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ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTS 

A N N A L S 

SERIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF INFORMATION 

VOLUME 5 2012 NUMBER 1 

ONLINE EDITION 

ISSN 2066 - 8562 

TOPICS: 

INFORMATION THEORY AND COMPLEXITY 

PHOTONICS AND OPTICAL ENGINEERING 

ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS 

I N F O R M A T I C S A N D C O M P U T E R S 

IT SYSTEMS, MECHATRONICS AND ROBOTICS 

ADVANCED MATERIALS, NANOSCIENCES AND 

NANOTECHNOLOGIES 

MICROELECTRONICS AND MICROSYSTEMS 

E d i t u r a 

ACA DEMIEI OAMENI LO R DE ȘTII NȚĂ DI N ROM ÂNIA 

B u c u r e ş t i

A N N A L S O F T H E A C A D E M Y 

O F R O M A N I A N S C I E N T I S T S 

Series on S C I E N C E A N D T E C H N O L O G Y O F I N F O R M A T I O N 

C O N T E N T S 

NECULAI ANDREI 

THE QUADRUPLED RATIONAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVINITY .................................................. 7 

STEFAN IANCU 

MAN, MACHINES AND CONSCIENCE? ....................................................................................... 15 

I. TUNARU, R. WIDENHORN, E. BODEGOM, D. IORDACHE 

COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH TO DARK CURRENT SPECTROSCOPY IN CCD 

AS COMPLEX SYSTEMS.PART III. DEFINITION AND USE OF A NEW PARAMETER 

CHARACTERIZING THE DEPLETION DARK CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS ............................ 37 

ADRIAN SIMION, STEFAN TRAUSAN-MATU 

AUTOMATIC COMPUTER MUSIC CLASSIFICATION AND SEGMENTATION................................. 59 

CORNEL COBIANU, BOGDAN SERBAN 

POLYMERIC PRESSURE SENSORS: A CONCEPTUAL VIEW .......................................................... 75 

CATALIN SPULBER, OCTAVIA BORCAN 

AN ANALYSIS REGARDING THE DECREASING OF THE IMAGE QUALITY 

WITH THE OPTICAL MISALIGNMENT ......................................................................................... 85 

BOGDAN-ADRIAN STEFANESCU, DAN ANGHEL, OCTAVIAN DANILA, 

PAUL STERIAN, ANDREEA RODICA STERIAN 

APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY FOR DATA TRANSMISSIONS 

IMPLEMENTED IN A STUDENT LABORATORY ............................................................................ 95 

DAN ALEXANDRU IORDACHE 

THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF COMMUNICATIONS VERSUS THE PHYSICAL 

THEORY OF INFORMATION. THE UNIVERSE VERSUS THE MULTIVERSE ................................... 109 

M.R. JAFARI, M.R. ZARRABI, S. EFFATI 

CHAOS AND STABILIZATION OF SELF-REMISSION TUMOR SYSTEM BY SLIDING MODE ........... 125 

ONLINE EDITION 

Copyright©E d i t u r a A C A D E M I E I O A M E N I L O R D E Ș T I I N Ț Ă D I N R O M Â N I A , 2012

A N N A L S O F T H E A C A D E M Y 

O F R O M A N I A N S C I E N T I S TS 

Series on S C I E N C E A N D T E C H N O L O GY O F I N F O R M A T I O N 

Founding Editor-in-Chief 

Gen. (r) Prof. univ., M.D. Ph.D., Dr. H.C. VASILE CÂNDEA 

Founding, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 

P r e s i d e n t o f t h e A c a d e m y o f R o m a n i a n S c i e n t i s t s 

Co-Editor 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. ADRIAN RUSU 

C o r r e s p o n d i n g M e m b e r o f t h e R o m a n i a n A c a d e m y 

F u l l M e m b e r o f t h e Academy of Romanian Scientists 

Series Editor 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. PAUL STERIAN 

F u l l M e m b e r o f t h e Academy of Romanian S c i e n t i s t s 

President of the Section Science and Technology of Information 

Series Editorial Board 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Neculai ANDREI, Research Institute for Informatics, Bucharest 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea BODEA, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Erik BODEGOM, Portland State University, Oregon, USA 

Prof. univ Ph.D. Eng. Gheorghe BREZEANU, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Ştefan CANTARAGIU, UTI Group, Bucharest, Romania 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Carlo CATTANI, University of Salerno, Italy 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Cornel COBIANU, Honeywell Romania 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Ştefan IANCU, Romanian Academy 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Ciprian ILIESCU, Institute of Bioengineering 

and Nanotechnology, Singapore 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Adrian IONESCU, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Ole KELLER, Department of Physics and Nanotechnology, 

Aalborg University, Denmark 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Adrian PODOLEANU, Applied Optics Group, University of Kent, UK 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Cătălin SPULBER, S.C. Pro Optica S.A., Bucharest 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Ştefan TRĂUŞAN-MATU, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Florin UDREA, Engineering Department, University of Cambridge, UK 

Chief of Department: Mihai CĂRUȚAȘU, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, eng. 

Redactor: Andrei D. PETRESCU, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, prof. National College 

“Gheorghe Lazăr”, Ph.D., University „Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania 

Documentalist: Ioan BALINT, Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, eng. 

The series is published by the section Science and Technology of Information of the 

A c a d e m y o f R o m a n i a n S c i e n t i s t s 

Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2012 

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3 

FOREWORD 

Based on a rich scientific tradition, the Academy of 

Romanian Scientists, ARS is the continuator and the 

unique heir of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1936- 

1948). Then, together with the Academy of Medical 

Sciences and the Romanian Academy, it was included (by 

Decree of the Great National Assembly) into the Academy 

of the Romanian Popular Republic, with Academician 

Traian Savulescu as president. 

In 1956, Academician Traian Savulescu, together 

with other scientists and members of the Academy, created 

the Association of the Romanian Scientists, as a partial 

compensation for the disappearance of the Romanian 

Academy of Sciences. In 1996, at the first National 

Congress of the Romanian Scientists (with international 

participation) the denomination Academy of Romanian 

Scientists was adopted, with the same acronym and the 

same statute as in 1936. 

By the Decree 52, from January 12, 2007, ARS was 

recognized as an institution of public interest, situated 

between the Romanian Academy and the specialized 

Academies and enjoying the status of chief accountant of 

public funds. 

The Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 

reappeared and continued, during 2006-2007, the tradition 

from 1936, with one volume every year. Starting with 

2008, the Annals are published observing the internationally 

recognized standards as several independent 

series, for each section of ARS. 


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4 

Despite their great diversity, all published papers 

must have something in common. They will be assessed by 

our referees, trusted researchers in their fields of activity 

and they must be able to prove be influential in the science 

progress. 

In essence, we are seeking for papers of the highest 

quality that present an important advance in conceptual 

understanding to provide new insights into related 

processes or report a new level of technological 

performance or functionality for the future development 

in different fields of interest. 

In the same time, the papers must offer broad appeal 

to the scientific community, including the young scientists 

also. I would like, on this occasion to say a big thank-you to 

all members of the scientific community who either 

submitted papers, or acted as referees, or intend to 

participate in the future at the success of the ARS Annals. 

It is my real pleasure to congratulate now the 

members of the Science and Technology of Information 

Section of ARS and the members of the Editorial Board for 

continuing the series on Science and Technology of 

Information of the Annals. To all of them and to the 

technical staff involved in the production of the journal, 

my sincere thanks for their work and my best wishes of 

success in the future activity. 

Gen.(r), Prof. univ., M.D., Ph.D., Dr. H.C., Vasile Cândea 

President of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 


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Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 

Series on Science and Technology of Information 

ISSN 2066 - 8562 Volume 5, Number 1/2012 5 

C O N T E N T S 

1. Neculai ANDREI 

The Quadrupled Rational Interpretation of Divinity ........................ 7 

2. Stefan IANCU 

Man, Machines and Conscience? ............................................................. 15 

3. I. TUNARU, R. WIDENHORN, E. BODEGOM, D. IORDACHE 

Computational Approach to Dark Current Spectroscopy in CCD as 

Complex Systems. Part III. Definition and Use of a New Parameter 

Characterizing the Depletion Dark Current in Semiconductors ........... 37 

4. Adrian SIMION, Stefan TRAUSAN-MATU 

Automatic Computer Music Classification and Segmentation ................. 53 

5. Cornel COBIANU, Bogdan SERBAN 

Polymeric Pressure Sensors: A Conceptual View ................................... 69 

6. Catalin SPULBER, Octavia BORCAN 

An Analysis Regarding the Decreasing of the Image Quality 

with the Optical Misalignment ................................................................. 83 

7. Bogdan-Adrian STEFANESCU, Dan ANGHEL, Octavian DANILA, 

Paul STERIAN, Andreea Rodica STERIAN 

Applications of Quantum Cryptology for Data Transmissions 

Implemented in a Student Laboratory .................................................... 93 


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6 Volume 5, Number 1/2012 ISSN 2066 - 8562 

8. Dan Alexandru IORDACHE 

The Mathematical Theory of Communications versus the Physical 

Theory of Information. The Universe versus the Multiverse .................... 107 

9. M.R. JAFARI, M.R. ZARRABI, S. EFFATI 

Chaos and Stabilization of Self-Remission Tumor System 

by Sliding Mode .......................................................................................... 123 

Referents: 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Neculai Andrei 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea Bodea 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Gheorghe Brezeanu 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Ştefan Cantaragiu 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Cornel Cobianu 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Ştefan Iancu 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea Valer Puşcă 

Senior Res. Ph.D. Eng. Cătălin Spulber 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Paul Sterian 

Prof. univ. Ph.D. Eng. Ştefan Trăuşan-Matu 


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THE QUADRUPLED RATIONAL INTERPRETATION 

OF DIVINITY 

Neculai ANDREI 1 

Abstract. When speaking about the rational interpretation of Divinity, there are three 

main concepts that we will briefly summarize in this paper. At the end of it we will present 

a fourth one, namely the symmetric rational interpretation of Divinity, as well as the 

connections between it and the other three ones. 

Keywords: Tzimtzum concept, Coincidentia Oppositorum concept, Continuous Creation concept, 

Symmetry Concept, Mathematical modeling, Occam's razor 

1. Introduction 

We should mention that the first three concepts belong to the Western World, to 

the Catholic Church, which for more than 1000 years has made a constant effort 

for reconciliation between Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and the Christian Dogma. 

We, the Romanians, and actually the entire Eastern world, did not have a 

Renaissance age, in the general meaning of the concept. 

We did not need Renaissance. We had the Holly Eastern Fathers, whose effort 

surpassed ancient art and philosophy and gave answers to the fundamental 

problems of the human condition, answers that did not involve their issuing of 

philosophical systems. 

2. The Tzimtzum Concept 

The most serious attempt to explain the idea of Creation ex nihilo is expressed in 

the theology of Isaac Luria (Arizaal) (1534-1572). Considered as being the 

founder of New Kabbalah, in fact the greatest Kabbalist of all times, he uses the 

Tzimtzum doctrine - concentration, contraction or withdrawal. Being an 

intellectual concept of Jewish mysticism, Kabbalah is an area dealt with not only 

by Hebrew scholars. Kabbalah does not give much importance to the primordial 

chaos. It conceives the world as an organized system, something that, in the 

current language, would be considered a system governed by laws (conservation 

laws) and not by hazard. Kabbalah is essentially a system representing the world 

through areas of perception and representation, of interpretation of Divinity. 

According to Luria, the existence of the Universe was possible only through a 

process of "contraction" of God, i.e. 

1 Research Institute for Informatics, Centre for Advanced Modelling and Optimization, 8-10, 

Averescu Avenue, Bucharest 1,. Full member of the Romanian Academy. (e-mail: nandrei@ici.ro). 


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8 Neculai Andrei 

”After Genesis, God, keeping intact His essence, has retired within Himself to 

make way for the world itself, leaving, so to speak, an area inside Him, some 

sort of mystical space from which He withdrew in order to return to the acts of 

creation and of revelation” [Scholem, 1960], [Eliade, 2000, p. 577]. 

In this view, God's withdrawal is more than a metaphor. It is rather a change in 

His intensity over the world. 

Notice that there are two forms of Tzimtzum, two forms of withdrawal. The first 

one relates to the withdrawal of the divine being in itself in order to allow the 

existence of the physical world. The second one is the withdrawal of the "divine 

will" in order to confer freedom of choice to the human being. However, this 

meant sacrifying the unity and exclusivity of Divinity. Therefore, the Tzimtzum 

concept within Kabbalah states that the existence of free-will was conditioned by 

the destruction of the original order, of the unity and symmetry, which are 

fundamental attributes of Divinity. 

Creating the Universe and making the free-will efficient implied giving up the 

fundamental principle of science, that of causality. At this moment, Tzimtzum is 

the only place where the principle of causality is not satisfied. This defines and 

explains the "singularity" mentioned in the Big Bang theory (please see paragraph 

4 below), an exception that does not need the principle of causality. The unity of 

natural laws, their ubiquity in the sense that "The universe is full of laws" arises 

from the unity of the Divine being, of Almighty, and from the Divine will. Giving 

up the principle of causality in the act of creating the physical Universe and the 

free will becomes therefore similar to the "withdrawal of God", to Tzimtzum. 

Luria's Kabbalah is the greatest victory achieved by the anthropomorphic 

philosophical trend in the history of Rabbinic Judaism and Hebrew mysticism, the 

last religious movement with influence in all Hebrew environments and in all 

countries without exception [Scholem, 1960]. Its significance, as manifestation of 

rationality aiming at clarifying the act of the creation of the Universe and of the 

free will, emerges as well from the fact that Tzimtzum, as the essence of 

Kabbalah, is entirely present in the modern cosmological theory of the Big Bang. 

3. The Coincidentia Oppositorum Concept 

A second concept in the rational interpretation of Divinity is closely related to the 

problem of conjecture and was dealt with by the German Bishop Nicholas of Cusa 

(1401-1464) in his remarkable work De Docta Ignorantia (Of Learned Ignorance), 

written in 1440. The theme of this original but difficult work is that most of our 

knowledge is a conjecture, and admitting this is a matter of wisdom. 

According to this concept, Cusa's universe is an expression that is an imperfect and 

inadequate explanation (explicatio) of God, because this explanation occurs within 


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The Quadrupled Rational Interpretation of Divinity 9 

the sphere field of multiplicity and separation. On the other hand, within God, the 

universe is present in a strict and indissoluble unity (complicatio), a unity that 

includes all qualities and determinations, which are not only different, but even 

opposite to one being. In Cusa's interpretation, any single being in the universe 

represents the universe itself and therefore God himself, in a proprietary manner, 

characteristic to that very being, contracting (contractio) the infinite richness of the 

universe based on the own individuality of the being itself. 

Cusa, who was the last major philosopher-theologian of the Roman Church, one 

and inseparable, a "Ianus of philosophy" in the interpretation of P. P. Negulescu 

(1872-1951) because he was pointing on one hand towards the Middle Ages and on 

the other hand towards the Renaissance, argues that knowledge, which is relative 

and finite, is unable to grasp the truth, which is simple and infinite. A great 

personality of his time, Nicholas of Cusa, until he met Plethon Gemistos Georgios 

(1355-1452) during a trip to Byzantium (1437) to attend a church council, was 

oriented towards the Renaissance, a new world which was just being born. The 

meeting with Plethon, a Greek Neo-Platonist philosopher who had come to Italy 

and stirred in Florence a great movement of ideas that would later lead to the 

founding of "Accademia Platonica" of Florence by Marsiglio Ficino (1433-1499), 

also determined Cusa's return toward the prevailing mentality of the Middle Ages. 

The outstanding all-reaching perspective of his metaphysics can be noticed in his 

exceptional works De Concordantia Catholica (1434) and De Pace Fidei (On the 

Peace of Faith - 1453) in response to the fall of Constantinople under the Turks. In 

these works, Cusa defines concordantia as a universal theme. The bold conclusion 

he reaches, concordantia, is drawn with aid from negative theology. Using the 

same approach he comes to his masterpiece, De Docta Ignorantia. 

Any science being conjectural, man himself cannot 

know God. The truth - the absolute maximum - is 

beyond reason because reason is unable to solve 

contradictions. One must, therefore, transcend beyond 

discursive reason and imagination and get maximum 

of wisdom through intuition. But since the intellect 

cannot express itself using a rational language, Cusa 

resorts to symbols and, before anything else, to 

geometric figures. 

Within God, that which is infinitely large (maximum) 

coincides with that which is infinitely small 

(minimum) and virtuality coincides with action. In Nicolas of Cusa (1401-1464). 

His infinite simplicity, God hides (complicato) all 

things, but at the same time He is in all things (explicato); i.e., complicato 

coincides with explicato, which is the coincidentia oppositorum principle. By 


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understanding this principle, our ”ignorance” becomes ”erudite”. Still, 

coincidentia oppositorum must not be interpreted as a synthesis gained through 

reasoning, because it cannot be achieved in terms of finitude, but in a manner of 

conjecture, in the infinite plane [Eliade, 2000, p. 599-600]. 

This is an exceptional interpretation of Divinity, comparable to that given by Isaac 

Luria in his New Kabbala. 

”By knowing in part” as Apostle Paul taught us in his First Epistle to the 

Corinthians (Chapter 13, verse 9) and without access to ultimate truths we can 

only make conjectures. As long as they withstand the tests, they are accepted. 

Otherwise, they are rejected, leaving room for other theories to replace them and 

summarize their experience. 

4. The Continuous Creation Concept 

Still, the most elaborate concept in the rational interpretation of Divinity belongs 

to Descartes. Descartes' philosophy starts off with cogito, and it starts from the 

fact that ”I think” is an indisputable finding observed directly, not through 

deductions. The next step in Descartes’ philosophy indicates that ”I”, as a 

thinking being, am capable of certainties and those certainties are obtained by 

direct intuition, through direct knowledge. In this respect Descartes, by intuition 

and certainty, gives a very solid foundation of human subjectivity. Then 

Descartes raises the question of how to exit from man's inner world outside into 

the objective world in order to gain knowledge of the world around us. His 

solution is as follows. By thinking, more specifically, through the lucidity of 

thinking, he reaches another obvious fact, namely the existence itself - cogito, 

ergo sum. Thus, the act of thinking contains within itself the very existence of the 

thoughtful subject. In this way, through the existence of the thinking subject, the 

transition to the outside world, to the universal world of ”to exist” becomes 

possible. For Descartes, thinking is primordial to the extent that ”the mind is 

better known than the body”. 

When Descartes says ”cogito, ergo sum” he does not refer to his existence, but to 

his existence as ”thinking matter”, as mind itself, leaving the body as an annex to 

be handled some other time. In total agreement with St. Francis of Assisi (1181- 

1226) who refers to ”his brother, the body”, Descartes realized that in order to be 

strengthened, the formula "cogito, ergo sum" needs to be continued with 

something further on. Indeed, it is very possible for an evil spirit (malin génie) to 

delude and mislead him, so that everything he thinks would become an illusion. 

To avoid that, Descartes needs the idea of God, whose existence he supports through 

the ontological argument, as Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) did for the first time 

500 years before. Thus, Good God is the guarantor of all truths, for He is never wrong 


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and, given His nature, He cannot delude us. However, even if we ignore the logical 

error contained in the ontological argument, there is another problem that appears 

instantly: God guarantees the truths of the world, but there are eternal truths - the 

truths of mathematics. What is then God's relationship with these truths like? Eternal 

truths cannot be changed. Therefore is God subject to them? 

Descartes gives a masterly solution to this problem 

introducing the concept of continuous creation: the 

free relationship between God and His creation is 

the same from the very beginning to the end and it is 

a creative connection at every moment. This implies 

that, along with the continuous creation which 

Descartes attributes to God and parallel with it, the 

implicit emergence of a continuous doubt keeps 

human certainties awake. And so, in its essence, 

Descartes's conception contains the universal doubt. 

All modern culture, all our achievements are based on 

doubts and certainties, or as Anton Dumitriu (1905- René Descartes (1596-1650). 

1992) [1986] says so beautifully in The Book of 

Admirable Encounters (Cartea întâlnirilor admirabile), in the essay Descartes or 

the Endless Doubt: ”on doubts about the doubts and certainties, on doubts about 

the doubts and the certainty of certainties in a regresus in infinitum, that is to say, 

a continuous re-examination of all values and certainties”. 

5. The concept of symmetry 

We saw that the rational interpretation of Divinity's continuous creation places 

God in free relationship with His creation, in a creative relationship that is present 

every moment and at every point of the Universe. 

In the current outlook regarding the formation of the Universe known as the Big 

Bang theory, proposed by Georges Lemaître (1894-1966), our Universe began its 

existence 13.7 billion years ago as a very small singularity, extremely hot and of 

very high density. During this period of billions and billions of years it expanded 

and cooled, so as to reach the current size and temperature. The Big Bang theory 

is supported by the so-called "Hubble's Law", named after Edwin Hubble (1889- 

1953), who, in 1929 discovered that galaxies move further and further from us at a 

speed that is proportional with distance. The further a galaxy is from us, the faster 

its distancing speed. Objects that are the farthest seem to be moving away from us 

with the speed of light. Therefore, one may as well assume that at some moment 

back in time, the Universe was concentrated in a single spot, with very high 

density and temperature. We then see that the Universe, being in the beginning 


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only a spot with the above mentioned properties, was symmetrical, perfectly 

symmetrical. 

The Big Bang did not happen in space and time. According to the current 

acceptance, space and time felt as such were created during the Big Bang. So, to 

ask what had been before the Big Bang makes no sense. Meanwhile, it must be 

noted that the concepts of space and time are characteristics of human 

consciousness. The human being lives in the past, present and future. Only the 

Divine is in a perpetual present. 

One remarkable aspect of this cosmogonist theory is the following: as we go back 

in time the Universe gets hotter, denser and the symmetries, now destroyed, are 

restored. In other words, while going back in time towards the Big Bang moment, 

the Universe and the interactions between particles become increasingly 

symmetrical. This shows that the Universe becomes more simple and symmetrical. 

In a somehow more simple way, without making much of a mistake, we can say 

that life is organised matter or energy, based on differentiation. If the Universe is 

perfectly symmetrical and uniform and totally ordered, then within this Universe 

there is no complexity, no structure can be identified, no form of life, no 

consciousness. In other words, in a perfectly symmetrical and uniform Universe, 

as it was at the moment of the Big Bang, life and consciousness were not possible. 

In the general acceptance of the Big Bang we see that the Universe was originally 

a point containing an amorphous, relatively uniform energy mixture. This 

uniformity was destroyed with the start of expansion and the energy transformed 

itself into a mixture of elementary particles. As the Universe expanded, these 

particles packed, forming galaxies with stars and planets and other celestial 

bodies. As the differentiation grew steep and the initial order was destroyed, the 

structure and complexity of the Universe increased. In the end, the differentiation 

was broad enough to inbreed living things, brain and consciousness. In other 

words, life can appear only in a Universe in which symmetry is not total, and this 

can continue only by transforming the pre-existing order into chaos. 

Given the balance that exists in the Universe as well as the uniformity of the 

cosmic background radiation and the luminescence that fills the Universe, its 

expansion evolves in a homogeneous and isotropic way. That is to say, the 

expansion of the Universe has no privileged directions. Therefore, at the moment 

of the Big Bang, the Universe, which was only one point, a singularity, was 

destroyed in an infinite number of symmetries, but at the same time, given the 

homogeneity and isotropy of the Universe, on another level, the original 

symmetry has been preserved. So the essential and remarkable aspect of our 

Universe is that of preserving the symmetry at a global level (the macroscopicscale, 

the entire Universe), as well as locally, in the sense that at any time and at 


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any place we are surrounded by concepts that arise in dual-symmetric pairs, i.e. 

we are immersed in an ocean of symmetries. And so, the concept of continuous 

creation completes and reinforces itself as the following rational interpretation of 

Divinity: God's free relationship with His creation is the same from the very 

beginning to the end, that is, a continuous creative relationship in dualsymmetric 

concepts at any moment. 

6. Fundamentals of mathematical modeling 

Mathematical modeling is an activity of high intellectualism through which a 

certain part of the Universe is represented in mathematical symbols. The goal of 

mathematical modeling is to build a mathematical tool that would provide the 

understanding of the movement which takes place in the part of the Universe we are 

interested in and to make accurate predictions of its evolution. Mathematical models 

are presented in a variety of forms. The most important seem to be: linear or nonlinear, 

deterministic or stochastic, static or dynamic, discrete or continuous, etc. 

They come in any shape, all of them satisfying the principle of causality. 

Mathematical models are written based on 

conservation laws that represent the essence of the 

Universe. These, in turn, as demonstrated by Emmy 

Noether (1882-1935), arise from symmetries, which 

form the basis of our knowable Universe. Being 

surrounded by an ocean of dual-symmetrical paired 

concepts, the result is that the conservation laws 

have a very serious base that ensures the adequacy 

of mathematical models. In this respect Descartes’ 

view of continuous creation is completed in the 

sense that, the free relationship of God with His 

creation continuously creates symmetrical concepts. 

The complexity of a given model always involves 

equilibrium, a balance between its simplicity and its 

Emmy Noether (1882-1935) 

accuracy in representation. What is important here is Occam's razor: out of the 

models that have the same power of representation and prediction, it is 

recommended that the simplest should be chosen. 

The idea is that the model should be as simple as possible, but not simplistic. 

Increasing the complexity of a model improves its realism, therefore its power of 

representation, but it creates difficulties in understanding and analyzing the model 

and raises computational questions about the size of the model and about the 

numerical instabilities in the solving process. Therefore, a mathematical model, in 

the perspective of infinite similarities with reality, is characterized by simplicity 

imposed by conservation laws. 


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R E F E R E N C E S 

[1] Andrei, N., (2006) Eseu asupra fundamentelor informaticii. Editura Yes, Bucureşti, 2006. 

[2] Andrei, N., (2009) The Pre-eminence of Existence versus the Pre-eminence of Mathematics, 

November 2, 2009. [http://camo.ici.ro/neculai/n47a09. pdf]. 

[3] Andrei, N., (2009) Aspecte ale evoluției filosofiei și a științei. Mai 4, 2009. 

[http://camo.ici.ro/neculai/n31a09.pdf] 

[4] Andrei, N., (2011) Împătrita interpretare raţională a Divinităţii, Manuscript, June 8, 2011. 

[http://camo.ici.ro/neculai/r10a11.pdf] 

[5] Curley, E.M., (1984) Descartes on the creation of the eternal truths. The Philosophical 

Review, vol.93, No.4, (Oct. 1984), pp. 569-597. 

[6] Dumitriu, A., (1986) Eseuri. Ştiinţă şi Cunoaştere. Alétheia. Cartea Întâlnirilor Admirabile. 

Editura Eminescu, Bucureşti, 1986. 

[7] Eliade, M., (2000) Istoria Credinţelor şi Ideilor Religioase, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 

Bucureşti, 2000. (Traducere şi postfaţă de Cezar Baltag.) 

[8] Matthew McMahon, C., The Doctrine of Continuous Creation. 

[http://www.apuritansmind.com/ChristianWalk/McMahonDoctrineContinuousCreation.htm] 

[9] Scholem, G., (1960) Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, New York, 1946, (ediţia 4, 

revizuită şi adăugită, cu bibliografie suplimentară), 1960. 


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MAN, MACHINES AND CONSCIENCE? 

Stefan IANCU 1 

Abstract. This paper presents a summary of the impact that the impetuous development of 

information science and technology may have, emphasizing the trends and the role of artificial 

intelligence. It sets out what conscience is, the way in which the information is processed in 

the system of human thought, which is the relationship between this system and the study of 

human conscience and the way in which man-to-man, man-to-machine and machine-tomachine 

intercommunication is made. Then some controversial views on the possibility of the 

existence of some machines with conscience are presented and it is demonstrated why it is not 

possible to build such machines in the near future. The conclusion is that, in the near future, 

machines with a conscience are not consistent with reality and that the best thing would be to 

state that it will be possible in the future to build machines not with human intelligence, but 

only machines with algorithmic, binary intelligence. 

Keywords: artificial intelligence, conscience, intercommunication 


“Man, know thyself and thou wilt know 

the Universe and the Gods” 

Inscription from the frontispiece of the Temple of Delphi. 

Information science and technology 2 is one of the rapidly evolving areas with the 

most spectacular implications on the economic and social life. However, there are 

some serious reasons to believe that what we have seen so far only its beginning. 

Artificial intelligence is an important factor in the evolution of information science 

and technology. This intelligence makes each element, device, component or 

1 Prof. PhD. Eng., Scientific Secretary of the Information Science and Technology Department of the 

Romanian Academy, Scientific Secretary of the Romanian Committee for the History and Philosophy 

of Science and Technique from the Romanian Academy, Full, founding member of the Academy of 

Romanian Scientists. 

