full paper - THE BIOSCAN

ISSN: 0973 - 7049
: Special issue, Vol. 1; 159 -171; 2010
NSave Nature to Survive
STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY AND FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF
TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS OF NORTH-EAST INDIA
U. K. Sahoo et al.
Home garden
Diversity
Dominance
Paper presented in International Conference on
Environment, Energy and Development (from
Stockholm to Copenhagen and beyond)
December 10 - 12, 2010, Sambalpur University
159

NSave Nature to Survive
U. K. SAHOO*, P. ROCKY, K. VANLALHRIATPUIA AND K. UPADHYAYA
Department of Forestry, Mizoram University, Post Box-190, Aizawl - 796 009, INDIA
E mail: uksahoo_2003@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Forty five homegardens (size from 0.035ha to 2 ha) positioned in North-East India was studied
in details for their structural and functional dynamism in relation to livelihood support. A total of
107 different plant species (27 herbs, 15 shrubs, 7 climbers and 58 trees) belonging to 48
families and 87 genus were recorded. Shannon Weiner index for both trees and shrubs were
maximum in the small homegarden (H´=3.28, p

INTRODUCTION
Home gardens are traditional farming systems which may have evolved over time from the practices of
hunters/gathers and continued in the ancient civilizations up to modern times, therefore is one of the oldest
agro-ecosystems that exist throughout the world (Soemarwoto, 1987; Soemarwoto and Conway, 1992). Many
studies on home garden in other parts of world have revealed that home gardens are dynamic systems and
are highly acknowledged for retaining higher diversity that represents microenvironments within larger
farming systems; a mimics the natural, multi-layered ecosystem; and is agro-ecosystem (Agelet et al.,
2000; Nair, 2001; Vogl-Lukasser et al., 2001; De Clerck and Negreros-Castillo, 2002; Gessler et al., 1998;
Hoggerbrugge and Fresco, 1993). These homegardens are considered to be ecologically sustainable
(Torquebiau, 1992; Jose and Shanmugaratnam, 1993; Kehlenbeck and Maass, 2004) probably because of
their near-nature characteristics – higher species diversity, multi-strata canopy and a closed nutrient cycling.
Variation in size, species composition and management objectives have been frequently reported (Fernandes
and Nair, 1986; Christanty, 1990; Das and Das, 2010).
In Mizoram in North-East India, homegarden is the major land use system next to shifting agriculture.
Apart from supplementing food production through shifting cultivation, homegardens supply additional daily
needs of the farmers such as fibres, spices and condiments, timber for agricultural tools, medicines, fodder,
fuelwood etc. Also traditional homegardens are equally important for their potential role in soil protection
and water conservation in the highly fragile hill ecosystems of the region. These homegardens in the state
vary in their sizes influencing the species density and composition (Sahoo, 2009). It is expected that with
different sizes, density and compositional pattern the edaphic characteristics in the homegardens also vary
and may demand different management interventions for improving the overall sustainability of these important
land use systems. However these traditional gardens in the state have received little scientific attention. In
this paper we report the structural diversity and functional dynamism of 45 homegardens along a size
gradient located in Mamit district of Mizoram in North-East India.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study sites
For carrying out the detailed inventory on homegardens, individual households having (>0.01 ha) were
taken as the sampling units. At the household level, data were collected using various phytosociological
tools for species composition, observations were made on plant use and interviews were conducted on
productivity component and monetary return. Prior to the interviews, the homegardens were personally
visited to observe the overall conditions of the systems. A minimum of 15 households were interviewed in
each village and in total 45 (15x3) homegardens were selected. For crop composition, the garden area was
measured, and the different species of crops and trees present were identified and enumerated. The population
of annual crops and other widely grown small plants was estimated by making sample counts on systematically
selected 1m x 1m quadrats and extrapolating it to the area it covered. Individual trees and shrubs present in
the garden were counted. Information on the use, practice and management of plant/crop species was noted
in the field itself by following a standard questionnaire. Most of the plants encountered in the present study
had multiple uses but classification was done based on the main use that was illustrated by farmers.
