Book 1.indb - Ele-mental

D A N C E D Y N A M I C S 

E F F O R T & P H R A S I N G 

WORKBOOK 

& DVD COMPANION 

V E R A M A L E T I C 

© 2005 

2 2 E A S T 1 7 T H AV E | C O L U M B U S , O H 4 3 2 0 1 | ( 6 1 4 ) 2 9 9 - 9 9 9 9 | W W W. G R A D E A N O T E S . C O M

C O N T E N T S 

Preface / iii 

About the Author / iv 

Acknowledgements / v 

INTRODUCTION 

The Significance of Dance Dynamics / 1 

Rudolf Laban’s Contribution to the Field of Movement and Dance / 7 

Notes / 8 

P A R T A / T H E E F F O R T T H E O R Y 

INTRODUCTION / 9 

Fig. I. The Effort Graph / 12 

VARIATIONS WITHIN ONE MOTION FACTOR / 13 

Space / 14 

Weight / 16 

Time / 18 

Flow / 20 

COMBINATIONS OF TWO MOTION FACTORS / 23 

Space and Time: The Awake State / 24 

Weight and Flow: The Dreamlike State / 26 

Space and Flow: The Remote State / 28 

Weight and Time: The Near State / 30 

Space and Weight: The Stable State / 32 

Time and Flow: The Mobile State / 34 

Recommended Reading / 36 

EFFORT–SPACE (SHAPE) AFFINITIES / 37 

Fig. 2. The Effort Cube / 38 

COMBINATIONS OF THREE MOTION FACTORS / 41 

Space, Weight, Time: “Action Drive” or Basic Effort Actions / 42 

Flow, Weight, Time: “Passion-like Drive” / 46 

Space, Time, Flow: “Vision-like Drive” / 48 

Space, Weight, Flow: “Spell-like Drive” / 50 

Recommended Reading / 52 

COMBINATIONS OF FOUR MOTION FACTORS / 53 

Notes / 55 

CONTENTS / i

PART B / P H R A S I N G C L A S S I F I C A T I O N 

INTRODUCTION / 57 

Classification of Phrasing / 59 

Notes / 63 

EIGHT PHRASING TYPES / 65 

( I ) Even Phrasing / 65 

( I I ) Increasing-Intensity; Impactive / 66 

( I I I ) Decreasing-Intensity; Impulsive / 67 

( I V ) Increasing-then-Decreasing Intensity / 68 

( V ) Decreasing-then-Increasing Intensity / 69 

( V I ) Accented / 71 

( V I I ) Vibratory / 72 

( V I I I ) Resilient / 73 

SEQUENCING OF PHRASING / 76 

( A ) Consecutive / 76 

( B ) Concurrent / 77 

( C ) Overlapping / 78 

EIGHT PHRASING TYPES ANNOTATED WITH EFFORT SIGNS / 79 

( I ) Even Phrasing / 79 

( I I ) Increasing-Intensity Phrasing / 80 

( I I I ) Decreasing-Intensity Phrasing / 84 

( I V ) Increasing-then-Decreasing Intensity / 85 

( V ) Decreasing-then-Increasing Intensity / 87 

( V I ) Accented / 90 

( V I I ) Vibratory / 91 

( V I I I ) Resilient / 92 

SEQUENCING OF PHRASING / 96 

( A ) Consecutive / 96 

( B ) Concurrent / 97 

( C ) Overlapping / 98 

SUMMARY / 100 

APPENDIX I: Methodological Considerations / 103 

APPENDIX II: C.G.Jung’s Influences On Laban / 113 

APPENDIX III: Phrasing of Dance Qualities in Labanotation Scores / 117 

BIBLIOGRAPHY / 127 

D V D C O M P A N I O N & V I E W I N G G U I D E / 1–22 

ii / DANCE DYNAMICS

P R E F A C E 

This Workbook supports studio work in dance dynamics by facilitating interaction 

between the presentation of the content and the reader. Opportunities for 

students to generate movement examples and images accompany the introduction 

of every new concept. Notes about the feel of various dynamic patterns 

and specific movement qualities in performance and viewing are encouraged. 

Observation outside the class is facilitated by means of the DVD companion 

with video excerpts from various works. 

Since Rudolf Laban provided a comprehensive system for identifying movement 

and dance qualities, his framework is the basis for this text. Laban’s main 

concepts are identified and explained by means of descriptions, examples, diagrams, 

tables, and figures. Movement qualities are referred to as “Efforts” (the 

term used in the English tradition), denoting the motivation and exertion of 

movement. Laban’s propensity for synonyms is also pointed out. 

Among special features of the Workbook is the fact that the text is informed by 

the tradition of Laban's teaching in Europe, as it was originally formulated and 

reformulated by his students, as well as the development of Laban’s theories 

in the USA. In addition, based on Laban’s foundation, the classification and 

notation of Phrasing has been developed by the author, Vera Maletic. A brief 

review of literature clarifies the distinction between the terms “phrase” and 

“phrasing” in dance, and the rationale for using “phrasing” is explained. Eight 

types of Phrasing are defined and exemplified by way of description, notation, 

and video excerpts. 

Presentation and discussion of the two major components of dance dynamics 

constitute the main sections of the Workbook. PART A discusses movement 

qualities, or Effort, and PART B investigates Phrasing types. Rather than working 

through them in a linear, sequential manner, the two sections can be used 

concurrently. 

Three Appendices elaborate on the following issues: 

(I) 

(II) 

(III) 

Some methodological approaches to the teaching-learning processes 

A consideration of C. G. Jung’s influences on Laban 

The application of Effort and Phrasing in qualitative annotations of 

Labanotation scores 

A general Bibliography concludes the text. 

A DVD viewing guide complements the disc in the back of the book. 

PREFACE / iii

A B O U T T H E A U T H O R 

VERA MALETIC is Professor Emerita in dance at The Ohio State University. 

She earned her M.A. from the University of Zagreb, Croatia (history of art 

and culture), and Ph.D. from The Ohio State University (interdisciplinary). 

Having received her initial Laban training from her mother, Ana Maletic, one of 

Laban’s disciples in Europe, Maletic subsequently studied at the Laban Centre 

in England, where she earned the Laban diploma. 

While in Zagreb, she was the choreographer and artistic director of the Studio 

for Contemporary Dance, creating works for stage, film, and television in former 

Yugoslavia, Austria, and Sweden. 

During her subsequent teaching appointment at the Laban Centre (1966–77), 

she classified Laban’s manuscripts, which contributed to her insights into the 

roots of the Laban theory. Since the late 1970s, her background was expanded 

and informed by interpretations and developments of Laban’s theories in the 

United States, particularly through the work and writings of Irmgard Bartenieff 

and Martha Davis, as well as professional exchanges with the late Robert Ellis 

Dunn. Her book, Body-Space-Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s 

Movement and Dance Concepts, was published by Mouton de Gruyter in 

1987. 

At The Ohio State University’s Department of Dance (1980–2000), Maletic 

developed the curriculum in several directions. She taught courses based on 

Laban’s framework dealing with the spatial structure and dynamics of dance. 

Maletic also developed courses in analysis of choreographic style and in postmodern 

dance. She spearheaded the dance and technology area, including 

Videodance and approaches to CD-ROM for dance documentation. Maletic 

was primary co-investigator in two multimedia projects funded by the National 

Initiative to Preserve America’s Dance. 

Currently she divides her time between activities in Columbus and Zagreb, 

Croatia. This includes bilingual writing and projects in dance documentation 

by means of technology. 

iv 

/ DANCE DYNAMICS

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S 

The author wishes to thank: 

Melanie Bales, Associate Professor, for her collaboration particularly in providing 

dance examples for various Effort qualities and Phrasing types. 

Lucy Venable, Professor Emerita, for the annotation of scores in Appendix III, 

and comments on Phrasing symbols in general. 

Vickie Blaine and Odette Blum, Professors Emeritae, for their input regarding 

both the contents and the form of the text. 

Certified Movement Analysts Melanie Bales, Peggy Berger, and Jeff Friedman for 

their responses and suggestions from the points of view of the American Laban 

dialects. 

Clark Leavitt, Professor Emeritus, for challenging some assumptions based on 

dance theory. 

Warren Lamb, for providing the opportunity to view a copy of a letter written to 

him by Laban in 1952. 

Edward Luna, MA candidate in dance, for redesigning the workbook and contributing 

suggestions from a student’s point of view. 

The Dance Preservation Fund at The Ohio State University Department of Dance, 

for funding the production of the 2005 revised edition of the workbook. 

Motus Humanus, for a seed money grant towards the production of the DVD 

companion. 

Jeanine Thompson, for giving her time and talent for recording the DVD voiceover. 

Special thanks are due to the following choreographers and performers for permission 

to include excerpts of their work in the DVD companion: 

Melanie Bales: choreographer and performer; Balinda Craig-Quijada: choreographer 

and performer; Karen Eliot: choreographer and performer; Zvi 

Gotheiner: choreographer; Susan Hadley: choreographer; Irene Hultman: 

choreographer; Kristina Isabelle: choreographer, improviser, and performer; 

Rosalind Pierson: choreographer; Noel Reiss: choreographer; Susan 

Sanborn: choreographer and performer; Jeanine Thompson: choreographer 

and performer; Susan Van Pelt: choreographer and performer. 

The following Ohio State University MFA and BFA students gave permission for 

the inclusion of their work: 

Joe Alter: composition; Robin Anderson: composition and performance; 

Lauren Bisio: performance; Ama Codjoe: performance; Teena Custer: 

performance; Michael Estanich: composition, improvisation and perfor- 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS / v

mance; Keren Ganin-Pinto: performance; Luke Gutsgell: performance; 

Chad Hall: composition and performance; Kristin Hapke: composition 

and performance; Jason Hedden: juggling; Kamilah Levens: performance; 

Scott Lowe: composition, improvisation, and performance; Christina 

Providence: improvisation and performance; Michelle Stortz: performance; 

Marc Woten: improvisation and performance. 

Notations and graphs on LabanWriter by Gina Jacobson. 

—V. MALETIC, December 2004 

vi / DANCE DYNAMICS

I N T R O D U C T I O N 

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DANCE DYNAMICS 

Past and present 

For centuries dance traditions of various cultures were based on demonstrating 

and replicating movement sequences. This left in abeyance not only the 

development of consistent vocabularies for describing the strands of dance but 

also comprehensive notation systems, and theoretical frameworks. Even now 

at the beginning of the new millennium, many significant components of dance 

are taken for granted within the practice of teaching-learning, choreographing, 

and coaching; a certain reluctance to identify them verbally and discuss them 

theoretically still survives. Granted, it is not easy to pin down and define this 

ephemeral art form that has its own means of non-verbal communication. This 

may be the reason for the scarcity of theoretical considerations of the dynamics 

of dance. 

Questions of terminology 

Dynamics as related to movement and dance is interpreted in many different 

ways. A recent publication—Dance Words 1 —contains entries that have been 

collected from various sources, such as classes, rehearsals, workshops, publications, 

texts on dance films, and interviews. Collecting entries for the section on 

movement as such proved to be most problematic, perhaps due to its non-verbal 

nature. Great variations in approaches and descriptions are found in entries 

under the title of “Dynamics and Energy” but have in common references to 

texture, coloring, and expression of feelings and emotions. The term dynamics 

is also used interchangeably with the term energy. 2 

Ana Maletic, for instance, makes the distinction between “dynamics” and 

“dynamicity.” While “dynamics” refers to the intensity and weight aspects of 

movement, “dynamicity” refers to “the energy as a result of all motion factors.” 

3 

In this text the term dance dynamics is used as an overall designation pertaining 

to the phrasing of movement energy. Movement qualities, on the other 

hand, denote specific colorings or the textures of movement. Both terms refer 

INTRODUCTION / 1

to movement intent or expression. Issues of emotional, kinetic, conceptual, 

and other motivations are discussed with reference to contemporary theatrical 

dance, and various other dance traditions. 

Dynamics as part of some dance traditions 

In many dance traditions, terminology is generated from movement qualities 

and dynamics that characterizes various dances. Here are some examples: 

In Javanese traditional dance there are three basic principles that address dance 

dynamics. The first one is wiraga, described as a way the dancer controls the 

movement while traveling smoothly and evenly as a breeze through a palm tree 

(for female) or flowing water (for male). The second principle, wirasa, deals 

with the dancers’ capacity to express feeling that would be communicated to 

the audience. The third principle, wirama, refers to tempo and rhythm which 

are considered indispensable elements of dance. 4 

Different emotions embodied through breathing rhythms are an intrinsic aspect 

of traditional dances of Korea. Breathing is a central force that influences the 

body movement and creates different qualities. Ogae Jit 

(shoulder movement) 

makes the breathing visible through a slight rise and fall. For instance in Salpuri 

Chum the emotion of Han, including sadness, anger, and discontent, may be 

marked by deep exhalation. It has to be overcome by the dancer to achieve 

Heung, a state of joy, pleasure, and excitement. 5 

The qualities of resiliency, bounciness of the whole body, has been observed in 

many forms of a ritual dance performed in the Central Philippines, called sinulog. 

This quality is seen as linked to some healthy patterns of life, and can be 

found in both traditional and non-traditional dancing. 6 

Resilient step patterns, the so-called drmez, in dances of Croatia, have been 

among the most characteristic motives in circle dances—kolos of plains or flat 

ground regions. They are reminiscent of ancient work motives imitating treading 

and crushing corn. The vertical emphasis of resilient shifts of weight, alternating 

with lively vibration, both gives in and resists the pull of gravity. 7 

Capoeira Angola, an Afro-Brazilian game/dance/fight, is often ironically called 

vadiação (or “doing nothing in particular”); indicating a relaxed but highly 

alert attitude appropriate to a street-oriented form. This attitude is demonstrated 

dynamically in a series of casual feints called mandinga (or “sorcery”), used 

to distract the opponent and disguise one’s true intentions. Likewise, a player 

adept at malícia (“treachery” or “double dealing”) may collaborate closely with 

the opponent, only to interrupt the game with a surprise attack. 8 

2 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The terminology of classical ballet contains some basic forms of dynamic movement, 

in other words dance vocabulary, such as battu or battement (“hit” or 

“thrusting”), coupé 

(“cut”), 

glissé 

(“glide” or “slide-like”), 

fouetté 

(“slashed” 

or “whipped”), and jeté (“thrown”), are named according to the quality of their 

performance. This terminology, created by French dancing masters of the 18th 

century, inspired Laban to name his basic Effort actions, such as thrusting, gliding, 

slashing, etc. 9 

The staccato, hard and fast angularity of urban American street-dance (as seen 

in the work of Rennie Harris Puremovement, for example) demonstrates the 

fluidity and multirhythmic ease found in much of West African vernacular 

dance. 10 

Moreover, in the culture of hip-hop dance, many terms have dynamic 

connotations. “B-boy” or “b-girl” break dancers may have taken their name 

from the “break”; a percussive interlude found on many funk recordings of the 

1960s–’70s, which is often “broken” and remixed by a DJ. Other terms, such as 

“popping” and “locking,” describe impactive gestures fragmented by stillness. 

The term “hip-hop” itself (perhaps derived from “hep,” or fashionable) betrays 

the importance of pelvic movements which are readily visible in the form. 11 

This brief survey has shown how various motivations—such as representing 

gender differences, particular emotional states, some healthy patterns of life, 

work actions, combat-like dance tactics, and descriptive language—have created 

patterns in different traditions and served as the basis for movement and 

dance-derived terminology. 

Some theoretical considerations of Dynamics 

The first theoretical reflections on the expressive aspect of Western theatrical 

dance started to emerge in periods of “expressive crises.” The decline of the 

courtly ballet in eighteenth-century France motivated Jean George Noverre 

(1727–1810) to write his Letters on Dancing and Ballets, a severe critique of 

the use of sheer virtuosity, stereotyped movement and mask; he urged that the 

link between movement and meaning be visible and that expression should be 

given preference over virtuosity. 12 

The Industrial Revolution and subsequent 

periods of decline of theatrical dance in the second half of the nineteenth century, 

prompted persons such as Delsarte and Duncan to address expression 

in performance, practically and theoretically. Francois Delsarte (1811–1871) 

formulated principles, laws and orders of movement expression with particular 

reference to actors and singers. Several of his American disciples and followers 

(such as Genevieve Stebbins, and Ted Shawn) applied Delsarte’s principles 

to dance. 13 

The foremost endeavor of Isadora Duncan (1878–1927) was the 

desire to express her being in movement and dance; she “sought the source 

of the spiritual expression to flow into the channels of the body filling it with 

vibrating light. . . .” 14 

INTRODUCTION / 3

The development of technology between the two World Wars, and the emergence 

of modern dance in Europe, was the background of Rudolf Laban’s 

investigations into the common denominators of the dynamics of movement 

expression referred to as Effort. Because of its systematic classification, his 

theory is “one of the most important for modern dance thought.” 15 

Since the 1940s several American dance educators and choreographers have 

also acknowledged the significance of the constituents of dance dynamics. For 

instance, Margareth H’Doubler states that “to execute any movement, we 

must make an effort; this effort consists of an expenditure of energy. . . . Since 

energy is a determining factor in the character of expressiveness of movement 

it is interesting to consider actions with respect to the way energy is released to 

produce them.” 16 

Doris Humphrey refers to dynamics as the ingredient that adds spice and interest 

to living as well as dancing, and argues that “dynamics is the lifeblood of 

the dance, and is ignored at the peril of your existence as an artist.” 17 

Alma 

Hawkins discusses the perceptual dimensions of dance qualities, and maintains 

that the aesthetic quality of dance movement is determined by the flow and 

control of energy. She further explains that: 

Energy, or force, is the source of movement, and it is also the basic 

ingredient in the aesthetic qualities of dance. The choreographer controls 

the dynamic flow of the dance through a sensitive organization of 

movement tension. The play of forces set in action by the structured 

movement tensions evokes a kinesthetic response in the perceiver and 

thus enables the dancer to communicate. The tension aspect of the 

movement causes the observer to empathize or “feel into” the dance 

and thus perceive its import. 18 

Drawing on her experience as a dance viewer and philosopher of art, Susanne 

Langer wrote in the 1950s that: 

In watching a dance, you do not see what is physically before you— 

people running or twisting their bodies; what you see is a display of 

interacting forces, by which the dance seems to be lifted, driven, drawn, 

closed, or attenuated, whether it be solo or choric, whirling like the end 

of a dervish dance, or slow, centered, and single in motion. . . . The 

forces we seem to perceive most directly and convincingly are created 

for our perception; and they exist only for it. 19 

4 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Descriptions of Dance Dynamics in various contexts 

Within their mode of description, dance critics, historians, theorists, and filmmakers 

frequently depict movement qualities, for example: (Emphases are the 

author’s.) 

[Sara] Rudner likes to play off opposites against each other. One is the 

disparity between an inward, nonspecific focus and an outward, alert 

riveting of her attention. We see it in the first dance as she oscillates gently 

inside her body, feeling a flow, 

nothing more, then suddenly straightens 

and looks to the side as if an alien noise had surprised her. (Marcia 

B. Siegel, The Tail of the Dragon, New Dance, 1976–1982. Durham, 

NC: Duke University Press, 1991. 17.) 

[Blondell] Cummings’ performing presence is intensified by her quick 

hand gestures and split-second changes of facial expression that contrast 

dramatically with her slower, more fluid 

shifts of weight. ( Ann Cooper 

Albright, “Auto-Body Stories: Blondell Cummings and Autobiography 

in Dance.” Meaning in Motion, J. Desmond ed. Durham, NC: Duke 

University Press, 1997. 191.) 

As the dancers attempt to extend the duet encounter, movement phrases 

lengthen and the quality of movement extends beyond passive free 

falling. At times, dancers control the movement in order to guide the 

momentum of an encounter or keep it going. They also direct their 

movement with intentional strength or lightness in order to guide a 

fall. (Cynthia Novack, Sharing the Dance: Contact Improvisation and 

American Culture. Madison, WI: University of Madison Press, 1990. 

66.) 

She [Meredith Monk] poses sharply, 

rooted in a wide stance: one outstretched 

arm points up, and her face is startled, startling. Then care- 

fully, 

she removes her wig, jumps off the platform, and moves to the 

middle phase of her life/dance. (Leslie Satin, “Being Danced Again: 

Meredith Monk, Reclaiming the Girlchild.” Moving Words: Re-writing 

Dance. New York: Routledge, 1996. 134.) 

Slowly the man touches the woman beside him, . . . the restless thrash- 

ing body before them suddenly seeming to communicate as anguish 

that complements their drowsy affection. (Jennifer Dunning, “Images of 

Light and Dark Connect East to West.” Review of Akram Khan’s Kaash. 

The New York Times, Oct. 18, 2003.) 

INTRODUCTION / 5

An admirable and fairly unique quality of Dan Wagoner is his weight. . 

. . in the way his movements are weighted. It looks as if he were press- 

ing against heavy water rather than air. The effect is quite different from 

the kind of dancing that gives the illusion of flitting 

or 

floating. The 

viewer is involved in seeing the energy that pressed into the floor or lifts 

out of it. This is a quality of his that shows consistently, whether he is 

moving slowly or quickly, in the air or on all fours. You see this and are 

glad that gravity can be a dancer’s partner. (Paul Taylor, “Down with 

Choreography.” The Modern Dance: Seven Statements of Belief. S. J. 

Cohen ed. Middletown, CN: Wesleyan University Press, 1966. 92.) 

Movement qualities are the result of personality, of height and weight, 

of involuntary mannerisms, or rehearsed efforts, of musical response, 

of the whole body, or of only isolated parts, and on and on. So much 

goes into the making of the qualities that define the particular artwork 

that is the dance itself. One must see and think a good deal to see subtle 

movement qualities. (Gerald Myers, “Do You See What the Critic Sees?” 

