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DESIGNingDESIGNEDUCATION
d es i g n t r a i nC O N G R E S S
Amsterdam, The Netherlands 05-07 June 2008
DESIGNingDESIGNEDUCATION PROCEEDINGS PART I
PROCEEDINGS PART I
DESIGNingDESIGNEDUCATION
d es i g n t r a i nC O N G R E S S
Amsterdam, The Netherlands 05-07 June 2008
T R
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A I L E R
w w w . d e s i g n t r a i n - l d v . c o m

DESIGNTRAIN CONGRESS TRAILER II
PROCEEDINGS
DESIGNing DESIGN EDUCATION
PART I
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DESIGNTRAIN ORGANIZERS
KTU
KARADENIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE
TRABZON, TURKEY
FB
HOCHSCHULE BOCHUM
UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
BOCHUM, GERMANY
PDM
POLITECNICO DI MILANO
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING
MILAN, ITALY
GU
GAZI UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
ANKARA, TURKEY
ELIA
EUROPEAN LEAGUE OF INSTITUTES OF THE ARTS
AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS
Designtrain project is supported by the European Commission – Leonardo
da Vinci Programme, Second Phase: 2000-2006
© Designtrain 2008
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CONGRESS ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Aktan ACAR
Gazi University, Department of Architecture, TURKEY
Ali ASASOGLU
Karadeniz Tecnical University, Faculty of Architecture, TURKEY
Asu BESGEN GENCOSMANOGLU
Karadeniz Tecnical University, Faculty of Architecture, TURKEY
Anette HARDS
Kent Architecture Centre, UK
Ozgur HASANCEBI
Karadeniz Tecnical University, Faculty of Architecture, TURKEY
Nazan KIRCI
Gazi University, Department of Architecure, TURKEY
Betul KOC
Gazi University, Department of Architecure, TURKEY
Heiner KRUMLINDE
Hochschule Bochum, University of Appleid Arts,
Dept. of Architecture, GERMANY
Nilgun KULOGLU
Karadeniz Tecnical University, Faculty of Architecture, TURKEY
Joost LANSHAGE
European League of Institutes of the Arts (ELIA), NETHERLANDS
Manfredo MANFREDINI
Politecnico Milano, Dept. of Architecture and Planning, ITALY
Pihla MESKANEN
ARKKISchool of Architecture for Children and Youth, FINLAND
Fulya OZMEN
Gazi University, Department of Architecure, TURKEY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 5
KEYNOTE ADDRESS 9
004 A VISION 26
005 THE DESIGN PROCESS - BETWEEN IMAGINATION, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION 43
006 FROM SOCIAL STUDIES CHAPTER III *TO NEVERLAND**... 57
007 RESEARCH AND TRAINING IN THE FIELD: AN EXAMPLE OF CAD-SUPPORTED DRAWING DOCUMENTATION ON THE MAUSOLEUM OF BELEVI / TURKEY 72
008 INTRODUCING DESIGN STUDIO LEARNING IN ARCHITECTURE TO NEW STUDENTS 87
009 ANALYSIS OF FORMS 99
010 STARTING DESIGN EDUCATION "BASIC DESIGN COURSE" 113
011 A PEDAGOGY 125
012 ARCHITECTURE & PHILOSOPHY: THOUGHTS ON BUILDING 138
013 AN EMBODIED APPROACH TO LEARNING AT THE BEGINNING DESIGN LEVEL 148
014 MANFREDO TARUFI AND JEAN PAUL SARTRE WALK INTO A BAR AND ORDER HALF A GLASS OF BEER 160
015 THINKING CONSTRUCTION AS DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF ARCHITECTURE 172
016 THE FIRST PROJECT (STUDIO) EXPERIENCE IN THE URBAN PLANNING EDUCATION: THE TESTING OF A METHOD 183
017 FIRST CLASS / FIRST PROJECT: TO RAISE INQUIRY ABOUT DESIGN THROUGH MAKING 199
018 FLEXIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR SMALL SPACES IN SPATIAL DESIGN TEACHING 209
019 THE COTTBUS EXPERIMENT THREE FIELDS OF COMPETENCE 224
020 EXPERIMENTATION VERSUS READY-KNOWLEDGE 240
021 BASIC DESIGN STUDIO IN THE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION 251
022 FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN; METHODOLOGY OF NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT DESIGN 262
023 THE DANCE OF DESIGN AND SCIENCE IN FIRST YEAR STUDIO: CONTRIBUTIONS OF BILGI DENEL TO BASIC DESIGN IN TURKEY 277
024 THE EFFECT OF THREE DIMENSIONAL VISUALIZATION ABILITY ON BASIC DESIGN EDUCATION: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY IN A TURKISH PLANNING SCHOOL 289
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to DESIGNTRAIN…
Dear participants,
I would like to welcome you all to our second DESIGNTRAIN congress in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
The DESIGNTRAIN Congresses are organised by DESIGNTRAIN, a project
named as; “Training Tools for Developing Design Education” and is
supported by European Commission, Leonardo da Vinci Programme.
The DESIGNTRAIN Project started in October 2006 and will end in the end
of 2008.
The core of the DESIGNTRAIN Project idea is based on the adaptation
problems experienced by the students/design students who have studied in
their present education system, when they focus on the process of design.
The DESIGNTRTAIN Project has double goals and is composed of two
stages thereof. The goal of the first stage is to test and develop skills for the
pro-professions and the goal of the second stage is to orient design students
to design thinking and improve their problem solving capacities by way of
conducive exercises. The far-reaching goal of the project is to render the
process of design education feasible and economic in terms of using human
resources.
In the aim of these two main bases, the first DESIGNTRAIN Congress;
Trailer I: “Guidance in/for Design Training” was organized in May 2007,
which targeted self-evaluation and design orientation tools for future design
students, and now we are here for the second DESIGNTRAIN Congress;
Trailer II: “DESIGNing DESIGN EDUCATION”.
The aim of this second congress: DESIGNTRAIN Congress; Trailer-II;
“DESIGNing DESIGN EDUCATION” is to search alternative ways to discuss
whether there can be some supporting modules in teaching and
understanding the rapidly changing design language and/or design
education, in the process of first year design education. Our aim as the
DESIGNTRAIN Team is to get retrieval of information related to design and
to analyse the design concepts again to make them more accessible, fast,
easy and user-friendly for the first year design students.
As we all know that, the public view on the role of architecture is more and
more affecting the approach and the design education of students of
environmental, architectural and interior design. Motivation, engagement and
knowledge of younger students seem to experience a deep reconfiguration
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phase. The first year education process can be considered as the start of a
training process and consequentially a confrontation of the students in
design studios.
The matter finds a strategic evaluation and re-thinking moment in the first
year education process and it might be discussed starting from that very
harsh confrontation that take place in design studios.
That’s why we ask, how can architectural education approach in a positive
way the energy for better and various human urban models and designs to
get more attraction for skilled and motivated students?
In general the first year students in schools of architecture are not prepared
for studying the curriculum in a systematic way. Moreover students have
different learning styles individually. The way to motivate the beginners, to
make them open for creativity, phantasm and responsible planning should
be discussed. Since, there are numerous methods of education, especially
in the basic fields of architecture like design theories and practice,
fundamentals of technical construction and art & architectural history, each
school of architecture will lay claim to its special way and success, but what
are the future guidelines in a globalizing world that is in control of economic
structures?
Design might be considered as an instrument and a medium of expression,
a kind of international language; or as a non-neutral actor that internationally
tries to equalize taste, needs, as the modern building structures disregards
national, regional and local culture and behaviour. The awareness of such
facts is indeed very important in teaching and learning, both for
academicians and students, not only in universities but also in high schools
and secondary schools.
The congress now accentuates this global effect and also the protection of
the individual characters of design education and practice.
Although, design is a kind of international language, learning and adaptation
process to this language of students can not be standardized at ease, since
the students have different tendencies to disparate learning styles. Moreover
standards and characteristics of schools are different as well. Also the
concerns of the first year design education might differ according to regional
demands and culture as well as the methods of teaching.
Sharing those methods are now challenging in the “DESIGNTRAIN
Congress; Trailer II: DESIGNing DESIGN EDUCATION”. The congress now
also helps and demonstrates new thinking and experimenting in this large
field.
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According to these, we tried to have some titles that best exemplifies the
approaches in finding some solutions to our main problem. These are:
• Experiencing First Year Design Education: Activities and
Impressions:
• First Experiences: Open Day - Get together, First Day, First Tasks,
First Actions
• Team Working: Basic Exercises
• Enjoying First Year Design Education: Ability and Motivation
• Ways of Thinking in Design Education versus Methods of Teaching
• Intuitive Thinking versus Rationale Teaching: Creativity and
Problem Solving
• Experimental Learning: Reflection in Action – Reflection on Action
• Explicit versus Tacit Knowledge
• Communication in First Year Design Education: Cooperation,
Presentation and Expression
• Team Work - Self Learning
• Foreign Language Training, Intercultural Communication
• Graphical Presentations and Verbal Expressions
• Supporting First Year Design Education: Contribution by
Cooperation and Networking
• Building Equipment Company – Seminars and Workshops /
Construction Areas – Look and Learn / Interdisciplinary Thinking:
Integrated Courses – Civil - Mechanical Engineering, Geodetics,
Economics, Arts
• Comprehending First Year Design Education: Scopes, Courses and
Lectures
• Notion of Scale and Proportion / Perception of Space, Experiencing
Space
• Technical Drawing, CAD Programs / Understanding Human Needs
• Dreaming First Year Design Education: Utopias, Expectations and
Reality
• Study Motivation before and after First Year
• Basics and Superstructure – How to Continue in the Next Years
• Close to or Far Away – Fantasy and Reality Conflicts
• Self Confidence – Critics and Evaluation
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• Globalization versus Localization in “Design Education”
• “Design” as a Common Language of Nations
• Cultural and Local Effects on Design Education
We received over a hundred abstracts for this aim, and selected 65 original
papers from different countries all over the world, from Europe, Asia and
USA.
It is a great pleasure for me to thank to those who supported us in making
this event to an unforgettable one. First the keynoters - Bryan Lawson from
the University of Sheffield, UK, Alexandros N. Tombazis from Greece and
Sengul Oymen Gur from the Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey.
Also I would like to thank the DESIGNTRAIN Project partners and their
representatives - Heiner Krumlinde from Hochschule Bochum, Germany,
Manfredo Manfredini from Politecnico Di Milano, Italy, Nazan Kirci from Gazi
University, Turkey, Joost Lanshage from the European League of Institutes
of the Arts, The Netherlands and my dear colleagues Nilgun Kuloglu and Ali
Asasoglu from Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey, this great job would
not have been possible without your help.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Iakovos Potamianos from the
University of Thessaloniki, Greece, Frances Hsu from Georgia Institute of
Technology, USA and Greg Watson from Mississippi State University, USA
for all their help and contributions.
I’d like to thank to you all, the DESIGNTRAIN Congress; Trailer II
participants, for realizing this important event by sharing your valuable
knowledge.
On behalf of the DESIGNTRAIN Congress; Trailer II organizing committee,
Asu BESGEN GENCOSMANOGLU
Manager of DESIGNTRAIN Project
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WHAT IS CREATIVE?
CREATIVITY IN ARCHITECTURAL THEORY, PRACTICE AND EDUCATION
KEYNOTE ADDRESS
Prof. Dr. Sengul Oymen GUR, Ph. D.
Karadeniz Technical University
Faculty of Architecture
61080 Trabzon-Turkey
Tel: +90 4623262818
Fax: +90 4623250262, +90 4623772692
Email: sengul@gur.com
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Abstract
In this keynote speech I will expound on creativity in general. However,
rather than dealing with the ways and methods of fostering creative thinking
in architecture or in architectural education, I will question what creativity
actually is and how exactly one discriminates the creative from the noncreative
in architectural works. What are its features and properties and how
can they be distinguished and/or traced?
Introduction
In architecture the term creativity equally pertains to subheadings such as
design practice, design process, design research, design education and
those social issues architecture is entangled with. Therefore there are many
aspects of creativity in our discipline. Also, different phases of design
process require particular creativity in themselves (Fig.1). For this matter
‘creativity’ bears significance in theory, practice and criticism of architecture
and is the subject of many ongoing discussions on architectural education in
general and design studios in particular.
Since creativity is an important issue in designing I must render a brief
review of design activity as it is practiced today. Today design activity
retreated to the old, mystic, ‘black-box’ approach again due to a lack of
confidence in design methods which had caused tremendous turmoil among
professionals around 60s. Later they fell into disuse as outmoded interests
of earlier generations. Nigel Cross (2006) gives an excellent account of the
“Forty years of design research”: studies had flared up by the 1963
conference on design methods held in London and others had followed
(Jones and Thornley, 1963; Gregory, 1966; Broadbent and Ward, 1969).
Some notable architects had rejected the professed design methodologies
from the very start as they perceived them as a menace to their creativity.
Soon major pioneers of the proposal have admitted that their approach to
design did not work. Only after two years of having published his major work
on the ‘synthesis of form’ (1964) Alexander confessed that the city was not a
tree (1966; 1971). Jones (1970) unwittingly demonstrated especially how the
proposed design phase approaches were not operable. Broadbent
described the progress in 1969 and retreated in 1973.
After 1980s some significant books concerning design thinking in
architecture appeared (Lawson, 1980; Schön, 1983; Rowe, 1987); design
congresses and journals proliferated; societies and associations were
founded and some are still successfully active today. Horst Rittel (1973) had
considered the endeavors of 1960’s, which were based on systematic,
rational and ‘scientific methods’ as the ‘first generation of methods’ implying
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that another would follow. The second generation of design methods in
architecture moved towards participatory processes, from optimization
towards satisfying solutions. 1980s witnessed unprecedented progresses in
civil and mechanical engineering in terms of design methods and techniques
but no real progress seems to have been made in architecture in terms of
methods.
STEPS
1 2 3 4 5 6
Problem
Recognition
Identification
of Human
Behavior Sets
Identification
of Problem
Situation
Goal Setting
Prediction
Design of
Objectives
Programming
Feedback
PHASES
1 Intelligence
Phase
Requirement
2 Design
Phase
3 Choice &
Development
Phase
4 Implementation
Phase
1. D e c omposition and Composition Process
2. Reflective Thinking; Creative Activity
Alternatives
Field
5 Evaluation
Phase
Feedback to the Intelligence Phase
Figure 1. Architectural Design as a Process Matrix (Gür, 1978: p.121).
After 1980s some significant books concerning design thinking in
architecture appeared (Lawson, 1980; Schön, 1983; Rowe, 1987); design
congresses and journals proliferated; societies and associations were
founded and some are still successfully active today. Horst Rittel (1973) had
considered the endeavors of 1960’s, which were based on systematic,
rational and ‘scientific methods’ as the ‘first generation of methods’ implying
that another would follow. The second generation of design methods in
11

architecture moved towards participatory processes, from optimization
towards satisfying solutions. 1980s witnessed unprecedented progresses in
civil and mechanical engineering in terms of design methods and techniques
but no real progress seems to have been made in architecture in terms of
methods.
However, it is worthy of noting that most architects of the last three or four
decades are raised by some studio-masters who sometime in their
academic life were grasped by interest in design methodology.
Notwithstanding the fact that design methods were criticized in general,
many studio masters have developed their own methodologies from the
multiple choice inventory which had emerged from the studies on design
methodology. With these methods and techniques they have experimented
all their academic lives through. The reason why such experiments do not
show up in periodicals is that in such a ‘hard science’ and technologyoriented
world they withhold their soft techniques, which might be very
perceptive, reliable, affective and eliciting for architectural design teaching.
Their disciples clandestinely inherit these approaches. In this indirect way
methodologies live on. The fact that studio masters do not document and
authenticate their formal methodologies is very poor evidence that no such
methodology exists.
Nevertheless after the demise of social and architectural meta-theories,
personalized approaches of practicing architects intertwined with their
individual discourses started to boom and were readily disseminated by the
media. The main dissension between practicing architects blows up
between those who stick with the fundamentalist theories of architecture (the
mainstream architecture) and others who flirt with the non-fundamentalist
ones. Architects differ in their affection, predilections and prejudices for and
about history and traditions of architecture. Some prefer architectural
conventions (see Ghirardo, 1991; i.e. Israel, 1994; Vattimo, 1991, 1996;
Pinos, 1993) and some do not. Some are socially motivated (see Frampton,
1980, 1996; i.e. Dean, 1991) and some are not. Yet, some rely heavily upon
analogies, myths and fiction, such as Charles Moore, Michael Graves and
Robert Venturi, etc., others prefer to play with geometry and “other
geometries” such as Daniel Libeskind, Peter Eisenman, Eric Owen Moss,
Zaha Hadid, etc. (Moss, 1993; Rajchman, 1998); and yet, some pour their
thoughts into forms through three-dimensional hand-made models, such as
Frank Gehry (1994), Coop Himmelblau (1993) and very many others. They
display differing attitudes towards nature, culture and building context. They
sometimes invent concepts and appropriate them. The only view shared by
almost all of them is that Modern Architecture restricted innovative and
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imaginative thinking and caused dull and non-inspiring environments to
come into being.
They betray their creative powers by a variety of morphological
configurations but it is not clear how they do it. Unfortunately an architect’s
account of his own intellectual procedures is often untrustworthy, seldom
convincing and usually an afterward story. What Albert Einstein said once
for scientists is equally valid for architects: “I advise you to stick closely to
one principle: Don’t listen to their words, fix your attention to their deeds”
(Medawar, 1969: p.10). Therefore in this brief study rather than annotating
architects’ account of their own intellectual procedures I will dwell upon what
is creative and how it can be traced and verified in a work of architecture.
But firstly, I must clarify the term creativity.
What is creativity?
Systematic inquiry into creativity occurred from 1950s onwards and aimed
towards a more fundamental understanding of human creativity. These
researches adopted psychometric, cognitive, psychodynamic and pragmatic
approaches to define creativity (Durling 2003). Only the last one deals with
design fields, to a certain extent. In fact, very few researchers from a design
background have undertaken studies on creativity and have investigated the
knowledge about the underlying intellectual and social drivers of creativity.
However, researchers made a rather convincing case that “creative
personality” exists; and that some personality variables regularly and
predictably relate to creative achievements in arts, sciences and design
professions (Myers and Myers, 1980; Myers, 1993; Diehl, 1992; McCaulley,
1990; MacKinnon, 1962). MacKinnon (1962) had already demonstrated the
significance of intuitive thinking and rapid judgment in high ability architects.
The common dispositions observed among these creative people are
openness to new experiences, being less conventional, less conscientious,
more self-confident, self-accepting, driven, ambitious, dominant, hostile and
impulsive (Feist, 1999). Based on a rather exclusive research Durling
(2003a) has contended that ‘interior design students have a propensity
toward questioning and rebelling against established norms; they have a
disposition toward intense affective experience; they are of extraversion
orientation, which makes them comfortable in working with others; they
combine intuition with thinking rather than combining sensing with feeling;
they markedly prefer perception rather than judgment; they prefer being
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different for its own sake; they prefer style over practicality; they make
unusual associations; and they sometimes deliberately break the rules set
by the tutor, for example by pushing a brief to the limit’.
Creativity is a broad and vague concept. Criterion of creativity varies from
one discipline to another. In engineering, for example, it may be predicated
on some functional improvement on the product: It may be made cheaper,
safer, stronger, of better performance, multi-functioned, etc (Berkun, 2003).
Some creativity, for that matter, may be a systematic affair with serious
implications for success and failure as opposed to creativity in artistic
domains, which value the different, the eccentric, and even the frivolous.
The role of creativity in sciences, on the other hand, is best understood by
quoting Henri Poincare; “It is by logic that we prove, but by intuition that we
discover,” (Anon.).
In effect, creativity is the ability to produce work that is both novel and
appropriate, although in the past it has been defined as ‘effective surprise’
(Bruner, 1962); the act of creating ‘the unexpected’ and ‘the original’ by the
Deconstructionist architects, i.e. ‘shock’ by Tschumi (1991, 1994). For
Polanyi it is an ‘illumination’ (1958; p.123), ‘a kind of awareness’.
Nonetheless, as quoted by Durling (2003), Guilford posits that (1950; 444-
454) ‘an important and persistent feature of all creativity is the ability to set
aside established conventions and procedures’.
Since creativity is a dynamic thought process in action some prefer to use
the idiom ‘imaginative leap’ or ‘intuitive leap’ which obviates an image of a
fragment of possible worlds, instead of the passive concept of creativity. ‘As
a human behavior, creativity is a rapid intuitive deduction that owes its
power to the infirmity of our powers of reasoning’ says Medawar, and adds,
“That creativity is beyond analysis is a romantic illusion we must outgrow. It
can not be learned perhaps but it can certainly be encouraged and abetted.”
(Medawar, 1969; p.57).
In the very challenging act of abetting perceptiveness, imaginativeness,
sensitiveness and judgmental abilities of students of architecture at least five
suggestions can be set forward:
1. Emphasize theoretical/historical knowledge of architecture.
2. Expound on the canons of masters of architecture then and now.
3. Practice architectural design skill of transforming and representing
spatio-visual concepts in either morphology or basic design courses.
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4. Exercise ‘incentive, which may be a restrictive clause-ranging from a
scientific/technological rationale to a personal fancy in studio projects
so as to elicit creativity’.
5. Dramatize possible futures so as to augment student’s perceptivenessa
feeling for alternative socio-physical futures gained from the
knowledge of other disciplines such as philosophy, sciences, arts,
sociology, economy, etc., as well as from extra-curricular activities, life
experiences, etc.
However the question ‘what is creative?’ remains unanswered in all above
mentioned discussions pertaining creativity. How would the practicing
architects, studio-masters or even the critics tell the ‘creative’ from the ‘noncreative’?
What are the features and/or the criteria of creativeness? This
area of research is fully omitted from the study of creativity.
What is creative?
Design in architecture is an act of transformation and in that sense it is the
highest form of practical adaptation to our environment. We transform and
adapt. It is also a form of communication where constructs, concepts,
mental pictures of reality existing in the mind of the designer are
transformed into visions of future realities via the language of architectural
composition (Fig. 2).
Instrumenys of affects
(grammatical terms)
Things
Concepts
Events-flows &
behavior
Cultural Conventions
Knowledge of other
disciplines
History and Theory of
Arts &
Architecture
Percepts
Images
Affects
Language of
Architectural
Composition
Word
Inscription
Line
Form
Pattern
Color
Texture
Dimension
Shadow
Light
Relation,
etc
Preperatory Milieu Mental Communication
field
field
Figure 2. Transformative nature of architectural design
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Based on this view of architecture, for any architectural work to be
distinguished as creative it must transform something, must cause a
change, a difference in the environment. Styles and trends in architectural
history emerge from clauses of consensus among architect designers on
established conventions and procedures of their times. But time is always in
a state of flux. Movements and events change their character over time-the
most creative impetus of all. This situation necessitates differences both in
approaches and solutions. Eventually architecture transforms itself
perennially to meet the demands of the times. Thus the crucial concepts
with respect to creativeness in architecture can be pinned down as
transformation, time/space and ‘difference’-an observation which
immediately brings to mind Jacques Derrida and his definition of difference:
“Difference is a self dramatization”
Différance
Derrida employs the French word différance while he is trying to prove how
saying is not any more significant than writing. The word is used as a pun
because in speaking French the word différance can mean either to differ or
to defer, depending on the context. Différance can mean to differ from
something or to defer something. Culler (1982) defines difference as a
universal system of dissociations, discriminations, distances and differences
between things. It is the point where those concepts/words which exist in the
same vocabulary start to differ and deviate in terms of meaning. In the
definition of difference at the Angelfire website the primary emphasis is on
the word “same” which implies repetition of an idea. The power of idea is
reflected in its concurrency and consistency and the idea repeats itself with
its internal laws. In an article called Plato’s Pharmacy, from Dissemination,
Derrida provides a commentary on the law that governs the truth of the
eidos (idea):
“The truth of eidos, as that which is identical to itself,
always the same as itself and always simple, eidos,
undecomposable, invariable. The eidos is that which
can always be repeated as the same. The ideality and
invisibility of the eidos are its power-to-be repeated.
Now, law is always a law of repetition, and repetition is
always submission to a law” (D 125).
The fundamentalist theories of architecture such as the classical based on
Plato’s Metaphysics and Pythagoras’s mathematics, as well as the Modern
Architecture based on scientific Positivism used to operate on canons
(ideos) and gained their power from repetition. No two Renaissance
churches of the 15 th Century Italy are identical; no two Seljuk mosques of
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the 11 th Century are identical, but all mosques of a certain period are the
same; so are all the churches, with imperceptible differences which defer the
imminent changes. ‘The identifiability of the mark in its repetition and its
differentiality is what allows them to hop about from context to context’. By
introducing the word différance into philosophy Derrida has proposed a
powerful modification of the ordinary notions of identity and difference: ‘Any
single meaning of a concept or text arises only by the effacement of other
possible meanings, which are themselves only deferred, left over, for their
possible activation in other contexts’. When the deferred takes over the text
is not the same any more…a new identity, a new meaning, a new building
style might have been achieved is that which is implied.
‘Trivial insignificance signifies a possibility… Insignificant trace is the mark of
a difference a priori’ posits Derrida. This may be likened to ‘MA’ (a short
imperceptible interval) in Japanese dramas by which the subject matter
changes or to the term ‘inflection point’ in Deleuze’s philosophy which
implies an insignificant signifier of drops and rises in speech (Cache, 1995).
Saussure (1915) had already emphasized something very similar in
linguistics:
“Inaudible is the difference between two phonemes
which alone permits them to be and to operate as
such. The inaudible opens up the apprehension of two
present phonemes such as they present themselves”
In architecture the identity of conventional buildings is based on essential
and integrated unity where differences are subordinated. At the point where
the inaudible is heard, that is, differences can no more be subordinated then
the building type has moved into another state of being. A noticeable break
up with the past takes place. It betrays itself by the absence, reversal or
trivialization of the past canons and conventions at the level of major
taxonomies of architecture.
These taxonomies might be the most fundamentals such as the foundation
system, structural system, wall system, fenestration system, enclosure
system; a more hard core level might be floor system, circulation system,
service system; more abstract still, the order of nature, culture and
community, individual experiences. Sub-taxonomies such as;
interior/exterior, positive space/negative space/anti-space also exist in
architecture.
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In this brief, Derrida’s major discourse might be inter-contextualized as ‘the
creative is that which is a difference a priori’. In search of it one might look at
several things in architecture. In this pioneering work absence which is ‘the
condition of being different of all possible differences’ is the strongest case
to start with in order to render a convincing argument on what ‘the creative’
is. The mark of creativeness might be the absence of some conventions
and/or exclusion of some rules.
Furthermore the canons of the earlier periods in architecture were also
based on some dichotomies where one side was valued over the other, as
in Western metaphysics and literature: Egyptian architecture champions the
columns, Roman the wall; Gropius valorizes served spaces, Kahn,
Eisenman and Hadid valorize the servant spaces, this architect is socially
responsible, that architect is merely formalist. As a result the opposite-the
other-is always suppressed, overlooked and camouflaged in favor of the
former. Therefore reversal of hierarchies might be considered as another
trace of creativeness. Valuable hierarchies in architecture might be:
function/form, form/matter, intelligible/sensible, marginality/centrality,
served/servant, fixed/flexible, stable/flowing, repetitive (iterable)/unique,
fit/misfit, discovered/invented, concept (mind)/vision (body),
material/transcendental, concept (referent)/sign, correction/trivialization
(mistakes, accidents. jokes, puns and witty manipulations) etc.
An insignificant sign of creativeness might be a balance maintained
between the conflicting and competing pairs of architectural concepts.
‘Betweenness’ is proposed by Peter Eisenman in this respect as a tool of
negotiation and compromise. In connection with dichotomies such as
intelligible/sensible and mind/body ‘playing over the limits’ is another
allusion made by Bernard Tschumi (1996).
Dislocating the ‘ideos’ per se through syntactic and semantic plays might
be a very creative argument (Eisenman, 1988). This might be illustrated
through dislocated plans, sections or building elements in architecture.
Again, rather than a hypothetically strong correlation between form and
matter, dissolution of relationships between the signifier and the
signified, which opens up to the creation of multiple meanings, might be
another way.
Pioneering a preference for an architectural taxonomy over the
complimentary or substitutive other(s) so as to cause an unprecedented
change in the overall conception of a particular building can be considered a
strong trace of creativeness. For instance, Max Berg’s design of the roof of a
sports facility in lace-like concrete structure can be considered as a strong
sign of creativeness.
18

‘Event architecture’ proposed by Bernard Tschumi bears social
connotations. Conventions in architecture repeat themselves as long as
social patterns continue. Human beings are in need of a comfort zone, they
need protection against others, from natural disasters and epidemics, they
need food and water; they value privacy in congruence with their cultural
heritage; they want to have national and individual identity no matter how
suppressed they are; they require support for their communal tasks, they
need housing when they are alive and cemeteries when they die (Benedikt,
1991). Nevertheless the flow of times on the one hand and unprecedented
events on the other, require transformation of approaches in physical design
so as to accommodate the new, the invented, the reversed, the multiplied.
Therefore Tschumi (1991) suggests that architects ought to follow very
closely the changes of time and design for the event. Thus any design which
foresees the possible changes in the flows and invents a future accordingly
is the most creative of all.
All the above paradigms and unsupported arguments oblige exemplification
and illustration. They are demonstrated in the following chart, (Table 1).
19

Concepts/words
which designate
differenc e
absenc e
absence
absenc e
Content of
transformation
space syntax and
organization
space organization
office space
organization
Element of
transformation
stairs to ramps
disappearance of
walls and doors
into partition s
absenc e fenestration Corner s
absenc e
absenc e
space syntax
space syntax
disappearance of
walls and partitions
floor plan form
(Cross
From Latin to
Greek)
floor plan form
(central
organization with
curved geometries)
absenc e space organization City/non-city
absenc e
absenc e
reversal
outside/insid e
reversal (fulcra)
reversal
marginality/centrality
reversal:
marginality/centrality
reversal
freedom/dominance
fenestration
space syntax
(non-directedness;
confusion;
depredation)
denial of substance
(use of glass
instead of external
walls)
Layoutdissemination
of
overlapping
rectangles, multiple
axes
(metaphorically the
holocaust)
Who
Giuseppe
Momo
F. Ll Wright
Norman
Foster
Where and
wh e n
Vatikan
Museum, 1932
Guggenheim
Museum, N.Y.,
1959
Reichstag,
Berlin, 1999
F. Ll. Wright Unitarian Chu r c h
F. Ll. Wright
Mies van der
Rohe
Giuliano da
Sangallo
Leonardo da
Vinci
Daniel
Libeski n d
Mies van der
Rohe
Daniel
Libeski n d
space organization columniation anonymou s
ground-building
relation s
space syntax
Foundations
(pilotis)
staircases (from
main hall to the
wing s )
Location of book
shelves
Disappearance of
central dominance
Le Corbusier
Oscar
Niemeyer and
Soares Filho
Andrea
Palladio
Buffalo Building,
Johnson and
Wax Compa ny
Building
Crown Hall, IIT,
Chicag o
S. Maria della
Carceri, Prato,
1485
S. Maria Della
Consolazione,
Todi, 150 4
City End Project
(unbuilt)
German
Pavillion,
Barcelona, 1928
Jewish Museum,
Berli n
Greek vs.
Roman
Swiss Pavilion
Paris, 1932
Interbau
Apartment
House, 1957
Villa Godi Porto,
1540
Table 1. A Few Examples
space organization
of Marks of difference: Creativeness
Louis Kahn Exeter Library
Bernard Parc de La
layout organization
Tschum i Vilette
20

Concepts/words
which designate
difference
reversal:
servant/served
reversal
(bridges within)
reversal
(of materials)
dislocating the
‘ideos’
dislocating the
‘ideos’
dislocating the
‘ideos’
dislocating the
‘ideos’
dislocating the
‘ideos’
dislocating the
‘ideos’
Content of
transformation
space organization
spatial connections
material of building
component
space organization
space syntax
space organization
space organization
expression
expression
ground/figure
relationships
configurations
structural system
industrial modes
Element of
transformation
Corridors
circulation models
floor cladding
additional subsystems
to the major
(conventional) axe
systems
grids at play;
geometry
exposing the service
and circulation
systems at the façade
House syntax and
semantics
framing the façade
house to house
relations
gardens
Who
Peter
Eisenman
origin
unknown; i.e.
Mecanoo
Henri
Labrouste,
Biblioteque
St. Genévieve
(origin)
Mario Botta
Rem Koolhaas
Walter
Gropius
Peter
Eisenman
Richard
Rogers &
Renzo Piano
Peter
Eisenman
José Louis
Sert
Moshe Safdie
Where and
when
Frankfurt
Biology
laboratories
Delft University
Library, Holland
Museum of
Modern Art, San
Francisco, 1995
Uthrecht,
Holland, 1997
Bauhaus
Building in
Dessau
Kochstrasse
Socail Housing,
Berlin
Pompiodu
Centre
Houses 1-10
Weekend
House,
Garraf Spain,
1935
Habitat’67,
Montreal, 1967
dislocating the
‘ideos’ by way of
metaphor
expression
ground/figure
relations (refuting
voids as mega
elements of design
Mario Botta
Tadao Ando
Johan Otto
von
Spreckelsen,
Arata Isozaki
Eric Owen
Moss
Breganzona
Single-family
house,
Ticino, 1988
Kiyou Bank Ltd.
Sakai Branch, ,
Osaka,1989
La Grande
Arche de La
Défense,
Paris, 1989
Kitakyusyu
Conference
Center
Fukuoka, 1990
The Box in
Culver City,
dislocating the
massing
‘ideos’
gravity)
California, 1994
Table 1 (continued). A Few Examples of Marks of difference: Creativeness
Coop
Ufa Cinema
Concluding statement
Himmelblau Center,
Dresden, 1998
I ventured into something which is hitherto unspoken. My locutions might not
be totally convincing and might probably require further scientific and/or
participatory research and substantial argument. I am sure I could not
21

answer all. I believe the question what is creative deserves a better answer
than this one because of its importance in architecture. Nevertheless, I
would feel content if further research might depart from where I left and
interpret the tryouts here from their specific standing. “What we can not
speak about we must pass over in silence” said Wittgenstein in Tractatus
(his dissertation at Trinity College) but if this grave question remains
unanswered I am afraid no discussion on fostering creativity can prove
fruitful.
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25

A VISION FOR TRAINING DESIGN PROGRAM at
AJMAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &TECHNOLOGY
Training as a Way of Teaching in Design Education
Dr. Abdulmounim T. Ali, Associate professor
Faculty of Engineering
Ajman University of Science &Technology
Tel: + 971-6-7482222
Fax: + 971-6-7482277
Email: abdulmounim@hotmail.com
P.O. Box 346 U.A.E.
Mobile: + 971-50-4102484
Education
The Pennsylvania State University, U.S.A.
Ph.D. in Design & Decoration
Pratt Institute, U.S.A.
Master of Sciences in Interior Design
Baghdad University, Academy of Fine Arts, Iraq
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Experience
Ajman University of Science & Technology, U.A.E. from 1999
Associate Professor
Department of Interior Design
26

Al- Yarmouk University, Jordan, 1991-1998
Assistant Professor
Department of Interior Design
Baghdad University- College of Arts, Iraq, 1989-1991
Teacher
Department of Interior Design
27

ABSTRACT
This study looks into the training program, which is an integral part of the
Interior Design Program at Ajman University of Science & Technology
(AUST). The Department of Interior Design has established training
cooperation with many local offices and a number of design related
companies and organizations.
The training program is implemented in two parts, each with duration of 8
weeks. The 16 weeks training is considered as 4 Cr.Hrs.of a total of 134
hours of the program. The aim of the training is to expose the student to
work environment and practice what is learnt in class and design studios.
During training, the students will be able to:
Apply theoretical knowledge to solve real design problems.
Enhance active factors to give a hand in helping and improvement the
aesthetic qualities of the environmental aspects.
Improve their practical skills.
Help them to develop his artistic abilities in design, and to gain aesthetic
design experiences in factual life serving community needs.
Develop a strong foundation and help the students to achieve their full
potential, and to develop a self-motive approach to perform work in a team.
Ajman University of Science & technology places strong emphasis on quality
assurance and quality control. The same applies to the Department of
Interior Design .The quality of the training program is assessed from different
aspects. Evaluation and recommendations based on the assessment .The
main goal of the assessment is to modify/ update the program on a continual
basis to ensure that the graduates of this program are of high quality and
have achieved the desire objectives. For this, feedbacks are sought from the
sites companies, training advisors, academic advisors, training student’s
surveys, and Alumni.
Developments / actions are taken following, the recommendations from
evaluation..
This study highlights the importance of training program in preparing
students for a successfully professional practice.
Key words:
Teaching Methods.
Design Program.
Ability and Motivation.
Training.
Evaluation and Feedback Assessments.
28

A VISION FOR TRAINING DESIGN PROGRAM at
AJMAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &TECHNOLOGY
Training as a Way of Teaching in Design Education
Introduction
Training is an essential and an integral part of the curriculum of Interior
Design program at Ajman University of Science &Technology . Student
should spend a period of 4 months working in offices or related institutions in
order to gain practical skills and to get an understanding of the work
environment. The Department of Interior Design has established training
cooperation with many local offices and number of design related companies
and organizations.
The training period is 16 weeks taken during two summers (training1 &
training2), each of 8 weeks duration. The training accounts for 4 credit hours
and students receive grades based on their performance during both
external training sessions.
A training manual is prepared to provide guidelines to students concerning
their external training. The manual is made up of four parts:
1. Training Plan
2. Guidelines for Trainee Students
3. Guidelines for Practical Training
4. Evaluation and Feedback Assessments.
Kilmers (1992) stated that Interior Design is one of the most stimulating and
creative professions. As a mixture of art, science, and technology, an interior
design manipulates space, form texture, colour, and light to improve the
quality of human life.
The purpose of the training is to equip the student with basic practical skills
needed at design sites and to provide them with theoretical and practical
information needed to help them take maximum benefit from their training.
Training gives the student new techniques and methods needed. Training is
so necessary for development of material and plan. Capabilities that help
them to achieve what they want on their own level. Trevor Bentley (1992)
stated that learning is a process which takes place as an interaction between
learners and their environments. Training provides students with knowledge
to develop confidence, integrity, and enhance artistic abilities by giving them
the necessary aesthetic design experience, and to prepare them to become
more productive in providing services to the community, keeping in view its
interests and needs.
29

Training objectives
• There are specific objectives for practical training that must
understood and appreciate to get maximum benefit from training
sessions. Evaluation of training will be based on the level of
achievement of the following objectives:
• The Correlation of theoretical knowledge with professional practice.
• The acquirement of an additional technical knowledge concerning
the field of training.
• The improvement of communication skills both oral, and in writing.
• Showing the initiative and development of self-confidence in
handling the assigned tasks in real-life.
• Learning the significance of teamwork, and to act as a responsible
member of the teamwork.
• Development the personality by learning about self-control
punctuality, professional responsibility, and time management, etc.
• The Demonstration of a positive attitude of AUST student as a
serious learner, and an ability of making contribution to the ongoing
jobs at the training sites.
• Training Program is required to cover essential work-related skills,
techniques and knowledge.
• To enhance skills and enable learning and personal development,
which extends the range of development way outside the studio
work skills and knowledge to create far more exciting, liberating,
motivational opportunities.
• Understanding the peculiar problems facing the UAE society and
needs.
The significance of the design curriculum at Ajman University
Badrul H. Khan (2001) stated that training is an important tool for improving
knowledge and skill. The centre of training and continuing education
coordinates training program at Ajman University of Science & Technology.
The program is required to cover essential work-related skills, techniques
and knowledge, and deals with taking a positive progressive approach to this
sort of professional practice (Training Centre, 2005).
Importantly however, the most effective way to develop students is to
enhance skills training, which will enable learning and personal
development. The students will have the opportunities to extend the range of
their development outside the studio work into the real live work experiences
environment; and with specialists with broad experiences to develop their
abilities and concepts. Mel Silberman (1990) stated they help participants to
become more a ware of their feelings and reactions to certain issues and
new ideas. The students will be more aware and able to create far more
exciting, liberating, motivational opportunities.
30

Training program
The purpose of the training is to equip the students with basic practical skills
needed at design sites and to provide them theoretical and practical
information needed to help them take maximum benefit from their training.
Training gives the students new techniques and methods needed, to be able
to relate the learning to their own experiences and needs. Training is so
necessary for development self-confidence and helps them to achieve what
they want.
Training help to develop and enhance the artistic abilities by giving them
necessary aesthetic design experience, and to prepare them to become
more productive in providing services to the community, keeping in view its
interests and needs.
Ajman University of Science & Technology considers practical training as a
very important and a vital part of the design curriculum, and students are
required to finish the training parts of the program requirements to have the
bachelor in interior design. The Interior Design students are required to
complete 16 weeks of external training at interior design firms. The external
training is taken during two summers (training1 & training2), each of eight
weeks duration Therefore, Ajman University established a training policy to
bridge the gab between academic and professional practice, in order to
enhance the artistic and design abilities of the students, and give them the
opportunity needed to apply them academic knowledge.
Training activities has to monitor the following lines:
Training 1:
The training policy of the design program at Ajman University obligated the
student to start his first part of training at the end of his completion of the
studio course (interior design 5) at the program.
The training will last two months (eight weeks), seven days a week, with an
average of eight hours a day in one of a chosen design office.
The training will focus on:
Conceptual design procedures
Basics of working drawings
Site supervision
Presentation skills
Training 2:
The training policy of the design program at Ajman University obligated the
student to continue this second part of training at the end of his completion
of the final project presentation (Graduation 2) at the program.
The training will last two months (eight weeks), seven days a week, with an
average of eight hours a day in one of a chosen design office.
The training will focus on:
31

Site supervision
Working drawings & technical installations
Contracts
Specifications and quantities
Advanced presentation skills (e.g. 3D modelling)
Guidelines for trainee students
Practical training is an important part of design education. It will help
students to relate the theoretical knowledge learned in classrooms to
solutions of real-world problems, experience the working environment before
graduation, and learn how to act responsibly and efficiently in carrying out
assigned tasks, etc. Before staring t the practical training, Trainee must
attend the Training Preparation Meeting (TPM) with appointed Academic
Supervisor. The purpose of this meeting is to ensure the fully understand of
the training requirements in general and the training objectives in particular.
Duties of trainee students
A field supervisor will guide and supervise the duty at the site of practical
training. Conveying tasks on a daily or weekly basis, evaluate performance
accomplished. An Academic Supervisor from the faculty of design will direct
the achievement of practical training, and will also monitor the progress.
Providing guidance during the course of the training, to insure an effective
presentation of the work, both orally and in writing. However, personal effort
will play the most important role in this training program. Trainee student
must fulfil a number of duties in the most effective manner. These duties
must be taken very seriously to get the maximum benefit out of the practical
training.
Once the Trainee start training program, a certain demands has to be
followed:
• Should be regular and punctual and carry out all assigned tasks in
the best possible manner.
• Must follow all safety instructions and other guidelines from the field
supervisor.
• Elaborate and showing work to the academic supervisor during
their visits to the training Site.
• Pay special attention to improving communication skills during the
training period. The more practice the more confidence will
develop.
• Acquire as much technical knowledge as possible about the type of
work involved at the training site. For this, try all possible ways to
get the needed technical information from the Internet, manuals,
reports, etc., also should ask questions at the site to clarify and
understanding of the subject matter. However, do not hesitate to
32

communicate with the field supervisor by asking for information
needed to improve your work.
• For each day of the week, enter a summary of the tasks which have
performed in the weekly tasks report (WTR).
• Prepare a training notebook containing the daily notes about work
at the training site. Any problems encountered and how they were
solved must also be entered in the training notebook. It will prove
quite useful when you start writing your training report at the
completion of the training period. Information contained in the
training notebook shall be transferred to the report in a professional
manner.
• Attending the weekly meetings with academic supervisor at the
university is required. The purpose of such meetings is to evaluate
accomplishments.
• Get advantage of time at the training site. Whenever there is some
free time, utilize it by reading a technical manual and observing
how other designers at the site are performing different. And be
sure that training supervisor has evaluated and signed the forms
sent by the university.
• Prepare a training report as well as an oral presentation (using
Power Point) at the end of the training session. A manual for
preparing your reports is provided with these guidelines.
• At the end of practical training period, a given a grade will be based
on performance at the site as reported by the field supervisor.
• Technical report writing and oral presentation about your training
are required.
Evauluation and feedback assessments
Ajman University of Science & technology places strong emphasis on quality
assurance and quality control. The same applies to the Department of
Interior Design. The quality of the program is assessed from different
aspects (Interior Design program 2006). The main goal of the assessment is
to modify/ update the program on a continual basis so as to ensure that the
graduates of this program are of high quality and have achieved the desired
objectives. For this, feedback which is sought from the sites companies
(figure 1), training advisors (figure 2), academic advisors - Weekly Tasks
Report (figure 3), student’s survey (figure 4).
Developments / actions are taken following the recommendations from
evaluation. Evaluation and recommendations based on the assessment
(figure 5).
These Surveys are presented to the Department council; a committee is
formed and proposed a number of changes in the program plan that were
then approved by the Council and referred to the faculty for final approval.
33

Method of Analysis:
For each question six options were provided as Excellent, V. Good,
Average, Fair, and Poor. These options were expected to provide the
committee a flexibility to express their opinion with a wider choice. However,
for the sake of analysis, the responses were divided into two categories by
grouping the first three [Excellent, V. Good and Average] as “category A”
and the last three [Fair, Poor e] as “category B”. The sum of each category
was calculated as a percentage of the total number of responses for each
question.
Grading
At the end of practical training period, will be given a grade based on the
following:
• Performance at the site as reported by field supervisor.
• Weekly meetings, with the Academic Supervisor, who will evaluate
efforts to wards achieving specified objectives.
• The main focus will be in technical knowledge gained and how
would relate the theoretical classroom studies with practical
applications in the field.
• Evaluation of skills and abilities that students gained to meet the
required objectives in their trainings.
• Also, a technical report in writing and oral presentation about the
training.
Conclusion
The result of the training program is providing the skilfully practice to serve
the students, to be aware of the needed environmental factors, in order to
accommodate changes taking place in, regionally and globally, and to be
familiar with various design styles, techniques and ways of dealing with the
markets, and clients in general. Recognize that learning is a life-long
process, and work as an efficient team member in multi-professional groups.
The awareness of these factors not only helps the students in creating more
realistic expectations from training sites, but also helps in designing, and
setting ways of approaching methods of achievements.
References
Interior Design Program Description, (2006), Interior Design Program, Ajman
University, Ajman, UAE.
The Centre of Training and Continuing of Education, (2005), Training
Policies, Ajman University, Ajman, UAE.
Rosemary Kilmer and W. Otie Kilmer (1992), Designing Interiors, Thomson
Learning, Inc, USA.
34

Trevor Bentley (1992), Training to Meet The Technology challenge,
McGraw-Hill International (UK) Limited.
Mel Silberman (1990), Active Training, Lexington Books, New York, USA
Badrul H. Khan (2001), Web-Based Training, Educational Technology
Publications, Inc., New Jersey, USA.
35

THE DESIGN PROCESS
Between imagination, implementation and evaluation
Ulrike Böhm, Research Associate
Berlin Institute of Technology
Technische Universität Berlin
Cyrus Zahiri, Associate Lecturer
Berlin Institute of Technology
Technische Universität Berlin
Katja Benfer, Associate Lecturer
Berlin Institute of Technology
Technische Universität Berlin
ulrike.boehm@tu-berlin.de
Strasse des 17. Juni 145
10623 Berlin
zahiri@uni-kassel.de
Marchlewskistrasse 105
10243 Berlin
benfer@asl.uni-kassel.de
Karl Marx Allee 66
10243 Berlin
Keywords: Didactical elements, techniques, evaluation, reflection, explicit
and tacit knowledge
42

THE DESIGN PROCESS
Between imagination, implementation and evaluation
INTRODUCTION
Design can be understood as a collection and combination of different
physical and mental techniques. On the physical side, there is the
formulation, translation, and presentation of possible approaches to various
artefacts, such as drawings and models. On the mental side, there are
comparisons, interpretations, definitions and evaluations of such artefacts.
The implied link between physical and mental operations is often neglected
in educational settings. This deficit may be illustrated by two exemplary
situations from the typical academic environment:
1. Brainstorming: sitting before a blank page, the student is assured: "I just
need an idea. Then I will implement it."
2. The group critique: The students’ works are lined up along a wall. Sitting
in the front row, a panel of lecturers and faculty members critiques the
works. Not one student says a word.
In the first scenario, the student assumes that brainstorming is mostly
mental. This mental task must first be completed before the solution may be
materialized in the physical world. The student believes: "No artefact without
an idea first."
In the second scenario, the teachers assume that their knowledge and
experience may be simply communicated in the form of a verbalized critique.
They believe: "Without expertise, there is no standard of excellence."
These statements demonstrate that both teachers and students starkly
differentiate between physical and mental operations. This is directly linked
to the over-valuation of verbalized concepts and appraisals and an unequal
allocation of value judgement skills between students and teachers.
Material
The thesis presented above shall be illustrated in detail by introducing some
basic didactic elements used in design classes. Among those elements
there are typical tasks, sequences of assignments and different
communication-scenarios. All elements were used over years in several
design-studios in landscape architecture and urban design at the Berlin
Institute of Technology and at the University of Kassel. They were subject to
an intensive reflection and adaptation.
43

Results
1. If design incorporates both mental and physical operations, ideas and
implementation cannot be separated within the design process. Design
education should therefore encourage students to experiment with as
many different viewpoints and working methods as possible. This is
linked to exploring different presentation techniques. In a broader sense,
perspectives of other related disciplines might also be included. A handson,
discovery-oriented working method is to be established, in which
potential solutions may arise in the 'translation' between different
referential frameworks.
2. Students are most definitely in a position to evaluate their own work.
They develop and defend their own positions - at the same time, they are
confronted with a variety of different opinions. Encouraged to articulate
their opinion, their assessments are often sharper and more
sophisticated than those of their teachers. Through their involvement in
quality assessments, theoretical and practical topics (explicit and tacit
knowledge) may easily be linked.
Conclusions
Tasks, assignment sequencing and communication scenarios influence the
role-playing behaviour of students and teachers. They generate a starting
point from which a professional self-image is to be established. To develop
and refine the learning process in design education, it is important to us to
discuss typical didactical elements and the underlying educational
objectives.
APPROACHES TO DESIGN
According to Cross (1984), the design process may only be insufficiently
captured with words. "Only a relatively small (and perhaps insignificant) area
of that system of knowing and conceiving which makes designing possible
may be amenable to verbal description. (...) The way designers work may be
inexplicable, (...) simply because these processes lie outside the bounds of
verbal discourse: they are literally indescribable in linguistic terms." 1 Despite
these substantial limitations, the following two positions seek to approach
the concept of 'design.'
ENDNOTES
1
Cross (1984), p. 242
44

Designing between Variation and Evaluation
Rittel (1992) identifies planning assignments as 'wicked problems,'
distinguished from 'tame' ones, which offer clear descriptions of the problem
and checkable answers. By contrast, evil problems cannot be precisely or
conclusively defined, because their definitions and possible solutions are
closely linked together. 2
According to Rittel, two processes may be distinguished as part of the
design practice: the designer generates alternatives and then selects
especially suitable applications from a set of alternatives. Both steps
continuously alternate during the design process.
The Design Process as a Collection of Techniques
Operations such as summarizing, arranging, positioning, composing,
ordering, structuring, embedding or creating hierarchies, constitute physical
or mental actions depending on the linguistic context. If design concepts are
used in combination with a mental image, they illustrate thoughts to be
transmitted by using a familiar physical operation. Without this metaphoric
use of words, the mediation of mental images would barely be possible.
Obviously different languages and their respective usage do not make sharp
distinctions between operations and concepts. Referring to Kemp (1974),
Gänshirt (2007) describes the development of this twofold meaning by
coining the term "Disegno." "Disegno" describes on the one hand the
practical facility of drawing, on the other hand, the power of the intellect to
imagine "new worlds in and of themselves." 3
Ehrlich (1999) implies that there is no differentiation between physical and
mental operations during the design process, and that the two operations
are equal: "Design is only possible through the activity of the body and the
use of the senses." 4
Design solutions developed during an investigation, are in constant interplay
between representation, evaluation and variation. For Reinborn and Koch
(1992) „a division of labor between thinking and drawing develops, as the
graphic fixation of ideas creates new creative conditions for solving
problems." 5
To conceive and to represent thus cannot be distinguished sharply from one
another. Ehrlich (1999) suggests that "the idea of a design achievement and
its subsequent materialization (...), may not be seen as independent entities
2
3
4
5
Rittel (1992), p. 22
Gänshirt (2007), p. 45 continued
Ehrlich (1999)
Reinborn and Koch (1992), p. 36
45