Vegetation analysis
In each homegarden, vegetation data like density, frequency and abundance of different plant species were
measured directly (Phillips, 1959). The sum of relative frequency, relative density and abundance was
calculated as importance value index (IVI) of individual species (Curtis, 1959). All species present were
classified into: annual/biennial/perennial or herb, shrub and tree. To determine crop species diversity,
species richness and species evenness of the homegardens were calculated. Species richness is the total
number of crops on a homegarden. Species diversity (Margalef, 1968) was calculated as: H ’ = -” {(n i
/N)
log e
(n i
/N)}, where H’=Shannon index of general diversity, n i
=IVI of a species, N= Total IVI of the
161
FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS

U. K. SAHOO et al.,
community (i.e. 300). The dominance index (Simpson, 1949) of the community was calculated as: C=” {(n i
/
N) 2 }, where C=dominance index, n i
and N are same as for Shannon’s index. Pielou’s (1966) evenness index
(e) was calculated as: e= H’/logS, where H’= Shannon’s index of diversity, and S= Total number of
species. Sorenson’s similarity index (Sorenson, 1948) was calculated as, [2C/(A+B)] x 100], where, A and
B are the total species content (trees, shrubs or herbs) in stand A and B respectively, while C is the number
of species common to both stands.
Soil analysis
Five cores (6.5 cm inner dia) from 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm depth were collected from each selected homegarden
in the month of March. All the soils collected were pooled garden-wise and depth-wise and sieved through
2mm mesh screen. The soil moisture content (SMC), pH, ammonium-N and nitrate-N were determined
within 36 hours of sampling following standard procedures given in Anderson and Ingram (1993). Rest of the
soil samples were air-dried and analyzed for total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) using Kel Plus (Pelican model),
while available phosphorous and soil organic carbon (SOC) was estimated by molybdenum blue method and
rapid titration method respectively as given in Allen et al. (1974). Water holding capacity (WHC) was
determined using Keen’s box and the SOC values were multiplied by a constant (1.724) to obtain the soil
organic matter (SOM) values (Allen et al., 1974). Soil texture was determined by Boucous hydrometer
method (Anderson and Ingram, 1993).
Microclimatic variables
The microclimate in the home gardens were studied by measuring light intensity, relative humidity and air
and soil temperatures. The light intensity was measured using a digital lux meter. The air temperature and
relative humidity were measured using a thermo-hygrometer. Soil temperature was measured using a soil
thermometer.
Energy input/output
A process analysis was used to measure energy flow (Fluck, 1992) adding human work contributions (Odum,
1996). Internal and external inputs were measured in Mega Joules (MJ). These were estimated by extrapolating
standard energy values (Mitchell, 1979; Mittal and Dhavan, 1989 and Gopalan et al., 1982). The input of
energy through seeds was calculated on the basis of total energy expended to produce that fraction of the
crop yield. The economic yield per hectare in all cases was calculated on the basis of the entire plot. For
calculating the output of energy the total economic yield of various crops was converted into mega joules of
energy by multiplying with similar standard values. The energy efficiency of each system was calculated as
the output/input ratio.
Input of household labour is a component that needs to be factored to an economic valuation. For the purpose
of this study, opportunity cost of household labour is calculated as a function of time, OC HL
=ƒ (t * labour
rate), where t is the time spent in the garden. The opportunity costs of land have been assigned values
equivalent to the rate at which farmers were able to lease out all or parts of their lands. This rent was
calculated to be an average of Rs. 9500 per hectare of the land per year. For monetary input/output analysis,
labour charge was calculated on the basis of prevailing daily rates of Rs 70. The monetary returns in terms
of crops, feed, milk, egg and organic manure were calculated based on prevailing market price for each
commodity.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Garden size, vegetation composition and dynamics
The size ranged from 144 m 2 to 0.9 ha with a mean of 0.3 ha area. The average homegarden size in small
category was 1152 m 2 , 3895 m 2 in medium and 8500 m 2 in large gardens in the three different villages. The
altitudinal range varies from 56 m asl to 960 m asl. The location of the homegarden in the three villages
ranged from 23º48´58.2½ N to 23º54´53.5½ N latitude and 92º29´41.9½ E 92º25´27.4½ E longitude.
162

Table 1: Species richness of the different homegardens of
Mamit district of Mizoram, North-East India
Homegarden types Family Genus Species
Small 42 68 81
Medium 34 47 53
Large 27 34 37
Overall 48 87 107
Table 2: Composition of different plant forms (habits) in the
homegardens of Mamit district of Mizoram, North-East India
HomegardenTypes Trees Shrubs Climbers Herbs
Small 42 10 6 23
Medium 35 7 2 9
Large 21 6 1 9
Overall 58 15 7 27
Table 3: Similarity Index (Jaccard’s Index) across the
different homegarden types of Mamit district of Mizoram,
North-East India
Homegarden Types Medium Large
Small Trees 0.400 0.313
Shrubs 0.308 0.143
Herbs 0.185 0.280
Climbers 0.143 0.167
Overall 0.314 0.269
Medium Trees - 0.333
Shrubs - 0.444
Herbs - 0.385
Climbers - 0.500
Overall - 0.375
Table 4: Diversity, Dominance and Evenness Index of trees
and shrubs across the different homegardens of Mamit district
of Mizoram, North-East India
Homegarden Shannon-Weaver Simpson’s Evenness
Types Diversity IndexH´ Dominance IndexJ
Index Ë
Small 3.28 0.051 0.75
Medium 2.59 0.076 0.65
Large 2.98 0.062 0.83
163
FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS
A total of 107 species were recorded from the
different homegardens of Mamit district out of which
54% were trees, 14% were shrubs, 25 % were herbs
and 7% were climbers representing 48 families and
comprising of 87 genera. Species composition was
more in the small garden than the medium and large
gardens and least was observed in the large gardens
(Table 1). In all the homegarden types trees dominated
followed by herbs and shrubs (Table 2). Similarity
index shows that the vegetation compositions were
not so similar among the different sizes of
homegardens but similarity was highest between the
large and medium sized homegardens (Table 3).
