—motor
vehicles, water transport and transport services, rail transport,
communications, and insurance. In contrast, the I-O modelling of the
special events projects a positive or zero change in real output and
employment in all industries.
Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., & Spurr, R. (2006). Assessing the economic impacts of
events: A computable general equilibrium approach. Journal of Travel
Research, 45(1), 59-66.
This paper adds to the debate on the advantages of computable general
equilibrium (CGE) analysis over the conventional I-O (Input-Output) model.
'I-O analysis incorporates a systematic and serious upward bias if used to
estimate impacts in broad regions or national economies. I-O techniques
account for the positive impacts of an event on economic activity, but they
ignore the equally real negative impacts'. In contrast CGE models 'CGE are
quantitatively solvable models that incorporate the whole economy. They
treat the economy as an integrated system — one in which markets impact
one another, in which resource constraints exist, and in which demand and
supply must balance'. Several differences between the alternative forms of
analysis in event impact assessment are presented. 'A comparison of the
economic impacts of a special event using both CGE and I-O models
indicates that the latter technique ignores interactive effects between
industries, thereby exaggerating the impacts on gross state (or regional)
product and employment. The article discusses how economic
impacts/benefits vary between the host region, other regions, and
nationwide.
Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., & Spurr, R. (2006). Economic impact of sport events: A
reassessment. Tourism Review International, 10(4), 207-216.
This paper is another critique of the traditional Input-Output (I-O) model to
assess the economic impact of an event. Computable General Equilibrium
(CGE) is once again advocated as ‘best practice’ due to its ability to model
the whole economy and treat the economy as an integrated and interactive
11

network of markets. This approach is argued to overcome the shortcomings
of the I-O model. CGE is applied to an analysis of an Australia-based motor
sport event and the results are then compared with projects using I-O
models. The article highlights the need for an institutional framework for a
more rigorous assessment of economic impacts of sport events. This paper
is part of the authors’ continuous efforts to apply CGE models in evaluating
economic impacts of sport events. CGE provides 'very different, and much
lower, estimates and benefits from the methods conventionally used in
event evaluation'. The authors argue that due to existing methods of
measuring event benefits, 'sport events are being greatly oversold. The
economic impacts and net benefits, if rigorously assessed, are much lower
than those invariably claimed'. Existing economic assessments are plagued
by 'biased evaluation techniques'; a 'a failure to distinguish between the
impacts on output and jobs and the net benefits that this increased
economic activity brings'; and a failure to recognise that 'the benefits to
one region are often at the expense of other regions, events will be
supported that do not produce net benefits for the national economy'.
Consequently, there is ‘most likely to be misallocation of event funding and
excessive overall spending in seeking and promoting sport events and in the
provision of infrastructure to support them'. The authors describe a 'serious
need for improved economic evaluation of sport events'. CGE is advocated
as the appropriate tool when the need is for 1) an estimate of the impacts
of a policy or investment on the GDP or jobs, or 2) a comparison 'of the
benefits of a policy or investment with the costs of funding it'.
Evangelia, K. (2003). Economic aspects and the Summer Olympics: A review of
related research. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(6), 433-444.
Given the economic significance of the summer Olympic Games on host
countries and regions, a number of studies have been conducted to consider
the economic implications of the event. Understandings of event
economics are informed by 'a number of ex-ante economic analyses, but
the research significantly lacks ex-post impact assessments'. There are
discrepancies between these two types of studies - 'ex ante models and
forecasts were not confirmed by ex-post analyses'. The ex-ante economic
studies outline the 'significant role of the Summer Olympic Games in the
promotion of the host economy'. These reports 'highlighted the extension of
the Games economic impact well beyond the actual period of the event
occurrence itself. In terms of justifying government expenditure, it is
argued that public funding should occur only if the mega-event yields
higher net benefits from an alternative project.
Gamage, A., & Higgs, B. (1997). Economics of venue selection for special sporting
events: With special reference to the 1996 Melbourne Grand Prix. Asia
Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 1(2), 15-26.
This paper discusses the venue selection issues of sports events by analysing
the economic and long-term impacts of the events on alternative venues.
The authors conduct research using secondary data of the 1996 Melbourne
Grand Prix. The estimated multiplier effects of the event if they are held in
12

metropolitan and rural districts are compared by using an input-output
approach. The findings support the argument that hosting such events in
metropolitan districts will generate more benefits, economic and others,
than in the rural area. 'Input-output analysis demonstrates that venue
decisions made purely on economic grounds will highlight regions where
economic gains are maximised'. The authors conclude that given the fact
that venue selections of such sports event are often a highly politicised
decision making process, politicians should be cautious on issues related to
potential economic impacts. They suggest that 'finding effective methods to
communicate the value of the event to private enterprise remain a high
priority if public and media backlash is to ameliorated'. In terms of
communication, the 'disclosure of costs and benefits, alongside clear
communications, which emphasize long term gains rattier than short-term
irritations' may prove to be useful in garnering public support.
Gratton, C., Dobson, N., & Shibli, S. (2000). The economic importance of major
sports events: A case-study of six events. Managing Leisure, 5(1).
Based on the reported results of economic impact assessments of six major
sports events held in Great Britain in 1997, the authors argue that when
evaluating economic impacts of those events on host cities, the cities’
contribution to the cost must be considered. The extent to which the cities
make such a contribution is always dependant on the predicted economic
benefits the events can bring. The findings show a big variability of those
benefits and some difficulties, which researchers may come across when
predicting the benefits. According to the potential of events to generate
significant economic benefits, a typology is developed which can divide the
events into four different categories.
The typology is as follows:
Type A: Irregular, one-off, major international spectator events generating
significant economic activity and media interest (e.g. Olympics, Football
World Cup, European Football Championship).
Type B: Major spectator events, generating significant economic activity,
media interest and part of an annual domestic cycle of sports events (e.g.
FA Cup Final, Six Nations Rugby Union Internationals, Test Match Cricket,
Open Golf, Wimbledon);
Type C: Irregular, one-off, major international spectator/ competitor
events generating limited economic activity (e.g. European Junior Boxing
Championships, European Junior Swimming Championships, World
Badminton Championships, IAAF Grand Prix), and
Type D: Major competitor events generating limited economic activity and
part of an annual cycle of sports events (e.g. National Championships in
most sports). The typology is relevant to indicate that not all events that
are ‘major’ in sporting terms are important in economic terms.
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The authors offered four generalisations about Type C events:
1) The economic impact of competitor-driven events is relatively easy to
forecast in advance;
2) In general, junior competitor-driven events generate small impacts;
3) The more senior the event and the longer the event, then the larger the
economic impact, with World Masters events, in particular, generating
significant impacts; and
4) Spectator forecasts for Type C events are subject to large error margins
and there is a tendency to make highly optimistic forecasts that rarely
materialize.
Hede, A. M. (2005). Sports-events, tourism and destination marketing strategies:
An Australian case study of Athens 2004 and its media telecast. Journal of
Sport Tourism, 10(3), 187-200.
This study explored the role and contribution of media telecasts of megaevents
in developing positive attitudes toward host destinations. Data was
collected on the Australian media telecast of the Athens 2004 Summer
Olympic Games from a sample of Australian residents shortly after the
Athens 2004 Olympics. The findings of this study show that 38.7% of
respondents indicated that their overall attitude toward Greece as a tourist
destination changed as a result of their consumption of the Athens 2004
telecast. Although not consistent across all respondent types, the key issues
underpinning this change were the appearance of Greece, culture and
history of Greece, capacity of Greece to stage the Olympic Games, and
Greek infrastructure. The only common reason amongst the clusters for
changes in attitudes towards Greece as a tourist destination was the
‘appearance’ of Greece that was projected in the telecast. ‘While Olympic
telecasts focus generally focus on the sports, it is clear that mediated,
host-destination images, were absorbed by viewers and providing a
foundation for attitude change. Therefore, it is crucial for destination
marketers to consider carefully how their destination is being projected in
the telecasts.
Hede, A. M. (2006). Mega-events and the "showcase" effect: Investigating the
moderating influence of exposure to the 2004 Olympic Games telecast and
interest in the Olympic movement - An Australian perspective. Tourism
Review International, 10(4), 241-255.
This study explores the influence of exposure to telecasts and interest in
the Olympic Games on intentions to visit Greece. The study was set within
the context of Australia and investigates viewers’ perceptions of Greece as
a tourism destination. A telephone survey (sample size of 351 was
achieved) was conducted a few weeks after the conclusion of the Athens
2004 Olympics Games. The overall results of this study indicate that there
is a positive relationship between latent construct brand (destination)
14

perceptions and behavioural intentions. However, the relationship between
destination perceptions and behaviour intentions was much stronger in the
case of those respondents that had high levels of exposure to telecasts than
those with low levels of exposure to the telecasts. An interesting finding in
this study is that high telecast exposure with low interest in the Games,
exerted the most influence on the destination perception and behavioural
intentions relationship. Therefore, the author argues that there are
enormous opportunities for destination marketers to harness the
opportunities by strategically developing content for the mega-event
telecasts.
Hiller, H. H. (2000). Mega-events, urban boosterism and growth strategies: An
analysis of the objectives and legitimations of the Cape Town 2004 Olympic
bid. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24(2), 439-458.
This paper explores the impacts of mega-events on hosting cities from a
new perspective, the human/city development. Using Cape Town’s 2004
Olympic bid as an example, the report reveals that as the first Olympic bid
from Africa, the bid successfully repositioned Cape Town and South Africa’s
interest in the global economy. The bid highlighted the significance of the
mega-event for the long-term interests of the grass roots rather than the
widely accepted elite/commercial sector’s interests. 'The idea of
harnessing a mega-event to a broader urban agenda that moves beyond the
interests of finance capital, developers, inner-city reclamation and the
tourist industry is a new idea'. However, 'when local people lack adequate
housing, food and other subsistence needs, preparing for a circus when
people need bread will always appear inappropriate'.
Hiller, H. H. (2006). Post-event outcomes and the post-modern turn: The Olympics
and urban transformations. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6(4),
317-332.
Hiller argues that there is more at stake than just the sports competition
when hosting a mega event. The opportunity for urban renewal,
regeneration and infrastructure development is a key incentive for cities to
host mega events. Having been a host city for a mega event provides
membership to an exclusive club, for which there may be ongoing benefits.
These benefits can reduce over time as new cities join the club. Nonsporting
outcomes may be more important than the sporting outcomes.
There are problems with aligning mega-event needs with long term
community interests, give the large capital costs associated with these
modifications. Facilities that can be justified independently of hosting the
mega-event are less likely to be challenged by local residents. There is
difficulty in event facilities avoiding obsolescence – facilities cannot remain
‘state of the art’ forever. Converting them to use by the general public
requires adaptations that will result in the ‘elite athlete’ feel of the venue
being lost. Obsolescence ensures that the facility loses its high performance
status, which will also reduce the significance for spectators and visitors.
The use of mega-event facilities must re-evaluated and integrated into the
needs of the local community.
15

Horne, J. D., & Manzenreiter, W. (2004). Accounting for mega-events: Forecast
and actual impacts of the 2002 Football World Cup Finals on the host
countries Japan/Korea. International Review for the Sociology of Sport,
39(2), 187-203.
Sporting mega-events now occupy 'central status for city and national
government development agendas'. Government involvement is essential
because the guarantees and resources are too costly for private business.
Despite the investment and associated financial risks, governments invest in
events because 'such spectacular peak-time events attract national and
international media recognition for the hosting cities'. Drawing on the
study of the 2002 FIFA World Cup finals co-hosted by Japan and Korea, the
forecast and actual impact of the event on hosting countries is contrasted.
Early estimates were quite substantial but were soon replaced by some
revised estimates. As the event approached, a number of economic studies
indicated that even the reduced estimations were likely to be overoptimistic.
Due to the mediated nature of the event, and the PR campaign
as well, media technology and subscriptions to related services were the
main commodities to benefit from the 2002 World Cup in the domestic
markets of Japan and Korea. The researchers argue that there is a close
relationship between mega-events and the globalisation process: economic
interests drive and promote the mega-event, as their activities drive and
promote globalisation. The cultural significance and signifiers of the megaevent,
including sport heroes and their role as pop-cultural devices, the
fashion-language of the apparel industry, and the multinational production
of the event (both on-stage and off-stage) are carriers, channels and
transmitters of the globalisation process.
Hudson, I. (2001). The use and misuse of economic impact analysis: The case of
professional sports. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 25(1), 20-39.
Economic impact studies have been a powerful weapon in debates relating
to subsidising professional sports teams. A large number of studies have
been conducted in this area - 'the degree of variation between studies that
are investigating similar phenomenon is quite remarkable'. Based on this
observation, the author tries to explore the factors that cause such
variances by using a meta-analysis approach on 13 studies. He concludes
that the most common source of variance between them is the use of gross
rather than net impacts. The author suggests that in order to win the
subsidies, the professional sports teams must be able to successfully show
that they are an important economic engine for the local region. The
studies in this sample tend 'to use methodologies that would inflate the
economic impact of the sports team being studied'.
16

John, R. M. (2006). Economic and fiscal impacts of mega sporting events: A
general equilibrium assessment. Public Finance and Management, 6(3), 346-
394.
This article concentrates on the Sydney Summer Olympic Games to
illustrate the estimation of the economic and financial effects of a mega
event. The Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model is used for the
analysis of the effects of the Sydney Olympics. The results reveal that mega
sporting events, even of the size of the Olympics, are unlikely to generate
large economic benefits. There are a number of key factors (e.g. labour
market condition, potential to improve the terms of trade, degree of public
subsidisation) that are likely to be major determinants of the size and sign
of the impacts. The study also points out that the conventional method for
conducting economic impact studies in advance of sporting projects, Input-
Output (I-O) analysis, is poorly equipped for the task and can be expected
to generate substantially over-optimistic results. It is suggested that CGE
models are well equipped to highlight these determining factors and to
enable scenario analysis. CGE modelling should be complementary to
retrospective econometric analysis, not a substitute.
Jones, C. (2001). Mega-events and host-region impacts: Determining the true
worth of the 1999 Rugby World Cup. International Journal of Tourism
Research, 3(3), 241-251.
There is a 'growing body of academic literature concerned with the
negative and ambivalent effects on the host economy, both economic and
social, of hosting hallmark and mega-events and questioning the benefits of
sports tourism in particular'. 'Mega-events are 'unique almost by definition
and their long term effects are difficult to assess given their fixed length'.
There is 'no single method of impact assessment claims to enumerate and
quantify all the consequences associated with such undertakings'. Events
have developed an aura of the sacred - 'those in opposition can be made to
feel disloyal or unambitious'. The purpose of the paper was to examine the
wider economic and social impacts of the 1999 Rugby World Cup on Wales.
The economic benefits to Wales are uncertain as it was noted that much
spectator expenditure occurred outside of Wales. The longer term
economic development benefits are 'open to question' and the 'jury...is still
very much out'.
Kasimati, E. (2003). Economic aspects and the Summer Olympics: A review of
related research. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(6), 433-444.
The goal of this paper is primarily to provide an overview and evaluation of
the different approaches used for analysis of economic impacts of the
Summer Olympic Games on tourism and host cities. The article examines
the alternative modelling approaches taken to ascertain the economic
implications generated by the Summer Olympics. A review of past literature
indicates that two main approaches have been used to identify and quantify
economic impacts of events under the broad labels of the Input-Output (I-
O) and the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) framework. The study
17