(...)." 6 Idea and materialization do not exist in "chronological or hierarchical
relationship to one another." 7
Synopsis
For Rittel, the focus of design lies with the evaluation and decision-making
process: "The reasoning of the designer or planner appears as a process of
argumentation." 8 Furthermore, the production of alternatives is linked to
value judgments. This point of view disregards the development and
investigation phase in the design process.
Ehrlich, on the other hand focuses on conceiving and representation as a
process in the development of design solutions. He remains flexible on how
physical and mental operations may be combined, and on what basis a
design solution may be evaluated.
In a synopsis of both approaches, two components of the design process
may be specified. These include:
- on the one hand techniques and skills for the generation of ideas,
- and on the other hand criteria for design evaluation.
The learning experience in school as starting point
According to Reinborn and Koch (1992) designs are developed "in a difficult,
indeed often tenacious process of alternating inspirations and failures, which
arise from a mental and conceptual chaos. (...) This fluctuation between
intuition, conceptual ideas and reflections thereon, which may lead to failure
and the rejection of ideas (...) should not irritate (...)." 9
The functioning principle and cognitive design strategy outlined here require
a willingness of the student to accept a solution without first having a clear
objective in mind. However, an analytical design study rarely proceeds as
linear and goal-oriented. Mistakes, misconceptions and setbacks are an
inevitable part of the design process. Palmboom (2004), for example, notes
that "in a sense, design means discovering the creative error and deviating
from the straight and narrow at exactly the right moment. There are no fixed
patterns down in the gap, just countless potentialities. Only by discovering,
selecting, using and interweaving this vast range of possibilities does one -
eventually - reach something self-evident which legitimises the design to the
outside world. This fascinating game requires a high degree of boldness, as
well as patience." 10
6
7
8
9
10
Ehrlich (1999)
Ehrlich (1999)
Rittel (1992), p. 136
Reinborn and Koch (1992), p. 34 continued
Palmboom (2004), p. 19
46

However, the functioning principles and cognitive design strategies learned
in school are predominantly goal-oriented. They are well defined and usually
have clear evaluation criteria. This learning experience at first contradicts the
idea of employing an 'aimless' design practice. The necessary willingness to
constantly question and revise personal design strategies can become
rather tiresome and discouraging for most students. Only a small number of
students are able to independently develop their own design strategies. The
majority of students should however be encouraged by means of a gradual
introduction to the design process.
In this paper, we will take a closer look at both components of the design
process described above, and link each with didactic elements. The first
section presents approaches to finding ideas and initiating their outworking.
The second section presents scenarios for the management and evaluation
of design proposals.
I. IDEA GENERATION AND REALISATION
Theoretical point of departure
Archer (1984) couples the ability of cognitive modelling with individual forms
of expression: "Indeed, we believe that human beings have an innate
capacity for cognitive modelling, and its expression through sketching,
drawing, construction, acting out, and so on, that is fundamental to thought
and reasoning as is the human capacity for language." 11
If one follows Archers view, the techniques used to solve a spatial problem
constitute an essential part of finding a solution. 12 Without these techniques,
it is not possible to illustrate, examine or modify complex spatial situations.
Reinborn and Koch (1992) describe the design process as "interplay
between head and hand, between contemplation and cogitation of possible
solutions, as well as sketching and drawing initial conceptions." Within this
approach to working, "the abundance of mental solutions (...) must
continuously be "saved" in the form of a sketch on paper so that (...) the
head has space for new ideas and suggestions." 13
In order to communicate and verify a solution, it must be visualised.
Frequently, this is done in the form of sketches, drawings, perspectives,
models and explanatory texts. Specific techniques and methods of
representation are associated with every medium. These include e.g.
projection methods, drawing and modelling techniques or the tools of
11
12
13
Archer (1984), p. 349
The interplay between design solutions and their corresponding editing tools are
very well documented by Gänshirt (1999, 2007).
Reinborn and Koch (1992), p. 11
47

software applications. They determine the range of investigative possibilities
for a particular solution. 14
Palmboom (2004) describes the interpretation and manipulation possibilities
affiliated with the medium of drawing. For him, "(Drawings) are more than
just illustrations of ideas or concepts. They contain a composition that can
be searched for its unsuspected capabilities." 15
Representations of a spatial design are almost always spread out over
different media and representation methods. Evidently, no one medium
alone can capture the entirety of a design. In order to examine additional
features, a design must first be translated into another representational
language. With each translation, only certain aspects will be preserved;
others will be altered or even lost. At the same time, other possibilities for
representation and adaptation become available. They allow the design to
be varied and developed in an entirely new light.
Palmboom (2004) describes the interaction between different media by
emphasizing the relationship between words and drawings: "During the
design process there is an extremely complex chemistry between the words
and the images. This is not a matter of carefully regulated one-way traffic -
there is no clear recipe to be followed. (...) There is a gap between the words
and the images, in which uncertainty and ambiguity must predominate - for
one word can give rise to various images, and one image can be put into
various different words." 16
Task-Sequencing
To substantiate the premises described above, a typical series of design
tasks, or classroom assignments, are outlined as follows.
The actual assignment is divided into manageable steps over the course of
the semester. All steps are sequentially built up over time. They are regularly
processed, reviewed weekly, discussed and completed. All assignments are
handled individually or in groups of two or three students.
It is often helpful to begin with a brief introductory assignment that presents
the given design problem in a simplified, playful and casual manner. The
corresponding formulation of the design problem should be provocative and
stimulating. The processing time is limited, thus forcing the students to react
quickly and to form their own perspectives. The results of the assignment
help formulate and anticipate the goals of the semester, and may always be
referred to over the course of the semester.
In the first third of the semester, the students develop master plans for an
area in a competitive working atmosphere. A design competition is
14
15
16
Bielefeld and El Khouli (2007), p. 69
Palmboom (2004), p. 19
Palmboom (2004), p. 18 continued
48

established in which a jury of students and teachers select the best plans.
These are then subdivided into smaller areas to be developed in more detail.
In this way, the students' individual work is collectively interrelated. Through
this overall approach, the need for adaptation arises. Students learn to
adjust their individual concepts to fit the bigger picture.
Within the overall process, the repetition of similar processes is averted. At
the same time, excursive assignments are suited to unexpectedly interrupt
the predetermined schedule. Such excursive assignments could be short,
impromptu exercises, so-called „Stegreife,“ which help provide diversion and
enrich the design process with fresh new ideas. Such exercises may focus
on a specific aspect of the greater design problem, but are not necessarily
linked to the main task at hand. Relevant aspects may be investigated in
isolation from existing commitments. These include:
- Exercises dealing with design concepts (borders, collage, order, structure,
material,...)
- The collection of thematic, on-site impressions, such as light and shadow,
structures, site use, typical places for the area, borders...
- The identification of structures and their subsequent translation into
landscape architectural or urban design patterns.
- Exercises that anticipate pending design questions (typology, access and
infrastructure, ground plan organization, ...)
Working techniques and variations on the theme
All design assignments are inevitably linked with certain media and
presentational techniques. Over the course of the semester, various
techniques will be introduced and tested out for each thematic design
assignment. Some assignments call for the rapid translation of the design
concept into different media. The inclusion of different model building
techniques, digital and manual visualization methods, or photographic
abstraction allows for a broader examination of the design problem. At the
same time, “happy accidents” and shifts in meaning enrich the development
of the design.
In essence, multiple variations need to be developed for all assignments. In
this sense, selections can be made from a larger pool of possibilities during
the evaluation and decision-making process. The variations document the
development of the design process over a series of steps. They allow the
designer to move back and forth within a seemingly hopeless design path
and to rediscover or reanimate previously neglected solutions.
49

II. EVALUATION
Description of the practice
According to Rittel (1992), evaluation is an essential part of the design
process. The established method of evaluation and selection for architects
and planners at the college level is demonstrated by the 'critique.' Students
present their design ideas in the form of models, sketches and plans.
Following the presentation, a panel of 'critics' reflect on the state of work and
give advice and feedback on how to proceed. The panel usually consists of
professors and invited guests.
In order to protect themselves from particularly harsh critiques, Harvard
Graduate School of Design students compiled a list of 160 possible
responses, which they published on-line under the name „Blowfish.“ For
example, proposal No. 10, boasting the caption "Postmodern simulation,"
suggests reacting with the following line: "Leaf through your sketchbook and
then look up and say, "I'm sorry, that's not in the script. What page are you
on?"
Obviously, the confrontation that arises between students and professors
during a critique is perceived as role-playing. All suggested reactions deliver
their punch lines by questioning the typical division of roles between
teachers and students.
This described communication setting is characterized by a highly
asymmetrical distribution of roles. Only the students who are presenting
work engage in discussion with the panel. The other students withhold their
comments. On the one hand, they wouldn’t want to strain the relationship
with their fellow classmates „on stage“ - on the other hand, they wouldn’t
want to prolong the process any longer than is necessary. If this role-playing
is constantly repeated, the students turn into passengers, guests or
consumers. The focus of their interest is mainly on their own work.
The role of the critic, on the other hand, is characterized by her privileged
interpretive jurisdiction, by an unlimited „right to speak“ and an exclusive
vocabulary. Frequently, the technical terms that are used are private
neologisms or hover over the discussion without any theoretical context. 17
Moreover, the qualifying criteria are always derivative of the personal
attitude of the critic.
Because the quality assurance of the project lies in the hands of the
professor, the evaluation criteria of the students remains unspoken and thus
uncontemplated.
17
Kuhlmann (2006) "If educators do not provide enough help and insight on the
criteria of the evaluation process involved with architectural practice and theory, it
often happens that the students come to believe that mysticism is an indicator of
the quality. Kuhlmann calls this phenomenon the "mastery-mystery".
50

Shifting the roles
In the communication setting described above, the professor assumes all
responsibility for the evaluation and selection of appropriate design
approaches. The goal of the course however, should be to support the
students in their own design and decision-making process. Over a period of
time, they should develop their own sense of quality and set of evaluation
criteria.
As described, the process of the critique depends entirely on the distribution
of roles. Through a simple shift in role assignments and their related forms of
communication, the students can directly participate in the quality assurance
of design projects.
The following example illustrates this procedural change.
Project proceedings
At the first meeting, students and professors formulate the project goals and
relevant course topics together. This culminates in a project timetable, or
„road-map,“ confirmed by all participants.
In addition to the design groups, alternating organizational and design-theory
groups are formed. The organizational groups take on tasks such as field trip
preparation, materials procurement, exhibition preparation and
documentation of the work. The design-theory groups prepare brief
presentations on various aspects of the project theme. In accompanying
weekly lectures, they introduce the whole group to basic concepts and
important design theories. In the context of urban planning theory, for
example, appropriate articles are found in the writings of Sitte, Corbusier,
Rossi, Lynch, Rowe, Humpert and Sieverts. To stimulate reflection on the
working and cognitive processes of design, articles by Arnheim, Rittel,
Lawson or Gänshirt are suggested as appropriate reading material.
As the first step in the design process, master plans are created and
selected within a competitive framework. Students assume the roles of
various experts during an intermediary colloquium. They examine the interim
results from the point of view of municipal authority, investor, citizen, or
planner, and come up with estimations and recommendations for each plan.
A jury is made up of students and professors. The composition of the jury
and the proportional weight of their votes are determined beforehand by the
students. As a result of the design competition, two master plans are
selected, which will be handled in detail throughout the remainder of the
semester.
Both master plans consist of areas, which are to be worked on individually or
in pairs. To ensure compliance with the prerequisites of the master plans,
two advisory boards are established. Students involved in the detail planning
of the first master plan are members of the advisory board for the second
master plan and vice versa. In this way there are no contradictions between
51

the interests of the students as designers and their work as members of the
advisory board. The professors are members of both boards.
Design ideas are to be presented weekly to the advisory board in the form of
sketches, drawings, diagrams and models. The board is to evaluate the
designs and where necessary suggest adjustments or changes. Whether the
designer follows up on the board’s suggestions depends on the persuasive
power of the ensuing arguments.
All referenda are chaired in turn by each student on the advisory board.
Among the chair’s tasks are the concluding summarization of discussion
results, the moderation of speakers and the monitoring of speaking-time
limits.
As members of the advisory board, the professors are also integrated into
the described discussion format. In order to not overly influence the course
of the discussion, they often save their input until the end. Their task is to
supplement the discussion with missing aspects, to clarify obscurities, to
contradict one-sided judgements, or to introduce additional alternatives.
Consequences for the evaluation process
Several changes in the behaviour of the students have been observed as a
result of the described shift in roles. These are described as follows.
Communicability of Design
The role of an expert or critic involves the ability to express her opinion. This
eliminates the typical inhibition of students to discuss each other’s work.
For the evaluation process, the entire group must be able to recognize and
understand a given design. This requirement is no longer that of the
professor’s alone, as she is no longer the sole addressee of the
presentation. The attitude of the 'misunderstood artist' or the appeal to the
'imaginative powers of the teacher' can simply not hold up to the group
dynamic of fellow students.
For the students it goes without saying that their designs are to be presented
in detail, using all available techniques.
Variety of Opinions
The students’ criticism of their classmates’ designs are comparatively tough.
At the same time, they are more receptive to the criticisms of their peers.
Alliances of opinions arise during the discussions. Fractions of students who
share similar positions find common ground in the dialogue. Instead of one
school of thought, students are confronted with a wide range of opinions.
The student recognizes that a design solution can be assessed in a variety
of different ways.
52

In the case of weak designs, critique usually tends to be clear and
unanimous. In contrast to the judgement of a professor, the critique of the
entire group is not subject to individual capriciousness or subjectivity.
Confronted by the judgement of the entire group, the student is thus forced
to develop and improve her design choices.
For the overwhelming approval of a design, it is clear that the quality of the
solutions must not only fulfil different prerequisites, but must also equally
satisfy and convince a group of critics with widely diverging attitudes.
Reflection
All students find themselves in the role of the designer, but also in the role of
critic. They each develop individual positions, which they must introduce and
defend before a panel of their peers.
The change in roles also heightens their sensitivity to criticism. It becomes
clear that any proposed design must be understood and endorsed by a
group of decision-makers. It is also critical for the designer to understand the
criteria and motives of her peers and to take the dynamics of the group into
account.
Responsibility
The project topics, educational goals and semester timetable are all
developed with the students. In this way, all decisions directly involve the
students and they in turn assume a shared responsibility for the project
results. The students thus shape their own education and thereby develop
their own objectives. From the newly acquired responsibility for the course
content, a strong sense of motivation emerges as the main effect 18 of the
process.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Within the described settings, the student takes on different roles: as
producer, as expert, as speaker, as advisor, as jury member, as organizer,
as decision-maker, as moderator... The student must orient herself within
different group settings and thus be able to constantly renegotiate with new
people. According to her strengths, she will successfully fulfil certain roles. In
other roles she will have the opportunity to improve weaknesses and
discover new potentials.
18
Compare to Weblers (1991) Statement on "the responsibility of the students", p.
246
53

Relationship between theory und practice
Through the act of evaluating their own designs, the students begin to
appreciate the value of evaluation criteria. The accompanying presentations
of theoretical texts provide the group with specialized terms, concepts and
possible lines of argumentation. Accordingly, the students are highly
concentrated on the content presented.
The suitability and relevance of the offered theories are scrutinized on the
basis of individual design solutions during the meetings of the advisory
board. Here, the students develop their own vocabulary and are able to
apply it within a corresponding theoretical context. At the same time, the
presented theories allow the students to diversify and supplement their own
design ideas. 19
Role of the professor
With the change in setting, the role of the professor is also changed. The
professor gives up certain characteristics of traditional leadership roles and
takes on the attributes of advisor or coach. 20
As the professor is no longer the central focus of the event, she has the
opportunity to sit back and scrutinize the discussion process. She detects
problems early on and gains enough time to develop alternative
perspectives. Since many aspects of the process have already been brought
into the discussion by the students, the professor’s input may be much more
precise. She can introduce missing points, clarify grey areas or offer
alternatives. The positions already broached by the students offer the
professor possibilities for connecting ideas.
By establishing a common conceptual framework, the professor forfeits part
of her linguistic advantage. Her role is understood by all, undeniably, and in
case of doubt she must even justify her position. If she contradicts the
unanimous opinion of the group, the opportunity for intensive discussion
arises. As the use of technical terminology is always embedded within a
theoretical context, the ideas behind any given concept remain transparent
and debateable for all participating parties.
Synopsis
19
20
According to Webler (1991), different parts of objects should be linked to one
another and classified in an overreaching theoretical context. In this context,
conflicting expert opinions should also be considered. Science should not be
presented as "the final sum of all lessons learned". Instead, it is to be understood
as a "consistently cognitive process with the revisability of (interim) results.".", p.
247
Webler’s (1991) impression of the educator is that of a „seeker and learner“ with
„courage for self-criticism.“, p. 247
54

The didactic elements presented here should ease the students’ entry into
the working and cognitive processes of design. The essential aspects of
these didactic elements include:
- the structuring of the semester plan and the formulation of complex design
assignments as a series of interrelated tasks,
- the sensitisation of the potentials and limitations of particular working
techniques in the design process,
- the linking of theoretical concepts and the evaluation process
- and the establishment of various communication scenarios with the goal of
allowing students to reflect on their own design progress
With the described shift in role assignments, students experience a
significant increase in competence and motivation. This also applies to
students with little experience and self-confidence in creative process.
The outlined teaching and learning scenarios have been inspired by various
theories and discussions in the context of educational workshops and
seminars. We believe that there is still much room for experimentation in this
area of education. It seems therefore important to us to exchange and share
experience and knowledge of design education in a broader context.
REFERENCES
Archer, BL, Whatever Became of Design Methodology, in Cross, N (ed)
(1984)
Bielefeld, B and Khouli, El (2007), Basics Entwurfsidee, Birkhäuser, Basel
Blowfish Sammlung der Harvard Graduate School of Design,
http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/people/students/student_forum/blowfish.html
Cross, N (ed) (1984), Developments in Design Methodology, John Wiley &
Sons, Chichester
Curdes, G (1995), Stadtstrukturelles Entwerfen, Dortmunder Vertrieb für
Bau- und Planungsliteratur, Stuttgart Berlin Köln
De Jong, Taeke and Van der Voordt, Theo (ed) (2002), Ways to Study and
Reasearch Urban, Architectural and Technical Design, Delft University
Press, Delft
Ehrlich, C (1999), Die Konstruktion der Idee und Ihre Werkzeuge,
Wolkenkuckucksheim - Internationale Zeitschrift für Theorie und
Wissenschaft der Architektur, 4. Jg. Heft 1, Entwerfen - Kreativität und
Materialisation
Gänshirt, C (2007), Werkzeuge für Ideen, Birkhäuser, Basel
Gänshirt, C (1999), Sechs Werkzeuge des Entwerfens,
Wolkenkuckucksheim - Internationale Zeitschrift für Theorie und
Wissenschaft der Architektur, 4. Jg. Heft 1, Entwerfen - Kreativität und
Materialisation
55

Hertzberger, H (2002), Creating Space of Thought, in De Jong, Taeke and
Van der Voordt, Theo (ed) (2002)
Kuhlmann, D (2006), La Cité des Dames, Wolkenkuckucksheim -
Internationale Zeitschrift für Theorie und Wissenschaft der Architektur, 10.
Jg., Heft 1
Lawson, B (2003), How Designers think - The Design Process Demystified,
Architectural Press, Oxford
Meyer, H (ed) (2003), Palmboom & van den Bout - Transformaties van het
verstedelijkt landschap - Het werk van Palmboom & van den Bout, SUN,
Amsterdam
Palmboom, F, Urban Design: Game and Free Play versus Aversion and
Necessity, in Meyer, H (ed) (2003)
Reinborn, D and Koch, M (1992), Entwurfstraining im Städtebau,
Kohlhammer, Stuttgart Berlin Köln
Rittel, HW (1992), Planen, Entwerfen, Design: Ausgewählte Schriften zu
Theorie und Methodik, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, Berlin, Köln
Webler, WD (1991), Kriterien für gute akademische Lehre, Das
Hochschulwesen No 6 pp 243-249
56

FROM SOCIAL STUDIES CHAPTER III *TO NEVERLAND**...
Doubt, tension, disillusion in the first steps and the transition from
observer to actor...
Lerzan Aras, assistant professor
Haliç University
Istanbul – Turkey
Büyükdere cad. No: 101
Mecidiyeköy 34394
ili / Ist.
Tel : + 90 212 275 20 20 / 160 fax: +90 212 274 81 22
lerzanaras@halic.edu.tr
Education
1984 German High School
1988 B.Arch, Istanbul Technical University (ITU)
Faculty of Architecture
1991 M.Arch (Restoration and Conservation), ITU
1999 PhD (Architectural Philosophy) & MBA (Marketing). ITU
Present Affiliation:
Assist. Prof. Dr. at Halic University in stanbul
Lectures Basic Design / Introduction to Architectural Design / Design
Projects
Author of: Mekanın Ruhu (The Spirit of Space) - 2005
Tasarımın Ruhu (The Soul of Design) – 2008
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ABSTRACT
Education of architecture calls for a different start than others. For the
student to ‘forget’ everything he has learned until now and make a new
beginning, the educator must break some habits. The way to do this is in fact
simple. The student needs to get in touch with himself, that is, he needs to
concentrate on what he’s doing rather than the outcome. He needs to learn
to be happy with what he has created, even if he’s chosen a model, this
should not continue, he must learn to appreciate his own imagination. He
must stop following what others are doing and collecting data and instead
start being the actor, not the observer.
So, what is the role of the educator in the forming of this awareness and
sensibility?
What can be done beyond communicating a systemmatic and correct model
outside of the well known psychological approaches?
What can be said about how studio environments should be designed?
Firstly, studios should be Neverland -like places where a fine balance is
achieved and all hierarchies disappear in a second. These should be places
where you lose yourself, only surrounded by your dreams.
In Neverland everything is about believing. When you stop believing
Neverland disappears. But all the purity, innocence and naturalness that a
child-like spirit contains is present here. It is an environment purified of any
unnecessary information.
The conclusion here is definitely not leaving the student to his own devices,
but to make it easier to understand; the steps to make the new student who
‘does not remember’ find a path can be summarized as follows:
Discovering, understanding and perceiving communication pathways
Discovering yourself and your potential, learning to listen
Feeling the art of life and creativity
So we can summarize awareness as the increase in courage and vitality,
and the decrease in fear and doubt. When it is outlined this way, the model
of teaching that is used will be irrelevant because there will be the Neverland
that is emancipated and fuelled by the student’s imagination. Here, the true
nature of mankind, his feelings and his will to live are already present. In this
environment the student will create, his doubts subsided, he will feel himself
in the midst of his life and will love his profession.
The student should come not to a lecture room but to Neverland where he
will find everything he needs. Conversation, feeling nature, drawing freely for
hours and getting his strength from silence will be the way of this new
method.
The student who was told off for painting the daisy purple and its leaves
pink, will find the courage to do this again only through this method; which in
turn will give way to design and creativity. The aim of the this study is to find
58

a path to “ Neverland”, by creating a new model approach, called art of life
and creativity in- between a new world of architecture education and reality...
Keywords: awareness, Jungian approach, consciousness, art of life
* Social Studies Chapter III represents here the strict education system in
college which is not based on a free and creative thinking...
** Neverland is the fictional island and dream world, featured in the play
Peter Pan by Scottish writer J. M. Barrie. It is often seen as a metaphor for
eternal childhood, immortality, and escapism.
59

FROM SOCIAL STUDIES CHAPTER III TO NEVERLAND...
Doubt, tension, disillusion in the first steps and the transition from
observer to actor...
Introducing Architecture…
Centuries ago, Gaoan said, : “There are no smart or stupid students – it is
only a matter of the teacher educating them to be virtuous, discovering their
potential capabilities and encouraging them to push these capabilities
forward…” (Cleary, 1989).
Yesterday afternoon I met a student who was there to register with his
mother. A family from Izmir. Father was an architect. Clearly proud and
anticipating following in his father’s footsteps the first thing he asked was
‘what do we need for our first class?’
This is a typical question for a student who has left the safe arms of high
school, who is now aware of the fact that school is more than ‘Social
Studies, Chapter 3, Page 20’ but does not want to carry this awareness any
further. We talked for a while. The student naturally had some knowledge as
to what architecture was and what kind of an academic life awaited him but
as he had not faced these issues yet he did not know whether what he knew
was the truth or some other less favorable fate was waiting for him. On the
other hand there was something very clear in his eyes. ‘I am willing to go
through sleepless nights, but don’t expect me to work too hard, let me live a
little...’
I have always thought that the most enjoyable period in the study of
architecture is the first semester, both when I was a student and an
assistant. My opinion did not change during the years that followed when I
started teaching.
The moment the student steps into the classroom is incomparable, you can
not capture the same moment ever again. The energy created by the
naivety, purity, pride and excitement disappears in the following years.
Especially for a student who has taken on a project, there is only a few years
of torture instead of education. (although there are exceptions.) But this is
the nature of the beast. You cannot feel the excitement or the beating of a
student’s heart any other time or place. Students wait a whole summer to
enjoy that first lecture. The moment when the student looks at you pen and
paper at hand, with a head full of expectations some of which may be a little
exaggerated, you have to take the right step because it is in this moment
that the student’s notion of being an architect will be shaped and even years
later this notion will not be erased.
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Over the years I have read quite a few articles on what architecture is and
what an architect is supposed to do. I have come across comprehensive
research in these studies on how education systems should be revised or
which methods should be adopted in order to bring in certain capabilities.
Remembering what Gaoan said centuries ago, I realised the need to adopt a
different point of view.
Vitruvius was the first to understand the various forces that affect
architectural education from without. His broad list of subjects with which an
architect should be familiar locates the education of an architect within a
wider framework of knowledge ( Weiner,2005 ).
Following Vitrivius’ footsteps, it is necessary to build a new framework, which
includes “not” the answers but all possible questions in the first year
architectural education.
First steps – Confusions – Questions
Architecture is different from other educational fields. Students of law or
medicine or any other field go through their education learning to adapt
themselves to their profession. You often hear comments such as ‘He’s
dedicated his life to medicine’ or ‘Law became his whole life’. It is different
for students of architecture. They learn to adapt their profession to their life
and to develop a lifestyle and awareness in accordance with this adaptation.
While life flows, everyday activities, habits, expectations and goals continue
in this vein.
An architect or a student of architecture does not dedicate himself to his
profession because there is no line he can draw between the two, designing
is a natural process for him in the flow of his life, has always been and
always will be.
Studying architecture forms a lifestyle; an architect must learn to look at his
environment with a level of concern and to be creative in letting his concern
bring about possible solutions. In order to achieve this, he must think about
what he expects from life and feel the strength in him to make his first
decisions.
If a student who enters the faculty of architecture is doing so due to external
factors rather than his own volition, he will have a different stand. The notion
here is ‘I cant draw, I’ve never done anything like this before.’ He will be
susceptible to environmental inputs as he had no knowledge of architecture
before. These are usually scary.
To give an example, when you ask the new students what they expect from
their studies the answers you get will be interesting:
- We won’t get much sleep will we?
- When will we get to build something?,
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- I cant draw, what am I going to do?
- Why do we have so many classes, aren’t we just going to draw?
- My friend said architecture students have art classes, we did not
have that in high school, what’s going to happen?
- Why do they ask us to buy so many drawing tools, we dont know
anything yet.
- I thought we were just going to draw buildings, why do you make us
draw other things?
Questions and comments are endless. The student is naturally confused and
apprehensive. He is infact seeking help. It is only a matter of time before the
student wishes to throw himself into the safe and familiar arms of high
school rather than face the cold, hard facts.
Architecture begins, when the students take the pen to their hands and
draw. It is a magic moment, and not important, how good or bad they draw,
or what they draw. The most important thing is, that they find the courage to
draw. Drawing is not just a skill; it can be learned, by thinking, imagining,
risking, inventing, and expressing all of them in unique visual form. There is
no absolute standard of good drawing.
Giving the children confidence that they can draw and leading them to “let
their eyes do the drawing” results in sensitive, perceptive drawings. Teacher
should encourage students to take risks for drawing and not be inhibited by
fear of “ messing up”… ( Unsworth, 2001 )
Besides, it helps students to perceive the world around them, which awakes
several new questions in mind. If we really expect to develop an enquiring
mind in a student, one that is eager to ask questions concerning problems
of today, a mind that is flexible, then we have to create a place, where all
questions are asked and discussed freely.
Kurokawa once stated, that dividing problems into seperate components in
order to make it easier to address each portion separately has been given
one of the characteristic features of 20 th century intellectual life (Kurokawa,
1991). This will help us to define and combine problematic points and also to
create such a place which includes all necessary information provided by the
students and teachers in a conscious way, but not necessarily rules. More
important is that every one should be aware of that changes to an informel
and unusual way may lead to a freedom and creativity, but it can also lead to
an underestimating and insufficient expression of thoughts and visions, if the
aim is not clear enough to all the students.
As Michalengelo said :”the greatest danger for most of us is not that we aim
too high and we miss it, but we aim to low and we reach it…(Unsworth 2001)
62

Why should we create a Neverland ?
The goal of education is to form minds which can be critical, which can
verify, and not accept everything they are offered.So, we need pupils who
are active, who learn early to find out for themselves, partly by their own
spontanneous activitiy and partly through materials we set up for them; who
learn early to tell what is verifiable and what is simply the first idea to come
to them. (Feigenberg, 1991). So, what can be done about this, how can the
student’s preconcieved opinions, fears and doubts be drawn to a relavant
point and a strong academic foundation be formed to build on?
Are terms such as awareness, feeling anxiety toward real events and being
conscious of one’s own vital reality relevant to our concern, if so what the
role of the educator in the forming of this awareness and sensibility?
* What can be done beyond communicating a systemmatic and correct
model outside of the well known psychological approaches?
* What does the student expect?
The amount of questions can be increased, and it should be; but it is not
necessary to find answers to all questions. In todays world a problemsolving
approach cannot be sufficient in every conditions. First year
architectural education is one of them.
Solving a problem, and getting an answer stops searching in most cases; if
you think you have an answer for it, you just stop creating. Answers kill
creativity. What we have to seek for is to find maybe “possible answers”, but
absolutely not “definite answers”. A possible answer may be in a place,
where all above mentioned questions can be asked and discussed easily. In
this study it will be called Neverland… Firstly, studios should be Neverland -
like places where a fine balance is achieved and all hierarchies disappear in
a second. These should be places where you lose yourself, only surrounded
by your dreams. In Neverland everything is about believing. When you stop
believing Neverland disappears. But all the purity, innocence and
naturalness that a child-like spirit contains is present here. It is an
environment purified of any unnecessary information. Todays education
systems in every field is usually result-oriented. The process although
accepted as important and valuable tends to get lost along the way. The
future anxiety here holds the student back from enjoying the moment he’s in.
This is where Neverland comes in handy.
In his book “Creating Your Own Path to Freedom”, Osho has written about
education in a large chapter and concluded his examples by saying ‘Real
education teaches the methods of the heart, shows how can be more
joyous, gives the sensibility to respect life, embrace existence and
appreciate aesthetic beauty, brings us closer to nature...’ (Osho, 2006)
63

This is worth thinking about because creating is an activity of thinking
outside of the box. It needs not the acuteness of reason but the softer voice
of the heart. So the moment being lived in is important.
In high school the student usually memorizes everything, even when he
does not, the things he learns are limited to what he’s told to ‘learn’, never
does he know what the information he learns is used for in real life. As the
result is important, he’s only concerned with passing his classes, not what
he experiences while he’s learning. That’s why a new student of architecture
has to learn to understand why we choose to do certain things and why not.
As soon as he feels the need to understand, he finds something to
communicate with. This is much easier in Neverland. The student creates
without realising it. Many times you can see a student come up with such a
correct composition that he himself doesn’t know how he did it. Here, the
student has gotten in touch with himself, in other words, has started to
‘remember’.
How life goes on in Neverland…
Olivio Ferrari once remarked,” we never talk about the magic of teaching”. It
is clear that a teacher must have a philosophy, must know and believe
something. A teacher must teach what they know and what they believe. It is
not enough to have an idea: one must be able to teach that idea. The act of
teaching depends primarily on a kind of sympathetic magic. Teaching is a
power passed on from one person to another. It requires a reciprocal
operation of empathy between student and teacher, and for the archtecture
itself. ( Weiner, 2005 )
This reciprocal operation is called “open communication” in Neverland.
We have to deal with the world. So does every student. Every student has
his or her own way to communicate with others. In Neverland it is much
easier, as there are no boundaries, and it helps students to emphasize their
feelings and imagination and show then accordingly.In that sense the basis
of Neverland is set on the four functions of Carl Gustav Jung.
These 4 functions are: sensing, thinking, feeling, and intuiting… (Jung, 2006)
We first sense everything, and want to find out what it is. Than we think
about it. The thinking process includes evaluating information or ideas
rationally, logically and also perceiving, exploring, dreaming, judging and
adopting to situations.
The third step is about like or dislike. It is about feeling how to accept the
current situation or to reject it. And the last step is a kind of perception that
works outside of the usual conscious processes, which is called intuition.
According to Jung, ( Jung, 2007 ) we all have these functions, but in different
proportions. The important thing is to balance them. In Neverland students
64

get an opportunity to make a self evaluation how they use their four
functions, which has to be increased, and vice versa…
Booere indicates that Jungian functions have to be evaluated in such a way,
that each of us has a superior function, which we prefer and which is best
developed in us, a secondary function, which we are aware of and use in
support of our superior function, a tertiary function, which is only slightly less
developed but not terribly conscious,
and an inferior function, which is poorly
developed and so unconscious that we
might deny its existence in ourselves.
Most of us develop only one or two of
the functions, but our goal should be to
develop all four. ( Boeree, 2006)
Figure1. the four functions of Jung
(Boeree 2006)
Each process has its own particular
areas in which it performs better than
the other processes. Feeling excels at
well-being and belonging, thinking is excellent at logic, sensing excels at
discriminating one’s immediate surroundings, intuition excels at generating
possibilities
( Stamps, 1994 )
As can be expected this process is not an easy one. But what the student
needs first and foremost is this state of awareness.
Krishnamurti describes an intelligent revolt which is is not reaction, and
which comes with self-knowledge through the awareness of one’s own
thought and feeling. It is only when we face experience as it comes and do
not avoid disturbance that we keep intelligence highly awakened; and
intelligence highly awakened is intuition, which is the only true guide in life.
( Krishnamurti, 1953 )
By handing the student a pen and paper in his first design class you either
create a potential that develops on an acutely reasonable and intellectual
level or let the student live in the moment by opening the doors of
Neverland. The choice of the educator does not necessarily indicate the path
the student will take because he will have the right to make decisions
concerning his own life but it will point him toward a path.
The conclusion here is definitely not leaving the student to his own devices,
but to make it easier to understand; the steps to make the new student who
‘does not remember’ find a path can be summarized as follows:
- Discovering yourself and your potential
- Feeling the art of life and creativity
65

- Avoiding fear
It is important for the student to know himself and discover his potential.
High school has ended, the student has found himself at the gates of
university after a difficult period of exams. The first days are difficult for the
student, almost strange, and he finds it hard to make any sense of it all.
While the university=freedom concept he used to dream of is present, he is
still missing the safety of high school.
At this point the student will start to discover himself, firstly getting in touch
with himself.
The reactions given in childhood change over time. Children express their
happiness and sadness naturally without any plans in the background but as
they get older they feel the weight of environmental inputs, habits and values
and start filtering their thoughts and feelings. This filtering process causes
the student to ignore his creativity in the first few classes. The student needs
to dream...Nietsche says ‘the day that dreamers are gone will be a disaster
for humanity’.
The imagination of a student of architecture works differently or should be
made to work differently. He needs to think and feel what no one else has
thought or felt before or perceive these in his life. Life is beautiful when
meaning is created. Osho says meaning comes from creativity. Meaning
should be sought without any preconceived notions or expectations, only
then it can be created and this is only possible through taking part in life
deeply and completely. Anything is possible for attending life. Somebody
who wants to learn how to dance needs to dance instead of just watching
dancers. A person who wants to learn something needs to participate in it.
(Osho, 1999)
We can apply what Osho said to students of architecture. The student enters
the university learning how to collect data. Collecting data blocks creativity.
The student, as a result of learning about what others have done, puts
himself in the role of the observer. Whereas he needs to be an active
participant. Only then can he step out of what’s already known and be
creative. The moment he lets go of his mind and reason will be a beginning
here.
The student who only tries to convey what he knows follows a well known
path, there is no creativity there, only a path that’s followed, what the student
of architecture must be taught is not to follow down a path but to have the
courage to participate in life.
Going over what we’ve said so far, what is obvious is the need for the
student to get in touch with himself. Although the language of design is not
one he can understand, he can use color and lines the way he’s used to and
will be allowed to do so for a while yet. Basic design studios will become his
first Neverland and his first interaction will be with white sheets.
66

He is askes to transform what’s in his mind on to paper freely. The possibility
of laws being misused is condoned. The student is at the point of the ‘bird’
he was taught. In his drawing pad he sees his free world for the first time.
His scared hand starts to fill the page and his drawings become preliminary
sketches. Long talks with the student are essential at this point, not only
lectures. It is a part of concentrating on what’s at hand and not just on the
result: talking and discussing every line drawn in a studio, forgetting about
the outside world.
Going back to nature will be important here. What’s happening around us
and what are we missing? Sometimes it will be necessary to carry the studio
outside to enjoy watching or drawing a bird in the sky or perched on a
branch. Here, the student will learn to listen, speak and to do these freely,
but more importantly he will notice the silence.
Every child perceives nature in a different way. This perception is connected
with the values developed before, but the energy of life in everyone is the
same. The way to bring this out in a student is through silence. The student
needs silence, the vibration of silence, as much as he needs to talk, discuss
and converse.The educator has to realize the need of the student to express
himself freely by drawing anything he chooses in order to dismantle the
insecurity caused by his belief that his best friend in high school was better
than him.
Unless it was imposed, the student will find himself in this silence. The
educator’s job in Neverland is to provide it. It is the only way to help the
student discover his own potential.
A self confident student can trust existence and the universe. Lastly the
educator should help the student remember. The student who has not taken
the responsibility of his life should want to do so. This responsibility begins
when the student starts questioning everything. The student must be
encouraged to ask questions.
67

Life in Neverland…
These pictures are taken in
Neverland (Introduction to Architecture )
Studios / Halic University-2008
Lectured by Assist. Prof. Dr. Lerzan Aras,
Res. Assist. Eser Yacı,
Res. Assist. Esin Sarıman, Res. Assist. Burçe Toku
68

Conclusion
Education of architecture calls for a different start than others. For the
student to ‘forget’ everything he has learned until now and make a new
beginning, the educator must break some habits. The way to do this is in fact
simple, creating an original and free studio environment.
As Dutton states, the design studio is the central feature of architectural
education programs. It is the heart and head of architectural education.
(Dutton, 1991)
Architecture is among disciplines of possibilities. Though long overdue, the
disciplines of design have begun to emerge independently as neither subset
of the sciences or the humanities (Malecha, 2006). And because each
school is situated in a unique institutional context and influenced by its own
regional demographics, programmatic change must follow from a careful
self- assessment of the school’s particular circumstances.
Perceptions of the school program, social dynamics and the ideal studio and
curriculum (Groat, 1996) are interrelated for creating this atmosphere. But in
every case there is one thing in common, and this is the reality that the
student needs to get in touch with himself, that is, he needs to concentrate
on what he’s doing rather than the outcome.
He needs to learn to be happy with what he has created, even if he’s chosen
a model, this should not continue, he must learn to appreciate his own
imagination.
He must stop following what others are doing and collecting data and
instead start being the actor, not the observer.
Awareness as the increase in courage and vitality, and the decrease in fear
and doubt is the are the basic aims of Neverland. When it is outlined this
way, the model of teaching that is used will be irrelevant because there will
be the Neverland that is emancipated and fuelled by the student’s
imagination. Here, the true nature of mankind, his feelings and his will to live
are already present. In this environment the student will create, his doubts
subsided, he will feel himself in the midst of his life and will love his
profession.
He will begin to sense, to think and to feel.. As Santayana writes, “ A sunset
is not criticized, it is felt and enjoyed”… This gives us the freedom to
appreciate and admire the beauty of something and take fuller responsibility
for it. (Santayana, 1988)
The student should come not to a lecture room but to Neverland where he
will find everything he needs. Conversation, feeling nature, drawing freely for
hours and getting his strength from silence will be the way of this new
method. The student who was told off for painting the daisy purple and its
leaves pink, will find the courage to do this again only through this method;
which in turn will give way to design and creativity.
69

As Krishnamurti indicated years ago, “Education should not encourage the
individual to conform to society or to be negatively harmonious with it, but
help him to discover the true values which come with unbiased investigation
and self-awareness…”
( Krishnamurti, 2004 )
REFERENCES
Boeree G.; (2006) Personality Theories: Carl Gustav Jung, online text,
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/
Cleary, T.; (1989) Zen Lessons, the Art of Leadership, Shambala Publication
Inc.
Dutton, T.; (1991) The Hidden Curriculum and the Design Studio: Toward a
Critical Studio Pedagogy in “Voices in Architectural Education- Cultural
Politics and Pedagogy”, Bergin&Carvey
Feigenberg, A.; (1991) Learning to teach and Teaching to learn in “Voices in
Architectural Education- Cultural Politics and Pedagogy”, Bergin&Carvey
Groat, L.; (1996) Reconceptionalizing Architectural Education for a more
Diverse Future: Perceptions and Visions of Architectural Students, Journal of
Architectural Education, Vol 49, No.3, pp 166-183
Jung, C.G.; (2006) Analytical Psychology, Analitik Psikoloji, translated by
Ender Gürol, Payel Publication, stanbul
Jung, C.G.; (2007) Man and his Symbols, nsan ve Sembolleri, translated by
Ali Nihat Babaolu, Okuyanus Publication, stanbul
Krishnamurti, J; (1953) Education and the Significance of Life, Krishnamurti
Foundation, NY
Krishnamurti, J.; (2004) On Learning and Knowledge, Örenme ve Bilgi
Üzerine”, translated by Anita Tatlıer, Ayna Publications, stanbul
Kurokawa, K.; (1991) Intercultural Architecture; Philosophy of Symbiosis,
Academy Editions
Malecha, M.; (2006) Architectural Education in Transformation: Evolving a
third Domain of Knowledge; European Association of Architectural
Educatiion News Sheet, Special Volume 76, pp 21-39
Osho; (2006) The Book of Understanding: Creating Your Own Path to
Freedom, Random House, NY
Osho; (1999) Creativity: Unleashing the Forces Within, Osho International
Foundation, NY
Santayana G.; (1988) The Sense of Beauty: Being the outlines of Aesthetic
Theory, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Stamps, A.E.; (1994) Jungian Epistemological Balance: A Framework for
Conceptualizing Architectural Education, Journal of Architectural Education,
Vol 48, No. 2, pp 105-112
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Unsworth, J.; (2001) “Drawing is Basic”, Art Education published by National
Art Education Association, Vol 54, N. 6., pp 6-11
Weiner, F.; (2005) Five Critical Horizons for Architectural Educators in an
Age of Distraction, Published in “ Writings in Architectural Education” editor:
E.Harder; won the first EAAE Prize in 2003-2005
71

RESEARCH AND TRAINING IN THE FIELD:
AN EXAMPLE OF CAD-SUPPORTED DRAWING DOCUMENTATION ON
THE MAUSOLEUM OF BELEVI / TURKEY
Gamze Kaymak Heinz, Researcher
Austrian Archaeological Institute
Hertha Firnberg-Str. 9/4/447
A-1100 Wien / Austria
gamzekaymak@aon.at
1977-1984 Studies in architecture and Research-Assistant (Karadeniz
Technical University) Master’s Thesis: “The physical and
functional mutual relationships in living units”.
1985 Prize for the competition “In a historical city: Fields of life for
the future, Bursa 2000”.
From 1986
Architectural studies at TU-Vienna, Member of the excavation
(Ephesos and Limyra).
1997 Dissertation: “The construction history of Cumanin Camii in
Antalya and their Byzantine origins”, TU-Vienna.
1998-2006 Working on the building research of the Mausoleum of Belevi /
Turkey.
2007 Organizational activities for the Austrian Archaeological
Institute, and efforts for the establishment of the ancient city of
Ephesos on the list of preservation of UNESCO.
72

ABSTRACT
In this article, a broad documentation work will be presented, which we as a
team have led. The team comprised of two architects, 15 architectural
students, and four further interns from Turkey. The 15 students were in their
first to fourth year of their architectural studies at the Technical University of
Vienna and/or at Turkish universities, of whom some graduated during the
research year. The members cooperated for 42 weeks, a duration that was
divided into five campaigns of differing lengths from 2001 to 2005.
The object to be documented was the Mausoleum of Belevi, which belongs
to the best-preserved memorials from the Hellenistic period. It is often
compared with the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven Wonders
of the World.
Through a new investigation at the site, the remaining in situ existence and
constituent parts of the rich architectural elements should be documented
and the reconstruction of the monument should be finally realized. And,
parallel to that, a new knowledge about the proposal, construction, and work
process of the Hellenistic period should be gained for the history of
architecture. The reconstruction is a contrary design process. The original
design will be regained by working on and reassembling several single parts
of the ruined building.
The documentation work became an interdisciplary cooperation between
architects, geodetics, archaeologists, photographers and skilled workers. For
the documentation, a CAD-supported method of drawing dokumentation was
applied. Drawings created by manuel measurements and subsequently
digitalized were fit in over identical points in the already existing digital
structure.
Our work encompassed various aspects, which were similar in
documentation, research, practice, and teaching, such as with the concept
that these fields are mutually dependent with each other and can only in
exchange come into their interrelation to an intensive efficiency. In this way,
it dealt not primarily with a collection of works of drawings, but rather also
with a documentation of our research activitities.
The documentation and research work surely brought new impulses for
students and experiences, which could not be gained within the scope of
normal class sessions. Some of them can be listed as following:
• “Multidimensional“ simultaneous thinking and acting
• The link between surveying and drawing
• Timing and conversion
• Orientation and positioning, etc.
• Concentration, discipline and pleasure in work
These associations occurred to a great extent and in various situations
under increasing pressure and targeted encouragement of performance.
73

Keywords: The Mausoleum of Belevi, Historical building research,
Structural survey, CAD-supported drawing documentation, Training in the
Field.
74

RESEARCH AND TRAINING IN THE FIELD:
AN EXAMPLE OF CAD-SUPPORTED DRAWING DOCUMENTATION ON
THE MAUSOLEUM OF BELEVI / TURKEY
Introduction
As early as the 30’s, Praschniker, Theuer and Keil (1933) had carried out
academic work on the Mausoleum of Belevi and submitted proposals for
reconstruction and from 1974 to 1978 Alzinger and Fleischer (1979) carried
out further investigations of the mausoleum’s architecture and sculpture, all
of which were jointly published [1]. Hoepfner (1993) produced one article
about the monument [2].
A more recent research project consisted of two part projects: Building
Research and Archaeology (Krinzinger, Ruggendorfer and Heinz, 2001)[3].
The recording and reconstruction of the entire complex was the task of
Building Research.
The challenge was to choose a method in such a way so as to master this
complex task in a relatively short and limited time but without allowing the
required quality to suffer as a result. That demanded a precise and efficient
procedure for the building survey. The decision was made in favour of a lowtech
surveying procedure and the use of higher technology where it was
necessary. The method of manual surveying was selected, for which a large
number of staff were trained. After a comprehensive introduction, great value
was set on all the students being able to take on and perform their own parts
of the task.
Methodology
The level of accuracy (Schuller, 2005)[4] and the requirements made of the
surveying plans also to some extent determine the recording method.
Measurement and drawing on site, in particular with a common work process
in a joint operation, were the basis from the start. In order to achieve usable
quality of representation in the research task, which is especially important
to detecting the important details in the construction history, (only) manual
measurements could be considered. It was obvious that the pencil scale
drawings had to be produced on site (Cramer, 1984). The fine work on a
drawing board in front of the structure with the direct observation and direct
transfer of the findings are the most important work stages and the decisive
criterion in the building research (Weferling, Heine and Wulf, 2003)[5].
Computer-aided building survey procedures such as the set-up of networks
of points and photogrammetry were involved in the entire processing
procedure and combined with the recordings from manual surveying. This
gave rise to a hybrid technique both in the recording of ground plans and of
sections and views: in well-defined points on the building and on the edges
75

of stones, the reference points were marked and surveyed in three
dimensions. This measurement was calculated with a computer program,
input into the computer and printed at the desired scale (usually 1:10) by a
large-format plotter and then used as a document for the manual survey
drawings on site.
Scanning the manual drawings and further processing on the computer
presented itself as an alternative to allow the combination of the individual
drawings and convert them into readable plans for the reconstruction. In
addition this allowed the “clean drawing” (the conversion of the pencil
drawings into ink) to be dispensed with. With the ink drawing method there is
a risk of loss of information. With the retention of pencil drawing, the
graphical quality of the pencil drawing could be maintained and the accuracy
of the original recordings could also be retained.
A second method was used for the reconstruction of the area of the
entablature on the upper floor. There was nothing in situ as a reference point
here. The numerous displaced blocks were recorded manually in the field
with technical construction details only at a reduced level and transferred
directly into the CAD-program. On the computer the information was
transferred in a CAD-drawing via a reference line that allows the connection
with the layer above and below it to be created. The assembly of the
recorded blocks and their possible arrangement as adjacent blocks was first
done in the CAD-drawing. Then the arrangement was once more checked
on site with the original blocks and architectural trials were undertaken. In
the course of this research, further details were also recorded depending on
the state of knowledge and added into the block drawing files and the
information in the CAD-drawings supplemented. The recordings in the form
of drawings were supplemented with the comprehensive photographic
recording. It was not until the various methods were combined that the
requirement was met of an all-encompassing record of data capture in the
sense of a building research survey.
The majority of the results was achieved in each case in the course of the
project on site, during or at the end of the stage, but not at a desk. At desks
the bases for the findings on site were created and the results were made
visible, clear and comprehensible for publication.
Selecting the scale
Selecting a scale of 1:10 makes it possible to record the condition of every
cuboid with regard to materials, traces of work and hidden qualities (Hölzl,
2003). Occasionally this purpose could also be achieved with a scale of 1:20
e.g. with the recording of the dry masonry walls without anathyrosis, clamps
or dowels. But with the many wall blocks with anathyrosis worked with
millimetre precision it was necessary to decide on the 1:10 scale (Cramer
1984; Eckstein, 1999; Hädler 2005)[6]. In this monument, these two areas
76

are relatively closely overlapping. Moreover, the various staff also have
different levels of experience and for this reason a scale of 1:10 offers a
greater degree of accuracy. In addition, there was a desire to do the stone
drawings on a scale of 1:10 since the artists should not be jumping from one
scale to the other and becoming irritated.
Structure of the geodetic fixed point field
To support the manual survey i.e. to be able to capture the actual situation
quickly and efficiently, the specialist knowledge of geodetic experts was
relied upon to set up the fixed point field (Hölzl 2003)[7]. Some preparation
work had to be done for the geodetic survey. So firstly noticeable marks had
to be made on the stones in visible positions and on the edges and corners
of stones that were as well preserved as possible. Selected reference points
were marked in red with paint sticks and serial numbers marked on them.
The points were calibrated with their coordinates by the technical surveyors
and entered into the computer file according to their absolute and relative
height information. Measurement points contain the serial numbers of the
measured points and their heights. At the end of the work, about 9,500
coded measurements had been taken (Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Triangulation stations of the monument
Figure 2: The monument with inlaid grid
The survey was started with the four corner points of the monument, which
form a square. So the four outermost points of the monument were surveyed
at the well-preserved positions or reconstructed intersection points and any
still easily readable scratches remaining in the layers below such as near the
monument’s southwest corner. Since the monument with its cubic form was,
77

so to speak, in the way, the points had to be measured and recorded in
several sessions. The coordinate system of the survey points is orientated to
the north but the mausoleum’s orientation deviates from the north. After the
square of the corner points had been established, the central axis was
determined in both directions. Parallel to the mausoleum’s edges and
starting from the central axis, a 1-m grid system (Rottländer, 1997)[8] was
laid over the entire monument (Fig. 2).
In the reprocessing on the computer it was very easy to switch between the
two coordinate systems depending in which one was going to have to draw.
These data determined in the office were printed by a large-format plotter at
the desired scale of 1:10 in two-dimensional plans – ground plan, section or
view. On the printout from the plotter in the desired scale there were only a
1-m grid and the survey points with their numbers to be seen (Fig. 3-4).
These printouts formed the model for the manual recordings on drawing film.
Figure 3-4: Partial survey of the south part of the W-façade
Manual measurement
The manual survey which allowed for deformation [9](Dzierson and Zull,
1990) formed the main basis for the recording procedures that were the
basis of the subsequent stages of the building research. Precise
observations made of the building were related to each other by means of
the survey (Wangerin, 1992)[10]. and recorded at a scale of 1:10. The
choice of manual surveying as a major element of the method is not just
78

ased on the simple reasons that the recorders could more easily learn to do
it or some of them had already managed to learn it during their training and
several staff could be used simultaneously in various areas and the required
equipment such as plumb line, tape measure, set square and spirit level
were still the cheaper alternative but also on the fact that the human eye is
still the best analyst that can extract important information from what is
there, present it graphically on paper and disregard or filter out the rest and
so also hold an intensive debate with the construction. Compared with the
use of procedures with instruments, the long time required and the longer
time spent with the structure are stressed as a disadvantage of the method
of traditional manual recording (Bruschke, 2005). Thinking of this another
way, one might argue that the traditional manual survey allows longer time to
be spent with the structure compared with the use of procedures with
instruments, which is an important aspect in adequate debate, involvement,
observation and additional reflection about the structure itself. The
advantage of manual processing is a more differentiated and accurate
representation in drawing. It may be the most labour-intensive process but
the construction deserves to be analysed with the best method so as to
exploit and use the opportunity of analysing it with the greatest precision.
The manual recordings were mostly made on to A3 transparent drawing film
on which grids and points were marked. The film should not change its
dimensions even in high humidity so that there would be no distortion
created when two sheets were laid side by side. With each drawing a certain
overlap area was necessary to prevent empty strips produced in adjacent
areas.
After the marked points had been found on the monument, a start could be
made on the manual recording. Once a very dense network of points was
available, smaller sections could then be produced during surveying. Based
on the points it was possible to conduct the survey in smaller manual
triangulation measurements including the recording of technically important
data [11].
It was not simply left up to the surveyors to decide what they would draw and
how but instead a standard presentation method was always adopted in
entering the surface work on the stone drawing [12]. After an explanation of
the principles by the building researcher there was ongoing contact,
enquiries and explanatory discussions on unclear points because surveying
and recording themselves are a way to broad academic discovery. Survey
drawings were not intended to speculate on what might be but on what could
be identified with certainty. The most precise approach possible in the first
stages of work leaves few open questions for later stages of work.
After the work was completed there was a drawing that could be copied and
which forms a very good basis for further processing but which is not yet
ready for publication.
79

