Scaliger and Castelvetro - Yavanika

DRA1VIATIC
THEORY
ND CRITICISM
Greeks to Grotowski
BERNARD F. DUKORE
University of Hawaii
-rHorvtsoN
HEINLE
Australia Canada l/ex co Sngapore Span United Kingdorn Unlled Stales

ll8 Renaissance Italy
replied, contran to every expcctation of Pandolfini: "l uill sai that next
tirre v e ought to haug him. . . .8"
A laugh is also evoked uith a shrcsd repll to somc proverb rvhich is
uttcrcd, such as uas nadc bl Nlaestro Gerardo Boldcrio, a Vcronesc phl.sician,
to tliat Signora of trlalaspini sho askccl hin for a rcnreclv for her
onlv sorr. Thc phvsician tolcl hcr that thcrc nas nothing urorrg lith thc
bor and that she should not givc hiur irrrr rucciicine. But thc rroman still
insistcd that hc should preparc sorlrc rcmedr'. And aitclrpting to c\cr-rse
herself for sLrch insisterce, she usccl l proverb, saving: "Oh sir, he riho hirs
onlv onc cre often sipes it." And the phisician aclded: ",'\rrd hc lipcs
it so nu.'
cnd. llrc (r(l r5 llrc ---= :r\llr: ol lliilril! lrtrrr irr
->
r,,lra:'urtblq lorut- fot ooctn'
l- ,----
F \
l.aclres, an(l rlocs nnt 'rrntli :rrirrr,t, .r. .r'rrrt'rr.ril tn thirrk. \\'lrct)cle-
Vt. -
Selections. From Selcct TrdtlsLttrrns fr(nn Scaliger's Poetics. bv Irrederick Nlorqal Padcl
ford. Yale Siudics in EDqLsh, No. 26. Ncl York: Hcnrr Holt and Co., 1905.
1Drte of posthumous yrublicetior.
languagc is used, thc purpose,r
fact or rvith the thought of thi
\\'as sung, its design seencd me
that for the sakc of q'hich rnusi
rucle ancl pristine invention was
the rrccliun.r of its teaching. L,
scribes urilitan, counsels, at ont
lhc orp,'ris1,11,o of the Greeks-r
of various artificcs, all is for o
So in The Frogs of Aristophan
in a poet can rrousc thc great
good ansu,er u,hen he replied, "'
the necd of being better nlen." . .
\os is ttrere not onc end, a
oraton', lncl in the drama? Ass
the same encl-persuasion; for, Y
cvcr language is usc-d-il-either ex
'fhe
cnd of learning is knowled
in no narrol sense. An accura
follovs: Belief based either upon
'I'hus "l
te sar', knoiv that D
parted." Nou u,e do not know a
as the truth. PersLrasior, again,
the spcakcr. 'lhe soul of
Jutc, or susccptibJc of
cloing of sornething. l'ruth, in
said about a thing and the thing
. Corrcdv is a dramatic
action, happv in its outcome,
An inaccurate definition of
fron the suggestion of
privatc citizen." In the firsi
stories, rvhich can be
therc is aluavs the suggestion
is invariablr tame. \\ftat else
of imninent danger? F
violencc at the hands of
in the Asinaria and The
C)ncc morc, this definition
the toga, for thev are not
cmbrace me nes and
'l ragedv, likc comedy,
: Iloth bv Plautus.