also identified the shortcomings in earlier ex-ante and ex-post studies and
showed that the ex-ante models and forecasts were not confirmed by expost
analysis and this therefore prompts the need for improved theory.
Covering the period of 1984 through to 2012, all ex-ante economic studies
indicate the significant role of the Summer Olympic Games in the
promotion of the host economy. Meanwhile, ex-post studies’ results for
employment were more divergent by far than those released by ex-ante
studies. These results will help planners and potential hosts of mega-events
to improve their forecasting and decisions. The study also suggests that
research in this field needs to further consider a substantial element, which
is the opportunity cost involved in hosting the Summer Olympic Games or
other mega-events.
Kesenne, S. (2006). Do we need an economic impact study or a cost-benefit
anaysis of a sports event? European Sport Management Quarterly, 5(2),
133-142.
This article seeks to compare and contrast economic impact studies (EIS)
from cost-benefit analysis (CBA). The objective of a CBA is to compare the
benefits of an event for a region/country (i.e. the increase of the value of
consumption of the local population), with the costs of production. These
costs include opportunity costs (though in practice it is difficult to analyse
all of the different ways this money could have been spent), import
leakages, and crowding-out effects caused by international tourists. The
first type of EIS calculates the new money that flows into a region because
of the event. A second type seeks to determine the additional income that
is created by a sports event. The author notes that both types of studies
can be useful and raises the question of which technique to use. The
author notes ‘the answer depends on how ‘economic impact’ is defined,
and nobody seems to know. EIS are described as ‘a bit fuzzy’ and ‘not able
to provide a good argument for governments to support an event’. On this
basis the author calls for ‘serious’ CBA to be performed.
Kim, S. S., & Morrison, A. M. (2005). Change of images of South Korea among
foreign. tourists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Tourism Management,
26(2), 233-247.
The aim of this study was to empirically examine the image changes of
South Korea as perceived by Japanese, Mainland Chinese and US tourists as
a result of hosting the 2002 World Cup. Significant differences were found
for the five image factors (various tourism resources; negative image;
stability; passionate image; and industrial products) before and after the
World Cup for the three national tourist groups. All three national tourist
groups were less concerned about safety, including the threat of aggression
from North Korea, after the World Cup. Additionally, the research
identified that respondents who were more aware about Korea before the
World Cup and exposed to more of the matches through TV, had a more
positive image change and enhanced levels of familiarity of Korea after the
World Cup. Findings also suggest that an internationally significant event
can positively influence the image of a tourism destination in a short time
18

period. However, the authors question whether these image modifications
are stable and whether they will return to their previous levels with the
passage of time.
Lee, C., Lee, Y., & Lee, B. (2005). Korea's destination image formed by the 2002
World Cup. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 839-858.
The results of this research were that people visiting Korea to attend the
World Cup rated Korea higher than non-World Cup tourists on a number of
dimensions. The dimensions were 1) Refreshing/relaxing atmosphere, 2)
Beautiful scenery/ natural attractions 3) Interesting historical/ cultural
attractions 4) Personal safety/security 5) Interesting, friendly and
hospitable people, 5) Various shopping products, 6) Unpolluted and
unspoiled environment, 7) Suitable accommodations, 8) Good night-life/
entertainment 9) Good climate, 10) Exotic atmosphere, 11) Easy
accessibility, 12) Convenient local transportation, 13) Various recreational
opportunities 14) Lack of language barrier 15) Appealing local food &
beverage, 16) Inexpensive travel costs/prices, 17) Variety of interesting
events/festivals, and 18) Good value for money. It is unclear the extent to
which the World Cup may be attributable for these differences. The
authors acknowledge that because many World Cup fans attend the World
Cup for the football regardless of the destination, these attendees might be
more easily impressed because they arrived in Korea with fewer
preconceptions about Korea as a holiday destination. However, World Cup
tourists were more satisfied with their experiences in Korea, and had a
greater willingness to recommend South Korea to others, when compared to
non World Cup tourists. It is this final result which is more credible in its
suggestion that the World Cup had a positive effect on the creation of
destination images.
Lee, C., Taylor, T., Lee, Y., & Lee, B. (2005). The impact of a sport mega-event
on destination image: The case of the 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan.
International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 6(3), 27-45.
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between a mega
sports event and the ability to stimulate international visitation and
enhance the destination’s image by investigating the FIFA World Cup 2002
in Korea. To assess the perception of Korea’s image, an on-site survey was
conducted with a sample of 412 foreign tourists during the 2002 World Cup
tournament at World Cup stadiums in Seoul, Suwon, and Incheon, and at
two popular tourist sites, Itaewon and Insadong. The survey results clearly
demonstrated that hosting the World Cup was associated with a positive
impact on tourists’ perceptions of South Korea. Those tourists, who
specifically travelled to Korea for the World Cup, had a more positive
image of South Korea, were more satisfied with their experiences in Korea,
and had a greater willingness to recommend South Korea to those who
travelled to Korea for other reasons. These tourists may be more
susceptible to a greater image change, since they arrived in Korea with
fewer preconceptions about Korea as a holiday destination. The study also
suggests that future research should further explore the impact of sport
19

mega-events on destination image with a representative sample of
international tourists.
Lee, C.-K., & Taylor, T. (2005). Critical reflections on the economic impact
assessment of a mega-event: the case of 2002 FIFA World Cup. Tourism
Management, 26(4), 595-603.
The purpose of this study was to examine the total economic impacts
attributable to the FIFA World Cup in Korea by using an Input-Output (I-O)
model excluding tourists whose travel was non-event related. Two
questionnaires were used to collect data from foreign tourists during the
2002 World Cup. The survey results indicated that World Cup tourists
(direct plus indirect) accounted for 57.7% of the total tourist arrivals during
the World Cup period. The survey results showed that per capita
expenditure by international World Cup tourists was estimated to be
US$2242. This amount of expenditure was 1.8 times as much as that of
ordinary international tourists (US$1229). In terms of general economic
impacts, the World Cup generated US$1.35 billion of outputs as a result of
direct, indirect and induced expenditure. The authors, however, indicated
a significant overestimation in the results as they included the expenditure
by non-World Cup tourist (42.3%) in the calculations of general economic
impacts. By using the survey data, the authors could distinguish World Cuprelated
visitors and non-event visitors and their respective expenditure.
This clearly illustrated the methodological pitfalls associated with
forecasting based on generic tourist data. It is evident that current
methods of economic impact assessment are not designed to give full
consideration to these and other unique characteristics of mega sport
events and the potential for these to effect calculations. This research has
also highlighted the need to more adequately conceptualise aversion and
diversion aspects, as well as attractive factors, in relation to mega sport
events.
Lybbert, D., & Thilmany, T. (2000). Migration effects of Olympic siting: A pooled
time series cross-sectional analysis of host regions. Annals of Regional
Science 34(3), 405-420.
This paper examines the migration effect and economic impacts of hosting
the 2002 Winter Olympics by focusing on actual population and economic
data from previous host regions. The study employs a pooled time series
cross-sectional analysis of pre- and post-Olympic migration experiences in
past host regions. By using migration model for migration analysis, the
study found that a peak in net migration rates may occur two to three years
after the Olympics, which is then followed by a decline. In terms of
economic impacts, result of regression model indicated that there is a
significant correlation between net migration rate and construction. Trade,
FIRE (Financial, Insurance, and Real Estate) and Service are also significant,
demonstrating that the make-up of an economy provide information or
incentives for migrants. It also appears that the Olympics do indeed
promote employment growth as does the preparation period between the
announcement of the host city and the actual games. The article concludes
20

that there is a positive correlation between hosting the Olympics and
migration. Hosting the Summer Olympic Games tend to exhibit consistently
higher net migration than that of hosting the Winter Olympics. Unlike
migration, the economic impacts begin after the announcement that the
region will host the Olympics and continue after the hosting of the Games.
Madden, J. R. (2002). The economic consequences of the Sydney Olympics: The
CREA/Arthur Andersen study. Current Issues in Tourism, 5(1), 7-21.
The purpose of this study was to assess the economic impacts of the 2000
Olympics. The multiregional computable general equilibrium model was
employed to assess the effects of the Olympics over a 12-year period
regarding the Australian labour market, capital supply constraints and
government policy on foreign debt. The study found that the Olympics had
a strong impact on both the New South Wales and national economies,
particularly in the four years ending in the Event Year. On average the
Olympics was estimated to increase NSW Gross State Product (GSD) by
almost $490 million per year over a 12-year period ending in 2005/2006.
This also reflects the projected increase in NSW jobs of almost 5300 per
year on average over the 12-year Olympic period. In terms of the Olympics’
effect on the industry, the study findings reveal that most industries are
positively affected by the Olympic Games, particularly in the Pre-Event and
Event-Year Phases. Only in the Post-Event Phase are a majority of
industries estimated to be negatively affected, and then not by enough to
offset the effects on GDP of positively affected industries. The overall
estimated impact on Australian GDP is that it will be 0.12% higher over the
12 years from 1994/95 than if Sydney had not staged the Games. The
article concludes that the success of the Olympics in generating increased
economic activities and real household consumption is to a significant
degree dependent on the ability of the Games to draw extra labour into the
economy. It is also important to note that there may be some negative
effects on utilities such as increased congestion during the fortnight or so in
which the Games are held.
Matheson, V. (2006). Mega-Events: The effect of the world’s biggest sporting
events on local, regional, and national economies (Working paper no. 06-
10): College of the Holy Cross, Department of Economics, Faculty Research
Series.
The purpose of this study was to provide an overview of the economics of
mega-sporting events and examines the reasons why the ex ante estimates
of the economic impact of large sporting events by boosters tend to
exaggerate the net economic impacts. The study found that while sports
boosters routinely claim large benefits from hosting mega-events, the
majority of independent academic studies of these events have shown that
their economic impact appears to be limited. The overestimate of
economic contribution of mega-sporting events can be explained by being
biased upwards, “crowding out,” which is the congestion caused by a mega
event, leakages, and the common error in cost-benefit analysis,
'opportunity cost'. This study suggests that in order to maximise the net
21

enefit, the host cities should be limiting the amount of new infrastructure
built, which requires a lot of funds but does only little promotion for
economic growth. Local officials should keep in mind that hosting a series
of smaller events may result in higher net benefit than a strategy
encouraging one large event. Local government needs to be aware of these
overestimations regarding mega-sporting events, and are advised simply to
view with caution any economic impact estimates provided by entities that
have an incentive to provide inflated benefit figures.
Matheson, V. A., & Baade, R. A. (2006). Padding required: Assessing the economic
impact of the Super Bowl. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6(4),
353 - 374.
The model developed by the researchers estimated that the host city on
average experienced a reduction in personal income of $133.4M. This is
substantially different from the $300M to $400M gains projected by the
NFL. A wide range of results was identified - some host cities exhibited
increased and decreased incomes measured in the billions. Given this
range of results, the authors concede that their model does not explain all
the variation in estimated income. Differences between booster estimates
and academic estimates are explained by the use of a gross-spending
approach, which aggregates all receipts associated with the event. This
approach may include expenditure by locals and not account for spending
changes by locals. The basic shortcoming of typical economic studies
‘pertains not to information on spending by those included in a direct
expenditure survey, but rather to the lack of information on the spending
behaviour for those who are not’. Inaccurate multipliers that
underestimate leakage and inappropriate multipliers – most economic
impact studies utilise expenditure multipliers rather than income
multipliers) also account for the large discrepancies. Economic impact
studies are usually commissioned by event boosters and are likely to
‘inflate the benefit-side of the cost equation but also completely ignore the
costs of hosting such an event’.
McKay, M., & Plumb, C. (2001). Reaching beyond the gold: The impact of the
Olympic games on real estate markets.
This report evaluates the impact of the Olympic Games on real estate
markets on the host communities of the Seoul, Barcelona, Atlanta and
Sydney Olympics. The influence of a host country’s economy on the local
property market is substantial. Therefore, direct comparisons between
host countries are difficult. The hosting of the Olympics has a significant
and varied impact on the real estate market, but these impacts are largely
indirect and experienced over a long time. More direct, short-term impacts
are largely focused on the hotel and tourism sector. Real estate impacts
tend to be a consequence of decisions driven by other motivations, such as
image and self-promotion, which provide indirect benefits to the sector.
The Olympics provides five long-term legacies that impact on the real
estate markets. These are 1) urban regeneration that revitalise declining
inner city areas; 2) creation of new neighbourhoods; 3) improvements to
22

city infrastructure such as airport extension/upgrade, rail links, fibre optic
communication networks, new parks and improved pedestrian footpaths; 4)
increasing environment/sustainable development through improved public
transport and use of solar energy; and 5) growth in tourism and convention
industries through tourism promotion. The Olympics has two potential
impacts on the residential real estate sector: 1) a short-term boost to
rentals and prices in certain areas; and 2) a longer-term impact in terms of
new centres and the upgrading of new housing stock.
Miller, P. A. (2002). The economic impact of sports stadium construction: The
case of the construction industry in St. Louis, MO. Journal of Urban Affairs,
24(2), 159-173.
This study examines overall employment in the construction sector of the
St. Louis SMSA during which the Kiel Centre and the Trans World Dome were
built. In doing so, data was obtained from databases of the Economic and
Policy Analysis Research Centre at the University of Missouri. The data
consists of 112 quarterly observations spanning the period from the first
quarter of 1971 to the fourth quarter of 1998. The study found no evidence
that construction industry employment in the St. Louis SMSA was higher in
the periods during which the two stadia were under construction. The
economic impact statements used to justify public subsidies for sport stadia
overstate the economic benefits of the stadia and the teams they house.
This study suggests that instead of creating new construction jobs, jobs
were shifted from projects that would otherwise have been undertaken,
resulting in no new job creation in the construction industry. The results
also revealed that there were no out of the ordinary wage changes
occurring during the construction period. The study suggests that
construction workers at a given site would have been working at another
site. If the public sector wants to generate economic development, the
money may be better spent elsewhere.
Mules, T. (1998). Taxpayer subsidies for major sporting events. Sport Management
Review, 1(1), 25-43.
This paper concludes that 'major sporting events do not appear to generate
extra tax revenue to justify the expenditure of taxpayers’ funds'.
'Government involvement in sport is likely to be motivated by political,
social, and economic considerations’. The article suggests that more
emphasis should be placed on finding ways that the costs are borne by the
tourism industry, and not the taxpayer. The real impact of congestion,
accidents, vandalism, and noise on the residents has not been fully
considered in previous research. The paper discusses and provides examples
of government involvement, economic impacts of large, international
events, the viewpoint of various stakeholders, promotional benefits,
distributional effects, taxation and the evaluation of government assistance
in tourism. As highlighted in this article, 'economic impacts have
concentrated on the aggregate effects of events and have not concerned
themselves with effects on the community'. The article concludes that 'the
tourism industry should be encouraged to meet the costs' they place upon
23

the community. If this does not happen, 'the taxpayer is generally the loser
in the hosting of the major events'.
Owen, J. G. (2005). Estimating the cost and benefit of hosting Olympic Games:
What can Beijing expect from its 2008 Games? Industrial Geographer, 3(1),
1-18.
While the majority of previous economic impact studies assume that megaevents
bring economic benefits to the host cities/countries, the author of
this article believes that many studies arrive at this conclusion by
misapplying economic theories. Using the forthcoming 2008 Summer
Olympic Games in Beijing as an example, the author concludes that given
the complex nature of mega-events and unique feature of host countries
such as China, the long-term impact and the potential negative impacts of
the mega-events must be considered when evaluating the event impacts.
The potential for long term economic benefits from the Beijing Games will
depend critically on how well Olympic-related investments in venues and
infrastructure can be incorporated into the overall economy in the years
following the Games as well as the opportunity cost of labour in China.
Beijing, along with any other future host city of mega-events, should not
solely base their investment debate upon previous studies, as they are
argued to be based upon incorrect applications of theories.
Preuss, H. (2006). Impact and evaluation of major sporting events. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 6(4), 313-316.
Preuss contends that from an economics perspective, the key issue is
whether sporting events ‘achieve efficient outcomes given the potentially
incompatible aims of different stakeholders’. Major events are ‘not a
panacea and some scientific controversy has developed over whether major
sporting events have a measurable and long-lasting economic benefit’. Key
to this debate is the ability to distinguish between ‘the measurement of the
output of event-related activities’ on the one hand and ‘event-related
changes of production factors which may induce further non-event related
economic activity’. Most studies of major sporting events use the
expenditure approach, which measures all direct and indirect spending,
linked to an event and its consequential induced effects. Most studies do
not consider effects resulting from a long-lasting change in location factors
and ‘analysts cannot isolate all event effects from other activities of the
host region which also contribute to economic activity’. Extrapolation is a
problem - it is problematic for one set of results to be applied to the same
event if hosted in another community. Policymakers are advised ‘not to
deduce inductive evidence for event applications from both case studies
and average results on economic growth’ because averages are misleading
and conceal outstanding successes and failures. Different goals, varying
levels and quality of infrastructure and the complexity of structural
changes within a city make measuring the economic efficiency of an event
difficult.
24

