Contemporary China - Yavanika

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THE
CnMBRIDGE
GUIDE TO
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Asian Theatre
Eotrro sv
James R. Brandon
Aovrsonv Eorron
Martin Banham
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F.E CaMBRTDGE
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uNrvERSrrY PRESS

Traditional theatre in the 20th
century
Beijing-stylc theatre colttinuccl to doninatc the
traditional stagc thlough the first halfof the 20th
centr-lry. It retained au unequallcd appeal on a
national scale and had an enormous following
among the ordinary public. This successful transition
in an agc of cultural iconoclasm was possible
because of a particularly talented body of actors.
They bore the artistic integrity ofthc old theatr.ical
tradition forward while adjusting to social change.
A towering figure was Beijing-born Mlr L,wr,eivc.
His artistry and bleadth of perception helped the
old theatrc attain a new pinnacle of public csteenr.
Not thc lcast of Mei's achieventents was his success
in international cultural rclations resrilting frolr]
his touls to Anterica and Russia in the 1930s. Hr.
stirred Western thinking to new aesthetic insights
on theatre. Bertolt Brecht and V. E. Meyer.hold were
anong those who admired, and were dceply influenced
by secing Mei's pelfbrmances.
Two major rcfblms were accontplishcd in thc
professional world of'Mei Lanfang ancl his peers
during the 1920s and 30s. An impr-oved system of'
training and education fbr theatrc appr.enticcs was
introduced and actresses bcgaD to achieve professional
cnancipation. A first attcnpt at inpr.ovcd
training conditions was thc founding in 1903 of
the Xiliancheng (later rcnauted the Fuliancheng)
School in tseijing. Some'ofChina's greatest Btijing
actors gracluated flom this instrtution. Boys only
werc. acceptcd; admittcd at the age of seven they
were taken on contract for a seven-ycar period.
They lived in. and tuition, board and lodging werc
free. In return, thc school dclnandcd conplcte profcssional
control, including an obligation to perform
in public to fill the school's coflers. It was a
hard lifc demandinq neticr.rlous standards and
intensive application but it represcnted a clear
advance on older nethods when boys could be victimized
by unscrupnlous individuals.
A revolutionary stcp catne in 1930 whcn Li
Yuying fbr-rnded a co-educational conservatory fbr
drarnatic training in Beijing. l'he actor CHTiNG
YlNqru was appointed principal. Cheng was highly
regardecl both fol his stage talents and personal
intesrity. In 1932 Cheng was sent to Europe for a
year on behalf of thc school to study drama and
opera. fhe first of its kind to adnit both sexes on
an equal basis. the school providcd a gcneral edu-
cation siruultaneously with professional training.
An arnbitious syllabus was taught by special tutors.
Profbssionals were in charge ofthcatrical training.
Although only one class graduated, it set the pat
teili that today's training metl]ods fbllow. In 1934
a School fbr lxperimcntal Drana was founded by
Wang Bozheng at Jinan in Shandong. It ainied to
devclop a new national theatre fomr based on traditional
methods whilc dlawing scientifically on
Westeln methods whcn requirecl. A fbur-year
coLrrse was sct up wlth one ycar devotcd to empirical
expcrimeDt. In 1937 all of these scl]ools were
closed by the War ofResistancc against
Japan.
Thc. professional lisc of the actress in the 1920s
and 30s ovcl'cane long{tanding pr.ejudices.
Women were all but exclr-rded fiom the theatre
both as performers and spectators during the 19th
centr.rry.
In the eally 1900s one or two all-wonren
troupes were activc ir) Beijing and Shanghai. They
perfblmed at privatc gatherings ancl were not
allowed into thcatles. By 1920 women wcre per.
folming at sevcral Beijing theatres but never alongside
acto|s. Durir-rg thc 1920s Wang yaoqing
(1881-1954), a teacher of Mci Lanfang, and Mei
himself ignored old prejr.rdices and took female
pttpiJs. a hilheflo rrnLlown l)lr( ricc.
ln 1928 the actressL.s Xue Yanclin (190686) and
Xrn Yanqiu (1911- ) appcarecl on the stagc of the
Cleat Thc.atrc (Da Xiyuan) in Shanghai with male
actors. Froln the age of e.ight Xue had studied
womcn's roles, combat techniques and kunql in
tseijing under Jin Gr.rorui and latcr Zhang Cailin.
From 1930 thror.rgh a long acting career Xue
appearcd regr.rlarly with mixed casts, doing rnuch
to erhancc the theatrical prcstigr. of the actress. In
1960 she assume'd
a tcaching posr with the Bcijing
School of Drarlatic Alt. Xin Yanqiu studied with
Mei Lanfang and Wang Yaoqing. When she began
perfbnning with Cheng Yancliu, she took that
famous actor's plof'cssional narne. Xue and Xin
were thc vanguard of a galaxy of accomplished
won-teu artists who rose to prominence in the
prewaryears and brought new lustre to traditional
tneatre.
The rise of the modern theatre
The 20th century bellan with a movenent to create
a ncw theatrc inspired by Westent exaruple. The
old thcatre bccame a target fbr change. The
Western impact on 1gth-ceutury China rcsulted in
many young intellectuals b
study. Thousands went to Jap
modernization had followed
of 1868. Japan was geograp
closer to China than the Wes
dition with modernity they fi
tural adjustment easier
returned from Japan became
the early development of mor
In 1907 a Chinese group i
Spring Wiliow Dramatic So
Japanese actor Fujisawa fuaji
school (see Japan. SHTNPA) th
Camille (Chahua nri) by Alex
February 1907. The play app
because the heroine s plight
of their own marital convt
echoed their own social prote
+ A five-act adaptation of I
lowed in June. Entitled The Blt
(Heinu yutian lil) it was staged
in Tokyo where shinpa, a
Japanese genre, was featured
expanded with extraneous
Chinese tastes. A curtain an
elry of effect. Harriet Beec
well received for it offered a r
for protest against racial
which the Chinese too sufferr
Both productions used tra
who first put Shakespeare in
performed by all-male casts
theless offered a substitut
declamation form and the
genre, eventually to be n;
drama.
Shanghai became the ce
ments in the new Western I
Society under Wang Zhong
had studied in Japan, staged
Heaven in 1907. Lu Jingn
returned fiom Japan, organ
Association in 1912. In 1914
Willow Dramatic Society wh
among other productions
theatre. Stage expertise was
and old theatre convention
female impersonation.
'Ihe years 1915-19 mark€
Westerneducated generatio
50
#*'

ith professional training.
s taught by special tutors.
rge of theatrical training.
graduated, it set the pat-
I methods follow. ln 1934
rl Drama was founded by
in Shandong. It ained to
heatre form based on tradrawing
scientifically on
n required. A four-year
re year devotcd to ernpiriall
of these scltools were
stance against Japan.
rfthe actrcss in the 1920s
rngstanding prejudices.
:cluded from the theatre
pectators during the 19th
)0s one or two all-women
:ijing and Shanghai. They
;atherings and were not
y 1920 women wcre perg
theatres br,lt never along-
.e 1920s Wang Yaoqing
of Mei Lanfang, and Mei
judices and took female
wn practlce.