2 For the enunciation of the new scientific achievements in the field of automated information 

processing the Europeans have promoted the term computer science (designed by the French in 

1964) and the Americans have oscillated between “Computer Science” for the theoretical aspects 

and ,,Electronic Data Processing” for the applicative, practical aspects. The term information 

technology, which has become widely accepted today, is relatively new and marks a maturation of 

the field which has exceeded the stage of science and craft, entering the industrial phase. As the 

technology of automated information processing generalized beyond the scope of numerical 

calculation, the data and the computer are no longer perceived as essential (nowadays, the 

potential visit to a virtual museum seems to have no connection with the earlier introduction of 

data with punched tape to calculate wages or prices). In addition, the term information technology 

shows symmetry with communication technology, offering the possibility of a linguistic 

integration in the term information and communication technology with the acronym ICT. 


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16 Stefan Iancu 

system perform these three steps for any given task: to assess its internal conditions 

and performance; to determine the requirements of any given task and if there is a 

correlation between the conclusions of the first two stages, to determine what to do: 

if there is a correspondence it executes it, if not it seeks help. 

The interaction between microelectronics and the new “photonic” 1 science and 

Nanochemistry 2 and biotechnology shows the importance of ISoC (Intelligent 

Systems on a Chip) technology to human evolution. This technology will create 

conditions for obtaining intelligent systems built on a single chip (ISoC). 

ISoC technology is considered the top innovative process that will allow the 

integration of the latest technological knowledge, selected from the intelligent 

computer networks. It will make possible the development of some new circuits 

and new intelligent systems with extraordinary features relevant to all the 

economic sectors. Intelligent systems built on a single chip can be applied in areas 

such as: health monitoring, medical diagnosis, microsurgery, Nano chemistry, 

environmental monitoring, etc. (Iancu St., 2007). 

Recently, the similarity between man and machine has been increasingly debated 

in the literature, the man being considered a sophisticated machine made of 

billions of biomoleculars that interact in accordance with the rules derived from 

science, presumed to be well defined, but which are still incompletely known 

(Brooks Rodney, 2008). These biomoleculars interactions in our head generate 

our mind and our intelligence, our feelings and emotions, the consciousness of our 

existence. Accepting these assumptions would lead to remarkable possibilities. If 

we work like machines and if we manage to understand and assimilate all these 

rules that govern our mind, then, in principle, there should be no reason why we 

should not reproduce, in silicon and steel, machinery to operate under the same 

rules by which the man himself operates. Supposedly, these machines should be 

able to demonstrate that they have human intelligence, human emotions and even 

human consciousness. The problem to be clarified is if we work like machines or 

not-if it were so-if we can ever identify all the rules by which we operate. 

Information and communication technology has begun to be incorporated into the 

environment and the objects of current use; its use is so man "friendly" that it is no 

longer seen as an annex, but as a current integral part. In the report "2006 State of the 

Future" (http://www.acunu.org/millenium/sof2006.html), conducted by over 2000 

scientists and futurists, the increasing interest in the man-machine collective 

intelligence, which is expected to grow significantly in the next 25 years, is signaled. 

1 Photonic science- the science of electronic phenomena based on the propagation of light. 

2 Nanochemistry - discipline that deals with the formation of future materials through a better 

understanding of the unique properties of atom and molecule sets, ranging in size from that of an 

individual atom to those of some pieces of material. 


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Man, Machines and Conscience? 17 

Understanding the brain, the mind and the human consciousness is considered 

today the last frontier of science by many scientists. In fact, the sciences of mind 

and consciousness, besides quantum physics, have reached a common, unique 

frontier of science (Mihai Draganescu, 2000). 

Mind and consciousness cannot be fully explained without quantum physics and 

the study of the latter will no longer evolve without taking into account the 

consciousness. What connects the frontiers of quantum physics and consciousness 

is the phenomenological information 1 , the “experience”, qualia 2 , the active 

information that generates the quantum world according to David Bohm 3 , and 

generally the phenomenological meanings (Mihai Draganescu, 1999). 

2. What is conscience? 

The nature of consciousness is not yet understood and therefore, scientifically, 

there is no conclusive answer to the question what is conscience. There is only a 

concept that makes connections between individuals and their knowledge on their 

own existence. 

Conscience is extremely difficult to define scientifically because it is entirely 

subjective. For this reason, its study has long belonged to philosophy and religion. 

Recently, the biologists, especially the neurobiologists, have entered the debate. 

Some of them hoped that the image of the brain and the electrical reading of brain 

signals will reveal “the neural correlation of consciousness” and actually there has 

been made significant progress in this field. But what exactly in our brain activity 

1 Phenomenologically - on phenomenology (1.-descriptive study of a set of phenomena as they 

manifest in time and space; 2. - description / in Fichte and Hegel /of the spiritual history of 

conscience that grows from sensorial certainty to "absolute science”; 3.-idealist philosophical 

current-established by E. Husserl, which reduces the “object” to “phenomenon”, seen as spiritual 

essence and as a final and direct result of consciousness, regardless of the objective existence and 

the sensorial experience.) 

2 Qualia come from Latin and it is the plural form, meaning qualities. The singular form quale 

means “a certain type” or “a certain way”. In the philosophy of mind, the term qualia was used for 

the first time in 1929 by Clarence I. Lewis (philosopher, 1883 - 1964) in the paper "Mind and the 

World Order" to describe the recognizable qualitative characteristics of a given fact that should not 

be confused with the objective properties of the objects in the external world. The term qualia has 

been established after 1982 with the publication of Frank Jackson’s article (Australian philosopher 

b.1943) “Epiphenomenal Qualia”, where it receives the meaning of certain features of the bodily 

sensations and of certain perceptual experiences which cannot be reduced to what is included in 

the pure physical information. Qualia can also be defined as introspective phenomenal aspect of 

mental states that arise as a result of perception, in a certain appropriate manner, of the sensations 

in an environment. Qualia refer, therefore, to the way in which things appear to us, the way in 

which they reach the consciousness through the reception of the senses. 

3 David Joseph Bohm (20 December 1917-27 October 1992) was a scientist with real 

contributions in theoretical physics, philosophy and neuropsychology, as well as in the Manhattan 

Project; 


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makes us be conscious is still unknown. Certainly, there is no area in the brain 

that is active only when we are conscious and that is passive when we no longer 

realize that we are conscious. Even if we accept (and not everyone does) that it 

comes from the brain, there are still some problems. The situation was called “the 

hard problem” of consciousness, some people trying to explain it by calling it “the 

emergent property of the active neuronal networks” - something that is born of the 

interaction between neurons, but not found in them. 

Conscience is the most advanced man specific form of objective psychological 

reflection of reality by means of sensations, perceptions and thoughts in the form 

of representations, concepts, judgments, and reasoning, including emotional and 

volitional processes. Consciousness is a superior process of the human mind, 

developed through social activity and enculturation 1 , by means of communication, 

based on an internal and internal-external (verbal and written) communication 

model consisting of reflection codified by knowledge, self-organization with 

emerging effects and self-adjustment at the level of the mind that link the 

information received over the time to the experienced feelings, giving rise to often 

new thoughts and feelings. In terms of cognitive sciences, consciousness is the 

faculty of understanding all internal and external phenomena that relate to us. 

According to some, conscience is not a moral instance that tells you what is right 

and what is wrong, it is not a human attribute but an attribute of the intelligence in 

our mind (Dennett C. Daniel, 1991). Conscience is related to thought as a specific 

human feature. The subject of human thought is the entire world surrounding the 

man and the man himself, his place in this world, all these leading to the purpose 

of his life, whether he realizes it or not. A second characteristic of consciousness 

is judgment, i.e. the ability to distinguish well from evil. A third feature of 

consciousness is that it triggers man’s will. By will, the man produces facts: 

thoughts, words and works (gestures). Without its will, the man cannot act 

consciously. These three characteristics of consciousness - thought, judgment and 

will – but also the emotive states determine entirely man’s attitude towards 

himself, towards his fellowmen, towards society. That is way man’s actions show 

the quality of his consciousness. His consciousness dictates his behavior, his 

attitude towards himself, towards his fellowmen, towards his society. 

We should make a clear distinction between conscience and consciousness 2 . Being 

conscious is understood to have a distinct meaning than having a conscience, i.e. to 

"hear" that inner voice, which always shows us what is right and what is true. Free 

will gives us, unfortunately, the right to override the advice of conscience. 

1 Enculturation - process of assimilation of a certain form of culture, by training and education 

throughout the life. 

2 Consciousness - the fact of being aware of the surrounding reality, of people’s own possibilities, 

the obligations that people have in society to achieve the goals set previously. 


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Consciousness is a process of cognitive reflection over the world and the man 

himself. We speak, thus, about world consciousness and self-consciousness. While 

world consciousness is coercive, showing the real dimension of things, the 

unrelenting, objective necessity, self-consciousness is the key condition of the selfadjusting 

activism, of selectivity and creative intervention in the environment. The 

world consciousness is based on models or images of the objective reality, while 

self-consciousness is based on the model of the self and on personal traits. 

Consciousness must be considered in the first place, in unity with the social 

human activity of transforming the world, of adapting. It forms in time, under the 

influence of society, of its principles; through family, schools, books, by verbal 

exchanges between the individual and those around him, through his thoughts 

formed in contact with the evolution environment. Of all the species of the earth, 

the man is the only one who becomes just like the others provided that he 

develops, evolves in the human society. Man does not become man if he is kept in 

isolation 1 from human society (Dulea Gabriel, 2005). 

The issue of consciousness will lead to an important frontier for mankind as well. 

A science of consciousness begins to develop and the nature of the consciousness 

could have significant implications for the society. Man and human 

consciousness, with all the scientific and cultural developments and the religions 

that preach what is right and not what is wrong, have failed to create a true 

civilization, the social and human civilization 2 . Man might not be able to create a 

true civilization because of its genes that prevail over its culture. Thierry de 

Montbrial noted: “don’t we have reasons to think that it, the consciousness, 

continues to grow if not progress? This is the message of great religions. This is 

also the message of science because it makes us revise continuously our image 

about the universe and our place in the universe ...". (Thierry de Montbrial, 1999). 

A long debated question in philosophy is whether consciousness exists as a brain 

specific phenomenon or it is inherent in all matter (principle known as the 

principle according to which “everything has a conscience”, which can be found 

in ancient philosophies). 

1 From the literature it is known the case of the twins, one of which was stolen by the monkeys 

(known cases). The other one grew in the city and became a mature man: he graduated a college, 

he got a job, he knew to browse the internet etc. The one grew by the monkeys became an animal: 

he couldn’t talk, he couldn’t admire a landscape, he couldn’t walk on two feet and used "all fours" 

instead (actual cases are known). 

2 M. Draganescu claimed in August 2000 within the exhibition of “The inevitability of 

globalization and the Information Society” that “By social civilization we must understand the 

quality of the relations between people, between groups, nations, states, ethnic groups, institutions, 

and their relations with the natural and artificial-technical environment, all considered in 

connection with human, ethical and aesthetic criteria of the manifestation of a certain point of 

man’s life in its existence”. 


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H.S. Green 1 relates the functioning of the brain to quantum processes that produce 

unpredictable effects. (Green H.S., 2000). A very interesting point of Green's 

thinking is that intelligence cannot be connected to consciousness. This argument 

was confirmed by the artificial intelligence that showed that there can be 

intelligence, in a primary, unconsciously form. 

Our problem, of all of us, is the simple fact that, our consciousness is always 

subject to thoughts and judgment. We continuously perfect ourselves by simply 

understanding that, in the order established by the reason that created us, the 

consciousness is superior to thoughts and we have an obligation to live rationally 

and therefore responsibly. And the society, to the formation of which each of us 

contributes, will become, in its turn, more responsible, giving, thus, finality to its 

becoming. 

3. Information processing in the human thinking system 

The tenth decade of the twentieth century was the brain decade; a period in which 

the knowledge acquired about the brain exceeded the knowledge acquired in 

seven or eight decades earlier. New discoveries have led to the establishment of 

connections between human performance, failures and diseases, not only with 

brain biochemistry but also with genetic factors. One can say without any 

exaggeration, that 60% of the mental functions are genetically determined. In 

other words, genes determine the limits of our capacities and the environment 

determines how completely this potential is achieved. 

The idea of a neural network emerged in the '60s of the twentieth century and it 

was put into practice in the 90s of the same century once the neural scanners 

appeared. But how can the attention mood are "caught"? The only option available 

to the researchers was to catch the precise moment of “becoming conscious”, i.e. 

when we understand a joke or solve a mystery like finding the difference between 

two almost identical pictures. Studies on these phenomena have led to a model, 

widely accepted today, namely that of “the conscious working space”. According 

to this model, our neurons are organized into two distinct areas: on the one hand 

small brain circuits, a kind of “processors” that generate unconscious mental 

representations and on the other hand, “a working space” responsible for the 

conscious representations. This, “working space” can support only one image at a 

time, and therefore each processor that composes it is in competition with the 

others to impose its own information. There are several factors that make a 

representation to prevail over another. This happens, for example, when we are 

focused on a painting but we react instantly if we hear our name pronounced. The 

same principle governs the “déjà vu” states. This is the most accepted model, but 

1 H.S. Green Professor of Physics at the Univ. of Adelaide, Australia; 


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it is far from explaining everything, for instance we do not know, the "language" 

through which neurons communicate with each other, neurologists barely perceive 

a vague background “noise”. 

In 2000, Arvid Carlson, Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel received the Nobel 

Prize for medicine for their crucial discoveries in understanding the normal 

functioning of the human brain 1 . The study of the functional connection between 

brain and mind has been done by similarity to computer connection - program, 

although it is known that a computer is not a brain, but because computer 

programs are designed by people with brain, it has been considered that a 

computer for which these programs are written could represent, based on a 

comparison, a model in the analysis of the connection brain / mind, and the 

distinction among brain, mind and human reason has been considered to be 

similar to the distinction between machine (hardware), inferior or soft programs 

(for example operating systems) and superior or hard programs 2 . The similarity 

between the two distinctions has been based solely on the fact that human reason 

and the high level programs are both higher forms of organization. 

I, personally, believe that, because the nature of human reason as a superior form 

of organization of the functional connection between brain and mind is yet 

1 The human brain has about 1500 cmc, being about 5 times more massive than the one of the 

primates of the same weight, it represents about 2% of body mass, consumes 20% of the total 

oxygen pumped through the heart arteries and is composed of 1,000 billion nerve cells, each nerve 

cell forming thousands of contact points, the so-called synapses (the contact area between two 

neurons), and the communication among nerve cells is made through chemicals called 

neurotransmitters. When a neurotransmitter substance stimulates a nerve cell, its signal is 

transmitted through a process called slow synaptic transmission, a process involving an essential 

chemical reaction, protein phosphorylation which changes the functioning of nerve cells. The 

resulted changes may last from seconds to hours. The slow synaptic transmission is the one that 

controls both our movements and processes of the brain, involved in emotions and reactions to 

substances that cause addiction. Human brain reacts to what we see or hear due to the 

neurotransmitter substances carrying signals in nerve cells and because memory functions are 

achieved through changes in the forms and functions of the synapses. 

2 Currently, in the literature (M Voicu, 2006) there are two levels of artificial intelligence: 

inferior or soft level - ensures the development of non-biological processes that require a 

smart management such as the management of some production processes, making analysis, the 

game of chess, processing, understanding and natural language synthesis. This level, considered 

inferior, in fact, provides a more accurate and faster memory than the human one, it has a greater 

storage capacity than the human one and it can acquire and provide instant knowledge; 

superior or hard level - can give the possibility to the machine to have smart reactions 

similar to the human ones if two conditions are met: a computing capacity of at least 10 16 

operations per second and an artificial intelligence software similar to the human one. In 2005, 

IBM Blue Gene/L PC already achieved 10 14 operations per second and if estimates are made 

according to Moore’s law, confirmed by the microelectronics industry, it might reach, in constant 

prices, 10 16 operations per second in 2020. 


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unknown, the comparative study of the brain / mind relationship using similar 

rules to computer/ computer program may be only the beginning of the study 

which could be beneficial only to computer science development. As research 

carried out revealed that there was no apparent connection between the functions 

of the neural networks that constitute the brain and the functions of a computer 

system, there should be a thorough concern to identify the real nature of the 

structure of human reason as a result of a superior form of organization of the 

functional connection between brain and mind. 

Although in the past 10-15 years very important steps have made in the study of 

information processing, it still cannot be said with respect to human thought that it 

has been deciphered or that the mechanism of thought generating new knowledge 

is known. In an article published in 1998 in “The Economic Tribune” (Iancu. St, 

1998), I stated that a computing machine that thinks could not be devised because 

the mechanism of human thinking was not known yet. 

If a computer is able to handle a large number of “0” and “1”, it is very hard for it 

to recognize an object or to read a manuscript, tasks that the brain makes easily. 

The efficacy of human brain, according to an American-Swiss team from the 

Institute of neuro-science in Zurich, is the result of its hybrid character both 

binary and analog. There are claims according to which the problem of designing 

artificial intelligence software to obtain similar reactions to the human ones can be 

solved. The temporal and spatial resolution of scanning the human brain 

progresses exponentially, so that observations in real-time of human neural 

networks 1 are already possible. Mathematical models and validated simulations of 

several tens of brain regions, including regions of the cerebellum, where is the 

majority of brain neurons, have been developed. Although the co-operation in 

interaction of all these models has not been simulated yet, at present, it is 

considered that the conditions necessary to provide solutions for hard intelligence 

will be created in approximately two decades. 

Compared with the human brain, the computer presents several advantages in the 

sense that if it has the correct software, it does not forget and does not do any 

mistakes. The human brain has reached a high degree of perfection due to its 

continuous evolution and adaptation, but it forgets and does errors. Consequently, 

the similarity between brain/mind and computer/program is inconsistent. If 

thinking is a non-algorithmic process operating primarily with images, the 

computer is a rigorously logic algorithmic machine, even when it has to process 

erroneous data. If the rules of logic are rules of correct reasoning, thought 

1 In the "Wired" from March 2009 it has been stated that “The center of human memory 

considered, not long ago, too chaotic to be decoded, might be deciphered soon.” Through some 

research conducted at the University College from London the researchers succeeded, using the 

cerebral activity of four subjects in a virtual room, to identify the exact place where they were. 


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processes, emotions and human feelings are not governed only by rules of logic. 

Studies have shown that there is no global relationship between brain and mind. It 

has been found that several distinct parts of the brain may generate separate or 

parallel effects in the mental process. Human mind is capable of identifying a 

piece of information and a structure known in various forms of presentation. For 

example, a driver with experience identifies if the engine works properly or not by 

the noise it makes. A new sound, which he has not heard before, may make him 

understand that the engine is not working properly (Karl Pribram, 2007). 

Let’s see what happens today. Deciphering the human genome (information that 

can be stored on 80,000 compact discs) and elucidating the relationships between 

genes and their effects may, in the next 10 years, lead to the domination of the 

society and hopefully of the socio-human consciousness, of the whole human 

biological foundation. Its change, not only for medical purposes, due to a 

controlled evolution, a self-controlled evolution actually, that could lead to 

characteristics that determine favorable features for a superior conscience and 

socio-human civilization. 

4. Man-to-man, man-to-machine and machine-to-machine 

intercommunication 

The main means of man-to-man intercommunication 1 is spoken language. Any 

human communication has both a desirable and an unpredictable and sometimes 

even unwanted effect by the speaker. In interpersonal communication, the mood 

and desire of the receiver to communicate may have a key role in an efficient 

exchange of ideas and information. 

The context of the communicative act, its duration and the level of knowledge and 

intercommunication between speakers, the level of knowledge in the area to 

which the subject of the conversation belongs to, etc. play a significant role in the 

person-to-person communication. In current human language we use a large 

number of metaphors (e.g. "time flies like an arrow") and the problem of 

understanding metaphors is related to the problem of living, the central problem in 

understanding the concept of consciousness as well (GH von Wright, 1995). A 

familiar neighborhood can make us understand and control complex phenomena, 

living a phenomenon (a situation) being fundamental to its understanding. 

It has not been possible so far to create a computer program that allows man-tomachine 

or machine-to-machine intercommunication in human spoken language, 

perfectly identical to human dialogue. The problems encountered in a verbal 

dialogue with a machine are generated especially by the idiomatic language 2 , 

1 Intercommunication - the mutual conversation between several discussion partners. 

2 Idiomatic - all the characteristics of a language; relevant to an idiom (a generic term for concepts 


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which, according to some authors are insurmountable in understanding the 

meanings of sentences. 

Currently, one of the contextual problems found in the dialogue with a machine, 

in human language, is the sequence of the replies. This issue is treated in Austin 1 

and J.R. Searle 2 ’s theory of speech acts which places each line from a dialogue in 

a well-specified category: information, demand, offer, etc. 

Any man-to-machine communication involves an interface made of all the real 

physical elements (keyboard, screen, mouse, etc.) or the virtual ones (windows, 

menus, other ways of display and interaction displayed on the screen) and the 

software involved in the dialogue between a man and a computer or computer 

network. The human factor is decisive in designing and operating such interfaces 

(Trausan-Matu Stefan, 2000). 

In man-to-machine dialogue, the key effect is given by the information 

interaction, the physical interaction between man and machine having only a 

secondary role, directed towards the facilitation of the information interaction 

(pressing some keys, moving the mouse, etc.). Both man and machine (the 

electronic computer from the control system) have different representations of the 

information (the computer - memory bits; in programming languages - symbolic 

structures; and the man - symbolic structures and images from the memory). The 

machine provides information to the human discussion partner in a certain form 

(alphanumeric, graphic, imaging, auditory, tactile, etc. form) and the latter takes 

them, makes certain judgments and as a result, it selects a particular processing 

variant and gives certain orders. All these interactions, subject to some possible 

disturbances are intermediated by signs and signals, which turn into ways of manto-machine 

communication carried out through a communication channel 

according to a certain code. 

People will interact with the computer making it able to respond and give 

evidence of understanding. Such technology is already experienced in the 

laboratory. Verbal communication technology increased by natural language 

of language, dialect, subdialect or speech). 

1 John Langshaw Austin (28 March 1911-8 February 1960) a philosopher of the language, who 

contributed to the birth of this field. He held a very important place in the English philosophy of 

the language alongside Wittgenstein (Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein-b. 26 April 1889, 

Vienna - d. 29 April 1951 - was an Austrian philosopher, author of some fundamental 

contributions in the development of modern logic and the philosophy of the language) for the way 

in which they looked at the way words are used (use) and to elucidate the sense (meaning). 

2 John Rogers Searle (born 31 July 1932) Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, 

Berkeley, known for his contributions to the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind and 

consciousness, over the characteristics of social reality constructed in opposition to the physical 

reality and over the practical reason; 


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understanding makes a computer to understand and participate in the interaction. 

Let us imagine that in the near future it will be possible to ask a computer to make 

all the arrangements necessary for a trip to Sinaia for the weekends. The computer 

should understand from “his knowledge base” that “we" means our entire family 

that our family has certain preferences regarding the means of transport, and it 

should automatically make reservations on the date and time requested, that the 

family has certain accommodation preferences to satisfy by booking early seats, 

etc. The computer should contact several travel agents and negotiate, select and 

demand a particular journey in preferential conditions to the agency which 

ensures the highest performance/cost ratio. Thus, it will take several seconds to 

launch the request to the computer and half a day needed to negotiate with travel 

agencies will be spared. 

"Intelligence" implies the possibility of connecting autonomous devices in a 

network that will then work together. Let us imagine that a company which runs 

the operation of 800 blocks of housing for rent from a distance could understand 

the behavior of the tenants based on the pheromones 1 of the occupants. Let us 

imagine a piece of furniture that could respond to the wishes of its user or to 

systems that could control the operation of a vehicle and could drive it on the 

highway 2 . 

The researchers from IBM Israel started in 2008 the "Hermes" program that will 

create a device to help the elderly have a computer-assisted memory. The elderly 

will be equipped with microphones and miniature video equipment to record, at 

their command, what they have said, what they have done, where there have been at 

a certain time. All this information will be stored and processed to provide, upon 

request, electronic "memories" to those with memory slips. The computer will free 

man from its daily tasks, giving it the necessary time for creative activities, for 

personal, family concerns, etc. What is fiction today will become reality in the next 

decade of the 21 st century. Will we entrust the logic, daily, algorithmically activity 

to the computer as it happened at the beginning of the first industrial revolution, 

when muscular strength was replaced by the strong arm of machines? 

As of 2000, according to the literature, the research direction with the greatest 

potential for the development of information technology is represented by 

1 Pheromones - chemical, biologically active substance secreted by the individuals belonging to 

different species that influence the process of development and the behavior of other individuals of 

that species or of other species. 

2 The future belongs to the intelligent automobiles with reflexes that are faster than the human 

ones. In 2008 the license of the only road safety system, called Mobileye, was sold in Europe by 

two teachers from Israel. It integrates the alarm for danger of collision with the one signaling 

leaving the road and with the dangerous proximity alarm. The traffic security system is already 

installed on luxury cars like BMW, Volvo, Buick and Cadillac. 


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computers operating autonomously, i.e. computers able to solve their own 

operation problems, able to self-repair and become functional again. The term, 

"autonomous computer" may sound esoteric but it will have practical 

implications, reducing the total cost of operation (the cost of installation, 

operation maintenance, current and periodic maintenance of the system) and 

eliminating hazards generated by viruses. 

Currently, the evolutionist artificial intelligence systems, inspired by biology, as 

well as those on artificial life, are increasingly powerful. If most of the previous 

approaches of the artificial intelligence sought to imitate intelligent human 

behavior, the solutions provided by the artificial life sub-domain aim to summarize 

some artificial life forms to model it as it might be or become, to try to understand 

the life we are living. The distinction between machine and live nature has not been 

determined by the nature of the existing machinery. On the contrary, the concepts of 

mind and machine depend one on the other, being in a continuous dialectics. 

The problems with the industrial robots and the current automated production 

sectors are simpler than those of the human-type robot, but they are much more 

complex than those of the mechanical duck 1 or those of the means of production 

without electronic control and adjustment. Only after the man had had the 

electronic means to build the artificial intelligence did it become a characteristic 

of the automated means of production. The law of the complementarily between 

the mechanical motion and the electronic intelligence marked the technological 

development in the second half of the twentieth century, leading to the evolution 

of production machinery and machinery in general. The evolution from the simple 

tool to the tool with artificial intelligence made the world familiar to quantitative 

growths, but also important qualitative leaps. 

Currently, practical information and communication technology applications, 

even wireless, operate separately, independent of one another. Machine-tomachine 

communication, although in incipient development phase is in a 

continuous expansion. At present, there is no infrastructure designed to allow a 

general intercommunication between telecommunication devices, integrated in 

machines equipped with artificial intelligence. 

In literature (Kallio Johanna, 2009) it has been estimated that in 2010 the number 

of the communication devices, integrated in machines equipped with artificial 

1 In the winter of 1738-1739, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782, French engineer) built and made 

a demonstration in Paris with a mechanical duck, considered to be the first robot that was able to 

peck grains that after a reasonable time, necessary for “digestion”, were eliminated. Besides this 

mechanical duck, during the same demonstration two other mechanical constructions representing 

a flutist and a tambourine drummer and whistle singer were presented. In addition to the 

commercial, philosophical, popular and professional success, the three presented automatic 

devices impressed Voltaire, who called Vaucanson, “a rival to Prometheus”. 


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intelligence will be 1,000 times larger than the number of the mobile phones, 

which currently exceeds one billion. When all the existing communication devices 

will be interconnected to the Internet, new opportunities for machine-to-machine 

intercommunication will appear. Usenet project (Ubiquitous M2M Service 

Network 1 ) launched by Eureka/ITEA 2, in 2008 aimed to solve this 

interoperability problem within three years, providing information collection, 

transmission and processing services and creating an interactive system with 

machines equipped with telecommunication devices. 

Ubiquitous M2M Service Network will provide opportunities and benefits that are 

essential for the activities of various companies, in particular if the systems that 

control their key processes are able to use real-time information, generated by the 

machine-to-machine (M2M) intercommunication. The main result of the M2M 

system operation will be that all the interconnected companies will be able to 

increase their service quality, to reduce cost prices and increase customer 

satisfaction. 

5. Can machines have a conscience? 

Currently there are many machines, whose “behavior” suggests that they are 

endowed with mental processes. For example, the aircrafts equipped with 

autopilot can fly by themselves on air routes: they respond to external “sensorial” 

information; they “take decisions” on the flight; they communicate with other 

aircrafts; they “know” when they “need” fuel; they “feel” a potential danger, etc. 

The way in which an autopilot functions restores the following question: Are 

humans the only ones who make decisions, who communicate? Machines do not? 

And, yet, the problem is not really that simple. For a number of cognitive 

researchers, strong artificial intelligence is not just a tool for formulating and 

testing hypotheses concerning the human world, but also – if it is well-planned – a 

mind that seems to understand and have other cognitive processes as well, in 

brief, a conscious mind. John Rogers Searle thought that it was impossible for 

machines (even with strong artificial intelligence) to have a consciousness. He 

considered that there is only one “machine” made of flesh and blood or 

neuroproteins that may be conscious, the phenomenon of consciousness being 

inaccessible to silicon and metal. 