Preuss, H., & Solberg, H. A. (2006). Attracting major sporting events: The role of
local residents. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6(4), 391 - 411.
Research conducted on behalf of event organisers is usually more optimistic
than those without a vested interest in the event. Many impacts from
major events have characteristics of public goods and externalities. Local
(and national) residents play an important role in influencing the political
process that decides the willingness to support an event financially. The
prospect of economic growth increases people’s desire to host an event in
their community. Major events are perceived as a catalyst for
development. People fear that large events can lead to unacceptable
levels of government debt. As public debt increases, support for the megaevent
will decrease. A review of 117 opinion polls for 54 events revealed
that approximately 75% were supportive of hosting the event. Support was
strongest in low-income economies leading the authors to suggest that
contrary to the common assumption, major sporting events cannot be
regarded as a luxury good, and that people are aware that events can
influence the production of goods and services in the community. People
base their support for an event not just on consumption factors, but also
matters of economic production.
Ritchie, J. R. B. (2000). Turning 16 days into 16 years through Olympic legacies.
Event Management, 6, 155-165.
Focusing on legacy issues is just as important as winning the bid. The
author states that 'the short-term success of the event itself can also play a
key role in promoting lasting impacts as well as a meaningful and lasting
legacy (or composite legacies)'. Most tourism, and by default event tourism
policies are 'based on the premise that the costs, inconveniences, and other
negative impacts caused by outside visitors who participate in the
events/activities hosted by a region must be more than offset by the
benefits or positive residual effects resulting from this visitation' While
the most common types of legacies are physical facilities, financial
resources, and community programs, 'some of the most valuable legacies
may be psychological or social in nature'. Ten main principles for
enhancing the legacies of mega-events were identified. These were 1)
legacy planning must involve all important stakeholders for the event, 2)
'Legacy planning must understand and build upon the values of local
residents and stakeholders', 3) 'mega-events must incorporate additional
dimensions, such as cultural, educational, and commercial events', 4) 'host
city must actively seek to make a given mega-event as regional as possible',
5) 'Organizers need to recognize that enthusiasm for the “event window” is
very limited following the event', 6) 'Organizers must appreciate the
magnitude of the effort required to “train” all residents to be good hosts',
7) It is 'highly desirable to attempt to develop a number of supporting or
“satellite events,” such as festivals and professional/academic conferences
around both the timing and the theme/nature of the mega-event in
question, 8) The event should strive 'to enhance social understanding and
community cohesion', 9) the achievements and impacts of the event are
preserved and publicized for the benefit of later generations, and 10) The
25

event should 'incorporate, or relate directly, to another major event or
characteristic of the host city/region.
Ryan, C., & Lockyer, T. (2001). An economic impact case study: The South Pacific
Masters' Games. Tourism Economics, 7(3), 267-275.
This study analyses the economic impacts of the South Pacific Master’s
Games held in Hamilton City. Questionnaires (surveys) were used to collect
data for this study. All questionnaires were posted to participants within a
few days after they had completed their respective events. The response
rate was just over 17%, yielding 290 usable survey forms. The findings of
this study indicate that the Games helped generate a net positive
contribution of around NZ$250,000 to the local Hamilton economy. Thus,
there appears to be sufficient reasons to continue with the promotion of
the Games in future years in Hamilton. The article suggests that organisers
should attract as many competitors as possible to participate in the sports:
it is the sense of significant competition that motivates many competitors.
The organisers also need to consider carefully the range of sports to be
covered and, if they wish to maximise economic outputs, to select carefully
those that account for most of the out-of-region visitors.
Saayman, M., Saayman, A., & du Plessis, C. (2005). Analysis of spending patterns
of visitors of three World Cup Cricket matches in Potchefstroom, South
Africa. Journal of Sport Tourism, 10(3), 211-221.
The aim of this research is to analyse the spending patterns of visitors of
three World Cup Cricket matches in Potchefstroom, located in the North
West Province of the Republic of South Africa. The method employed
included the administration of visitor questionnaires to determine the
magnitude of visitor spending, and to compare visitor spending according to
different criteria. The survey consisted of 1,000 questionnaires that were
distributed during the three matches, of which 965 surveys were
completed. The study found that the different methods of determining the
total visitor expenditure resulted in different amounts. On average, locals
spent R212.68, other South African visitors spent R235.67, and foreigners
spent R342.87. Longer events also have a greater impact than one-day
events. This should also be taken into consideration when a destination is
planning or bidding for events. This study also confirmed previous research
which has indicated that foreign visitors tend to spend more than domestic
visitors at an event. Different markets/age groups in this case have
different spending patterns. Based on the results, it is suggested that if the
aim is to generate economic benefits by hosting such events, the marketing
drive should be focused on those high spenders. It is also very important to
note from these findings that the various methods of calculating the
economic spending at an event have different results. The importance of
this is that event managers should be careful in relying on only one
approach. The contribution of this research lies in the fact that not one
method can be singled out as the only method of determining total
economic impact. There are too many factors influencing spending
patterns, for example, age, income, nationality, number of visitors, to
26

name a few. These methods do, however, give a good indication of the
value and amounts generated by an event.
Siegfried, J., & Zimbalist, A. (2006). The economic impact of sports facilities,
teams and mega-events. Australian Economic Review, 39(4), 420-427.
This study examines the economic impacts of sports facilities, teams and
mega-events on the local economy. The study found that sports teams and
facilities do not stimulate economic development due to three reasons: The
substitution effect; leakages; and the likely budgetary gap. Empirical
evidence indicated that host cities provided an average US$7 million
operating subsidy annually to the team in addition to their contribution to
venue construction. It is also estimated that the local organising committee
of the Sydney Olympic in 2000 experienced losses of AU$45 million. In none
of the cases did the host city receive a positive net operating income from
the facility. Based on economic theory and empirical tests of such possible
benefits, Siegfried and Zimbalist conclude that sports facilities cannot be
expected to stimulate local economies. The lesson is clear: before agreeing
to subsidise a sports facility with public funds, residents should ask
themselves what they expect to receive in return and realistically this will
not lead to a more vibrant local economy.
Smith, A. (2005). Reimaging the city. The value of sport initiatives. Annals of
Tourism Research, 32(1), 217-236.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether and how sport can
provide a valuable re-imaging theme for city destinations. Based on the
assessment of three English cities (Birmingham, Manchester and Sheffield)
this study evaluates whether sporting events can affect tourist images of
city destinations. The author uses a three-pronged methodological
approach for collecting data: 180 questionnaires and 54 interviews were
conducted on ‘potential tourists’ and a further 45 questionnaires were
collected from 75 respondents, comprising of individuals attending sporting
events in five different cities throughout England. The study shows that
widespread awareness of sport events and facilities among potential
tourists emphasises that sport can be an effective promotional vehicle.
Initiatives appear to have the capacity to influence images in a variety of
different ways. However, there are also problems with sport re-imaging.
The problems include a lack of control a city can exert over sporting
images, potential confusion between using new sports to promote a
destination with reputation/ traditions in other sports, and the inability of
some stadiums/facilities to be at the very least, ‘imageable’, and ideally a
symbolic element of the urban environment. The authors caution against a
‘city of sport’ brand because a large number of potential tourists find it
difficult to comprehend what this represents.
27

Smith, A. (2006). Tourists' consumption and interpretation of sport event imagery.
Journal of Sport Tourism, 11(1), 77-100.
The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of sport event imagery.
The main objectives of the study were to 1) identify whether events
pervade images of city destinations; 2) evaluate the role an event
initiatives in any recent changes to those images; and, 3) analyse how
tourists interpret sport event imagery more generally. The focus of the
research was on Birmingham, Manchester, and Sheffield – three cities that
have utilised sport in their branding The authors conducted a total of 54
semi-structured interviews, from nine electoral wards from three different
areas of England, on ‘potential tourists’, rather than tourist who had
already decided to visit a particular destination. Findings of the study
suggest that recent sport initiatives have not been a significant agent of
Birmingham’s recent image change. Manchester’s image appears to have
been assisted by the city’s various sports initiatives and in Sheffield
interviews revealed event initiatives have enhanced its image, albeit to a
limited extent. Despite some participants making connections with traffic
chaos and violence, in general sport events appear to have encouraged
positive connotations amongst potential tourists, including modernity,
progress, and vitality. Therefore, this study suggests that sports events do
generate positive connotations for the majority of potential tourists. This
conclusion is explained by the term ‘synecdoche’ which refers to instances
where a part of something is used to stand for the whole. In this way, sport
teams, events and stadiums may become synonymous with a community, to
such an extent, that the brand values of the team/event/stadium are
shared with the host community
Sterken, E. (2006). Growth impact of major sporting events. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 6(4), 375-389.
The overall economic impact of large-scale events is ‘difficult to evaluate’
because of the multiplicity of factors involved. Economic studies show
‘mixed evidence’ of events contributing to economic growth. Local
organisers and their ex-ante forecasts are likely to predict serious growth
impact. This is in contrast to the ‘more modest’ outcomes reported in ex
post studies. The impact of major events on local economic activity is
described as ‘a topic of significant debate’ and empirical studies are yet to
provide ‘a unified conclusion with respect the economic impact of major
sporting events’. In this longitudinal study of Olympic and World Cups
(Soccer) the conclusion is made that per-capita GDP growth rates-have
been higher in nations that have hosted the Olympics than in countries that
have hosted the World Cup. It is suggested that the Olympics may be hosted
by higher growth-potential economies and that infrastructure investment is
likely to be less for a World Cup than an Olympic Games.
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Szymanski, S. (2002). The economic impact of the World Cup. World Economics,
3(1), 169-177.
Szymanski observed through comparison with long-time averages, the
cyclical norms and equivalent figures for similar economies at the same
stage of the business cycle suggest there is no statistically significant
positive macroeconomic impact on GDP for World Cup hosts. He concluded
that countries should 'stop inventing economic benefits from sporting
events', and simply treat them as expenses, or investments, in national
promotion. He suggests that 'Rather than thinking of an event as an
investment in generating an economic return, it should be considered a
form of public consumption – a reward for past efforts'.
Taks, M., Girginov, V., & Boucher, R. (2006). The outcomes of coattail marketing:
The case of Windsor, Ontario, and Super Bowl XL. Sport Marketing
Quarterly, 15(4), 232-242.
This paper examines the outcomes of ‘coattail marketing’ using the
involvement of the Canadian city, Windsor, in co-hosting the Super Bowl XL
(SBXL) as a case. The authors review the complexities involved in
understanding the impacts of mega-sporting events, and an argument is
developed for adopting a more comprehensive approach to their study. The
linkage model is employed as an analytical tool to bridge the gap between
theory and method. Qualitative methods, such as on-site interviews, were
used to collect data for this study. The findings indicate that the
commercial establishments in Windsor city did not equally benefit from cohosting
the mega-sport event. The level of success greatly depended on the
business levering with Budweiser as well as the location of the bars in the
city. With regards to the forward linkages, the expected positive economic
impact was partially supported through the great success experienced by
some downtown core businesses, indicating the crucial importance of the
location of the establishment to experience any form of spill-over effect.
The authors conclude that the 'coattail marketing' strategy of municipalities
which co-host hallmark events, has in this instance had a rather low level of
success, with only a limited number of actors seeing any benefits. This
result confirms that only few of the benefits will reach the everyday lives
of the city's residents.
Whitson, D., & Horne, J. (2006). Underestimated costs and overestimated
benefits? Comparing the outcomes of sports mega-events in Canada and
Japan. Sociological Review, 54, 73-89.
This chapter examines the discrepancies between predicted and actual
outcomes of sports mega-events, and why the hosting of events is so often
a project of political and business elites. The article also analyses the
economic impacts of tourism in the years after the Games are gone. It is
widely assumed that hosting the Olympic Games represents an
extraordinary economic opportunity for host cities. Yet, it is well known
that hosting the Olympics resulted in huge losses and debts for the City of
Montreal. It is estimated that the hosting of the Olympics have cost
29

Montreal well over CA$2 billion in capital and interest costs, without
anything like commensurate benefits. Despite the fact that tourism may
boom in the year of a special event, growth in tourism in the years after
the event is difficult to sustain, and is highly dependent on extraneous
factors such as economic recessions, political concerns, or health scares.
The article also points out that special mega-events are likely to have less
impact on the civic economy in the longer term, than annual events for
which a city over time develops an international reputation. Despite
legacies saying that the hosting of major Games is problematic and has a
long history of cost over run, why then do cities and nations seek so
assiduously to host those events? The reasons are that the staging of global
mega-events has offered a way of putting cities/nations ‘on the map’, and
thereby showcasing their attractions to international visitors and potential
investors. Mega-events are also envisaged as catalysts for major
investments in public and private construction. The authors conclude that
the outcomes of hosting the Olympics have been that public and private
investments in the ‘infrastructure of play’ have created expensive sporting
infrastructure and other consumer spaces, but with few social benefits for
those unable to present themselves as consumers. A full and transparent
account of an Olympics will still show a loss on the public account. The
authors recommend that ‘the challenge for any host city . . . is ‘to make
the Olympics fit the city’ and not the city fit the Olympics’. What this
points to, in the end, is that environmental and social impact assessments,
as well as full public consultation before submitting bids, are necessary if
major sports events are ever to become democratically accountable.
30

Summary: Economic impacts
The literature on the economic impacts and benefits of sporting events contains a
number of clear messages. These are that:
• There is no shortage of cities/ nations seeking to host mega-events and
develop event-related tourism strategies. Events are a favoured tool for an
increasing number of locations for stimulating tourism activity.
• The majority of evidence arguing that events do have a significant economic
impact likely to be premised on methodologically deficient studies. There is a
need to be sceptical of reports commissioned or authored by those standing to
benefit from an event, if the substantial economic impacts/benefits are
predicted. Economic Impact Studies (EIS) should be undertaken with
methodological integrity or at the very least with full disclosure of
methodologies and assumptions to permit critical analysis.
• There is increasing scepticism in media (and therefore the general public) and
academic circles of the ability for mega-events to provide economic
impacts/benefits Efforts to justify support for an event for economic reasons
alone is not encouraged. There are winners and losers from mega events; not
all stakeholders share equally in the distribution of an event’s costs and
benefits. The opportunity for urban renewal, regeneration and infrastructure
development is a key incentive for cities to host mega events. Despite the
rhetoric about legacy creation, there is generally insufficient long-term, postevent
planning conducted in the early stages of the event’s development.
• There is no agreement on the single best way to measure an events economic
impacts and benefits. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) is generally considered
superior to EIS because CBA emphasise opportunity costs. Proponents of the
CBA method argue that taxpayer funding is justifiable only if the mega-event
yields higher net benefits from alternative investment opportunities.
• Ex post measures are superior to ex ante measures when evaluating economic
impacts/benefits. Computed General Equilibrium (CGE) measures are gaining
increased recognition as the preferred method at the expense of Input-Output
(I-O) methods. CGE values are likely to be substantially less than I-O values for
the same event. Occupation-based modelling is becoming increasingly popular
way of measuring event-related, economic benefits because the technique
estimates the event-attributable increased (or decreased) wage in the host
community.
• There is difficulty in applying the results of one economic impact/benefit
assessment to other locations. Economic impacts are maximised when
government, event organisers and the private sector interact effectively. A
‘build it and they will come’ will not be the most effective strategy.
31

• Sporting events have the potential to build the brand of their host destination,
but they must be strategically incorporated into a destination’s overall
marketing plan. Given the mediated nature of these events, destination
marketers need to consider carefully how their destination is being projected
in the telecasts.
32