Philosophical Essays on Dance, 1981. 48.) 

Meaning [in film] is conveyed—or should be—by the quality of what is 

seen rather than by what is said. The more attention is paid to stylizing 

the screen, to making the quality of how it looks convey the meaning, 

the closer you get to dance, which is precisely that—the communication 

of meaning through the quality of movement. (Maya Deren, quoted by 

Leslie Satin in “Movement and the Body in Maya Deren’s Meshes of the 

Afternoon.” Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory, vol. 

6, no. 2, 1993. 41.) 

As the eight performers come and go, thrashing 

or 

worming 

into move- 

ment, heads cock, hips and elbows jut, backs sway, shoulders roll 

and 

hike, knees collapse, feet strike out 

into space . . . either simultaneously 

or in rapid succession, as if the dancers were trying to direct 

their body 

parts toward various directions in space. (Deborah Jowitt, “How Many 

Ways To Twist It?” Review of “The Room as it Was,” performed by 

the Ballett Frankfurt, choreographed by William Forsythe. The Village 

Voice, October 8–14, 2003.) 

Assignment 

Pay attention to descriptions of dance qualities in dance books, journals, and 

newspaper articles. Sample the descriptions that you find helpful in visualizing 

the dance. 

6 / DANCE DYNAMICS

RUDOLF LABAN’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FIELD OF MOVEMENT AND DANCE 

Who was Laban? 

Rudolf Laban’s (1879–1958) multiple experiences as artist-designer, dancer, 

choreographer, director, teacher, work-study adviser, and remedial consultant, 

provided a foundation for the formulation of his theoretical framework. 

Laban’s acquaintance with the heritage of dance and traditional thinking on 

one hand, and his exploration of anatomy, psychology, and crystallography on 

the other, significantly contributed to the forming of his theories. Contrary to 

traditional approaches to the study of dance, such as learning steps and movement 

sequences, Laban believed that in order to gain a mindful approach to 

movement and dance, their underlying principles must be understood. His view 

of modern dance as human expression connected with universal forms of movement 

brought him to seek movement elements as common denominators of all 

types of movement—in everyday life, work, and the performing arts. 

His major contributions 

Three major systems of movement and dance classification constitute Laban’s 

theoretical framework: 

(i) 

(ii) 

(iii) 

A comprehensive movement analysis and description that also underlies 

his system of notation—Kinetography Laban or Labanotation 20 

The theory of spatial relationships of movement and dance referred to 

as Space Harmony or Choreutics 21 

The theory dealing with the dynamic structure of movement known as 

Eukinetics and Effort 22 

Laban’s fundamental view of the unity of all movement components is apparent 

in his concept of a general movement harmony; it considers the affinities 

between the movement’s energy or Effort and its placement or unfolding in 

space. 23 This concept was later developed into the “Effort/Shape” methodology 

of movement observation and training in the U.S.A. 24 

INTRODUCTION / 7

Notes for Introduction 

1. Valerie Preston-Dunlop, compiler, Dance Words (Choreography and Dance Studies, 

Vol. 8, 1995). 

2. Preston-Dunlop, Dance Words, 268–273. 

3. Ana Maletic, Pokret i Ples (Zagreb: Kulturno-prosvjetni sabor Hrvatske, 1983) 45. 

4. Sal Murgiyanto, , “Seeing and Writing about World Dance: An Insider’s View,” in 

Dance Critic’s Association News (Summer 1990) 7. 

5. Si-Hyun Yoo, Young-Sook Han’s Salpuri Chum: Labanotation and Stylistic Analysis of 

a Traditional Korean Dance (Master’s thesis, The Ohio State University, 1995). 

6. Sally Ann Ness, Body, Movement, and Culture: Kinesthetic and Visual Symbolism in a 

Philippine Community (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992) 

222–224. 

7. Ana Maletic, Knjiga o Plesu (Zagreb: Kulturno-prosvjetni sabor Hrvatske, 1986) 316. 

8. Edward Luna, from Master’s thesis in progress (The Ohio State University, 2004–05). 

9. Rudolf Laban, Choreutics (London: Macdonald & Evans, 1966) 30. 

10. Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance 

Dance and Other Contexts (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1996) 158-59. 

11. See, for example, the definition of the adjective “hip”( or “hep”) in the Fourth Edition of 

The American Heritage Dictionary (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000), which 

refers to a the Wolof (Senegal) word hipi, or hepi, meaning “to open one’s eyes, be aware.” 

12. Jean-Georges Noverre, Letters on Dancing and Ballets, transl. C. W. Beaumont 

(London: Beaumont, 1951, first published 1930). 

13. Genevieve Stebbins, Delstarte System of Expression (New York: Dance Horizons, 

1977, originally published in 1902), and Ted Shawn, Every Little Movement 

(Pittsfield, MA: Eagle Printing and Binding Co., 1954, first published in 1910). 

14. Isadora Duncan, My Life (New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 1927) 75. 

15. Selma Jeanne Cohen, “Dance as an Art of Imitation,” in What is Dance? Roger 

Copeland & Marshall Cohen, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983) 19. 

16. Margaret H’Doubler, Dance: A Creative Art Experience (Madison, WI: University of 

Wisconsin Press, 1966) 79. 

17. Doris Humphrey, The Art of Making Dances (New York: Grove Press, 1959) 102. 

18. Alma Hawkins, Creating through Dance (Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice Hall, 1964) 

34–35. 

19. Susanne K. Langer, Problems of Art (New York: Scribner’s, 1957) 5. 

20. Rudolf Laban, Principles of Dance and Movement Notation (London: Macdonald & 

Evans, 1956). 

21. _________. Choreutics (London: Macdonald & Evans, 1966). 

22. _________. & F. C. Lawrence, Effort (London: Macdonald & Evans, 1947). 

23. _________. Choreutics, 31–36. 

24. Vera Maletic, Body-Space-Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s Movement 

and Dance Concepts (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987) 78. 

8 / DANCE DYNAMICS

P A R T A / 

T H E E F F O R T T H E O R Y 

INTRODUCTION 

Sources for theory 

The concept of Effort and its theory is presented in several of Laban’s English 

books. 1 

The first one, Effort, published in 1947, was an outcome of Laban’s 

collaboration with F. C. Lawrence, a management consultant in industry; 

Lawrence had invited Laban to record industrial processes and to assist with 

work-study. While this first book focuses on Effort in work and industry, the 

1948 book Modern Educational Dance proposes a new dance education or a 

“free dance technique,” based on the practice of Effort sequences. The 1950 

book The Mastery of Movement on the Stage, and its subsequent editions as 

The Mastery of Movement (1960, 1970, 1980), elaborate on Effort expression 

in mime, acting, and dance. 

Development of theory 

Laban’s first investigations into the dynamic structure of movement focused 

on expressive qualities in dance. In the ‘20s and ‘30s he referred to this area as 

Eukinetics (Eu, “good” and Kinesis, “movement”), and defined it as exploring 

“good movement” in terms of harmonic principles in dance. 2 

As a complement 

to Eukinetics, in the ‘40s, Laban developed the Effort theory that considers the 

various qualities of mind-body movement involved in human exertion in general. 

Laban’s term Effort differs from its common usage of denoting activity that 

requires substantial expenditure of energy. 

The concept of Effort 

Laban sees Effort as the inner impulse—a movement sensation, a thought, 

a feeling or emotion—from which movement originates; it constitutes the 

interface between mental and physical components of movement. This inner 

impulse or motivation is expressed by way of Motion Factors. Accordingly, 

every human movement, including thought, has the potential to engage the Four 

Motion Factors—Space, Weight, Time, and Flow. 

The particular emphasis on, 

or selections from, these factors make up what Laban calls the characteristic 

Effort patterns of a person (or an actor’s and dancer’s role). 

THE EFFORT THEORY / 9

More specifically the Effort patterns result from bi-polar inner attitudes of 

accepting, yielding to the physical conditions influencing movement or resisting, 

fighting against them. The moving person’s attitudes of accepting or resisting 

the four Motion Factors result in bi-polar Effort qualities* or Effort Elements 

of: SPACE—indirect or flexible, and direct; WEIGHT—light, and strong; 

TIME—sustained, and sudden, and FLOW—free, and bound. The attitudes 

of accepting or resisting may not always be voluntarily exercised but can also 

occur unconsciously and automatically. 

*The term Effort qualities is used to denote single or combined Effort element. 

MOTION FACTORS 

EFFORT ELEMENTS 

accepting 

resisting 

Space INDIRECT or FLEXIBLE DIRECT 

Weight LIGHT STRONG 

Time SUSTAINED SUDDEN 

Flow FREE BOUND 

Laban further associates four phases of the mover’s inner participation with the 

Motion Factors as follows: Attention is associated with Space, Intention with 

Weight, Decision with Time, 3 and Progression 4 with Flow. 

In addition, Laban also associates the emphasis on Space with a person’s power 

of Thinking, Weight with Sensing, Time with Intuiting, and Flow with Feeling. 5 

Since these powers loosely correspond to C. G. Jung’s theory of function types, 

there are frequent references to Jungian influences on Laban [See Appendix II 

for further discussion]. 

MOTION FACTORS 

INNER PARTICIPATION 

with phases of 

"Powers of" 

Space ATTENTION THINKING 

Weight INTENTION SENSING 

Time DECISION INTUITING 

Flow PROGRESSION FEELING 

10 / DANCE DYNAMICS

How do all these strands relate to the performance and observation of Effort 

qualities? 

Movement with emphasis on the Motion factor of SPACE is associated with 

the cognitive capacity or power of Thinking, and can bring about Attention to 

direct channeling of the focus of movement or give it a multi-focused, indirect 

quality. This may be manifested as clarity of thought and/or performance. 

Movement with greater emphasis on the Motion Factor of WEIGHT is associated 

with Sensing and can bring about strong or light Intention. This may show 

in the context of mental work, and/or in a display of strength or delicacy in 

performance. 

Movement that shows predominance of the Motion Factor of TIME may indicate 

an Intuitive readiness for Decision making, either suddenly or with sustainment. 

This may manifest itself in thinking, and/or showing a good sense of 

rhythm in performance. 

The emphasis on the Motion factor of FLOW is related to feeling that can 

bind or free its Progression. This can show as holding back or being outgoing 

in communication, and/or as performing great nuances in the progression of 

movement or dance. 

The concept of the Effort Graph 

The innumerable variety of the moving person’s situations or actions, creates 

a range of dynamic qualities of movement. It arises from the choices between 

either an accepting, yielding attitude, or resisting, fighting against attitude. 

These attitudes are also visually represented in the design of the Effort Graph, 

that facilitates the descriptive or prescriptive application of the Effort theory. 

(See FIG. 1, overleaf.) For example, while the execution of an arm gesture may 

be described as direct and bound (Space, Flow), the qualities for an efficient 

performance of a long leap forward may be described as direct, sudden and free 

(Space, Time, Flow). 

THE EFFORT THEORY / 11

F I G . 1 : T H E E F F O R T G R A P H 

ACCEPTING 

RESISTING 

M O T I O N F A C T O R S 

E F F O R T E L E M E N T S 

Space 

INDIRECT 

OR FLEXIBLE 

DIRECT 

Weight 

LIGHT 

STRONG 

Time 

SUSTAINED 

SUDDEN 

Flow 

FREE 

BOUND 

12 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Predominant variations within ONE MOTION FACTOR 

In considering Laban’s Effort theory one has to keep in mind that the dynamic 

structure or quality of a particular movement gains its full significance or meaning 

only when it is related to what precedes and what follows. In other words, 

one has to view it within a movement sequence or a context of phrasing. This 

also points to the fact that most frequently qualities are present only for a 

moment before they transform. 

One movement quality seldom appears in isolation. A predominance of variations 

within one Motion Factor may, however, indicate a particular preference. 

Thus for study purposes we will consider each Motion Factor and the contrasting 

Effort Elements* separately, including clarification of: 

(a) 

The significance of those instances where the predominance of one 

Motion Factor is observed; descriptions of characteristics of the Effort 

elements 

(b) 

Quantitative and qualitative aspects of Effort qualities* 

(c) 

Suggested ways of engaging the body to facilitate and enhance the 

performance of Effort qualities 

(d) 

Affinities between Effort elements and spatial areas 

(e) 

Observations of Effort qualities in self and others (noting that qualities 

can be experienced as thought or movement actions) 

(f) 

Examples of instances where one quality changes to its opposite (in 

recognition of the momentary value of these) 

*In this description terms Effort elements, Effort qualities, and qualities are 

used interchangeably. 

ONE MOTION FACTOR / 13

S P A C E 

(a) The emphasis on attitudes toward Space can be associated with the cognitive 

capacities of orienting, attending, and organizing. The inner participation or 

faculty of “Attention” can give movement a multi-focused, indirect, or flexible 

quality; or channel the focus of movement into a direct, pinpointing quality. Its 

mastery can give clarity to dance execution, including the dancer’s alignment 

and his/her relation to the environment. 

The two Effort elements of the Motion Factor Space are: 

INDIRECT or FLEXIBLE 

accepting the 3-dimensionality of space 

MANIFESTED AS 

· encompassing 

· multi-focused 

· with all-round attention 

DIRECT 

resisting the plasticity of space 

MANIFESTED AS 

· narrowing down 

· focused 

· pinpointing 

YOUR DESCRIPTIONS 

(b) A distinction from the measurable, quantitative aspects of space, i.e. shape and 

size should be kept in mind: 


is not the same as wavy, curved, twisted 

design, but does coincide with a plastic, 

three-dimensional movement 

DIRECT 

does not mean a straight line, but does 

coincide with linear, one-dimensional 

movement 

(c) Ways of engaging the body can enhance the performance of 


shows a tendency toward a combination 

of twisting, bending-extending actions 

of several parts of the body (Body flow* 

tends to be more successive, sequential) 

DIRECT 

shows a tendency toward aligning the 

joints and performing bending and 

extending actions (Body flow* is more 

likely to be simultaneous) 

14 / DANCE DYNAMICS 

*Body flow refers to sequencing the movement either in a successive, sequential way, where one body 

part moves after the other, or in a simultaneous way, where several parts move at the same time.

(d) Affinities with areas in space: 


open movements into the unrestricted 

areas of the sides of the body 

DIRECT 

movements across the body as creating 

an obstacle to the three-dimensional use 

of space 


(e) Description of bi-polar qualities as observed in self and others: 


INSTRUCTOR’S EXAMPLES 

· I am alert to many points of view. 

· Jane is an alert person. 

· I am performing a spiral fall. 

· The Spinning of the Dervishes is 

three-dimensional. 

DIRECT 


· I am zeroing in and pursuing the 

problem. 

· He is really concentrating. 

· I am moving through the space. 

· Her arabesque is clearly designed. 

[Note that examples include qualities experienced as thought or movement actions.] 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

(f) Examples of instances where one quality of Space changes to its opposite: 


· From an all-round awareness of the classroom to spotting a particular student. 

· From a spiral fall into an elongated body shape on the floor. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 


W E I G H T 

(a) The predominance of Weight qualities may indicate sensing or sensibility for 

assuming light or firm “Intention” towards an action, ranging from lighthearted 

to assertive. By monitoring various muscular tensions, the dancer can display 

strength or delicacy in performance. 

The two Effort elements of the Motion Factor Weight are: 

LIGHT 

accepting or adjusting to gravity 

MANIFESTED AS 

· fine touch 

· delicate 

· sensitive 

STRONG 

resisting the pull of gravity 

MANIFESTED AS 

· firm 

· solid 

· forceful 


(b) The measurable, quantitative aspects like light/weak and heavy, in terms of how 

much you weigh, or exert energy, differ from qualities of weight, although the 

quantitative aspects influence them: 

LIGHT 

is not the same as lighter weight or a 

weaker, passive attitude, but is adjusting 

to a lesser pull of gravity 

STRONG 

is not heavy weight, but deals with 

greater resistance to the pull of gravity 

(c) Ways of engaging the body can enhance the performance of opposite qualities: 

LIGHT 

shows a tendency toward lesser muscular 

tension, engaging the “center of 

levity,” chest, upper body; movements 

further extended; inhalation; peripheral 

transitions 

STRONG 

shows a tendency toward muscular 

tension, participation of the center of 

weight, pelvic area, lower body support; 

movement closer to body, more contracted; 

exhalation; central transitions 

16 / DANCE DYNAMICS


LIGHT/FINE TOUCH 

upwards directed 

STRONG/FIRM 

downwards directed 

(e) Observations of opposite qualities in self and others: 

LIGHT/FINE TOUCH 


· I feel airborne. 

· Jeff is handling this delicately. 

· I am gently touching a kitten. 

· The group gracefully performs a 

sequence of ballet port-des-bras. 

STRONG/FIRM 


· I feel grounded. 

· Pam intends to stick to her argument. 

· I am gripping the wild dog. 

· Ron warms up with push-ups. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 

(f) Examples of instances where one quality of Weight changes to its opposite: 

INSTRUCTOR'S EXAMPLES 

· Take care darling—and give up smoking! 

· Push the piano and gently pluck one cord. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 


T I M E 

(a) A great frequency of Time qualities may indicate an intuitive readiness for 

“Decision” making, either in a sustained manner or suddenly. Its mastery gives 

a calm or alert approach to thought or movement actions. 

The two Effort elements of the Motion Factor Time are: 

SUSTAINED 

accepting the ongoingness of time 

MANIFESTED AS 

· calm or calming 

· prolonged 

· lingering 

SUDDEN 

resisting the duration of time 

MANIFESTED AS 

· excited or excitable 

· immediate 

· unexpected 


(b) A distinction from the measurable aspects of time, i.e., fast and slow in relation 

to clock or metronome time should be kept in mind: 

SUSTAINED 

does not mean slow, but may coincide 

with slow tempo of movement 

SUDDEN 

does not mean fast, but may coincide 

with fast tempo 

(c) Ways of engaging the body can enhance the performance of: 

SUSTAINED 

shows a tendency toward large, total 

body movements; expanded movements 

SUDDEN 

shows a tendency toward isolated 

gestures; smaller movements 

18 / DANCE DYNAMICS


SUSTAINED 

movements forward and outward 

SUDDEN 

movements backward and inward 


SUSTAINED 


· There is a whole eternity. 

· Ann is taking her time. 

· I am leisurely stretching. 

· The introductory dance is stately. 

SUDDEN 


· Now is the moment. 

· Ron feels rushed. 

· Jim’s tabla playing is speedy. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 

(f) Examples of instances where one quality of Time changes to its opposite: 

INSTRUCTOR'S EXAMPLES 

· Being calm and unexpectedly being startled. 

· Performing a developpé followed by a series of frappes. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 


F L O W 

(a) The emphasis on Flow can be associated with the emergence of feelings that, 

depending on the interaction with self or others, free or bind the continuity of 

movement and give either a controlled and careful or exuberant and outgoing 

“Progression.” 

The two Effort elements of the Motion Factor Flow are: 

FREE 

accepting the continuity of movement 

MANIFESTED AS 

· easy, carried by 

· outgoing 

· fluent 

BOUND 

resisting the flux of movement 

MANIFESTED AS 

· controlled 

· inward pulling, restrained 

· withheld 


(b) A distinction from the quantitative aspects of flow, i.e., continuity or stop 

should be kept in mind: 

FREE 

is not the same as mechanical continuity 

but displays a tendency toward it 

BOUND 

does not necessarily stop the movement 

but manifests a tendency for stopping 

(c) Ways of engaging the body can enhance the performance of: 

FREE 

running, turning, jumping; swinging; 

off-balance; initiation from the torso 

and spreading out to the extremities; 

successive flow; total body movements 

BOUND 

balancing on small surfaces; center of 

body held while limbs move; movements 

starting from the extremities 

towards the center of the body; 

simultaneous flow 

20 / DANCE DYNAMICS


FREE 

movements into the area towards 

open-forward (and high) 

BOUND 

movements across 

backwards (and low) 


FREE 


· I feel with it, enthusiastic. 

· Mary is finally communicating. 

· Running and whirling is refreshing. 

· Tom enjoys diving. 

· Karl balances with command. 

BOUND 


· I feel ambivalent, restrained. 

· Greg is still cut-off from his peers. 

· I hold my breath when handling 

crockery. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 

(f) Examples of instances when one quality of Flow changes to its opposite: 


· I am carefully scrutinizing a new acquaintance until I am at ease in her presence. 

· Try running toward center stage, then stopping and balancing on one leg. 


YOUR EXAMPLES 


Combinations of TWO MOTION FACTORS 

After having considered each of the four Motion Factors and their respective 

Effort Elements, we will see how the combination of two Motion Factors can 

create new qualities. These are observable in transitions between actions in 

everyday life and are frequently elaborated in dance. There are six combinations 

of two Motion Factors and Laban refers to them as “incomplete efforts” that 

are expressive of a variety of “inner attitudes.” 6 

Bartenieff prefers to identify 

them as “inner states.” 7 

Since the term “attitudes” is also used to denote attitudes 

of yielding or resisting the Motion Factors, the term States will be used 

in this text. 

While the combination of Motion Factors SPACE and TIME (of thinking and 

intuiting) and their respective Effort Elements create an alert, awake attitude, 

the opposite combinations of WEIGHT and FLOW (of sensing and feeling) are 

more dreamlike, unaware. Laban refers to the former combination as giving 

information about “where” (S) and “when” (T), and the latter about “what” 

(W) and “how” (F). 

Whereas the combinations of SPACE and FLOW Elements (of thinking and 

feeling) give a more abstract, remote mood, their opposites, the combinations 

of WEIGHT and TIME Elements (of sensing and intuiting) create a rhythmical, 

earthy, near attitude. The first combination indicates “where” (S) and “how” 

(F), and the contrasting one “what” (W) and “when”(T). 