In the SF literature, the existence of robots with self-consciousness and decisionmaking 

capacity as a result of their own judgments in accordance with the social 

requirements 2 has been imagined since the first decades of the twentieth century. 

1 M2M - machine/two/to machine. 

2 In 1921 Karel Capek’s “Rossum’s Universal Robots” was published. It is about the construction 

by people of better robots that were sent to fight in wars. Robots decide that fighting in a war is 

madness and they conquer the world to dominate peace. 


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If we consider the elements of intelligence based on a more or less developed 

nervous system, of so many creatures inferior to man, all machines with all their 

automated perfection, including with microelectronic or nanoelectronic structures 

of control and adjustment, seem primitive to us compared with the simplest 

creatures and with the latest machines equipped with artificial intelligence. "The 

simplest living cell is so complex that supercomputer models may never simulate 

its behavior" (Wayt Gibbs W., 2001). 

Some say that mankind will never build a machine with a conscience. It is indeed 

difficult to imagine how a brain-robot could be the support of a conscience. But at 

the same time it is difficult to imagine the way in which our organic brain may be 

the seat of a conscience. And yet we accept it easily even though we do not imagine 

how it could be possible. The genetic revolution of the ’60s of the last century has 

made the hopes of building a conscious machine revive. It is argued in the literature 

(Vinge Vernor, 2008) that mankind became efficient enough to be considered a 

superhuman being through its computer networks and the created databases. 

Globalization, increased today by the Internet, is accompanied by the creation of a 

global network which is assumed to become a network of artificial intelligence and 

in the future with conscious nodes of artificial intelligence. What kind of conscience 

will such a network have? Green thinks that there will be a symbiosis of human 

conscience with this conscience of the Internet by creating an ecological system that 

will lead to a great intelligence 1 and wisdom (Green H.S., 2000). 

The artificial intelligence 2 is a discipline that provides methods, techniques and 

information tools, based on specific ways of information processing, which 

mimics different facets of complex problem solving, which could not be 

satisfactorily resolved only by using numerical methods. Artificial intelligence is 

the result of combining computer science, physiology and philosophy (logic), 

cognitive psychology and management science, biology. Research in automatic 

In 1950, Isaac Asimov published the work “I, Robot” in which he set out the three fundamental 

laws of robotics: 

a. - A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to 

harm. 

b. - A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would 

conflict with the First Law. 

c. - A robot must protect its own existence, except where such protection would conflict with the 

First or Second Law. 

1 Intelligence - the capacity of the individual to adapt to new circumstances, to determine the 

essential relations and to find a way out of a given situation, to solve new problems. 

2 Artificial intelligence - the capacity of advanced technical systems to achieve performance that 

could be identical to those of humans. The term indicates a concept (in the wide sense advocated 

by Turing’s test), an area (a branch of information technology that deals with intelligent behavior 

automation) and an instrument (for the development of applications, objects and intelligent 

technologies). 


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learning, automatic processing of natural language, sensorial perception, made it 

possible for scientists to build machines that perceive and understand, leaving the 

impression that they reason. 

Perhaps the best way to assess whether a machine has intelligence is the one 

shown by Alan Turing 1 . He said that "a computer deserves to be considered 

intelligent if it makes the man to believe that its actions with such a computer are 

its actions with another man" - (http://library.thinkquest.org/2705/basics.html). 

The issue of artificial intelligence has been defined on the one hand, in 

comparison with the ability to reason, and on the other hand, in relation to 

behavior skills. Basically, artificial intelligence involves both a better 

understanding of human thinking and a rational way of action. “Rationalism and 

the human factor define the four major categories of definitions: systems that 

think like humans, systems that think rationally, systems that act like humans, 

systems that act rationally. The rational-human dichotomy does not imply that 

people are irrational, but that people often make (sometimes explainable) mistakes 

"(Elena Solunca Moise, 2002). 

Artificial intelligence involves the storage and the logic processing of a very large 

volume of data and symbols with very high speeds. Therefore its support is the 

static electronic memories of high capacity in small physical volume and the 

logical drives that have taken the form of microprocessors. The evolution of the 

artificial intelligence is closely linked to micro and nanotechnology developments 

in general and the development of computer science in particular, significant 

results being achieved in recent decades, both in the conceptual and the applied 

plans, as a result of introducing the electronic circuits in the structure of devices, 

machines, facilities and development of operating systems in real time (Iancu St., 

2003). 

Human brain has been considered a supercomputer, which might interact with 

ordinary computers. It is also thought that, in the future, the print of a man’s 

consciousness could be stored on a computing support, ensuring thus the 

immortality of the individual. According to the literature (Koch Christof, 2008) in 

the next 25 years it will be possible for a person to “transfer” its mind, memory, 

intelligence, its entire personality to a machine and thus this machine could 

acquire consciousness 2 . 

1 Alan Turing (1912 - 1954), English mathematician, a pioneer in the development of computer 

logic, as it is known at present. 

2 According to the literature, clinical studies have shown certain neural activities that offered the 

possibility of some rudimentary understanding of billions of processes that might constitute the 

basis of forming a conscience. At the same time it was found that many processes in the brain have 

nothing in common with the conscience. Extensive destruction of cerebellum (the small brain, part 

of the encephalon located in the rear and bottom of the head) does not affect a person's conscience, 


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If a person’s mind, memory, intelligence could be reduced to the level of a 

structure of electrons, it will become possible for this structure to be copied and 

multiplied, sold, pirated and/or, "deleted" from the memory of the machine. Such 

a structure could also be unified with another electronic structure with artificial 

intelligence, improving the operating parameters of the latter. For the moment, 

such statements are and will be only some SF scenarios because as long as no one 

knows how the human brain works, it is impossible to know what a conscience is. 

Hans Moravec 1 thinks that the intelligence of robots, even before 2050, will 

exceed by far the intelligence of people (Hans Moravec, 1999). Follower of the 

principle “Structural science is sufficient to explain the whole nature, including 

life, mind and conscience", although he has some doubts on this principle, 

Moravec believes that the mere increase in the computing power and memory of 

computers will lead to consciousness without any special precautions in order to 

produce qualia. This is however excluded by the principle “Structural science is 

insufficient and incomplete to explain the whole existence, including life, mind 

and conscience", (Draganescu Mihai, 1997 A), principle that also states the need 

for the recognition of some new physical and information ingredients, of a new 

physics, of some new scientific principles. However, Moravec’s following 

statement is very interesting: “In that case, mass-produced, fully educated robot 

scientists working diligently, cheaply, rapidly and increasingly effectively will 

ensure that most of what science knows in 2050 will have been discovered by our 

artificial progeny!” (Hans Moravec, 1999). It is possible that such robots, let’s call 

them quantico-phenomenological ingredients, will appear. Will they be sociohuman? 

Or will they take on their own the evolution of the conscience on the 

Earth and in the Universe? Green believes that the development of quantum 

computers with conscience and that will reproduce themselves will be the next 

step in evolution. 

All the optimistic forecasts do not state the strict requirements for a machine to 

have a conscience. We assume that a machine with conscience does not need 

anything more than what humans have. But which are the essential properties of 

human conscience, without which it could not exist? The answer to this question 

may refer to the amount of integrated information that a human being or a 

machine could generate. The man and the machine perceive and become 

conscious of an existing state separately. For example, a man and a photoelectric 

cell 2 can signal if a nearby screen is bright or dark. But while the man by looking 

at the light or dark screen perceives a lot of information the photodiode does not 

although there are more neurons in the cerebellum than in any other part of the brain. 

1 Hans Moravec - Professor at Carnegie Mellon University, USA, who has been working for 45 

years in the field of Robotics. 

2 Photoelectric cell – diode whose operation depends on the intensity of light flow that falls on it. 


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see anything, but it only responds to the presence of the luminous flow. The way 

in which the man and the photoelectric cell react to the existence of light is 

distinguished by the amount of generated information 1 . When the photoelectric 

cell receives the luminous signal it enters one of two possible states, while the 

man when he sees the dark screen enters a large number of possible states. If he 

sees black it means he does not see blue, red, green, etc. For the man, the black 

screen does not signify only the absence of light, but also it could mean the lack 

of some previously seen and appreciated images. Therefore being conscious 

implies being an entity with a huge repertoire of states and the level of conscience 

is given by the quantity of integrated information which may be generated. 

Therefore humans have a much bigger level of consciousness than any machine. 

The integrated information theory (IIT) established in science and mathematics 

can determine the amount of information generated by the integrated systems 

consisting of several integral parts. 

IIT suggests a way of assessing the conscience of a machine through a kind of 

Turing test for consciousness, and in this sense, Koch Christof and Giulio Tononi 

(Koch Christof, 2008) have proposed a version of the Turing test in which a 

certain scene is presented to the computer and it has to deduct the "joke", the 

essence of the scene, which is perfectly possible for the human judgment (Vinge 

Vernor, 2008). 

Other attempts to measure the consciousness or the intelligence of a machine 

failed. Conversations in natural language or participating in strategic games, 

considered human attributes have been performed by computers. Deep Blue 

super-computer that defeated Garry Kasparov at chess in 1997, discussions with 

the computer in natural language on different areas or participating in strategic 

games have shown that machines may exceed human performance in narrow 

areas, but none of these experiences did not reveal the existence of a conscience in 

a machine. 

According to IIT, consciousness implies a large glossary of states for a single 

integrated system. To be useful, these internal states should be able to provide 

much information about the world in general. A test used to prove that a machine 

has a conscience is whether it can or cannot describe a scene seen for the first time 

and which is different from the huge number of scenes stored in its database. A 

man, for example, can describe successfully and in a different manner what 

happens in a scene from a photograph, a painting or a scene from a film, seen for 

the first time. For a machine equipped with artificial intelligence to understand a 

picture that it has not seen before or an image that includes elements which do not 

1 The amount of information is measured by reducing the uncertainty that appears when you have 

to choose between several possible occurrences. 


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exist in its database it is still impossible. It will be possible to write a computer 

program which will identify the objects from a new image based on the multitude 

of objects from its database, but this program does not imply the existence of a 

conscience. As long as it will not have a huge storage capacity and the computer 

program will not be designed to conclude from a multitude of possible 

combinations in action the items or all the items of any potential future image in 

different contexts (the picture of a child in a garden with a toy gun in his hand is 

completely different than a young man with a gun in his hand at the door of a 

bank) it will be impossible to speak about the conscience of a machine. 

In 1986 researchers tried to design the model of an artificial brain 1 with 6,000 

synapses, using an electronic microscope. Two decades later, they were still 

working at the functional model of this minimal nervous system. Giorgio Buttazo 

showed that G.S. Paul and E. Cox (1996), Ray Kurzweil (1999), Hans Moravec 

(1999, 2000) had estimated how complex the human brain was based on the 

enormous number of synapses (10 12 neurons, each on average with 10 3 synaptic 

connections with other neurons, so a total of 10 15 synapses). Simulating the human 

brain with artificial neural networks taking into account that each synapse requires 4 

bytes of memory in a computer it results that it would be necessary a memory of 4 

million Gbytes. Giorgio Buttazo, based on the developments and trends in the 

evolution of computers, believes that such a memory can be obtained in 2029 

(Buttazo Giorgio, 2001). Note, however, that such a memory is only one of the 

conditions necessary for a simulation of a giant neural model and assuming that we 

will have determined how consciousness forms with the huge number of parameters 

whose values are only vaguely suspected, and therefore, I, personally, consider that 

such a simulation is very unlikely to happen in the foreseeable future. 

In the literature (Wada Yasuo, 2001) it is stated that the development of 

nanotechnologies based on molecular nanoelectronics and quantum devices will 

enable the replacement of the silicon MOS technology in 2015. The issue of brain 

knowledge cannot be solved only by improving computer technology while a 

theory of the mind and consciousness based only on structures and structural 

fundamental forces of nature is not possible. The phenomenological processes and 

the phenomenological reality are equally important for obtaining such a theory 

(Drăgănescu Mihai, 2007). 

If the structure and the operating mode of the human brain are understood then we 

might understand the way in which human consciousness is formed. But this issue 

1 Research carried out revealed that there is a category of rules which coordinate the activity of the 

classic systems (e.g. the electronic computer) that can be described in Euclidian and/or Newtonian 

terms or drafted in Cartesian space/time coordinates and another class of rules for the coordination 

of the classes of systems with fine-grain structure (e.g. the brain), knowing that in the latter may 

occur radical changes within the creation process through successive transformations. 


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is unlikely to be solved in the 21 st century. If in the literature (Drăgănescu Mihai, 

2007) it is stated that the current biological man cannot build a society of the 

consciousness but only a society of predicting the society of consciousness, how 

can we hope to build a machine with a conscience? Firstly, it would be necessary 

for the current biological man and the existing social consciousness to evolve. 

Humanity was not able to ensure the management of the natural environment of 

our planet. While many natural species are destroyed, different biotechnologies 

multiply transgenic plants and animals. How far will this process go? Will 

everything that has been designed over millions of years in the natural 

environment disappear and will we be surrounded only by robots? 

Research and the practical implementation of the new scientific discoveries and 

new technologies should not be fighting against the created natural world, but 

only against the motions and the energies of the powers of the world which are 

unnatural and hostile to the natural environment. 

6. Conclusions 

(1) The consciousness that we have today is the result of the ongoing interaction 

between tool (i.e. the hand), thought (i.e. the brain/mind), communication (i.e. 

the society) and the increasing cultural development of the individual over 

millions of years, so it is clearly different from the self-consciousness of some 

animals endowed with some form of intelligence. It is clear that the human 

consciousness is part of the natural world and that it has contributed to reducing 

human progress in favor of the human cultural evolution. 

(2) Nowadays there are machines which have the ability to understand human 

language in a particular domain, to read texts written in human language, to 

recognize shapes and to process images, there are machines which communicate 

among themselves, changing and enriching their databases. However, it is not 

known if there are programs that make a machine self-conscious. There are 

programs that allow a machine to identify the space in which it is placed and 

which route to follow to get to another spatial location. It has not been created 

the program that could ensure the auto-orientation of a machine so that it could 

move in a totally unknown space or in a known and easily modified space. 

(3) The developments in science and information technology are taken into 

account in the understanding of the way in which our brain and mind work. 

Many conclusions on the possible functioning of the brain were drawn by 

similarity based on what is known on the functioning of the electronic computer. 

The possibility of higher levels of structural organization of quantum 

information processing in the brain, levels that are to be identified by future 

research, should be taken into account as well. 


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(4) Currently, it is not known whether human consciousness depends only on the 

scientific laws, still imperfectly known, or if it has been formed as a result of the 

action of the still unknown energy fields. Only after having understood the 

entire system of quantum information processing in the brain will it be possible 

to say if machines can be endowed with a conscience or not. These facts lead us 

to the conclusion that at present there is no premise to make us believe that the 

construction of conscious machines, similar to the human one would be possible 

in the near future. 

(5) What distinguishes humans from the other species is the fact that it is the 

only one who affected the natural environment. Human intelligence has 

completely deciphered the genome of its species. Cloning is already possible, a 

scenario of a supposed Bing Bang moment has been created, the solar system is 

being explored, but man fails to explore and know its own planet, to reveal its 

genesis and destiny in the universe. In this context, claiming that the creation of 

a machine with a conscience is a certainty is not consistent with reality. Perhaps 

the best answer is that it will NOT be possible to build machines with human 

intelligence in the future, but only machines with an algorithmic, binary 

intelligence. 


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ISBN 2066-8562 Vol. 5, Number 1/2012 37 

COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH TO DARK CURRENT 

SPECTROSCOPY IN CCD AS COMPLEX SYSTEMS. 

PART III*. DEFINITION AND USE OF A NEW PARAMETER 

CHARACTERIZING THE DEPLETION DARK CURRENT 

IN SEMICONDUCTORS 

I. TUNARU 1 , R. WIDENHORN 2 , E. BODEGOM 2 , D. IORDACHE 3 

Rezumat. Studiul efectuat a evidenţiat faptul că frecvent rezultatele experimentale privind 

vitezelor de generare ale principalelor capcane adânci nu corespund valorilor prezise de 

aproximaţia „clasică” (presupunând egalitatea secţiunilor eficace: σ n = σ p de captură a 

electronilor liberi şi – respectiv – golurilor) a modelului riguros cuantic al lui Shockley- 

Read-Hall (SRH). Pentru a îmbunătăţi precizia descrierii curenţilor de întuneric de golire, 

lucrarea de faţă a introdus un nou parametru „gradul de polarizare a secţiunilor eficace de 

captură a electronilor liberi, respectiv golurilor”. În afara capacităţii sale de a furniza 

evaluări mai exacte ale curenţilor de întuneric din semiconductori, noul parametru 

reprezintă un instrument util pentru: a) analiza unor „anomalii” ale valorilor vitezelor de 

generare, b) atribuirea capcanelor cu nivele adânci pentru fiecare pixel CCD, pornind de 

la dependenţa de temperatură a curenţilor de întuneric din dispozitivele CCD. 

Abstract. The accomplished study pointed out that frequently the experimentally observed 

generation rates of the main deep-level traps do not correspond to the values predicted by 

the classical approximation (assuming equal capture cross-sections σ n = σ p of the free 

electrons and holes, respectively) of the Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) rigorous quantum 

expression. In order to improve the accuracy of the depletion dark current description, this 

work introduced the new parameter “polarization degree of the capture cross-sections of 

free electrons and holes, respectively”. Besides its ability to provide considerably more 

accurate evaluations of the depletion dark current in semiconductors, this new parameter 

represents a useful tool for: a) the analysis of some “anomalies” of the generation rate 

values, b) the assignment of deep-level traps for each CCD pixel, starting from the 

experimental data concerning the temperature dependence of the dark current in CCDs. 

Keywords: Charge-Coupled Devices, Dark Current, Capture cross-sections of free electrons and 

holes, Deep-level traps 


As it is well-known, the temperature dependence of the depletion dark current 

 

De dep (T) 

emitted in a semiconductor [with the intrinsic Fermi level E i the 

1 Ph.D. student, Physics Department, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania. 

2 Professor, Portland State University, Oregon, USA. 

3 Professor, Ph.D., Physics Department, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania, Honorary 

member of Academy of Romanian Scientists. 

* This paper represents the continuation (3 rd part) of the works indicated by references [16]. 


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38 Ionel Tunaru, Ralf Widenhorn, Erik Bodegom, Dan Iordache 

generation-recombination centers (or traps) characterized by the energy level E t , 

the capture cross-sections , of free electrons and holes, respectively, and 

n p 

the concentration N t ] is described by the famous rigorous quantum expression of 

Shockley, Read and Hall [1–3], by means of the generation rate U(T): 

x 

De 

dep 

 


A 

pix 

U ( T) 

 

 

n n 

ni 

 

 

2 

 

n 

pVth 

p n ni 

Nt 

, (1) 

Et 

Ei 

 

Ei 

Et 

 

exp 

p p ni 

exp 

kT 

kT 

where x dep is the width of the depletion region, A pix is the area of the pixel, and n i 

is the intrinsic carrier concentration. Given being that besides the numerous 

physical parameters involved by expression (1), the temperature dependence of 

the depletion dark current due to the semiconductor lattice defects or impurities 

includes also the parameters describing the temperature dependence of all 

physical quantities from relation (1), it results that the use of this (too intricate) 

expression requires to consider some particular cases. 

The most important such particular case refers to the region depleted of carriers, 

where n and p n i . In this case, the expression of the depletion dark current 

becomes: 

I 


q x 


A 

pix 

V 

n 

Et 

E 

n exp 

kT 

i 

p 

th 

 

n N 

i 

p 

t 

Ei 

E 

exp 

kT 

t 

. (2) 

From relation (2), one finds [4] that the depletion dark current reaches a sharp 

maximum for the traps with energy: 

dI 

 

dE 


t 

 

 

 

Et,maxI dep 

0 

E 

t 

kT n 

Ei 

ln . (3) 

2 

Taking into account that the trap energy level E t and its capture cross-sections of 

free electrons σ n and holes σ p , respectively, are independent quantities, the 

Et Ei 

quantities 

1 n 

and ln are not strictly equal, but they have to be of the 

kT 2 

p 

same magnitude order for the detectable traps by means of the Dark Current 

Spectroscopy Method (DCS) [4, 5]. 

For this reason, the usual procedure (see e.g. [4, 6], relation (7.8), page 610) is to 

Et Ei 

take into consideration 

 

n 

and neglect ln : 

kT 

 

p 

p 


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Definition and Use of a New Parameter 

Characterizing the Depletion Dark Current in Semiconductors 39 

Vthni 

Nt 

U ( T) 

 

Et 

Ei 

Ei 

Et 

exp exp 

kT kT 

is not rigorous and cannot lead usually to accurate evaluations. 

(where: n ) (4) 

2. Check of the classical approximation (4) relative to the experimental results 

concerning the generation rate 

The specialty literature provides (e.g. the works [5]) a sufficient number of 

experimental data about the generation rates of different deep level traps in 

silicon, pointing out even the existence of some still unexplained irregularities: 

“… there is actually more Au present on the Mn scribe line … than there is Mn, 

although the stronger Mn trap dominates the dark current” [5c], p. 478. 

For this reason, we studied the predicted – by means of approximation (4) – ratios 

Et 

Ei 

 

U exp ( e / s) 

cosh 

/ , which should be [according to relation (4)] almost 

kTave 

 

equal for all traps. The obtained results were synthesized by Table 1. 

p 

Table 1. Calculated values (in the frame of this work) of the “invariant” [according to relation (4)] 

Et 

Ei 

 

U exp ( e / s) 

cosh 

/ , proportional to the ratio Uexp U 

theor 

kTave 

 

Trap 

Generation rate 

U exp (e/s at 55 o C) 

Trap level 

|E t – E i | 

(meV) [5c] 

Average 

cross-section 

σ (cm 2 ) [5c] 

U 

exp 

( e 

 

Et 

E 

/ s) 

cosh 

kTave 

i 

 

/ 

 

Mn 6400 ~ < 50 ~ 110 -15 31074.0 

Ni; Co 3700 < 30 6.610 -15 1161.5 

Pt 970 60 710 -15 1051.0 

Au s 565 < 30 110 -15 1170.6 

Fe i 195 120150 310 -14 1461.5 

Trap 1 

(acceptor 

E-center) 

70 100 210 -15 1615.2 

Trap 2 8 200 810 -15 4258.3 

Trap 3 

(donor 

E-center) 

1.8 270 210 -14 9100.6 


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One finds that the approximation (4) leads to evaluations of the generation rate: 

(i) of the same magnitude order for Ni, Co and Au (especially), as well as 

(though sensibly different) for the Pt, Fe i , and the acceptor E-center traps, 

(ii) considerably smaller (almost 30 times) than the experimental results 

for the Mn traps, 

(iii) sensibly smaller, but not so low as for Mn, for the traps 

2 (unidentified) and 3 (donor E-center). 

As it results from the more recent [7] studies of the Mn traps in Si, the most important 

causes of their striking strange overall behavior (see Table 1 and [5c]) are: 

a) the large number of Mn defects types in Si: at least 4 different interstitial 

charge states Mn i , other 3 different substitutional charge states Mn s , those of the 

cluster Mn 4 , those of the Mn-metal (B, Al, Ga, Sn, Au) pairs (at least 2 charge 

states Mn-B, 2 charge states of Mn-Au, etc ; see fig. 3), 

b) the huge values interval of the capture cross-sections corresponding to 

the different charge states of Mn defects: starting from σ p = 210 -18 cm 2 for the 

E v + 0.27 eV state of Mn i , passing through the value n = 3.110 -15 cm 2 for the 

E c – 0.12 eV and E c – 0.43 eV states of Mn i [8], up to n = 2.110 -12 cm 2 for the 

level located in proximity of the Fermi level in Si [7a], the value σ ~ 10 -15 cm 2 

indicated by McColgin [5c] being in fact a geometric average of the Mn defects 

capture cross-sections over this extremely broad interval. 

According to the conclusions of the [7a] work: “… Mn shows a far more complex 

defect structure than Fe or Cr for instant, which do not normally exist in the 

substitutional form and also exhibit one single interstitial energy level in the Si band 

gap. A consequence of these additional energy levels for Mn is that is difficult to state 

a priori which level dominates recombination, as the populations of the various 

charge states will depend on the Fermi level, i.e. on the doping type and 

concentration”. It results that the approximation (4) should be replaced by a 

considerably more accurate one, which will be of special interest for the other 

deep-level traps (Ni, Co, Pt, Au s , and even for the Fe i and the acceptor E-center trap). 

3. Definition of the new parameter “polarization degree of capture 

cross-sections” 

Instead of the above approximation, this work has written (without any additional 

approximation) the expression (2) as: 

I 


q x 


A 

pix 

 

n 

 

p 

V 

2 

th 

n N 

i 

t 

Et 

E 

sec h 

kT 

i 

 

pdg 

, (5) 

 


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where sec h ( x) 

is the hyperbolic secant function: 

1 

sec h( 

x) 

. (6) 

cosh x 

The new parameter “polarization degree of the capture cross-sections of free 

electrons and holes, respectively” (pdg), describing the asymmetry of the pair of 

capture cross-sections , was defined by this work as: 

n p 

p 

pdg 

arg tanh 

 

n 

 

n 

p 

p 

1 n 

ln 

2 

p 

1 

. (7) 

Figure 1 below presents the plots of the function sec h( 

x p) 

for different values 

of the variable x and of the parameter p of the magnitude order of 1. Taking into 

account the considerable deviations from the values of the previous factor 

Et 

Ei 

 

Et 

Ei 

 

sec h 

of the function sec h 

kT 

pdg , even for the very-deep 

 

kT 

level traps detectable by the DCS method, significant corrections of the depletion 

dark current evaluations are expected to be brought by the expression (5). 

Fig. 1. Plots of the hyperbolic secant function sech(x + p) for different values of the parameters 

x ( Et Ei 

) ( kT) 

and p pdg (polarization degree of the capture cross-sections). 

The thick vertical line through x = +2 indicates the descent of the sech(x + p) function 

from the value +1 for p = 2, up to less than + 0.05 for p = + 2.5. 

1 The traps of the crystalline lattice (embedded nano-particles/systems, nano-defects) capture both 

free electrons and holes, but with different probabilities. Given being the capture probability is 

proportional to the corresponding cross-section (σ n or σ p ), the capture probability asymmetry can 

be given by the expression (7) [somewhat similar to those from Optics, Nuclear physics, etc.], 

because: pdg > 0 corresponds to prevalent free electrons capture, pdg = 0 to equal capture 

probabilities, etc. 


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4. Existing experimental results about both capture cross-sections (of free 

electrons and holes, respectively) and their polarization degree (pdg) 

Despite: a) the high technical interest presented by the identification of 

contaminants (see e.g. [5], [6]), b) the possibility to determine experimentally 

both capture rates for a given trap (by means of the DLTS method [9], especially), 

in practice there were evaluated: (i) usually up only the (geometrical) averages 

n p 

, (ii) both capture cross-sections only for a part of the different studied 

traps. Table 2 synthesizes some known values of both capture cross-sections of 

free electrons and holes, respectively, by certain defects (traps) from silicon, as 

well as of their polarization degree (pdg), implicitly. In order to understand easier 

the location of the different defects (traps) in Si, instead to indicate their positions 

relative to the upper limit of the valence band (Ev) or to the bottom limit of the 

conduction band (E c ), we give in Table 2 the evaluated traps energies relative to 

the intrinsic Fermi level, considered as E i ≈ 0.54 eV [4]. 

Table 2. Some known values of both capture cross-sections of free electrons and holes, 

respectively, in silicon, as well as of their polarization degree (pdg), implicitly 

Trap 

Group 

Energy 

(eV) 

σ n 

(cm 2 ) 

σ p 

(cm 2 ) 

k 

= n / p 

pdg 

Ref. 