Homegardens in all the three villages sampled
irrespective of their sizes provide excellent
demonstrations of the importance of ecosystem
diversity for the evolution and conservation of plant
genetic resources. In the sampled area a wide
variation in homegarden size (0.01- e”1.00 ha) was
encountered. Studies on homegarden systems from
different ecological and geographical regions showed
that the worldwide average size of homegarden units
is around 0.10–0.50 ha. Among the plant families,
Asteraceae, Caesalpinaceae, Compositae,
Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae,
Mimosaceae, Moraceae, Musaceae, Papilionaceae,
Rutaceae, Solanaceae, Verbenaceae and
Zingiberaceae were the most dominant families in
the home gardens, Solanaceae had the highest species
number as it provides a variety of food crops like
Abelmoschus esculentus, Solanum esculentum,
Solanum khasiana, Solanum melongena, Solanum
nigrum etc; followed by Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae,
Rutaceae, Papilionaceae, Zingiberaceae, Musaceae,
Mimosaceae and Verbenaceae. In other words, the food crops dominated in most homegardens.
The Shannon Weaver index shows a higher diversity of trees and shrubs in the small homegarden (H´= 3.28)
as compared to the medium and large homegardens. The diveristy index was least in the medium size homegardens
which means that only few species were mode abundant. Species like Areca catehu, Citrus macroptera var
anamensis and Camellia sinensis were more abundant than others in the medium sized homegardens but many
other fruit and tree species were equally abundant in the small sized homegardens like Tectona grandis, Coffea
Arabica, Clerodendrum colebrookianum, Mangifera indica, Areca catechu, Psidium guajava etc. The dominance
index also shows that only a few species dominated the homegardens in medium sized homegardens (ë =
0.076) as compared to large and small homegardens. Areca catechu and Camellia sinensis dominated the
medium sized homegardens. The evenness index shows that in large sized homegardens most of the species are
equally abundant (E = 0.83) than medium sized and small sized (Table 4).
Our survey revealed 20 (10%) trees; 6 (7%) shrubs and 11 (8%) herbs common to all the home gardens
studied. The species diversity of trees was more in small home gardens, followed by medium sized homegarden.
A similar trend was also observed for shrubs, climbers and herbs. Species diversity index reported elsewhere
in general from the homegardens is high. However, the diversity index found in the present study has been

U. K. SAHOO et al.,
higher than reported for Thailand (Diversity index-1.9-2.7, Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999), more or less
similar for Karnataka, India (Diversity index- 3.21, Shastri et al., 2002). All the home gardens surveyed in
the present study had high species richness index which reveal high species number in an area, besides the
distribution of individuals in the systems was significant with low dominance. These features depict that the
home gardens of Mizoram are more stable and matured and therefore could be self-sustaining to generate
high production output under low input conditions. The high diversity observed in the homegardens must
have been due to selection of the species having the potentiality to meet varied requirements of the farmers/
owners with utility of the specific products as the main criterion. There are other factors which too account
for this high diversity, the notable among are the climatic and geographic locational advantages, other site
characteristics, plot dimension, orientation and the extent of human interaction in the past and present.
Further, the edaphic characteristics like soil fertility level, particularly the soil organic matter can influence
directly the trees species diversity and richness.
All the species irrespective of their habit were distributed contagiously (100%) in all the home gardens. A
contagious or clumped distribution of trees, shrubs and herbs is an indication of clusteredness of species
throughout the indigenous home gardens and the contagious distribution has been accepted as more of a
characteristic pattern of plant occurrence in nature (Odum, 1971). It appears that the farmers have understood
this natural concept through time and therefore have adopted strategies for introducing more and more tree
species into their home gardens.