As the combinations of SPACE and WEIGHT (thinking and sensing) are likely to 

produce a stable, steadfast attitude, their opposite combinations of TIME and 

FLOW (intuiting and feeling) can create a mobile, adaptable attitude. The first 

combination gives information about “where” (S) and “what” (W), and the 

contrasting one about “when” (T) and “how” (F). 

Each of the six combinations has a potential for four variations. For example 

the combination of WEIGHT and TIME includes: 

LIGHT / SUSTAINED | STRONG / SUDDEN | STRONG / SUSTAINED | LIGHT / SUDDEN 

There are thus twenty-four distinct qualities within this range. 

TWO MOTION FACTORS / 23

S P A C E A N D T I M E / “ T H E AWA K E S T A T E ” 

The four variables resulting from the combinations of Space/Time (of thinking 

and intuiting) produce alert, aware, awake attitudes and actions, such as are 

seen in Merce Cunningham’s work in the 1950s and ‘60s. Here the information 

about “where” and “when” is particularly evocative. 

Laban approximates this inner attitude as “awake” in that awareness arises 

suddenly or gradually and may be concentrated or embracing. 8 

M E N T A L A C T I O N 

M O V E M E N T A C T I O N 

DIRECT / SUDDEN 

(1) pinpointing 

darting gesture 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

DIRECT / SUSTAINED 

(2) prolonged focusing 

slow linear path 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

INDIRECT / SUDDEN 

(3) instantly adjusting to 

twirl 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

all facets 

INDIRECT / SUSTAINED 

(4) all-round lingering 

slow turning and twisting 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

consideration 

24 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The four S/T variables can be observed in various sequences, such as: 

Here is a brief narrative for a scene of searching: 

Where is it? Here? There? 

E v e r y w h e r e A quick glance around, 

and another, here it is! I s l o w l y approach it . . . 

Perform the scene with clear focus and shaping in gesture, turning, locomotion; 

in addition small, isolated and large, total body movement may enhance the 

time variables. 

Read and perform the following sequence that includes the S/T variables: 

Notice if your performance brought about any movement actions you described 

on the previous page. 


W E I G H T A N D F L O W / “ T H E D R E A M L I K E S T A T E ” 

The four variables resulting from the combinations of Weight–Flow (of sensing 

and feeling) bring about a less conscious, almost dream-like attitudes and 

actions; some Contact Improvisation sequences at times assume such attitudes. 

Laban approximates this combination as “dreamlike” since the lack of awareness 

may be bold or diffuse and exalted or gloomy. 9 



STRONG / BOUND 

(1) forced restriction 

supporting a heavy slippery 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

partner 

LIGHT / BOUND 

(2) slight apprehension 

delicately balancing 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

STRONG / FREE 

(3) powerful outgoing 

swinging 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

LIGHT / FREE 

(4) delicate ease 

suspension 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

26 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The four W/F variables can be observed in various sequences, such as: 

Here is a brief narrative for a scene about a nightmare: 

I am hovering on a brittle cliff; 

I fall into the water and emerge out of it; gradually I start enjoying a 

light breeze but then I fall into a quicksand patch and struggle to get 

out. 

Perform the scene with suspension, falling and rolling, swings, and pulling 

inward. 

Read and perform the following sequence that includes the W/F variables: 




S P A C E A N D F L O W / “ T H E R E M O T E S T A T E ” 

The combination of Space–Flow elements (associated with attention and progression 

as well as the “powers” of thinking and feeling), bring about almost 

airborne, more abstract attitudes and actions. These may be associated with the 

image of dancers in the period of the Romantic Ballet. 

Laban approximates this inner attitude as “remote” in which detachment “may 

include focus on self, together with restraint or abandon.” 10 



DIRECT–BOUND 

(1) restricted honing in 

strict linear shaping 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

DIRECT–FREE 

(2) straightforwardly 

projecting a linear move- 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

streaming 

ment into far distance 

INDIRECT–BOUND 

(3) careful survey 

three-dimensional move- 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

ment with control 

INDIRECT–FREE 

(4) released dissemination 

turning outward 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

28 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The four S/F variables can be observed in various sequences, such as: 

Here is a brief narrative for a scene: 

In a scene from Giselle Albrecht is carefully looking for her; 

seeing Giselle’s specter his heart goes all out to her and he turns 

around in joy. But where has she disappeared? He searches again. . . 

Perform the scene using predominantly torso, arm and leg gestures, balancing 

and getting off-balance that leads into locomotion. 

Read and perform the following sequence that includes the S/F variables: 




W E I G H T A N D T I M E / “ T H E N E A R S T A T E ” 

Rhythm in movement and dance consists of groupings of accents (Weight) and 

duration (Time). The four variables resulting from the combination of Weight– 

Time (of sensing and intuiting) thus create predominately rhythmical, down to 

earth, engaged attitudes and activities, such as in Flamenco and Tap dancing. 

Laban approximates this inner attitude as “near” in which a presence may have 

a sudden impact or sustained consideration, or it may express strong attachment 

or superficial touch. 11 



STRONG / SUDDEN 

(1) emphatic assertion 

stomp 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

LIGHT / SUDDEN 

(2) delicate nod 

touch 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

STRONG / SUSTAINED 

(3) enduring power 

drag 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

LIGHT / SUSTAINED 

(4) persisting subtleness 

slide 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

30 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The four W/T variables can be observed in various sequences, such as: 

Explore one of the suggested sequences: 

A sequence of tap dance in the style of Savion Glover 

OR 

If you are more familiar with Spanish Flamenco dancing “orchestrate” 

your feet with a variety of stomps and touches 

Read and perform the following sequence that includes the four combinations 

of W/T: 




S P A C E A N D W E I G H T / “ T H E S T A B L E S T A T E ” 

The four variables resulting from the combinations of Space–Weight (of thinking 

and sensing) produce persevering, well-defined, more stable attitudes and 

activities. Examples may be found in gymnastics, “pedestrian” activities, and 

some court dances from the Renaissance. 

Laban approximates this combination as “stable” in which steadfastness can be 

resolute or receptive, as well as solid and encompassing or delicately pinpointing. 

12 



DIRECT / STRONG 

(1) convergent firmness 

strong clear-cut locomotion 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

DIRECT / LIGHT 

(2) delicate focusing 

tracing fine lines 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

INDIRECT / STRONG 

(3) strong all-round 

strong twisting 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

scrutinizing 

INDIRECT / LIGHT 

(4) delicate all-round 

delicate spiraling 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

scanning 

32 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The four S/W variables can be observed in various sequences, such as: 

Explore steps and shoulder-arm patterns in the style of a courtly processional 

dance from the time of the Renaissance, such as the Pavane: 

Advancing with two low steps, then two high transferences of weight 

is followed by a retreat consisting of two small steps and closes. This 

alternates with shoulder-arm gestures, displaying a splendid pelerine 

and showing off the dagger, that are performed without locomotion. 

This motif is repeated with variations of your own design. 

Perform the sequence with predominantly downward and upward as well as 

narrowing and widening movements. 

Read and perform the following sequence that includes the four combinations 

of S/W: 

Notice if your performance brought about any movement actions you 

described on the previous page. 


T I M E A N D F L O W / “ T H E M O B I L E S T A T E ” 

The four variables resulting from the combinations of Time–Flow (of intuiting 

and feeling) create changeable, more mobile, at times agitated attitudes and 

activities. They may appear in dramatic movement and dance scenes. 

Laban approximates this combinations as “mobile” in that one’s adaptability 

may be sticky or easy, and abruptly changing or slow forthcoming. 13 



SUDDEN / BOUND 

(1) startled 

jerk 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

SUSTAINED / BOUND 

(2) sustained control 

stalking 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

SUDDEN / FREE 

(3) pleasant surprise 

fluttering gesture (when 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

repeated) 

SUSTAINED / FREE 

(4) unhurried ease 

calm advancing 

YOUR EXAMPLES 

34 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The four T–F variables can be observed in various sequences, such as: 

Improvise the scene below: 

Are we going to catch our flight? On a crowded airport we are jerked 

several times toward the departing gate—trying to prevent falling we 

continue to advance cautiously. Suddenly there is an announcement 

about the plane’s delay. What a relief! Now we can take our time leisurely 

and even enjoy the forthcoming rush of checking in. 

Perform the scene by alternating movement that pulls inwards with agitation 

and control, and streams outward with ease and excitement; also include 

moments of withholding balance in contrast to nearly falling off-balance. 

Read and perform the following sequence that includes the four T/F variables: 




Recommended reading about Combinations of Two Motion Factors: 

WEIGHT AND TIME 

Laban, Rudolf. The Mastery of Movement (1980 edition) 78–79. 

North, Marion. Personality Assessment Through Movement (Macdonald & Evans, 1972) 

252. 

Preston-Dunlop, Valerie. A Handbook for Dance in Education (London: Macdonald & 

Evans, 1980) 15–16; 9 b. 

Bartenieff, Irmgard. Body Movement: Coping with the Environment 

(New York: 

Gordon & Breach, 1980) 59–60. 

SPACE AND FLOW 

Laban 78–79. 

North 252–253. 

Preston-Dunlop 35–37; 194. 

Bartenieff 59–60. 

WEIGHT AND FLOW 

Laban 78–79. 

North 249–251. 

Preston-Dunlop 35–36; 194–195. 


TIME AND FLOW 

Laban 78–79. 

North 254. 

Preston-Dunlop 35; 195. 


SPACE AND WEIGHT 

Laban 78–79. 

North 253. 

Preston-Dunlop 36; 195. 


SPACE AND TIME 

Laban 78–79. 

North 251. 

Preston-Dunlop 36–37; 194. 


36 / DANCE DYNAMICS

EFFORT / SPACE (SHAPE) Affinities 

Before elaborating on the variables of Combinations of three Motion factors, 

Laban’s concept of affinities between the dynamic qualities or Effort and its 

spatial unfolding are considered. The concept has already been hinted at in the 

description of affinities of Space, Weight, Time, and Flow elements with the 

areas in space around the body. 

Laban found close correlation between Effort elements and the six dimensional 

directions. These were based on his observation that a light movement has an 

upward tendency, and a strong movement aims downward; a straight, direct 

movement correlates with movement across the body, while a roundabout, 

flexible or indirect movement is correlated with an opening outwards; a sudden 

movement tends toward a backward direction, and a slow, sustained one reaches 

forward. Elaborating compounds of these, Laban arrived at the eight variables 

of the Action Drive or the “eight basic Effort actions,” which correspond with 

the eight Diagonal directions. Accordingly, a light/indirect/sustained movement 

is associated with the high-open-forward diagonal, and a strong/direct/sudden 

one with the down-across-back diagonal, etc. 14 

A helpful visualization of the above can be seen in FIG. 2 (p. 38, overleaf) representing 

the “Effort cube” with directional and Effort symbols. 

EFFORT-SPACE AFFINITIES / 37

F I G . 2 : T H E E F F O R T C U B E 

(a) Along the edge transitions 

(b) Across the planes transitions 

(c) Diagonal transitions 

38 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The scaffolding of the cube also presents a device for the exploration of transitions 

among the eight basic Effort actions: 

(a) 

over the edge transitions, indicated by the solid line, create sequences 

with changes of one element, such as: 

or 

YOUR EXAMPLE of another transition over the edges: 

(b) 

across the planes or faces of the cube transitions, indicated by the arrows, 

create sequences with changes of two elements, such as: 

or 

YOUR EXAMPLE of another transition across two planes or faces: 

(c) 

the diagonal transitions through the cube, indicated by arrows, can 

embody contrasting transitions, such as: 

or 

YOUR EXAMPLES of two other transitions through the cube: 

EFFORT-SPACE AFFINITIES / 39

Laban’s concept of affinities was the point of departure for Warren Lamb’s elaboration 

of Effort and Shape relationships. Initially Laban’s student and assistant 

in developing the Laban-Lawrence Effort assessment test for work study 

purposes, Lamb evolved his own methodology. In Posture and Gesture Lamb 

presents his scheme for observation and analysis of physical behavior in which 

the emphasis is placed on degrees of affinity between Shape and Effort variations, 

including his elaboration of “shape flow” in addition to “effort flow.” 15 

The observation of actions such as “posture,” “gesture,” and their “merging” 

is also a significant variable. 16 

In the 1960s Lamb’s Effort-Shape construct 

contributed to the forming of Laban-Lamb-based methodologies in the U.S.A. 

promoted by Irmgard Bartenieff and Dr. Judith Kestenberg. While Bartenieff 

developed Effort/Shape with reference to research and teaching, 17 

Kestenberg 

expanded some of its concepts in context of Freudian developmental phases and 

observations of infants. 18 

40 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Combinations of THREE MOTION FACTORS 

The combinations of three Motion Factors and their respective Effort Elements 

bring about a more intense movement expression that Laban refers to as 

drives. Taking the “Action Drive” as the point of departure, Laban identified 

three additional drives in which Flow replaces the other three Motion Factors. 

He gave them metaphorical names, such as “Passion Drive” (Flow replacing 

Space), “Vision Drive” (Flow replacing Weight), and “Spell Drive” (Flow 

replacing Time), 19 and also labeled them as Transformation I–III. 20 Marion 

North elaborates on them in the context of personality assessment and refers to 

the spaceless drive as an emotional stressed drive; timeless as a spell-like drive, 

and, weightless as a visionary drive. 21 

Bartenieff subsequently describes them 

as “transformation drives” and names them simply “spaceless,” “weightless,” 

and “timeless” 22 

The ACTION DRIVE combines Effort elements of Space, Weight, and Time 

(thinking, sensing, and intuiting), while Flow (feeling) remains latent. The eight 

possible combinations of the above elements are also described as “basic Effort 

actions” of thrusting, floating, pressing, flicking, gliding, slashing, dabbing, and 

wringing. 23 

The PASSION DRIVE arises when the Flow factor replaces the Space factor 

and transforms the Action drive into a more emotionally emphasized drive. It 

includes the eight possible combinations of Weight, Time, and Flow qualities 

(sensing, intuiting, and feeling) that override the clarity of Spatial placement 

and shaping (thinking). 

The VISION DRIVE emerges when the Flow factor substitutes the Weight factor 

changing the movement into a more weightless drive. It includes eight possible 

combinations of Space, Time, and Flow qualities (thinking, intuiting, and feeling) 

that override the bodily import (the sensing). 

The SPELL DRIVE appears when the Flow factor replaces Time qualities, transforming 

the movement into a timeless drive. It includes eight possible combinations 

of Space, Weight, and Flow qualities (thinking, sensing, and feeling) that 

override the sense for timing (intuiting). 

Each of the four drives has a potential for eight variables, which provides for 

thirty-two qualities in addition to twenty-four qualities of inner attitudes or 

incomplete Efforts. 

THREE MOTION FACTORS / 41

S P A C E , W E I G H T, A N D T I M E / “ACTION DRIVE” OR BASIC EFFORT ACTIONS 

Functional actions such as work, gymnastics, and dance training require clear 

spatial attending, an intentional use of weight, and a good sense for timing. In 

these cases the emotional participation resulting in bound or free Flow is not 

needed or even appropriate. 

(In this drive Laban’s question of “how” associated with Flow is in the background, 

while “where”—S, “when”—T, and “what”—W are in the foreground.) 

The combination of Space-Weight-Time elements is therefore referred to as 

“action drive” and to each of the eight variables Laban gave a work-like 

descriptive term. His first inspiration for this terminology actually came from 

traditional ways of describing basic forms of movement actions (“steps”) and 

their qualities, such as the battu, fouetté and glissé of the French ballet vocabulary, 

that corresponds to thrusting, slashing and gliding. 24 

[The Action drive, like the other three drives, can be further analyzed with 

regard to the inner attitudes that are embedded in each, such as S/W (stable), 

S/T (awake), and W/T (near) 25 ] 

42 / DANCE DYNAMICS

BASIC EFFORT ACTIONS 

DIRECT / STRONG / SUDDEN 


(1) PUNCHING/THRUSTING 

making an emphatic statement 


frappé action 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / LIGHT / SUSTAINED 

(2) FLOATING 

eventually releasing 

gently scattering 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / STRONG / SUSTAINED 

(3) PRESSING 

strongly persistent 

slow tendu 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / LIGHT / SUDDEN 

(4) FLICKING 

quickly dismissing 

toss of a hand/foot 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / LIGHT / SUSTAINED 

(5) GLIDING 

easily pursuing 

glissade 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / STRONG / SUDDEN 

(6) SLASHING 

reckless force 

whipping gesture 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / LIGHT / SUDDEN 

(7) DABBING 

pinpointing 

tap dancing 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / STRONG / SUSTAINED 

(8) WRINGING 

tortuous scrutiny 

twisting upper body against the lower 

YOUR EXAMPLE 


The eight combinations of S/W/T can be performed in sequences with changes of 

one, two and three elements both with WORK-LIKE or DANCE-LIKE actions. 

(a1) 

Perform the movement sequence of WORK-LIKE ACTIONS below using 

four of the S/W/T combinations by changing ONE element each time: 

FLOAT FLICK DAB GLIDE PRESS WRING SLASH PUNCH 

(a2) 

Create and write down another sequence in which you change one 

element. 

(b1) 

Perform the movement sequence of WORK-LIKE ACTIONS below 

using four of the S/W/T combinations by changing TWO elements each 

time: 

FLOAT PRESS DAB 

SLASH 

(b2) 

Create and write down another sequence in which you change two 

elements. 

(c1) 

Perform the movement sequence of WORK-LIKE ACTIONS below 

using all eight of the S/W/T combinations by changing THREE 

elements every time: 

FLOAT PUNCH GLIDE SLASH FLICK PRESS DAB WRING 

44 / DANCE DYNAMICS

By performing the instructor’s examples of the S/W/T combinations within an 

imaginary Effort cube around you (See Fig. 2), you can create a sequence with 

more DANCE-LIKE ACTIONS: 

(a1) 

First perform the sequence with transitions ALONG THE EDGES of the 

cube; see p. 38 Fig. 2 (a). 

(b1) 

Second, perform the eight actions with transitions ACROSS THE 

PLANES or FACES; see p. 38 Fig. 2 (b). 

(c1) 

Finally, perform the eight actions by connecting them with transitions 

DIAGONALLY through the cube; see p. 38 Fig. 2 (c). 


F L O W, W E I G H T, A N D T I M E / “PASSION DRIVE” 

There are instances in everyday life and dance when the feeling component 

overrides thinking. This may happen in various situations, such as emotional 

outbursts and in some tribal ritual dances. The “passion drive” also emerges in 

climactic moments of Spanish Flamenco dancing. In such instances clear Spatial 

attending becomes undifferentiated and the binding or freeing control of Flow 

is coupled with an intentional use of Weight and a sense of Timing. 

(In this drive Laban’s question of “where” associated with Space is in abeyance, 

while “when”—T, “what”—W, and “how”—F, are in the foreground.) 

[Further analysis of embedded inner attitudes shows combinations of W/F 

(dream-like), T/W (near), and T/F (mobile).] 

In contrast to the Action drive, no set terms have been created for the eight combinations 

of Flow/Weight/Time (feeling, sensing, and intuiting). Following are 

attempts to find descriptive words for the performance of these combinations. 

To start with the transformations of the basic Effort actions may be helpful. 29 



BOUND / STRONG / SUDDEN 

(1) (SPACELESS THRUST) 

shocked 

spasmodic contaction 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

FREE / LIGHT / SUSTAINED 

(2) (SPACELESS FLOAT) 

vague daydreaming 

drifitng 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

BOUND / STRONG / SUSTAINED 

(3) (SPACELESS WRING) 

hemmed in 

slow contraction 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

FREE / LIGHT / SUDDEN 

(4) (SPACELESS FLICK) 

quizzical 

light jerk 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

46 / DANCE DYNAMICS

FREE / STRONG / SUDDEN 

(5) (SPACELESS SLASH) 

blurting out 

wild throw 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

BOUND / LIGHT / SUSTAINED 

(6) (SPACELESS GLIDE) 

cautious hovering 

precarious balancing 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

BOUND / LIGHT / SUDDEN 

(7) (SPACELESS DAB) 

light irritation 

a gasp 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

FREE / STRONG / SUSTAINED 

(8) (SPACELESS WRING) 

menacing intent 

forceful shoving 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

The W/T/F combinations can be performed in various sequences, such as: 

Perform this study with actions you described above. 

Here is a proposed sequence that may help you explore the “Passion Drive”: 

Take the work-like action sequence (c1) from p. 44 with the change of 

all three elements. By introducing repetitions within pairs of opposites, 

and gradually replacing Space with Flow elements, transform the entire 

sequence into emotionally charged movement in which you lose any 

sense of a working-like situation. 

Feel free to repeat the entire sequence until you get a sense that you went 

through the transformation. 


S P A C E , T I M E , A N D F L O W / “VISION DRIVE” 

In this combination the feeling component manifest in the Flow of movement 

overrides the bodily sensing that becomes undifferentiated. The physicality of 

strong and light tension is transcended by the binding and freeing control of 

Flow and coupled with a clear Spatial attending, along with a good sense of 

Timing. One may suggest that Merce Cunningham’s style of the 1960s predominantly 

uses a selection of Space (mostly direct), Flow (mostly bound), and Time 

(both polarities) combinations. 

[Here further analysis regarding inner attitudes embedded in the drive will show 

that the gist of the Cunningham style has already been identified in the S/T 

(awake) combination; the additional S/F (remote), and ballet-like T/F (mobile), 

give a more complete account of the dynamic texture of his style.] 

(It is also helpful to remember Laban’s reference to Flow with the question 

“how,” Space “where,” and Time “when.”) 