Photogrammetry
A further procedure that was available was photogrammetry. This procedure
was preferred in flat areas of the façade. With the views of the south and
north and parts of the western façade, digital photo-aided equalisation could
be used in some sections. These positions proved to consist almost
exclusively of individual gigantic wall areas, each lying in a single plane
which, deprived of their cladding blocks, stood there as bare, straightened
rock areas that still provide much information about the fixings and the
heights of the layers. Thanks to their even surfaces they are ideally suited to
photo-aided digital equalisation in the production of view plans. The
reference points (Eckstein, 1999), which were marked in situ with red paint
sticks, were required again. The photography had to be as straight relative to
the surface to be equalised as possible i.e. the plane of the subject had to be
as perpendicular as possible to the direction of the recording. The equalised
photos aided the manual survey with recording as quickly and correctly as
possible, in particular in areas that have no structural peculiarities but show
traces of working over large areas. Structural peculiarities and fixings where
input from pure manual surveys, supplemented by remarks and descriptions.
Structural joints, positions filled with mortar, scratches etc., all these detailed
questions that photogrammetry cannot resolve, were subsequently manually
processed in order to obtain a valuable result for the building research. To
record the façade areas by drawing, scaffolding was erected in front of the
façades. With the aid of the scaffolding it was possible to investigate and
record the rock areas as regards the fixings and the heights of the layers in
detail.
Digitalisation of the survey sketches
In order to combine several drawing sheets, all drawings were scanned
uniformly. Images were created in TIFF file format with a resolution of 300
dpi for the pixel data. These TIFFs were stored on one layer for subsequent
CAD processing.
Pixel images which at first had no relation to the structure had to be
integrated into the coordinate system of the building via reference points.
Here we cannot speak of a method entirely free from further work. But
further work was not done by retracing sheets in the winter that had been
drawn on in the summer. The work of drawing was not repeated but right
from the next stage, work continued on matching the areas drawn with each
other. The aim was to convert the pencil drawing already produced into a
digital format. The idea was to try to produce a traditional clean drawing with
the facilities of the image processing program without having to draw the
recording sheets again in ink. As a result, documents with strong contrast
were achieved compared with the original pencil drawings, which was an
important precondition for printing. Combining the drawings in the computer
into a plan in this way represented the last stage of the survey work, the
80

ecording of the structure converted into printable form, which then served
the building researchers as the basis for further processing and
reconstruction. Since the actual plan, representing the actual situation, was
not to be changed, it was laid down as the actual layer (without line
drawings) and then the planning, corrections or additions, classifications,
anastylosis etc. overlaid on it.
The distortions resulting from scanning were so slight that it was possible to
disregard them. Slight inaccuracies could be removed with the next sheet.
Because the sections were divided into relatively small areas by the A3
sheets, the deformations resulting from using a good scanner were not a
matter that had to be additionally dealt with.
Image processing
To prevent the cut edges from being visible, the images were processed as
original files in the image processing program the overlap areas, then
adjusted until these “edges” could no longer be distinguished. An attempt
was made to eliminate and harmonise the differences between the artists or
the years, between beginners and the experienced, even the differences in
style of the very same artist in the first and last years. Combination was
easy, for example, where a section was drawn in one year and at least most
of it had come from one person. Here the ground plan of the podium was the
biggest and most labour-intensive part.
Impurities on the documents such as dust or unclean or yellowed areas
create marks on the scanned images that were not part of the recording.
These required further processing e.g. the removal of these “dirty pixels,”
with the aid of various filters.
CAD reprocessing
The processed image in the image processing program was imported into
the CAD-drawing. The image was incorporated into the system by the
identical reference points and the guidelines by means of rotation into the
right orientation and scaling (Schumann, 2000). This allowed the images of a
façade, sectional views or the ground plan in CAD to be combined into an
overall plan.
The entry of all drawings as images on the same scale has the advantage
that one can combine all the meaningful and important details of the
monument that were recorded with a scale of 1:1 (such as the profile of the
podium, the profile of the nosing of the roof tiles or the edging profile of the
burial chamber wall cladding blocks) into a single plan and associate them.
Then the plans can be printed out at any desired scale. Thus for instance in
CAD the entire plan could be shown at a scale that provided an overview
and another important but smaller area shown at a greater scale or prepared
for the publication printing, depending on requirements.
81

Although the areas recorded were in some cases located at some distance
from each other, even from the start of recording they could be combined
into an overall plan with their correct distances from each other. So it was
possible, for instance, to combine the big facades or the ground plan that
were in some cases uncovered, cleaned and cleared of vegetation, surveyed
and recorded in sections in different years into one structure in the CADplan.
In this way the plans recorded at a scale of 1:10 over several years by
various staff could be combined in CAD into one uniform plan (Fig. 5-6).
Figure 5-6: 2001-2004 growth of the recording
All the information was compressed into this plan. With a mouse click you
could access the desired information in the CAD-plan via a structured layer
system. All other layers that were not of immediate use could be filtered as
desired. Whilst there was very good access to the plans, the original plans
could remain undisturbed. The input and storage of the manual drawings in
the computer created many additional opportunities for using them in CAD
such as the overlay of an attempted reconstruction, the insertion of the
appropriate blocks, changes to or updating of the reconstruction in line with
the latest findings or the filtering out of coordinates, grids and survey points.
Where necessary it was for instance also possible to highlight particular
stones with different-coloured borders. Colour signatures were used
especially with reconstruction. The ground plans, sections and views were
related to each other in their absolute height positions by means of a zero
layer in order to check their positions or to accept the ground plan position
and the height position. The overlaying of the ground plan and elevation for
checking and orientation is of course done without problems and can be
switched off or accessed again with the click of a mouse. Thanks to the
82

facilities of the drawing program, all the required information on the drawings
could be overlaid but then hidden again when printing so that they did not
appear either in processing or in printouts. These inputs were required in
order to establish their correct positions for reconstruction but it was often
unnecessary to represent them in the end product since the complicated
relationships would make it harder to understand the end product.
In the end, about 1,682 m2 of ground and elevation areas of the monument
had been recorded at 1:10. In addition some hundred displaced components
were recorded on the site by drawings 1:10 or survey sketches in terms of
technical construction according to their fixings, some being loaded into CAD
as line drawings for the reconstruction.
On the students and the results
The students came on regular or holiday period work placement to gain
experience and they took on the project enthusiastically and were very
committed during the work. Some of them applied for the work back during
their university terms and many joined in the work because of their
connections with the location.
In the first few days they were given explanations on and allocated to the
project and to their task, namely the manual surveying. As it soon turned out,
the opportunities were so wide that every student could find “his own task.”
The procedure and process of surveying and the conversion into drawings
were very soon in hand. With the guidance of architects, the students
performed their tasks. They also had a chance to learn to put the techniques
to practical use.
Although in general they worked alone, it was not long before experience
was being exchanged among colleagues. In this way they also learnt from
each other without this seriously affecting the progress of the work. The aim
of the project was to jointly produce a plan of the existing structure. With the
individual sheets being combined year by year, one could see how the
students were maturing. It was astonishing how seriously the students took
their tasks and how much some of them matured on the job. Everyone in the
field made progress in their techniques and skills.
For the group it was an opportunity to work under professional supervision
on a project in which everyone could contribute and gain new experience.
The group matured on the job although the work was not performed in
groups. Here the shared accommodation, staying overnight in the
excavation building clearly played a part. Doing something together in their
leisure time and discussing tasks and problems was obviously from many
points of view instructive for them.
There was no direct connection between their studies and the project
because the excavation stages take place in the summer months outside
83

study periods, which is usual, but they worked in the holidays so that normal
student life was not interrupted.
Using the reprocessed and combined drawings (from their own independent
work) as finished or in some cases partly finished plans, presentation folders
were produced and the work given a clear context. The experience of
success of each individual student was crucial to further successes. At the
same time there also developed the courage, confidence and persistence
required for architectural studies and careers (Baumeister, 2004).
It would be desirable for projects of this nature to be offered to the students
now and then. The work clearly provided new impetus and experience that
cannot be gained in the course of normal student training. For example:
• “multidimensional” simultaneous thinking and acting
• the link between surveying and drawing
• timing and conversion
• orientation and positioning etc.
• concentration, discipline and pleasure in work.
These associations occurred to a great extent and in various situations
under increasing pressure and targeted encouragement of performance. The
students soon understood that the recipe for success lies in hard work,
dedication and discipline. They were instructed on looking at things in the
right way and learning to see what it was all about and about independent
action and implementation.
For students it was a varied learning process compared with studying. They
had the opportunity not only of getting to know the professional architects
but also of working with them as project partners.
Endnotes
[1] Theuer (1979) proposed two different reconstructions: a solution with a pyramidal
roof (in Alzinger et.al., 1979, 72 f. Fig. 51. 52) and one open-air with an inner court
(ibid, 57 Fig. 42a).
[2] Hoepfner revived the open-air solution and clearly improved the previous
reconstruction, without having had the possibility to be able to perform a detailed
investigation at the site.
[3] For the building research, Heinz was responsible, for archaeology, Ruggendorfer.
The general direction of the project was placed in the hands of the then director of the
excavations of Ephesos, Professor Krinzinger.
[4] Precision concerned the correct logging of the complex states of the construction
site and therewith besides precise measurements, especially also precision mapping.
84

[5] For the comprehensive discussion for and against the employment of modern
instruments in the area of historical construction sites, please see [Weferling, Heine
and Wulf (ed), 2003].
[6] Hädler (2005) made a division of levels of precision and ranked 1:10 among the
exclusive scientific objects serving construction close-ups.
[7] Hölzl (2003) negate the necessity of geodetical support in scale 1:10.
[8] This grid system has no direct connection with the axes of the monument. It is
rather an independently set-up grid system in order to attach the orientation of the
drawn plan in the foundation.
[9] There with, it concerns itself with a reality-true portrayal of the sized object.
[10] “Under measurement, one understands the documentation of the state of an
object at a certain point in time”, s.: Wangerin, (1992).
[11] Dowel-, lewis-, clamp-, pry-holes, score lines, etc.
[12] That means the different surfaces of the point, the toothed, etc. chisel were
illustrated.
References
Alzinger, W., Theuer, M., Praschniker C., and Fleischer, R. (1979), Das
Mausoleum von Belevi, Forschungen in Ephesos (FIE) Vol 6, Verlag
Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut Wien
Bruschke, A. (ed) (2005), Bauaufnahme als Erkenntnisprozess
Anforderungen und Methoden vergleich, Bauaufnahme in der
Denkmalpflege, pp 187-195
Baumeister, N. (2004), Abenteuer Architektur, Design und Architektur:
Studium und Beruf. Fakten, Positionen, Perspektiven, Internationales
Forum für Gestaltung Ulm pp 125-133
Cramer, J. (1984), Handbuch der Bauaufnahme, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt
Stuttgart p 49
Dzierson, M. and Zull, J. (1990), Altbauten Zerstörungsarm Untersuchen,
Rudolf Müller Verlagsgesellschaft Köln
Eckstein, G. (1999), Empfehlungen für Baudokumentationen: Bauaufnahme
- Bauuntersuchung, Arbeitsheft / Landesdenkmalamt Baden-
Württemberg: 7, Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart p 13
Grossman, G.U. (1993), Einführung in die historische Bauforschung,
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt
Hädler E. (2005), Sanierungsvoruntersuchung und Bauforschung als Teil
des Planungsprozesses, A. Bruschke (ed), Bauaufnahme in der
Denkmalpflege, pp 45-49
Hölzl F. (2003), Genauigkeitskriterien und Anforderungen an Aufmaßpläne,
in: U. Weferling, K. Heine, U. Wulf (ed), Von Handaufmaß bis high tech 2
Koll. Mainz vom 23.- 26. Feb. 2000, pp 44-49. 45
Hoepfner, W. (1993), Zum Mausoleum von Belevi, Archäologische Anzeiger
(AA), Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) pp 111-123
85

Keil J., (1933), 17. Vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Ephesos,
Österreichische Jahreshefte (ÖJh) 28 Beiblatt, pp. 28-44
Krinzinger F., Ruggendorfer P., and Heinz R. (2001), Das Mausoleum von
Belevi, Anzeiger der philisophisch-historischen Klasse Wien 136 pp 143-
167
Krucker, B. (2005), Wechselwirkungen, interactions in teaching, research
and practice. Cavelti A6, St. Gallen, Zurich p 10
Rottländer, R.C.A (1997), Achse oder Raster? Zur Grundrissgestaltung
klassischer und romanischer Architektur, in: Archäometrie und
Denkmalpflege, Koll. Wien pp 59-65
Schuller, M (2005) Building Archaelogy – Bauforschung, Bruschke A (ed),
Bauaufnahme in der Denkmalpflege, p 10
Wagner, S (2000), Bauaufnahme als Dokumentationsmethode in der
Baudenkmalpflege, D. Schumann (ed), Bauforschung und Archäologie,
pp 348-363
Wangerin, G (1992), Bauaufnahme. Grundlagen, Methoden, Darstellung 2 ,
Braunschweig (u.a.): Vieweg p 56
Weferling, U., Heine, K., and Wulf, U. (ed) (2003), Von Handaufmaß bis high
tech 2 . Koll. Mainz vom 23.-26. Feb. 2000, Verlag Philipp von Zabern
86

INTRODUCING DESIGN STUDIO LEARNING IN ARCHITECTURE TO
NEW STUDENTS
Simon Beeson, Course Leader
Arts Institute at Bournemouth
Anthony Holness, Senior Associate Lecturer
Arts Institute at Bournemouth
Wallisdown, Poole,
Dorset, BH12 5HH
United Kingdom
sbeeson@aib.ac.uk
aholness@aib.ac.uk
Simon Beeson, Master of Architecture,
Fellow of the Higher Education
Academy, was educated at the
University of Manchester, Hull School
of Architecture, and University of
Minnesota. As an artist and critic, he
has published extensively on the role of
sculpture and architecture in the public
space, staged the Making/Thinking:
Artists Build exhibition series in Edinburgh, and was a research fellow at the
Henry Moore institute. Also, much of his research and practice is devoted to
paedogogical uses of architectural design.
Dr Anthony Holness is an architect with
experience in both practice and teaching. In
addition to part time practice in London he
is also senior associate lecturer at the Art
Institute at Bournemouth in Dorset UK. He
gained his doctorate at Northumbria
University in Newcastle upon Tyne UK,
conducting research in to design
methodology and has published a number
of papers on the subject.
87

ABSTRACT
The design studio is central to architectural education. It is the forum in
which students can apply and test their developing architectural knowledgebase
and staff can evaluate the students understanding and competence in
formulating an architectural proposition. The studio also has a direct
relationship to the professional working environment of the architect and
therefore simulates the creative workplace environment that many of the
students aspire towards. Therefore one of the most significant challenges
for architectural education is the development of methods that are effective
in introducing studio-based learning to new entrants to courses in
architecture. Most new students will have had no or very little experience of
this method of learning. The process is of even greater importance when
the course itself is new. Established courses will have an existing and
evolving studio culture for new students to draw on in a process of ‘passive
induction’. For a new course there needs to be a more conscious and
structured mechanism to both induct new students into the process of
studio-based learning and encourage the appreciation of the benefits of a
lively studio culture.
Keywords: Studio-Based Learning, Induction Process, New Course, Taster
Day.
88

INTRODUCING DESIGN STUDIO LEARNING IN ARCHITECTURE TO
NEW STUDENTS
Introduction
The special importance of sketching in the design process as long been
recognised by design researchers. Lundequist (1992) exemplified this
position when he observed that,
It is virtually a truism to say the core of professional knowledge of an
architect lies in his ability to create solutions to design problems. This
ability to sketch is concerned less with being able to draw and more
with his ability to handle the ambiguous and indeterminate in the
problems he faces.
Also, Wahlstrom (1992) explored the relationship between the process of
sketching in design and professional knowledge before making the
connection between tacit knowledge 21 , or the knowledge acquired through
experience and reflection, rather than through structured learning, and the
essentially personal means of design exploration through sketching. The role
of sketching in the process of generating, testing and developing a design
solution is self evident to a practitioner. And their relationship to a
collaborative process of design and construction is also implicit in
architectural practice. However, this is not the case with new students
entering courses in architecture who are unfamiliar with the relationship
between drawing, making and design methodology, especially in the
educational and professional context of studio practise. The introductory
student exercises discussed here are an attempt to address these issues.
In order to focus attention on the work of architecture as a material, made
thing, it is beneficial to introduce students to architectural design through the
use of models as representation rather than drawing. By engaging with the
spatial location of material, its form, texture and issues of scale, students are
then able to explore suitable methods of drawing to abstract and re-present
the material model in two dimensions.
Their unfamiliarity with studio-based learning may initially cause them to fall
back to the more traditional class-room based learning mentality of which
most new students are familiar. In the classroom the teacher is “master” and
21
See Polanyi (1964) for more details.
89

directs the course of learning through very narrowly prescribed curriculum
directives, usually with pre-determined outcomes. Unlike the classroom
teaching experience, the studio requires a radical adjustment in the studenttutor
relationship. The tutor is no longer the initiator of the learning process,
but more of an enabler, who explores design opportunities and possibilities
with a group of students, within a framework of limitations and possibilities.
In effect a collective investigation of architectural ideas is formed by the
whole group and centred on the studio. For the studio to become a forum
and laboratory for design exploration and debate it is important that students
adjust to a learning culture where they make the decisions about what and
how they investigate. The sooner the student is able to adjust to the studio,
the earlier their design decision making abilities will benefit.
Also, it is important that the students enjoy the experience of studio based
learning. It calls for a more open and collaborative working process than is
normally encountered before Higher Education. The student will not only
expect to receive critical assessment and advice from their tutors, but must
be prepared to present their work and allow their developing design
approach to be constantly tested together with their fellow students and
tutors. This can be daunting to many new students when confronted with
the prospect of exposing their work to this type of peer review process.
However, such exposure to a wider audience, each with a different design
perspective, is highly beneficial to the student.
One other important aspect of studio based learning that should not be
overlooked is that it reflects the professional working environment that many
of the students will find themselves in after they have completed their
architectural studies. The modern practice of architecture is now very much
of a collaborative affair. The increasing complexity of modern buildings
requires the input of many different specialists working together to realise a
building design. The designer as individual enabler, as opposed to
individual creative contributor to the architectural design and realisation
process, is becoming less relevant in an era of highly complex delivery
mechanisms for buildings. From this perspective, one can appreciate the
role that studio working can play in getting students to develop a collective
response to a design problem and forming a consensus on possible
development strategies. There are benefits in working collectively as a
group, as Lawson (1993) illustrated when he quoted the following:
The group has a distinct advantage over the individual, because ideas
can become personal property or one’s own intellectual territory. The
strength of that territory is considerable, and the difficulty of working
alone is often in the breaking of the bonds caused by it. With a group
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the bonds are broken more easily, because the critical faculty is
depersonalized. 22
The studio has a central role to play in developing the unique character of
architectural design education. The students are central to that emerging
character so it is vital that attention is given to developing suitable means of
inducing new students to this pattern of education.
The Studio Introduction Workshop Exercise
The Arts Institute at Bournemouth (AIB) is currently developing a process of
induction that begins at the interview stage, before a student is offered a
place on the new course in architecture (commenced 2007). During a
‘Taster Day’ a short studio exercise is used to introduce the studio-working
environment to potential new students. The tasks involve object
arrangement and discussion, drawing and scale appreciation. The materials
which the students are given are very basic and limited in variety, while the
results are not formally assessed. The atmosphere is deliberately kept
informal and relaxed to encourage social interaction between students. The
students are give guidance and assistance during the tasks but directed
tutoring is avoided. The resulting drawings and photographs of the students
structures form the basis of the project ‘data’ and the outcomes are
compared with the developing direction given to the students at the start of
each successive session.
Although the ‘Taster Day’ exercises are not considered to be part of a formal
process of induction to the first year course, they do assist in preparing new
entrants to the first year to think about architecture in a tangible way through
the direct manipulation and arrangement of objects (in this case wood
blocks) and their representation in drawings. Design through making is a
key element of the course and at the heart of the course philosophy (2007).
The architectural design course is clearly focused on introducing
architectural design as a specific field of design practice, with a
particular emphasis on the work of architecture as a tangible, built
(measurable) representation of human ideas (immeasurable).
This process will be introduced in first year (and developed through the
succeeding years of the course) where the making and use of models
representations of ground, wall, frame and canopy is the basis to
understanding origins of architectural form and design methodology. The
22
Quoting Richard Burton of ABK Architects, London.
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process of developing a suitable studio induction mechanism will continue.
As students progress through the course an evaluation of the evolving
mechanism is made. This paper can be viewed as describing a work-inprogress.
The nature of the findings will necessarily be qualitative and
heavily value based.
Any investigation of this nature is necessarily qualitative in that it seeks to
explore the potential of pre-course studio introduction workshop type
programmes to potential students at interview stage. The effectiveness of
the programme in helping students to adjust to the studio environment and
establish a vibrant studio culture can only be assessed after the new intake
have completed a full years study. However, small adjustments in
programme delivery can be made and assessed on the basis of short term
outcomes over the three month period that the programme ran for. The
exercises themselves were flexibly structured within a standard pattern, but
delivered fairly intensively.
The single session was piloted in April 2007. A series of eight taster
sessions were conducted between January and April 2008. The participants
were all candidates for entry to the first year of the BA (Hons) degree course
in architecture. They were all invited to the department for an interview and
an opportunity to experience the Institute and its facilities over a full working
day. The participants were sent a programme outlining the activities for the
day, but apart from advice on their portfolios, no other information about the
studio exercise was forwarded.
Each session consisted of between six and twelve students and lasted for
about three hours. The venue for the workshop session was initially a
seminar room and the afternoon was chosen as it was hoped that by that
time a minimum level of group culture may have developed among the
students. (The morning includes a general introduction to the course and
tour of facilities). The exercise was divided into three stages. Firstly, each
student was given twelve blocks – wooden block models of seats at 1:20
scale (see figure 1). They were then asked to form an arrangement of chairs
in whatever pattern they preferred before discussing their chosen
arrangement. Secondly, they were then asked to consider the blocks not as
chairs but as components to be combined in a way to construct a wall. No
limit was set on the height or number of blocks available. Once they had
constructed a wall they were then asked to build a right angle corner to their
wall, making sure that they tried to interlock the blocks in some way rather
than merely butting one plane of blocks up against another (see figure 2).
Fourthly, they were then asked to draw both the internal angle and then the
external angle of the wall (see figure 3). During the drawing exercise small
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plastic models of people at 1:100 scale and 1:50 scale were positioned next
to, within or on top of the students constructions and they were asked to
consider the likely scale of their walls. Questions that arose included
whether their wall constructions were at the scale of part of a large building
or at the scale of a sculpture or small enclosure.
Figure 1 – Block Models (13 March 2008)
The chair blocks themselves originated from a series of workshops
undertaken with school children starting in 1999 undertaken by Simon
Beeson. They are used to raise issues of arrangement and social
relationships, usually in parallel with public art propositions. There broader
application as a play-block is currently under development. With architectural
students the potential to explore how a fixed block can be arranged and
combined has become a fruitful and thought provoking application.
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Figure 2 – Making a Wall (31 January 2008)
Summary of the Workshop Tasks
Phase 1:
Arrange twelve “chairs”.
Group discuss of the arrangements.
Phase 2:
Combine two blocks.
Study the ensemble visually before drawing the blocks.
Phase 3:
Construct a “wall” (number of blocks not specified).
Introduce a corner by “locking” in another wall at right angles to the
first.
Draw the internal and external angles of the corner.
Observation and Lessons from the first Workshop sessions
When the first workshop exercise was run, each task was introduced
separately so that the students did not know what the next stage of the task
would be. This was not a conscious decision and was definitely not
prompted by a desire to prevent the students tailoring their output to preempt
the following task. However, this limited information release did lead to
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a certain amount of apprehension and confusion on the part of the students.
The discussion about the arrangement of chairs did suffer somewhat as a
result. It was apparent that a follow-up discussion was not something that
the first group of students had contemplated and as a result the discussion
was rather superficial. In the subsequent running of the workshop both the
chair arranging task and the follow-up discussion were introduced to the
students at the outset. This allowed the students to be more adventurous in
the arrangements they formulated for the chairs. They also generated
interesting social scenarios to explain the rational behind the arrangements
that they had generated.
Figure 3 – Internal & External Wall Studies.
The blocks were designed and made in such a manner that their shape and
size allows them to fit together in a very specific way. The first exercise
asked the students to regard the blocks as “chairs”. The second wallbuilding
exercise asked the students to regard the blocks as components to
be combined to construct a wall. Again, the jump from perceiving the blocks
as the single and complete object “chair” to a “component” to be physically
combined to create a more complex whole was something that proved
unexpectedly problematic at first. However, after they had made a few
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attempts to test the possibilities of combining the blocks, a series of different
walls were constructed. Again, after evaluating this, an additional subexercise
was introduced between the chair and wall sections of the
workshop to help link the two. The jump from the scale of a chair to the scale
of a wall may have been rather more than the students were able to
assimilate in a studio introduction exercise. However, this is precisely the
type of alternation between scales that occurs during design exploration, and
the testing of possible solutions. The transition exercise required the
students to take two blocks and put them together in any way they chose
before taking a few minute to look at them. After a few minutes of studying
the block “couple”, they then spent a few moments drawing them (see figure
4). This intermediate exercise proved useful in the final exercise to create a
wall. The students appeared to appreciate the possibilities of combining the
blocks more readily and may also have appreciated more easily that the
more solid the wall construction was the less interesting the wall turned out
to be. The pattern of void and solid helped to produce interesting forms and
allowed the students to articulate their structures (see figure 5). This
resulted in more interesting drawings.
Figure 4 – Study of Two Chairs.
In addition to the overt role of getting
the students to carry out simple
analytical and evaluative tasks in the
construction and drawing of the blocks,
there was the covert role of attempting
to reduce the learning inhibitions that
have been built up over the previous
years of formal education, and it was
this latter task that any introduction
workshop programme has to address.
It was extremely difficult to generate
any kind of group dynamic over the
time available and against the
background of individual learning that pre-university education strongly
adheres to. The previous events during the Taster day were all aimed at
encouraging the students to form the type of short-term bonds with each
other that groups who are placed in unfamiliar situation resort to during
intensive problem solving exercises and find strength through their common
ignorance. However, this failed to happen, perhaps partly due to the
absence of truly collaborative tasks. As an experiment during the final
running of the workshop for this academic year the wall-building exercise
was amended to introduce an element of team working. After each student
had built their wall, but before they constructed the corner, they were
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grouped into pairs and asked to form a corner by bringing each of their wall
elements together. They had to work together to devise a way of locking
both elements together rather than just butting one wall element up against
the other. This proved to be very successful and encouraged a high level of
team working and cooperation in attempting to solve the problem. This
additional task provides an opportunity to expand this element of the
workshop to develop team-working exercises.
One other aspect of the workshop which proved to be rather more important
than was appreciated at the first instance was the choice of venue. The first
three sessions were conducted in a seminar room. The room is normally
used by many other courses and so cannot exhibit the particularities of any
one course that uses this room. However, once the venue was moved to the
studio itself, the value of being surrounded by the products and processes of
the studio (models, drawings, CAD stations, drawing boards, and students)
enhanced the experience for the students. On reflection, it may now seem
that the studio was an obvious choice for the venue, but it is precisely these
types of issues that evaluating the first set of workshops is intended to
address.
Implications for Future Workshop Exercises
The workshop was very much focused on the process of design and not the
product or solution. The drawings and models were vehicles which allowed
the students to gain a limited sense of learning how to explore design issues
as an architectural student (and architect) might within the particularity of the
studio. The workshop allowed perspective students to assess their
suitability and reaction to studio-based learning by providing them with some
basic first-hand experience. It also initiated a process that can be built upon
during the early stages of the first year course. However, if suitable groupbased
tasks can be included within the programme then the group dynamic
that is crucial to developing a studio culture can be generated in the
workshop and its value more readily appreciated by the participants. This
first series of workshops must be considered as a further pilot study with the
aim of developing a more rigorous approach to the workshop’s design and
evaluation for pre-course entrants to courses in architecture. The possibility
of developing a useful general framework for constructing specific
architectural design orientated induction/introduction courses for pre-course
applicants should be a longer term aim of this study.
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Figure 5 – Final Study (14 February 2008)
References
AIB (2007), School of Design, BA (Hons) Architecture Course Handbook,
The Art Institute at Bournemouth, Poole, UK, pp. 7-10
Lawson, B (1993), ‘The Art of the Process’ in RIBA, The Art of the Process,
Architectural Design Practice, The Building Group, London, UK, pp. 7-10
Lundequist, J. (1992), ‘The Inexplicable in Architecture’ in Kazemian, A (ed.)
Proceedings-International Conference on Theories and Methods of Design,
13-15 May 1992, Gotenborg, Sweden, pp. 140-150
Wahlstrom, O. (1992), Learning Creativity in Design – Some Impressions
from a Design Course Project on the Fourth Year Level at the School of
Architecture, Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, in Kazemian, A
(ed.) Proceedings-International Conference on Theories and Methods of
Design, 13-15 May 1992, Gotenborg, Sweden, pp. 190-198
98

ANALYSIS OF FORMS
Luis Manuel Fernandez Salido, associate tutor
School of Architecture, University of Navarre
Imanol C. García de Álbeniz Martínez, associate professor
School of Architecture, University of Navarre
Inmaculada Jiménez Caballero, professor
School of Architecture, University of Navarre
José Angel Medina Murua
School of Architecture, University of Navarre
Carlos Naya Villaverde, professor
School of Architecture, University of Navarre
Clara Olóriz Sanjuán, PhD student
School of Architecture, University of Navarre
Department of Analysis of Forms
Universidad de Navarra
Escuela de Arquitectura
Campus Universitario
31080 Pamplona
Navarra (España)
coloriz@unav.es
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Luis Manuel Fernandez Salido
Graduated in 1996 at the School of Architecture in the University of Navarre
and awarded with an Extraordinary prize in his final project. Since then, he
has been teaching at the Projects Department combined together with his
research on Spanish modern architecture. During his professional career he
has won many competitions and his work has been published several times.
He researched on his PhD thesis on Ferando Redón Huici, published in
2006. Currently, he is associate tutor in the projects department and he
develops his architectural profession, at the same time.
Imanol C. García de Álbeniz Martínez
He studied architecture in 2000 at the Universidad de
Navarra. In 2005 he finished his PhD about Modern
churches in Spain. Vitoria as a paradigmatical research.
From 1996-2004 he taught Descriptive Geometry, and
from 2005 he became associate professor of the subject
Analysis of Forms. He has collaborated in some books,
publication of articles and distribution of conferences.
His professional work is developed between the
architectural project and research on urban planning.
The city-planning scope includes 2000 dwellings in
Huelva and the first international prize obtained during its stay in London in
2002 with IDOM-UK for the urban arrangement and audience in Waterford,
Ireland.
Inmaculada Jiménez Caballero
She graduated from the School of Architecture at
University of Navarre with urbanism speciality in 1981
and became a Doctor in architecture in 1991. From 1982
until 1990 she collaborated with the University as an
auxiliary tutor and from 1990 she became a professor.
She completed her doctoral thesis about “Formal and
historical analysis of the Neoclassical architecture of El
Burgo de Osma”, she also stayed at the Le Cobusier
foundation in Paris researching on Le Corbusier’s travel
drawings.
She has published many book such as “El arte como oficio” “Proyecto y
vivienda” and participated in many international congresses. She is also
involved on the organization of many painting courses.
José Angel Medina Murua
Graduated in 2000 with a Schindler award in his final project and Doctor in
2005. He is part of the Projects Department at the School of Architecture of
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the University of Navarre since his graduation. Guest academic at the GTA
Institute of the ETH in Zurich under professor Magnano Lampugnani. He has
published several articles in relation with the Spanish Modern Movement
during the thirties decade. His research is complemented with his
professional career.
Carlos Naya Villaverde
Graduated in 1990, he became a Doctor in 1996 with
extraordinary award for his research on technology in
the European avant-garde manifestoes, whose
significance and consequences he keeps on studying
nowadays.
He is professor of Analysis of Forms and currently he is
immersed in a Visiting Scholar program at the University
of Columbia.
Clara Olóriz Sanjuán
She studied at the School of Architecture of the
University of Navarre, where she received her Diploma
in Architecture 2006. During her studies she worked for
a number of practices: Ateliers 234 during three months
in Paris, in 2004; and cerouno during three months in
Zaragoza.
In 2006, she won the Caja de arquitectos scholarship
that allowed her to work at Foreign Office Architects
FOA in London. Currently, she is on her first year of
PhD studies and works as auxiliary tutor at the
Department of Projects in the Analysis of Forms subject .
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ABSTRACT
Introduction
Analysis of forms is the course that initiates the essential framework of
architectural students in projects discipline at the School of architecture in
University of Navarre.
Our teaching aim in this first course of studies in architecture plays a double
role: on one hand, to give the students the necessary graphic tools to
develop architectural projects and on the other hand, to initiate them in the
knowledge of architecture through the analysis of buildings.
Materials and methods
Our weekly schedule consists of a whole workshop day starting with a fortyminute
theoretical session which helps the students to immerse into the task
they are due to deliver at the end of each session. Structure, construction,
light, space, function, form, landscape and environment is analysed by the
students along different tasks proposed to them.
In addition to this, a complementary homework is demanded each week to
ensure a deeper and continuous process of learning where the students
must choose their own motifs and practice different techniques.
Our one-year course also includes four weeks of a monographic theme
usually focussed on the analysis of a city area where they explore, in many
creative ways, the different scales of the urban space.
Another four-week period is spent on a group exercise of three or four
people where they experience working in teams and most of the times how
overall results usually exceed expectations.
Each proposed activity enables the students to rethink the architectural
project. Redrawing its plans and perspectives allows them to project,
interiorize and to have a better understanding of it. The task of redefining the
architectural project graphically proportionate them a deeper comprehension
of architecture.
The graphic exercise produces a personal encounter between students and
great masters of architecture of the twentieth century including their works
and thoughts. The design analysis becomes an additional effort to further
understand the idea, concepts and constraints that triggered the architectural
project.
Results
This double-side way of learning design skills by means of architectural
analysis provides them with the graphic ability to share and communicate
their creative thought. It becomes an essential tool in their permanent
process of generation of ideas that are triggered by the creative activity now
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and in their future. These graphic tools allow them to express their
architectural concepts and continually adapt their means and intentions to
materialize the creative thought made architectural form.
Conclusions
Learning design skills by means of drawing architecture builds their
architectural criteria from now onwards and develops their personal mature
with increasing analytic contents. Students discover which the fundamental
elements of architecture and the links and concepts that combine and
articulate them are.
The graphic quality improves notably when they abandon the drawing
conception as their main aim in itself and they focus on the architectural
object and its analysis.
There is, at the end, a personal fulfilment for the students, not just because
of the improvement they achieve over their graphic tools but for their first
immersion in architectural thought.
Five key words
Design education through architectural analysis.
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ANALYSIS OF FORMS
We would like to share with you our didactic experience in the first-year
studies at the School of Architecture at the University of Navarre. Our
subject is named Analysis of Forms and it is the course that initiates the
essential framework of architectural studies in projects discipline.
In this presentation we would like to introduce you a synthesis of the
methodology and the work we develop in our school, as well as our aims and
the future developments of the discipline as follows:
1. Introduction:
1.a. Aims
1.b. Analysis of Forms within the school
1.c. Analysis
2. Objectives
1st Design ability
2nd Design language
3rd Design culture
4th Design vocation
3. Methodology
4. End of the process
5. Future developments
6. Results and conclusions
1. Introduction
1.a. Aims
Our teaching aims in this first course play a double role: on one hand, we
intend to give the students the necessary graphic tools to develop
architectural projects and on the other hand, we initiate them in the
knowledge of architecture through the analysis of buildings.
1.b. Analysis of Forms within the school
This subject belongs to the introductory courses in the academic program of
the projects department that is divided in six sections and accompanies the
students during a five-year long training. Together with “Elements of
Composition” from the second year studies, “Analysis of forms” becomes the
foundations of the architectural degree before being fully introduced in
“Projects I, II, III and IV for the third, fourth and fifth year.
This subject leads our students through a one-year process of intensive
learning of graphic skills and architectural projects that will become the
foundations of their future professional development, it constitutes their first
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contact with the architectural process of designing and the starting point of
the creative thought.
1.c. Analysis
The architectural project is a creative process that generates something that
did not exist before, the analysis starts with the result of that process and
from that point intends to show up its ideas and principles, it is meant to be
the way of going back to ascertain the circumstances that inspired the
project. This analysis is founded on hypothetical reasons however it shows
the student how architects operate, design and think their architecture.
In Mimetics Aristotle explains how in order to communicate an idea; you
need to construct an image, to articulate it. Thus, for him the way of
structuring the ideas is to write them. Assimilating the practice of architecture
to “writing” in Aristotle, we could say that architects articulate their discourse,
their thoughts and concerns through drawing. This is the reason why it is so
important to develop their graphic skills in these early stages of their training
and to mature as future creators of architectural ideas.
2. Objectives
1st Design ability
The first objective is to provide the pupils with the graphic ability to
communicate their creative thought. In order to learn project and design
tools, the following characteristics are essential:
- Agility in sketching during the continuous flux of ideas and
perceptions of the reality that architects require as a graphic
thought.
- Rigor and accuracy are crucial qualities in a geometric construction
associated with the formal dimension of architecture.
- Motion and suggestion in the processes of analysis, representation
and production of the intentions of the author.
2nd Design language
The second goal initiates our students into the process of tackling the
comprehension and assimilation of a building by means of the graphic
language. The reconstruction of the architectural project by means of the
analytic drawing reveals the complexity of the elements, relationships and
laws that composes it.
They redraw the building in order to reprocess it and to rethink the
fundamental elements, laws, relations and concepts that materialize the
design process.
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3rd Design culture
The third aim proportionates them a basic architectural culture. Analysis of
forms produces an encounter with the masters of the modern and
contemporary architecture and at the same time introduces the students into
the cultural dimension and the architectural panorama which is going to be
the environment where they are going to develop their professional vocation.
The graphic analysis implies a further attachment of the individuals to the
architect and the project that they conceptualize rather that the segmented
method of the theoretical and historical point of view separated from the
learning of graphic tools.
We propose relevant works of twentieth century masters to prompt in our
students an enthusiasm for research that will be incorporated in their cultural
baggage to be used in the future as precedents or references for their own
career.
4th Design vocation
Finally, one of our goals during this first year is to make them relish the
design tools that will accompany them in their future because it is in this
enjoyment when the process of learning becomes really efficient and the
vocational side of our profession plays a crucial role. Unconsciously, their
attitude taken in every graphic task is captured in the final result and their
psychological mode is proportional to the expressiveness of their work.
It is an important target for us to be able to transmit them the enthusiasm for
the architectural project so they can get engaged with it and at the same
time, they learn how to appreciate the architectural work in their first contact.
3. Methodology
The weekly schedule consists of a whole workshop day starting with a fortyminute
theoretical session which helps the students to get immersed into the
task they are due to deliver at the end of each session.
Part 1
At the beginning of the process, during the first three months it is necessary
to provide them with basic drawing tools such as perspective rules and
techniques like watercolour, ink, charcoal, pencil…etc.
The course is divided into two parts. The first one, as it has been said before
is focussed on learning almost purely drawing tools, so they can make use of
them during the second part. Nowadays, it is been proved the low level that
architecture students start with in drawing skills, so it is been essential to
initiate the program of Analysis of Forms with this part based on natural
perspective drawing.
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The second part of the program is more plan or architectural drawings based
and it is structured as follows.
Part 2
The analysis of each project is aimed at partial studies selected for each
work related to the master architects of the twentieth century and its
aspirations that are considered by the students through different tasks
proposed to them.
Partial studies:
1. Structure and construction are the material dimensions of architecture
providing the architectural project with stability criteria and support.
2. Light is the mechanism that architects control by means of the section
devices, skylights, mechanisms and holes of regulation.
3. Space is understood as generation and relation established by the
building. Moreover, it embraces the concepts of scale and the geometric
dimension.
4. Function as the adequacy of the uses in architecture.
5. Form concerning composition, plans and volumes.
6. Landscape and environment as determinants of architecture and how
buildings respond to them.
In each theoretical session of the analytical part, early in the morning, we try
to introduce a concept in architecture through history and contemporary
works, we also aim at give them an overall idea about the architect’s career
and influences and finally we provide them with relevant information about
the project they are proposed to analyse for the rest of the day.
Individual research plays a crucial role in their training so we encourage
them to use the library to get a deeper understanding of the architectural
concepts, periods, precedents, influences and styles. This research routine
tends to be very useful for future courses and professional career, to be in
continuous contact with the library and to build up an individual research
which feeds up every architectural creation.
The methodology to study the building proposed under the partial studies
recommended to them is made up by three stages:
1. To compile information about the project deepening in the research
of the building, the author and the circumstances that conditioned it.
They discover the elements, relations and the intentions of the project.
In these initial phases it is important to combine different techniques of
drawings and to travel across the space by sketching quickly the first
stages of the analysis.
2. To define conclusions and fundamental ideas or concepts under the
specific aspect that has been researched.
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3. To manifest and communicate the conclusions by means of a
summary sheet applying their graphic resources and their ability to
suggest.
This one-year course also includes four weeks of a monographic theme, at
the beginning of the part of analysis, usually focussed on the analysis of a
city area where they explore, in many creative ways, the different scales of
the urban space.
Another four-week period is spent on a group exercise of three or four
people, at the end of this part, where they experience working in teams and
most of the times how common results usually exceed expectations. The
buildings they study are chosen according to a theoretical based proposal
such as Second Generation Architects, Spanish architects of the fifties,
dwelling projects…etc, so they can frame their works within the history and
theory of architecture. As they must do public presentations, they learn how
to express and defend their conclusions and their objectives in public
discussions while presenting them to their colleagues.
In addition to this, a complementary homework is demanded each week to
ensure a deeper and continuous process of learning where the students
must choose their own motifs and practice different techniques. The students
become very fond of their ability to draw and to represent the reality under
their own criteria.
Each proposed activity enables the students to rethink the architectural
project. Redrawing its plans and perspectives allows them to interiorize and
to have a better understanding of it. The task of redefining a building project
graphically proportionate them a deeper comprehension of architecture.
The graphic exercise produces a personal encounter between students and
great masters of architecture of the twentieth century including their works
and thoughts. The design analysis becomes an additional effort to further
understand the idea, concepts and constraints that triggered the architectural
project.
One year program sample could be:
Part 1: Drawing techniques
Week 1: Presentation. Natural perspective.
Week 2: Intuitive approach to conic perspective system.
Motif: composition of boxes at the workshop place.
Week 3: Line drawing. Motif: indoor spaces at the school.
Week 4: Line drawing of a more complex building.
Week 5: Light and shadow studied in boxes.
Week 6: Light and shadow. Motif: a building in the campus or in the city.
Week 7: New techniques, they create their own sculpture with umbrellas
or hats and experiment with watercolour, ink, wax, charcoal, pencil,
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acrylic paint…
Week 8: Figure drawing. Motif: themselves.
Transition part
Week 9: Guest artist. (ie: reproduction of figures of the Sistine chapel, to
study the composition of the bodies, proportions…in a big format)
Week 10: Guest artist. (ie: the students create their own sculptures with
tires and stools driven by the Guest artist)
Week 11: Complete representation of a complex building. They choose
their own techniques.
Week 12: Trip drawing. ie: They analyse the old part of the city with
quick and expressive hand sketches.
Part 2: Analysis part
Exams period: thematic motif, they analyse an area of the city form different
scales during four weeks.
Week 13: Representation of architecture from its plans. An architect is
invited to our session, explains them a project and they analyse it
graphically during the day.
Week 14: Architectural concepts- Structure: Farnsworth House,
Architect: Mies Van der Rohe.
Week 15: Architectural concepts- Function: Unité d’habitation Marseille,
Architect: Le Corbusier.
Week 16: Architectural concepts- Light: Riola Church, Architect: Alvar
Aalto.
Week 17: Architectural concepts- Funtion: Exeter Library, Architect:
Louis Kahn.
Week 18: Architectural concepts- Global analysis: Guggenheim
Museum New York, Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright.
Week 20: Group exercise. Presentation and research.
Projects:
Prefectural government office kagawa , Kenzo Tange
Rodovre Town Hall, Arne Jacobsen
TWA Airport, Eero Saarinen
Sydney Opera House, Jorn Utzon
Ford Foundation, Roche and Dinkeloo
Week 21: Group exercise. Public tutorial
Week 22: Group exercise. Public tutorial
Week 23: Group exercise. Deadline and public exposition.
Week 24: Analysis of a building in a natural environment.
Week 25: Analysis of an architectural project in its urban surroundings.
Week 26: Exam.
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4. End of the process
In order to evaluate the results of our students we give them a weekly mark
together with some individual feedback which is explained in groups of 15
people and some comments to improve their graphic skills. These marks are
not numerical because we want to stress out the importance of the evolution
rather than punctual results. In the process of learning design tools, as it
happens with languages, what matters is that at the end of the process the
pupils must be able to express the architectural concepts trough their
drawings, they need to be mature enough to continue the following courses
with the appropriate skills.
This unfolding or positive progression in acquiring graphic instruments is
much more evident during the first year because they realize themselves
when comparing their first drawings with the last works of the course in a
sort of sense of pride and self-confidence.
This evolution is so important for us that we revise individually each
student’s complete work half-way and at the end of the process to
encourage them not just in each punctual deadline but in a broaden sense,
looking at all their works along the course at the same time.
To encourage them and to reward their efforts we select several drawings
each week to stand out publicly. We use the school’s web page to publish
the outstanding drawings or we pin them up at the workshop for a week. As
a result, it produces a dynamic learning process because the rest of the
students can also find a source of inspiration in their colleague’s sketches.
During the group exercise we organize public tutorials where they are asked
to express themselves in public and to defend their aims and results. Thus,
another aim is to create a pedagogic environment where they share their
experiences and also develop their skills in a working group so important for
their future in the architectural profession.
5. Future developments
Nowadays, a key point during the design train process is the introduction of
computer modelling and digital techniques.
There is a current debate in architectural schools about questioning the uses
of traditional drawing, what is the kind of drawing that architects and society
look for today?, Is it possible to conceive design without traditional drawing?
Our bet consists of providing our students with knowledge to define
graphically and geometrically their projects before they get in touch with
digital systems. Thus, on the solid base of their formation they count with a
weapon to be able to control the digital process in the future so their creative
ability is not absorbed by the means, in this case, the computers. It is being
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experienced in the introduction of digital tools that the lack of ability in
applying them can block the architectural production and design.
We believe in traditional means especially in the first and individual stages of
the design procedures however we would like to stress the idea that these
initial phases can be complemented with the input coming from digital
techniques.
Our proposal tends to introduce digital tools in a secondary phase, once they
have built up their criteria in their creativity. We believe in the positive
feedback that the new technologies provide in design tools and how they are
transforming our profession with digital representation.
It seems clear to us that computers are breathtakingly transforming the
architectural environment however our profession also demonstrates us
through history that architecture makes use of technology and at the same
time looks back to its traditions. As Le Corbusier stated: “on monte sur les
épaules“ which means: We stand on the tradition’s shoulders.
The mastering of computer programs is deeply related to the knowledge of
traditional means such as material definition, perspective rules, scale,
space…architectural paradigms. We can not deny the specificity, the data
and accuracy of computers, nevertheless, they need the human mind to
coordinate and govern the digital processes.
As a conclusion to this section on new technology we would like to remark
the compatibility between digital and traditional techniques and the potential
advantages for design training in the future but they should be complimented
with the maturity that tradition offers to architecture.
6. Results and conclusions
This double-side way of learning design skills by means of architectural
analysis provides them with the graphic ability to share and communicate
their creative thought. It becomes an essential tool in their permanent
process of generation of ideas that are triggered by the creative activity now
and in their future.
These graphic tools allow them to express their architectural concepts and
continually adapt their means and intentions to materialize the creative
thought made architectural form.
They articulate their design process through the act of drawing which
becomes their language from now on. Continuing with the parallel between
drawing and language, it is demonstrated that the best methodology to learn
a language it is to practice it, so we encourage them to learn graphic tools by
drawing and practising them.
This journey in the first year of architectural studies is hard and sometimes
can imply some moments of discouragement but it is finally and highly
rewarded with the satisfaction that provides the self-control and command of
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the graphic skill. This is the reason why we intend to play down the
relevance of the punctual marks stressing the point that mastery in Analysis
of forms is acquired during the last phases of the course and the ideal
slogan that as students we are unable to admit: “the main goal are not the
marks but the knowledge we achieve” and that learning of design tools is a
matter of time which means mature and overall hard work.
Learning design skills by means of drawing architecture builds their
individual criteria from now onwards and develops their self-mature with
increasingly analytic contents.
Students discover the fundamental elements of architecture and the links
and concepts that combine and articulate them.
The graphic quality improves notably when they abandon the drawing
conception as their main aim in itself and they focus on the architectural
object and its analysis.
There is, at the end, a personal fulfilment for the students, not just because
of the improvement they achieve over their graphic tools but for their first
immersion in architectural thought.
For us, as tutors, it is always a reward to see how their efforts and
perseverance are translated in impressive improvements along their paths
and how comparing drawings from the first month to the last works, at the
end of the course, shows our students potential, enthusiasm and energy in
their future careers.
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STARTING DESIGN EDUCATION:
“BASIC DESIGN COURSE”
Salih Salbacak, Research Assistant
Halic University, Department of Interior Architecture
Buyukdere Caddesi No: 101
Mecidiyekoy / Istanbul -TURKEY
Phone: +90 212 275 20 20-200
ssalbacak@hotmail.com
PhD (interior architecture),
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts Unıversity, Institute of Science and Technology
Msc (interior architecture),
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts Unıversity, Institute of Science and Technology
Bachelor
Karadeniz Technical Unıversity, Faculty of Architecture
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STARTING DESIGN EDUCATION:
“BASIC DESIGN COURSE”
As the beginning of general design education, the course entitled “Basic
Design” in Haliç University Faculty of Architecture is conducted within the
two semesters (spring and fall) of the first year design education in
Departments of Interior Architecture and Industrial Design. The course
occupies 6 hours a week and is conducted as a studio practice.
“The foundation of the Basic Design concept is based on the human
perception theories of Gestalt, which constituted the educational curriculum
of Bauhaus school. Unlike the fragmentalist ideology of classical psychology,
Gestalt theory proves that the ‘whole’ is far ‘more’ than the mathematical
synthesis of its fragments. By this way, Gestalt theory provides the required
theoretical framework for both arrangement and perception of visual
environment (Denel, 1981)
Cropius and his colleagues initiated these courses and composed them in a
way that they can evaluate students from various geographical regions,
provide them with a preparatory educational process in which they could
realize their potential, determine the levels of their creative skills, help them
to choose a branch of artistic production and inform them about the
fundamental design principles.( Gürer, Gürer,1987)
“Until nineteen-eighties, various techniques had been experimented in
architecture and design education. Some of these techniques were; giving a
functional problem to the student to design accordingly, a fragmentalist
approach that suggests handling design problems as smaller pieces and
solving each piece individually, an approach that focuses on basic design
education to enhance creativity, and another view that experiments design
education process on abstract design problems. Some of these approaches
have been chosen by the scholars themselves and they are still employed in
various architecture schools today. ( Usta,Usta, Ertürk, 2000)
Basic design course occupies the foundational basis of design education in
interior architecture and industrial design departments, and enables students
to get prepared for the consequent stages. Despite the traditional education
systems that are composed of conservational views, basic design education
requires constant reformation and renovation. For this reason, in our faculty,
the structure of basic design course has been systematized to fit into several
stages. In the first stage of the course, theoretical information is delivered to
students. In the second stage, students are expected to develop solutions to
given design problems. Consequently, in the third stage, students prepare
presentations for their works. Finally, their solutions and presentations are
evaluated.
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The purpose and contents of basic design course
Basic design education is planned to be a critical workshop study/discipline
that triggers creativity in architecture education; and therefore, it has
considerable importance for students to create a certain system of thinking.
Basic design not only directs students towards representing a project with
geometry and shapes, but also teaches them its cultural, historical and
sociological background. For this very reason, it should be understood as an
educational system and an audio / visual sensitivity, not just as a primary
year course in professional education institutions. (Teymur,1998)
For the design students, first year is a transition period, and basic design
course has a critical position in this transformation. By the help of this
course, an introduction to design education is provided, and high-school
graduates - with no prior experience in design – are accustomed to the
process. Initially, the technical equipments that are used in drawing are
taught to the students. During the education process, general topics of
tutoring include: gaining necessary design and problem-solving skills,
abstract and creative thinking, observation and taking visual records, colors
and their psychological affects, i.e. Interior architecture students’
environmental design and industrial design students’ product design skills
are intended to be enhanced by providing them with necessary expertise in
various drawing and presentation techniques, presenting and defending their
projects with appropriate methods, time management, critical thinking, 3-
dimensional perception, material knowledge and using appropriate materials
for their designs. By these enhancements, students are expected to
establish a solid base that would determine their design vision and their
design processes.
“Basic design is an education of emotion and sensitivity, which occurs
through a process. The courses of actions that define basic design process
are: observation, research, appropriation, creativity, ruling, application,
testing, controlling, criticizing and finalization. Basic artistic education is
programmed to provide students with the abilities of conceptualization and
understanding through visual records, visual impression and expression
methods. Here, the ability of perceiving the whole and details at the same
time and the skill of interpretation are mutually important. The course would
focus on visual elements and provide associations between various
disciplines through common elements. (Cellek,2000)
The contents of the course include: fundamental geometries that cover the
basis of design (such as point object and lines), intersecting lines, qualities
of linear elements, direction, and such. Afterwards, surface-marking studies,
and texture-based studies (rough and smooth textures) are made.
Dimensional and proportional qualities are another major topic, which follow
these studies. In addition, colors, color values, primary/intermediate colors,
warm/cool color tones are taught and studies are made by using principles
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such as harmony and contrast. In consequent classes, the topic of study is
“shapes”; and sub-topics include harmony and contrast in shapes, shape
and base (background) relations, covering, depth, dimensional properties
etc. When students gain the necessary knowledge on lines, textures, colors
and shapes, the topics shift towards transparency, linearity, dominant
environment, repetition (full and rotational), koram (centripetal, axial,
peripheral), visual equilibrium (symmetry, asymmetry) and hierarchy. In the
first semester, 2 dimensional works are made during these processes. In the
second semester (spring semester), 3 dimensional trainings begin;
structures, modularity, geometry, fullness/emptiness, mass (equilibriumdominance,
harmony-contrast) and space are major topics during these
studies.
In addition to teaching students about these topics of study in class, one of
the major goals of the course is to inform them about the materials that are
used during these studies, and about the application methods of these
materials
Presentation of theoretical knowledge and problem solving
In the first semester, theoretical knowledge in the basic design course is
shaped in 2-dimensional methods into 2-dimensional and abstract works and
represented by various visual expression techniques by the students. In
consequent classes, studies on forms, structures and design of
products/spaces begin by the students start working on 3-dimensional
works.
Generally, within the first hour of the class, lecturers give information to the
students on theoretical background of that particular day’s topic. Illustrations
of that topic are provided by showing students some related artworks,
natural scenes and various visual materials. A written description of the
problem is distributed to students with a course-specific form; and students
are expected to collect and save each form in every class. Initial sketches
are made after a brainstorming session takes place with the students.
Problem solving activity is generally limited by the class hours, and students
are expected to grasp the design problem and develop a solution within a
limited time period. This process is conducted as a workshop/studio practice,
and students can ask the lecturer for critiques and ideas during their activity.
(Usta, Özdemir, Kulolu, Ustaömerolu, Beben, Vural, 2000)
Obviously, the fundamental processes of design in basic design involve the
designer’s mental processes. Here, the concepts of rational thinking,
comprehension, and problem solving have a significant role. By this logic,
design activity can absolutely be related with mental processes of the
designer. In this stage, designer attempts to develop problem-solving
approaches by the interpretation of his/her prior knowledge on the subject
matter.
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Presentation and evaluation
Students use a given area to present their solutions; and within this area,
they are free to use any presentation method (various graphical styles, free
hand techniques, 3-dimensional works, i.e.). They are expected to make 2D
or 3D visuals that target the solution of their understanding to the given
problem, and submit it at the end of the class.
Students can use any material in their design that would fit their expression
(various paints, crayons, watercolors, guaj paints, markers, colored pencils,
colored papers, ropes, fibers, pasteboards, screws, paperclips, cotton,
fabric, wood, plastics, etc.). The major goal here is to enable them to select
and use the most appropriate materials, by which they can effectively
present their design.
Observations show that the variability and freedom in material usage affects
the design process and the final design. By trial and error method, students
would be able to use the selected material’s structural features for their
design solution. This shows that: not only are the design solutions to the
given problem, but also the materials used during the process critical
elements of design. For instance, outputs of shaping an aluminum plate by
bending and twisting (such as in Fig.7), usage of wood (Fig. 8), using
transparency of glass, endurance of cardboards (Fig.12), flexibility of paper
and cardboard (Fig.11), rigidity of metals show various design solutions that
were made by students in class. Another noteworthy conclusion of these
studies is the fact that a proper and well-suited presentation technique is a
key element for success for a creative process.
Evaluation
For the evaluation of student works, there are some pre-determined rules
and criteria for all the lecturers of the course. First, each student is expected
to prepare his/her design inside a proper white paper or any other paper
within a frame of 32x42cm. The problem definition, name and student
number of student and the date of the class should be written in defined
locations, and they should submit their works at the end of the class-time
with successful time management.
Submitted designs are classified and evaluated according to level of
student’s interpretation of the problem, the authenticity of his/her solution to
the given problem, and the usage of given design elements (color, texture,
materials, i.e.). If the evaluation process takes place in the workshop,
students are also asked to participate in with their remarks and comments.
Grades are marked on the workspace of the design work and the works are
returned to the students after the grades are recorded. Each class session is
reserved for one topic and one design work, so students are required to
submit their missing assignments afterwards. As the classes work in a
consequent order, students are also required to prepare a folder of their
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works in Basic Design course and keep their design solutions in an orderly
fashion. The grades taken by each design work are combined with the
general interest and success of the student and his/her frequency of
participation in the class and the cumulative evaluation determines the
student’s grade for the semester.
.
Figure 1. Eray Koçolu,
Lines and Direction – Using
different characteristics of lines
(bold, thin, polylines, curves),
making spatial arrangements by
using harmony, contrast and direction
Figure 2. Zeren Tanık,
Dimension – Shape, using
conjunctions of shapes in
different directions
Figure 3. Öznur Topçu,
harmony within warm colors,
using yellow, orange and
red tones
Figure 4. Fatih Akdoan,
harmony within warm-cool
color tones
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Figure 5.Tolga Karslı,
Exercise on shape-ground
relations,using passive
background with active shapes
and expression of visual depth
Figure 6. ahin Yaayan
Exercise on linearity, using only
linear elements in visual field and
arranging them in a way to achieve
visual depth
Figure 7. Tuncay Günaydın,
Exercise on harmony, using
aluminum plates.
Figure 8. Mete Perihan,
Exercise on Modularity, using
wooden materials
Figure 9. A.Emre Tuna,
Exercise on Modularity, using both
warm and cool colors in colored
cardboard material
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Figure 10. Büra Pars,
Exercise on Modularity, using
contrasting colors in colored
cardboard material
Figure 11. O.Koray Yılmaz,
Visual Balance, using cool colors in
colored cardboard material
Figure 12. M. Burak Özban,
Balance, using gray cardboards.
Conclusion
The general aims of basic design course in our faculty’s interior architecture
and industrial design departments are to educate creative and skilled design
students by expanding their limits of conceptualization, enabling them to
think outside conventions, to express their thoughts through conceptual
designs, and to use time and materials in an effective way.
In this respect, the first differences of basic design education from
conventional educational methods that students come across are the
workshop studies, which is a distinguished method from their previous
experiences, and the possibility to share ideas and concepts with a number
of lecturers throughout the progress.
The observations from our basic design course throughout the recent years,
and with a total number of 250 students, are summarized below:
• In the beginning of studies, most students tend to use analogies in
design problem solving processes
• The concept of using color as a design element attracts students
attention, and most students tend to prefer warm colors in their
works
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• In earlier works, students cannot use shapes other than standard
geometries, and frequently use triangles and rectangles as visual
elements
• 3 dimensional studies are more attractive to the students, they can
grasp the subject more easily an work with more enthusiasm in 3
dimension
• Students generally have difficulties in choosing the most
appropriate presentation technique, and in their following works,
they begin to find the most appropriate method by which they can
express themselves
• During the progression of work, interaction between students
becomes noticeable
• Most students suffer from time management problems, especially in
the earlier classes
• The usage of different materials enable students to express
themselves more independently
• Especially in group studies, students tend to consult a number of
lecturer during the process
• The usage of different and authentic materials in their designs
make them enthusiastic, and they tend to interpret the class as
“play-time”
• Students’ comprehension of the subject improves when they are
informed about the theoretical aspects of the subject matter and
when they are introduced to the examples of the concept
• The expectance for a high grade from their works is a significant
motivator it was observed that students with lower grades tend to
question their works and methods in consequent classes
Attitudes of students towards the earlier class works is generally about
recalling their previous experiences with the given materials; such as
drawing geometrical forms, folding papers, cutting pieces and gluing
elements. Some of the most frequent questions (asked by students) in these
periods are “Why are we doing these?” and “How will we benefit from
doing these exercises?”. But after while - when classes advance - students
begin to grasp the subject and the reasoning, to interpret basic design
course as “play-time”. With the improving experience and knowledge,
students’ abilities to build creative solutions in shorter time intervals increase
significantly.
Another noteworthy improvement is students’ improvement in increasing the
variety of materials that they use in their designs, especially by observing
their surroundings and collecting everyday materials, such as water bottles,
their lids, tea spoons, plastic glasses, matchboxes, i.e. In addition, students’
interest in asking questions throughout the class improves significantly.
Thus, they begin to criticize their works and methods, and ask “What more
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can I do?” as the classes advance. This shows that the progression of the
course improves their questioning and critical thinking skills.
Our basic design course begins with points and lines, and ends with 3
dimensional experiments. The design works produced by students
throughout this progress are collected in our faculty’s archive and classified
for further demonstrations. Between 4-10 September 2007, a number of
these student works are selected for an exhibition in “Istanbul Design Week”
on the old Galata Bridge in Balat. With the contribution and participation of
students, the exhibition reached a wide range of public, and attracted great
attention from the visitors. Consequently, the selected works are published
by our university and exhibited again, inside the campus, between 1-31
October 2007 to celebrate the 10 th anniversary of Haliç University.
Figure 13. stanbul Design Week – Haliç University Basic Design
Course Exhibition
Figure 14. Book cover of Basic Design Course – Selected Student Works
(published in celebration for the 10 th anniversary of Haliç University)
122