Xue Yanqin {1906-86) and
reared on the stage of the
n) in Shanghai with male
f eight Xue had studied
techniques and kunqr in
ri and later Zhang Cailin.
long acting career Xue
mixed casts, doing much
I prestige of the actress. In
hing post',vith the Beijing
Xin Yanqiu studied with
Yaoqing. \Vhen she began
g YanqiLr, she took that
onal name. Xue and Xin
a galaxy of acconplished
se to prominence in the
rt new lustre to traditional
dern theatre
with a novement to create
by Western exanple. The
target for change. 'lhe
Lrentury China resulted in
many young intellcctuals being seut abroad to
study. Thousands went to Japan where progressive
modernization had followed the Meiji Restoration
0f 1868. Japan was geographically and culturally
closer to China than the West. lhe synthesis of tradition
with n-rodcrnity they found tht'rc made cultural
adjustment easier. lntellectuals who
returned fron-r Japan bccane a major influence on
the early development of nrodern Chinese theatre.
ln 1907 a Chinese group rn Tokyo founded the
Spring Willow Dramatic Society. Assisted by the
Japanese actor Fujisawa Asajiro, who ran an acting
school (see Japan, sHlNpA), they staged a version of'
CamiIIe \Chahua nri) by Alexandre Dr-rnas Jils in
February 1907. The play appealed to the Chinese
because the heroine's plight rnirlored thc rigidify
of their own narital conventions and suitably
echoed their own social protest.
* A five-act adaptation of Unclc Tom'.s Cobin followed
inJune. Entitled lhc Black Slave's CD, to Ileaven
\Heinu yutian il) it was staged at the Hongo Theatre
in Tokyo where shinpo, an carly westernized
Japanese genle, was fcatured. The play's acttott was
expanded with extraneous interludes to please
Chinese tastes. A curtain and scenery added novelty
of effect. Harrict Beecher Stowc's stoly was
well received fbr it offer-ed a melodramatic vehicle
for protest against racial discrinination from
which the Chinese too suflered.
Both plodnctions used translations by Lin Shu,
who first put Shakespeare into Chinese, and were
performed by all-male casts. Hybrids, they nevertheless
offercd a substittttc Ibr the old songdeclamation
forn and the begilning of a uew
genre, eventually to be named aua1u, spokcn
drama.
Shanghai became the centre tbr early experi
ments in the new Western folm. The Spring Sutt
Society under Wang Zhongshcng (d. 1911), who
had studied in Japan, staged the Black Slcve's Cry to
Heaven rn 1907. Lu Jingruo (1885-1915), also
returned from Japan, organized the New Drana
fusociation in 1912. ln 1914 Lu revived the Spling
Willow Dramatic Sociefy which produced Cunilie,
among other productions, in a comtneLcial
theatre. Stage expertise was slight in thesc years,
and old theatrc conventious lenained, inclltding
female impersonation.
The years 1915-19 narked a tr.rrning point. A
Westerneducated generation was agitating fbr cul'
tural change. lD 1916 the Aurerican-educated
scholar, Hu Shi 11891-1962), spearheadcd a rnovenlent
to rcplace classical language understood
only by an educated elite with a standardized vernacnlar
intelligible to all. New joulnals stlpportlllg
thc New Culturc Movenent prolifcrated. Dranta
ignored by the old literati became recognized as a
mouthpiece for social reform. Neu' Ytruth, a
nlnonthly cdited by Chen Duxiu \1879-1.942),
devoted an issue in 1918 to Henrik Ibsen whose
workwas discussed as an examplc to fbllow. In May
1919 students protested in Beijing against the surrendel
ofChinese sovereignty that was proposcd at
the Palis Peace Conference, and whert the Treaty of
Velsailles fbrmalized the proposals to China's
detriment, national outrage fbrced the Chinese
government to refisc' to sigll. The new intclligentsia
closed ranks in affirming an era ofdcfinitive
cultural change called the Mly 4th Movement.
Succeeding events broltght new impetns to
change in the theatrc. ln 1921 GuJiachen fbr-rndcd
the Shanghai Dranatic Association which became
a fbrceful sponsor of new dratna. Two of its otttstanding
members werc Ouv,tNc Yuqr,lrl and Hong
Shen (1892 1955), stage director-playwrightteacher-film
director. The latter studied in
America fiom 1916 to 1922 and arouscd controversy
ou his t'cturn by lefilsing to cotlntenance
rnen playing women's roles. Endorsed by consewative
public opinion, this convention remained a
barrier to developing a naturalistic actilig style.
Hong Shen defied lolg-standing prejudice by
lecruiting actresses fiom the mole open-ninded
women of the universities and the Shanghai film
world.
In 1921 Ouyang and Hong joined fbrces with
TIAN HAN to fbund the Creatiol Society itt
Shanghai. The first issue of its journal Creotton
Qudrlerlv in 1922, contained Tian Han's playA Nighr
at a Coffcehouse liuJei dian zhi yiye) which became an
inrnrediate theatrical cuuse cilibre. The Society
touled productions throughout thc countty uDtil,
in 1923, it was drssolved by government order.
Although it was short-lived, the Socicty was inflltcntial
in introdr.rcing broad audiences to modern
theatre.
In the 1930s, the Japanest' military threat conlpounded
by the Nationalist Communist political
feud overshadowed intellectual life. Pcople in literature
and the arts lesponded to a new political
k

l--
awareness. In 1931 the League of Left Wing
Dlamatists was fomred. Tian Han and Hong Shen
bccane active mcmbers. Plays wlitten and produced
to portray current political social problems
were vigorously promoted in schools and factories.
The Japancse attack on Shanghai in 1932 intensificd
theatrical protest, to which the Nationalist
government responded with a campaign ofrepression,
forcing leftist theatre underglound. Tian Han
and other League nembers were arrested as a
deterrent.
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) began organizing
theatre for political action soon after the
party's establishment in 1921. In 1931 the Chinese
Soviet Republic was declared with its capital at
Ruijin. Perfolners werc recruited locally and provided
with dramatic training, political education,
their food, clothing and a subsistence pittance.
Troupes trained at the CCP school in Rr,rijin were
then attached to army units fbr service in rural terlitory
and the front line. This work culminated in
the organization of a Workcrs and Peasants
Dramatic Society. Song, dance and mime were
indispensable to appeal to audiences whose solc
concept of theatre was provided by traditional
opera. An extensive dranatic network firnctioned
on this basis and contributed to establishing a pcrnanent
theatre-training school at the CCP
wartine base in Yan'an.
Advocacy of drama as a factol in social educatlon
was also manifest on the National side. In
1932, Xiong Foxi (1900-65), a plapvright-tcacher'-
producer who had studied theatre in Aurerica, was
invited by the National Association for
Advancement of Mass Education to initiate a
theatre project in the lural district of Dingxian,
Hebei Province. Living among the peasant conlnunity
provided him with authentic material fbr writing
and producing plays with local people as
actors. Within three years the troupe was staging
self-supporting productions which attracted considerable
notice. The Japancse invasion fbrced
Xiong to lead his group to unoccupied west China.
There, as the Farmers Resistance Dramatic Corps,
they performed to mass audiences.
Political tensions notwithstandiltg, thc 1930s
witnessed the rise of a socially conscions theatre
given credibility by the con-rn-ritrnent of its plactitroners.
New drarnatists were at work to capitalize
on this advauce, at tines workrng in filln with its
emotive capacity fol evoking human values and
national sel)timent. Tian Han, Ouyang Yuqian and
Hong Shcn all turned to filn as advisers, directors
and scenario writers. A complernentary and continuing
relationship was cstablished between the
modcm stage movement and the film studios. Xia
Yan (1900-95), Japan-returned dramatist and scenario
writer, was representative of this trend. His
nvo early stage plays Under a Shanghar RooJ
(Shanghai n,r,yon xia) and SaiJtnhua were considered
major contributions to the nodern repertoire. The
first portrayed the alienation and suffering oftenenent
dwellers in a grcat city. The second concerned
a celebrated Chinese courtesan, one of
whose alliances was with Count Alfiecl von
Waldersee,
the German commander of the allied
forccs which occupied Beijing to relieve the Boxer
siege in 1900.