Socio-cultural Impacts
Andersson, T., Rustad, A., & Solberg, H. A. (2004). Local residents' monetary
evaluation of sports events. Managing Leisure, 9(3), 145-158.
This study identifies the value placed by local residents on hosting the
World Skiing Championships in Trondheim, Norway. The authors argue that
a simple yes-no response is inadequate for distinguishing between strong
and moderate supporters/opponents of an event. This study identified that
75% favoured the event. Those favouring the event were asked ‘How much
would you be willing to pay (WTP) in earmarked taxes to finance the event?
[US$6779] and ‘How much would you personally require in compensation to
be willing to let the championship go (Willingness to Accept (WTA))?
[US$207]. Those not favouring the event were asked ‘How much would you
be willing to pay in order to get rid of the event?’ (WTP) [US$828] and ‘How
much would you require in compensation to accept the championships?’
(WTA) [$36]. The authors acknowledge that the WTA figures were skewed
by extreme answers. Variables such as ‘exciting city life’, ‘noise’, and ‘the
city being crowded during the event’ were more influential than economic
benefit arguments when people with high enthusiasm for the event were
differentiated from those with low support for the event. This last result
suggests that different messages regarding justification of events may need
to be developed for different target markets groups.
Barker, M., Page, S. J., & Meyer, D. (2002). Evaluating the impact of the 2000
Americas Cup on Auckland, New Zealand Event Management, 7, 79-92.
'The impact of the America’s Cup in Auckland in 2000 has been substantial
for both Auckland as the host city and New Zealand'. Similarly, the event
'undoubtedly created numerous tourism, trade, and investment
opportunities'. The authors argue that tourism and government leaders
need to recognise the interrelationships that exist between impacts and the
success of hosting events. The purpose of this study was to evaluate
economic but also social, physical, environmental and tourism impacts
associated with the 2000 America’s Cup in Auckland. There was a 14%
increase in visitor numbers to Auckland in February 2000 compared to the
year before, and commercial accommodation increased of 21%. There were
not sufficient economic and social reports available to determine whether
the average Auckland resident financially benefited from the event. No
major studies were conducted to specifically measure resident perceptions
of the Cup. Increased costs for dining out and property prices in Viaduct
Harbour were evidence of the inflationary impact of the event. Following
the defence of the Cup the mood in Auckland was one of celebration. The
event did not lead to increased crime and disorder. The America’s Cup
became the driver for the redevelopment of Auckland’s waterfront area.
The America’s Cup Village was converted into a tourism and marine
industry precinct with ongoing economic value. The Viaduct Basin created
a social entertainment hub within the city. Improvements were made to the
33

sewage and stormwater systems providing better water quality. The
increased amount of noise, litter and boats in the water had negative
impacts on coastal and marine environment. Broken glass littering was also
a concern. 'The adoption of special events has become a favoured tool in an
increasing number of tourism destinations as a means to stimulate tourism
activity'.
Cegelski, M., & Mules, T. (2002). Aspects of residents' perceptions of the GMC 400
- Canberra's V8 Supercar Race. Current Issues in Tourism, 5, 54-70.
This study measured residents’ attitudes and differences among residents’
attitudes towards the V8 Super Car race in Canberra, Australia. Random
telephone interviews were conducted with 423 Canberra residents over the
week immediately after the event. Respondents were grouped into three
zones according to their residential distance to the racetrack. Questions
were designed to elicit a yes/no answer plus brief explanation for the
response given. Overall 69% of residents thought the event was good for
Canberra’s image as the National Capital, lifted lift the profile of the city
(24%) and make it a more interesting place to live (19%). Just over half
(55%) of residents think the V8 Race increases community pride. Over half
of respondents (58%) did not perceive track construction and road closures
to hinder their access to the city area. The majority of respondents (73%)
were not affected by noise from the V8 cars in their home (majority living
in zones 2 or 3). 79% of residents wanted the race to continue being held in
Canberra. Findings also show that differences among resident perceptions
exist: Residents, who attended the race or are interested in motor sports,
are likely to have more positive perceptions of the event. Residents who
live closer to the event are more likely to hold negative perceptions. These
results suggest that an event is never likely gain universal acceptance by
members of the host community, that opposition to the event will be
greatest from those 1) living closest to the event and 2) without an interest
in the event itself.
Chalip, L. (2006). Towards social leverage of sport events. Journal of Sport &
Tourism, 11, 109-127.
This article argues that the celebratory nature of events may facilitate
liminality, which in turn creates social value, particularly through a sense
of communitas. Liminality refers to a feeling that an overtly sacred act is
occurring. Liminality is created by a combination of celebration (i.e. an
occasion for rejoicing) and a sense of social camaraderie. Communitas
refers to the sense of community created. Event organisers and host
community planners 'should foster social interaction and prompt a feeling
of celebration by enabling sociability among event visitors, creating eventrelated
social events, facilitating informal social opportunities, producing
ancillary events, and theming widely. 'The mere creation of a celebratory
space can be sufficient to foster social interaction'. Chalip is critical of
economic and social impact studies because they only provide 'post hoc
information about an event’s outcomes, it does not tell us why these
outcomes occurred. Impact studies are 'inadequate for event planning and
34

management'. The positive effects resulting from events have more
commonly been used to shore up the status of political elites, rather than
to create or sustain meaningful community development. Consequently, the
tactics and techniques to socially leverage the ‘feel good’ character of
events have been developed as political tools, rather than as tools to
empower social action. Events are 'more than mere entertainments; they
are social occasions with potential social value'.
Deccio, C., & Baloglu, S. (2002). Non-host community resident reactions to the
2002 Winter Olympics: the spillover impacts Journal of Travel Research, 41,
46-56.
This study investigates residents’ reactions of non-host community
residents’ perceptions of the spill-over effects of the 2002 Winter Olympic
Games in Salt Lake City. The study is designed to understand non-residents’
tourism related values and attitudes towards the Olympics and how spill
over effects may influence their support for the Olympics. Five hundred
self-administered questionnaires were mailed to randomly selected
residents in Garfield County. In addition, 50 non-respondent residents were
randomly selected for a telephone interview to assess non-response bias.
While 31% of respondents reported that they support or strongly support
the 2002 Winter Olympics, 46% of respondents indicated that they neither
supported nor opposed the event. 59% of respondents would support
promotion of the non-host community as a tourist destination during the
Olympics, and 50% would support community activities coinciding with the
event. Residents who use recreational areas and are dependent on tourism
were more likely to support these linkages. Environmentally conscious
residents were more likely to oppose the event. Consistent with social
exchange theory and the results of this study suggest that 'residents will not
be supportive and responsive if they do not perceive that they will receive
some sort of social, economic, or other kind of benefit from the tourism
exchange generated from the Olympics'. Overall, the results suggest that
the majority of residents in communities adjacent to large events will not
oppose the event. Support from these adjacent communities can be
maximised by a communications strategy that promotes the benefits to the
adjacent community.
Decker, S. H., Varano, S. P., & Greene, J. R. (2007). Routine crime in exceptional
times: The impact of the 2002 Winter Olympics on citizen demand for
police services. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(1), 89-101.
Criminal behaviour during mega sport event can be explained by
criminological theories emphasising anomie or opportunity. This study
examined "routine" crime as measured by calls for police service, official
crime reports, and police arrests in Salt Lake City before, during, and after
the 2002 Olympic Games. Findings suggested that Salt Lake City, which
absorbed 2 million visitors during the games, experienced a sharp increase
in community concern for routine crime. The average number of police
calls for service remained reasonably static with approximately 4,600 calls
35

per week over the entire analytic period. The post-hoc analysis indicated
that there was a significant decrease of 203 weekly police recorded
incidents during the games and a subsequent significant increase of 200
weekly incidents after the games. There was a significant decrease of 191
weekly arrests during the games and a corresponding significant increase of
165 weekly arrests after the games. These suggested that 'the Olympics did
not have a significant effect on local community demand for services, but
did have a significant effect (decrease) on indicators of law enforcement
controlled workload measures'. This indicated 'a decline in the ability of the
police to respond to calls for service, largely in part because of the
deployment of a substantial part of the force to the Olympic mission'. In
conclusion, the diversion of a substantial proportion of police resources
(upwards of 40 percent) resulted in fewer incidents and arrests during the
Olympics, but that such activity and outcomes returned to their “normal”
rates once the games were completed. Research implies that the capacity
of the police during mega events is stretched across two fronts – providing
public safety services in areas immediately surrounding the event venues
and the broader residential and business communities.
Downward, P. M., & Ralston, R. (2006). The sports development potential of
sports event eolunteering: Insights from the XVII Manchester
Commonwealth Games. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6(4), 333 -
351.
Increased volunteerism after a major event would provide a ‘human legacy’
to complement economic development. Given the lack of clarity regarding
economic benefits, there is a need to focus on the emotional and
psychological benefits. Volunteering at major events offers opportunities
for personal development. By providing new challenges, volunteers can
acquire into new skills and capabilities, self-confidence and increased
employability. As result of volunteering at the 2002 Commonwealth games,
there was only a low likelihood of increased participation (6-14%) or
increased volunteerism (8-17%) in specific sports. Similar patterns were
found for non-sport volunteering. Willingness to be involved in another
major event however was much higher – 68% either agreed or strongly
agreed that they were willing to do so. On this basis, there is only
evidence of a small increase in interest, participation, and volunteering in
sport as a result of volunteering at a major event. Quality volunteer
experiences are vital. Those volunteers who experience personal
development are more likely to have, as a consequence, an increased
interest in sport as well as increased intention to participate more. People
tend to trade-off facilitating and participating sport. Turning people on to
volunteering is a double-edged sword because volunteerism is likely to take
them away from participation.
Elias-Varotsis, S. (2006). Festivals and events -- (Re)Interpreting cultural Identity.
Tourism Review, 61(2), 24-29.
The author argues that many events today, insofar as tourism is concerned,
appear to be ‘decontextualised’ on either the spatial or cultural scales.
36

Therefore, this study is concerned with what the process of
decontextualisation and how the ensuing recontextualisation leads to
reinterpreting cultural identity. Three special events were used as
illustrations for this study, two cultural events and one sport event. An
important theme within this study is that festivals and events combine
space, time and memory to produce (or reproduce) the identity and or the
identification of location. The research concludes that festivals and events
have the potential of enabling communities to interpret and re-interpret
their cultural identity through the experience and practices they portray,
motivate and help to introduce.
Fredline, E., & Faulkner, B. (1999). Resident reactions to a major tourist event:
The Gold Coast Indy Car Race. Festival Management & Event Tourism, 5(4),
185.
The authors argue that sustainability is an established guiding principle for
managing tourism development, and that it was appropriate for events to
do likewise. This study drew upon previous research on local resident
perceptions of the Gold Coast Indy event investigated the social impacts of
the Gold Coast Indy. The researchers purport that although there is
overwhelming support for the event among resident population irrespective
of their exposure to its impacts, negative impacts are nevertheless
recognised. More specifically, although event benefits with regard to
tourism promotional effects, community self-esteem, and business and
employment opportunities are broadly appreciated, costs of the event
associated with noise levels, traffic congestion, overcrowding, and
disruption to lifestyle are also acknowledged. In short, the benefits are
generally regarded as outweighing the costs. A noteworthy observation
from the research was the existence of a strong positive relationship
between acceptance of the event and 1) perceptions of social justice
outcomes (e.g. the extent to which individuals and groups receive a just
share of the benefits) and 2) satisfaction with the level of public
participation in the planning stage of the event.
Fredline, L., Deery, M., & Jago, L. (2005). Host community perceptions of the
impacts of events: A comparison of different event themes in urban and
regional communities. In J. Allen (Ed.), The impacts of events: Proceedings
of the International Event Research Conference held in Sydney July 2005
(pp. 250-269). Lindfield, Australia: Australian Centre for Event
Management.
This paper investigates the social impacts of events by comparing three
different events with different locations and theme characteristics, i.e. the
Australian Grand Prix, the Moomba Festival (both Melbourne) and the
Horsham Art Is Festival (regional community). Disproportionate stratified
sampling was not used due to sufficient evidence from previous studies
illustrating the relationship between proximity and level of impacts. For
each of the events the majority of respondents noted that the event had
“no effect” on them personally, yet all three events were rated as having a
substantial community-level benefit. The most strongly perceived personal
37

enefits of the Grand Prix were ‘pride that residents have in the city’,
‘maintenance of public facilities’, ‘provides opportunities for people to
have fun with their family and friends’, ‘enhances Victoria's reputation as
‘The Events State’’, and ‘range of interesting things to do’. The most
strongly perceived community benefits of the Grand Prix were ‘money that
tourists spend when they come to the event helps to stimulate the
economy’, ‘media coverage of the event promotes tourism and business
development in Melbourne’, ‘enhances Victoria's reputation as ‘The Events
State’’, ‘employment opportunities’, and ‘maintenance of public facilities’.
The most strongly perceived personal costs of the Grand Prix were ‘traffic
congestion in the vicinity’, ‘parking availability in the vicinity’, ‘public
money spent on the event would be better spent on other things’, ‘noise
levels’, and ‘damage to the environment. The most strongly perceived
community costs were traffic, parking, ‘the event disrupts the lives of local
residents and causes them stress’, ‘noise levels’ and ‘ordinary residents get
no say in the planning and management of the event. It is interesting to
note that although the Grand Prix registered the highest proportions
indicating a negative impact, it also registered the highest proportion
indicating the most positive level of benefit. The results show that many
impacts are similar across different event themes and communities
Fredline, L., Deery, M., & Jago, L. (2005). Testing of a compressed generic
instrument to assess host community perceptions of events: A case study of
the Australian Tennis Open tournament. In J. Allen (Ed.), The impacts of
events: Proceedings of the International Event Research Conference held in
Sydney July 2005 (pp. 158-177). Lindfield, Australia: Australian Centre for
Event Management.
This article presents the results of the testing of a compressed generic
instrument to evaluate the impacts of events using the Australian Open
Tennis Tournament as a case study. The survey was administered 4-5 weeks
after the event through telephone interviews. A systematic sampling
approach using a random number generator was used. A total of 300
interviews were completed. While 43.5% of respondents did not perceive
any impact at the personal level from the event, 55.4% rated the personal
impacts as positive. 78.7% of respondents rated the event positive at the
community level. Very little negative sentiment was recorded. The most
strongly perceived positive impacts at the personal level were
entertainment, pride, showcase effect, economic impact and maintenance
of facilities. A cluster analysis revealed two sub-groupings of respondents;
unconcerned and positive. The positive group was characterised by an
interest in watching professional tennis, and were keen recreational tennis
players. They were also more likely than the unconcerned group to have
attended the event. The majority of open-ended comments about positive
impacts were tourism/economic benefits (43.7%), entertainment (29.3%),
regional showcase (21%) and promotes sport (13%). Open-ended comments
about negative impacts highlighted none (44%), prices (12%), heat (9%), and
disruption (7%). This compressed generic instrument instrument provides an
opportunity for event organisers to measure and monitor the social benefits
and costs of their events, and presents a tool for tourism planners in
38

prioritising those events for funding because of the ability to compare data
across events.
Fredline, L., & Faulkner, B. (2000). Host community reactions: A cluster analysis.
Annals of Tourism Research, 27, 763-784.
This paper investigates host community reactions to the Gold Coast Indy
event in Australia. Face to face interviews were conducted with 353 Gold
Coast residents. A disproportionate sampling approach was taken with those
residents living closest to the racetrack being overrepresented, as this is
where event impacts are most pronounced in these areas. A cluster analysis
identified five subgroups among respondents. Ambivalent Supporters, more
likely to live in the non-Indy zone (62%), were in favour of the continuation
of the Indy (97%) in its current location (60%). The Haters were mainly
comprised of older residents (66% 50+, 44% 60+). The majority of this group
were not in favour of the continuation of the Indy (65%). The Realists have
mixed opinions about the Indy, tending to agree with both the negative and
the positive impacts of the event. Lovers are enthusiastic supporters of the
event and agree highly with community benefits, and disagree with the
negative impacts. All Lovers were in favour of continuation of the Indy, and
favouring its current location (76%). Concerned for a Reason, the last subgroup,
are concerned with some specific impacts of the event, but are not
completely negative. They mostly favour the continuation of the Indy
(97%), but would prefer it at another location (65%). The cluster analysis
approach has utility 'as a tool for investigating the underlying structure of
community reactions to tourism and events'. By identifying groups of
residents (clusters), who share similar views on the event than other
groups, a more targeted approach to the planning and management of
tourism and events can occur. The results highlight that universal support
for an event is unlikely and that proximity to the event and interest in the
event are highly related to a person opposing the event.
Fredline, L., & Faulkner, B. (2001). Residents' reactions to the staging of major
motorsport events within their communities: A cluster analysis Event
Management, 7, 103-114.
This article presents results from a study investigating host community
reactions to major motor sport events in Australia, using the 1998 Gold
Coast Indy Car Race and the 1999 Australian Formula One Grand Prix in
Melbourne as case studies. The data was collected two weeks after the
events had taken place. A cluster analysis resulted in 5 sub-groups of
respondents. Residents included in the two most negative clusters, live
closer to the event (1.04km / 2.13km) than the most positive clusters’
members (3.68km / 3.62km), and are more likely to oppose the
continuation of the event (88% / 46%) compared to 3% and 0% within the
two most positive clusters. The most negative clusters were also more
likely (49% / 25%) than the positive clusters (8% / 1%) to have left town for
the weekend because of the event. While the two most negative clusters
(51% / 33%) avoid the event, the two most positive clusters (46% / 80%)
embrace the event. The largest cluster (62%) - the Ambivalent - tolerate
39

the event. These results make it clear that major events need to reduce as
much as possible the inconveniences of the event for the residents in the
immediate vicinity of the event. Consideration should also be given of the
event theme and the lifestyle preferences of the host community with a
view of ensuring that the local residents have an interest in the event.
Funk, D. C., & Bruun, T. J. (2007). The role of socio-psychological and cultureeducation
motives in marketing international sport tourism: A cross-cultural
perspective. Tourism Management, 28(3), 806-819.
This study examines the motives of individuals who travelled internationally
to participate in the 2005 Gold Coast Airport Marathon. Data was collected
from 239 respondents who were selected from among 724 accessible
international entrants of the GCAM, using online and paper based
questionnaires. The authors used the Cultural Learning Inventory (CLI) to
evaluate tourists’ interests in learning more about transportation, housing,
arts, language, food, media, currency, leisure activities, and indigenous
population in the foreign destination. The authors argue that international
sport tourism relies upon a person’s prior attitude toward the host
destination and culture. An interesting finding of this study is that those
participants with cultural backgrounds dissimilar to Australia were more
likely to agree that experiencing Australian culture and learning new
information was appealing. Another interesting finding is that sport tourism
provides opportunities for the tourist to learn about the host’s culture from
the time the event begins right up until the event finishes. Thus a major
implication of the findings in this study is that 'destination marketers must
develop convergent marketing strategies to target specific segments in
their sport communities, as well as divergent cultural marketing strategies
to target potential participants with different cultural backgrounds'. These
divergent strategies should 'emphasise the opportunities for experiencing
the destination’s culture and increasing knowledge of the destination'.
Gursoy, D., & Kendall, K. W. (2006). Hosting mega events: modeling locals'
support Annals of Tourism Research, 33, 603-623.
This study examined residents’ perceptions of the impacts and how these
affect their attitudes toward mega events. The authors assert that in order
for a mega event to be successful, the understanding and 'participation of
all stakeholders in the process is crucial'. Data was collected from residents
of Salt Lake City during the 2002 Winter Olympic Games via personal
interviews, using the intercept approach. A total of 800 residents were
intercepted and 420 agreed to participate. Community backing for mega
events is affected directly and/or indirectly by five determinants of
support: the level of community concern, ecocentric values, community
attachment, perceived benefits, and perceived costs. A key finding was
that people who are highly concerned with community issues are likely to
see mega events as generating long term profound impacts on their
communities, both positive and negative. The authors also argue that the
collaborative approach, whereby support and involvement of the locals are
sought, is a must in planning for mega events.
40