DIRECT / SUDDEN / BOUND 

(1) (WEIGHTLESS THRUST) 

taken aback 

precise, fast lunge 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / SUSTAINED / FREE 

(2) (WEIGHTLESS FLOAT) 

indulging in fantasies 

slowly stirring water 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / SUSTAINED / BOUND 

(3) (WEIGHTLESS PRESS) 

persistently precise 

drawing a smooth line 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / SUDDEN / FREE 

(4) (WEIGHTLESS FLICK) 

instant release 

quick and fluid twirl 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

48 / DANCE DYNAMICS

INDIRECT / SUDDEN / BOUND 

(5) (WEIGHTLESS SLASH) 

sudden unease 

quick, controlled wriggle 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / SUSTAINED / FREE 

(6) (WEIGHTLESS GLIDE) 

clearly considering 

striding purposefully forward 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / SUSTAINED / BOUND 

(7) (WEIGHTLESS WRING) 

persisting overall tension 

precise shaping 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / SUDDEN / FREE 

(8) (WEIGHTLESS DAB) 

lively focusing 

lively darting jumps 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

The eight S/T/F combinations or selections from them can be performed in various 

sequences, such as: 


The scene below may facilitate the exploration of the “Vision Drive”: 

Perform the sequence of work-like actions (b1) from p. 44, with the 

change of two elements. By repeating it several times see if you can 

gradually replace Weight with Flow elements, and change from a manual 

worker to a visionary leader who supports her/his ideas with arm 

gestures and facial expression. 


S P A C E , W E I G H T, A N D F L O W / “SPELL DRIVE” 

There are rare instances in everyday life and dance that the feeling component 

Flow replaces the sense of Timing, and combines with Space and Weight. When 

we watch a horror movie we sometimes get spell bound. In dance, Japanese 

Butoh and some of Eiko and Koma’s work convey predominantly such hypnotic 

qualities. 

(Here Laban’s questions show that “when” associated with Time is in abeyance, 

while “where”—S, “what”—W, and “how”—F, are in the foreground.) 

[Further analysis of embedded inner attitudes shows combinations of W/F 

(dream-like), S/W (stable), and S/F (remote).] 



DIRECT / STRONG / BOUND 

(1) (TIMELESS THRUST) 

steadfast concentration 

strong, controlled resistance 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / LIGHT / FREE 

(2) (TIMELESS FLOAT) 

nebulous yielding 

like blown by the wind 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / STRONG / FREE 

(3) (TIMELESS PRESS) 

powerful effusion 

strong, fluent advancing 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / LIGHT / BOUND 

(4) (TIMELESS FLICK) 

restraint wavering 

delicate, controlled carving 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

50 / DANCE DYNAMICS

INDIRECT / STRONG / BOUND 

(5) (TIMELESS SLASH) 

overwhelmed but not voicing it 

contortion 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

DIRECT / LIGHT / FREE 

(6) (TIMELESS GLIDE) 

pursuing with light ease 

light, directed gestures 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

INDIRECT / STRONG / FREE 

(7) (TIMELESS WRING) 

firm, all-round influencing 

strong, fluent twisting 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

(8) (TIMELESS DAB) 

DIRECT / LIGHT / BOUND 

meticulous tight-rope walking 

YOUR EXAMPLE 

The eight S/W/F combinations or selections from them can be performed in 

various sequences, such as 


The scene below may help you explore the “Spell Drive”: 

You are working on a conveyor belt using work-like actions from the 

sequence (a1) with the change of one element (p. 44). While repeating 

it and replacing Time with Flow elements you gradually lose the objective 

work-like approach. Repeat the sequence as many times you need 

to make a transition from the Action into the Spell drive. 


Recommended reading for Combinations of Three Motion Factors: 

SPACE, WEIGHT, TIME / “Action Drive” / Basic Effort Actions 

Laban, Rudolf. Modern Educational Dance, third ed. (1975 

“Rudiments of a Free Dance Technique”) 52–84. 

North (1973) 255–261. 

Preston-Dunlop (1980) 60–79. 

FLOW, WEIGHT, TIME / “Passion-like Drive” 

Laban (1980) 80–81. 

North 261, 263–266. 

Preston-Dunlop 197–199. 

SPACE, TIME, FLOW / “Vision-like Drive” 

Laban (1980) 80–81. 

North 261, 263–266. 


SPACE, WEIGHT, FLOW / “Spell-like Drive” 

Laban (1980) 80–81. 

North 261, 263–266. 


52 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Combinations of FOUR MOTION FACTORS 

The combinations of four Motion Factors are referred to in England as “complete 

Effort actions,” 27 in contrast to the combinations of two that Laban identified 

as “incomplete Efforts.” Bartenieff, on the other hand refers to the combination 

of four as “full Effort combinations,” and describes them as extreme 

survival responses. 28 

As dance audiences we can also get a glimpse of an active 

engagement in all four Effort elements while watching peak-performances. 

Each of the eight basic actions can be performed with either free or bound Flow. 

There are only two basic actions—“floating” and “thrusting”—which due to 

their predominant “indulging” and “fighting” structure, may have a natural 

tendency toward free flow (“floating”) and bound flow (“thrusting”). 

The combination of Space, Weight, Time, and Flow create further sixteen 

distinct variations in addition to twenty-four incomplete Effort actions, and 

thirty-two drives. 

Additional considerations 

This text has presented Laban’s classification of seventy-two observable movement 

qualities. All these qualities can be further articulated in several ways. 

They may be performed with a greater emphasis in one of the components. 

This differentiation is referred to as ranking. 29 

For instance in emphasizing 

Weight in a pressing action you change it into crush, with Space emphasis 

it becomes a cut, and with Time it becomes a squeeze. The emphasis can be 

notated by placing a dot at the end of the symbol. The Effort combinations may 

also be varied through grading of the intensity of the performance which can 

be diminished or exaggerated. 30 

An example can be a gliding action in which Space and Time may be diminished 

while the Weight remains unaltered. In this case a minus sign would be placed 

at the end of the symbols. 

Another glide can have an exaggerated Time, while the Space and Weight 

remain unchanged. A plus sign indicates this grading. 

The significance of Effort qualities emerges through their placement in the 

sequence of actions as well as their bodily performance. Singular qualities gain 

meaning when they are related to what follows. As we saw (p. 39), transitions 

or mutations from one quality to another can occur either with the change of 

one element that is gradual, or more surprisingly with the change of two, or 

they can create opposition with the change of all elements. 

FOUR MOTION FACTORS / 53

Different movement styles are created through bodily performances of Effort 

rhythms. A movement sequence can be performed with the whole body being 

attuned to a particular Effort quality. On the other hand, various qualities can 

be performed by different body parts at the same time. Brenda Dixon Gottschild 

refers to the latter as “polyrhythmic” that characterizes the style of Africanist 

movement. “For example the feet may maintain one rhythm while the arms, 

head, or torso dance to different drums.” 31 

Polyrhythmy as well as polycentrism—where 

two or more body centers may operate simultaneously—are features 

which have made a strong impact on American dance, and are visible not 

only in movement styles of Trisha Brown and Twyla Tharp but also in some of 

George Balanchine’s work. 32 

How various aspects of Effort transitions and bodily performances are reflected 

in the eight types of Phrasing, will be discussed in Part B of this text. 

54 

/ DANCE DYNAMICS

Notes for Part A: The Effort Theory 

1. For full bibliographic information see Bibliography on pp. 125 / 129. 

2. See Vera Maletic, "Emergence of Eukinetics" in Chapter II of Body-Space-Expression, 

97 / 99. 

3. Inner participation and its phases of Attention, Intention and Decision are first referred to 

in Laban's Effort, (London: Macdonald & Evans, 1947, 60 / 62). 

4. All four phases, including Progression, are listed and explained for the first time in R. 

Laban's The Mastery of Movement, sec. edition 1960, 120-121; they are also referred 

to in the 1980, ed., 114 / 115. 

5. See Laban, The Mastery of Movement, 1960, 121; 1980, 115. 

6. See Laban, The Mastery of Movement, 1960, 82-84; and 1980, 77 / 79. 

7. See Irmgard Bartenieff, Body Movement: Coping with the Environment, 1980, 59 / 60. 

8. Laban, 1960, 83; 1980, 79. 

9. Laban, 1960, 83; 1980, 79. 

10. Laban, 1960, 84; 1980, 79. 

11. Laban, 1960, 84; 1980, 79. 

12. Laban, 1960, 84; 1980, 79. 

13. Laban, 1960, 84; 1980, 79. 

14. See Laban Choreutics, 1966, 30 / 34. 

15. Warren Lamb, Posture and Gesture. 1965. 

16. Lamb, explains on p. 16 that Posture is an action involving a continuous adjustment of 

every part of the body with consistency in the process of variation; Gesture, on the other 

hand, is an action confined to a part or parts of the body. 

17. See Bartenieff, 1980, Chapter 6. 

18. Judith Kestenberg, The Role of Movement Patterns in Development. 1967. 

19. Laban, 1960, 84-85; 1980, 79 / 81. 

20. Laban, 1960, 122-125; 1980, 116 / 119. 

21. Marion North, Personality Assessment through Movement. 1972, 261 / 263. 

North worked with Laban on movement observation during the last years of his life. 

22. See Bartenieff, 1980, 61. 

23. See Laban, Modern Educational Dance, 1975 ed., 59 / 75. 

24. See Laban, Choreutics, 1966, 30. 

25. See North, 1972, the chart on p. 262. 

26. See North, 1972, 263 / 266. 

27. See Valerie Preston, A Handbook for Modern Educational Dance, 1963, 141. 

28. See Bartenieff, 1980, 63. 

29. See Laban, 1980,170 / 172. 

30. See Laban, 1980, 173 / 181. 

31. Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance 

Dance and Other Contexts, 1996, 14. 

32. See Dixon Gottschild, chapters 4 and 5. 

NOTES / 55

P A R T B / T H E O R Y A N D P R A C T I C E O F P H R A S I N G 

INTRODUCTION 

Phrasing is an organizing factor underlying the performance and perception of 

movement within the continuum of Space, Time, Weight and Flow. When we 

choreograph or direct a work we articulate dance movement into various phrasing 

rhythms that enhances the theme of the dance. Clear phrasing also facilitates 

the perception of dance for audiences, dance critics and researchers. 

Is there a difference between the notions of phrase and phrasing in modern and 

post-modern dance? Writings about these concepts are on the whole brief and 

incomplete. Several authors, such as Elizabeth Hayes 1 and Jacqueline Smith 2 use 

the term “phrase” or “phrasing” without defining it. Could that suggest that 

dancers frequently depend on the theory of music to articulate and conceptualize 

even those phenomena that are so fundamentally linked with movement? 

In surveying handbooks for dance and dance composition, one can find only 

a few descriptions of the terms, such as Doris Humphrey’s definition of “the 

phrase” as the organization of movement in time-design, and “phrased movement” 

as an expenditure of energy at various rates followed by a rest. 3 Yvonne 

Rainer, the exponent of post-modern dance points out the distinction between 

a “phrase” and “phrasing.” While she sees the “phrase” as having several consecutive 

movements or as a metaphor for a longer duration containing a beginning, 

middle, and end, she associates “phrasing” with the manner of execution 

or the way in which energy is distributed in the execution of a movement or a 

series of movements. Rainer’s view of the significance of phrasing is also seen 

in her argument that what makes one kind of movement different from another 

is not so much variations in arrangement of parts of the body as differences in 

energy investment. 4 

Descriptions of the various structures of phrases or phrasing appear to have 

some common denominators. Humphrey gives three simple categories according 

to which phrases can have the high point or climax at the beginning or near 

the end or near the middle. 5 

While recognizing that “phrasing the flow of movement 

reigns supreme in dance,” Rudolf Laban in his English writings refers only 

to two possibilities of phrasing depending on the unaccented part preceding and 

leading up to the accent, or the unaccented part following and dissolving the 

accent. 6 

However, in the tradition of his early teaching in Germany one can 

PHRASING / 57

find references to movement performed with increasing or decreasing intensity, 

impulse, and tension. 7 

Sylvia Bodmer (who first trained with Laban in Germany 

during the twenties and subsequently in England in the forties), introduces four 

types of dynamic phrasing, such as impulse, swing, counter-tension, and impact. 

In addition, she refers to resilient or rebounding movement that is created by a 

combination of two dynamic qualities. 8 

Marion North articulates the British 

school of Laban’s teaching by distinguishing the length, development, rhythms, 

and patterns of Effort phrases. Under developments she refers to increases, 

decreases, resiliency, and evenness, and among rhythms she lists simple and 

combined accents, impact and impulse. 9 

The common denominator in the 

above descriptions is the consideration of phrasing as the patterning of energy 

or stress, rather than the phrase as a compositional unit. 

Two authors emphasize the significance of phrase and phrasing in investigating 

choreographic and cultural dance styles. In the seventies Yvonne Rainer 

and dance anthropologist Anya Peterson Royce associate changes in attitudes 

toward phrasing with changes in contemporary choreography; both also point 

to the need for further investigation. Rainer sees phrasing as an indicator of 

changes from modern to post-modern dance. She distinguishes the climactic 

phrasing of traditional modern dance from the energy equality of minimalist 

tendencies of the late 1960s and early ‘70s. 10 

Royce suggests that the length of 

a phrase may indicate innovative trends in choreography. She sees the lengthening 

or shortening of the dance phrase against its traditional conventions as 

providing potentially fruitful research both for the study of creativity and the 

cross-cultural variations in movement style. 11 It seems as though such important 

research should begin in the new millennium. 

As to the issues of developments in the terminology of phrasing, two Laban 

scholars in the 1970s describe the lack of its classification and analysis. In compiling 

a movement glossary about “pattern features” Martha Davis lists movement 

phrases and gives the examples of two contrasting phrasing with intensity 

building or diminishing. At the same time she also states that a terminology 

of movement phrases is virtually underdeveloped. 12 

Cecily Dell maintains that 

there is minimal research regarding a detailed analysis of phrasing. 13 

My own experience of teaching Labananalysis and Dance Dynamics/Effort at 

The Ohio State University, and conducting research in choreographic style, has 

motivated me to further develop the Laban-based classification and notation of 

phrasing. 14 

Discussions with colleagues Odette Blum and Lucy Venable about 

phrasing annotations of Labanotation scores greatly contributed to the following 

elaboration. 

58 / DANCE DYNAMICS

In summary, phrasing is an organizing factor underlying the performance 

and perception of movement within the Space-Time-Weight-Flow continuum. 

Within this framework the term refers predominantly to the qualitative rhythm 

of movement, or as Rainer puts it, to “the manner of execution of a movement 

or a series of movements.” 15 

CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASING 

The proposed classification of phrasing encompasses various groupings of 

movement qualities (or Efforts) in which changing or unchanging, and repetitive 

patterns can be identified. Eight main types of Phrasing can be distinguished. 

(I) 

EVEN PHRASING implies the performance of a quality that does not change; 

it therefore maintains the same intensity. This phrasing can have a variety of 

Space, Weight, and Flow combinations. With regard to Time, the quality of sustained, 

slow movement enhances the texture of evenness, while the intermittent 

quality of sudden, urgent movement goes against its nature. The following two 

examples have both sustained Time but different qualities of Space, and Flow: 

traveling smoothly through the space with sliding steps can be performed with 

a direct/sustained/free quality. On the other hand, in carefully weaving a design 

pattern, we can use an indirect/light/bound quality. 

(II) INCREASING-INTENSITY PHRASING implies the performance of a quality 

that changes in that it increases in intensity. When it reaches a sudden accent, 

we call it an Impact. Any single movement quality or combinations of qualities 

can increase. For instance, when speeding toward a goal there is an increase in 

directness and acceleration. On the other hand, an assertive statement, such as 

pounding a table, will result in a strong/sudden impact. 

(III) DECREASING-INTENSITY PHRASING also changes the movement quality 

in that it decreases its initial intensity. When initiated with a sudden accent 

we refer to it as an Impulse. Any single movement quality or combination of 

qualities can decrease. For instance, one can slow down one’s pace in walking, 

thus decelerate in time. One can also suddenly turn toward something with an 

impulse to approach it, and then gradually relinquish this action, thus decreasing 

from a direct/sudden quality. 

(IV) In INCREASING-THEN-DECREASING INTENSITY PHRASING quality changes 

occur within “one breath.” The changes in the qualities that increase and decrease in 

intensity can vary from single movement qualities or their combinations. For instance, 

while singing a lullaby and gently swinging a baby there is an Increase-then-Decrease in 

acceleration and weightiness. 

PHRASING / 59

(V) In D E C R E A S I N G - T H E N - I N C R E A S I N G I N T E N S I T Y P H R A S I N G* quality 

changes also occur during “one breath,” and can vary from single movement 

qualities or their combinations. For instance, when gradually relaxing from an 

intense tension and becoming tense again, there is a decrease from strength and 

bound flow and then an increase toward it again. 

* This phrasing type was included as a result of Robert Ellis Dunn’s observation that 

decreasing-then-increasing phrasing is “also existing as an archetypal shape both in movement 

and music.” (Letter of May 6, 1984.) 

(VI) ACCENTED PHRASING consists of a repetition of intermittent, sudden 

accents that form a rhythmic entity. While the quality of fast or sudden Time 

is constant it can be combined with other qualities of Space, Weight, and Flow. 

For instance, when tapping impatiently with fingers, a light/sudden quality is 

repeated. In contrast, when stomping in anger a strong/sudden/bound quality 

is repeated. 

(VII) 

VIBRATORY PHRASING consists of sudden repetitions that continue over 

a shorter or longer period of time. While the quality of exaggerated sudden 

Time is constant, it can be combined with other qualities of Space, Weight, and 

Flow. For instance, when mime artists imitate a butterfly they perform light/sudden 

hand vibrations. On the other hand, in convulsive shaking the entire body 

is engaged in strong/sudden/bound vibrations. 

(VII) RESILIENT PHRASING is a result of repetitive, rebounding qualities that can 

be performed with three different emphases. An Elastic, bouncy resiliency can 

be experienced or seen when dribbling a ball. Buoyant resiliency can be experienced 

or seen when jumping on a trampoline. Weighty resiliency can be experienced 

or seen in shaking out a heavy rug. 

See further movement and dance examples beginning on page 65. 

PHRASING / 60

Writing of Phrasing and its usage 

Phrasing signs can be annotated with two sets of dynamic symbols: signs from 

Kinetography/Labanotation, or Effort signs. 

(a) 

Phrasing annotated with dynamic signs from Kinetography/Labanotation 

is used for the purpose of indicating an overall performance of movement 

and dance energy. This less complex mode is appropriate in the 

beginning stages of learning. Its shortcomings are due to the nature of 

these signs that pertain only to selected combinations of Weight and 

Time, i.e. strong/sudden and light/sudden accents, and to aspects of 

resiliency. 

(b) 

Phrasing annotated with Effort signs is used when movement qualities 

need to be captured in greater detail. This more complex mode of 

Phrasing notation presupposes an understanding of the Effort theory. 

Since there are over seventy combinations of Space, Weight, Time, and 

Flow factors, and innumerable transitions among them, there is a potential 

for a great amount of phrasing variations. 

Phrasing can be written horizontally or vertically. The vertical notation includes 

the use of the Motif Writing. In contrast to Labanotation, Motif Writing captures 

overall movement ideas, such as body actions, spatial directions, body 

signs and relationship aspects. Symbols used most frequently in the context of 

Phrasing, are action strokes, and signs for stillness, written on an open staff. 

The usage of the classification and notation of Phrasing can be descriptive and 

prescriptive: 

(a) 

It can be used to describe performances viewed live, on film, or on 

videotape for the purpose of clarifying the observations of movement 

and dance sequences, or 

(b) 

It can also be used to “prescribe” or set different types of phrasing 

of movement qualities in order to heighten the performance in a dance 

class, a rehearsal, or in the context of a Labanotation score. Its usage in 

structured improvisation is also effective. 

61 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Explicit and implicit references to Phrasing in dance 

In addition to descriptions of dance qualities in dance writings (see pp. 4–5) 

here are excerpts that refer more specifically to Phrasing. While the first two 

quotations explicitly address Phrasing, the others implicitly refer to Phrasing by 

describing the performers’ actions and interpretive images perceived. (Emphases 

are the author’s.) 

In movement terms Bobov’s phrasing 

swings along more 

evenly with 

regular alterations of flow in contrast to the emphatic phrasing 

of 

Satmar or the impulsive dynamic phrasing of Lubavitch. (Jill Gelerman. 

“Mayim Patterns in Three Hasidic Comunities,” in Essays in Dance 

Research, Dance Research Annual IX 

. CORD 1978. 129.) 

Mr. Granados is a fine dancer with a distinctive style, which is as crucial 

in flamenco as it is in tap. His phrasing is deft and witty. . . (Jennifer 

Dunning. “A Dancer Shows how Rhythm can Set Fire to Flirtation.” 

The New York Times, Nov. 28, 2003. B3. 

Virtually all is flow, and continuous energy, punctuated with martial 

thrusts amid repeated sinking and rising bodies. (Anna Kisselgoff. “The 

Syncretism of Tai Chi and Bach,”by Lin Hwai-min and the Cloud Gate 

Dance Theater, The New York Times, Nov. 20, 2003. B1.) 

In response to the changing mood of the word and music, dancers 

walked meditatively, gazed heavenward, trembled 

in desperation and 

embraced and rejected one another. Most of all, they ventured boldly 

into space like people leaning to transcend their rage against injustice 

into a spirit of idealistic determination. (Jack Anderson. “Rod Rodgers 

Remembered: Lyric and Vivid Choreography,” The New York Times, 

Nov. 26, 2003. B15.) 

Slides and brushing steps 

were punctuated by hearty stamps. Allegro 

sequences resembled bursts of firecrackers. (Jack Anderson. “Feet with 

a Lot to Say and Ways to Say it,” The New York Times, December 18, 

2003.B3.) Dance review of Savion Glover’s Improvography. 