Bibliography
Denel B (e.d)( 1981), Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, ODTÜ Mimarlık
Fakültesi Basın lii, Ankara
Gürer, L and Gürer,G (ed)( 1987),Temel Tasarım, Birsen yayınevi, stanbul
Usta, A and Usta, Kele, G and Ertürk, Z (2000), Mimari Tasarım Eitimine
Balamada Farklı Model Arayıları Strüktür Tasarımı, Arredamento Mimarlık
Dergisi No 2000/4 pp–116
Teymur, N (ed, 1998),Tasa(r)lanacak bir dünya için temel tasarım eitimi,
ODTÜ Mim. Fak. Yayınları, Ankara
Usta, K G; Özdemir, M ; Kulolu, N; Ustaömerolu, A A; Begen, A and
Vural, S ( 2000), Mimarlık Eitiminde Temel Tasarımın Yeri, Mimarlık
Dergisi No293 pp–42
Çaal, O; Kocaman, H; Salbacak, S and Yavuz, H (eds, 2007)Haliç anısına
Geçmiten Gelecee-6 Mimarlık Fakültesi ç Mimarlık ve Endüstri Ürünleri
Tasarımı Bölümü Etkinlii, Haliç Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Yayınları
No:3, stanbul
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124

A PEDAGOGY
Brian Dougan, Assistant Professor of Architecture
College of Architecture, Texas A&M University
Texas A&M University
3137 TAMU
College Station, Texas
77843-3137 USA
bdougan@tamu.edu
Brian Dougan is an Assistant Professor of Architecture currently residing in
College Station, Texas where he coordinates the first year curriculum in the
College of Architecture at Texas A&M University. He teaches design studios
and drawing studios of all shapes and colors. He is a teacher, potter,
drummer, and prolific drawer
125

ABSTRACT
“To be playful and serious at the same time is possible and it defines the
ideal mental condition. Absence of dogmatism and prejudice, presence of
intellectual curiosity and flexibility, are manifest in the free play of the mind
upon a topic. To give the mind this free play is not to encourage toying with a
subject, it is to be interested in the unfolding of the subject on its own
account, apart from subservience to a preconceived belief or habitual aim.”
Relations between students and teachers come in many flavors ranging from
heavy dogma to severe avant-garde. There is usually a sound rationale
behind the chosen stance, but the well-rehearsed justification does not
always benefit the learners. I work with a professorial reciprocity that
considers the teaching activity as if I were a design activity. The studio
agenda lies patiently suppressed until the context and comprehension
dictates direction. This lack of clarity usually tests the patience of everyone
involved, but at the same time keeps us attentive to potential we might not
have recognized if we established a rigid program in advance. Studio
choreography in flux is an arena set for fifteen weeks of active pedagogy. A
design studio does not take care of itself for there is no predictable trajectory
in design. If we present it as such, we are misrepresenting the case.
It is important to mention that pedagogy is not a curricular strategy or a wellbalanced
degree plan even though it is often managed as such. It is also
not a successful collection of projects with proven successful outcomes.
Pedagogy as Dewey suggests, is about how the semester unfolds. How
much of the interaction between the designer, the teacher and the activity is
playful and how much is serious? It is about the designated professional
(professor) revealing the agenda, promoting curiosity, avoiding dogma, and
making the experience meaningful – for the students. It is about the delivery
of information, the enthusiasm, the classroom ambiance, the choreography
of time, the logistics of space.
Key Words: pedagogy, design, education, studio, process
126

A PEDAGOGY
teaching + pedagogy
The concept of pedagogy requires qualification because its use, even as a
label usually comes with hesitation. Few of my colleagues dare consider
themselves pedagogues while others understand a pedagogue as being
synonymous with a teacher and that teaching is simply considered
pedagogy. Despite the straightforward reciprocity, there is always the stale
debate about teaching being either an art or a science. In any other
discipline besides design the debate would not be essential, but in terms of
creative expression most of us are familiar with the poignant art/science
distinction. While certainly pertinent, the art and science debate lay outside
the scope of this particular discussion. I will focus on pedagogy beyond its
synonymous relation to teaching. I will provide examples of pedagogy as an
attitude adopted to make the design studio a fertile learning environment.
This collection of words was shaped in response to a concern for the
mysterious condition of the design studio and design education in general. I
am concerned because I have noticed some questionable pedagogical
activity within the confines of the typical design studio environment.
see + get • cake + bird
I have a musician friend who refuses to use the adage, “kill two birds with
one stone” because he does not like the idea of killing birds. Despite the
associated dangers of soaring blood sugar and elevated cholesterol levels,
he prefers the expression, “have your cake and eat it too”. That is how I feel
about the design studio. I prefer the adage, “what you see is what you get”
as an appropriate label to attach to any design studio. I want to avoid any
mystery or misunderstanding because design is not mysterious. Design is
not the result of genius nor is it the product of only a talented few. Design is
teachable, explainable, and demonstrable. Too often the “what you get” in a
design studio or in other words the reality or product of the design studio
turns out to be a non-representational account of the collective time spent in
the studio. The simple reciprocity between having and eating often gets
contaminated. The “what you get” part of the spectrum is deceiving to even
the most competent designer because the produce usually looks quite good
or even better than it actually is and it is therefore hard to be critical. The
results in most design studios tend to be extremely product oriented and
most of the time cryptic in describing any obvious agenda. They tend to be
small facsimiles of real world conditions with no indication as to how they
came to fruition. The destination is celebrated while the journey is rendered
unimportant or mysterious. I find this possibly imagined scenario
disconcerting because it is a negative reflection on Education. No matter
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what our intention is in the design studio, be it a green agenda, an
experimental agenda, a digital agenda, a residential agenda, a
constructional agenda, a futurist agenda, anything but a programmatic
agenda, one cannot avoid the common ground that unifies all design studio
agendas within the walls of academia. The design studio is to some extent
responsible for being a time and a place for students to learn - how to
design.
designers • teachers
Traditionally, design teachers have been practicing designers who pass on
their knowledge, skills, and values through a process of apprenticeship.
Design students ‘act out’ the role of designer in small projects, and are
tutored in the process by more experienced designers. These design
teachers tend to be firstly designers and only secondly and incidentally
teachers.1 That might be part of the predicament? The figure of authority in
the studio might have plenty to say, but knows not how to say it. In a
designer’s parlance, it is the tradition of presentation. This communication
or lack thereof between teacher and student in the design studio is at the
heart of pedagogy.
If there is such a thing as a bottom-line agenda for an academic design
studio it could be said to be instruction about - how to design. If the studio
itself was a semester-long work in progress rather than a predisposed
collection of assignments and requirements, the participants of such a studio
would find themselves at the veritable center of a design process. Imagine
yourself a student surrounded by a design process as if it were a place to do
research or an arena to play or a laboratory to experiment. The student
could inhabit the process. The process could not be avoided even if it was
desired to do so. This symbiotic desire that links what one teaches with how
one teaches is pedagogically sound because such a parallel between what
is taught and how it is taught is mutually beneficial. The dichotomy relies on
itself. There is a codependence and integration governs time.
A design professor can design a semester as if it was a design. The studio is
not entirely the result of a group dynamic or an alignment of planets. It is the
professor who is ultimately responsible for creating the studio environment
because that is what design professors do. We design the learning
environment. We teach aspiring designers how to design. A semester in
the design studio could be based on a response or reaction to an existing
situation, context, or group of students, which would make it somewhat
analogous to a design process. The design studio agenda is itself a process
that responds incrementally to the activity in the studio the same way a
design process would respond to the engagement of a sensible designer.
The professor would necessarily exercise design sensibilities to conduct and
maintain the forward momentum of the studio. In such an environment the
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professor orchestrates and intervenes in the process at strategic times
throughout the semester as if the activity of the class was a design being
processed. Such a studio would inevitably be distinctly different from every
other studio because it dictates its own agenda. One could not conduct the
same predisposed exercise as the semester before or as some professors
do, the same exercise over the past fifteen years. It will be that which only it
can be, then and there and most likely will be beyond anyone’s expectations.
As with a process or design project having overcome all preconceptions and
clichés, the product or in this case the result of the studio is unfathomable -
until the process has transpired. Success is measured not necessarily as a
function of product, but rather as a product of participation or even quantity
of product. Everyone involved in the experience, both teacher and student
alike sustain a sincere engagement in the action/reaction activity that defines
the design process. Without said reciprocity the studio would not be a
process and the activity would be another hit and miss lottery as many
design studios unfortunately tend to be.
serious + play
“To be playful and serious at the same time is possible, and it defines the
ideal mental condition. Absence of dogmatism and prejudice, presence of
intellectual curiosity and flexibility, are manifest in the free play of the mind
upon a topic. To give the mind this free play is not to encourage toying with a
subject, it is to be interested in the unfolding of the subject on its own
account, apart from subservience to a preconceived belief or habitual aim.” 2
We have all experienced the elation of being serious and playful at the same
time – having fun while we are working. It is enough to provoke guilt. The
moment becomes big as it encompasses two seemingly divergent conditions
in a synergistic way. It is like residing in a new dimension of meaningfulness
with a sense of perpetuity. We are also well aware that most young first
year college students have a difficulty stepping away from fun associated
with play. Their playful tendencies ride a momentum that is difficult to cease.
Wrapped up in the fun they cannot fathom that a playful attitude could apply
to something serious. The poignancy kicks us all back when we realize that
there is actually no difference between being playful and being serious. We
can play seriously or we can be serious playfully. The distinction as Dewey
tells us is in the degree of engagement or curious and open-minded attitude
on behalf of the student. Dewey has described the definitive attributes of a
designer.
pedagogy + studio
Relations between students and teachers come in many flavors ranging from
heavy dogma to severe avant-garde. There is usually a sound rationale
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ehind the chosen contract, but the well-rehearsed justification does not
always benefit the learners. I work with a professorial reciprocity that
considers the teaching activity as if it were a design activity. The studio
agenda lies patiently suppressed until the context and collective
comprehension dictates direction. This lack of direction usually tests the
patience of everyone involved in the studio, but at the same time keeps us
attentive to potential we might not have recognized if we established a rigid
program in advance. A studio with choreography in flux is an arena set for
fifteen weeks of active pedagogy. A design studio does not take care of
itself for there is no predictable trajectory in design. If we present it as such,
we are misrepresenting the case. Design activity requires a diverse array of
informed decisions and contextual responses. The same is true of a studio
experience treated as a design venture. It unfolds in time and persistently
denies preconception and prescription.
It is important to mention that pedagogy is not a curricular strategy or a wellbalanced
degree plan even though it is often managed as such. It is also
not a successful collection of projects with proven successful outcomes.
Pedagogy as Dewey suggests above is about how the semester unfolds.
How much of the interaction between the designer, the teacher, and the
activity is playful and how much is serious? It is about the designated
professional (professor) revealing and mapping the agenda, promoting
curiosity, avoiding dogma, and making the experience meaningful – for the
students. It is about the delivery of information, the enthusiasm, the
classroom ambiance, the choreography of time, and the logistics of space.
This pedagogy is of course not unprecedented and cannot claim anything
new. What is new however is - every semester. Even though the intentions,
objectives, and studio learning environment remain the same, the tasks that
comprise the agenda are never rerun. The studio is always fresh, which is a
pedagogical edict in and of itself. When the studio agenda is new every
semester it is less likely to be a sterile routine. Those of us who love the
activity of design as verb never tire under its spell. A fresh agenda in a
designed design studio keeps the professor alert and insures a sincere
engagement. We cannot make the same claim when studio projects are
replayed for countless semesters. The misunderstanding that there is a
project or collection of projects worthy of being repeated as if design was a
recipe or a formula is an offense to the profession. Forging a new path
every semester that dictates a rich experience in process is a dangerous
professorial proposition, but designers and design studio teachers alike are
risk takers. Designers know how courage is necessary to reside in the dark,
to exist in a state of uncertainty, to deny the preconception so the unknown
can eventually be revealed. Facing uncertainty is the essence of what
designers do.
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We have not even to risk the adventure alone, for the heroes of all time have
gone before us. The labyrinth is thoroughly known, we have only to follow
the thread of the heroic path. And where we had thought to find an
abomination, we shall find a god; where we had thought to slay another, we
shall slay ourselves; where we had thought to travel outward, we shall come
to the center of our own existence; and where we had thought to be alone,
we shall be with all the world.” 3
As Dewey told us earlier, we learn when we are, “interested in the unfolding
of the subject on its own account, apart from subservience to a preconceived
belief or habitual aim”. We consciously avoid habits and preconceptions and
claim ownership of the event to control the way understanding unfolds. We
do not know the answer until we sufficiently investigate the question. In time
the semester unfolds, the project unfolds, and most importantly, the
student’s mind unfolds. Unfolding is a revelation for it reveals that which
was hidden or unknown before time was respected and utilized.
The process of unfolding includes scaffolding in terms of technology or
theory as is necessary. 4 When there is an obvious need for a particular
lesson concerning an immediate task, the design process appropriates the
fact to make direct use of the lesson, which is yet another independent
pedagogical edict. Learning is accommodated best when it can be applied
efficiently. If the teacher uploads a large dose of potentially useful
information without immediate application, it is usually neglected, as it does
not demonstrate its own necessity. The best intention is to capitalize on
exposure as directly and immediately as possible.
demonstration
In the spring semester 2007 at the American University of Sharjah in the
UAE, I taught a second semester foundation design studio that aspired to
reveal the didactic harmony between subject matter and its delivery. I
aspired to be the design studio professor who designed a design studio as if
it was a design. I anticipated a fifteen-week project and responsively made
responsible design decisions throughout the semester as the project
unfolded to reveal a path of activity. I did not predispose a plan about what
would happen over the course of the fifteen-week semester. It was
somewhat an administrative nightmare because there was essentially
nothing accountable about the studio until the students began to produce.
The initial push to activate the machine is always a struggle because of
either high school or the amount of time between semesters, but once the
momentum begins to accumulate the energy seems to be perpetual. This
particular semester I jump-started the adventure with a scavenger hunt in
search of lines defined by the juxtaposition of two unlike elements captured
photographically.
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Figure 1. student photograph – a line dividing, 2007
Armed with a vast array of well-defined linear segregations, we then
orchestrated a longer line comprised of several of the individual frames. The
length of the linear compilations ranged from four pieces of line to as many
as thirty pieces of line. The main objective was to create a seamless
continuity between the separate segments of lines as an attempt to be
aware of how the pieces effected the whole, either with or without the
blessed cooperation of the designer. The elongated lines were then
“rendered” with a variety of media and material to further accentuate the
continuity of the line.
Figure 2. student composition – continuous line, 2007
The continuous line was then abstracted /excavated graphically as an
attempt to emphasize the two sides of what had since become a
composition with two clearly distinctive elements by exaggerating the
dividing line as a negative space. The drawing was digitized and color was
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added for the sake of clarity. We essentially created glorified gestalt
diagrams that surprisingly resembled fantastical urban development plans.
Figure 3. student diagram – repeated, 2007
We then digitally reiterated the diagram a number of times to be able to read
it as a pattern comprised of recognizably repeated elements. We pushed
the pattern quality of the drawing until it was recognized as wallpaper.
At this point in the semester I made a decision to remain in the graphic
arena a while longer because I was very happy with the quality of product
and I thought we could ride the wave of success to explore a different aspect
of drawing for designers. The tracing/excavation episode as well as the
pattern and subsequent wallpaper adventure were rather flat and
juxtapositional 2D experiences. I decided to introduce a drawing assignment
that would require a greater breadth of technical prowess and threedimensionality.
I asked that the students compositionally superimpose two
of their tracings in a layered relation to an A2 sized frame. I specified other
media related criteria for the sake of experiencing a drawing process such
as developing a regulating grid in lead that mediates and extends between
the two tracings and the frame. The grid was also to provide a place for the
inclusion of a collaged resident in order to begin a discussion about space
and scale.
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Figure 4. student drawing – superimposition, 2007
The time had come, more than half way through the semester to make our
way into the third dimension, so in an effort to sustain the continuity of the
project I designed a transition from the successful flatness of the drawings to
a potential three-dimensional opportunity. We revisited the excavation
process and redefined one of the drawings as a simple ink line presentation.
The rather simple line drawing was understood as a planimetric datum or
map to be used to materially project information into space. It was literally
and materially a base or foundation from which the construct grew. I
established a simple palate of chipboard, shish-kabob sticks, and masking
tape to help reach into the vertical stratosphere. Glue is never permitted in
my design studios. The students were instructed to rely on the demarcations
on the map as a plan to incise, bend, fold, or extend the graphic information
vertically. I asked them to do a lot so that the intervention happened quickly
with minimal thought and concern. These were nothing more than
experiments that revealed a recognizable vocabulary derived from the
specificity of their drawing.
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Figure 5. student experiments - various iterations, 2007
The large batch of experiments were considered and edited in number to the
three most successful three-dimensional compositions. At that point we
started to refer to the artifacts as gizmos. They were compositions without
names. The gizmos had posture as a description of how they occupy space
and in regard to the horizontal surface on which they reside.
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Figure 6. student refinements - edited, 2007
The remaining three gizmos then underwent a development process, which
involved the inclusion of a lead and colored pencil regulating grid on the map
in hopes of increasing the density of the plan and consequently the
opportunity to grow vertically. Implicit Limits of materials, tools and
connections paved the way to refinement until time had expired and the
journey was forced to end.
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Figure 7. student compositions – final gizmos, 2007
References
1. Cross, Nigel; Designerly Ways of Knowing, 2007 Birkhauser-Verlag
London.
2. Dewey, John; How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective
Thinking to the Educative Process, foreword by Maxine Greene (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1998).
3. Campbell, Joseph; The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Bollingen
Foundation Inc., NY Princeton Press, 1949.
4. José Luís Abrantes, Cláudia Seabra, Luís Filipe Lages: Pedagogical
affect, student interest, and learning performance, Journal of Business
Research 60 (2007) 960–964.
137

ARCHITECTURE & PHILOSOPHY:
THOUGHTS ON BUILDING
Markus Breitschmid, Assistant Professor
School of Architecture + Design
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
201 Cowgill Hall
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0205
United States of America
breitschmid@vt.edu
Markus Breitschmid (*1966 in Lucerne, Switzerland) is a trained architect
and architectural historian. He currently teaches at Virginia Polytechnic
Institute & State University (Virginia Tech). Previously, he has been teaching
at Cornell University and the University of North Carolina. Breitschmid has
been a visiting critic and lecturer in Europe and America. His book
publications include: Three Architects in Switzerland (2008), Valerio Olgiati -
Conversation with Students (2007), Julius Meier-Graefe. A Modern Milieu
(2007), Nietzsche’s Denkraum (2006), Can architectural art-from be
designed out of construction? (2004), and Der bauende Geist. Friedrich
Nietzsche und die Architektur (2001).
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ABSTRACT
It is a legitimate assertion that most major figures who have shaped the
course of architecture can be described as “theoreticians who build.” What
distinguishes these architects from their architect colleagues of lesser status
is the philosophical apparatus they have apprehended and made subject to
their disposition. Aldo Rossi, Robert Venturi, Peter Eisenman, Jacques
Herzog & Pierre De Meuron, Rem Koolhass, to name an incomplete list of
important architects of the last forty years and fit the description of
“theoretician who builds” particularly well, have been weaving philosophical
and architectural thought with their built work. Idea and object are two sides
of the same coin. In other words, good architects are in full intellectual
command of what they are designing.
Curricula in most architecture schools establish the architectural studio as
the largely unquestioned pillar in which architecture is coalesced by the
student. There is a belief at work that suggests that the individual student is
guided by inspiration as soon as s/he enters architecture school: The
students sits at his or her desk and is waiting for a supernatural force to
move their hands in such a manner that the sketch they produce will contain
the germs of the next masterpiece. This approach to architectural education,
practiced most naively in the USA in particular, is subject to the assumption
that the students are geniuses. But how many of us are geniuses? And what
does it mean to be a genius in the first place?
Therefore, architecture education should not be based on inspiration but on
a rational discourse with the major concepts that make architecture.
Architecture students have to encounter a discourse with the major concepts
of architecture not in their graduate studies but in the beginning year of their
architectural education because without that basic knowledge any more
thorough understanding of architecture is not possible. Why would one wait
to learn the intellectual basis of architecture until graduate school?
The course “Architecture & Philosophy: Thoughts on Building” examines not
examples of contemporary architectural production but rather intellectual
constructs from which they have arisen. The objective is to reveal the
linguistic richness and semantic complexity of the language used in the
discipline of architecture. Among the “key words” in the vocabulary of
architecture are: abstract, aesthetics, art, avant-garde, beauty, building,
construction, critique, deconstruction, form, function, genius, history,
landscape, language, mimetic, modern, nature, phenomena, postmodern,
program, representation, theory, topology, truth, typology, sublime, space,
structure, style, system, world.
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The students explore the revolutions of these “key words” in architecture and
learn to understand their shifting motivations, considering the work of
theoretical reflections, writings, manifestos, treatises in the disciplines of
philosophy, art, and architecture.
The aim is to erect an intellectual scaffolding for knowledge in architecture
and have available an apparatus to respond to the question What is
architecture? from the outset of the student’s architectural studies.
Keywords:
Architecture
Philosophy
Architectural Theory
Inspiration vs. Rational Discourse
Knowledge
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ARCHITECTURE & PHILOSOPHY:
THOUGHTS ON BUILDING
Wanted: “Theoreticians Who Build”
It is a legitimate assertion that most major figures who have shaped the
course of architecture can be described as “theoreticians who build.” What
distinguishes these architects from their architect colleagues of lesser status
is the philosophical apparatus they have apprehended and made subject to
their disposition. Aldo Rossi, Robert Venturi, Peter Eisenman, Jacques
Herzog & Pierre De Meuron, Rem Koolhass, to name an incomplete list of
important architects of the last forty years who fit the description of
“theoretician who builds” particularly well, have been weaving philosophical
and architectural thought with their built work. Who can imagine the Vanna
Venturi House in Chesnutt Hill, Pennsylvania built in 1962 by Robert Venturi
or the San Cataldo Cemetery in Modena built in the mid-1970s by Aldo
Rossi without their respective landmark treatises “Complexity and
Contradiction” and “Architettura della Citta”, both published 1966? While it
does not seem to matter whether the built structure or the written manifest
appeared first, we can assert that idea and object are two sides of the same
coin. In other words, good architects are in full intellectual command of what
they are designing and what they are distilling in writing or in speech.
It would be too much of a generalization to claim that the best architects of
each generation –those few architects of every generation who are able to
capture the world by means of buildings in such a distinct and powerful
manner that the spaces and shapes of these buildings cause repercussions
in the souls of men and women of that generation– also happen to be the
best educated architects. No, as architects we would not want to make such
a claim because we are aware that intellectual capacity and encyclopedic
knowledge cannot conveniently be multiplied for the making of an architect
who subsequently can stir the imagination of people.
Having issued this disclaimer, the argument of this presentation points to the
problem that this disclaimer just stated above, namely that there exists a
hardly describable spectrum of “ingredients” that make for a good architect,
has unduly “muddied the waters” in the sense that there now exists a deep
distrust towards the necessary intellectual capacity of an architect. Voices in
architectural education are shouting of an “intellectualization” of the
architect’s education. On one hand this distrust against an
“intellectualization” in architectural education can be supported. There exists
a swathe of approaches towards architecture through extra-architectural
means. For example, studying the architectural theories of the past forty
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years demonstrate a proclivity to argue models of approach to architecture in
close proximity to linguistic formulations. Its key characteristic is the
translation of one form of expression into another one, and the one major
criterion for a renewal of any kind of meaning is the ability to express it in
explicit linguistic terms. Architecture, though, is in its essence a syntactic
totality of forms and spaces. The recent emphasis of forcing architecture into
a linguistic system, as has been witnessed more recently, is to create an
intellectual phantom out of architecture, an art form that clearly is not limited
to be understood only linguistically. The rather dogmatic view of recent
hermeneutic theories that poses that architecture ought to be accessed
through linguistic means, serves as one example that unduly restricts the
totality of what architecture is. The “linguistic turn” is one plausible example
why there exists a certain distrust within architectural education against
extra-architectural concepts. There are many more that might have less
validity: architecture and questions of gender, architecture and questions of
ecology, architecture and questions of political nature.
This paper argues that despite a justifiable skepticism against such “waves”
of extra-architectural concepts that infiltrate the discipline of architecture,
that for the most part, architecture and the education of architects is actually
rather “anti-intellectual.” While it certainly can be asserted that talking and
writing about architecture is talking and writing about something that really
speaks for itself, architects also like to reflect on what they do in order to
come closer to understanding the mystery of things. To arrive at an
understanding of their own work, architects need tools that allow them to
discuss architecture in general and their own architectural work specifically
in intelligible terms.
Participation in architectural design reviews demonstrates that many
students of architecture have significant problems to discuss their own work,
not to speak of architecture in principal terms. Curricula in most architecture
schools establish the architectural studio as the largely unquestioned pillar in
which architecture is coalesced by the student. In only slightly exaggerated
terms, a view into the halls of architectural education presents the image that
there is a belief at work that suggests that the individual student is guided by
inspiration as soon as s/he enters architecture school: the students sits at
their desks and are waiting for a pending supernatural force to move their
hands in such a manner that the sketch they produce will contain the germs
of the next masterpiece. This approach to architectural education, and
architectural design specifically, is practiced most naively in the USA in
particular. It is subject to a perpetuation of the “architecture students as
genius.” But how many of us are geniuses? How many of these students are
geniuses? And does architectural education do architecture a “favor” if it
celebrates the notion that it good architecture can be conceived by anyone if
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you just wait long enough until some God guides the architect’s hand in the
“right way”?
This is not an argument that denies the existence and the importance of
talent in the individual architect. It is a reasonable argument to make that a
great intellect, great knowledge, and superb dedication to architecture will
not necessarily bring forward desirable architecture whatever the persuasion
of that architecture might be. The argument of this paper is more in line with
the cautious position of the philosopher Friedrich Schelling. Schelling is
without much doubt the one thinker who attributed more to the effect of
genial inspiration than any other of his colleagues. Despite this valuation to
the power of genius, Schelling stated with much certainty that only a small
fraction of what makes the totality of the work of art is subject to genius:
what constitutes the aspect of “art” in the work of art, for Schelling, to use his
words, “is subject to skill, practice, and imitation.” 23
The Teaching of Philosophical and Architectural Thought in the
Beginning Year of Architectural Education
Architecture education should attempt to balance of how it weighs inspiration
and how it weighs knowledge that is subject to a rational discourse with the
major concepts that make architecture. Architecture students ought to
encounter a discourse with the major concepts of architecture not only –if at
all– in their graduate studies but in the beginning year of their architectural
education because without that basic knowledge of architectural concepts
any more thorough understanding of architecture is not possible. Why would
one wait to learn the intellectual basis of architecture until graduate school
as the curricula of many architecture schools prescribes?
One example that quite convincingly demonstrates the necessity to be
familiar with a conceptual architectural framework is the Goetz Gallery built
by Jacques Herzog & Pierre de Meuron in Munich in 1992. Other examples
could display the same point that is intent to be demonstrated with this
example, namely, the specificity of architectural concepts and how they are
used in architecture. This example is not only depicting the necessity to
understand concepts but it also focuses on the shifting nature of these
concepts over time.
The essay “Architectural Constructs” describes the Herzog & de Meuron’s
work as follows: “The architecture office of Herzog & de Meuron entered the
profession of architecture with conceptually pregnant projects that sought to
Endnotes
23
Hammermeister, Kai. 2002, p.71.
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expound on concepts of contemporary fine arts. Their work, beginning with
their very first building, introduced a dialogue with problems of
representation. On one hand, their architecture emphasizes the façade with
seemingly familiar materials and techniques that participate in an
epistemological quest in which these materials and techniques become the
vehicle that puts the onlooker into a state of soft unsettlement in order to
assess its value for a new interpretation in that onlooker’s mind –Herzog
states, ‘the strength of our buildings is the immediate, visceral impact they
have on the visitor’– on the other hand, Herzog & de Meuron look for an
autonomous quality of the individual building that is achieved by means of a
curious, almost monumental distance that is constructed between the
building and the surrounding space and allows Herzog to amplify, ‘A building
is a building.’ These states of continued ambivalence are also present
internally by means of an array of interlocking spaces that negate the
distinction between served and serving rooms.” 24
The essay “Architectural Constructs” continues to explain that the Goetz
Gallery, among many other qualities it also possesses, is an example of the
rediscovery of the famous credo of the “symbolization of construction” that
Gottfried Semper advocated in the 19 th century in order to distinguish an
artful architecture from utilitarian civil engineering. The Goetz Gallery
considers this credo of the “symbolization of construction” again and
radicalizes it in the sense that constructive language of a building does not
have to follow its function or construction but has to mediate only a
comprehendible idea of the apparent construction, a “construction
apparante.” This position set forth by Herzog & de Meuron is counter to the
older approach that had much currently up until the 1970s, namely, that in
the foreground stood a constructive grammar that was recognized as a
positivism of a constructive declaration of measures, in other words, a
conscious and methodical representation of joining that occupied the place
of a metaphorical act for the concept of “Struktur.”
Furthermore, the Goetz Gallery, semiotically speaking, also renounces the
semantic dimension of architecture: the referential relationship between the
signifier and the signified is broken up. This fracturing of the traditional
functional and semantic context was necessary because it allowed for a new
and unprejudiced view into the architectural material. The Goetz Gallery
stands for a renunciation of mimetic elements and extra-pictorial influences
of all kinds, but material’s matter is emancipated to being sensual evidence
that encompasses the sum total of its qualities. Surfaces as boundaries of
volumes are treated for their own semantic value that leads to an emphasis
of textural qualities and the seemingly laying open of structural elements.
24
Breitschmid, Markus. “Architectural Constructs”. in: Markus Breitschmid. Three
Architects in Switzerland. 2008, p.158-161.
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Other devices to attach a direct ornamental expression, in order to achieve
their own aesthetic meaning, are the use of transparency of surfaces in
order to emphasize spatiality, the use of color, the use of glaze, and perhaps
most importantly the techniques of displacement, in the sense that materials
are applied in entirely uncommon ways. This emphasis on surfaces,
appearance, and perception also triggered the exchange of geometry as the
mathematical discipline of guidance for architecture with a so-called
territorial topology. This topology is a hardly describable Gestalt that relates
architecture less to the measured and carefully composed Renaissance or
Neo-Classicism but more to a relationship with Dadaism, Surrealism, and the
Late Baroque of Central Europe, where the totality of the object is in the
foreground. This paradigm shift is necessary because it allows the
discussing of the characteristics of surfaces and architectural figures without
definition of its concrete form. The consequences of such employed
techniques is the generalization of form and a generalization of construction.
The aim of such generalizations is an emphasis of the architectural element
itself, a demonstration, so to speak, that they are actual, that they are not
metaphorical offerings that stand in reference to something else beyond,
above, or within.
A relatively short description of the Goetz Gallery reveals a number of
concepts, for example the concept of “art,” the concept of “abstraction,” the
concept of “form,” the concept of “construction,” the concept of “function”, the
concept of “representation”, the concept of “topology”, the concept of
“mimetic”, the concept of “structure.”
How does a young student of architecture access such a description full of
loaded conceptual terminology? Can he or she understand them at all? Or
will the student of architecture completely misunderstand Herzog & de
Meuron’s architecture?
Some of the meanings of these concepts applied at the Goetz Gallery have
already been described in the preceding section. But is it clear, for example,
what is meant by the word “art”, as it is used by these contemporary
architects? The call for an artistic approach to architecture as advocated by
Herzog & de Meuron is not to be understood as a turn towards an emphasis
of architecture as expressive gestures, as one customarily might think, but
as a rigorous “laying open of principle characteristics of the design,” as
concrete manifestation of the “means of itself.” In other words, if these
architects advocate a “strong form,” to make yet another example, they do
not argue for formalistic freedoms of forms and shapes but, to the contrary,
for a voluntary renunciation of such formalistic freedoms of forms and an
emphasis of an architecture as a system of immanent rules.
In order to not to arrive in a state of complete confusion, the individual
student of architecture has to aim to erect an intellectual scaffolding for
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knowledge in architecture. He requires an apparatus to not only solve the
“riddle” of the Goetz Gallery but more all-encompassing to intelligently
respond to the question What is architecture? The student requires such an
apparatus perhaps less so for a historical understanding but more so for an
understanding of his or her own design work. It is this emphasis to
understand his or her own design work that necessitates the dealing with
architectural concepts from the very outset of his or her studies. While some
of these concepts demand sophisticated philosophical and theoretical
studies and that might easily been labeled as “too difficult for first year
architecture students,” the discourse of such concepts cannot be declared
as optional.
The kernel of such a discourse is the “Thinking about Architecture” in the
sense of an intellectual discourse with architecture. Such a discourse must
discuss the general principles of building and the reasoning on architecture
through the analysis of texts and the reflection of the contextual history of
ideas as it is found in treatises and other sources of theories of the arts and
architecture from the past and the present. From such analysis of texts and
reflections of the context of cultural ideas and concepts, this discourse must
reconstruct a 'building of thought' of architecture and discusses historic
building thoughts and contemporary design concepts. It is also important to
recognize that the discourse ought not to be an unlimited exploration into the
liberal arts –not because this is undesirable– but because the education in
architecture is concerned to create a consciousness for the autonomy of
architecture in the sense of an independent intellectual discourse with the
fundamental problems of building. It is also noteworthy that the study of
architectural treatises and other texts on architecture will reveal a range that
often goes far beyond the support of practical building considerations. Such
a discourse means more than the quest for immediate rules of design or the
writing of commentaries regarding one’s own project. In the foreground
stands the quest for the conceptual and ideal presupposition of building
towards a systematic foundation of architecture. With such an aim, the
discourse on architecture often touches the discipline of philosophy and the
theory of art. It also brings to the fore the often opaque relationship between
aesthetics and ethics. This dimension demands of the architect more than
the mere fulfillment of private interests of function or the realization of
individual representations of form but responsible urbane acting.
In order to aid the beginning of a subsequent holistic architecture-theoretical
understanding, the first-year architecture student ought to be introduced to a
basic apparatus of architectural terminology. The course “Architecture &
Philosophy: Thoughts on Building” examines not examples of contemporary
architectural production but rather intellectual constructs from which they
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have arisen. 25 The objective is to reveal the linguistic richness and semantic
complexity of the language used in the discipline of architecture. Among the
“key words” in the vocabulary of architecture are: abstract, aesthetics, art,
avant-garde, beauty, building, construction, critique, deconstruction, form,
function, genius, history, landscape, language, mimetic, modern, nature,
phenomena, postmodern, program, representation, theory, topology, truth,
typology, sublime, space, structure, style, system, world.
The students explore the revolutions of these “key words” in architecture and
learn to understand their shifting motivations, considering the work of
theoretical reflections, writings, manifestos, treatises in the disciplines of
philosophy, art, and architecture. A basic understanding of these concepts is
a part of a solid education of every architect. An understanding of various
design concepts and expression of architectural language without that basic
knowledge is very difficult if not impossible.
References
Breitschmid, Markus. Thoughts on Building. Zürich: Corporis Publisher for
Architecture, Art, and Photography 2008
Breitschmid, Markus. Three Architects in Switzerland. Beat Consoni –
Morger & Degelo – Valerio Olgiati. Lucerne: Quart Publishers 2008
Hammermeister, Kai. The German Aesthetic Tradition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press 2002
25
Breitschmid, Markus. Thoughts on Building. 2008, p. 9-90.
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AN EMBODIED APPROACH TO LEARNING AT THE BEGINNING
DESIGN LEVEL
Irina Solovyova, Assistant Professor
University of Texas at San Antonio
501 W. Durango Blvd,
San Antonio, TX 78207
USA
Fax: 1.210.458.3016
irina.solovyova@utsa.edu
Upali Nanda, Director of Research
American Art Resources
3260 Sul Ross
Houston, TX 77098
USA
Fax: 1.713.527.8028
upali.nanda@americanartresources.com
Irina Solovyova is an Assistant Professor in Interior Design Program at the
University of Texas at San Antonio, and a Ph.D. Candidate at Texas A&M
University. She was born in Russia where she received Master’s or
Architecture from Volgograd State Architectural and Engineering University.
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Before joining UTSA Irina taught at Texas A&M University and University of
Idaho. Her research area of interest is emotional component of memory as
related to design, influence of autobiographical experiences of designers on
the product and process of design, and design pedagogy.
Upali Nanda graduated with a PhD in architecture from Texas A&M
University, with a certificate in Health Systems and Design. She is currently
working as the Director of Research for Therapeutic Environments at
American Art Resources, Houston, TX. Upali's doctoral thesis is titled
"Sensthetics" and takes a Crossmodal Approach to the perception, and
conception, of our environments, addressing both design and design
education. Her work is multidisciplinary, spanning the disciplines of
philosophy, cognitive sciences and design. She is interested in environments
for engagement, environments for healing, and environments for special
populations. Upali, who hails from India originally, is also an Indian classical
dancer, and has worked upon temporal and visual rhythms in the context of
Hindu Temples.
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ABSTRACT
The challenge of teaching design in an information age is that learning is
often confused with collecting a grab-bag of images that are available at the
click of a mouse. The speed of acquiring visual information, and producing
visual artifact, cannot be compared to immersive design. This speed and the
simultaneity of the immediately available abundance of visual elements has
been held accountable for a certain imbalance in our design objectives and
designed environments, causing a resurgence of sensory and embodied
concerns in design thought.
This paper catapults from these concerns in the context of design pedagogy.
It becomes vital to address these concerns at the beginning design level,
when students first develop conceptual as well as technical skills.
The paper is founded upon the design implications of certain perceptual
paradigms. We place particular emphasis on embodied experience and
embodied cognition to illustrate the formative role of the environment on the
cognitive processes and emphasize holistic perception and learning. We
then discuss the potential of application of embodied theories in our
pedagogical initiatives and suggest a three-step learning strategy based on
those theories.
We propose a three-part teaching and learning process that will embody
education within the existing format. Once interwoven in the existing fabric of
architectural education, students' embodied learning will be enriched,
allowing a balance of collateral and collective experience: immersionconnection-reflection-communication.
Immersion involves dwelling in the
places of study. Connection allows students to establish a link between
architectural concepts and their autobiographical experiences of dwelling in
a place. And the last step consists of students’ reflection on learning,
expressing that learning via a variety of media and communication
techniques best suited to articulation of their learning.
Keywords: embodiment, senses, pedagogy, learning, experience.
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AN EMBODIED APPROACH TO LEARNING AT THE BEGINNING
DESIGN LEVEL
This paper addresses the issue of disembodiment in beginning design
education. In this paper we argue that students’ personal experience is of as
much importance as the training that formal education can impart. The
embodiment of formal concepts through personal experience yields true
education.
This paper also addresses the issue of disconnect in beginning design
education. Each subject and discipline taught within the curriculum is
approached independently, making it difficult for students to establish a
connection between various fields of knowledge. Again, the separation of the
self from the profession can be held accountable for this disconnect.
Students do not mediate between the specialized knowledge that they
acquire through their own personal experience, thus building chasms rather
than bridges between the various pillars of knowledge.
Understanding many design concepts inherent to architecture can be
achieved only through direct experience. Notions like comfort, privacy, and
sense of home cannot be taught or understood by cognitive thinking alone.
Reflection on experiences allows a holistic approach to learning via a
continuous process of giving meaning to and categorizing new experiences
and information. Learning is always a product of previous experience,
context of culture and role of others in the present. To assist students in
learning we must assist them in finding connections between experiences
and information yet to be learned. It is especially important at the beginning
design level because incoming students have nothing to refer to but their
previous experience. Such a learning-to-learn approach can help students
become lifelong learners who can go beyond memorizing isolated pieces of
information and mastering limited skills to establishing fluidity between
domains and engaging in reflective practice. This paper suggests that
hands-on exercises, continuous interdisciplinary projects, and self-reflecting
practices will allow students to gain insights and link past, present, and
future experiences into embodied design.
Knowledge in the technological culture
“The existentially most important knowledge of our everyday life–even in the
technological culture of today–does not reside in detached theories and
explanations, but it is a silent knowledge beyond the threshold of
consciousness that is fused with the daily environment and behavioral
situations” (Pallasmaa, 2007:771). We learn for every moment of our life,
even if we don’t realize it. Everything new we learn, we interpret in terms of
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our prior experiences, beliefs and values, and current goals. “In architecture,
a realization of this personal dimension of knowledge is paramount” (Perez-
Gomez, 1987:58). In beginning design, the realization of this personal
dimension is vital. Personal grounding allows the embodied making of an
architect, and it is this personal grounding that must become the basis of the
education of an architect.
Professional education emphasizing technical knowledge and skills prepares
students poorly for practice (Yinger, 1987). We only touch the surface when
we teach students discrete disciplines of history, technology, and
techniques. It is not through usage of recognizable and marketable
architectural forms, nor refining of a couple of techniques learned in school,
nor fitting the current dogma or detached experimentation with new materials
and technology that one becomes a good architect. It is through deep
understanding of a human being in a dwelled place, and personal
reinterpretation of this understanding through an architect’s own techniques,
that one becomes a good architect. Beginning design education lays the
foundation for such understanding and development of the skills to be
manifested in material form.
Currently the curriculum in architectural education is derived primarily from
the Bauhaus tradition. Over the years, the architectural curriculum has
endured a myriad of transformations leading to more amorphous
pedagogical initiatives and continuous addition of new courses to meet the
demands of practice. Obviously, the onus of education cannot be on the
curriculum; it must be on the approach to learning. Unfortunately, the
emphasis on performance and evaluation targeted toward sustained
accreditation and improved ranking among schools, based on performance
and evaluation, is a deterrent to nurturing this emphasis. As a result, rather
than inculcate mediation between modalities, architectural education defines
boundaries between domains and students struggle to juggle among them.
Landrum (2004) stated: the overwhelming problem in education today is
students’ neglect in recognizing their own relationship to the very reality in
which they dwell. Space cannot be taught, it can only be learned through
one’s sensory and emotional engagement with the world. Often, beginning
design exercises are meant to teach students to abstract. We give students
exercises–a set of rules guiding them through generalization and reduction
of information content to a concept, an image somehow distilled from a real
world to a pure form. Students learn the steps of getting from point A to point
B, but do they really learn to extrapolate and abstract learned experience
into future spaces? Instead, maybe we need to allow students to investigate
their own process of embodiment and develop their own process of
transforming those embodied experience into new architecture, whether
through abstraction or reflection.
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Embodied realities
When professional education discarded the apprenticeship model,
knowledge through analytical thinking superseded learning through practice.
The emphasis shifted from learning by doing and contemplation of activity
and consequence to “pure” thought, learning theory and techniques, and
abstract analyses of lectures by knowledgeable researchers (Hoberman and
Mailick, 1994). Perhaps there is a lesson to be learned from the fact that
vernacular buildings are commonly considered both humane and
sustainable (Sorvig, 2005); they are built from embodied experience. In an
age of information overload and technological sophistication, by the time the
student graduates his (her) tools are already obsolete, and therefore the
internship model in practice is firmly in place, where the student must relearn
in context, and unlearn what is no longer relevant to the industry.
Students in design schools cannot win the race with technology. Education
must equip them for challenges in a swiftly changing world by relying on their
inner resources. As we become more connected to a shrinking world,
connections with our own embodied core become weaker, transient, and
heavily mediated. In this context, beginning design education must accept
the challenge to triangulate the what, why, and how of architecture with the
critical who of each of our own embodied realities.
Information vs. knowledge
“This field (of architectural practice) becomes increasingly oriented to the
pursuit of symbolic capital and disconnected from the lifeworld of everyday
experience… The values of the field also permeate architectural education
with an increasing specialization in the production of symbolic capital”
(Dovey, 2005:293). We are all familiar with Internet’s tidy summaries, infinite
links to information and images (Beckett, 2007). It is so comfortable to open
your laptop and peruse through endless imagery on any subject readily
available through Google: it is irresistible!
Since students now have much more and easier access to information, it
seems like they have more knowledge. However, it is a mistake to classify
knowledge, “the normative frame for our praxis” (Perez-Gomez, 1987:57) as
identical to information. Today, people have overwhelming abundance of
information but very little knowledge. Internet allows seductive ease of
information access, profession puts pressure of informed design, but it is not
the collection of facts and figures that allows one to create good architecture.
“Architecture is not the embodiment of information; it is the embodiment of
meaning… Knowledge must be understood as a possession of embodied
consciousness qualitatively different from superfluous information” (Perez-
Gomez, 1987:57). Even now, in the digital age of fictitious realities, we live in
our bodies and create meaning through our bodies.
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Starr-Glass (2002) has a great analogy of the territory (the actual
experience) and the map (representation of this experience) that is figurative
but cannot be substituted for the actual territory. We should explore the
territory, not the map: in beginning design, we need to rely on embodied
experience, not the mediated expeience. Many curricula of beginning design
now introduce computers very early. However, with the emphasis on
abstraction and media we can only map the map, not the territory. “Thinking
and feeling our selves as they make sense is more than merely the
sensation of knowledge in making. It is a sensing of our selves in the
making, and is that not the root of what we call learning?” (Ellsworth, 2004:1)
Experiential learning
There is a significant body of literature today that makes the case that
embodied relationships are crucial and inevitable (Csordas, 1994; Downing,
2000; Israel, 2003; Johnson, 1989, 1990; O’Loughlin, 1998; Pallasmaa,
2005, 2007; Perez-Gomez, 1987). Unfortunately, this argument is still underrepresented,
and beginning design education remains too abstract, too
theoretical, and too mediated. “The prevailing educational principles fail to
grasp the indeterminate, dynamic and fundamentally sensuous and holistic
essence of human existence, thought, and action” (Pallasmaa, 2007: 769).
Experiential learning of real world problems is what allows for embodied
learning.
Webster (2001) provides a good summary of influential theories and
variations of experiential learning adopted by different professional
programs. Learning by doing, problem based learning, and project-based
learning exemplify the superiority of experiential learning over traditional
models. Even though architectural education was the first among other
professions to use project-based learning as the core of education, the role
of reflection in the learning process and role of subjective embodied
experience in understanding spatial concept have been overlooked.
Experiential learning is the type of learning that naturally occurs when the
learner is an active participant in a real life event. By default, this experience
is embodied. Even though Dewey (1933), the father of experiential learning,
did not believe that experience without reflection produces real learning, we
believe that embodiment that occurs during the experience is the only way to
achieve understanding of the place and meaning of the event. Reflection
takes this understanding to a different level; helps this understanding to float
up onto the level of consciousness. Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning
(1984) summarizes what seems to be obvious: understanding cannot be
imposed or transmitted by direct action. The knowledge must be constructed
by the learner though the transformation of personal experience. Towards
this objective of constructed knowledge based upon an embodied mediation
of information, we propose a three-part teaching and learning process that
154