Our findings reveal that species grown in the traditional home garden systems are confounded by the
livelihood requirements and traditional wisdom although differences in species selection could well be
related to altitudinal/climate regime. For examples, the species which provide substantial household
requirements like Curcuma longa, Brassica juncea, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Eryngium foetida, Colocasia
esculenta, Trevesia palmata, Artocarpus heterophyllus and Cucurbita maxima were found in more than 70%
of the homegardens. The dominant tree species in the home gardens include Areca cathechu, Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Citrus anamensis, Schima wallichi, Melia azedaratchta, Samania saman, Saprosma ternatum,
Mangifera indica, Mimusops elengi, Psidium guajava, Parkia timoriana, Persea americana and Tamarindus
indica and shrubs like Capsicum annum, Cajanus cajan, Clerodendrum colebrokianum, Musa paradisiaca,
Musa acuminata, Citrus limon, Thysanolaena maxima, Hibiscus macrophyllus and Zea mays and herbs,
Annanas comosus, Allium hookerii, Calamus tenuis, Colocasia affinis, Centella asiatica, Cucurbita maxima,
Curcuma longa, Curcumphera longiflora, Ipomea batata, Spilenthes acmella and Sechium eduli (Appendix-I)
It was observed that the most of the species grown in the homegardens were perennial followed by annuals.
Only a few biennials were found in the homegardens. Further, it was noticed that the farmers have grown
crops having different life cycles in their gardens, so as to draw food and other products throughout the year.
Most of the plants/crops grown in the gardens have multiple uses and therefore they not only fulfill the
nutritional requirement but also in certain cases the monitory needs by the sold of the products in the nearby
local market. From our survey, seven major plant use categories were identified. The dominant species in
relation to use category per homegarden, was the vegetable followed by medicinal and spice in herbs
groups, in shrubs groups it was vegetable and followed by medicinal and miscellaneous species. However,
in the tree group’s dominant category were fruits species followed by multipurpose and timber tree species.
The overall picture revealed vegetables (32%) are the major constituents followed by fruits (15%), medicinal
plants (13%), multipurpose tree species (13%), species of miscellaneous use (11%), timber (10%) and spice
(6%) (Fig. 1).
The structural composition of the homegardens resembles more of a natural forest ecosystem or like indigenous
integrated method of home production systems with primary function of subsistence food production and
contributions in the family cash economy upto certain extent. The main crops raised in the garden for
marketing are Sechium edule, Parkia timoriana, Passiflora edulis, Persea americana, Carica papaya, Citrus
anamensis, C. limon, C. reticulata, Allium hookerii, Areca cathechu, Ananas comosus and Zingiber officinalis.
Majority of the farmers have revealed us to have sold more than 60% of their produce in the local market
164

Number of species
20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
Timber Fruits Vegetables Spice &
condiments
Use Categories
SMALL
MEDIUM
LARGE
Stimulant Ornamental Misc.
FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS
purely for cash income. In general, the farmers having
small gardens prefer to use all the products for family
consumption.
Soil nutrients dynamics in the selected home
gardens
The physical properties of soil like water holding
capacity and moisture content differed significantly
(p>0.05) between the gardens (Table 5). High soil
moisture content recorded in the top (0-15 cm) layer
in the present study might be ascribed to the greater
accumulation of litter and other domestic waste on
Figure 1: Use categories of plants across different
gardens in Mamit district of Mizoram, North-East
the floor of the traditional home gardens. WHC in the sites declined with decreasing depth registering
greater value in the surface (0-15 cm) soil layer in all the homegardens. SMC always registered greater
values in the upper soil layer compared to sub-surface layer. Soil texture between the sites was relatively
consistent throughout the profile, which was typified by sandy loam to loamy sand. However, there was
little variation in the particle fractionation across the profile increasing from surface soil layer to subsurface
soil layer. These differences among the homegardens are likely due to combination of factors like
microclimate, topography and plant species composition.