U (55C) 

e/s [5c] 

+ 

Ti i 

++ 

Ti i 

++ 

V i 

++ 

Cr i 

4 E i + 0.27 3.110 -14 1.410 -15 22.14 +1.549 [7d] 

4 E i 0.28 1.310 -14 2.810 -17 464.3 +3.070 [7d] 

5 E i 0.18 5.010 -14 3.010 -18 16667 +4.86 [7d] 

6 

E i + 0.32 2.310 -13 1.110 -13 2.091 +0.369 [7d] 

E i + 0.30 2.010 -14 4.010 -15 5 +0.805 [10a] 

(Cr i + B s 

- 

) - 6; 13 E i 0.26 5.010 -15 1.010 -14 0.5 0.3466 [10a] 

+ 

Mo i 

+ 

Mn i 

E i 0.26 1.610 -14 6.010 -16 26.67 +1.642 [10b] 

6 

E i 0.223 7.810 -15 6.010 -16 13 +1.282 [8b] 

7 E i + 0.09 9.4 +1.1204 [7a] 

(Mn i + B s - ) + 7; 13 E i + 0.01 2.110 -12 3.510 -13 6.0 +1.282 [7a] 

Mn i 

++ 

7 E i 0.21 

23.1 

(18.528.3) 

+1.57 [7a] 

all Mn 

Traps 7 = ( min· max ) 1/2 ≈ 1.010 -15 ; max / min ~ 10 6 [5c], 

[7a] 

Fe i 

+ 

8 E i 0.16 5.010 -14 7.010 -17 714.3 +3.286 [7d] 

6400 


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(Fe I + B s 

- 

) + 8; 13 

Co i 

+ 

Ni i 

+ 

Pt s 

- 

Pt i 

- 

Pt s 

+ 

Au s 

- 

Zn s 

- - 

Zn s 

- 

PVp - 

E-center 

9 

10 

E i + 0.28 

( 0.02) 

1.410 -14 

( 0.02) 

1.110 -15 

(0.52.5) 

13 +1.282 [7c] 

E i 0.02 = ( n· p ) 1/2 ≈ 6.610 -15 [5c] 3700 

10 E i + 0.31 3.410 -15 [11] 

10 E i + 0.02 4.510 -15 1.0910 -14 2.42 +0.442 [11] 970 

10 E i 0.18 5.410 -14 [11] 

11 

E i 0.01 1.410 -16 7.610 -15 0.01842 - 1.997 [7d] 

5.010 -16 1.010 -15 

T - 4 0.5 -0.3466 [12c] 565 

12 E i + 0.07 1.310 -19 6.610 -15 1.9710 - 5 -5.417 [7d] 

12 E i 0.21 1.510 -15 4.410 -15 0.3409 - 0.538 [7d] 

14 

E i + 0.10 = ( n· p ) 1/2 ≈ 6.610 -15 [13a] 70 

E i + 0.084 3.710 -16 [13b] 

PV + 14 E i 0.27 [13a] 1.8 

From Table 2 (see e.g. the results referring to the traps Cr i ++ , Mo i + , Au s - , PV-pair - 

acceptor E-center), there result also the accuracies (not too good) of the capture crosssections 

evaluations, and of their polarization degree. One finds also that the 

recombination rate U was not still measured systematically. Given being the capture 

cross-sections and their polarization degree pdg are often temperature dependent, 

table 3 synthesizes the main types of the temperature dependence of the capture 

cross-sections. 

Table 3. Main types of the temperature dependence of the capture cross sections of free electrons 

and/or holes, respectively in different semiconductors 

The type of the 

temperature dependence 

Typical expression of 

temperature dependence 

Some examples for the 

traps in the semiconductor 

Reference 

Arrhenius law n (T) n exp(-E B /kT) EL2, HL1, HL10 in GaAs [14a] 

Power laws (T) T -n n 2.5 ( n, Au in p-Si) [12c] 

n 0.21 ( n, Au in n-Si) [12d] 

Temperature 

independence 

(T) constant 

n 4.0 ( p, Au in n-Si) 

p in GaAs 

n, Au in n-Si 

[12c] 

[14a] 

[12c] 


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5. Experimental evaluation of the difference E t – E i 

In order to interpret the obtained (calculated) values of E t – E i corresponding 

sometimes to a mixture of defects inside each studied pixel, an experimental 

evaluation of the difference E t – E i is necessary. Given being that the most 

efficient experimental method intended to the defects location inside the studied 

semiconductor forbidden band is the deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) 

method, we have to evaluate the E t – E i difference starting from the defects (traps) 

positions relative to the upper limit E v of the valence band and the bottom limit 

(edge) E c of the conduction one (see fig. 2). 

Fig. 2. Positions of the defects (traps) energy levels and of the Fermi intrinsic level 

according to the DLTS results. 

Given being for a certain temperature T the energy gap is (approximately) known, 

it is necessary to evaluate also the intrinsic Fermi energy E i (T) at this temperature. 

According to the basic Condensed Matter Physics treatises [2], the temperature 

dependence of the intrinsic Fermi energy E i (T) is given by the expression: 

where: 

* 

dp 

* 

dn 

1 3kT 

m 

Ei 

( T) 

Eg 

( T) 

ln , (8) 

2 4 m 

2/3 

* * 3/ 2 * 3/ 2 

m 

 

 

dp m pl m ph and: 

 

 

m 

* 

dn 

3 * 2 * 

6mt 

ml 

(9) 

are the effective masses corresponding to the states densities of holes and free 

* * * * 

electrons, respectively, while m pl, mph, 

ml 

and m t are the effective masses 

associated to the light and heavy holes, respectively, and to the longitudinal and 

transverse electrons effective masses, relative to the major axis of the energy 

ellipsoid E( k ). For free electrons in silicon, there are used the values 

ml * 0. 98 m o , mt 

* 0. 19 m o , and ml 

* 0. 916 m o , mt 

* 0. 225 m o , which lead to 

the values mdn 

* 1 0. 5965 mo 

and * 

mdn 

2 0. 6528 m o of the effective mass 


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associated to the electrons state density in the conduction band of Si, while for the 

holes from Si there are usually used the values m * pl 0. 16 mo 

, * 

mph 

0. 49 m o , 

which lead to the value 

m * 0. 5492 m of the effective mass associated to the 

dp 

holes state density in the silicon valence band. As we use the first or the second 

o 

3 mdp 

pair of electron effective mass in Si, we obtain ln 0. 

06196 , or – 0.1296, 

4 

* 

mdn 

hence the temperature coefficient of the silicon intrinsic Fermi energy correction: 

3 

* 

k mdp 

5 

1 

4 

ln 

dn 

1.11610 

K 

* 

is at least one magnitude order less than that of the 

energy gap corresponding to silicon: E g , Si ( T) 

1.21 

4.2 10 

T ( eV ) [2]. 

For an average use temperature T ≈ 250 K (this work, [12a], etc.), one finds that 

3kT 

m 

the intrinsic Fermi energy correction ln has a value inside the interval 

4 m 

(1.34; 2.8) meV, remaining so negligible relative to the usual defects (traps) 

energies in Si, even for the very-deep level defects, detectable by the studied dark 

current spectroscopy method. 

6. On the evaluation of the polarization degree of capture cross-sections of 

free electrons and holes, respectively 

Taking into account that the power law expressions of the temperature 

dependence of capture cross-sections can be approximated by Arrhenius type 

expressions (with negative activation energy E B ) and substituting the Arrhenius 

expression [see Table 3] in the polarization degree definition (7), one obtains: 

1 n ( T) 

1 n 

EB 

EB 

pdg( T) 

ln ln pdg 

, hence the temperature 

2 ( T) 

2 2kT 

2kT 

p 

p 

dependence of the hyperbolic secant argument can be expressed as: 

E 

 

E E 

t Ei 

Et 

Ei 

EB 

/ 2 

t i eff 

arg sec h( 

T) 

pdg( 

T) 

 

pdg 

 

pdg 

, (10) 

kT 

kT 

kT 

by means of the effective energies difference Et E i eff 

and of the pdg(T) 

asymptotic value 

pdg . 

The DCS method allows however an indirect evaluation of the “polarization 

degree” pdg (in fact of its asymptotic value pdg ), starting from the improved 

* 

dp 

* 

dn 

 

 

4 

 


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approximation (5). Our (indirect) evaluation of the effective parameters |E t – E i | eff 

and pdg ∞ was achieved by means of the least-squares fit (using the gradient 

method) of the slope s and intercept i of the regression line of the modulus of the 

argument of the hyperbolic secant function in terms of the kT 

1 parameter: 

Et 

Ei 

 

1 

arg sec 

h 

pdg s i 

kT 

. (11) 

 

 

kT 

In order to provide correct interpretations of the results of our procedure (10), we 

studied the existing experimental data for 20 randomly chosen pixels of a Spectra 

Video CCD camera (model SV512V1) manufactured by Pixelvision, Inc. (see 

[9a]). The obtained (in the frame of this work) types of qualitative results and 

their interpretations are synthesized by Table 4. 

Table 4. Main types of results obtained by means of the regression line 

|arg[sech(pdg+(E t -E i )/kT]|= i + s/kT study and their interpretation 

Slope s 

sign 

Intercept i 

sign 

> 0 > 0 

> 0 < 0 

< 0 > 0 

Interpretation 

Both (E t – E i ) eff and pdg ∞ have the same sign, hence: 

|E t – E i | eff = s, |pdg| ∞ = i and: (E t – E i ) eff /pdg ∞ > 0 

(E t – E i ) eff /kT > - pdg ∞ > 0 or 

(E t – E i ) eff /kT < - pdg ∞ < 0 

pdg ∞ > - (E t – E i ) eff /kT = (E i – E t ) eff /kT > 0 or 

pdg ∞ < - (E t – E i ) eff /kT = (E i – E t ) eff /kT < 0 

Examples of 

pixels [12a] 

188; 471 

121; 200 

321; 400 

In order to estimate the “impact” of the polarization degree (pdg) values on the 

depletion dark current the obtained numerical results for the 17 pixels whose data 

sets lead to physically convergent evaluations were synthesized by Table 5. As 

one can find easily, the accuracy of the obtained results decreases very much for 

the pixels emitting weak depletion dark current (low values of the depletion preexponential 

factor, Dep). 

Table 5. Interpretation of the obtained quantitative (numerical) results [s = sign(E t -E i ) eff ] 

Pixel 

Obtained information about 

Dep (Mcps·K -3/2 ), the effective parameters 

10 6 counts/s·K -3/2 |E t – E i | eff , meV s·pdg ∞ 

Calc. Depletion 

Dark Current 

Accuracy (%) 

sech[pdg+ 

(E t -E i )/kT] 

321; 400 2.541 32.125 3.075 17.47% 0.3808 

181; 260 5.433 24.39 0.0187 2.975% 0.5887 

121; 200 6.022 34.44 0.3274 5.65% 0.5381 

141; 220 6.478 8.49 0.773 6.158% 0.5872 

101; 180 6.623 24.66 0.0455 2.454% 0.5702 


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301; 380 7.224 30.85 0.3114 3.002% 0.6068 

188; 471 9.530 28.04 0.790 6.988% 0.2511 

81; 160 11.710 33.59 0.0154 2.294% 0.4117 

221; 300 15.998 28.03 0.438 3.797% 0.2176 

201; 280 21.944 31.21 0.117 1.77% 0.4140 

29; 88 32.120 51.860 0.155 2.473% 0.2207 

61; 140 40.792 27.352 1.369 7.055% 0.1467 

281; 360 66.386 45.697 0.397 3.197% 0.1688 

261; 340 105.688 57.225 0.135 2.2798% 0.1306 

341; 420 254.039 55.479 0.259 2.277% 0.1249 

161; 240 268.671 76.223 0.632 3.73% 0.0338 

31; 247 421.361 2.16 1.3896 5.379% 0.5109 

Figures 3 and 4 present the diagrams of the traps levels for GaAs and Mn in the Si 

lattice, respectively. From Table 2, one finds that the majority of donor /acceptor 

states are located in the upper/lower half of the forbidden band, respectively, 

while the other states – named here “trans-Fermi level donor/ acceptor states” (as 

the levels EL2, E5, HL10, HL16 in GaAs, (Mn + Au - ) + and Mn ++ i in the Si lattice) 

have negative values of the product pdg sign( E E ) . 

t 

i 

Fig. 3. Traps levels diagram for GaAs [14a]. 

Fig. 4. Traps levels diagram for Mn in the silicon lattice [7, 8, 15]. 


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Taking into account that the number of the “trans-Fermi level states” is sensibly 

less than the number of the other electronic states, this finding represents a useful 

tool in the assignment of these states (traps). 

6. Study of the “anomalies” of the generation rate U values 

This work achieved the least-squares fit (using the gradient method [17], [16b]) of 

the improved approximation (5): 

De 

 

De 

 

0 , diff 

T 

3 

Eg 

 

exp 

 

De 

kT 

 

0, dep 

T 

3/ 2 

Eg 

( 

Et 

Ei 

) 

exp 

 

sec h 

2kT 

kT 

eff 

pdg 

of the experimental results concerning the dark current emitted by some pixels of 

the studied Spectra Video CCD camera (model SV512V1) [12a]. 

There were obtained evaluations of all parameters of the above expression, particularly 

of the depletion pre-exponential factor 

 

De 0 , dep Dep , effective energy gap E g and of 

the trap location ( E ) inside the silicon forbidden band, as well as of the 

t E i 

eff 

asymptotic value pdg of the capture cross-sections polarization degree. Using these 

numerical estimations, the numerical evaluation of the generation rate at the 

temperature t 55 C (hence T gr = 328.15 K) was obtained by means of the expression: 

gr 

U( 

T 

gr 

 

 

 

3/ 2 

E 

 

g ( E 

 

t Ei 

) eff 

) De0 , depTgr 

exp sec 

h 

pdg 

. (12) 

 

2kTgr 

 

kTgr 

 

The obtained results are presented in Table 6, where the pixels were written in the 

monotonic order of their increasing depletion pre-exponential factors Dep. While – 

according to the classical approximation (4) – it was expected to find the 

proportionality of the generation rate U(T) with the depletion pre-exponential factor 

 


Dep De0 , , the examination of Table 6 points out several discontinuities, that 

can be explained only by the different values of polarization degree pdg and of the 

effective energies difference Et E i eff 

. 

Table 6. Comparison of the evaluated values of the depletion pre-exponential factor Dep and of the 

generation rate (corresponding hyperbolic secant function values in brackets) for different 

pixels of a SpectraVideo CCD camera (model SV512V1) 

Pixel 

Dep (Mcps K 3/2 Evaluated 

), 

10 6 counts/s·K 3/2 generation rate 

U(e - /s) at 55C 

Pixel 

 

 

 

 

Dep (Mcps K -3/2 Evaluated 

), 

10 6 counts/s·K 3/2 generation rate 

U(e - /s) at 55C 

321; 400 2.541 124.6 (0.3808) 201; 280 21.944 2243 (0.4140) 

181; 260 5.433 680 (0.5887) 29; 88 32.120 1981 (0.2207) 


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121; 200 6.022 866 (0.5381) 61; 140 40.792 1464 (0.1467) 

141; 220 6.478 713.5 (0.5872) 281; 360 66.386 3184 (0.1688) 

101; 180 6.623 751 (0.5702) 261; 340 105.688 3276 (0.1306) 

301; 380 7.224 1564 (0.6068) 341; 420 254.039 3899 (0.1249) 

188; 471 9.530 588 (0.2511) 161; 240 268.671 1996 (0.0338) 

81; 160 11.710 1176 (0.4117) 31; 247 421.361 4923 (0.5109) 

221; 300 15.998 1654 (0.2176) 

The considerable impact of the polarization degree (pdg) on the values of the 

Et 

Ei 

eff 

 

hyperbolic secant sec h 

pdg and of the generation rate, is 

 

kT 

 

indicated both by the values of the last column of Table 5 (see the value for the 

pixel 161; 240, particularly) and of Fig. 1. 

According to the work [5c], the even more striking large generation rates of the Mn, 

Ni, Co traps (see e.g. Table 1) could be explained by means of a complex character 

(like Mn 4 ) of these traps and/or of a possible Poole-Frenkel [18] effect. The 

accomplished analysis pointed out that even the capture cross-sections of the Ni and 

Co traps are considerably larger than that of the substitutional gold Au s , their 

generation rates agree very well [according to the classical approximation (4), see 

Table 1, with that of Au s , while even the use of the improved approximation (5) does 

not lead to a quantitative justification of the experimental value of the Mn trap 

generation rate. 

Given being the: a) considerably more complex defect structure (larger number of 

charge states) of Mn than those of Cr, Fe, Ni, Co, etc, b) still incompletely 

characterized (mainly by means of the capture cross sections of free electrons and 

holes, respectively) of many Mn defects (e.g. of the substitutional states, of the 

Mn 4 cluster, of the Mn pairs with Al, Ga, Sn, etc), c) intentional contamination 

with Mn atoms which lead to the McColgin’s results [5c], our analysis lead to the 

conclusion that the striking strange pair of values referring to the average crosssection 

σ and to the generation rate/Mn atom can be explained (more than by the 

Poole-Frenkel effect) by an averaging of the generation rates of Mn defects in 

different charge states with very different capture cross sections (many of them 

considerably higher than the average value indicated by [5c]). 

The obtainment of new experimental information about both free electrons n and 

holes p capture cross-sections of the main deep-level traps in silicon will 

contribute of course to a more accurate description of the temperature dependence 

of the depletion dark current in semiconductors. 


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7. Use of the polarization degree pdg as an assignment criterion of the 

deep-level traps 

The accomplished study pointed out that the newly defined physical parameter 

“polarization degree of the capture cross-sections of free electrons and holes, 

respectively” is a basic feature of the deep-level traps, allowing considerably more 

accurate descriptions of the temperature dependence of the depletion dark current 

in charge-coupled devices. 

For this reason, we consider that besides the classical assignment criteria as the: 

 

a) depletion pre-exponential factor De 0 , dep , b) generation rate U(T g.r. ) at a given 

temperature, c) the location of the studied trap inside the semiconductor forbidden 

band, d) average capture cross-section , the: e) polarization 

degree 

1 

pdg ln 

2 

 

 

n 

p 

n p 

arg tanh 

 

f) average value h( 

E E ) kT pdg 

n 

t i eff / 

p 

ave 

ave 

n 

p 

of capture cross-sections, as well as the: 

sec of the hyperbolic secant function, 

are also basic assignment criteria for the deep-level traps in a semiconductor, 

starting from the observed temperature dependence of the dark current in each 

CCD pixel (the Dark Current Spectroscopy method). 

Conclusions 

This work pointed out the necessity to introduce the new parameter “polarization 

degree of the capture cross-sections of free electrons and holes, respectively” in 

order to ensure a sufficiently accurate description of the temperature dependence 

of the depletion dark current in semiconductors. It was found also the ability of 

this new parameter to: a) analyze successfully the “anomalies” of some reported 

generation rate values [e.g., no anomaly for the reported generation rates of Ni and 

Co [5c], but probably wrong value (1210 14 cm 2 , instead of ~ 110 15 cm 2 ) for 

the average cross-section of the electronic states of the embedded Mn traps which 

produce a 6400 e - /s generation rate], b) discriminate among the contributions of 

the different deep-level traps to the depletion dark current in each CCD pixel, 

allowing so certain assignments of the deep-level traps in the CCDs pixels. In this 

aim, both newly introduced notions of “polarization degree” and “trans-Fermi 

level donor/acceptor states” are useful. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors thank very much for the fruitful discussions and important received 

information to Dr. G. Moagar-Paladian, National Institute for Research and 

Development in Micro-technology, Bucharest. 

 


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ISSN 2066-8562 Volume 5, Number 1/2012 53 

AUTOMATIC COMPUTER 

MUSIC CLASSIFICATION AND SEGMENTATION 

Adrian SIMION 1 , Stefan TRAUSAN-MATU 2 

Rezumat. Lucrarea de faţă descrie şi aplică diferite metode pentru segmentarea 

automată a muzicii realizată cu ajutorul unui calculator. Pe baza rezultatelor şi a 

tehnicilor de extragere a caracteristicilor folosite, se încearcă de asemenea o 

clasificare/recunoaştere a fragmentelor folosite. Algoritmii au fost testaţi pe seturile de 

date Magnatune şi MARSYAS, dar instrumentele software implementate pot fi folosite pe 

o gamă variată de surse. Instrumentele descrise vor fi integrate într-un „framework” / 

sistem software numit ADAMS (Advanced Dynamic Analysis of Music Software - 

Software pentru Analiza Dinamică Avansată a Muzicii) cu ajutorul căruia se vor putea 

evalua şi îmbunătăţi diferitele sarcini de analiză şi compoziţie a muzicii. Acest sistem are 

la bază biblioteca de programe MARSYAS şi conţine un modul similar cu WEKA pentru 

sarcini de procesare a datelor şi învăţare automată. 

Abstract. This paper describes and applies various methods for automatic computer 

music segmentation. Based on these results and on the feature extraction techniques used, 

is tried also a genre classification/recognition of the excerpts used. The algorithms were 

tested on the Magnatune and MARSYAS datasets, but the implemented software tools can 

also be used on a variety of sources. The tools described here will be subject to a 

framework/software system called ADAMS (Advanced Dynamic Analysis of Music 

Software) that will help evaluate and enhance the various music analysis/composition 

tasks. This system is based on the MARSYAS open source software framework and 

contains a module similar to WEKA for data-mining and machine learning tasks. 

Keywords: automatic segmentation, audio classification, music information retrieval, music 

content analysis, chord detection, vocal and instrumental regions 

1. Music Information Retrieval 

The number of digital music recordings has a continuous growth, promoted by the 

users‘ interest as well as the advances of the new technologies that support the 

pleasure of listening to music. There are a few reasons that explain this trend, first 

of all, the existential characteristic of the musical language. Music is a form of art 

which can be shared by people that belong to different cultures because it 

surpasses the borders of the national language and of the cultural background. As 

an example the West American music has many enthusiasts in Japan, and many 

persons in Europe appreciate the classical Indian music. These forms of 

1 Eng., Ph.D. student, Faculty of Automatic Control and Computers, University Politehnica of 

Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, (simion.adrian@gmail.com). 

2 Corresponding member of AOSR. Prof., Ph.D., Faculty of Automatic Control and Computers, 

University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, (stefan.trausan@cs.pub.ro). 


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54 Adrian Simion, Ștefan Trăușan-Matu 

expression can be appreciated without the need of a translation that is in most of 

the cases necessary for accessing foreign textual papers. 

Another reason is the fact that technology for recording music, digital 

transformation and playback allows the users access to information that is almost 

comparable to live performances, at least at audio quality level. 

Last, music is an art form that is cult and popular at the same time and sometimes 

is impossible to draw a line between the two, like jazz and traditional music. 

The high availability and demand for music content induced new requirements 

about its management, advertisement and distribution. This required a more indepth 

and direct analysis of the content than that provided by simple human 

driven meta-data cataloguing. 

The new techniques allowed approaches that were only encountered in theoretical 

musical analysis. One of these problems was stated by Frank Howes [1]: There is 

thus a vast corpus of music material available for comparative study. It would be 

fascinating to discover and work out a correlation between music and social 

phenomena. With the current processing power and advancements we can answer 

questions such as: What is the ethnic background of a particular piece of music or 

what cultures it spawns. 

In light of these possibilities and technological advances we needed a new 

discipline that would try to cover and answer the various problems. Music 

Information Retrieval (MIR) is an interdisciplinary science that retrieves its 

information from music. The origins of MIR are domains like: musicology, 

cognitive psychology, linguistic and computer science. 

An active research area is composed of new methods and tools for pattern finding 

as well as the comparison of musical content. The International Society for Music 

Information Retrieval [2] is coupled with the annual Music Information Retrieval 

Evaluation eXchange (MIREX) [3]. The evaluated tasks include Automatic Genre 

Identification, Chord Detection, Segmentation, Melody Extraction, Query by 

Humming, to name a few. This paper will focus mostly on Automatic 

Segmentation and Genre Identification. 

2. Former studies and related work on Automatic Music Segmentation 

The topic of speech/music classification was studied by many researchers. While 

the applications can be very different, many studies use similar sets of acoustic 

features, such as short time energy, zero-crossing rate, cepstrum coefficients, 

spectral roll off, spectrum centroid and ―loudness,‖ alongside some unique 

features, such as ―dynamism.‖ However, the exact combinations of features used 

can vary greatly, as well as the size of the feature set. 


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Automatic Computer Music Classification and Segmentation 55 

Typically some long term statistics, such as the mean or the variance, and not the 

features themselves, are used for the discrimination. 

The major differences between the different studies lie in the exact classification 

algorithm, even though some popular classifiers (K-nearest neighbor, Gaussian 

multivariate, neural network) are often used as a basis. 

For the studies, mostly, different databases are used for training and testing the 

algorithm. It is worth noting that in these studies, especially the early ones, these 

databases are fairly small. The following table describes some of the former 

studies: 

Table 1. Some of the former studies 

Author Application Features Classification method 

Automatic real-time FM Short-time energy, statistical parameters of Multivariate Gaussian 

radio monitoring the ZCR 

classifier 

13 temporal, spectral and cepstral features 

(e.g., 4Hz modulation energy, % of low Gaussian mixture model 

Speech/music 

energy frames, 

(GMM), K nearest 

discrimination for 

spectral roll off, spectral centroid, spectral neighbour (KNN), K-D 

automatic speech 

flux, ZCR, cepstrum-based feature, trees, multidimensional 

recognition 

―rhythmicness‖), 

Gaussian MAP estimator 

variance of features across 1 sec. 

Saunders, 

1996 [4] 

Scheirer and 

Slaney, 1997 

[5] 

Foote, 1997 

[6] 

Liu et al., 

1997 [7] 

Zhang and 

Kuo, 1999 [8] 

Williams and 

Ellis, 1999 

[9] 

El-Malehet 

al., 2000 [10] 

Buggati et al., 

2002 [11] 

Lu, Zhang, 

and Jiang, 

Retrieving audio 

documents by acoustic 

similarity 

Analysis of audio for 

scene classification of 

TV programs 

Audio 

segmentation/retrieval 

for video scene 

classification, indexing 

of raw audio visual 

recordings, database 

browsing 

Segmentation of speech 

versus non speech in 

automatic speech 

recognition tasks 

Automatic coding and 

content based 

audio/video retrieval 

―Table of Content 

description‖ of a 

multimedia document 

Audio content analysis 

in video parsing 

12 MFCC, Short-time energy 

Silence ratio, volume std, volume dynamic 

range, 4Hz freq, mean and std of pitch 

difference, 

speech, noise ratios, freq. centroid, 

bandwidth, energy in 4 sub-bands 

Features based on short-time energy, 

average ZCR, short-time fundamental 

frequency 

Mean per-frame entropy and average 

probability ―dynamism‖, background-label 

energy ratio, phone distribution match— 

all derived from posterior probabilities of 

phones in hybrid connectionist-HMM 

framework 

LSF, differential LSF, measures based on 

the ZCR of high-pass filtered signal 

ZCR-based features, spectral flux, 

shorttime energy, cepstrum coefficients, 

spectral centroids, ratio of the highfrequency 

power spectrum, a measure 

based on syllabic frequency 

High zero-crossing rate ratio (HZCRR), 

low short-time energy ratio (LSTER), 

Template matching of 

histograms, a tree-based 

vector quantizer, 

trained to maximize mutual 

information 

A neural network using the 

one-class-in-one network 

(OCON) structure 

A rule-based heuristic 

procedure for the coarse 

stage, HMM for the second 

stage 

Gaussian likelihood ratio 

test 

KNN classifier and 

quadratic Gaussian 

classifier (QCG) 

Multivariate Gaussian 

classifier, neural network 

(MLP) 

3-step classification: 

1. KNN and linear spectral 


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2002 [12] linear spectral 

pairs, band periodicity, noise-frame ratio 

(NFR) 

Ajmera et al., 

2003 [13] 

Burred and 

Lerch, 2004 

[14] 

Barbedo and 

Lopes, 2006 

[15] 

Muñoz- Exp´ 

osito et al., 

2006 [16] 

Alexandre et 

al, 2006 [17] 

Automatic transcription 

of broadcast news 

Audio classification 

(speech/ 

music/background 

noise), music 

classification into genres 

Automatic segmentation 

for real-time 

applications 

Intelligent audio coding 

system 

Speech/music 

classification for 

musical genre 

classification 

Averaged entropy measure and 

―dynamism‖ estimated at the output of a 

multilayer perceptron (MLP) trained to 

emit posterior probabilities of phones. 

MLP input: 13 first cepstra of a 12th-order 

perceptual linear prediction filter. 

Statistical measures of short-time frame 

features: ZCR, spectral centroid/roll 

off/flux, 

first 5 MFCCs, audio spectrum 

centroid/flatness, harmonic ratio, beat 

strength, rhythmic regularity, RMS 

energy, time envelope, low energy rate, 

loudness 

Features based on ZCR, spectral roll off, 

loudness and fundamental frequencies 

Warped LPC-based spectral centroid 

Spectral centroid/roll off, ZCR, short-time 

energy, low short time energy ratio 

(LSTER), MFCC, voice to-white 

pairs-vector quantization 

(LSP-VQ)for 

speech/nonspeech 

discrimination. 

2. Heuristic rules for 

nonspeech classification 

into music/background 

noise/silence. 

3. Speaker segmentation 

2-state HMM with 

minimum duration 

constraints (threshold free, 

unsupervised, no training). 

KNN classifier, 3- 

component GMM classifier 

KNN, self-organizing 

maps, MLP neural 

networks, linear 

combinations 

3-component GMM, with 

or without fuzzy rulesbased 

system 

Fisher linear discriminant, 

K nearest neighbor 

2.1. Digital Audio Signals 

When music is recorded, the continuous pressure from the sound wave is 

measured using a microphone. These measurements are taken at a regular time 

and each measurement is quantized. 