Gursoy, D., Kim, K., & Uysal, M. (2004). Perceived impacts of festivals and special
events by organisers: an extension and validation. Tourism Management,
25, 171-181.
Events are likely 'to generate economic benefits for the local community,
serve to build community cohesiveness, and generate social incentives for
residents and businesses'. This study aims to develop an instrument that
can be used to measure special event organisers’ perceptions of the
impacts that events may have on local communities. Results show that
festival and event organisers perceive festivals and events to contribute to
community cohesiveness and create social incentives for the local
community. On the other hand, organisers did not perceive festivals and
events to be great contributors of economic benefits to the local economy.
Social costs are also not perceived as an outcome. These results indicate
that event organisers see more benefits than costs accruing from events
within a community. Event organisers rely on the support of the local
communities, and may therefore place more importance on benefits to a
community than the costs, however if they are not simultaneously
concerned with the negative impacts (costs), more harm than benefit may
be the end result. Communities transfer the institutional power to the
event organiser, and need to ensure that the organiser is made aware of
both the positive and negative potential impacts of the event.
Jones, C. (2001). Mega-events and host region impacts: Determining the true
worth of the 1999 Rugby World Cup International Journal of Tourism
Research, 3, 241-251.
Mega sport events have recently created an increased interest on the most
appropriate approaches to determine both beneficial and detrimental
effects on host regions. This study defined the nature of the economic and
social impact on Wales of the 1999 Rugby World Cup (RWC99), qualitatively
assessed the extent and nature of the impact of RWC99 in a number of
areas. Findings suggested that RWC99 would gross $1.3 billion world-wide
and attract 1.7 million visitors to Wales and 3 billion TV viewers.
Overwhelming local support (90%) existed for the event. Estimates of the
social and economic impacts were often unreliable and or unavailable given
their unique nature. Direct visitor expenditure benefits produced an
incomplete picture, even if switching and other negative effects were
incorporated. Media exposure was a necessary driver of investment,
visitation and growth. The hosting of the RWC99 in a strongly rugby
oriented culture, produced significant benefits for the event itself (in terms
of local participation and acceptance), for the host region which ‘punched
above its weight’ in attracting a mega event and which gained an
infrastructure legacy highly appropriate to its cultural dynamic. The
research concluded that RWC99 had considerable benefits for Wales,
although many areas of potential benefit were not maximised. This was due
to the structure of the bidding process and organisational inadequacies,
which led to relatively low visitor expenditure and mixed media coverage.
Research implies that 'the nature of the media coverage and the structure
41

of the event and its perceived ‘success’ have important ramifications for
long-term impacts on the host'. Although as a cultural and sporting event,
the mega events may be highly valued by the host community because of
their cultural/sporting significance, 'their ability to contribute to long-term
economic development remains uncertain'.
Kim, H. J., Gursoy, D., & Lee, S.-B. (2006). The impact of the 2002 World Cup on
South Korea: comparisons of pre- and post-games Tourism Management, 27,
86-96.
'The members of the community who are likely to receive the greatest
benefits from hosting the event often favour and support hosting the event
more than those who receive fewer or no benefits'. This study investigated
South Korean’s perceptions of the impacts of hosting the 2002 World Cup
before and after the event and compared any perceptual differences
between the two time periods. Quantitative data was collected prior to and
after the Games from 811 survey respondents. Overall, expected benefits
(cultural exchange, economic benefits, natural resource and cultural
development) had higher mean values than perceived benefits, meaning
that South Koreans high expectations about the benefits or gains that from
the event were not met. The ‘economic benefits’ had the lowest mean
value (2.91) of all perceived benefits, creating the largest gap score
between the two time periods. With regard to ‘social problems’, ‘traffic
congestion’, and ‘price increases’, the mean values of these categories
prior to the World Cup were higher than after the games, suggesting that
these problems did not occur as much as the residents expected. The
Games generated more societal and cultural benefits (i.e., cultural
exchange between tourists and residents, finding the cultural identity of
local communities, understanding of other societies, preservation and
development of the local culture and natural resources, and restoration of
historical buildings than what was anticipated by residents before the
event. In conclusion, although the 2002 World Cup contributed positively to
the image of South Korea as a host country, local communities were more
concerned about their personal economic impacts, e.g. income and number
of jobs created from the event. Research implies that expectations of
impact size need to be managed and that pre-event studies of resident
perceptions can identify concerns and expectations prior to the Games so
that problems can be promptly and properly addressed.
Kim, N.-S., & Chalip, L. (2004). Why travel to the FIFA World Cup? Effects of
motives, background, interest, and constraints. Tourism Management,
25(6), 695-707.
This study explored the desires of 556 members of American soccer clubs to
attend the World Cup. The study considered demographic measures, fan
motivations, travel motives, event interest and constraints (financial). The
majority of the respondents were male (71%) and “Caucasian” (86%). This
study has significant implications for theory, practice and, and future
research. 'Hosting an event should be treated as an exercise in co-branding'.
The practical implications of this research found that learning about Korean
42

culture increased the level of interest in the event and desire to attend.
The study also highlighted the importance of marketing attractions other
than the event itself because the desire to learn about the host country was
positively related to interest in the event and the desire to attend the
event. Consequently, event marketers should develop marketing campaigns
to both fan and travel motives. The findings here suggest that efforts to
capitalise on flow-on tourism might benefit by emphasising the learning
benefits to be obtained as a consequence of travelling beyond the event.
Kim, S. S., & Petrick, J. F. (2005). Residents' perceptions on impacts of the FIFA
2002 World Cup: The case of Seoul as a host city Tourism Management, 26,
25-38.
This research empirically analysed residents’ perceptions and opinions of
the positive and negative impacts of the 2002 World Cup held in Korea and
Japan. The researchers sought to identify if 1) socio-demographic variables
influenced event impact perceptions and 2) these attitudes were stable
over time. The five positive impacts were ‘tourism resource development
and urban revitalisation’, ‘image enhancement and consolidation’,
‘economic benefits’, ‘interest in foreign countries or their cultures’ and
‘‘tourism infrastructure development’. The three negative impacts were
‘negative economic perspective’, ‘disorder and conflicts,’ and ‘traffic
problem and congestion’. Younger respondents were more likely to indicate
a higher level of perception on the negative impact factors. Female
respondents indicated that they more highly perceived both positive and
negative impacts of the World Cup than male respondents. Residents’
perceptions of the impacts of mega-events vary over time. Residents’
enthusiasm three months after the World Cup was less compared to when
the event was occurring. These results clearly indicate the ability for
resident perceptions to continually renegotiate their relationship with the
event by changing their perception of the events impacts.
Lenskyj, H. J. (2002). The best Olympics ever? Social impacts of Sydney 2000.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Some groups, such as the underclass, the homeless and low cost rental
groups, are worse off as a result of an Olympic Games. Lenskyi contends
that Olympic ‘legacy benefits accrue to the already privileged sectors of
the population’ while the disadvantaged bear a disproportionate share of
the burden.
Mihalik, B. J., & Simonetta, L. (1999). A midterm assessment of host population's
perceptions of the 1996 Summer Olympics: Support, attendance, benefits,
and liabilities Journal of Travel Research, 37, 244-248.
In this study, resident (i.e. state) perceptions of the 1996 Olympic Games
were collected between 1992 and 1995. The research found that the level
of resident support for the games decreased by approximately 8% over
time. This is explained by future optimism theory which posits that that
when outcomes occur in the future, optimism occurs because of the
43

elatively greater valuation of gains. When outcomes are expected to occur
in the present, losses loom greater than gains, leading to more pessimism.
In terms of expected attendance, Georgia residents’ plans to attend the
1996 Olympics steadily decreased in all five studies after the initial 1992
study. The authors consider it noteworthy that the ticket prices were not
yet announced at the time of the initial survey. In terms of perceived
benefits, Georgia respondents ranked image issues (i.e. International
recognition and enhanced Georgia’s image) higher than the economic or
facility concerns in all three years of the survey. Georgia residents rated
the traffic congestion, as the highest perceived liability; followed by price
gouging, strain on law enforcement, and increased crime.
Misener, L., & Mason, D. S. (2006). Creating community networks: Can sporting
events offer meaningful sources of social capital? Managing Leisure, 11, 39-
56.
Social capital refers to the relationships of mutual reciprocity embedded in
social networks that enable action. Using the Manchester Commonwealth
Games as a case study, the authors argue that social capital can encourage
new investment as well as making existing investment go further, by
bringing together the benefits of economic and physical capital into
typically marginalised communities. Sporting events are conceived,
promoted, and championed by urban elites that stand to benefit the most
from the successful hosting of sporting events. Reflecting this, the benefits
to be accrued by hosting events are usually presented in terms of
improving/expanding civic profile, and economic and tourism development.
In many cases the hosting of events moves forward with or without the tacit
or overt endorsement of the local community within the host cities. In
order to promote the development of social capital the authors argue that
1) 'community values should be central to all decision-making processes'; 2)
'various stakeholders, particularly community interest groups, should be
involved in strategic activities related to events (i.e. bid process,
management, legacy)'; 3) 'collaborative action should empower local
communities to become agents of change'; and, 4) 'open communication
and mutual learning throughout strategic activities related to events should
be maintained to minimise power brokering'. In this way, cities can be
empowered to realise benefits that go far beyond that of tourism and
economic development.
Ohmann, S., Jones, I., & Wilkes, K. (2006). The perceived social impacts of the
2006 Football World Cup on Munich residents. Journal of Sport & Tourism,
11, 129-152.
This paper explores the perceived social impacts of the 2006 FIFA World
Cup on local residents. A multi-stage sampling approach was applied, and
130 interviews were completed shortly after the final World Cup match was
played. Eighty-eight percent of respondents supported the statement that
the hosting of the FIFA World Cup strengthened the sense of community;
only 8% disagreed. Just over half (58%) of respondents agreed that the cohosting
of the World Cup lead to improvement in local infrastructure. The
44

construction of a new sporting arena and its use for future events was
viewed as a positive outcome by 74% of respondents. The majority of
respondents (88%) did not feel that the event had lead to increased crime.
21% of respondents agreed that there had been an increase in prostitution;
56% disagreed. Over 80% of survey respondents disagreed that bad
behaviour of football fans during the World Cup in Munich had a negative
impact of the event; only 11% agreed. No respondents felt that rent prices
were affected by the event, and only 2% of respondents felt that house
prices were affected. In summary, the impacts were largely perceived as
positive by residents, especially in terms of urban regeneration, increased
sense of security, positive fan behaviour and the general atmosphere
surrounding the event. Negative impacts (e.g. increased crime,
prostitution, and displacement of local residents) were perceived by fewer
respondents. Socio-demographic factors such as age, gender or length of
residence in the city were not found to be influential.
Owen, K. A. (2002). The Sydney 2000 Olympics and urban entrepreneurialism:
Local variations in urban governance. Australian Geographical Studies,
40(3), 323-336.
This article examines the local impacts of the 2000 Sydney Olympics,
especially in relation to urban governance. This is done through
investigation of the planning processes and impacts of hosting Olympic
events in three case study areas. Discourse analysis of semi-structured
interviews and official documents were used. A purposive sample of eleven
informants from community groups, councils and Olympic organising
authorities was utilised. The Ryde Council viewed the Ryde Aquatic Leisure
Centre as an urban marketing and redevelopment tool, providing the
community with an impressive positive economic and physical legacy.
However, negative legacies also arose: 1) the community consultation in
the planning process was superficial characterised by meetings to
disseminate information rather than true community consultation; 2) the
community suffered from reduced access to the facilities during the
Olympic period; and 3) social capital networks were undermined by a lack
of trust in public participation processes. The Bondi Beach Volleyball
Stadium would take up approximately 34% of the Bondi Park and 20% of the
beach area. Despite growing opposition, the local council successfully bid
to host the volleyball venue, Subsequent community consultations lead to
the council making some positive changes to the design of the stadium. The
end result was improved community facilities that secured an important
legacy for the community. The Homebush area had previously been left as a
contaminated wasteland, but the successful Olympic bid saw the area being
redeveloped into the Sydney Olympic Park. A financial shortfall of the local
council, due to land transfer rates for the Olympic Park, had a negative
impact on the provision of services to community and youth, resulting in
many programmes being postponed. The authors concluded that a lack of
openness, accountability and meaningful consultation existed between the
Olympic organising authorities and the host communities. Preparations for
the Sydney Olympics had both positive and negative impacts on local
communities. The author concludes that 'the public should be afforded the
45

transparency and accountability they require to be involved in charting
future urban environment'.
Regan, M. (1999). Commonwealth gains. Leisure Manager, 17(12), 20-24.
This article, written well before the 2002 Commonwealth Games, outlines
the role of the event in rejuvenating the eastern district of Manchester.
The article argues the case for the event in terms of the legacy of sporting
structures put in place for the event, generation of new employment,
infrastructure improvement and hotel construction. The research also
notes the likelihood of Manchester becoming more highly regarded as a
place to do business that will result in new companies to relocate to east
Manchester. In order to ensure that these impacts are sustainable, the
author calls for investment not just in the ‘bricks and mortar’, but in the
education and training of marginalised people. The author argues that post
event evaluations 'should focus on changes to people's quality of life as a
consequence of the event as opposed to using purely economic indicators as
a method of evaluation'.
Soutar, G. N., & McLeod, P. B. (1993). Residents' perceptions on impact of the
America's Cup Annals of Tourism Research, 20, 571-582.
This article presents the results of a longitudinal study of Fremantle
resident perceptions of the 1986/87 America’s Cup and its impacts on the
city. By surveying residents before and after the event it was possible to
consider the expected and actual level of impact and changes in
perceptions over time. Random samples of 740 Fremantle residents were
selected to take part in the surveys at three separate points in time, two
surveys prior to the Cup and one afterwards. Response rates were over 70%
for each survey, but as the sampling frame was based upon dwellings, and
people move, only half of respondents answered all three surveys. Resident
perceptions were classified into two dimensions: physical congestion and
economic activity. Prior to the event residents perceived the current level
of both dimensions to be at a low level, but they anticipated that during
the event economic activity and physical congestion levels would increase.
The second survey showed that residents noted some increase in economic
activity and physical congestion compared to the first survey. Respondents
still had expectations for higher levels of both dimensions to occur after
the event. The results of the third survey showed that resident perceptions
of economic activity did increase, but not to the high levels expected.
Similarly, physical congestion was not as severe as anticipated, suggesting
that that the infrastructure upgrading was a success. Overall, residents’
expectations of what Fremantle would be like during the America’s Cup
were more extreme than their perceptions of what actually occurred during
the Cup. Most respondents felt that the event had no major disruptive
impact on lifestyles, and that during the Cup period, living in Fremantle
was better than before. The majority of respondents welcomed having
another America’s Cup or similar event staged in the city in the future. The
authors note that the results of this study must be seen in the light of the
46