Soil pH was acidic (5.37-6.04) in all the homegardens. This means that soils of the homegardens had
favourable fertility conditions as far as pH is concerned. Production output from the homegardens was in the
forms of fruits, leaves, young shoots, bark, flowers or other non-timber products. There was no complete
harvesting from the homegardens. This mechanism ensured minimal nutrient export from the system. A
comparison of soil fertility indicators, such as the pH, total nitrogen, organic matter and available phosphorus
in the surface soil inside and outside the homegardens clearly showed higher soil fertility inside the
homegardens. However, it is generally regarded that the homegardens possess a closed nutrient cycling,
much similar to the tropical forests (Soemarwoto and Conway, 1991; Nair et al., 1999). Agroforestry
systems compose of several different tree and crop species, spatial patterns of nutrient cycling also arise
from differences between species with respect to growth, fertilizer rates, litter quantity and quality, root
distribution and water requirements. Land use systems based on tree crops, such as multistrata agroforestry
systems, have clear advantages over annual cropping systems for the maintenance of soil fertility in the
Table 5: Soil physico-chemical properties of the home gardens of Mamit district of Mizoram, North-
East India
Parameters Large Medium Small
soil depth (cm) 0-15 15-30 0-15 15-30 0-15 15-30
Moisture
Content (%) 33.41±0.51 29.54±0.41 30.32±0.89 27.8±0.55 26.82±0.38 23.37±0.71
WHC (%) 61.22±1.76 48.57±1.59 55.32±2.55 43.56±1.21 51.06±0.95 45.21±1.27
Soil texture
Sand (%) 53.55±0.76 65.24±1.22 52.35±2.33 49.58±1.18 62.29±3.56 59.51±2.41
Silt (%) 32.59±0.23 28.15±2.44 35.58±3.16 37.58±2.34 29.57±2.52 32.77±1.65
Clay (%) 13.86±1.06 6.61±1.91 12.07±1.38 12.84±1.11 8.14±0.67 7.72±0.41
Textural class Sandy loam Loamy sand Sandy loam Loamy sand Sandy loam Loamy sand
pH 5.45±0.16 5.81±0.02 5.68±0.09 5.37±0.12 5.68±0.05 6.04±0.04
Soc (%) 2.37±0.09 2.13±0.09 2.23±0.07 1.79±0.06 1.26±0.15 1.05±0.03
SOM (%) 4.09±0.16 3.67±0.16 3.84±0.12 3.09±0.11 2.17±0.25 1.81±0.05
TKN (%) 0.41±0.04 0.28±0.04 0.37±0.06 0.24±0.03 0.22±0.02 0.20±0.03
C/N ratio 5.78±0.48 7.61±0.57 6.03±0.55 7.46±0.67 5.79±0.27 5.25±0.43
NO -3 -N (μg g -1 ) 9.98±0.32 10.25±0.54 8.73±0.35 7.76±0.61 6.24±0.45 5.76±0.22
NH -4 -N (μg g -1 ) 8.14±0.24 6.26±0.27 7.41±0.25 6.33±0.22 5.14±0.14 4.78±0.15
PO -4 -P (μg g -1 ) 10.81±0.52 8.39±0.31 8.57±0.42 7.51±0.31 6.19±0.61 5.17±0.32
WHC-Water holding capacity, SOC-Soil organic carbon; SOM- Soil organic matter; TKN- Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
165

U. K. SAHOO et al.,
humid tropics. These include permanent soil protection, a more favorable environment for soil biological
processes which affect litter decomposition and soil structural improvement, and more efficient nutrient
cycling (Schroth et al., 2001). The available forms of nutrients (NH + -N, 4 NO- -N and 3 PO- -P) varied
4
significantly (p>0.001) within the homegardens with greater values in the upper soil depth as compared to
the subsurface soil layer. Greater values of NH + -N, 4 NO- -N and 3 PO- -P were recorded the in the larger
4
than the small home gardens. The soil physical properties like WHC, soil moisture content, were significantly
positively correlated with soil chemical properties, which indicate that the nutrient concentration in soil
depends on the soil structure (Table 6).
Evidences from other studies also suggest that tree as a functional group may have beneficial effects on soil
fertility as a result of aboveground litter inputs, and perennial root systems that improves soil structure,
reduce leaching losses, pump water and nutrients from deeper soil depths, support soil food web continually
and contribute belowground detrital inputs (Fisher, 1995; Schroth and Lehmann, 1995). The positive effects
of agroecosystems crop species composition and
richness on soil organic carbon and nitrogen
management has been validated by Russell (2002) and
also considered as an important implication for
designing of agroecosystem for soil fertility
management and carbon sequestration.
Table 6: Correlation matrix (‘r’ values) of soil nutrients in
large, medium and small categories of home gardens
Soil nutrients Large Medium Small
Soil organic matter large 1 0.700* 0.349
Medium 1 0.824*
Small 1
Total N large 1 0.950** 0.744*
Medium 1 0.880**
Small 1
NO-3-N large 1 0.876** 0.754*
Medium 1 0.922**
Small 1
NH + -N large 1 0.874** 0.904**
4
Medium 1 0.945**
Small 1
PO - -P large 1 0.885** 0.657*
4
Medium 1 0.842*
Small 1
* Significant at 0.05 and ** Significant at 0.01
Table 7: Energy output and input (MJ/100m 2 year -1 ) under
different homegardens in Mamit district of Mizoram, North-
East India
Production Small Medium Large F-test
measure
Input (total) 125 (81) 38 (61) 31 (61)
Output
Fruits 605 (50) 685 (68) 798 (89)
Vegetables (leaves, 3049 (110) 497 (115) 626 (97)
pods, seeds, etc.)