Fig. 1. Digital sound representation (time domain): 

a. Music is a b. that is sampled… c. and Quantized 

continuous signal;… . 

Sound can be represented as a sum of sinusoids. A signal of N samples can be 

written as: 


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N / 2 

( r) 

k ( i) 

k 

x ak 

cos(2 ( )) ak 

sin(2 

( )). 

(1) 

k0 

N 

N 

The signal can be represented in the frequency domain using the 

( y) 

( i) 

( y) 

i 

coefficients {( a 

1 

, a1 

),...,( aN 

/ 2, 

aN 

/ 2)} 

. 

The magnitude and phase of the k th frequency component are given by: 

X 

M 

[ k] 

( r) 

2 ( i) 

2 

( ak 

) ( ak 

) 

(2) 

( i) 

ak 

X 

p[ k] 

arctan( ) 

( r) 

(3) 

ak 

Perceptual studies on human hearing show that the phase information is relatively 

unimportant when compared to magnitude information, thus the phase component 

during feature extraction is usually ignored. [19] 

The Spectral Centroid is another spectral-shape feature that is useful in the 

extraction and analysis process. We can see form Table 1 its various uses. The 

Spectral Centroid is the center of gravity of the spectrum and is given by: 

N / 2 

 

X 

M 

[ k]* 

k 

k 1 

C (4) 

N / 2 

X [ k] 

 

k 1 

M 

The Spectral Centroid can be thought of as a measure of ‗brightness‘ since songs 

are consider brighter when they have more high frequency components. 

2.2. Time-Frequency Domain Transforms 

In MIR and sound analysis in general it is common to do transformation between 

the time and frequency domains. For this the mathematical apparatus gives us the 

real discrete Fourier transform (DFT), the real short-time Fourier transform 

(STFT), discrete cosine transform (DCT), discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and 

also the gammatone transform (GT). 

Music analysis is not concerned with complex transforms, since music is always a 

real-valued time series and has only positive frequencies. 

Given a signal x with N samples, the basis functions for the DFT will be N/2 sine 

waves and N/2 cosine waves that correspond to the previous coefficients. 

The projection operator is correlation, which is a measure of how similar two time 

series are to one another. The coefficients are found by: 

( r) 

k 

ak 

x[ 

i]cos(2 i) 

(5) 

N 

1 

2 N 

N i0 


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1 

( i) 

2 N k 

ak 

x[ 

i]cos( 

2 i) 

(6) 

N i0 

N 

The DFT is computed in an efficient manner by the fast Fourier transform FFT. 

One drawback of both the time series representation and the spectrum 

representation is that neither simultaneously represents both time and frequency 

information. A time-frequency representation is found using the short-time 

Fourier transform (STFT): First, the audio signal is broken up into a series of 

(overlapping) segments. Each segment is multiplied by a window function. The 

length of the window is called the window size. 

Fig. 2. Magnatune apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav (time domain). 

Fig. 3. Magnatune apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav (spectrogram). 

Fig 2 and 3 were obtained with a tweaked version of the MARSYAS‘s tool 

sound2png with the following commands: 

./sound2png -m waveform ../audio/magnatune/0/apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav 

../saveres/magnatunewav.png -ff Adventure.ttf 

./sound2png -m spectogram ../audio/magnatune/0/apa_ya-apa_ya-14-maani-59-88.wav 

../saveres/magnatunespec.png -ff Adventure.ttf 

Another useful transformation is the wavelet transform. 

2.3. Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC) 

The most common set of features used in speech recognition and music annotation 

systems are the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC). MFCC are shorttime 

features that characterize the magnitude spectrum of an audio signal. For 

each short-time (25 ms) segment, the feature vector is found using the five step 

algorithm given in Algorithm 1. The first step is to obtain the magnitude of each 

frequency component in the frequency domain using the DCT We then take the 

log of the magnitude since perceptual loudness has been shown to be 


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approximately logarithmic. The frequency components are then merged into 

40 bins that have been space according the Mel-scale. 

The Mel-scale is mapping between true frequency and a model of perceived 

frequency that is approximately logarithmic. 

Since a time-series of these 40-dimensional Mel-frequency vectors will have 

highly redundant, we could reduce dimension using PCA. 

Instead, the speech community has adopted the discrete cosine transform (DCT), 

which approximates PCA but does not require training data, to reduce the 

dimensionality to a vector of 13 MFCCs. [20] 

Algorithm 1. Calculating MFCC Feature Vector 

1: Calculate the spectrum using the DFT 

2: Take the log of the spectrum 

3: Apply Mel-scaling and smoothing 

4: Decorrelate using the DCT. 

3. Problem description 

A common feature that aids record producers to meet the demands of the target 

audiences, musicologists to study musical influences and music enthusiasts to 

summarize their collections is the musical genre identification. 

The genre concept is inherently subjective because the influences, hierarchy or the 

intersection of a song to a specific genre isn‘t universally agreed upon. 

This point is backed up by a comparison of three Internet music providers that 

found very big differences in the number of genres, the words that describe that 

genre, and the structure of the genre hierarchies. [18] 

Although there are some inconsistencies caused by its subjective nature, the genre 

concept has shown interest from the MIR community. 

The various papers and works on this subject reflect the authors‘ assumptions 

about the genres. Copyright laws prevented authors from establishing a common 

database of songs, making it difficult to directly compare the results. 

4. Experiments description 

The datasets used for training and testing were MAGNATUNE [21] and two 

collections that were built in the early stages of the MARSYAS [22] framework. 

As the ADAMS system is built in a modular form the various tasks (described 

below) can be automatized and the sound can ―flow‖ through these modules until 

the complete analysis is made. 

The ADAMS main directory structure can be seen in the following picture: 


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Fig. 4. ADAMS Main Directory Structure. 

The machine learning tasks are done with the WEKA [23] tool, loading the 

compatible arff files produced with the aid of MARSYAS. 

The chosen OS for these experiments was Mandriva Linux 2011, the compiler 

version being ―gcc (GCC) 4.6.1 20110627 (Mandriva)‖. 

Extractors that were used: 

- BEAT: Beat histogram features 

- LPCC: LPC derived Cepstral coefficients 

- LSP: Linear Spectral Pairs 

- MFCC: Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients 

- SCF: Spectral Crest Factor (MPEG-7) 

- SFM: Spectral Flatness Measure (MPEG-7) 

- SFMSCF: SCF and SFM features 

- STFT: Centroid, Rolloff, Flux, ZeroCrossings 

- STFTMFCC: Centroid, Rolloff Flux, ZeroCrossings, Mel-Frequency 

Cepstral Coefficients 

On every experiment for the specified extractors are also presented the confusion 

matrices [24] in order to have an idea about the actual and the predicted 

classifications done by the classification system. 


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4.1. Experiment 1: Classification using “Timbral Features” 

This experiment uses the following extractors: Time ZeroCrossings, Spectral 

Centroid, Flux and Rolloff, and Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC). 

We extract these features with the option – timbral and we also create the file that 

will be loaded with the WEKA environment for analysis with the following 

command: 

./adamsfeature -sv -timbral ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/alltimbral.arff 

Based on experiment the following classifiers were chosen: Bayes Network, 

Naive Bayes, Decision Table, Filtered Classifier and NNGE. 

The results are shown in the following table: 

Table 2. Timbral Features - Classifier Results 

Classifier 

Model 

Build 

Time(s) 

Coorectly 

Classified 

Incorrectly 

Classified 

Mean 

absolut 

error 

Root 

mean 

squared 

error 

Relative 

absolute 

error 

Root 

relative 

squared 

error 

Bayes Network 1.78 62.5% 37.5% 0.0753 0.2648 41.82% 88.28% 

Naive Bayes 0.04 55% 45% 0.0902 0.2925 50.09% 97.51% 

Decision Table 15.49 51.6% 48.4% 0.1467 0.2599 81.53% 86.64% 

Filtered Classifier 4.55 87.8% 12.2% 0.0348 0.1318 19.31% 43.94% 

NNGE 10.69 100% 0% 0 0 0 0 

Table 2 was build loading the file alltimbral.arff in WEKA and training the builtin 

classifiers 

Fig. 5. WEKA Prediction Errors Graph. 


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Fig. 6. Confusion Matrices for Timbral Features Classification 

4.2. Experiment 2: Classification using “Spectral Features” 

This experiment uses the following extractors: Spectral Centroid, Flux and Roll 

off. The feature extraction was done with the following command: 

./adamsfeature -sv -spfe ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allspectral.arff 

Using the same classifiers the results are: 

Table 3. Spectral Features - Classifier Results 

Classifier 


Build 

Time(s) 

Correctly 

Classified 

Incorrectly 

Classified 

Mean 

absolute 

error 

Root 

mean 

squared 

error 

Relative 

absolute 

error 

Root 

relative 

squared 

error 

Bayes Network 1.78 46.5% 53.5% 0.1192 0.2742 66.21% 91.41% 

Naive Bayes 0.23 42.5% 57.5% 0.1205 0.2924 66.92% 97.47% 



NNGE 2.02 100% 0% 0 0 0 0 


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Fig. 7. Confusion Matrices for Spectral Features Classification 

4.3 Experiment 2: Classification using “MFCC” 

This experiment uses the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients extractors. The 

feature extraction was done with the following command: 

./adamsfeature -sv -mfcc ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allmfcc.arff 

Table 4. MFCC Features - Classifier Results 

Classifier 


Build 

Time(s) 

Correctly 

Classified 

Incorrectly 

Classified 

Mean 

absolute 

error 

Root 

mean 

squared 

error 

Relative 

absolute 

error 

Root 

relative 

squared 

error 

Bayes Network 1.23 63.3% 36.7% 0.0764 0.2475 42.42% 82.50% 

Naive Bayes 0.22 58.5% 41.5% 0.0847 0.2694 47.07% 89.80% 



NNGE 3.74 99.8% 0.2% 0.0004 0.02 0.22% 6.66% 


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Fig. 8. Confusion Matrices for MFCC Features Classification 

4.4 Experiment 4: Classification using “Zero Crossings” 

The feature extraction was done with the following command: 

./adamsfeature -sv -zcrs ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allzcrs.arff 

Table 5. Zero Crossings Features - Classifier Results 

Classifier 


Build 

Time(s) 

Correctly 

Classified 

Incorrectly 

Classified 

Mean 

absolute 

error 

Root 

mean 

squared 

error 

Relative 

absolute 

error 

Root 

relative 

squared 

error 

Bayes Network 0.09 34.7% 65.3% 0.1437 0.2789 79.83% 92.97% 

Naive Bayes 0.01 34.5% 65.5% 0.1441 0.2869 80.06% 95.63% 


Filtered Classifier 0.15 44% 56% 0.1403 0.2649 77.94% 88.24% 

NNGE 0.52 99.8% 0.2% 0.0004 0.02 0.22% 6.66% 


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Fig. 9. Confusion Matrices for Zero Crossings Features Classification. 

4.5 Experiment 5: Classification using “Spectral Flatness Measure” 

The feature extraction was done with the following command: 

./adamsfeature -sv -sfm ../col/all.mf -w ../analysis/allsfm.arff 

Table 6. SFM Features - Classifier Results 

Classifier 


Build 

Time(s) 

Correctly 

Classified 

Incorrectly 

Classified 

Mean 

absolute 

error 

Root 

mean 

squared 

error 

Relative 

absolute 

error 

Root 

relative 

squared 

error 

Bayes Network 1.78 58.4% 41.6% 0.0838 0.2738 46.53% 91.28% 

Naive Bayes 0.15 53.2% 46.8% 0.0935 0.294 51.96% 97.99% 



NNGE 9.24 99.8% 0.2% 0.0004 0.02 0.22% 6.66% 


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Conclusions 

Fig. 10. Confusion Matrices for Spectral Flatness Measure Features Classification. 

Five experiments were conducted for determining the music genre of a specific 

audio file. The extracted features varied in each experiment in order to determine 

which one was more suited to the dataset used. The five classifiers provided 

different results based on the extracted features and these were put to test with 

well known machine learning tools and music analysis frameworks like WEKA 

and MARSYAS, and also with an analysis system developed on top of the 

MARSYAS framework. 

The results show that satisfactory results can be obtained even from the simplistic 

approaches as Naïve Bayes classification, but better results were obtained using 

more advanced techniques. The fact that the nearest neighbor produced very good 

results doesn‘t mean that it will have the same behavior on another dataset. 

Improvements on the presented methods can be obtained by testing these methods on 

a broader dataset and determining the intrinsic influences of each genre on another. 

The conclusions of these influences can have a more meaningful sense from the 

social point of view like blues and its derivatives and we can find very unlikely 

results like death metal having roots in jazz music. 


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dynamism features in a HMM classification framework, Speech Communication, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 

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html. 


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POLYMERIC PRESSURE SENSORS: A CONCEPTUAL VIEW 

Cornel COBIANU 1* and Bogdan SERBAN 1 

Abstract. In the first part of this paper, we present a review of the piezoresistive pressure 

sensors based on polymeric thick films deposited on rigid and flexible diaphragm. The 

study of the state of the art has shown the performances of this technology, where 

maximum sensitivity is obtained on thin flexible diaphragm for a gauge factor of about 

10, in a pressure range of 05 kPa. The present challenges come from the high 

temperature coefficient of the resistance of about 500 ppm/C, and the long temperature 

drifts of about (0.52)%, which may require improved repeatability of fabrication 

technology and advanced differential signal processing techniques for the market 

acceptance. In the second part of the paper, we present our novel concepts for the 

realization of the piezoresistive pressure sensors. The first concept consists in the surface 

modification of the organic substrate by ion implantation of nitrogen and phosphorus 

species for creating piezoresistive behavior and high electrical conductivity of organic 

piezoresistors. The second concept consists in the novel chemical synthesis route of 

organic thin film by doping the polyaniline with large molecules of p-sulfonated 

calix[n]arene (n =4, 6, 8), sulfonated crown ethers, in the liquid state. Addition of the 

metal nanoparticles to the previous homogeneous solution can further increase the 

piezoresistive factor. Other new features of our second concept come from the direct 

printing from solution of the above piezoresistive organic thin films, as well as metallic 

films interconnecting the piezoresistors, and finally the monolithic fabrication of the 

sensor rim and diaphragm by plastic injection molding, where the pressure diaphragm 

could be as thin as 75 micrometers. 

Keywords: piezoresistive organic films, polymeric thick film, pressure sensors, metal 

Nanoparticples, p-sulfonated calix[n]arene, sulfonated crown ethers 


Pressure monitoring is an important parameter in the control of a large diversity of 

industrial processes and medical applications. Pressure can be measured by 

mechanical devices, as well as electro-mechanical and electro-optical instruments. 

The measurement of the pressure of a fluid by pure mechanical principle is based 

on the presence of an elastic diaphragm fixed at one end, which is moving its free 

end as a result of pressure variation, and its position change is indicated by a 

needle connected to the free end, and which is thus rotating with respect to its zero 

position (Fig. 1). 

This principle is used for the pressure measurement on gas/liquids pipelines, 

where pressure manometers based on Bourdon tubes are still in place, today. 

1 Honeywell Romania, Sensors and Wireless Laboratory, Bucharest, Romania. 

*Member of Academy of Romanian Scientists, cornel.cobianu@honeywell.com. 


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70 Cornel Cobianu, Bogdan Serban 

In other cases, the elastic diaphragm is fixed at both ends, and this is deflecting in 

the central part as a result of pressure change (Fig. 2). Such deflection is creating 

strain in the diaphragm, and its value can be also used for the pressure 

measurement, in the so called strain gauges. These deflecting diaphragms have 

opened the way for the electro-mechanical principles of pressure measurement. 

Fig. 1. Schematic picture of a Bourdon 

tube used for a pressure manometer. 

Fig. 2. Pressure diaphragm flexing 

under applied external pressure. 

Historically speaking, in 1856 Lord Kelvin has discovered that the electrical 

conductor can change its electrical resistance, when it is strained due to an 

external applied force. Thus, he can be credited with the discovery of the 

piezoresistive effect in metals, which was then used in metallic strain gauge 

devices for multiple applications (strain, torque, force) including pressure sensing. 

Later, the piezoresistive effect was defined as a change in the electrical resistivity 

of a material as a function of the externally applied stress on it. Now, it is 

generally agreed that the discovery of piezoresistive effect is at the origin of the 

most of electric sensors for mechanical measurands defined as devices able to 

convert a non-electrical signal (like fluid) pressure into an electrical signal (like 

voltage). The silicon technology followed by the micro-electro-mechanical system 

(MEMS) technology have used all these principles for the miniaturization of the 

existing macroscopic devices and sensors. 

The impetuous development of the MEMS technology was founded on two 

important technical pillars, consisting of well-established integrated circuit (IC) 

infrastructure and excellent operation of the macroscopic principles at the 

micrometer scale. A convincing demonstration of this successful approach is 

coming from microsystems for pressure measurement, where the well-known 

principle of macroscopic diaphragm movement as a function of pressure has been 

transferred to microtechnology scale with very good results. 

The era of miniaturized pressure sensors has been triggered by the discovery of 

the piezoresistive effect in silicon and germanium, in 1954 by Charles Smith [1]. 


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Polymeric Pressure Sensors: 

A Conceptual View 71 

The time interval from piezoresistance discovery to the first associated 

commercial product was short, as in 1959, Kulite was already delivering the first 

silicon strain-gauges bonded on a metal diaphragm. During sensor operation, the 

metal diaphragm is elastically deflecting due to the applied pressure, and a tensile 

stress is developed in the central region of the diaphragm, while a compressive 

stress is developed at the periphery of the diaphragm (Fig. 2.). 

Such a stress is transmitted to the strain gauge, which “is feeling” it by the wellknown 

stress-strain correlation, and a change in the resistance is obtained due to 

the piezoresistive effect, which is thus an indication of the pressure to be 

measured. In the presence of an external pressure, a piezoresistor located on the 

central part of the diaphragm from Fig. 2. is exposed to tensile stress and its 

resistance value is increasing, while a piezoresistor located at the periphery of the 

diaphragm, near the edge, is exposed to compressive stress and its resistance value 

is decreasing with respect to the value specific to zero stress. For an accurate 

pressure measurement, where the ageing effects in the piezoresistors, as well as 

external temperature variations to be compensated, four piezoresistors are located 

in the arms of a Wheatstone bridge, and thus obtaining a differential sensing 

configuration for the signal conditioning. 

Using such an approach, at the beginning of 1970‟s, IBM has proven the 

operation of the first piezoresistive pressure sensor with silicon diaphragm, while 

the first commercial “all-silicon” pressure sensor was delivered in 1974 [2]. 

The piezoresistive effect was measured in doped silicon resistors, which were 

located in well-defined regions of the diaphragm, as described above. The 

excellent elastic properties of silicon diaphragm, combined with the fact that the 

silicon piezoresistor is obtained intrinsically in the diaphragm, without any need 

of strain gauge bonding to silicon diaphragm can explain the excellent 

performance of silicon MEMS pressure sensors. Thus, the MEMS silicon 

technology has proven its capability to generate commercial products, where thin 

silicon diaphragms have been used from very beginning in medical application for 

measuring blood pressure. 

In parallel with silicon MEMS technology, which has brought to the market the 

first miniaturized microsystems, sensors and actuators, like pressure sensors, 

accelerometers, inkjet nozzles for thermal inkjet technologies and thus predicting 

its long-term innovation capabilities, other sensing technologies were emerging, 

which were targeting mechanical sensing applications (pressure torque, force) 

based on other than silicon materials and substrates. It is the case of thick film 

technologies which have found their niche sensing applications. 

In this paper, we shall briefly present polymeric film technologies for pressure 

sensing applications. At the beginning of the study, the state of the art for the 


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piezoresistive polymeric thick films will be shown, where such materials are 

deposited on diaphragms made of glass, alumina, or even flexible substrates, and 

their pressure sensing properties are described [3-6]. 

Finally, our concepts for new polymeric pressure sensors, including “all-organic” 

technologies will be shown. Here, firstly, we present a novel pressure sensing 

concept, where the plastic substrate will receive electrical conductivity and 

piezoresistivity properties on well-defined regions of the organic diaphragm by 

using IC specific technology like ion implantation [7]. Then, another novel 

concept for “all-plastic” pressure sensor is described where chemical synthesis for 

the preparation of new organic thin films with enhanced electrical conductivity is 

shown. This piezoresistive pressure sensor is made by additive, maskless direct 

printing of the organic films in well-defined positions of plastic diaphragm, which 

is obtained by injection molding [8]. 

2. Piezoresistive pressure sensors based on thick film resistors 

The operation principle of the piezoresistive mechanical sensors based on thick 

films is similar to that described for silicon sensors, but the diaphragm and the 

piezoresistor are made of different materials. For the evaluation of different 

piezoresistive materials, the gauge factor is used, and this is equal to the ratio 

between the relative variation of the resistance (∆R/R) and the relative variation of 

the resistor length (or the strain (∆/)). The piezoresistive behavior in thick 

resistive layers was systematically investigated by using commercial ruthenate 

thick films from Dupont [9]. The thick films were deposited on alumina substrate 

as a gel of high viscosity by screen printing technology, and then fired at high 

temperatures, around 850-950 o C, for obtaining thick solid layers. The gauge 

factor for these ruthenate thick films was in the range of 11-14, being weakly 

dependent on the strain direction. 

Such piezoresistive thick films have a gauge factor which is higher than that of the 

metal strain gauge (1.8-4.5), and much smaller than that of semiconductors (40- 

200) [10]. The temperature coefficient of these thick ruthenate film piezoresistor 

(TCR) was about 100 ppm/ o C, while the temperature coefficient of the gauge 

factor (TCGF) was smaller than 500 ppm/ o C. 

These values can be compared with the similar ones of the metal wire strain 

gauges, where the TCR has a large range of variation (20-4000) ppm/ o C, and 

TCGF is in the range 20-100 ppm/ o C [9]. Unfortunately, such high temperature 

technology is restricting the type of substrate to be used to only ceramics, and is 

increasing the cost of processing. 

As a low temperature alternative to the well-established ruthenate thick film 

piezoresistive technology presented above, the pressure sensor based on 


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polymeric thick film resistors was proposed at the beginning of the ‟90 exploiting 

the piezoresistive effect in such organic layers, which can tolerate processing 

temperatures not higher than 150-300 o C [ 3]. 

The thick film composition consists of an organic polymer matrix, like a 

polyimide, which is loaded with carbon for obtaining the resistive and 

piezoresistive behavior. The sensing diaphragm is made of different rigid 

materials like, alumina, glass-reinforced epoxy laminate (FR 4), or even a flexible 

substrate [4]. 

For the realization of the planar piezoresistor, initially, the metallic electrodes 

were deposited and patterned on the substrate. Then, the deposition of the 

polymeric thick films on the rigid substrate, like alumina, glass, or FR 4 is made 

by screen printing technology, followed by thermal consolidation process at low 

temperatures, below 300 o C. These planar polymeric thick films based polymeric 

piezoresistors have a gauge factor of about 10, which is rather similar to the value 

obtained for ruthenate thick films, but the TCR is equal to +/ 500 ppm/ o C, which 

is much higher with respect to the value obtained for ruthenate material 

(100 ppm/ o C). 

In the case of a “sandwich” piezoresistor configuration, when the polymeric thick 

film is sandwiched (on the z direction) between two electrodes, with the first 

electrode deposited on the substrate and the second electrode deposited on the 

polymeric thick film, the gauge factor has reached a much higher value of about 

80 [5]. In addition, these sandwich polymeric piezoresistive pressure sensors have 

shown a very high value of the TCR, of about 2200 ppm/ o C, which may be 

more difficult to compensate, even in Wheatstone configuration, due to existing 

mismatches between the TCR of different piezoresistors. 

Also, poorer reproducibility of sandwich sensor with respect to planar ones was 

obtained. 

When such polymeric thick films were deposited on flexible substrates, having 

much lower thickness with respect to the rigid one, the sensitivity of the planar 

polymeric thick film pressure sensors has increased of about 6 times, but, in our 

opinion, this result should be correlated only with the pressure diaphragm 

properties (thickness and Young module) and not to sensing layer, itself. Such 

thick films polymeric planar pressure sensors on rigid substrate are working in the 

temperature range from 0 to 75 o C, and their linear response was obtained for a 

pressure range from 0 to 10 6 Pa. 

Typical linearity plots of the planar polymeric thick film deposited on alumina 

substrates have shown a non-linearity of about 3% in the range [0; +500] 

microstrains (1 microstrain means a dilation/shrinkage of 1 micrometer of 


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material having a length of 1 meter), while the sandwiched piezoresistor have had 

a non-linearity of 14% in the same strain range [5]. One of the biggest drawbacks 

of such polymeric pressure sensors is the long-term drift, equal to about 0.5-2 %, 

and which was estimated by the sensor output drift after an accelerated ageing test 

at 1000 o C and 85 o C. 

This behavior should be correlated to the specific ageing mechanisms of the 

organic materials. The „challenging‟ temperature behavior of these polymeric 

pressure sensors followed by their relative high drifts due to material ageing can 

be partially solved by design of the diaphragm (thickness and Young modulus of 

organic substrate) as shown in [3,4] and by means of Wheatstone bridge-based 

differential signal conditioning. 

Therefore, much work should be devoted here, but such polymeric sensors are the 

best candidate for low cost disposable pressure sensors for applications where the 

accuracy is not critical. 

3. Piezoresistive pressure sensors based on surface modified polymeric 

diaphragm 

Flexible electronics (flex circuits), where the “traditional” silicon integrated 

circuits are placed by surface mounting technologies on a flexible plastic substrate 

is rapidly advancing in many market applications, from portable video camera to 

solar cell [11]. 

For these flex circuits, the metallic interconnections between different integrated 

circuits are made by standard photolithographic techniques. In parallel, an “allorganic” 

electronics is emerging where the semiconductor devices like organic 

light emitting diodes (OLED) and organic field emission transistor (OFET) are 

manufactured in the body of the organic semiconductor materials [12]. In this 

context, the sensing domain is going to add new capabilities to the rigid and 

flexible organic electronics. On this idea, recently, we have proposed a concept 

for pressure sensors where a polymeric pressure diaphragm is surface modified in 

order to obtain selectively piezoresistive effect [7]. 

The novelty of our approach comes from the technology of the piezoresistor 

realization, where we have applied ion implantation technique for the local 

realization of the piezoresistivity and electrical conduction enhancement, as it will 

be described below. In Fig. 3, we show a cross section view of “an-all plastic” 

piezoresistive pressure sensor, before packaging, where the substrate and the 

diaphragm come from the same starting rigid plastic material, which could be a 

polyimide, like Kapton from Dupont or liquid crystal polymer. Alternatively, 

polystyrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN) 80/20 could be used. Such organic polymers 

are dielectric materials, which have a very high electrical resistivity, and therefore 

they cannot be used “as they are” for reaching the intended function. 


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Fig. 3. Schematic of a pressure sensor with 

diaphragm obtained by etching back side of the 

substrate and piezoresistor fabricated by ion 

implantation. 

Fig. 4. Pressure with plastic diaphragm bonded 

by adhesive to glass. 

However, it was already shown in the literature that the ion implantation can 

dramatically increase the electrical conduction of these plastic materials [13]. 

Therefore, we have proposed to perform a high dose implantation of the nitrogen 

species, in well-defined regions of the diaphragm for the generation of the 

piezoresistive regions. This process was followed by a phosphorus ion 

implantation in the same region for further enhancement of the electrical 

conductivity of the piezoresistive regions. 

For generating such electrical and piezoelectrical properties selectively, in the 

organic diaphragm, standard IC photo-lithographical processes can be used. This is 

possible due to the chemical resistance of these rigid plastic materials to the 

solvents and the other solutions used to remove the photoresist, at the end of the ion 

implantation processes. Subsequently, the electrical contacts to the piezoresistors 

are done by IC technology processes like electron-gun physical vapor deposition, 

where, for example, a thin film combination like chromium/gold can be used. 

Chromium is assuring the adherence of the gold layer to the plastic substrate and 

ion-implanted regions of the piezoresistors. 

For the realization of the diaphragm in the starting plastic material, the back-side 

etching of the substrate is performed by plasma techniques, like reactive ion 

etching (RIE). The realization of such pressure diaphragms from Fig. 3. is 

possible by metal masking of the entire front side, and of selective regions of back 

side regions of the substrate, which should survive after deep etching and 

subsequently form what is called the rim of the pressure sensor. The thickness of 

the pressure diaphragm is determined by the pressure range needed to be 

measured and the important requirement that the deflection of the pressure 

diaphragm under external pressure to be in the elasticity domain of that material. 

Such design conditions are preserving the linearity of the sensor response and also 

minimizing the hysteresis and long-term drifts of the sensors. 