ldius Caesar Scaliger 119
lauguage is used, the purpose, of course, is to acquaint the hcarer u'ith a
fact or u'ith the thotght of the speaker, but because thc prinitivc poetry
\vas sung, its design seemed nerelt' to please; ,vet underll"ing thc nusic rvas
that for the sake of rvhich music u'as provided only as a sauce. In tirne this
rude and pristinc invention u.as enriched bv philosophy, which rrade poetry
thc mediun of its teaching. l,et it be fLrrthcr said that when poetrv de'
scribcs nilitarv counscls, at one tirnc open and frank, at another craftvthe
o,po,is11pn of the Greeks-u,hcn it tclls of tenpcsts, of wars, of routs,
of various artificcs, all is for onc purpose: it iuritates that it mav teach.
So in The Frogs of Aristophancs, to thc one uho asked hin, "\\ttat ncrit
in a poet can arouse the grcatest aclniration for hin?" Euripidcs made a
good ansg,er utcn hc rcpliccl, "'l'hc abilitl to irnprcss adroith,upon citlzens
the need of being bctter rnen." . . .
Non' is there not one cnd, and onc onlr', in philosophical exposition, in
or:ttor\', ancl in the dranta? Assurcdh such is the casc. All have one and
thc same encl-persuasion; for, r'ou scc, just as we ucre saying abovc, uhenever
language is uFdlT cither exprcsses a fact or the opinion of the speaker.
The cnd of learning is knoulcclge, that is, knouledge, of course, interprcted
in no narrorv scnsc. An accurate and sinplc de6nition of knorvlcclge is as
follols: Belief based either upotr conclusive evidcnce, or upon a loose notion.
'l}us "I
u e sar. knol that Dido comnittcd suicide bccausc Aeneas departed."
Nou u'e do not kuorv artt such thing, but this is popularly acccpted
as the truth. Pcrsuasiou, again, neans that the hcarcr accepts thc Iords of
the spcakcr. T'he soLrl of persuasion is truth, truth either fixed and absolute,
or suscqrtible of qucstion. Its cnd is to corvince, or to securc the
doing of something. Truth, in turn, is agreernent betrvccn that u'hich is
sajcl about a thing and thc thinq itself. . . .
. Comedl is a

.i''
.-t'
140 Rer,rissonce Ifah'
corneclr, in thc rark of thc clt:rrirctcrs, itt thc n:rtttrc of tlrc actitil' altl in
the ortcotnc. l'hese difTercrttcs dettinrrcl, itt tttnr, cliffcrelccs ir strlc. Comcdl
enplovs charactcrs frortr rttstrc, or lotr'citl lifc. such as Cluetlcs' Davttr, ancl
T'h;is.' ]'he bcgirrrring of r coucdr' Prcscnts a confnsecl statc of allairs' arrd
this confusior is happih clcrretl ttp ai tlrc encl l'lic larrgulgc is that of
evcrr,cl:rr lifc. fragcclr, ott the othcr hancl, crrlpJoi's kings irncl princcs' rrliose
affnirs arc thosc of thc citr', thc fortress, arrcl tltc crttlp A tr.rgcdl oPcrls lrorc
trancluillv than n cotucch, bltt thc otttconrc is borrifring.'l hc langu'rgt is
gravi, polishetl, rcnloved fr(nn thc collocluial. AJI things rrear a trottl:rlcd
look; tlrcrc is a pcrvacliuq sensc of cloottr. tlictc:rre cxiles ancl clerths 'lradition
has it tlrlt thc Nlacctlotriltt litrg. -,\rclrelirtts, tiie illinrrate friencl ancl
patror of liuripides, irskcd ihc poct to rnrkc hirtr tht hcro of I tr:rgcch,
bLrt thet Euripiclcs rcpliccl: 'Inclcccl I calrrr{)t (lo it; r'our life Prescrlts no
adequatc nrisfortunc."
-lirc
,r,r,rc traqcclv is clctirecl frottr 'p,i7ns. tire hegoat' for thc simple
rcason that treqech uas lctcd rn thc lrtinor of that dir iritl to nlrtttn thc
-l
goat $,as \\'ont to bc sitcrihcccl. llcn. in turn. lhe goat \us giverl as a pttze'
ihat tlrc rictor nright srcrificc it to tlrc god. It i'i rccordecl ls art lssrtrccl fl(t
that tragcclics ucrc 6rst actccl irr thc \iintilge sca\orr' lncl tlris garc thc
gtanrmarians an opportLrnitt to clerirc the ttanc frottl 'p,1714", the lintlgc'
just as if it $cre rr,,7?31,r, a uord llrich \ou actuall\ hnd irt tlie Acl:rartitns
ofAristophaues....
Tlrc clefinition of tr.rqcdr givcrr bl r\ristoilc is as follots: lrlgedr is an
jnritrttion of rn itttiott thnt is illuilrious, corlPlctc, rtrcl of a ccrtrtin rrra4rti
tuclc, in crnbcllisltccl llngulgc. the cliflcrerrt kirrcls of crrbcllisltttrcnts lleiug
lariouslt curltlolccl in thc cliller-cnt prtr-ts antl rtot in tllc fortl of ll'tit'tfi.'tl,
but tLrouglr pitv arrcl fclr cllcctrnq thc pttrgatiott of such likc pitssiors
"
I clo not sislr to atteck this clehritiorr otlrcr tlrln br addilrg utr otrl: '\
triiqctlv is thc irrritltiorr of thc aclr ersitt of .r distinguishccl rn:rtt: it ettiplors
thci fonn of lctiotr. Prcscrtts :1 clisrrstllrtts clittoticrnctlt' ltlcl is crplcssetl tn
inrprcssive mttticlL llrugulgc. 'llrrtttgh -\ristotlc aclcl-s harrlllrtlr lltlci stltlg'
ther arc not,:rs thc phrlosophcts :lr. of thc csscttcc of traqc