Tubers and 74 (81) 83 (46) 27 (40)
rhizomes Total 3728 (93) 1365 (50) 1452 (75)
Output/input ratio 27 ± 5.3 36 ± 7.4 54 ± 7.8 p

FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS
Homegarden economics
Virtually all species in the homegarden have a multiple use. Higher number of species in the large homegardens
obviously contributed to higher production resulting into availability of more products for sale after household
consumption. Sale of surplus was much higher among the larger gardens which were with commercial
motives and also among some of the medium size gardens with similar strategies while higher proportion of
the products was consumed in the households in most of the smaller gardens. Major portion of the fruit
species like P. guajava, C. reticulata, Passiflora edulis, rhizomes like Zingiber officinalis and pods of P.
timoriana were sold out in the local market as the production are usually high and not all the products could
be consumed within the household. The monetary input significantly vary from Rs. 928 per 100 m 2 in small
to Rs. 228 per 100 m 2 in large gardens (p

U. K. SAHOO et al.,
Clerck De, A. J. F. and Negreros, C. P. 2000. Plant species of traditional Mayan homegardens of Mexico as
analogs for multistrata in agroforest. Agrofor. Sys. 48: 303-317.
Curtis, J. T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin: An ordination of plant communities. The university of Wisconsin
Press, Madison. WI.
Das. T. and Das, A. K. 2005. Inventorying plant biodiversity in homegardens : A case study in Barak Valley,
Assam, North East India. Curr Sci. 89(1): 155-163.
Das, T. and Das, A. K. 2010. Litter production and decomposition in the forested areas of ecosystem. Agrofor
Syst. 24:203–213.
Fernandes, E. C. M. and Nair, P. K. R. 1986. An evaluation of the structure and function of tropical home
gardens. Agrofor Syst. 21: 279-310.
Fisher, R. F. 1995. Amelioration of degraded rainforest soils by plantations of native trees. Soil Sc. Soc. Am. J. 59:
544-549.
Fluck, R. 1992. Energy in Farm Production. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Gajesini, J. and Gajaseni, N. 1999. Ecological rationalities of the traditional homegarden system in the Chao
Phraya Basin, Thailand. Agrofor Syst. 46: 3-23.
Gessler, M., Hodel, U. and Eyzaguirre, P. B. 1998. Homegardens and Agrobiodiversity: Current state of knowledge
with reference to relevant literature, IPGRI Homegardens project document, Rome, 1998.
Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B. V. and Balasubramaniam, S. C. 1982. Nutritive value of Indian Foods. National
Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad.
Hoogerbrugge, I. D. and Fresco, L. O. 1993. Homegarden systems: Agricultural Characteristics and Challenges.
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
Jose, D. and Shanmugaratnam, N. 1993. Traditional homegardens of Kerala: a sustainable human ecosystem.
Agrofor Syst. 24: 203-13.
Kehlenbeck, K. and Maass, B. L. 2004. Crop diversity and classiûcation of homegardens in Central Sulawesi,
Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems. 63: 53-62.
Margalef, R. 1968. Perspectives in ecological theory. University of Chicago press. p. 111.
Mitchell, R. 1979. An Analysis of Indian Agro-ecosystems, Interprint, New Delhi.
Mittal, J. P. and Dhawan, K. C. 1989. Research manual on energy requirement in agricultural sector. College of
Agriculture Engineering, PAU, Ludhiana, India. pp. 20-23.
Nair, P. K. R., Buresh, R. J., Mugendi, D. N. and Latt, C. R. 1999. Nutrient cycling in tropical agroforestry
systems: Myths and Science. pp 1-31. In: Buck, L.E., Lassoie, J. P. and Fernandes, E. C. M. (Eds), Agroforestry
in sustainable Agricultural System, CRC press, Boca Raton, FL.
Nair, P. K. 2001. Do tropical homegardens elude science, or is it the other way round? Agrofor Syst. 53: 239- 245.
Odum, H. T. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Saunders and Co.Phiadelphia. p. 574.
Odum, H. T. 1996. Environmental Accounting. Energy and Environmental Decision Making. Wiley, New York.
Phillips, E. A. 1959. Methods of vegetation study. A Holt- Dryden Book, Henry Holt and Co., Inc. New York.
Pielou, E. C. 1966. The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. J. Theoretical Biol.
13: 131-144.
Russell, A. E. 2002. Relationships between functional crop diversity and soil attributes in southwestern Indian
agroecosystems. Agric., Ecosys. and Environ. 92: 235-249.