can address beginning design education within the current format. Once
interwoven with the existing fabric of architectural education, students’
embodied intuitions will be enriched, allowing a balance of collateral and
collective experience: (1) immersion, (2) connection, and (3) reflection and
communication.
Immersion
Students must dwell in the places they study. To make design decisions they
must immerse themselves completely within a built environment or draw
from the environment in which they are immersed. Such immersion would
mean elimination of abstract exercises, reducing studio time and increasing
travel, field trips, or sessions in natural/inhabited surroundings. Learning for
architects has traditionally involved exploring actual places, and learning by
actual interaction with clients, patrons and contractors, designing and
construction. Such learning is real, rich, and personal and can be drawn
upon in more abstract exercises such as the creation of a 2-dimensional
representation of buildings, or drawing. When directly experienced,
perception and actual experience of a space “contracts and expands in
relationship to a person’s emotions and state of mind, sense of self, social
relations, and cultural predispositions” (Low, 2003:12).
Immersion must not be just at a physical, or merely cognitive level, but at an
emotional level as well, because human experience is grounded in emotion.
“It is the embodied self which expresses feelings and disposition, and which
thus communicatively inhabits its places in the world. The body as action
and communication can only be so through emotion. Major educational
policy and curriculum discourses still tend to assume that there exists an
independent reason or cognition which operates independently to effect the
acquisition of knowledge within the minds of learners” (O’Loghlin, 1998:280).
In authors’ views, beginning design education in architecture should be pre-
K style: learning about one’s immediate environment through sensory and
emotional experiences, playing with building blocks, and reading books that
describe those experiences in a simple way but in architectural terms.
Immersion should also include exercises similar to Israel’s (2003) “design
psychology toolbox,” facilitating exploration of a person’s intimate connection
with a place. Such exercises help to uncover the experiences of past places,
to draw upon those remembered places and their qualities, and to translate
their elements into the new design. Using such a toolbox can teach students
how to transform embodied experiences into a conscious design tool. Once
students are introduced to the process of immersing in the environment, and
in their own consciousness, they can create their own process of translating
those experiences into designs ..
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Connection
Bourdieu (2000) said that space frames social practice, McCann (2005)
called space “the empty container of experience,” and Dovey (2005:291)
wrote “architecture is the practice of ‘framing’ the habitat of everyday life,
both literally and discursively.” Students must be exposed to architecture in
the context of real life—not as an object of art, but as dwelled places—to
facilitate the connection of architectural experiences to their autobiographical
experiences. Immersive experience must be connected to the creative
endeavor that is at the foundation of architectural education.
In order to forge these connections, and understand them, students must be
encouraged to take electives in the social sciences such that they are better
able to connect the human experience of dwelling with the making of place.
Hands-on, design-build exercises that help students connect
autobiographical experience to the learned formal and technical concepts
must build upon the theoretical foundation studied in classrooms.
Beginning design should also offer connection-hubs, a range of spaces and
cultural settings for students to connect with people of different cultures,
different fields of education, and different points of view. A connection hub,
by definition, must be outside of the studio environment. It must take
students out of their studio-world into a world where ideas are exchanged
and experiences are lived. Through experience of other cultures, both
geographic and academic, students gain great insight into their own culture
and self within it. Universities allow students the opportunity to amass a
repository of embodied experiences to draw from when designing an
individual, unique “pattern in language” in their minds (Alexander et al, 1977;
Yinger, 1987). This pattern in language constantly changes, together with
experience, while allowing for recognition of the framework and providing
basis for communication. “It is, rather, a structure of an imaginative process
that we bring to experience by way of anticipating recognizable forms, but
which is then re-formed by its imaginative instantiation in a particular
situation” (Johnson, 1989:370). In other words, once we have a library of
embodied (in this case, architectural) forms, imagination can transform those
forms into new imaginary or real places.
Relying on a student’s embodied experience is crucial while teaching the
architectural language. The terminology students learn in academia contains
a significant amount of “jargon shaped by assumptions, prior
conceptualizations, and academic traditions” (Starr-Glass, 2002:228). In
order to translate this jargon into a usable language there is a need to
develop shared meaning (Starr-Glass, 2002), and the only way to do that is
through embodied experiences we share. When we teach new concepts and
terms in beginning design, references to students’ autobiographical
experiences are much more productive than academic readings of Kahn and
Le Corbusier alone.
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Reflection and Communication
Most educators in the field of architecture are familiar with Schön’s (1983)
“reflection in action.” Stump and McDonnell (2001) introduced the notion of
“reflection on action.” Reflection in action refers to reflecting attempts in
order to solve the problem at hand. Conversely, reflection on action draws
on the experience of an action as a whole. Reflection on action can be called
experiential if we define such learning in Kolb’s terms (2001) as “the process
whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.”
Experiential learning is more powerful than traditional modes of learning as it
is continuous; it involves intrinsic motivation, emotional connection, bodily
participation, and interaction with others. Reflection on action should
become a regular practice in the beginning design studio.
Students must take time to reflect on their experiences, both in school and
outside its confines. In this fast-paced world, without the time and effort to
reflect, both immersion and connection can become fleeting phases with no
lasting effect on the design process or on student learning. It is important
that pressure from presentation be lifted periodically in order to emphasize
the depth of a particular thought and the ability to communicate it
meaningfully. Experimentation with media and communication techniques
(oral, written, and visual) must be encouraged to allow students to express
their subjective experiences better.
“Experience is not an orderly sequence of events but the narrated reflection
of being” (Starr-Glass, 2002:228). When we relate to prior experience, the
experience is explored, reinterpreted, and redefined, depending on the
current situation. It is the process of “investigating multiple and everchanging
metaphors” (Starr-Glass, 2002:229). Research on reflection in
design typically addresses studying the design process (Dewey, 1933;
Pereira, 1999; Shön, 1983; Webster, 2001;). In this paper, authors argue
that as part of understanding one’s own design process, it is critical to
understand the sources of design imagery. Design decisions are often
reached intuitively, even though the process of formulating the various
solutions may be argued rationally. Israel (2003) and Downing (2000)
investigated how the embodied experiences of designers are used as
imagery during the design process. Tracing back those embodied
experiences and reflecting on their transformation into new places is
necessary.
There are various ways to introduce reflection to the beginning design
curriculum; video and blogging are probably most enjoyable. Video recording
of students working and interacting with others can be revealing and
powerful (GTC, 2007), as it allows students to see themselves with someone
else’s eyes. Almost everyone now has a blog, a Facebook or Myspace.
Many of our students are very disciplined about writing in their Facebook
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every day, describing what happened, reflecting on the day’s events,
communicating with peers and strangers. Beginning design education can
build on the popularity of such online communication utilities to help students
reflect on their experiences as related to architecture. Experience,
embodiment, and reflection can allow students to create their own
architectural language–a framework specific to a unique person for how they
understand the world and translate this understanding into the creation of
truly meaningful places—architecture with an embodied soul.
Devoy (2005:283) posed a critical question for our times: “We experience
architecture primarily in states of distraction; we live in it first and look at it
second. Our contemplative gaze falls upon ‘architecture’ within a spatial
world we have already silently imbibed and embodied. How do we reconcile
this unreflexive embodiment with the production of architectural imagery;
everyday life with architecture as discourse?”. Our answer is: through
immersion, connection, reflection and communication.
Bibliography
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Beckett, C (2007), Research Lite: Design Research Made Easy (If Not
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Culture and Self, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA
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Rooksby (eds) Habitus: A Sense of Place, Ashgate Publishing pp 283-298
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University Press, College Station, TX
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Routledge
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159

MANFREDO TAFURI, AND JEAN PAUL SARTRE WALK INTO A BAR
AND ORDER HALF A GLASS OF BEER
(Or, Operations of Substance and Meaning for the Beginning Design
Student)
Kathryn L. Bedette, Assistant Professor
Architecture Department, Southern Polytechnic State University
Southern Polytechnic State University
1100 South Marietta Parkway
Building-N
Marietta, Georgia, US 30060
kbedette@spsu.edu
Kathryn Bedette is a registered architect in the US and has ten years of
professional practice experience. In practice, she held the positions of Lead
Designer, Project Architect, and Project Manager and was the recipient of
the 2003 Emerging Voices Award for Atlanta, Georgia. Currently, Kathryn
holds the position of Assistant Professor in the Architecture Program of
Southern Polytechnic State University. As assistant professor, she
coordinates the First-Year design studios, as well as teaching studio, history
and theory, and advising thesis students.
160

ABSTRACT
This paper investigates operations of substance and meaning for the
beginning design student by looking closely at the space in time before a
design concept is formulated.
Teaching the beginning design student involves the synthesis of myriad
concerns and considerations, from guiding the student to develop the eyes
of a designer, to the instructor’s continual questioning of architecture itself
(of the profession and the artifact) in order to determine for him or herself
how to create a relevant environment for learning. Immersed within this
environment, students are often confronted with the production of a design
concept: a guiding premise through which decisions are made and against
which ideas are tested, a concept that guides how their design will unfold
and structures how a project will progress.
But implicit in this production is a pre-condition, a sort of repository of raw
material out of which the design concept is to be constructed. Before the
design concept can be articulated and acted upon, there is (must be)
something else.
In that space before concept there is insight: a spark, a revelation, a
discovery--and insight can be taught.
Method
The place of insight is exposed through an exploration of its components: its
potential knowledge base, operation, and structure. Key points are
elucidated through examples of student work.
Conclusion
In this case, insight, the pre-condition of the design concept, is developed
through careful study of the embedded potential for transformation present in
a given context. Analysis and study lead to insight and synthesis.
Keywords
Observation, Insight, Design Concept, Beginning, Confidence
161

MANFREDO TAFURI, AND JEAN PAUL SARTRE WALK INTO A BAR
AND ORDER HALF A GLASS OF BEER
(Or, Operations of Substance and Meaning for the Beginning Design
Student)
In the slice of time directly before a design concept, there is insight. If we
attempt to slow the camera down, as Benjamin 26 might say, to zoom in and
pry open this slice, we can occupy that space where insight is formed and
take a look around. The journey is crucial, or rather, the stop. Long before
the destination is reached, before the settling dust catches in light aimed at
the nostalgic wreck of a design studio after the review, before supplies are
re-supplied, before layers of trace and debris pile up, before even the design
concept is conceived, we stop the car and get out to go for a walk.
Before the there, there is a here. Students are often confronted with the
production of a design concept or strategy: a guiding premise through which
decisions are made and against which ideas are tested. It is a part of the
process that guides how their design will unfold and structures how a project
will progress. But implicit in this production is a pre-condition, a sort of
accumulation or repository of raw material out of which the design concept is
to be constructed. Before the design concept can be articulated and acted
upon, there is (must be) something else. How do beginning design students
collect this raw material? How do we teach students to be insightful about
the built environment—both in terms of how they see the world around
themselves and in how they begin to structure proposals for design, for how
design is to take place?
For how design is to take place is a very wide question. That spark,
revelation, that discovery of insight that can be formulated into a design
concept begins to answer this question for the design student. It allows a
student to conduct a design process, rather than solve a problem and allows
for a clarity of thinking toward design proposals. Confidence is gained
through ownership of ideas where, rather than trying to hit a target, the
student creates the premise.
1) Frameworks of knowledge
Architecture emerges from the didactic, from how it is taught to how it
teaches. From Alberti’s early treatise to Wagner’s “Guidebook to His
Students” and beyond, architecture, its instruction, and what it instructs have
Notes
26
Benjamin, p 235-237.
162

een intrinsically linked. From this linkage there emerges a certain dilemma:
what kind of knowledge forms the basis of this didactic relationship? And,
how does this knowledge operate for the beginning design student?
The trap of the a priori
We can continue to pry open this brief space of insight by looking first at two
differing and complementary frameworks of thought: a priori knowledge and
empirical knowledge. The discussion of a priori concepts in architecture can
be as plastic and complex as a discussion of architectural history itself.
Manfredo Tafuri often points to how architecture operates in response to an
architect’s deep seeded need for legitimization. 27 In this first clue from his
Ricerca (Tafuri 2006), he begins with the proposition that, “Rather than
focusing on the formation of norms—the objective of a veritable avalanche of
studies—it seems more useful to examine the way in which the ‘production
of meaning’ was conceptualized during the era that we have become
accustomed to call the Renaissance.” He refers to the “ ‘anomalous’
exempla from the imperial era” explored and dismembered by renaissance
architects and asserts that, “the antique so often cited by these architects
represents a collection of disjecta membra that are read ‘in a metaphorical
sense.’ Hence the impulse to innovate is grafted onto ‘a need for rule’ left
unsatisfied by Vitruvius….” 28 The scattered debris was gathered for its
eccentricity, for its lawlessness, and made a case. The renaissance, or what
we “call the Renaissance,” was the avant-garde. Innovation with this need
for a rule eventually becomes a self-referential system for design. Meaning
comes not from the relationship of design with some-thing, but rather from
the relationship of one ‘part’ to another—each piece in the kit having an
assigned value that determines the complexity or eloquence of the
relationship designed. So then within this system, one must become an
expert on the value of each particular part. One could argue within this
context that it was not curiosity and a quest for understanding that founded
fields of study such as archeology, but rather a deep seeded insecurity
driving a search to ‘fill in the gaps’.
A priori study promotes the seeking of a body of knowledge in which to
become an expert. Study, in this case, is used to produce rules according to
which problems are solved. It provides the clarity of: yes and no, right and
wrong, or what to do, what not to do. As such, study within an a priori
framework produces two traps for design students. First: the sponge trap.
Students sense the right and wrong of the framework and they begin to cling
to those definitions. The yes’s are known and all one has to do is learn
27
Tafuri, p xxviii. This passage in the Preface is one example of Tafuri’s many
references to an architect’s need for legitimization.
28
Ibid., p 7.
163

them, absorb them, to become a “good” architect. The second trap follows
from the first: the expert trap. Students sense that the gaps in their
knowledge must be filled in before acting, before making a decision.
Becoming a “good” architect then becomes impossible. The realization
results in paralysis. In a way, one could say that a priori study disallows
insight, or rather, when it is allowed, this system cages it in a very strict
rubric, what both Tafuri 29 and Perez-Gomez 30 discuss as the self-referential
system referred to above. Often voiced as a shift from “a priori” to selfreferential,
for this argument, the two systems can both be described as a
priori and the shift is one in kind: from referencing an outside system to
referencing internally determined rules that pre-date the design process.
Figure 1. Student, Catherine Mason.
Tonal Study. Seeing through charcoal, Fall 2007.
Empirical access
Curiously, the empiricism that Perez-Gomez 31 credits with this shift, now
offers us a different point of view. In conducting the didactic relationship
29
Ibid., p xxviii.
30
Perez-Gomez, p 4. “...and composed of laws of an exclusively prescriptive
character that purposely avoid all reference to philosophy or cosmology. Theory
thus reduced to a self-referential system whose elements must be combined
through mathematical logic must pretend that its values, and therefore its
meaning, are derived from the system itself. This formulation, however, constitutes
its most radical limitation since any reference to the perceived world is considered
subjective, lacking in real value.”
31
Perez-Gomez, p 11. …but with a twist. What Perez-Gomez actually draws out for
us is that empiricism at its inception was intertwined with a priori concepts and
then was used in the attempt to proof a priori knowledge, such as mathematics.
With this distinction, the implicit irony that empiricism lead to the notion that, “any
reference to the perceived world is considered subjective, lacking in real value”
dissolves. The twist is outlined where he says, “The eighteenth century rejected
164

etween architecture, its instruction, and what it instructs, empirical study
provides us with some initial benefits. First, the basis of empirical knowledge
is sense perception. Sense perception relates directly to occupation: to the
variety of sources
and resources of phenomena within an environment and how they are
perceived by an occupant, and by the design student. Students can directly
investigate their experience of light, shadow, color, sound, temperature, and
texture. Second, with no forgone conclusion, students are allowed to build
up a point of view incrementally through their own direct investigations.
Rather than trying to hit a target, the student creates the premise. This
operation allows for the development of a “good response” rather than a
“right answer”. Third, design problems loose the digressive pull of problem
solving. Problem solving can be seen as the opposite of invention when the
student learns to see a problem as a barrier to overcome: if a wall, then a
stair. This line of thinking concretizes the problem into the solution. On the
other hand, with no pre-existing answer, the student can learn to see a
problem as a lens for viewing. Problems become the source of invention
and in the invention; they are transformed, not concretized.
Figure 2. Student, Page Carpenter.
Charcoal study. Designed observation, Spring 2008.
2) Perception sensed
Even our most spontaneous of revelations occur within a framework of
thought. As designers, we create a scaffold of resources to draw from, or
as fiction the closed geometrical systems of seventeenth-century philosophers,
but accepted Newton's empirical methods as universally valid. The influence of
Newton paved the way for the systematization and mathematization of knowledge,
a knowledge that held that immutable, mathematical laws could be derived from
the observation of natural phenomena, and that would eventually take on the form
of nineteenth-century positivism. Implicit in eighteenth century Newtonianism,
though to the modern mind it may seem thoroughly empiricist, was a Platonic
cosmology, usually complemented by some form of deism, in which geometry and
number had transcendental value and power in and of themselves.
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ather we create a medium for ourselves through which to think as we work.
This medium for beginning design students starts with active perception—
perception that they continue to shape with experience. Drawing exercises
this past fall semester were used to foster a student’s engagement with their
surroundings. Rather than operate as a passive receptor of knowledge and
information, students began to actively see the world around themselves, to
design observations. In his Illuminations, Benjamin describes how, “During
long periods of history, the mode of human sense perception changes with
humanity’s entire mode of existence. The manner in which human sense
perception is organized, the medium in which it is accomplished, is
determined not only by nature but by historical circumstances as well.” 32 In
later examples, he exposes how new technologies and media can and do
change how a society perceives its environment. “With the close-up, space
expands; with slow motion, movement is extended…. Even if one has a
general knowledge of the way people walk, one knows nothing of a person’s
posture during the fractional second of a stride. The act of reaching for a
lighter or a spoon is familiar routine, yet we hardly know what really goes on
between hand and metal, not to mention how this fluctuates with our moods.
Here the camera intervenes with the resources of its lowerings and liftings, it
interruptions and isolations, its extensions and accelerations, its
enlargements and reductions. The camera introduces us to unconscious
optics….” 33 This change in sense perception happens not only when a
society produces a new medium of production, but also when individuals
learn to see through a medium that is new to them.
32
Benjamin, p 222.
33
Ibid., at pp 236, 237.
166

Figures 3 and 4. Student, Whitney Ashley. Photo collage study and site
installation, Spring 2008.
The second twist
As students learn to see through new drawing media, their perception shifts.
Although quite separate from the final model described by Varnelis (1998),
this new medium of thought shares its roots with The Education of the
Innocent Eye. In The Genealogy of the Innocent Eye, Varnelis relays the
coining of the phrase by Ruskin and discusses how, “According to Ruskin,
this innocent transparency of vision was displaced by conventions learned
from society: ‘Having once come to conclusions touching the signification of
certain colours, we always suppose that we see what we only know, and
have hardly any consciousness of the real aspect of the signs we have
learned to interpret.’” 34 Ruskin’s “infantile sight” was one of direct perception,
unaffected by memory. Varnelis further explains that, “Ruskin emphasized
drawing perceptions rather than preconceptions of the outside world.” 35 Here
again lies a twist, the twist. For the change in sense perception sought by
Ruskin was taught, “not with direct observation but with abstract formal
lessons.” 36 If at first we began close-up to Ruskin in thinking through an
evolving sense perception, now we have been snapped away by his
“abstract formal lessons”. Next, the history draws us into Pestalozzi’s hope,
“to help children learn perceptually, by doing, not by repetition. True
understanding of an object, he believed, would be gained when the student
would measure and draw it from real life.” 37 Only to then launch us back
when Varnelis explains that, “Pestalozzi’s instructor would begin teaching
children an alphabet of geometric forms, such as lines, shapes, and angles.
The result, he believed, would be that the student would learn to observe
and represent abstractions.” 38 In Varnelis’ Genealogy, repeated whispers of
empirical study are enacted through a priori means. “By the eighties, the
visual language had become codified in a series of textbooks of principles of
architectural composition….” 39 In each case, the innocent eye leads to
abstraction. The burden of signification is not ameliorated, but again shifts in
kind.
Perception and iconic memory
34
Varnelis, p 212.
35
Ibid., at p 213.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.
38
Ibid., at pp 213, 214.
39
Ibid., at p218.
167

A second look at Ruskin’s initial call for innocence is revealing: “we always
suppose that we see what we only know, and have hardly any
consciousness of the real aspect of the signs we have learned to interpret.” 40
Here, memory and learning stand in the way of seeing. Iconic memory
stands in for direct experience. The study of memory reveals that, “We
begin the processing of a memory with encoding—the individual’s
representation of events for convenient interpretation and memory
storage….” 41 Other researchers explain, “As time passes after learning,
one’s representation of distant events loses detail through forgetting but
becomes more schematized, organized, and related to other material in
memory (Barlett, 1932) during the process of consolidation.” 42 So the helpful
abstraction that Ruskin identified as changing perception works over time
after learning. The iconic representation of an object, a shoe perhaps,
condenses over time such that as more and more shoes are observed, their
“shoeness” is abstracted into memory and one is able to know a shoe when
one sees it, even though the current shoe may be radically different than the
first shoe observed. It was a similar layer of abstract signification that
Ruskin attempted to make transparent by teaching “formal lessons” based
on an a priori understanding of form pre-abstracted for his students. In this
example the connection between a priori concepts and abstraction is twofold.
In one case, memory operates through abstraction to create a priori
knowledge, available for its next retrieval. The abstract known object is
experienced along with the perception of the actual object being observed.
In the other, Ruskin specifies that seeing is obscured by a type of vision
characterized by knowing. In his statement, one’s perception of an object or
color is abstracted by knowing what it signifies. Signification is then
subverted through the use of abstract and pre-determined formal qualities.
Both of these operations of abstraction greatly reduce the opportunity for
insight by drastically reducing the amount of ‘raw’ material available from
which to work.
The tall grass and drone of summer insects confirm a space away from the
highway and with the car well behind us, us automoblie, not automatic, we
come to a clearing.
3) The scaffolding of insight
In this example, the framework for insight is different than that ultimately
produced by the innocent eye. Rather than focusing on a system of
abstraction manifest through a requisite ‘kit of parts,’ the change in sense
40
Ruskin, p 22, after Varnelis.
41
Spear, p 11.
42
Weingartner, p 201. Squire, Cohen, and Nadel, The Medial Temporal Region and
Memory Consolidation: A New Hypothesis.
168

perception is mediated by analysis. We can now hone in on one key
difference between analytical study and iconic abstraction. Abstraction
reduces, condenses, and reorganizes information by strictly following
commonalities. All else is stripped away. On the other hand, while analysis
filters out focused information, the totality remains. This allows one to revisit
the same condition in multiple ways and to take away new information each
time.
Figure 5. Student, Sarah Dean. Multimedia texture analysis, Fall 2007. Left
to right: pencil, pen, charcoal, pastel.
For beginning design studio the scaffolding of insight was built around media
filters and study. The use of media filters began in the fall semester through
a series of direct observation drawing exercises intended to promote the
students’ engagement with the world around them as designers. Pencil,
charcoal, pen, and pastel each became a new analytical filter to think
through as students learned to use the bias of a particular medium with
intention. They learned to see with eyes that question, draw relationships,
extract conditions, and intentionally disassemble and reassemble their
environment, as they move through it. Iconic memory becomes transparent
through close, direct observation of detail. As Spear and Riccio (1994)
suggest, “…memory-as-process begins at some point in the perception
process, presumably near the end, or just afterward. It should be
understood that the issue of exactly when perception stops and memory
processing begins is difficult and not yet reconciled, if indeed it is
reconcilable.” Perhaps it is in this oscillation prior to consolidation where
insight begins to emerge.
169

As a new conscious attitude toward the site takes shape, “insight comes as
a release to the tension of inquiry.” 43 With a variety of media filters at their
disposal in the spring semester, students conducted studies to create new
knowledge gained directly from the site of their intended project. The
process moved form initial designed observations to critical research to
refined studies, all investigated directly on site. Through this study the
student collects the raw material to develop an insightful point of view.
Figure 6. Student, Zachary Stephen Line. Photo collage of glazed surfaces,
day and night. Spring, 2008.
In this case the synapses for insight, the pre-condition of the design concept,
are developed through careful study of the embedded potential for
transformation present in a given context. Analysis and study lead to insight
and synthesis.
43
Lonergan, p 4.
170

Figures 7 and 8. Student, Dena Davani. Designed observation, charcoal.
Photo collage study. Spring, 2008.
References
Benjamin, Walter (1968), Illuminations, The Work of Art in the Age of
Mechanical Reproduction, Schocken Books, New York, US. (1936)
Lonergan, Bernard, J F (1978), Insight: A Study of Human Understanding,
Harper & Row Publishers, New York, US. (1957)
Perez-Gomez, Alberto (1996), Architecture and the Crisis of Modern
Science, The MIT Press, Massachusetts, US. (1983)
Ruskin, John, (1885), The Elements of Drawing in Three Lessons to
Beginners, John Wiley and Sons, New York, US.
Spear, N and Riccio, D (1994), Memory: Phenomena and Principles, Allyn
and Bacon, Boston, US.
Tafuri, Manfredo (2006), Interpreting the Renaissance: Princes, Cities,
Architects, Yale University and Harvard University Graduate School of
Design, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US. (1992)
Varnelis, Kazys (1998), The Education of the Innocent Eye, Journal of
Architectural Education Vol 51/4 pp 212-223.
Weingartner, H and Parker, E (ed) (1984), Memory Consolidation:
Psychobiology of Cognition, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers,
Hillsdale, New Jersey, US.
171

THINKING CONSTRUCTION AS DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF
ARCHITECTURE
Radivoje Dinulovi, PhD, Ass. Prof.
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Department of Architecture and Urbanism
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
Novi Sad, SERBIA
radivoje.dinulovic@gmail.com
Dragana Konstantinovi, Assistant
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Department of Architecture and Urbanism
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
Novi Sad, SERBIA
konstan_d@yahoo.com
Miljana Zekovi, Assistant
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Department of Architecture and Urbanism
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6
Novi Sad, SERBIA
miljana_z@yahoo.com
172

Dr Radivoje Dinulovi is professor of Architectural Design and Head of
Cathedra in Architecture & Urbanism at the Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, Serbia. He was founder and director (until 2007) of
Interdisciplinary DA Studies in Scene Design at the University of Arts in
Belgrade.
He is author of over one hundred architectural and urban designs, mainly of
performing spaces, in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Macedonia, Albania and Russia.
His students received international awards and exhibited their work at the
Venice Biennial of Architecture in 2004 and Prague Quadrennial in 2007.
Dragana Konstantinovi works as a teaching assistant at Department of
Architecture and Urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad, in
Architectural Design course line. She gained her graduated engineer of
Architecture diploma at the same Department in 2003. The same year she
enrolled postgraduate Master course at Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade.
Her major field of interest involves sustainable design, environmental
technology and sustainable discourse of contemporary architecture. At
present, she is working on her Master thesis entitled Interaction of
Architecture and Environmental Technology-Development of Relations and
Interconnections in Office Building Typology.
Miljana Zekovi is a teaching assistant at the Department of Architecture
and Urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad,
Serbia. Her educational engagement refers to Architectural Design courses
and studio work with students. She took part in leading and organizing a
number of students’ workshops and other alternative forms of education.
She graduated in 2004 and is currently a student of PhD course at the
Faculty’s Architecture and Urbanism studying programme, where she
examines field of connection between architecture and other media.
173

ABSTRACT
Introduction. The main educational line developed at the Department of
Architecture and Urbanism (Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi
Sad, Serbia) consists of several Architectural Design sub lines/courses
starting at the 3 rd year of Bachelor course. Applied teaching strategy is
anticipated as a continuous knowledge upgrade. The strong emphasis is
made on personal development of architectural design brief and
understanding its importance for concept development, through
comprehension of its wider social role, specific users’ needs and overall
ideas about different levels of meaning in architecture. The complexity of
design process and its continuous evolution in nowadays practice stressed
the need for reconsideration of the architectural design education input. The
first results we get – design projects of the 3 rd year students - showed the
narrow scope of influences that reflect on design outcome. Our experience
derived from valorising students’ design projects showed that certain ideas
and skills concerning the position of available technology on design process
are not developed at all. Contemporary architectural production shows
redefined position of technology within design process where integral
approach is expected and expressive potential is outlined. That initiated idea
of expanding the Architectural Design course on the first year of studies,
by introducing the course Architectural Construction 1, that will combine
preparation of students for architectural design sub courses to come in the
higher years, by teaching them the basics of construction and service
technology, and expanding their comprehension of design process
complexity. The course will be considered as first milestone in Architectural
Design education.
Materials. The basis for course development is in depth analysis of design
projects of 3 rd year students. Although some of them show strong ability for
concept development and its basic materialization, most of them do not
consider technology as a parallel line in design idea development. The
understanding of technology, both structural and service, is reduced to
application of skills for specific construction problem solving and rare are the
cases where contemporary technology motivates design itself.
Methods. Introduction of new course anticipates development of new
teaching methodology with various models of training and learning. The
lectures will broaden the scope of the 1 st year student knowledge about
design process, while mentored studio practice will strengthen their
individual thinking capabilities and development of their own design process
methodology, through experiments, case studies, workshops and design
work.
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Results. Expected result will be monitored on both course design works
outcomes, as well as students’ design process approach and results on the
higher years of Architectural design course. The major progress is expected
in enhancement of students’ ability for creative thinking, derived from solid
knowledge base and developed design capabilities. The adoption of integral
design process will improve students’ understanding of contemporary
architectural practice.
Keywords. Architectural design; architectural construction; technology;
teaching methodology; educational upgrade.
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THINKING CONSTRUCTION AS DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF
ARCHITECTURE
Introduction
In the course of recent coordinated reforms of higher education to meet
Bologna Convention, the Department of Architecture and Urbanism Curricula
has undergone radical transformation. Beside the changes regarding
organization of education and examination process, and shift to one subjectone
semester model, this created desirable void for introduction of new
courses and serious re-evaluation of existing ones.
Architectural and Urban Design Courses are regarded as a major in the
Architectural and Urban Design Syllabus. These courses are thought
through 3 years in the four years Bachelor Degree Curriculum, and
introduced as a major of the Master by design coursework.
The complexity of design process and its redefined position in nowadays
ambiguous environment, which transforms rapidly, highlighted the need for
reconsideration of the architectural design education input. Design projects
of the 3 rd year students demonstrated the narrow scope of influences that
reflect on design outcome. Very elusive ideas and fragmented knowledge
about technology application in design process is evident in most of designs,
no matter their design value. In contemporary architectural production,
position of technology in design process is promoted, from the point of
applying technology to the point of expressing technology. This
consequently affects architectural design education methodology, which
needs to be reconsidered, and to move from traditional conception of
teaching facts about available technology to more open and inclusive one.
Given the fact that “architectural education in general and construction
education in particular has to promote the Design / Construction continuum”
(Papalexopoulos, 2006) we anticipated the idea of teaching construction as
the first milestone in architectural design education.
Facing the Challenges of Teaching Architectural Education in Serbian
Context
Main concept of the school curriculum is built environment comprehended as
a whole, with strong connection and interdependence of architectural and
urban design. Architectural Design Course has unique course organization,
delivered through continuum of three years, respectively, where each level
of the course focuses on the particular issue of the rather broad scope of the
subject. The organization of Architectural Design course thus is structured
through lectures given by course Professor and guest lecturers, and
practical classes- Design studio, which challenges practical application of
the subject thought.
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One of the main theses in teaching architectural design is importance of the
personal development of architectural design brief. By defining/ considering
brief as the essential part of design process, student’s approach to the
process itself appears to be more personal, research oriented and inclusive.
The importance of the final user, even though he is imaginary one, close
definition of his needs, attitudes and habits, renders the whole process. This
does not exclude rest of the relevant issues: development of the brief
anticipates strategies and to some point design intentions regarding form,
function, construction and technology.
Teaching architectural design in Serbian context is rather challenging on
numerous levels, even in its very basis, as is establishment of design studio.
The establishment of creative environment is not an easy task in given
space and resources of Serbian Universities. The lack of permanent studio
setting requires reinvention of creative environment for each and every
Studio class.
Also, instructor-student ratio of one to twelve is at the moment just a goal our
reform is targeting. In the time when our Universities are trying to get along
Bologna Accord, we need to explore models for the time in-between.
Design vs. Technology; Theory vs. Practice
Through formulating steps toward reforms that need to be applied we were
challenged by simple process of defining problems. Once they were clearly
stated and explained through examples (this refers mainly to students’
works) it was necessary to establish some sort of hierarchy in dealing with
them. As the main goal was to solve or to push from the bottom line all the
existing problems, it was clear that that was not possible by simple all-andnow
approach, but through strategy all-in-acceptable time.
One of the main problem occurred during the evaluation process of the first
results from Architectural Design Studio – design projects of the 3 rd year
students: the scope of considered influences on design projects was quite
reduced compared to all the forces that determine architectural design,
referring primary to newly developed technologies, constructions, structures
and materials. The design itself, although often highly ranked, showed no
connections with other potentials of architecture. This quite disturbing
problem came at the surface by dividing to groups of those students who
simply put design above all forces and showed no interest in solving problem
for real, but stayed in the secure field of concept design and those students
who simplified their design according to already familiar traditional
technologies.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 show students’ works with narrow scope of any kind of
influences on design projects – the question is: what really happens to
design when technologies “come in” because they were not considered at
the first place? These examples illustrate a kind of approach that outlines
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development of form disregarding technology. Figures 4, 5 and 6 show final
results of students’ design projects where design did not reach its full
potential, restricted with rather traditional technology students were familiar
with.
Seriousness of the problem became even deeper while searching for the
answer – if not at the 3 rd year, when does actually technology take the
initiative? Design projects results at the 4 th and 5 th year were just slightly
different, as well as the results we got from the Master design projects.
Polemics continued with further questioning about all sorts of factors that
influence students’ design process. Two main lines of influences were
outlined: the first one – quite problematic architectural production in our
circles, and the other – problem of teaching constructions and technologies
at the Faculty.
Figure 1, 2. Master design projects, (on the left) Library Extension, author: Bojana
Mikeljin, (on the right) Centre for Philosophy and Arts, author: Ivana Mikeljin
Figure 3,4. (on the left) Master design project, Mixed Use, author: Marija Dori, (on the
right) 3 rd year student design work, City Gallery, author: Mirjana Prpa
Figure 5, 6. 3 rd
year student design work, (on the left) Hobby Centre for Origami,
author: Vinja ugi, (on the right) Carpentry Hobby Centre, author: eljko Barii
178

Years of isolation, limited possibilities and resources caused a state of
immobility of Serbian architectural production. In spite of hyper production of
certain typologies in recent years, civil engineers and architects still rely on
traditional technologies and building techniques. Sadly, contemporary
architectural practice is theoretical subject matter learnt in the Architectural
Design Studio at the Faculty, while practice in our circles remains almost
completely and uninventively traditional.
While European architectural education faces problems of catching up with
the unstoppable practice - according to statement that “the gap between
education and practice has been growing as practice is evolving new forms
of inquiry counter to the traditions of architectural education” (Malecha,
2006) - Serbian problem occurs completely opposite. Our architectural
education promotes the new way of thinking and understanding architecture,
while the architectural practice and market represent barriers that we are still
not able to overcome. The main thesis of theory and practice confrontation in
both European and Serbian context exists as the problem of highest urgency
to solve, but different surroundings, political backgrounds and social
conditions brought up completely different relations and observing angles.
Technologies evolve with society’s prosperity and openness, but when
specific society gets isolated for any reasons, all factors of prosper stop
developing during that certain period of time. What attitude should education
assume in that case?
Defining strategy for teaching architectural technology
Considering that “waiting for the practice to evolve” in Serbian conditions
could be disastrous for generations of architects to come, occupied by
dealing with the Bologna platform conditions we concentrated on
reconsideration and reformation of Architectural Design and Construction
courses taught at the Faculty. As “the mode of teaching architectural
technology is not easily decided” (Cavanagh,2004) focusing both on
theoretical and practical knowledge, we initiated the idea of expanding the
Architectural Design to lower years of Bachelor course by introducing course
Architectural Constructions 1 at the first year of studying.
The 1 st year students are already acquainted with courses dealing with
architectural analysis and elements morphology. However, these courses
are not integral part of the Architectural Design course line and for this
reason hard to undergo major changes. Knowledge acquired through these
courses, although essential for students’ comprehension of function in
architecture, showed as insufficient for further design projects development.
At the other side of pre reformed program stood courses that were dealing
with constructions – Structures, Materials and Constructions, Theory of
Constructions, Structural Systems, Supporting Constructions. The main
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problem was that students’ knowledge from this field remained strictly onesided,
for some reasons useless, because it simply did not show as the
supportive influence on architectural design in their design projects. Taking
all this into consideration, we formulated the idea of teaching constructions
that need to be shift away from linear, sequential design process that is
taught in these courses.
With new Architectural Constructions 1 course we hope to establish firm
basis for understanding and applying new technologies in architectural
design and to upgrade the way of thinking architecture through all parallel
influence lines. At the other hand, Architectural Constructions 1 should
represent a sort of connection between the design process led in the studios
and all the other construction courses (taught by civil engineers) that reflect
the state of the art of Serbian practice.
By introducing this course as the fist step in the reforms that are ahead of
us, hopefully we shall establish necessary link between concept design and
final architectural design projects. Applied teaching methodology is found on
vide spectrum of teaching and learning models – from examining
contemporary architectural practice and technology, realizing the technology
and construction potential in expressing architectural form, evolving the way
of thinking and setting architectural concept, confirmation of these actions
through experiments and thematic workshops, to concrete work in studios.
This introduction into architectural design should provide us completely
different students input with the broaden understanding of all influential
forces on architectural design. The platform of continual educational upgrade
should give more competitive Master design projects of much higher quality.
Course Basis and Development
The slow changes in education methodology are much more restricted by
inadequate means but with narrow interests of participants. Our scenario for
course development involved larger groups of student, even 20 in the class,
in four hours time-format that occurs one per week. This way, the design of
the course program had to include development of each class scenario,
which will thoroughly regulate the time frame for each of the activities
planned.
Teaching construction as introduction for architectural design implied the
teaching methodology of design studio. The course lecture format was
basically oriented towards exploration of architectural concept and
comprehensive understanding of specific design issues, in this case with
emphasis on exploring the position of technology as the core and motivator
for development of a design idea. The main purpose of the students’ work in
the studio is to equip students with facts and skills and do that through
creative environment. If the “facts are knowledge in different disciplines
related to architecture in different ways (directly and contextually)…facts to
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get an overview, facts to make an association from”, and “skills are different
means of expression”, then the subject is somewhere in between these two
polarities (Bucholz, 2007). The major challenge of course syllabus
development was to evolve teaching strategy for the subject that is both
acquiring facts and developing skills. The body of facts needs to be
comprehensible to the first year student but to stimulate personal interest
and design research. Considering the fact that their skills are rather
underdeveloped, the question arises: how to implement facts by training
skills?
The main task of the students` studio exercises was to evolve architectural
design for thematic pavilions, from concept to details, where the technology
and applied construction system is embedded in design concept. This led to
the point where we had to make a certain compromise and emphasize the
importance of the process over the beauty of the artefact. This way, we
encouraged personal development of design process in early stages of
architectural education, in order to support the exploratory spirit. The
process oriented approach will change the comprehension of structural
issues, from the point where the structure is just applied “bearing solution”,
postproduction phase that does not necessary include architect, to the point
where it is integral part of design concept and solution.
Unsolved problems
“Space is evolving through design and even through the
production/construction phase” (Papalexopoulos, 2007) thus anticipating
integral approach with redefined positions of the acting influences, strongly
embedded in IT moment.
This affects architectural education and motivates our endeavours as close
participants in education process. However, few questions are fundamental
for further refinement of the strategy. If the realms of built environment are
showing traditional construction process, how far should we push the
education on construction technology? What are desirable criteria to be met,
European or Serbian? Seen from the point of education quality, these
changes are fruitful in terms of increasing our competitiveness among
European Faculties. With described changes and reforms still to come, we
shall produce architectural engineers as competitive profile for the European
market, but what happens with these “super-educated” engineers in the
realms of our domestic market? Would they be able to respond to strict
needs of investors and market that do not understand nor consider new
technologies and constructions?
Balancing knowledge base between these two extremes, we try to equip
students with facts about present state of play on the market but also train
them for creative exploration to meet the future demands. For that reason,
learning the process is a vital part of education that will “infuse structure of
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thought developed as a tool to respond to blinding change in building
materials and the technologies.”(Malecha, 2007).
The following steps to be undertaken will take us to the next stage dilemma:
if one Architectural Construction course is integrated into Architectural
Design course line, is there an interest for development of Architectural
Construction courses at all? Should we aspire to next level of integration or
preserve the existing course matrix? Perhaps, the increased number of
hours for Architectural Design course could give us desirable time-frame for
synthesis of knowledge. Even if that is the case, we believe that establishing
Architectural Design course line from the first year of studies, through
learning to “think construction”, is fundamental.
What is expected of new course is development of close and lasting
collaboration between research, practice and education that will strengthen
students’ ability to comprehend and apply facts and skills taught in the class.
This “integrated educational and research infrastructure” will also help
overcoming widely recognized and criticized detachment of architectural
education from practical realms (Riley, 2006). The future shifts in practice
could be partly generated by the firm knowledge base of nowadays students
and tomorrow’s practitioners. As for the moment, research potential is seen
in development of personal design process tool, with clear comprehension of
technological background. Resting on computer simulation we build our
strategy for future practical application, in strong belief that time when
conventional design/construction processes belonged to different phases is
far behind, and integral design and taught is the key word.
References
Bucholz, M. (2007) Why a New School of Architecture?, EAAE
News Sheet, European Association for Architectural Education, Vol. 76-
Special Issue, pp. 41-45.
Cavanagh T. (2004) Architecture, technology, and Education,
Journal of Architectural Education, Vol.58, issue 1, p.3.
Malecha M. (2007) Architectural Education in Transformation:
Evolving Toward a Third Domain of Knowledge, EAAE News Sheet,
European Association for Architectural Education, Vol. 76, special issue, pp.
21-38.
Papalexopoulos, D. (2007) Teaching Construction for the
Transformable, EAAE News Sheet, European Association for Architectural
Education, Vol. 69, June 2007, pp. 29-31.
Riley, D. (2006) Developing and Applying Green Building
Technology in Indigenous Community: An engaged approach to
sustainability education, International Journal of Sustainability in Higher
Education, Vol.7, No 2, pp. 142-157.
182

THE FIRST PROJECT (STUDIO) EXPERIENCE IN THE
URBAN PLANNING EDUCATION: THE TESTING OF A METHOD
Ahmet Melih ÖKSÜZ, Ass. Prof. Dr.
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi
ehir ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü
61080 Trabzon, TURKEY
Telephone: 00 90 462 3774070
Email: m_oksuz@ktu.edu.tr
Ahmet Melih ÖKSÜZ was born in 1961 in Trabzon, Turkey, and studied
architecture at the Karadeniz Technical University (KTÜ), where he
graduated in 1985. From 1985 he spend three years working as "designer"
for architecture firm that was called NKY partnership in Trabzon. He began
his carreer as a planning (urban and regional) in 1988. In 1997 He
completed Ph D in Department of Architecture in KTÜ. He has been working
since 1988 in the same university.
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ABSTRACT
The studio experiences in the urban planning and the architecture education
in tertiary level have shown us that students’ grasping the urban project
topics in terms of scope and content is difficult. A similar comparison to be
made among the students of the urban planning, interior architecture and
landscape architecture will give us the same conclusion. This situation may
be because urban issues include a network of relations that can not be
easily observed at first sight due to its wide-ranging scope in physical, social,
economic, and cultural…etc dimensions. For the students, the problem in
the studio is the planning of a design problem which they were unable to
comprehend. For this reason, the main purpose of the design problem
should be the step-by-step progress towards the concepts from the levels at
which students can render good comprehension of the topic, to the one at
which they are least familiar or unable to comprehend, and thus they are
made to discover these levels. This is called as induction.
Project 102 is the first studio study that has ever been made by the students
of Urban and Regional Planning Department at Karadeniz Technical
University. For such students who came from different regions of the country
and who have different cultural backgrounds and elements, an appropriate
level which they can define and comprehend must be essential. For this
reason, during the planning process of the Project 102, the “family” level
must be initiated since it can be defined and comprehended easily by the
students. This is due to the fact that Turkish people attach great importance
to the concept of family as well as the family is the smallest unit of the social
structure and the smallest planning unit in the urban planning
The family which the students imagined in a certain time and space will meet
all its needs for the urban living in their environment. This environment
follows a 3-step process that starts from the vicinity of the house, and then is
extended to a settlement area with a population of 15000.
In the first stage, a scale of 1/500 is used. At this scale, the functional and
the spatial needs of the family in the vicinity of their houses are defined, and
the students are asked to design this level in the studio atmosphere and this
level falls into the neighbouring unit in urban planning
At the second step, a scale of 1/1000 is used and primary school unit is
designed, where functional and spatial needs that have been determined by
the daily needs of the defined family are met.
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At the third step, the land use decisions of a small scale urban settlement for
nearly 15000 people are designed on a scale of 1/5000. This settlement is
the place where the defined family meets all its needs and where they live.
In all three levels that include inter-scaling transitions, the use of model
techniques for studies on a scale of 1/500 and 1/1000 as well as the use of
drawing techniques is required.
With the project under study, the adaptation process was observed to have
been fairly easy and nearly all the students made a good start. In the studies
with scales of 1/1000 and 1/5000 the general progress is as expected. When
viewed in terms of the achievement in the progress level, every student
made an achievement in different levels based on their own backgrounds,
skills and perceptions.
Finally, building the design in terms of definition, comprehension,
identification and control, and discovering the unknown spaces as the
knowledge increases all seem to be a safer and more reliable way for the
students who have only recently began their design and planning education.
Keywords: Planning Education, Planning Studio, Firs Project Experience,
Inductive method
185