lulius Caesat Scaliger l4l
Altirough tragedy rcscrrblcs this cpic poctn, it difien in rarelv intro'
ducing persons of the lorver classcs, such as lresscngen, ncrchants, s.llors,
and the like. Conredies, on thc othcr hand, noer admit kings, save irt such
rarc instanccs as t\e AnQhitriort of Plautus. I u'ould lirrit this gcneralization
of course to tLose plavs which cmplov Greek characters and the Grcck
dress, for the Ronans have admitted at \\'ill tire dignificcl toga atd tabea.
-fhe
u'irnton charactcrs of thc satvric plals are drinking, joking, 1olly,
sarcastic fcllo\\'s. 'l hc rnimc emplovs cioth-fnliers, shoemakcrs, butchers,
poulterers, fish dealers, and uarkct-garclcners. Such charactcrs, indecd, rvcre
adnittccl in thc C)ld Conrcclv, as s,cll, for thc subject-matter of thc Old
Couredl uas not verv clifferent fron tbat of thc urimcs, and the difierence
bctueen the two forns rr,as largch in thc division into acts, ancl thc introduction
of the chorus. 'fngcdv irnd conecll arc alikc in mode of reprcsentation,
l>ut cli{Icr in subjcct rnattcr and heatnrcrlt (ordo). 'Ihe matters
of tragcdv arc grcat ancl tcrribic, as couulrlds of kirrgs, slaughtcrs, dcspair,
snici

142 Ilenaissance Italt
., The opening part is gratifying to the guard, and disturbing to Clvtenlnestra
,.$,2 becausc of the arrival of her lnsband; thcn comes the murdgr, ufiiql rnq]