Sahoo, U. K. 2009. Traditional home gardens and livelihood security in North-East India. J. Food Agric Env. 7(2):
665-670.
168

FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS
Schroth, G. and Lehmann, J. 1995. Contrasting effects of roots and mulch from three agroforestry tree species on
yields of alley cropped maize. Agric. Ecosys. Env. 54: 89-101.
Schroth, G., Lehmann, J., Rodrigues, M. R. L., Barros, E. and Macedo, J. L. V. 2001. Plant- Soil interactions
in multistrata agroforestry in the humid tropics. Agrof syst. 53: 85- 102.
Shastri, C. M., Bhat, D. M., Nagaraja, B. C. Murali, K. S. and Ravindranath, N. H. 2002. Tree species
diversity in a village ecosystem in Uttara Kannada district in Western Ghats, Karnataka. Curr Sci. 82: 1080-1084.
Simpson, E. H. 1949. Measurement of Diversity. Nature. 163: 688.
Soemarwoto, O. and Conway, G. R. 1992. The Javanese homegarden. J. Farming. Syst. Res. Exten. 2(3): 95-
118.
Soemarwoto, O. 1987. Homegardens:a traditional agroforestry system with a promising future. In: Steppler H.A.
and Nair P.K.R.(Eds), Agroforestry, a Decade of Development. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 157–172.
Sorenson, T. 1948. A method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of
species content. Acta, K. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Biol. Skr. J. 5: 1-34.
Torquebiau, E. 1992 Are tropical homegardens sustainable? Agric Ecosyst Env. 41: 189-207.
Vogl- Lukasser, B., Volg, C. R. and Bolha’r- Nordenkampf, H. 2002. The composition of homegarden on
small peasant farms in the alpine regions of Osttirol (Austria) and their role in sustainable rural development. In:
Stepp, J.R., Wyndham, F.S. and Zarger, R.K. (Eds.). Ethnobotany and Biocultural Diversity. University of Georgia
Press; Athens, Georgia, USA.
169

U. K. SAHOO et al.,
Annexure 1: List of plants available in the different homegardens in Mamit district of Mizoram, North-East India
S.N. Local Name Botanical Names Family S M L
Climbers
1 Cane Calamus sp Palmae - + -
2 Bepui Lablab purpurea Papilionaceae + - -
3 Maitamtawk Momordica mixta Curcubitaceae + - -
4 Sapthei Passiflora edulis Passifloraceae + - -
5 Pan nah Piper betle Piperaceae + + +
6 Iskut Sechium edule Curcubitaceae + - -
7 Grapes Vitis vinefera Ampelidaceae + - -
Herbs
8 Aidu Ammomum dealbatum Zingeberaceae + - -
9 Lakhuithei Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae + + +
10 Asparagua Asparagus racemosus Liliaceae + - -
11 Zoramthanga maw Bambusa bambos Gramineae + - -
12 Hmarchate Capsicum annum Solanaceae + + -
13 Vinca Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae + - +
14 Lambak Centella asiatica Umbelliferae + - -
15 Dawl Colocasia esculenta Araceae + + +
16 Kerala dawl Colocasia sp. Araceae + - -
17 Maien Curcubita maxima Curcubitaceae + - -
18 Aieng Curcuma longa Zingeberaceae - + +
19 Rawnel Dendrocalamus longispathus Gramineae + - +
20 Bakhawr Eryngium foetidum Umbelliferae - + +
21 Anthur Hibiscus sabdariffa Malvaceae + - -
22 Vai anthur Hibiscus sabdariffa Malvaceae - + -
23 Kawlbahra Ipomea batatas Convulavaceae + - +
24 Ankhapui Marsdenia maculate Asclepiadaceae + - -
25 Mautak Melocanna baccifera Gramineae + - +
26 Banhla Musa paradisiacal Musaceae + + +
27 Changel Musa paradisiaca var sylvestris Musaceae + - -
28 Vaihlo Nicotiana tobaccum Solanaceae - + -
29 Hnathial Phrynium capitatum Marantaceae + + -
30 Rose Rosa sp. Rosaceae + - -
31 Fuh Saccharum officinarum Gramineae + - -
32 Khingkhi Sida acuta Malvaceae + - -
33 Bawkbawn Solanum melongena var esculentum Solanaceae + - -
34 Samtawk Solanum torvum Solanaceae + - -
Shrubs
35 Khanghu Acacia pennata Mimosaceae + + -
