Monkey Orange extension manual.pdf - Crops for the Future
Monkey Orange extension manual.pdf - Crops for the Future
Monkey Orange extension manual.pdf - Crops for the Future
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Practical Manual No. 8<br />
MONKEY ORANGE<br />
Strychnos cocculoides<br />
Field Manual <strong>for</strong><br />
Extension Workers and Farmers<br />
2006
Copies of this handbook, as well as related literature, including a monograph and factsheet can<br />
be obtained by writing to <strong>the</strong> address below:<br />
Southampton Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong><br />
School of Civil Engineering and <strong>the</strong><br />
Environment<br />
University of Southampton<br />
OR<br />
Highfield,<br />
Southampton<br />
SO17 1BJ<br />
United Kingdom<br />
International Center <strong>for</strong> Underutilized <strong>Crops</strong><br />
c/o International Water Management Institute<br />
(IWMI)<br />
127, Sunil Mawatha<br />
Pelawatte<br />
Battaramulla<br />
Sri Lanka<br />
ISBN: 085432 8378<br />
© 2005 Southampton Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong><br />
Printed at RPM Print and Design, Chichester, England, UK<br />
Citation: SCUC (2006). <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong>, Strychnos cocculoides, Field Manual <strong>for</strong> Extension<br />
Workers and Farmers, SCUC, Southampton, UK.<br />
This <strong>manual</strong> was prepared by Dr C. Mwamba, C and E. Peiler, according to an agreed <strong>for</strong>mat.<br />
Photographs: courtesy of Dr. C. Mwamba<br />
Drawings: E. Peiler<br />
THE FRUITS FOR THE FUTURE PROJECT<br />
This publication is an output from a research project funded by <strong>the</strong> United Kingdom<br />
Department <strong>for</strong> International Development (DFID) <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> benefit of developing countries.<br />
The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID [R7187 Forestry Research Programme].<br />
A series of underutilised fruits are being researched and this is <strong>the</strong> Practical Manual No. 8<br />
dealing specifically with Strychnos cocculoides.
CONTENTS<br />
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................i<br />
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1<br />
2 WHY GROW MONKEY ORANGE ? ........................................................................... 2<br />
2.1 Nutritional Value................................................................................................. 2<br />
2.2 Socio-economic Value ......................................................................................... 3<br />
2.3 Medicinal Value .................................................................................................. 3<br />
2.4 Fuel and Timber.................................................................................................. 3<br />
2.5 Cultural Value ..................................................................................................... 3<br />
2.6 Ecological and Environmental Value .................................................................... 4<br />
2.7 O<strong>the</strong>r Uses .......................................................................................................... 4<br />
3 WHERE TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE ?.................................................................. 5<br />
3.1 Climatic Requirements <strong>for</strong> Cultivation.................................................................. 5<br />
3.2 Site Requirements................................................................................................ 5<br />
3.3 Symbiotic Associations......................................................................................... 6<br />
3.4 Land-use Systems ................................................................................................. 6<br />
4 WHAT TO GROW ..................................................................................................... 7<br />
4.1 Selected Superior Phenotypes .............................................................................. 7<br />
4.2 Propagule Type................................................................................................... 7<br />
5 HOW TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE ? .................................................................... 8<br />
5.1 Establishment of a planting site ............................................................................ 8<br />
5.2 Propagation by Seeds .......................................................................................... 8<br />
5.2.1 Seed Collection and Handling ...................................................................... 8<br />
5.2.2 Seed Treatment and Germination................................................................. 9<br />
5.2.3 Sowing ........................................................................................................ 9<br />
5.3 Vegetative Propagation ....................................................................................... 9<br />
5.3.1 Coppicing and Root Suckers ......................................................................... 9<br />
5.3.2 Grafting ...................................................................................................... 10<br />
5.3.3 O<strong>the</strong>r Vegetative Propagation Methods........................................................11<br />
5.4 Field Establishment..............................................................................................11<br />
5.4.1 Site Preparation............................................................................................11<br />
5.4.2 Timing ........................................................................................................ 12<br />
5.4.3 Windbreaks................................................................................................. 12<br />
5.4.4 Transplanting.............................................................................................. 12<br />
5.5 Field Management ............................................................................................. 13<br />
5.5.1 Weeding ..................................................................................................... 13<br />
5.5.2 Irrigation..................................................................................................... 13<br />
5.5.3 Fertilising .................................................................................................... 13<br />
5.5.4 Pruning....................................................................................................... 13<br />
5.5.5 Stand Density - Thinning ............................................................................. 14<br />
5.5.6 Intercropping and Soil Conservation............................................................ 14<br />
5.5.7 Protection from Pests and Diseases .............................................................. 14<br />
6 HOW TO HARVEST THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE ? ............................................... 15<br />
6.1 Ripeness and Yield.............................................................................................. 15<br />
6.2 Harvesting Techniques........................................................................................ 15<br />
7 POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING....................................................... 16<br />
7.1 Post-harvest Handling......................................................................................... 16<br />
7.2 Processing and Packaging.................................................................................... 16<br />
8 MARKETING............................................................................................................. 17<br />
8.1 Marketing Potential............................................................................................ 17
8.2 Pricing................................................................................................................ 17<br />
9 SOCIO-ECONOMICS ................................................................................................ 18<br />
APPENDIX 1. MULTIPLE USES OF THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE ................................. 19<br />
APPENDIX 2. MAJOR PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE .......... 20<br />
APPENDIX 3. HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING CHEMICALS ................................. 21<br />
GLOSSARY....................................................................................................................... 22<br />
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 23<br />
TABLES<br />
Table 1: Nutritional composition of fresh fruit pulp of monkey orange ...........................2<br />
Table 2: Climatic requirements <strong>for</strong> cultivation of monkey orange ...................................5<br />
Table 3: Suitable habitats <strong>for</strong> monkey orange .................................................................6<br />
Table 4: Characteristics of selected superior phenotypes of monkey orange ....................7<br />
PART II<br />
Technical Note 1:<br />
Technical Note 2:<br />
Technical Note 3:<br />
Technical Note 4:<br />
Technical Note 5:<br />
Technical Note 6:<br />
Technical Note 7:<br />
Technical Note 8:<br />
Technical Note 9:<br />
Why Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree?<br />
How to Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree? - Seedlings and Young trees<br />
How to Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree? – Propagation by Seed<br />
How to Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree? – Vegetative Propagation<br />
Where to Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree? – Field Establishment<br />
How to Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree? – Field Management<br />
Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling<br />
Processing<br />
Marketing and Economics
PREFACE<br />
‘Fruits <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Future</strong>’ is a programme implemented by <strong>the</strong> International Centre <strong>for</strong><br />
Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong> (ICUC) and its partner organisations - The World Agro<strong>for</strong>estry Centre<br />
(ICRAF) and <strong>the</strong> International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). This project provides<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation enabling fur<strong>the</strong>r research on underutilised fruit trees and also provides in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
on practical techniques that can be used by farmers and rural communities to increase <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
product output and ultimately <strong>the</strong> income from <strong>the</strong>ir land.<br />
The project has now been taken <strong>for</strong>ward by ICUC in consultation with stakeholders and<br />
includes 10 underutilised fruits which have potential <strong>for</strong> immediate development. For each,<br />
ICUC is issuing a monograph summarising known in<strong>for</strong>mation and a <strong>manual</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> use by<br />
<strong>extension</strong> workers and farmers. This publication is <strong>the</strong> <strong>manual</strong> <strong>for</strong> monkey orange (Strychnos<br />
cocculoides). Demand <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of scientific and <strong>extension</strong> materials on monkey<br />
orange has been expressed by local, national and regional stakeholders in meetings with<br />
UTFANET and SEANUC and in discussion with ICRAF, FAO, IPGRI and o<strong>the</strong>r interested<br />
organisations. The opinions expressed in this book are those of <strong>the</strong> authors alone and do not<br />
imply an acceptance or obligation whatsoever on <strong>the</strong> part of ICUC, ICRAF or IPGRI.<br />
The in<strong>for</strong>mation contained within this <strong>manual</strong> is <strong>for</strong> use in <strong>the</strong> field and can be used by <strong>for</strong>estry<br />