Arguably the most important playrv[ight of this
period was Cno Yu, a graduate in Western literaturc
froln a Beijing universiry. His hrst play,
Thuntlerstorm (i.ciyl), directed by Hong Shen and
Ouyang Yuqian in 1935 for the Fr.rdan University
Dramatic Clnb, Shanghai, was an immediate success.
Cao Yu had studied Greek drana and admired
Eugene O'Neill and Anton Chekhov, influences discernible
in this play with its dark commentary on
thc Chinese farnily systen and the social degrada.
tion it cansed. Cledibility of characterization and
rcalistic dialoguc, allied to an intuitive sense of
theatre, stanped this play as a breakthrough for
indigcnous dialogue drana. Cao Yr.r's second play
Srndse (Richa) portrayed the corruptive power of
naterialisn and won him a literary prize.
W lrierness ( Yaanye), M eto m orpho si s lShuibi an), P eking,
Mon ltseijint ren) and forniiy (/ia) followed, establishing
him as a dramatist ofsocial conscience.
Tnunderstornt was taken throughout the country
by Thc China Travelling Dr-arnatic Troupe, founded
in Shanghai in 1934 by Tang Huaiqiu. His goal was
a modern repertory theatre on a financially viable
basis. A co-operative unit, they achieved a homogeneous
quality in their acting. Thtnderstorm broke
all box-office records for modern theatre and this
was followed by Hong Shen's equally successful
Lady Wind.ermere's lan. The troupe's aim seemed
close to realization when in 1937 waf intervened.
Thcy moved their basc to Hong Kong fbr a brief
period, but that too fell to the Japanese at the end
of 1941.
In Decernber 1937 rheau
Tian Han, mer in Hankou to t
Dramatic Associrtion to R
umbrella fol all warrime th
February 1938 Tian Han be
governtrrent's Cultural Work
of the Propaganda Section, a
ship was rpplied to all
Henceforward nrodern lheat
to national propaganda need
united theatre people as neve
vocation. they responded wi
to take propagandist theatre
Nationalists and Communis
concept ifwith divergent idec
The rapid advrnce of rhe it
the Nationalisr governmenrt
at Chongqing. Sichuan Prov
major cducarional organiza
together with those prominen
arts. Thc emorional cilmale
manifesro ot Xiong Foxi for hi
west China: 'Cultivate mod
artisl's passion and a soldi
China's spiritual regeneratio
Students of the co-educati
Acadenry of Dramatic fur, fr
evacuated to chongqing, ma
debut staging streer plays and
A favoured technique entailed
entering teahouses and drat
seemingly spontaneous dia
affairs. Lack of pernranents
equlpment in wartime territc
hundreds of itinerant troupe
erary nren frequenrly joined
sionals. Urban intellectuals a
tion shared a new direct relat
of dramatic activities.
Tian Han, official spokes
wartime, encouraged these tre
tenl for lhe future. He adap
Beijing-opera favourites as Th
zhuan) for nodern productio
time, his version becanre sla
Ouyang Yuqian worhed clos
during those years, leading a
patriotic plays. Hong Shen rar
and taught film lnd drama ir
was a time of shared skills and
3B
;'

evoking human values and
an Han, Ouyang Yuqian and
to film as advisers, directors
A complementary and con-
,tas established benveen the
:nt and the hhn studios. Xia
'eturned dramatist and sceesentative
of this trend. His
ys Undcr a Shanghai RooJ
d SaiJinhua were considered
r the modern repertoire. The
nation and suffering oftene-
[eat city. The second con-
Chinese courtesan, one of
with Count Alfred von
n conmander of the allied
Beijing to relieve the Boxer
mportant playwright of this
graduate in Western literauniversify.
His first play,
irected by Hong Shen and
|5 for the Fudan University
hai, was an immediate sucd
Greek drama and admired
ton Chekhov, influences disith
its dark connentary on
tem and the social degradality
of characterization and
ed to an intuitive sense of
play as a breakthrough for
rama. Cao Yu's second play
rd the corruptive power of
rn him a literary prize.
tamuyhosis lShuibian), Peking
mily (Jia) followed, establishofsocial
conscience.
(en throughout the country
g Dramatic Troupe, founded
'Tang Huaiqiu. His goal was
eatre on a financially viable
rit, they achieved a homogeacting.
Ihunderstorm broke
br modeln theatre and this
; Shen's eqr.rally successful
The troupe's aim seemed
ren in 1937 war intervened.
e to Hong Kong for a brief
ll to theJapanese at the end
ln Decernber 1937 theatrc leaders, including
Tian Han, tnet in Hankou to organize the National
Dramatic Association to Resist the Eneny, an
umbrella for all wartime theatrical activities. In
February 1938 Tian Han became director of the
government's Cultural Work Committee and head
of the Propaganda Section, iind a zealous censorship
was applied to all dramatic activify.
Henceforward modern theatre was subordinated
to national propaganda needs. A call fbr resistance
united theatre people as never befbre. Itinerant by
vocation, they responded with travelling troupes
to take propagaDdist theatre to the lulal masses.
Nationalists and Communists sharecl il conmon
concepr ifwith divelgent ideological intent.
The rapid advance of the invading fbrces drove
the Nationalist government to set up their capital
at Chongqing, Sichuan Province. Universities and
major educational organizations followed then,
together with those proninent in every field of the
arts. The emotional climate was typified by thc
manifesto ofXiong Foxi for his theatre students in
west China: 'Cultivate modern drama with an
artist's passion and a soldier's discipline to aid
China's spiritual regeneration.
Students of the co-educational Nanjing National
Academy of Dramatic Art, founded in 1935 and
evacuated to Chongqing, made their professional
debut staging stleet plays and'living newspapers'.
A favoured technique entailed actors anonymously
entering teahouses and drawing an audience by
seemingly spontaneous dialogues on current
affairs. Lack of pennanent stages and technical
equipment in wartime territory did not deter the
hundreds of itinerant troupes. Academics and literary
nen frequently joined forces with professionals.
Urban intellectuals and the rural population
shared a new direct relationship as the result
of dramatic activities.
Tian Han, official spokesman fbr theatre in
wartime, encouraged these trends as a healthy portent
for the future. He adapted such traditional
Beijing-opera favourites as The \4&ite Snake (Boishc
zhuan) for modern production. Criticized at the
time, his version became standard after the war.
Ouyang Yuqian worked closely with Tian Han
during those years, leading a troupe that toured
patriotic plays. Hong Shen ran a theatrical troupe
and taught hlm and drama in the universities. It
was a time of shared skills and commitnents.
Xia Yan's plays successfully car.rghthe public's
mood. Typical was City oJSorrols (Chouchengji) satirizing
life in Japanese-occupicd tclritory. Put down
Your Wry (lang,xia nide btanzi) denounced Japanese
aggression and was outstanding among the mass
of propaganda pieces being produced. Cao Yu, in
contrast, wrote nothing after his adaptation in
1941 of Ba Jin's novel Fanrily. Xiong Foxi became
disillusioned with governmcnt ccnsorship policy
after serving as head of the Sichuan Provincial
College of Dramatic Arts. He left for Guilin in the
southwest where he engaged in writing and editorial
work until 1945.
Wartine Chongqing saw the germination of a
national dance movement resulting fiom the wolk
of Dai Ailian (1916 ), a Tlinidad-born Chinese
danseuse. Aftcr studying ballet in lngland, patriotic
motives led hcr to wartime China. While teaching
in Chongqing she began studying local folk and
minority nationality dances. With a team of pr.rpil
assistanls she travelled to outlying areas researching
and notating choreographic techniques, evcntually
forming her owu conpany. Her pioneering
work then prepared the way fbr organized dance
educatior.r in China later.