LodoyicoCastelyetro 141
tine for stage-representation is o$jfx or q.tglt--]lggs, it is not true to
r )\ "'r'1
,.
'
lifc to have a storm arisc, irnd the ship founder, in a part of the sca from
-rL'
rvhich no land is visible. Let thc first act bc a passionate lancntation, the
chorus to follorr rvith execrations of sea life; thc second act, a priest u-ith
votive offerings conversing $ith Alcvone and her nurse, altars, firc, pious
sentinents, the chorus folloling u,ith approbation of the vorvs; the third
act, a r)r€sserger announcing thc rising of a stonr, together $ith rumors
as to the ship, the chorus to follorv uith mention of shipurecks, and much
apostrophizing of Ncptulc; thc forrrth act tuurultuous, thc report found
true, ships,recks dcscribed bv sailors and mcrchants, thc chorus benailing
thc cvcnt as thorlgh all u,cre lost; tirc fifth act, Aloone peering anxiouslv
over the se:r and sighting far off a corpsc, follolcd bv the resolution, when
slrc uas al>out to takc hcr oun lifc.'lhis sanrple outliue can bc cxpanded
br, thc introduction of othcr charactcrs.
I-odorico fastelrelro j:: ,:-;
0n Aristotle's Poetics tsTo
r z:"
\3i,
Poctrt, is irnitation and its general rnodc is inritation. . . .r
--i:;---r--.,
.- - - --=i-- , .
llre qrrrlificd poil \ dul\ i, t.r irritlt( tlrrouqlr .t,tr ulalien llre 7 r )r", rts.
realit-r, of pcople caught in thc acciderts oi furtri*l.-l ffi- 1""u"
the discovery of thc rcalitl hidden in the accidents of nature to the philosopher
and thc scicntist.
Nou', sincc drama rvas invented, as I sa\', to delight and provide recreation
for thc colrrnon pcoplc, it rrust havc subject mattcr rvhich the comnon
people can understand and rihich lvhen thev undcrstaud it uray make them
happv. This subject mattcr should ircludc srrch things as everyday occur'
tl3
16r., i"r 1
Selections. l ranslatcd by Charlcs Cattnig fro r thc 1576 revised and amended edition.
Copvright 1974 by Charles Cattnig. Printed with permjssior) of the translator.
1\\'hcrcAs carlicr Itrlian critics translated lristotle's tcttlt pipn6Lt as inritd?ione
(e.e., Cinthio and Trissino; cvcn Do atus rses the Latin inlitatiolrcm), C.stclrctro uses
the rvorcl rassomiglian:d exchrsively. I trarslatc the latter as "representation"
ftranslatois
notei.

144 Renaissance Italy
rences and such things rvhich pcoplc discuss, e.g., rvorld nervs and history.
And for this reason we asscrt that the subject rnatter of Poetrv is historical
sinilitude or imitation. Because it is an initation, poctrv not onlv rolarcls
its inventor uith glory-and nakcs and coustitutes him a poct-but it
delights us muclr more thar the history of actual past c'"ents. Ihcrc'
forc, bccause the data of the scienccs and arts are not conprchensible to
thc peoplc, not onlv nrust thev be avoicled ancl cliscarded as the gencral
subjccts of poetn, but carc must also bc taker that no spccific refcrertce
to thc matters of arts and sciences is nr:rde in anv part of the Poem. . . .
T'ragedv puts coutpassiort ancl fright in thc sortls of thc sPcctators or
the audicncc. . . . Fright and conp:rssion arc thc tso obiectivcs of tragedl. . . .
Nlurders, and othcr such difficrrlt things, arc not sho\\'n onstagc bccause
thev are difficult to perforDr uith dignih and ." crisimilitudq. It_is better_to
h4r'e thg14 occur ofistage ancl then le;gqalt1tcdjla l1,e!!!!gqr- ll)rlnatic
and narrativc poctrvl are also differcnt bccausc tlte narriltivc can interPrct
in a feu hours nranv thiugs u.hich happcncd in mant' hottrs and in nan.v
hours a fov things lhich ltappened in a for' hours. But drarna, uhich
rcprescnts the cvents as taking placc, is incapablc of crcating this effcct
bccause the jr.t-llcrfclnnralgg
-tinrc-spgtl ,i5Jlr,-c-,s4.!r,r-q

\\'ere aware of that iirrritation, how could thet excuse thcir crror? For in
sorne of their comcclies thev h:rre Leprocrtucl rrtrorrs sltich arc Jongcr than
oneda,v....
'l
he end of tragcdr, is action aDd not thc ethical prcdilcctions of charactcrs,
for if
rvhich dctcrmines
llrr r, lror'.. llrerefore. acfion. .rrc tlrc cn