THE FIRST PROJECT (STUDIO) EXPERIENCE IN THE URBAN
PLANNING EDUCATION: THE TESTING OF A METHOD
The discipline of Urban and Region Planning is relatively a newer profession
or expertise than the architecture and the other disciplines. This new
discipline has gradually broadened in terms of content and scope so as to
include various dimensions in a long period of time from the early designbased
physical planning forms to the modern social, economic, cultural
dimensions etc. (Branch, 1981). Recently, radical criticisms have been
directed to the scope and the content of the planning in terms of city, region,
rural and space, and the participant and advocacy planning dimensions etc.
have been discussed for a certain time.
The most important point where city and urban planning students or
graduates differ from the architecture is that they are working on planning or
design problems which are based on a broader scale (Frank, 2006).
On the other hand, the studio experiences that we gained in architecture and
urban and regional planning departments showed that the understanding of
planning studios, in particular by the students, is more difficult. When a
similar comparison among other departments such as interior architecture
and landscape architecture are made, it can be said that the same is the
case. This is because planning topics are more comprehensive in terms of
content, scope, and scale. Since the planning and design problems include a
system of relations that can not be comprehended at first sight in the urban
and regional planning education, its structure is not concrete enough to be
comprehended at first sight in the early stages of the design. For this reason,
the approach to be followed in the studio education must be strong enough
to solve these problems. Moreover, such general benefits as developing
various methods for solving the design and planning problems, and thus
gaining experience are all expected. (Kulolu at al. 2001; Asasolu at al.
2002)
The Significance of the First Project in the Planning Education
While the construction of the studios that are vital for urban and regional
planning is important in terms of planning education to be given, the
construction of the first studio in particular is important since it represents the
first stage of the planning education and profession. Through this first project
experience it becomes possible to melt all the students who come from the
various parts of the country and who have different knowledge, skills, and
cultures in the same pot, and thus enable them to take up this profession
through a soft adaptation period. This is what makes the first experience
different than others.
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A reasonable number of students chose a profession with no adequate
knowledge about it whatsoever quite often as was the case for many other
students in their university education. On the other hand, they lack adequate
knowledge to be able to express themselves in written and orally in their
profession. For this reason, the first project in urban and regional planning
teaches the students, on the one hand, the boundaries of the profession as
was the case in architecture, and on the other hand, it teaches them all the
necessary basic presentation techniques for their profession and, thus giving
them opportunities for practice.
The students are offered Basic Design course and Communication and
Presentation Techniques in the Planning course until they complete the first
term during which time they carry out their projects.
The Construction of the First Project in Planning
Project 102 is the first project study that was done by the department of
Urban and Regional Planning students. The main purpose of the project is
the develop students” ability to start from a level in which they can identify,
comprehend, and control the process, and this level will well fit into the
students ability to cope, and then progress through more difficult levels step
by step, thus developing the ability to cope with more complex problems.
This is an inductive reasoning method, just opposite to the opening the
Russian matruska each time and only to come up with a new and smaller
matruska. This overlaps with the hierarchical staging in the planning from a
single central (focus) house to the entire city.
The main purpose of the construction of the project in the first place is the
family. The reason for this is that Turkish people attach great importance to
the family and the students, similarly, have great interest on the family
concept and values. Moreover, family is the core of the social structure and
the house, as the spatial reflection of this concept, is the smallest physical
spatial planning unit.
First of all, all students were asked to define the family. The concept of
family to be defined is the one that each student constructed individually and
that lives for a certain time in a certain place. The number of the members in
the family, life style and environment, relations in and out, economic
situation, culture, belief etc. are the dimensions to be defined by the
students. This family concept may be utopia, idealized or an ordinary one.
The students are to define the family as detailed as possible and do this in
written form. The project is developed step by step from the close
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environment of the house to a small city within the framework of the
neighbourhood, and primary school design or planning.
The Studio process is an ever increasing three-step process and accounts
for the use of the term (15 weeks) in three steps as well as for the three
steps in terms of scope, content, and the scale. (Figure 1)
1/50 1/1000 1/5000
(I) Family-based easily comprehensible
level (Small neighbourhood unit)
(II) The level more difficult to be
Comprehended (Primary school unit)
(III) Abstract level (Small city)
Figure 1. Three-Step Representation of the Project in Terms of Scope, Content and
Scale
The family that was constructed by the student will meet its needs for urban
life from the closest environment to the entire environment of the city. The
environment where the needs are met are composed of small
neighbourhood units, primary school units and urban settlement units of
1500 people and predetermined planning units, and these students are
made to discover these scales through the needs of the families of their own
construct. (Figure 2)
I.
ST
EP
II.
ST
EP
III.
ST
EP
SCOPE
Small
Neighbourhoo
d Unit
Primary school
unit
Small city with
a population of
1500
POPULATIO
N
THE
NUMBER OF
HOUSE UNIT
AREA
(Ha)
300-600 Max. 150 ~ 0.40
3500-5000 300-400 ~ 30
15000 2000-3000 ~ 600
SC
AL
E
1/5
00
1/1
000
1/5
000
Figure 2. The Proposed Scope and Scale for Every Step
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The study topics were previously prepared as the parts of a whole and given
to the students at the beginning of every step. There are some similar points
in every step that is followed. (Figure 3) First of all students, in their level
(small neighbourhood, primary or small city) try to determine what kinds of
spatial needs of the families they can meet on the basis of the families they
constructed. Later, they search for this information from the literature and
then the responsible instructors complete these processes by giving a
general lecture on the topics. Here, daily, weekly, monthly, or seasonal
needs and the spatial needs are discussed with the guidance of the
responsible instructors. The functions to serve for the designed level are all
evaluated in terms of their sizes, standards, the functionalities, the distance,
availability etc. and ideal solutions are found within the planning and design
activities in the studio. All the naturally and physically limiting factors such as
elevation of the land, valley, flora, and season are all considered as much as
possible in the discussions and thus students’ awareness towards them are
increased.
Figure 3. Proposed Functional Construction for Each Step
In the project three study teams made up of nine people each were prepared
on the basis of department facilities and the number of students and every
study group was given a instructor with a PhD degree and a research
assistant. These instructors changed their groups in every step of the
research and in this way they were given the opportunity to meet all the
students and in this way, a classroom auto control mechanism was created.
Another regulation that made this mechanism possible and that paved the
way for the sharing of information is the establishment of juries that were
attended by all the teachers and students alike.
Juries are places where learning takes place more than usual and when the
students are questioned as to what and how much they learned (Webster,
2007). This period can be considered as an opportunity for the students to
get rid of their shortcomings and to step up. At the same time, they have the
opportunity to reflect all their knowledge and skills.
189

I. Step
In this step, the students think of the expectations of the defined families
from their close environment and design it on the basis of family needs. The
study is carried out in studio with drawings with a scale of 1/500 and with a
model. Here, the students seize the opportunity to learn how to use spatial
properties in the close environment of the houses, the design principles of
the recreational areas, their standards, spatial organization of the street and
urban spaces, pedestrian crossings and car park arrangements, and the
texture of the houses. They also develop their ability to arrange and design.
Moreover, they are given visual presentation techniques through the
drawings and models. Below are some of the examples about the project.
(Figure 4)
II. Step
In this step, the students see that their house group design is the part of a
larger group. Discussing the needs of the family again at this level, they
redesign the spatial arrangement in primary school level on the basis of the
information obtained in the discussions. This stage is the one during which
1/1000 scale is used and it is carried out both by drawings and by models.
Daily uses are questioned and the spatial organizations of the primary
school, trade, health, and social, sport and park areas are done and car
parks are arranged. (Figure 5)
I. STEP DRAWINGS AND MODEL SAMPLES
Plan 1/500 Model 1/500
Ferda Yazıcıolu (Student)
190

ehriban Gökçe (Student)
Betül Maden (Student)
brahim Kılıç (Student)
Figure 4. Neighbouring Unit and Model Samples from the First Step
191

II. STEP DRAWINGS AND MODEL SAMPLES
Plan 1/1000 Model 1/1000
Ferda Yazıcıolu (Student)
ehriban Gökçe (Student)
Betül Maden (Student)
192

Merve Yava (Student)
Figure 5. Primary School Settlement Unit Planning Samples Prepared in the 2 nd Step.
III. Step
The third step is the minor settlement level. Here, the student proposes the
entire urban house accessories to be needed at this level, their properties,
and sizes on the basis of needs and functions. While doing this, they are
expected to use and reinterpret natural and artificial spatial data. At this
scale, the general decisions such as central trade, education, health
recreational areas for settlement and transportation systems are designed or
planned detail. (Figure 6)
III. STEP DRAWINGS AND MODEL SAMPLES
Plan 1/5000
Ferda Yazıcıolu (Student) ehriban Gökçe (Student)
193

Betül Maden (Student) Merve Yava (Student)
Figure 6. Small City Settlement Unit Planning Samples in the Third Step
Benefits
The aim of the first project experience in the department of Urban and
Regional Planning is to create an atmosphere in which the students will
easily adapt to the education and the profession successively, and while
doing so, they will be equipped with all the necessary initial knowledge of the
field. The benefits to be reaped in this context are as follows;
* To inform about the settlement and the structure of the city.
* Teaching the relative relations of the house and its close environment,
primary school unit, and the settlements in cities with low scales and making
them realize the hierarchical relation between them and the settlement
systems.
* Giving theoretical and practical information about functional areas in each
proposed level, their properties, standards, and the arrangement principles,
and thus improving the skills of using this information.
* Bringing awareness for the natural and artificial data that can direct the
design and the planning in each level, and enabling them to use these data
in making design and planning decisions.
* Teaching the drawing techniques that are used in different levels like
1/500, 1/1000 and 1/5000
* Developing 1/500 and 1/1000 land and settlement model techniques
* Gaining them skills towards the presentation and oral defence of the
studies.
* Learning the managing time and the project process
Discussion
The studio study carried out here has been planned as the part of a whole
and it is in line with the basic principles (TUPOB, 2005) that are accepted by
the Planning Departments all throughout the Turkey and which is in
accordance with the teaching program of the Urban and Regional Planning
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of Karadeniz Technical University. The coordinators of the project completed
their university in architecture department, and continued their PhD in Urban
Planning. Many of them carry out works in studios both as architects and
planners. For this reason, the method to be followed here may be close to
the one in architecture. However, the number of educators who are in the
Planning departments in Turkey but who had an Architectural education
background can not be underestimated (Uzel 1989).
Although today the alienation of planning from architecture in terms of both
application and education is discussed widely, in the emergence of urban
planning and its further development, the contribution of Architecture can not
be denied. Urban planning has a multidisciplinary area and has strong
relations with other disciplines, the most important being the Architecture
discipline (Frank 2006). This brings variety and richness to the methods that
are used by urban planning.
On the other hand, another topic under discussion is the concept of
neighbourhood unit that is used in the planning of building areas and this
concept is the subject of studio in the Architecture education (Soygeni and
Kırı, 2007). Since the first day this concept was proposed, it has been for
several times reinterpreted despite the critism directed to it and has been
used as a valid planning argument (Biddulp 2007; American Planning
Association, 2006; Hester 1975; Carmona at al. 2003; Wolfe 1987; Barton
and Tsourou 2000).
The obtained results have been found to be satisfactory by the project
coordinators. The project process is seen as a dynamic and uninterruptible
period and the process is sensitive to the any possible interruption. Readaptation
becomes harder each time when there is a break during the
project process.
Although the project process seems at first a strict and inevitable program
there may be some flexibility involved in the proposition of study areas
particularly. Since the defined family will live in the future too, it becomes
possible to include some utopian elements to the process. The preparations
to be made by the students, the route and the methods to be followed have
been formed so as to make the project process more flexible and rich. From
this point of view, the process makes it possible to reconstruct itself on the
basis of new developments in the world.
During the project process, such criticism as there are many subjects and
they are all based on concrete data and this will limit the creativity of the
students may be justified to a certain degree. But here the students are
195

expected the get as much information as possible, believing that the degree
of self development is infinite. For this reason, the knowledge of the
students, their enthusiasm for learning, and the effort they put determined
the scope and the width of the project process. Though there is a need for
providing those students with minimum knowledge and skills, there is no a
prerequisite for the maximum level of knowledge and this is determined
entirely by the student population.
On the other hand, the planning area is different than architecture and other
design areas in terms of the methods and materials it uses. This is why, in
the project studies during the planning education, the use of concrete
knowledge such as social, economic, and natural take place inevitably
earlier than the other professional education areas. The shortness of the
education period may be a factor behind this.
Conclusion
The results of the first project experience shows that the products and the
performance put forward by the students for all the three steps were
successful. Here, it can be said that starting the project with two familiar
subjects, these being the family and house, eased the adaptation period.
The end products that freshman Planning students produced in every step of
the project in terms of comprehension, understanding, and developing a
planning plan of the settlement were surprisingly successful. Here the true
success will be understood only after the data obtained is used in the future.
For this reason, there is a need for more time to understand the true benefits
of the process to the students
Thorough the questions to be asked to the students on the issue, the
evaluation of the project will be done, feedback, project time, and program
will be revised.
The change in the project process and in the planning should not only be
dependent on feedback from the students. The reflection of developments in
the planning to the education becomes possible only through adapting them
to the new developments as well as flexibility. The applied program for the
first project study in the Urban and Regional Planning seems like to be
adaptable to the new developments.
From the Author: In the construction and arrangement of this studio work I
would like to offer many thanks to the below mentioned persons; Dr. Dilek .
Beyazlı, Dr. Yelda A. Türk, Research Assist. Sanem Ö. Turan, Research
Assist Zeynep Niyazolu, Research Assist. Mesut Yeiltepe and thanks to
Mesut Yeiltepe for the photos of the 1/1000 scale models.
196

References
American Planning Association, (2006), Planning and Urban Design
Standards, John Wiley & Sons, Canada
Asasolu, A., Kulolu, N., Öksüz, A. M. ve Cordan, Ö., (2002), Tasarım
Eitiminde Balam: Amasya Örnei, Yapı Dergisi, Vol 244, pp 62-69
Barton, H., and Tsourou, C., (2000), Healty Urban Planning, Spon Press,
USA and Canada
Biddulp, M., (2007), Introduction to Residential Layout, Elsevier, Great
Britain
Branch, M., (1981), Continuous City Planning Integrating Municipal
Management and City Planning, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, New-York
Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oc, T., Tiesdell, S., (2003), Public Places Urban
Spaces, Elsevier, Oxford, UK
Wolfe, C., R., (1991), Streets Regulating Neighbourhood Form: A Selective
History, Ed. Moudon, A., V., (1991), Public Streets for Public Use, Columbia
University Press, USA
Frank, A, L., (2006), Three Decades of Though on Planning Education,
Journal of Planning Literature, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp 15
Hester, R., (1975), “Neighbourhood Space”, the Urban Design Reader, Ed.
Larice, M., and Macdonald, E., (2007), Routledge, Canada
Kulolu, N., Cordan, Ö., Öksüz, A. M., and Asasolu, A., (2001), “Context” in
Design Education: Amasya as a Case Study, Traditional Environments in a
New Millennium Defining Principles and Professional Practise, Second
International Symposium of IAPS-CSBE Network on, Amasya, Turkey, June
20-23
Ochsner, J, K., (2000), Behind the Mask: A Psychoanalytic on Interaction in
the Design Studio, Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp194-
206
Soygeni, S., Kırı, ., M., (2007), Architectural Design Studio: A Case Study
For a Context-Conscious Approach, LIVENARCH III Contextualism in
197

Architecture, 3. International Congress, Proceedings Volume 3, Trabzon,
Turkey, pp 875-881
TUPOB (2005), TUPOB Türkiye Planlama Okulları Birlii 1. Koordinasyon
Toplantısı Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Buluması, TMMOB ehir Plancıları
Odası Yayını, stanbul
Uzel, A., (1989), Türkiye’de Planlama Eitiminin Niteliksel ve Niceliksel
Durumu, Planlama Dergisi, TMMOB ehir Plancıları Odası Yayını, Vol. 2-3-
4, pp 22-24
Webster, M., (2007), The Analytics of Power Re-Presenting the Design Jury,
Journal of Architectural Education, pp21-27
198

FIRST CLASS / FIRST PROJECT:
TO RAISE INQUIRY ABOUT DESIGN THROUGH MAKING
Stephen Allan TEMPLE, Architect and Ass. Prof.
University of Texas San Antonio
( H ) 210 805-8833
( W) 210 458-3023
Email: stemple@utsa.edu
199

ABSTRACT
Introduction: Researchers at Kansas State University analyzed course
evaluations and found that 85% of students decide about a class in its first
two hours, making crucial that the first design class captivate students’
imaginative inquiry. This paper proposes a hands-on in-class design project
and review as a substantive, stimulating first class / first project following the
notion that, “Learning begins at the fingertips.” Making is serious play that
simultaneously engages abstract conceptualization as our embodied
consciousness is involved with a task at hand. Making renders a total
embrace of sensual engagement, haptic engagement, mental engagement,
and imaginary engagement as decisions are made as a measure of the
resistance of materials. Making is activated thinking.
Materials: project: given a stone half the size of your fist and one meter of
tie-wire, design and construct an orderly support for the stone one fist from
the desk surface. Use no tools. Ten
minutes. Follow-up project is to design and make a “place” for a stone
substituting paper for wire retaining the “concept” of the orderly support.
Methods: Review of projects through cooperative inquiry, is shaped as
critical discourse that flushes out forms of observation (comparison,
grouping, differences, etc.) and forms of process, both invented and
discovered, in the context of conceptions and preconceptions (heuristics,
exploration, imaging, iterations, etc.). Students do most of the talking, from
the prompt, “how shall we talk about these design projects?”
Results: Opening dialog about design is critical to stimulating student
inquiry about design from the very first moment. The first project raises
questions from the personal immediacy of design decision-making. These
inquiries are a seed planted in the potential of each students design agenda.
Conclusions: This project precisely opens and prefigures issues of design
as the content of the individual design inquiry that is the body of the course.
Simultaneous concrete engagement and critical inquiry, making is design in
immediacy. Raising dialog between thinking and doing breaks a tendency to
preconception and acts of making are a transformative agent that empowers
more abstract design inquiry.
Key words: first project, making, materials, design inquiry, creativity
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FIRST CLASS / FIRST PROJECT:
TO RAISE INQUIRY ABOUT DESIGN THROUGH MAKING
Introduction - The First Day of Studio is an Opportunity to Design
Researchers at Kansas State University have analyzed course evaluations
and course structures and found that 85% of students decide about a class
in its first two hours, making it extremely important that the first design class
immediately captivates students’ imaginative inquiry and sets in place
curiosities that can sustain design engagement. Designing, as a creative
act, is an emergent, developmental interaction between exploration,
discovery, decision making, and the search for intentions, during which there
occurs a simultaneous transformation of the self. The first design course is a
journey and the first day is its beginning, and it should arrive as meaningfully
as its potential to be life changing and life affirming. In this way it is not about
the objects of design but the processes of design and one’s engagement in
them. Much is at stake.
One of the most difficult tasks in teaching design to new students is
developing in them an awareness of the processes necessary to the design
act and to value these processes as both essential and present in all the
built environment and its objects. Almost all of today’s students enter
beginning design courses out of touch with the fact that it is by way of design
processes that objects are brought into the world and a great many hold a
preconception that designing involves a kind of grand inspiration with little or
no developmental stages. Entering design students also possess little
feeling for materials, material qualities, or the constructedness of things.
Having a design project on the first day begins an initial design course with
designing itself. Thus a door can be opened. My claim is that immediate
creative inquiry can transgress the aforementioned experiential boundaries
and preconceptions and incubate inquisitiveness for design.
This essay proposes a hands-on in-class design project and its immediate
critical review as a substantive and stimulating first project in the first class in
lieu of any other form of exercise, certainly in substitution of reading the
syllabus. Following the notion that, “Learning begins at the fingertips,” the inclass
project is produced in full-scale, in direct contact with actual (nonrepresentational)
materials. Making is serious play that simultaneously
engages abstract conceptualization as our embodied consciousness is
involved with a task at hand. Making renders a total embrace of sensual
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engagement, haptic engagement, mental engagement, and imaginary
engagement as decisions are made as a measure of the resistance of
materials. Making is activated thinking. 1 Making engages creative thinking
as novel processes emerge from the divide between material and mental
exploratory possibility. 2 Direct experience is an enactment and
transformation of the brain and thereby new ways of thinking are formed. 3
Making renders a connection of the self to the world through heuristic
processes of material realization and the emergence of creative intentions
toward the work of design. 4 The intention of the first project is to reach
students as they connect to the world through materially realizing design
intentions in first hand exploration and through design discourse. In reaching
them this way they have a core experience of design and the methods of the
entire course from which they can begin to develop and build their own basis
for design decision-making and methodologies.
Project Description:
In the first class period students are put to task directly on the design project.
The syllabus is handed out at the end of class and is discussed in the
second-class period. The project proceeds by giving each student a stone
about half the size of the fist and a length of reinforcing bar tie wire about
one meter long. Students are then told to “design and construct an orderly
support for the stone one fist from the desk surface.” They cannot use tools.
Incidentally, tie wire is coated with a thin film of oil, so students can
experience the residue of making directly on their hands - many of them
thought that designers do not get dirty so a preconceived hindrance to
accessing design process is immediately dashed. There is a ten-minute
time frame for completion of the project, although most students announce
they are complete within five or six minutes. (See Figure 1) The method of
design education employed here is to design/make and then discuss, and
then design/make again, following a logic of developmental learning theory -
to experience and then reflect on that experience. 5 At the completion of ten
minutes time, students are instructed to place all their projects on a single
tabletop and
to gather
around for a
discussion.
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Methodology
Discussion of projects students have designed/made is a typical pedagogical
structure of the studio course, that is, experience followed by critical
reflection on experience. Cooperative inquiry through discussion is critical to
development of a studio culture. Students may have shared techniques or
even stolen each other’s ideas during the design and making of their work
but cooperative critical discourse will liquefy these indulgences into a
solution of new inquiries. Discussion of this project begins by simply asking
the students their opinion of the objects on the table. “How shall we talk
about these design projects?” The instructional methodology is to get
students to raise issues rather than instructors telling what to think or look
for. A conversation, a discourse about design, may then ensue from a
direction chosen by students. This has the effect of personalizing the
discourse and allows students to be free to use their own vocabulary rather
than attempt erudite concepts.
Since some 20 projects are collected on the tabletop, students can
visually scan all of the projects. This is a ploy on the part of the instructor to
allow comparison of other projects to their own but rarely is there a first
comment recognizing this comparison. Rather, the first comments typically
spring from the attractiveness or captivating qualities of one or two of the
works in relation to its lacking in the others as a whole. This is often an
appreciation of creative novelty - expressively curved wire or unexpected
shapes or associations with known forms like animals. This behavior is
playful adaptation to the uncertainty they feel in the lack of clear direction for
discussion, so they attempt humor to break the ice, so to speak. They will
also readily refer to what they “like” or prefer on a personal level. Personal
preference is something of a “negative” category, in that it usually leads very
broad categories (“I like circles”) and to little substantive discussion. But it is
important to have this discourse with new students of design for two
reasons, both of which lead to greater substance. It allows for the students
to feel good about what they have done so they are anxious for more and
are not disinterested. Secondly it allows the issues of personal taste and the
appreciation of the superficial to be purged amiably from deeper inquiry.
A more substantive discussion of the design projects typically
follows from a student comments that points out similarities between two or
more projects. A comparative analysis easily flows into the raising of
categories of criteria to judge the differences between the two designs.
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Categories that emerge from the ensuing discussion flush out primary
decisions that had to be made just to make the project. How many
alternative ways are there to combine a rock and a length of wire? If the
rock is placed on top of a wire shape then this is the making of a “base,” or
pedestal for the object. If the rock has wire wrapped around it then the
construction becomes more integrated. The rock can be hung from a cradle
extending above the rock and back to the table surface. Some have
constructed a foil to the mass and weight of the rock in the form of an
enclosed shape in proximity to the rock. There are countless variations but
only a few alternatives, which is a lesson that is pointed out. Additionally,
comparison can be used to describe nuances that cause one variation to be
more interesting or raise more questions than another.
The rare student will hang the rock off the edge of the table. What
can be brought to light here is a rethinking of the nature of the design
problem in a form of problem-seeking. While dispensing with the
conventional on the table solution a project hanging from the edge seeks to
redescribe the issues being addressed and redefine issues like gravity and
table surface. Hanging is a direct reference to gravity. A table is more than
just a surface. In fact, a surface is an infinite two-dimensional surface until its
edge is recognized. And the wire form necessary to hang the rock at the
edge either makes a gesture of grabbing and thereby specifying the
thickness of the edge or it performs a miracle of balance in hanging
precariously.
It is at this point that the source of their design ideas comes into
question in the form of the survey, “How many of you designed your orderly
support by first having an image in your head?” Typically about 70% of the
class will raise their hands. Then it is asked, “How many did it another
way?” so as not to ask a leading question. Most of the remaining group will
talk about playing with the wire, exploring its qualities to see what it can do
while the others will talk about wrapping the wire around the rock in an effort
to discover a relationship between the two materials. I lively debate can
follow about exploration versus visualization versus conceptualization as a
reasonable and inspiring beginning of design activities.
The issue of workmanship is usually raised after issues of form are
exhausted and is typically derived from a project wishing to emulate a solid
geometry. A cube or prism or cylinder takes shape but does not “look right,”
due to some distortion in the form or kinkiness in the wire or lack of precision
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of a corner. The discussion of the category of workmanship can usually be
directed to the realization of the design intentions in the form of the lack of
precision in form or material, ala David Pye’s discourse. In other projects, the
materials are being forced by an idea into a form for which the material is
unsuitable. In still others, the detailed resolution of the materials is lacking
and refinement of the means of construction is necessary or the student is
urged to again explore the potential qualities of the materials.
Results
If design is the raising of questions, to answer questions with more
questions, especially about design activities themselves, seems precisely
the first lessons needed. Critical discussion is the opening of dialog about
design and it is critical to stimulating inquiry about design from the very first
day. The first project on the first day raises questions from the personal
immediacy of one’s own design decision making as a seed planted in the
potential of one’s own design agenda. Additionally, the seeking of greater
inquiry, even answers to inquiries, can drive personal inquiry as well as how
one’s own basic desires might fit into design studio culture as well as the
broader context of the culture of design.
The first project introduces many fundamental ideas both through doing the
project and in reflecting on it through discussion. Design is a process,
whether heuristic or conceptual or emergent from exploration or other
means. It is revealed that design creativity is a form of decision-making and
not just a grand or momentary inspiration for which one must wait.
Introduced is the notion that design is an iterative process, developmental
and emergent, and at its outset it involves uncertainty and ambiguity of
direction. Therefore by necessity it involves vision. If design can be defined
as process what then is the product of design? And what are the nature of
design ideas - conception vs. discovery vs. developing or finding ideas as
they emerge. Design is introduced as a way of thinking. Clearly the
juxtaposition of the divergent ideas and forms of this simple rock and wire
project illustrates that a way of thinking is embedded in a designer and must
be drawn out and developed and clarified in material form. And it can be just
as easily revealed or obscured by design decisions. Design raises
questions. Design is a form of inquiry about things that are very basic and
also about concepts that are uniquely human and spiritual in nature. After all,
what is a rock?
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Design is also a form of creative production and this first project can
point out many of issues necessary to creativity. Many students have
difficulties coping with the freedoms of creativity, though it is not likely that
students with these propensities can be determined from one design
experience. The creative path of design necessarily involves our perceptions
and experiences in the world and is manifest though our interest and
curiosity. Creative design must be incubated through convergent thinking
and problem seeking to develop a richness of impressions and fascination
with possibilities. Creation also involves divergent thinking and is excited by
openness and tolerance for uncertainty and taking chances. A creative
person cannot be afraid to be wrong and so design leads to being prepared
to be wrong. Design needs to be verified in comparison to an understanding
of norms in order for it to contain the novelty necessary to creative projects.
Design must be communicated, with its process being made available. A
designer must develop the ability to risk being laughed at and must
anticipate it in order to control it. And finally a design must survive
evaluation for effectiveness & relevance, for design, in its audaciousness,
connects us to the world of objects and to the world of others. 6
Conclusion
The “Orderly Support for a Rock” project is delivered in the initial class to
precisely open and prefigure issues of design as the content of the individual
design inquiry that is the body of the course. The initial design class
becomes an experiential microcosm of design activities and of the structure
of design studio methodology. Making is design in immediacy.
Simultaneously concrete engagement and critical inquiry, making raises
iterative dialog between thinking and doing and thus breaks tendencies to
preconception that shortchange design processes. More importantly, acts of
making are a transformative agent that empowers the more abstract design
inquiry that will be necessary as one moves through design education.
Finally, if learning design engages emergent creative activities that
encourage student self-development as a search for one’s own intentions
toward design, then making something as the first project (and the entire
content of the first course) begins this process in intimate connection of what
is immediately, and literally, in the hands of the student him/her self.
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Notes
1. Temple, Stephen. Design through Making: a Pedagogy for
Beginning Architectural Design. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt
Publishing Company. 2007
2. Sawyer, R. Keith, Vera John-Steiner, Seana Moran, Robert J.
Sternberg, David Henry Feldman, Howard Gardner, Jeanne
Nakamura, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Creativity and Development
(Counterpoints: Cognition, Memory, and Language). Oxford
University Press. 2003.
3. Caine, R. N. and Caine, G. Unleashing the Power of Perceptual
Change: The Potential of Brain-Based Teaching. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1997.
4. Sawyer, R Keith, et al. 2003
5. The follow-up project is to design and make another wire/stone
support, followed by a third “place” for a stone substituting paper for
wire while retaining the design “concept” of the orderly support.
6. For elaboration see, Cropley, A.J. “Fostering Creativity in the
Classroom: General Principles.” Creativity and Development.
Sawyer, R. Keith, Vera John-Steiner, Seana Moran, Robert J.
Sternberg, David Henry Feldman, Howard Gardner, Jeanne
Nakamura, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Oxford University Press. 2003.
Bibliography
Bruner, Jerome S. Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge Mass:
Harvard University Press. 1966.
Caine, R. N. and Caine, G. Unleashing the Power of Perceptual Change:
The Potential of Brain-Based Teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1997.
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Creativity New York: HarperCollins; 1996.
207

Hoare, Carol (Editor) Handbook of Adult Development and Learning. Oxford
University Press, New York. 2006.
Johnson, Steven. Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities,
and Software. New York; Scribner. 2001.
Lawson, Bryan. How Designers Think: The Design Process Demystified.
Fourth Edition. Architectural Press, 2005.
Runco, Mark A. (ed.) The Creativity Research Handbook, Volume One.
Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press. 1997.
Sawyer, R. Keith, Vera John-Steiner, Seana Moran, Robert J. Sternberg,
David Henry Feldman, Howard Gardner, Jeanne Nakamura, Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi. Creativity and Development (Counterpoints: Cognition,
Memory, and Language). Oxford University Press. 2003.
Temple, Stephen. Design through Making: a Pedagogy for Beginning
Architectural Design. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt Publishing Company.
2007
Tomporowski Philip D. The Psychology of Skill. Praeger: London. 2003.
208

FLEXIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR SMALL SPACES IN SPATIAL DESIGN
TEACHING
Didem BEDÜK TUNCEL, ASST.PROF.
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University
Faculty of Architecture
Department of Interior Architecture
Meclis-i Mebusan Cad. No:24 34427
Fındıklı /STANBUL/TURKEY
TEL: +90 212 2521600/269
GSM:+90 543 9274066
E-MAIL: beduk@msu.edu.tr
E-MAIL: dbeduk@yahoo.com
Hande Z. ALTINOK, R.ASST
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University
Faculty of Architecture
Department of Interior Architecture
Meclis-i Mebusan Cad. No:24 34427
Fındıklı/STANBUL/TURKEY
TEL: +90 212 2521600/269
GSM:+90 535 4133590
E-MAIL: hande1@msu.edu.tr,
E-MAIL: handeicmimar@yahoo.com
209

Didem BEDÜK TUNCEL
• Ph.D. in Interior Architecture, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Faculty
of Architecture, (MSGSU), 2003, “Information/Communication Age and
Interior Design”
• MSc. in Interior Architecture, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Faculty
of Architecture, (MSGSU), 1998, “An Approach to the Design Principles of
Inner City Hotel Restaurants and Applications in Istanbul”
• B.Sc. in Interior Architecture, Bilkent University, Department of Interior
Architecture and Environmental Design, 1994
• Still works as an assistant professor at MSGSU, Department of Interior
Architecture teaching classes of Spatial Design, Introduction to Design,
Elements of Design and Project.
• Speaks Turkish (mother language), English (advanced)
Hande Z. ALTINOK
• M.Sc. in Interior Design, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University
(MSGSU), 2007 Thesis: “The Influence Of The Concept Of Flexibility Arising
From Uncertainty On Residential Interiors And Fittings”
• B.Sc. in Interior Design, MSU, 2004
• Still works as a research assistant at MSGSU, Department of
Interior Architecture
• Speaks English (intermediate), German (beginner)
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ABSTRACT
Humans have created housing and humans mostly stand in the middle of
uncertain situations in their lives where they must decide or react in a certain
way. When we handle this stuation from the point of interior architect and
designer, we can not say that is possible to have a complete knowledge
concerning how our decisions effect the space during the housing design.
This uncertainty brings out the flexibility concept related to the thought that
there can only be choices, but not a fixed solution for future uses.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The flexibility in space concept showed differences along the history. Users
have formed their housings depending on the period and the progressions of
the political, economical, social properties and the tecnology of that period.
Specifically if we think that most of the housing users consist of families, it is
realized how the flexibility concept for the housing design needs to be able to
adopt to growing and changing activities during all life period.
Today interior and fittings that can respond to a unique function are changing
into multi-functional elements. Users wants flexibility in his house. It is
considered the indoors that can support dimensional changes, user
changes, technology changes by means of using flexible structure and
flexible space will increase in the near future. So it is necessary that the
designer candidates should gain the consciousness of performing flexible
designs in their training.
In the spacial design lesson of the interior architecture training in MSGSU,
the projects taken place are based on the establishment of dynamic
solutions that can answer the changes of the measures in the fields like
social, aesthetic, economic housing designs in consequence of social
changes. The approaches used for the flexibility in the interior design are
categorized under the main topics in planing, structural system, installation
distribution, dividing inner walls and fitting elements’ flexibility. The students
relating with the flexibility concept supported by this theoretical data
commenced with their first sketch studies depending on the current structural
system and user features in the housing plan given equivalent to that of 50
m. It is required to be met with maximum requirements in minimum spaces
for the housing to be designed for the family consisting of adult individuals
mother and father and two children. The answer is discussed for the
question of “how can I change the use of housing into a more functional
attitude” especially in the small houses.
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As can be seen in the student projects presented in the study, the flexibility
in the housing inner space can be achieved also by the freedom of spaces
as may be performed by the multifunctionality of the fittings. The aim for both
approaches is to establish empty spaces which users can form for their
requirements rather than trying to handle the housing as an organization
prepared previously.
CONCLUSION
In the study of which direction does the flexibility effect designs and what
solutions are made in the design of residential interiors and fittings, it is seen
that flexible interior design adopting to the needs of the user is more
sustainable both economically and environmentally.
It is possible that individual or group studies can be performed for the studies
under the topics of flexibility approaches. The approach to make one space
capable of many functions is especially seen in the projects for flexible
housing designs. The students in particular, can point out the elements used
by means of the perspectives that are to be made in the flexible fittings
design and can show how they work. What kind of process that is used for a
fitting in a space allocated for it when it is not used is pointed out by
drawings and a supporting presentation. Here, the type of expression and
the project presentation of the student is developed that the student uses to
express the flexibility concept.
KEYWORDS
FLEXIBILITY, SMALL SPACES, INTERIOR DESIGN EDUCATION,
TRANSFORMABILITY, RESIDENCE FITTINGS
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FLEXIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR SMALL SPACES IN SPATIAL DESIGN
TEACHING
One of the objectives to be attained in Interior Architecture education is to
enable function and technique to be in harmony with each other within
themselves and with form. This harmony expected to be achieved grows
more significant day by day. Accordingly, the concept of “flexibility” comes to
the fore in particular in today’s designs. Flexibility goes hand in hand with the
concepts of changeability, adaptability and growth.
The fact that people with different behavioral characteristics, cultural
accumulation, belonging to different social environments and economic
powers and living in a house produced based on the same plan schema
have to meet their needs in the same space rises as a factor putting
pressure on relations between user and space. Flexibility, having emerged
as a concept that can lead us to the solution under these circumstances, can
be defined as the adaptability of the house plan in a way to respond to
changing and evolving conditions of the user without changing the existing
system.
In Interior Architecture education of the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University
(MSGSU), in Space Design Course, projects are developed related to
changes of principles brought in social, aesthetic and economic etc. fields in
housing designs as a result of social changes. These projects aim to
produce dynamic solutions to the mentioned changes. In addition, the
concept of flexibility explained within the mass housing course was
presented considering that social houses designed for the low income
people were small. Furthermore, information was provided on the problem of
not having an identity in social housings. It is known from experiences based
on the failure of idealistic buildings constructed in the past that limited
housings in which people can not express their identities exert negative
effects on these people. Emphasis was given on the importance of creating
spaces where users can express their identities and which they can use on a
multi-functional basis. It is significant to lay the theoretical foundation first in
projects to be realized personally or in groups.
1. Theoretical Background
Before presenting the plan of the project to be worked on, the definition and
history of flexibility and reasons of requirement for it are explained to
students on a theoretical basis and through visual aids. It is especially
emphasized in the course that a person defined as “user” in the interior
architecture education wants continuously to arrange and change
himself/herself and his/her environment. These changes are presented
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under the title of user needs. In the theory part conveyed through a system
composed of generally a main title and its sub titles, the said needs can be
explained via a simple diagram.
Human Factor
Psycho-social needs
. Social needs
.Aesthetic needs
. Behavioral needs
. Privacy needs
Physical needs
. Security needs
. Health needs
. Spatial needs
. Needs related to physical environment
Economic needs
Environmental factor
Technological factor
Interior spaces’ need to be flexible should be considered in particular in the
design of mass housings; because they are produced for “unknown users”
and all the same they will be “private”. Periods such as marriage, child
raising, children’s leaving family and old age in family cycle and changes in
social life have had certain effects on family life in the course of time. For
example factors such as transition from extended family to nuclear family,
women’s entrance into business life and the growing need for privacy as a
result of increasing individualism have led to rise in demand for more rooms.
When there are not flexible space solutions, these demands can be satisfied
at the end of either very costly or very problematic operations.
As regards the creation of flexibility within a space, we can say that there are
many researches in this field. In its simplest form, changeability in terms of
structure is realized via dividers that can be folded or pushed and this is
called static flexibility. On the other hand, spaces in continuous flexibility are
divided into zones and separated into two one being “server” and the other
“served”. Flexibility is provided through portable walls. It is important to
achieve dimensional coordination and take decisions related to grids. For,
this operation enables different elements to arrange relations with each other
and the whole and prevents disorder. On the other hand, regarding another
type called growth flexibility, emphasis is given on the capacity of adding up
new spaces for different functions. Completely independent spaces in which
wet volume areas are free as well can be created. There are examples in
which column system covers installation space as well. In this way, since
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installation system is everywhere, user can change it whenever he/she
wants. Portable showers, consistent with it, have also been designed.
Another approach employed in order to create flexibility in interior space
design is flexibility of accessories.
In Traditional Turkish House accepted as an appropriate example to all
changes and needs explained, the striking points are the design of rooms
within the house in according to multi-purpose use, low number of accessory
elements utilized in the middle and simplicity of interior spaces. In Turkish
examples in the historical evolution of the concept of flexibility, interior space
designs of traditional Turkish House which emerges as a dominant character
are presented to students via visual aid. In Turkish House which has
similarities with a tent plan, every room can be used for eating, sleeping,
bathing and even cooking. Cushions placed on sofas are generally taken
away in the daytime and spread out in the evening; so they meet the needs
for sitting and sleeping. In this space settlement which embraces flexibility of
accessory elements, as there is potentially high number of users and
accordingly demands, the center of the space is neutralized and flexibility is
created. This is displayed as an example to implementation.
Regarding contemporary examples, implemented projects of well known
designers are explained. It is a fact in particular in contemporary examples
displayed that changeable design renders its user more powerful. As
individualism has grown stronger in modern life, customization has gained
more importance. Completely open planning is observed in the flat designed
by Tokujin Yoshioka. While furniture and accessories can not be seen,
functional areas gathered on a single wall can be opened by sliding doors
and used.
Offers provided by the Andrew Maynard design office are very different from one
another. Holl House, which can be an example of growth flexibility, is also called
“the house of plural dimensions” and units can be opened one by one considering
the house as boxes one above the other. As a result, it can be shaped according
to the identity and needs of the user, whether it be terraced, balconied, windowed
or not, two storey or three storey. In the analysis of examples to interior space, in
“Maisano Brasher” project, it is observed that every element apart from toilet and
shower and including bathtub and bed is mobile. The project based on
transformative design is “Fluid Habitation” and “mobile space within the space” is
created within the framework of this project. Mobile bedroom is a piece of space
covering study area at the same time. Its place can be changed within the space
and can transform from the form transparent into that of opaque via smart
glasses. Mobile kitchen and office designed in the same way are present in the
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space. It is obvious that living in such areas which give more initiatives to the user
is much more pleasant and open to creativeness.
Figure 1: Fluid Habitation, Andrew Maynard
Examples provided in the light of this information are used as an effective
method in order to enable students to concretize various abstract ideas
related to the concept of flexibility.
2. The Project Phase:
Once the theoretical structure, which is thought to be sufficient for the
beginning is completed, the students are asked to start their preliminary
schedule works by respecting the current conveyer system and user
features in the housing plan of 50 m 2 allocated to them. The plan is simply
defined as a plan having an aperture of 4x4 meters and 50x50 cm column
axes and the general utilization area can be expanded to maximum 55 m 2 .
The main idea of this project was inspired from a social housing project
designed by Daliah Eliakim and used in the course. This project falling into
the scope of houses for public concept is indeed a prefabricated system
which can be realized in a short period of time with low lost and which is
composed of standard pieces and can be enlarged when required.
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Figure 2: Daliah Eliakim’s project
How these columns, as a restricting factor, will affect the space settlement is
an important issue to be touched upon. This is the question that we want the
student to decide on is whether he/she prefers the columns being perceived
as a part of the space or remaining as stand-alone special elements. This
decision determines the approaches that the students will adopt in flexible
space design. For example, it is in this stage that the decision on whether to
use accessory elements in connection with the structure elements or
independently can be given.
A nuclear family of parents and two children is selected as the user. The
features and needs of these 4 users are listed in a table and it is requested
that the housing in question meet the maximum of demands in minimum of
spaces. Here the goal in selecting 4 year old and 15 year old children as
users is to be able to answer the question of how different demands of
different age groups can be solved in the same place. Therefore, the
obligation of the utilization of the same room by two children is especially
mentioned. There being no restriction in the job selection of parents, among
other things, the students are asked to create hobby areas for parents and
design the spaces in a way to meet different needs both in day and night
time. When we take a look at the table used for this application method, we
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see that several socio-cultural and economic factors from social features to
the establishment of family and income level lead to the diversification of
demands and requirements.
In today’s space and accessory elements’ design, technological
developments are increasingly used. Because when technology is used
correctly and considering the needs and integrated with designs properly, it
shows up as a new source of opportunities. Students can offer more flexible
solutions by following up newly developing systems.
In the preliminary schedule of the project work, the focus is on the utilization
type of the housing. The things that are requested from students is the
design of the entree of the housing, storing place within parents’ room,
space allocated to the elder child’s studying and bookcase, space allocated
to the younger child’s playing and storing toys and space allocated to
washing machine in the bathroom, space allocated to dining and living,
storing element/space for cleaning materials.
Taking into account choices given under the title of approaches to flexibility,
works are carried out to divide the house into sections within the m defined.
It is seen that the flexibility level of each approach chosen is different. In
divisions, utmost attention is paid not to create a logical imbalance between
living room that is a general utilization area and rooms and areas covered by
wet volume and connections they have with each other. Sections should be
separated according to the level of privacy. Privacy should be at maximum
level in wet volume areas and in remaining areas, considering the
changeability of privacy level according to usage time, open planning should
be applied. There should be maximum of open space between areas
connected to each other in utilization, on the other hand dividers or
transformative elements should be used in multi functional areas.
It is aimed to gather installation channels used in particular in wet volumes
such as kitchen and bathroom in a minimum of area. In addition, within the
general logic, living room is the division open to outer world of the house and
the fact of guests is inevitable. In plan settlement and design of accessories,
the rise in the number of users should be taken into account.
After plans’ preliminary sketches prepared, studies related to plan-cross
section-aspect and perspective are conducted at the same time and
emphasis is given on perceiving the space in 3 dimensions. In this way,
aspects that have not been considered appear in the space perceived in 3
dimensions. Finishing 2 dimensional form of the plan, student begins to ask
him/herself how he/she can use ground plane and connected walls and
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dividing elements or how she/he can connect them with each other.
Furthermore, he/she understands to what extent the changeability of dividing
elements placed in the interior space and their use in constituting different
organizations depend on the existing system’s level of openness to changes.
Student is provided with information related to the fact that when he/she
decides on the quality of materials to be used in the design of dividing
elements, construction techniques, their relations with structural elements
and connection elements he/she should ensure that all these things be light
and easily removable.
The significance of considering all aspects/sides and involving them all in
use particularly in a space design in which the flexibility concept stands out
is emphasized. When there are 4 users, the necessity, number and
positioning of storing elements in a space can be only possible through the
above mentioned joint use of ground and wall. In such cases, students can
express elements used via perspectives to be prepared for the design of
flexible accessory elements and display their working systems. What kind of
practices are applied to an accessory elements stored in an area spared for
it when it is out of use can be solely explained via drawings and a supporting
presentation. In this point, presentation and way of expression a student
uses in order to explain the concept of flexibility in his/her project are highly
significant.
CONCLUSION
“The possibility of a "mobile way of life" is certainly an attractive feature of a
modern welfare society. Nevertheless it seems as if architecture and
urbanism as a discipline has hardly found its role in this development yet.
The modern home does not reflect our modern life style in many ways. Our
life consists of dynamic systems of media, information, technology and
transport. These elements continually shape our epoch and define it as an
era of loose foundations and shifting meaning. Our homes do not reflect
this. They contain a variety of products that enhance our lifestyle through
their flexibility, fluidity and malleability. Yet our direct living environment
remains a static one. Mobility not only empowers the family and the
individual by allowing them to determine their living spaces, more so, it
allows them to explore new spatial and personal relationships as they
transform over time.” (Maynard, A.)
The purpose of using the concept of flexibility is to constitute spaces that the
related user can shape in accordance with his/her wills rather than treating
the house as an organization previously prepared. In flexible housing
designs, the approach to produce in particular a single space in a size that
can respond to multiple functions is applied frequently in projects.
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Figure 3: Ayda Gelgör, student project
At the end of this project in space design course, it was aimed to raise
student’s awareness in this issue. When the space is designed from inner
towards outer, user centered design comes out. Difficulties that students
experience in the studies were recorded to be in perceiving the related
space solely on the basis of the plan not in three dimensions. They were
observed to abstain from open planning and influenced to a great extent by
standard housing typology. One of the reasons for this is their taking their
own living areas as examples. However, even though we have very standard
spaces on these days on which we choose our houses to live in by analyzing
3 dimensional drawings, assuming that future is being experienced at the
present time, it is highly clear that the demand for flexible housing designs
will be in rise in a very short period. The number of interior spaces that will
be able to meet changes in dimension, user and technology through use of
flexible structure and flexible space will certainly increase. In order to
achieve this, studies/work aimed at this purpose should be given more
emphasis.
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Figure 4: brahim Derinkuyu, student project
Figure 5: Sinan Birinci, student project
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REFERENCES
Altınok, H.Z. , 2007. The Influence Of The Concept Of Flexibility Arising From
Uncertainty On Residential Interiors And Fittings, M.Sc. Thesis, Mimar Sinan Fine
Arts University Institute Of Science And Technology, Istanbul
Bedük, D. , 2003. Information/Communication Age and Interior
Design, PhD Thesis, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Institute Of Science And
Technology, Istanbul
Benitez, C.P. , 2005. Small Spaces: Good Ideas, An Imprint of Harper
Collins Publishers, New York
Kürat, . F. , 2006., Interior Design Methods in Small Residences and
Application Examples, M.Sc. Thesis, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Institute Of
Science And Technology, Istanbul
Mack, L. , 1995. Living In Small Spaces, Conran Octopus, London
Trulove, J.G. & Kim, I. , 2003. Big Ideas For Small Spaces Studio
Apartments, William Morrow and Co., New York
http://www.andrewmaynard.com.au
http://www.designmuseum.org
http://www.flexiblespace.com/xray.html
http://www.muji.net
http://www.smugmug.com
http://www.taylorsmyth.com
http://www.yenimimar.com
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THE COTTBUS EXPERIMENT
THREE FIELDS OF COMPETENCE
Richard Knoll, Dipl.-Ing., Asst. Prof.
Faculty of Architecture,
BTU Cottbus, GERMANY
Konrad-Wachsmann-Allee 6
03044 Cottbus, GERMANY
Henri Praeger, Dipl-Ing., Asst. Prof.
Faculty of Architecture,
BTU Cottbus, GERMANY
Konrad-Wachsmann-Allee 6
03044 Cottbus, GERMANY
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THE COTTBUS EXPERIMENT
THREE FIELDS OF COMPETENCE
Object of our paper is to restructure the architectural design curriculum in the
first cycle of a three-cycle sructure of higher education (bachelor/master/PhD
according to the bologna process).
This paper is a report of our ongoing experiment on design education at
Brandenburg Technical University (BTU) Cottbus. It is rooted in and
nourished by the special environment at BTU. Major characteristics of the
BTU are the focus on design as the core of the architectural education and
studio-based design classes affiliated to one chair of design for three
consecutive years.
Educational Goals
The Bologna Process aims to widen the horizon of the educational
landscape to a European level. By doing so the necessity emerges to define
a set of standards by which study programms from universities throughout
Europe may be compared to oneanother.
In Germany so far universities roughly described their courses of studies by
defining the subject matter and the number of terms needed to take all
exams.
Whereas, within the framework of the Bologna Process courses of studies
are defined by the competencies a graduate of the couse actually obtains.
This is a radical change from an input to an output-orientation in higher
education.
The consecutive three-cycle structure is the future model of architectural
education. The reorganisation of architectural studies resulting in bachelor
and master degrees offer the one-time oppertunity to review and reorientate
the subject matter and structures of the couses of studies that have
hardened over the past decades.
While the Master degree is greatly comparable to the former diplomingenieur,
the bachelor degree is radically new in the german educational
landscape. Especially the layout of the bachelor-courses needs careful
consideration.
So can we describe the competencies a bachelor of architecture should
have gained? What can a future employer or university expect him or her to
know?
In our function as assistant professors at one the Brandenburg University of
Technology in Cottbus our aim was to describe the educational goals of the
design courses in the bachelor programm of architecture. As we will point
out we thereby attempted to systematically restructure the three-year
courses of architectural design.
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Three fields of competence
National Qualifications Frameworks
In 2005 the association of universities and other higher education institutions
in Germany (HRK) and the german Ministries concerned with education
resolved the national qualifications frameworks (NQF). These NQF outline
the profile of qualification of bachelor and master degrees at german
universities according to the specifications of the European qualifications
frameworks. Further specifications of these rather general outlines are
explicitly left to departements of the universities organizing bachelor
programms.
The Qualifications of a graduate with a bachelor degree are subdivided into
three fields of competencies:
Instrumental, systemic and communicational competencies.
The instrumental competencies enable the graduate to apply his skills and
knowledge to his future profession. He can develope and evolve arguments
and solutions in his field. These competencies can be described as
technichal and vocational skills.
The systemic skills point at something else: they describe the capacity to
autonomously collect and evaluate relevant information and come to
scientific conclusions. Relevant information can be derived from social,
scientific or ethical fields and need not to be directly professional. The
systemic skills provide the intellectual basis the instrumental competencies.
The expectations seem to be rather clear in the field of the communicational
skills. Students should learn to express and argue their conclusions and to
explain their ideas, problems and solutions likewise to experts and a wider
audience.
The Fields of competence in architectural design
How can the NQF help us to restructure design education in the bachelor
programm?
The basic strategy to define the goals of education and subdivide the skills
to three categories seems to be reasonable. To avoid any misunderstanding
one must underline that any subject matter contains elements of all three
fields – possibly with different focus points – so that within the education of
architects the design education needs to foster skills in all three fields.
Two questions will need to be answered: How can we adequatly describe
the fields of competence for the education of architects? And what exactly
are the design competencies a bachelor of architecture would be expected
to have acquired?
Of course to match the Requirements of architectural education we need to
rediscribe the three fields of competencies:
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Skills and Knowledge
We would like to summarize the instrumental competencies and label them
as “Skills and Knowledge”.
This field of competence covers the entire tool-kit of a practicing architect. It
contains all practical skills needed when handling architectural problems.
These may be skills in the use of design-tools as well as factual knowledge
in all fields effecting architectural design.
This field claims the major part of traditional architectural education.
Because listing all competencies in this field would be endless and of no
help, we suggest subdividing this broad field into the following five
catagories.
Space
Space is the primary matter of architecture. Architecture creates,
defines and structures space. The perception of space and the ability to
think in three dimensions are basic to any spatial design.
To feel confident when dealing with spatial problems many skills are
required: spatial operations such as addition and substraction or
superimposition may be needed as well as sequences, stacking or any
arrangement of spaces.
The designing architect also needs to have control over the psychological
impact different spaces can have upon us: how do narrow or vast, open or
enclosed spaces affect us? How can the space-defining surfaces be
configurated purposefully?
Geometry
The generic term geometry summarizes all technical and grafical means that
enable the description and development of space. It encloses descriptive
geometry and computer-aided design as well as rules of proportion and the
correct use of scale.
This group of competencies desribes all tools that can help to describe
space or develop and control threedimensional space.
Material
architecture is materialised space.
Before the actual construction of a building the knowledge of the properties
of building materials is essential in the design process. On one hand the
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phyisical properties of material define the structural system which determins
possible spatial developments. On the other hand the sensual properties of
material like the texture, colour and its appearance under light determine the
space-defining surfaces.
Context
Architecture never is autonomous.
Any Building is connected to its environment in muliple ways. It can blend
into its surrounding or stand in contrast to it, it may be connected to its
environment in a formal or ideal manner but never can it be understood
without context. Therefor Architecture should not be designed without
consciously respecting the context. The term context summarizes the
external forces informing a piece of architecture such as landscape, urban
surrounding, genius loci or cultural references.
Programm
Because architecture is an applied art it needs to bridge the contrast
between practical and esthetical value, between function and art.
One of the essential competencies of an architect is the ability to organize
complex and multiple needs and to transform them into a spatial order. A
broad knowledge of the principals of spatial organisation is necessary to
achieve this task.
Conclusion
Of course it is hardly possible to differentiate these five groups of
instrumental competencies in detail. In this context we can only briefly
outline them. Any architectural problem requires skills and knowledge from
several, if not all of these. But our aim is to create an instrument supporting
us in the task to establish a new structure for the design curriculum. As we
will illustrate later this subdivision enables us to define the educational focus
of each semester course. We will show that over the six semesters the
educational focus shifts from one to another, each containing competencies
that provide the basis necessary to fully comprehend the next.
Naturally, the described skills and knowledge alone are not sufficient to
become a good architect. Two thousand years ago, Markus Vitruvius Pollo
was concerned with the question what the competencies of an architect
should be. In the first of the ten books on architecture – dealing with the
fundamental terms of architecture and the education of architects – he
wrote:
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“The architect should be equipped with knowledge of many branches of
study and varied kinds of learning, for it is by his judgement that all work
done by the other arts is put to test. This knowledge is the child of practice
and theory. Practice is the continuous and regular exercise of employment
where manual work is done with any necessary material according to the
design of a drawing. Theory, on the other hand, is the ability to demonstrate
and explain the productions of dexterity on the principles of proportion.
It follows, therefore, that architects who have aimed at acquiring manual skill
without scholarship have never been able to reach a position of authority to
correspond to their pains, while those who relied only upon theories and
scholarship were obviously hunting the shadow, not the substance. But
those who have a thorough knowledge of both, like men armed at all points,
have the sooner attained their object and carried authority with them.”
(Vitruvius, The Ten Books On Architecture, translated by
m. h. morgan, 1914, harvard university press)
After dealing with the skills and knowledge architects need to design – the
practice – we will continue with the competencies Vitruvius describes as
theory.
As Vitruvius defines we believe that theory contains many branches of study
and varied kind of learning beyond the practical skills and knowledge and
also the ability to demonstrate and explain the productions of dexterity which
describes the comunicative competencies of an architect. In fact the
definitions in the NQF show great analogies by defining the systemic and
communicative competencies. Relating to the subject of architectural design
we choose to label them as intellectual stimulus and communicative
competence.
Intellectual stimulus
„We cannot expect to go on extracting ideas and schemes from the student
without first … continuously feeding his mind and imagination”
(Comments in Hoeslis Diaries, 1953-1957, in the Hoesli Archives, ETH,
Zürich.)
More drastically one could say: a pig fattens by feed, not by weighing.
We would like to describe two major forms of intellectual stimulus. The first is
the feed of the students mind and imagination that can occur in fields outside
of architecture. Therefor one major task of design education must be to
broaden the students horizon and open their minds to the inspiring fields
beyond architecture.
The second subject we want to describe deals with the design process itself.
How does design emerge? Is the creative process controllable? What could
design strategies be and how can they help? We need to supply the student
with a sufficient knowledge of design strategies to sustain his abitlity to act.
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So the field of intellectual stimulus will contain two categories: expanding the
horizon and strategies of action
Expanding the horizon
“Someone who knows only music understands nothing about it” (hanns
eisler)
It is hard to imagine designing architecture without the guidance of good
examples may they be buildings or persons. Architects need to have an
overview of the variety of approaches and styles existing in their profession.
In architectural design education this takes place in lectures, books,
exkursions et cetera. And yet architectonic examples alone are not enough.
To avoid architecture from becoming self-referetial it needs a broader scope
of information and inspiration. The architect can find such inspiration in the
fine arts – as vitruvius pointed out “it is by his judgement that all work done
by the other arts is put to test”.
In design education it is essential to uncover the strong connections
between architecture and the fine arts but also open other fields as possible
sources of inspiration:
literature, philosophy, natural and social sciences or even politics may
inspire or inform the design process. Of course studying architecture can not
be a studium generalis. But we are convinced, that students need to
constantly be encouraged to explore the inspiring potentials behind the
horizon.
Strategies of action
Design is more than trial and error.
Designing means making decisions. Unlike in simple mathematics most
design problems are impossible to solve clearly without ambiguity. The
designer is either confronted with too little information or an overwhelming
amount of information, demands and wishes. To sustain his ability to act the
architect needs strategic competence.
Instead of hoping for the brilliant masterstroke solving all problems instantly
students should be introduced to different strategic approaches of design
problems. They need to learn to develope criteria that enable them to
evaluate their sketches and designs and need to acquire a variety of
decision-making strategies.
Once armed with a sufficient tool-kit of skills and knowledge and with the
necessary intellectual background the designing architect stills lacks the
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ability to share his competencies with others. This third field of indispensible
skills is the communicative competence.
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Communicative Competence
Architecture is communication!
Architecture is an integrative disciplin because it is necessary to
communicate ones ideas and concepts and understand and evaluate the
wishes and knowledge of all parties involved in the design process and
come to an integrated sollution.
Within architectural studies the this integrative task must be faced to a
special degree by the design courses. Therefor it is no surprise that we try to
encourage the developement of the communicative competence.
To communicate however an architect needs to know what he is doing. And
this actually is a crucial point of any didactics: a conscious reflection of ones
action often just begins when asked to explain it. So the reflection of ones
action is the precondition for communication.
Both the willingness to reflect on ones designs and the actual
communicative skills are trained in design education. All designs are
presented to a larger group in the studio, which fosters the visual and
grafical as well as the rhethorical skills. Working in a studio with fellow
students facilitates the development of a debate culture and the ability to
accept and convert criticism.
And yet we believe that more can be done. On one hand we must assert,
that the classical means of communication of an architect – draft and model
– have been complemented by a large number of new media whos targeted
employment should be learned. On the other hand we think a even stronger
reflection of ones work can produce knowledge that leads beyond the
narrow confines of the current projects.
We will therefor subdivide the communicative compentence in these two
topics: communication and reflection.
Communication
As we mentioned the number of communicative media an architect should
be able to use is large and growing: speech, discussion, writing, draft,
model, photography, diagram, layout, powerpoint, webdesign, flashanimation,
rendering et cetera. Their number has escalated due to the digital
revolution taking place and many of these make design issues much more
acccessible to a broader public.
Within a three year bacholor program it is impossible to expect students to
gain mastery in all media but we think it is necessary to convey at least basic
knowledge of those beyond the classical drafting techniques to enable a
multimedia-based communication. Another aspect seems to be of
importance as well: while normally presentations show the results of the
design process some of the other media are more adapted to concentrate on
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the creative process itself. This leads us to the second integral component of
communicative competence:
Reflection
Looking into the mirror we can catch our reflection. Even more: we
can see what lies behind us and – at second sight – we can see our
surrounding and the position we are taking within it.
This is exactly what a designer should learn: to take a good look at himself
and the path that lies behind him. The retrospective view enables him to
asess his current situation as well as the context and the decisive moments
that have lead to the resulting design.
The awareness of the process that lead to the resulting design – and often
this awareness will not appear until in retrospect – can help knowledge to
emerge that is transferable to new assignments.
Essentialy reflecting upon ones designs can uncover two important aspects:
the evolving character of design and how any design is influenced by the
designers personality. At best careful reflection can lead to more awareness
of ones working methods and self-confidence as a designer.
Summary
Our aim was to describe the educational goals of the design courses in the
bachelor programm of architecture. To do so we defined three fields of
competence, each of them subdivided into distinguishable groups:
The first field – skills and knowledge – contains all practical skills needed
when handling architectural design problems. Its elements are space,
geometry, material, context and programm.
The second field – intellectual stimulus – attempts to broaden the students
horizon and gives him strategic competence to sustain his ability to act.
Finally the third field – communicative competence – aims at the
development of a well-reflected attitude towards architectural design and the
process of designing, and at acquiring the competence to communicate in
multiple ways.
Once again: we do not claim to completely define the competencies
architectural design calls for. Instead we hope to establish an instrument
helping us to restructure the design curriculum. In the next chapter we will
explain the strategies we applied to convey these competencies in the threeyear
bachelor curriculum of architectural design.
Curriculum
Having separated our aims in design education into three fields of
competence it is now necessary to think about ways to convey those
competencies to the students.
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By analysing the subjects taught we have developed the outline of three
year curriculum. But let’s first have a look at the true meaning of the word
curriculum.
Many teachers at universities nowadays complain that with introduction of
the new bachelor and master degree programmes the necessary content
can not be conveyed in a three year undergraduate course. Furthermore it is
ciritcised that the strict structure of such courses is pretty much school-like
and does not reflect freedom in education- a major characteristic of
university teaching. Students are supposedly forced to rush through their
studies and only respond to the immediate tasks at hand without time for
reflection. They have to merely focus on delivering the demanded results
and be sufficiently efficient.
Without trying to find the ultimate sollution to this debate we want to
comment on some of the aspects in the following.
Three years is a long time.
We do object to the opinion that a certain amount of content can only be
conveyed by means of a larger amount of time spent for the undergraduate
degree. Design competence is not aquired passively by means of a gradual
maturing process but by active learning in an appropriate and stimulating
ambience. Factors like enthusiasm and passion play a decisive role in the
success of the individual student.
Architects like many other professionals are subject to a lifelong learning
process. We do therefore believe that a discussion about the amount of time
needed to be a sufficiently well trained designer does lead into the wrong
direction.
It is vital to create a stimulating ambience for students to be able to make the
most of their time at university.
A major element of creating this ambience is the introduction of a well
structured curriculum that does enable and support the student’s personal
and individual growth. In the following we will explain why this approach
does not necessarily lead to a more school-like education but it has to be
noted that a certain “crispness” in the arrangement of content is
nevertheless necessary.
A curriculum is no walk in the park. The term itself is the noun to the latin
verb currere meaning to rush, to run. The latin curriculum even means
racetrack, racing cart or just race.
There is no time to be wasted in a three year curriculum and as we have
mentioned above the content to be taught is extensive. Nevertheless it is
possible to convey it in a manner that the students don’t feel simply rushed
through their course. It is necessary to edit the subjects taught in a way that
for the students short term aims are always within visible distance to guide
the students acting and help seperating the whole “race” into manageable
legs.
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But how to structure the curriculum?
Method
The teachers in architectural design at university are generally architects
and most likely novices in the field of didactics. They have aquired their
competence in architectural design in their profession. When teaching they
are forced to develop a method of transfering their experiences to the
students.
A well accepted strategy believes in learning by doing as an autodidactic
process. If that was true, the form of design tasks and their sequence would
not matter in architectural education. At the same time this implies that one
has to rely on the students to draw the right conclusions from their actions.
They would have to reinvent principles and design strategies on their own
without being led to the right conclusions.
This is bound to fail for the majority of students.
Another possible strategy in teaching is remembering your own education
and (“it did not harm me”) provide the same education to the younger
generation of architectural students. This is no doubt the most common
strategy and many valuable approaches were handed over from one
generation to the next.
With the substantial changes in european education connected to the
reduced three year undergraduate course, this approach can only partially
work in future.
To master this challenge we follow a separate strategy:
The structure of the curriculum should be developed from the content itself
and hence harmoniously integrate into the new educational framework.
Having developed a clear vision elements of the passed down educational
models can then again be integrated at the right place in the curriculum.
This is the reason why we have not tried to simply find the right didactic
model among the existing ones but have firstly focused on the structures
and potentials embeded in the subject itself.
Everyone who has once tried to convey a subject of substantial complexity
to somebody else knows that this process as well leads to an own fresh and
clearer sight on the matter. This phenomenom is the nucleus of a didactic
method arising from the content to be taught itself. In order to develop a
methodical teaching model it is vital to intensively analyse the subject.
John Dewey wrote in his key work “Democracy and education”:
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“Method means that arrangement of subject matter which makes it most
effective in use. Never is method something outside of the material.”44
[...]
“Method is not antithetical to subject matter; it is the effective direction of
subject matter to desired results. It is antithetical to random and illconsidered
action, -- ill-considered signifying ill-adapted.”45
A simple example from the field of zoology can explain this phenomenom.
Zoology as a science is not represented by a mere collection of facts on
animals but by the fact that this information is embedded into a well thought
out classification system. Only this classification system allows the science
to become a backgroung for further research as new knowledge can be
ordered in relation to the existing information. If one applies this principle to
a didactic method one arrives at the following conclusions:
Firstly:
A strong structure necessary for an effective application of the subject matter
can be found in the subject itself. One therefore has to find the inner
structure of the subjects in the field of design to develop a structure for the
curriculum.
And secondly:
The application of the subject matter follows a certain aim - that is a
successful teaching – and should be well though out and adapted to the
students situation.
The second conclusion will be addressed later after we have described the
semester structure. But beforehand we will try to extract the structure of the
curriculum out of the established classification system of the three fields of
competence as mentioned above.
The intrinsic structure of the Fields of Competence
The teaching targets connected to the three fields of competence describe
the competencies to be aquired by the students in their undergraduate
course. This reflects the desired shift to an output oriented teaching model
intended by the Bologna process.
To evaluate the fields possible influence on the development of a curriculum,
one has to examine each field searately.
Skills and Knowledge
44 John Dewey, „Democracy and Eduncation“, 2007, NuVision
Publications, LLC, chapter 13, p.138
45 John Dewey , chapter 13, p.138
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The first field of competencies – Skills and Knowledge – covers the classic
tools of architectural design, that is space, geometry, material, context and
program. Looking at those one realises that the order in which they are put
here already contains a chronological aspect that can be used to structure
the curriculum.
As space is the primary medium of architecture it is just logic to concentrate
on the appearance and perception of space at the beginning of the course.
Simultaneously the geometric operations and tools to illustrate and develop
spatial arrangements need to be trained. Once these abstract basics are
established one can address the factors that determine the spaces tangible
characteristics.
Material determines the space’s appearance due to its inherent engineering
attributes and its outer surface.
It is vital to understand space’s basic principles of formal idea, construction
and joining methods before considering external factors. Factors like context
from which architecture evolves and the consideration of complex program
finally crown the development from an abstract space to a specific and
unique architecture.
This sketched sequence of creating architectural space is very much
simplified because the mentioned steps are never taken one at a time but
overlap and take place simultaneously. But still it does help us to define focal
points within the curriculum which change gradually over the course of six
semesters. [see Figure 1]
This timely structure is furthermore supported by the permanent increase in
complexity of the objects to be designed. Whilst the basic phenomena of
space can best be studied using laboratory like conditions and abstract
spaces, the design tasks grow in complexity in line with the introduction of
urban context or the necessity to fulfill a complex brief.
Experiences made in a smaller scale are built upon in the following
semesters therefore the content taught in one semester has a preparative
function for the next. The abstract spatial studies and their results of the first
semester for example will be referenced when designing a more complex
building in the third semester and this is an important guideline for handling
complex spatial structures in the final design project in 6 th semester.
We do regard it as a fortunate coincidence that we have the opportunity to
develop a curriculum in architectural design for the whole undergraduate
course rather than focussing on one specific year only. This allows us to
define a structure where the content of the terms is very much interwoven
and built one upon the other and students can always revert to experiences
made before. That way we can develop a much more effective curriculum
than could be done in schools with independent courses per year.
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The same principles are valid for the field of competence:
Intellectual stimulus
Expanding the students horizon is encouraged with the semesters main
focus in mind. This can be achieved with the help of lectures, field trips or
readers. All of them help to provide references reaching beyond the concrete
architectonic task of the semester. Nevertheless those references are
always chosen in close connection with those tasks and provide points of
contact for retroaction during the course.
The students are guided to important background information from the field
of architecture theory, parallels in fine arts or other disciplines.
This information supports the teaching and underpins the focal point of the
semester.
The character of content with respect to the strategy of action is similar.
Students have to learn to be able to develop one adequate design strategy
with respect to a certain task. With this strategy they will also stay in control
of the design process and have the capacity to act. It is not intended to
develop a kind of patent remedy but to develop a broad repertoire of
strategies leaving the student with the choice for the most appropriate one.
In the first semesters the focus is on teaching the advantages of a strategic
approach to design. Simple operations defined by the students themselves
help to develop a first spatial idea and support the basis of argumentation in
the presentations.
They are encouraged to work with an open mind not copying concepts well
known but exploring new ideas. Once this foundation is laid the students are
able to define own tasks, transfer operations used in other fields to their
current work and train designing in alternatives. The different design
strategies are not meant to be a good-design-toolbox for all times. They are
always tightly connected to the design tasks, architectural theory and last but
not least the teachers personal evaluation.
To structure the curriculum it is only important to equip the students with a
wide repertoire of strategies and leave them in a position where they can
create conceptual designs independently
Communicative Competence.
Some aspects that can help structure the curriculum can also be found in the
third and last field of competence, the Communicativ Competence.
We have already talked about the importance of the students’ conscious
reflection of their own designs. The retrospective on (apparently) finished
desing projects allows the student to conduct an evaluation of each
semester. The continuous repetition of reflection within the curriculum helps
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the student to realise his personal development over the course of his
studies and encourages a dispute about the content taught. Apart from this
didactic effect the curriculum is structured into design sequences and regular
fermatas.
It is quite obvious that the reflection of the students work provides the ideal
occasion to practice different forms of comunication. The media changes
from semester to semester starting from simple leporellos over exhibition
design, portfolios, animated clips, web presentations to more voluminous
works as yearbooks. There does not need to be an exact definition of the
form of presentation but the obvious choice is to increase complexity over
the duration of the course. Basic layout skills trained in first semester lay the
foundation for the portfolio in third semester. That way a consecutive
structure of the curriculum and its content is created.
It has become obvious, in those examples mentioned above that there are a
number of clues for the structure of the architectural design curriculum
hidden in the subject matter itself.
Still, by extracting those clues no complete curriculum can be created. They
can only help creating the backbone of it.
The individual teacher has to put flesh to this backbone to make it work as a
didactic model. Therefore the curriculum needs to be flexible as staff at
university changes over time. The liberty for a personal definition of the
curriculum by the teacher provides the opportunity to transport personality
and beliefs into the process. This is a key factor for a successful curriculum
as the teachers personality and charisma are important factors in the
successful mediation of content.
We want to close with another John Dewey quote:
“The educator's part in the enterprise of education is to furnish the
environment which stimulates responses and directs the learner's course. In
last analysis, all that the educator can do is modify stimuli so that response
will as surely as is possible result in the formation of desirable intellectual
and emotional dispositions.” 46
46 John Dewey, chapter 14, p.149
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Figurative
Space
Morphogenesi
s
Design
grammar
Constructing
architecture
Method and
typology
Bachelor
design
239