The tangential ingredients of narrative, solrg
and descriptive gesture in folk dance embodied
primal elemcnts of Chinesc theatrical comnunication.
They appealed directly to the uncomplicated
emotive responses of peasant audiences. Both
Nationalists and Cor.nnunists sought to profit
frorn this factor in their wartine sensitivity to fblk
tradition. The Communists were the more uncompromising.
The artistic criteria of folk genres were
subordinated to theories ofproletarian drama created
to eliminate the aesthetic 'elitisrn' of the old
theatre.
Following the Long March of 1934-5 the
Cornmunists set up their base in the loessic caves
at Yan'an in northern Shaanxi Province. Thele in
May 1942 Mao Zedong gave his 'Talks at the Yan'an
Forum on Literature and Art'. In them he
expounded his Marxist manifesto destined to
become the bible of all Chinese cultural endeavour.
He spoke at the Lri Xun Art lnstitute which
trained troupes to adapt old folk-perfornance
methods to new content.
One such ancient form nuch utilized by the
Comnunists was the l,angge rice-planting song.
Originally-yangge referred to simple rhythmic steps
39

fut:"l
danced to a chant and percussion while planting
the rice helds. \Vhen Communist troops entered
the big cities in 1949 they were preceded by frles of
dancers performing this simple work forn as a victory
theme. In time yangge was applied collectively
to various other types of performances that were
rlpvolnrrarl frnm it
During the 19th century the style of yongge
prevalent in Dingxian, Hebei Province, gradually
became elaborated as village perfbrnrance: 20 to 30
dancers perfbrmed with a leader, male and female
characters confronted each other with a question
-response narrative followed by singing and dance
movements extended with representational gesture.
Elemental themes from village life and ethics
wele introduced. A cornic character fiequently
added the necessary touch of earthy humour.
Drum, gong, flute and rymbals plovided musical
,. ^ ^^ - -,. - : -.- ^ - L
dLLUt r I Pdl
lll llEll L,
Two scholars, Li Jinghuan and Zhang Shiwen,
conducted a governnent-sponsored freld project
on the Dingxian style in 1932, afterwards publishing
an anthology of plays. It was this genre of performance
the Communists for.rnd so adaptable and
were quick to develop for their needs. Yangge
troupes proliferated. More than 30 ofthem staged
performances at the 1944 Yan'an spring festival.
Their repertoire included a play called The Wite-
Haired CirI lBaimao nii l.
Reputedly of ballad-recitative origin and based
on some actual facts, the play had undergone collective
revisions prior to the 1944 presentation. In
1945 a new five-act version was prepared with a
script and lyrics by He Jingzhr 17924- ) and Ding Yi
(1,921,-). Music based on authentic folk sources
was composed for it by Ma Ke (1918-76) and five
colleagues. Being directed against abusive social
practices long familiar to village tenant farmers, it
becane a theatrical symbol of the revolutionaly
cause and was constantly performed in the late
1940s and 1950s. The fusion ofsong, music, chorus
work and ordinary speech allied to a contemporary
setting set The V\htte-HaLrcd Giri apart from either
traditional Chinese or modern Western stage practices,
though both had clearly offered son're inspiration.
[t appealed to an audience fbr whom
theatre without song and music was inconceivable
and dialogue drama in the Western vcin meaningless
in the context of their lifestyle.TheWtttHoired
Girl was the first full-length representative ofa new
40
national genre naned cUU, song drama. Flexible
in subject matter and musical form it was contenpolary
but adaptable to regional traditions. lt was
one solution to finding a middle way befween past
and present, a long-standing problem of Chinese
theatre.
Re-establishrnent of the Nationalist capital at
Nanjing in May 1946 followed Japan's defeat in
1945. ln 1946 full-scale civil war broke out as the
CCP began its drive for ultirnate power. Crippling
inflation Ied to economic chaos and social disintegration.
The plight of the universities was desperate,
the mood ofintellectuals despair.
In 1946 Xiong Foxi became head of the Shanghai
Municipal Experimental School of Dranatic Art.
Sharing the premises of a local rnuseurn and pri
rnary school. Xiong's faith in theatre was natched
by that ofhis students and stafI. Conbining classroom
study with working experience they sustained
a continuing series ofperfbrmances for the
public in spite of neglible government support.
Tian Han, Cao Yu and Hong Shen all taught there
after the war. Xia Yen had given up playrvriting for
filn wolk and Ouyang Yuqian was working fbr
Hong Kong film studios. Dai Ailian, the dancer,
another guest of the United States during this
period, returned to set up her own school in
Shanghai. ln 1949 when the Nationalist governnent
left for Taiwan these key artists stayed on to
work under the new governnent. It was a decision
which was shared by a large proportion of people
prominent in both traditional and modern theatre
circles.
The People's Republic 1949-91: policy
and theory
On 1 October 1949 the Chinese Comnunist Party
(CCP) established the People's Republic of China
{PRC)under its Chairman Mao Zedong. In 1966 Mao
Iaunched his radical Cultural Revolution in an
attempt to preserve revolutionary purify. With his
death in September 1976 and the fall ofthe radical
'gang olfour' the following month, economic modernization
soon assumed top priority in China's
poliry, and in 1981 both the Cultural Revolution
and Mao's leadership from 1958 on were largely
discredited.
Attitudes towards theatre reflect overall CCP
policy, which means that thefe have been substantial
changes from period to period. However, at no
tine has rhe CCp believed it
cern with theatre activities al
the fact of censorship has br
though the extent has varied (
Until 1981, the basic CCp I
theatre (and other arts) were
in his'Talks at the yan'an ton
Art'. Mao declared there thar L
ety but also influenced it as
ganda, whether it intended t(
theatre as representing the int
another and advocated that i
bourgeoisie and favour the
peasants and soldiers. Elsewh
the critical assimilation ofrra,
theatres.
In July 1950 the new gover
Culture set up a Drama Re
determine precisely how pra
should be brought into line I
traditional music dramas it re
emphasized Chinese patriotis
or heroism, equality betwee
political prominence of womt
drarnas on historical themes
emphasize similar topics. On th
items considered 'feudal'and r
agalnst the poor were banned
isms, costunes and other aspe
actor's craft were retained, ref
abolition of some 'unhealthy, r
hero should be shown in a pos
ated him before a feudal pers
Kowtowing and the 'false foc
Changsheng were banned. Ther
of 1958 gave strong emphas
forms on contemporary them(
courage traditional themes. Th
and early 1960s, although
Stanislavski were donrinant in
cles, those of Bertott Brecht als
led by Huang Zuoling ofthe Sh
Theatre.
At a meeting of heads of CC
held in April 1963, Mao's wifeJi
cular distributed calling for ,thr
performance of ghost plays', by
any traditional nusic drama r
historical item. ln mid 1964 a
Opera on Contemporary Then
ffi$#;lri 1

EJU, song drama. Flexible
rsical form it was contem-
:egional traditions. It was
middle way between past
ding problem of Chinese
he Nationalist capital at
,llowed Japan's defeat in
:ivil war broke out as the
rltimate power. Crippling
: chaos and social disintee
universities was desperuals
despair.
ame head ofthe Shanghai
School of Dramatic Art.
a local museum and pri
h in theatre was matched
nd stafl Combining class-
Lng experience they susls
of performances for the
ble government support.
lng Shen all taught there
l given up plapvriting for
Yuqian was working for
. Dai Ailian, the dancer,
nited States during this
up her own school in
I the Nationalist governse
key artists stayed on to
rrnment. It was a decision
irge proportion of people
ional and modern theatre
rlic 1949-91: policy
lhinese Conmunist Party
rople's Republic of China
L Mao Zedong. In 1966 Mao
rltural Revolution in an
Iutionary purity. With his
and the fall of the radical
ng month, economic modd
top prioriry in China's
r the Cultural Revolution
om 1958 on were largely
eatre reflect overall CCP
t there have been substanto
period. However, at no
time has the CCP believed it should relax its concern
with theatre activities altogether. As a result,
the fact of censolship has been conslstent, even
though the extent has varied enormously.