and agricultural <strong>extension</strong> staff working with farmers in Central and Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa. The<br />
<strong>manual</strong> provides practical advice on propagation techniques, selection of high quality materials<br />
and <strong>the</strong> management of monkey orange trees (Strychnos cocculoides). In<strong>for</strong>mation is also<br />
provided on <strong>the</strong> processing and marketing; however <strong>the</strong> products and market strategies may<br />
vary from farmer to farmer and country to country. This <strong>manual</strong> has been published in English.<br />
Any part of this <strong>manual</strong> can be freely copied or translated into o<strong>the</strong>r languages, in order to aid<br />
effective <strong>extension</strong> work.<br />
The <strong>manual</strong> is presented in two sections. The first section gives background in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
effective utilisation of this tree. The second section is made up of a set of leaflets, each covering<br />
a defined topic. These can be used <strong>for</strong> guidance during work in <strong>the</strong> field, or <strong>for</strong> copying and<br />
distribution. Where S.I. units are used in <strong>the</strong> text, <strong>the</strong>se should be changed to local units where<br />
appropriate. Fur<strong>the</strong>r detailed in<strong>for</strong>mation on monkey orange can also be found in an<br />
accompanying monograph by Mwamba (2006), available from ICUC, Sri Lanka and University<br />
of Southampton, UK.<br />
We would like to express our gratitude to <strong>the</strong> late Dr. Charles Mwamba <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> preparation of<br />
<strong>the</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mation contained within this <strong>manual</strong>. We regret that he was not able to see it<br />
published. The <strong>manual</strong> is dedicated to his memory.<br />
Editors<br />
2005<br />
i
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Strychnos cocculoides (Baker) belongs to <strong>the</strong> Loganiaceae family and is known by various<br />
names, but <strong>the</strong> most common are “monkey orange” or “bush orange”.<br />
Description:<br />
• It is a semi-deciduous spiny shrub or small woodland tree about 1-8 metres tall with one<br />
or several trunks, spreading branches and a rounded crown. The bark is pale grey to<br />
creamy-brown, thick, corky and ridged. The branches have longitudinal corky ridges and<br />
spines of 1-1.5 cm length. The leaves are up to 6 cm long by 4 cm wide and tend to be<br />
rounded or heart-shaped at <strong>the</strong> base. They have fine hairs on both sides with 1-3 pairs of<br />
secondary veins from <strong>the</strong> base curved along <strong>the</strong> margin.<br />
Flowering:<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange carries male and female flowers on <strong>the</strong> same tree. Small greenish to<br />
white flowers appear in short dense bunches at <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> branches between July<br />
and September in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa. The round orange-like fruit ripen to glossy yellow<br />
orange between June to December of <strong>the</strong> following year. The fruit is 6-12 cm in<br />
diameter and has a hard shell.<br />
Distribution:<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange has a wide distribution in Sub Saharan Africa. It is found throughout<br />
Central and Sou<strong>the</strong>rn tropical Africa, from Gabon to Kenya, South-West Africa and<br />
Natal, drought prone areas and semi-arid Kalahari Sandvelds.<br />
Habitat:<br />
• It occurs from high rainfall tropical <strong>for</strong>ests to more desert climates and is found in a wide<br />
range of altitudes and soils.<br />
Human introduction:<br />
• The species has also been introduced to South America and India; however it is not<br />
exploited in <strong>the</strong>se countries.<br />
Toxicity note:<br />
• All parts of <strong>the</strong> plant contain low concentrations of strychnine, an alkaloid poison. In<br />
particular unripe fruits are poisonous, although <strong>the</strong>y can be used medicinally. Reference<br />
to medicinal use in this <strong>manual</strong> does not constitute medical advice. Advice must be<br />
sought from a medical practitioner.<br />
1
2 WHY GROW MONKEY ORANGE?<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange is a multipurpose tree with numerous values. It is a source of food, timber,<br />
firewood, medicinal extracts and o<strong>the</strong>r components and it can provide a potential economic<br />
return to rural people. The different uses of <strong>the</strong> monkey orange tree are summarised in<br />
Appendix 1 and described below. See Technical Note 1 in Part II<br />
2.1 Nutritional Value<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange is a nutritious fruit providing an important source of food <strong>for</strong> many rural<br />
communities in Central and Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa. It has long been used to complement diets. Table 1<br />
gives nutritional composition of <strong>the</strong> fresh monkey orange pulp.<br />
• The pulp of ripe fruits is usually eaten fresh and <strong>the</strong> pips are spat out.<br />
• The pulp can be made into jam, juice and a variety of wines.<br />
See Technical Note 8 in Part II.<br />
Table 1: Nutritional composition of fresh fruit pulp of monkey orange<br />
Energy Value<br />
Moisture<br />
Protein<br />
Fat<br />
Fibre<br />
Carbohydrates<br />
PROPERTY<br />
Calcium (Ca)<br />
Magnesium (Mg)<br />
Iron (Fe)<br />
Sodium (Na)<br />
Potassium (K)<br />
Phosphorus (P)<br />
Copper (Cu)<br />
Zinc (Zn)<br />
Thiamin<br />
Riboflavin<br />
Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)<br />
Vitamin C<br />
FOOD VALUE OF EDIBLE<br />
PORTION<br />
(Fruit weight 400-1200g)<br />
Per 100g<br />
308 kJ<br />
80.4 g<br />
1.3 g<br />
0.1 g<br />
0.9 g<br />
16.8 g<br />
9.41 mg<br />
26.9 mg<br />
0.18 mg<br />
0.89 mg<br />
188 mg<br />
20.2 mg<br />
0.07 mg<br />
0.08 mg<br />
0.03 mg<br />
0.06 mg<br />
0.27 mg<br />
6.7 mg<br />
%RDA<br />
(based on an<br />
adult male)<br />
Per 100g<br />
2.3<br />
0.3<br />
1.3<br />
12.9<br />
0.9<br />
6.4<br />
*2.25/1.0<br />
**<br />
n/a<br />
2.9<br />
7.8<br />
0.7<br />
2.5<br />
4.6<br />
1.7<br />
7.4<br />
Source: Arnold and group (1985)<br />
* Male and female RDA are given here, because female requirement is greater.<br />
** RDA is not calculated <strong>for</strong> this mineral<br />
2
2.2 Socio-economic Value<br />
• Food security during periods of food shortages and in years of famine <strong>for</strong> marginalised<br />
groups in particular, with decreased dependence on arable agriculture, leading to a<br />
reduction in <strong>the</strong> workload <strong>for</strong> women and in reduced environmental degradation.<br />
• Additional income to farmers if incorporated in <strong>the</strong>ir fields or grown on marginal or<br />
unused land through sales of fruits, processed fruit products, timber and medicines in<br />
rural and urban markets, both local and regional. The value of fruit yield from a single<br />
tree could exceed <strong>the</strong> value of a grain harvest from <strong>the</strong> same area <strong>for</strong> a subsistence<br />
farmer.<br />
2.3 Medicinal Value<br />
Nearly all <strong>the</strong> parts of <strong>the</strong> monkey orange tree can be used <strong>for</strong> medicinal purposes. References<br />
to traditional medicines give <strong>the</strong> following local uses <strong>for</strong> parts of <strong>the</strong> plant, but to our<br />
knowledge no clinical in<strong>for</strong>mation is available:<br />
• Green, unripe fruits:<br />
o To induce vomiting - mashed, mixed with water, soaked and drunk.<br />
o As a purgative - prepared as a powder added to milk (in Zambia).<br />
• Pulp of ripe fruits:<br />
o To treat coughing, mixed with sugar or honey.<br />
o As a constituent of eardrops.<br />
• Fresh leaves: <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment of wounds to prevent infection and promote healing -<br />
pounded into a paste, mixed with water, and simmered.<br />
• Bark: to treat stomach pains, a decoction is used.<br />
• Roots:<br />
o To reduce <strong>the</strong> length and severity of heavy menstrual flows.<br />
o To stop diarrhoea.<br />
o To alleviate eczema.<br />
o To treat sexually transmitted infections, <strong>for</strong> example gonorrhoea.<br />
2.4 Fuel and Timber<br />
• Wood has a straight bore and can be used in construction.<br />
• Soft, white, pliable wood can be used in building materials, tool handles, utensils.<br />
2.5 Cultural Value<br />
Several parts of <strong>the</strong> tree have different uses:<br />
• Magical uses, e.g. a hunting charm,<br />
• Art objects.<br />
3
• Traditional percussion musical instruments made from <strong>the</strong> hard outer shell of <strong>the</strong> fruit.<br />
The pulp of <strong>the</strong> fruit is removed through a small hole, <strong>the</strong> seeds are dried and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
reintroduced into <strong>the</strong> shell. The hole is sealed with a part of <strong>the</strong> stem acting as a handle.<br />
2.6 Ecological and Environmental Value<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange has important characterisitcs:<br />
• It is adapted to <strong>the</strong> harsh local environmental conditions and has <strong>the</strong> ability to survive<br />
severe droughts by losing its leaves.<br />
• It is adapted to survive wild fires by having a thick corky bark and capacity to sprout<br />
epicormic and coppice shoots.<br />
• Fruits tend to be held on <strong>the</strong> tree and survive fire, so <strong>the</strong> seeds can regenerate new<br />
plants.<br />
In common with o<strong>the</strong>r trees <strong>the</strong> monkey orange tree has o<strong>the</strong>r environmental benefits:<br />
• Improved soil fertility by production of humus from fallen leaves.<br />
• Tree <strong>for</strong>ms part of <strong>the</strong> nutrient recycling system.<br />
• Weed growth is reduced, when trees are mature, due to competition <strong>for</strong> water, nutrients<br />
and light.<br />
• Root growth improves soil structure.<br />
• Root growth minimises soil loss by wind erosion.<br />
• The tree canopy shades soil preventing overheating.<br />
• The tree canopy absorbs <strong>the</strong> impact of rain minimising soil run-off.<br />
2.7 O<strong>the</strong>r Uses<br />
• Soap <strong>for</strong> washing clo<strong>the</strong>s can be made from fruit pulp due to its saponin content.<br />
• A toxic dye can be extracted from <strong>the</strong> fruit shell which can be used to colour trays and<br />
containers, providing a protective layer against insects.<br />
• Insect repellent made from liquid drained from fresh leaves crushed and soaked in water,<br />
can be used <strong>for</strong> spraying vegetables to repel aphids and scale insects.<br />
4
3 WHERE TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE?<br />
3.1 Climatic Requirements <strong>for</strong> Cultivation<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange is typically found in areas characterised by two main seasons, a wet one<br />
lasting from November to April and a dry one occurring from May to October, in<br />
central Africa.<br />
• The tree is a generally undemanding species surviving long periods of drought by<br />
shedding its leaves during <strong>the</strong> dry season. It does not break its dormancy until <strong>the</strong> new<br />
rainy season starts.<br />
• The tree is able to access available water and use periodic rainfall quickly and effectively,<br />
due to its extensive rooting system.<br />
The climatic requirements <strong>for</strong> cultivation of monkey orange are summarised in Table 2.<br />
Table 2: Climatic requirements <strong>for</strong> cultivation of monkey orange<br />
CLIMATIC FACTOR MINIMUM MAXIMUM<br />
Altitude (m)<br />
Rainfall (mm)<br />
Temperature (°C)<br />
400<br />
600<br />
14<br />
2,000<br />
1,200<br />
25<br />
3.2 Site Requirements<br />