36 Behliang Cajanus cajan Papilionaceae + - -
37 Bottle brush Callistemon citrinus Myrtaceae - + -
38 Thingpui kung Camellia sinensis Theaceae - + +
39 Hatkora Citrus macroptera var anamensis Rutaceae + + +
40 Limbu Citrus medica var acidus Rutaceae + + +
41 Zamir Citrus sp Rutaceae + - -
42 Kawfee Coffee Arabica Rubiaceae + - -
43 Sarjuk Eleagnus caudate Eleagnaceae + + -
44 Banglapar Hibiscus rosa sinensis Malvaceae + - -
45 Jasminum Jasminum amplexicaule Oleaceae - - +
46 Justicia Justicia gendrosa Acanthaceae + - -
47 Pangbal Manihot esculenta Euphorbiaceae - - +
48 Tawkte Solanum Solanaceae + - -
49 Kelkebengbe Tabernaemontana divaricata Apocynaceae - + +
Trees
50 Kalsiamthing Acacia auriculiformia Mimosaceae + + -
51 Thuamriat Aegle marmelos Rutaceae + - -
52 Vang Albizzia chinensis Mimosaceae + - -
53 Tung Vernicia Montana Euphorbiaceae + - -
54 Zairum Anogeissus acuminata Combretaceae + - -
55 Thurte an Antidesma acidium Euphorbiaceae + - -
170

FUNCTIONAL DYNAMISM OF TRADITIONAL HOME GARDENS
Coun....Annexure 1: List of plants available in the different homegardens in Mamit district of Mizoram, North-East
India
S.N. Local Name Botanical Names Family S M L
56 Thingrai Aquilarria malaccensis Thymeleaceae - + -
57 Kuhva Areca catechu Palmae + + +
58 Tatkawng Artocarpus chama Moraceae - + -
59 Lamkhuang Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae + + +
60 Theitat Artocarpus lakoocha Moraceae + - -
61 Tat Artocarpus nitidus ssp griffithii Moraceae - - +
62 Neem Azadiracta indica Meliaceae - + +
63 Pangkai Baccaurea ramiflora Euphorbiaceae - + -
64 Hnakiah Callicarpa arborea Verbenaceae + - -
65 Theiria Carallia brachiata Rhizophoraceae + - -
66 Thingfanghma Carica papaya Caricaceae + + +
67 Mei hle Caryota urens Palmae - + -
68 Tei-pui Cedrella toona Meliaceae + + -
69 Sertawk Citrus maxima Rutaceae + + -
70 Serthlum Citrus reticulate Rutaceae + + +
71 Phuinam Clerodendrum colebrookianum Verbenaceae + + -
72 Phuinam chhuak Clerodendrum viscosum Verbenaceae + - -
73 Coconut Cocos nucifera Palmae + + +
74 April Par Delonix regia Caesalpinaceae - + -
75 Thingkha Derris robusta Papilionaceae + + -
76 Kawthindeng Dillenia indica Dillenaceae - + -
77 Thingthupui Dysoxylum gobara Meliaceae - + -
78 Paite maien Ficus hispida Moraceae + - -
79 Theitit Ficus prostate Moraceae - - +
80 Hmawng Ficus religiosa Moraceae - + -
81 Hmeithai thei Ficus tinctoria Moraceae - + -
82 Chengkek Garcinia lanceaefolia Guttiferae - + +
83 Thlanvawng Gmelina arborea Verbenaceae + - +
84 Vaiza Hibiscus macrophyllus Malvaceae + - -
85 Litchi Litchi chinensis Sapindaceae + + +
86 Nauthak Litsea monopetala Lauraceae + - -
87 Hnakhar-nu Macaranga indica Euphorbiaceae + - +
88 Theihai Mangifera indica Anacardaceae + + +
89 Herse Mesua ferrea Guttiferae + - -
90 Ngaiu Michelia oblongata Magnoliaceae + - +
91 Archangkawm Oroxylon indicum Bignonaceae + + -
92 Zawngtah Parkia timoriana Mimosaceae + + +
93 Butter thei Persea Americana Lauraceae + + -
94 Kawlsunhlu Phyllathus acidus Euphorbiaceae + + -
95 Bil Protium serratum Buseraceae - + -
96 Theite Prunus domestica Rosaceae + - -
97 Kawlthei Psidium guajava Myrtaceae + + +
98 Theihmu Rubus acuminate Rosaceae + + -
99 Hling si Sapindus Mukorossi Sapindaceae + - -
100 Lenhmui Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae + - +
101 Tengtere Tamarindus indica Caesalpiniaceae + + -
102 Teak Tectona grandis Verbenaceae + + -
103 Thingdawl Tetrameles nudiflora Datiscaceae - - +
104 Belphuar Trema orientalis Ulmaceae + - -
105 Kawhtebel Trevesia palmate Araliaceae + + +
106 Borai Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae + + +
107 Oilpalm Palmae - + +
171