Until 1981, the basic CCP policy and theory of
theatre (and other arts) were those Mao advanced
in his'Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and
Art'. Mao declared there that theatre reflected society
but also influenced it as a means of propaganda,
whether it intended to or not. He held all
theatre as representing the interests ofone class or
another and advocated that it should oppose the
bourgeoisie and favour the masses of workers,
peasants and soldiers. Elsewhere, Mao pushecl for
the critical assimilation oftraditional and foreign
theatres.
In July 1950 the new governmcnt's Ministry of
Culture set up a Drama Reform Committee to
determine precisely how practice in the theatre
should be brought into line with theory. Anong
traditional music dramas it retained those which
emphasized Chinese patliotisrrl, peasant rebellion
or heroism, equality between the sexes, or the
political prominence of women. Newly arranged
dramas on historical themes were expected to
emphasize similar topics. On the other hand, many
items considered
'feudal' and siding with the rich
againsthe poor were banned. \\hile the tnannerisms,
costun-tes and other aspects ofthe traditional
actor's craft were retained, reform demanded the
abolition of sone'unhealthy' usages. No people's
hero should be shown in a position which humiliated
him before a feudal person such as a monk.
Kowtowing and the 'false foot' devised by Wei
Changsheng werc banned. lhe Great Leap Forward
of 1958 gave strong emphasis to dranas of all
forms on contemporary thernes, but did not disc0ufage
traditional themes. Throughout the 1950s
and early 1960s, although the theolies of
Stanislavski were dominant in spoken-drama circles,
those of Bertolt Brecht also had a following,
led by Huang Zuoling of the Shanghai People's fut
Theatre.
At a meeting of heads of CCP Cultural Bureaux
held in April 1963, Mao's wif'e Jiang Qing had a circular
distributed calling for'the suspension ofthe
pertbrmance of ghost plays', by which she meant
any traditional nusic drama or newly arranged
historical item. ln rnid 1964 a Festival of tseijing
Opera on Contemporary Themes was held, sig-
nalling the near total disappearance of all such
'ghost plays' fi-on the stage for 13 years. In
February 1966 Jiang Qing hcld a forum on
'Literature and Art in the Armed Forces'which laid
down the line on theatre demanded dr.rring the
Cultural Revolution 11966-76). It followed Mao's
ideas closely in its enphasrs on class and class
strugglc and the mass linc, but placcd an extrenle
interpletation on thelrr.'lhus'clitical assin-rilation'
of tradition meant retention oi little nlore than the
name Beijing opera. All content mr.lst praise the
revolr.rtion and the CCP directly, almost all the tr.aditional
content, mannerisns and costumes were
banncd as espousing feudal ideas and class interests.
The Forun also pushed the notion ofa 'n-rodel'
drama, one which encapsulated perfectly all the
Cultural Revolution's theory of theatrc. Over the
following ycars a small number of these 'n-rodels'
was devised, and professional drama companies
wele allowed to perform more or less nothing else.
One of the main featurcs of the 'models' was their
characterization, which portrayed the heroes as
faultlcss, and the villains as without redeeming
teatures.
Jiang Qing was the leader of the 'gang of four'
and it was not long after theil fall that thc Cultural
Rcvolrition's theatre theorywas discredited. In May
1977 several scenes
ofa newly arranged histolical
drama were restagcd in Beijing. Early the following
year the main power-holder ol the new leadelship,
Deng Xiaoping, gave explicit approval for the
revival of traditional music dramas and these
began to trickle baclt, very quickly becoming a vcritable
torrent rvhich, as of the rnid-90s, shows no
signs of subsiding. Love-stories and patriotic
dramas, as well as those about peasant rebels,
again reccived encouragemcnt and the themc of
rightcd injustice sct in the dynastic pasr becante a
useful propaganda weapon on behalf of lcgal
reform. Hunour again becane a don-rinant part of
the Chinese legional drama, and entertainment
was accepted as a nain purpose oftheatre.
The main linchpin in the CCP's theatre policy is
the need for variety. The range of forn and content
continucd to broaden until 1989, on the whole
with CCP approval. Up till 1989 attempts to hold
back this trend towards liberalization, sucli as the
Campaign against Spilitual Pollution in 1983,
proved shortJived. In 1982 Mao's 'Talks at the
Yan'an Forurn'were partly discredited. ln theory,
: i
&
4l

theatre should still serve the interests of the
'people'but the emphasis on its use as a propaganda
we:ipon fbr socialism teuded increasingly to
weaken. As a result, modern dramas ignoring the
role ofthe CCP in sociefy, and those advocating no
solution for its ills, became common. Psychological
drana becane popular aurong the urban intelligentsia.
Thc theories of acting and theatre of
Bertolt Brecht increased in influence especially
among younger play"rvrights. Since 1979 valious
forms of foreign theatrc have received CCP sponsorship,
not only petfoltned by foreign companies
in the original language, but also by local troupes
and translated into Chinese.
The crisis of 1989, which clinaxed in the bloody
Tiananmen Square incident in Beijing on 4 June,
exercised a highly detrinental effect on modern
forms of drama because it placed a clamp on new
experiments aDd ideas in theatre which conld be
construed as non-supportive of the CCP. In the
period following the crisis, the man with chief
responsibility for literature and thc arts was Li
Ruihuan. ln a najor speech made on 10 January
1990 he emphasized the magnificencc of Chincse
tradition and called for the critical absorption of
foreign cultures. He summalized the relationship
between art and politics as follows: 'We do not
require literature and art to be directly subordinate
to temporary and specific political tasks. At
the sane time, this does not mean that literature
and art can deviate flon sewing socialisur.'
Certainly there would be no return to the policies
ofthe Cultural Revolntion, when literature and art
were indeed directly subservient to political tasks.
At the same time, Li's position implied a strol)g
tendency to glori$ the Chinese'nation' through
theatre and other arts.
As a result government support for traditional
ntusic drama and plays set in the distant past grew
noticeably at the expense of those dramas or
drama folns fbcused on modcrn history or
contemporary society. In 1990, the 2001h anniversary
of the entry of the Anhui companics into
Beijing in 1790, a major stage along the parh
of dcveloprncnt of the Beijing opera, was celebrated
enthusiastically tluoughout China. By
way of climax, a festival fbaturing traditional
nusic dramas was held in Beijing attended
by Li Ruihuan and Jiang Zenin, CCP Secretary-
Ceneral.
Form, performance
The main forrns of theatrc in China since 1949 are
tfaditional nusic drama, newly alranged historical
drama lxrrrrarv ilsHr lu), spoken drama (haojl),
song drama (gciil), dance dlarra (wu7u) and ballet,
There are abour 350 r'egional sfyles of traditional
music drama, as explained in thc sections on impe
lial China.'flre content is always from the distant
past. As in the past, stage properties are simple,
thele is no sccnety, btlt costulnes and makeup are
elaborate, nannerisns, posture and body move
ments stylized. An cvening's entertainnent will
normally feature three or four sholt items. Reform
and censorship have removed certain items and
passagcs, but this is the forn least affected by the
modern age. 'Newly arranged histolical dramas'
are traditional in nost aspccts of style, but as the
nane sugliests, arc created by contenporary writ.
ers and perfbrmers. ln addition, scores ofamateul
and professional puppetry tror.rpes perpetuate vari.
ous resional traditions of puppet play (kuilei ri),
shadow play (piltng xt), and rod-puppet play \zhang.
to u kuilei) perform ance.
fulong Westernizcd forms, the trrost inportant
is spoken dran-ra (hlaju). Only ofthis forn can itbe
said, in the 1980s, that most items are set in the
present or even srnce 1949. The best representative
writer before the Cultural Revolution was Lao SuE.