See Technical Note 5 in Part II.<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange grows in a variety of conditions:<br />
• Soil: It grows best on deep sandy and on well-drained slopes. The general physical soil<br />
requirements of <strong>the</strong> monkey orange tree are shown in Table 3.<br />
5
Table 3: Suitable habitats <strong>for</strong> monkey orange<br />
CHARACTERISTIC<br />
Soil type (texture)<br />
Topography<br />
Rooting depth<br />
Drainage<br />
Terrain<br />
SUITABLE HABITATS<br />
Deep sandy soils<br />
Black to dark-grey clays<br />
Yellow-red loamy sands<br />
Red yellow-red loams<br />
0-13% slope<br />
Restricted by lack of aeration<br />
Restricted by rock outcrops<br />
Well drained<br />
Flat woodlands and savannahs<br />
Hilly woodland slopes<br />
Rocky slopes<br />
Soil pH Acidic, pH 4-6<br />
• Light: The monkey orange tree has a low capacity to endure shade. Since grasses shade<br />
young trees and compete <strong>for</strong> soil resources, <strong>the</strong>y should be removed, from around <strong>the</strong><br />
tree. However in <strong>the</strong> rainy season, grass protects soil from erosion.<br />
3.3 Symbiotic Associations<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange <strong>for</strong>ms a symbiotic relationship with some beneficial fungi (mycorrhizae),<br />
enhancing <strong>the</strong> plant’s uptake of important nutrients such as phosphorus. For this reason<br />
<strong>the</strong> tree is able to survive on nutritively poor soils.<br />
• In areas where monkey orange has never grown be<strong>for</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> lack of natural mycorrhizal<br />
symbionts in <strong>the</strong> soil can lead to <strong>the</strong>ir failure to establish. You can promote <strong>the</strong> initial<br />
growth of <strong>the</strong> trees by artificial inoculation of seedlings of monkey orange with isolated<br />
cultures of <strong>the</strong> mycorrhizal fungi from soils taken beneath parent trees growing in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
natural habitat.<br />
3.4 Land-use Systems<br />
• Pioneer tree: <strong>Monkey</strong> orange is found naturally as a pioneer tree on abandoned<br />
cultivation sites and open woodlands. Since it provides a good source of fruits it is<br />
typically left undisturbed and protected on cultivated fields near homesteads.<br />
• Agro<strong>for</strong>estry systems: These are being tested in Botswana, where monkey orange is<br />
interplanted with o<strong>the</strong>r trees such as marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and wild medlar<br />
(Vangueria infausta) and annual crops such as traditional sorghum, cowpea and<br />
watermelon.<br />
• Boundary or barrier tree: Its sharp spines which can stop animals from entering secluded<br />
areas.<br />
6
4.1 Selected Superior Phenotypes<br />
See Technical Note 2 in Part II.<br />
4 WHAT TO GROW<br />
Superior phenotypes of monkey orange have been identified and selected as baseline materials<br />
<strong>for</strong> germplasm collection and <strong>for</strong> crop improvement. The selection of <strong>the</strong>se phenotypes is based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> characteristics summarised in Table 4.<br />
Table 4: Characteristics of selected superior phenotypes of monkey orange<br />
CHARACTERISTIC<br />
REQUIREMENTS<br />
Vigour and health of tree - Vigour<br />
- free from any pests and diseases<br />
Yield - short juvenile period<br />
- 300-400 fruits/tree/season<br />
- Minimal variations in seasonal fruit<br />
production<br />
Fruit size - >10 cm in diameter<br />
- Uni<strong>for</strong>m<br />
Sweetness of fruits - sweet and juicy<br />
- >16°Brix<br />
Seeds - small in proportion to <strong>the</strong> flesh<br />
4.2 Propagule Type<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange regenerates naturally by seed, coppice or root suckers. Coppices are<br />
readily produced from <strong>the</strong> stumps of trees that have been burnt during bush fires or<br />
have been felled. Root suckers are produced when <strong>the</strong> root is wounded.<br />
• Various methods can be used to artificially propagate trees.<br />
• Seeds:<br />
o Trees grown from seeds generally have deeper roots than those raised from<br />
vegetative propagules, giving firm anchorage to <strong>the</strong> tree, and allowing<br />
exploration of a wider area of soil <strong>for</strong> water and nutrient uptake.<br />
o Offspring produced from seed may differ in <strong>the</strong>ir growth and fruiting<br />
characteristics from <strong>the</strong> parent tree.<br />
• Vegetative propagation:<br />
o Used primarily in order to develop true-to-type clones, avoiding heterogeneity<br />
which results from seed propagation.<br />
o Grafting has been found to be <strong>the</strong> most successful method; budding may also be<br />
used.<br />
7
• New varieties:<br />
o High quality planting material of new varieties can be obtained from:<br />
o Veld Products Research and Development (VPRD)<br />
PO Box 2020 Gaborone, Botswana<br />
Tel: +(267) 347047, Fax: +(267) 347363, Email: enquiries@veldproducts.org<br />
o World Agro<strong>for</strong>estry Centre (ICRAF) under its Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa Regional<br />
Programme (SADC) project centres in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe<br />
at:<br />
SADC-ICRAF Regional Agro<strong>for</strong>estry Programme<br />
PO Box MP 128, Mount Pleasant<br />
Harare, Zimbabwe<br />
Tel: +(263) 4 369122, 369124, Fax: +(263) 4 301327,<br />
Email: f.kwesiga@cgiar.org<br />
5.1 Establishment of a planting site<br />
5 HOW TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE<br />
See Technical Note 5 in Part II <strong>for</strong> siting requirements of monkey orange trees.<br />
This <strong>manual</strong> is intended <strong>for</strong> small-scale planting schemes. For those intending to establish a<br />
larger plantation of monkey orange, please see Mwamba and Williams (2005).<br />
5.2 Propagation by Seeds<br />
See Technical Note 3 in Part II.<br />
5.2.1 Seed Collection and Handling<br />
You should only collect seeds from selected superior phenotypes with identified characteristics<br />
specified in Table 4.<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange starts to produce fruits between 4 and 6 years of age in open-grown<br />
stands, but it takes several years longer when planted densely.<br />
• Fruits take 8 to 12 months after pollination to mature, from June up to December in<br />
central Africa.<br />
• Pick <strong>the</strong> light green or yellow fruits from <strong>the</strong> tree, or collect <strong>the</strong>m after <strong>the</strong>y have<br />
dropped on <strong>the</strong>ir own at full maturity.<br />
• Crack <strong>the</strong> fruit open by hitting <strong>the</strong>m with a stick or tapping gently on a stone.<br />
• Fruits usually contain 25 to 30 pale seeds. Seed size is variable. Large fruits usually<br />
produce large seeds and those seeds closer to <strong>the</strong> middle of <strong>the</strong> fruit are larger than those<br />
located at <strong>the</strong> edge.<br />
• Seeds are easily removed from <strong>the</strong> pulp since <strong>the</strong>y do not adhere to <strong>the</strong> sides of <strong>the</strong> fruit<br />
shell. Small seeds and those which appear immature should be discarded.<br />
8
• After sorting <strong>the</strong> seeds, clean <strong>the</strong>m by mixing with sand and scraping <strong>the</strong>m over a wire<br />
mesh.<br />
• If seeds are intended <strong>for</strong> storage you should air dry <strong>the</strong>m, to prevent rotting. Seeds<br />
stored under dry conditions <strong>for</strong> 8 to 12 months at room temperature (23-28°C) still<br />
show a good germination rate.<br />
• Seed collected from several trees or several locations, is best stored ei<strong>the</strong>r separately <strong>for</strong><br />
each tree, or from all <strong>the</strong> trees of one location toge<strong>the</strong>r, so that it can be distinguished,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> best used <strong>for</strong> planting.<br />
5.2.2 Seed Treatment and Germination<br />
• The germination rate of freshly harvested seeds usually is 75-80%, but can be lower.<br />
Different pre-treatments have been seen to give variable germination rates. Soaking <strong>the</strong><br />
seed in hot water <strong>for</strong> 24-48 hours immediately after collection may improve<br />
germination.<br />
• Germination takes 4 weeks on average, depending on <strong>the</strong> sowing date, ranging from<br />
80% germination after 3 weeks, if seeds are sown in summer, to more than 9 weeks if<br />
sown in winter, in Botswana.<br />
5.2.3 Sowing<br />
• Sow seeds at a depth of 2-3 cm in pots or in seedbeds.<br />
• Water seedlings twice a day <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> first weeks. Watering should not be excessive, to<br />
avoid fungal infection. This can be reduced later to once a day, in <strong>the</strong> evening.<br />
• Shade seedlings <strong>for</strong> about 7 days after germination followed by partial shade <strong>for</strong> 5-6<br />
days and finally expose to full light after about 14 days.<br />
• Direct sowing of seeds in <strong>the</strong> field is possible but <strong>the</strong>re is great variation in germination<br />
and seedling survival. If direct sowing is practised, plant two seeds per hole. Planting<br />
distance should be 5x5 m. Two months after emergence of <strong>the</strong> seedlings, remove <strong>the</strong><br />
weaker of <strong>the</strong> two seedlings.<br />
5.3 Vegetative Propagation<br />
See Technical Note 4 in Part II.<br />
5.3.1 Coppicing and Root Suckers<br />
• Use of coppicing and root suckers is suitable where older trees are regenerated to<br />
improve <strong>the</strong>ir fruiting capacity.<br />
• Coppice shoots or re-growth develops from <strong>the</strong> stumps following clear felling. This<br />
species should be cut at a height of 10-20 cm above ground. Coppicing at higher levels<br />
renders <strong>the</strong> shoots more liable to be broken off by wind.<br />
• The cut tree also produces numerous root suckers, which can be used <strong>for</strong> propagation –<br />
see below.<br />
9
5.3.2 Grafting<br />
• Grafting involves <strong>the</strong> union of a shoot, called a “scion”, and a compatible stem or<br />
“rootstock”. Grafting allows <strong>the</strong> selection of a root system which is adapted to specific<br />
site conditions and resistant to pests and diseases, and a highly productive shoot, <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
development of true-to-type clones.<br />
• Wedge grafting is a promising grafting method <strong>for</strong> this species. Whip-and tongue grafting<br />
has also been successful.<br />
You will need <strong>the</strong> following materials and equipment:<br />
Grafting materials<br />
• Clean, sharp knife.<br />
• Polyethylene tape (budding tape) (1.5-2.0 cm wide x 30-40cm long) or strips cut from<br />
polyethylene bags.<br />
• Clear plastic bags large enough to cover <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> scion.<br />
• Shoot or bud (Scion).<br />
• Rootstock.<br />
Rootstock preparation<br />
A rootstock is raised from seed.<br />
• The young tree is ready <strong>for</strong> grafting when its diameter is approximately 1 cm (pencil size)<br />
at a height of 40-60 cm.<br />
• Clear <strong>the</strong> stem of <strong>the</strong> rootstock of any soil and debris.<br />
• Cut off <strong>the</strong> top at <strong>the</strong> height of 40-60 cm, retaining two or more leaves below <strong>the</strong> cut.<br />
• Make a downwards cut of about 4-5 cm into <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> rootstock, at <strong>the</strong> point of<br />
active growth or where <strong>the</strong> bark separates easily from wood.<br />
Scion collection and preparation<br />
Scions should be collected from <strong>the</strong> previous season’s growth of trees which are mature, having<br />
reached fruit bearing age. In addition, <strong>the</strong> scion material should have <strong>the</strong> following<br />
characteristics:<br />