EXPERIMENTATION VERSUS READY-KNOWLEDGE
Dilay Güney, Assist. Prof.Dr.
T.C. Beykent University
Faculty of Engineering Architecture
Department of Architecture
ili Ayazaa Mahallesi Hadım Koru Yolu Mevkii
ili stanbul, TURKEY
E-Mail: dilayguney@beykent.edu.tr
E-Mail: dilay65@gmail.com
Fitnat Cimit, Phd
T.C. Beykent University
Tel: 90-212-2896486
Fax: 90-212-2896490
E-mail: fitnatc@yahoo.com
Assit. Prof. Dr. Dilay Güney, was graduated from Mimar Sinan Univerity in
1988. She started Phd. study at Istanbul Technical University in 1998. Her
Phd. Thesis (Architectural Realities and Conception of Time) was completed
2003 in Architectural Design Department. Obtained the title of Assit. Prof. Dr.
in March 2005. Resarches interests include, architectural theory,
contemporary architecture, design problematics. Has been teaching at
Beykent University Engineering Architecture Faculty, Departmen of
Architecture since 2003.
Dr. Fitnat Cimit, was born in 1975 in Samsun. She studied architecture at
Karadeniz Technical University, and completed her degree in 1997. She
finished her Architectural Design Master thesis about ‘Ecological Adaptation
Strategies and Rural Settlement Houses in Fırtına Valley, Rize’ in 2001 in
stanbul Technical University. She finished her Architectural Design PHD
thesis in Istanbul Technical University about ‘The Relatıonshıp Between
Concept Of Terrıtorıal Space And Housıng Pattern In Cıtadel Settlements;
The Case Of Uchısar ’. Resarches interests include, space syntax,
architectural design education, environment and behaviour and housing
morphology, She has been working as a lecturer in architectural design in
Beykent university.
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EXPERIMENTATION VERSUS READY-KNOWLEDGE
In the field of architectural education, acceleration in spread of knowledge,
paradigms, methods have been increasing and classroom of architectural
school transforms as nomadic classrooms visa verse the world has become
a big classroom for the students.
Tschumi argued that architectural school is a place as laboratories of
experimentations (Leach;2007). This point of view has shifted classroom to
laboratories and ready-knowledge to experimentation. In the article, the term
of laboratories and experimentation and their reciprocal relation will discuss
related to our experience on Design Studies I Course at the first year of first
semester design course. It is aimed to explore how it could be designed at
first “snapshot” -first year, Under the two main titles, three basic questions on
the first year design education will discuss as sub-titles. These are;
Which kind of topics may be discussed in first year design education?
How shall we design first year design studio as an educator?
What are the expectations from first year design education?
Process of study in the laboratories depends on individual’s explorations in
order to find “new-knowledge” within a new way of thinking. The first year
design education deal with exploration of how architecture speaks with the
basic concepts, and what the language of architecture is. Schedule of the
first semester is planned weekly and that provide to provoke student’s
wonder. The weekly schedule provides to keep student’s interest fresh. We
believe that wondering is the first step of learning and internalizing of
knowledge. Each individual’s wonder makes him or her to explore concepts
and language of architecture deeply. The last step of learning will focus on
comprehension, understanding of new language, and specially
understanding of themselves. Topics of first semester are; what geometry is,
reading city on geometry, balance, and structure dealing with proportion of
bodies, texture, and light, as a material art, and architecture relation dealing
with concepts of configuration instead of composition.
Concepts could not understand without individual’s intuition, which it needs
to be developed. The ways intuitive thinking depends on experimentation in
order to comprehend the concepts of design, which they are unaccustomed
for first year students. Main aim of experimentation-based learning is to
develop one’s self-knowledge including intuition without denying the
importance of rational thinking. Each way helps the student to find his or her
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own thinking way. Intuitive way of thinking gives opportunity to control the
choices. Intuitive way of thinking needs experimentation, forming, re-forming,
re-thinking relating such a spoiling, and re-making process. In the way of
thinking, it could be understood as instead of diachronic way of thinking, it is
a kind of synchronic understanding between topics. Intuitive thinking
differentiate from rational thinking on that it does not depend on reaching to
false and true solutions at the end of the creative process, it depends on
gained experience. Experimentation is gained with the shared experiences
between participants of the first year design laboratories who are educators,
students. That means in the design laboratories, there are no masters, and
learners in a conventional way that linear communication between teachers
and students, there are less experienced and more experienced designers
even though educator may have more awareness because of his/her gained
experience.
Finally, we believe that architectural education could not be structured
separated independent semester modules. The whole education process
should be thought as a continuous process, but it is not within a linear
evolutionary progress. Every step of design laboratories must be designed
on more gained experience and each design module become a new
experience spaces. The importance of the first year let student to learn how
the way of thinking might be for the creative design process. The next step
does not depend on more and more complex problem solving, moreover it
depends more experimentations. As a conclusion, we agree with Socrates’
idea that; “teaching and learning is a sort of remembering”
EXPERIMENTATION VERSUS READY-KNOWLEDGE
Nowadays all arguments, discussions, theories, paradigms, in the area of
education, science, media, increasingly are dealing with the terms of
“knowledge”, “ self-knowledge”, “new knowledge”, know-how” in the
information society where we are living in. Information society can be
characterized by bombarding proliferation of information. All the information
flow on our desk via screen of computers and makes us a wanderers and
nomadic when we are sitting in the front of desks on our immobile chairs.
World becomes a turning sphere around us and carries all the information to
us. The new condition makes us bounded with new images and information
around and transforms us a placeless and context-less modern nomad who
is looking at placeless and context-less information during his/her journey
feeding from global information systems. “…The principal danger of
information technology is its seductive tendency to stand in for embodied
experience…” (McCaan;2005) How the phenomenon should comprehend
clearly? Either the phenomenon acknowledge is totally affecting negatively
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y the split of space-time, the split of mind-body and displace us from our
“place” or these phenomenon acknowledge totally affecting positively by
bringing new enlightenment on essence of knowledge of it. Answer of such a
complex question is amidst positive and negative approaches. This kind of
information might be positive if we are aware of it is ready-knowledge and is
needed filtering and is transformed to the new knowledge of ones, which is
the inevitable core problem of architectural education.
The world of architectural images and the information can be collected easily
via “Google,” and it makes make architectural schools as modern nomadic
classrooms, and let student to be a wanderer of ready-knowledge within.
Even students can reach easily to ready-knowledge out of architectural
classes and world become a big classroom for the students (Leach;2007).
Information is taken from the internet as form of linguistic relationship and
images without any experience. As it is mentioned above, the subtle danger
of ready-knowledge is being non-filtered. If it is not filtered, students may
lose themselves in such bombarding information. Additionally another
cardinal problem about ready-knowledge via global information network is
that it is not involved experience of the self. It seems that recently
architectural schools are facing this situation and role of the architectural
school becomes more important than before, in order to transform
information or –ready knowledge to new knowledge, which involves selfexperience.
In the article, it will be argued that architectural schools should
focus on new-knowledge or self-knowledge is, and how student can gain it
as they are living in the information society.
The basic purpose of education can be defined generally that getting
knowledge, evaluation of self-knowledge and acquisition of know-how in a
proper teaching methods. Besides basic aim of all disciplines of education,
architectural education, especially design education focus on creativity
throughout creative teaching-learning ways that makes unique. There is
reciprocal interaction between teaching-learning process on creativity and
matter of teaching is what design is. Teaching and learning process of
creativity is not a kind of transmitting of knowledge from educator to student,
it involves creating, experimenting, searching process as same as design
process of itself (Yürekli;2007). Benefit of such a process is to gain selfknowledge
based on experimentation different from ready-knowledge. The
main aim of experimentation is to develop student’s self-knowledge which
covers intuitive knowledge via self-experience beside basic rational
knowledge. What is the intuitive knowledge and what is the importance on
architectural design education? Locke argued, intuition is the most clear and
comprehendible knowledge that is not need any other concept or idea for
explanation (Locke;1996). Kant related to a priori knowledge as beforehand
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of all concepts with intuition and amplified throughout mathematics”:…Which
of the various features exhibited by the empirically constructed figure are
allowable grounds of inference? ...the only guides in decisions are the
axioms, and theorems of geometry. But before we can use the intuitional X
to provide a ground for the synthesis expressed in the axioms, we must
have those very axioms in order to determines what X is …’’
(Coffa,1991:46).
Experience is the kind of knowledge only is obtained by doing, making,
participating, and feelings and never can be transferred from person to
person. Experience is a sort of knowledge that can be comprehended within
time-space context. The unique character of experience is being in the flux
of knowing; flux of existence and flux of meaning (Güney; 2003). Bergson
explains while rational knowledge puts absolute principles time goes by and
is transformed the absolute principles. Understanding of the time is only
possible with the benefit of intuition (Prigogine,Stengers;1995). Thereby
the obtained self-knowledge constantly will be in change instead of being a
kind of stable ready-knowledge.
Experimentation-based teaching and learning in architecture is nourished by
many disciplines of knowledge borrowed from poetry, cinema, and drama in
order to enrich student inner-world. As Aydınlı mentioned that learning by
experience need metaphorical thinking which requires a new way of thinking
(Aydınlı;2007). As a volunteer intervention of the other disciplines, creates
architecture meta-language that the new ways of characterizing the reality
as it is matter of design. Thinking on meta-language may help to transform
the ready-knowledge and given concepts about design issues to selfknowledge
which needs critical thinking.
All it is mentioned above about obtainable self-knowledge needs a special
space. We believe that place of experimentation in architectural education is
design studio as a core of architectural education. For the first year, first
semester design studio is a place of “snapshot” point or a welcoming space
of architecture at first time for the students. We prefer design studio is a kind
of laboratories by the use of analogy between scientific researches and
creative process. A laboratory is a space, which fitted with equipment for
scientific experimentation and pertaining to methods applied in. As far as
understanding of equipment of design laboratories are designed education
tools and laboratories are a space of exploration of new-knowledge and for
architecture education a space of exploration of self by the way of
experience. Process of searching in design laboratories allows the students
to explore new way of thinking and explore his or her self-knowledge within
interactive milieu. New situations, interactions with educator or participants
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of the studio, especially within space-time context, let the student to explore
his or her ways of thinking by discussing, searching, making, feeling;
observing, touching, and perception. This process might be called non-linear
process versus linear one. While searching a design issues into the design
laboratories, students mind can walk within a sort of intricate path similar to
web which there are so many sub-paths. These sort of paths let them to lose
into it and there is more than expected decision point along the design
journey. Whenever student meets with a decision point into a web, they
need the intuitive knowledge. For such a design process, it is not aimed to
reach a profound result. Learning can be obtained during and within the
processes of itself as an exploration. As Wittgenstein argued that
experimental learning method let us to think that what kind of tools we have
for solving to annoying problem (Wittgenstein,1998).
All explanation shows us the role of intuitive knowledge is the core of the
creative learning beside rational knowledge, which can be gained with
experimentation. In design laboratories, exploration is the target of the
individual creativity. There is a subtle point that the success of the each
student exploration or getting their own self-knowledge depends on proper
design methods designed by educators.
The first year design laboratory is the most important year in the education in
virtue of being as a snapshot point for student with the architecture. Students
encounter with language of architecture in the world of architecture and start
to look from the frame of the architecture. At the first year design,
laboratories as it are locus of experimentation, student start to obtain the
heuristic ways of thinking, evaluating, judging. As being a design
laboratories educator, we are trying to apply what we explain in the above as
a design laboratories method. In the rest of the article, our first year design
experience will be explained.
The first year design laboratory is designed the on answers of these three
questions:
1-Which kind of topics may be discussed in first year design education? (On
Content)
2-How shall we design first year design studio as an educator? (On Methods)
3-What are the expectations from first year design education? (On Target)
On Content
Generally, most of the architectural schools start with Basic Design Course,
which is an inheritance of Bauhaus School. The content of the basic design
course is rooted from Bauhaus based on language of architecture translated
to abstract Euclidian shapes and forms during we percept them. The course
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of main aim is uncovering the secondary qualities of design object by
dividing in two under dualistic approach. We believe that experimentationbased
learning and teaching subsume primary and secondary qualities of
the design object under the holistic approach. Selection of the topics of the
course based on awareness of primary and secondary qualities of the
designed and design object at the first year first semester in architectural
design laboratory.
First year first semester design course content is designed for the students
to understand what the core design concepts are and to experience of them.
Basic topics of the semester are related to comprehend the geometry via
poems, city, second is relation between art and architecture, and using basic
concept as opposite concepts pairs of art, like unity and variety, rhythm and
emphasis, harmony and contrast. The third topic is exploration of the body
via balance and principles of structure, the fourth topic is experience of the
surfaces, material and light.
First topic is understanding of what the geometry is and meaning of
geometry is via poems and literature and drama. Using poems and drama
for explanation of what geometry is allow student to think metaphorically.
The assignment of the student is to observe the city where they live in order
to uncover of hidden geometry while they are smelling, touching, seeing, and
hearing the city. What is the translation of a dome in the world of geometry
or what is the perceptional world if translated into geometry. The final
mission is to present their images what the city told them and what they
heard from the city.
Second topic depends on understanding of relation between art and
architecture. Basic opposite concept pairs of art are explained and
discussed like unity, variety, rhythm, emphasis, harmony, and contrast
supporting with literature, drama. Assignment of the topic is given to create
the abstract concepts within a third dimensional configuration instead of twodimensional
composition (Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Examples of unity and variety, rhythm and emphasis, harmony and contrast
experiments
Third topic is to exploration of the body in order to comprehend what balance
and principles of structure is. They are asked to discover a stable position
with one or two bodies referring an unsupported structure and represent the
position in third-dimensional model (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Examples of exploration of the body
Next step is experience of surfaces, material, and light. The topics depend
on exploration on material search and explanation of texture and pattern and
combination of material (Figure 3). Same texture and pattern effects are
studied with different basic material like wooden, metal, and transparent
materials and under the daylight and artificial light. Final step of the topic is
making a montage from previous images and transform them in to get a new
image (Figure 4).
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Figure 3. Examples of exploration of texture and pattern and combination of material.
Figure 4. Examples of montage
On Method
As it is mentioned above, we believe that the aim of the experimental design
learning process is needed to design method and tool of the design studio.
As well as known learning depends on wonder, to be oriented, aware of,
understanding and cognition phase. Schedule of the first semester is
planned weekly and that provide to provoke student’s wonder and flexible
way of thinking. Weekly schedule provides to keep student’s interest fresh.
We believe that wondering is the first step of learning. Each individual’s
wonder makes him or her to explore concepts and language of architecture
deeply. All term and basic terminology of the weekly topic is discussed in the
laboratories and produce many question about the design topics supported
by literature and drama. The aim of the assignment related to the week of
the topic is to give students an opportunity, sort of explorations and to obtain
experience. Implementation abstract concepts to their assignment become
designing embodied self-knowledge and understanding. We never expect
them to reach perfect level of complementation of his or her assignment.
Student can face so many difficulties during the design process. Surprisingly
when they face the difficulties they have obtain individual self-knowledge
unconsciously. “My concern about the information society and “new
knowledge” is that it leaves less room for the discernment of the emotional
world. The world is not black and white. Difficulty is the beginning of color,
richness, depth, and resonance. And difficulty is the birthplace of the modern
soul.” Importance of the difficulty open the door of creativity (Lewitt;2005).
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Because of these we encourage the student to face the difficulties of design
issues in order to improve their creativity.
On Target
Finally, designed content and method’s main target is to donate student with
their self-knowledge in a way of self-exploration. While experimentationbased
teaching and learning depends on gained self-knowledge, they
experience their creative potential via educators, friends, and themselves.
We as educators, always let student believe themselves they can do and
creativity can be learned and gain with such a proper teaching learning
experience. It is obvious that creating ‘new’ needs an embodied mind built
with experience. Instead of representational modes, embodied minds should
experience the reflections of new knowledge, which means self. Selfknowledge
has not any due for making the right action but it should be
experienced the all aspects of decision-making process. Students tend to
follow true-false acceptations, but experience has a great power to reach
their self-knowledge. By this way, they can explore the hidden dimensions of
decision-making process during understanding of the problem instead of
solving it. Student should experience what makes him or her move. This
evocation both in mind and in intuition is what we are really looking for.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, in architectural education especially in the first year design
laboratories should focus on obtainable self-knowledge, which depends on
experience, intuition, metaphorical thinking, and critical thinking in self-mind.
The unique point of the self-knowledge is being in the flux vise verse readyknowledge.
Being members of the information society as an educator or a student make
us to focus on what knowledge of itself is. Architectural education could not
be far away from this situation. Bounded with context-less and placeless
information and being a flesh who percept the world throughout smelling,
touching, seeing, hearing it cannot be understood that cause a totally
confliction. It needs to improve student’s sensational world by
experimentation. Students should aware that knowledge needs a place and
time context in order to obtain critical way of thinking. Locus of knowledge
should be placed in their sense and mind within a flux in order to transform
what they gain as their own self-knowledge in the first year to the next levels.
INDEX
249

1. Aydınlı Semra, (2001), Mimarlık Eitiminde Deien Öncelikler,
Mimarist Dergisi, volume:1, p.:116-122
2. Aydınlı Semra, (2007), “Awareness” as a Design Paradigm, p.:113-
136, The Design Studio A Black Hole YEM Yayınevi, stanbul
3. Coffa Alberta (1991), The Semantic Tradition From Kant To
Carnap, Cambridge University Press, USA, s.329,180-184.
4. Güney Dilay, (2003), Mimarlık Gerçeklikleri Mimarlıkta Zamanın
Kavranıı, Unpublished Phd. Thesis,
5. Leach N., (2007), Emerging Talents, Emerging Technologies,
ETET, Students, ARCHIWORLD
6. Lewıtt Andrew, (2005), A Designer’s Guide to the Resources of the
Psyche, p.:132-149, Writing in Architectural Education, EAAE Prize
2003-2005, http://www.archdesign.vt.edu/news/pdf/eaae-prize-
2003-05-essays.pdf
7. Locke J., (1996), nsan Anlıı Üzerine Bir Deneme, Trans.: Vehbi
Hacıkadirolu, Kabalcı Yayınevi, stanbul.
8. McCann Rachel, (2005), On the Hither Side of Depth A pedagogy
of Engagement, p.:67-84, Writing in Architectural Education, EAAE
Prize 2003-2005, http://www.archdesign.vt.edu/news/pdf/eaaeprize-2003-05-essays.pdf
9. Prigogine I., Stengers I., (1995), Kaostan Düzene, Trans.: Senai
Demirci, z Yayıncılık, stanbul.
10. Wittgensteın L., (1998). Felsefi Soruturmalar, Çev.Deniz Kanıt,
Küreyel Yayınları, stanbul.
11. Yürekli Hülya, (2007), The Design Studio A Black Hole, p.:17-34
The Design Studio A Black Hole, YEM Yayınevi, stanbul
250

EXPERIMENTATION VERSUS READY-KNOWLEDGE
Veyis ÖZEK, Prof. Dr.
Trakya University,
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Architecture
22180 Edirne / TURKEY
Email: veyisozek@gmail.com
Gülay DALGIÇ, Rsrch. Asst.
Trakya University
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Architecture
22180 Edirne / TURKEY
Email: gulaydalgic@trakya.edu.tr
Veyis ÖZEK prof.dr.-diplom ingenieur architect, is the head of Department
of Architecture at Trakya University in Edirne/Turkey. He is also the head of
Division of Architectural Design at the same Department.
His research area is semiotics in architecture.
Gulay Dalgic graduated from Trakya University, Faculty of Engineering and
Architecture. After completed her master’s degree in 1999. She began
assisting Basic Design and Architectural Design lessons at the same
unversity. Her main interest research areas are; basic design, architectural
design education and design theories.
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ABSTRACT
Thinking and creativity are mental processes which have close connections
and are similar to each other. Discovering and developing the creative idea
in the design education is important for the students to reach activeparticipating
design in this process. Basic design education is one of the
proficiency of the significant instruments student associating the realities of
the external world with his realities in his own image.
In this study, an essay is presented which reveals the mental backgrounds
of the individuals who received design education and which aims to reflect
their individual differences by their free expressions in their designs.
Keywords: Architectural design, basic design, mental background,
subjectiv-objective, local-cultural.
INTRODUCTION
In the history of humankind, transformation and development are inevitable
realities. With its recent definitions such as “approach”, “course”, and
“spreading to earth”, globalization also takes place among these realities.
The mutual interaction between the global and local processes presents a
complex relationship. This relationship is the combination of both concepts
and the addition of different-multiform structure of localities in a global
system.
Being the environments in which the values related to humans are
expressed in terms of universality, the cultures of the societies are also main
components in the globalization concept, and they are equivalent to humans.
Distinctive objective and intellectual product of the societies are the
arguments which guide the design of the living spaces. This image, in which
the local cultural values are concretized, defines the architectural
environment. In this scope, the actual problem which must be evaluated in
the stage that have been reached today in lifestyles and architectural objects
as their reflection is the identification of the image in the future (Ozek, and
other, 2007).
The prevention of the problems caused by the globalization is dependent on
the efficient use of technological facilities and enabling the establishment of
a multicolored cultural mosaic instead of a uniform cultural environment
(Ozek, and others, 2006).
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In this respect, earning the architect candidates a professional formation is a
necessity in terms of sustaining the local living spaces with their authentic
values. Discovering and developing the creative idea in the design education
means organizing the architects to reach active-participating design skill
peculiar to architects.
MEETING ENVIRONMENT
The most important components of this stage in which the architect
candidate becomes aware of his own designer character, and a professional
work area are as follows;
- design education,
- architect candidate,
- practitioners of the education model.
In relation with the design education;
Architecture education is defined as the system of effects that is carried out
in order to form the behavioral changes that are required by the formation of
the architect’s profession in the individual via his/her own life.
The relationship between the architecture which is one of the communication
instruments of the humankind and the abstract concepts such as
“aesthetics” and “creativity”, and architecture’s dealing with a concrete fact
like “being realizable” show the wideness and hardness of the area of
interest. This pluralistic perspective is quite influential in the design process
which has begun especially with the determination of the design problem in
the architectural environment. Along with the fact that architectural object,
which is reached as a result of the design process, reflects the solution to
the problem, it is expected to form the right communication in terms of
environment-human relationship.
On one hand, being scientific and analytic and on the other hand, ensuring
the development of imagination and creativity abilities become the problem
of architecture and architecture education. The fact that this contradictory
condition is the source of new inventions forms the thrust energy of the
development of this profession by itself. To form the information generating
environments depends on reaching the available information, enabling these
information to be reproducible and adapting these information into new
conditions. Therefore, there arises a necessity of efficient evaluating of the
interaction which also reflects all characteristics of our own society (Lökce,
1994).
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Taking a certain education model as a pattern and sustaining it in a certain
level creates a new problematic condition and integration problems with the
recent thorny and complicated information quest. The negative effects of the
education and production habits formed by the previously prepared
prescriptions must be evaluated (Lökce, 1994).
In relation with the architect candidate;
Objective and subjective values define the individual identity of a person. All
“important” values established in the conscious of the individuals and
integrated in the subconscious are the personal assets that distinguish them
from others. Its irreducibility, uniqueness and irreplaceable quality
differentiate its “personality” from others.
Identity is the product of an existence form. The formation of an identity
materializes as a result of the continuity of certain conditions. Some of these
conditions can be listed as follows: cultural heritage or traditions, features
and characteristics of the requirements of the society, geography,
topography, climate, technology, and the abilities of adaptability to changing
conditions (Ozek, and others, 2006).
The cognitive and affective features of the students, intense teaching
programs of our educational institutions are limited with their memorizing the
factual information whose correctness is unquestionable and which develop
memory with management principles and methods which render the
personality to be unresponsive (Lökce, 1994).
It is clear that these deficiencies create hardships for the persons in reaching
high level aims such as comprehension, analysis/synthesis and making
evaluation. Created unresponsive personality causes qualitative
weaknesses in the stages of receiving, attaining value, organizing and
deciding which are unavoidable required for the architect in reaching
affective and psychomotor aims.
Without being conscious of evaluating his/her own knowledge, skills and
areas of interest the student canalizes himself to the architect profession by
social, economic and other effects. In the end of the education, the individual
must have gained the qualities to put questions on existent events that can
apply a certain level to his/her designs while generating the solutions.
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COMMUNICATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT
In the design education, it is aimed for the individual to gain knowledge
related to form and environment and to evaluate and design this knowledge
with its cultural, professional, scientific, artistic, morphologic dimensions via
the skills which must be earned during the entire architecture education.
For designing of the environments in which we live, designer qualities are
required, which do not exclude requests such as overcoming the
monotonies, establishing original and surprising messages, replying all
conscious and subconscious tendencies.
EXPERIENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The education program is trying to establish thinking systematics and
analytical design model with the concepts by enabling the architect
candidates to use their local and cultural backgrounds. Ensuring the
formation of an image in the conscious of the student constitutes the starting
point of this model. Conceptualization of the images will be directed by the
sub-concepts formation of the students. Setting free the imagination of the
study group is important in developing the creative ideas and discovering the
new ones. The purpose is the development of a logic discipline based on
“perception-questioning-fictionalization”. The students who received
education in different aspects and qualities, coming from different social
backgrounds and whose architectural opinions have not been formed yet,
firstly enter into stage of gaining knowledge in the program process. The
relationship which the individual fictionalizes on his/her own mental
background and forms with his/her physical and social environment
completes the formation of his/her own conscious.
The formation of conscious, based on the person’s creative mental
background is actualized with the interaction of gaining knowledge that
contains experience and learning and mental potentials that evaluate the
creative aspects of the person. This interaction fictionalizes the orbit of the
design process which runs from abstract to concrete. A study model which is
based on the concept fictions has been formed with this point of view (Figure
1) (Ozek, and other, 2007).
255

CONCRETE
……………… ..…
..Design
CONCEPTIUALIZING . … . Distant Physical
Environment
.… Close Physical Environment
VISUAL
INTERPRETATION
VERBAL
INTERPRETATION
MENTAL
SUBSTRUCTURE
INSTRUCTION
…… Individual Environment
Society
……… Individual - Environment
Nature
……… .Individual
THE
COMPLEMENT
OF CONSCIOUSNESS
CONCEPT
CONCLUSION
ABSTRAC
T
Figure 1. Design Experience
SAMPLING
Introverting, identifying oneself, avoiding all factors that limit the thought are
the processes which are performed by the student in his/her subconscious
world as subjective data. The student correlates the image-diagram which
he/she forms in his/her mind as a subjective data and the information which
he/she receives in education as objective data are the starting points for the
concept fictions in his/her expressions. The stages in the expression studies
based on concept fictions which are performed in the basic design education
are as follows:
1. determining the problem area: title,
2. the mental process in which the student forms concept sets related to
his/her own world under the determined title,
3. discussing the concept sets,
4. forming the expression.
In the first stage, a title is ordered from the student in order to focus the
mental process. The second stage is the subjective study stage in which the
student is set free in his/her own world. In the third stage, subjective data is
discussed, shared with other students and concept sets are determined,
which are related to the title. In the last stage, the student is set free again to
form his/her own expression. The main objective of this process is to set the
subconscious as free as possible while transforming student’s distinctive
image-diagram into a design product in the formation of the expression.
In the concept conclusion stage, students have been awaited to express the
given concepts by using their creativity after the determination of the
problem area has been formed by the instructors.
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In this scope, two samples are presented in the study under the encounter
and meeting as main titles. Sample studies have been carried out in studio
environment in 4-hour sessions. Flowchart of the studies is given in (Figure
2).
ENCOUNTER
PROBLEM AREA
MEETING
TENSION
VERBAL
INTERPRETION
ARCHITECTUR
E EDUCATION
COMPOZITION
VSUAL
INTERPRETION
COMPOZITION
Figure 2.Sample Flowchart
Table 1. Encounter
Abstract
Concrete
Student :BÜRA KIRLI*
Topic: TENSION
The incidents that create
tension in the person
continually disturb him/her.
The person experiences the
gap of not being able to find
a solution to these incidents
in him/her. Nobody hears
his/her scream even if
he/she revolts against this
condition.
Verbal interpretation
Visual
interpretation
257

Table 2. Encounter
Abstract
Concrete
Student: ESRA ÇAKIR*
Topic: TENSION
Human organism creates stress
when it comes across a different
condition other than an ordinary
condition. This stress is
somehow a reaction against the
new condition. When the stress
forming condition disappears, the
organism returns to its normal
state.
Verbal interpretation
Visual
interpretation
Table 3. Encounter
Abstract
Concrete
Student :ONUR DENZ
ÖZDEMR*
Verbal interpretation
Topic: TENSION
Tension is a defense mechanism
in human, material, society, etc.
which sharpens and hardens
itself to adapt to the conditions.
For instance, it will be able to
create a transformation in itself to
ease and eliminate the hard
environment conditions which
prevent the human; thus, it will
open the road which it needs.
Visual
interpretation
258

Table 4. Meeting
Abstract
Concrete
Student:CANAN KRAZ*
Topic: ARCHITECTURE
EDUCATION
Verbal interpretation
The curves created lineally using
various colors are the
expressions of the complex
thoughts existent within the brain
of the person. Colorlessness of
the ground aims to strengthen
the idea that clarity expression is
weak. However, the ground
forces the brain to a tendency
being unaware. As a result of
these weak tendencies, a
thought starts a tendency by
making a decision in view of Visual
colorful, linear but solid interpretation
formations that are encountered.
The formed large mass contains
uneven formations. Its purpose is
the expression of uneasiness
and immediate successes. The
fact that the large formation has
solid borders means that an
improvement has been achieved
in this issue.
259

Table 5. Meeting
Abstract
Student :TUÇE ELF SUBAI*
Topic: ARCHITECTURE
EDUCATION
While the incidents-things seen
could not be interpreted
differently before the architecture
education, becomes possible to
be able to think differently by the
architecture education.
Verbal interpretation
Concrete
Visual
interpretation
CONCLUSIONS
The events experienced by the individual who prepares for life in his/her
environment are discussed in the study titled “encounter”. It defines a
process in which individual’s reaction opposed to these events and his/her
solution quests are integrated. In this study group, the student has been
asked to produce any sub-concepts. For instance, among the concepts such
as “tension”, “illness”, “death” and “love”, the “tension” concept has been
sampled in this study.
The study titled “meeting” discusses a process peculiar to architecture
education beyond any encounters in the life of the student. It is an
intersection process in which the individual at the point of beginning
architecture education goes beyond the previous patterns in the view and
forming opinion style for his/her environment; in other words, in which he/she
learns to experience “looking, seeing, searching” actions together.
In the model discussed in the study, an environment is fictionalized in which
the mental and cultural backgrounds of the architect candidate individual in
the general life flows are redefined in the distinguishing characteristic of the
profession.
260

Table 6. Meeting
Abstract
Concrete
Student :NAZRE BLGL*
Topic: ARCHITECTURE
EDUCATION
Verbal interpretation
The expectations of a person
from the architecture means that
he/she sometimes finds
disturbance when thinking that
they are positive, and sometimes
finds happiness when expecting
the bad conditions.
The offerings and expectations of
the architecture are as follows,
-the roads in which a precise
answer can be given never, and
chaos resulted from the moment Visual
of first meeting.
interpretation
-dreams which drive the person
to pessimism or optimism and
which rise in time.
-person’s feeling himself/herself
as to be great, strong, or
unimportant.
REFERENCES
Lökce, S., (1994), Mimarlık Eitiminde Temel Eitim Programlaması
ve Mimari Tasarım Programıyla Bütünleebilecek Bir Model Önerisi, Doktora
Tezi, G.Ü.
Ozek, V., Dalgıc, G., Atac, B., (2006), “Küresel Kültür Olgusunda
Geçmi ve Gelecek ile iletiim-Mimarlık Nesneleri”, 8.Ulusal Sanat
Sempozyumu, s: 637-645.
Ozek, V., Dalgıc, G., (2007), “An Evaluation of Conceptual Editing
in Basic Design Education”, Livenarc III. International Congress, s:883-894.
*T.U. Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of
Architecture, Basic Design Course students.
261

FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN;
METHODOLOGY OF NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT DESIGN
Oya AKIN
Yildiz Technical University
Faculty of Architecture
Department of City and Regional Planning
stanbul,TURKEY
Tel: +90 212 2597070 / 2814
Fax: +90 212 2610549,
e-mail: oakinster@gmail.com
Nilgün ERKAN
E-mail: nilgunerkan@gmail.com
Bora YERLYURT
E-mail: bora.yerliyurt@gmail.com
262