146 Renaissance Italy
pcrmit the presentation of thc rvhole of a singlc complete action, if the
action is quite long. And this is thc principal and essential reason rvhY thc
plot of trigedy and comedv urust be single, i.e., it nttst contain onlv one
action concerning one Pcnon, or ts'o regarded as one because of their
intcrdepcndcncr . . . .
Thc plot of ftragedv and the cpic] nust contain action \\'hich is not
onl,v hunar but also magnificent and ro1al. And if it is to contain action
bv a mcmber of the rovaltr', it fol'lorvs that the plot nust contain action
wfiich definitclr, occurcd lrrld utich involves a king who has lived and
uho is knorr,n to have lived. . . .'lherefore, ihe plots of all tragedics and all
cpics are and nust bc madc up of mishaps rvhich can be callcd historical'
aithough for so c reason Aristotle had a cliffercnt opinion . .i But these
happenings Drust not bc revealed bv means of histon or reDown, cxcePt
bricflv and gencrallr, so that the Poct can exercise his function and shorv
his talent in finding thc tavs and particular nethods of dranatizing the
abor,c-mcntioncd situations.. ..
\\/e arc rvilling to adnit thc possibilit-v that it is casier to make thc
,9plot of a tragedr ancl arr cpic than of a courcdt, bccause !l the plots o-f
t7'J , the first
as hc does c
l ,rt
poets spccia) trlcut to struciurC of conr.ch lrt in r trting
thhg, and becatrse actual events or historv have no Part in it, thc Poet
can even assign \\llatcver Dalres he u'ishes to his cb'lrar:tcrs He can do
this u'ithout oficnse, atrcl uithin rcason he mltst do it. IIe can design a
happening cntirelv invcntecl br hirnself fhereforc, it must be a situatioir-
dealilrg lith privirtc pcrsons of ltich no one rencrnbcrs either the
incidcnt or the pcoplc involr'cd, sincc ther have trot bccn preservccl for
posteritv as histor! or rcllowll. .
In orcler that thc plot rrav be beautiful, the sixth csscntial rcquire
nent is that it be astonishing Earlier tlc explaincd uhile defining tragcdv
that it is not onlv a rePrcscntatiolr of an action that is magnificent, completc,
ctc., but also a rcPrcserltation of terror-causing and contpassion-nraking
ihings. Ancl since these terror'causing and cotnpassion-nlaking things are
fundan.rentalh terror causing and cornpassion making through the emplovnrcnt
of the astonishing, one should not otlit saling that the astonishing
gcneratcs :rnd increascs tcrror lncl cornPassiolr. lhis rvill not givc us a
cornplctc unclerstanding of $hat scares us ancl $hat fills us $ith cornPassion'
Thc esscntial clerDents of thc action or of the plot of tragedv are terror
. lld c0nDassiolr.
, . .$ ,- It is the Poet's
The objectiue. ol-tragedg-q- of the plot of trag{ll '- is h:rppines- or
1'::
t3$::.. brrt nur (\elt kind .,f lr'rppirrcs' or \adrr(\' \\ tr-rrruil lot ton
sPccial talcnt to structure thc Plot ot conle(\' D! rnvcDrrng
the gencral and particular aspccts of a situatioll llecause he invcnts evcn'
:rScc Poelics, chap. 9 [trer]sl:rtor's notc].
r
fuse the happy or sad conc
are the objectives of com{
happy conclusion of hage
cr49l_rf_$ll-ol-!fuloi
or frour the loss of kinship
sists in and restricts itself
death or of a sorrowful
arc its propcr goals. . . .
The purpose of
but neithcr that same
suitablc for tragedy. For
corcealment of some
the
consists in and restricts
of sornc disgrace or
unrecluited love, etc. And
. . . The characters of
of tragedv are roval and
what thev u'ant. If
do not appeal to the
Nor do thcy endure
own hands, following
and relatives; in
but somctimes even
considercd to be the
ful cnough to revenge
upon others is never
to their property.
marriage or through
perpetual marriage and
that if they are to
happiness, or at least
happiness by escaping
into misery or disgnce
But the characten
the courts. They live
appeal to officials to
their self-respect or
into their own hands
selves or othen for
their condition is