PHRASING / 62

Notes for Part B: Theory and Practice of Phrasing 

1. Elizabeth R. Hayes, Dance Composition and Production (New York: The Ronald Press 

Co., 1955) 31, 32, 70. 

2. Jacqueline Smith, Dance Composition—A Practical Guide for Teachers (London: Lepus 

Books, 1976) 28. 

3. Doris Humphrey, The Art of Making Dances (New York: Grove Press, 1959) 67. 

4. Yvonne Rainer, “The Mind is a Muscle” in Work: 1961–73. (New York University, 

1974) 65. 

5. Humphrey, 68–70. 

6. Rudolf Laban, The Mastery of Movement 

(London: Macdonald & Evans, 1980) 43. 

7. See Vera Maletic, Body-Space-Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s 

Movement and Dance Concepts (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987) 94–97. 

8. Sylvia Bodmer, Studies Based on Crystalloid Dance Forms. (London: Laban Centre for 

Movement and Dance, 1979) 5. 

9. Marion North, Personality Assessment Through Movement (London: Macdonald & 

Evans, 1972) 21–28. 

10. Rainer, 64–65. 

11. Anya Peterson Royce, The Anthropology of Dance (Bloomington: Indiana University 

Press, 1977) 189. 

12. Martha Davis, Towards Understanding the Intrinsic in Body Movement (New York: 

Arno Press, 1975) 41–42. 

13. Cecily Dell, A Primer for Movement Description (New York: Dance Notation Bureau, 

1970) 92. 

14. Vera Maletic, “Dynamics of Dance” (International Council of Kinetography Laban: 

Proceedings of the Fifteenth Biennial Conference, 1987) 82–101. 

___________ , “Issues in Phrasing and Effort Annotations of a Humphrey Score” (ICKL: 

Proceedings of the Sixteenth Biennial Conference, 1989) 105–126. 

___________ , “Qualitative Annotations of Labanotation Scores” (ICKL: Proceedings of the 

Seventeenth Biennial Conference, 1991) 73–103. 

15. Rainer, 65. 

63 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Note about the order of explications for each phrasing type 

In sections entitled “Eight Phrasing types annotated with signs for dynamics 

from Kinetography/Labanotation,” and “Eight Phrasing types annotated with 

Effort signs”: 

(1) Phrasing types are marked by Roman numerals (I–VIII), followed by a 

succinct description of their characteristics. 

(2) Exemplars (EX) provide verbal and notational samples of ways in 

which movement is patterned or phrased. 

(3) Examples include movement that embodies the Phrasing under 

consideration. 

(4) The assignment 

“Be prepared to demonstrate your example” is based on the assumption 

that students performed the exemplars and some of the examples, 

and had time to explore their own solutions and images. 

(5) The summarizing assignment 

“Describe your experience of a particular phrasing” refers both to students’ 

experience of performing or observing various Phrasing types. It 

may also lead to the identification of their own movement propensities. 

PHRASING / 64

Eight PHRASING TYPES 

Annotated with signs for Dynamics from Kinetography/Labanotation 

(I) EVEN PHRASING 

Same intensity is maintained while moving or keeping still. 

EX 1 

Same intensity during an action. 

OR 

Examples: ballet développé; 

Tai-Chi sequences. 

Be prepared to demonstrate your example. 

EX 2 

Same intensity while pausing. 

OR 

Examples: holding the leg up after a développé; 

balancing. 


Describe your experience of Even Phrasing: 

PHRASING TYPES / 65

(II) INCREASING-INTENSITY PHRASING 

Energy builds up from a lesser to a greater intensity; it may or may not reach a 

climactic accent. The latter is referred to as IMPACTIVE PHRASING or IMPACT 

[see EX 4a, b]. 

EX 3 

The increase is achieved gradually. 

OR 

Example: a modern dance side fall. 


(IIa) IMPACTIVE PHRASING 

EX 4a 

The increase builds up to a strong accent or Impact; this is also referred 

to as IMPACTIVE PHRASING. 

OR strong accent = 

Examples: striking as in martial arts; ballet frappé; 

lunge. 


EX 4b 

The increase builds up to a light accent; this is also referred to as 

IMPACTIVE PHRASING. 

OR light accent = 

Examples: ballet piqué; 

typing. 


Describe your experience of both Increasing and Impactive Phrasing: 

66 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(III) DECREASING-INTENSITY PHRASING 

Energy diminishes from a greater to a lesser intensity. The decrease can 

occur gradually or can follow an initial outburst. The latter is referred to as 

IMPULSIVE PHRASING or IMPULSE [see EX 6a, 6b]. 

EX 5 

The decrease can occur gradually. 

OR 

Examples: slowing down a walking pace; gradually releasing from a 

tensely held position. 


(IIIa) IMPULSIVE PHRASING 

EX 6a 

A light sudden outburst is followed by decreasing energy; this is also 

referred to as IMPULSIVE PHRASING. 

OR 

Examples: tossing the sleeve in Asian dance; throwing a small ball. 


EX 6b 

A strong sudden outburst or Impulse is followed by decreasing energy. 

OR 

Example: a ballet sissonne ouverte; throwing a sandbag. 


Describe your experience of Decreasing and Impulsive Phrasing: 

PHRASING TYPES / 67

(IV) INCREASING-THEN-DECREASING INTENSITY PHRASING 

The increase and decrease is gradual. The length of the increase and decrease 

can be the same [EX 7a] or different [EX 7b]. 

EX 7a 

The energy builds in intensity in the middle of the phrase and gradually 

diminishes towards its end. (When associated with Effort elements of 

Weight, Time and Flow it becomes swing-like.) 

OR 

Examples: a ballet grand jeté; 

modern dance swing; golf swing. 


EX 7b 

The increase and decrease may vary in length. 

OR 

Example: Breathing exercise in which inhaling is shorter than the exhaling, 

followed by a longer inhaling and shorter exhaling. 

Be prepared to show your example. 

Describe your experience of Phrasing with Increasing-then-Decreasing intensity: 

68 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(V) DECREASING-THEN-INCREASING INTENSITY PHRASING 

The decrease and increase can be gradual or be initiated with an impulse and/ 

or end with an impact. Each phase can have a different length [EX 8b]. 

EX 8a 

Energy decreases from and builds toward greater intensity gradually. 

OR 

Examples: arm circling upwards-backwards-forwards-upwards decreases 

from, and builds toward greater intensity; your anxiousness is gradually 

released but then it again builds-up. 


EX 8b 

The decrease and increase may vary in length. 

OR 

Example: a variation on the breathing exercise in that you exhale briefly 

and inhale longer, followed by a long exhalation and short inhalation. 


Describe your experience of Phrasing with decreasing-then-increasing intensity. 

PHRASING TYPES / 69

EX 9a 

Decreasing from a strong Impulse, the energy builds up to a strong 

Impact. Each phase has equal length. 

OR 

Example: from ballet sissonne to assemblé; jumping from two feet to 

one, followed by a jump from one foot to two. 


EX 9b 

Energy changes from a light impulse to a light impact. 

OR 

Example: picking and tossing some lint. 


EX 10a A gradual decrease is followed by an impactive build-up. 

OR 

Example: releasing from a ballet relevé 

into a tombé. 


EX 10b An impulse is followed by a gradual increase. 

OR 

Example: a sprinter’s start—sudden response to the start signal followed by 

a gradual acceleration. 


70 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Describe your experience of Phrasing with Decreasing-then-Increasing intensity: 

(VI) ACCENTED PHRASING 

Created with a series of accents together forming an entity. It implies exertion 

of energy that can be repeated and/or followed by a shorter or longer stillness. 

EX 11a 

Five strong accents. 

OR 

Examples: tap-dancing; Flamenco dancing. 


EX 11b Five light accents. 

OR 

Examples: ballet battements, jetés pointés; typing. 


Describe your experience of Accented phrasing: 

PHRASING TYPES / 71

(VII) VIBRATORY PHRASING 

Created by a series of sudden, repetitive movements. 

EX 12a 

It can be performed with sudden-strengths. 

OR 

Example: Savion Glover’s sequences of very fast and hard tapping; 

drum roll. 


EX 12b 

It can also be performed with sudden-lightness. 

OR 

Examples: jazz shimmy, nerve tap; fluttering arms in Chinese Peacock 

dance. 


Describe your experience of vibratory phrasing: 

72 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(VIII) RESILIENT PHRASING 

Created by several rebounding movements which form an entity. Its weight 

activation can have different emphases, such as: 

· oscillating between strength and lightness with ELASTICITY 

· rebounding with BUOYANCY thus emphasizing lightness 

· releasing into gravity with WEIGHTINESS and a shorter recovery into lightness 

The signs for the three emphases of Resilient phrasing used here are: 

ELASTIC, bouncy quality 

BUOYANT quality 

WEIGHTY quality 

EX 13a 

Four ELASTIC movements oscillate between downward strength and 

upward lightness. 

OR 

Examples: shoulder and arm movements in some ethnic dances; 

dribbling a hand ball. 


EX 13b Four bouncy jumps in which the light aerial phase and that of the 

stronger take-off or landing take an equal amount of time. 

OR 

Examples: square dancing; four consecutive ballet changements. 


PHRASING TYPES / 73

EX 14a Four BUOYANT movements which emphasize the upward lightness and 

briefly recover into the downward heaviness. 

OR 

Examples: arm movements in some ethnic dances; tossing a ball high 

into the air from one hand to another 


EX 14b Four BUOYANT jumps in which the airborne time of elevation predominates 

while the stronger take-off and landing are brief. 

OR 

Examples: jumping on a trampoline; four consecutive ballet pas de 

chats. 


EX 15a Four WEIGHTY movements: there is an emphasis on a downward giving-in 

to gravity while the rebounding upward into lightness is brief. 

OR 

Examples: four grapevine steps; four releasing arm swings. 


74 / DANCE DYNAMICS

EX 15b 

Four WEIGHTY jumps: longer time is spent sinking downward with 

heaviness while the rebounding into the air with lightness is brief. 

OR 

Examples: four consecutive ballet contretemps or assemblés; hopscotch. 


Describe your experience of ELASTIC, bouncy Resilient Phrasing: 

Describe your experience of BUOYANT Resilient Phrasing: 

Describe your experience of WEIGHTY Resilient phrasing: 

PHRASING TYPES / 75

SEQUENCING OF PHRASING 

The above eight types of Phrasing can be performed consecutively or concurrently 

or they can overlap. 

(A) CONSECUTIVE PHRASING 

Can be performed by the same or by different body parts. 

EX 16a The sequence starts with Even phrasing, followed by Increasing-then- 

Decreasing phrasing, and ends with an Impactive phrasing. 

OR 

EX 16b 

Three light Accents are followed by three Buoyant movements, and end 

with light Vibratory phrasing. 

OR 


76 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(B) CONCURRENT PHRASING 

Occurs when different body parts perform different types of phrasing at the 

same time. 

EX 17a Accented phrasing performed by the legs occurs at the same time as an 

Even phrasing performed by the arms. 

OR 

EX 17b 

Even phrasing performed by the legs occurs at the same time as light 

Vibratory phrasing performed by the arms. 

OR 


SEQUENCING OF PHRASING / 77

(C) OVERLAPPING PHRASING 

Occurs among movements of various body parts when one action begins 

before the phrasing of the previous one has ended. 

EX 18a 

The Impulsive Phrasing performed with the right arm starts before 

the Impulsive Phrasing of the left arm has terminated. 

OR 

EX 18b 

While the sequence starts with three Accents performed by the right leg, 

an Even Phrasing performed with the right arm overlaps with it; 

this is followed by an overlapping Vibratory Phrasing of the left arm. 

OR 

Describe your experiences of Consecutive, Concurrent and Overlapping 

Phrasing: 

78 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Eight PHRASING TYPES annotated with EFFORT SIGNS 

(I) EVEN PHRASING 

Can be associated with any Effort element or combination of elements except 

suddenness. (The intermittent quality of suddenness does not create evenness 

in movement.) 

EX 19a A direct/sustained quality is maintained during an action. 

OR 

Examples: ballet développé; 

Tai-Chi sequences. 


EX 19b 

A direct/bound quality is maintained while pausing. 

OR 

Examples: holding the leg up after a développé; 

maintaining a lunge. 


Describe your experience of Even Phrasing performed with Effort qualities of 

your own choice. 

PHRASING TYPES WITH EFFORT SIGNS / 79

(II) INCREASING-INTENSITY-PHRASING 

Can be performed with any Effort element or combination of elements without 

reaching a climactic accent. 

EX 20A A gradual change toward SINGLE EFFORT ELEMENTS: 

EX 20A S PA C E —becoming increasingly direct is followed by becoming 

(a) 

increasingly indirect or flexible. 

OR 

Examples: a forward reaching gesture; opening to the side. 

EX 20A WEIGHT—becoming firmer is followed by becoming lighter. 

(b) 

OR 

Examples: moving into a deep plié; ascending to a relevé. 

EX 20A TIME—gradual acceleration is followed by gradual deceleration. 

(c) 

OR 

Examples: from walking to running; reducing the speed to a walk. 

80 / DANCE DYNAMICS

EX 20A FLOW 

(d) 

FLOW—becoming more controlled is followed by increasingly freeing 

the flow of movement. 

OR 

Examples: approaching something dangerous; approaching something 

joyful 

Describe your experience of Increasing Phrasing toward a single Effort 

Element of your own choice: 


EX 20B 

EX 20B 

Gradual increase toward C O M B I N AT I O N S O F T H R E E E F F O RT 

ELEMENTS: 

Becoming stronger/faster/more direct. 

(a) 

OR 

Examples: a modern dance side fall; becoming more assertive 


Describe your experience of Increasing Phrasing toward a combination of 

Effort Elements of your own choice: 

82 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(IIa) IMPACTIVE PHRASING 

When the increase reaches a climactic accent or Impact, it is referred to as an 

IMPACTIVE or EMPHATIC PHRASING. The accent implies suddenness that 

can be combined with any other Effort elements. 

EX 21a 

The increase builds to an impactive direct/strong/sudden accent. 

OR 

Examples: striking as in martial arts; ballet frappé; lunge. 


EX 21b The increase builds to an impactive direct/light/sudden accent. 

OR 

Examples: ballet piqué; 

lightly pointing to a person. 


Compare your experience of Impactive phrasing when associated with strong, 

in contrast to light qualities: 


(III) DECREASING-INTENSITY PHRASING 

Can be performed with decrease in an Effort element or combination of elements. 

EX 22 

The initial strong-bound quality decreases gradually. 

OR 

Example: gradually releasing from a strong tension. 


(IIIa) IMPULSIVE PHRASING 

The decrease can follow an initial outburst or Impulse. The latter is referred to 

as IMPULSIVE PHRASING in which the initial sudden accent can be combined 

with any other Effort element. 

EX 23a The Impulsive Phrasing starts with a strong/sudden quality which 

gradually decreases. 

OR 

Example: a ballet sissonne ouverte; throwing a sandbag. 


EX 23b The Impulsive Phrasing starts with a light/sudden quality which gradually 

decreases. 

OR 

Example: tossing the sleeve in Asian dance; throwing a light ball. 


84 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(IV) INCREASING-THEN-DECREASING INTENSITY PHRASING 

Can be performed in relation to any Effort quality. The length of the increase 

and decrease can be the same [EX 24a, 24b] or different [EX 24c]. 

EX 24a 

The action increases then decreases in the qualities of directness/speed/ 

free flow. 

OR 

Examples: accelerating run for a long jump (ballet grand jeté;) and 

gradual recuperation. 


EX 24b The action increases then decreases in the quality of weightiness*/speed/ 

free flow in a Swing-like manner. 

OR 

Examples: front-back leg swings; whole body swings from side to side. 


* = The sign for weightiness or a weighty quality uses a variation of the sign for 

Weight: the strong symbol changing into lightness which is drawn much shorter. 


The phases of increasing and decreasing may very in length. 

EX 24c 

After a short increase toward weightiness/acceleration/free flow, follows 

a longer decrease; when repeating the increase takes longer than the 

decrease. 

OR 

Example: performing two arm sideway swings; one with short increase 

and longer decrease, the second with longer increase and shorter 

decrease. 


Describe your experience of Increasing-then-Decreasing Phrasing in relation to 

two different Effort qualities of your own choice: 

86 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(V) DECREASING-THEN-INCREASING INTENSITY PHRASING 

Can be performed in relation to any Effort quality. The decrease-then-increase 

can occur gradually; it can also follow or precede an accent. As seen before [EX 

21a, b; 23a, b], both Impulsive and Impactive Phrasing can combine their sudden 

quality with any other Effort element. Further, the two above Phrasings 

can be combined with a gradual Decrease and Increase, and the Phrasing may 

vary in length. 

EX25a 

The decrease-then-increase occurs in relation to a light/bound quality. 

Both phases have equal duration. 

OR 

Example: gradually releasing from a light/bound balancing on one foot, 

and preparing to balance on the other foot with the same quality. 


EX25b 

The decrease occurs slower than the increase in relation to a light/ 

bound quality. 

OR 

Example: a timing variation of the example for 25a. 


PHRASING TYPES with EFFORT SIGNS / 87

EX 25c 

A decrease, initiated by a strong/sudden Impulse builds to a strong/ 

sudden Impact. Both phases are of equal duration. 

OR 

Example: from sissonne to assemblé; 

in other words jumping from two 

feet to one is followed by a jump from one foot to two; the first 

accented take off initiates the decreasing phase that subsequently 

increases toward the accented landing. 


EX 25d 

Decreasing after the Impulse takes longer than the increase towards the 

Impact. 

OR 

Example: in a fencing exercise you deflect your partner’s blow with an 

indirect/strong/sudden Impulse that decreases, and then you build 

towards a short attack with a direct/strong/sudden Impact. 


88 / DANCE DYNAMICS

The following two examples combine gradual increase or decrease with 

Impactive or Impulsive phrasing. 

EX 26a 

A gradual decrease from a light/bound quality builds to a direct/ 

sudden impact. 

OR 

Example: releasing from a ballet relevé into a tombé; releasing from 

balancing and falling into a lunge. 


EX 26b 

A strong/sudden impulse increases towards a direct/acceleration. 

OR 

Example: a sprinter’s start: the sudden/strong response to the start signal 

is followed by gradual acceleration towards the goal. 


Describe some of your experiences with Decreasing-then-Increasing Phrasing 

in three variations of your own choice: 


(VI) ACCENTED PHRASING 

Is associated with suddenness but can vary in elements of Weight. With regard 

to the Elements or Space and Flow it can be performed more efficiently with 

directness and bound flow. 

EX 27a 

The group of five accents is performed with a strong/sudden/bound 

quality. 

OR 

Example: in the style of Flamenco dancing; the ringleader stamps the 

tempo for the line-dance. 


EX 27b The same rhythm is performed with a direct/light/sudden quality. 

OR 

Examples: ballet battements, jetés pointés; sending Morse code signals. 


Describe your experience of Accented Phrasing with two different Effort qualities 

of your own choice: 

90 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(VII) VIBRATORY PHRASING 

Is created by a repetition of exaggerated suddenness.* It also can be associated 

with elements of Weight and Flow. 

* = exaggerated suddenness 

+ 

EX 28a 

A strong/exaggerated sudden/bound vibration. 

OR 

Example: Savion Glover’s sequences of very fast and hard tapping; 

drum roll. 


EX 28b 

A light/exaggerated sudden vibration. 

OR 

Examples: jazz shimmy; mime artists representing a butterfly. 


Describe your experience of Vibratory Phrasing with two different Effort qualities 

of your own choice: 


(VIII) RESILIENT PHRASING 

Is associated with rebounding* Weight and Time qualities in several combinations. 

* The following signs for rebounding use a variation of the Effort graph: Effort elements 

which serve as a preparation for rebounding or releasing from it are drawn shorter and elements 

which are emphasized maintain their normal lengths. 

Light releasing from strong 

Strong or heavy releasing from light 

Sudden rebounding from sustained 

Sustained rebounding from sudden 

The combination of light/sustained rebounding from strong/sudden 

creates a BUOYANT quality 

The combination of heavy/sustained being released from light/sudden 

creates a WEIGHTY quality 

A strong/sudden sign linked vertically with light/sudden denotes an 

ELASTIC, bouncy quality 

92 / DANCE DYNAMICS

EX 29a A group of four E L A S T I C , bouncy movements oscillating between 

downward and upward. 

OR 

Examples: shoulder and upper body movement in some ethnic dances; 

dribbling a light hand ball. 


EX 29b 

A group of four ELASTIC springs in which the aerial phases and the 

take-off or landing take an equal amount of time. 

OR 

Examples: square dancing; four consecutive ballet changements. 


EX 30a 

A group of B U O YA N T movements which emphasize the upward 

lightness and briefly recover into the downward heaviness. 

OR 

Examples: a motif of arm movements in some ethnic dances; tossing a 

ball high up into the air four times. 

Be prepared to show your examples. 


EX 30b Four BUOYANT jumps in which the time in the air predominates while 

the take-off and landing are brief. 

OR 

Examples: four consecutive pas de chats; jumping on a trampoline. 


EX 31a 

Four W E I G H T Y movements: there is an emphasis on a downward 

giving-in to gravity with a brief recovery upward into lightness. 

OR 

Examples: four grapevine steps; a weary walk. 


EX 31b Four WEIGHTY jumps: longer time is spent releasing downward with 

heaviness while the light recovery in the air brief. 

OR 

Examples: four consecutive jumps from one leg to two or ballet assemblés; 

hopscotch. 


94 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Describe your experience of ELASTIC, bouncy Resilient phrasing: 

Describe your sequence of BUOYANT Resilient 

phrasing: 

Describe your experience of WEIGHTY Resilient 

phrasing: 


S E Q U E N C I N G O F P H R A S I N G 

Different types of Phrasing with various Effort qualities can be performed consecutively 

or concurrently or they can overlap. 