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In other applications, it may be useful to use a glass substrate and a plastic diaphragm 

which can be bonded together for defining the pressure sensor. Such an approach is 

also possible within the above concept, where initially a plastic foil (similar to the 

silicon wafer from the point of view of batch processing) of the thickness required by 

the pressure sensing application is processed, as presented above, but, in this case 

there is no need for the back side etching, as the entire thickness will play the role of 

the diaphragm. In this case, which is shown in Fig. 4., micromachining of the glass 

substrate is needed for the realization of the rim of the sensor, which is also allowing 

the access of the fluid pressure (air, liquid) to the pressure diaphragm. Glass MEMS 

is a well-established batch technology for sensor applications, and also for sensor 

packaging, in general. 

In this case, the key process is glass drilling at the “wafer” level for the sensor rim 

realization, and this can be done by either wet etching in HF based solutions, or 

by RIE or even laser drilling. The signal conditioning techniques are “standard” 

consisting in Wheatstone bridge, which will be described in more details, in the 

next section. 

4. Low cost “all-plastic” piezoresistive pressure sensors 

In different industrial domains, there is a strong demand for disposable, low cost 

pressure sensors. In such cases, the silicon technology may still be expensive, 

considering the cost of clean room processes, and of the monocrystalline silicon 

substrate itself. 

Fig. 5a. Top view of the low cost pressure sensor 

made by plasting molding and direct printing of organic piezoresistive layer. 


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Fig. 5b. Cross section view through 2A-2A axis. 

For such applications, where even the photolithographical processing should be 

avoided, we have developed a concept for a simple technology based on plastic 

injection molding of the sensor rim and pressure diaphragm in conjunction with 

mask-less, direct printing methods for the deposition of the metal, and novel 

organic piezoresistive layers [8]. 

In Fig. 5. a), we show a top view of the pressure sensor based on four 

piezoresistors, R 1 -R 4 , all of them being located in well-defined positions of the 

molded plastic diaphragm, while in Fig. 5. b) we show a cross section view 

through the central region of the pressure diaphragm. 

These piezoresistors are electrically interconnected in a Wheatstone bridge, as 

shown in Fig. 6. In the absence of an external pressure, all four piezoresistors 

have the same value of the resistance, and the output voltage of the Wheatstone 

bridge is equal to zero. 

In order to obtain this zero voltage, two potentiometers are also connected to the 

Wheatstone bridge, as in Fig. 5. a) and Fig. 6. 

In the presence of an external pressure, the piezoresistors R 1 and R 3 , which are 

positioned in the central region of the diaphragm, are exposed to tensile stress, 

while R 2 and R 4 , which are located at the periphery of the diaphragm are exposed 

to the compressive stress. 

The variation of the piezoresistance as a function of pressure can be written as 

follows: 

R 1 = R o (1 + x) 

R 2 = R o (1 x) 

R 3 = R o (1 + x) 

R 4 = R o (1 x) 


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where, R o is the resistance value of the piezoresistor at the reference pressure, while 

x = G*ε, where G is the gauge factor of piezoresistance, and ε is relative deformation 

of the length of the piezoresistor, ε =∆/ [10]. 

Fig. 6. Wheatstone bridge with four piezoresistors for maximum pressure sensitivity. 

As mentioned above, the novel aspects of the pressure sensor realization come 

from the new organic piezoresistive materials, the maskless method for film 

resistor deposition, and as well as the cheap technology proposed for the plastic 

diaphragm realization. 

For the realization of the piezoresistive films, we are considering more chemical 

synthesis routes, which are aiming an increased electrical conductivity and 

piezoresistivity of the organic layer. In the case of an all-organic piezoresistive 

layer, for example, we suggest starting with polyaniline and doping it with large 

molecules like p-sulfonato-calix[n]arenes (n = 4, 6, 8), p-sulfonatedcalix[n]arenes 

(n = 4, 6, 8), tosylates, carboxylic acids of calix[n]arenes 

(n = 4, 6, 8), sulfonated crown ethers, sulfonated cyclodextrines, carboxylic acid 

nanotubes, or carboxylic acid of fullerenes. 

All these compounds can be dissolved in water and other solvents. They can 

generate π-stacking interactions with polyanilines and thus contributing to the 

increase of electrical conductivity of the polymeric film. 

In Fig. 7. we show the chemical formulae of the p-sulfonated-calix[n]arene for 

n = 4, 6, 8, while in Fig. 8., we show the reaction for doping the aniline by 

p-sulfonated calix[4]arene. The synthesis of a soluble conducting polymer can be 

as follows. One can start with aniline substituted with an o-methoxy group and an 

o-ethoxy group in equimolar amounts which can be polymerized by combining 

with hydrogen peroxide, in aqueous solution. The dopant can be p-sulfonated 

calix[n]arenes (n = 4, 6, 8), tosylates, carboxylic acids of calix[n]arenes (n = 

4, 6, 8), or sulfonated crown ethers [14]. 


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SO 3 H 

SO 3 H 

SO 3 H 

CH 2 

OH 4 

OH 

CH 2 

6 

CH 2 

OH 8 

Fig. 7. Chemical formula of p-sulfonated calix[n]arene, where n = 4, 6, 8. 

Fig. 8. Synthesis of doped polyaniline; HA stands for p-sulfonated calix [4]arene. 

as described above. If the electrical and piezoresistive behavior of the all-organic 

polymer film should be further increased, then, metal nanoparticles may be added 

to the above polymeric sol, creating thus a heterogeneous inorganic-organic 

mixture in the liquid state, which will be further used for the direct printing 

method to be described below. Thus, an efficient increase of the gauge factor of 

the piezoresistors is expected by the addition of metal nanoparticles to the liquid 

phase of the initial pure organic solution. 

Fig. 9. Schematics of the direct printing method for the maskless preparation of solid films. 


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In Fig. 9., we show a schematic of direct printing apparatus. More data about this 

additive deposition method can be found elsewhere [15]. Specific to this direct 

printing method is the formation of the liquid precursor of the future solid film, by 

any chemical syntheses routes, which is then deposited in the right location of the 

substrate by a moving nozzle, while its “travel” above the substrate is computercontrolled. 

If we go into more details, as can be seen in Fig. 8., a gas flow is used 

to carry the liquid phase of the “atomized” deposition material to a nozzle, which 

is printing the liquid state on the substrate for the realization the pattern of the 

future solid film. After printing, the “gelly” layers are dried and thermally 

consolidated at the temperatures allowed by the organic materials, so that their 

chemical properties to be preserved. The advantage of this deposition method is 

that the solid film is printed from the very beginning in the right position and 

pattern, and there is no need for additional photolithographic and etching process 

for the layer delineation. Under such conditions, there is no loss of material and 

many technological steps are eliminated. 

By this additive technology we can deposit not only the polymeric films as 

described above, but also the metallic films used to interconnect electrically the 

piezoresistors from Figs. 5 and 6. For these metallic conductors, one can use 

organic conductors, or silver based pastes, which have a low resistivity and do not 

introduce parasitic resistances to the Wheatstone bridge. 

Finally, a novel aspect of our concept is the monolithic realization of the sensor 

rim and pressure diaphragm in a single process, from the same material by means 

of plastic injection molding. This is possible by the progress in the field of this 

molding process, where pressure diaphragms as thin as 75 µm are possible to be 

obtained. As plastic materials one can mention here, polycarbonates, polyesters 

such as PET or nylon, or PVC. 

As mentioned from very beginning, one of the most important drivers for such allplastic 

piezoresistive pressure sensors, based on injection molding and direct 

printing of the organic conductive and piezoresistive solid films is the high 

potential for a low cost fabrication process and associated materials. Such 

concepts show the potential of the organic semiconductors to open the way 

towards a new family of applications like flexible, intelligent microsystems, 

where both the electronic circuit signal processing and the sensing devices to be 

performed on the organic substrate. 


In this paper we have reviewed the key materials and processes for the realization 

of the polymeric thick films piezoresistive, and we introduced our concepts for the 

preparation of novel organic piezoresistive thin films to be used in the next 

generation of piezoresistive pressure sensor on rigid and flexible substrates. 


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The polymeric pressure sensor domain was developed in the last two decades 

starting from the useful results obtained in the years 1980‟s on piezoresistive 

ruthenate thick films. Such polymeric thick films consisted of carbon loaded 

polyimide films have shown a gauge factor of about 10, and they have been used 

for pressure sensor operating in the range of about 0-10 6 Pa on either rigid or 

flexible substrate. 

The relatively high temperature coefficient of resistance (+/- 500 ppm/ o C) and 

long-term drift of these organic polymeric piezoresistive films (0.5-2)% used for 

either planar and sandwich device configuration are partially solved by 

Wheatstone bridge-based signal conditioning. 

More work should be further devoted to the repeatability of fabrication 

technology so that the organic piezoresistors connected in the Wheatstone bridge 

to have similar temperature coefficient of resistance and gauge factor, and thus 

minimize the long- term drift of sensor output. 

We have introduced two novel approaches for the preparation of the thin film 

polymeric piezoresistive pressure sensors. First concept consisted in the selective 

surface modification of the organic substrate by ion implantation of nitrogen 

species for inducing local piezorestivity, followed by phosphorus or boron 

implantion for enhancing the electrical conductivity or the organic piezoresistors. 

The novelty of the second concept consisted in the original chemical synthesis of 

piezoresistive organic material, deposition method by direct printing, and 

monolithic fabrication of plastic diaphragm by injection molding. 

The new organic synthesis consist in doping of polyaniline as free base( 

emeraldine) with large organic molecules (p-sulfonated calix[n]arenes p- 

sulfonated calix[n]arenes, tosylates, carboxylic acids of calix[n]arenes, sulfonated 

crown ethers, sulfonated cyclodextrines, carboxylic acid nanotubes, or carboxylic 

acid of fullerenes. The bulk counterions of dopants improve the conductivity of 

polyanilines 

Acknowledgement 

The authors would like to expresses their thanks to Honeywell International for 

their support to work on this topic and write this paper. 


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[1] Ch.Smith, “Piezoresistive effect in germanium and silicon”, Physical Review, 1954, vol. 94, 

pp. 42-49. 

[2] Commercial devices have been available for some time. See, for example, the “National 

Semiconductor Catalog”, Transducers; Pressure and Temperature for August 1974. 

[3] G. Harsanyi, “Polymer Thick Films Technology: a Possibility to Obtain Very Low Cost 

Pressure Sensors?”, Sensors and Actuators A, 25-25 (1991), pp. 853-857. 

[4] C. Csazar, G.r Harsanyi and R. P. Agarwal, “A very low cost pressure sensor with extremely 

high sensitivity”, Sensors and Actuators A, vol. 41-42 (1994), pp. 417-420. 

[5] K.I. Arshak, A.K. Ray, C.A. Hogarth, D.G.Collins, F. Ansari, “An Analysis of polymeric thick 

films as pressure sensors”, Sensors and Actuators, A 4 vol. 49, (1995) pp. 41-45. 

[6] N.J. Hendreson, N.M. White, T.V. Papakostas, P.H. Hartel, “Low-Cost planar PTF Sensors 

for Identity Verification of Smartcard Holders” , Invited paper 2002 IEEE, “Flexible Sensors in 

Smart Applications” session. 

[7] C. Cobianu, M. Gologanu, I. Pavelescu, B. Serban, “Micro-machined Pressure Sensor with 

Polymer Diaphragm”, US Patent 7401525 B2, Date of Patent July 22, 2008. 

[8] C. Cobianu, S. R. Shiffer, B. Serban, A.D. Bradley, M. N. Mihaila, “Pressure Sensor”, 

US Patent 7 318351 B2, Date of Patent, January 15, 2008. 

[9] C. Canali, D. Malavasi, B. Moretn, M. Prudenziati, A. Taroni, “Strain Sensitivity in Thick Film 

Resistors”, IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, vol. 

CHMT-3, No. 3, September 1980, pp. 421-423. 

[10] R. P. Arreny and J. G. Webster, “Sensors and Signal Conditioning”, Second Edition, John 

Wiley and Sons, 2001, ISBN 0-471-33232-1. 

[11] D. Shavit: “The developments of LEDs and SMD Electronics on Transparent Conductive 

Polyester Film”, Vacuum International, 1/2007, S. 35 ff. 

[12] H. Sirringhaus, C.W. Sele, T. von Werne, C. Ramsdale, 2007 “Manufacturing of organic 

Transistor Circuits by Solution-based Printing” in G. Hadziioannou, G.G. Malliaras, 

“Semiconducting Polymers: Chemistry, Physics and Engineering”, vol. 2 (2 nd Edition),Wiley- 

VCH. pp. 667–694. ISBN 978352731271913] 

[13] R. E. Giedd, M.G. Moss, M.M. Craig, and D.E. Robertson, “Temperature sensitive ionimplanted 

polymer films," Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research [Netherlands], 

vol. B59/60, 1991, pp. 1253-1256. 

[14] B. Serban, M. Bercu, S. Voicu, M. Mihailă, Gh. Nechifor, C. Cobianu “Calixarene –doped 

polyaniline for applications in sensing”, International Semiconductor Conference, CAS 2006, 

Proceedings, pp. 257-260. 

[15] M. Hedges, “Aerosol Jet Technology for Printed and Organic Electronic Devices”, 

Proceedings of LOPE Conference, 2009. 


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AN ANALYSIS REGARDING THE DECREASING OF THE 

IMAGE QUALITY WITH THE OPTICAL MISALIGNMENT 

CATALIN SPULBER 1 , OCTAVIA BORCAN 2 

Rezumat. Performantele de informație vizuala achiziționate de o camera termala sunt 

determinate de doi parametri distincți, NETD (Noise equivalent temperature difference) 

si MTF (Modulation Transfer Function); valoarea fiecăruia dintre acești parametri este 

dependentă de caracteristicile si de metodologia de măsurare a componentelor de bază 

ale unei camere termale: obiectivul și matricea de detecție. Autorii analizează unele 

probleme legate de măsurarea NETD și a MTF în cazul în care variază distanța focală a 

obiectivului și apare o dezaliniere optică la montajul camerei termale. Experimentele 

realizate demonstrează că o distanță focală mai mare asigură un MTF mai bun, iar 

evaluarea NETD cu instrumentar electronic este mai adecvată. 

Abstract. The performances of visual information acquired with a thermal camera are 

determined by two distinct parameters, NETD (Noise equivalent temperature difference) 

and MTF (Modulation Transfer Function) values of each of these parameters is 

dependent on the characteristics and the methodology for measuring the basic 

components of thermal camera: the lens and the starring detector. The authors analyze 

some problems related to measurement NETD and MTF where the focal lens is variable 

and optical misalignment occurs when mounting thermal camera. Experiments 

demonstrate that a longer focal distance provides a better MTF and NETD evaluation 

with electronic instruments is most appropriate. 

Keywords: Thermal camera, NETD, MTF, optical misalignment, lens focal 


It is known that, in the field of actual research of vision using thermal cameras, 

the most frequent question refers to the performance of the distance observation, 

as is shown in the paper [1, 2]. 

This performance is described by some main parameters, as Noise Equivalent 

Temperature Difference (NETD), Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), and 

Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference (MRTD) [3].A thermal camera is 

commonly composed of an optical assembly, a FPA detector module (starring 

detector), and signal processing electronics. 

The imaging process can be described as a functional flow diagram (fig. 1.) from 

scene (input information) to observer (output information). 

1 Pro Optica Service&Components, e-mail: catalin.spulber@yahoo.com., Academy of Romanian 

Scientists, www.aosromania.ro. 

2 Pro Optica Service&Components, Romania, e-mail: borcan_octavia@yahoo.com. 


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84 Catalin Spulber, Octavia Borcan 

Fig. 1. The flow information between thermal camera components. 

The lens gathers the scene radiance onto the detector array (FPA). The detector 

module converts the radiation (photons) into an electrical signal, which enters a signal 

processing unit. As it already was mentioned by authors in a previous article [2], the 

environment (the atmosphere with aerosols or thermal perturbations) and the main 

components of camera can deteriorates the final image. 

An object is visible in an image because it has a different brightness than its 

surroundings (target contrast). The input to any thermal camera system is photon 

number N from the scene. The contrast of the object (i.e., the signal) must overcome 

the image noise. Noise increases with the signal level results when the image has 

been represented by a small number of individual particles. The signal-noise ratio 

(SNR) is defined as the contrast divided by the standard deviation of the noise [4]. 

The mathematics governing these variations is called counting statistics or Poisson 

statistics. That is, if there are N particles in each pixel on display, the mean is equal to 

N and the standard deviation is equal to N . This makes the signal-to-noise ratio 

equal to N . Detection is a noisy process. The noise V is composed of shot noise, 

spatial noise, and excess noise. There are additional noise sources, including readout 

amplifier noise and digital quantization noise. This is modelled as follows [4]: 

V V read V noise 

(1) 

The noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) is a widely used performance 

parameter that characterizes the sensitivity of thermal imaging sensors. 

The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) is a quantitative measure of thermal 

camera capability to transfer contrasts from the object plan in the image plan 

depending on the aims of the lens and detector details. MTF is used to approximate 

the position of best focus. 

2. The problematic 

Two problems are import ants if there is misalignment between the optical lens 

and FPA: 

a) Although NETD has been used for many years, there has always been some 

confusion and misunderstanding about how to measure it. Differences in opinion 

on how this measurement should be made can cause substantial variations in 


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with the Optical Misalignment 

reported values of NETD measurements [5]; for example, subjective digital noise 

introduced by the display. The NETD will then calculated from the experimental 

data as follows [6,7]: 

NETD T 

(2) 

S/ N 

T T t T 

where arg et 

thermal camera. 

background , and the SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio of the 

b) The projection of the scene on the FPA detector is not perfect; since the 

optical elements create blur [8]. For a quantitative analysis it used a test thermal 

pattern as in figure 2., and the relation [3]: 

MTF 

MTFoptics 

MTFFPA 

MTFdisplay 

MTFeye 

(3) 

Fig. 2. Thermal pattern used in the thermal camera performance analysis. 

The MTF value varies with the lens focal length and their aperture or F number 

(F#). The calculus of MTF values is based on the followings relations: 

MTFFPA 

 

f 

 

sin 

 

 

fcutoff 

 

f 

 

 

 


 

f 

sinc 

 


where the spatial frequency f [cycles/mm], the cut-off frequency c ut-off [cycles/mm], 

the horizontal and vertical size of detector (dH and dV, respectively) is exprimed as: 

1 lp 

1 lp 


H [ ];fcutoff 

V [ ]; 

 

dasH mrad 

dasV mrad 

dH 

dV 

dasH [mrad];dasV [mrad] 

fob 

fob 

 

 

 

(4) 


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d 

 

CCH 

MTF display (fH 

) sinc FFH 

fH 

(5) where FF H and FF V –fill factors for 

fl 

detector on the horizontal, respectively vertical direction. 

MTF optics and MTF FPA have the configuration in figure 3. 

where 

Fig. 3. MTF Diagram for the MTF realized with the Maviis 1.5 software (JCD Publishing). 

On the other hand, it is known that [3, 9]: 

( V1 

V4 

) 

MTF 

(6) 

( V V 

) 4 

1 

MTF(t t 

4 

 

NETD 

1/ 2 

3 f 

1/ 2 

T 

( f 

 

R ) d 

MRTD 

(7) 

 

 

frame 

1/ 2 

1/ 2 

) 


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or [7]: 

MRTD 

f 

K NETD 

f 

(8) 

MTF 

f 

where: f R -electronic frequency bandwidth, - the field of view of the FPA 

starring, f-the spatial frequency of the target being observed, d [s]– response time 

of the detector, t- the integration time of the observer eye, t frame - the frame time. 

So, it can write: 

NETD 

MTF(f ) const1 

 

; 

MRTD(f ) 

const 

NETD 2 

; 

 

1 

 

(9) 

f f 

For comparison of two MRTD as the same spatial frequency, in which one of the 

thermal camera has a certain optical misalignment, it can by written as: 

3. Experiments and results 

ob 

MRTD(f ) MTFmis 

(f ) NETD 

 

(10) 

MRTDmis 

(f ) MTF(f ) NETDmis 

For the experimental determination a thermal camera with the following technical 

characteristics was used: the working spectral range 812 μm, detection matrix 

with micro-bolometers and resolution of 640 x 480 detection items, the size of the 

detection item being 0.17 μm, the focal distance for the objective being of 45 and 

135 mm and f number (F#) between f/1.1 (for 45 mm lens focal) and f/1.6 (for 

135 mm lens focal). In laboratory conditions, in order to determine the MRTD 

function thermal patterns with 4 cycles/target, the ambient temperature was 

24.7 0 C, and the black body temperature was 29.7 0 C (fig.4-6). 

Fig. 4. Example of image 

acquired with thermal contrast 

T = 10 C 



T=5 C 



T=2 C 

The procedure used to evaluate NETD was based on standard ASTM E 1543-00 [6]. 

The results are presented in figures 7-19. 


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Signal, Noise, NETD [mV] 


Fig. 7. Visual images signal and noise on the oscilloscope. 

140 

Signal S [mV] 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

NETD 

Noise N [mV] 

0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 

Measurement no. 

Fig. 8. Variation of the NETD excluding subjective (digital) noise. 

Fig. 9. Original Image for measurement MTF (aligned focal lens 135 mm) with DT 1500 

tester thermal camera and related software from Inframet. 


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Fig. 10. The diagram MTF vs. spatial frequency. The loss of image quality in different cases of a 

lens misalignment with 45 mm focal length. 

Fig. 11. The diagram contrast vs. off-axis distance. 


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The loss of image contrast with off-axis distance of a 45 mm focal length. 

Fig. 12. The diagram MTF vs. spatial frequency. Comparison between MTF diagrams for lenses 

with 45 mm and 135 mm focal lengths, with well alignment done. One can see, for example, that 

for a same resolution of 0,5 lp/mm, a 3.3 times improvement of contrast using a lens with a focal 

length 3 times greater, can be obtained. 

Fig. 13. MTF aligned focal lens 45 mm. 

Fig. 14. MTF aligned focal lens 135 mm. 


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Fig. 15. MTF with misaligned 

2 mm focal lens 135 mm. 








A better MTF and NETD evaluation with electronic instruments is most 

appropriate; 

A significant decrease in MTF is obtained at low level variations of optical 

misalignement; 

4.3 The MTF decreases with decreasing lens focal. 


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[1] Owen, A.: "Surveillance cameras steal away the night”, in Laser Focus World, 33, 111-115 (1997). 

[2] Borcan, Octavia, Spulber, C: ”Experimental method for observation prediction based on the 

decision matrix, through day/night equipments in NIR and LWIR spectral ranges, in Infrared Imaging 

Systems: Design, Analysis, Modelling, and Testing XX, edited by Gerald C. Holst, Proceedings of 

SPIE Vol. 7300 (SPIE, Bellingham, WA 2009) 730011. 

[3] Holst, Gerald C. Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modelling, and Testing IX. 

[4] Saar Bobrov* and Yoav Y. Schechner: ”Image-based prediction of imaging and vision 

performance”, in J. Opt. Soc. Am. A/Vol. 24, No. 7/July 2007. 

[5] Ronald G. Driggers, Curtis M. Webb, Stanley J. Pruchnic, Carl E. Halford and Ellis E. Burroughs, 

"Laboratory measurement of sampled infrared imaging system performance", in Opt. Eng. 38, 852 

(1999). 

[6] ***ASTM E 1543 – 00: Standard Test Method for Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference of 

Thermal Imaging Systems. 

[7] Arnold Daniels: ”Field Guide to Infrared Systems Field Guide to Infrared Systems, Detectors, and 

FPAs, Second Edition”, SPIE Press Book, Bellingham, 2010, ISBN: 9780819480804. 

[8] Steven W.Smith: The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing, 1997, ISBN 

978-0966017632. 

[9] Alan Irwin, Robert L. Nicklin:”Standard software for automated testing of infrared imagers, 

IRWindows, in practical applications”, in Proceedings of SPIE, SPIE 3377, 206 (1998). 

[10] Paul A. Bell, Carl W. Hoover, Jr., Stanley J. Pruchnic, Jr., “Standard NETD test procedure for 

FLIR systems with video outputs”, Proc. SPIE 1969, 194 (1993]. 

[11] Spulber, C, Borcan, Octavia: “Some Aspects Regarding the Image Acquisition using Video 

Systems under Low Vibrations”, in Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists Series on Science 

and Technology of Information 6, Vol. 2, 87-98, Number 1/2009, ISSN 2066–2742. 


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APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY 

FOR DATA TRANSMISSIONS 

IMPLEMENTED IN A STUDENT LABORATORY 

Bogdan-Adrian STEFANESCU 1 , Dan ANGHEL 1 , Octavian DANILA 1 , 

Paul STERIAN 1 , Andreea Rodica STERIAN 1 

Abstract. Quantum cryptography based on the BB84 protocol is discussed in the 

following presentation, containing the concepts and the work that has been carried out in 

the field, with some developments suitable for student research. Although it has not been 

implemented on a commercial level, data transmissions based on quantum cryptology is a 

good alternative for integration in optical fibers communications, with a wide range of 

applications due to its’ securing capabilities. Evolution in photon-study related fields, 

such as photon echo, contribute to the better understanding and further improvement of 

the quantum key distribution protocol. An efficient way of encrypting the information is 

by the use of a key. As it is well known, the encryption key uses very complex algorithms 

that are very hard to break but the problem of key transmission between the transmitter 

and receiver still remains. On a classical channel, the answer was given in the form of 

RSA public keys that were sent between the transmitter and receiver several times, and 

implied the use of randomizing algorithms by use of prime numbers. Quantum approach 

of this problem can be solved through the following principle: If a quantum system that 

resides in a defined state is observed, thus measured, the state of that system is 

irreparably changed. This has a direct application in detecting whether an eavesdropper 

has entered the quantum channel or not. A student-oriented experimental apparatus is 

presented, together with a virtual simulation of the protocol that implements the 

principles of quantum cryptography. Our optical channel can be improved using the 

photon echo effect. Excitement of superradiant states by irradiating a probe with a 

coherent optical impulse, with its duration and intensity conveniently chosen can be 

shown with the photon echo. We demonstrated that the photon echo can improve the code 

by adding either a controlled error on the channel or transforming the channel from a 

binary channel to a ternary channel. 

Keywords: Quantum cryptology, Data transmission, superradiant states, ternary channel 


The goal of this paper is to help students understand the application of quantum 

physics in information security. 

Why is information security so important? In present days, a lot of information is 

exchanged via large networks, such as a LAN or the Internet [1-3, 11]. If sensitive 

information is exchanged, a way of guarding the information from unwanted 

eavesdroppers is needed [4-6]. A quite simple way of doing this is by encrypting 

1 Academic Center for Optical Engineering and Photonics, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University 

“Politehnica” Bucharest, Romania (sterian@physics.pub.ro). 


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Bogdan-Adrian Stefanescu, Dan Anghel, Octavian Danila, 

94 Paul Sterian, Andreea Rodica Sterian 

the information. An efficient way of encrypting the information is by the use of a 

key. The encryption key uses very complex algorithms that are very hard to break, 

but there is another problem: How does the sender send the key to the receiver? In 

early days, the key was transported to the receiver via physical medium such as 

paper, punch card, floppy disk, EEPROM or CDROM. There was no insurance of 

the interception of the key. 

On a classical channel, used in the 1970-s, the answer was given in the form of 

RSA public keys[5], that were sent between the transmitter and receiver several 

times, and implied the use of randomizing algorithms by use of prime numbers. 

Quantum approach of this problem can be solved through the following principle: 

If a quantum system that resides in a defined state is observed, thus measured, the 

state of that system is irreparably changed. This has a direct application in 

detecting whether or not an eavesdropper has entered the quantum channel. 

2. Quantum Cryptography 

Quantum cryptography solves the key distribution problem by allowing the 

exchange of a cryptographic key between two remote parties with absolute 

security, guaranteed by the laws of physics. This key can then be used with 

conventional cryptographic algorithms [5]. If one encodes the value of a digital bit 

on a single quantum object, its interception will necessarily translate into a 

perturbation, because the eavesdropper is forced to observe it. This perturbation 

causes errors in the sequence of bits exchanged by the sender and recipient. By 

checking for the presence of such errors, the two parties can verify whether their 

key was intercepted or not. It is important to stress that since this verification 

takes place after the exchange of bits, one finds out a posteriori whether the 

communication was eavesdropped or not. That is why this technology is used to 

exchange a key and not valuable information. Once the key is validated, it can be 

used to encrypt data. In telecommunication networks, light is routinely used to 

exchange information. For each bit of information, a pulse is emitted and sent 

down an optical fiber to the receiver, where it is registered and transformed back 

into an electronic signal. These pulses typically contain millions of photons [3, 

14]. In quantum cryptography, one can follow the same approach, with the only 

difference that the pulses contain only a single photon. In particular a photon 

cannot be split into halves.[6]. 