• 5-15 cm long.<br />
• 1 cm in diameter (pencil size).<br />
• Have one or more buds.<br />
Method:<br />
• Select and cut scion material from <strong>the</strong> tree and <strong>the</strong>n remove <strong>the</strong> leaves and young<br />
growth with a sharp knife.<br />
• It is best to use scions quickly. Over 60-80% rate of success in grafting is obtained with<br />
1-2 day old scions.<br />
• If scions are not used immediately, wrap <strong>the</strong>m in a moist cloth or newspaper and place<br />
in a plastic bag to keep <strong>the</strong>m fresh. They can be kept <strong>for</strong> up to one week in a dark cool<br />
space with approximately 45-50% success rate.<br />
10
• Make two 4-5 cm long cuts with a knife at <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> scion on ei<strong>the</strong>r side of <strong>the</strong><br />
twig. Do this by placing <strong>the</strong> knife almost parallel to <strong>the</strong> twig and cut in one stroke<br />
providing a completely level surface. The scion should fit exactly and tightly into <strong>the</strong><br />
notch of <strong>the</strong> rootstock.<br />
• Cut away <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> scion afterwards to encourage <strong>the</strong> union, leaving at least one<br />
bud. See Technical Note 4 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> steps of scion preparation.<br />
The Graft Union<br />
• After preparing <strong>the</strong> rootstock and scion, fit <strong>the</strong> two toge<strong>the</strong>r, so that <strong>the</strong> cut surfaces<br />
have firm contact.<br />
• Tightly bind toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> union with plastic tape to avoid drying out of <strong>the</strong> cut surfaces<br />
which may result in union failure. Ensure that <strong>the</strong> wound is entirely covered.<br />
• Cover <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> grafted plant with a clear poly<strong>the</strong>ne bag, to prevent loss of<br />
moisture by transpiration. The bag can be removed after 3-4 weeks. Water regularly.<br />
• Once <strong>the</strong> graft union has healed and fresh growth of leaves has occurred on <strong>the</strong> newly<br />
attached portion, <strong>the</strong> graft is said to be successful. This should take approximately 4-6<br />
months. The tape can <strong>the</strong>n be removed to allow fur<strong>the</strong>r growth of <strong>the</strong> grafted plant.<br />
5.3.3 O<strong>the</strong>r Vegetative Propagation Methods<br />
Propagating monkey orange by airlayering, budding and cuttings has been attempted but <strong>the</strong><br />
results have been disappointing. There are no reports yet on <strong>the</strong> application of tissue culture in<br />
this species.<br />
5.4 Field Establishment<br />
See Technical Note 5 in Part II.<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange can be planted around homesteads or home gardens, on agricultural land and<br />
in orchards. Because of its sharp spines, it can also be planted as a boundary or barrier tree,<br />
preventing animals from entering secluded areas.<br />
5.4.1 Site Preparation<br />
• Clear vegetation from <strong>the</strong> planting site.<br />
• Work <strong>the</strong> soil thoroughly to 20-30 cm depth to break up hard soil clods and permit<br />
aeration.<br />
• Remove herbaceous weeds, especially grasses.<br />
• Mark out <strong>the</strong> land in squares <strong>for</strong> planting.<br />
• Dig planting pits of about 60 cm depth and 60 cm width.<br />
• Spacing of 4x4 m spacing provides 625 trees per hectare, 5x5 m provides 400 trees per<br />
hectare, or 10x10 m provides 100 trees per hectare. The spacing depends upon <strong>the</strong> size<br />
of <strong>the</strong> planting site and whe<strong>the</strong>r or not thinning or intercropping will be carried out.<br />
11
5.4.2 Timing<br />
Prepare <strong>the</strong> site just be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> onset of <strong>the</strong> rainy season, according to local conditions, to avoid<br />
destroying <strong>the</strong> soil structure and to minimise <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> watering after transplanting. Land<br />
preparation should not be done earlier than 1-2 weeks be<strong>for</strong>e planting to avoid weed<br />
encroachment.<br />
5.4.3 Windbreaks<br />
A windbreak protects grafted, coppiced and sprouted plants from wind damage. <strong>Monkey</strong><br />
orange is susceptible to damage by fire, when young. A windbreak can also protect trees from<br />
incidences of fire, and encroachment by weeds which, when dry, can become a fire hazard and<br />
limit light.<br />
5.4.4 Transplanting<br />
Transplant <strong>the</strong> seedlings and vegetatively propagated materials at 6 months of age or when<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are at least 10-20 cm in height if planting seedlings.<br />
When transplanting seedlings or grafted trees, pay attention to <strong>the</strong> following concerns:<br />
• Sufficient rainfall should have fallen over a 24 hour period, to bring <strong>the</strong> soil moisture to<br />
field capacity, when excess water has drained away.<br />
• Plant on cloudy days, in <strong>the</strong> morning or late afternoon to minimise water loss from <strong>the</strong><br />
soil and plants.<br />
• The plants must be watered <strong>the</strong> night be<strong>for</strong>e planting.<br />
• Lift plants carefully without damaging <strong>the</strong>ir root systems. A plastic sheet laid underneath<br />
<strong>the</strong> pots will prevent roots growing into <strong>the</strong> soil below and also reduce water loss.<br />
• Handle and transport plants carefully, holding <strong>the</strong>m by <strong>the</strong> pots, not by <strong>the</strong> shoots. Use<br />
boxes <strong>for</strong> transport, whenever possible.<br />
• Loosen <strong>the</strong> soil of <strong>the</strong> pit base and walls to help <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> roots. Remove<br />
<strong>the</strong> plastic container and position <strong>the</strong> plant straight in <strong>the</strong> centre of <strong>the</strong> pit with <strong>the</strong> root<br />
collar at ground level. The root collar is <strong>the</strong> bulging ring of tissue at <strong>the</strong> junction of <strong>the</strong><br />
root and shoot. A stick laid across <strong>the</strong> planting hole can be used to line up <strong>the</strong> root<br />
collar with ground level.<br />
• Fill <strong>the</strong> pit to ground level. Remove stones from <strong>the</strong> soil be<strong>for</strong>e filling. If <strong>the</strong>re is not<br />
sufficient soil to fill <strong>the</strong> pit from digging <strong>the</strong> holes, use additional topsoil. Flatten <strong>the</strong> soil<br />
around <strong>the</strong> tree base to ground level.<br />
• If you plant young trees when <strong>the</strong> soil moisture is at field capacity, <strong>the</strong>re is no need <strong>for</strong><br />
watering. However, if <strong>the</strong> soil is drier, apply 1-2 litres of water at <strong>the</strong> base of each tree,<br />
preferably in <strong>the</strong> late afternoon or early evening twice or three times a week during <strong>the</strong><br />
first weeks.<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange grows very slowly and even 12 months after planting, no increase in<br />
height may be noticed on some sites.<br />
• Growth is enhanced by <strong>the</strong> symbiotic relationship between <strong>the</strong> plant roots and<br />
mycorrhizal fungi, due to improved uptake of important nutrients, particularly<br />
phosphorus, increased tolerance to drought, pests and diseases. Seedlings raised in <strong>the</strong><br />
12
nursery can make contact with indigenous mycorrhizal fungi at <strong>the</strong> planting site. In order<br />
to promote initial plant growth and development and to reduce <strong>the</strong> transplanting shock,<br />
you can add mycorrhizal fungi, found in soil around parent trees, into <strong>the</strong> pit at planting<br />
time.<br />
5.5 Field Management<br />
See Technical Note 5 in Part II.<br />
5.5.1 Weeding<br />
Weeds compete with monkey orange <strong>for</strong> light, nutrients, water and space. In order to protect<br />
new plants, <strong>the</strong> plantation or orchard must be weeded.<br />
• Weed as necessary, between periods of rainfall.<br />
• Normally, 2-3 spot weedings around each plant after planting may be necessary.<br />
• This weeding may be done once a month <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> first three months.<br />
5.5.2 Irrigation<br />
• Watering depends on rainfall and soil conditions, and growth and fruiting of <strong>the</strong> tree.<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange may need watering particularly in <strong>the</strong> first weeks after transplanting.<br />
Mature trees usually require no irrigation, unless growth or fruiting is poor.<br />
5.5.3 Fertilising<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange grows and generally produces good crops without fertilizer.<br />
• If necessary to improve production, farmyard manure or organic matter can be applied<br />
at <strong>the</strong> time of planting or annually as top dressing, 2.5 cm (1 inch) thick, 15 cm (6 inches)<br />
from <strong>the</strong> tree trunk out to <strong>the</strong> canopy drip line.<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange responds well to phosphorus and NPK-fertiliser applications but <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
costs may not be covered by increased sales.<br />
• Phosphorus fertiliser can be given as basal dressing at <strong>the</strong> rate of 100-150 g per tree after<br />
planting, in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of super phosphate (guidance on quantities should be given by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>extension</strong> officer).<br />
• NPK- fertiliser, such as Nitrosol (NPK 8-3-6) is applied at <strong>the</strong> rate of 20-30 g per tree as<br />
top dressing.<br />
• When applying inorganic fertilisers, follow <strong>the</strong> instructions given on <strong>the</strong> label to prevent<br />
nutrient toxicity.<br />
5.5.4 Pruning<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange needs pruning of <strong>the</strong> drooping lower branches to allow better access under <strong>the</strong><br />
tree to collect <strong>the</strong> fruits and to maintain vigour, productivity and quality of <strong>the</strong> fruits.<br />
• Prune only branches which are not carrying any fruits and flowers.<br />
13
• Remove weak, diseased and dead branches, which promote <strong>the</strong> spread of diseases.<br />
• Pruning in <strong>the</strong> dormant period will encourage new growth when <strong>the</strong> rains arrive. Light<br />
pruning during <strong>the</strong> growing period will moderate vigorous growth.<br />
5.5.5 Stand Density - Thinning<br />
• Closely planted trees need to be thinned to create space, to reduce competition between<br />
<strong>the</strong>m <strong>for</strong> resources.<br />
• Plan a thinning regime be<strong>for</strong>e planting, when deciding on <strong>the</strong> spacing between plants.<br />
• Thinning is carried out in <strong>the</strong> second or third year after transplanting.<br />
• Depending on <strong>the</strong> intensity of management and <strong>the</strong> preferable size of <strong>the</strong> canopy at<br />
maturity, thin from <strong>the</strong> original spacing of 5x5 m to 10x5 m or 10x10 m. The intensity of<br />
management includes practices such as application of fertilisers (see section 5.5.3) and<br />
pruning (see section 5.5.4).<br />
5.5.6 Intercropping and Soil Conservation<br />
Intercropping controls <strong>the</strong> weeds, it keeps <strong>the</strong> soil loose <strong>for</strong> proper soil aeration and may<br />
reduce soil erosion.<br />
• If you intend to intercrop monkey orange with o<strong>the</strong>r crops, include this in <strong>the</strong><br />
establishment plans.<br />
• If intercropping is to be done immediately after planting <strong>the</strong> trees, plant at wide spacing<br />
(10x10 m).<br />