(A) CONSECUTIVE PHRASING 

Can be performed by the same or by different body parts. 

EX 32 

The sequence starts with Even Phrasing consisting of a direct/light/ 

sustained quality, followed by Increasing-then-Decreasing Phrasing 

toward and away from indirect/strong quality, and ends with direct/ 

strong/sudden Impactive Phrasing. 

OR 

EX 33 

A sequence of Accented phrasing consisting of direct/light/sudden 

qualities is followed by Resilient Buoyant phrasing, and ends with light/ 

sudden Vibratory Phrasing. 

OR 

96 / DANCE DYNAMICS

(B) CONCURRENT PHRASING 

Occurs when different body parts perform actions with different types of 

phrasing and Effort qualities at the same time. 

EX 34 

Strong/sudden Accented phrasing which is performed by the legs occurs 

at the same time as sustained/bound Even Phrasing performed by the 

arms. 

OR 

EX 35 

An Even strong/sustained quality performed by the legs occurs at the 

same time as light/sudden Vibratory Phrasing performed by the arms. 

OR 


(C) OVERLAPPING PHRASING 

Among movements of various body parts, one action may begin before the 

phrasing of the previous one has ended. 

EX 36 

The light/sudden Impulse performed with the right arm starts before the 

light/sudden Impulsive Phrasing of the left arm has terminated. 

OR 

EX 37 

While the sequence starts with three strong/sudden/bound Accents 

performed by the right leg, an Even direct/sustained/bound Phrasing 

performed with the right arm overlaps with it; this is followed by an 

overlapping sudden/bound Vibratory Phrasing of the left arm. 

OR 

98 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Make up a sequence with Concurrent Phrasing and describe your experience of 

performing it. How successful are you in observing it in performances of others? 

Make up a sequence with Overlapping Phrasing and describe your experience 

of performing it. How successful are you in observing it in performances of 

others? 


SUMMARY: Phrasing and Effort interdependencies 

Although we examined Effort and Phrasing separately, these two aspects of 

movement and dance dynamics are interdependent, even united. While Phrasing 

can be seen as a “macrostructure” of dynamic patterns, Effort elements and 

their combinations constitute their “microstructure.” 

As shown on the chart on p. 101, Phrasing integrates Effort qualities in various 

ways. For instance, Even Phrasing embraces unchanging Effort qualities, 

and maintains their intensity under the same “breath.” With the exception of 

sudden Time, all single elements and their combinations can be performed with 

Even Phrasing. Increasing or Decreasing Phrasings and their combinations blend 

Efforts that either gradually change their intensity or start with emphatic accents 

(Impulses) or end with climactic accents (Impacts). All single Effort elements 

and their combinations can be integrated in the above types of phrasing. 

While Accented Phrasing is intermittent and repetitive, Vibratory Phrasing is 

continuous and repetitive. All Effort qualities except sustained Time can be 

performed within these two kinds of Phrasing. The three modes of Resilient 

Phrasing are rebounding, continuous, and repetitive, and explore the interplay 

between active and passive attitudes to Weight and variations in Time. 

100 / DANCE DYNAMICS

M A C R O S T R U C T U R E 

PHRASING/GROUPING/PATTERNS 

EVEN 

INCREASING 

DECREASING 

INCREASING-then-DECREASING 

DECREASING-then-INCREASING 

IMPULSE 

IMPACT 

ACCENTED 

VIBRATORY 

RESILIENT (Elastic) 

M I C R O S T R U C T U R E 

MOVEMENT QUALITIES/EFFORTS 

selected examples: 

direct 

light/sustained 

direct/strong/bound 

toward light 

toward indirect/light 

toward direct/strong/bound 

away from bound 

away from strong/sustained 

away from direct/light/bound 

toward and away from 

strong 

direct 

bound 

away and toward 

strong 

direct 

bound 

decreasing from sudden 

decreasing from light/sudden 

decreasing from sudden/strong/bound accents 

building to strong/sudden 

building to direct/sudden 

building to direct/strong/sudden accents 

sudden/light 

sudden/strong/bound 

several repetitions of 

sudden 

sudden/strong 

sudden/light/free 

oscillating between strong/sudden and light/sudden 

SUMMARY / 101

A P P E N D I X I 

[A] METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

VERA MALETIC 

I first conceived the Workbook in the '90s as the text for my classes in Dance 

Dynamics. Due to my professional background the text is informed by the tradition 

of Laban's teaching as it was originally formulated and re-formulate by the 

master and his students, as well as by the development of Laban's framework in 

the USA. I first trained in the former Yugoslavia with my mother Ana Maletic, 

who was one of Laban's disciples, and subsequently with Lisa Ullmann, Warren 

Lamb, Marion North, and Valerie Preston Dunlop. After visiting and moving 

to United States, I interacted with Irmgard Bartenieff, Martha Davis, and Bob 

Dunn, and was a member of the Theory Network Coordinating Committee of 

LIMS (Laban-Bartenieff Institute of Movement Studies) in New York. At The 

Ohio State University Department of Dance I established a close collaboration 

with Melanie Bales who assisted with my courses and contributed to the material 

in the Workbook. 

(a) The demands of teaching/learning Dance Dynamics 

The synchrony of bodily practice and theoretical conceptualization, makes the 

teaching/ learning process of dance dynamics quite complex. Several simultaneous 

actions are required from the student: 

to attend to and focus on proprioceptive sensations, particularly the kinesthetic 

feedback during the performance of assigned sequences and the students’ own 

short studies; 

to understand the links between emphases on various Effort qualities and the 

attitudes toward the powers or capacities of thinking, sensing, intuiting, and 

feeling; 

to identify performance characteristics while observing others; 

to identify performance variants while observing videotapes of one’s own studies 

and assigned sequences; 

to become increasingly aware of one’s own propensities; 

to demonstrate an active willingness for expanding this habitual range. 

APPENDIX I / 103

Motivating students to engage in these processes of active learning and discovery 

is vital. Linking the material to individual student interests, such as coaching, 

performance, choreography, teaching, directing from scores, and other 

vocational interests may stimulate involvement. 

(b) Suggested approaches to the teaching of Dance Dynamics 

Movement and dance professionals teaching Laban’s concept of Effort present 

the content in a way that is congruent with their own experience and ideas. 

They sequence it according to the context in which they are teaching, such as 

type of students within colleges, universities, and other institutions. The length 

of the course or workshop, and the frequency of contact hours also play an 

important role in the choice of content and methodology to present it. 

Deductive or inductive: choices of approaches 

Two approaches can be taken to any complex subject, such as dance dynamics: 

either from the general to the particular, or from the detailed to the overall. In 

the summary on p. 101, Phrasing was seen as the “macro-structure” of dynamic 

patterns grouping the detailed Effort qualities. On the other hand, the latter can 

be seen as the “micro-structure” identifying individual Effort elements and their 

particular combinations. 

Here are two examples of the deductive or general-to-the-particular approach: 

(1) When comparing the execution of a Tai-Chi sequence it may be easier 

to notice first the EVEN, uninterrupted Phrasing of two performers, than 

the individual Effort qualities, such as direct/bound versus light/bound. 

(2) The most noticeable feature of the Galliarde (dance from the Renaissance) 

are groups of accented steps or ACCENTED Phrasing. The distinction 

of qualities among the performers, such as sudden/strong or sudden/ 

bound, may require longer training. Thus where the length of the course 

in Dance Dynamics is short, it may be more effective to start with the 

Phrasing aspects. 

Following are two examples of the inductive method, i.e. from detailed descriptions 

to the overall dynamic patterns; these approaches that are drawn from 

working with combinations of two or three Effort elements. 

(1) The performance of a direct/light/sustained quality may feel and look 

differently if maintained in an EVEN pattern or when gradually emerging 

in an INCREASING Phrasing. 


(2) The execution of a strong/sudden/bound quality may gradually dissolve 

in a DECREASING pattern, or may bring about a temper tantrum-like 

expression in a VIBRATORY Phrasing. 

(c) The choice of modalities 

[In the following text, quotations from student papers in 1998–99 are interspersed 

in italics.] 

A combination of work in and out of class is effective. It can include the following 

aspects: 

“Physicalizing,” i.e. exploring and subsequently composing movement sequences 

as well as short studies on assigned topics. 

I frequently introduce a particular phrasing type or a movement quality by 

either describing it in word images and sounds or by giving movement examples. 

After this directed introduction I ask students to explore this particular 

aspect of dynamics and proceed with problem solving in their own way. As a 

homework assignment I can ask them to select movement material from their 

explorations and compose sequences that they can show in class and teach to 

others. I see bodily experience as a vital initial stage of learning. 

The aspects of class I found most enjoyable and stimulating are the improvisation explorations 

at the introduction of the new concept, and also the showing of our studies. 

Another important mode of learning is Observing and recording movement 

sequences and studies. 

To sharpen the aspects of performance and of observations one can use both 

videotaping and notating of sequences and studies. 

VIDEOTAPING dance dynamics can have its limitations, as well as advantages. 

While the limitations lie in the loss of some nuances of movement qualities and 

in recording one singular performance, the advantage of observing videotapes 

is the opportunity to compare the proprioceptive feedback during the performance 

with the visual perception of the performer/spectator. The reliability 

of the “inner” perspective of the performer in movement and dance (where 

the performer and the performed are in one person) varies according to the 

degree of kinesthetic feedback during the performance. Therefore distancing 

oneself from one’s work, and looking at it from the spectator’s point of view 

can be more effective than only comments by the teacher and classmates. The 

use of both, the kinesthetic and the visual perception, the “outer” and “inner” 

perspective, can provide a good synergy of critical self-observation and lead to 

subsequent revisions. 

APPENDIX I / 105

Evaluating my final studies is the most interesting assignment. This process sheds the 

light on how a phrasing type feels, in contrast to how it looks in performance. 

NOTATING sequences by means of simple Motif Writing, Phrasing and Effort 

signs can serve as a means for clarifying students’ own compositional and 

performance intents. If students have had no instruction in Motif Writing it 

is helpful to give a general introduction to the basic staff, action, and stillness 

signs. Additional symbols can be introduced when the need arises. [See Ann 

Hutchinson-Guest Your Move: A New Approach to the Study of Movement and 

Dance, New York: Gordon & Breach, 1983, as a reference book.] 

Creating studies and notating sections of them was enjoyable, interesting, and 

stimulating. 

Describing the “lived experience” of performing various phrasing types and 

movement qualities. 

In general, the process of generating adjectives that describe the bodily experience 

of performed sequences brings about the awareness of how particular 

combinations of Effort Elements give different moods, expressions or feelings 

within particular Phrasing types. Such descriptions are suggested throughout 

the Workbook in both, the Effort and the Phrasing sections. In the latter students 

are asked to describe how the performance of a particular phrasing type 

makes them feel. 

Such descriptions serve several functions: 

They can create a resource that simultaneously engages the kinesthetic sense as 

well as the verbal representation of a particular Phrasing and Effort quality. In 

other words, they creates the link between the physical and mental component 

of movement qualities. This has been succinctly described by two students: 

I liked the worksheet descriptions because it helped me to form my impressions 

or ideas more concretely. By putting into words how a dynamic makes me feel, 

I have a resource to go back to when I am trying to achieve a certain quality 

in movement. 

The colorful imagery used in class is interesting and helpful in defining the 

phrasing types. 

106 / DANCE DYNAMICS 

In addition, the synonyms and descriptions of personal experiences, draw attention 

to the link between particular Efforts and various aspects of our consciousness. 

As described in Workbook, predominant attitudes to Space are linked with 

thinking or attending, those to Weight are linked with sensing, those to Time 

with intuiting, and those to Flow with feeling. Various emphases of these Effort

elements and their combinations significantly contribute to the expression of 

meaning in dance. Furthermore, these emphases also point to the dual aspects 

of Effort qualities that are present both in physical and mental actions. 

One of the most useful results of taking this course is a resource of imagery in 

words & ideas to help access the various Effort Qualities. This helps not only 

my performance when emboding notated movement, but will help in future 

when coaching other dances. 

I also see a strong link with my interest in dance criticism and analysis. 

Observing and understanding choreographic and performance choices in 

Dynamics and Phrasing will inform my interpretation of the work and ground 

that interpretation in something tangible/quantifiable. 

Viewing video excerpts from a variety of dance pieces. 

The DVD companion provides an opportunity for creating an objective distance 

between one’s own performance of various components of dance dynamics, and 

that of the choreographers and performers. Thus movement and dance excerpts 

selected from dance pieces, studies, and improvisations can be viewed on two 

levels: 

(1) an experiential, non-analytical mode (while turning down the voiceover 

text), and 

(2) as another source of information about a particular aspect of dance 

dynamics. 

The non-analytical mode can be enhanced with descriptions of the “lived experience” 

of what was seen. Descriptive adjectives can encapsulate the kinesthetic 

or emotional feel. On the other hand, reviewing the text in the DVD guide and 

the Workbook can support the cognitive mode. Both modes are essential components 

of the perception of movement and dance. 

Follow-up reading and discussion serve to complement all the above described 

modalities. 

Overview and summary papers (such as midterm and particularly finals) are an 

important aspect of the learning process. 

A quarter system, and even semester system, are a relatively short period for 

introducing and assimilating the material. Thus the final assignments give an 

opportunity to review and summarize both the experience and knowledge. 

APPENDIX I / 107

The synthesis from the final study and paper were extremely helpful. In many 

ways this is where it all comes together for me and can therefore be carried forth 

into my work beyond this term. Thus, this final discussion may be the most 

important modality for me. 

DESCRIBE class modalities that worked best for you: 


[B] SELECTED TEACHING APPLICATIONS 

MELANIE BALES 

I was first introduced to Laban study at the University of Illinois while working 

on my MFA, through the teaching of visiting choreographer Bill Evans. 

In 1982, I participated in an Evans summer workshop in Port Townsend, 

Washington, taking introductory courses in Space Harmony, Effort and 

Bartenieff Fundamentals with CMA Gregg Lizenberry. I immediately found 

a place for the ideas in my teaching, especially ballet. While teaching at The 

Ohio State University, I organized a Certification Program in Laban Movement 

Analysis (LMA) through the Laban/Bartenieff Institute of Movement Studies 

(LIMS). I completed the course in 1994, studying with Ed Groff, Peter 

Madden, Elizabeth Kagan and Eleanor Weisman. I have taught summer introductory 

workshops to students with backgrounds in dance, theatre, and music. 

For several years, I assisted in Vera Maletic’s courses, and I continue to enjoy 

learning and exchanging ideas with Professor Maletic. Currently, I teach Dance 

Dynamics (Effort) and Foundations of Labananalysis (LMA). I have also written 

through the lens of the Laban framework in articles that bring recent dance 

writing into dialogue with issues about dance training. 

The theoretical nature of Laban’s Effort study allows for great variety and 

imagination in terms of application. It also necessitates continual and fluid 

referencing to human experience in order for it to be understood in context. 

Sometimes the reference or illustration can be more general, or abstract; other 

times, more concrete or specific. For example, introducing the Phrasing Types 

(macro-structure) before delineating the individual Effort Elements (micro- 

structure) is effective for dancers who will recognize and easily physicalize pat- 

terns like swingy or resilient movement. Later, more discrete units of movement 

or individual qualities can be extracted from the larger, more general patterns 

of the Phrasing Types. It is also effective to establish links to other content areas 

(in dance, for our purposes). A student might create a sequence out of one or 

two Phrasing Types that could be used in teaching beginning dancers, or look 

at a sequence from a recent technique class in terms of those same patterns. 

A composition course developed by Vickie Blaine (at the OSU Department 

of Dance) asks the mover to examine and isolate his/her relationship to body 

weight and gravity, and is a pre-requisite to Dance Dynamics. Because the 

studies for the course center around three themes—Resiliency (Weight sensing, 

Resilient Phrasing), strength (strong Weight, and individual variations in Time, 

Space and Flow), and lightness (light Weight and Time, Space, Flow variations, 

often the “indulging” Efforts in contrast to strength)—students come to Dance 

Dynamics with physical knowledge related to the Weight Factor. A next step 

can be the development of descriptive language pertaining to experiences and 

observations from the composition class. Descriptive phrases, movement illustrations 

and characterizations can also be ways of evoking or eliciting Effort or 

APPENDIX I / 109

dynamic patterns that are less familiar, or outside a dancer’s habitual qualitative 

range. Words or phrases can be useful and provocative for the performer who 

wants to expand his/her movement palette, and also for the budding writer, 

critic, coach or director. 

As outlined above under The Demands of Teaching/Learning Dance Dynamics, 

the student learns through several modes, including observation, analysis, selfreflection, 

improvisation, visualization. In making the connections between a 

movement experience or an inner state and the various dynamic configurations 

as espoused in the theory, individuals will choose whatever mode that works 

best for them at the time. Exercises and assignments can be designed so that 

students expand both the modes they use and the connections they make. Two 

examples of class assignments follow. 

Example 1 

At the beginning of the quarter, we filled in the answers for strong and light 

Weight as a group, drawing from experiences in the composition class dealing 

with Weight mentioned above. As we learned about the other Motion Factors, 

we continued adding to the chart, reflecting on the studies from class. The chart 

could then be helpful for accessing a particular quality through its relationship 

to body use or spatial content. 

EFFORT QUALITY 

BODY SPACE 

Strong (WEIGHT) Wide stance Low level 

Direct ( SPACE) Simultaneous sequencing Linear, spoking 

Bound (FLOW) From periphery to center Confined, small 

kinesphere 

Sudden (TIME) Simultaneous sequencing Inward/backward 

Confined gesture 

Light ( WEIGHT) Peripheral body parts Upward 

Indirect/Flexible (SPACE) Successive movement Spirals, twists 

Free (FLOW) From center outwards Expansive 

Sustained (TIME) Successive sequencing Forward direction 

Horizontal 

This chart shows how a particular Effort quality has a tendency to associate 

with certain bodily and spatial configurations. 


Example 2 

The following words can be starting points for: developing group or individual 

movement sequences that illustrate the quality or inner state; finding which 

Effort Elements or qualities are most predominate and which are not active for 

each word; developing a character or situation based on the word and having 

the class guess the word. 

Calm 

Controlled 

Careful 

Agitated 

Hesitant 

Overbearing 

Sloppy 

Paranoid 

Resilient 

Perky 

Confident 

Stuttering 

ADD YOUR OWN 

The following illustrations also provide opportunites to extract the various 

Effort Elements and discuss which in the foreground. They may lend themselves 

to an examination of certain States (Near, Remote, Dream, etc.). 

Walking on eggshells; on hot coals 

Walking on a tightrope 

Brushing something off a child’s eyelash 

Big lazy fanning on a hot day 

Crossing a room after seeing someone you know 

Typing furiously 

Playing tug o’ war 

Tiptoeing into a class late 

APPENDIX I / 111

Example 2 (cont.) 

Below, the student provides the illustration. The movement issuing from the 

directions might be either mimetic as in the illustrations above, or more abstract 

as in dance movement. 

A strong/sudden action resolving into light/ 

/sustained 

(Weight and Time) 

A direct/ 

/bound action changing into indirect/ 

/free 

(Space and Flow) 

A strong/ 

/sustained action becoming light/ 

/sudden 

(Weight and Time) 

A direct/ 

/sudden action transforming into directness 

/sustainment 

(Space 

and Time) 

A bound/ 

/light action becoming free 

/strong 

(Flow and Weight) 


A P P E N D I X I I 

OPEN-ENDED CONSIDERATIONS OF C. G. JUNG’S INFLUENCES ON LABAN 

Psychologist Carl Gustav Jung started developing his theories during the first 

decades of the 20th century in the cultural milieu of his native Switzerland. 

Among his early publications is Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (1912) 

that was translated into English in 1916 as Psychology of the unconscious: 

a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido. 1 

Besides some 

loose references to what would become Jung’s theory of introvert and extravert 

personalities, the book draws from mythology, religion, ethnology, art, and literature, 

and announces Jung’s break from Freudian psychoanalysis. Underlying 

the concept of personality types, Jung proposed four psychological functions 

by which consciousness obtains its orientation. As he writes in his Man and his 

Symbols, 1964: 61, “Sensation (i.e. sense-perception) tells you that something 

exists; thinking tells you what it is; feeling tells you whether it is agreeable or 

not; and intuition tells you whence it comes and where it is going.” 2 

In order to establish a meaningful correlation between some concepts developed 

respectively by C.G.Jung and by Laban, further research is required concerning 

Laban’s assimilations of some of Jung’s notions. 

During and after WW I, Laban resided in Switzerland, and was aware of some 

of Jung’s ideas. In Die Welt des Tanzers (The Dancer’s World, 1926), 3 he lists 

Jung’s Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido among the literature that could 

expand dancers’ insights. Apparently Laban did not take further interest in 

Jung’s work until the forties. 

About Laban’s contacts with a group of Jungian psychologists in England in 

the 40’s and 50’s, one can glean information from John Hodgson & Preston- 

Dunlop (1990), 4 Preston-Dunlop (1998), 5 and Hodgson (2001). 6 Laban was 

invited to establish movement therapy at the Withymead Centre, an establishment 

based on Jungian approaches to psychotherapy. Though Laban chiefly 

delegated this task to his assistants, exchanges with one of the founders of the 

Centre, Dr Champernowne, gave him the opportunity to get acquainted with 

Jung’s psychological types and the four main functions—thinking, feeling, 

sensation, and intuition. These contacts may explain the appearance of related 

terms in the 1960 edition of The Mastery of Movement. 7 On “Table VII: Survey 

APPENDIX II / 113

of the Type and Meaning of Motion Factors and their Combinations,” Laban 

presents for the first time the link between the Motion factors and what he calls 

“man’s powers”: the Motion Factor of Space affect man’s power of “Thinking,” 

of Weight—”Sensing,” of Time—”Intuiting,” and of Flow—”Feeling.” On the 

same table, there also is a link between “Inner Participation” with Attention 

and Space, Intention and Weight, Decision and Time, and Progression and 

Flow. While Laban elaborated on the association of Inner Participation with 

Motion factors, he did not explain the link between “man’s powers” and the 

four Motion factors. This hiatus is unfortunate since it obfuscates the origins of 

this significant concept in his thinking. One can speculate that the fact the four 

powers are put in quotation marks may be a tacit reference to Jung’s four function 

types. It is as though we are presented with the results of Laban’s thinking 

but not with the origin and process that led to them. 