3. The BB84 protocol 

The first protocol for QC has been proposed in 1984 by Charles H. Bennett, from 

IBM New-York, and Gilles Brassard, from the University of Montreal, hence the 

name BB84 under which this protocol is recognized nowadays. They published 

their work in a conference in India, totally unknown to physicists. 


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Implemented in a Student Laboratory 95 

We shall explain the BB84 protocol using the language of spin 1/2 , any 2 level 

system being equivalent to it. The protocol uses two interlocutors, Alice, as the 

transmitter, and Bob, the receiver, as well as an eavesdropper, Eve. The photons 

of use are divided into 4 quantum states that constitute 2 bases, think of the states 

up | ↑i, down | ↓i, left | ←i and right | →i. Conventionally, one attributes the 

binary value 0 to states | ↑i and | →i and the value 1 to the other two states, and 

calls the states qubits (for quantum bits). In the first step, Alice sends individual 

spins to Bob in states chosen at random among the 4 basic states (the spin states | 

↑i,| ↓i, | →i and | ←i are identified with the polarization states ”horizontal”, 

”vertical”, ”+45 degrees” and ”-45 degrees”, respectively). How she ”chooses at 

random” is a delicate problem in practice, but in principle she could use her free 

will. The individual spins could be sent all at once, or one after the other (much 

more practical); the only restriction being that Alice and Bob can establish a oneto-one 

correspondence between the transmitted and the received spins[1]. Next, 

Bob measures the incoming spins in one of the two bases, chosen at random 

(using a random number generator independent from that of Alice). At this point, 

whenever they used the same basis, they get perfectly correlated results. However, 

whenever they used different basis, they get uncorrelated results. Hence, on 

average, Bob obtains a string of bits with 25% errors, called the raw key. This 

error rate is so large that standard error correction schemes would fail. But in this 

protocol Alice and Bob know which bits are perfectly correlated (the ones for 

which Alice and Bob used the same basis) and which ones are completely 

uncorrelated (all the other ones). Hence, a straightforward error correction scheme 

is possible: For each bit Bob announces publicly in which basis he measured the 

corresponding qubit (but he does not tell the result he obtained). Alice then only 

tells whether or not the state in which she encoded that qubit is compatible with 

the basis announced by Bob. If the state is compatible, they keep the bit, if not 

they disregard it. In this way about 50% of the bit string is discarded. This shorter 

key obtained after bases reconciliation is called the sifted key. The fact that Alice 

and Bob use a public channel at some stage of their protocol is very common in 

crypto-protocols. This channel does not have to be confidential, but has to be 

authentic. Hence, any adversary Eve can listen to it all the communication on the 

public channel, but she can’t modify it. In practice Alice and Bob may use the same 

optical fiber to implement both the quantum and the classical channels. Note that 

neither Alice nor Bob can decide which key results from the protocol. Indeed, it is 

the conjunction of both of their random choices which produces the key [4-6]. 

Let us now consider the security of the above ideal protocol (ideal because so far 

we did not take into account unavoidable noise due to technical imperfections). 

Assume that some adversary Eve intercepts a qubit propagating from Alice to 

Bob. This is very easy, but if Bob does not receive an expected qubit, he will 

simply inform Alice to disregard it. Hence, in this way Eve only lowers the bit 


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rate (possibly down to zero), but she does not gain any useful information. For 

real eavesdropping Eve must send a qubit to Bob. Ideally she would like to send 

this qubit in its original state, keeping a copy for herself. 

4. Simple software simulation of the BB84 protocol 

There are many software implementations used to simulate the BB84 protocol. 

Some are written in PHP code, Java ,C++, or native quantum simulation software. 

For this paper we have chosen a software written in Visual C++ called QIT 

designed by Fernando Lucas Rodriguez. This is a general public license (GPL) 

software and it can be found on the Internet for student training and research. The 

program has an interactive graphical user interface (GUI) that allows students to 

watch a step by step execution of the protocol. Students will use the program to 

find the different quantum keys. 

The program will run from one of the 2 computers on the lab table witch must run 

a Windows XP 2 operating system with .NET 2 installed. From the folder QIT13 

the students must execute QIT IDE.exe [9]. After the execution the following 

window will appear (Fig. 1.): 

Fig. 1. Output window of QIT.exe 


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Then from the Interactive menu ->Communications->InteractiveBB84 

Cryptosystem is selected. With this selection the interface for simulating the 

BB84 protocol will appear (Fig. 2.): 

Fig.2. GUI of QIT.exe 

Example: The secret data to be sent is: “Information Security and Cryptology”. 

Press Start, then Finish. The resulting binary secret key is: 

110101001101110011010000101010000000010011110111101101111001000010 

011000110101011110101111010000010101001001010011100100110111100000 

000010010001100111101110110101011010001010111010100110010101110010 

010110000000001011000101101011100010111110001010000111000000111110 

1100100111000100 

A step by step execution of the protocol is available by pressing Start then 

Execute Step [9]. 

The figure 1 and 2 represent the main steps in the execution of the protocol. 

Behind the software the steps are as follow: the (4+delta)·N qubits will be 

transmitted. For each bit, Master station selects a basis randomly (horizontalvertical 

or diagonal), and also selects a random value (true or false). It sends the 

resulting quantum state after encoding the true or false value into the selected basis. 

It also stores the basis selected and the random value. The slave station measures 

values received into a random basis (horizontal-vertical or diagonal). It stores the 

basis used for measurement and the value measured. The master station sends the 

basis used for values encoding. The values are not transmitted, they are the secret. 


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The slave station stores the master's used basis for encoding. The master station 

stores coincidences. Slave station informs Master about which basis there was 

coincidence during qubit encoding and slave measurement. Values measured are 

not transmitted, only if there was coincidence. 

The master and slave generates an intermediary 'secret private' key with the values of 

qubits of which where was coincidence on basis encoding and measurement and 

checks that intermediary key has at least the double of bits needed for chippering data. 

The master select random intermediary-key bits indexes for public comparisons, 

and informs of those positions to the slave. The number of bits to compare will be 

the size of intermediary key minus the number of bits needed for chippering data. 

Slave stores the indexes of the positions that will be compared. 

The master sends the values that tried to encode on quantum channel of the selected 

indexes. Slave stores the values that Master sends. The master stores the values that 

Slave sends. Slave sends the values that measured on quantum channel of the 

selected indexes. 

Master calculates noise level (it knows what it tried to send, and what Slave 

received). If noise rate is too high (over 25%) with high probability there is an 

Eavesdropper and data transmission is aborted. Slave calculates noise level (it 

knows what Master tried to send and what it received). If noise rate is too high 

(over 25%) with high probability there is an Eavesdropper and data transmission is 

aborted. The data is sent using Vernam chippering with the BB84 key on a Classic 

public channel. The Slave Station stores and decodes the ciphered message with the 

BB84 secret, private & secure key (Fig. 2). 

5. Implementing the BB84 protocol in a student oriented experimental 

apparatus 

5.1. Background 

The experimental setup will follow the initial idea that was used in the Optical 

Institute of Orsay, France. In that case, the photons were transmitted between two 

windows of two separate buildings. For coding the qubits the experiment used the 

four polarization states (horizontal, vertical, circular left and circular right). 

Physically, they were created by applying a voltage on an electro-optical modulator. 

The qubit sequence resulting from the coded polarization is generated by hardware 

means, by using two Fibonacci configured linear registries. Each registry has an 

20 

output of 2 1 bits, and the 4 states of the protocol suffer 2-bit coding, each of the 

bits being a part of a pseudo-random sequence. For minimizing diffraction effects, the 

radius of the photon beam is extended to 2 cm, by using a two-lens system, before 

being transmitted 30 m through open air. The photons are collected by Bob through 


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the same system, at which 4 avalanche photo-diodes were added. Measurements of 

polarization were made by selecting the states, as the photons are either transmitted or 

reflected by a beam splitter at the incidence angle of 45°. Horizontal and vertical 

states were created by the beam splitter, while the circular left and right states were 

separated by a special splitter that converts circular polarization into linear 

polarization, and then discern them through the same splitting method. 

5.2. The efficiency of the single photon source and the Poisson statistics 

Primary characteristics of the single photon source quality made by Alice consist of 

measuring the single and multi-photon emission probabilities, compared with weak 

coherent pulses (WCP), with the same amount of photons per pulse. For a 

4 

transmission sequence of 0.2 s and pulse frequency of 5.3 MHz, a total of 8.8 

10 

photons are recorded by Alice. By correcting the efficiency of the photo-diodes 

(APD) APD 

0.6 the global efficiency adds up to 2.8%. After passing through the 

modulator, characterized by TEOM 

0.9 and Toptic 

0.94 , the mean of the sent 

photons per pulse was 0.0235 . Reduction of the multi-photon emissions can be 

set in Alice's part of apparatus. Photon statistics can be counted precisely by Bob's 

measurements, thus resulting in the distribution of the photon numbers. Evaluations 

6 

were carried out on 40 10 pulses recorded by Bob [1]. For a time sample, detection 

3 

6 

probabilities for a photon or photon pair are P1 d 

7.610 

and P2 d 

2.7 10 . 

Configuration of the photo-diodes shows that the detection probability P2d 

is 5/8 of 

the reception probability of the same pair, while the probability that a photon pair 

falls on the same photo-diode is of 3/8. The reduction factor is given by: 

2 

5 P1 

d 

R 6.7 . This result is in accordance with the Poisson distribution, and 

8 2P2 

d 

thus can be used in further calculus. Information leak to an intruder connected to the 

( m) 

quantum channel is S , which shows the probability that a photon leaves Alice's 

( m) 4 

system. For an equivalent WCP we have S 1 (1 ) e 2.7 10 

, while for 

WCP 

the SPS 

( m) 1 [1 (1 ) ] 4.1 10 

5 

SSPS 

e [4]. 

6.7 

5.3. Detection probabilities of Bob's system 

Detection probability of Bob's apparatus over a time threshold is 

p exp 

7.6 10 

3 

. 

Assuming that the absorption of the beam is negligible through the 30 m 

transmission, and taking into account that the mean 0.0235 , an estimate of the 

detection apparatus is Bob 

0.3 . While measuring photons, errors might appear, 


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because of unpolarized light. This contributes to compromising the security of the 

transmission, and decrease the maximum transmission distance. By filtering and 

spectral insulation, the optical environment can be protected. Measurements were 

made at night time, the probability of recording an incorrect photon per time 

5 1 

threshold is p 3.8 10 s [4]. 

dark 

6. Our experimental proposal setup 

The experiment will take place on a lab table, so there is no need to have 

complicated alignment system. A simple laser diode and the transmitter can be 

used for alignment, by moving the two supporting legs. 

Fig. 2. Experimental proposal. 

The experiment consists of two main modules: Alice and Bob, in our case, 

transmitting and receiving student, that communicate over open air, at the 

designated distance for laboratory of about 1 m. 

The classical channel is a basic TCP/IP connection (coaxial or UTP cable). The 

experiments for optical fibers transmissions are also considered. 

6.1. Transmitter Module 

Fig. 3. The Alice module. 


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The module is designed to produce a stream of single polarized photons according 

to the choice of basis and bit value. Because no source can produce single 

photons, we use pulses that have the property of coherency. They are called weak 

coherent pulses (WCP), of Poisson distribution and mean photon number 

0.0235 . To produce the pulses, we will use four laser diodes, oriented around 

a conical mirror at the desired polarization angles. The polarization problem is 

solved by the laser diodes, that have intrinsic polarization. After the beams are 

reflected by the conical mirror, they pass a spatial filter, which consists of two 

100 m at 0.9 cm apart. It serves a special purpose, that of making the pulse from 

the four diodes indistinguishable from the others, in spatial terms. This measure 

has to be taken because without the spatial filtering, the code can be broken quite 

easily. In order to get as much light as possible through the spatial filter, there is a 

lens with a focal length f = 2.75 mm between the conical mirror and the pinholes 

of the spatial filter. Because of the very strong spatial filtering, the alignment of 

the pinholes is crucial, otherwise the desired mean photon count will not be 

achieved for all polarizations. [4] 

6.2. Receiver Module 

Fig. 4. Receiver module schematic. 

The module is the heart of the receiver unit is connected directly to a receiver lens 

and a spatial filter (SF), that are positioned so that the transmitted beam is focused 

on the primary device of the module. The primary device is an interference filter 

with a red color glass filter. This is important to allow for daylight operation, 

because it rejects stray light, while permitting polarized light to pass. The 

remaining optical devices divide the photon beams into bases H/V and +/-, the 

construction being based on the idea by John Rarity and Paul Tapster. An incident 

photon sees the 50/50 beam splitter (BS). If it is reflected it will see the polarizing 

beam splitter(PBS) of the photon in the H/V basis, which in combination with the 

two silicon avalanche photo diodes (APD) H and V. If APD V detects a photon it 

is supposed to be in the V basis, whereas if APD H detects a photon, it is 

supposed to be in the H basis. 


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Any photon that is transmitted through the beam splitter passes through a half-wave 

plate, set at an angle of 22.5, so that it rotates the linear polarization by 45 degrees. 

Afterwards, a +45 degrees polarized photon is detected by APD 1 and converted into 

the horizontal basis H, while a - 45 degrees polarized photon is detected by APD 3 

and converted into the vertical basis V. Whenever a photon is measured in the wrong 

basis, the measurement outcome is completely random. The APD-s have to be cooled 

in order to reduce dark counts, at a temperature between - 25 and - 10 degrees. To 

reach these temperatures, the photo-diodes are put into an aluminum block which is 

cooled by a Peltier element glued to it from below [4]. The bit error rate (BER) [6] for 

each channel was estimated from data taken during key exchange. It is given by the 

Nwrong 

expression: BER , where N wrong is the number of bits in error and N total is the 

Ntotal 

number of bits received in total. This gives a measure of the likelihood of receiving a 

zero when a one was sent from the transmitter. All but one of the BER values in table 

1 are sufficiently low showing that optical imperfections from the equipment will 

contribute little to the error in the sifted key. The system will operate in natural light 

and artificial light in the lab, thus the background error rate must be considered. This 

is a factor that could limit the entire experimental setup. We start from the signal 

RMT 

count for this rig [8]: S , where R is the repetition rate, M is the average 

4 

number of photons per pulse, T is the lumped transmission and η is the detection 

efficiency of Bob's APDs. The product is divided by 4 because there are 4 detectors 

(or 4 polarization states). The background rate is given by Pb 

Bt , where B is the 

background the background count rate per APD and t is the time synchronization 

gate. Half the counts induce errors and half of there are thrown away. The error 

Pb 

rate is: E Ebase 

. E must be less the 0.07 therefore the maximum acceptable 

S 

MT 

background rate is: B . In considering the system presented here, 

75.5t 

estimates can be made for the following values [8]: 

1. M ~ 0.3, an accepted value for guaranteed security of low loss systems. 

2. T ~ 1 since the source can be imaged on to the receiver and the system is 

short range and thus atmospheric loss is negligible. 

3. η ~ 0.045 taking into account the quantum efficiency of the detectors and the 

presence of the narrow band filter and polarizers. 

4. t = 5 ns gate synchronization time. 


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Thus the maximum background count rate per detector can be given as roughly 

B 36000 counts/s. In this system, the data is recorded first during the quantum 

transmission and processed afterwards in a few seconds. The start of the 

transmission is determined approximately by searching for a jump in the 

frequency of time tags as Bob starts measuring before Alice begins her 

transmission. Alice transmits sub-5 ns pulses every 200 ns, therefore a time 

synchronization gate of 5 ns reduces the probability of registering a background 

event within the gate by a factor of 40 [8]. The clock at the receiver is thus 

synchronized with the clock at the transmitter by searching for time tags that sit at 

separations of 200 ns and adjusting the time separation slightly every ~100 ms to 

compensate for clock drift. The advantage of this set-up is that no timing 

reference signal is needed. To determine the exact start time of the data, the 

receiver reveals a random subset of his measured bit values and the basis he used 

to the transmitter. The transmitter then finds the data start by performing a sparse 

correlation against her stored data. This random subset can also be reused to 

estimate the error rate. 

Fig. 5. Full experimental rig. 

It should be noted that our implementation of error correction requires that the two 

parties both generate the same random factor graph. Once both of them know the 

number of message bits they are error correcting over, and the measured error rate, 

they seed a pseudo-random number generator from their OTP and use this to generate 

an appropriate factor graph. 

The eavesdropper, is assumed not to know which of the 2 256 , say, different factor 

graphs the communicating parties are using [8]. 

For implementing this type of encryption we also can use fiber optics, as used in 

“Clavis” [9, 10] devices for BB84 code implementation. 

Fiber optics may provide a much longer distance for light propagation, thus 

facilitating the wide area implementation for this type of secured data 

transmissions. 


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7. Improving BB84 by using photon echo 

Our optical channel can be improved using the photon echo effect [3]. The code 

encrypting can be made by introducing a supplementary key if we use the photon 

echo. We have three states associated to the 1 and 0 qubits that are available for 

encrypting. That correspond to the possibility of associating to the two input 

impulses two or three output impulses, the third one corresponding to the photon 

echo, generated after an algorithm or by our own will. Excitement of super radiant 

states by irradiating a probe with an coherent optical impulse, with its duration 

and intensity conveniently chosen can be shown with the photon echo [3]. In 

principle, we consider the exciting of a ruby crystal, for example, with two 

coherent, identical optical impulses A and B (emitted by a ruby laser), having a 

duration of ∆t (ns), the delay of B impulse when passing through the probe, will 

be ∆T ∆t, showing in the figure 6 [12, 13]. 

Fig. 6. Principle of photon echo. 

We can see at the exit, beside the two impulses A' and B', which correspond to the 

emitted impulses A and B, a third impulse A'', symmetrical positioned to A' and 

B', named photon echo [3]. For explaining the photon echo, we use the precession 

equation, for a circular polarized radiation field, in a reference system which 

d 0 

rotates round the z axis with the frequency ω: P P ( Ei 

k . 

dt 

 

Due to the unequal width of the transition frequency for ruby atoms, and due to the 

local field, variation, P and ω 0 will be affected by index k , which defines the k atom. 

If before applying impulse A, the atoms were all in the fundamental state, the 

vector 

P 

N 

P is oriented in the negative direction of z axis. Applying the A 

k1 

k 

impulse, of E a amplitude, between t = 0 and t = ∆t, a precession movement of P 

around the pseudo field appears. If E / 0 

X , the procession is made 

A 

around the x axis with an X E a ∆t angle so for an intensity of the impulse that 

satisfies the condition X E a ∆t = π/2 (π/2 impulse), P will be orientated after y 

axis in t = ∆t, the system being in a superradiant state Δ. 


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Fig. 7. Superradiance states. 

When the E a field stops, the atoms will execute precession movement with different 

speeds around the pseudo-field 

k where . During these movements 

X 

0k 

in t = ∆t and t = ∆t + ∆T interval, Pk 

components will be dephased so P 

diminishes [3]. B impulse which applies in the moment t = ∆t + ∆T must reflect the 

P vectors in the xy plane, reported to the x axis. To obtain this effect the following 

k 

condition must apply: η E b ∆t = π (π impulse), meaning that IB 

4IA, I 

A 

and I 

B 

specifying the two impulses intensities. In the interval t = 2 ∆t + ∆T and 

t = 2 (∆t + ∆T) the vectors P are moving like in the dephase interval, getting in 

k 

phase after another interval equal to ∆T. The corresponding state of the vectors 

' 

in rephasing is a superradiant state, highlighted by echo impulse emission A 

E 

[3]. 

We can use the photon echo to improve the code by adding either a controlled error 

on the channel or transforming the channel from a binary channel to a ternary 

channel. A ternary channel is more efficient in transmitting coded information but in 

this form the ternary channel will be created on a binary one, using the echo to create 

the third channel of communication. We also can improve a channel transmission 

width using the photon echo to create a bit of data when we want, thus changing the 

information meaning and receiving more information that was initially sent. 


Quantum cryptography implemented with the BB84 protocol offers a high level of 

security for data communications. Although it has not been implemented on a 

commercial level, it is suitable for integration in optical fibers communications, with 

a wide range of applications. Our experimental proposal offers a good student insight 

into quantum cryptography, combining the already known and designed modules 

Alice and Bob with the potential of the photon echo. 

P 

k 


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[1] Paul Sterian, Dan Alexandru Iordache, Viorica Iordache, "Study of the Present Problems of 

the Scientific Information Processing and Transmission'', Annals of the Academy of Romanian 

Scientists, Series on Science and Technology of Information, vol. 3, no. 1, 2010, pp. 101-112. 

[2] Dan-Alexandru Iordache, Daniela Radu, Octavian Radu, "Complexity Approach of Optical 

Communications Systems", Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Series on Science and 

Technology of Information, vol. 2, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-16. 

[3] Paul Sterian, “Fotonica”, Editura Printech, Bucuresti 2000, ISBN 973-652-161-3. 

[4] Harald Weinfurter and Alfred Laubereau, “Experimental Quantum Cryptography”, 2003, 

http://xqp.physik.uni-muenchen.de/publ/henning-diplom.pdf. 

[5] Id Quantique, Switzerland, “Securing Networks with the Vectis Link Encryptor”, 

www.idquantique.com. 

[6] Thomas Daniel Jennewein, Anton Zeilinger, “Quantum Communication and Teleportation 

using Entangled Photon Pairs”, June 2002, http://www.quantum.univie.ac.at. 

[7] Fernando Lucas Rodriguez, QIT IDE.exe, 

http://www.fernandolucas.info/QCS, fernandolucas@ieee.org. 

[8] J. L. Duligall, M S Godfrey, K A Harrison, W J Munro and J G Rarity, “Low Cost and 

Compact Quantum key distribution”, 2006, http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1367-2630/8/10/249. 

[9] D.Stucki, N. Gisin, O. Guinnard, G. Ribordy, H. Zbinden, “New Journal of Physics 4”, 

www.njp.org. 

[10] Id 3000 Datasheet v2.1, www.idquantique.com. 

[11] Cornel Cobianu, Cazimir Bostan, s.al., “From 2D Microelectronics to 3D Microsystems", 

Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Series on Science and Technology of Information, 

vol. 3, no. 1, 2010, pp. 31-46. 

[12] Ion Apostol, Dan-Alexandru Iordache, Pier Paolo Delsanto, Viorica Iordache, “Study of some 

Numerical Artifacts Intervening in the Finite Differences Simulations of KDV Solitons 

Propagation”, Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Series on Science and Technology 

of Information, vol. 4, no. 1, 2011, pp. 7-22. 

[13] Dana Georgeta Popescu, Paul Sterian, “Nonlinear Interaction Modeling in Photonic 

Crystals”, Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Series on Science and Technology of 

Information, vol. 4, no. 2, 2011, pp. 105-124. 

[14] Sterian Andreea Rodica, “Coherent Radiation Generation and Amplification in Erbium 

Doped Systems”, Advances in Optical Amplifiers, Paul Urquhart (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-186-2, 

InTech, VIENNA, 2011. 


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THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF COMMUNICATIONS 

VERSUS THE PHYSICAL THEORY OF INFORMATION. 

THE UNIVERSE VERSUS THE MULTIVERSE 

Dan Alexandru IORDACHE 1 

Starting from the “classical” (mathematical) theory of information (C. Shannon, W. Weaver), this 

work has replaced the definitions of the: a) apparent information as a decrease of the nondetermination 

(uncertainty) degree, by means of the overlap area of the true and found probability 

distributions, respectively, b) agreement of a theoretical relation with the experimental data using 

the correlation coefficients, by means of the error risks at the compatibility rejection, etc., taking 

into account also the basic notions of the complex systems: (i) the uniqueness parameters, (ii) the 

similitude criteria, (iii) the universality classes, (iv) the numerical phenomena intervening in the 

computer simulations of such systems evolution, etc. [1]. The accomplished analysis pointed out the 

existence of some surprising co-relations relating the fundamental interactions and particles. The 

interpretation of these findings by means of the anthropic principles (leading to the notion of designed 

Universe) or by means of some recent theoretical models (“of quantum gravitation”, “selfreproducing 

inflation”, “quantum cosmology with loops”, etc., leading to Multi-verse models) was 

also analysed by this work (see also [2]). 

Keywords: Mathematical information theory, Compatibility with experimental results, Complex 

systems, Fundamental interactions, Anthropic principles, Theoretical models of cosmology 


As it is well-known, after some preliminary works as [3], the mathematical theory 

of information was rigorously formulated by C. Shannon and W. Weaver [4] 

under the name of « mathematical theory of communications », and completed by 

the works [5] of A. J. Khincin, A. N. Kolmogorov, etc. The basic notion of this 

theory is the so-called uncertainty function H p1 , p2,... 

p n associated to the 

complete statistical set (collective) C E1 , E2,... 

E n of incompatible events 

E i (i=1, 2, ... n), of appearance probability p i . According to the axioms of 

A. J. Khinchin [5] (that allow a rather simple derivation of the expression of the 

uncertainty function), the uncertainty function has properties of: 1) symmetry: 

H( p2, p1, ... p 

n 

) = H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

), 2) maximum value for the uniform distribution: 

1 

H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

) = maximum for: p1 p2 

... pn , 3) prolongation: 

n 

H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

,0) = H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

), i.e. the addition of an impossible event (of null 

probability) does not change the value of the uncertainty function, 4) continuity: the 

function H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

) has to be continuous relative to its variables: 

1 Professor, Physics Department, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania; Honorary Member 

of Academy of Romanian Scientists, Section of Information Science and Technology (IT). 


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108 Dan Alexandru Iordache 

1 , 5) linearity: HC C' 

H( 

C) 

p HC' 

, where H ( C C' ) 

p , p2,... 

p n 

and C 

E 

n 

i1 

i E i 

i 

E i E ' j = 

Cartesian product of the statistical collectives C and C’, and to the statistical 

collective C’, in conditions when the event E i appeared. 

H ' are the uncertainty functions corresponding to the set 

It was found [5] that the uncertainty function H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

) fulfilling the above 

indicated conditions is: H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

) = a 

n 

p i log b pi 

, where a and b are 

i1 

almost arbitrary constants, that satisfy the conditions: a > 0 and b > 1. One finds so 

that the uncertainty function H( p1, p2, ... p 

n 

) represents the average (theoretical) 

value of the so-called information entropy, defined by the relation: 

Si 

a 

logb 

pi 

(1) 

Similarly, for the continuous statistical collectives (described by the probability 

density p(x)), the uncertainty function is given by the expression: 

 

H( p( 

x)) 

a 

p( 

x)logb ( p( 

x) 

x) 

dx [where Δx is the (conveniently chosen) 

 

“quantum” of the variable x] and the information entropy by the expression: 

S( p( 

x)) 

a 

log 

b ( p( 

x) 

x) 

. (2) 

therm. B 

We have to underline also that the expression (2) is absolutely similar to the 

(previous) Planck-Boltzmann expression: S k 

ln 

of the thermodynamic 

entropy (k B is the Boltzmann’s constant, while stands for the 

probability density of micro-states localisation in the phases’ space). 

2. Logical scheme of the humankind information accumulation 

It is well known that the information processing and storage abilities of each 

individual people brain are drastically limited. For this reason, the humankind 

advance in its race for the complex systems knowledge and use imposes the 

strong cooperation of the human beings by information transmission. Taking into 

account that the information transmission is a resonance process (see fig. 1), it is 

necessary to ensure: a) the obtained (got) information (see fig. 2) cleaning before 

a new experiment (measurement, embryo development, Universe genesis, etc.), 

b) a sufficiently broad and well-located information receiver bell, c) an implant 

(inside the information receiver bell) of several connecting relays, achieving the 

cross-fertilization between the information source(s) and its virtual applications, 


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The Mathematical theory of Communications versus the physical theory of Information. 

Universe versus Multiverse 109 

so that « Toute la suite des hommes depuis le cours de tant de siècles est comme 

un seul homme qui vit toujours et qui apprend continuellement » (Blaise Pascal). 

Fig. 1. Information transmission as a resonance process. Fig. 2. Magnetic memory – 

example of got information. 

3. Main Conceptual Differences between Mathematics and Nature Sciences 

3.1. Typical elementary object 

While in Mathematics the typical elementary object (the problem unknown) is a 

well-defined number or segment, in Nature Sciences this elementary object is a 

parameter , described by a certain probability distribution P(p) of the individual 

values p (see figure 3). 

While the value of the unknown of a mathematical problem with a right 

formulation is obtained exactly by means of the problem solution, the most 

probable individual value (named also “true value”, or “mathematical hope”) t p 

of the physical parameter p cannot be never exactly obtained! 

For this reason, the definition of the real information amount has to be given by 

means of the overlap area of the normalised to 1 probability distribution functions 

corresponding to measurements and to the true parameter, respectively (fig. 4). 

Fig. 3. Probability distribution 

of a parameter p individual values. 

Fig. 4. Definition of the true information amount 

obtained by measurements. 