large extent of infrastructure spending surrounding this event that went
into general community facilities.
Twynam, G. D., & Johnston, M. (2004). Changes in host community reactions to a
special sporting event. Current Issues in Tourism, 7(3), 242-261.
'Community support is a key component in the success of special events'.
Support for sport tourism events is sometimes controversial if a community
is required to subsidise the event without a reasonable return to the
community. This research examines residents’ perceptions of the 1995
Nordic World Championships, held in Thunder Bay, Northern Ontario,
Canada, and also examines changes in perception over time. Three surveys,
three months prior to the event (T1), three days after the event (T2), and
eight months after the event (T3) were distributed to a sample of Thunder
Bay residents. In terms of positive impacts, ‘focus national and
international attention on Thunder Bay’ and ‘boost Thunder Bay’s short
term economy’ both ranked highly. The highest negative impact score was
‘visitors will interfere with my enjoyment of Thunder Bay’. T1 (i.e. before
the event) respondents were more concerned about negative impacts such
as crowded parking, restaurants and shopping areas and expected a more
positive impact on cleanliness than the post-event groups. T3 respondents
were less positive compared to post-event groups in other longitudinal
studies, suggesting that that residents’ views may be different several
months after the event, compared to immediately after the event. Another
finding was that concerns over the quality of preparation/organisation were
found to be negatively associated with support for the event.
Waitt, G. (2003). Social impacts of the Sydney Olympics. Annals of Tourism
Research, 30, 194-215.
This study addresses the temporal dynamics of the social impacts of
Sydney’s 2000 Olympics, and examines whether a wave of mass
consciousness increasingly captures resident imagination. Primary data was
collected through two telephone surveys; the first sample was collected in
1998 from 658 Sydney residents. They were asked to participate in a followup
survey in 2000 during the Olympics which resulted in a second sample of
178 responses. Results show that enthusiasm levels from 1998 to 2000 of
residents towards the Olympics were not only sustained, but increased. The
highest increases were seen in the willingness to participate as a volunteer
(up from 3% to 35%) and a sense of community inspired by the Olympic
spirit (up from 43% to 68%). The level of experienced enthusiasm was also
much higher in 2000 than anticipated in 1998. The enthusiasm for Sydney’s
Olympics was seen most positively by respondents with young dependents
and less enthusiastically by older respondents. Enthusiasm was also high for
migrants from non-English speaking countries, due to a feeling of becoming
part of their community. Positive themes highlighted as an outcome of the
event was the argument for improved health and social networking, and
how principles of global citizenship, social equity and respect for cultural
differences may illustrate an example to follow. Those respondents who
had negative anticipations of the Olympics were concerned about personal
47

economic burdens such as increased taxation and living costs from the
event; however this number of respondents decreased from 1998 to 2000.
Respondents rating the Olympics positively generally saw wider economic
benefits from the Games such as the creation of permanent jobs and
positive spin-offs. Themes related to public expenditure were expressed as
‘social injustice’ and ‘no personal rewards’; the majority of respondents,
however, perceived material and social rewards as outweighing the public
costs. The most powerful psychological reward for many respondents was
the altruistic theme of ‘community and national spirit’; another theme of
‘international promotion’ highlighted the end of Australia being seen as a
marginalised destination. Findings confirm that 'global sporting events can
be employed as a mechanism to generate patriotism and a sense of
community or belonging, particularly among the young and ethnic
minorities'. However, the authors caution that these positive outcomes will
diminish if the benefits from the event are not sustainable.
Williams, P. W., Hainsworth, D., & Dossa, K. B. (1995). Community development
and special event tourism: the Men's World Cup of Skiing at Whistler, British
Columbia. Journal of Tourism Studies, 6(2), 11-20.
Community development within a region is dependent on successful mega
event promotions. Simultaneously, successful mega event promotions are
reliant on the support of the community in delivering a high quality visitor
experience. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from a total
of 438 respondents (key informants, local resident and non-resident
spectators) in order to examine the degree to which the Men's World Cup of
Skiing hosted by the community of Whistler, British Columbia, and Canada
contributed to its development objectives. Findings suggested that the
value of the event to the community was positive and it was highly
endorsed by the local and non-local people. Community identity, pride and
cooperation were strengthened through the hosting of this event. Extensive
opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and understanding were
facilitated through local and non-local spectator participation in the
event’s formal and informal activities. The event also generated significant
commercial tourism benefits such as direct tourism revenues, diversified
tourism product and favourable international exposure through proactive
marketing approaches. Few issues of conflict between the event's hosts and
guests were reported as specific groups expressed some concern about the
traffic pressures placed on the community's infrastructure during the peak
periods of the event. In conclusion, systematic monitoring of this mega
event provided an example of the kind of socio-cultural impact mega
events could have on local communities. Research implies that monitoring
of mega events is important as it provides valuable information for guiding
the future management of events towards community goals. There is also a
need for further monitoring as it may focus on issues that provide a deeper
appreciation of the event’s socio-cultural and economic effects.
48

Summary: Socio-cultural impacts
The literature on the socio-cultural impacts and benefits of sporting events
contains a number of clear messages. These are that:
• While a number of studies assessing the social impacts of events have emerged
in the literature over recent years, there are indeed still need for more
research into the social value of events and how host communities can
leverage these events.
• Community support is essential for a successful large-scale event. Involvement
of the community in the earliest stages of planning is encouraged.
• The majority of residents in a host community are likely to support a megaevent.
Residents will be supportive and responsive to the event if they
perceive that they will receive some sort of social, economic, or other kind of
benefit the event. Host community residents value the tourism spending,
media coverage, business development opportunities and employment
opportunities made possible by events. Increased community pride, crosscultural
exchanges, lifting the profile of the city, making a place more
interesting place to live, community self-esteem and a sense of community
rank highly in terms of the positive social outcome of events.
• Longitudinal studies show that residents tend to expect higher levels of
negative impacts from an event than what they actually experience. Residents
tend to show increased levels of enthusiasm during the event, than they would
have expected prior to the event.
• Opposition will greatest from those who live in closest proximity to the
event/facility and from those who have little or no interest in the event.
Noise levels, traffic congestion, overcrowding, and disruption to lifestyle are
among the most highly cited negative outcomes of events for local residents.
• Communities are increasingly aware of ‘being used’ political and business
elites who profit at the expense of local residents. Communities are seeking
to ensure that individuals and groups receive a just share of the benefits.
• There is little evidence that crime increases during an event although it clearly
places pressure on police to respond effectively given the extra demands of
the event.
• There is little likelihood that major event volunteers will increase their level
of volunteerism in the wider community.
49

Environmental Impacts
Becken, S. (2001). Energy consumption patterns in the accommodation sector -
The New Zealand case. Ecological Economics, 39(3), 371-386.
A review of the literature revealed the lack of a systematic approach for
investigating resource use and particularly energy use in the
accommodation sector. Hotels are the largest energy users, both in terms
of total annual usage and use per visitor night, making up 67% of the total
energy use in New Zealand’s accommodation sector. Motels are the second
largest energy consumers, which is a result of the large number of visitornights
rather than the energy use per visitor-night. It appears that 'the
accommodation sector does not contribute substantially to the total energy
use in New Zealand' because the sector consumes only 4.4% of the
commercial sector’s energy use and 0.4% of the total energy use in New
Zealand. The authors still argue that the accommodation sector has a role
'as a potential target for energy saving increases'. For tourist destinations
that seek to perform sustainable tourism, and, for example, apply for
international awards, such as the Green Globe, the ‘greening’ of
accommodation businesses is an integral part in achieving this goal. The
lack of awareness and interest on environmental issues within the
accommodation sector should be a major aspect of further environmental
programs. A 'green' event should ideally be associated with a green
accommodation sector.
Becken, S. (2002). Understanding energy consumption patterns of tourist
attractions and activities in New Zealand. Tourism Management, 23(4),
343-354.
There is a lack of comprehensive studies on energy consumption and energy
benchmarks for tourist attractions and activities as there is throughout the
tourism sector. The diverse character of tourist attractions and activities is
a main feature, which makes it difficult to examine them systematically.
Generally, entertainment establishments attract 10 times the visitors of
attractions (66,000) and 20 times those of activities (5000). Tourist
attractions in New Zealand are generally characterised by low visitation
levels, compared with other countries. Entertainment attractions are
major consumers in terms of total energy use; they consume much less
energy per tourist than activities. Tourist attractions consume a similar
amount of per capita energy as entertainment establishments. This results
from the allocation of energy to large visitor volumes. Activities generally
require more energy per tourist. This is partly due to the individual style
and service orientation of activity packages, compared with (mass-tourism)
attractions. Often, the product is complex and composite and requires
energy at different stages. Above-average energy consumption for the sake
of only a few tourists (e.g. heliskiing) is undesirable from the energy point
of view. Attractions with a generally low energy use and above-average
visitation levels, could be promoted. Tourist activities are generally more
50

energy intensive than attractions. This is of particular interest in the New
Zealand context, as the marketing focuses increasingly on the activity part
of the tourist experience. Energy use is only one among other parameters
to assess the environmental impact and there are many more effects that
need to be considered. However, energy use is a valid parameter and has
an advantage in that it is possible to assess it in a quantitative and
objective way. A green event would encourage visitors and attendees to
participate in green non-event-related activities.
Becken, S. (2005). Towards sustainable tourism transport: An analysis of coach
tourism in New Zealand. Tourism Geographies, 7(1), 23-42.
Coach tourism, by nature, focuses on visiting a large range of tourist icons
at a destination, while at the same time staying at places that offer
sufficient infrastructure for a service-conscious clientele. Coach tourism is
comparatively energy-intensive because of typically large travel distances
per day (between 187 and 285 km per day) and the common use of
domestic air transportation in addition to land-based travel. The average
travel distance of all touring tourists in New Zealand is about 1,500 km
(Becken and Cavanagh 2003), but coach tourists in this study were found to
travel between 1,776 km (Asia) and 2,274 km (Europe). Australian coach
tours are characterised by relatively short travel distance, low usage of
domestic air and the integration of a range of land/transport modes (e.g.
train) and, for these reasons, transport energy use is lower compared with
other coach tours. North American coach tours commonly include air
travel, which is necessary to link the major hubs within their short stay of
nine days. In terms of the energy-efficiency of transport modes used by
coach tourists, there are counteracting trends. A relative increase in air
travel as opposed to land transportation results in larger energy use and
potentially fortifies the concentration of tourists in main hubs in which
airports are located. A concentration in hubs potentially restrains more
remote regions from economic development. From the perspective of
energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as regional development,
the sustainability of these coach tourists has to be questioned.
Becken, S., & Patterson, M. (2006). Measuring national carbon dioxide emissions
from tourism as a key step towards achieving sustainable tourism. Journal
of Sustainable Tourism, 14(4), 323-338.
There are two methodologies used to look at the carbon footprints of
tourism: top-down and bottom-up. The bottom-up approach requires
potentially extensive collection of primary data. The analysis of tourist
behaviour as part of the bottom-up approach is critical for understanding
the main drivers of energy use both across and within sub sectors. This
helps formulating energy efficiency and greenhouse gas policies that target
human behaviour. The top-down analysis provides an abstract overview of
tourism as a sector in the national economy. This analysis is extremely
useful to strategically assess tourism’s position as part of the economy, and
can be used for policy analysis, allowing assessment of macroeconomic
instruments such as a carbon charge. For the reference year of 2000, the
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ottom-up analysis estimated a total energy use of 25.35 PJ for the tourism
sector within New Zealand, and 1549 kilotonnes of carbon dioxide emitted.
Domestic tourists make up 70% of energy use, although they contribute 91%
to the total number of trips. Results from the top-down analysis showed
direct energy consumption in 1997/98 by the tourism sector was 27.53 PJ,3
and this energy use resulted in 1438 kilotonnes of CO2 emissions. Domestic
tourism was responsible for 74% of tourism’s direct energy use and
associated CO2 emissions. Moreover, the top-down analysis calculated
indirect effects to be 19.83 PJ and 1251 kilotonnes of CO2, and it also
determined that tourism ranked 19th (worst) out of 26 sectors (including
households) in terms of energy use and carbon dioxide emissions.
International air travel was not factored into either methodology. It is
acknowledged that the inclusion of international air travel would increase
the energy use and emissions from tourism at a particular destination
substantially and could also change the relative importance of domestic
compared with international tourism.
Beder, S. (1993). Sydneys Toxic Green Olympics. Current Affairs Bulletin, 70(6),
12-18.
To win the Olympic Games for Sydney, the Sydney Olympics 2000 Bid
Limited (SOBL) had to overcome a public relations hurdle. The International
Olympic Committee (IOC) was keen to have a green Olympics. The solution
was to concentrate on and market other "green" aspects of Sydney's bid and
ensure that discussion of the contamination was kept out of the public
arena. Sydney's problem was that the city's proposed site was to be amidst
one of Australia's worst toxic waste dumps. Inspectors found that the most
contaminated parts of the site posed potential health and safety problems
to workers and site visitors during redevelopment, particularly from near
surface asbestos contamination near the main brick pit and chemical
contamination and ongoing generation and seepage to the surface of
landfill gas. They also stated that there could be public health risks to users
of these areas arising from possible seepage of contaminants and gases to
the surface after redevelopment was complete. Despite misgivings by some
environmentalists about the environmental credentials of the Games, the
issue of toxic contamination of the site was not openly discussed prior to
the Olympic decision because of the inaccessibility of relevant information.
The claim that the 2000 Olympics would be green, 'should be seen in the
same light as other green marketing claims, as a superficial attempt to sell
a product rather than a genuine attempt at change'.
Beyer, S. (2006). The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 2008. Chinese Journal of
International Law, 5(2), 423–440.
To secure an impact of Beijing’s green Olympics that lasts beyond the three
weeks of the mega event, incentive-based measures ought to be specified
to address overexploitation of resources and excessive consumption.
Therefore, regulations generally should be complemented by market-based
measures which provide incentives for environmentally friendly behaviour.
This involves reforms in the pricing system for natural resources and raw
52