Spoken drama in thc 1980s showed invcntiveness
and innovation and the nost outside, nainly
Western, influence. Social commentary remained
strong, but arrlong avant-garde play.uvrights, propa.
ganda ofthe fype favouled by the CCP became less
and less direct, more and mole subdued.
Individualism and feminisn are hallmarks of con.
tenporary female playwrights snch as tsai Fengxi
(1934- ). Directors have experintented with tech.
nlques new to China, fbr example, variation in the
colour and intensity of stageJighting to show emotional
or psychological atmospheres or qualities.
Spoken dramas of the PRC normally use elaborate
scenery and stage properties and in urban theatres
the act curtain is dlawn to ntark beginning, end or
intermission. Howcver, since 1982, a few plays
have adopted extremely sintple stage properties,
and abandoned scencry and the curtain altogether.
Body movements and postures are realistic, not
stylized as in traditional ntusic drama. But whereas
the plays with hear,y propaganda content tended
to show ideal characters through rather stilted,
e\ren stereoq?lcal, movem
ral style became more PoP
tray characters who ther
images laid down as good
ccP.
The introduction ofwe
pally to Soviet influence. I
mainly items of classic
especiallY Swan Lake' The
Qlng included two ballets
The Red Detachment oJ Wo
Since 1976, these items h:
and classical works hav
time, Chinese artists art
steps towards creating tl
including comPoslng nr
ballet dancers. However
to this form, and it is m
gxeat PoPularity in Chin
intellectual elite.
lllustrative Pieces
Of all newly arranged h
more famous than The !
Originally a folk story a
turns into a beautifu
numerous adaPtationsi
by an anonYmous Plalw
Tian Han, one of the Pl
tists, adapted it as a Beij
work in 1953. A monk i
character who succeed
the wicked snake, but T
characterization to Pres
turned woman as Posi
ment of magic is Prese
cates a positive role for v
The theme of Patriot
of equalitY for women in
Family (Yangme niijiang
opera in 1960 bY Lii Ruin
Ming novel and a Yangz
Centenarian T akes Comm
others on traditional the
during the Cultural Re
revived in 1978. It is set
tenanan oowager
women of her familY to
from the north, and
victory.
42

Ince
reatre in China since 1949 are
ama, newly arranged historifsHl-/u),
spoken drama (huaju),
Lnce drama {wzlu) and ballet.
regional styles of traditional
ained in the sections on inpernt
is always from the distant
stage properties are sinple,
,ut costumes and makeup ale
ms, posture and body move-
:vening's entertainment will
:e or four short items. Reform
: removed certain items and
the fbrm least affected by the
arranged historical dramas'
)st aspects of style, but as the
reated by contemporary writn
addition, scores of amateur
petry tloupes perpetuate vanrns
of puppet play (kuilei xi),
i), and rod-puppet play lzhongle.
:d forms, the most inportant
iil). Only of this form car-r it be
rat most items are set in the
i949. The best representative
tural Revolution was Lao SHl.
: 1980s showed inventiveness
I the most outside, mainly
Social conmentary remained
'ant-garde playr,vrights, propaoured
by the CCP became less
more and more subdued.
minisn are hallmarks of conaywrights
such as Bai Fengxi
ave experimented with tech-
, for example, variation in the
of stage{ighting to show emocal
atmospheres or qualities.
e PRC normally use elaborate
)perties and in urban theatres
wn to mark beginning, end or
rer, since 1982, a few plays
nely simple stage properties,
)ry and the curtain altogether.
Ld postures are realistic, not
nal nusic drama. But whereas
r propaganda content tended
cters through rather stilted,
even stereotypical, movements and postures, natural
style became morc popular in the 1980s to portray
characters wl.ro themselves confomt less to
images laid down as good, mediocre or bad by the
CCP.
The introduction ofWestern ballet is due principally
to Soviet influence. Before 1966, ballet meant
mainly items ol' clessicul Europern rcpcrloile,
especially Swan Lake. The 'model' dlamas of Jiang
Qng included nvo ballets: The White-Haired Girl and
The Red Detachment 0J Wlmen lllongsc niangzi jun).
Since 1976, these items have disappeared as ballets
and classical works have returned. At the same
time, Chinese artists are rnaking vcry tentative
steps towards creating their own national ballet,
including conposing new works and training
ballet dancers. However, no high priority is given
to this foln, and it is most unlikely ever to gain
great popularity in China outside a small urban
intellectual elite.
lllustrative pieces
0f all newly arranged historical dranas, none is
more famous than The \4ftite Sndke \Baishe zhuan).
0riginally a folk story about a white snake that
turns into a beautiful wolnan, it underwent
numerous adaptations, including a kunqu version
by an anonymous playwright in the 18th century.
Tian Han, one of the PRC's n-rost fanous dramatists,
adapted it as a Beijing opera, completing the
work in 1953. A monk in the kunqu is a positive
character who succeeds in curbing the power of
the wicked snake, but Tian Han has changed the
characterization to present him as evil, the snake
tumed woman as positive. Even though an element
of magic is preserved, the iten thus advocates
a positive role for women.
The theme of patliotism supplements advocacy
of equality for women in Women G enerals oJ the Yang
Family \Yangmen nitjiang,), arranged as a Beijing
opera in 1960 by Lti Ruiming on the basis of a late-
Ming novel and a Yangzhon music drarna entitlcd
CentenarianTakes Command (Baisui guashuar). Like all
others on traditional the mes, this itern was banned
during the Cultural Revolution. However it was
revived in 1978. lt is set in the 11 th century. A centenarian
dowager surnamed Yang persuades the
women of her family to resist lru eneury aggrcssing
from the north, and their forces win the final
victory.
Onc regional drana on a modern theme is The
SLory of the Red Lantern lHongdeng ji), which features
threc generations of Comnunist heroes and their
stluggle against a Japanese general during the War'
of Resistance against .|apan. The replesentatives of
the two elder generatious are killed by thc gener-al,
but the youngest lives to fight victoliously against
hin. The item was adapted into a Bcijing opela by
the play.rvlight-director Aiia (1907-95) and performcd
at the 1964 Festival of Beijing Opera on
Contenporary Thcmes. It was taken over byJiang
Qing and recognized as one of her model dramas
from 1970 on. The characterization was made
starker to enphasize the class struggle; Western
instrllnents were added to the acconpanying
orchcstra and the music made more staccato to
express the heroism of the ConlDunists better. The
item was revived in the festival ofDecernber 1990
and January 1991 to mark the 200th anniversary of
the entry of thc Anhui corlpanies into BeUing.
That this was not a sign ofa Cultural Revolutionary
revival was demonstrated by the fact that the fbrm
chosen was Ajia's, withJiang Qing bcing accused of
having seized
the item through an act ofrobbery.