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3.2. Uniqueness parameters 

While the number of the uniqueness parameters of a mathematical problem is 

fixed [e.g.: 3 for an arbitrary triangle (the lengths of the 3 sides, or the lengths of 2 

sides and the angle between them, etc.)], the number of the uniqueness 

parameters of a physical system depends on the required accuracy for the 

considered system description [e.g., the thermodynamic state of the air is 

described by: (i) only 2 parameters (usually the temperature and the pressure) in a 

first order approximation, (ii) by 3 physical parameters (adding e.g. the humidity) 

in the frame of a better approximation, (iii) 4 physical parameters (adding also the 

carbon dioxide content) in the frame of a still better approximation, etc. 

3.3. Well-formulated problems 

While in mathematics a well-formulated problem corresponds usually to a system 

of compatible and non-redundant equations, the number of this system equations 

being equal to the number of unknowns of the mathematical problem, in nature 

sciences a well-formulated problem corresponds to a system of (slightly) 

incompatible (and non-redundant) equations, and the number of equations has to 

be considerably larger than that of unknowns. This fact is due to the fluctuations 

of the individual values of the physical parameters and even to the presence of 

some hysteretic behaviour (the individual values could depend on the system 

previous history) of the physical systems. 

3.4. Position of the incomplete induction method 

While in mathematics the incomplete induction method represents only the first 

step towards the inference (particularly, by the complete induction method) of a 

theorem, in Physics this (incomplete induction) method represents an essential 

method, because it allows the discovery of some truths which are not equivalent to 

the information set used to formulate the respective hypothesis. The incomplete 

induction method represents one of the most fertile methods used by the nature 

sciences for the identification of some new plausible hypotheses and the 

subsequent discovery of some new physical phenomena and laws. 

4. On the bridge between the mathematical theory of communications 

(information) and the physical theory of information 

For a uniform distribution of the true value t X inside its corresponding confidence 

interval: 

1 

 

~ xn 

zLs( ~ xn 

) 

~ 

n 

L 

( ~ X 

x z s xn 

) 

p ( t ) da C 

dt 2C 

z s( ~ x ), 

X 

X 

hence the corresponding expression of the uncertainty function is: 

L 

n 


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2z 

s x 

H p t a 

p t p t x 

dt a L ( ~ n) 

( ( X )) ( X ) logb 

( ( X ) ) X logb 

 

. (3) 

x 

 

 

It results that the apparent information obtained in frame of the n th physical 

determination can be expressed by means of the square mean errors corresponding 

to the sets of the obtained results obtained after the (n-1) determination and after 

the n th determination as: 

 

I 

n 

app n Hn 

Hn 

a 1 

. 1 log 

 

b . 

n 

One finds so that the usual I app.n > 0 values (corresponding to the convergence towards 

the true value), it is possible to meet also values I app.n < 0, which could be due to: 

a) rough errors (hence misinformation), 

b) random gathering of the first individual values, the decision being 

established by means of some statistical tests. 

It results that the additional elements brought by the physical theory of 

information refer mainly to: (i) experimental measurements, (ii) the corresponding 

errors, (iii) the necessary statistical tests. 

For this reason, the compatibility of a given theoretical relation y = f(x) with a certain 

set of experimental individual values pairs x s , y s (s=1, 2, … N) should be decided not 

starting from the usual correlation coefficient which does take into account the 

existing experimental errors, but from the error risks at the compatibility rejection of 

p 

each “suspect” pair x s , y s : 

 

s 

qs exp 

, where (see also fig. 5): 

2 

 

2 1 

r 

p 

s 

xs 

x 

 

( x) 

 

~ 2 

2 

y 

~ 

s y 

 

( y) 

 

x 

~ 

s x 

2r 

 

( x) 

 

 

 

y 

~ 

s y 

. (4) 

( y) 

 

Fig. 5. Evaluation procedure of the error risk at the compatibility rejection 

of a theoretical relation Y = f(X) relative to some local data. 


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5. Main features of the complex systems description 

Because several completely different complex systems [computer arrays, robots, 

networks, social sciences, biology (with some specific topics: colonies, swarms, 

immunology, brain, genetics, proteomics), non-linear dynamics, economics, 

mathematics, glasses, agents, cognition, etc.] have some common features centred 

on their statistical behaviour and the corresponding phase transforms [6], [7], it 

results that these complex systems have certain universality properties, which – 

due to their generality (see e.g.[7a]) - can be described only by some specific 

numbers (the so-called similitude numbers, or criteria [8]). 

nU 

If: P 

i Ui , where [P] is the physical dimension of a parameter P specific 

i1 

to the studied state (or process), then 2 states (or processes) Σ’, Σ” are named 

similar if the values of the parameters U i | i 1, 

n 

and P corresponding to these 

P' 

' " 

states fulfil the relation [8]: i 

n U 

U i U i . Some of the uniqueness 

P" 

i1 

parameters could be similitude criteria, i.e. non-dimensional parameters: [s] = 1, 

with equal values: s’ = s” in all similar states or processes. While the first known 

similitude criterion was introduced by Archimedes (287-231 b. Chr.): 

3 

 

Ar gl , the first (existence) theorem of the similitude theory was stated by 

2 

 

Newton, all these theorems being presented in work [9]. 

 

Fig. 6. Plots of different pseudo- convergent 

simulations of elastic pulses propagation. 

Fig. 7. Gradual installation of instability in 

simulations of elastic pulses propagation. 

The accomplished study [1] of the typical study procedure of complex systems 

pointed out that it involves the following main stages: a) identification of the 

uniqueness parameters, b) identification of the characteristic similitude criteria, c) 

obtainment of the set of irreducible criteria, d) translation of all relations of 

scientific and/or technical interest in terms of similitude criteria, e) check of the 

theoretical and experimental similitude models, f) test of compatibility of 

theoretical relations and models relative to the existing experimental data. 


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Fig. 8. Distortions in the simulations of some random walk processes [10]. 

6. Main numerical phenomena intervening in the Data Processing 

A detailed study of the main numerical phenomena: pseudo-convergence (fig. 6), 

instability (fig. 7), distortions (fig. 8), intervening in the computer evaluations of 

certain physical parameters and/or some simulations of different physical 

phenomena was accomplished by work [10]. 

Taking into account the various errors types and numerical phenomena 

intervening in the data processing, we consider as the most accurate data 

processing procedure that presented in the frame of fig. 9. 

Fig. 9. Basic Stages of the present Scientific Information Processing. 

7. Interpretation of the physical information about Complex Systems 

Unlike the classical (mathematical) information, the physical information (referring to 

complex systems, especially) requires a very careful interpretation. First of all, it is 

necessary to answer to the basic questions about the observed features: 


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a) are they random or reproducible? 

b) could they be connected to other results, obtained by different methods? 

c) could they be explained by natural causes or it seems to intervene some 

transcendent reasons? 

We have to underline that the acceptance of a physical interpretation needs 

multiple completely different experimental results, whose explanations converge 

to this interpretation. E.g., the existence and parameters (charge, mass) of 

electrons were established as a result of AT LEAST 5 completely different 

experiments: 

(i) the electrolysis (Faraday’s) laws leading to the elementary electrical charge 

e = F/N, 

(ii) the J.J. Thomson’s experiment concerning the cathodic rays deviations in 

an electrical field, which pointed out the existence of the electron, 

(iii) the Millikan’s experiment which led to the electrical charge of the 

electron, 

(iv) the Lenard’s method of crossed (electrical and magnetic) fields, which 

allowed the evaluation of the specific charge e/m of the electron, 

(v) the Compton’s effect which allowed the evaluation of the rest mass of the 

electron. 

Without redundant (completely different) experimental methods, the Physics is 

often subject to major errors; some recent examples: 

a) the so-called anomalons (1970-1980), erroneous interpretation supported 

initially by several very good Physics reviews, 

b) the so-called ”fusion nuclear reactions at low temperatures” (Palladium 

compounds, 1980-1990), again a mis-interpretation, 

c) the trans-uranium 118 element, initially claimed by a research group of the 

Berkeley University and vanished after 2-3 years. 

For this reason, the interpretation of some new Physics experiments has to be 

cautiously examined; some examples: 

(i) the Palo Alto results concerning the ”magnetic monopoles” and the ”exotic 

particles”, generally, 

(ii) the very recent (2011) results of Pamela’s orbital station, referring to the 

anomalous strong fluxes of accelerated cosmic radiations around our planet, 

which seem to indicate that the Earth has an absolutely singular location in our 

(Milky Way) galaxy, etc. 


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8. Just Six Numbers seem be able to describe the Universe structure [12]. 

The Anthropic principle(s) [15] 

In 1937, the British Physics Nobel prize laureate Paul A. M. Dirac had noted that the 

number of baryons (basically protons plus neutrons) in the universe (~ 10 77 ) is almost 

equal to the inverse square of the gravitational coupling constant 

 

2 

 

 

k m p 

39 

C 5.90610 

 

 

g 

[11]. Later it was found that amazingly the 

c 

 

 

 

electromagnetic intersection parameters are also strongly connected to the basic 

quantum parameters, the electromagnetic coupling constant ( o being the vacuum 

2 

eo 

e o 1 

electromagnetic impedance): Ce 

being also given by a 

c 2h 

137.036 

transcendent number (the so-called Sommerfeld’s fine structure constant). The 

synthesis of the results obtained during the last decades indicates that a set of only 6 

numbers is able to describe the Universe structure. These « constitutive » constants 

may be chosen: a) starting from the 4 fundamental interactions coupling constants C s 

1 

≈ 1, C e , that of the weak nuclear interactions C w ≈ 3·10 -7 and the 

137.036 

gravitational one C g ≈ 5.90610 -39 , and adding the ratio of rest-masses of the 

proton and electron: m op /m oe 1836.15 and the number of physical dimensions of 

the Universe: D = 4 (usually) and D = 10 or 11 around the Planck’s time t P 

0.53310 -43 s, characteristic to the ”Big Bang” process, b) by means of the 

M. Rees [12] parameters: (i) the relative strength of the electric coupling constant 

to the gravitational one: C emg /C g 1.235610 36 , (ii) the nuclear efficiency (percent 

of the mass of the nuclear constituents that is converted to heat when they react 

via nuclear fusion to form heavier nuclei) 0.007, (iii) the parameter and the 

dark matter (known matter 4% of the critical mass for Universe to expand 

forever), (iv) the cosmological constant (introduced by Einstein in the expression 

of the Universe acceleration: 3a/R = - 4k( + 3p/c 2 ) + ): 0.7, 

(v) proportion of energy to their rest mass energy needed to break up and disperse 

clusters: Q 10 -5 , and – of course: (vi) the Universe physical dimension(s). 

Given being that: a) even in 1961 R.H. Dicke [13] derived that these relations 

would imply a narrow time window in the development of the Universe during 

which life could exist, b) some later accomplished calculations [14] seem to 

indicate that intelligent life exists only on the earth, it aroused the idea that the earth 

too, in addition to the Universe, has experienced divine design (”anthropic 

principle(s)” [15]). We have to underline that - in opposition to the Anthropic 

principle(s) - there appeared very soon (even earlier [16]) some theoretical models 

assuming the existence of multiple ”parallel” Universes, the so-called Multiverse. 

2 


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9. Basic Present Cosmological Models leading to the Hypothesis of the 

Multiverse existence 

In order to synthesise the basic assumptions and results of the main present 

cosmological models, Table 1 below presents their basic features. 

Table 1. Comparison of basic assumptions and results of the main present cosmological models 

Nr 

Theoretical Model 

Basic 

Specific 

Number of 

dimensions 

t < t Planck t > t Planck Main Authors 

1 

Quantum 

Gravitation 

10D Space 

1D Time 

t ln t 

Infinite time 

before Big 

Bang 

Possible 10 500 … 10 1000 

parallel Universes, 

each with its laws 

(L. Susskind, 

Stanford U.) 

Lee Smolin, Ca [17b] 

Th. Damour, Fr; 

M. Henneaux, 

Be, Solvay; 

H. Nicolai, D. 

2 

Strings 

Theory 

3D Branes 

flowing in a 

10D space 

10D Space 

1D Time 

Collisions Big Bang 

2001: Neil Turok 

(Cambridge, UK) 

Paul Steinhardt 

(Stanford U.) 

3 Black Holes 

Compressing 

initially 

extremely 

diluted gas 

Compression limit 

~ 10 12 

Sun masses/ proton 

volume 

a) Multiple black 

holes, 

b) Worms holes, 

c) Multiverse 

(Stephen Hawking) 

G. Veneziano 

(Coll. Fr.), 

M. Gasperini 

(U. Bari) >1990 

4 

Quantum 

with loops 

Oscillating 

Gravitation 

Pre-existing 

compressing 

Universe 

Compression limit 

~ 10 12 

Sun masses/ proton 

volume 

a) Repulsive 

gravitation; 

b) Pre-existing 

Universe cleaning 

(M. Bojowald, 

Pennsylv. U.) 

A. Ashtekar, 

T. Pawlowski, 

P. Singh 

(Pennsylvania Univ.) 

5 

Inflation 

Theory 

A.H. Guth 

[18] 

Selfreproducing 

Inflationary 

Universe 

10D Space 

1D Time 

Quantum 

Fluctuations of the 

Scalar Field 

Fractal Inflation 

12 

10 

10 times! 

(fig. 8) 

multiverse 

Andrei Linde 

(U. Stanford) > 1980 

[19] 

Taking into account that: 

a) the present cosmological models represent extrapolations over a huge number 

(larger than 25) of magnitude orders of the somewhat classical Einstein’s 

gravitation and quantum theories, as well as that: 

b) the religion (mainly the Bible) predicts some of the Universe basic features, the 

comparison of their arguments in favour of the different present basic Universe 

evolution models - synthesized by Table 2 - could present a certain interest. 


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Table 2. Comparison of the arguments of the main types of present Universe evolution models 

Models type 

ARGUMENTS 

Multiverse 

models 

Possible 

transcendent 

religions 

(mainly, 

the Bible) 

Theoretical 

FAITH (!) in the continuity (over a huge 

number of magnitude orders) of some 

theoretical models 

Information (e.g. AND, the Bible, etc.) is 

the starting element of any design 

(Genesis 1:3-26, John 1:1). AND is 

implicitly present in chapters 4 and 5 of 

Genesis. 

Experimental Proofs 

No one and: a) probably not in future, 

outside our Universe, b) hopes to find 

some proofs inside our Universe 

Checked experimental evidence for 

some millenary predictions: a) Big Bang 

(see fig. 11), b) Relativity, c) Possible 

transcendent relations. 

Fig. 10. The Alan Guth’s model Fig. 11. Microwave Map of the Whole Sky made from One Year 

[18] of the Universe evolution. (1992) of Data taken by Cosmic Background Explorer-COBE 

Differential M.W. Radiometers 10 5 yrs after Big Bang. 

10. Transcendent Integers and possible Transcendent Information, 

Relations and Insertions in Bible 

As it is known, the transcendent mathematical numbers have the properties: a) do 

not depend on any human artifacts (a true collection of remarkably misleading 

numerical artifacts is presented inside the book: M. Gardner ”The magic numbers 

of dr. Matrix”, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, New York, 1985), as the numeration 

system, choice of numerical figures, personal data, etc., b) are unique for a given 

mathematical property, c) are irrational. We will define here the transcendent 

integers as the natural numbers which fulfil the first 2 [a) and b)] requirements. 

Examples of transcendent integers in Bible: (i) 153 (John 21:11) defined as the 

unique solution M of the equations system in integer numbers: 

m 

i1 

n 

M i 

j!, 

(ii) 276 (Acts 27:37) – unique solution N of the equations system: 

j1 


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p 

N i 

j 

i1 

q 

j1 

5 

. Of course, the accurate quantitative explanation of the pointed 

out transcendent integers requires a rather difficult 1 additional study. 

The most important possible (or even probable) transcendent information 

elements in Bible refer to the cosmological predictions; some examples: 

a) Genesis 1:3 ”And God said: Let there be light, and there was light”; Genesis 

1:14 ”And God said: Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate the 

day from the night …”, hence the light appeared before the stars, agreeing with 

the present «Big Bang» theory, which has found that the light appeared – through 

the photons escape from atoms (fig. 9) – much earlier than the stars; 

b) 2 Peter 3:8 ”With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years 

are like a day” - particular statement of the Special Theory of Relativity (see also 

Psalm 90:4); 

c) Hebrews 11:3 ”… what is seen was not made out of what was visible” - 

appearance of matter, space and time from nothing known, during the ”Big Bang” 

process; 

d) Job 9:8 ”He alone stretches out the heavens”; Isaiah 40:22 ”He stretches out 

the heavens like a canopy, and spreads them out like a tent to live in”; Isaiah 42:5 

”He who created the heavens and stretched them out” - the Universe expansion. 

Example of possible transcendent relations: 

It is known that inside the extremely complex Bible structure are embedded some 

amazing information (see e.g. [23] for the Old Testament). This work brings a 

new example of possible transcendent relation embedded in Bible. 

Consider the 20 th century when the humankind succeeded [24] to evaluate the 

Universe age. Then (20 th century), the Genesis 7 th yowm [the Hebrew word yowm 

may be translated both by day (usually) or age/epoch] duration (according to 

1 We will mention that many problems in the field of Numbers Theory are extremely difficult. E.g., 

the statement of the (Pierre de) Fermat’s last (greatest) theorem was published in 1670 [20], by 

his eldest son – Clément Samuel Fermat, but its solution was found only in 1995 [21] by the 

American professor Andrew Wiles. Wiles describes ([22], p. 236) his experience of doing 

mathematics in terms of a journey through a dark unexplored mansion: “One enters the first room 

of the mansion and it’s dark. Completely dark. One stumbles around bumping into the furniture, 

but gradually you learn where each piece of furniture is. Finally, after six months or so, you find 

the light switch, you turn it on, and suddenly it’s all illuminated. You can see exactly where you 

were. Then you move in the next room and spend another six months in the dark. So each of these 

breakthroughs, while sometimes they’re momentary, sometimes over a period of one day or two, 

they are the culmination of, and couldn’t exist without, the many months of stumbling around in 

the dark that precede them”. 


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Christian chronologies, as the Archbishop Ussher’s one [25]) is between 6000 and 

7000 years (indicated by God). Multiplying this duration with: 

a) 365.25 (number of days/year), 

b) then with 10 3 Earth years/God day (2 Peter 3:8), and finally: 

c) with 7 yowm in Genesis (2:2), 

one finds: 60007000 years indicated by God 365.2510 3 Earth years/God day 

7 Genesis yowm = (15.3417.9)10 9 Earth years, hence exactly the presently 

evaluated Universe age! Is this calculation a transcendent one? Yes! Is it 

meaningful? To answer it is necessary to know if its insertion in the Bible 

structure was transcendent, and … we do not know! 

This answer is valid also for the ”beast” number 666. It is obvious that this 

number is not transcendent (being significant in the decimal numeration system), 

but … if it could have a transcendent insertion, it would have the role to represent 

numerically the false being - main humankind enemy (Satan). 

Conclusions 

It is well-known that at the beginning of the 20 th century, the Physics Nobel prizes 

were awarded only to works experimentally confirmed; e.g. the absolutely 

outstanding physicist Albert Einstein received (in 1921) the Physics Nobel prize 

for the theory of photoelectric effect (experimentally checked up) and not for his 

Special and General Relativity theories, which were still considered as 

insufficiently proven. Later, the successes of the theoretical Physics were so 

striking that in 1979 the theoreticians S.L. Glashow, A. Salam and S. Weinberg 

were awarded by the Physics Nobel prize for their theory of unified weak and 

 

electromagnetic interaction, though the intermediary vector bosons W and Z 0 

predicted by them were not still discovered (they were experimentally found by 

C. Rubbia and S. van der Meer only 4 years later). For such reasons, the 

confidence of physicists in the unified theories was so high that it was a deep 

disappointment [17], [26] to find that these unified theories are not valid for the 

Universe evolution descriptions. 

Taking into account that: 

a) while the masses of the intermediary vector bosons predicted by the unified 

theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions are only 2 magnitude orders 

larger than that of protons, 

b) the parameters of the Big Bang processes are more than 25 magnitude orders 

distant to somewhat « usual » ones, c) the Physics advance from Democrit’s 

atomistic theory to the quantum atomic Physics (over 7 magnitude orders) require 


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more than 20 centuries, we don’t have to be exaggerate: even if now the Physics 

progresses are much accelerated, its advance over more than 25 magnitude orders 

(up to the Big Bang field) will require probably several decades (perhaps even 

centuries)! We have to be patient to be accumulated in the following decades and 

(probably) centuries sufficient experimental data to be able to formulate valid 

theoretical cosmological models. 

As it concerns the Bible, it seems that: a) inside the Bible structure are ”hidden” 

some important information, b) the modern Physics and the Bible predictions are 

convergent. That is why the Bible deserves a thorough study, for its scientific 

information, and not only for its outstanding ethics recommendations (cultivate 

empathy, fight our selfishness, etc.). Despite the main goal of Bible is to improve 

the human beings ethical behaviour, it involves also some (rather few) scientific 

elements. However, one finds that the number of Bible sentences initially without 

any scientific meaning that got in the last centuries such a connotation is 

monotonically increasing, and even in an accelerated manner [e.g. (few examples) 

from the: a) transcendent integers (John 21:11, Acts 27:37) to the: b) role of 

Information in the ”building” of complex systems (Genesis 1:3), c) appearance 

order of light sources (Genesis 1:3 and 1:14), d) chromosomes (Genesis 2:22), d) 

ADN defects and repairs, implicitly (Genesis 4 and 5), e) the special relativity 

theory (2 Peter 3:8), f) main features of the Big Bang process (see above), etc.]. 

Either it happened that – between a tremendous number of parallel Universes, 

with different features [19a] – our Universe be the unique (accidental) one [26] 

with suitable conditions for the life existence and (on Earth) of the intelligent life 

presence, or this Universe and Earth were created by supernatural design, it results 

that the humankind has a huge responsibility – to run optimally the only one 

World experiment, whose main actors we are. 


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1. a) DOBRESCU R., IORDACHE D., eds, Complexity Modelling (in Romanian), Politehnica 

Press Printing House, Bucharest, 2007; b) DOBRESCU R., IORDACHE D., Complexity and 

Information, Romanian Academy Printing House, 2010. 

2. IORDACHE D., Main complexity features of the thermo-mechanical evolution of the universe, 

chap. 5 in Research Trends in Mechanics, vol. 2, Romanian Academy Printing House, 2008. 

3. HARTLEY R.V.L., Transmission of Information, Bell System Techn. J., July 1928. 

4. a) SHANNON C., The Mathematical Theory of Communication, Bell Syst. Techn. J., 27, 379- 

423, 623-56(1948); ibid., 30, 50(1951); b) SHANNON C. E., WEAVER W., The mathematical 

theory of communications, Illinois Urbana Univ. Press, 1949. 

5. a) KHINCHIN A.J., Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory, Dover, New York, 

1957; b) KHINCHIN A.J., in Arbeiten zur Informationstheorie I, VEB Verlag, Berlin, 1961, pp. 7- 

85; c) KOLMOGOROV A.N., ibid., pp. 91-116; d) GUIAŞU S., Information theory with 

applications, McGraw Hill, New York, 1977. 

6. a) ANDERSON P.W., Science, 177, 293(1972); b) ANDERSON P.W., Proc. Natl. Acad. 

Science (USA), 92, 6653-6654(1995). 

7. a) SOLOMON S., SHIR E., Europhysics News, 34(2) 54-57(2003); b) SOLOMON S., Annual 

Reviews of Comp. Physics II, 243-294, D. Stauffer ed., World Scientific, 1995. 

8. a) GUKHMAN A. A., Introduction to the Theory of Similarity, Academic Press, New York, 

1965; b) BARENBLATT G. I., Dimensional Analysis, Gordon and Breach, New York, 1987; c) 

BARENBLATT G. I., Scaling, Self-Similarity and Intermediate Asymptotics, Cambridge Texts in 

Applied Mathematics, 1996. 

9. BODEGOM E., IORDACHE D., Physics for Engineering Students, vol. 1, Classical Physics, 

Politehnica Press, Bucharest, 2007 

10. IORDACHE D., Contributions to the Study of Numerical Phenomena intervening in the 

Computer Simulations of some Physical Processes, Credis Printing House, Bucharest, 2004. 

11. DIRAC P.A.M., The Cosmological Constants, Nature 139, 323(1937). 

12. REES M., Just Six Numbers, Basic Books, 2000. 

13. DICKE R.H., Dirac’s Cosmology and Mach’s Principle, Nature 192, 440-441(1961). 

14. a) ROOD R.T., TREFIL J.S., Are we alone? The possibility of Extraterrestrial Civilisations, 

Scribner’s sons, New York, 1986; b) TIPLER F.J., The search for extraterrestrial life: recent 

developments, Physics Today, 40, 92, December 1987. 

15. WHEELER J.A., Foreword, in The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, Oxford, Clarendon 

Press, UK, 1986. 

16. EVERETT H., Many-World Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, PhD Dissertation at 

Princeton, 1956. 


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17. SMOLIN L.: a) The Trouble with Physics, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006; b) Thread-Bar 

theories, IEEE Spectrum, January 2007, www.Spectrum.ieee.org/geek-life/tools-toys/ threadbartheories.0 

18. a) GUTH A. H., Inflationary Universe: A possible solution to the Horizon and Flatness 

problems, Physical Review D, 23, pp. 347-356(1981); b) GUTH A. H., STEINHARDT P. J., The 

Inflationary Universe, Scientific American, p. 116, May 1984; c) GUTH A. H., The inflationary 

universe. The quest for a new of cosmic origins, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1997. 

19. a) LINDE A., The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe, Scientific American, pp. 48-55, 

November 1994; b) LINDE A., Particle physics and Inflationary cosmology, Physics Today, 40(9) 

61-68 (Sept. 1987), & treatise, Harwood Academic Publishers, 1990; c) LINDE A., Inflation and 

Quantum cosmology, Academic Press, 1990. 

20. FERMAT C.S., Diophantus’ Arithmetica containing (48) observations by P. de Fermat, 

Toulouse, 1670. 

21. A. WILES A., Modular elliptic curves and Fermat’s last theorem, Annals of Mathematics, 

142, 443-551(1995). 

22. SINGH S., Fermat’s Enigma: the Epic Quest to Solve the World’s Greatest Mathematical 

Problem, Walker Publishing Company, New York, 1997. 

23. a) WITZTUM D., RIPS E., ROSENBERG Y., Equidistant letters sequences in Genesis, 

Statistical Science, 9(3) 429-438(1994); b) M. Drosnin, The Bible code, World Media Inc., vol. 1 

(1997), vol. 2 (2002). 

24. HUBBLE E., A relation between the distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic 

nebulae, Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 15, pp. 168-173(1929). 

25. JOHNSON P., A History of Christianity, Athenaeum, New York, 1976, p. 413. 

26. LIGHTMAN A.P., The accidental Universe: Science’s crisis of faith, Harper’s Magazine, 

December 2011; d) www.harpers.org/archive/2011/12/0083720 


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CHAOS AND STABILIZATION 

OF 

SELF-REMISSION TUMOR SYSTEM 

BY 

SLIDING MODE 

M.R. JAFARI 1 , M.R. ZARRABI 1,2 , S. EFFATI 1,3 

Abstract. In this paper a pray-predator system that called self-remission tumor is 

considered, and a new approach in order to stabilizing the unstable equilibrium 

points of self-remission tumor system with sliding mode control is introduced. 

The stability analysis of the biologically feasible equilibrium points is presented by 

using the Lyapunov function. 

A Lyapunov function is supposed for designing a sliding surface (SS). 

Lyapunov function is constructed to establish the global asymptotic stability of the 

uninfected and infected steady states by describing sliding surface (SS), after that 

by considering the derivation of SS as zero, someone can achieve the equivalent 

control that inbreed system stays on SS and tends to equilibrium point in infinite 

horizon. 

In addition, numerical examples are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the 

proposed method. 

Keywords: Chaos, Tumor, Equivalent control, Sliding surface 


Cancer is one of the greatest killers in the world and the control of tumor growth 

requires special attention [9]. 

The mathematical modeling of cancer self-remission and tumor has been 

approached by a few numbers of researchers under using a variety of models over 

the past decades [8, 9, 13, 18]. 

Many authors have discussed the problem of the chaotic behavior and stability 

analysis of some biological models such as cancer and tumor model, genital 

herpes epidemic, stochastic lattice gas prey-predator modes [7, 8, 13] and many 

other models. 

1 Department of Applied Mathematics, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (see above picture), 

Mashhad, Iran, (mreza.jafari26@gmail.com). 

2 (mo.za870@gmail.com). 

3 (s-effati@um.ac.ir). 


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124 M.R. Jafari, M.R. Zarrabi, S. Effati 


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Chaos and Stabilization of self-Remission Tumor System by Sliding Mode 125 


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