ABSTRACT
City planning can be defined basically as a decision making process with the
aim of describing the inhabitable criteria between human and nature in a
wide range from “generating international policies-strategy” to design
surroundings of dwellings. From one perspective planning phenomenon can
be defined as a guide in socio-economic development progress, or it can be
defined as an art of organizing space. Consequently, every stage of planning
process includes different scales and qualities of design.
From this basic approach, at Educational Program of City and Regional
Planning Department at Yıldız Technical University, design phenomenon is
discussed in all systems from micro (basic design) to macro (from urban
design to generate strategies). At the first year of education schedule there
are two basic modules. At the first academic term, the students who have
knowledge of high school degree are taught basic design and graphical
techniques and also taught how to examine visual perception, how to
embody abstract thoughts; at the second term, the students who have
already learned basic design acquirements are taught how to analyze urban
textures at different socio-cultural and spatial geographies and how to
practice a neighborhood unit design process. Both of the modules are
supported with a design studio and a theoretical class that supports it.
The aim of this paper is; to discuss the educational methods of analyzing the
urban patterns, design elements and design process of neighborhood unit
relating to the first year of the education program.
In this context, the subject will be discussed within two main topics: first topic
is to analyze the urban patterns and design elements. Within the aspect of
this study the aim is; to make the student find the elements which determine
the spatial design criteria in socio-cultural and spatial geographies and to
analyze the criteria to be focused on while designing urban spaces in
different geographies within the traditional accommodation principles. In
other words, since there is not a single right approach, the aim is to create
the clues for the designer to approach the subject matter with various
components in mind. Second basic topic is the study of teaching stages for
design process of neighborhood units (analysis, synthesis, zoning,
orientation, site plan, etc.) and presentation techniques. In this study, the
subject is discussed in variable scales both in macro scale conceptual
approaches and in details.
The method of study is continued by the lectures, assessments and
arguments with the whole class and detailed arguments at group sessions.
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The desired result is to provide coordination in the studies run within the
whole class, an opportunity of detailed discussion of each student’s study in
group studies. At discussions and critics of sketches it is wanted from tutors
and students to criticize about various materials (photographs, sketches,
videos, Google earth visuals, etc.) to improve reading design, and opinion
about rights and faults and ability of technical drawing. The aim of this
method is to exclude the student from the passive role and to include
learning with interactive trial and error method process.
Consequently, students who had taught basic design, within the context of
design studio and the lesson that supports it, the discussion method, with
the process of an interactive participation, about how to discuss the varying
cultural and geographical elements at the process of designing a unit
neighborhood area is tried to explain.
Keywords: urban pattern components, neighborhood, design principles of
urban spaces, perception, interactive participation
264

FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN;
METHODOLOGY OF NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The Department of City and Region Planning which takes part in the Faculty
of Architecture of Yıldız Technical University includes a four-year
educational program. In the education program; there are eight studio
studies which are supported by the theoretical and practical courses in semi
annually periods. In the studio studies of the first year; the urban exterior
space design principles are taken up which are based on the fundamental
design process and one quarter unit. In the second and third years; the
urban policies and design studies are taken up in a system from the social,
economical and spatial structure analysis studies and the macro measured
planning strategies to the micro-based application decisions at the basis of
region and city. In the last year of the education; the experience and
knowledge build-up that is formed by the student in three years are tested in
the context of diploma thesis and project. In the coverage of this project, in
addition to the conceptual researches, the design processes are followed in
different scales based on the formation of the planning policies and carrying
the policies to the place. As a result, the design training is provided in the
first year of the training process and then in the subsequent processes the
student is expected to carry this discipline to the studies.
In the first year of the planning education, the “design training” is tried to be
transferred by means of two separate studio studies which are constructed
on each others and the theoretical and practical courses which support
these studios. In the first semester of the first class; the courses are followed
as “planning 1 Studio” which is based on the “drawing techniques” and
“graphic expression and presentation techniques” which is based on the
“basic design and expression techniques” to the students having the
secondary school knowledge and skill level and who became successful in
the central system selection examination. 47
47 The university students in Turkey obtain the right to have university education as a
result of a central system examination with the contents of fundamental science areas.
They select the department to be studied according to the score obtained in this
examination. In addition to this the skill examinations are taken in some departments
of the universities. However, the students that take part in the YTU city and region
planning educational program have the right to take education as a result of the
central system examination, without experiencing such an exam system.
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In the coverage of Planning 1 Studio; the subjects are taken up as the
interior space design principles, interior space exterior space relationships
(parcel/structure relationship), design principles of the small neighboring unit
which is composed of 8-10 residence units by means of the writing, technical
painting, free drawing, two-dimension (scale, projection, section, silhouette
studies) and three-dimension (perspective, model studies) expression
techniques.
In the coverage of Graphical Expression and Presentation Techniques;
visual perception examination, design elements (point, drawing, pattern,
scale, form, light, shade, color), design principles (repetition, compliance,
contrast, dominance, balance), space concept and 2 and 3 dimensioned
techniques and abstracting studies, urban space reading techniques,
sketching and abstracting techniques concerning the urban space are taken
up (Figure 1).
Figure 1: YTÜ, Urban and Regional Planning Depart., Coordination Process of
Design Education in First Year
In the second semester of the education; “Planning2” studio studies are
carried out concerning the perception of the planning and design principles
concerning the “quarter” unit in the urban settlement system and carrying
different geography, socio-economical structure relationships to the students
forming knowledge build-up on the subjects of fundamental design and
drawing techniques in the end of the first semester. The support is provided
by means of a conceptual course titled “housing” to the practical study of
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Planning 2 studio. In the coverage of this course; the housing concept,
typologies, production processes and models are taken up.
The students that completed the first class in the end of each of two
semesters are expected to have the spatial perception and urban reading
skill which is one of the fundamental targets of the planning discipline and to
produce the location-specific spatial design principles (in the light of the
different geography, socio-economical structure components). What is tried
to emphasize is that; the design is not to copy a picture in our mind to every
place, but every geography and socio-economical structure components
should produce their own truths. The designer should be able to read these
components and should express by means of mixing with the new needs to
occur in the future.
In this paper, the process followed will be taken up in the coverage of the
“Planning Studio 2” and based on the “urban exterior space design
principles” and followed in the second semester of the first year of the YTU
City and Region Planning education program.
1. PLANNING 2 STUDIO OBJECT DEFINITION
The fundamental purpose of the course is carrying the different geography,
social and economical structure relationships to the place and conception of
the planning and design principles concerning the “quarter” unit in the urban
settlement system. The sub-objects targeted are as follows:
• Investigating the space formation criteria in the geographies having
different life habits in terms of different climatic conditions, different
topographic structures and customs and habits. In other words,
transferring the reading methods of the space components,
• Making comparisons between the traditional life habits in abovedefined
geographies and the today’s habits; and seeking
connections between the original ones and related requirements,
• Transferring the design principles of a neighboring unit (in which
800 – 1000 persons live) which is specific to the place defined,
* Scenario defining (relief, defining the environmental
data),
* Direction construction (building /parcel relationships;
where will the building series take part? Where they will be
directed?)
* Structure block definition,
* Public common spaces definition and design principles
(street, square, court...)
• Quarter concept, definition criteria in the settlement hierarchy, its
importance in the planning system,
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• Quarter concept planning and design principles are listed as
follows,
*Analysis (evaluation of natural structure, socioeconomical
structure, environmental data)
*Synthesis (problem and potential definition),
*Design principles,
*Zoning (function areas location, density grading
and transportation system grading),
*Orientation,
*Mass study and site plan formation (definition of
the building/parcel, parcel/street, building/street,
building/building relationships),
• Constructing the relationships by means of the macro measurement
planning data (master plans / strategic plans),
• Constructing the density and design relationships,
2. PLANNING 2 STUDIO SCOPE DEFINITION
A system is followed from the micro (neighboring unit) to the macro (quarter);
from the macro (quarter) to the micro (detail) in the studio content. In this
direction the subject is taken up in 2 main headings.
2.1. Different Geographies and Spatial Structure Components:
First of all, it is tried to make the concept concrete by means of the questions
“what is the pattern and what are elements forming the pattern?” After
sampling one by one and discussing the pattern components, the analysis
on the sample patterns and the scenario studies concerning these patters
are realized (Figure 2a, 2b).
Figure 2a: What is the Figure 2b: Urban pattern Figure 2c: Urban
pattern
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On the images concerning the two and three dimensioned and different
geographies; it is tried to read the elements which form the urban pattern
and to form the tips concerning the design. In other words, the story which
takes part behind the space is tried to be read. These scenario studies are
realized on the traditional urban patterns (Figure 3).
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Figure 3: Identification Process of Urban Pattern
The study concerns the pattern analysis and design on the selected regions
from the different geographies every semester. The process which is
described in the coverage of the paper is carried out on the studies on the
patterns which take part in the Southeast Anatolia and Black Sea regions of
Turkey. It is tried to form the design samples in the Southeast Anatolia
(figure 2b) in which the flora is about non-existent and the daily life is mostly
experienced in the courtyard in the hot and arid climate zone and in Black
Sea region (figure 2c) in which a rainy flora and separated structure typology
Figure 4a: Southeast Anatolian
Region Pattern Exercise
Figure 4b: Blacksea Region Pattern Exercise
270

are dominant in a rainy climate zone (figures 4a, 4b). In the studies, it is
dwelled upon the concept of space, street, square definitions, building,
parcel relationships, principles of belonging in the design and definition
formation.
2.2. Quarter Unit Planning and Design Process
Planning is the study of seeking answers for 3 fundamental questions with
the most general meaning; ‘Who?’, ‘In which geography?’, ‘Under which
conditions’ they will live, work ... etc. Starting from these fundamental
approaches, the stages of analysis, synthesis, zoning, orientation and mass
study stages are followed with the feedbacks (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Analysis Process in Planning
Figure 6: Natural Environs Analysis
After realizing the synthesis study (figure 7) in which the problems and
potentials are defined according to analysis, it is passed to the design stage.
The zoning study, in which particularly the quarter concept, function areas,
locationing, density and transportation staging are defined, is performed at
the design stage (figure 8).
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Figure 7: Synthesis
Figure 8: Zonning
Figure 9: Orientation
Figure 10: Mass Order / Site Plan
3. PLANNING 2 STUDIO METHOD DEFINITION
Basically it is taken up in two headings as the studies which are continuing in
the class whole and the studies based on the group work in terms of the
operational method of the studio. The “collect” and “distribute” method is
applied for various times in the day during this process. At the collect/get
together stage; the conference, discussion, preliminary sketch production
processes that are realized in the entire class are followed and it is tried to
ensure coordination and to ensure a rich discussion environment with the
participation of all of the teachers and students. At the distribute stage; the
studies are continued at the group basis. In these studies; it is enabled to
apply the correction concerning the details in directing the group teachers
and the individual study of the student on the preliminary sketch and model
(figure 11).
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One of the important headings in the studies which are followed in the entire
class is the seminars / conferences. In the conferences which are composed
of the presentation of each lecturer taking part in the studio works; in
addition to conceptual and theoretical expressions, a method is followed in
which the discussions take part on various visual and the student is included
in the process (figure 12). The joint discussions on the preliminary studies
are realized in two stages.
Figure 12: Seminar
Figure 11: Method of planning 2
Studio
Figure 13: Criticize of sketches by students
After exhibiting all of the student studies, the students are expected to select
one partner and to criticize the studies of each others. After that the
discussion is opened to the entire class with the participation of the teachers
and students. As purpose in addition to ensuring the coordination in the
entire class, it is targeted to develop the skills of seeing, perception, selfconfidence
and self-expression of the students (figure 13).
In addition, the preliminary study examinations which are carried out
throughout the class will be repeated every week, and it is targeted for the
students to acquire production technique and production in the
predetermined period of time. In these examinations, it is required firstly to
draw a square with 25x25 cm dimensions as imaginary and with 1/1000
scale. This represents a virtual area. After that, the students are required to
determine a topography (hill, valley, water coast, inclined, flat etc) and to
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carry out a design study relating to the subjects which are determined with
the weekly course schedule. The study subject is changed every week
because of the weekly agenda, in other words, a problem is put forward
(particularly a problem that is determined by every student) and they are
expected to produce solutions.
Figure 14a: The criticize on model
Figure 14b: The criticize of sketches
Figure 14c: The criticize of sketches
Figure 14d: The criticize of sketches
In the studies which are carried out at the basis of group, the individual study
(on preliminary sketch and model) is continued with correction and
discussions by means of interactive participation as well (figure 14a, 14b,
14c, 14d).
The assignment studies are based on transferring the research, reading,
source accumulation and build-up out of the studio of the student onto the
preliminary sketch study.
4. CONCLUSION and EVALUATION
As a conclusion, it is observed that the students that become successful in
the “Planning 2 studio” which is followed in the first year of the City and
Regional Planning Training Program acquire the following skills
considerably;
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a. Concerning the urban exterior space design principles
research and conceptual knowledge build-up process,
• Information access method, research techniques,
• Synthesizing and interpreting the information accessed,
• Making concrete and expressing in graphics the conceptual
information build-up,
• Constructing the relationship networks between the scales,
• Analyzing the socio-cultural components resulting from the natural
structure underlying the space concept,
• Urban hierarchy (accommodation, working, transportation,
equipment, ...),
• Defining the quarter concept and its components,
• Determining the problem in the housing and determining the
requirements,
b. Concerning the development of the urban design skill,
• Expression by means of freehand technique,
• Space designing in accordance with the requirements,
• Space designing in accordance with the differentiated scenarios
according to the socio-cultural structure,
• Constructing the population, density and design relationships,
• Expression of design in both written and orally (by means of 2 and
3 dimensional expression techniques) ,
• Constructing the neighboring relationships, structure block, main
pedestrian artery, equipment areas and access surfaces design
principles in the residental areas design process,
The results (which are considered either positive or negative according to
our opinion) of the method which is followed in the process which we
experience in the last 10 years and we evaluate and try to develop the final
products every year take part as follows;
It is observed that the traditional pattern analyses which are studied in the
first weeks of the “Planning 2” studio and the design exercises concerning
different geographies extended the point of view of the students to the space
to be designed. At the same time it is observed that they expanded
diversification of the design modules learned according to the different
culture and geographies, producing alternatives and developing flexibility in
the thought and designs.
Another subject title which is considered to put positive results is the shortterm
preliminary sketch examinations which are repeated with different
scenarios every week and realized as an virtual space. It is determined that
these examinations not only increased the thoughts and skills of the
275

students on the subject of design but also increased the hand skills (in
comparison with the previous years).
Finally; at every stage of the studio studies it is observed that the students
developed the self-expression skills which are considerably important for
planning profession with the participation of the students as not only group
but also as class in the discussions.
On the other hand, the most important matter on which the method shows
weakness in this workshop study is that the students remained insufficient
on the subject of 3 dimensional expression / exposition (model, section,
perspective). The computer technologies (3 dimensional modeling
techniques) are not used in accordance with the principle of developing the
“freehand technique” which is one of the fundamental targets of the studio.
Consequently, the students are expected to work on the model and to draw
sections for perceiving the space as 3 dimensional. However, this technique
is considered idle by our students and avoided to a considerable extent.
Finally, it is wanted to mention a problem resulting from the flow of our
education program. As it is explained in the introductory part of the paper,
only the subject of “design” is taken up in the first year of the planning
education. The design subject is overlooked because of the dense of the
subjects which should be transferred and the contents of subsequent
studios. Consequently, it is observed that design skills of our students are
wasted away remarkably at the stage of graduation. However, our
educational programs are continuously reviewed as a whole concerning this
subject.
276

THE DANCE OF DESIGN AND SCIENCE
IN FIRST YEAR STUDIO:
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BILGI DENEL
TO BASIC DESIGN IN TURKEY *
TONGUÇ AKI
34. Sokak 4 / 9
Bahçelievler / Ankara
06490
TURKEY
E-mail: tongakis@gmail.com
Tonguç Akı is graduated in 1998 from METU Department of Architecture
and finished his master thesis titled “Urban Space and Everyday Life:
Walking Through Yüksel Pedestrian District” in 2001 in the Graduate School
of Natural and Applied Science of the same university. He worked in a
constructional engineering firm as an architect between 1998-2001. Between
2001 and 2006, he worked as an instructor in Erciyes University in Yozgat
and gave several courses related to basic design, architectural design,
computer aided design and elective courses in both architecture and city
planning departments. He spent six months on Bauhaus Universitat in
Weimar and now, he is at his final stage of his doctoral work again in METU
focusing on the scientification venture of architectural discipline between
1956-1982 in Turkey.
* This paper in the short summary of the dissertation “Teaching / Forming / Framing a
Scientifically Oriented Architecture in Turkey between 1956 – 1982” in METU in
Turkey.
277

ABSTRACT
The theoretical framework of first year studio in Turkey has its roots during
the establishment period of METU in 1956. International figures like Fritz
Janeba and Marvin Sevely constituted the first year studio in Turkey and
developed the application of the concepts borrowed from Vorkurs of
Bauhaus together with the practical production of buildings in summer
practices. Moreover, in the late 1970s and early 1980s is the period of
teaching, forming and framing a scientifically oriented architecture in Turkey.
Due to the scientific developments and technological innovations on
international scale, architectural scholars shifted the focus and limits of
architecture to systems theory, design thinking, behavioural experiments,
building technology, and social and cultural analysis of the settlements. This
period can be considered as the merging of design with science. During this
collaboration of two disciplines, basic design education is exposed with a
conception of “Scientific Design”.
Bilgi Denel has become a significant scholar in this period paving his own
way of defining systematic design inside the studio. Criticising the Bauhaus
Experience, Denel has produced a paradigm shift in basic design education
with systematic thinking and visual awareness in Turkey and developed an
analytical and rational perspective within the architectural scholarship.
General Systems Theory and Gestalt Principles have turned out to be the
major sources for this novel practice of this type of basic design in Turkey.
Denel’s texts on basic design education has defined a new pedagogy, a new
form of teaching design, in the departments of architecture and an original
model to teach basic design based on a scientific view of design. One of the
methods introduced for that mental system is exposed in the book A Method
for Basic Design. 48 Additionally, in the book of Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık
(Basic Design and Creativity) 49 , this particular method for basic design is
taken as an attempt for searching the creativity and its limits of basic design
in the architectural education.
Since basic design education is the platform for introducing, defining and
discussing the primary concepts of design and its elements together with the
scholars and the students, these investigations allow tracing the arguments
on design process in terms of making architecture scientific, especially in
terms of the conceptualisation of space in local level. For this paper, the
limits of basic design are discussed to understand and position the role of
science in design education reviewing the pedagogical tools of Denel on
48
See Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, 1979, Ankara.
49
See Denel, B., Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, 1981, Ankara.
278

spatial suggestions in Turkey. Together with the other attempts of making
architecture more scientific such as Design Methods and Environmental
Behaviourism, the association of design and science in mentioned period
develops a significant legacy for understanding the recent developments in
basic design education and defines a rich fragment in the route of
architectural pedagogy starting from Vorkurs of Bauhaus to Inchoate of
ETH 50 .
Keywords:
Design Methods, Basic Design, Scientifically Oriented Architecture,
Architectural Education in Turkey
50
See Angelil, M., Inchoate: An Experiment in Architectural Education, Swiss Federal
Institution of Technology Zurich – Faculty of Architecture, ETH Press, 2003.
279

THE DANCE OF DESIGN AND SCIENCE
IN FIRST YEAR STUDIO:
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BILGI DENEL
TO BASIC DESIGN IN TURKEY *
Introduction
In the international journey of basic design, starting from the early works of
Denman Waldo Ross and Arthur Wesley Dow in USA to Bauhaus in Weimar,
Dessau, and Berlin, Vkutemas in USSR to Hochschule für Gestaltung in
Ulm, New Bauhaus to Inchoate in Switzerland, the relationship of science
and design is becomes a major issue parallel with the argument of reason.
Design Methods by its venture in opening “black box” to achieve a complete
“glass box” use scientific methodology to examine design activity. Protocol
analysis to reflection-in-action methods enriches this marriage of design and
science. Philosophical contributions and experience based implementations
pave the way of the methodology in design activity especially for basic
design.
In this paper, we would like to dwell on the venture of scientification of
architecture and examine the contribution of Bilgi Denel as a creative figure
in basic design education in Turkey. His texts become the source for us to
underline the dance of design and science in local level with its international
connection.
Between the late 1950s and early 1980s architectural studies in Turkey of
the period concentrate by the help of scientific methods on various
architectural issues and research topics such as intuition of designer,
behaviour patterns, and energy efficiency of buildings. Scholarly studies
concerned with the assessment of architectural projects and the evaluation
of buildings evolve into the methodological consideration of architecture by
using “systems of inquiry” provided by the sciences of psychology,
anthropology and sociology and are thus enhanced with novel
interpretations of the scientific terminology. 51 This trend is named as the
scientification movement in the paper and defines a novel type of
* This paper in the short summary of the dissertation “Teaching / Forming / Framing a
Scientifically Oriented Architecture in Turkey between 1956 – 1982” in METU in
Turkey.
51
The term “systems of inquiry” is used to name the different perspectives on
architectural research and to reflect the epistemological and methodological
approaches in architectural research methods. See Groat, L. and Wang, D.,
Architectural Research Methods, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002, p. 6-7 and also
chapter 2 “Systems of Inquiry and Standards of Research Quality”, p. 21-43.
280

scientifically oriented architecture that leads to the “Architectural Sciences” in
Turkey. 52 Moreover, it houses the teaching practices for design activity and
the methodological differences in architectural research inside the academic
world.
The particular era that spans from 1950s to 1980s is considered as the
establishment period of pluralistic architectural sciences much influenced by
the international sources. One prominent example is the graduate program
of Building Sciences and Environmental Design (BSED) at METU Faculty of
Architecture, proposed as an individual department in 1976 but built as a
graduate program in 1979.
Motivations for Architectural Sciences in Turkey
Academic realm in Turkey walks its own route in forming a more scientific
architecture although it has remarkable international relations depending on
the personal interests of the movement. Three motivations become more
significant among the architectural routine of the previous questions in
forming a scientifically oriented architecture such as routinisation,
institutionalisation, and socialisation that develop a distinction.
First motivation, rotinisation in architecture, pertains to the sources of
Turkey. According to the limited sources, architecture in Turkey had no
luxury in producing failures of architects and irrational buildings parallel to
the lack of scientific research production. 53 The term “routinisation in
architecture” is to characterise this situation in Turkey as lhan Tekeli
introduces. 54 Routinisation is the attempt of transparent and collective
understanding of design process in the production of the ideas about design,
architecture and planning according to him. “Black box” as the term used for
the closed and unknown activity of designer became what was a collective
and open action design process as “glass box”.
The emerging possibilities of making design not only by the widely popular
architects or highly talented actors but the “normal” and “ordinary” people
who are educated in design and architecture schools introduced a paradigm
shift in the field of design and architecture in the world as well as in Turkey.
52
For the proposal of the Department of Architectural Sciences, see mamolu, V., (et
al.), Mimarlık Bilimleri Bölümü Önerisi, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing
Studio, 1976, Ankara.
53
See Boratav, K., Türkiye ktisat Tarihi: 1923 – 2002, mge Yayınları, 2005, p. 107 –
116.
54
Tekeli, , Tasarım Sürecini Bilimselletirme Çabaları, Mimarlık, 148, 1976/3, Ankara,
p. 59-62.
281

Second motivation generated the architectural studies in terms of institution.
The motivation institutionalisation in architecture included the opening of
state based formations for the sake of developing reasonable and rational
architecture and planning with scientific methodologies. After the foundation
of State Planning Institution (DPT – Devlet Planlama Tekilatı), Turkish State
started to regulate sources of Turkey and proposes 5-year- developmentplans
for rationalisation of the economical investments as an active actor in
building sector after the military coup d’état in 1960. 55
One of the prominent institutional foci of this motivation to build up a more
scientifically oriented architecture became METU with its transforming
curriculum as an international university in Ankara. METU, during its
establishment period, houses also a rational perspective in the production of
planners and architects with its curriculum in global scale. METU contributed
in at least three major areas to the architectural education. First novelty was
the basic design education in METU. The main aim of the Basic Design is to
get rid of all the initial conceptions of design process, which students had
gained throughout their personal life. 56 Second one is the summer practices
of METU. 57 Field practice in construction site lasting approximately eight
weeks was required in the curriculum. The students are encouraged in order
to lead the awareness of investigating the basic problems of the Middle East
and Turkey through the practical methods of analytic thinking. 58 Finally,
ÇEMBL (Çevre ve Mimarlık Bilimleri Dernei – Society for Environment and
Architecture Sciences) and the department of Building Sciences and
Environmental Design (BSED) as mutual organisations are the pioneer
institutions in METU on the studies for forming a scientifically oriented
architecture. 59
55 See Boratav, K., Türkiye ktisat Tarihi: 1923 – 2002, mge Yayınları, 2005,
p. 107 – 170.
56 METU Catalogue, 1957–1958, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, Ankara, p.24.
57 See the collection of the summer practices held by METU between the
years of 1958 and 1974. Özkan, S. (ed.), Mimarlık Fakültesi Yaz
Uygulamaları, Arp Yayınevi, 1975, Ankara.
58 Uysal, Y., The Formation of the System of Education at METU Faculty of
Architecture 1956-1980, Unpublished Master Paper, METU, 2003.
59
For example, see Pultar, M, (ed.), Çevre, Yapı ve Tasarım, ÇEMBL Publications,
1979, Ankara. (as the proceedings of the First Conference of Architectural Sciences in
26-28 September 1979) and Occasional Papers of ÇEMBL as the publications of
Architectural Science Workshop in METU Faculty of Architecture published by METU
Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing Studio).
282

The scholars in universities such as ITU, KTU and METU elaborate architectural
studies in numerous fields. They participate in significant number of conferences
and publish architectural works in the favour of forming a scientific architecture.
However, METU Department of Architecture stands for being one of the
generator institution through the venture within other departments in ITU, DMMA,
ADMMA, Ege University and KTU.
Third motivation of forming more scientific architecture relied on the political
concerns of Turkey. “Socialisation in architecture” generates the atmosphere of
the scholarship in its uniting attempt of architecture and social demands in
Turkey. It is the motivation of strengthening the relationship between architect,
scholar and society through the social organisations and actions.
The Chamber of Architects of Turkey established in 1954 turned into a platform
for realising these political demands of architects as educated technicians. By the
means of reports and campaigns, educated technicians produce solutions to the
problems of the country as social engineers. 60 As an example, in 1971, Ankara
Branch of Chamber of Architects declared a report for the problem of technical
education. 61 The report ended with a declaration of “Devrim çin Teknik Eitim
(Technical Education for Revolution)”. The problem of social housing and the
questions of building production and urban solutions in the field were the key
discussions on social demands influenced the atmosphere in the architectural
scholarship of Turkey.
These three motivations in Turkey define a paradigm shift in the field of
architectural scholarship having one particular perspective in common. All of
them are based on the totalising world view which resonates together with
the system approaches. The influence of system theories and its variations
inside the architecture has its traces in design activities and architectural
research. The notion of design activity, once being understood as black box,
turns into “translucent” glass box by the help of holistic scientific approaches.
This glass box has its components, input, output, and environment as a total
system having parts-whole relationship.
60
In her chronological text, Göle refers to these socialistic ideals developed in the late
1960s. Regarding the positivist ideas and rationalist perspectives of the social actors
in Turkey, she searches the relation between the leftist politics and social engineering.
Göle, N., Mühendisler ve deoloji: Öncü Devrimcilerden Yenilikçi Seçkinlere, Metis
Yayınları, (1986) 1998., p.20.
61
Ankara ubesi Komisyon Çalımaları, Türkiye’de Teknik Öretim Sorunu, Mimarlık,
January 1971, p. 11 – 13. Commission members were Yavuz Önen, Turan Tamer,
Osman K. Akol, Erhan Erdomu. Consultants of the commision were efik Uysal,
Prof. Nusret Fiek, Doç. Dr. Bozkurt Güvenç, Prof. Mümtaz Soysal, Mehmet Özgüne,
Doç. Nejat Erder, Haluk Pamir.
283

Bilgi Denel and A Methodology for Basic Design
Basic design education in Turkey penetrates into the architectural education
through the curriculum of METU. 62 The adaptation of basic design education
from the international sources into METU architectural curriculum was
accomplished in 1960s starting with the early implementations of Fritz
Janeba as the key figure in METU first year studio. 63 Later, Bilgi Denel
published various texts on the basic design education proposing a special
design methodology. One of these texts is “Bauhaus’ta Temel Tasarım
(Basic Design in Bauhaus)” in the first bulletin of METU Faculty of
Architecture in 1971. 64 He argues that there is a lack of holistic approaches
inside the studio and states the need for a modification in the light of specific
circumstances in Turkey.
Denel defines basic design as a mental system with a strong emphasis on
its visual dimension and considers it as the foundation of and beginning of
architectural education. 65 He rejects the complete acceptance of Bauhaus
practice in basic design and introduces a local program. 66 One of the
methods introduced for that mental system is introduced in the book A
Method for Basic Design. 67 In addition to that, in the book of Temel Tasarım
ve Yaratıcılık (Basic Design and Creativity) 68 , this particular method for basic
design is taken as an attempt for searching the creativity and its limits of
basic design in the architectural education.
Denel states the objective evaluation of his proposal for basic design for
revealing these points.
“a) The process of the method tries to free the students
from many years of subscribing to the tyranny of text
62
Uysal, Y., The Formation of the System of Education at METU Faculty of
Architecture 1956-1980, Unpublished Master Paper, METU, 2003.
63
Özgüner, O., “ODTÜ’de Basic Design Uygulamaları”, Mimarlık, August, 1966.
64
Denel, B., Bauhaus’ta Temel Tasarım, METU Faculty of Architecture, Institute of
Research and Development, Bulletin no: 1, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, 1971, Ankara, p. 95-106.
65
Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing
Studio, Ankara, 1979, p. 7.
66
Denel, B., Bauhaus’ta Temel Tasarım, METU Faculty of Architecture Institute of
Research and Development, Bülten, No:1, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, Ankara, October 1971, p. 95-106,
67
Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Press, 1979, Ankara.
68
See Denel, B., Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, 1981.
284

ooks plus the undisputed autocracy of high school
teachers and,
b) In the face of using permanent values and proven
rules, inventing, formulating, and proving their own suit
their set rules within a wide spectrum of inevitable
general restriction,
c) Learning self discipline, answering rationally for one’s
own doings, taking responsibility to prove to enhance our
environment in a socially conscientious way that will also
give personal satisfaction in accomplishment.” 69
Consequently, the paper chooses to examine the methodology of Denel in
order to trace the venture of forming scientific design activity. His line with
the extensive methods on transmitting design stands for a fruitful source in
the context of scientifically oriented architecture. His transparent,
systematic, and analytical approach to basic design methodology makes the
perspectives on design activity more questionable.
Scientific Methodology and Basic Design
During the process of transmission, namely the teaching process in the
basic design studio, the students of architecture define individual method of
communication with individual experience. The notion of intuition seems to
be neglected in the design studies with the influence of forming scientific
architecture. Some scholars discussed science and intuition as a binary
opposition and defines intuition as part of the idealistic production of
architectural design 70 . He examines both intuition and creativity as an object
of scientific methodology. His analytic perspective aims to clarify this blur
and basic concepts of design studies.
“First of all a language must be developed with a minimum
vocabulary. This will be the first step for the necessary
communication. Since the visual world comprises the bulk of
the architect’s preoccupation, a language of vision that
culminates in visual awareness is essential. Here one must
be very careful because one of our present day handicaps
lies in the prolification of words. By reducing them to a
minimum and carefully defining them, we can order them to
the extend that we can call them facts. Then when we know
69
Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing
Studio, 1979, Ankara, p. 164-165.
70
Tekeli, ., Tasarım Sürecini Bilimselletirme Çabaları, in the proceeding of the
conference Mimarlık Eitimi in Trabzon, TMMOB Publication, Ankara, 1976.
285

one fact well by manipulating it, we can learn so many from
it.” 71
Denel underlines that the process of seeing only makes scale-based
comparisons and this visual skill leads only to the construction of groups for
a structure, namely visual grouping. Here, visual geometry helps to construct
this structure upon the unique and logical rules that are defined through the
perception of the eye. 72 According to Denel, this process is the key for
defining the relations between design and order for designer. 73
As it is mentioned above, two issues discussed in the design studio are
creativity and intuition, but in order to reinforce them. 74 Within the
methodology, Denel admits that there is no education of creativity. He
defines creativity in education as the ability of original production of design;
however this idea of design has to be transmitted with a systematic
language of communication, namely visual vocabulary of design. However,
they employ the scientific approach in producing more solutions and
variations during the studio in order to facilitate the improvement of individual
creativity in studio. Denel exposes the need for a simple, defined and easy
theory for basic design. 75 For him, basic design has to rely on the scientific
truths with abstractions as long as it is falsifiable.
Additionally, Denel underlines the relationships between design process and
the notion of intuition. He defines the limits of intuition in architectural design
in three phases: accumulation of experience, control of the system by logical
thought and the determination of functional relevance. The notion of intuition
with the systematic approaches in the activities of design process helps to
define the proposals of designs in terms of production, representation,
communication and visual perception. He merges intuition with the
systematic methods and the principles of the Gestalt Theory. He underlines
that this theory is not only a source for adopting Euclidean geometry to
spatial organisation, but also for answering the possible necessities in terms
of defining flexible and open solutions of architects and designers. 76
71
Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing
Studio, Ankara, 1979, p. 18-19.
72
See the footnotes 6 and 7 in Ibid, p. 18-19.
73
See Denel, B., Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing
Studio, 1981, Ankara.
74
Denel writes a chapter on Synectics in Denel, B., Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU
Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing Studio, 1981, p. 34-46.
75
Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Press1979, Ankara, p. 171.
76
See Denel, B., Denel, B., Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU Faculty of Architecture
Offset Printing Studio, 1981, p. 7
286

Denel introduces the term Synectics inside the studio for developing
architectural design studies. 77 It is penetrated inside the studio with the
sketch problems. During these studies, students are asked to perform and
present solutions on the unthinkable, undefined and unexpected problems.
The exercises of Synectics help students to see problems in different ways.
Unlike brainstorming, it is a better defined and structured method including
sequential steps to develop alternative perspectives of perception for the
students.
Regarding these perspectives of perception and totalising attitude in design
process, Denel examines the artistic dimension of architecture in basic
design education. Denel argues the importance of the rules and frameworks
situated for understanding of the rational and aesthetic sides of architecture
for visual perception. He limits the basic design studies by differentiating the
concepts of economy, aesthetic and social consequences intentionally for
abstracting the basic design education as intangible notions in design. 78
Denel argues also the role of criticism in basic design in terms of idealism.
“Metaphysical arguments in basic design refer to the notion
of being against logical positivism. Not only are
metaphysical questions unanswerable but unaskable. Such
notions may very well fit to the ideal that the teacher is
know-all-God not to be questioned. Of course, such an
argument, for all its seemingly worthiness in metaphysical
philosophy, can not be acceptable in our logical approach in
design.” 79
Conclusion and Further Remarks
The implication and institutionalisation of Basic Design in Turkey in from
1970s to late 1980s influenced the architectural education, especially in
rational terminology. Synectics as a scientific tool and rejection to idealist
77
Denel hold a graduate course on Synectics as the part of the Department Architectural
Sciences in late 1970s together with the participation of basic design studio as instructor in
METU. See also Denel, B., Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU Faculty of Architecture
Offset Printing Studio, 1981, p. 34-46.
78
Denels differentiates the more tangible notions and intangible notions in basic
design. The more tangibles are visual structuring, physical structuring, light and scale;
on the other hand intangibles are social, psychology, the subject of economics,
movement, and aesthetics. Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of
Architecture Offset Printing Studio, Ankara, 1979, p. 73-105.
79
Denel, B., A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing
Studio, Ankara, 1979, p. 168.
287

explanation of design activity in 1970s is some of the contribution of Bilgi
Denel et al in accordance to General Systems Theory. Criticism of Gestalt
Principle and endeavour of local formation of basic design in Turkey is
significant and form a source for making comparisons with the international
experiences. Starting from this point, basic design education in Turkey
needs a wider attention and criticism to achieve a historical analysis with its
social and cultural context.
References:
• Ankara ubesi Komisyon Çalımalar (1971), Türkiye’de Teknik
Öretim Sorunu, Mimarlık, January, p. 11 – 13, Ankara.
• Angelil, M. (2003), Inchoate: An Experiment in Architectural
Education, Swiss Federal Institution of Technology Zurich – Faculty
of Architecture, ETH Press.
• Denel, B. (1979), A Method of Basic Design, METU Faculty of
Architecture Offset Printing Studio, Ankara.
• Denel, B. (1981), Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık, METU Faculty of
Architecture Offset Printing Studio, Ankara.
• Denel, B. (1971), Bauhaus’ta Temel Tasarım, METU Faculty of
Architecture, Institute of Research and Development, Bulletin no: 1,
METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing Studio, Ankara, p. 95-
106.
• Göle, N. (1998), Mühendisler ve deoloji: Öncü Devrimcilerden
Yenilikçi Seçkinlere, Metis Yayınları, (1986), p.20.
• mamolu, V. et al (1976),.Mimarlık Bilimleri Bölümü Önerisi, METU
Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing Studio, Ankara.
• Boratav, K., Türkiye ktisat Tarihi: 1923 – 2002, mge Yayınları,
2005, p. 107 – 170.
• METU Catalogue, 1957–1958, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset
Printing Studio, Ankara, p.24.
• Pultar, M, ed. (1979), Çevre, Yapı ve Tasarım, ÇEMBL
Publications, METU Faculty of Architecture Offset Printing Studio,
Ankara. (as the proceedings of the First Conference of Architectural
Sciences in 26-28 September 1979).
• Tekeli, . (1976), Tasarım Sürecini Bilimselletirme Çabaları,
Mimarlık, 148/3, p. 59-62, Ankara.
• Uysal, Y. (2003), The Formation of the System of Education at
METU Faculty of Architecture 1956-1980, Unpublished Master
Paper, METU.
288

THE EFFECT OF THREE DIMENSIONAL VISUALIZATION ABILITY ON
BASIC DESIGN EDUCATION: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY IN A TURKISH
PLANNING SCHOOL
Ebru Cubukcu, Ph.D.
Assitant Proffesor
Department of City and Regional Planning
Faculty of Architecture
Dokuz Eylul University
Oda No: 109
Buca/ZMR 35160
ebru.cubukcu@deu.edu.tr
Gozde Eksioglu
Research Assistant
Department of City and Regional Planning
Faculty of Architecture
Dokuz Eylul University
gozde.eksioglu@deu.edu.tr
Telephone: 0090 232 4128462
Fax: 0090 232 4532986
Ebru Cubukcu, Ph.D. 2003, The Ohio State University, is an Assistant Professor
of City and Regional Planning at Dokuz Eylul University, in Izmir, Turkey. She
conducts research in the area of environmental perception, spatial cognition,
virtual reality, post occupancy evaluation and design education. Her research has
appeared in environmental psychology and urban planning journals, including
Environment and Behavior, and Environment and Planning B: Planning and
Design.
Gözde Ekiolu, Bs. 2007 Dokuz Eylul University Department of City and
Regional Planning, in Izmir Turkey. She is currently a research assistant in City
and Regional Planning Department at Dokuz Eylul University and working on her
master degree in the Master Program of Urban Design at the same university.
Her research interests included sustainable development, basic design education,
and environmental aesthetics.
289

ABSTRACT
Basic design education is an essential component in most of the design
education programs around the world and the importance of basic design
education should not be undervalued in planning schools. The themes
needed to be discussed during a basic design course includes two
dimensional geometry (point, line, plane, and plan) and three dimensional
volumes (space, volume, perspective). Among these themes, three
dimensional visualization ability constitutes an important part as a planner is
assumed to imagine and design the city in three dimensions (Gunay, 2007).
Although there is a general agreement on the positive effect of three
dimensional visualization ability on students’ success in basic design
education, no study has attempted to test this relation. This study aimed to
develop a methodology to test students’ three dimensional visualization
ability and analyze the relation between three dimensional visualization
ability and success in basic design education. Students studying in city and
regional planning department at Dokuz Eylul University participated in the
study. Results showed a significant relation between three dimensional
visualization ability and success in basic design education. However, it
should be noted that this study focused on basic design education. Whether
students need three dimensional visualization abilities to be successful in
planning and design practice needs to be further investigated. A useful
extension of this study may also examine the relation between two
components of basic design education; three dimensional visualization
ability and creativity.
Keywords: three dimensional visualization ability, basic design education,
success in design schools, planning education, creativity.
290

Introduction
Basic design education is a fundamental component in most of the design
education programs around the world. Boucharenc (2006) conducted a
survey in 198 design and architecture schools located in 22 countries,
including France, Japan, Great Britain, United States, Germany, and
Belgium, to determine the status of basic design education in the world.
Teachers of basic design and project design (teaching the design courses in
the academic years following the basic design studio), participated in the
study. In general, results showed that design instructors, whether teaching
basic design or project design, perceive basic design exercises as an
essential component of four or five year design education.
Boucharenc’s (2006) survey collected information on the actual and desired
duration of basic design courses in the world. Results showed that in most of
the surveyed schools teaching of basic design takes at least one year (about
79 %) or integrated over the whole academic program (about 15 %). Only in
about six percent of the surveyed schools, teaching of basic design takes a
period of less than one year. When teachers were asked about ideal
duration of time allocated to the teaching of basic design, most of the basic
design and project design teachers were in the view that basic design should
be taught for at least one year (about 50 % of the participants) or should be
integrated over the full length of academic program (about 45 %). Only about
five percent of the teachers surveyed thought that it should take less than
one year. This finding on actual and ideal duration of basic design education
may indicate the importance of basic design education in various design
education programs.
Although design programs in Turkey were not represented in Boucher’s
study, it is plausible to assume that his findings are partially applicable to
Turkish planning schools. In most of the Turkish planning schools, basic
design takes about one year. Informal conversations with basic design and
project design teachers showed a desire to discuss basic design concepts in
the academic years following the basic design studio. Acknowledging the
fact that basic design is a fundamental component of design education, this
study focuses on the essential themes of exercises in basic design.
Boucharenc (2006) investigated the essential themes needed to be
discussed during a basic design course. He gave an extended list of themes
including point, line, plane, plan, space, volume, perspective, structure,
proportion, deformation, ergonomics, light, color, materials, rhythm and
others. When the proportion of the themes to be discussed was investigated,
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the author found two dimensional geometry (point, line, plane, and plan) and
three dimensional volumes (space, volume, perspective) constitutes about
%50 (about %25 each) of the curriculum. In other words, students’ ability to
comprehend and shape the third dimension constitutes an important part of
basic design education. The importance of three-dimensional visualization
ability in Turkish planning schools is no exception. In fact, Gunay (2007),
who is teaching basic design in city and regional planning department at a
Turkish design school for many years, argued that:
“First year basic design studio interrogates the concepts of balance,
solid-void, frame of reference, scale, proportion, order (structure, network,
model), in terms of one dimensional lines, two dimensional areas and three
dimensional volumes.”
Given the fact that three dimensional visualization ability is a fundamental
theme in basic design education, this study focuses on teaching of
visualization techniques. In general, basic design teachers attempt to
develop student’s three dimensional visualization ability by teaching
visualization techniques such as axonometric, isometric, sketches, models,
and three dimensional software. Boucharenc (2006) found that basic design
teachers tend to use four traditional approaches (axonometric, isometric,
sketches, and models). They rarely use three dimensional software. On the
other hand, project teachers put more emphasis to sketches and models and
put about equal importance onto axonometric, isometric, and three
dimensional software. We argue that, although basic design and project
design teachers disagree on which technique is more beneficial for the
development of three dimensional visualization skills, it is generally accepted
that a student who is better equipped with these skills would be more
successful throughout the basic design course and produce more creative
designs for tasks that require three dimensional visualization ability. Yet,
there is no empirical study that tests the relation between three dimensional
visualization ability and success in basic design. Thus, this study attempted
to investigate the relation between these factors.
Method
For the 2007-2008 academic year 61 students, five of whom dropped the
course in the first two weeks, enrolled to the required basic design course in
city and regional planning at Dokuz Eylul University. Each student’s success
in basic design was measured by their average grades on 62 first semester
basic design studio tasks. Each task was rated by at least two basic design
studio instructors who are teaching at the Department of City and Regional
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Planning at Dokuz Eylul University during the 2007-2008 academic year. In
general, students were able to complete each task in approximately 3 to 20
hours. The tasks aimed to develop students’ technical drawing skills and
abstract thinking ability to understand and represent the concepts such as
balance, order, harmony, contrast, emphasis, cluster, unity, and variety via
mostly two dimensional media. For each student, each task was graded from
0 to 100. Then an average score, which was based on the completed tasks
rather than all tasks, was calculated for each student. The average grades
vary between 46 and 78. Students who achieved a score below 60 were
assigned to ‘low’, and students who achieved an average score above 60
were assigned to ‘high’ success in basic design.
Among 56 students who attend the basic design course for one semester,
twenty nine (14 male, 15 female) volunteered to participate in three
dimensional visualization tests. Volunteered students took the tests at the
beginning of their first week of second semester of university attendance. To
measure each student’s three dimensional visualization ability, participants
were asked to complete three tasks, all of which required isometric drawing
skills.
For the first task, removing cubes, participants were given a cube formed by
64 smaller cubes (4 cubes on each of the x, y, z-axes). Then the participants
were asked to remove four groups of three to five cubes from this 64 cube
composition. For each cube group, the removed cubes were drawn next to
the bigger cube, and the location where they were removed, were indicated
with color differentiation on the bigger cube. Participants were then asked to
draw four final isometric drawings showing the removed cubes in the bigger
cube composition (Figure 1). The sum of the correct response for each task
determines participants’ success in this task. The correct response is the
difference between the correct lines and incorrect or missed lines. The
scores vary between 13 and 51. Students who achieved
a score below 45 were assigned to ‘low’, and students
who achieved a score above 45 were assigned to ‘high’
success in removing cubes task.
Figure 1: An example showing the survey questions and
answers for removing cubes task.
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For the second task, drawing different views, participants were asked to
draw top, left, and right views for four shapes (Figure 2). The sum of the
correct response for each task determines participants’ success in this task.
The scores vary between 2 to 12. Students who achieved a score between 2
and 6 were assigned to ‘low’, and students who achieved a score between 7
and 12 were assigned to ‘high’ success in drawing different views task.
For the third task, drawing isometric perspectives, participants were given
two nine pixel compositions (3 rows X 3 columns), where the height of each
pixel was indicated with numbers. Participants were then asked to draw an
isometric perspective for each composition (Figure 3). The sum of the
correct response for each task determined the participants’ success in this
task. The scores vary between 1 and 18. However, more than half of the
students completed this task without error, and received a score of 18.
Students completed the task without error was assigned to ‘high’, and others
were assigned to ‘low’ success in drawing isometric perspectives task.
Figure 2: An example showing the survey
questions and answers for drawing different
views task.
Figure 3: An example showing
the survey questions and
answers for drawing isometric
perspectives task.
Finally, a combined three dimensional visualization ability score was
determined for each student: Participants who received ‘high’ from at least
two of three tests were assigned to ‘high three dimensional visualization
ability’ and others were assigned to ‘low three dimensional visualization
ability’.
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Statistical Results
Overall, results showed that three dimensional visualization ability affects
success in basic design. Table 1 shows the tabulated data with respect to
success in basic design and level of three dimensional visualization ability.
Results showed that, students who received higher scores for basic design
success were equally distributed within high and low three dimensional
visualization abilities. However, students who received lower scores for basic
design success tended to achieve lower scores for three dimensional
visualization abilities. This difference achieved statistical significance (2 =
3.99, df = 1, p < 0,05).
Table 1: Distribution of number of participants by ‘success in basic design’ and ‘level
of three dimensional visualization ability’.
Success in Basic Design
High
Low
TOTAL
Three
Dimensional
Visualization
Ability
High
Low
10
10
1
8
11
18
TOTAL 20 9 29
When the separate tests measuring three dimensional ability was analyzed,
results showed a significant interaction between drawing isometric
perspective and success in basic design (2 = 7.13, df = 1, p < 0,01).
Students who received higher scores for basic design success tended to
achieve higher scores and students who received lower scores for basic
design success tended to achieve lower scores in drawing isometric
perspective (Table 2).
Table 2: Distribution of number of participants by ‘success in basic design’ and
‘success in drawing isometric perspective task’ .
Success in Basic Design
High
Low
TOTAL
Drawing
Isometric
High 15 2 17
Perspective
Low 5 7 12
TOTAL 20 9 29
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etween basic design success and removing cubes and the one between
basic design success and drawing different views of a shape did not achieve
statistical significance, the relation between these factors was in the
expected direction. Students who received higher scores for basic design
success tend to achieve higher scores and students who received lower
scores for basic design success tend to achieve lower scores for removing
cubes test (Table 3) and drawing different views test (Table 4).
Table 3: Distribution of number of participants by ‘success in basic design’ and
‘success in removing cubes task’.
Success in Basic Design
High
Low
TOTAL
Removing
Cubes
High
Low
11
9
4
5
15
14
TOTAL 20 9 29
Table 4: Distribution of number of participants by ‘success in basic design’ and
‘success in drawing different views task’.
Success in Basic Design
High
Low
TOTAL
Drawing
different views
High
Low
11
9
3
6
14
15
TOTAL 20 9 29
Conclusion
This study examined the relation between basic design education and three
dimensional visualization ability. Success in basic design was measured by
students’ average grades on various basic design studio tasks. Students’
three dimensional visualization abilities were measured by three tasks, all of
which required isometric drawing skills. As expected, results showed that
students who were successful in basic design received better scores in three
dimensional visualization ability tests. Similarly, students who received lower
scores for success in basic design showed lower three dimensional
visualization abilities.
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It should be noted that three dimensional visualization ability is not the only
factor that may affect success in basic design education. As Denel (1981)
argued creativity is one of the most important skills that a design student
should possess. However, understanding the relation between three
dimensional visualization ability and creativity was beyond the scope of this
study. Yet, we tested if students who had higher three dimensional
visualization abilities produced better and more creative designs for
compositions that require an understanding of third dimension with a followup
test. The students who participated in this study were later asked to
develop a design for an entrance of a hypothetical monument during the
second semester of the basic design course. The area to be designed had a
high slope. The students were allowed to work in groups of two people. The
project was to be completed in ten days and the instructors helped students
by giving critiques for design. Since this task was given as a part of course
curriculum, rather than a part of this research, it is not possible to statistically
compare the creativity of students’ designs between students who received
higher scores and lower scores in three dimensional visual ability tests.
Despite methodological concerns, we found that the probability that a
student may produce a successful or a poor design in terms of creativity was
about equal for students who received high scores in three dimensional
visual ability. However, students who received low scores in three
dimensional visual ability were unlikely to produce a successful design in
terms of creativity. Figure 4 shows an example of a design alternative
produced by two students who received high scores in three dimensional
visualization ability tasks, and figure 5 shows an example of a design
alternative produced by two students who received low scores in three
dimensional visualization ability tasks. Note however, this figure could not
provide concrete empirical evidence. Thus, whether better three dimensional
visualization ability leads a student to produce better and more creative
design alternatives for a design
problem deserves to be further
investigated.
Figure 4: An example of a design
alternative produced by two
students who received high scores
in three dimensional visualization
ability tasks
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Figure 5: An example
of a design
alternative produced
by two students who
received low scores
in three dimensional
visualization ability
tasks
Recall, this study measured three dimensional visualization ability with three
tasks, all of which required isometric drawing skills. Future studies may also
consider using other tests, such as mental cutting and perspective drawing,
to measure three dimensional visualization ability. These tests were given in
a basic design course at the end of the first semester for one group of
students majoring in city and regional planning. Whether the results of the
present study will apply to other design based programs such as
architecture, graphic design, interior architecture remains to be seen. More
work needs to be done to test the generalization of the results to various
groups of students. Moreover a useful extension of this study may test
whether design education can improve a student’s three dimensional
visualization ability and focus on which technique (axonometric, isometric,
sketches, models or three dimensional software) is more beneficial in
teaching and enhancing students’ three dimensional visualization abilities.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank to students for participating in the study, to
Asst. Prof. Dr. Hayat Unverdi, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sibel Ecemis Kilic, Asst. Prof.
Dr. Ahu Dalgakiran, Res. Asst. Evren Erdil, Res. Asst. Mercan Efe, and Res.
Asst. Ibrahim Akgul for their help in formulating, carrying out and scoring the
exercises given in the first semester of the design studio in 2007-2008
academic year.
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References
Boucharenc C.G. (2006), Research on Basic Design Education: An Internal
Survey, International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 16:1-30
Denel, B. (1981), Temel Tasarım ve Yaratıcılık , ODTÜ Mimarlık Fakültesi
Basım lii, Ankara
Gunay, B. (2007), Gestalt Theory and City Planning Education, Middle East
Technical University Journal of Faculty of Architecture, METU JFA, 24:1, 93-
113
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