Several documents, however, hint at permutations in his thinking that must 

have preceded associating the four functions with the four Motion factors. By 

permission of Warren Lamb, I have had the opportunity to inspect a letter and 

graph that Laban sent him in 1952. (At the time, Lamb was Laban’s assistant 

in his work in industry and started developing his own methods of movement 

assessment.) In Laban’s letter and graph, Inner Participation of attention, 

intention, decision, an precision are linked interchangeably with intuiting, feeling, 

thinking, and sensation. Further, Laban collaborated with Bill Carpenter 

(associated with the Withymead Centre) on an unfinished manuscript titled 

“Movement Psychology”; it was written between 1952 and ‘54. In Hodgson’s 

(2001) summary of its content, there is a reference to four mental factors of 

sensing, thinking, intuiting, and feeling and their associations with Weight, 

Space, Time, and Flow. Like in the 1960 edition of The Mastery of Movement, 

there is no mention of Jung. 

To gain a more complete picture of Laban’s process of assimilation and appropriation 

of Jung’s concepts further research is needed. Additional analysis of 

“Movement Psychology,” and an investigation of Warren Lamb’s archive appear 

as viable points of departure. The Laban-Carpenter manuscript is housed at the 

Laban Archives at University of Surrey’s National Resource Center for Dance 

(NRCD). Lamb’s archives are in the process of classification and will be available 

at NRCD at a later time. 


Notes 

1. Carl Gustav Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious: a Study of the Transformation and 

Symbolisms of the Libido (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991). 

2. _______________, Man and his Symbols (London: Aldus Books Ltd., 1964). 

3. Rudolf Laban, Die Welt des Tanzers (Stuttgart: Walter Seifert Verlag, 1920). 

4. John Hodgson & Valerie Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban: An Introduction to his Work 

and Influence (Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers, 1990). 

5. Valerie Preston-Dunlop, Rudolf Laban: An Extraordinary Life 

(London: Dance Books, 

1998). 

6. John Hodgson, Mastering Movement: The Life and Work of Rudolf Laban (New York: 

Routledge, 2001). 

7. Rudolf Laban, The Mastery of Movement (London: Macdonald & Evans, 1960). 

APPENDIX II / 115

A P P E N D I X I I I 

PHRASING OF DANCE QUALITIES IN LABANOTATION SCORES 

Not unlike music scores, the general purpose of dance scores is the documentation 

of dance works within their artistic, cultural, and social context. The 

analysis of features, such as body movement in space and time, and the progression 

through the performance area, provides components for the synthesis in 

restaging various choreographies. In this process, the notator and/or the director 

attempt to capture the expression of embodiments, or the corporealization 

of choreographic images and ideas. 

Although the Labanotation system does not have many signs for dynamic qualities, 

the scores, however, contain information about dynamics and phrasing, in 

an implicit and explicit manner. 

Ways in which particular movement motifs and/or sequences are written can 

imply their performance qualities. For instance while jumping normally implies 

Resilient Phrasing, a slow balancing motif is likely to be performed with Even 

Phrasing maintaining the same quality. Furthermore, a tombé-like movement 

connotes increasing speed and energy, and a swing usually implies an 

Increasing-then-Decreasing Phrasing. 

A few explicit signs, such as accents and phrasing bows, have been used when 

particular qualities or phrasing in the score need to be enhanced. Effort signs 

are also used, though not in a consistent way. 

I have been interested for some time in elaborating on such explicit signs that 

can be used in annotating dance scores. (See annotated bibliography at the end 

of this Appendix.) As referred in the introduction to my Phrasing classification, 

discussions with colleagues Odette Blum and Lucy Venable about Phrasing 

annotations greatly contributed to my investigations in this area. 

This appendix contains excerpts from a paper I presented at the Conference of 

the International Council for Kinetography Laban (ICKL) in 1991. It is titled 

“Qualitative Annotations of Labanotation Scores,” and published in ICKL: 

Proceedings of the Seventeenth Biennial Conference. The intent of the paper 

was to examine the rationale for annotations of Labanotation scores using 

APPENDIX III / 117

Phrasing and Effort symbols, and to point out the need for an acquaintance 

with the Effort theory on the part of notators. 

The examples selected for this appendix illustrate two resources for qualitative 

annotations of scores. These include descriptions from the choreographer of the 

notated piece, and descriptions from a notator and performer with an in-depth 

knowledge of the work’s choreographic style. 

Samples representing descriptions from the choreographer are excerpts from 

Victoria Uris’ Breakers. The work was originally created in 1986, and restaged 

with the University Dance Company in the 1990/91 season. The excerpts are 

from two sections: the “Man’s Solo,” and “Harmonious Assault I—Sextet.” 

The piece was notated by Wendy Mang Ching Chu, MFA candidate at the OSU 

Department of Dance, in Winter and Spring 1991, under the supervision of 

Odette Blum. During the process of notating Breakers, Uris pointed out sections 

that required additional Phrasing and Effort annotations. 

Lucy Venable, who performed in José Limón’s There is a Time, subsequently 

notated the work. She was the resource for annotations of Phrasing and Effort 

presented here. She danced the woman’s part in “A Time to be Silent” which 

she learned from Lavinia Nielson who danced it in the first cast. Limón created 

the work in 1956, and Venable staged it with the University Dance Company 

in 1983. Having a thorough knowledge of the style of the piece, she considers 

Phrasing and Effort annotations of this score to be a historical resource for 

future directors. 


The first example shows a Phrasing annotation coupled with ONE SINGLE 

EFFORT ELEMENT. Since one Effort quality seldom appears in isolation, such 

annotations are appropriate only at times when the Labanotation provides the 

context. 

In measure 28 from Limón’s “A Time to be Silent” the dancer flicks her leg 

with a sense of urgency, and touches the floor with precision. While “urgency” 

is conveyed with the sudden quality of Time, the associated quality of Space— 

flexibility or indirectness can be seen from the rotation of hip and pelvis. The 

suddenness including the innate quality of indirectness create a short Impulsive 

Phrasing. The direct quality of Space that denotes “precision” is associated with 

a slight deceleration resulting in the touch—thus an Impactive Phrasing. 

APPENDIX III / 119

Annotations consisting of qualities that result from COMBINATIONS OF TWO 

MOTION FACTORS and their respective Effort elements describe the inner 

attitudes motivating the dance sequence. (Each of the six inner attitudes have 

four combinations that amount to twenty-four qualities with distinct characteristics.) 

In the first measure of Limón’s “A Time to be Silent” stillness is maintained 

with a direct and bound quality that is one of the six combinations of Space 

and Flow. While the Space/Flow combinations tend to create a remote, abstract 

mood, the particular direct/bound quality shows a restricted honing in. The 

phrasing sign indicates that this quality does not change throughout the duration 

of the stillness. 


In the second measure of “A Time to be Silent” the direct/bound quality changes 

into sustained/bound—both combinations of Time and Flow. 

Since Time/Flow 

combinations are generally characterized by a more adaptable attitude, the sustained/bound 

is maintained while turning and gesturing that one can interpret 

as remaining in control. 

APPENDIX III / 121

Another example of annotations with a COMBINATION OF TWO MOTION 

FACTORS can be found in the score of Victoria Uris’ Breakers, in measures 

7–10 from “Harmonious Assault I—Sextet.” The strong/sudden quality is a 

combination of Weight and Time characterized as rhythmical involvement 

with activities. Placed within the Increasing-then-Decreasing Phrasing sign 

this quality becomes stronger and faster and gradually fades out. The dancers’ 

preparation for a hop emphasized by sweeping arm gestures is described by the 

choreographer as “seagulls diving into water.” 


Annotations consisting of qualities that result from COMBINATIONS OF 

THREE MOTION FACTORS and their respective Effort Elements, describe 

externalized drives which motivate parts or sections of a dance. (Each of the 

four drives has eight combinations, and their qualities amount to thirty-two 

combinations that have particular characteristics.) 

In measure eight of Uris’ “Man’s Solo” the dancer advances over three beats 

while building up to an impact in the first half of the fourth beat. The direct/ 

strong/sudden quality of the Impact is one of the combinations of the Action 

drive or eight Basic Effort Actions, referred to as punch-like. 

The Impactive Phrasing from the “Harmonious Assault I—Sextet” section is 

created by the recurring motif of a sisonne enhanced by a torso and tossing 

arm gesture. The quality of the Impact that is strong/sudden/free belongs to 

one of the eight combinations of the “spaceless” Passion drive. In contrast to 

the action-like punch, this combination in which the Flow factor (which Laban 

associates with Feeling) replaces the Space factor (that Laban associates with 

Thinking), expresses an emotional outburst. 

APPENDIX III / 123

The final example shows several Phrasing and Effort annotations that occur 

SIMULTANEOUSLY or CONCURRENTLY. In measure 56 from Limón’s “A 

Time to be Silent” the light/sudden Vibratory Phrasing maintained in the legs 

is juxtaposed to two short Impulses of the head and arms performed with a 

direct/sudden quality, terminating with a light/sudden Impulse. 

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Conclusion 

The purpose of the qualitative annotations of a work by José Limón and Victoria 

Uris is to show the inner motivation for particular movement sequences. The 

annotations were based on discussion about motivating imagery and qualities 

with choreographer Uris, and on insights into Limón’s motivation behind the 

movement vocabulary from performers Nielson and Venable. 


Annotated Bibliography of V. Maletic’s articles on Dynamics and Phrasing 

“Dynamics of Phrasing in Movement and Dance” (International Council of 

Kinetography Laban [ICKL]: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Biennial Conference, 

1983) 110–126. The paper contains the nucleus of my classification and notation 

of phrasing, developed further in Workbook for Dance Dynamics: Effort 

and Phrasing (1999). In addition to an excerpt from José Limón’s 

There is a 

Time (with Lucy Venable), an excerpt from Anna Sokolow’s Odes is annotated 

from coaching points given by the choreographer to dancers from The Ohio 

State University Department of Dance. 

“Dynamics of Dance” (ICKL: Proceedings of the Fifteenth Biennial Conference, 

1987) 82–101. The paper gives a historical account of the status of dynamics 

in Kinetography/Labanotation and presents a revised classification of phrasing. 

Of particular interest is a report on initial stages of a joint research project with 

notator Ray Cook, assisted by Lucy Venable and graduate associate Amanda 

Tom (89–90; 101–102). Questions, such as how do various ways of notation 

enhance the desired quality of the dance, and how do we interpret various 

dynamic symbols used in the score have been examined in segments from 

Sokolow’s Moods. 

“Issues in Phrasing and Effort Annotations of a Humphrey Score” (ICKL: 

Proceedings of the Sixteenth Biennial Conference, 1989) 105–126. Several versions 

of the performance of Doris Humphrey’s Invention are analyzed from the 

point of view of characteristics of Humphrey’s dance vocabulary, her concepts 

of “breath rhythm” and “fall and recovery,” and the dynamics captured in the 

Labanotation score. Additional phrasing and Effort annotations are proposed 

as a resource for directors and performers that are historically removed from 

Humphrey’s style. 

“Qualitative Annotations of Labanotation Scores” (ICKL: Proceedings of 

the Seventeenth Biennial Conference, 1991) 73–103. In addition to excerpts 

included in the Appendix III, the paper includes four examples of folk dances 

from Croatia, annotated by V. Maletic (91, 92, 97, 101). 

“Qualitative Annotations of Labanotation Scores revisited” (ICKL: Proceedings 

of the Twenty-Second Biennial Conference, 2000) 87–100. The paper includes 

new examples of excerpts from dance scores, such as Lester Horton’s The 

Beloved, and Don Redlich’s Passin’ Through, and Croatian folk dances annotated 

by V. Maletic. 

APPENDIX III / 125

B I B L I O G R A P H Y 

Bartenieff, Irmgard with Dori Lewis. Body Movement: Coping with the 

Enviroment. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1980. 

Bodmer, Sylvia. Studies Based on Crystalloid Dance Forms. London: Laban 

Centre for Movement and Dance, 1979. 

Cooper Albright, Ann. “Auto-Body Stories: Blondell Cummings and Auto bio- 

graphy in Dance.” Meaning in Motion. J. Desmond ed. Durham, 

NC: Duke University Press, 1977. 

Cohen, Selma Jeanne. “Dance as an Art of Imitation.” What is Dance? 

Copeland, Robert & Cohen, Marshall., eds. New York: Oxford 

University Press, 1983. 

Davis, Martha. Towards Understanding the Intrinsic in Body Movement. New 

York: Arno Press, 1975. 

Dell, Cecily. A Primer for Movement Description New York. Dance Notation 

Bureau, 1970. 

Dixon Gottschild, Brenda. Digging the Africanist Presence in American 

Performance Dance and Other Contexts. Westport, CN.: Greenwood 

Press, 1996. 

Duncan, Isadora. My Life. New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 1927. 

Gellerman, Jill. “Mayim Patterns the Three Hassidic Communities.” Essays in 

Dance Research. Dance Research Annual IX., CORD 1978 120. 

Hawkins, Alma. Creating Through Dance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 

1964. 

Hayes, Elizabeth R. Dance Composition and Production. New York: The 

Ronald Press Co., 1955. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY / 127

H’Doubler, Margaret. Dance: A Creative Art Experience. Madison, WI.: 

University of Wisconsin Press, 1966. 

Hodgson, John. Mastering Movement: The Life and Work of Rudolf Laban. 

New York: Routledge, 2001. 

Hodgson, John & Valerie Preston-Dunlop. Rudolf Laban: An Introduction to 

his Work and Influence. Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers, 1990. 

Humphrey, Doris. The Art of Making Dances. New York: Grove Press, 1959. 

Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and his Symbols. London: Aldus Books Ltd., 1964. 

_______________. Psychology of the Unconscious: a Study of the Transformations 

and Symbolisms of the Libido. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 

Press, 1991. 

Kestenberg, Judith. The Role of Movement Patterns in Development. New 

York: The Dance Notation Bureau, 1967. 

Laban, Rudolf. Die Welt des Tanzers. Sttutgart: Walter Seifert Varlag, 1920. 

____________. Modern Educational Dance. London: Macdonald & Evans, 

1948. 

____________. “Rudiments of a Free Dance Technique.” Modern Educational 

Dance, third ed., 1975. 

____________. The Mastery of Movement on the Stage. London: Macdonald 

& Evans, 1950. 

____________. 

Principles of Dance and Movement Notation. London: 

Macdonald & Evans, 1956. 

____________. Choreutics. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1966. 

____________. The Mastery of Movement. London: Macdonald & Evans, 

1980. 

Laban, Rudolf & Lawrence, F. C. Effort. London: Macdonald & Evans, 

1947. 

Lamb, Warren. Posture and Gesture. London: Duckworth, 1965. 


Langer, Susanne K. Problems of Art. New York: Scribner’s, 1957. 

Maletic, Ana. Knjiga o Plesu. Zagreb: Kulturno-prosvjetni sabor Hrvatske, 

1986. 

Maletic, Vera. Body-Space-Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s 

Movement and Dance Concepts. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987. 

Maletic, Vera. “Dynamics of Dance.” International Council of Kinetography 

Laban: Proceedings of the Fifteenth Biennial Conference. 1989. 

____________. “Issues in Phrasing and Effort Annotations of Humphrey 

Score.” ICKL: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Biennial Conference. 

1989. 

____________. “Qualitative Annotations of Labanotation Scores.” ICKL: 

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____________. “Qualitative Annotations of Labanotation Scores revisited.” 

International Council of Kinetography Laban: Proceedings of the 

Twenty-Second Biennial Conference, 2000. 

Moore, Carol-Lynne and Kaoru Yamamoto. Beyond Words: Movement 

Observation and Analysis. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1988. 

Murgiyanto, Sal. “Seeing and Writing about World Dance: An Insider’s View.” 

Dance Critic’s Association News, Summer 1990. 

Myers, Gerald. “Do You See What the Critic Sees?” Philosophical Essays on 

Dance. New York: Dance Horizons, 1981. 

Ness, Sally Ann. Body, Movement and Culture: Kinesthetic and Visual 

Symbolism in a Phillipine Community. Philadelphia: University of 

Pennsylvania Press, 1992. 

North, Marion. Personality Assessment Through Movement. London: 


North, Marion. “The Language of Bodily Gesture.” Main Currents of Modern 

Thought, Vol. 31, no.1, September-October 1974. 

Novack, Cynthia. Sharing the Dance: Contact Improvisation and American 

Culture. Madison, WI.: University of Madison Press, 1990. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY / 129

Noverre, Jean-Georges. Letters on Dancing and Ballets. Transl., C. W. 

Beaumont. London: Beaumont, 1951, first published 1930. 

Peterson Royce, Anya. The Anthropology of Dance. Bloomington: Indiana 

University Press, 1977. 

Preston, Valerie. A Handbook for Modern Educational Dance. London: 


Preston-Dunlop, Valerie. A Handbook for Dance in Education. London: 


_____________________. compiler, Dance Words. Choreography and Dance 

Studies Vol. 8, 1995. 

_____________________. Rudolf Laban: An Extraordinary Life. London: 

Dance Books, 1998. 

Rainer, Yvonne. “The Mind is a Muscle.” Work: 1961–73. New York University, 

1974. 

Satin, Leslie. “Movement and the Body in Maya Deren’s Meshes of the 

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Vol. 6, no.2, 1993. 

Shawn, Ted. Every Little Movement. Pittsfield, MA: Eagle Printing and Binding 

Co., 1927. 

Siegel, Marcia B. The Tail of the Dragon New Dance, 1976–1982. Durham, 

NC: Duke University Press, 1991. 

Smith, Jacqueline. Dance Composition—A Practical Guide for Teachers. 

London: Lepus Books, 1976. 

Stebbins, Genevieve. Delsarte System of Expression. New York: Dance 

Horizons, 1977, originally published in 1902. 

Taylor, Paul. “Down with Choreography.” The Modern Dance: Seven Statements 

of Belief. 

S.J. Cohen ed.,1966. 

Yoo, Si-Hyun. Young-Sook Han’s Salpury Chum: Labanotation and Stylistic 

Analysis of a Traditional Korean Dance. Master’s thesis, The Ohio State 

University, 1995. 


Dance reviews 

Anderson, Jack. “Rod Rodgers Remembered: Lyric and Vivid Choreography.” 

The New York Times, 26 Nov. 2003. 

_____________.”Feet with a Lot to Say and Ways to Say It.” The New York 

Times, Dec. 18, 2003. B3. 

Dunning, Jennifer. “A Dancer Shows How Rhythm can Set the Fire to a 

Flirtation.” The New York Times, 28 Nov. 2003. B3. 

_______________. “Images of Light and Dark Connect East to West.” The 

New York Times, 18 Oct. 2003. A24. 

Jowitt, Deborah. “How Many Ways To Twist It?” Review of Ballet Frankfurt’s 

“The Room as it Was.” The Village Voice, October 8–14, 2003. 

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20 Nov. 2003. B1. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY / 131

D V D V I E W I N G G U I D E 

The companion DVD provides opportunity for observing short movement and 

dance sequences that can be viewed repeatedly without changes in performance, 

unlike live performance that may change from time to time. Making distinctions 

between various components of dance dynamics, such as Phrasing types and 

Effort qualities can facilitate a conscious awareness of these strands of movement. 

It is as though the elusive medium of dance can be temporarily captured 

by means of classification and terminology. Such identification, in turn, leads 

to a descriptive language. 

The video excerpts on the DVD emphasize the visual modality and enlist kinesthetic 

feedback. Music accompaniment is deliberately left out as it may bring 

up unnecessary issues, such as contrapuntal or complementary dynamics, and 

interfere with the focus on movement itself. 

The DVD examples have been donated courtesy of choreographers and performers 

that are acknowledged after each excerpt. 

Some suggestions for viewing 

In addition to the sequencing and the voice-over provided by the DVD you 

also may explore the following approaches: 

View examples while turning off the voice-over to find out what you actually 

saw. 

Before trying to identify various movement dynamics and qualities just 

imitate or mimic what you saw. 

Jot down a few descriptive adjectives about the feel of the sequence without 

using any technical terms. 

Stop the DVD to repeat viewing an excerpt that appears complex to you. 

Reviewing related aspects of dynamics and movement qualities in the 

Workbook, may also be helpful. 

The DVD Chapter Menu gives an overview and the opportunity for additional 

viewing of any aspect of dance dynamics that you choose. 

NOTE: While the voice-over descriptions are reproduced in this guide, a more 

extensive analysis is added to some video excerpts. 

DVD VIEWING GUIDE / 1

D V D C H A P T E R M E N U 

The DVD provides you with the choice of playing the chapters and sub-chapters 

in the order they have been recorded or of selecting sections of your own 

choice. 