In the 1980s several spokcn dranas and newly
arranged histolical music dramas appeared on the
subject ofLi Shin-rin, one ofChina's greatcst cmperors
(r.626-49). He was the second ruler ofthe Tang
dynasfy and held the imperial title ofTaizong, and
so is known also as Tang Taizong. One of the music
dranas is the Beijing opera Tant Tr:izcrn.g, arranged
by Li Lun. It deals with Li Shimin's success in winning
over a Turkish invader through mediation
and popular support, not fbrce, thus securing
national unity. The incident which fbrms the core
ofthe drama is historical, but the characterization
and plot are adapted to advocate political lessons
appropriate to the prcsent. An item to be prenriered
after the 1989 crisis was PaLnting Draglns
and Filling in Eyes lHudong dianling) by Sun Yuexia
and others. Set in 627 it portrays Li Shirnin as a
kind of 'people's emperor' and an example for the
Chinese nation and concerns his search for good
officials and suppression of cormption. In the
1980s the best writer of newly an-anged historical
music drama was probably Wrr Mrrvcrun.
More modeln national heroes portrayed on the
stage since the late 1970s are revolutionaries such
as Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. In 1981, the 70th
anniversary of the overthrow of the last dynasty by
43

t$e
Sun Yatsen and his followers was the occasion {br
several spoken drarnas about him. His wife Song
Qingling, who died in 1981, figures prominently in
them. The first of thc plays was Sun Yatsen's London
Lnclunter with Dtrnger \Sun Zhongshan Lundun mengan
ji). Its focus was Sun's arrest by thc Chinese legation
in 1896 and later release through the ef'forts of
his fbrner teacher, the British doctor Sir James
Cantlie. This enables the playwright, Li Peijian, to
emphasize not only the courage and unselflshness
of Sun, but also thc power and wisdon of the
British people, represented by Cantlie and others,
and Sun's good lelations with his'foreign friends'.
The play is unusual in China, even in the 1980s, in
being set rn a foleign country.
Sites of performance, audiences
Theatre perfbrmances can take place in a variety of
sitcs in China, including workers'ol t-ural clubs, a
The Changyin Ce lfoyful Sounds Pagoda), a three
tiered stage in the In-rperial Palaces o{'Bcijing,
srtc ofthe former intperial court.
marketplace or any open space. Street theatfe is
comrron only on special occasions such as festivals.
In the cities and towns, cinemas are readily
used as theatres for live perfbnnances. A major
theatre encyclopedia published in Beijing in 1983
stated that there were 891 theatres in China in
1949 and 2227 in 1957 . It claimed that 'after 1958
[we] continued to build quite a few new the:rtres'
but gave no hgures. In the main cities there arc a
few large theatres, of special note being one
opened in Beijing in 1984 which has a 600-squalenrctrc
slage able to hold 1000 performcrs.
Most theatres built since 1949 follow a somewhat
stark Soviet architectural style, both internally
and externally. In sharp contrast to the
teahouse-theatles of the 19th century, the audience
is expected to concentrate fully on the perfbr,
nance, and sits in rows facing onc side ofthe stage.
In the case of musical itcn-rs, the text is projected
beside the stage to facilitate comprehension. The
seats are rarely padded. The lalge 1984 Beijing
thcatre has a stage with rising and revolving
platforms, a stereo sound system, lamps, spotlights
and curtains all controlled by computer, the first
ofirs kind in China.
Some companies own their own theatre. Those
not so fortunate negotiate with a Iocal government
Bureau of Culture, which coordinates the timetables
of the various troupes and theatres. Tours are
planned through an annual meeting organized by
the central Ministry of Culture. In a few parts of
China there are special theatres fbr balladeers or
storytellers. Here people sip tea and listen to stories
sung out by one or several performers, acconlpanied
by musical instrurrents. However, in most
cases storytellers perfbrm by thernselves in parks
or squares.
Performances are advertised partly through the
Iocal press. Theatres announce forthcoming items
and perfbrmances through bills in the foycr. Most
important of all, advertisements afe stuck on special
billboar-ds, poles or any free space along the
streets or in the ll'rarkets. This is especially necessary
in snall towns or villages which lack their
own newspaper. Tickets for professional perfbrrlances
are cheap and ently to anateur oncs often
frec. Simple printed prograrnrres are very cheap.
Full houses are quite conlmoD, especially fbr good
and well performed pieces, br.rt companies frequcntly
complain of low attendances, and nearly
empty theatres are distress
provincial centres.
Those involved with the tr
newly arranged historical n
becone very worried over the
people from their audiences.l
performance of over a decader
Revolution dealt a crippling bL
est in such theatre. It was exclu
cation and cultural life for so lo
of its revival they simply did no
saw no reason why they should
the 1980s and 90s, audienc
mances of traditional music i
over 40 years of age, with n
women two or more to one
affects the countryside, but is
nounced there.
Young theatre-goers prefer
because they can understand il
say of relevance to their own li
the mid 1980s even spokend
been finding it increasingly dil
meet and to attract large aud
entertainment which is more a
the largest audience is not the
The State Statistical Bureau's
on the previous year's eco
declared that there were 764
and 1123 television transn
stations. Television is availa
cities but to very large and inc
countrysidc. Ironically the scr
drama forns in the sense that I
modern music-dramas and s
shown both on television and
the fact is of little comfort to thr
Audiences at traditional mr
be noisy, possibly in part a
incomplete understanding of
but lhose at spoken drama ar
reserved n-rainly for notes helc
of time or an excellent acro
very good troupes are lucky tr
patter at the conclusion ofthe
The performer
The State Statistical Bureaua
1996 that the number of full p
ing-arts troupes in China in

)pen space. Street theatre is
lcial occasions such as festi-
I towns, cinemas are readily
live perforrnances. A major
published in Beijing in 1983
re 891 theatres in China in
7. It claimed that 'after 1958
ld quite a few new theatres'
n the main cities there are a
of special note being one
1984 which has a 600-squareld
1000 performers.
t since 1949 follow a some-
:hitectural style, both inter-
. ln sharp contrast to the
the 19th centuly, the audincentrate
fully on the perfors
facing one side ofthe stage.
I items, the text is projected
cilitate comprehension. The
led. The Iarge 1984 Beijing
with rising and revolving
rnd system, lamps, spotlights
:olled by computer, the first
,,rn their own theatre. Those
.iate with a local government
rich co-ordinates the timetaupes
and theatres. Tours are
nnual meeting organized by
rf Culture. In a few parts of
al theatres for balladeers or
rle sip tea and listen to storr
several performers, accomtruments.
However, in most
brm by themselves in parks
dvertised partly thlough the
nnounce forthcoming items
ough bills in the foyer. Most
rtisements are stuck on speor
any free space along the
rets. This is especially necesrr
villages which lack their
ets for professional perforentry
to amateur ones often
)rogramnes are very cheap.
rommon, especially for good
pieces, but companies freow
attendances, and nearly
empty theatres are distre ssingly comnon
nrovincirl
centres
Those involved with the traditional and the
newly arranged historical music drana have
become very worried over the defection of young
people from their audiences. Possibly the gap in
performance ofover a decade during the Cultural
Revolution dealt a crippling blow to youth's interest
in such theatre. It was excluded from their education
and cultural life fbr so long that by the time
ofits revival they simply did not understand it and
saw no reason why they should nake the effort. hi
the 1980s and 90s, audiences at urban performances
of traditional music dlamas are mainly
over 40 years of age, with men outnumbering
women fwo or more to one. The same problem
affects the countryside, but is not nearly so pronounced
there.
Young theatre-gocrs prcfer the spoken drana
because they can understand it and it has more to
say ofrelevance to their own lives. However', since
the mid 1980s even spoken-drama troupes have
been finding it increasingly difhcult to make ends
meet and to attract large audiences. The form of
entertainment which is more and nore attracting
the largest audience is not theatre, but television.