Lodoyico Castelyetr

1-18 Renaissance ltaly
'Ihcir
happiness in orclcr for them to apprcciate checrfultress. happiness
can gro\\, bv manv clcgrecs ancl ll a little bit of luck, such as A dcsircd
wcdcling or sorrcthing sirrilar. And conversel\', iniurv or medium disgracc
can rn:rle therr unhappr'. Ancl thcsc :rre thc rcasons uhv thc happl
rncl sacl cndinqs of tragedl arc different fron thc happl ancl sld endings
ofcorncdt,....
'l
irereforc, tragcdl has cithcr e hlppr ,,r I slcl crrditrg .\rrd even u'hcn
it has a happl cncling, it gencrirtcs tcrror ltcl cotnpassiotr to a lesscr c\tent
bccrarrsc the roral cirar:rctcr falls into grcat danger.r Becanse the dangcr
is urixed. thc jol is not Iitltout s:ldl)css, as trc sill explain liricr. IIouoer,
tragcah gercratcs sitnilar ctlotiorrs to a grcltcr ertellt whcrr it has a sacl
cncliDg. Thus, thc purposc of tlle Plot of tragcdv is thc jo! an

Lodovico Castelvetro 149
clear horv they can correctlr be callcd 'iso;j, i.e., pleasure or delight. And
it must imnediatelr be dcscribcd as a utilitarian function, since thc soul
is made lrcalthv b\, ru."tn of vcn bitter medicinc. 'fhat pleasurc arising
frorn compassion and terror, rvhich is reallv pleasure, is that rvhich rvc
have earlier rcfcrred to as "ol)lique pleasure." At tirc time, ll'lrcn rve experience
displeasure bccluse others unjustlv sufier misery, wc acknoq'lcdge
that ne are good, bccarrse iljustice bothers us. Thc natural lovc that u'e
bring to ourselves is a ven great pleasurc for ulrich r,e are gratefnl. To this
pleasure is aclded still another that is rot at all small. Whcn we see othe$
being unjust'l\' opprcsserl and rcalizc that the sarnc could happen to Lts or
to peoplc likc us, rlc lcrrn gprc!,I1, and unconsciouslv that le are subject
to nany nisfortnncs, and that it is not lise to place trLrst in the tranquil
course of events. \\ic arc mnch more (e\hlgf !ylhjl!.It"!g1f!_]:ry1
than if enothcr, c.g., ir tcr(lrrr, *ere opcnh to lecture us on this same subject,-for
experienc_c of things thqt hg_r'c lalptncd-6rrrlr inrpresses undcr'
standing in our souls nrorc effectlgl) dr;rrr--ol bc aeeqry-TiiLad-!1 l!9
nere yoicc oi a leiincd authoritr'. And uc reioice more in thc littlc wc
learn for ourselics tlan in thc much \\'e lcarr from othcrs. for r\ie arc not
able to learn from othcrs unlcss lc adnit ignorance of that ulrich ue lelrn
ancl an oblisatiol to our teachers for uhat le learn fron tltem.
'fhosc
l'ho rnaintain that poetrl' \\as invcntecl essentiallt' for utilitarian
purposes, or for usefulness and dclight togcther, should bervare of setting
thcnrselvcs against .\ristotlc's ruthoritr. In this part of the Poetics and
elserhere, it docs not secm tlr:rt hc allorrs anv end othcr than delight.s
And if he incleecl grrnts somc utilitarian function, lrc conccdes it as ircidcntal,
as is thc pruification of tcrror and cornpassion bv means of traged). . . .
In traged-r', thc placc of thc action is restrictcd Dot onlr to one cit)
or house or coLrntrvsiclc, or siuril:rr site, but to that scenc rhich alone can
bc absorbcd bv the vision of onc rcrson.
'
Sre Pu, ,,ci. . h tp 2? 'r|l.l..l r'' nole