• If you plan to intercrop later, space between trees can be created through thinning.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> field has to be weeded be<strong>for</strong>e planting <strong>the</strong> intercrop.<br />
• Choice of suitable crops depends on <strong>the</strong> area, soil type and climate, and includes maize,<br />
sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes, and melon.<br />
5.5.7 Protection from Pests and Diseases<br />
No serious pests and diseases o<strong>the</strong>r than at germination have been reported in <strong>the</strong> species. Pests<br />
and diseases of minor importance include powdery mildew and termites.<br />
Powdery mildew<br />
• Powdery mildew attacks monkey orange fruits and seeds during storage. The fungi<br />
attack <strong>the</strong> outer skin of <strong>the</strong> fruit and seed, but do not penetrate <strong>the</strong> hard fruit shell or<br />
seed coat.<br />
• Powdery mildew can spread very quickly especially in closely packed fruits and seeds.<br />
• Protect seeds by drying <strong>the</strong>m to low moisture content (less than 10% of fresh weight,<br />
determined by weighing <strong>the</strong>m be<strong>for</strong>e and after drying). Protect <strong>the</strong> fruits by air drying<br />
<strong>the</strong>m thoroughly and using <strong>the</strong>m immediately without over storage.<br />
• Only if <strong>the</strong>re is a serious attack of mildew, is chemical control justified. The following<br />
products can be used:<br />
14
o Thiram.<br />
o Benomyl (trade name Benlate).<br />
o Captan – an older, less effective product.<br />
• Follow <strong>the</strong> instructions on <strong>the</strong> container. See Appendix 3 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> correct use of pesticides<br />
and environmental impact. Note: At concentrations higher than recommended, <strong>the</strong><br />
chemicals may also be toxic to plants.<br />
Termites<br />
• Termites can be found on young or old plants, or when trees are in poor condition.<br />
Remove weak, diseased and dead branches regularly (see also chapter 5.5.4).<br />
• Usually, <strong>the</strong> insects attack dead bark and do not penetrate <strong>the</strong> live stem, so do not cause<br />
much damage.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>r in<strong>for</strong>mation on pests and diseases, along with possible methods of control, are<br />
mentioned in Appendix 2.<br />
6 HOW TO HARVEST THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE<br />
6.1 Ripeness and Yield<br />
See Technical Note 7 in Part II.<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange produces <strong>the</strong> first fruits 4-5 years following planting, whichever method<br />
of propagation is used.<br />
• Fruits ripen from June to December.<br />
• Fruits have a hard woody shell, which is dark green, speckled or mottled green when<br />
unripe, turning yellow or orange when mature. At maturity, <strong>the</strong> fruit is 6-12 cm in<br />
diameter, depending on soil type, climatic and o<strong>the</strong>r conditions on <strong>the</strong> site.<br />
• The total yield produced per tree depends mainly on <strong>the</strong> genotype. If <strong>the</strong> site conditions<br />
are favourable, a single tree may produce 300-700 fruits in a season, or 40-100 kg in<br />
terms of fruit weight.<br />
6.2 Harvesting Techniques<br />
There are several methods of harvesting fruits:<br />
• You can pick fruits from <strong>the</strong> tree when fully developed but still green and unripe. Bury<br />
fruits in <strong>the</strong> sand <strong>for</strong> several months to ripen slowly, as practised by bushmen in<br />
Botswana. This prevents competition from o<strong>the</strong>r fruit hunters including monkeys and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r animals.<br />
• You can pick fruits from <strong>the</strong> tree after ripening on <strong>the</strong> canopy, <strong>for</strong> direct consumption or<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r processing.<br />
• You can collect fruits from <strong>the</strong> ground after <strong>the</strong>y have dropped on <strong>the</strong>ir own. This is<br />
least recommended because <strong>the</strong>y may be damaged or bruised.<br />
15
7 POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING<br />
7.1 Post-harvest Handling<br />
See Technical Note 7 in Part II.<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange fruits are very easily bruised and should <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e be handled very carefully.<br />
• Remove unripe and damaged fruits immediately to prevent spoiling of <strong>the</strong> crop.<br />
• The remaining fruits may be graded according to <strong>the</strong>ir size.<br />
• Wash <strong>the</strong> fruits to remove debris or pesticides.<br />
• Fruits can be used immediately <strong>for</strong> direct consumption or fur<strong>the</strong>r processing or can be<br />
stored <strong>for</strong> later use.<br />
• If <strong>the</strong>y are to be stored, first air-dry <strong>the</strong>m thoroughly to prevent surface infection by<br />
powdery mildew and to extend <strong>the</strong> shelf-life.<br />
• Store fruits in gunny bags, grain bags, cloth packs or boxes. Kept under dry conditions at<br />
room temperature (25-30°C), monkey oranges can be stored <strong>for</strong> 2-3 weeks due to <strong>the</strong><br />
hard fruit shell. However, 25 to 50% of fruits can be lost in <strong>the</strong> field or during storage if<br />
not kept under shelter.<br />
• The fruits of monkey orange could be consumed throughout <strong>the</strong> year, but, at present,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are only consumed during <strong>the</strong> period of 3-4 months of harvest.<br />
7.2 Processing and Packaging<br />
Processing of raw materials from monkey orange can add value. However, so far, mainly <strong>the</strong><br />
fruit pulp is processed into jam, jelly and juice and bottled <strong>for</strong> sale.<br />
• Jam made from monkey oranges has a long shelf-life of up to several months and it is<br />
preferred to jams from o<strong>the</strong>r indigenous fruits.<br />
• Pulp is used to prepare alcoholic drinks in Tanzania and Malawi. Pulp may also be dried<br />
<strong>for</strong> later use, but this method has still to be explored (Phytotrade, 2003).<br />
• O<strong>the</strong>r raw materials of monkey orange are ei<strong>the</strong>r used in <strong>the</strong>ir raw <strong>for</strong>m or are semiprocessed<br />
(see Appendix 1).<br />
• Currently, fruits from monkey orange are rarely processed because of <strong>the</strong><br />
o High price <strong>the</strong> fresh fruits can get on <strong>the</strong> market.<br />
o Lack of capital <strong>for</strong> investment.<br />
o Lack of improved processing techniques.<br />
o Lack of availability of skilled manpower and management expertise.<br />
16
8 MARKETING<br />
8.1 Marketing Potential<br />
See Technical Note 10 in Part II.<br />
Currently, <strong>the</strong> fruits of monkey orange are harvested from farmers’ fields, homestead gardens or<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are collected from natural <strong>for</strong>ests. They are mainly used <strong>for</strong> domestic consumption, leaving<br />
very little <strong>for</strong> sale. This small volume of fruit is mainly sold along <strong>the</strong> roadsides or in local and<br />
urban markets. In Malawi, only about 20% of <strong>the</strong> fruits are sold directly to <strong>the</strong> end-consumer.<br />
The remaining 80% is sold to traders who demand a high mark-up, when reselling <strong>the</strong> fruits to<br />
consumers.<br />
• Farmers and collectors face several problems when marketing fruits from monkey<br />
orange:<br />
o Proximity of markets; transportation represents <strong>the</strong> main marketing cost. The means<br />
of transport used to move <strong>the</strong> fruits from <strong>the</strong> fruit collection points to <strong>the</strong> market<br />
place are headloads, bicycles, oxcarts and public or hired vehicles.<br />
o Uncertainty of <strong>the</strong> price of <strong>the</strong> fruit once it reaches <strong>the</strong> market (see section 8.2).<br />
o Consumer perception; urban populations may prefer not to eat wild fruits. Rural<br />
populations often regard monkey oranges as children’s food or food to be eaten<br />
only in times of famine. However, perception may change. In Gaborone, Botswana,<br />
where <strong>the</strong>re is now a market <strong>for</strong> monkey orange fruits but 20 years ago <strong>the</strong>re was no<br />
demand.<br />
• <strong>Monkey</strong> orange fruits would be suitable <strong>for</strong> export, even over long distances, because of<br />
<strong>the</strong> protection provided by <strong>the</strong> hard shell, which allows <strong>the</strong>m to be stored <strong>for</strong> a<br />
considerably long period of time under ambient temperatures be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong>y spoil.<br />
However, transport costs may be high because of size and weight of <strong>the</strong> fruit.<br />
• Development of cottage industries is <strong>the</strong> first step in encouraging <strong>the</strong> processing and<br />
marketing of <strong>the</strong> species.<br />
• Expand <strong>the</strong> market base of <strong>the</strong> products by product promotion and encourage fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
growth of <strong>the</strong> processing industries, as profits begin to accrue.<br />
• If desired to increase consumption and overall market base, high priority has to be given<br />
to policy changes and encourage awareness campaigns.<br />
8.2 Pricing<br />
• Prices vary considerably, depending on <strong>the</strong> season. In general, fresh monkey oranges can<br />
fetch high prices, so that <strong>the</strong>y are ra<strong>the</strong>r sold directly instead of using <strong>the</strong>m <strong>for</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
processing.<br />
• In Zimbabwe, selling prices between US$0.31 and US$0.63 per fruit were observed<br />
(Dzingai and group, 1998).<br />
• Fruits from Zimbabwe are fur<strong>the</strong>r exported to Botswana where <strong>the</strong>y are sold <strong>for</strong><br />
US$0.45 each.<br />
17
See Technical Note 10 in Part II.<br />
9 SOCIO-ECONOMICS<br />
• The costs and benefits involved in <strong>the</strong> utilisation of monkey orange fruit depend on<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r or not <strong>the</strong> species is exploited where it is growing or elsewhere.<br />
If fruits are collected from natural <strong>for</strong>ests, <strong>the</strong> major costs involve:<br />
• Transport to collect fruits and delivery to <strong>the</strong> market or processing plant.<br />
Generally, exploitation of orchard plantations requires ra<strong>the</strong>r large investment involving costs<br />
<strong>for</strong>:<br />
• Nursery establishment and management or purchasing of planting material.<br />
• Orchard establishment and maintenance.<br />
• Transport costs may be lower than <strong>for</strong>est exploitation.<br />
However, if fruits are used <strong>for</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r processing, costs <strong>for</strong> grading, cleaning, processing,<br />
packaging and storing have to be taken into account in both cases.<br />
• Plantations may be established while fruits are collected from natural neighbouring<br />
<strong>for</strong>ests. Combining exploitation strategies covers costs <strong>for</strong> planting, tending, protection<br />
and waiting <strong>for</strong> trees to start bearing fruits during <strong>the</strong> long juvenile period.<br />
18
APPENDIX 1. MULTIPLE USES OF THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE<br />
Leaves<br />
Fruit and pulp<br />
Bark<br />
Wood<br />
Root<br />
• Fresh leaves are used to prepare a porridge <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment of<br />
wounds to prevent infection and promote healing. They are<br />
pounded into a paste, mixed with water, heated and simmered.<br />
• Fresh leaves are crushed and soaked in water. The drained liquid<br />