The State Statistical Bureau's 1995 communiqr.ri
on the previous year's econony and society
declared that there were 764 television stations
and 1123 television transmitting and relay
stations. Television is available not only in the
cities but to very largc and incrcasing areas ofthe
countryside. Ironically the screen does support all
drama forms in the sense that both traditional and
modern music-dramas and spoken dramas are
shown both on television and in the cinema, but
the fact is oflittle comfort to the average perforner.
Audiences at traditional nusic dranas tend to
be noisy, possibly in part a reflection of their
incomplete understanding of what is happening,
but those at spoken drama are quiet. Applause is
reserved mainly fbr notes held an nnusual length
of tine ol an excellent acrobatics display. Even
very good troupes are lucky to elicit more than a
prl ter at t he concl u si ou of t he per'folunnt e.
The performer
The State Statistical Bureau announced in March
1996 that the number offull professional performing-arts
tloupes in China in 1995 was 2690. The
in
'lhe rcnownecl llcijing Opera:rctor, Wang
Yaoqing 11881-1954), in a military dan (wudon)
lole in Qipan Mornrdin (qipdn shdll).
nunber oftroupes in 1950 was 1676 and in 1965 it
was 3458, but it had fallen to 2514 by 1971 as a
r-esult of the policies of the Cultural Revolntion.
Thc ycar with the highest figure was 1980, with
3533 troupes, bnt the trend during the 1980s and
1990s was downwards,
The nationalization of professional troupes
began in the nid 1950s and was corlpleted duling
the Cultural Revolution. After the fall ofthe 'gang
of four'' the process was reversed and in the early
1980s reform dirccted towards fiee cnterprise
begarr to be intloduced evrn in rtate (onlpilllies.
Under the new system, state subsidies to troupes
are reduced and the troupe keeps a larger portion
of its box-office earnings. tsox-offic earnings thus
assume far greater importance. This aims to 'break
thc iron rice bowl' ancl in theory inproves cp.rality

i pitch, thereby creating the mellifluous, sone- acters include such divergent women as
: what plaintive, singing to flute accompaniment Empress Wu Zetian, a contemporary Chinese
: which characterizes kunqu drama. Wei was female judge and Tolstoy's Anna Karenina. Pon
: assisted in his research by Zhang Yetang, an linlian has been praised for its relevance to
: authority on the northern nodal repertoire. Chinese theatre and to Chinese society of the
1980s.
, Weiwtinglun(ts+t- )
, Writer of Sichuan opera (cruarTu) who Yu Zhenfei {1902-e2)
achieved a greal reputation as an innovalive Actor in r

divergent women as
l contemporary Chinese
toy's Anna Karenina. Pan
;ed for its relevance to
o Chinese society of the
trivcxr. He was born at
u Zonghai - an erudite
:r whom he had his first-
;ix. After apprenticeship
jingxi master actors, he
ned for the perfection of
the young scholar-hero
3g!1ar1y partnering Mrr
rg professional career Yu
tigably to preserve kunqu,
ion of performers at the
cademy of Dramatic Art
'ork was disrupted by the
He is an accomplished j
I as.singer and actor, and l
:y'l,i:::"'__ l
leijingopera performance,
maturgy and stagecraft.
I the institution produced
schools at all levels is
itive examination: about 5
rin admission. There is still
fmales, the rationale being
men.
#omen tO sing female roles
n 1951 Premier Zhou Enlai
tor Zhang Chrinqiu: 'up to
hat's the end'. If this po1iry
omen will perform all dan
hat a handful of female
g trained, so the art may
:rformers has risen greatly
the reasons for this are the
I discrimination which prer
highly organized recruit-
:m, an improved standard
ofliving, and the govelnment's high evaluation of
'att workers' as a profession. There arc, however,
still strong gradations in the status ofpelformers:
stars may be among the nost influential and
respected members of society, while ordinary performers
live in serious poverty and social disregard.
Since the earliest days of its existencc thc CCP
has strongly encouraged amateur artists who, it
considered, could assist its propaganda work
among the nasses to an extent even greater than
professionals. The slogan pushed was 'snall in
scale, rich in variety' (xiaoxing duoyang), neaning
that long o[ courplicatcd picccs |equiring exteusive
training or elaborate and expensive costLlmes
should be avoided. The spoken drama, simple
songs and dances, or balladry iterns, were greatly
preferred to traditional music drana. The Cultural
Revolution gave great priority to 'mass ilnateur
propaganda tror.lpcs' and for several years in the
late 1960s they were morc or less thc only soulce of
China's theatrical Iif'e.
Since the late 1970s amateur troupes have
declined markedly. To fill their place semiprofessional
troupes have arisen everywhere in Cl'rina,
especially in the countryside where fully plofessional
theatre is less accessible than in the cities.
Peasants fbrm troupes on their own initiative and
only the tnost talented and skilled local performers
are chosen. They spend most of the year as peasants,
and during the slack season they go around
performing, mainly traditional regional music
dramas. The reward is financial, for although the
performers do not receive salaries, they are paid
out ofbox-office returns according to their coDtribution
to the particular drama. Even if they perform
in the street and there is no box-office, they
are quite likely to be thrown tips from the audi
ence. ln 1983 there were about 3000 seniprofessional
troupes in the single province ofAnhui, and
the number was still rising.
Conclusion
Clearly the peliod since 1978 has brought cnormous
changes to the Chinese theatre in all
respects. A major feature of society in general and
the theatre in particular is a dichotomoris impulse
towards modernization on the one hand and a traditionalist
revival on the other. The najor thrust is
still socialist in that content tends to reflect socialist
society and nany fully professional ttoupes
remain state-owned. However, despite a reversal
fiom mid-1 989 to the beginning of 1 992 due to the
1989 Tiananmen Square crisis, the overall direction
of change since 1978 has been towards greater
variefy and liberalisn in terms of form and content,
and free enterprise in organization, with ideology
reflecting nationalism more strongly than
Marxisn-Leninism. Experience in other countries
suggests that economic modernization affects traditional
arts adversely. Despite the current enthusiasm
in China for traditional music drana as an
exanple of its national arts, the sane could easily
happen there in the next few decades.
Genres
Chuaniu (Sichuan opera).
The forn of music drama fbund in Sichuan,
China's most populous province, and one of the
lnost important of the country's regional sfyles.lt
grew out of five different musical and theatrical
styles that originally were independent, four
belonging to the main systems of Chinese theatre
and introduced frorn outside the province. The
earliest of these, gaoqiang, came into Sichuan
around the 17th century. A variant of the 'musicoiYiyang'drana,
it featured an offstage chorus.
Slightly latcr, clapper opera, known in Sichuan as
tanqianq, ('strum music'), was introduced from
Shaanxi to the north. Next huqin qiang { 'music of
the huqin t. a variant ol'the PTHUANG syslerrr, inlroduced
the two-string huqin instrunent.
Aristocratic 1{uNeuwas popular with the officials
of Sichuan. The one fbrm native to Sichuan was
dengxi ('lantern theatre'), a folk style based on
local mask dances of village shamans.
Early in the 20th century, the theatre was
reforned and the five stylcs began to be perforned
on the same stage and were regarded as a
uniry, though every iten still retained its style of
origin in its umsic. The first teahouse-theatres
were introduced into Sichuan's cities. Probably
the greatest of the refblners was Kang Zilin
(1870-1931), a fine actor, teacher and leader of
the famous Three Celebrations (Sanqing)
Conpany (est. 1912). Apart from the decade ofthe
Cnltural Revolution, Sichuan opera has flourished
under the Comnunists, especially since
1978. The Sichuan Province Chuanju Research
'.,,tt.,
51