materials. Especially, the increase in prices both for industries and
consumers would encourage more sustainable resource management and
enable Beijing to break the cycle of resource shortage and pollution. Beyer
writes that 'The Olympics, although intended as a showcase for athletic
achievements, generally give a strong impetus to reforms and therefore
have the potential to function as a catalyst for environmental, social and
political change'. She also argues that 'Since the Olympics represent an
opportunity to encourage physical exercise, short distance travelling by
means of muscular strength and awareness of its ecological impact should
be promoted'. For Beijing, where pedestrians, bicycles and rickshaws have
coined the city’s historical image for decades, 'these forms of locomotion
should enjoy priority for short-distance travelling'. It is also decisive to
ensure that service providers and sponsors endorse the sustainable
development and support this policy from the early stages of planning.
Close communication between the organising committee and the sponsors
ought to be sought, ensuring the development of sustainable products and
services associated with the Olympics, with the end-goal of 'facilitating
long-term growth of an economy specialising in environmental business'.
Brajer, V., & Mead, R. W. (2003). Blue Skies in Beijing? Looking at the Olympic
Effect. The Journal of Environment & Development, 12(2), 239-263.
In this research, the positive health outcomes associated with improved air
quality created by the environmental cleanup activities for the Beijing
Olympics are reported. Using China-based health-effects studies, the
authors project averted deaths will increase and that hospital outpatient
visits, and emergency room visits will decrease. The results indicate that
the ‘Olympic effect’ is substantial, with a midrange value of health
improvements likely to approximate US$29 billion over the period 1999-
2008.
Cantelon, H., & Letters, M. (2000). The making of the IOC environmental policy as
the third dimension of the Olympic movement. International review for the
sociology of sport, 35(3), 294-308.
The 1994 Winter Olympics were the first to be organised under a clearly
articulated environmental protection policy. They note that wording of the
IOC declaration suggest that the IOC led this process but clearly did not.
This article argues that it was the was the widespread environmental
damage at the 1992 Albertville and the Savoie Region Games, and the
subsequent environmentally sensitive Green Games of Lillehammer in 1994
that were the key antecedents for the development of this policy. The
authors argue that the IOC was pressured into developing an environmental
policy but had little understanding of how to address this global issue. The
Norwegian people, with their long-standing and well-developed respect for
nature, provided an example that the IOC embraced. The local initiative of
Lillehammer has now become the global policy that all future Olympic
Games organising committees must follow if they are to win the bid to
organise an Olympiad. This has encouraged other major events to adopt
environmentally sensitive and sustainable practices.
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Gossling, S., Peeters, P., Ceron, J.-P., Dubois, G., Patterson, T., & Richardson, R.
B. (2005). The eco-efficiency of tourism. Ecological Economics, 54(4), 417-
434.
The use of fossil fuels and related emissions of greenhouse gases is the most
pressing environmental problem related to tourist. Transport contributes
‘over proportionally’ to the overall environmental impact of leisuretourism.
In this article, the relationship between environmental damage
and economic gains is explored within the context of tourism. Ecoefficiency
is a term coined by the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development in 1995, and based on a lifecycle analysis approach to reduce
the use of resources and environmental impacts. The 'damage per unit of
value generation' is the unit of analysis. The eco-efficiency of tourism is a
function of carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions and revenues generated.
All case studies highlighted travel distance and air transportation as the
most relevant factor contributing to an unfavourable eco-efficiency rating.
Factors influencing eco-efficiency in a favourable way were longer average
lengths of stay and higher expenditures per day. Overall, and in order of
importance, travel distance, means of transport, average length of stay,
and expenditures per day are the factors influencing eco-efficiency. The
authors also refute the claims from the tourism industry that tourism is
more environmentally friendly than other industries.
Kaspar, R. (1998). Sport, environment and culture. Olympic Review, 26(20), 67-
70.
Every human activity has an impact on the natural environment, as does
sport. The IOC and other sports organisations have realised that sport is a
key factor in the development of our global society. The complex concept
of “sustainability” can be described as any form of economic development
that serves current needs without having a negative impact on future
generations. Even the “greenest” construction in the most natural setting
still has an impact if its post-use is not guaranteed and can develop into a
social burden for the community. Three areas of concern must be analysed
when considering the environment and mega-events: impact on nature (of
sport venues, infrastructure); problems occurring during the event; and
post use of sports facilities and infrastructure. Kaspar argues that 'Only a
cooperative approach between the organisers, politics, sponsors and the
media can guarantee a smooth implementation of environmental
initiatives'. He concludes that 'environmental aspects should become
central concerns in the charters of sports organisations as well as within the
decision-making processes of events organisers'.
54

Kearins, K., & Pavlovich, K. (2002). The role of stakeholders in Sydney's green
games. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management,
9(3), 157-169.
This paper focuses on the various roles played by stakeholders in the
development of Sydney Olympics and its efforts to become recognised as
the Green Games. Environmental groups both assisted in defining the green
agenda and, in retaining their independence, reserved the right to evaluate
and publicly critique performance. The involvement of green lobby groups
'offered legitimacy to Games organisers’ environmental efforts'. There was
often tension between these green groups and the organisers. The authors
write that 'While enhanced green credentials for every facet of the event
might be an ideal, at a practical level it can impose additional cost burdens
and demands under a regime of tight deadlines and potentially high
visibility'. Resolving these inherent tensions necessarily requires
considerable negotiation between stakeholders in the light of particular
local conditions and the absence of much proven expertise in green event
management'.
Laginestra, E., & Hughes, K. (2000). The Olympics in Australia: Managing and
monitoring remediated land. Paper presented at the The Brownfields 2000
- Research and Regionalism: Revitalizing the American Community, New
Jersey, USA
Remediation at Homebush was based on the need to improve surface water
quality by removing the exposure pathways that existed from waste dumps
to the wetlands and waterways. After discussion with stakeholders, the
Olympic Coordination Authority (OCA) decided waste management on-site
was preferable to exporting the waste and contaminated soil elsewhere.
Waste was consolidated into discrete areas and a wet landfill approach was
adopted to ensure that leachate was captured prior to migration to the
environment. Surface stormwater paths were redirected around
contaminated land and cut-off walls were inserted to protect the
waterways where necessary. By June 2000 most remediation work had been
completed at the site and a visual inspection and chemical monitoring
program of the leachate system was implemented. The entire Homebush
Bay site consists of 760 hectares, of which 140 ha is remediated land. The
site is broadly divided into the “built” areas (Sydney Olympic Park and the
Athletes Village) located on non-contaminated land, and open space, which
contains the remediated mounds, remnant habitat and the undeveloped
former naval site. A constraints map was developed to consider future land
management requirements or issues. These constraints are divided broadly
into 4 categories – Contaminated Substrate, Habitat Protection, Public
Health and Safety and Other Values. The site is used for both active and
passive recreation. It will also provide habitat for terrestrial, avian and
aquatic species. Areas of the site also provide cultural heritage (both preand
post European).
55

Lenskyj, H. (1998). Sport and Corporate Environmentalism: The Case of the
Sydney 2000 Olympics. International review for the sociology of sport,
33(4), 341-354.
Mega events pose many environmental problems including waste
management, energy consumption, transportation, materials recycling and
negative impact on natural environment. The Sydney Olympics gave a
commitment to energy conservation and use if renewable sources, water
conservation, waste avoidance and minimisation, protecting human health
with appropriate standards of air, water and soil quality and protecting
significant cultural and natural environments. The author argued that 'the
Sydney Olympics were prepared to embrace the green concept for public
relations purposes but less willing to embrace it as commitment to
environmental best practice' and were particularly sensitive to criticisms of
the environmental practices. 'Manipulation and dishonesty are poor
strategies' for dealing with public interest in public events. Organisers
'capitalised upon Australia's uncritical view of sport and the excitement of
the Olympics' to avoid their environmental responsibilities.
May, V. (1995). Environmental implications of the 1992 Winter Olympic Games.
Tourism Management, 16, 269-275.
This research evaluates the environmental impacts of the 1992 Winter
Olympics in Lillehammer. The positive effects were the selection of sites
that would rehabilitate already damaged industrial sites; the design of
these sites to minimise harmful impacts; improvement of water quality in
both treatment and in supply; road improvement (reducing air pollution and
accidents); regional image enhanced for agriculture; reduced downstream
eutrophication that safeguarded lake ecosystems; and extensive tree
planting. The most significant negative effects have been post-Olympic
damage to Les Saisies (venue from cross country skiing that once possessed
rich wetland and moorland fauna and flora); increased snow-making
impacts; scarred landscape with removal of forest and increased numbers
and areas of pistes; disruption of animal migration routes; increased
summer visitor numbers as a result of improved access and additional bed
spaces, but without an extension of the season and at the cost of
overloading of other facilities; and a reduction in river biological diversity
and productivity. The author conclude trade-offs occur at the site, local
and regional level and it is at the regional level of analysis where the
positive impacts are likely to outweigh the negative impacts.
Milton-Smith, J. (2002). Ethics, the Olympics and the search for global values.
Journal of Business Ethics, 35(3), 1-22.
'Although the cost of staging these events is massive, the unique
opportunities for media exposure and promotion make them extremely
attractive, both to host cities and sponsors'. This is also despite the
separation of the event from its ideals - 'Olympic mythology also rests
uncomfortably with the contemporary reality of an event which has been
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transformed by television and commercial sponsorship into global mass
entertainment'.
'Disillusionment with the Olympics mirrors the mounting disenchantment
with the values of globalisation'. Global institutions 'have been particularly
dismal in addressing issues involving poverty, terrorism, environmental
protection, natural disasters and humanitarian crises involving the weak
and defenceless. Apart from fundamental challenges to national
sovereignty, cultural tradition and human rights, globalisation has
unleashed a huge range of complex and unprecedented ethical challenges
in areas as diverse as foreign investment, education, medicine, poverty,
environmental sustainability, immigration, marketing, intellectual
property, the Internet and sport. Sustained attacks on the UN, WTO, IMF
and World Bank, as tools of global capitalism, have urged the need for 'a
more ethical, compassionate and equitable distribution of wealth and for a
more responsible balance between economic growth, on the one hand, and
human rights and environmental protection on the other'. He argues that
there should be 'a broadening of the Games’ agenda to include not only a
larger program of cultural events, but also community forums to debate
issues of global concern, including human rights and environmental
protection'. In this way, mega events can provide a 'a platform for
promoting positive global values'.
Roper, T. (2006). Producing environmentally sustainable Olympic Games and
‘greening’ major public events. Global Urban Development Magazine, 2(1).
Sport is a vehicle for capturing the public’s attention, and therefore can be
important for helping to change public attitudes. 'There is no reason why
any major public event, from its planning to execution, should not be
sustainably 'green'. All five of the final bidders for the 2012 Olympics
committed their cities to fulfilling exemplary environmental standards.
Major events and the design and construction of their facilities provide a
key opportunity to advance awareness and technology for sustainable
development. Urban hosts of major events increasingly seek to minimise
the negative environmental effects and maximise the positive impacts. The
growing number of successful experiences has resulted in lowering the costs
of best practices and enhancing long-term gains. Major events can harm the
environment in the following ways: changes in land-use and the destruction
of natural environments through building construction, transportation, and
other forms of physical development; consumption of non-renewable
resources; emissions to soil, air, and water, and the generation of large
amounts of waste; contributing to ozone depletion, global warming, and air
pollution; and diminishing biodiversity. Major events can help address the
greenhouse problem in many different ways including improved planning
and building of facilities, the promotion of non-polluting public transit
vehicles, reducing waste, and encouraging participants and visitors to offset
their travel and accommodation emissions. The basic emissions offsets,
relevant to major events, are planting trees to reabsorb carbon dioxide
and/or investing in energy conservation and renewable energy production
projects which either reduce emissions or replace polluting fossil fuel
57