is used <strong>for</strong> spraying vegetables to repel insects.<br />
• The pulp of ripe fruits is eaten fresh.<br />
• The pulp of ripe fruits is used to prepare jam, jelly, juice and<br />
alcoholic beverages.<br />
• The pulp of ripe fruits, mixed with sugar or honey is used to treat<br />
coughing and in <strong>the</strong> preparation of eardrops.<br />
• Green, unripe fruits are mashed, mixed with water, soaked and<br />
drunk to induce vomiting.<br />
• Unripe fruits are used to prepare a powder which is mixed with<br />
milk and drunk as a purgative (Zambia).<br />
• The fruit pulp is used <strong>for</strong> soap making<br />
• The hard outer shell of <strong>the</strong> fruit is used is used <strong>for</strong> making art<br />
objects and traditional percussion music instruments.<br />
• A toxic dye extracted from <strong>the</strong> fruit shell is used to colour trays<br />
and containers to protect <strong>the</strong>m against insects.<br />
• A decoction from <strong>the</strong> middle part of <strong>the</strong> bark is used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
treatment of stomach pains.<br />
• It is used as firewood.<br />
• It is used in local construction.<br />
• It is used in making building materials, tool handles, stirring sticks<br />
and spoons.<br />
• Boiled roots are used by women to reduce <strong>the</strong> length and severity<br />
of heavy menstrual flows.<br />
• Boiled roots are used to stop diarrhoea.<br />
• Roots are chewed to alleviate eczema and as a cure <strong>for</strong><br />
gonorrhoea.<br />
• Roots are used to treat sexually transmitted infections.<br />
19
APPENDIX 2. MAJOR PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE MONKEY<br />
ORANGE TREE<br />
COMMON<br />
NAME<br />
SCIENTIFIC NAME<br />
NATURE OF<br />
ATTACK<br />
BIO-CONTROL<br />
OTHER<br />
CONTROLS<br />
Termites<br />
A range of genera<br />
in <strong>the</strong> order<br />
Isoptera<br />
Feed on dead<br />
bark.<br />
Remove<br />
regularly weak,<br />
diseased and<br />
dead branches.<br />
Termiticides,<br />
e.g. Permethrin,<br />
are available<br />
but not<br />
recommended.<br />
Powdery<br />
mildew<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> genera<br />
Erisiphe,<br />
Spaero<strong>the</strong>ca,<br />
Uncinula,<br />
Phyllactinia,or<br />
Leveillula<br />
Attacks <strong>the</strong> outer<br />
skin of <strong>the</strong> fruit<br />
and seed.<br />
No known biocontrols.<br />
Air-dry fruits<br />
thoroughly<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e storing.<br />
Dry seeds to a<br />
moisture<br />
content of less<br />
than 10%<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e storing.<br />
Standard<br />
fungicides can<br />
be used e.g.<br />
Benlate and<br />
Thiram.<br />
20
APPENDIX 3. HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING CHEMICALS<br />
In general, <strong>the</strong> use of chemicals should be minimised. Where <strong>the</strong>ir use is necessary <strong>the</strong> rules in<br />
<strong>the</strong> box below should be followed.<br />
Rules to follow when using chemicals:<br />
• Do not splash chemicals in <strong>the</strong> eyes, on skin or clo<strong>the</strong>s.<br />
• Do not drink or brea<strong>the</strong> in <strong>the</strong> vapours.<br />
• Do not eat while preparing and applying chemicals.<br />
• Wash hands thoroughly after use.<br />
• Wear protective clothing where available (gloves, overalls, rubber boots, etc.).<br />
• Store chemicals always in <strong>the</strong>ir original containers and keep <strong>the</strong>m away from water<br />
and fire.<br />
• Keep chemicals away from children.<br />
The following chemicals are examples of those that can be used <strong>for</strong> control of powdery mildew<br />
on monkey orange and <strong>the</strong> relevant health and safety advice <strong>for</strong> each. For a complete list of<br />
chemical controls and precautions <strong>for</strong> use, please check with your local <strong>extension</strong> or agricultural<br />
office.<br />
THIRAM<br />
Active ingredients: Thiram<br />
Handling and storage: Users should be careful not to ingest and inhale <strong>the</strong> chemical and always<br />
wash <strong>the</strong>ir hands thoroughly after use. Acute exposure may cause headaches, dizziness, fatigue,<br />
nausea, diarrhoea and o<strong>the</strong>r gastrointestinal complaints. It should be stored in an airtight<br />
container and kept away from water or fire.<br />
Environmental impact: Non-toxic to birds and bees, but highly toxic to fish.<br />
BENLATE<br />
Active ingredients: Benomyl<br />
Handling and storage: Users should wear protective clothing and avoid contact with <strong>the</strong> skin<br />
and eyes. The chemical may irritate <strong>the</strong> eyes, nose throat and skin. It should be stored in an<br />
airtight container and kept away from water or fire.<br />
Environmental impact: relatively non-hazardous to honey bees, but toxic to fish.<br />
21
GLOSSARY<br />
Agro<strong>for</strong>estry -<br />
Airlayering -<br />
Brix -<br />
Bud -<br />
Budding -<br />
Coppice -<br />
Cutting -<br />
Dormancy -<br />
Epicormic -<br />
Field Capacity -<br />
Fungicide -<br />
Genotype -<br />
Germplasm -<br />
Grafting -<br />
Indigenous -<br />
Intercropping -<br />
Mark-up -<br />
Mycorrhiza -<br />
Nursery -<br />
pH -<br />
Phenotype -<br />
Propagation -<br />
Propagule -<br />
a land-use system in which woody perennials are used on <strong>the</strong> same<br />
land management unit as agricultural crops, animals or both, ei<strong>the</strong>r in<br />
some <strong>for</strong>m of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.<br />
a method of propagation where a cut is made in a woody stem and<br />
surrounded by damp soil or peat moss and held in place with a wrap<br />
(plastic). When roots from <strong>the</strong> plant can be seen <strong>the</strong> stem can be cut and<br />
<strong>the</strong> plant transplanted.<br />
measurement of sugar content. A 1% sugar solution is a solution of<br />
1ºBrix.<br />
a protuberance on <strong>the</strong> stem of a plant that may develop into a flower,<br />
leaf, or shoot.<br />
a type of propagation in which a bud is inserted underneath <strong>the</strong> bark of<br />
a related plant.<br />
<strong>the</strong> tendency of certain tree species to produce a large number of shoots<br />
when a single or few stems are mechanically removed but <strong>the</strong> root<br />
system left intact.<br />
a section of a plant that is cut off and rooted to create a new plant.<br />
temporary stopping of growth.<br />
a shoot that arises from latent or adventitious buds; also know as water<br />
sprouts that occur on stems and branches and suckers that are produced<br />
from <strong>the</strong> base of trees. Epicormic shoots often result from severe<br />
defoliation or radical pruning.<br />
amount of water remaining in a soil after being saturated with water and<br />
after free drainage is negligible.<br />
a substance or chemical that kills fungi.<br />
<strong>the</strong> internally coded, inheritable in<strong>for</strong>mation carried by all living<br />
organisms.<br />
<strong>the</strong> total genetic variability, represented by germ cells or seeds, available<br />
to a particular population of organisms.<br />
method of propagation, by inserting a section of one plant, usually a<br />
shoot, into ano<strong>the</strong>r so that <strong>the</strong>y grow toge<strong>the</strong>r into a single plant.<br />
native; originating or occurring naturally in <strong>the</strong> place specified.<br />
growing two or more crops simultaneously on <strong>the</strong> same field.<br />
<strong>the</strong> amount that is added to <strong>the</strong> cost price to achieve <strong>the</strong> required selling<br />
price.<br />
a symbiotic relationship between beneficial fungi and plants. Mycorrhizal<br />
fungi live in and around <strong>the</strong> roots of some plant species. In exchange <strong>for</strong><br />
sugars and simple carbohydrates, <strong>the</strong> mycorrhizal fungi absorb and pass<br />
on minerals and moisture required <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> plant's growth.<br />
an area or structure set aside <strong>for</strong> growth and protection of young plants.<br />
scale <strong>for</strong> measuring acidity.<br />
<strong>the</strong> physical characteristics of an organism; <strong>the</strong> product of interaction<br />
between genotype and environment.<br />
to produce a new plant, ei<strong>the</strong>r by vegetative means involving <strong>the</strong><br />
rooting or grafting of pieces of <strong>the</strong> plant or by sowing seeds.<br />
any structure having <strong>the</strong> capacity to give rise to a new plant, whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
through sexual or vegetative reproduction. This includes seeds, spores<br />
and any part of <strong>the</strong> vegetative body capable of independent growth if<br />
detached from <strong>the</strong> parent.<br />
22
Pruning -<br />
Purgative -<br />
Rootstock -<br />
Scion -<br />
Symbiosis -<br />
Tissue culture -<br />
Topography -<br />
Turnover -<br />
removal of live or dead branches from standing trees.<br />
stimulating <strong>the</strong> evacuation of <strong>the</strong> bowels.<br />
<strong>the</strong> root system and lower portion of a woody plant to which a graft of<br />
a more desirable plant is attached.<br />
a cutting from <strong>the</strong> upper portion of a plant, which is <strong>the</strong>n grafted onto<br />
<strong>the</strong> rootstock of ano<strong>the</strong>r plant.<br />
a mutually beneficial relationship between two living organisms of<br />
different species living closely toge<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
a technique in which portions of a plant or animal are grown on an<br />
artificial culture medium (also: in vitro culture).<br />
physical features, such as hills, valleys, and plains that shape <strong>the</strong> surface of<br />
<strong>the</strong> earth.<br />
<strong>the</strong> total amount of income received by a business during a specified<br />
period (usually a year).<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Arnold, T.H., Wells, M.J. and Wehmeyer, A.S. (1985). Khoison Food Plants: Taxa with<br />
potential <strong>for</strong> future economic exploitation. In: Wickens G. E., Goodin, J. R. and Field, D. V.<br />
(Eds). Plants <strong>for</strong> arid lands. London. Allen and Unwin. Pp69-86.<br />
Dzingai, R., Kadzere, I., Marunda, C., Nyoka, I. and Kuwaza, C. (1998). Identification of<br />
priority indigenous fruits <strong>for</strong> domestication by farmers in Zimbabwe. In: Maghembe, J. A.,<br />
Simons, A. J.; Kwesiga, F. and Rarieya, M. (Eds). Selecting indigenous trees <strong>for</strong> domestication in<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa. ICRAF, Nairobi. pp. 72 – 94.<br />
ILO (1990) Tree Nurseries. An illustrated technical guide and training <strong>manual</strong>. Booklet No. 6.<br />
International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
Mwamba, C. (2006) <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Strychnos cocculoides. SCUC, Southampton, UK.<br />
Phytotrade (2003) info@phytotradeafrica.com<br />
23
Why Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree?<br />
The monkey orange tree is a multipurpose tree. It is a source of food, timber,<br />
firewood, medicinal extracts and o<strong>the</strong>r components and it can give a potential<br />
economic return to rural people.<br />
1. For Nutritious Food<br />
The pulp is rich in sugars, essential vitamins, minerals,<br />
oils and crude proteins.<br />
Eat <strong>the</strong> pulp of ripe fruits.<br />
Use <strong>the</strong> pulp to make jam, juice and wines.<br />
Green unripe monkey orange fruits<br />
Don’t eat green unripe fruits -<br />
<strong>the</strong>y might be toxic!<br />
Ripe monkey orange fruits<br />
B<br />
E<br />
N<br />
E<br />
F<br />
I<br />
T<br />
S<br />
2. For Income<br />
One fruit can fetch an average price of up to US$0.45 !<br />
Processing adds value to <strong>the</strong> fruit to earn more money.<br />
3. For Medicinal Uses<br />