( 1 ) P E R C E P T I O N O F D A N C E D Y N A M I C S I N G E N E R A L T E R M S 

Variety 

Repetition 

Contrast 

( 2 ) D Y N A M I C S O F P H R A S I N G 

PHRASING TYPES 

Even 

Increasing 

Impactive 

Decreasing 

Impulsive 

Increase–Decrease 

Decrease–Increase 

Accented 

Vibratory 

Resilient 

Elastic 

Buoyant 

Weighty 


Consecutive 

Concurrent 

Overlapping 

PHRASING ANALYSIS OF TWO EXAMPLES 

Contrast 

Variety 

2 / DANCE DYNAMICS

( 3 ) E F F O R T Q U A L I T I E S 

ONE MOTION FACTOR 

Direct and Indirect Space 

Strong Weight 

Light Weight 

Sudden Time 

Bound Flow 

Free Flow 

TWO MOTION FACTORS—STATES 

Weight/Flow–Dreamlike & Space/Time–Awake 

Space/Flow–Remote & Weight/Time–Near 

Space/Weight–Stable & Time/Flow–Mobile 

THREE MOTION FACTORS—DRIVES 

Space/Weight/Time–Action Drive 

Flow/Weight/Time–Passion 

Space/Flow/Time–Vision 

Space/Weight/Flow–Spell 

SYNTHESIS: EFFORT and PHRASING ANALYSIS OF TWO EXAMPLES 

Contrast 

Variety 


ACCOMPANYING TEXT and listing of video sources 

( 1 ) P E R C E P T I O N O F D A N C E D Y N A M I C S I N G E N E R A L T E R M S 

The following video excerpts show some easily observable features. 

Variety of dynamics 

Variety is one of the general features of dance dynamics that can be seen at 

first glance. Three performers interact with percussive, more languid, and some 

changing movement qualities. 

FROM: Six Tangos (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Melanie Bales 

PERFORMERS: Robin Anderson, Ama Codjoe, Christina Providence 

Videotaped by Emily Lawrence 

Repetition 

Repetition of the same movement quality is another feature that can be noticed 

with ease. While the first example showed a repetitive elastic walk, the second 

presented a repetition of jerky movements performed with different arm and 

body gestures. 

FROM: Composition study (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Michael Estanich 


FROM: Tracking (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Kristin Hapke 

PERFORMER: Michelle Stortz 


Contrasting dynamics 

Contrasting qualities enhance each other. The smooth interaction between the 

two dancers contrasts with their more agitated outbursts. The two qualities 

clearly stand out from one another. 

FROM: African Funeral Song (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Susan Hadley 

PERFORMERS: Lauren Bisio, Keren Ganin-Pinto 

Videotaped by Victoria Uris 

4 / DANCE DYNAMICS

( 2 ) D Y N A M I C S O F P H R A S I N G 

The following set of excerpts will be observed from the point of view of 

Phrasing of movement energy. 

PHRASING TYPES 

[Also refer to Workbook pp. 59–60.] 

The author has classified Phrasing into eight main types. 

Even 

In this Phrasing type the movement energy does not change. 

(1) The right arm and subsequently the head of the performer move with an 

unchanging, Even intensity from the beginning till the end. 

FROM: Figuring (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Chad Hall 


(2) In the next excerpt three Even Phrasings follow one another in the performance 

of the two dancers. 



Increasing 

The performance energy increases in its intensity. 

(1) During the turning sequence the momentum and the speed of the movement 

gradually increases until abruptly stopped. 

(2) In the second short sequence the momentum of the performer's movement 

becomes increasingly controlled as though approaching something 

dangerous. 

FROM: Tornado (1993) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Jeanine Thompson 

Videotaped by Rosalind Pierson 

Impactive 

An Impact occurs when the Increase builds to a climax. 

(1) Two leg kicks and the performer's final lunge create three Impacts. 


CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Scott Lowe 



(2) In the second example two motifs with a series of Impacts are performed 

with arm, torso and leg gestures, as well as a lunge. The somewhat agitated 

mood eases with a slide, which is Increasing in released fluency. 

FROM: Garras dos Sentidos (1999) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Balinda Craig-Quijada 

Decreasing 

Energy can decrease from a greater to a lesser intensity. 

(1) The dancer's turning gradually decelerates creating a Decreasing phrasing. 

FROM: Lachrymae (1997) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / VIDEOGRAPHER: Rosalind Pierson 

PERFORMER: Susan Sanborn 

(2) In the second example the tense, taut pull between the two dancers 

gradually Decreases. 

FROM: Directed improvisation (2004) 

PERFORMERS: Kristina Isabelle, Christina Providence 

Videotaped by Shawn Hove 

Impulsive 

The Decrease can follow an initial outburst. 

(1) Most movement actions in this sequence are initiated with a light 

Impulse after which the energy gradually diminishes. 



(2) In the second example a series of strong Impulses conveys an unsettling, 

agitated mood. 


PERFORMER: Kristina Isabelle 


6 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Increase–Decrease 

This Phrasing can occur in a variety of movement qualities and body actions. 

(1) In this sequence all the arm swings are performed with Increase–Decrease in 

speed and weightiness. Leaps and turning jumps also are performed with 

Increase–Decrease in speed and lightness. 

FROM: Chairs (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Zvi Gotheiner 

PERFORMER: Scott Lowe 


(2) The second example includes a sequence of exercise-like lateral swings that 

precede a dance excerpt. In it a series of fast paced Increase–Decrease 

swings is performed with arms and torso gestures and a roll. 

FROM: Boxed In (2003) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Kristina Isabelle 


Decrease–Increase 

Decreasing-then-Increasing Phrasing can occur gradually or more abruptly with 

an Decreasing Impulse and Increasing Impact. 

(1) In this sequence the dancer gradually releases from an arching tension 

and returns to it. 

FROM: Variation based on material from Boxed In (2003) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Kristina Isabelle 


(2) In the second example the Impulse in the torso can be seen as a preparation 

for an Increasing side fall that is repeated several times. 




(3) The third excerpt shows both dancers performing two Decrease– 

Increase Phrasings as an Impulse into an Impact. 




Accented 

A sudden exertion of energy that can be repeated and/or followed by stillness is 

referred to as Accented Phrasing. 

(1) In the first sequence intermittent sudden stomps form several rhythmic 

entities of Accented Phrasing. 

FROM: Improvisation on the image of a toreador teasing an imaginary bull (2004) 



(2) In the next excerpts several jerky Accents are performed with the right 

arm and head; the subsequent Even sinking is punctuated with one more 

gentle accent. 

FROM: Kristen Come Home (1997) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Susan Sanborn 


Vibratory 

An uninterrupted series of sudden repetitions creates Vibratory Phrasing. 

(1) In the first example fast, repetitive hand movements shaking an imaginary 

red cloth in front of a bull, create a series of Vibratory movements. 

FROM: Improvisation on the image of a toreador teasing an imaginary bull (2004) 


(2) The second example shows that Vibratory Phrasing also can be performed 

by the entire body. 

FROM: R.E.M. (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Joe Alter 

PERFORMER: Luke Gutgsell 


8 / DANCE DYNAMICS

RESILIENT 

[Also refer to Workbook pp. 73–76; 92–94.] 

Repetitive, rebounding qualities make up Resilient Phrasing. It can have three 

emphases. 

Elastic 

In this Resiliency there is an equal emphasis on strength and lightness—a kind 

of oscillation between these qualities. 

(1) Several rebounding or bouncy steps create Elastic Resiliency conveying 

a happy-go-lucky mood. 




(2) In the second example Elastic, springy Resiliency can be seen in the 

performer's rebounding jumps. 

FROM: Is a Woman (1987) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Susan Van Pelt 

Buoyant 

The emphasis in this Resiliency is on lightness. 

(1) In the first excerpts performer's hops and leaps have an airborne Buoyant 

resiliency. 


CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Robin Anderson 


(2) In the second example the juggler's manipulations also have a Buoyant 

resiliency. 

FROM: Improvisation (2004) 

PERFORMER: Jason Hedden 


Weighty 

The emphasis in this Resiliency is on heaviness or weightiness. 

(1) The first hip-hop sequence starts with Weighty Resiliency and then 

becomes more bouncy, elastic. 

FROM: Improvisation in the style of hip-hop dancing (2004) 

PERFORMER: Marc Woten 


(2) The performer appears bogged down with Weighty resiliency. 

PERFORMER: Michael Estanich 




Phrasing of movement actions can be performed in three different ways. 

Consecutive 

In most of the sequences observed the Phrasing was performed one after the 

other, i.e. Consecutively with various body parts or the entire body. The types 

of Phrasing can be the same or different. 

(1) In the first excerpt two Increasing drops of the right arm and head are 

followed by a Weighty Resilient lowering and rising of the entire body 

and continuing with a brief Decrease–Increase, ending with an Impactive 

squat. 

FROM: The Touch (1995) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Irene Hultman 

PERFORMER: Melanie Bales 

(2) The second sequence starts with Even movements of the legs rising that 

follow each other; a slight Accent precedes an Increasing drop which 

reverberates with some elastic Resiliency; a slight Impulse leads into the 

Even lowering of one leg. 

FROM: Kristen Come Home (1997) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Susan Sanborn. 


10 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Concurrent Phrasing 

Different parts of the body can perform different phrasing types at the same 

time, i.e. Concurrently: 

(1) The first excerpt shows fast turning steps that produce Vibratory 

phrasing, while at the same time the right arm raises and lowers with 

Impulsive phrasing; the sequence ends with an Increase–Decrease fall of 

the whole body. 

FROM: Wild Mushrooms in North America (1989) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Karen Eliot 

(2) After three Consecutive moves the performer's head leans backwards 

Evenly while Concurrently the foot repeats several short Increase– 

Decrease rotations and the leg lowers Evenly; finally the entire body 

collapses with an Increase. 

FROM: Tick (2002) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Susan Sanborn 


Overlapping Phrasing 

When actions of various body parts begin before the Phrasing of the previous 

action has finished, Overlapping Phrasing occurs. 

Here is an example of Overlapping Phrasing that also includes Consecutive and 

Concurrent Phrasing: 

(1) After a fast Increase–Decrease torso movement, two Even arm gestures 

Overlap with the torso recovery. Even Bending and stretching of 

the foot initiates Overlapping eye, head, arm and finger movements. 

All Overlapping movements are Even except for Vibratory fingers, and 

a slight Impact of the hand. Consecutive leg rotations continue with 

Vibratory movement of both legs that is Concurrent with Increasing– 

Decreasing arm gestures that end with an Impact of the entire body. 

FROM: Girl Blue (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / CAMERAPERSON: Noel Reiss 

PERFORMER: Balinda Craig-Quijada 


PHRASING ANALYSIS OF TWO EXAMPLES 

After having considered Phrasing types and their sequencing separately, we will 

observe aspects of Phrasing in two longer excerpts that have been seen before. 

Contrasting Dynamics 

Contrasting Phrasing types alternate in this sequence. 

(1) The unfolding of the first gestures and the subsequent lowering and rising 

of both dancers is performed with Even Phrasing. This is punctuated 

with the dancer in the background performing an Increase–Decrease 

scooping turn, while the dancer in the foreground Increases downwards. 

Their respective launching onto the floor is performed with Decrease– 

Increase phrasing, and two faster Impulses followed by Impacts; this is 

interspersed with Even turning over and looking around at the end. The 

sequencing of Phrasing by each dancer is Consecutive. 



Variety of Dynamics 

This example has four different types of Phrasing. 

(1) Three Performers move first one after the other with differing types of 

Phrasing: an Impact with Even recovery, two Accents followed by Even 

moves, then at the same time with Even Phrasing punctuated with knee 

initiated Impulses by two performers that changes the initial grouping. 

The third performer then establishes herself with two pelvic Accents and, 

gains momentum for two subsequent Impactive Phrasings that again create 

changes in the grouping. The sequencing of Phrasing by each dancer 

is Consecutive. 



12 / DANCE DYNAMICS

( 3 ) E F F O R T Q U A L I T I E S 

Rudolf Laban developed the Effort theory that considers various movement 

qualities and describes specific coloring or texture of the movement. 

ONE MOTION FACTOR 


Single movement qualities seldom appear in isolation. The following examples 

will show the predominance of qualities in one Motion Factor, and subsequently 

in one Effort quality. 

Direct & Indirect Space 

(1) The performer alternates direct, straight reaching gestures with indirect, 

flexible ones. Some changes in Time are also noticeable. 



PERFORMER: Christina Providence 

Strong Weight 

(1) The dancer exerts all the actions with strength or firmness while the 

strand of bound Flow is also noticeable. 


CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Scott Lowe 


Light Weight 

(1) This example shows a predominance of light, fine touch qualities that 

are associated with varying Time, Space, and Flow variables. 


CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Robin Anderson 


Sudden Time 

(1) Repetitive sudden leg gestures also show some light and direct quality. 

For this excerpt, Christina Providence has recalled her performance experience in the 

Croatian folk dance Ensemble Zivili in Columbus, Ohio. 



Sustained Time 

(1) In this example the sustained quality is maintained over an Even 

Phrasing while the performer is advancing. 


CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Kristin Hapke 

Bound Flow 

(1) In this scene, predominant bound Flow is coupled with sustainment and 

some instances of sudden Time. 

FROM: Breaking the Current: Ms. Toad’s Wild Ride Through the Twists and Turns of 

the Psychedelic Journey Called Life (1999) 


Videotaped by Janet Parrott 

Free Flow 

(1) Free Flow and fast tempo are generated by most of the movement 

actions in this example. 

FROM: Tornado (1993) 





Laban identified “incomplete efforts” as the emergence of a combination of 

two Motion factor’s elements. Bartenieff referred to them as “inner states.” 

Such combinations are observable in movement transitions and in some dance 

sequences. 

Weight/Flow—Dream-like & Space/Time—Awake 

(1) This scene shows a brief Dream-like or daydreaming State in which the 

performer engages Weight and Flow elements that oscillate between 

their polarities. From it she changes into an Awake sudden and direct 

pauncing, thus engaging elements of Space and Time, though some 

strength and bound Flow also are noticeable. Finally she returns to the 

Dream-like State again. 


PERFORMER / CHOREOGRAPHER: Kristina Isabelle 


14 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Space/Flow—Remote & Weight/Time—Near 

Remote 

(1) This ballet adagio-like sequence displays aspects of Space and Flow. 

From a direct/bound to more direct/free reaching, changing into indirect/free 

and continuing with fluctuations between direct/indirect, and 

bound/free qualities. 




Near 

(1) In contrast here is a tap dance sequence that shows rhythmic variations 

in qualities of Weight and Time. Some stronger and lighter taps alternate 

with sudden and sustained qualities. At times, though, some Flow qualities 

appear in the arms. 




Space/Weight—Stable & Time/Flow—Mobile 

Stable 

(1) In this ritualistic sequence, variations of Space and Weight qualities are 

noticeable. The predominant combinations are direct/light, direct/strong 

with some sustained Time, and some indirect/sustained. The quality of 

bound Flow is also noticeable in direct/strong combinations. 




Mobile 

(1) The excerpt shows Flow and Time fluctuations that create a Mobile 

State. Predominant free Flow coupled with sudden Time, occasionally 

changes into bound Flow and sustainment. Towards the end some 

Spatial directness appears. 






In movement and dance expression, clear combinations of three Motion Factors 

are frequently noticeable. Such combinations are referred to as Drives. 

Space/Weight/Time—Action Drive 

In dance actions and everyday activities as well, emotional participation that 

manifests in the Flow factor is not required. Rather, Space/Weight/Time combinations 

are most appropriate. 

(1) In the first excerpt kneading the imaginary dough includes transitions 

from Gliding to Pressing actions, interspersed with some Dabbing 

actions. 

FROM: Is a Woman (1978) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / PERFORMER: Susan Van Pelt 

(2) The second example shows some Basic Effort Actions performed with 

the entire body, such as Slashing, Pulling, Punching, Wringing, Floating, 

Flicking-Dabbing, and Gliding. 




Flow/Weight/Time—Passion Drive 

In emotionally emphasized Drives the Flow factor replaces qualities of Space. 

(1) The dancer lashes out wildly as though chasing some nightmares. Free 

Flow, strength and sudden Time are prominent while Spatial clarity is in 

abeyance. 




(2) In the second excerpt frantic tilting of the chair, temporarily loosing one's 

bearings, followed by vigorous gesturing and coming full tilt against the 

chair, shows an emotional state in which components of Flow, Weight, 

and Time are in the foreground. 

FROM: Chairs (2004) 

CHOREOGRAPHER: Zvi Gotheiner 

PERFORMER: Kamilah Levens 


16 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Space/Flow/Time—Vision Drive 

In this Drive Space/Flow/Time are emphasized while bodily Sensing associated 

with the Weight factor is in the background. 

(1) The dancer appears pursuing an imaginary path with a direct/free Flow/ 

light quality and some additional Time changes in terms of acceleration 

and deceleration. 

FROM: Lachrymae (1997) 

CHOREOGRAPHER / VIDEOGRAPHER: Rosalind Pierson 

PERFORMER: Susan Sanborn 

(2) In the second example the performer stares at a situation that causes 

direct/sudden/bound arm and torso jerks. 


CHOREOGRAPHER: Kristin Hapke 

PERFORMER: Michelle Stortz 

Space/Weight/Flow—Spell Drive 

A more timeless Spell-like Drive emerges when the Flow factor replaces qualities 

of Time. 

(1) In the first scene the performer's tentative gestures show bound Flow, 

lightness, and predominant directness, as though under the Spell of a 

nightmare. 

FROM: Breaking the Current: Ms. Toad’s Wild Ride Through the Twists and Turns of 

the Psychedelic Journey Called Life (1999) 


Videotaped by Janet Parrott 

(2) In the second duet the couple is fascinated with each other as though 

there is an eternity for their interactions that show predominantly Space, 

Weight and Flow variations. 



PERFORMEERS: Teena Custer, Marc Woten 



SYNTHESIS: EFFORT and PHRASING ANALYSIS OF TWO EXAMPLES 

Finally let us observe Phrasing—as a dynamic’s macrostructure, together with 

Effort—its microstructure. The examples of Contrast and Variety are analyzed 

further. 

Contrast 

(1) Two dancers stand next to each other facing stage right. At the start, the 

Even Phrasing sections of both performers are colored with sustained 

Time, some Spatial directness, and while turning on the floor with some 

bound Flow. Interrupting these sections are an Increase–Decrease in 

weightiness and free Flow in the turning of one dancer, and Increase 

in weightiness in the sinking of the other. Follow the performance of 

sudden/free Decreasing–Increasing into sudden/bound by both dancers. 

When repeated in a faster tempo some strong Weight is added, creating 

an Impulse–Impact. The final raising, looking, and lowering of the head 

and upper body by the dancer in the foreground is performed with a 

direct/sustained/bound quality. 

From the predominant combination of Effort variables one can deduce 

two contrasting Drives: Passion in all the outbursts, and Vision in the 

beginning and at the end. 



Variety 

(1) Three dancers stand in a tight group, linked by arms. Starting with a 

downward arm gesture of a sudden/strong Impact that recovers with 

Even sustained quality, the first mover triggers two sudden/bound 

Accents from the second one, motivating all three performers to change 

grouping with Even sustained qualities; in this process the first and second 

performer turn with a light/sudden Impulse initiated by the knee. 

The third performer takes her initiative with two sudden/strong/bound 

Accents performed by the pelvis and gains momentum to pull both companions 

with an strong/sudden/free Flow Impact, followed by another 

sudden/strong/bound Impact that results in another change of grouping. 

From the predominant combinations of Effort variable one can notice 

that performers in this scene are coming in and out of Passion Drive with 

some instances of the Near State, and the Mobile State. 



PERFORMERS: Robin Anderson, Ama Codjoe, Christina Providence 

18 / DANCE DYNAMICS

NOTE: The observation of the two strands of dance dynamics—Phrasing and 

Effort have been the main focus of the Workbook and DVD companion. As it 

can be seen in the paragraph below, the descriptions also refer to other important 

movement and dance components, such as BODILY ACTIONS, BODY 

PARTS, GROUP FORMATIONS, INTERACTION/RELATIONSHIPS, and SPATIAL 

DIRECTIONS. 

Three dancers stand in A TIGHT GROUP, LINKED by ARMS. Starting with a 

DOWNWARD ARM GESTURE of a sudden/strong Impact that recovers with 

Even sustained quality, the first mover TRIGGERS two sudden/bound Accents 

from the second one, MOTIVATING ALL THREE PERFORMERS to CHANGE 

GROUPING with Even sustained qualities; in this process the first and second 

performer TURN with a light-sudden Impulse initiated by the KNEE. The third 

performer takes her initiative with two sudden/strong/bound Accents performed 

by the PELVIS and gains momentum to PULL both companions with a strong/ 

sudden/free Flow Impact, followed by another sudden/strong/bound Impact that 

results in another CHANGE OF GROUPING. 

While aspects, such as body parts, body actions, interaction or relationships, 

group formations, and spatial directions, are more readily identified and 

described, the qualitative area of dance dynamics is more subtle in its manifestations 

and continues to provide challenges in the study of movement and dance 

performance. 

Write adjectives describing the feel of the video excerpts illustrating: 

(1) PHRASING TYPES 

· Even 

· Increasing 

· Impactive 

· Decreasing 


· Impulsive 

· Increase–Decrease 

· Decrease–Increase 

· Accented 

· Vibratory 

· Elastic Resilient 

· Buoyant Resilient 

· Weighty Resilient 

(2) SEQUENCING OF PHRASING 

· Consecutive 

· Concurrent 

· Overlapping 

20 / DANCE DYNAMICS

Write adjectives describing the feel of the video excerpts illustrating: 

(3) EFFORT QUALITIES—ONE MOTION FACTOR 

· Direct and Indirect Space 

· Strong Weight 

· Light Weight 

· Sudden Time 

· Bound Flow 

· Free Flow 


· Weight/Flow–Dreamlike & Space/Time–Awake 

· Space/Flow–Remote & Weight/Time–Near 

· Space/Weight–Stable & Time/Flow–Mobile 



· Space/Weight/Time–Action Drive 

· Flow/Weight/Time–Passion 

· Space/Flow/Time–Vision 

· Space/Weight/Flow–Spell 

22 / DANCE DYNAMICS

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