power generation. 'Ecological footprinting' is put forward as a useful
measure of an event’s demand for natural resources. The energy footprint,
measured in 'global hectares per person' represents the area of forest that
would be required to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from the event’s
direct and indirect energy consumption.
Willis, A. M. (2000). The limits of sustainable architecture. Paper presented at
the Shaping the Sustainable Millennium, Queensland University of
Technology.
The author explores the role of architecture towards environmentally
sustainable development (ESD). Despite the achievements in some of the
venues in regard to water and energy conservation, the opportunity was not
grasped at the Sydney Olympics to make ESD the driver of the design
process - ESD battled unsuccessfully with cost and aesthetics for that role.
ESD was positioned within the procurement process in a way that rendered
it marginal. The genuine efforts of some of the architects and engineers to
build more in a more sustainable way was not matched by the official
bodies that had, quite ironically, put the ESD on the Olympic agenda.
Sustainable architecture is under-developed because of a failure to take
issues of sustainability seriously enough, incoherent ESD policy, the
predominantly aesthetic agenda of architecture and the assumption that
certain technologies in themselves will deliver sustainability. Efforts to
design environmentally sustainable facilities for the Sydney Olympics were
limited by these same problems. Willis argues for a 'radical
reconceptualisation of architecture from being an activity of designing
structures to one of designing ‘sustainments’ or environments with the
ability to sustain that which needs to be sustained'.
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Summary: Environmental impacts
The literature on the environmental impacts and benefits of sporting events
contains a number of clear messages. These are that:
• More research needs to be conducted on environmental impacts of events.
The event impact literature is dominated largely by economic studies and, to a
lesser extent, social impact studies.
• Waste management, energy consumption, transportation, materials recycling
and negative impact on natural environment are amongst the most likely
environmental issues associated with large-scale events.
• There is no literature that directly links large-scale events to climate change.
However, there is increasing recognition of the contribution of motorised
transportation, air transport in particular, to carbon emissions, climate change
and global warming.
• The recreational activities that visitors undertake beyond the event may well
result in the more environmental damage than their participation in the event
itself
• Ecological foot printing, energy consumption and eco-efficiency are all useful
ways of measuring an events environmental impact.
• Not withstanding the lack of connection between events and large-scale
environmental damage, the adoption of ‘green’ policies appears to be
institutionalised within large scale events. Major events and the design and
construction of their facilities provide a key opportunity to advance awareness
and technology for sustainable development. Mega events need to be seen as
environmentally friendly to avoid lobby group and community disapproval.
• A cooperative approach between organisers, politicians, sponsors and the
media can guarantee a smooth implementation of environmental initiatives.
The involvement of green organisations in the planning process can ameliorate
concerns regarding environmental damage. There is growing scepticism to the
commitment of events to their much-publicised green objectives.
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Health Impacts
Sport England (2004). Athens success inspires one in four to take up sport. (2004).
Available at:
http://www.sportengland.org/news/press_releases/athens_success_inspire
s.htm
Sport England claims that due to success at Athens, more people indicated
they will be more involved sport. More than a quarter of the population in
England (26%) have been inspired by British medal-winning performances at
the Olympic Games in Athens to play more sport or become more involved
in sport in the near future. Roger Draper, Chief Executive of Sport England,
said; “This research confirms what we already believed, that major
international sporting events have a significant impact on boosting the
public’s positive perceptions about sport. From the success achieved by our
athletes at both the 2002 Commonwealth Games and again in Athens, we
can clearly see the positive impact through people now taking up sport and
others planning to do so in the near future. Sport England claims “the
impact on levels of participation in sport would be even greater were
London to win the bid to host the 2012 Games. This is according to the
feedback received by Sport England from 11 of the governing bodies that
represent leading Olympic sports. Most of the sports that shone brightest
for Britain at this year’s Olympics believe that a successful London bid for
the 2012 Games would have a major impact on the levels of future
participation in their sport.” This survey-based research shows the
perceived intent to participate rather than the actual participation rate.
Curling success and its impact on participation. (2004). Research Report No. 92.
Edinburgh, Scottland: Sport Scottland.
Media coverage during and following the British women’s team’s
involvement in the Olympics and World Championships and the success
gained at these events contributed somewhat to public interest in the
sport, and that these factors contributed to increasing participation. Thirtyeight
per cent of people new to curling indicated that television coverage
of curling was an important factor in their decision to take up curling, while
36% of new curlers were influenced by the success the British team.
However, the results indicated that the most important factor for
participation was the influence of friends. Nearly 50% of new participants
indicated that friends were the most important factor in their decision to
take part in curling. It is not known what impact the success of the British
team had on the friends that encouraged the new curlers to take part and
new curlers. Also, the success may have made the new curlers more likely
to respond to the influence of their friends. Therefore, it is difficult to
quantify the full impact on this increase in participation.
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Bauman, A., Ford, I., & Armstrong, T. (2001). Trends in population levels of
reported physical activity in Australia, 1997, 1999 and 2000. Canberra,
Australia: Australian Sports Commission.
This report indicates that there were declines in physical activity between
1997 and 1999 for adult Australians and no change in physical activity
participation between 1999 and November 2000. Four percent adults
reported that they had done some physical activity which they attributed to
the Olympics. The authors conclude that 'the Olympics had little impact
upon physical activity participation overall across the adult population and
that 'the Olympics was not likely to have specifically resulted in increases in
physical activity participation in the whole community'. One apparent
impact of the Olympics, was the intention to be more active. Across
gender and a variety of groups, short-term intention to be active increased.
This could be attributed to the Olympics, as the Olympics 'might have been
an encouraging event that got people to think about being physically
active'. Of the adults surveyed in 2000, almost 50% are doing no more, or
no less physical activity than one year previously. Although 28% of adults
indicated they were more active than one year previously, this is countered
by the 23% of adults who indicated they were less active than a year
before. In summary, there is no demonstrated cause and effect
relationship between the Olympics and physical activity participation.
Brown, A., & Massey, J. (2001). The sports development Impact of the Manchester
2002 Commonwealth Games: Initial baseline research. Manchester,
England: Manchester Institute for Popular Culture, Manchester Metropolitan
University.
This report was a literature review of studies of previous major sporting
events. It was a guide for UK Sport in preparation for Manchester 2002. The
authors suggested that interest in sport during and immediately following
the Commonwealth Games be measured. This could be done monitoring
national and regional governing body enquiries, and even selected case
study sports clubs. However, the full co-operation of these organisations
would be needed for this to be a success and it would need to be followed
by an assessment of whether these enquiries translated into actual postevent
participation. Coalter (1999) suggests that policies aimed at sports
development need to take account of wider social, economic and cultural
influences. He asserts that policy makers might be better to follow patterns
of sports participation, meaning that provision should respond to the needs
of consumers, rather than try to encourage participation in sports which are
currently less popular. This has implications for the ongoing impact study,
given that some of the sports in the Commonwealth Games are less popular
sports. Materials from the Leisure Industry Research Centre at Sheffield
Hallam University suggest that international events may have a particularly
strong effect on the participation of people from ethnic minority
backgrounds. Due to historical factors, the Commonwealth Games offers a
unique testing ground for this assertion because the countries competing
are often the same as those from which ethnic minority populations are
derived. This means that the international nature of the event is
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particularly linked to the ethnic minority populations UK Sport are
concerned with and one might expect a higher response in terms of
participation than for some other major events.
Coalter, F. (2004). London 2012: a sustainable sporting legacy? In A. Vigor & M.
Mean (Eds.), After the goldrush: A sustainable Olympics for London.
London, England: Ippr and Demos.
The report highlights misperceptions associated with the Olympic Games
and increased participation in sport as a result of hosting the Games. The
London 2012 bid included comments about increased participation and the
nation becoming healthier as a result of London hosting the Summer
Olympics. Coalter acknowledges the dearth of research specifically focused
on participation, health and the Olympics as they pertain to the host city
and country. He suggests that “if large-scale changes in sports
participation are to occur, this will be the result of complex (and not well
understood) interactions between such factors as changing public attitudes
and values, changing distributions of work time, sustained government
investment in schools and improved infrastructure of local, quality,
facilities” (p. 12). There is little research on the impact of major events on
sports development (Hindson et al., 1994). There are tremendous
difficulties in isolating an “Olympic effect.” It would seem inappropriate
to establish strategic sports participation targets related directly to a
successful Olympics. Unless the Games are embedded in a longer-term
developmental strategy they are likely to have only limited sports-specific
impacts. Finally, there is a lack of leveraging by NSOs as they fail to take
advantage of the publicity surrounding the Games.
Dickson, G., & Schofield, G. (2005). Globalisation and globesity: the impact of the
2008 Beijing Olympics on China. International Journal of Sport Management
and Marketing, 1(1/2), 169-179.
It is not the Olympic Games itself that is directly responsible for the
negative related health outcomes, but rather it is the market opportunities
and the sorts of foreign direct investment that the Olympic sponsorship
programme attracts to the Chinese marketplace. As sponsors, Coca-Cola,
McDonalds, Volkswagen, Panasonic, Samsung, Lenova and General Electric
are partially responsible for this massive change. Although these
multinationals will undoubtedly benefit from their investment in China and
their association with the 2008 Olympics, there are likely to be substantial
long-term economic and health costs for China. The argument put forward
here is that the 2008 Olympics will assist a number of companies to market
to the Chinese population calorie-dense food and beverages as well as
devices associated with reduced energy expenditure. The authors suggest
that the 2008 Olympics will not create China’s obesity problem but rather
that it will exacerbate it. In so doing, the International Olympic Committee
(IOC) and its sponsors are contributing to globesity – the worldwide
epidemic that is obesity. In the absence of any literature suggesting
otherwise, the authors contend that it is 'unlikely that the negative impact
of increased caloric consumption and motor vehicle use associated with the
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2008 Olympics will be offset by physical activity increases associated with
the same event'. The authors conclude with the statement 'The irony of the
2008 Olympics is that being the pinnacle of health and physical prowess,
the event will serve to accelerate the opportunities for massive
multinational globalisation and ultimately, globesity'. Note, that these
impacts are likely to be most prevalent in developing economies.
Game Plan: A strategy for delivering Government's sport and physical activity
objectives. (2002). London, England.
This is a large report covering social, economic, cultural and other views
regarding health and fitness in the UK. There is section on hosting megaevents
and participation. Education plays a key role in affecting levels of
participation. The benefits of hosting mega sporting events, whether
economic, social or cultural are difficult to measure and the available
evidence is limited. The report argues for cost benefit anlayses rather than
simple economic impact studies - 'As impact studies treat investment costs
as a stimulus for further benefits, the calculation of opportunity costs
should include the potential benefits that could be derived from alternative
investments'. After describing the empirical support for the benefits of
events as week, the report comments 'The message is not: ‘don’t invest in
mega events’; it is rather: ‘be clear that they appear to be more about
celebration than economic returns’. On the contribution of events to urban
regeneration, the report comments that 'there is little statistical or
economic evidence to suggest that such regeneration impacts are
significant in practice'. The report also states that 'the economic
justifications for any future bids for mega events must be rigorously
assessed'. On the matter of destination branding, 'the effect is greatest for
less well known, in global terms, host cities'. The interactions between
participation, international competition and hosting events are unclear.
The report notes that despite 'hosting events does not appear to lead to
increased long-term success'; and 'hosting events does not necessarily lead
to increases in mass participation' and that there is 'little evidence that
hosting events has a significant influence on participation'. If increased
participation is generated, it may be as much a consequence of the public
profile of the sport via news and advertising. If major new facilities are
needed, the economic and regeneration benefits of hosting mega events
must be carefully weighed against all costs, including opportunity costs.
The interactions between participation, international competition and
hosting events are unclear. For example, international success does not
appear to stimulate sustained increases in participation; and hosting events
does not appear to lead to increased long-term success. Major events 'are
an integral part of the business of sport'. Governments should be involved
in more than just the funding of the mega-event - 'From a government
perspective, arguably many of the problems experienced with mega events
projects are due to its lack of active involvement from the earliest stages'.
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Hadjichristodoulou, C., Mouchtouri, V., Vaitsi, V., Kapoula, C., Vousoureli, A.,
Kalivitis, I., et al. (2006). Management of environmental health issues for
the 2004 Athens Olympic Games: is enhanced integrated environmental
health surveillance needed in every day routine operation? BMC Public
Health, 6(306).
A public health sector, enforcing and ensuring prevention, control, and
management of environmental health issues, is essential during a mass
gathering event such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Management of
environmental health issues is an integral part of public health systems. An
active integrated environmental health surveillance and response system
was developed for the Athens Olympics to monitor and prevent exposure to
environmental hazards. The potential for permanent implementation of the
program was examined. The Olympic Planning Unit integrated and
centrally managed data from 13 public health agencies, recommended,
supervised and coordinated prompt corrective actions. Methods used to test
the effectiveness of the program were the assessment of water quality test
and inspection results trends over time using linear regression and
epidemiological surveillance findings. Between January 2003 and
September the 30th, 2004, 196 inspectors conducted 8562 inspections,
collected 5024 water samples and recommended 17 027 corrective actions.
Unsatisfactory inspection results and positive water quality tests were less
frequent over time. The authors attribute this to timely implementation
and installation of communication processes, and rapid and coordinated
response to unsatisfactory inspection results.
Hamlyn, P., & Hudson, Z. (2005). 2012 Olympics: Who will survive? . British
Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, 882-883.
The authors lament the lack of research associated with mega-events such
as the Olympics and any increase in health and participation as a result of
hosting the Games. The article discusses the problems related to poor
health but also touches on the need for more sport medicine doctors should
the general public increase its participation. Hamlyn writes that 'the ability
to generate a legacy of health 'is not as straight forward as it might at first
appear' and that 'The health equation of an Olympic games is by no means
simple'. The research published 'on the health legacy of major sporting
events is scant. Referencing tends to be circular, and the markers of
improved health are almost invariably indirect'. It has been acknowledged
that, although hard data to support the economic benefits and urban
renewal are quite commonly generated, research into the health related
impact is lacking.
Jorm, L. R., Thackway, S. V., Churches, T. R., & Hills, M. W. (2003). Watching the
Games: public health surveillance for the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. .
Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 102-108.
During the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, there were around 5% more
presentations to emergency departments than in comparable periods in
other years. Several incidents detected through surveillance, including
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injuries caused by broken glass, and a cluster of presentations related to
the use of the drug ecstasy prompted further action. Key elements in the
success of public health surveillance for Games included careful planning,
comprehensive coverage, and timely reporting. The findings of public
health surveillance indicate that the Sydney 2000 Games had only a small
impact on health. There were slightly more presentations to emergency
departments than in the corresponding periods in the preceding and
following years—an increase that was not observed in Atlanta. However,
only a few of the extra presentations were by overseas visitors. The
increased activity may have reflected reduced availability of general
practitioner services, as a result of doctors taking holidays. No
communicable disease outbreaks that had a direct bearing on Sydney during
the Games were reported. Regarding food safety at Olympic venues, 22% of
compliance audits and 6.4% of hygiene checks were unsatisfactory.
Although several public health incidents were managed during the
surveillance period, there was no evidence that these were directly related
to the Games.
Veal, A. J., & Toohey, K. (July 2005). Sport for All & the Legacy of the Sydney
2000 Olympic Games. Paper presented at the International Event
Management Research Conference, Sydney, Australia.
Increased mass sport participation is a 'major justification for public
funding' of sport and events. Survey results appear to show a small
increase in participation post-Sydney Olympics but there are
methodological questions to consider as the survey type and style changed.
Veal and Toohey suggest that policy makers are 'not serious about the
effects of the Olympics on mass sport participation. In the top 10 Olympic
sports, participation levels were varied as some sports showed increases,
some remained static, and some showed decreases in participation. Veal
concludes that changes could be the result of the Olympic effect, changes
in the survey, both, or other factors. The top 10 non-Olympic sports had
the greatest participation increases. Given the difficulty in measuring these
outputs, there is no reliable evidence that the Sydney Olympics positively
impacted upon mass sport participation.
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Summary: Health impacts
The literature on the health impacts and benefits of sporting events contains a
number of clear messages. These are that:
• There is evidence that public health monitoring systems can be developed
to ensure food and water quality standards are maintained during a megaevent.
This is not to say that public health issues are not created by
events, merely that they can be managed.
• Despite the intuitive link, there is no compelling evidence that events lead
to increased physical activity or sport participation within a host
community. Increased awareness levels and intentions can result but these
may not lead to actual changes in behaviour.
• There is difficulty in measuring the link between mega-events and mass
sport participation. There is need for more research in this area.
• Physical activity and sports participation is likely to remain unaffected
unless the event is embedded in a longer-term developmental strategy.
Sport organisations are often unprepared to capitalise on the opportunities
provided by events.
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Appendix 1: Method
A comprehensive literature search was conducted. A number of set phrases and
keywords were used to search for relevant journal articles. These included but
were not limited to: economic impact, social impact, environmental impact,
economic development, business leveraging, destination branding, mega event,
hall mark event, major event, Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, climate
change, global warming, sport tourism, event tourism, sport events, legacies,
urban redevelopment/ regeneration, and resident attitudes. To be included in the
annotated bibliography, articles had to:
• Be peer reviewed
• Be based on an acceptable and sound research methodology (broadly defined)
• Make a contribution to understanding the impact of events
• Be published in the last ten years
Online databases provided a systematic way of identifying articles that might
reasonably be expected to have published event impact type studies. The
following list is indicative of the journals searched:
• Journal of Sport Management
• Sport Management Review
• Journal of Sports Economics
• Journal of Sport and Social Issues
• European Sport Management
Quarterly
• International Journal of Sports
Marketing and Sponsorship
• International Journal of Sport
Management & Marketing
• Journal of Sport Tourism
• Annals of Tourism Research
• Current Issues in Tourism
• International Journal of Event
Management Research
• International Journal of
Hospitality Management
• International Journal of Tourism
Research
• Journal of Leisure Research
• Journal of Sustainable Tourism
• Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing
• Journal of Travel and Tourism
Research
• Journal of Vacation Marketing
• Tourism Analysis
• Tourism Economics: The Business
and Finance of Tourism and
Recreation
• Tourism Management
• Tourism Recreation Research
• Tourism Review International
Other information sources
A search of relevant internet sources was also undertaken.
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Appendix 2: Databases searched
Database Fulltext Platform Description
Blackwell-Synergy Y Blackwell
Synergy
Over 620 journals within physical sciences,
life sciences, medicine, social sciences and
humanities.
EBSCO
Premier
MegaFile
Y EBSCOHost Suite of 24 databases covering a wide
variety of subjects. More than 7,000 of the
11,000 titles are available in full text
including 3200 peer-reviewed journals.
Also includes 900 Country Economic reports
and 10,000 company profiles from
Datamonitor.
Expanded Academic
ASAP
Index New Zealand
(INNZ)
Leisure, Recreation
and Tourism
Abstracts
ProQuest 5000
International
Y Info Trac Web Premier database for research in all the
academic disciplines. Balanced coverage of
every academic concentration — from
advertising and microbiology to history and
women’s studies.
N Voyager Index with abstracts from selected NZ
serial publications journals, including
newspapers and nearly 300 journals about
NZ and the South Pacific. Approximately
2,000 documents added monthly. Subjects
covered include general interest material,
social research, current affairs, the arts
and humanities. Many New Zealand titles
have also been retrospectively indexed.
N CABI Brings together information for those
interested in research and strategic
development of leisure, recreation, sport,
tourism and hospitality activities,
facilities, products, and services.
Y ProQuest Over 5,500 journals across several
disciplines and with full text for over
3,000.
Science Direct Y ScienceDirect Over 1,700 journals from Elsevier Science,
Academic Press and Harcourt Health
Sciences covering a wide range of
disciplines.
SPORT Discus N OVID Contains international information on:
sports medicine, exercise physiology,
biomechanics, psychology, training
techniques, coaching, physical education,
physical fitness, active living, recreation,
history, facilities, and equipment.
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Appendix 3: Definitions
Economic impact: This is defined as ‘the net economic change in the incomes of
host residents that results from spending attributed to tourists.
Crompton, J. L. (2006). Economic impact studies: Instruments for political
shenanigans? Journal of Travel Research, 45(1), 67-82.
It is important to note that there is widespread variation in the meaning of this
term in the literature. Many economic impact assessments confuse the turnover
of the event, the indirect spending associated with the event (especially
infrastructure development), the ‘new money’ that flows into a region and the
net benefit to residents as measured by increased wages/income.
Social/Cultural impact: Studies that examine the social impacts of tourism usually
consider interpersonal relations, moral conduct, religion, language and health,
whereas the cultural studies consider both material and non-material forms of
culture and processes of cultural change. It is commonly accepted that there is no
clear distinction between social and cultural phenomena. These authors define
the social impacts of tourism as the changes in the quality of life of residents of
tourist destinations.
Mathieson, A., & Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: economic, physical and social impacts.
Harlow Essex, UK: Longman Scientific & Technical.
“The social impacts involve the more immediate changes in quality of life and
adjustment to the industry in destination communities. The cultural impacts focus
on the longer-term changes in a society's norms and standards, which will
gradually emerge in a community's social relationships and artifacts.”
Murphy, P. E. (1985). Tourism: a community approach. New York: Routledge.
Environmental impact: There are generally three areas of concern that must be
analysed considering the environment and mega-events: impacts on the natural
environment are the most visible (for building sport venues, infrastructure such as
construction of roads, railways and parking areas); problems that may occur
during the event; and post use of sports facilities and infrastructure.
Kaspar, R. (1998). Sport, environment and culture. Olympic Review, 26(20), 67-
70.
Environmental impact is often associated with the concept of
Sustainable development. Sustainable development is defined by the World
Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) as "development that meets
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the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs"
Health impact: This is defined in terms of an events ability to positively and
negatively impact upon a person’s physical wellbeing.
Major event: Major events are categorised as either hallmark or mega-events.
Characteristics of major events are: they attract media attention, large crowds,
and funds to the region; they involve prestige and status, tradition or symbolism,
and large costs; they leave behind legacies or urban renewal, are of national or
international scale, and incorporate festivals and other events.
Mega-event: Mega-events such as the World Soccer Cup Final or the Olympic
Games are specifically targeted towards the international tourism market, and are
characterised by their size in terms of attendance, target market, level of public
financial involvement, political effects, extent of television coverage,
construction of facilities, as well as social and economic impacts on the host
community.
Hall, C. M. (1992). Hallmark tourist events: impacts, management and planning.
London: Belhaven Press.
Hallmark event: “Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration,
primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism
destination in the short and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on
uniqueness, status, or timely significance to create interest and attract
attention.”
Ritchie, J. R. B. (1984). Assessing the impact of hallmark events: conceptual and
research issues, Journal of Travel Research, 23(1), 2-11.
The term ‘hallmark event’, does not only include large scale events generally
occurring within major cities and towns, but also include community festivals,
local celebrations and other special events as they should be seen in relation to
their individual regional, local and cultural significance.
Hall, C. M. (1992). Hallmark tourist events: impacts, management and planning.
London: Belhaven Press.
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