You can use nearly all <strong>the</strong> parts of <strong>the</strong> tree <strong>for</strong> medicinal purposes:<br />
Unripe fruits: use to induce vomiting.<br />
Pulp of ripe fruits: mix with honey or sugar to treat coughing.<br />
Leaves: pound into a paste and use to treat sores.<br />
Bark: cook in water and drink to cure stomach pains.<br />
Roots: chew to treat eczema and gonorrhoea.<br />
1a<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
4. Fuel and Timber<br />
You can use <strong>the</strong> wood <strong>for</strong>:<br />
Firewood;<br />
Building material;<br />
Making tool handles, stirring sticks and spoons.<br />
5. Cultural Value<br />
You can use <strong>the</strong> hard outer shell of <strong>the</strong> fruit to make art objects and<br />
musical instruments.<br />
6. More Uses<br />
Use <strong>the</strong> pulp to make soap.<br />
Use <strong>the</strong> fruit shell to make a dye<br />
<strong>for</strong> containers, which protects<br />
against insects.<br />
Crush fresh leaves and soak <strong>the</strong>m<br />
in water. Use <strong>the</strong> drained liquid<br />
<strong>for</strong> spraying vegetables to repel<br />
insects.<br />
7. Ecological and Environmental Value<br />
The tree is adapted to harsh environmental conditions and can survive droughts.<br />
The tree regenerates easily after fires, because <strong>the</strong> woody fruits survive bushfires.<br />
The tree improves soil fertility and structure.<br />
The tree reduces weed growth and soil erosion.<br />
1b<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
How to Grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree?<br />
- Growing Seedlings and Young Trees<br />
1. Collecting planting material<br />
Trees should be vigorous.<br />
Trees should be free from pests and diseases.<br />
Trees should produce at least 300-400 fruits per season.<br />
Low variation in seasonal fruit production.<br />
>10 cm<br />
Fruits at least 10 cm across and of uni<strong>for</strong>m size.<br />
Fruits should be sweet and juicy.<br />
Seeds should be small in proportion to <strong>the</strong> flesh.<br />
2. Propagating<br />
By seed (see Technical Note 3) Vegetatively (see Technical Note 4)<br />
Y<br />
O<br />
U<br />
N<br />
G<br />
T<br />
R<br />
E<br />
E<br />
S<br />
3. Collecting potting soil<br />
not too sandy.<br />
not too much clay (Rub moist soil<br />
between thumb and index finger. It<br />
should have <strong>the</strong> consistency of flour,<br />
not sticky or shiny.)<br />
Sand soil<br />
Clay soil<br />
should not contain any rocks.<br />
Soil containing stones<br />
2a<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
4. Symbiotic Associations<br />
Trees may fail to grow in areas where <strong>the</strong>y<br />
have never grown be<strong>for</strong>e due to lack of<br />
beneficial fungi (mycorrhizae). Take <strong>the</strong>se<br />
fungi from soils beneath parent trees and<br />
inoculate seedlings to improve <strong>the</strong>ir initial<br />
growth.<br />
Take soil from beneath monkey orange trees and mix with<br />
potting soil<br />
5. Growing young trees<br />
You need a supply<br />
of water.<br />
Set up seed- and pot-beds as follows:<br />
Path<br />
Earth mound<br />
60 cm 100 cm<br />
Raised seedbeds<br />
1 m wide and 5-10 m long,<br />
paths between <strong>the</strong> beds 60 cm<br />
wide.<br />
Seedbeds:<br />
raised above ground level,<br />
flat surface,<br />
low earth mound around <strong>the</strong><br />
edge.<br />
Potbeds:<br />
level with <strong>the</strong> ground, sunken<br />
or, raised in areas with risk of<br />
waterlogging.<br />
Build frames to keep pots in<br />
an upright position.<br />
Sunken potbeds<br />
Raised potbeds<br />
Build a frame from reeds, bamboo or<br />
wood.<br />
Use shading net or grass <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> roof,<br />
allowing about 30% sunlight to pass<br />
through.<br />
<br />
Good shading<br />
Pots under shade-net<br />
Young plants must be kept free from<br />
weeds throughout <strong>the</strong> year!<br />
Poor shading<br />
2b<br />
Weeding<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
How to grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree<br />
- Propagation by Seed -<br />
1. Seed Collection and Handling<br />
Collect fruits only from selected trees (see Technical<br />
Note 2a).<br />
The tree starts to produce fruits between 4 and<br />
6 years of age.<br />
Collect mature fruits <strong>for</strong> seed collection June<br />
to December, about 8 to 12 months after pollination.<br />
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec<br />
Pollination<br />
Picking of fruits<br />
Crack fruits by hitting <strong>the</strong>m with a<br />
stick or using a gentle tap on a<br />
stone.<br />
<br />
Do not use small seeds <strong>for</strong> propagation<br />
Collecting fruits from <strong>the</strong><br />
ground<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
Seeds from monkey orange fruits<br />
Seed collection<br />
Pick <strong>the</strong> light green or yellow mature<br />
fruits from <strong>the</strong> tree, or collect<br />
<strong>the</strong>m after <strong>the</strong>y have dropped on<br />
<strong>the</strong> ground.<br />
Cracking fruits<br />
Separate seeds from <strong>the</strong> pulp and throw<br />
away immature and very small seeds:<br />
• The fruits contain usually 25 to 30 pale<br />
seeds.<br />
• The largest fruits usually contain <strong>the</strong><br />
largest seeds.<br />
• Seeds in <strong>the</strong> middle of <strong>the</strong> fruit are<br />
larger than those at <strong>the</strong> edges.<br />
S<br />
E<br />
E<br />
D<br />
P<br />
R<br />
O<br />
P<br />
A<br />
G<br />
A<br />
T<br />
I<br />
O<br />
N<br />
3a
Clean seeds by scraping <strong>the</strong>m over a wire<br />
mesh with sand and dry <strong>the</strong>m <strong>for</strong> storage.<br />
Cleaning seeds<br />
Drying seeds<br />
Airtight<br />
bottle<br />
Cotton<br />
sack<br />
Store seeds under dry conditions at room temperature<br />
(23-28°C), not longer than 8 - 12 months.<br />
Storage of seeds<br />
2. Seed Treatment and Germination<br />
Seeds have hard coats. It<br />
may help to soak <strong>the</strong>m in<br />
hot water <strong>for</strong> 24-48 hours<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e sowing.<br />
Boil water<br />
Take off fire and immerse<br />
seed <strong>for</strong> 1-2 days<br />
Rinse<br />
2-3 cm<br />
3. Sowing<br />
Sow seeds 2-3 cm deep in seedbeds<br />
or pots (see Technical Note 2).<br />
Sowing depth<br />
2x/day<br />
1x/day<br />
Water plants twice a day <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> first<br />
weeks and later once a day in <strong>the</strong><br />
evening.<br />
First weeks after germination<br />
Later<br />
Shade seedlings <strong>for</strong> 7 days after germination,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n partial shade <strong>for</strong> 5-6<br />
days. Allow full light after 14 days.<br />
Full shade <strong>for</strong> 7 days and <strong>the</strong>n partial shade <strong>for</strong> 5-6 days<br />
You can also sow directly in <strong>the</strong><br />
field, planting two seeds per hole.<br />
Planting distance should be 5 m<br />
apart (see Technical Note 5). Remove<br />
<strong>the</strong> weaker of <strong>the</strong> two seedlings<br />
two months after emergence.<br />
3b<br />
2 seeds/hole<br />
Remove weaker seedling 2<br />
months after emergence<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
How to grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree<br />
- Vegetative Propagation -<br />
1. Grafting<br />
Wedge grafting is <strong>the</strong> most appropriate way to<br />
propagate <strong>the</strong> monkey orange tree.<br />
You will need:<br />
Shoot (scion) from a superior phenotype:<br />
5-15 cm long,<br />
1 cm thick (pencil size - same as rootstock),<br />
one or more buds.<br />
Rootstock grown from seed of a<br />
desirable plant:<br />
diameter at 40-60 cm height - 1 cm (pencil<br />
size).<br />
Clean sharp budding knife.<br />
Polyethylene tape (1.5-2.0 cm wide and<br />
30-40 cm long) or strips of poly<strong>the</strong>ne.<br />
Clear plastic bags.<br />
40-60 cm<br />
Cut off top at <strong>the</strong> height of 40-60 cm<br />
4-5 cm<br />
Make a cut of 4-5 cm<br />
length<br />
Rootstock prepared<br />
<strong>for</strong> grafting<br />
2. Rootstock Preparation<br />
1. Clear <strong>the</strong> stem of soil and debris.<br />
2. Cut off <strong>the</strong> top at <strong>the</strong> height of 40-60 cm<br />
retaining two or more leaves below <strong>the</strong> cut.<br />
3. Make a slit with a cut of 4-5 cm<br />
length.<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
1 cm 1 cm<br />
5-15 cm long scion with <strong>the</strong> diameter of a pencil<br />
Seedling ready <strong>for</strong><br />
grafting<br />
5-15 cm<br />
80-100 cm height<br />
Diameter should be<br />
pencil size at this height<br />
40-60 cm<br />
Knife Tape Clear plastic<br />
bags<br />
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4a
3. Scion Preparation<br />
1. Place <strong>the</strong> blade of <strong>the</strong> knife almost parallel<br />
to <strong>the</strong> twig to make a level surface of<br />
about 4-5 cm length with one gently<br />
pulling cut. Make two cuts like this at <strong>the</strong><br />
base of <strong>the</strong> scion to fit to <strong>the</strong> rootstock.<br />
Cutting scion at <strong>the</strong> base with one stroke to fit to <strong>the</strong><br />
rootstock<br />
2. Cut off <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> scion. At least one<br />
bud should remain.<br />
Growing<br />
zone<br />
4-5 cm<br />
Cutting off <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> scion leaving<br />
at least one bud<br />
4. The Graft Union<br />
1. Match <strong>the</strong> cut surfaces of scion and rootstock to one ano<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Make sure that both growing zones have firm contact.<br />
Matching surfaces of<br />
scion and rootstock<br />
2. Bind scion and rootstock toge<strong>the</strong>r with tape. Take<br />
care not to change <strong>the</strong> position of <strong>the</strong> surfaces.<br />
Scion and rootstock are tied toge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
3. Cover <strong>the</strong> grafted plant with a poly<strong>the</strong>ne bag to prevent<br />
transpiration and loss of moisture.<br />
4. Water plants regularly.<br />
5. Remove bag after 3 to 4 weeks.<br />
Covering grafted<br />
plant with clear<br />
plastic bag<br />
Water plants regularly<br />
6. Remove <strong>the</strong> tape after 4 to 6 months when <strong>the</strong> union has<br />
healed and <strong>the</strong>re is fresh growth on <strong>the</strong> scion.<br />
4b<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
Grafted monkey orange plant<br />
ready <strong>for</strong> transplanting
Where to grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree<br />
- Field Establishment -<br />
1. Site Characteristics<br />
The tree needs light.<br />
It grows on a wide range of soils.<br />
Plant on relatively flat ground or gentle slopes with<br />
freely drained soil. A south-east aspect.<br />
Don’t plant on hilltops.<br />
Don’t plant in valley bottoms.<br />
Clearing <strong>the</strong> planting site<br />
Ploughing to 20-30 cm depth<br />
Pickaxe and hoe<br />
> 10-20 cm<br />
Pegs<br />
<br />
3. Transplanting<br />
2. Site Preparation<br />
1. Clear all <strong>the</strong> trees and shrubs from <strong>the</strong><br />
planting site. Remove all weeds, especially<br />
grasses.<br />
2. Just be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> start of <strong>the</strong> rainy season,<br />
dig over or plough <strong>the</strong> land to 20-30 cm<br />
depth, <strong>the</strong>n disc it, at least 1-2 weeks be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
planting.<br />
3. Dig planting holes 5m apart at regular<br />
spaces. You need <strong>the</strong> following tools:<br />
• pegs and string to mark out <strong>the</strong><br />
site;<br />
• pickaxe or hoe <strong>for</strong> digging planting<br />
holes.<br />
Pay attention to <strong>the</strong> following when transferring seedlings<br />
or grafted plants to <strong>the</strong> field:<br />
Transfer planting stock at 6 months old and at least<br />
10-20 cm in height <strong>for</strong> seedlings.<br />
Sufficient rain should have fallen over a 24 hour period<br />
continuously.<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
Hilltops/steep<br />
Waterlogged or temporarily<br />
5 m<br />
5 m<br />
Squaring 5x5 m<br />
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Plants should be watered thoroughly <strong>the</strong><br />
night be<strong>for</strong>e taking <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> field.<br />
Water plants one night<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
Handle plants carefully when moving <strong>the</strong>m to<br />
<strong>the</strong> planting site.<br />
Hold <strong>the</strong> bags and not<br />
<strong>the</strong> seedlings<br />
Use trays or boxes <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> transport<br />
60 cm<br />
60 cm<br />
Planting hole<br />
Remove plastic bags<br />
from plant<br />
Plant in planting holes 60 cm<br />
deep and 60 cm width.<br />
Plant on cloudy days, early in <strong>the</strong><br />
morning or late afternoon to<br />
reduce water loss from soil and<br />
plants.<br />
Position seedling<br />
straight in <strong>the</strong><br />
centre of <strong>the</strong> pit.<br />
Root collar should be<br />
at ground level. Use a<br />
stick as a guide. Fill<br />
<strong>the</strong> pit.<br />
Flatten <strong>the</strong> soil<br />
around <strong>the</strong> tree base<br />
to ground level.<br />
4. Watering<br />
Watering trees after field planting is not necessary, if <strong>the</strong><br />
soil was wet enough be<strong>for</strong>e planting.<br />
If necessary you may apply 1-2 litres of water at <strong>the</strong><br />
base of each tree in <strong>the</strong> early evening twice or three<br />
times a week.<br />
Water plants 2-3x/week<br />
Water only in <strong>the</strong> early evening<br />
5b<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
How to grow <strong>the</strong> <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Tree<br />
- Field Management -<br />
1. Weeding<br />
Weed <strong>the</strong> plantation once a<br />
month <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> first three months<br />
after planting. 2-3 spot weedings<br />
around each tree may be necessary.<br />
5 year old monkey orange trees -<br />
watering is not necessary<br />
3. Use of Fertilizers<br />
2. Irrigation<br />
Mature trees usually don’t require watering.<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange trees do not require any fertilizer; application is optional to increase<br />
growth.<br />
Organic manure can be added to <strong>the</strong> planting pits to aid transplanting.<br />
Cow manure is dried in <strong>the</strong> sun and added to <strong>the</strong> planting holes<br />
Weeds should be removed around <strong>the</strong> tree<br />
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Inorganic fertilisers can be applied to increase<br />
growth:<br />
• Apply 100-150 g per plant of superphosphate<br />
as basal dressing.<br />
• Apply 20-30g Nitrosol (NPK 8 - 3 - 6 ) p e r<br />
plant as top dressing.<br />
• Follow <strong>the</strong> instructions given on <strong>the</strong> label.<br />
Application of superphosphate<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
Application of Nitrosol<br />
6a
5. Pruning<br />
Remove all weak, diseased and dead branches.<br />
Remove all drooping lower branches.<br />
Pruning of tree<br />
Branches below <strong>the</strong> dotted line<br />
should be removed<br />
Pruned monkey orange tree<br />
8. Protection from Pests and Diseases<br />
The monkey orange tree does not have serious pests and diseases,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>se problems might occur:<br />
Termites can attack dead bark, dry wood, and also weak<br />
nursery seedlings. Remove weak, diseased and dead<br />
branches (see above).<br />
Powdery mildew can attack stored fruits and seeds. Air dry<br />
fruits be<strong>for</strong>e storing (see Technical Note 8a).<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange fruits attacked by<br />
powdery mildew<br />
3. Land-use Systems<br />
The monkey orange tree occurs naturally<br />
as a pioneer tree in old cultivation sites.<br />
You can inter-plant it in natural <strong>for</strong>ests<br />
around homesteads.<br />
You can plant it in orchards<br />
You can intercrop <strong>the</strong> monkey orange<br />
tree with annual crops such as maize,<br />
sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes, water<br />
melon or o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
You can plant it as a boundary or barrier<br />
tree.<br />
6b<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
Harvesting<br />
1. Harvesting Time<br />
The tree produces fruits 4-6 years after planting in open-grown stands. When planted<br />
densely it needs several years longer. Harvest <strong>the</strong> monkey orange fruits from June until<br />
November/December depending on site characteristics.<br />
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec<br />
Pollination<br />
Fruit harvesting<br />
2. Fruit Maturity<br />
At maturity, <strong>the</strong> monkey orange is about 5-10 cm<br />
in diameter. It is usually dark green, speckled or<br />
mottled green when unripe, becoming yellow or<br />
orange when ripe.<br />
Picking of fruits<br />
Collecting fruits from <strong>the</strong> ground<br />
3. Fruit Collection<br />
Ripe monkey orange fruits<br />
Pick <strong>the</strong> unripe green fruits and bury<br />
<strong>the</strong>m under sand <strong>for</strong> several months to<br />
ripen.<br />
Pick ripe fruits from <strong>the</strong> tree and eat<br />
<strong>the</strong>m directly or use <strong>for</strong> processing.<br />
Wait until fruits drop on <strong>the</strong> ground<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n collect <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
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Burying fruits in sand <strong>for</strong> ripening<br />
4. Yields<br />
Harvest from one monkey orange tree per season may be<br />
300-400 fruits or 40-100 kg in terms of fruit weight.<br />
Average harvest/tree/year:<br />
300-400 fruits<br />
7a<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK
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7b<br />
1. Post-harvest Handling<br />
Post-harvest Handling<br />
<strong>Monkey</strong> orange fruits bruise easily. Handle <strong>the</strong>m carefully!<br />
1. Remove green, unripe and damaged fruits.<br />
2. Grade <strong>the</strong> remaining fruits according to <strong>the</strong>ir size.<br />
3. Wash <strong>the</strong> fruits with clean water to remove debris.<br />
4. Air dry fruits thoroughly be<strong>for</strong>e storing to prevent fungal<br />
infestation and to extend <strong>the</strong> shelf-life.<br />
5. Pack fruits <strong>for</strong> storage in gunny bags, grain bags, cloth<br />
packs or boxes or,<br />
use <strong>the</strong>m immediately <strong>for</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r processing.<br />
<br />
3. Processing<br />
2. Storage<br />
Store fruits and products in a cool dry place,<br />
away from direct sunlight.<br />
Fruits: store <strong>for</strong> 2-3 weeks at room temperature<br />
(25-30°C).<br />
Juice, jams and jellies: store <strong>for</strong> several<br />
months.<br />
You can make jam, juice and wines from <strong>the</strong> pulp of ripe fruits. The processing steps to<br />
make jam are explained on <strong>the</strong> back page.<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
Remove unripe fruits<br />
Separate big and small fruits<br />
Wash fruits<br />
with drinking<br />
water<br />
Pack fruits <strong>for</strong> storage<br />
<br />
Air dry fruits
Wash jars<br />
Put jars in a pan<br />
with water<br />
Boil jars <strong>for</strong> 10<br />
minutes<br />
Processing<br />
- Preparation of <strong>Monkey</strong> <strong>Orange</strong> Fruit Jam -<br />
2+3 4<br />
1<br />
I: Sterilisation of jars<br />
1. Wash jars with clean water.<br />
2. Put washed jars in a large pan<br />
with water.<br />
3. Boil <strong>the</strong>m <strong>for</strong> 10 minutes.<br />
4. Remove from <strong>the</strong> water using<br />
tongs or a stick and put <strong>the</strong>m<br />
upside down on a clean tray.<br />
Remove jars<br />
Ripe washed<br />
monkey orange<br />
fruits<br />
Crack fruits<br />
Scoop pulp<br />
including seeds<br />
Mix<br />
Filter<br />
Mix pulp<br />
Heat mixture<br />
while stirring<br />
Continue cooking<br />
mixture<br />
Poor into jars<br />
and seal<br />
Cool at room<br />
temperature<br />
Label<br />
Add some water<br />
Add sugar (1:1)<br />
Add citric acid or<br />
lemon juice<br />
1<br />
2<br />
1. Crack fruits.<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK<br />
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5+6<br />
6+7<br />
9<br />
8<br />
II: Preparation of jam<br />
2. Scoop out pulp and seeds using<br />
a spoon. Discard <strong>the</strong> peel.<br />
3. Put <strong>the</strong> pulp in a pot with a<br />
little water and stir.<br />
4. Filter <strong>the</strong> mixture using a<br />
stainless steel sieve and discard<br />
seeds.<br />
5. Add sugar equal to <strong>the</strong> weight<br />
of pulp (1:1) and mix.<br />
6. Heat mixture in a stainless<br />
steel vessel while stirring continuously.<br />
7. Dissolve 5 g citric acid per kg<br />
pulp in some water and add<br />
to <strong>the</strong> mixture. Alternatively,<br />
lemon juice can be used (50<br />
ml/kg pulp).<br />
8. Continue cooking <strong>the</strong> mixture.<br />
Do a drop test to determine<br />
<strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> boiling<br />
process: take a small portion<br />
of jam on a spoon, cool it<br />
slightly and drop it into a glass<br />
of water. If <strong>the</strong> drop falls in a<br />
single piece until it reaches <strong>the</strong><br />
bottom, <strong>the</strong> end has been<br />
reached.<br />
9. Pour jam into pre-sterilised<br />
jars and seal.<br />
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1. Marketing Potential<br />
Sell monkey orange fruits<br />
• along roadsides;<br />
• local markets;<br />
• urban markets.<br />
Marketing and Economics<br />
Sell <strong>the</strong> fruits directly to consumers or to<br />
traders.<br />
2. Pricing<br />
Roadside market stand<br />
Trader<br />
Consumer<br />
One monkey orange fruit can fetch prices between US $ 0.31 and 0.63.*<br />
Local market place<br />
Producer/Collector<br />
You might face <strong>the</strong> following problems when marketing monkey orange fruits:<br />
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Storage: if not stored carefully, up to 50% of <strong>the</strong> fruit may spoil.<br />
Transport: fruits are often collected from very distant places. They have to be transported<br />
very carefully and transport costs might be high.<br />
Consumer perception: Urban people may consider it “backward” to eat wild fruits.<br />
Rural people may regard monkey orange fruits as food <strong>for</strong> children or <strong>for</strong> times of<br />
famine.<br />
Pricing: prices of monkey orange fruits vary considerably.<br />
3. Economics<br />
You may get a turnover of<br />
US$ 157.5 per tree per year,<br />
provided you don’t have any postharvest<br />
losses and are able to sell<br />
all <strong>the</strong> fruits. See <strong>the</strong><br />
calculation in <strong>the</strong> box on <strong>the</strong> right.<br />
Example <strong>for</strong> calculation:<br />
Yearly production per tree: 350 fruits<br />
Price per fruit: US$ 0.45<br />
Turnover per tree: 350 fruits/tree x 0.45<br />
US$/fruit = 157.5 US$/tree<br />
Turnover <strong>for</strong> 50 trees: 157.5 US$/tree x 50<br />
trees = 7875 US$<br />
Attention:<br />
You have to deduct <strong>the</strong> costs <strong>for</strong> planting, harvesting and transport of fruits to <strong>the</strong> market<br />
to be able to calculate <strong>the</strong> profit of your monkey orange crop!<br />
* Selling prices were observed in Zimbabwe in 1998. In Botswana fruit prices of US$ 0.45 were reported.<br />
© 2005 International Centre <strong>for</strong> Underutilised <strong>Crops</strong>, UK